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MANN LIBRARY New YorK STATE COLLEGES OF AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY a cornell University Library Reptiles of the world:tortoises and turt REPTILES OF THE WORLD eine ‘Oc THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK - BOSTON - CHICAGO - DALLAS ATLANTA + SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limirep LONDON + BOMBAY - CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Lr. TORONTO yoo} ANOJ JO YYsus] Uv sUIeyyW "BOLIFY OAL “SUOIIsvU Ss YWAdIA SOUMJONTHUY REPTILES OF THE WORLD TORTOISES AND TURTLES, CROCODILIANS, LIZARDS AND SNAKES OF THE EASTERN AND WESTERN HEMISPHERES BY RAYMOND L. DITMARS Curator of Reptiles and Assistant Curator of Mammals, in the New York Zoological Park, Life Member of the New York Zoological Society; Author of ‘‘ Reptiles of America’’ With a frontispiece and nearly 200 illustrations, from photographs taken by the author Mew Pork THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1927 All rights reserved Copyright 1910 By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Set up and electrotyped. Published February, 1922 Reprinted February, 1927. J TO MY DAUGHTERS PREFACE In the present work the author has aimed to give in a popular manner a general survey of the reptiles of the world. While the manner aims to be popular, and while the purpose has been to make the book inter- esting reading, it is at the same time, the writer hopes, everywhere in accord with the latest results of the scien- tific study of the subject; and he believes the special student may find scattered through the volume new information drawn from the author’s long and syste- matic observation of the various orders of reptiles, their habits, etc.—a course pursued both among the homes and haunts of these creatures in many parts of the world, and in the New York Zoological Park. The scope of the book prevents it from being, as a previous book by the same author was, primarily a volume in- tended to be used for identification purposes: it is here designed to consider the class of reptiles as a whole and in a general way. But for purposes of identification the profuse illustrations cannot fail to be serviceable in a high degree. It is not unlikely that the quest of specimens, and the methods employed in capturing them, of which much is said here and there in the text, will prove both entertaining to the layman and helpful to curators, to the collectors and students, amateur or professional. And the same may be said of what is written regarding the feeding and general care and treatment of reptiles in captivity. iii iv PREFACE Handling the entire class—the crocodilians, turtles and tortoises, lizards and snakes of both the New and the Old World—elaborate description is necessarily lim- ited to groups, and says little of individual species. The method here has been to select representative types, treating them according to their importance as to ana- tomical characteristics and habits. The North American reptiles have, however, received considerable attention, as they naturally attract our special interest, while their habits and structure must be compared with their Old World allies, if a general idea of the Class Reptilia is to be acquired. But among the illustrations the South American and the Old World reptiles predominate, for here is a field quite neglected from a photographic stand- point, and demanding much space. Thus, to make room for the great array of foreign reptiles, the illustrations of the North American species have been limited to a condensed but representative series. To thoroughly round up the subject the author has prepared detailed charts showing the classification and approximate num- ber of species among all the genera of reptiles found in all parts of the world. Such will impress upon the student the full scope of the subject, though references to numerous genera in the text must be omitted. The author may be permitted to say, without being accused of immodesty, that, however the text of this volume may be received, its illustrations make it of high value, and indeed unique among books on the same sub- ject. The plates from photographs taken from life will be useful to the student and interesting to the gen- eral reader. ‘They are not merely pictures “snapped” at the most convenient moment, but life studies from poses displaying distinguishing characteristics, and in- volving work on many of the negatives requiring the PREFACE Vv use of restraining dyes to produce effects of coloration beyond the power of lens and color-sensitive plates. The results exceed in value the familiar pen drawings of reptiles ordinarily employed in popular works. Among the latter a snake is merely a scaled creature, and, unless exhibiting some striking development, produces no last- ing impression in the mind of the student. It may tally with every word of an attending description, but would probably not be identified with an actual specimen seen soon after. Expert photography imparts, in a work like this, a strong individuality to each species, positively branding the various forms and capable of imitation only by such exceedingly painstaking draftsmen as are em- ployed to illustrate the highly expensive monographs of the great museums—institutions having the means to pay for the labor of drawing a reptile scale by scale, each minute part of the integument receiving its share of work according to color value or shading and intricate structure. The cost of such labor would be enormous in a work like this, placing it beyond the reach of most popular readers. It is such illustrative work the author has tried, as far as possible, to approach in value in the pages following. The several hundred illustrations are the result of his personal endeavors. A number of the specimens photographed have been exhibited in the Rep- tile House of the New York Zoological Park. For the encouragement and suggestions of Director William T. Hornaday, of the New York Zoological Park, the author wishes to express his hearty apprecia- tion and esteem. In the pages that follow the author has drawn freely from observations made in the splendid Reptile House erected by the New York Zoological Society, whom he has the honor of serving. Throughout this work the classification of Dr. George vi PREFACE Albert Boulenger has been generally adopted. Dr. Boulenger’s monumental series, The Catalogue of the Chelonians, Lizards and Snakes of the British Museum, stands as the only complete technical work on the rep- tiles of the world. From its pages the author has de- rived valuable assistance in treating the Old World rep- tiles and in the lists showing classification. R. L. D. New York Zoo.ocicaL Park, 1910. INTRODUCTION Before commencing an examination of the array of scaled and plated forms described in text and picture in the pages that follow, it may be well to say a few words by way of concise introduction. Compared with the ages that are gone the reptile life upon our globe has decreased, in the dimensions and bulk of its representatives, to mere parasitic proportions. There was a time when a bird’s-eye view of the earth’s surface would have revealed varied, monstrous forms lumbering here and there, reveling in an atmosphere reeking with humidity; some browsing in giraffe-like fashion among high branches, others churning through the sea in pursuit of their prey; even in the murky atmos- phere itself cold-blooded creatures flapped their way like gigantic bats in search of equally gigantic insects. At the present day a comprehensive view of the globe’s surface would show no trace of reptile life. We might make clear by an illustration the size of reptiles of the past as compared with those of the present. The gaudy butterflies, the clumsy June “bugs,” and “darning- needles” are forms apparent to the eyes of a man in a walking posture. Suppose they were all extinct; the tiny ants, the microscopic beetles, and the gnats forming the major part of our insect life would be insignificant and unseen; their presence would be apparent only to the interested observer crouching to look for them. And we can well compare the reptiles of the present with the legions of tiny insects, after we have examined the rock- vil viii INTRODUCTION imprisoned giants of the past. Moreover, a great num- ber of the living reptiles are degenerating—adopting subterraneous habits with a consequent loss of eyes and ears. Others have become greatly specialized in the de- velopment of adhesive digits with which to climb, or wonderful instruments for the injection of a deadly virus. Then, in the zenith of their perfection, some of them have gradually swung into secretive habits pro- ducing an incongruous mixture of degenerating form attended by various highly specialized processes. As our living reptiles stand, the classification may be outlined as follows:— Class REPTILIA. Order Rhynchocephalia. Represented by a single species inhabiting New Zealand. Lizard-like in form but differing in skeleton and anatomy from.all living reptiles. It is the sole remnant of an Order long extinct. Order Chelonia. The Turtles (semi-aquatic and marine) and Tortoises (terrestrial). Over two hundred and twenty-five species are recognized. They are gen- erally distributed throughout temperate and tropical parts of the world. Order Crocodilia. 'The Crocodilians—Crocodiles and Alligators. About twenty-three species. Tropical and semi-tropical parts of the world. All are semi-aquatic. They attain the greatest size and bulk among living reptiles. Order Lacertilia. The Lizards; nearly two thou- sand species. The distribution is general throughout tropical and semi-tropical parts of the world—dquite sparing in the temperate regions. The habits may be terrestrial, subterraneous, arboreal, or semi-aquatic. The INTRODUCTION ix typical lizard, scaly-coated with four legs and tapering tail, is familiar, but many forms are limbless, moving about like snakes; as a rule, the serpentine forms may be distinguished from the snakes by the presence with the former, of functional eyelids. Order Ophidia. The Snakes. Over one thousand, seven hundred species are recognized. The distribution embraces tropical, semi-tropical and temperate parts of the globe; they are more abundant in the temperate regions than the lizards. Snakes have no functional eyelids—the eyes being always open. The greater number of species are terrestrial; many are arboreal, sub- terraneous, semi-aquatic, or marine. The poisonous species are in the minority. It is wrong to imagine a poisonous snake may be told from the harmless species by a thick body and flattened, distinct head. Thus we have a general idea of the Class Reptilia. In each of the four Parts of this work the classification of the respective Orders is treated in detail. In compiling his descriptions the author has sought to employ the most simple phraseology possible, for his endeavor has been to create a book that may be readily comprehended by the beginner. Part IV, dealing with the snakes, is the most elaborate, both in description of structure and habits, as well as in illustrations. As in other works the serpents have received the least atten- tion, the author has decided to give them here a generous share. Of serpents there are many important things to be told. Some of them are beneficial to man; others dangerous or fatal, and these latter it is well to recog- nize when encountered. The series of illustrations of the poisonous serpents is thoroughly complete; it will be noted that their variety of form—some of them grace- fully slender—at once shatters many fallacious theories. x INTRODUCTION Before concluding his introduction the author would say a word regarding the Order Rhynchocephalia, only one species of which has survived to the present, the Tuatera of New Zealand; the technical name is Spheno- don punctatus. The author has removed this strange creature from the body of the work to follow, as it would appear incongruous to place a lizard-like form before the turtles and tortoises—where it actually belongs. It is literally a ghost of the past, the oldest surviving type of reptile. According to Boulenger, it is possible that the common ancestors of the turtles and tortoises, the Plesiosauria (now extinct) and the lizards would fall in the Order to which this reptile belongs—an Order of fossils, rock-bound for ages, that have in turn given rise and brought extinction to other Orders—yet per- mitted one remnant to survive, apparently immune to the dominant sway of evolution. The Tuatera resembles in form stout-bodied modern lizards which we call iguanas; this resemblance is further intensified by a row of spines upon the back. It is dark olive, the sides sprinkled with pale dots. The eye has a cat-like pupil. Large specimens are two and a half feet long. While a superficial resemblance might tend to group this reptile with the lizards, its skeleton and anatomy show it to belong to a different part of tech- nical classification. And now, as the author completes this work, it seems possible the Order Rhynchocephalia will soon have to be stricken from our lists of living rep- tiles. In comparatively recent years, the Tuatera was abundant on the larger islands of New Zealand, but the cultivation of land, the introduction of swine, and many other causes emanating from the all-powerful advance of civilization have annihilated the reptile from all but INTRODUCTION xi the smaller, uninhabited islands. Here they are dili- gently hunted for scientific institutions, and not many years will pass before the last Tuatera to remain in the flesh will repose within a museum jar. CONTENTS PART I PAGE THE ORDER CHELONIA—TURTLES AND TOR- TOISEShce5 4 Ae Ges Se SN Sh Ae Re Se BS ae HE 2S: PART II THE ORDER CROCODILIA—CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS: « «© «© 2 & # = 4 © # & ©68 PART III THE ORDER LACERTILIA—THE LIZARDS... ‘91 PART IV THE ORDER OPHIDIA—THE SNAKES. . .. . 195 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS TURTLES AND TORTOISES. Rhinoceros Viper, Musk or Mud Turtle, Common Mud Turtle, Mexican Mud Turtle, Arizona Mud Turtle, European Pond Turtle, Algerian Turtle, Painted Terrapin; Painted Turtle, Yellow-Bellied Terrapin, Cumberland Terrapin, Geographic Terrapin, Spotted Turtle, Muhlenberg’s Turtle, Wood Turtle, Box Turtle, Reeve’s Turtle, Hinged-Back Tortoise, Iberian Tortoise, South American Tortoise, Leopard Tortoise, Desert Tortoise, Radiated Tortoise, Star Tortoise, Giant Tortoise, Elephant Tortoise, Young Loggerhead Turtles, Hawk’s-Bill Turtle, African Mud Turtle, Australian Snake-Necked Turtle, African Mud Turtle, Australian Snake-Necked Turtle, South American Snake-Necked Tur- tle, Australian Snake-Necked Turtle. Matamata, Spiny Soft-Shelled Turtle, Southern Soft-Shelled Turtle, Bitis nasicornis.......... Frontispiece FACING PAGE Aromochelys odoratus...........4 8 Cinosternum pennsylvanicum.... 8 Cinosternum integrum.......... 8 Cinosternum henrici...........46 8 Emys orbicularis............066 9 Clemmys leprosa.........eeeeeee 9 Chrysemys picta..........0.000. 18 Chrysemys scabra...........000% 18 Chrysemys elegans............44 18 Malacoclemmys geographica..... 18 Chelopus guttatus............... 19 Chelopus muhlenbergii.......... 19 Chelopus insculptus...........45 19 Cistudo carolina................ 19 Damonia reevesi............000 26 Ciniays CT0sd... cc cece cece cee 26 Testudo iberia...........ccc cee 26 Testudo tabulata............... Q7 Testudo pardalis..............45 27 Testudo berlandieri............. 34 Testudo radiata...........00... 34 Testudo elegans............0.08 35 Testudo vicind.............0. 00s 40 Testudo elephantina............. 40 Thalassochelys caretta........... 41 Chelonia imbricata...........6.0. Al Sternotherus derbianus......... 52 Chelodina longicollis............ 52 (Showing under-shell).......... 53 (Showing under-shell).......... 53 Hydromedusa tectifera......... . 353 Chelodina longicollis..........05 60 Chelys fimbriata............. eee 81 Trionyx spinifer........cccccees 70 Trionye ferow..... 0... ccc cee eeas 70 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS CROCODILIANS. FACING PAGE Head of American Alligator, Alligator mississippiensis........ 71 Head of American Crocodile, Crocodilus americanus........646 771 Head of Indian Crocodile, Crocodilus porosus.......eeee eee 71 Nile Crocodile, Crocodilus niloticus.......0..005 14 West African Crocodile, Crocodilus cataphractus........ - 4 Salt Water Crocodile, Crocodilus Pporosus....ssseeeeeee 15 Broad-Nosed Crocodile, Osteolemus tetraspis$.......e.e08 15 Broad-Nosed Caiman, Caiman latirostris........ceeeeee 80 Spectacled Caiman, Caiman sclerops....esseceee sees 80 LIZARDS. White-Spotted Gecko, Tarentola annularis.......++ sees 81 Banded Gecko, Eublepharis variegatus......+0++ 81 Spiny-Tailed Lizard, Uromastix acanthinurus........- 94 Spiny-Tailed Lizard, Uromastia spinipes........6.eeee 94 Flying “Dragon,” Draco volans......cccecceeecees 95 North American Chameleon, Anolis carolinensis.......0..00 ee 95 West Indian Chameleon, AN0lis SAGTO o.oo ec ccc cee eee e ee 95 Routh-Scaled Lizard, Liocephalus carinatus........... 98 Tree Runner, Uraniscodon plica..........e006 98 Crested Basilisk, Basiliscus americanus..........4 99 Head of Banded Basilisk, Basiliscus vittatus...........006. 99 Banded Basilisk, Basiliscus vittatus...........005 108 Rhinoceros Iguana, Cyclura COrnuta......ccccceeeee 109 Head of Rhinoceros Iguana, Cyclura cornuta.......e. cece eee 109 Head of Bahaman Iguana, Cyclura bealopha...........004% 109 Common Iguana, Iguana tuberculata...........00. 126 Head of Common Iguana, Iguana tuberculata.........0000% 126 Head of Mexican Iguana, Iguana tuberculata rhinolopha... 196 Turks Island Iguana, Cyclura carinata.............00. 127 Spiny-Tailed Iguana, Ctenosaura acanthura........... 127 Chuckawalla, Sauromalus ater.........cee eee 130 Collared Lizard, Crotaphytus collaris............ 130 Mexican Horned “Toad,” Phrynosoma orbiculare.......... 131 Spiny Lizard, Zonurus giganteus..........0005 131 Sheltopusic, Ophisaurus apus..........eee eee 140 Glass “Snake,” Ophisaurus ventralis............ 140 Slow “Worm,” Anguis fragilis.......... cc. cee 140 Gila Monster, Heloderma suspectum........... 141 Mexican Beaded Lizard, Heloderma horridum............ 141 African Monitor, Varanus niloticus..........0.005 144 Indian Monitor, Varanus salvator.........00005 . 144 Tegu, Tupinambis tequixin.........6. . 