_ || THE ESSENTIALS ||| POULTRY RAISING | LIBRARY | B RK KAUPP ANNEX | B-F-JOHNSON PUBLISHING CO. — RICHMOND VIRGINIA New York State College of Agriculture At Gornell University Ithaca, N.Y. Library | ornell University Library | c ' SF 487.K315 alin 3 1924 003 127 929 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003127929 THE ESSENTIALS OF POULTRY RAISING A TEXTBOOK FOR VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS BY B. F. KAUPP, B. S., M.S. Professor Poultry Science, North Carolina Agricultural Col.ege B. F. JOHNSON PUBLISHING CO. RICHMOND, VIRGINIA Copyright, 1920, By ; B. F. JOHNSON PUBLISHING COMPANY All Rights Reserved. ee NS al . Wd ep @1b072 FOREWORD It is to meet the need of vocational agricultural secondary schools that this effort has been put forth to arrange in sequence those facts that the student needs in elementary poul- try work. It is intended that these chapters shall be given in the classroom at the time of the year when suitable material will be available for the corresponding laboratory practice periods, though each chapter, being complete within itself, allows the assignment of the chapters in any order the teacher may choose. Working diagrams and photographs are provided for these practice periods, in order that the work of the teacher may be lightened. Suggestions are made for library references for the labora- tory periods which should accompany each lesson, and out- ‘line suggestions are given for two major projects, with two minor projects that dovetail together. There is also included a school demonstration to show that crossbreeding for two generations means scrubs. In addition to the twenty-two les-. sons and the twelve laboratory exercises accompanying them, thirty-two additional laboratory exercises are suggested, together with fourteen skills. Under the above arrangement, it is believed that a complete course, so far as it goes, can be given in twenty-five periods only and that, by additional laboratory exercises and skills, these hours can be stretched to fiftv or even seventy-five or a hundred periods, should it be the desire of the teacher to do so. Many of the laboratory exercises will extend over at least two periods if the work is completed satisfactorily: for example, the con- struction of the combination sitting and brooding coop. I wish to thank the following persons for valuable sugges- 4 The Essentials of Poultry Raising tions and advice in arranging the subject matter of this book: the men of the Department of Vocational Education of the North Carolina State College of Agriculture; the two classes of Farm Life School principals who studied at State College during the summer of 1919, and Professors L. E. Cook, W. D. Barbee, and O. B. Jones. West Raleigh, N. C. B. F. KAUPP. CHAPTER, I. If. III. IV. V. VI. CONTENTS Pace, The History of Poultry and the Poultry Industry. . . 9 The External Structure of the Fowl . . . , . . . 14 How Poultry Is Classified 17 How to Select Birds for Breeding . 27 How to Select Laying Hens . 34 The Necessity of Air and How to Wenlllate die Pouliry House 38 To Remodel a Pauline ious: or fo Nake a : ew Hite 42 The Construction of Poultry House Equipment 48 Fences and Yarding Chickens 54 Contagious Diseases of Poultry Appearing in Fall . 58 The Digestive Tract of the Fowl and Its Function . 62 Poultry Feeds and Their Values 65 Feeding Layers and Breeders 71 Candling and Grading Market Eggs : 75 Construction of the Combination Sitting ne Becwalne: Coop 82 Selecting Eggs for Haiching and Setting a Bist 85 Artificial Incubating and Brooding . 89 Feeding Chicks, Goslings, Ducklings, and Poults 96 Fattening Poultry and Shipping Poultry Products 102 Diarrhea in Poultry 106 Mites, Lice, Scaly Leg, and Flea: of Bauiliey 110 Worms Infesting Poultry 113 Poultry as an Important Batecoakce’ on ‘the oo 116 Suggestions for Projects and Laboratory Exercises 121 A Few of the More Common Questions That May Be Used for Study and Review . 125 (5) ILLUSTRATIONS AND DIAGRAMS FIcures. CEE eee HW 12. T3\ T4. 15. 16. 17-18. 19. 20. 21. 22, 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29-30. 31-32. 33. 34 A Bronze Turkey Hen . : A Cold Storage for Eggs and reseed Bauittias The Sections of the Male Fowl . A Buff Plymouth Rock Cockerel and the Cup ie Won A Pair of Indian Runner Ducks . me A Pen of Prize-Winning Light Brahmas A Barred Plymouth Rock Hen . A Barred Plymouth Rock Male A Dark Cornish Hen : A Two-Year-Old White Pi yanouthi Rock Male 2 A First Prize Winning Single-Comb Rhode Island Red Male Bird A North Carolina Grave Poultry ‘Cleb* Member's Piodk et Single-Comb Rhode Island Reds . Snereih. 20: A Graph Illustrating Increase in Egg Phodtedan A Utility Single-Comb White Leghorn . A Cull Single-Comb White Leghorn, Showing Weil Visor Two Years from Pure Bred to Mongrels : Diagrams of an Open-Front Poultry House, Showing tie rents of Air - Diagrams of a Poultry Huse A Grain Storage Bin End of a Grain Storage Bin aad ef a Dry: ‘ast Hopper Diagram of Nests ae ; The Droppings Box and oe ‘ The Digestive and Respiratory Tracts ats a Fowl 3 A Graph Showing the Average Percentage of Eggs to Expect ‘ A Graph Showin the Plachation of the Piive of Bucs , A Graph Showing Egg Production Necessary to Pay A Home-Made Candler or. ies cee The Combination Sitting and Brooding Can 4 An Oil-Burning Incubator . A-Diagram of Hover and Range Houne A View of an Outdoor Mash Hopper . Pace, 30 33 39-40 46-47 49 50 51 52 63 Fig. 1. A BRONZE TURKEY HEN. (Bred by Miss Mahaney, Mainc.) Turkeys are raised principally for Thanksgiving and Christmas dinners. (8) The Essentials of Poultry Raising CHAPTER I THE HISTORY OF POULTRY AND THE POULTRY INDUSTRY 1. The Origin of the Fowl. From biblical history we learn that fowls are probably as old as man himself. The modern fowl originated from the Galus Bankiva, which apparently was first observed on the Isle of Banca near Borneo. 2. Kinds of Fowls. At the present time there are several hundred kinds of fowls, varying in size: from the bantam, weighing but a few ounces, to the Jarge Brahma, weighing twelve to fourteen pounds. In addition to those fowls com- monly called chickens, there are water fowls, such as geese and ducks, and turkeys, guineas, and pigeons, all of which are raised and kept to furnish people with food in the form of eggs and meat. 3. Poultry in America. There have been developed in Amer- ica many breeds of fowls, such as the Rhode Island Red, Wyandotte, and Plymouth Rock. America is the home of the turkey and of the Cayuga duck. 4. Purposes for Which Poultry Is Kept in America. In America there are three kinds of poultry keepers, as follows: first, farmers who keep small flocks for both eggs and meat ; second, city people who keep a few hens on the back lot for eggs and occasionally for meat as well; and, third, the corh- mercial poultryman who keeps hens for the production of eggs for market. 5. Magnitude of the Poultry Industry. The poultry products in the United States amount to over a billion dollars annually. 10 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 6. How the Surplus Eggs Are Marketed. Eggs are sold di- rectly to the consumer by‘the producer on the town lot or the farm, or by the commercial poultryman. They are sold to stores or traded for groceries or dry goods for the family, and the grocer in turn sells them to the consumer or to the city com- mission man in case lots. The grocer also sells to hotels and restaurants as well as to commission men. In many com- munities, clubs are formed and a business agent is selected; the eggs are collected at one point, graded, placed in thirty dozen cases, and sold to city commission men or directly to con- sumers’ circles in the cities. 7. Fattening Establishments for Poultry. Throughout the United States there are many centers where poultry fattening plants, with capacities of 10,000 to 50,000 fowls, receive young chickens, mostly cockerels, weighing from two to three pounds each. These young. birds are fed a fattening mixture or feed for a period of fourteen days and are then killed, dressed, placed in cold storage, and sold according to grade. Many car lots and case lots are shipped to different points, especially to the large cities. In many of these establishments the birds are fed ground feed with buttermilk. The milk gives the birds an excellent flavor, and in markets like New York city such birds, when dressed, bring five cents per pound more than those not milk fed. , 8. How Fattened Poultry Is Marketed. In many of the larger towns there are commission merchants who buy eggs and poultry and ship them to the city markets. In some of these towns the large packing establishments, such as Armour and Company and Swift and Company, have buying offices. From these places the poultry and eggs are sent to the packing houses, where the eggs are stored and the fowls are fattened, slaughtered, and kept in coolers till times of scarcity. 9, Storage for Dressed Poultry and Eggs. The bulk of the eggs are laid by the hens in the months between February and The Essentials of Poultry Raising II July, and most of the young fowls for market are raised in the months from April to September. Some means of preserving a part of this food from the season of plenty to the season of scarcity is essential. To meet this need, large storage build- ings have been constructed of brick or cement and have been provided with rooms that are kept at the proper temperature for preserving eggs or dressed poultry for several months. 10. Eggs in Car Lots. Buyers of large quantities of eggs in large cities ship eggs in car lots. These cars hold 400 (or more) thirty-dozen cases of eggs. The cars are refrigerated, with ice compartments at each end of the car which are kept filled with ice. The cars are shipped to the large northern cities, such as New York and Boston. A string of cars containing eggs and dressed poultry is constantly going from the West to the East over the regular railway routes. Thus there are local commission merchants who buy eggs from the producer in dozen lots, larger city commission merchants who buy only in thirty-dozen case lots, and still larger dealers who buy eggs only in car lots. 11. Turkey Production. In many of the middle western states large numbers of turkeys are raised. In some places, espe- cially in Texas, they are driven to market on foot. Turkeys are raised principally for holiday dinners, especially Thanks- giving and Christmas. 12. Duck Production. In many places large numbers of ducks, principally of the White Pekin variety, are raised for broilers. This is a very profitable venture on Long Island, where over one and a half million ducks are raised every year for the Jewish trade of New York city. 13. Capon Production. Capons are produced quite extensively in many sections. The soft “roasters” of the south shore of Massachusetts and the Philadelphia capons, produced by the farmers of New Jersey, have become especially well known. 14. The Magnitude of the Poultry Industry. In 1912 the L€49) -Yysno1y} topnauaen s oul} B WO I I Ip sulziyenba sn ‘K me aa IZ yy ‘Ayres Jo aun} e 0} Ajuald jo 64 Bu . : d Oo sueoul eB Ayt uvy 3q} 0} SI 1oOyeIasIjar ot} yeymM wuorjeu otf} as Z ageie 4s noel : a a1, . : L 7 Ala The Essentials of Poultry Raising 13 poultry products of the United States were greater than the wheat or potato crop. They were greater than the total hog or mule production and equal to two-thirds of the hay crop, to 70 per cent of the value of all milk cows, and to 73 per cent of that of all other cattle, 15. Poultry in Other Countries. Great Britain has been one of the leading countries in the production of poultry. She has’ developed many useful breeds: the Dark Cornish, the Orpingtons, and the Sussex. South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand are well advanced in poultry raising. The blood of many of the best breeds is traced to China. 