: we care 7, tte oy ee eclgna nit Magtet pent Neti %, ef Ce eed asa ee eo pen my Somat Pie ee: ria ano eo ice ft sii ata Jaen’ Basie G0 0000 620 0 6] = mT | i =| State College of Agriculture At Cornell University Ithaca, M2. V. _— Librarp Cornell University Library anagement and breeding of horses, “iii Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003160508 “SaslOY SUIALP YsIpAJs 10j sao] S,2]d09d ukoTJeUTY 94) JO YIMOITINO 243 SI Sasioy Fuloed pus Sujj0s} Jo paasq siyy ASHOH GAYEGUVGNVLS NVOIMSWY FHL—T ‘DId Management and Breeding of Horses —_ 185 By Merritt W. Harper Professor of Animal Husbandry in the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University New York -. ORANGE JUDD COMPANY London Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited 1915 Copyright, 1913, by ORANGE JUDD COMPANY All Rights Reserved ENTERED AT STATIONERS’ Hatt, LONDON, ENGLAND gon Oe a Printed in U. S. A. PREFACE This book is an attempt at arranging information use- ful to the farmer, breeder and student. It is the out- growth of experience both as a practical horse breeder and an instructor. The book includes a discussion of the economic usefulness, judging and allied subjects, early history, a study of the breeds, breeding, feeding, care and management of both horses and mules. Special emphasis is placed on the management of the brood mare as well as that of the colt from the time the mare is bred until the colt is ready for farm work or the market. This in- cludes a discussion of the methods of training, overcom- ing undesirable habits, fitting, harnessing and the like. Because of the increasing popularity and field of useful- ness, the mule is given prominence. This necessitates a consideration of the several breeds of jacks, as well as special suggestions on the care and development of the mule-breeding jack, as not all jacks are suitable for siring mules. In choosing the subject matter a wide search has been made and it has been necessary to eliminate much valu- able data, as there is quite an accumulation of material upon the production, care and use of the horse. In this elimination, the author has attempted to keep in mind the needs of the farmer, breeder and student. The arrangement of the subject matter in a book of this class is important. The outline employed has been chosen because in experience it seems the most favorable for the presentation of the text. Following a discussion of judg- ing considerable space is given to the history and de- velopment of the several breeds of horses, each breed being discussed in a separate chapter. Farmers and v vi PREFACE breeders are interested in the history and description of the breed with which they are working. Possibly they may not care for the detailed description of the other breeds and may wish to proceed with the breeding, feed- ing, care and management. The subject matter has been arranged with this thought in mind. On the other hand,the student of horse breeding is interested in a comparative breed study and no doubt will wish to consider each breed. In this breed study, the several breeds have been arranged in sequence, as far as possible, and not in order of importance. This is necessary, as some of the older breeds were important factors in forming the more recent ones. To facilitate a comparative breed study and to promote interest in correct type, many photographs of horses of the various breeds have been used. Untouched photo- graphs have been employed, as they show natural char- acteristics. Realizing the many difficulties that present themselves in the management and breeding of horses, the writer will be glad to correspond with those into whose hands the book may fall concerning such difficulties, and also to receive suggestions that will make the book more useful as a practical guide and text. M. W. HARPER. Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., August 6, 1913. CONTENTS CHAPTER I THE Horse AND His MASTER .........ccccuccccece Saving human time—Horse labor and man labor—The horse cheapens production—The horse as a pleasure ani- ass and value of horse stock in the United tates. CHAPTER II JupciInc A Horse ....... eipdtasa pl aiainane mere aera ore wes Requirements of a good judge—Method of judging a horse—The score card—Rules of scoring—Types of horses —Method of scoring—Comparative judging—Examine the horse in his stall and in harness. CHAPTER III PROPORTIONS AND MECHANICS OF THE HORSE......... Dimensions of the parts—Measurements of the horse— The unit of proportions—Dimensions of articular angles— Mechanics of the horse. CHAPTER IV Anatomy, UNSOUNDNESS AND AGE OF A HoRSE....... Anatomy of the horse—Common unsoundness and faults—Estimating the age of a horse. CHAPTER V History OF THE HORSE .......---- ate higied ae Meese Antiquity of the horse—Distribution of prehistoric horse --Fvolution of the horse—Cause of the evolution—Exist- ing species of horses—Ancestors of modern horse. vii Page 1 26 34 56 viii CONTENTS CHAPTER VI THE BREEDS OF HORSES ........... Togs ey tex isc pa meee a Establishing a breed—The light breeds—The draft breeds—The coach breeds—The pony breeds—The breeds of jacks—The mule. ; CHAPTER VII THE ARABIAN HORSE coccnceacncmeimcee neg earns The native home—Origin—Families—Arabian in Amer- ica—Breeders—Description of the Arabian—Popularity— Organizations. CHAPTER VIII THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE ......... 0c ce eeeeeeceee The native home—Origin—Early racing—Foundation stock—Improvement—Famous animals—Thoroughbred in America—Description—Speed records—Popularity of the Thoroughbred—Organizations. CHAPTER IX THE AMERICAN SADDLE HORSE ....... ee eceeceeeees The origin—Influence of the Thoroughbred—Denmark, F. S—Famous animals—Description—Classes—Gaits— Popularity—Organizations. CHAPTER X THE STANDARDBRED HORSE ........ 0. 0c ce cee ccc eces The origin—Source of Standardbred blood—Hamble- tonian 10—Families—Famous animals—Description— Trotting and pacing records—I‘amous drivers—Organiza- tons—Orloff Trotter. CHAPTER XI Tue Hackney CoacuH HORSE ........ cee cece ceeeee Native home — Origin — Development — Shales—The Hackney in America—Famous | stallions—Description— Distribution—Organizations. 78 88 106 115 135 CONTENTS CHAPTER XII Tue Frencu Coacu Horse ....... (oe Native home—Origin—French methods for improving horses—French Coach horse in America—Notable animals —Description—Speed records — Distribution — Organiza- tions. CHAPTER XIII THE GERMAN COACH HORSE ....... eee e cece eee eee Native home—Origin—German methods for improving horses—Types and breeds of German horses—German Coach horse in America—Description—Distribution—Or- ganizations—Criticisms. CHAPTER XIV THe CLEVELAND BAy CoAcH HORSE ....... 00000000 e Native home—Origin—Decline of Cleveland Bay— Yorkshire Coach—Cleveland Bay Coach horse in Amer- ica — Description — Distribution — Organizations—Criti- cisms. CHAPTER XV THE PERCHERON DRAFT HORSE ..... cee eee ee eee eeee Native home—Origin—Early development—Deteriora- tion of the La Perche horse—Improvement—Government methods—Endurance of the Percheron—Percheron draft horse in America—Famous Percheron sires—Notable breeders—Description—Distribution—Organizations. CHAPTER XVI Tur FRENCH DRAFT HORSE ..... eee ce eee eee eens Breeds of French Draft horses—Organizations—Criti- cisms. CHAPTER XVII Tue CLYDESDALE DRAFT HORSE «2... se eee erence e ees Native home—Origin—Early _development—Famous Clydesdale sires—Clydesdale_ draft horse in America— Famous American