145 Black Tegu, Tupinambis nigropunctatus..... - 145 Whip-Tailed Lizard, Cnemidophorus bocourti...... sear 166 Ground Lizard, Scolecosaurus cuvieri........06 os 156 LIST OF Two-Footed Worm Lizard, European Worm Lizard, Sand Lizard, Red Lizard, Viviparous Lizard, Wall Lizard, Blue Lizard, Green Lizard, Sand Lizard, Desert Skink, Sand Skink, Three-Toed Skink, Ocellated Skink, Giant Skink, Cunningham’s Skink, Chameleon, Yellow-Headed Worm Snake, Spurs of Indian Python, Regal Python, Indian Python, African Rock Python, Royal Python, Diamond Python, Carpet Python, Anaconda, Yellow Anaconda, South American Boa, Central American Boa, Cuban Boa, Bahama Boa, Head of Tree Boa, Madagascar Tree Boa, Rough-Scaled Sand Boa, Brown Sand Boa, Egyptian Sand Boa, Rubber Boa, Common Garter Snake, Banded Water Snake, Common Grass Snake, Tessellated Water Snake, Black Swamp Snake, Short-Tailed Snake, Diamond-Backed Snake, Indian Rat Snake, Black Snake, ILLUSTRATIONS FACING PAGE SNAKES. Bipes caniculatus..........6.4.. 157 Blanus cinereus... cc... e eevee eeee 157 Lacerta agilis.... ccc. ccc cee 164 Lacerta agilis rubra............ 164 Lacerta vivipard......... eee eee 164 TCO MUTA 0s cieicn vee eaaas 164 Lacerta muralis cwrulea......... 164 Lacerta viridis... 0.0... cece eee eee 165 Acanthodactylus boskianus...... 165 Scincus officinalis...........0065 174 Chalcides sepoides...........64. 174 Chalcides tridactylus............ 175 Chaleides ocellatus.........6.64. 175 Tiligua scincoides...........605. 175 Egernia cunninghami........... 175 Chameleon vulgaris..........005 184 Glauconia albifrons..........00 185 Python molurus.........0eceeeee 185 Python reticulatus...........44- 202 Python molurus..... cece eeeeee 202 Python. seb. . 6.05 ccnssswevees + 203 Python regius.......cccccee cence 203 Python spilotes..........ce00. ++ 208 Python variegata.........605 sees 208 Eunectes murinus.........0.008 - 209 Eunectes notwus..........eeeee « 209 Boa constricbor .. 00 c sie scteceses 214 Boa imperator...... cc. ce veces - 21h Epicrates angulifer.........066 . 215 Epicrates striatus...........00 . 215 Corallus cookii.... 0.6... cee e eee . 222 Corallus madagascariensis....... 222 BIYB CONGUE 5 54 Gace acess - 223 ETYE 4 ORME cig denanenacwee arn 293 Brye GOCUUE cosccconnnn canna eae 226 Charing bOtte. os vsiecsine cicieas'ss 226 Eutenia sirtalis..............04 227 Tropidonotus fasciatus sipedon,, 236 Tropidonotus natriv...........4 . 236 Tropidonotus tessellatus......... 236 Seminatrix Pygea.....ccecceveees 237 Stilosoma extenuatum........... 237 Zamenis diadema.............4 250 Zamenis Korros...........c cee ee 250 Zamenis constrictor...........45 251 LIST’ OF ILLUSTRATIONS Blue Racer, Green Spotted Snake, Indigo Snake, Pilot Black Snake, Four-Lined Snake, King Snake, Grass Snake, South American Water Snake, Swamp Snake, Hog-Nosed Snake and Eggs, Texas Hog-Nosed Snake, Blunt-Headed Snake, Long-Nosed Tree Snake, Long-Headed Tree Snake, Yellow-Bellied Sea Snake, Ringed Sea Snake, Florida Coral Snake, South American Coral Snake, South American Coral Snake (Head), Tiger Snake, Australian Black Snake, Two Phases of the Cobra, Skeleton Hood of Cobra, Head of Egyptian Cobra, Head of King Cobra, Egyptian Cobra or Asp, South African Cobra; Ringhals, Hood of the Ringhals, Hindoo Snake-Charmer’s Outfit, Head of True Viper, Head of Pit Viper, Cape Viper, Head of the Cape Viper, Common Viper, Tic Polonga; Russell’s Viper, Gaboon Viper, Rhinoceros Viper, Puff Adder, Horned Viper, Horned Viper, Common Sand Viper, Skulls of Pit Vipers, Head of Water Moccasin, Head of Mexican Moccasin, Head of Palm Viper, Water Moccasin, FACING PAGE Zamenis constrictor flaviventris.. 251 Drymobius margaritiferus....... 254 Spilotes corais couperi.......... O54 Coluber obsoletus...........000. 255 Coluber quatuorlineatus......... 255 Ophibolus getulus............006 258 Dromicus angulifer......-...006 258 Helicops angulatus...........4. 259 Liophis cobella.............0e + 259 Heterodon platyrhinus.......... 262 Heterodon nasicus...........05 + 262 Leptognathus catesbyi.......... + 263 Dryophis mycterizans.........+. 270 Oxybelis acuminatus............ 270 Hydrus platurus..........00008 - 271 Platurus shistorhynchus......... 271 Elaps fulvius..........0.ceeeeee 274 Elaps marcgravii.............4% Q74 Elaps marcgravii............. + Q74 Brachyaspis curtus............ » 275 Pseudechis porphyriacus......... 275 Naja tripudians................ 284, Naja tripudians................ 284, Naja haje....cccccevcceveecees - 285 Naja bungarus..............065 285 NGjd haje.....ccccccncsceveses « 292 Sepedon haemachates............ 293 Sepedon hamachates...........+ 293 Naja and Vipera............00% 300 Cerastes Viperd..........ceeeeee 301 Crotalus adamanteus............ 301 Causus rhombeatus............ «. 304 Causus rhombeatus.............4 304 VApGTG D6TUG vi. canecdpeecewees 305 Vipera russellii........... e008 305 Bitis gabonica,.............004% 308 Bitis nasicornis................. 308 Bitis arietans........... 000 ccc ae 309 Cerastes cornutus............... 309 Cerastes cornutus............0.. 318 Cerastes vipera........ cece eens 318 Lachesis and Crotalus.........., 319 Ancistrodon piscivorus........., 322 Ancistrodon bilineatus.......... . 322 Lachesis schlegelii.............., 322 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Mexican Moccasin, Copperhead Snake, Head of Bushmaster, Head of Fer-de-Lance, Bushmaster, Fer-de-Lance, Bushmaster and Eggs, Horned Viper, South American Rattlesnake, Gray Rattlesnake, Diamond-Back Rattlesnake, Timber Rattlesnake, Horned Rattlesnake, In The Jungle. FACING PAGE Ancistrodon bilineatus.........+ 332 Ancistrodon contortrix........466 332 DLachesis mutus......... 2.0 c cee 333 Lachesis lanceolatus..........0056 333 Lachesis mutus..........000 eee 336 Lachesis lanceolatus..........06 337 Lachesis mutus.....cc ccc ee eees . 346 Lachesis schlegelii..........40006 346 Crotalus durissus.......0ceecees 347 Crotalus pulvis... 0... e cee ee 347 Crotalus adamanteus..........46 352 Crotalus horridus...........+00. 353 Crotalus cerastes...... cece cece 353 Wid bere arenaleveuarsipine iis is tarwioie soso swine 358 PART I THE TURTLES AND TORTOISES ORDER CHELONIA REPTILES OF THE WORLD PART I THE ORDER CHELONIA—TURTLES AND TORTOISES From all other reptiles the Chelonians may be imme- diately recognized by the “shell’”—this forming a bony fortress, from which are thrust the head and the limbs. The words tortoise, turtle and terrapin, have been used indiscriminately. Some writers embrace both the terrestrial and semi-aquatic species under the term tor- toise, thus :—land tortoises and water tortoises, while they apply the name turtle to the marine species only. Oth- ers designate semi-aquatic and marine species as turtles, and place the strictly terrestrial chelonians under the head of tortoises. Terrapin is a term that has been applied at one time or another, among all of the groups. At the beginning, it is best to straighten this tangle and the writer proposes to popularly divide the chelonians, thus: Tortorses—The strictly terrestrial species. TurtLes—The semi-aquatic and marine species. TrErraPins—Those hard-shelled, fresh-water species that are edible and have a recognized market value. Before going into structural details, it is necessary to have a bird’s-eye view of the classification; over two hun- dred species are recognized." 1It is from Dr. G. A. Boulengers admirable system of classification that the writer has based his arrangement of the list given. 3 REPTILES OF THE WORLD Classification of the Order Chelonia. Suborder dthece. Family Sphargide; represented by a single species—The Leathery Turtle or Trunk Turtle. Genus Sphargis...... cece seesesseccncs Tropical and semi-tropical seas Suborder Thecophora. Superfamily Cryptodira, Family Chelydride, Snapping Turtles; North and Central America. Genus Genus Chelydra; 2 species; semi-aquatic; No. Am., and Central Am. Macrochelys; 1 species; semi-aquatic; No. Am. Family Dermatemydide. Fresh-water Turtles. Genus Genus Genus Dermatemys; 1 species; semi-aquatic; Central America. Staurotypus; 2 species; semi-aquatic; Central America. Claudius; 1 species; semi-aquatic; Mexico. Family Cinosternide. The Musk and Mud Turtles. Genus Genus Aromochelys; 3 species; semi-aquatic; North America. Cinosternum; 11 species; semi-aquatic; No. Am.; Mex. and Central Am. Family Platysternide. Genus Platysternum; 1 species; semi-aquatic; Southern Asia. Family Testudinide. Largest family of the Chelonia; embraces the greater number of the turtles (and terrapins) and all of the terrestrial species—the tortoises. Represented in the Old and New World. Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Kachuga; 7 species; semi-aquatic; India. Callagur; 1 species; semi-aquatic; Malay Pn.; Borneo. Batagur; 1 species; semi-aquatic; Malay Pn.; India. Hardella; 1 species; semi-aquatic; India. DMorenia; 2 species; semi-aquatic; India. Chrysemys; 15 species; semi-aquatic; North and South Am. Ocadia; 1 species; semi-aquatic; China. Malacoclemmys; 6 species; semi-aquatic; North America. Damonia; 5 species; semi-aquatic; East Indies; Japan. Bellia; 2 species; semi-aquatic; Malaysia. Clemmys; 5 species; semi-aquatic; So. Europe to Japan. Chelopus; 4 species; semi-aquatic; North America. Emys; 2 species; semi-aquatic; No. Am.; Europe. Cistudo; 6 species; terrestrial; No. Am.; Mexico. Nicoria; 6 species; terrestrial; Cent. and So. Am.; East Indies. Cyclemmys; 6 species; semi-aquatic; Hast Indies. Geoemyda; 3 species; semi-aquatic; Malay Archipelago, Chaibassia; 2 species; terrestrial; India. Cinivys; 3 species; terrestrial; Africa. Pyxis; 1 species; terrestrial; Madagascar. Homopus; 4 species; terrestrial; Africa. Testudo; 50 species; terrestrial; Old and New World. TURTLES AND TORTOISES 5 Family Chelonide. Sea Turtles. Genus Chelonia; 2 species; tropical and semi-tropical seas. Genus Thalassochelys; 2 species; tropical and semi-tropical seas. Superfamily Pleurodira. Family Pelomeduside. Fresh-water Turtles. Old and New World. Genus Sternotherus; 6 species; semi-aquatic; Africa. Genus Pelomedusa; 1 species; semi-aquatic; Africa. Genus Podocnemis; 7 species; semi-aquatic; South America—6; Madagascar—l, Family Chelydide. Fresh-water Turtles. Old and New World. Genus Hydromedusa; 2 species; semi-aquatic; South America. Genus Chelodina; 4 species; semi-aquatic; Australia; New Guinea. Genus Rhinemys; 1 species; semi-aquatic; South America. Genus Hydraspis; 7 species; semi-aquatic; South America. Genus Platemys; 2 species; semi-aquatic; South America. Genus Emydura,; 7 species; semi-aquatic; Australia; New Guinea. Genus Elyseya; 1 species; semi-aquatic; Australia. Family Carettochelydide. Genus Carettochelys; 1 species; thoroughly aquatic; New Guinea. Superfamily Trionychoidea. The Soft-shelled Turtles. Old and New World. Family Trionychide. All of the species are persistently aquatic. Genus Trionyw; 15 species; No. America; Africa and Asia. Genus Pelochelys; 1 species; East Indies. Genus Chitra; 1 species; East Indies. Genus Cycloderma; 2 species; Africa. Genus Emyda; 3 species; East Indies. Genus Cyclanorbis; 2 species; Africa. Resumé: Number of Families ........ 11 Number of Genera .......... 52 Number of Species ......... 224 Family Sphargide: The sole representative of this family, the LearHery Turtie, Lutu, or Trunk Tur- TLE, Sphargis coriacea, a strictly marine animal, seems to be the survivor of an ancient group. Externally, it differs from the few other marine turtles by the tough, leathery covering of the carapace and plastron in place of horny shields; from this fleshy integument rise seven heavy and bony keels (on the carapace). The reason 6 REPTILES OF THE WORLD for placing this turtle in a suborder by itself is because the vertebre and ribs are not rigidly attached to the carapace as with all other chelonians. The carapace and plastron are actually composed of a large number of irregularly-shaped plates; except where these protrude —on the upper shell—in the shape of keels, or heavy ridges, they are imbedded in the oily, fatty substance, like whale blubber, that externally presents a leathery appearance and suggests a popular name for the ani- mal. Like the other marine turtles, the present reptile dif- fers from other chelonians—the fresh-water species— in having the limbs developed into huge, seal-like “flip- pers” or paddles. Yet the appearance of the limbs and head is quite different from corresponding parts of the structure of the well-known Green Turtle and the Log- gerhead Turtle: for with the present reptile these mem- bers are not, on mature individuals, covered with shields or plates; the dark, smooth skin of the head and the enormous bare flippers are characters strikingly sug- gestive of a seal. If this turtle is to be compared with the four species that make up the family Chelonide—the Green Turtle, Hawk’s-Bill Turtle, and two species of Loggerhead Turtle, gross examination might point to a general simi- larity of structure. It is true that the Leathery Turtle and the other sea turtles have much the same paddle- like limbs, but this similarity in development merely sig- nifies the process of evolution along similar lines in two widely-separated groups; it is an admirable example of adaptation. Incidentally, it might be explained that the species composing the Chelonide appear to be highly specialized forms that have originated from the T'estu- dinide, while the Leathery Turtle represents ancestral TURTLES AND TORTOISES 7 forms that have, decades since, joined the army of fos- sils. Inhabiting tropical and semi-tropical seas of both hemispheres, attaining a length of shell of four feet, or a total length from snout to the tip of tail, of over six feet, this sea giant reaches a weight of a thousand pounds. On a large example, the powerful forelimbs have a stretch of ten feet and, in spite of the creature’s great weight, carry it through the water in a graceful fashion that recalls the flight of a hawk. In the New World, it is sometimes lured northward in the fickle current of the Gulf Stream, when, coming in contact with colder waters, it flounders aimlessly and is either harpooned by fishermen, or battered to death and cast on the beaches of Long Island or Massachusetts during the northeast storms. The Leathery Turtle never comes to the shore except to deposit its eggs. The food consists of mollusks and sea-weeds. Its flesh is of no market value. Suborder Thecophora: 'The second suborder of the chelonians is separated from the preceding one—A thece —owing to the rigid attachment of the vertebre and ribs to the bony plates composing the carapace. With the exception of the Leathery Turtle, all of the chelonians are embraced within this second suborder. Superfamily Cryptodira: The technical definition of this group relates partly to the method of bending the neck when the head is drawn back, and in certain osteo- logical characters. When the head is retracted the neck bends in an S-shaped, vertical curve.’ The pelvis is not fused to the shell. Carapace (upper shell) and plastron (lower shell) are coated with horny shields. 11f not actually, at least within a decided vertical plane. 8 REPTILES OF THE WORLD Family Chelydride; the SNappinc TurtLes: Three species compose this family; two inhabit North America; the other is a native of Mexico and Guatemala. From the other New World turtles, these formidable brutes are strikingly distinct. Their huge head, alligator-like tail, the flabby, projecting folds of skins about the limbs and the ridiculously small, cross-shaped plastron are striking features of the structure; add to these the rough carapace and the somber coloration, nowhere relieved by a bright streak or spot, and the general aspect is so sin- ister that it imparts more of the feeling inspired by a thick-bodied, poisonous serpent than that of a turtle. Though the much aborted plastron is of absolutely no protection to the fleshy parts, these strong-jawed crea- tures are by no means handicapped. Their vicious, beady eyes are ever alert and their motions in biting are lightning quick. The jaws of a full-grown individual of the Common Snapping Turtle could readily sever a man’s finger and the big Alligator Turtle could as easily amputate a hand. It is from their darting motion in biting, fully as quick as a serpent’s stroke, that the species of this family have acquired the name of Snapping Turtles. They are per- sistently aquatic and usually haunt fair-sized bodies of muddy water. In keeping with the habits, the feet are broadly webbed; they are provided with very stout, blunt nails. The Common Snappine Turtie, Chelydra serpen- tina, is one of the smaller representatives of the family, yet it grows to a weight of forty pounds and is ponder- ous as compared with the greater number of American fresh-water turtles. The carapace of a large example is about fourteen inches long. On the rear margin, the upper shell is coarsely serrated; it has three blunt, broken Plate 2 FAMILY CINOSTERNIDE NEW WORLD MUD TURTLE 1. Musk or Mud Turtle. dromochelys odoratus. Eastern No. America. 2. Common Mud Turtle. Cinosternum pennsylvanicum. East- ern No. America. 3. Cinosternum integrum. Mexico. 