16. Egg Production Records. Apparently Australia holds the world’s record for high egg production. An Orpington hen laid 334 eggs in one year. America has produced a Single-Comb White Leghorn, Lady Eglantine, who laid 314 eggs in 365 days. CHAPTER II THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE FOWL Note to Teacher: The student is to mount a feather from each part of the plumage of a male bird. 17. The bird is divided into the following principal parts: head, neck, back, saddle, tail, wing, breast, and body. The head is divided into comb, face, wattles, eye, beak. The comb may be single comb, rose comb, v-shaped comb, or pea comb. The single comb has-a base which attaches the comh to the top of the head. It is provided with a blade and small spikes projecting upward from the comb. Some breeds of fowls have five spikes, others six. The rose comb has a fleshy body attached to the top of the head. It has a flat top, provided with many small.spikes projecting upward and a large spike projecting backward. The v-shaped comb, as the name im- plies, is shaped like the letter 7. The pea comb consists of three small single combs arranged side by side, with the two outer combs low and the middle one slightly above the other two. The face is the unfeathered part at-the side of the head. The wattles are the two flat, leaf-like structures hanging pendant from the under portion of the lower jaw or mandible. The eves and ears are located on the side of the head in the region of the face. The ear lobe is a fleshy mass extending downward from the ear opening. It is smooth and its color is either red or white, according to the breed of the fowl. The beak con- sists of an upper part, or upper mandible, and a lower part, or lower mandible. 18. The neck. is divided into the neck hackle and the cape. The cape is the lower and outer edge of the neck hackle and resembles a cape. The Essentials of Poultry Raising 15 fe Fig. 3. THE SECTIONS OF THE MALE FOWL. 1, beak; 2, nostril; 3, comb; 4, crest of head; 5, face; 6, eye; 7, ear; 8, ear-lobe; 9, wattle; 10, hackle, neck; 11, front of hackle; 12, breast; 13, cape; 14, shoulder; 15, wing bow; 16, wing front; 17, wing coverts, wing bar; 18, secondaries, wing bay; 19, primaries, flights; 20, primary coverts; 21, back; 22, saddle; 23, saddle feathers; 24, sickles; 25, smaller sickles ; 26, tail coverts ; 27, main tail feathers ; 28, body feathers ; 29, fluff; 30, thigh; 31, hock; 32, shank; 33, spur; 34, ball of foot; 35, toe; 36, toe nail. (R. P. J.) 19. The back is that portion between the hackle and the saddle. 20. The saddle is located in that portion between the back and the tail. In the male it is provided with long flowing hackle feathers somewhat resembling the neck hackle. 16 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 21. The tail is divided into the main tail, sickle, and covert feathers. The main tail feathers consist of a row of stiff large feathers, arranged in v-shape, just under the sickle and covert feathers. The sickle feathers are the large curved feathers ex- tending over the top of the tail. At the base of the sickle and main tail feathers there are smaller feathers that cover the base of the first two. 22. The wing is divided into the following parts: front, bow, bar, secondaries, primaries, bay, and coverts. The wing bow is the upper and outer third of the wing when folded and looks like a bow. The wing bar is located just back of the wing bow and in some breeds makes a distinct bar. The secondaries are the large stiff feathers located on the part of the wing nearest the body, and the ten large stiff feathers on the outer end of the wing are the flight or primary feathers. In some birds, when the wing is folded, there is noted a three-cornered white space at the back portion of the folded wing: this is called the wing bay. The flight coverts are small, stiff feathers which cover the roots of the flight feathers. 23. The front part of the bird below the cape or hackle is the breast. 24. The sides of the bird constitute the body proper, and the posterior part is occupied by the cushion or vent fluff. 25. The leg is divided into the thigh, knee, tibia or drum-stick, hock, shank, spur, foot, toes, and claws. The thigh is the femur or that region around the first bone of the leg. The knee is the first joint of the leg. The tibia or drum-stick is the second bone of the leg, sometimes incorrectly called the thigh. The hock is the second joint of the leg. The shank is the unfeathered portion of the leg or the bone below the hock. The spur is located on the inner and lower third of the shank and is best developed in the male bird. The foot is provided with four toes, three extending forward and one backward. Each toe has a claw. CHAPTER III HOW POULTRY IS CLASSIFIED * Note to Teacher: The school flock and nearby pure-bred flocks should be visited for the purpose of studying breeds and varieties. Among the first things to be taught are the simple points whereby one differentiates between the breeds. Examples: The Wyandotte has a rose comb, while the Plymouth Rock has a single comb. An Orpington -has a white beak and shanks, while the Plymouth Rock has a yellow beak and shanks. A Light Brahma has feathers on the shanks; the Columbian Wyandotte has bare shanks. 26. National Poultry Organization. American poultry fanciers have formed an association called the American Poultry Associa- tion. This association determines the breeds and varieties of fowls: which shall be recognized as pure-bred fowls and worthy of being called Standard Bred. 27. American Standard of Perfection. The American Poultry Association publishes a book called The American Standard of Perfection. This publication gives the classification of all breeds and varieties recognized by the American Poultry Association. 28. Classification of Poultry. In the classification of poultry the following terms are used: class, breed, and variety. Thus a Barred Plymouth Rock would be classified as follows: Class Breed Variety American Plymouth Rock Barred 29. Class. By class is meant the country in which the breed was developed. Example: the Plymouth Rock was developed *For reference book as to details of Breeds and Varieties, see The American Standard of Perfection, published by the American Poultry Association. For reference to History of Breeds, see Poultry Culture Sanitation and Hygiene, published by W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 18 The Essentials of Poultry Raising in America, hence it is placed in the American class. The Dark Cornish was developed in England and therefore it is in the English class. Fig. 4. A BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCK COCKEREL AND THE CUP HE WON. (Bred at North Carolina State College plant.) This bird is considered the best type and color. 30. Breed. By breed is meant the type, or shape, of the bird. Thus we speak of the Plymouth Rock type, or the Wyandotte type. The Essentials of Poultry Raising 19 31. Variety. By variety is meant the feather pattern, or type of comb, or both. Example: the Single-Comb Rhode Island Red Fig. 5. A PAIR OF INDIAN RUNNER DUCKS. (Bred by Patton, Charlotte, N. C.) These ducks are raised principally for eggs, 20 The Essentials of Poultry Raising and the Rose-Comb Rhode Island Red; the White Plymouth Rock, or the Barred Plymouth Rock. ; 32. Type and Variety. All varieties of the same breed have the same shape or type. 33. Some of the Most Common Fowls. Among the most com- mon standard-bred fowls are the Single-Comb Rhode Island Fig. 6. A PEN OF PRIZE-WINNING LIGHT BRAHMAS. (Bred by J. A. Pons, Asheville, N. C.) The Light Brahmas belong to the Asiatic class. They are chiefly raised’ for meat. Red, Rose-Comb Rhode Island Red, Barred Plymouth Rock, White Plymouth Rock, and White Wyandotte—all belonging to the American class. Of the English class there are the White Orpington, Buff Orpington, and Dark Cornish. The Single- The Essentials of Poultry Raising 21 Comb White Leghorn and the Single-Comb Black Minorca belong to the Mediterranean class. 34. Common Varieties of Turkeys. One of the most common varieties of turkey is the Bronze. The male Bronze turkey at two years old should weigh thirty-six pounds, and the hen twenty pounds. Fig. 7, A BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK HEN. (From Poultry Culture, Sanitation and Hygiene.) The, Plymouth Rocks belong to the general purpose or utility class of fowls. They are raised for both eggs and meat. 35. Common Varieties of Geese. One of the most common varieties of geese is the Toulouse. The gander should weigh twenty-five pounds, and the goose twenty pounds. 36. Common Varieties of Ducks. The White Pekin duck is raised most generally for meat. It has white feathers and a 22 The Essentials of Poultry Raising yellow skin. It will reach a weight of about six pounds at ten weeks old. The young duck raised for market is called a broiler duck. The adult duck should weigh eight pounds and the adult drake nine pounds. 37. Indian Runner Ducks. Some varieties of ducks are kept Fig. 8. A BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK MALE, (North Carolina Experiment Station.) The Essentials of Poultry Raising 23 for egg production alone. The Indian Runner is the best egg producer, often laying close to 300 eggs in a single year. The Indian Runner drake should weight four and one-half pound at one year old, and the duck should weigh four pounds ¢ one year old. Fig. 9. A DARK CORNISH HEN. (Bred by Ward, New Jersey.) The Cornish is raised for meat. Note the full broad breast. 24 The Essentials of Poultry Raising Fig. 10. A TWO-YEAR-OLD WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCK MALE. (Bred by North Carolina State College.) This is a utility bird. The Essentials of Poultry Raising Fig. 11. A FIRST PRIZE WINNING SINGLE-COMB RHODE ISLAND MALE BIRD. The Rhode Island Reds are one of the best utility breeds. The Essentials of Poultry Raising 26 ‘syesul pue s3nq se [jam sv ‘spsiq ay} 10; JUasaid os[e si paay usaaig “Aaypnod 405 pepssu epeys Jeyuassa ayy Yystuiny soary saci} ySatoy JO daoIZ v eau asnoYy auei 94} 3}ION ‘SGaua_ ANVISI AGOHY AWOD “ATONIS AO MOOTA SAMAAWAW ANTO AYLINOd ALVLS VNITOUVD HLYON V ZI Buy CHAPTER IV HOW TO SELECT BIRDS FOR BREEDING Note to Teacher: The class should be taken to the school and nearby flocks to study constitutional vigor. As this study will come in the fall, the summer flocks should still be available. 38. Purposes for Which Birds Are Kept. Birds are kept for egg production, meat production, utility (general purposes), or for ornamental purposes. 39. Egg Production. The Single-Comb White Leghorn and the Single-Comb Black Minorca have been bred for high egg production and are among the most common breeds kept for the laying of eggs. The small body of the Single-Comb White Leghorn makes her the best and most economical egg producer. She will consume about ten pounds less feed for body main- tenance than the birds of larger breeds. By proper selec- tion, the larger breeds can also be bred up to very high egg production. 40. The power of high egg production is transmitted by both the male and female birds. 41. Meat Production. Some breeds are raised particularly for meat production because the quality of their meat is superior to that of other breeds. The Dark Cornish (Fig. 9) is one of the best of the meat breeds. 42. Qualities of a Meat Fowl. A meat fowl should have a deep keel, well fleshed over, making a round, plump breast. The skin should be soft and kid-glove-like to the touch. 43. Utility Fowls. Utility or general-purpose fowls are raised for both egg production and for meat. They are especially recommended for the farm, where both eggs and meat are de- sired in fairly large quantities. The Barred Plymouth Rock, 28 The Essentials of Poultry Raising White Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, and Buff Orpington are among the utility breeds. 44. Ornamental Fowls. Some fowls are raised largely because of their beauty. Among the ornamental fowls are the White- Fig. 13. A graph showing that a flock of common hens bred to com- mon males produced pullets which laid approximately as many eggs as their mothers. The mothers (1) averaged 89 eggs per hen per year and their daughters from the common males (2) laid an average of 92 eggs each. These same mothers, bred to males that were from high egg pro- ducing hens for many generations (4), produced pullets that laid an average of 135 eggs per hen per year (5). or an increase of 35 per cent. This was brought about by the high egg production males. Brothers of these pullets (6) were bred to the common pullets from the first mating (3), and the pullets (7) from this mating laid an average of 122 eggs per hen per year, or an increase of 24 per cent in egg production. This lesson tells us that high egg production is transmitted by the male to his daughters and that the male also transmits high egg production to his sons and his sons to their daughters. (North Carolina Experiment Station.) Crested Black Polish and the Japanese Bantams. The other Bantams are placed by some authorities among the ornamental fowls. 45. Selection of the Male Bird for Breeding. The male should possess all the characteristics of his breed and variety and should have an abundance of vitality. The Essentials of Poultry Raising 29 46. Indications of Vigor. The crow of the male should be strong and clear, his movements active, his attention to the hens marked, and his comb and wattles well-developed. Red Fig. 14. A utility Single-Comb White Leghorn. This bird is of good constitutional vigor. Note well-developed head, comb, wattles, ear lobe, body, and the bright eye. This bird laid 223 eggs in one year. (North Carolina Experiment Station.) comb and wattles and a readiness to banter and to erow at the sight of a new male are indications of health. 47. Selection of the Hen for Breeding. The hen should show the characteristics of her sex, with a refinement of the head and body not noted in the male. 30) The Essentials of Poultry Raising eo 48. Indications of Health and Vigor. The hen should be in- dustrious. She should be scratching, foraging, and singing a considerable part of the time. A red comb, face, and wattles, and a marked happiness indicate health. Tig. 15. A cull Single-Comb White Leghorn, showing weak constitu- tional vigor. This hen laid 36 eggs in one year. Note lack of develop- ment of the head, comb, wattles, ear lobe, body, and the dull eye. (Cornell.) 49. Age of Breeders. Select only mature birds for breeding. Birds should be up to standard weight. 50. Age for Mating. It is preferable to breed from birds that The Essentials of Poultry Raising 31 are more than a year old. If pullets or cockerels must be bred from, it is preferable to’ mate the old male to pullets and the young male to hens. If pullets and cockerels must be mated together, they should be mature, that is, hatched early. 51. Objects of Poultry Breeding on the Farm. The objects of breeding poultry on the farm are: first, to bring a flock of mixed breeding up to a level with the best individuals of that flock, and, second, to fix certain characteristics, such as large egg production. In breeding poultry we wish to fix the follow- ing characteristics: constitutional vigor, high fertility, high egg production, early maturity, besides other characteristics which the breeder may desire, such as a particular feather pattern. 52. Lack of Constitutional Vigor. The lack of constitutional vigor is indicated by lack of proper development of the head, comb, wattles, ear lobes, and body. Such a bird is easily cowed by other birds. 7 53. Good Constitutional Vigor. Good constitutional vigor is shown by a well-developed head, comb, wattles, ear lobe, and body. The bird stands squarely on its feet. In males, vigor is noted by the crow, attentiveness to the hens, and readiness to banter and to fight when a strange male comes around. (Com- pare Figs. 14 and 15.) 54. Length of Time After Mating Fowls Before Saving Eggs for Hatching. If hens have not been running with male birds before being mated, eggs may be saved for hatching purposes at the end of six days. If the hens have been running with males before being mated, it will be necessary to wait twenty days before saving eggs for hatching. 55. Selecting Turkeys for Breeding. Select turkeys of good size. Turkeys for breeding should be mature, of good weight, and of good constitutional vigor. Do not breed from birds with deformed backs, crooked breasts, or wrytails. 56. Selecting Ducks for Breeding. The largest specimens should be selected. The drake is considered at his best the first 32 The Essentials of Poultry Raising two years of his life. The duck should be more than two years old for breeding purposes. 57. How to Distinguish Sex of Ducks. The drake seldom quacks and has a harsh voice. The drakes are usually larger than the ducks and have a curled feather at the front and top part of the tail. 58. Selecting Geese for Breeding. The gander may be used the first season, but the goose should not be used as a breeder until she is one year old. 50. Number of Females to Mate to Each Male. Among the larger breeds of fowls ten to twelve hens may be mated to one male. Young males will take more females than old males. In the smaller breeds, such as the Leghorn, twelve to fifteen females may be given each male. One male turkey may be mated to as many as fifteen females. One gander may be mated to two or three geese. One drake may be mated to four or five dicks. 60. Results of Crossbreeding. Do not crossbreed, as the sec- ond generation will be scrubs. Scrubs do not produce eggs that are uniform in shape, color, and size, and the birds are never uniform in color or size. If a product is not of the best quality, the producer will not receive the highest market price for it. Study Fig. 16 for results of crossbreeding. The first year a Single-Comb White Leghorn was mated with Light Brahma females and the progeny were uniform. The second year these birds were mated together and the progeny of this second breeding were nothing but scrubs, producing eggs and birds of different shapes and sizes. This always happens. Never crossbreed. Always breed pure-bred poultry; then your product will be uniform and you will receive the best prices. The Essentials of Poultry Raising 33 Fig. 16. TWO YEARS FROM PURE BRED TO MONGRELS. S. C. W. Leghorn. The First Cross. Light Brahma. 4 ee Result First Cross (F' Generation). Result F’ Generation Cross (F? Generation). CHAPTER V HOW TO SELECT LAYING HENS Note to Teacher: The class should be taken to the school and nearby flocks to practise taking measurements and for observation of the other characteristics indicating good and poor layers. Allowance must also be made for fingerbreadths, as the standard fingerbreadth is based on the fingers of the average-sized man. 61. When to Cull Hens. Hens should be culled each year in July or August, or as soon thereafter as possible. 62. Physical Condition of Laying Hens. In order that a hen may lay well, she must have a sound body. The bird must be vigorous and healthy. Vigor and health are shown by a bright, clear eye, an active disposition, and.a well-developed body. 63. Physical Condition of Poor Laying Hens. Poor laying hens are shy, while good layers are tame and easily handled. A poor laying hen goes to perch early. Her toe nails are long, indicating that she has not been scratching like the good layer. The poor layer usually is the last bird to leave the perch in the morning. 64. Physical Defects. Laying hens should be frees from such physical defects as a crooked beak, excessively long toe nails, eyelids that overhang so that the bird cannot see well, scaly legs, or anything that would tend to keep the bird from getting an abundance of feed. 65. In the yellow-skinned birds, such as the Leghorn, Ply- mouth Rock, Rhode Island Red, and Wyandotte, the yellow color fades out as laying goes on. Skin tests cannot be carried on in birds with a white skin. 66. Bleaching of Beak and Shanks. In Leghorns the beak will be entirely bleached by the time the bird has laid thirty eggs. The shanks will be bleached out by the time the bird has laid sixty eggs. The Essentials of Poultry Raising 3h 67. Conditions of Vent. The vent of a laying hen is soft, flabby, large, moist, and white. In a non-laying hen the vent is hard, dry, small, and yellow. 68. Body Changes Due to Laying. As a hen comes into lay- ing, the ovary, in which the yolk of the egg is formed, becomes very much enlarged. The oviduct, where the albumin or white of the egg is formed and where the shell is manufactured, like- wise grows much larger. The intestines increase 30 to 40 per cent in length and bulk. All these increases in the bulk of the abdominal organs make changes in the bony relations necessary. The breast bone is drawn downward and its lateral processes are pushed downward and outward. The pelvic arches are widened. 69. Measurements. The distance between the posterior end of the breast bone and the laybones, or pubic bones, in a heavy laying hen is four or more fingers in breadth. If the measure- ment just referred to is four fingers in breadth, it indicates that the hen will, in all probability, lay over two hundred eggs and should be kept for a breeder. Allowance must be made for hens large in body, as the above measurements are estimates on White Leghorns. In a hen measuring four fingers in breadth between the posterior end of the breast bone and the laybones (pubic bones), the distance between the laybones, or pubic bones, wili probably be three fingers in breadth. The measure- ment between the posterior end of the breast bone and the lay- bones is called capacity. The distance ‘between the laybones is called pubic span. j 70. Hens to Discard. Discard as layers all birds that measure less than three fingerbreadths in capacity and less than two fingerbreadths in pubic span. 71. Upward Tendency in Egg Production. Later, as more birds of the flock measure four fingers in breadth in capacity and three fingers in breadth in pubic span, discard all that do not measure more than three fingerbreadths in capacity and two fingerbreadths in pubic span. 36 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 72. External Sex Characteristics. The comb and wattles are sex organs. 73. Changes in External Sex Organs in Laying and in Non- Laying Hens. As a hen comes into laying, her comb grows congested, red, oily, very flexible, pliable, and soft. The wattles undergo similar changes. As the hen goes out of laying con- dition, the comb again shrinks, becomes dry, hard, covered with white scales, and stiff. On the day of laying, the comb will be hot to the touch. 74. The Abdomen of a Non-Laying Hen. In non-laying hens, the fat accumulates in the abdominal wall and the wall becomes hard to the touch. 75. The Abdomen in Laying Hens. As a hen comes into laying, the abdomen becomes soft and the skin velvety in tex- ture. 76. Laying as a Pullet an Indication of Laying Qualities. The good laying hen begins to lay early as a pullet. Very heavy producers in the Leghorn breed will begin to lay at about five months of age. The poor layers begin’ very late, many of them not commencing until spring. 77. Molting as an Indication of Egg Production. Heavy layers do not go into full molt till late in the fall. Low producers will quit laying early, many of them as early as July and August— in fact, the latter part of June—and go into full molt. 78. Heavy Laying Hens Undergo Vacational Molt. A vaca- tional molter casts a few feathers, during which time of molt- ing she does not lay. She then begins laying, and growing feathers. After a few days she again stops laying for a few days, during which time she casts more feathers. She keeps up this process for a space of twenty-four weeks, undergoing a complete molt, and at the same time continues laying, though not so frequently as before she began her vacation. 