4. Cinosternum henrici. Southwest U. S. Plate 3 FAMILY TESTUDINIDZ EUROPEAN POND TURTLE = Emys orbicularis. Distribution: Europe, Asia, and northern Africa. Length of shell, three to five inches. ALGERIAN TURTLE = Clemmys leprosa. Distribution: S. W. Europe; northern Africa. Length of shell, four to six inches. TURTLES AND TORTOISES 9 keels, their height varying according to age. Old speci- mens are comparatively smooth, while the young are so rough as to look quite grotesque. On the under surface, the tail is covered with broad plates; this appendage is almost as long as the carapace. Above, the color is dull brown; the plastron is dingy yellow. RossicNon’s SnaPrine Turt1e, C. rossignonii, of Mexico and Gua- temala, differs from its North American ally in having a much broader plastral bridge. The Common Snapping Turtle is abundant over an extensive area. It is found in southern Canada and throughout the United States generally east of the Rockies, thence southward, through Mexico, to Ecuador. It is a bold and aggressive animal, not hesitating to attack water fowl, which it drags beneath the surface to drown, when it tears up the prey by means of the combined efforts of strong mandibles and forefeet— often assisted by several members of its kind that are continually roaming over the river-bottom in search of plunder. Occasionally it takes the bait of a fisherman, when its prodigious struggles to free itself from the hook lead the excited sportsman to believe that he has made a finny capture beyond all power of imagination. Prompted by a continually hungry stomach this reptilian terror resorts to various devices in the capture of prey. Often it half imbeds itself in the mud, in a lane traversed by schools of fishes, and here it darts at the ill-fated victims as they approach without suspicion an object that looks exactly like a muddy rock, streaked here and there with moss; another device is to prowl along the edge of a pond or stream in search of frogs, which, in turn are squatting, snout toward the bank, on the watch for insect prey. During June or in July, the female Snapping Turtle 10 REPTILES OF THE WORLD leaves the water in search of a place to deposit her eggs. She often wanders a considerable distance, sometimes a mile or more from the larger stream or pond, but at last selecting a soft, muddy place, she commences to wallow and dig and does not stop until all but buried. The process of depositing the eggs is performed in a leisurely fashion. It may consume a week. The eggs, to the number of several dozen, are perfectly spherical with a very thin, though hard and brittle shell. After the eggs have been deposited, the turtle rears herself upon the front feet, when the mud and debris slide from her carapace, leaving the eggs covered. In wallowing fashion she emerges from the burrow and trudges clum- sily back to the water. Stories are frequent about Snap- ping Turtles evincing a liking for terrestrial wander- ings but these actually relate to the definite purpose of the female in constructing a nest for the young. The AxuLicaTor Snappine Turtie, Macrochelys la- certina, is distinguished from the common species by its greater size, the high and decidedly tubercular keels of the carapace, the yellowish hue of the upper shell and head, and the absence of large plates wnder the tail. Among the American fresh-water turtles, it is a veri- table giant, as it attains a weight of considerably over a hundred pounds; a large specimen will have a head twenty-five inches in circumference. The habitat em- braces those rivers that empty into the Gulf of Mexico from western Texas to western Florida; northward, the species ranges to Missouri. With a head as large as that of a bull-terrier and jaws that can chop up an ordinary broom handle, the danger- ous nature of this enormously strong and vicious brute may be imagined. Its temper is quite in keeping with its looks. In all of his attempts at photographing the TURTLES AND TORTOISES ll species the writer has failed to secure a picture unless confronted by a pair of widely-gaping jaws. On one occasion, a leg of the tripod was bitten off clean and always were the diminutive but bright, sunken eyes watching the movements of the writer’s feet with an intensity of purpose that inspired caution. The dull, yellow shells of these big turtles exactly match the coffee-colored waters of the lower Mississippi, where they are common. Lying motionless upon the oozy bottom they are approached by unwary fishes, when a dart of the head procures the prey. Captive speci- mens do not feed well unless provided with means of hiding; from such the head is frequently protruded, when the tip of the conical snout barely touches the sur- face of the water in a search for air. If a large fish— like a shad—is thrown into the tank, it is devoured by a series of clean-cut bites that match the conformation of the turtle’s jaws. Family Dermatemydide: The fresh-water turtles composing this small family are restricted to southern Mexico and Central America. Their structure shows them to be intermediate between the Chelydride and the Cinosternide. They are characterized by their very short tails. Dermatemys has a wide plastron connected with the upper shell by a broad bridge. The single species, D. mawii, has a shell about a foot long, when adult; it is olive above and yellowish beneath; the sides of the head are speckled. Staurotypus has the carapace much flattened, with three, faint keels; the plastron is narrow and cross-shaped like that of the snapping tur- tles, while the front lobe is hinged. Shells of adult specimens are about a foot long. Claudius differs from the preceding genus in having the front lobe of the plastron rigidly attached. 12 REPTILES OF THE WORLD Family Cinosternide; the Musk anp Mup TuRTLES: This is a small family of rather diminutive turtles, con- fined to the New World. It is composed of two genera —Aromochelys and Cinosternum; the former is repre- sented by three species, which, by their aborted plastron, large head and pugnacious disposition appear like minia- ture snapping turtles; they are usually called Musk Turtles. Eleven species, called Mud Turtles, form the genus Cinosternum; from the members of the former genus they may be told at a glance by their wide plastron. With both genera the structure of the plas- tron is peculiar; the central portion or “bridge” is broad and firmly united to the upper shell, while the front and rear portions—the lobes—are hinged and movable; these lobes afford little or no protection to the species of Aromochelys, but with some of the species of Cinosterwm fold up tightly against the carapace in a fashion that has caused the name of “box” turtles to be applied to some of these reptiles. It should be understood, how- ever, that the box turtles proper are the species of Cis- tudo, belonging to the family Testudinidw, and the structure of their plastron is altogether different; the lower shell is divided by a central hinge and attached to the carapace by elastic cartilage. The Musk and Mud Turtles are denizens of muddy rivers and lakes. All are of dull colors. The general hue of the upper shell is olive or brown, the shields narrowly and obscurely margined with black. The upper shell of all of the species is bluntly oval and exhibits no traces of the flaring or serrated margin of many turtles. To the novice the various species might look very similar and be exceedingly difficult to tell apart. Among the Mud Turtles, the structure of the plastron is the most important feature for identification. TURTLES AND TORTOISES 13 Genus Aromochelys; the Musk Turties: If the carapace were not so smooth and oval the species might easily be mistaken for young snapping turtles. The head is proportionately very large, with tapering, conical snout. In accordance with the aquatic habits, the feet are broadly webbed. The shell of a large specimen is not over four inches long. The Common Musk Turtte, Aromochelys odoratus, is abundant in the eastern states, from southern Canada to the Gulf of Mexico; in the northern portion of the range it occurs as far westward as Illinois; southward itranges into Texas. A mature specimen has a carapace three or four inches long; the plastron is much shorter than the upper shell. A specimen with a shell four inches long would have a head an inch broad. ‘The young have a pyramidal shell that is very sharply keeled on the rear of the back; as the turtle matures the shell becomes globular and perfectly smooth. This species may be told by the bright yellow lines on each side of the head; both of these begin at the snout; one passes over and the other beneath the eye. The SoutHERN Musk Turtte, A. tristycha, looks much like the preceding reptile, but the head bands are broader and broken. It is found in the southeastern part of the United States. The KrrLep Musk Turt ez, A. carinatus, by its spot- ted head differs from the northern species, though it evinces a stronger characteristic in the sharp keel on the upper shell, which is retained through life. The head is very large and broad. Some specimens are of a uni- form brown, while many display bold, black markings on the upper shell. From Georgia to the Gulf States and westward to Arizona, this turtle is fairly common. Musk Turtles are persistently aquatic, agile swim- 14 REPTILES OF THE WORLD mers, pugnacious, ever hungry and thus a terror to small fishes. Much to the disgust of fresh-water fishermen, they have a habit of greedily swallowing a hook and when brought struggling to the surface exude such a foul, musky odor that the sportsman’s only thought is to quickly cut the line and drop the snapping, disagree- able little animal back into the water. In muddy streams, from which the country lad has practically exterminated the frogs, the spotted turtles and the “ter- rapins,” Musk Turtles may abound and yet seldom be seen. Unlike the familiar, yellow-spotted turtles (Che- lopus) that bask upon derelict timber, or along the bank, the reptiles under consideration keep to the water and either prowl along the soft bottom or hide in the shadows of roots or projecting edges of the shore. A dart of the powerful head means the immediate finish of an unwary “pollywog,” fish or insect larva. Genus CINOSTERNUM; the Mup Turties: From the species of Aromochelys the present turtles are told by the broad plastron, the front and rear lobes of which are so well hinged and adjusted that they close well up against the upper shell, affording great protection to the fleshy parts. Eleven species are recognized; six are found in the United States. It is owing to their habit of frequenting streams of very muddy water they have received their popular name. Like the musk tur- tles, they exude a strong, musky odor when first handled. The Mexican and Central American species have a shell six inches long. A widely distributed example and one common in many portions of the eastern United States is the Com- MON Mup Torte, Cinosternum pennsylvanicum, hav- ing a shell four inches long when fully adult; the head is about three-quarters of an inch broad. This species TURTLES AND TORTOISES 15 ranges from southern New York to the Gulf of Mexico and westward to the Mississippi Valley. ‘The upper shell is broader and more flattened than that of the musk turtles; with the latter this species might be confused, but the wide plastron forms an unfailing mark for dis- tinction. On the carapace of the young are three faint keels; adults show no traces of any but an obscure cen- tral keel. Above, the color is dull olive or brown, the shields narrowly margined with black. Most specimens have the head speckled. The Lovutstana Mup Turtte, C. louisiane, appears to be closely allied to the preceding. Distinguishing marks are the more elongated shell and the arrangement of the colors on the head in broad, orange bands. In the lower Mississippi Valley it is a common turtle. Bavr’s Mup Tur tte, C. bauri, inhabits the southeastern portion of the United States and is unique in having three yellow bands on the upper shell. The YELLow- Neckxep Mup Turtte, C. flavescens, looks much like C. pennsylvanicum and differs from that species in the structure of the plastron. The sides of the neck are generally bright lemon-yellow and the carapace ruddy brown or dull yellowish. The range is from Arkansas and Texas to Arizona. The Artzona Mup TwurtTte, Cinosternum henrici, has a shell six inches long when adult. It is the largest of those species found in the United States. By the very flat bridge of the plastron, the under shell looking as if it had been crushed in, this turtle appeals strongly to the Mexican and Central American species. Both lobes of the plastron close tightly, affording complete protec- tion to the fleshy parts. In the red, muddy waters of the Colorado River this turtle is common enough; in currents that are swift and 16 REPTILES OF THE WORLD practically opaque with thick deposits of silt, it would seem that the animal would choke and require no eyes for its strictly aquatic existence. Arizona and New Mexico form the habitat. Southward, in Old Mexico, is found a closely related species known technically as Cinosternum integrum, with a flat, crushed-in plastron and lobes that close as perfectly as do those of the true box turtles—Cistudo. So thoroughly at home in the water are the species of Cinosternum they may be kept in deep tanks, without any means of resting above or near the surface, yet under such conditions will flourish for years. Their swimming movements are graceful and deliberate. Much of the time is spent in crawling over the bottom. In coming to the surface for air there is no apparent hurry, but a slow, treading motion of the limbs, with webs widely extended. Captive Mud Turtles will eat chopped fish, earthworms and raw beef. In a wild state they are veritable scavengers. A single species represents the family Platysternide. It inhabits southern China, Burma and Siam. The pro- portionately very large head with hooked mandibles and the long tail, cause this animal to resemble the New World snapping turtles—Chelydride; it really stands intermediate between that family and the T'estudinide. The carapace is much flattened; the plastron is broad and possesses a square front lobe. In a peculiar structure of the skull—‘“‘the temporal region completely roofed over” —the species is, from a technical point of view, abso- lutely unique among chelonians. A large example has a carapace five inches long; with head and tail out- stretched the turtle will measure fourteen inches. Family Testudinide; Turties, “TERRAPINS” and Tortoises: This large family is represented in all tem- TURTLES AND TORTOISES 17 perate and tropical parts of the globe except Australia and Papuasia. Its great variety of species range from the persistently aquatic with their broadly webbed feet, to the marsh-loving turtles, with which the webs are imperfectly developed and finally to the tortoises—che- lonians with club-shaped feet; all tortoises are strictly terrestrial, some of them inhabiting the deserts. On all the species the shell is covered with horny shields. With the majority the head may be completely withdrawn into the shell. There are nine plastral bones. Two North American genera stand as typical in rep- resenting the structure and habits of the semi-aquatic species. These are:— Chrysemys and Malacoclemmys; the AMERICAN 'TER- RAPINS: We will adopt the general title of Terrapins for the species of these genera, as many of the members involved are sold in large numbers in the markets, where they bring from moderate to very high prices, according to their kind. All of the terrapins grow to a fair size, having a shell from eight to fourteen inches long. Many have the upper shell attractively marked while the head and neck are vividly striped with yellow—or red. Of all the North American terrapins the best known is the Diamond-Back Terrapin, Malacoclemmys palustris, which is a favorite and costly article of food. Genus Chrysemys: A great majority of the species inhabit North America; the remainder occur in Mexico and Central America. Of the fifteen North American members of the genus, the PAINTED TERRAPIN, C. picta, is thoroughly familiar. There can be no doubt about the identity of this pretty creature: for the blackish or olive upper shell with its yellow-bordered shields and the striking vermilion bars and crescents on both upper and lower series of marginal shields are strong distinguish- 18 REPTILES OF THE WORLD ing characters; the plastron is immaculate yellow. Head and neck are brightly striped; the former with yellow, the latter with red and yellow. This is one of the smallest of the terrapins; a fully grown adult has a shell six inches long. The carapace is perfectly smooth. Eastern North America generally is inhabited by this attractive reptile. Closely related to it is the WesTERN Patntep TERRAPIN, C. marginata, charac- terized by the narrow yellow margins of the larger shields and an elongated, blackish patch on the central portion of the plastron. The habitat embraces the Cen- tral States—Lllinois, Ohio, Indiana and Iowa, and south- ward in the Mississippi Valley. Brtx’s Terrapin, C. belli, occurs west of the Mississippi Valley. It has vein- like markings on the carapace and less red on the mar- ginal shields; on the plastron is a curious, scribbled, blackish pattern. Another of the smaller species is the CHICKEN TERRAPIN, C. reticulata, having rather an elongate carapace marked with a network of fine yellow lines; there are no red markings on the marginal shields. A large shell is eight inches long. This species has a very long, snake-like neck. It inhabits the southeastern portion of the United States. These smaller terrapins are generally familiar. They are often called “pond turtles” and may be seen sunning themselves in rows on derelict timber, from which they tumble clumsily when frightened. Once in the water their broadly-webbed feet take instant hold and they scurry to the bottom where they hide in the aquatic vege- tation. When they again approach the surface, it is with the greatest caution. Only the snout and eyes are thrust above the water. In this position they paddle about inspecting the outlook until thoroughly satisfied that all danger has gone when, one after another, they ‘VOM “ON Udlayseyy ‘vorydnssoad shuwapooovpyyy ‘(urdearay,) opyany, onpdvasoar “p ‘BOLL “ON UdayseqD ‘suvdoza shwashsy) ‘(utdeatoy,) e[jtuy, puvprequin,y *¢ voMowy ‘ON Udayseq ‘puqnos shwashayg ‘uidediay, poal[feq-Mo[[ah °% ‘wOoIIWY ‘ON Udayseq ‘vzord shwashaygQ *(urdevasay, 10) oan, poyulvg “1 SHULL NYO WaAINIGQLSAL A'TINV A Plate 5 FAMILY TESTUDINIDE AMERICAN TURTLES i. Spotted Turtle. Chelopus guttatus. Eastern No. America. 2. Muhlenberg’s Turtle. Chelopus muhlenbergii. Eastern No. America. 3. Wood Turtle. Chelopus insculptus. Eastern No. America. 