79. Wing Molting. The wing molting is very characteristic in the vacational molters. There are ten primary feathers. Be- The Essentials of Poultry Raising 37 tween the primary feathcrs and the secondary feathers is a short feather called the axillary feather. The first primary feather to molt is the feather next to the axillary feather. It takes six weeks to molt this feather and grow it again. Two additional weeks must be allowed for the molting and growing of each of the other primary feathers, making twenty-four weeks in all. When one feather is cast in one wing, it is noted that the corresponding feather in the other wing is also cast. 80. Culls in the Flock. In unculled flocks, where breeding for high egg production has not been carried on, there will be at least 35 per cent of unprofitable fowls to he eliminated from the flock. CHAPTER VI THE NECESSITY OF AIR AND HOW TO VENTILATE THE POULTRY HOUSE Note to Teacher: Visit a properly ventilated house and one not properly ventilated. 81. Oxygen of the Air. Air contains an element called oxygen. Oxygen is essential, for if air is withheld from the bird for a very few moments it will die. 82. How the Bird Obtains Oxygen. The bird obtains oxygen by breathing air into the lungs. The air passes through the nostrils, windpipe (trachea), lungs, and into the bladder-like structures extending from the lungs, called air sacs. 83. How the Oxygen Is Taken Up. The lungs and air sacs are lined with minute blood vessels in which blood circulates and takes up the oxygen from the air, carrying it to the tissues of the body where it is needed to maintain life. 84. Carbon Dioxide from the Body. In the performance of the vital processes within the body of the fowl, there is formed a poisonous gas called carbon dioxide. This carbon dioxide must be got rid of or the bird will die. 85. How Carbon Dioxide Is Got Rid Of. The blood absorbs the carbon dioxide and carries it to the lungs, where it is given off to the air. Thus the breathing in of air furnishes oxygen and the breathing out of air eliminates the carbon dioxide. 86. Ventilation Required in Poultry Houses. Poultry houses must be properly ventilated, so that a fresh supply of air will be always present and’ sunshine can find its way into the house. 87. Methods of Ventilation. There are two methods of venti- lation: ventilation by diffusion and ventilation by draft. 88. Ventilation by Diffusion. Fig. 17 shows an open-front The Essentials of Poultry Raising — 39 house with no ventilator in the back. In this type of house the air passes in at the lower part of the open front and gradually diffuses back to the birds on the perch poles. The air surround- ing the birds is warmer than that in the front of the building, and the heated, polluted air passes upward and out of the house at the upper part of the open front. poe an er 2 - See Oe eee —e = _| . LU Fig. 17. A diagram of an open-front poultry house for Southern cli- mates with no ventilator in the back. This illustrates ventilation by diffu- sion. The air passes in at the lowest point of the open frunt, gradually diffuses back over the birds, then passes upward as it becomes warmed and finally exudes through the upper part of the open front. 89. How to Make Houses Cool in the Summer Time. Straw lofts absorb the heat from the roof and make the houses cooler. The straw loft is made by tacking a two-inch mesh chicken netting to the under side of the rafters and packing the four-inch space thus made with straw. This’will make the house venti- lated by diffusion much cooler, It is best to provide a ventilator 40 The Essentials of Poultry Raising in the back of the house and keep it open in the summer time and closed in the winter. 90. Ventilation by Draft. Fig. 18 shows a cross section of a house built for a cold climate. It is provided with a ventilator at the back and an open front. The air passes in one opening and through the house and out of the opposite opening. The front opening is provided with a drop curtain, which consists ot a wood frame covered with muslin. In the summer time this curtain is kept up, as shown in the picture, and in the winter time it is closed down. The fronts of such houses are Nest Fig. 18. Diagram showing currents of air through a poultry house. The air enters at a, passes under the droppings boards at b and g, but no draft strikes the birds on the roost at f. The air passes through the house, as indicated by the arrows, and out at c. For cold climates it is desirable to have a front drop curtain immediately in front of the birds and at the front of the house, as indicated in the drawing. The curtain material must allow of the passage of air through it. (From Poultry Culture, Sanitation and Hygiene.) also furnished with one or more windows to provide light when the drop curtain is down. It will also be noted that the house is sealed as far up as the front of the dropping boards. A cur- tain is provided at the front of the droppings boards which, as The Essentials of Poultry Raising 41 in the case of the curtain at the front opening, is raised during summer and let down during winter nights to keep the hens warm. Ceiled roofs or straw lofts are necessary in the poultry houses of cold climates, to prevent “sweating” of the walls of the house. CHAPTER VII TO REMODEL A POULTRY HOUSE OR TO MAKE A NEW HOUSE Note to Teacher: Have class remodel or construct a house. 91. To Remodel a Poultry House. It is often necessary to remodel another building to make a poultry house. Repair the roof so that it will not leak when it rains. The sides and back should be stripped with slats, that there may be no cracks through which a draft will pass to the birds. A ventilator should be cut in the back as high above the perch pole as pos- sible. This will prevent a draft directly upon the birds. The front must face the south. Make an opening as illustrated in Fig. 19. The opening should extend the whole length of the house and be three feet wide. The lower edge of this opening should be thirty inches above the ground. Cover this opening with one-inch mesh chicken netting. If the building has a board floor and is raised above the ground so that there is no harbor for rats underneath, it may be well simply to repair the floor and make it tight. If the building has a dirt floor, fill it in with clay, gravel, or cinders until the inside level of the floor is above the surrounding ground, so that the floor will remain dry during rainy and snowy seasons. The ground should slope from the house, in order that the water may drain away from the building. 92. Construction of a New Poultry House. The plan of con- struction of the small colony house here presented provides for two perch poles eight feet long, which will accommodate twenty- five birds. Twice this number can be provided for where the birds run outdoors all the year round. If the climate is cold, a window should be provided and twenty-five birds should be The Essentials of Poultry Raising 43 the limit for the winter months. The floor may be of concrete, cinders or gravel, dirt, or boards. If it is concrete, there should be eight inches of crushed rock or cinders well tamped in with two inches of cement surface. The top inch should be made of one part cement to two parts sifted sand and the balance of six parts of coarse rock and sand to one part of cement. Bolts should be imbedded in the cement foundation so that the sills may be bolted down. The top of the foundation should slope about one inch to the front. If the floor is of cinders or gravel, it should be four to six inches deep and thoroughly tamped. With the gravel or cinder floor, the sills furnish a harbor for rats that cannot be prevented. If the floor is of dirt, it should be filled in four to six inches above the surrounding ground so as to ensure dryness during wet seasons. If the floor is con- structed of boards, flooring should be used. The floor should be twelve to eighteen inches above the ground. In winter the space under the house should be boxed in. The sides, back, and front walls may be constructed of plain sheathing boards, nailed on perpendicularly, and these boards should be covered with heavy tar paper, or a good grade of boxing boards, planed on one side and battened, may be used. Weather boarding is sometimes used. The most satisfactory walls are made from pieces of four-inch flooring driven tightly together. The roof should be covered with sheathing laid closely together. The surface of the sheathing may be covered with metal shingles, wood shingles, or prepared roofing. The house should be painted. Where it is desired to keep the cost down, the framing ma- terial may be secured from the forest and hewn out, and the studdings may be set in the ground. The sills, being nailed to the studding set in the ground, will be above the surface of the floor and thus harbors for rats will be avoided. The front of the house is eight feet high and the back six feet. The front opening is three feet wide, which allows an 44 The Essentials of Poultry Raising abundance of sunshine to enter the house. Plenty of sunshine in the house ensures a dry house and healthful conditions for the birds. The water rack is eighteen inches high, an elevation that pre- vents the birds from scratching litter into the water, and thereby contaminating it. The front opening is thirty inches from the floor. The drop- pings board is arranged horizontally and is thirty inches above the floor. ; The perch pole is eight inches above the droppings board. It is made of lumber, two inches by four, with corners planed off and laid flatwise. The perch pole should fit loosely into notches in its supports so as to be removable in case of mites. The nests should be at least eightéen inches from the floor. 93. Capacity of Perch Poles. Two feet of perch pole space should be allowed for each three hens. 94. Size of Nests. For small breeds, such as Leghorns, the nests should be fourteen inches square. For medium-sized birds, such as Rhode Island Reds, the nests should be fifteen inches square. For the large breeds, such as the Brahmas, the nests should be sixteen inches square. 95. Floor Space. Where birds are kept indoors two or three months or more, as they are in cold climates, four square feet of space per bird should be provided. Where birds run out the entire year, as in warm climates, less floor space is required. 96. Poultry House Equipment (see Chapter VIII). The fol- lowing is a list of materials for the house: Front corner posts, 1 piece, 4x4 inches, 16 feet long. Sills, 4 pieces, 4x4 inches, 12 feet long. Back corner posts, 1 piece, 4x4 inches, 12 feet long. Rafters, 6 pieces, 2x4 inches, 14 feet long. Plates, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long. Cross pieces for front opening, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long. For broody coop, 1 piece, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long. Perch poles, dressed all sides, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 10 feet long. Supports for droppings board, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 10 feet long. 1 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 45 Perch support, 1 piece, 2x4 inches, 8 feet’ long. ; ; Lattice for broody coop, and water platform, 2 pieces, 1x2 inches, 8 feet long. . : Flooring for front, 4 pieces, 4 inches wide and 16 feet long. Flooring for front, 9 pieces, 4 inches wide and 10 feet long. Flooring for ends, 41 pieces, 4 inches wide and 14 feet long. Flooring for back, 22 pieces, 4 inches wide and 12 feet long. Flooring for droppings boards, 8 pieces, 4 inches wide, 12 feet long. Battens for droppings boards and door, 4 pieces, 1x4 inches, 12 feet long. For roof, No. 3 sheathing, 196 feet. Hardware: Hinges for door, roosts, 3 pairs. Chain to raise roost poles, 2 feet. Good prepared roofing, 196 square feet. . Wire netting for front and sides of broody coop, 3 yards, one-inch mesh, 24 inches wide. Wiref or front of house, 3% yards, one-inch mesh, 36 inches wide. 97. Construction Notes. The front and the rear corner posts are four by four inches. The rafters are two by four inches and are placed two feet apart. There is a projection of the roof, one foot back, front, and sides. The front elevation of Fig. 19 shows the open front. The front opening is covered with one-inch chicken netting. For cold climates part of this opening is provided with a window and the open part with a drop curtain (90). The house should face the south. The front elevation shows a hole, twelve inches square, to allow the hens to pass out and in. This is guarded by a door which can be shut at night to keep the rats out, thus preventing them from consuming mash. It also keeps out minks, skunks, opossums, and other enemies of poultry. The nests are placed just below the droppings board, or along the side wall. The first perch pole should be fourteen inches from the back wall of the house and the perch poles should be twelve inches apart and fourteen inches from the front edge of the droppings board. The drop- pings board is made in eighteen-inch sections, so that it may be removed for cleaning and disinfecting. The water rack is eighteen inches square. It is constructed of two-inch strips laid two inches apart and supported by two by four-inch braces, 46 The Essentials of Poultry Raising a . 