4. Box Turtle. Cistudo carolina. Eastern No. America. TURTLES AND TORTOISES 19 clamber on their favorite roosts for another sun-bath. Omnivorous in their feeding, they chase small fishes, tadpoles, frogs and the larve of aquatic insects; the tender shoots of water plants are also eaten. Among the larger species of Chrysemys we note a tendency of the shell to be higher, besides deeply fur- rowed with numerous parallel grooves. The greater number of the larger terrapins inhabit the southeastern portion of the United States. In the markets, where they are kept in cold vats to keep them from running down in flesh, they are to be seen in large numbers; here a mixture of species may often be observed, yet commercially they are considered under a general title— Slider Terrapins. This is supposed to distinguish them from the more valuable Diamond-Back Terrapin. A “Slider” weighing three or four pounds will bring from seventy-five cents to one dollar in the eastern markets during the proper season—the fall and winter months. Of these large species, Troost’s TERRAPIN, C. troosti, may be commonly seen. Owing to its somber coloration it is unique among the members of its genus. The carapace is flattened, smooth and of a dull olive, irreg- ularly blotched with black. On most individuals the head and neck are uniform blackish, which absence of bright stripes is an important point to be considered in identification. An adult shell is from eight to ten inches long and three inches high; a nine-inch example will weigh 334 pounds. Troost’s Terrapin is found in Illinois, Missouri, Tennessee and Mississippi. Like all of the terrapins, the preceding species grows very long claws; on frequent male individuals these are three-quarters of an inch long and terminate in such sharp points that a vigorously kicking animal requires some care in handling. Moreover, these reptiles are not 20 REPTILES OF THE WORLD to be trusted, though they seldom actually dart at one’s finger like the snapping turtles. When alarmed they completely withdraw the head and limbs, but a spirit of curiosity soon prompts the head to peep a short distance from the protective armor; then it is that the razor-like mandibles spring open at a slight movement on the part of an observer and close in lightning fashion upon any object that may touch them. The writer has seen a nervous turtle cleanly amputate a chunk of its own fore- limb as it felt that member come in contact with the jaws; if the mandibles miss the intended object they come together with a snap that intimates unpleasant possibilities for the unwary. The Cooter, C. concinna, of the southeastern United States, is a large, handsome terrapin, with olive, yellow- barred carapace; each of the marginal shields contains a yellow, vertical line; pale, crescentic markings cross from one of these shields into another. The head is striped with orange and red. A near relation is the FLorma TERRAPIN, C. floridana, at once distinct by the very high, dome-like shell and the diminutive head. Apparently restricted to southern Georgia and Florida, this fine ter- rapin attains a length of shell of fourteen inches and a weight of fourteen pounds. The YELLOW-BELLIED TERRAPIN, C. scabra, and the Mosite TERRAPIN, C. elegans, are showy creatures, com- monly seen in the markets. The former shows a decided wrinkled (rugose) formation on the upper shell; the latter is characterized in having a broad, scarlet band on each side of the head. Each reaches a length of shell of ten inches. The Yellow-Bellied Terrapin seems to be restricted to the coast region of the eastern United States, from Virginia to Georgia, while its near ally ranges over a wide area—Ohio to Kansas, southward to TURTLES AND TORTOISES 21 the Gulf States and westward in the southern portion of the range, to the lower Rio Grande. The several Central American terrapins are attrac- tively marked. C. ornata has a pale olive carapace, barred with pale green and yellow; the head is vividly striped. One terrapin ranges into South America, as far south as Argentina. Very young terrapins are beautifully marked and col- ored. On most of them the pattern of the adult is inten- sified to such a degree that they look like strange little flowers or variegated leaves. For the aquarium they are attractive additions, though unpleasant companions for the fishes, as between feeding times they bite off fins or tails, or do not hesitate to commit murder among the more diminutive finny inmates of the tank. These quarrelsome youngsters are fond of earthworms and chopped raw beef. Adult terrapins (representing the larger species) are practically omnivorous. They will eat snails, young crawfish, minnows or sections of larger fishes, tadpoles and frogs, while they frequently browse on the leaves of aquatic vegetation. When captive, they will greedily devour lettuce leaves if such be thrown upon the surface of the tank. All of the terrapins are semi-aquatic. The extensively webbed hind feet form powerful swimming organs. Some of the species frequent swift, clear rivers with rocky beds; others, the slower and muddy streams; a few prefer the still waters of extensive, marshy areas. In the winter they dig into the mud under shallow water and undergo a period of stupor as long as the water remains icy. Occasionally, during pronounced thaws when the ice temporarily disappears, a venturesome rep- tile emerges from the mud and, with motions so slow and 22 REPTILES OF THE WORLD benumbed as to suggest a run-down automaton, crawls to the water’s edge and employs the long dormant lungs. But these February thaws, with their fleeting, fickle hints of Spring, are generally fatal to the deluded crea- ture. Too stupefied to again imbed itself in the mud, it dumbly wanders along the margin, its movements becoming slower as night comes on with a falling tem- perature; then the wind sets in from the north, bringing heavy ice in which the animal is imbedded. In the spring a few shells are to be found floating along the river bank. They tell a mute story of impatient turtles that the sun has enticed from their hibernating quarters. Genus Malacoclemmys: From Chrysemys the six species composing this genus are technically separated by the structure—with the present genus—of the inner margin of the jaws. Behind the sharp edges of the mandibles the jaws are provided with very broad and flat crushing surfaces; scientifically these processes are known as the alveolar surfaces of the jaws. This indi- cates a food involving mollusks; and such is actually the case. All of the species feed more or less upon snails. The species are also characterized by a strong keel on the carapace. With several, this is so high and tubercular as to produce a strongly serrated outline to the curve of the back; otherwise, the shell is quite smooth, except with one species—the “Diamond-Back” Terrapin. Like the members of Chrysemys, these turtles grow to a fair size—eight to twelve inches long, in shell. Like the for- mer terrapins, they are sold regularly, cheaply and in large numbers in the markets under the general title of “Sliders.” One of them is a strong exception. A fa- vorite of epicures, the “Diamond-Back” brings four times the price of its near relations and is unique in inhabiting the salt marshes of the eastern coastal region. TURTLES AND TORTOISES 23 Female examples of Malacoclemmys are considerably larger than the other sex and have proportionately much broader heads. One of the requisites in making up a champagne din- ner and consequently a valuable and well-known market delicacy, the Diamonp-Back Terrapin, Malacoclem- mys palustris, ranks first in importance among the mem- bers of its genus. Jarge specimens have a shell nine inches long. ach of the larger shields of the carapace contains a number of coarse, concentric grooves, their angular outlines being responsible for the popular name. The upper shell is dull brown or olive; the plastron is orange yellow, often blotched with gray or showing concentric rings of this color. From the other species of Malacoclemmys the Diamond-Back Terrapin differs materially in the head markings; there are no traces of stripes; the head is pale gray profusely sprinkled with black dots, while the mandibles are flesh color. Contrary to the habits of the other terrapins, the “Diamond-Back” is found only in the vicinity of salt or brackish water; it inhabits the salt marshes of the Atlantic Coast from Massachusetts to Florida and the southern borders of the Gulf States to Texas. Occa- sional examples are found well up the larger rivers though always within tide line. This terrapin seems to be most abundant along the coasts of North and South Carolina. The market demand for the Diamond-Back Terrapin threatens early extinction. Prices have steadily risen. As a consequence a number of terrapin “farms” have been established. Five years ago “Diamond-Backs” were expensive enough, but the price for eight-inch ter- rapins was about sixty dollars per dozen. A dozen terrapins of this size are now worth about seventy-five 24 REPTILES OF THE WORLD dollars—sometimes more; terrapins of this size weigh barely three pounds each. If a specimen has a shell five inches long, or under, it is of little market value and may be bought for about $1.50; however, for every half inch above the five-inch limit, the price is laid on with an energy that staggers any but the connoisseur. If kept in a tank of fresh water, the Diamond-Back Terrapin does not thrive, as its fleshy parts are soon attacked by a fungus, which soon kills the reptile. The infection may be killed by placing the terrapin in a bath of strong salt-water and keeping it there for forty-eight hours. Yet it seems to be more susceptible to the growth when placed back in the fresh-water, than before; a con- dition probably owing to the weakened and softened skin. Captive individuals will thrive if enough salt is stirred into the water of the tank to give it a slightly brackish taste; the food should be chopped clams and oysters, shrimps, small crabs and fish; most captives are fond of the small “periwinkle” snails that abound on the mud flats. The food is always eaten under the water. From the Diamond-Back Terrapin the other species of Malacoclemmys appear quite different, owing to their comparatively smooth shells. Following is a tabulated list of the remaining species of the genus :— A. Keel on the carapace moderately developed. Upper shell olive, with a net-work of fine yellow lines, Grocrapuic Terrapin, M. geographica. Habitat: Mississippi Valley and western portions of the Atlan- tic States. B. Keel rising in the form of tubercles, causing the outline of the back to appear strongly serrated. Olive, with large black blotches. A few narrow yellow lines on head; a yellow crescent behind each eye. Lesveur’s Terrapin, M. lesueurii. Habitat: Valley of the Mississippi. TURTLES AND TORTOISES 25 Shell colored like preceding. Narrow yellow lines on head; a yellow spot behind each eye. Koun’s TerraPin, M. kohnii. Habitat: Lower Mississippi Valley. Olive; no blotches. Yellow markings on the marginal shields. A broad yellow figure between the eyes, forking into bands at the rear of the head. Baoun’s Terrapin, M. pulchra. Habitat: Alabama River. Olive; each of the shields encloses a yellow ring that is bordered internally and externally with dark brown. OceLitatep TerraPin, M. oculifera. Habitat: Lower Mississippi Valley. Of the above species, M. geographica and M. lesueurtt are abundant terrapins and sold commonly in the markets. Damonia is a small genus made up of rather diminu- tive, semi-aquatic turtles inhabiting the East Indies, China and Japan. The shell is high and narrow; most of the species have three sharp keels on the back. ReeEvE’s Turtie, Damonia reevesi, of China and Japan, will thrive for years in captivity. Few of these turtles have a shell over four inches long; above, the shell is dull uniform brown; the color beneath is dark yellow. Many specimens have silvery white eyes, which appear very sharp and cunning. Reeve’s Turtle will eat worms, raw meat, fish and tender leaves. It is an agile swimmer and when frightened will dive beneath the shadow of a log or rock. The approach to the sur- face is slow and cautious; the snout is barely poked out of the water while the animal supports itself by a slow, treading motion of the hind feet; at such a mo- ment a slight commotion will cause the turtle to hysterically reverse its position, frantically paddle to the bottom and remain there for a longer period than before. While captives become tame enough to scramble from the water and take food from the hand, they are naturally timid; if handled they exude such a foul and disagreeable odor from special glands near 26 REPTILES OF THE WORLD the base of the tail that one does not feel inclined to again become familiar. Clemmys is another genus embracing semi-aquatic species—four in number, that inhabit southern Europe, Asia, China and Japan. The Isertan Turtie, Clemmys leprosa, occurs in southern Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Algeria and well into northwestern Africa. Old turtles have a smooth, flattened shell. ‘Their colors are somber—olive above, greenish-yellow beneath. The carapace is about eight inches long. Gadow explains that the specific name—leprosa—has been inspired by a disease that attacks many specimens, giving them a leprous appearance. They abound in streams and pools that partially evaporate during the hot season, then become very stagnant. Wallowing in the unwholesome waters the shell becomes attacked with a fresh-water alga. The infection makes its way through cracks and sutures of the shields, resulting in gangrenous spots and patches. As a captive, the species is hardy. A half dozen ex- amples have lived for over five years in the reptile house of the New York Zoological Park. Fish, raw beef, earthworms and lettuce leaves form the greater part of the food, which is always consumed under water. Clemmys caspica, found from the southern borders of the Caspian Sea southward through Persia, is a near relative of the preceding turtle. One of the distinguish- ing features consists of yellow streaks on the shields of the upper shell. Following the rules of technical classification, we find the genus Chelopus to be next in order. Only four species are known. All of these are North American. In our progress toward the terrestrial chelonians, we Plate 6 FAMILY TESTUDINIDAE REEVE’S TURTLE Damonia reevesi. China and Japan. Length of upper shell, 4—5 inches. i pbs Z > fe jot! ¥ wf HINGED-BACKED ‘TORTOISE Cinirys erosa. Tropical Africa. Length of upper shell, 10 inches. IBERIAN 'VTOR'VOISE Testudo iberia. Morocco and Asia Minor. Length of shell, six to eight inches. Plate 7 FAMILY TESTUDINIDA ies D, SOUTH AMERICAN TORTOISE = Testudo tabulata. Large shells are eighteen inches long. LEOPARD TORTOISE Testudo pardalis. Tropical Africa. Attains a weight of seventy-five pounds. TURTLES AND TORTOISES Q7 find among the members of the present genus certain traits that call for a halt, that we may note the first in- dications of habits that relate to those of the true tortoises. T'wo of the species of Chelopus are able to swallow their food while out of the water. Right in line with this characteristic we find that the same species wander away from the pool or stream in search of tender shoots and berries. In conformity with such habits we also observe a considerable reduction of the webbed formation of the feet. With Chelopus the shell is flattened; the shields may be smooth or contain coarse, concentric grooves. Largest of the species is the Woop TurtTLE, or Woop TERRAPIN, C. insculptus, inhabiting eastern North America. In each shield of the carapace a series of concentric grooves rise in pyramidal fashion; at the rear margin the shell flares upward and is strongly serrated. Above the color is dull brown, with obscure yellow mark- ings; the plastron is yellow, with a large, dark blotch in most of the shields. Most characteristic is the coloration of the limbs and neck, which are brick red. An eight- inch shell signifies the maximum growth. Here we find a turtle that seems to be in the midst of the process of adopting terrestrial habits. It often wanders into swampy woods, feeding on berries, tender vegetation and insect larvee; thus it may leave the water for the greater part of the summer. Yet it is an ad- mirable swimmer. Many individuals persistently haunt the borders of streams and ponds like the typical, semi- aquatic turtles and terrapins. The Wood Terrapin is edible and was once collected in such quantities it was threatened with speedy extinc- tion. Through the efforts of Madison Grant, Secretary of the New York Zoological Society, a bill was passed 28 REPTILES OF THE WORLD in the state of New York, prohibiting the collecting, for market purposes, of this species and the box turtle (Cistudo carolina). Considerably smaller, MUHLENBERG’s TURTLE, C. muhlenber gii, is distinct in being blackish, with a vivid orange patch on each side of the head. Few specimens have a shell longer than three and a half inches. Marked with faint concentric grooves, the general effect of the upper shell is black. Closely examined, it may appear marked with obscure, reddish, radiating blotches. Restricted in its habitat to southern New York, New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania, this singular little turtle is comparatively rare; nor is it generally dis- tributed over the small area it inhabits. Most of the writer’s specimens have been caught on Staten Island, N.Y. They were found along marshy borders of small, clear streams. In captivity the species displays an ability to feed while out of the water, eating different kinds of fruit; it is also carnivorous. Owing to its black shell and head, the Common SPOTTED TuRTLE, C. guttatus, bears a superficial re- semblance to Muhlenberg’s Turtle. It will be seen, however, to lack the large and brilliant orange spot on each side of the head, while the back is generously sprinkled with round, yellow spots. The upper shell is quite smooth; when the turtle is fully mature the shell is about four inches long. Ranging from southern Canada to South Carolina and westward to Ohio this abundant species is generally familiar. In fresh-water bogs it exhibits a seemingly social spirit. Certain miniature islands of bunch grass are matted down by clusters of turtles that go there regularly to bask and an old log may be so thickly covered that several turtles have been forced to roost TURTLES AND TORTOISES 29 on the shells of those having secured favorite spots. Thus the little colony takes a bath in the life-giving sun, with limbs sprawled out in comical fashion and ever- attentive eyes on the lookout for danger. Ludicrous re- sults follow the approach of the human observer, as there is a panicky scramble for the water, a series of splashes, then a desolate log without sign of life. Unlike the two preceding species the Spotted Turtle does not seem to be able to eat while out of the water, so its habits are strictly in accord with the typical fresh- water turtles and terrapins. Similar in its habits is the Californian species, C. marmoratus; the carapace is blackish, decorated with numerous yellow specks or radiating lines; there is a decided similarity in the mark- ings of some specimens to the European Pond Turtle, Emys orbicularis. As we consider the genus E’mys we have advanced another step nearer the terrestrial chelonians: for the present species feed while out of the water and are quite at home on land—but they never leave damp places and their feet are sufficiently webbed to make them agile swimmers. Two species are known. Strange to ex- plain, they are remarkably alike in structure and colora- tion, yet one inhabits the New World while the habitat of the other is across the seas—in Europe and Africa. Here we must note a peculiar structure of the under shell—the plastron, which is attached to the upper shell by elastic cartilage and divided near the center by a cartilaginous hinge; thus the lobes are movable. The structure shows a near relationship with the true box turtles, of Cistudo—the succeeding genus. However, the ability to close the lobes against the carapace is not nearly so well developed as with Cistudo. In fact, it principally involves the anterior lobe. Hence the origin 30 REPTILES OF THE WORLD of a popular name often applied to the American species —the Semi-Box Turtles. BLANDING’s TuRTLE or the SEMI-Box TurtT Le, E'mys blandingii, inhabits southern Canada and the north- eastern portion of the United States. By its form alone it differs from other turtles of the United States: for the shell is elongated, high and globular. Most of these turtles are black above, thickly speckled with yellow. Narrow and not wider than the long, snake-like neck, the head is black above and vivid lemon yellow beneath. In Ohio and Illinois, Blanding’s Turtle is a very com- mon reptile. The shell of an adult is about eight inches long. After observing a large series of specimens the writer is led to believe that Blanding’s Turtle is erratic in habits. Some specimens refuse to leave the immediate vicinity of a pond or stream, where they crawl out on logs and rocks to sun and tumble into the water when frightened; such examples feed on fishes, tadpoles and frogs. Others wander into damp woods, where they lead a practically terrestrial life, feeding on tender veg- etation, berries and insects. Captive examples will take their food from a tray like true tortoises, eating raw beef, lettuce and celery. Incidentally, they are as quick in the water as the flat-shelled terrapins and perfectly at ease in swallowing their food beneath the surface. The European Ponp Tortie, E'mys orbicularis, occurs abundantly in central and southern Europe, Asia Minor and extreme northern Africa. Of lesser propor- tions, it also has a proportionately flatter shell than the American ally. Above, the color is brownish, or black thickly speckled with yellow—sometimes marked with radiating lines of the pale hue. On very old turtles, the yellow markings fade until the shell is uniform brown or blackish. The average length of a fully-grown shell TURTLES AND TORTOISES 31 is about five inches. In habits this species seems to be more persistently aquatic than the American turtle. Another step up the scale of evolution! We are con- fronted by strictly terrestrial chelonians, but are still considering the turtles. The genus Cistudo is com- posed of six American turtles that have forever left the water; they lead the same life as the true tortoises. We cannot call them tortoises as they yet have well-defined traces of webs on the hind feet. Their race will ulti- mately develop into tortoises; at this stage of their de- velopment we must at once note the high, globular shell, the thick and stubby front feet, and the slow gait, like that of the species of Testudo. The Box Turt.es are rightly named. Attached to the carapace by elastic cartilage, the plastron is divided by a cartilaginous hinge. We find practically the same structure as observed with E’mys, but so perfectly devel- oped that the animal is encased in a veritable, tightly- closed box in time of danger. In most cases the plastral lobes close so tightly against the lower margin of the carapace that it is impossible to insert a broom-straw at any part of the union. Moreover, the strength of the muscles that draw up the divisions of the plastron is astonishing. Ingenuous, indeed, has been Nature in protecting these creatures. Five of the Box Turtles inhabit the central and eastern portions of North America; one occurs in Mexico. The maximum length of shell is about seven inches. The Common Box Turt ez, Cistudo carolina, has a moderately oval shell with a distinct though flattened keel. There are four claws on the hind foot. While the markings are extremely variable, they are always thick and blotchy, often forming broad yellow E’s on the side of the shell. Most of the males have bright red 32 REPTILES OF THE WORLD eyes and a concave area on the central portion of the lower shell. This species inhabits the northeastern United States, east of the Mississippi River and as far south as South Carolina. An average-sized specimen has a shell 534 inches long, 414 inches wide and 3 inches high. From the cultivated areas the Box Turtle is rapidly disappearing. It inhabits dry woods, hiding under low, thick bushes at night or during rainy weather. When abroad it hunts for berries, tender shoots, earthworms and insects. During the blackberry season the man- dibles and front feet of most specimens are much stained with the juices. Wild turtles are very timid. When picked up they close the lobes of the plastron tightly. Thus securely encased the reptile remains as long as disturbed and if carried about by the collector will show little signs of life for hours, except a slight release of the front plastral lobe to facilitate breathing. Kept as pets, Box Turtles become so tame they will take food from the hand and it is hard to induce them to close the box-like shell; in many instances they get so fat it would be impossible for them to do so. In this condition a turtle may become frightened and in closing one-half of the plastron forces the fleshy parts from the other, and vice versa, with ludicrous results in the case with a timid specimen. The writer’s turtles would take a variety of food. All were particularly fond of earth- worms. Raw meat, lettuce, celery, and the leaves of clover as well as the blossoms, were also eaten—besides various kinds of fruit. Frogs and salamanders were not safe in the vivarium, as they were invariably attacked and partially eaten. One turtle was seen to eat a slug, which slimy creature caused the reptile considerable trouble, causing it to rub its smeared mandibles on the TURTLES AND TORTOISES 33 ground and against its paws for a full half hour after. If a Box Turtle is thrown into the water it floats like a miniature buoy, but is decidedly awkward and hys- terical in gaining the shore. The stubby limbs work spasmodically and progress is usually erratic. As the fall approaches, the Box Turtle selects soft ground and commences to burrow. The progress is not hurried; the reptile may dig but six or eight inches in a week. It literally grovels into the ground, which closes over the back when the animal is but three or four inches down. After the first light frost—barely tinging the surface—the ground becomes chilled and the reptile partly benumbed; the noon-day sun warms it back to life and with a warning; then it burrows with more energy, sinking to a depth of fourteen to sixteen inches, when the winter sleep begins. The eggs of the Box Turtle are oval, with an exceed- ingly thin though brittle shell. Curiously enough, the young are seldom seen; they are quite flat, with a broad and decided keel. The Larce Box Turt ze, C. major, is another of the species having four claws on the hind foot. The habitat appears to be restricted to Florida. As examples of this kind have a shell seven inches long, the present species is the largest of the genus. The yellow markings are quite narrow, regular and radiating from the top of the shell. The Parntep Box Turt_e, C. ornata, may be told by the absence of a keel on the carapace. In the shape of bright yellow bars the markings radiate from the cen- ter of the shell. ‘The scales on the limbs are generally tinged with pink. This reptile is found from Indiana to the Rocky Mountains and southward into Mexico; it has four toes on the hind foot. 34 REPTILES OF THE WORLD The Turer-Torep Box Turtte, C. triunguis, has a keel on the carapace and the shell is shaped like that of C. carolina. Little or no traces of yellow markings are visible on the upper shell. which is dull brown or olive. From Missouri to Georgia and southward to the Gulf States the species is fairly common. In southern Georgia and Florida is another species with three claws on the hind foot. This is Baur’s Box Turtwe, C. bauri, having a higher, narrower and more globular shell than those species described. Nor does the upper shell agree with the other box turtles in flaring sharply upward at the rear margin; there being only a slight intimation of this. Besides the structural differ- ences stated, a glance at the coloration will show it to be strongly characteristic. It is regular and composed of close-set, narrow greenish lines radiating from the center of the shell. In the dry and sandy pine woods the writer has found many turtles of this kind; they may often be found hiding under the leaves of the dwarf palmetto. The single species of Box Turtle found in Mexico— C. mexicana—has three claws on the hind foot. In the lists of scientific classification there exist several genera between Cistudo and those land chelonians called tortoises, the latter distinguished by their dome-like shells and stubby feet, without vestiges of webs that resemble, in miniature, the feet of an elephant—the resemblance relating principally to the hind feet. Among the sev- eral genera placed immediately before the tortoises— these mostly Oriental—we find species that are semi- aquatic, though few of them are dependent upon the water for obtaining their food, as are the typical flat- shelled turtles and terrapins. With the tortoises we arrive at chelonians so removed in structure and habits from the turtles that there comes Plate 8 FAMILY VUSTUDINIDAE Soe 4 t DESERT TORTOISE = Testudo berlandieri. Distribution: Deserts of N. E. Mexico and Texas. Length of shell, ten inches. RADIATED TORTOISE Testudo radiata. Distribution: Madagascar. Length of shell, twelve to fourteen inches. Plate 9 FAMILY TESTUDINIDA STAR TORTOISE = Testudo elegans. India. Length of shell, seven inches. (The illustration shows the upper shell.) STAR TORTOISE = Testudo elegans. (Seen from beneath.) TURTLES AND TORTOISES 35 a temptation to place them in a family by themselves. This step would be necessary if a few of the preceding genera were unknown. As matters stand, a technical arrangement of the chelonians shows us, step by step, the relationship of the high-shelled tortoise of the deserts to the depressed, persistently aquatic turtle with its broadly webbed feet. The True Tortoises: True tortoises are embraced within four genera. These are Cinivys, Pyxis, Homo- pus and Testudo. The latter is the most extensive genus, containing about forty-five species; Cinivys con- tains three species; Pywis is represented by a single tor- toise and Homopus by four species. To these mostly slow-moving and—in the human eye —ungainly creatures, we must award the standard for the highest degree of intelligence among reptiles. Tor- toises appear to exhibit reasoning powers equal to the warm-blooded animals. Their wanderings are often ex- tensive, but they are not vagrant prowlers like the greater number of snakes and lizards. They have a dwelling place—a burrow, or hollowed-out spot among rocks or bushes; to this they return after their explora- tions with a regularity rivaling the “instinct” of the fox and other den-dwelling mammals. Some tortoises in- habit desert areas under a sun almost unendurable to the human; these desert species live in long burrows from which they prow] by night or during the dawn to clusters of cacti and other sparse vegetation of such regions, where they browse. All tortoises inhabit areas that are at least comparatively dry. Many are so grotesquely marked as to suggest weird coffers that might hold the jewels of some princess of the past. New World species are few. Africa is the home of the greater number. Genus Cinivys; the Hincr-Bacxep Tortotses: Trop- 36 REPTILES OF THE WORLD ical Africa is inhabited by three of the most grotesque members among tortoises; their shells suggest an attempt of Nature to construct something unique with a some- what overdone result. The rear portion of the upper shell is hinged and can be drawn down tightly against the plastron, which, in front, projects forward like a battering ram. About the margin the upper shell flares upward. Altogether the effect is irregular. A roman- tic observer might be led to believe that these tortoises are ashamed of their make-up, as they snap the limbs and head inward at the least intimation of a shadow or vibration, when the hinged part of the upper shell is pulled downward; the forearms are so bony and fit so tightly together, the protection they afford is complete, unless the enemy be a long-clawed cat or an iron-jawed hyena. The species of the genus Pywis, P. arachnoides, inhab- iting Madagascar, has the front lobe of the plastron hinged. Genus Testudo: All portions of the shell are rigid. A few representatives are the only New World tortoises. The NortH AMERICAN TorRTOISES are three in num- ber. They may be concisely defined, thus:— I. Carapace considerably longer than wide. Several much-enlarged, bony plates on inner surface of forearm. Goruer Tortoise, T. polyphemus. Habitat: South Carolina and Florida to western Texas. No enlarged bony plates on forearm. Acassiz’s Tortoise, 7. agassizii. Habitat: Deserts of the southwest United States. II. Carapace nearly as wide as long. BerLanpvieEr’s Tortoise, T. berlandieri. Habitat: So. Texas; Mexico. Adult examples of all these species are of a dull, uniform brown above. Young and half-grown individ- TURTLES AND TORTOISES 37 uals have a dull yellowish blotch in the center of each shield. Most generally known is the dingy GorHER TorTOISE, Testudo polyphemus, of the southeastern United States. Rather flattened on the top, the shell of old tortoises is perfectly smooth; on the young the shields are marked with concentric grooves. Over the entire forelimb is an armor of bony and protruding plates that assume the formation of conical shields on the inner surface— or, more properly, the inner margin, as the forelimbs are much flattened for the purpose of digging. A fully grown shell is twelve inches long—straight measurement, with calipers. Possessing a shell this size a tortoise weighs from eight to ten pounds. In dry, sandy, almost barren areas of the Southern States, burrows of the Gopher Tortoise may be found on all sides. The writer observed many in open sandy country, plentifully sprinkled with a growth of scrub oaks. Over these wastes, during the middle of the day, the heat of the sun was so intense that the writer’s horse showed marked signs of distress. No tortoises were seen at such times, though tracks in the sand were numerous. Such could be traced a considerable distance from a bur- row, then back again—sometimes into another burrow. The burrows were at intervals of about twenty-five feet apart. They could be detected from a considerable dis- tance by the mound of sand thrown out by the animal. As a rule the shafts were sharply oblique for a yard or slightly more, when they assumed a more gentle slope. Each was peculiar in being dug in the same outline as a transverse section of the animal’s shell. Burrows of young tortoises were precisely like those of the old ones in regard to the outline and the little mounds of scooped- 38 REPTILES OF THE WORLD out sand were in many instances not more than three inches high. From dawn until eight or nine in the morning, the tor- toises were found prowling. When the old ones were approached they sank to the sand with a sharp hiss, drew in the head and limbs, and remained motionless. Young tortoises were not so stoical about capture, making for a burrow with some show of agility. When picked up they kicked and scratched in a thoroughly vigorous fashion. If not kept perfectly dry—besides very warm—cap- tive tortoises survive only a few weeks. Given proper quarters they live indefinitely, probably reaching an age of considerably over a hundred years. Mainly herbiv- orous, they will eat lettuce, celery, grass and clover as well as different kinds of fruit; berries are a favorite food. Throughout tropical South America may be found a tortoise with a much elongated shell, black above with a bright yellow spot in the center of each shield. We might call this species the SourH AMERICAN TORTOISE; technically, it is known as Testudo tabulata. Large shells are eighteen inches long. In addition to the bright blotches on the shell, is a bright coral hue tingeing the scales of the forelimbs. The AByssINIAN Tortoise, 7'. calcarata, ranks as one of the largest of the African tortoises. In several ways it is characteristic, for the shell is rather flattened and of a uniform horn color. An adult has a shell twenty inches long. Head and limbs are yellowish; the latter are encased in big, bony spurs. The Star Torrorse, T'. elegans, is a really beautiful creature, though of moderate size. The carapace is very high and dome-like, each shield containing concentric TURTLES AND TORTOISES 39 grooves rising like steps; above, the shell is jet-black, with striking pale yellow markings, arranged thus:— The summit of each shield is yellow and from it radiate vivid yellow lines. Particularly striking are the plastral markings, as the under shell is black with two, clean-cut yellow stars. This is an Indian tortoise. The Gro- METRIC TorToisE, 7’. geometrica, is an African species, high-backed, with similar markings. Closely allied is the fine Lroparp Tortorse, T'. pardalis, of tropical Africa, reaching a weight of seventy-five pounds. The shell is very convex. The European Tortoise, T. greca, having a shell about seven inches long, is common in southern Europe. Its pale olive shell with black-bordered shields is rather pretty. Nearly allied is the Isertan Torvotsz, 7’. iberia, of southern Europe and northern Africa. Giant Torrorses: Among the species of Testudo are some of the most remarkable of living reptiles. Such are the gigantic tortoises inhabiting small, isolated groups of islands in the tropical Pacific and the Indian Ocean. Though the great sea turtles outclass the pres- ent creatures in weight, the latter are, in comparison to other tortoises, of astonishing proportions. Survivors of an age when reptiles grew to an enormous size, suc- cessive generations of these tortoises have lived through periods when an atmosphere reeking with humidity pro- moted fantastic and luxuriant vegetation upon which browsed the great herbivorous lizards; then with the passing of innumerable centuries, during which volcanic disturbances shattered whole continents and cast up new ones, race after race of scaled and plated monsters de- generated and perished. As illustrations of what rep- tile life has been we have only to examine in the museums fossil remains so gigantic that they stagger our com- 40 REPTILES OF THE WORLD prehension as to how actual flesh and muscle could coat and move such ponderous bones. Through a strange and apparently incidental provision of Nature, the giant tortoises, the crocodilians and one lizard-like creature— the Tuatera—have survived unchanged through bewil- dering ages of time; other reptiles of the present show every phase of the obliterating sway of degeneracy. Compare the Giant Tortoise that has trod unchanged out of the past, with a modern tortoise of average size. What a difference in proportions is seen! It is fortu- nate for mankind that no