4 = fe Sic aE o> | TOU j ALT etstebs! Bate 111 F EERIE E TEES) ste a ar 7 >| Sy 3 12 = = — | Floor Plan Fig. 19. A suitable poultry house for 25 to 50 birds. The front eleva- tion indicates the position of the ventilator in the back, the position of the nests, a perch pole, the front opening for the hens, and the open front. The front is 12 feet wide and 8 feet high. The left-hand eleva- The Essentials of Poultry Raising 47 a ba ad 2—>| Broody Coop i | 4 | | 4.| Mash Hopper | t Lezt Hand End Elevation L2 >| al fe T 1 t T Mest ty. 12} (2 f Front Elevation tion shows the position of the mash hopper, broody coop, and end view of the nests, dropping board, and perch poles. The right-hand elevation shows the location of the water rack, door, storage bin for feed, nests, dropping board, and perch poles. The front of the building is 8 feet high and the back 6 feet. It also shows the four-inch footing extending into the ground. The floor plan shows the location of the mash hopper and grain storage bin, out of danger of getting wet, and the location of the dropping board and water rack. CHAPTER VIII THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSE EQUIPMENT Note to Teacher: Have class construct poultry house equipment. 98. The Poultry House Equipment. The poultry house equip- ment consists of a grain storage bin, holding one hundred pounds, for the grain feed commonly called scratch feed; a mash hopper, holding one hundred pounds, for the dry mash which is to be kept before fowls at all times; the nests, fur- nishing one nest for each four hens; a droppings board box and scrape; a water pan for water and milk; a record board and record sheets for keeping the flock record; litter for the floor in the form of shredded corn stover, straw, or leaves; litter, such ‘as straw or excelsior, for the nests. 99, Construction of the Grain Storage Bin. The following list of material is needed to construct one grain storage bin: 2 boards, 1 inch by 12 inches, 14 feet long. 1 board, 1 inch by 6 inches, 12 feet long. 1 pair strap hinges, 8 inches long. ‘ Y pound &d. nails. 100. Construction Notes. The back of the bin is thirty-two inches high and the front eighteen inches high. The bin is twelve inches wide and four feet long, with a partition in the center dividing it into two chambers. The steep angle of the top prevents the birds from roosting on it. 101. Construction of the Indoor Mash Hopper. The follow- ing list of materials is needed to construct one indoor mash hopper: The Essentials of Poultry Raising 49 2 boards, 1 inch by 12 inches, 14 feet long. 2 boards, 1 inch by 8 inches, 16 feet long. 1 board, 1 inch by 4 inches, 16 feet long. 1 board, 1 inch by 6 inches, 4 feet long (for ends), 1 pair strap hinges, 8 inches long (for top lid). 1 pair butt hinges, 2 inches wide (for lid at feed opening). 6 %4-inch rods, 6 inches long (for divisions of feed opening). 102. Notes on Construction of the Indoor Mash Hopper. The ‘ends are made of one twelve and one six-inch board. The six- inch board is placed at the back so that the joint does not come too near the front. The back of the hopper is thirty-two inches Fig. 20. A—A grain storage bin four feet long. The front eighteen inches high. The end twelve inches wide, cut to an angle for the top. The top lid open, showing the middle partition and the two compartments. B.—The dry mash hopper with lids open. (1) The strip preventing wast- ing of mash, just above which can be seen the iron rods. high. It is made of two twelve and one eight-inch boards. The bottom is twenty inches wide and is likewise constructed of one twelve-inch and one eight-inch board. The eight-inch board is placed at the back so that the angle board covers the joint at the bottom. An eight-inch board is placed in the angle at the back and bottom so that the mash will readily feed down. The front board, which is placed at an angle, extends to within four inches of the bottom or floor. This prevents the too rapid feed- ing of the mash. A two-inch strip is placed on the front of the 50 The Essentials of Poultry Raising hopper opening and extends over the opening about one inch, to prevent the birds throwing the mash out with their beaks, The feed opening is four inches wide and extends the entire length of the hopper. A lid is provided for this opening and is hinged at the back edge and provided at the end with a hook and eye, so that it may be left up for the birds to secure the mash, or it may be put down to keep rats out, in case the hens require mash only part of the time. One-fourth-inch iron bars are placed across the feed opening so that the birds cannot get their feet into the mash. At the end there are three compart- A). os ee nae vw Fig. 21. A, the end of a grain storage bin. B, the end of a dry mash hopper. ments formed by three partitions, which extend to the top. These are for grit, shell, and charcoal. The larger compart- ment will hold one hundred pounds of dry mash. The top is constructed at a steep slant so that the birds cannot roost upon the top of the hopper. The opening into the top of the hopper is twelve inches wide. 103. Construction of the Nests. The following list of ma- terials is sufficient for the construction of six nests: The Essentials of Poultry Raising 51 1 board, 1 inch by 14 inches, 8 feet long (for partitions). 1 board, 1 inch by 8 inches, 7 feet long (for door). 8 boards, 1 inch by 4 inches, 7 fect long (for bottom, front, back, and run board or step). 2 boards, 1 inch by 2 inches, 7 feet long (to nail netting to). 2 pair strap hinges, 8 inches long. 1 piece netting, 24 inches wide and 7 feet long. Y pound &d. wire nails. \Y% pound chicken netting staples. 104. Notes on Construction of the Nests. The nests are con- structed with the inside compartments fourteen inches square. The top and bottom are provided with a strip two inches wide : J ne Fil | =] gil | tii__]| <— 2 Ge Re vew a. “ 8" hy pe Bose lO, ge an aaa a a ae oe le. | | ] td aT] m 4 fy | End wew | HE: | u u uF € aa > Front View Fig. 22. The nests. The top view shows the wire netting and run board. -The front view shows the hinged door. The end view, showing the end of the run, entrance opening, door, top, and bottom. extending around the outer border, to which one-fourth-inch mesh wire netting is stapled. The front opening is covered with a board eight inches wide and is hinged at the bottom and hooked above, so that by letting it down the nests may be got at. The bottom strip to which this. is hinged is four inches wide, and there is a strip along the top border two inches wide, to which the door is hooked. There is a strip, four inches wide in the back and at the lower portion of the nests, which retains the 52 The Essentials of Poultry Raising nesting material. A run board or step, four inches. wide and extending along the entire length, furnishes a step for the birds to hop upon when entering the nests. This strip is held in position by a cleat and a space two inches wide is provided between the step and the nests. The partitions are located fourteen inches apart (Fig. 22). 105. The Construction of the Droppings Box. The droppings box is sixteen inches’ wide, twenty-four inches long, and eleven | | 5 nfo <— 26 ao o a oF ol End wew Side vweaw K24 1 za | om | 18" |—— 50" ae | Serepe > So) Re Yee Fig. 23. The droppings box and scrape, showing side and end views of the box, and top and front views of the scrape. inches deep. It is provided with a handle. The handle is made from two pieces, one inch by two inches, bolted to the sides of the box, and a piece of a broom handle held in position at the top by boring two holes in the top part of the upright pieces. The box should be constructed of some light wood such as white pine or cottonwood and should be of thin material (Fig. 23). The Essentials of Poultry Raising 53 106. Making the Scrape. The cross piece or body of the scrape is made of one-inch by four-inch material, cut to.a feather edge at the lower part of the blade of the scrape. To the body of the scrape, a handle about thirty inches long is nailed. The scrape part should be eighteen inches long (Tig. 23). CHAPTER IX FENCES AND YARDING CHICKENS Note to Teacher: Visit farm showing fencing material in use. 107. Kinds of Posts. The kinds of posts used for fencing are wood, steel, and cement. 108. Kinds of Wood Posts. Wood posts are round, split, or sawn. Round wood posts are made from small trees or from the tops of larger trees. Round posts should be peeled. Split posts contain more heart wood than round posts and will last much longer. Sawn posts contain more of the heart wood than either of the other two. They are sawn five inches square. Heart wood lasts longer than the outer portions. 109. Durable Wood Posts. Certain woods last longer than others. Among these more durable woods are hedge, white oak, cedar, and elm. 110. Posts Not Durable. Among the posts that are not so durable may be mentioned hickory, black oak, and pine. 111. How to Make Posts Durable. If the posts are round or split, peel off the bark. This can be done with a draw knife. Soak with creosote the part that goes into the ground and twelve inches above the ground line. Such woods as pine and hickory can be made to Jast for more than ten years by this treatment. 112. Steel Posts. Steel posts are the most durable, but are quite expensive. The end posts and the corner posts are set in a block of cement eighteen inches wide and two feet long. The end posts have a steel brace, which is likewise set in cement, and the corner posts have two braces, both of them set in cement. The wire is stretched tightly from one end post to the other and held by line posts. The line posts are driven about eighteen inches into the ground and are used to hold the fence The Essentials of Poultry Raising 55 in position. Only a heavy wire fence is used with steel posts. 113. Cement Posts. Cement posts are made in molds and con- sist of one part cement to two parts of finely sifted sand. The posts are made eight feet long, so that they may be set three feet in the ground, leaving five feet above ground. 114. Reinforced Cement Posts. Reinforced cement posts are made by placing wire or old strips of iron in the center of the post as the cement is poured. This strengthens the post. Cement posts not reinforced will break easily. Reinforced cement posts seldom break and will last a lifetime. Cement posts are made eight feet long. 115. Three Kinds of Wire Fencing Material for Chicken Fences. These are the six-sided mesh, a light wire, the three- sided mesh wire, slightly heavier than the six-sided mesh wire, and the heavy poultry wire. 116. The Six-Sided Wire Fencing. The six-sided light wire fencing material is the most commonly used, but is the least durable of the three kinds. There are different sizes of meshes, namely: three-fourths inch, one-inch, and two-inch mesh. It is difficult to stretch this wire and make a neat, lasting fence. It is likely to sag at the top and not fit tightly at the bottom. The bottom can be made to fit tightly on the ground by using stakes made from one-inch by two-inch sticks, twelve inches long, with a nail driven through the top in such a way that, in driving the stake down, the nail will catch the lower strand of wire and hold it close to the ground. A barbed wire can be stretched along the top and the top strand of wire lashed to this barbed wire, either with pieces of baling wire or with hog rings. A board panel made by using a one-inch by four-inch strip, both at the ground and at the top, to which the wire can be nailed, makes a fence of better appearance. 117. The Three-Sided Wire Fencing. Recently there has been placed on the market a wire netting of two-inch mesh and of heavier wire. This netting can be stretched in the same manner 50 The Essentials of Poultry Raising as the six-sided mesh netting. Jt is somewhat more satisfactory. than the six-sided mesh netting. 118. The, Heavy Poultry Wire. More recently there has been put on the market a heavier fence, made from a wire similar to that used as fencing material for hogs and cattle. The meshes are réctangular. The spaces next to the ground are one and one-fourth inches, that is, the lower wires are one and one- fourth inches apart; the spaces gradually widen as the top is approached. The top wires are only six inches apart. This fencing can be used with wood, cement, or steel posts. It is generally used with steel posts. With steel posts, such fencing is quite expensive, but steel posts are the cheapest in the long run, as they will last much longer than any of the other kinds. 119. How to Set Posts. It is best to set posts from thirty inches to three feet in the ground. Fill in the ground gradually, tamping the dirt thoroughly from the bottom of the hole to the surface of the ground. If too much dirt is filled in before it is thoroughly tamped, the bottom of the post will not be held firmly and will soon become loose. 120. Bracing Posts. All end posts must be braced from the wire side and all corner posts must be braced in two ways. 121. Standard Height of Poultry Fences. The standard height of poultry fences is five feet, or sixty inches. 122. Fencing Poultry on the Farm. On the farm, the garden and not the poultry should be fenced. Fowls should be allowed the run of the farm, as they will forage in the summer for much of their feed in the form of waste about the barn and fields. They will consume bugs and insects, which make excellent animal food for them; while by consuming bugs and insects, they protect the crops against these pests. Poultry running over the farm deposits droppings, which aid in fertilizing the ground. 123. Fencing Poultry on the Town Lot. If poultry is kept on a town lot, it may be advisable to fence this in to prevent the The Essentials of Poultry Raising 57 fowls from annoying neighbors. When birds are shut up in a pen, it is necessary to compensate them for the loss of insects and green feed which they would secure on the range. The lot should be divided into two parts, one being sown in rape, cow peas, or oats, depending on the season, while the flock should be kept in the other part. By this means, green feed may be provided the year around. CHAPTER X CONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF POULTRY APPEARING IN FALL Note to Teacher: Bring into the classroom a bird with one of these diseases. 124. Roup, sorehead, swollen eyes, and diphtheria most often occur in the fall. 125. Cause of Roup. Roup is caused by a germ. A germ or bacterium is a vegetable organism so small that it must be mag- nified one thousand times by the microscope in order to be visible. Roup affects the nose and nasal passages of the head. 126. How Roup Is Spread. The germs of roup may live in the yards and hen houses from one fall or winter to the next. The disease may be spread by. a chronic carrier, that is, a bird that has had it and has apparently recovered but that still gives off the germs. Such a bird will sit around on the perch much of the time. It has a pale face, dried down, hard, stiff comb, and is light in weight., It will be observed occasionally to sneeze; and if examined closely, a small amount of dried scab around the nostril will be seen, besides a very thin dis- charge, scarcely observable and of an offensive odor. Such a bird should be killed and its head and body burned, as it con- stantly deposits this discharge, containing the germs of the disease, in eating and drinking. As soon as the weather con- ditions are such as to favor the development of roup, the disease again breaks out. Roup may be spread by introducing a sick bird into the flock, or by shipping a bird in a coop in which a roupy bird has been kept, or by placing birds in runs or houses where birds sick of roup have been kept. 127. How You Can Tell Roup. A bird may have a light or The Essentials of Poultry Raising 59 a severe attack of roup. If the attack is light, there will first be noticed a slight discharge at the nose, the bird will be dull, and will not appear to feel well. It does not leave the perch and house as soon in the morning as usual and does not scratch for food as usual. The feathers may appear rather rough. In severe cases great depression will be noticed in the bird. The discharge from the nostrils is great and of a very offensive odor. An accumulation of this matter may clog the cavities of the head, when a lump below the eye will be observed. The bird will appear weak, will not eat, stands around in a tucked-up posture, rapidly becomes poor in flesh, and soon dies. 128. Treatment of a Bird With Roup. A bird with roup should immediately be removed from the flock. If the disease is of a severe type and you think the bird is sure to die, immediately kill it and bury or burn the head and body to prevent the spread of the disease. If you think it will get well, you may treat it. If the trouble proves to be only a common cold, one treatment may effect a cure. Have an assistant hold the bird with the head down. Use a small one or two-dram hard rubber syringe which has the nozzle filed down so that you can insert it into the bird’s nose. Inject through the nasal passage a warm solu- tion of common baking soda. Use one-half teaspoonful of common baking soda to half a cup of warm water. This will cut the accumulation and leave the inflamed mucous lining clean, so that a drug can now be applied that will relieve the inflam- mation. Inject a small quantity of the following mixture through the nasal passage: Oil thyme 30 drops Oil eucalyptus nee eeeecceceeees 30 drops Menthol 10 drops Oil petrol 2 ounces Repeat this treatment twice a day. By holding the bird with head down, the material forced through the nasal passage will not get into the windpipe. The 60 The Essentials of Poultry Raising strong hard rubber syringe will drive the material clear through the nasal passage and out into the mouth through the slit in the upper part of the mouth. If the bird’s head is held down, this material will run out of the mouth and not infect the wind- pipe (trachea) and thus cause complications. Always wash the hands in a 4 per cent solution of some standardized coal tar disinfectant dip before handling other birds. 129. How to Prevent Spread of Roup. Thoroughly clean the yard and house. Spray the house thoroughly with a 4 per cent solution of some standardized coal tar disinfectant dip. Such a dip can be secured at any drug store and should have a coefficiency of at least 5 per cent. Put permanganate of potash in the drinking water. Get a fruit jar and fill it with water. Place in this water crystals of permanganate of potash until some of it is left in the bottom undissolved. When the drink- ing water is prepared for the flock, pour in enough of this stock solution of permanganate of potash to make the water slightly purple. Always promptly remove all birds with roup from the rest of the flock and look out for the chronic carrier. 130. Swollen Eyes. Usually but a single eye is found to be swollen at a time. The germs of roup are responsible for one kind of swollen eyes. In this kind, the lining of the eye will be noticed to be red or inflamed. There will be an accumula- tion of a white, clot-like matter. When the bird sleeps at night, a small amount of this material dries along the outer edge of the eyeball, with the result that the bird cannot open its eye in the morning. The material continues to accumulate and the eye becomes enormously swollen. 131. How to Treat Swollen Eyes. Gently press open the eye- lids with the thumb and finger. Remove with a small pledget of cotton this white, clot-like mass and inject a small quantity of soda solution, as in the case of roup (128). Then inject a small quantity of the oil, as in roup. Repeat this treatment twice a day. A 10 per cent solution of argyrol or a 1 per cent solution of zinc sulphate may be used. The Essentials of Poultry Raising 61 132. Diphtheria or Avian Diphtheria. This is the mouth type of roup. When roup occurs among birds, each bird should be caught and its mouth opened to see if there are any sores within. These sores may cover quite a surface and are accom- panied by a gummy, cheesy material. In such a case the bird shows symptoms much like those described above in nasal roup (128). It cannot eat, and these sores may extend down into the throat. With a dull knife, scrape all the material off and burn the surface with a stick of nitrate of silver till all the parts are white. Repeat this treatment in a few days if the sores do not disappear. 133. How to Tell Sorehead. The first sign of sorehead is a depressed condition of the bird. It does not appear as lively as usual, and small pimples appear on the comb, face, or wattles. These are hard and red and gradually become larger. If the disease is a severe one, the top becomes sore, and these sores spread over much of the unfeathered part of the head. Some- times the disease is very light, causing only one or two small pimples or sores on the comb or wattles and not depressing the bird very greatly. The disease may be spread by mosquitoes or it may be spread like roup (126). 134. How to Treat Sorehead. Take the same steps as in roup (128). Apply some of the oil preparation as used in roup and sore head (128) and repeat in about three days. Two applications often result in a cure. The pimples and sores may be touched with tincture of iodine or burnt with a stick of nitrate of silver. CHAPTER XI THE DIGESTIVE TRACT OF THE FOWL AND ITS FUNCTION Note to Teacher: Hold postmortem and demonstrate all parts of the digestive tract of a hen. A laying hen preferred. For reference reading see Anatomy of the Domestic Fowl, published by W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 135. The Organs Through Which Food Passes. The food is taken up by the beak and, by a backward movement of the tongue and a jerk of the head, is thrown back into the throat and passes down the first part of the esophagus (No. 2, Fig 24). The esophagus gives passage to the food to the crop (No. 3, Fig. 24). The crop is simply a storehouse for food. From the crop the food passes through the second portion of the esophagus to the proventriculus, a spindle-shaped organ just in front of the gizzard (No. 4, Fig. 24). The proventriculus secretes a strong acid and pepsin, in which the food soaks before it passes to the gizzard. From the proventriculus the food goes on to the giz- zard (No. 5, Fig. 24). The gizzard is provided with strong muscles and has a thick pad lining it. In the gizzard the food is ground and is mixed with a ferment secreted by glands in the gizzard walls. This ferment is pepsin and aids in digesting the food so that it can be used by the body. From the gizzard the food passes into the loop or the first portion of the small intestine (No. 6, Fig. 24). Here it is mixed with a fluid which is manufactured by the pancreas (No. 13, Fig. 24). From the small intestinal loop the food passes into the floating or free portion of the small intestine, where it is mixed with a fluid secreted by the intestinal wall. All of these fluids contain ferments which digest the nutrients of the food and resolve them into a state in which they can be absorbed by the blood and The Essentials of Poultry Raising 63 Fig. 24. The digestive and respiratory tracts of the fowl: 1, tongue; 2, first portion of esophagus; 3, crop; 4, proventriculus; 5, gizzard; 6, duodenum or small intestinal loop; 7, free portion of the small intes- tine; 8, large intestine or rectum; 9, mesentery or web supporting the intestine; 10, caeca or blind pouches; 11, cloaca; 12, anus; 13, pancreas; 14, liver; 15, spleen; 16, larynx; 17, trachea; 18, lung. 04 The Essentials of Poultry -Raising used to nourish the body. No. 14, Fig. 24, is the liver, which secretes bile or gall and from which gall is poured out into the small intestine about fourteen inches from the point of origin of the latter. The bile aids in the digestion of the fats of the food ; indeed, without it fats cannot be digested. From the small intestine the food passes into the two blind pouches called caeca, which are shown at No. 10, Fig. 24. From this point the food continues into the large intestine, shown in No. 8, Fig. 24. Both the caeca and the large intestine contain glands in their walls and secrete a fluid which contains ferments of aid in digesting the nutrients of the food. From the large intestine the food that is undigested and unabsorbed passes into a sac called the cloaca and is then passed out. 136. The spleen (No. 15, Fig. 24) is a small body shaped much like a horse chestnut and is a blood-forming organ. 