such comparisons are possible among the lizards. Imagine an iguana magnified to such proportions! We would have a creature that could rush upon a man, tear and devour him within a moment. Diminutive indeed are the present reptiles as compared with their colossal ancestors. To one who has observed numerous, ordinary tortoises, then for the first time sees a giant tortoise, the sight is awe-inspiring and causes one to feel as if looking upon—though it be a substantial one—a ghost of the past. The Galapagos Islands, thirteen in number, form a tiny archipelago of volcanic origin about five hundred miles west of the South American coast, and scorching under a tropicalsun. Six species of Giant Tortoises are found here. Nowhere else in the New World do they occur. The Aldabra Islands in the Indian Ocean form the habitat of four others; and four species inhabit the Mauritius-Rodriguez Group of islands. All of the spe- cies have been ruthlessly slaughtered and the drain upon the remainder by scientific expeditions has so reduced the entire group that these interesting creatures are on the verge of practical extinction in a wild state. Sev- eral species entirely disappeared during the nineteenth century. In Europe, Asia and Africa numerous fossil Plate 10 FAMILY TESTUDINIDA GIANT TORTOISE From the Galapagos Islands. Testudo vicina. Weight, two hundred and seventy pounds. GIANT TORTOISE From the Aldabra Islands. Testudo elephantina. The small tortoise beneath the foreleg of the big specimen is of ordinary size, having a shell 8 inches long. Weight of big tortoise, two hendred and thirty-five pounds. Plate 11 FAMILY CHELONIDZE YOUNG LOGGERHEAD TURTLES Thalassochelys caretta. Inhabiting all the tropical and semi-tropical seas the Loggerhead is a giant among Chelonians, reaching a weight of 500 pounds. HAWK’S-BILL TURTLE = Chelonia imbricata. Tropical and semi-tropical seas. The shell of a very large ex- ample is two and a half feet long. It is from this species only that the valuable “ tortoise’ shell is obtained. TURTLES AND TORTOISES 41 remains show these creatures to have formerly inhabited the continents. In the larger zoological gardens of Europe and America are numerous living examples; the greater number are from the Galapagos Islands. During the past twelve years several expeditions have visited the Galapagos Islands for the purpose of collect- ing tortoises. The first specimens to arrive in this coun- try were brought by the U. S. S. Albatross, which visited the islands in 1888; eighteen examples were shipped to Washington, D.C. In 1897, the Hon. Wal- ter Rothschild arranged an expedition to the Gala- pagos Islands. It resulted in a total cost of $15,000. Fifty-nine tortoises were captured. Mr. Rothschild dis- tributed the tortoises among the zoological gardens of Europe. He dispatched another expedition in 1900 and twenty tortoises were collected, but the trip across the United States proved disastrous; all but six of these specimens died. A fine lot of tortoises arrived in San Francisco early in 1901, brought there by Capt. William Johnson. Mr. F. B. Webster purchased the entire lot, shipping them east to his place at Hyde Park, Mas- sachusetts. Five examples were purchased by the New York Zoological Society; six were sold to Mr. Roth- schild and two to Count Peracca, in Italy; the others were bought by various zoological institutions. The members of this expedition claimed to have brought the last survivors of the tortoise colony. It is probable, how- ever, that a smali number yet exists in the interior of most of the larger islands. Testudo vicina, of the Galapagos Islands, appears to be the largest of the New World species. An example in the New York Zoological Park weighs 310 pounds; its length of shell, on the curve, is 4 feet, 3 inches, and the height of the shell, 20 inches. A specimen of sim- 42 REPTILES OF THE WORLD ilar dimensions, purchased from the same lot of tor- toises by Mr. Rothschild—an authority on these crea- tures—was pronounced by him to be at least four hundred years old. Testudo nigrita, an allied and smaller species, has a flatter shell. Testudo ephippium, of the Galapagos Islands, is remarkable in having a dome-like shell, the front margin arching sharply, high above the animal’s head. In spite of the reptile’s ponderous appearance, the shell is very thin, in fact, so pliable that it may be pressed inward, in the central portions of the shields, and simply by the tip of a man’s finger. Testudo elephantina inhabits the Aldabra Islands— in the Indian Ocean. The head is very small and on a long, almost snake-like neck. This tortoise has a decidedly convex shell. An example in the New York Zoological Park weighs 240 pounds. Many times has the writer been surprised to note the sagacity of these cold-blooded creatures. They soon learn to recognize their keeper and come lumbering to him as he enters their enclosure—the interest prompted mostly by appetite. Rearing their long neck upwards, they will take bananas from the man’s hand. Rather averse to undue familiarity, they resent an attempt to touch their head by suddenly drawing back that member and emitting a hoarse exhalation of air; yet they are never hostile, though their knife-like jaws could easily crush a man’s hand. During the time of love-making the male behaves in a curious fashion. He stalks about the female in a circle, frequently stopping in a position facing the side of her shell. Here he raises as high as his stubby limbs will permit and batters his shell against her, repeating the operation a dozen times or more. This is supposed TURTLES AND TORTOISES 43 to be courtship, but the resounding thumps are like the blows of a heavy mallet or a sledge and look far more ludicrous than romantic. At such times the males utter deep, trumpeting calls. It is quite probable that the colony of these strange creatures in the New York Zoological Park will survive to be exhibited to several future generations and that their stony gaze upon man’s affairs may coldly observe conditions comprehended by us, of the present, only in our most speculative dreams. In time to come the morn- ing sun-bath of these tortoises may be momentarily darkened, now and then, by the flight of passing air ships bringing visitors to the great institution, there to look, to wonder, and then to realize that the creatures before them—living remnants of the army of giant fos- sils—speak mutely of an epoch when their ancestors were the masters of the globe, fully as dominant as man has finally become. Could there be a more stirring illustra- tion of the ages through which our planet has passed? Leaving the Testudinide and its varied forms that are adapted to such strikingly different modes of life, we arrive at another branch of the Cryptodira, a highly specialized family of turtles that have taken to the sea and developed seal-like flippers. In the possession of these they resemble the Leathery Turtle, Spargis, but the parallelism relates only to a certain development of the organs of locomotion that is imperative in a marine life. Family Chelonide; Sra TurTLes: Two genera, each containing two species, make up the family. Three of the species have an extensive distribution, being found in all tropical and semi-tropical seas of the globe. They are the giants of the aquatic chelonians and ex- 44 REPTILES OF THE WORLD ceeded in size only by the single species of Sphargis. The shell is covered with smooth horny shields. De- veloped into flat, seal-like “flippers” or paddles, the limbs form powerful swimming organs. None of the sea turtles leaves the sea except to deposit the eggs on sandy beaches; then the heavy creature waddles awk- wardly and impresses one as an animal altogether out of its element. One of the sea turtles—the Green Tur- tle—is of world-wide renown as an article of food; an- other—the Hawk’s-Bill Turtle—furnishes the valuable “tortoise” shell. Genus Thalassochelys. 'The two species are popu- larly known as the Loggerhead Turtles. From the other—the succeeding—genus of the family, the pres- ent one may be separated by a fairly constant character —this in the shape of two claws on each front flipper; with Chelonia there are seldom traces of more than one nail on the front paddle. The LoccrrHEesaD TurtLe, Thalassochelys caretta, looks somewhat like the Green Turtle (Chelonia). From the latter species it may be told by the propor- tionately larger head and the presence of the two nails on each front flipper. The carapace is thick and heavy. Head and flippers are covered with coarse, leathery shields. With most of these turtles the upper shell is dull, uniform brown; some are obscurely blotched with yellow. A very large example will weigh five hundred pounds and have a shell four feet long. Three hundred- pound turtles, with a shell about three feet long, are not rare. Such are often harpooned off the northern coasts of the United States—Massachusetts and Long Island —having followed the warm current of the Gulf Stream. Many Loggerhead Turtles are sent to the markets, though the flesh is considered much inferior to that of TURTLES AND TORTOISES 45 the Green Turtle. The meat is dark red and not unlike beef both in looks and taste. In May and June, numbers of Loggerheads lay their eggs along the Florida coast. An enormous number of eggs is deposited, varying from fifty to a thousand, according to the size and the age of the female. The turtles generally leave the water at night, laboring over the sand to a point above tide line. Here a hollow is scooped with the front flippers, then the animal grovels in the sand, shoving it out of the burrow behind her with the rear paddles. The eggs are soon laid and well covered, when the female starts again for the sea. Her progress up the beach and the return to the water are usually so erratic that it is impossible to discover, by the tracks, the exact spot where the eggs have been deposited. Persons who make it a business to hunt for the eggs carry a sharp stick which they run into the sand at intervals along the reptile’s tracks, thus sounding for the eggs. If unmolested, the eggs hatch in about two months’ time. The little turtles seek shal- low inlets until they have acquired sufficient strength to lead a strictly marine life. A small portion of the brood reaches maturity. Enemies are many in the shape of large fish and sea birds. To discover one of these sea monsters on the beach is to experience a certain feeling of awe. The great, floundering brute, in the fulfillment of parental duties, is practically at man’s mercy, yet clumsily alert. It sullenly exhales the breath with a deep, roaring sound, while the bleary, seal-like eyes stare in a seemingly vacant fashion. If a big conch shell is shoved within reach of the jaws, it is seized and crushed in a single grasp. Turned on its back, the giant is helpless. If not hindered, it makes for the sea, causing a great com- 46 REPTILES OF THE WORLD motion in reaching the water, as it flounders for suffi- cient depth where it may find purchase for the paddle- like limbs. Differing from the common species by the presence of ridges on the inner, crushing surface of the jaws, is Kemp’s LoGGeRHEAD TuRTLE, T'. kempii, of Garman. It has been recorded from the Gulf of Mexico. The GrEEN TurtT LE, Chelonia mydas, has acquired its popular name from the green hue of the fat. The shields of the carapace are smooth; on old examples they are polished; they are olive or brown, richly mar- bled with yellow. Though attractive and striking in its coloration, the shell is of no commercial value. Head and flippers are coarsely plated and all of the shields are vividly margined with white or yellow. A large Green Turtle has a shell three and a half feet long. An animal of this size weighs about four hundred pounds. This is the turtle so often seen in our markets rolled over on its back, in which position it is helpless. A1- though the treatment has been generally condemned as cruel, it is a necessity in keeping the turtles alive unless they can be placed in capacious tanks of sea water—an expensive process for the markets. The plastron is not so rigidly constructed as with the fresh- water turtles. If examined, it will be found quite pli- able, offering little of the bony support of most che- lonians. This is not a defect in the structure, as the sea turtles never find it necessary to rest their weight upon the plastron except in the brief trips shoreward to lay their eggs. Thus, if these animals are placed in a “normal” position when out of the water their great weight presses the plastron upwards against the lungs and other internal organs, causing speedy death. Those TURTLES AND TORTOISES 47 seen in the markets range in weight from forty to one hundred and fifty pounds. The writer selected a fifty-pound specimen from a New York market and placed the turtle in a large tank to which was added enough salt to give the water a brackish taste. For several years this turtle thrived, when it met its death in a manner quite accidental. In swimming, the motions were slow, graceful and sug- gested the leisurely flight of a large bird—a hawk or an eagle. A single sweep of the flippers would carry the turtle about a yard; approaching the concrete side of the tank with a momentum that threatened to dash it against the hard surface, a single, easy movement of the flippers would stop the creature when a few inches away ; then another sweep of the limbs changed its direc- tion in an exploration of the pool. Supposition has it that the food of the Green Tur- tle is of a strictly vegetable nature. Such was not the case with the writer’s specimens. All showed a prefer- ence for fish over other food; they would also eat mus- sels, oysters and clams—after the mollusks had been removed from their shells; an occasional turtle would nibble at sea-weeds, but immediately left such food when a dead fish was thrown into the tank. Without doubt, while in a wild state, the Green Turtle necessarily feeds largely on marine vegetation. It might be termed om- nivorous and its jaws are powerful enough to crush the larger crustaceans upon which it undoubtedly feeds to some extent. Of the Chelonide the Green Turtle seems to be the most persistent wanderer from the warmer seas. It follows the Gulf Stream northward along the Atlantic Coast, showing a like disposition along European shores. During the summer months frequent specimens are seen 48 REPTILES OF THE WORLD in New York Harbor, where they appear to be perfectly at home. With the approach of fall, when the waters become chilled, they become benumbed, then fall a prey to fishermen. The Hawkx’s-Brtt Turtte, Chelonia imbricata, is unique among the sea turtles in having the shields of the carapace coarsely overlapping, like shingles—imbri- cate. The head is quite narrow and the upper mandi- ble projects downward in hooked fashion, like the bill of a hawk—hence the popular name. Smallest of the sea turtles, this species has the greatest commercial value. A carapace of a very large example is two and a half feet long, while the average length is considerably below this. Smooth and translucent, the shields of the cara- pace are beautifully marked in marbled fashion with black and yellow, or rich brown and yellow; beneath the color is uniform yellow; the shields of the head and limbs are brown or black tinged brightly about their borders with a pale yellowish hue. Inhabiting the tropical and semi-tropical seas of both the Old and the New World, the Hawk’s-Bill Turtle is continually hunted over the greater part of its exten- sive range. The valuable “tortoise” shell, obtained only from this reptile, is composed of the thin, clear, horny shields covering the bony portion of the carapace. The shields are removed from the shell by heating it, when they commence to peel and are assisted in the process by the operator. As the operation often involves a liv- ing reptile the martyred creature is turned loose after- wards, for the belief is that it grows a new coat of shields. While the theory is partially correct, actual conditions do not affirm the primary idea; for the turtle sometimes reproduces a thin veneer of shields that are of absolutely no commercial value. TURTLES AND TORTOISES 49 At various times the writer has kept young Hawk’s- Bill Turtles in small tanks that have been made brackish by adding ordinary salt to the water. His specimens were from six to eight inches long; they were vora- ciously fond of cut-up fish, taking the food from one’s fingers. Some of them lived for over a year. In a capacious tank of sea-water, young or adult turtles will thrive indefinitely. The Pleuwrodira: The second superfamily of the Thecophora is characterized by the method of bending the neck when the head is drawn into the shell. The neck bends in lateral curves (sideways). With most of the species the characteristic is externally evident— the side of the head, when that organ is drawn into the protective covering of the shell, being exposed and vis- ible. Members of the Pleurodira have the pelvis fused to the shell. Family Pelomeduside: 'The neck is completely re- tractile within the protection of the shell, which is cov- ered with horny shields. Most of the species look like big mud turtles (Cinosternide) owing to their somber, oval shells, the hinged plastron (with some), together with the large head—terminating in a sharp, conical snout. They inhabit muddy rivers of South America, Africa and Madagascar. Sternotherus contains ten species inhabiting tropical and southern portions of Africa—and Madagascar. The plastron is wide, with a hinged front lobe. All of the species are dull brown or black and altogether aquatic. Strikingly similar in habits as well as external appear- ance to the American species of Cinosternum is the AFRIcAN Mup Turt ez, Sternotherus derbianus. The young have a strong keel on the upper shell which be- 50 REPTILES OF THE WORLD comes faintly-defined at maturity; a fully-grown shell is a foot long. Proportionately large, with a short, conical snout, the head is a powerful biting organ. Up- per and lower shells are uniform black or dingy brown; the head is paler, with numerous black streaks or dots. For the past four years, one of these turtles has lived in the reptile house of the New York Zoological Park. During that time the writer has never observed it out of the water. It lurks under the shadow of a log. When pieces of fish or meat are dropped into the water they are snapped up with a rapidity that makes the morsels disappear as if by magic. Paddling to the surface at frequent intervals the turtle pokes the tip of the snout out of the water; a slight movement or a vibration sends it scurrying back to the dark lair. Pelomedusa contains a single species generally dis- tributed throughout Africa, south of the desert region; it also occurs in Madagascar. Like the species of the preceding genus, it is somber in coloration. The plas- tron is not hinged. Third and last of the genera composing the Pelome- duside is Podocnemis; six species inhabit South Amer- ica; one is found in Madagascar. They are giants among the fresh-water turtles; one of the South Amer- ican species grows a shell nearly a yard long. Through- out tropical South America, east of the Andes, these big turtles are common, though their numbers have been considerably reduced in many areas by the systematic hunt for their eggs. The eggs yield a valuable oil. Necessarily associated with the great river systems, the habitat embraces the Orinoco, the Amazon and their tributaries. Instead of inhabiting the actual water- ways the turtles dwell principally in great pools in the TURTLES AND TORTOISES 51 forests, that are filled by the rivers as they “back up” during the great freshets.' The species of Podocnemis are of a dull brown or olive, with a very broad, flattened shell. Among all the head is rather flattened, the eyes are set close together, besides being directed slightly upwards. There is no hinge on the plastron. Another family of the Pleurodira is composed of truly remarkable chelonians; they are popularly called Siwwe-NeEck or SNaKE-NECKED TURTLES, and make up the family Chelydide. The combined head and neck of some of the present turtles more than equal the total length of the shell. This serpentine neck is altogether too long to be entirely tucked back into the shell, so part of it is folded sideways, along the inner margin of the shell, when the animal is frightened; thus the origin of the popular title—“Side-Neck” Turtles. About thirty species, divided into eight genera, belong to this family. Five genera are restricted to South America; the others are represented in Australia and New Guinea. The Matamata, Chelys fimbriata, a South American turtle, is not alone remarkable in having a long, later- ally folding neck. It is one of Nature’s nondescripts, standing in a genus by itself. ach shield of its flat- tened shell rises in pointed fashion, giving the back an abnormally rough aspect—but most remarkable is the structure of the head and neck. The former terminates in a long, tubular snout, though at its base it is broad, flattened and heavy, with projecting, bony ridges; the eyes are small and placed so far forward the effect is quite ludicrous. Intensifying the altogether eccentric 1 For a detailed and entertaining account about these turtles, see Bates— “The Naturalist On The River Amazon.” 