137. The Organs of Breathing or Respiration. The air passes in at the nostrils, through the nasal passage, out at the. back part of the roof of the mouth, into the throat, and then into the windpipe, as shown in No. 16, Fig. 24. The air next passes through the windpipe, into the lungs (No. 18, Fig. 24), then into the air sacs. CHAPTER XII POULTRY FEEDS AND THEIR VALUES 138. What a Nutrient Is. A nutrient is a substance which can be taken into the body, digested, and absorbed. When a nutrient has been digested and absorbed, it is capable of nourishing the body. 139, Kinds of Nutrients Required. There are three kinds of nutrients required. They are protein; starches and sugars, called carbohydrates, and fats, called hydrocarbons. 140. What Protein Is and Its Function in the Body. Protein is the only nutrient of poultry feeds containing nitrogen. Pro- tein aids in building tp muscles, bones, and intestinal organs. If a surplus is taken in, it goes to form fat in the body. 141. What Starches and Sugars Are and Their Function. Starches and sugars contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and are used in the body for the production of heat and energy, much as an automobile uses gasoline for the production of heat and energy. Ifa surplus is taken into the body, it is converted into fat or is stored up as glycogen until it is needed by the body for combustion. 142. What Fats Are and Their Function. Fats, like starches and sugars, contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but in dif- ferent amounts. Fats are similar in function to starches and sugars. They are used to produce heat and energy, and a surplus left over is stored up as fat in the body of the bird. 143. These three groups of food nutrients must be in the proper proportion to give the best results. 144. Corn. There are three kinds of corn of interest to poultry feeders. These are flint, dent, and sweet corn. Corn does not make a complete feed by itself. It must be given with other grains and is then one of our very best feeds. 66 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 145. Forms in Which Corn Is Fed. Corn is fed whole to lay- ing hens. Cracked corn is fed to chicks and to young chickens on range. Ground corn or corn meal is used in the ground mix- tures for. young chickens, in the mash for the birds on range, and for laying hens. Gluten feed is a by-product of the corn used in the manufacture of starch and is rich in protein. It is therefore one of our most useful high protein vegetable feeds for mash mixtures. 146, Wheat. Wheat is richer in protein or muscle-building nutrients than corn and is fed as whole wheat to young chicks, growing chickens, and laying hens. Cracked wheat is fed to baby chicks.” There are three by-products of wheat, namely: shorts, middlings, and bran. These by-products are used in the mash mixtures for both young and old birds. 147, Rye and Barley. Rye and barley are not quite so good for feed as wheat, but may be used as a substitute when found necessary. 148. Oats. Oats are one of the standard feeds, both for old -birds, as whole oats, and as crushed oats in the mash for young and old birds. Hulled oats and pinhead oats are used in feed- ing young chickens. 149. Rice and Buckwheat. Rice and buckwheat are not used extensively, but can be used partly as substitutes for wheat, corn, and oats. 150. Cottonseed Meal. Cottonseed meal is rich in protein, but it contains a poisonous substance called gossypol. If too much is fed, it has a bad effect on birds, causing them to become sick of it, lose their appetite, and even die. Not over 10 per cent of cottonseed meal should be fed in the mash feed. If not more than 10 per cent is fed in the mash, it proves a good feed for young chicks and for laying hens. Cottonseed meal sometimes causes dark brown yolks in the eggs. Most people object to these brown yolks, though they in no way render the eggs unwholesome. . The Essentials of Poultry Raising 67 151. Soybean’ Meal. Soybeans, like cottonseed, are used by the oil mills for the production of oil. After the oil is pressed out of the ground soybeans, the residue is ground and sold in the market as stock feed. Soybean meal is very rich in protein and is one of the very best feeds for both chicks and laying hens. 152. Peanut Meal. Peanuts are ground by the oil mills and their oil extracted by hydraulic presses. After the oil has been pressed out, the residue is ground and sold in the market as stock feed. Peanut meal is rich in protein and is one of the very best feeds for poultry, both young and old. 153. Velvet Bean Meal. Velvet bean meal, consisting of ground pods and beans, is injurious to both young and old birds and is not recommended for poultry feeding. 154. Meat Scrap, Fish Meal, and Blood Meal. Meat scrap, fish scrap or meal, and dried blood or blood meal are used as poultry feeds. These are called animal feeds and furnish our birds with animal protein. Animal protein is essential if the maximum growth or the maximum egg production is expected. If the birds run on range, they will get their animal feed in the form of bugs and insects, but in the winter time and when shut up, as in back lots, it is necessary to furnish them with animal food. 155. Milk. Milk is a common form of animal food for chickens. It may be fed as sour skim milk, in semi-solid forms, as those bought from some of the creameries, as dried butter- milk, or as buttermilk direct from the chur. Buttermilk is a common feed for chicks and is of aid in preventing diarrhea. 156. Green Feed. Green feed is essential for growing birds, as well as for breeding and laying stock. This may be furnished by allowing them to run on a green field, or by supplying them with sprouted oats, mangels, collards, or cabbage grown during the summer. 157. Spoiled Feeds. Spoiled feeds such as moldy grain, mill feeds, or moldy table scraps must be avoided, as birds are easily made sick by spoiled food. > 68 The Essentials of Poultry Raising _ 158. When and How to Plant Grazing Crops for Poultry. Grazing crops can be provided most of the year for poultry. In part of January and February, and this especially holds true in the mountain section, it is necessary either to sprout oats or provide mangels or turnips. For best results in egg produc- tion, birds must be provided with succulent feeds. The tabulation on the next page will be found useful informa- tion for the beginner : 69 The Essentials of Poultry Raising ‘ganyeus UQ, ‘Surids pue saqUIM Ajrea azBIN-IIAOTD “Sq] ST t ‘aI paysnq | ‘98N -Ja}UIM 10,q spunod g qT 4eyr > spesueyy WqoTy +asueIQ ‘sjasueyy pey Suoy azug yjouwmeyy sae! ySry sayout QT 0} gu Spunod gz gy “Sy rmnnnn QACT, FVIMS ‘Burids pue Ja}UIM A]Ieva azerne pysng pt--~ I ‘30S S120 | ~ yp ydagvraa0[9 uosuig pue oy ‘oanyzeut [IWUQ “S|[PF mous [U(]) ‘umop pe} [HUL) ‘peumnsuod eres" ‘uMOIS [INF [HUE u01jD4nq] porded Yell saypur Cr PHSB T o1 Ae ueaqhosg syoom XIS Ul” pysng po" OL ASIN Err yeayMyong seveceecsteeececenaanssscentnns 0z saquiajdag""_spunod ¢ oz 3ny sdruiny, CI ew spunod zg[7~"~ OZ Baye * TACT) Pay aaa yBry sayout QT 0} gu Spunod gv OT ABW adey oz Ae szeo syaysnq z ‘sead yjaysnq [77 GL adorn “""$1B2Q pue stag ‘2b01g 6urz04y) ‘a4IP 49g “umos “4049 paas fojunomp "uayy AKULTNAOd AOA SdOUD ONIZVAD AO ONILINVId 70 The Essentials of Poultry Raising Oats may be used for either summer or winter grazing. Rape can be raised spring, summer, and fall if there is sufficient rainfall. Soybeans and cowpeas can be raised spring, summer, and fall as a yard rotation crop, if there is sufficient rainfall. Turnips and mangels make the best root crops for winter feed- ing. Collards and cabbage, as well as lettuce raised in cold frames, also make excellent succulent feed. In raising mangels it is best to plough the ground deeply in the fall. The freezing will pulverize the ground and tend to make it in better condition for the crop. Good black loam soil is the best. The ground should be manured. If manure is not available, fertilize by dis- tributing four to five hundred pounds of fertilizer to thé acre. Plant the mangel seed in rows two and a half to three feet apart, sow thick, later thin out, Jeaving one strong beet stock to each ten inches. The rows should be ridged, the top of the ridge being about two inches above the surface of the ground. The seed should be planted about one inch deep. Gather the root crops as late in the fall as possible. Bury in the ground until ready to use them. To do this, place about six inches of straw on the ground, then pile or windrow, cover mangels or turnips with about six inches of straw or hay and cover with dirt. In securing the dirt, take that close around the piles of roots so that there will be drainage away from the pile, which will thus keep dry. The roots thus prepared should keep till January and February, when they are most needed. During the fall and early winter grazing crops may be used. CHAPTER XIII FEEDING LAYERS AND BREEDERS Note to Teacher: Have student mix feeds for flock. 159. Water Supply. Laying and breeding hens must have a fresh and pure supply of water at all times. Especially in hot weather, water should be kept before the birds without fail. The water containers must be scrubbed or washed out: use the hand to remove the slime which has accumulated on the sides and bottom of the pan. Impure water and polluted water pans are fruitful sources of bowel troubles in hens. 160. Green Feed Essential. Green feed can be provided by allowing the hens to run on green fields or plots planted for them; or, if they are in a back town lot, green feed must be carried to them. Each hundred fowls should receive not less than four pounds of green feed per day. 161. Regularity of Feeding. Regularity is one of the most important items of feeding. The green feed must be given each day at the same time. The grain feed must be given at the same time morning and evening. 162. Breeding Birds Must Be on the Ground. It is necessary for all breeding birds to be out on a grassy run if a high degree of fertility is to be expected. 163. Grain Feed and Mash. Grain feed should be given morn- ing and evening. A pint measure of grain should be scattered in deep litter for each twelve hens in the morning and the same quantity in the evening. 