52 REPTILES OF THE WORLD conformation are series of flat and projecting fleshy filaments, mostly scalloped, besides studded with small tubercles; some of the filaments are voluntarily mov- able; the thinner ones sway with a slight agitation of the water. A full-grown Matamata with a shell eighteen inches long appeals to the human mind more like a vision of a disordered dream than a living reptile. The species inhabits the rivers of tropical Brazil and the Guianas. Strictly aquatic and alleged to employ the movable filaments to attract the prey, it probably feeds largely upon fishes. Almost as curious are the species of Hydromedusa, two in number, inhabiting tropical South America. The SoutH AMERICAN SNAKE-NECKED TuRTLE, H. mawximiliani, has a shell seven inches long and a snake- like neck and head slightly longer than the shell. The head is flattened, with eyes placed well forward. If the creature emerges from the water to sun on a log the effect is not that of a turtle, but of a very flat round stone with an ugly-looking, blackish snake reared from beneath it. In the writer’s collection were four snake- necked turtles that lived for a number of years. For the first few weeks in captivity they were very shy, merely poking their snouts out of the water for air and scurrying to a dark corner of the tank at the least disturbance. Shyness was at last overcome by appetite. They began feeding greedily upon earthworms, pieces of fish and raw beef. If minnows were placed in the tank the turtles chased the fish with considerable agility, never stopping until the last fish was gone. After a couple of months they would take food from the writer’s fingers, coming from their tank, through the door of their cage and following him about the laboratory if the morsel was held a short distance from their snouts. Plate 12 FAMILIES PELOMEDUSIDAE AND CHELY DIDA AFRICAN MUD TURTLE AND AUSTRALIAN SNAKE- NECKED TURTLE The illustration shows how the members of the Superfamily Pleu- rodira bend the neck in lateral curves in drawing the head into the shell. AFRICAN MUD TURTLE § Sternotherus derbianus. A fully grown shell is a foot long. Plate 13 FAMILY CHELY DID AFRICAN MUD TURTLE AND AUSTRALIAN SNAKE- NECKED TURTLE The shells are seen from beneath. Note how the members of the Superfamily Pleurodira bend the neck in protecting the head. SOUTH AMERICAN SNAKE-NECKED TURTLE Hydromedusa tectifera. The shell of an adult is about six inches long. TURTLES AND TORTOISES 53 During such operations, the small silvery eyes looked very sharp and cunning; the sense of vision was actually acute: for the instant the food was within reach, the long neck—generally carried in a lateral, S-shaped loop —straightened like a flash, there was a snap and the food was seized. 'Then the reptile wandered about helplessly, as it could not swallow the food unless in the water. Placed in the tank the turtle swallowed the food at once, then scrambled out after more. Very similar to the South American Snake-Necked Turtles are the species of Chelodina, four in number, inhabiting Australia and New Guinea. Of these the AUSTRALIAN SNAKE-NECKED TurRTLE, C. longicollis, is a typical example. Above, the shell is dark brown or blackish. The plastron is dark yellow; all of the shields are margined with black. Like the New World species, the animal appears, when resting, like a flat stone sheltering all but the head and neck of a vicious- looking snake. The eyes are intensely silvery-white and staring; they might lead the student to suppose that the animal had a hostile disposition. Such is not the case: for the snake-neck turtle is among the most inoffensive of chelonians. ‘Those examples living in the reptile house of the New York Zoological Park seldom leave the tank unless to drag the shell to the edge of a partially submerged log. Here they stretch their long necks on a lookout for food, in the shape of fish and raw beef. Under such conditions they have lived for nearly five years. Last of the side-necked turtles is the family Caret- tochelydide, made up of a single genus and species— Carettochelys insculpta, provided with flat, paddle- shaped limbs like those of the sea turtles. The shell is covered with a soft integument in place of the horny 54 REPTILES OF THE WORLD shields. Little is known of this queer turtle, which seems to be entirely aquatic. Its shell is about eighteen inches long. The species is recorded from the Fly River, in New Guinea. Third and last of the superfamilies of the T’hecophora is the Trionychoidea—the Sort-SHELLED 'TURTLES. These interesting fresh-water chelonians are unmistak- able. Exceedingly flat, with an almost round or bluntly oval shell, the animal looks as if coated with leather; there are no horny shields, either above or beneath. From the Soft-Shelled Turtles, the bony make-up of the average turtle’s shell is utterly lacking—the shell is soft and pliable, except on the central portion of the back, where the skeleton lies close to the surface; the head is long, narrow and terminates in a projecting, tubular snout. In keeping with decidedly aquatic habits, the feet are broadly webbed. Eleventh and last of the families of Chelonia, is the Trionychide, embracing all of the soft-shelled turtles. From a technical point of view it is important to explain that only the three inner toes are provided with claws, and the neck, which is completely retractile, is tucked back in a vertical plane, as with the Cryptodira. Six genera are recognized, which represent a total of about twenty-four species. Trionyx is represented by fifteen species, four of which are the only New World soft-shelled turtles; the latter are found only in North America. The remaining genera are small; their members occur in Asia, the larger islands of the Malay Archipelago and in Africa. With- out exception the species of all the genera frequent rivers with a soft, muddy bottom. As the soft, flappy shell causes these chelonians to appear so different from other turtles, they might be TURTLES AND TORTOISES 55 imagined comparatively helpless in time of danger. By no means are they handicapped or defenseless. The rounded head with its tubular snout and fleshy lips looks harmless enough. Hidden by the lips, however, are a pair of mandibles remarkably keen and strong; on many specimens the mandibles form the outer border of power- ful crushing processes—the alveolar surfaces of the jaws; examples thus provided feed largely on mollusks. Taken at a disadvantage, out of the water, the soft- shelled turtles are savage fighters. 'The head darts at an offending object like that of a snake. Large turtles are dangerous: for they can amputate a man’s finger— possibly his hand. The Spiny Sort-SHELLED TuRTLE, Trionyx spinifer, one of the American species, derives its specific name from a peculiar development of the front margin of the carapace; this consists, on adult individuals, of a fringe of pointed, projecting tubercles. An adult has a shell a foot long. Young and half-grown specimens are beautifully marked with numerous black rings scattered over a pale olive carapace; with both young and adult the plastron is marble white. This species occurs in the Mississippi River and is common in the central and northern tributaries of the great water-way. In the St. Lawrence River, it is found as far east as New York. A near ally is the Brown Sort-SHELLED TuRTLE, 7’. muticus, differing in the absence of tubercular spines on the front margin of the carapace as well as by the more obscure markings of the young. Both of these species are distinct from the other Amer- ican soft-shelled turtles by the head markings, in the shape of two pale bands that extend forward and fork at the base of the proboscis. On the others, 7. ferox and T’. emoryi, the head markings fuse immediately in 56 REPTILES OF THE WORLD front of the eyes. The Brown Soft-Shelled Turtle in- habits much the same rivers as does 7’. spinifer; it is a less abundant reptile. The SouTHERN Sort-SHELLED TurTLE, T. ferow, stands as the largest of the New World species, grow- ing a “shell” eighteen inches long; an animal of this size will weigh forty pounds. On many large examples there are suggestions of spiny tubercles fringing the forward border of the carapace, which condition might cause the species to be confused with T. spinifer. In such cases, the head markings, already described, form a strong point for distinction—besides, the habitat is different. The present turtle inhabits the southeastern United States from Georgia to western Louisiana. In Florida it grows to the largest size and seems most abundant. Adults are of a pale, uniform brown; young specimens are usually so brilliantly reticulated they re- call the markings of variegated leaves. A near relative is Emory’s Sort-SHELLED TurRTLE, 7’. emoryi, inhabit- ing the Rio Grande and its tributaries. Greatly esteemed as an article of diet, large numbers of the American soft-shelled turtles—particularly the southern species—are received at the markets through- out the eastern United States. In the South the col- ored people display an amusing and convenient way of cooking the turtles. When several are procured, the heads are chopped off and a small cut made in the soft plastron, for cleaning; at no part of the process are the outlines of the turtle materially changed. The entire animal is then rolled in meal and placed in a frying pan. It looks exactly like a big pancake—hence an appropriate, while possibly illiterate name in some por- tions of the South—the “flap-jack” terrapin. It should be explained that the negroes obtain the turtles by fish- TURTLES AND TORTOISES 57 ing for them with the regulation hook and line. In the North, soft-shell turtles are a real annoyance to one fishing in fresh-water. The reptile takes the bait with a jerk that throws the fisherman into a state of consid- erable excitement, only to find, after cautiously working his catch to the surface, the anticipated prize is a very angry turtle with much vigor in clawing and snapping at the sportsman’s fingers. And the activity of a speci- men is surprising. The head darts with a speed equal to the serpent’s thrust. These movements in biting have been responsible for another common name—the snap- ping turtles; that name, however, rightly belongs to the big-headed members of the Chelydride. While a soft- shelled turtle is essentially a water animal, seldom com- ing on shore to deposit its brittle, perfectly round eggs, it is capable of rapid locomotion on land, though its actions are amusing. For an instant, when taken from the water, it may retract the head and limbs, when the leathery shell settles down about it; then the sharp snout is poked abruptly out and, without warning, the animal scrambles off, on a veritable run, thumping and bruising the soft plastron as the feet frequently lose their hold during the hysterical race from danger. To pick the turtle up without receiving either a bite or a scratch is not an easy matter, as the reptile will throw its ser- pentine neck backward so that the head snaps at a point near the center of the shell; at the same time the feet, with their sharp claws, kick and frantically tear at the hand of the tormentor. Placed in the water the animal disappears with a lively exhibition of paddling, the broadly palmated feet working alternately and sending it flying to the bottom. If deep water-is not accessible, it grovels in the mud with such energy that a protective cloud hides it from view. When this clears away no 58 REPTILES OF THE WORLD trace of the turtle is to be seen. Patience will reward the observer. Presently a snake-like head emerges from the ooze, when a slight movement will cause this to snap back again; shortly, if the creature is not well imbedded, another mud cloud may arise and through it a disk-like object darts for better shelter. Soft-Shelled Turtles are almost entirely carnivorous, feeding largely on fishes and frogs. Agile swimmers, they seize their prey by a dart of the head. They are dangerous enemies of all the smaller aquatic creatures. Different individuals of one species may exhibit a pro- nounced variation in feeding habits and such have a decided influence upon the development of the mouth parts. Some specimens have worn-down mandibles, but behind these, on both the upper and lower jaws, are very broad, flat crushing surfaces; turtles thus provided feed largely upon mollusks—snails and mussels. Under observation, the Soft-Shelled Turtles are hardy and live for years. They should be placed in a tank of deep water. Here they are so thoroughly at ease in the water, even though no means have been pro- vided for emerging from it, they will live indefinitely. A thriving colony may soon be thrown into a state of bad health and ultimately lost, if rockwork or concrete is sloped out of the tank to enable the animals to crawl from the water. In crawling over the rough surface the turtles scratch and bruise the tender plastron until it is worn down to the bones. Ulcers develop, bringing speedy ill-health, then death. The observer should always remember that the soft-shelled turtles are crea- tures of soft, muddy places. While a bank of mud is altogether inappropriate in an aquarium, a section of a smooth, water-soaked log will answer the purpose of a resting place. In selecting a roost for his own speci- TURTLES AND TORTOISES 59 mens the writer has hunted for a derelict bough, four to five inches in diameter, minus the bark and quite slimy with a growth of microscopic algw. This should be so fastened that about one-third of its diameter pro- trudes from the water. Treated thus, the writer has never examined any of his specimens that had a sore plastron. The bottom of the tank should be covered with two to three inches of fine sand, for the turtles delight in burrowing. Among the Old World species of Trionywx, a charac- ter is to be at once noted in relation to the carapace—a character not apparent on the American species, except with extremely old individuals, or specimens that have become emaciated. This is the practical exposure, over the greater portion of the back (the central portion) of the sheet of bones to which are fused the ribs and vertebre; around this is a soft, leathery margin which sinks downward as the animal emerges from the water. On the bony, dorsal sheet the sutures of the bones are sharply delineated; the entire surface is coarsely punc- tulated—like old bone that has disintegrated to some extent. The characteristic is not so evident on young individuals. The Gances Sort-SHELLED TuRTLE, T. gangeticus, is one of the largest of the Asiatic species. Dull olive and finely-spotted with black, the shell of an adult may be two feet long. J. hurwm, another Indian species, has a dull olive shell when adult, while the young have a startling coloration, being greenish with several pairs of round, eye-like spots on the back—each with a black center, then a yellow border and outside of this suc- cessive rings of olive and black. One species, 7’. triunguis—the only African member of the genus—has an enormous range, extending from 60 REPTILES OF THE WORLD the Nile to the Senegal River and southward to the Congo. It is the largest of the soft-shelled turtles, growing a shell over a yard long and attaining a weight of over two hundred pounds. In all parts of the habitat this turtle is hunted and eaten by the natives. Emyda embraces three soft-shelled turtles confined to India. In the rear the plastron is provided with a pair of cartilaginous flaps closing against the shell as the limbs are withdrawn; when the head and forelimbs are pulled inwards the forward portion of the carapace is pulled downward in flap-like fashion; thus, all of the fleshy parts are concealed when the animal is frightened. It will be appreciated, however, that the animal is in much the same plight as the foolish ostrich, alleged to bury its head in the sand; for the soft-shelled turtle could be easily torn to pieces by the combined action of teeth and claws of a hungry animal. A similar de- velopment of the plastron relates to the genera Cycla- norbis and Cycloderma, both of tropical Africa. Plate 14 FAMILY CHELYDIDE AUSTRALIAN SNAKE-NECKED TURTLE Chelodina longicollis. Length of shell, six inches. Plate 15 FAMILY CHELY DID “BuOT yO9F OM} St o[duexa oBavT & Jo [[oYs OY, ‘[izeig udloyzWou fsvuviny : UOT NIIysSIqG ‘Dyniuquy shay) VLIVINVLVIN PART II THE CROCODILIANS ORDER CROCODILIA PART II THE ORDER CROCODILIA—CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS Living in the warmer parts of the globe, in areas syhonymous with tropical vegetation, swamps or slug- gish water-ways and a humid atmosphere, are the giants among reptiles—the Crocodilians. Ponderous, lizard- like creatures, coated above with a rough armor of bony plates, they cause the great majority of reptile life around them to appear insignificant—almost parasitic in proportions. Some of the crocodilians attain a length of twenty feet—one species, thirty feet. Of direct, an- cient lineage, they furnish us with a hint of the gigantic forms of reptile life once existing. Ages ago croco- diles and alligators were generally distributed through- out the world; the zone of decadence is now marked by rock-bound fossils in the temperate regions, giving way to the living representatives which have survived within that band of our globe embraced by the semi- tropical parallels—and though a few species stray out of this area, their distribution follows low coastal regions warmed by currents from the tropics. Without exception, the crocodilians are amphibious and provided with a powerful tail that is flattened toward its terminal half. The feet are of practically no use in swimming, being folded against the side while lateral undulations of the tail send the animal rapidly through the water. As the crocodilian floats near the surface, with the top of the head alone above water, 63 64 REPTILES OF THE WORLD the webbed hind feet are employed in slow, treading fashion to maintain the animal in the desired position. General structure: As this is not a text book, the writer does not propose to dive into a technical review of the anatomy. Certain parts of the structure, how- ever, should be understood by the beginner. Let us first examine the massive, bony head, as about it are several interesting features. The eyes and nostrils are so elevated that the flat portion of the head may lay flush with the surface of the water—or slightly beneath it—while these organs are clear above it and performing their respective functions. Immediately behind each eye is a hinged, bony flap constituting an ear covering; this can be opened and closed rapidly; it is tightly shut as the creature goes beneath the surface. The tongue is very broad, thick and attached by its entire under- surface to the lower jaw; it can be raised and lowered, forming a powerful valve to prevent water from rush- ing down the throat when the mouth is opened. An examination of the dentition shows a generous array of sharp, strong teeth of various sizes, but readily divided—on both jaws—into two series, consisting re- spectively of greatly enlarged teeth and smaller ones behind them. All of the teeth are frequently shed. At their base or root they contain a conical hollow and into this fits the tip of the new tooth, steadily pushing out the old member. It is a long-established custom for the keepers in the New York Zoological Park’s rep- tile house to look for teeth when cleaning out the big *gator pool. The pool is cleaned once a week, when the men sometimes find as many as a dozen teeth from the five large alligators on exhibition. Provided with such a formidable dentition, besides jaw muscles of enormous power, the dangerous nature of these huge, THE CROCODILIANS 65 vicious brutes may be imagined. Peculiar to explain, the writer has seen a big alligator grab a good-sized dog, then with a single effort, crush the animal’s bones with a sickening, dull, crunching sound, yet that same crocodilian’s jaws could be held shut by a moderately strong pair of hands, for all the power appears to center in the closing of the jaws. Often has the writer been asked the question—“What is the difference between an alligator and a crocodile?” In reality, the question is not a very important one, as of the twenty-one species of crocodilians there are but two “alligators,” * one inhabiting North America and the other the Yang-tse-Kiang River, in China. There is very little structural difference between the two, but from the frequency with which we hear the query it appears that many regard it as imperative, before commencing the study of natural history, to learn the points distinguishing an “alligator” from a “crocodile.” And many have been the answers to the question, prepared in exhaustive fashion that causes the brain to whirl in an endeavor to assimilate the dis- cussion. While we are discussing structure let us deal concisely with this alligator versus crocodile question, thus :— The American Alligator, Alligator mississippiensis, inhabiting the southeastern portion of the United States, is distinguished from the only other crocodilian found within its range—the American Crocodile—as follows— Entire head broad; bluntly rounded at snout. The Atuicaror, Alligator mississippiensis. Head triangular; becoming very narrow toward snout. The Croconi1e, Crocodilus americanus, 2 Members of the genus Alligator. 66 REPTILES OF THE WORLD As to the Chinese Alligator—it is the only crocodilian found in the Yang-tse-Kiang River. The South American Caimans have been described as belonging to the “alligator group.” All appeal to the two species of alligator in internal (osteological) characters; yet externally some look like the crocodiles, as they have a pointed snout; others have a typical blunt, “alligator- like” snout. This is a bird’s-eye view of the whole controversy. The alleged “striking difference in structure of the teeth” will later be discussed in relation to the respective species. Let us return directly to the structure. On the chin of all crocodilians is a pair of glands capable of being literally turned wrong-side-out in expelling their con- tents. They contain a strong-smelling, musky secre- tion undoubtedly employed by the sexes in determining each other’s whereabouts during the breeding season. Except on the back, crocodilians are covered with tough, leathery plates or shields, oblong on the abdomen and rounded on the sides; it is this part of the hide that is commercially valuable. On the back and top of the neck is an armor of large, close-set bony plates, attached to a tough, leathery skin. Most of these plates are coarsely keeled; they are arranged in regular rows; from a technical point of view they compose the dorsal sheet and are useful in the determination of species, as their arrangement varies. One important character of the internal structure should be noted. The development of the heart and vascular system is the most perfect among all reptiles. General Habits: Crocodilians live in immediate proximity to fair-sized bodies of water. Crawling out on the banks to bask, they rush for the water when dis- turbed, diving to the bottom. A common habit is to THE CROCODILIANS 67 float with the body parallel with the top of the water— a small portion of the head and of the rough back pro- truding above the surface. From a short distance, old individuals look precisely like floating logs. Both the young and old are carnivorous—the young feeding largely on fishes, the old ones stalking water fowl from beneath the surface, or, in a like fashion, watching for animals approaching the water to drink. Man-Eating Crocodiles: Several species—among them the Salt Water Crocodile, Crocodilus porosus, and the African Crocodile, C. niloticus—are notoriously dangerous to man. Old examples will rush from a stream, seize a human—adult or child—then drag the prey into the water to drown. However, these man- eating species are much in the minority. Most of the crocodilians will rush for cover at the sight of man. The American species seem to be particularly inoffensive, though some grow to huge proportions. It is probable, however, that certain particularly large in- dividuals of any of the species might be tempted to attack a man if he audaciously goes bathing in their haunts. While there are no records of actual attacks upon man by the American Alligator—apparently the least vicious of all crocodilians—the writer has often noted the suspicious and treacherous actions on the part of very large captive alligators that have become too bold to be trusted. He believes a man would be quickly torn to pieces and devoured if he should fall into a tank containing such creatures. Crocodilians produce their young from eggs, which are elongated, white, shining and with a thick, hard shell. The female either digs a hole in a sand bank where the eggs are deposited, then covers them with much care, or constructs a veritable nest, in the shape 68 REPTILES OF THE WORLD of quite a high mound; the eggs are laid near the bot- tom of this mound; the heaped up sticks and decom- posing vegetation covering them soon generates a con- siderable temperature, hastening their incubation. Before entering upon details of structure distinguish- ing the various species, besides the habits, the student should be presented with a concise tabulation, showing the general standing of the crocodilians. Existing spe- cies show such perfect intergradation it is impossible to divide them into families. Hence they are all embraced in the family Crocodilide. A tabulated list follows :— Habitat. saints size. A. Snout extremely long and slender—ex- tending from the head like the han- dle of a frying-pan. Gavialis gangeticus, Indian Gavial. Northern India. 30 feet. Tomistoma schlegeli, Malayan Gavial. Borneo and Sumatra. 15 feet. . Snout very sharp and slender; of tri- angular outline. Crocodilus cataphractus, Sharp-nosed Crocodile. West Africa. 12 feet. Crocodilus johnstoni, Australian Croco- dile. Australia. 6-8 feet. Crocodilus intermedius, Orinoco Croco- dile. Venezuela. 12 feet. . Snout moderately sharp; outline dis- tinctly triangular. Crocodilus americanus, American Croc- | Fla.; Mexico; Cen- odile. tral and South America. 14 feet. Crocodilus siamensis, Siamese Crocodile. | Siam; Java. 7 feet. Crocodilus niloticus, Nile Crocodile. Africa generally. 16 feet. Crocodilus porosus, Salt-water Croco- | India and dile. Malaysia. 20 feet. . Snout more oval—bluntly triangular, Crocodilus robustus, Madagascar Croco- dile. Madagascar. 30 feet. Crocodilus rhombifer, Cuban Crocodile. | Restricted to Cuba. | 7 feet. Crocodilus moreletti, Guatemala Croco- | Guatemala; dile. Honduras. 7 feet. THE CROCODILIANS 69 Habitat. Maximum size. E. Snout short and broad; conformation barely suggesting a triangular out- line. Crocodilus palustris, Swamp Crocodile. | India and Malaysia. 12 feet. Osteolemus tetraspis, | Broad-nosed Crocodile. West Africa. 6 feet. D.1 Outline of the head similar to that of Section D. Caiman trigonotus, Rough-backed Cai- man. Upper Amazon. 6 feet. Caiman sclerops, Spectacled Caiman. Central and South America. 7-8 feet. Caiman palpebrosus, Banded Caiman. | Trop. So. America.| 7-8 feet. F, Snout very broad; bluntly rounded at tip. Caiman latirostris,, Round-nosed Cai- man. Trop. So. America. | 7-8 feet. Caiman niger,! Black Caiman. Trop. So. America. | 20* feet. Alligator mississippiensis, American Al- ligator. Southeastern U. S.|16 feet. Alligator sinensis, Chinese Alligator. China. 6 feet. 1These species are exceptions in their genus. The snout is blunt like that of the genus Alligator. * Alleged to grow to this size by competent observers. From the table the student will see that the gradation, in the form of the head from the almost beak-like snout of the gavial to the blunt, round snout of the alligator, is fairly complete. In consequence we can compile no startling definitions in the time-frayed “alligator and crocodile” query. Judging from the great size of some species, theory, coupled with observations under inappropriate condi- tions, has led some writers to assert that crocodilians are remarkably slow in growing and live to an enormous age—never stated. One observer alleges it requires twenty years for an alligator to grow to a length of two feet. In a cold-water aquarium, provided with 70 REPTILES OF THE WORLD everything but the proper food, this would probably be the case. Placed in water matching the temperature of their native bayous, a brood of alligators born in the New York Zoological Park increased from a length of seven inches to the substantial size of over five feet within five years’ time. This is one of numerous observations on the growth of young alligators made in that institution. In the description of the alligator the writer will explain, with more detail, the rapidity of growth. Apparently the most gigantic of the crocodilians is the InpIAN GaviAL, Gavialis gangeticus, confined to northern India, where it inhabits the Ganges and the Brahmapootra rivers and their tributaries, thence ex- tending westward along the Indus and its water-ways. Wide portions of the rivers, where the speed of the current is much reduced, seem to be the favorite lurking places; on adjoining banks or island-bars, solitary mon- sters have their basking places. The very young and partially-grown individuals are more sociable, living in considerable numbers in shallow basins some distance from the river, though filled by the latter’s erratic rising and falling under influence of the freshets. Like many of the crocodilians, the Gavial is a timid animal, dashing into the silty, opaque water at the sight of man, to show, some time later, merely a pair of green- ish, cat-like eyes and the extreme, lumpy tip of the snout. Again alarmed, there is no commotion. The creature sinks noiselessly, when a few viscid bubbles break on the brown current. Judging from the mass- ive structure of a big specimen, one might be led to believe it would literally wallow for the water when frightened. Conditions are quite to the reverse. The great body is raised well from the ground when the Plate 16 FAMILY TRIONYCHIDE SPINY SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE Trionyx spin'fer. Distribution: Ohio and Mississippi Valley. Length of fully grown shell, 12 inches. SOUTHERN SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE = Trionyw ferow. Distribution: Southwestern United States. Length of fully grown shell, 18 inches. Plate 17 FAMILY CROCODILIDA HEADS OF AMERICAN ALLIGATOR AND AMERICAN CROCODILE HEAD OF INDIAN CROCODILE = Crocodilus porosus. Showing throat-valve at base of tongue. THE CROCODILIANS 71 creature rwns for the sheltering, muddy current. From the agility displayed by even the most gigantic individ- uals, man must consider himself fortunate that this mammoth reptile is seldom or never hostile to him. Its prey consists largely of fish. As is the case with a number of Indian reptiles, it is difficult to procure the Gavial for observation in a cap- tive state. A maze of fascination surrounds the reptile life of delightfully mysterious India; the weird and varied forms, the flashing, or, to the extreme, sinister colors; the colossal proportions of wide-awake brutes more dangerous than the royal tiger, down to pigmy forms, totally blind, burrowing deep into the ground— looking at them collectively they appear to form a rep- tile world by themselves beyond the comprehension of a single human lifetime devoted to them. Mr. Lorenze Hagenbeck informs the writer that a friend shot a Gavial thirty feet long. The gigantic carcass was fully three feet in diameter. As it bloated under a tropical sun it appeared like a stranded whale. Carl Hagenbeck has furnished most of the few Gavials exhibited in zoological institutions. Capture depends largely upon strategy. It is comparatively easy to catch an animal that has foolishly taken up its abode in a shallow, inland basin. After it is noosed it is dragged into a crate where it must subsist for some weeks without water other than an occasional dash thrown from a pail —and without food, as an infuriated reptile is in no mood to take nourishment; moreover, it generally fasts for some months after being placed in a commodious tank. There is nothing striking about the general structure of the Gavial’s body—it is the head which concentrates immediate attention. From in front of the eyes the 72 REPTILES OF THE WORLD snout extends forward in such slender fashion it might be compared to an enormously elongated, flattened, duck-like bill; at the extreme tip is a swollen and lumpy nob of flesh surmounted by the nostrils. Both upper and lower of the long jaws are so studded with stout though long and sharp-edged, close-set teeth, it would seem as if Nature had been over-generous in the devel- opment of the dentition—that food once mixed in the array of shining enamel, far in front of the throat, could not be worked or tossed back in a position to be swal- lowed. Moreover, it looks dangerous for the animal itself to quickly bring together such fang-studded man- dibles. Nevertheless they close in a wonderful fashion, the upper and lower teeth alternating, forming a close- set, continuous row. A skull of a Gavial is strongly suggestive of a frying-pan—the snout forming the handle. The Maayan Gavia., Tomistoma schlegeli, inhabit- ing Borneo and Sumatra, has a head very similar to the Indian species. Several osteological characters—mainly of the skull—place it in a separate genus. The species grows to a length of fifteen feet. Leaving the Gavials we find before us the important genus Crocodilus, containing the majority of the big, plated reptiles composing the present family. Several of the species rival the Indian Gavial in size; two of them are alleged to grow larger. In the face of a storm of crocodile tales it is best to make some allow- ance for the excitement attending the spectacle of a fifteen or eighteen-foot specimen rushing for cover, usually resulting in a magnification of the functions of hearing and sight on the part of the observer; his con- sequent description is inevitably a warm one and may be entertaining enough as simple conversation, but what THE CROCODILIANS 13 we want are the cold facts—a tape line down the mon- ster’s back. Alas, indeed, for romance and tales of ad- venture, if that could be frequently done!—how quickly would the bottom drop out of innumerable thrilling stories which so distort the study of natural history. In the tabulated list the writer believes he has quoted the maximum length of the crocodiles—has been generous at that and must explain that the enormous size applied to several of the species is quite exceptional; such giants are so few they would create as much interest if exhib- ited in their native country as in one of the zoological gardens in the midst of civilization.