164. Dry Ground Feed or Mash. Mash consists of a mixture of ground grain and mill by-products. Dry mash should be kept before the birds at all times. Birds on the range will not consume much mash during the summer, when foods such as 72 The Essentials of Poultry. Raising waste grain, bugs and insects are so abundant. Later in the fall or in the winter they will consume more, since the mash is used by the birds as a filler. If the hens become too fat, it may be necessary to keep the dry mash hopper closed part of the time. 165. Value of Exercise. Exercise is essential for the best results in laying. In the winter time this exercise can be given by placing a deep litter, such as straw, leaves, or shredded stover, on the floor of the hen house, and throwing the grain feed into this, which causes the hens to scratch for their grain. For this reason grain feeds have been called scratch feed. 166. Minerals for Poultry. Breeding and laying hens need lime and grit. Most feeds are deficient in lime. If the birds run at large, it may be secured from the fields, but if the birds are kept on the back lot, crushed oyster shell should be provided. Birds at large will find sufficient grit in the form of pieces of pebbles and cinders, but if they are kept in a restricted enclosure, crushed limestone should be provided. The limestone will also be a source of lime needed in the body in the manufacture of egg shells and for other purposes. 167. Sufficient Nutrients. If grain alone is fed and the birds do not have a fruitful range or do not receive an ample supply of table scraps, they will not lay many eggs. The white of the egg is pure albumin and the yolk is made up of albumin and fat as well as coloring and mineral matter. The albumin must come from the protein of the feed. Grains do not furnish a sufficient amount of protein for heavy egg production. 168. Reasons for Feeding Mash. Mash contains by-products and animal feeds rich in protein and is essential for high egg production. A mash should contain animal food in the form of meat scrap, fish scrap, dried blood, or dried buttermilk. and at least one by-product high in protein content, such as soybean meal, peanut meal, cottonseed meal, or gluten meal. 169. Hot Mashes. Hot mashes given at four o’clock in the The Essentials of Poultry Raising evening during the winter months have a very stimulating effect Use milk or water and bring the mixture to a boil. Use enough water or milk to mix with one ounce of mash per bird. Make the mash crumbly moist and as hot as you can bear your hand in. Vegetables, such as shredded mangels, cabbage, or collards, should be boiled in the water or milk. on egg production. 170. Formulas for Grain Mixtures: Corn 10 pounds Oats .. 10 pounds Wheat 20 pounds Oats 10 pounds Corn 20 pounds Wheat 10 pounds Oats 10 pounds Buckwheat’ ecscuesecreie ens 10 pounds Corn 60 pounds - Wheat 40 pounds Oats 20 pounds 171. Formulas for Mash Mixtures: Beef scrap 3 quarts Corn meal 8 quarts Soybean meal . 3 quarts Wheat middlings 4 quarts Ground oats ... 3 quarts Birds given milk to drink. Peanut meal oo... 3 quarts Wheat middlings - . 4 quarts Grotind: Oats: o.24aen eee 3 quarts Birds given milk to drink. If birds are not given milk to drink, add one quart of meat scrap to the last two mash mixtures. Wheat bran eee Wheat shorts . Meat:scrap coe wey ... 20 pounds ..- 20 pounds .... 10 pounds 74 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 172. Average Weight and Volume of Feeds: One quart One pound weighs measures : FEEp. (pounds). (quarts). Beef scrap 1.3 0.8 Corn meal 1.5 0.7 Corn, whole 1,7 0.6 Cottonseed meal noice. cccccccecsascsssesscessgvecveresenss 1.5 0.7 Gluten feed 2 1.3 0.8 Gluten) meal ceserseresertererceiah creel eisdstiastoccegntes 17 0.6 Oats, ground oe Da Teste Lede 0.7 1.4 Oats, whole . 1.0 10 Rye, whole ....... 1.6 0.6 Soybean aneal ccocewsvcyeneencrnsoney 1.3 0.8 Wheat bran oe : 0.5 2.0 Wheat middlings (flour) 1.2 0.8 Wheat middlings 2.2... ceecceeetecceceececeeseeeeceeees 0.8 1.3 Wheat; wh Ole’ cecoreteenceerarecy cescnmeerneceenseseetets 1.9 0.5 CHAPTER XIV CANDLING AND GRADING MARKET EGGS Note to Teacher: Have student candle and grade eggs. 173. Losses From Careless Handling of Eggs. It has been estimated that the annual loss from the careless handling of eggs amounts, in the United States alone, to $90,000,000. It is estimated that about 70 per cent of this loss occurs before the eggs arrive in town. 174. How to Prevent Losses on the Farm. Remove the male birds from the flock immediately after the breeding season and market no fertile eggs. Provide roomy nests and plenty of clean nesting material, preferably dry shavings or straw. Do not allow broody hens on the nests. Keep the nests clean and sanitary. Collect the eggs regularly, at least once a day in mod- erate weather and more frequently in very warm weather. Carry them at once in a clean basket to a cool, dry cellar and cover them with a clean cloth to prevent dust from settling on them and also to prevent evaporation and fading. Do not pack eggs loose in a box when taking them to market, but rather secure a suitable egg case and thus avoid breakage. Market as fre- quently and as directly as. possible. 175. Males Not Necessary for Egg Production. The male birds are not essential for egg production. They have to do with the fertilization of the egg but not with its formation. Hens should not be mated except when eggs are desired for hatching. 176. Blood Rings. When the germ in the egg begins to develop and then dies, after three to five days, there will be noted a red ring in the center of the egg. This is the blood ring. 76 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 177. Production of Small Eggs. Pullets lay small eggs. Mon- grel hens often produce a large percentage of small eggs. Eggs should weigh one and a half pounds to the dozen or forty-five pounds net to the thirty-dozen case. Small eggs should not be marketed unless there are more ‘than are needed for home use; then they should be sold separately. a a a ee ee a ee ee a ge € SF F FS @F Fs =z a 2 % 60) pa ro] a 55 50 ‘4 \ 50> 46 4s 25 \ 25 zd \ 20 rie) f \ v4 o a Pi Fig. 25. A graph showing the average percentage of eggs to expect of a flock each month. Note the heaviest production is in April and May. Compare with graph 26 and note that the greatest production is in the time of year when eggs are lowest in price. 178. Grading According to Color. If large and small eggs and white and brown eggs are in the lot to be graded, the eggs should be divided into four lots, as follows: large browns and small browns, large whites and small whites. The Essentials of Poultry Raising 77 179. How to Ship Market Eggs. Market eggs should be shipped in thirty-dozen cases. 180. Construction of the Thirty-Dozen Case. gw s& * > ge gee se Fs Fz SE 85 ar 80 80 75 af 475 70 — L 70 OPN fl 6512 x L 65° : / 6 . + CO \ / 55) ‘ 7 68 56) ~ = ee | 50 49 . L 45 ‘ ae cs Sa 40 5 \ 35 3a plier 50 Fig. 26. A graph showing the fluctuation of the prices of eggs each month in the year. The figures along the sides are the prices of eggs each month. Blank line indicates the average prices paid in North Caro- lina and the broken line shows the prices paid on the New York market. Compare’ with graph 25-and note that the high prices are in the time of year when the fewest hens are laying. the eggs are placed. Each filler holds three dozen eggs. Be- tween the fillers are the flats. A flat is a square piece of heavy strawboard just the size of the compartment. There is left a half-inch space above and the same space.on the bottom of the 78 The Essentials of Poultry Raising case for a thin layer of excelsior. This excelsior acts as a buffer and aids in preventing breakage. 181. Hauling Eggs to Market. Do not haul the filled egg cases in a lumber wagon. A spring wagon or auto truck is required, as the jar of a wagon without springs will result in the breakage of two or three dozen eggs in each case. % Hens LAYING NECESSARY TO PAY FOR FEED.—~ & = ie = = Ed e : z = e i ae ae oe oo & Crs % 50 50 Hg a 4O 40 35 SP) 00 30 a5 2) 15 we = ee ey GRMN Coy PBr ee F ae ; _- TANGLE OF DOOR rig b WHEN OPEN K rf y aa PERCH POLES I N\ i Kotel odes oles Hoge) HOVER =o Ao “a END ELEVATION t-{ -4--| + cay + VENTILATOR BACK ELEVATION Fig. 33. A house for a 100-chick hover and range house for chicks. The end elevation shows the position of the hover. After the chicks are eight weeks old, the hover is removed and perch poles are placed six inches above the floor for the chicks to perch on. This building is five feet high at the rear and seven feet at the front. The back elevation shows the ventilator and the front shows the position of the storm door, Jarge door, and trap door through which the chicks pass out and in, The Essentials of Poultry Raising 95 228. Notes on Construction. The front ventilator prevents driven rains from wetting the house. Chicks are allowed to run out when the weather is favorable. If this house is to be _ used in cold weather, a small window sash must be placed in the front close to the floor. This will allow light and sunshine in the house for the birds. The sash can bé made to slide and the opening should be covered with three-fourths-inch chicken wire. This will allow the keeping of the window open on warm days. The.sills are placed on the two sled runners, made of two-inch by six-inch oak. This makes it possible to move the house from place to place. The sills are placed two feet apart and covered with flooring. There are four corner posts made of two-inch by four-inch lumber and a front and back plate of the same material. The rafters are placed two feet apart and covered with sheathing, which is covered, in turn, with rubberoid or shingles. There is a ventilator in the back near the top of the building. This is covered with three-fourths-inch mesh netting and there is a door which opens inté the room. This door is hinged at the bottom. The front wall has a thirty-inch door extending the entire width of the building and hinged at the top with three strong eight-inch strap hinges; so that it may be propped uo as indicated in Fig. 33. The front has an opening at the floor level which may be closed at night, or there may be made a netting door. The front also has a door near the end so that one may enter the building. This arrangement prevents rain from drenching the house. CHAPTER XVIII FEEDING CHICKS, GOSLINGS, DUCKLINGS, AND POULTS Note to Teacher: The student should be given exercises in mixing chick feed and in feeding chicks. 229. Feed Requirements for Chicks. Young chicks require about one pound of protein or muscle-building material to four of starches, sugars, and fats combined. 230. Mashes Necessary for Chicks. The amount of protein required by chicks makes the feeding of mill by-products and other by-products of high protein content necessary. 231. When to Feed the Baby Chick. Forty-seven per cent of the yolk of the egg is incorporated in the abdominal cavity in an abdominal yolk sac as abdominal yolk and is sufficient for the food requirements of the chick for more than three days after it is hatched. Do not feed the chicks till after they have been hatched seventy-two hours. 232. First Feed of the Baby Chick. The first feed of the baby chicks should consist of sour curdled milk or fresh buttermilk. This feed should not be given before the chicks are seventy-two hours old. In the case of incubator chicks, they should be taken from the incubator and fed some sour milk the third day after the first chick hatches. The second day the chicks should be given two light feeds in addition to the milk, and the third day they should be put on full feed. By following this method, the digestive organs are gradually brought into play and time is allowed to use the stored up food of the abdominal yolk sac. (Examine a baby chick just out of the shell, or one that has died while pipping out, for the abdominal yolk sac.) The Essentials of Poultry Raising 97 The first solid feed for the baby chick may consist of some hard-boiled egg, mixed with bread crumbs, and made soft with sour milk. After chicks are on full feed they should be given mash, mixed with sour skimmed milk or buttermilk, so prepared as to be crumbly, three times a day, and a scratch feed twice a day. 233. Formulas for Dry Mash: Soybean meal nee 33 pounds Corn meal ..... 67 pounds Peanut meal .......00..0....-...-. 33 pounds Corn meal 67 pounds Ground oats .... .. 28 pounds Corn meal ...... 28 pounds Wheat middling .. 28 pounds Meat meal oo... cece eee 16 pounds Wheat bran oo. eeeeeeee 10 pounds Wheat shorts 2.0.2... 2c. cece 10 pounds Corn meal 5 pounds Meat neal. cccivexsesndinecunan 5 pounds 234, Formulas for Grain Feed: Cracked COmm on. cece cence 5 pounds Mutled 6ats®.