animals—Description—Criticisms—Dis- tribution—Organizations. ix 161 169 183 188 x CONTENTS -CHAPTER XVII Tue SuHire DRAFT HORSE ...... eee eee eee eee eeee 199 Native home—Origin—Bakewell methods—Early types Famous Shire sires—Shire draft horse in, America—De- scription—Criticisms—Distribution—Organizations. CHAPTER XIX Tue BetGIaAn DRAFT HORSE ..... ee eee eee ween eens 208 Native home—Origin—Early types—Belgian methods for improving horses—Belgian draft horse in America— Growing popularity—Description—Criticisms — Distribu- tion—Organizations. CHAPTER XX Tue SuFFOLK DRAFT HORSE ....... ee eee eee eens 217 Native home—Early origin—Crisp’s Horse—Foreign tribes—Modern Suffolk—Suffolk draft horse in America— Description—Criticisms—Distribution—Organizations. CHAPTER XXI TPOINGDESS sxiratsudss atsd ented Seite aed avreseaesllai dei co sansatiec sdb ay deans ies lwwetanaeen 225 Shetland pony—History—Shetland in America—De- scription—Welsh pony—Exmoor pony—New Forest pony —Dartmoor pony—Irish pony—Polo pony. CHAPTER XXII AMERICAN HORSES ...... 0. ccc cece cee ee een seewens 233 Early importations—Colonial_horse-breeding centers— Virginia—New York—New England—Canada—Indian pony—Mexican pony. i CHAPTER XXIII THE. DOMESTIC ASS ec occ os bo Saeed avai ies & awa 240 Species of the Ass—Early history—Breeds of Jacks— Jacks in America—Characteristics of the Jack—Jacks for mule breeding—Organizations. CONTENTS xi CHAPTER XXIV lS 9 2 5 oe ne at ee 248 _ Mule a hybrid—History—Mule in America—Character- istics of the mule—Endurance of the mule—Distribution— Organizations. CHAPTER XXV PRINCIPLES OF HorsE BREEDING ......eccecccccecces 252 Variations in horses—Causes of variation—Selection— Heredity—Prepotency—Fertility — Sterility — Systems of breeding. CHAPTER XXVI PRACTICAL HorSE BREEDING ......ee cee ceccccceceee 263 Number of horses produced—Conditions favorable to horse breeding—Practical plan for breeding horses—Co- operative horse breeding—Selection of animals for horse breeding—Uniformity. CHAPTER XXVII THE Broop MARE ....... 0. cece cece cece cee eteeeane 274 Care of brood mare—Productive period—Breeding two- + year-old fillies—Spring and fall foals—Barrenness—Abor- tion—The pregnant mare—Working—Feeding—Gestation period—Foaling time. CHAPTER XXVIII Pte POA: g5ia aiars-antelsig ates ea Robes wae Rese SAMARIA ee 287 : 5 - ly Ailments of the young foal—Feeding—Weaning—Man- a agement of the weanling—Care of feet—Castration of male foals. CHAPTER .XXIX PrAcTICAL MULE BREEDING ....eeeeceeceeceeecrees 295 Number of mules produced—Breeding Jacks and Jen- nets—Selecting breeding stock—Raising a_mule—Breed- ing Jack—Mule breeding—Selecting mule—Breeding stock. xii CONTENTS CHAPTER XXX BREEDING Horses FOR FARM AND MARKET ....-.+5-> Farm breeders’ limitations—The farmer’s horse—The market horse—Market requirements—Value of matched ° teams. CHAPTER XXXI Marker CLasses oF Horses AND MULES ............ Draft horses—Chunks—Wagon horses—Carriage horses —Road horses—Saddle horses—Draft mules—Farm mules —Mining mules—Cotton mules—Sugar mules—Export mules—Rules of auction. CHAPTER XXXII PRINCIPLES OF HORSE FEEDING .... 0... ce eee ea wean The animal body—The food; its composition—Uses of the food; digestion—Kinds of rations—Balanced ration— Nutritive ratio—Computing a ration. CHAPTER XXXIII PRACTICAL HORSE FEEDING .........0 00 -ee eee eee she Regularity of feeding—Order of supplying grain, hay and water—Food required to grow a horse—Method of feeding work horse, driving horse, idle horse, stallion, mules—Cost of ration—Sample ration. CHAPTER XXXIV GRAIN AND CONCENTRATES FOR THE Horsz .......... The cereal grains—-Oats—Corn—Oats and corn—Barley, rye and wheat—Leguminous grains—By-products and commercial feeds—Patent stock foods. CHAPTER XXXKV Hay AND ForaGre ror THE Horse ............ eseneaabians Timothy—Clover—Alfalfa—Cereal hay—Millet—Corn stalks—Straw—Silage—Roots—Injurious feeding stuffs— Foods that influence digestion. 310 323 334 346 303 CONTENTS CHAPTER XXXVI CaRE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE Horse ......... ae Grooming—Clipping — Blanketing — Bedding — Care of pet and teeth—Shoeing the horse—Shoes for unsound eet. : CHAPTER XXXVII PRACTICAL Horse TRAINING ....ccccceeeeccecvecas Training the foal—Training the work horse—Age to train for work—Bitting—Teaching commands—Training to objects of fear—Training to walk fast—Training the wild horse. CHAPTER XXXVIII WHIMS AND VICES OF THE HORSE ........00 00. eee ee Causes of whims and vices—Overcoming them—Balking —Kicking—Running away—Tossing the head—Tongue- lolling—Halter pulling—Difficult to harness—Tearing blankets—Gorging grain—Rolling—Difficult to shoe. CHAPTER XXXIX HARNESSING THE HORSE .......... 0 ccc cee cee eeeaes Bridle and check reins—Collars, kinds and fitting— Sweat pads and housings—Breast harness—Crupper and back-strap—Breeching and holdbacks—Care of harness. CHAPTER XL THE PRACTICAL HORSE BARN ....... cece eee ee eee ee Drainage—Ventilation—Light — Cleanliness — Convent- ence—Interior fixtures—Construction—Labor-saving ap- pliances—Care of manures—Paddocks. CHAPTER XLI CoMMON AILMENTS OF THE HORSE ...........00000- Nursing a sick animal—Feeding—Giving medicine—In- digestion—Colic—Worms—Azoturia— Distemper — Influ- enza—Sweeney shoulder—Sore shoulders and neck—Foul sheath—Mud fever—Scratches—Cracked hoofs—Difficult parturition. 373 385 395 407 419 xiv CONTENTS CHAPTER XLII STALLION LAWS AND REGULATIONS ......- sarin State stallion laws—Soundness—Breeding of stallions that qualify—National Association of Stallion Registration Boards—Result of such laws—Inspection and quarantine for horses, mules and asses. ISPD EIN DIK sos soaxccapruun gaia aeete ata Gade e toa ah ov ae ipasiielige ets Horse breeders’ associations—Statistics of horses and mules—Average weights of feeding stuffs—Energy value and digestible nutrients in feeding stuffs—Digestible nutri- ents and fertilizing constituents in feeding stuffs. 441 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page The American Standardbred Horse ______________ Frontispiece Saving human time. Plowing the soil____________._...._______ 2 Saving human time. Fitting the soil_.____ = 3 Three generations of the reaper___..-______...._...._..___. 4 A six-horse team delivering coal _--___..___.._......-._.-- 5 A well-equipped judging pavilion _..-__.__.-.__...______.. 8 Light active type --____ Hesteso Seatac ol 14 Heavy draft type --------__-._------- 15 Good action 2-226 ase folie J oo eo) eee eee 18 Front view, correct position _.._--_.--________________.____ 19 Rear view, correct position ______.__-_--_-__-___-_--_ 19 Position of front legs ---.--._-_____-_-_-________-_- 21 Positton:of hind legs:i< 2nc vee tn oe eo eee 23 Measuring the head ---_--___--_-____-_____-______ 28 A study in proportions _-___-_-_-___-_----_----_--_-e 29 A study in articular angles _----____--_._--______--___--_--____ 31 A study in mechanics of the horse -----..._____-_.--_-_-_____ 33 Skeleton of the horse ----------------_______-- ee 35 Muscles of the horse ------_-----.-------------_____--_--____- 36 (Circulatory systetr wucectt tai ee te 38 Respiratory systém --.-2-- 22012 soos. eset see eee es eeeecee eek 39 Digestive system. cues sussoeeo cece seen eae et ne 40 Nervous system 2xeecoe totes stern esse ek ee ae SS 42 PON ei Saas. 2 eee oe ooo eee aoe aa a ee 44 Mistula cwithers: ce 2 ow Ue Ses is eee seen dee, 44 Collar botl a2 nite et oleae ere i el ah oli nats 45 Buck: knees! coco 22cabe eee So ec SiS ose ea Se cea 45 Sidebone and cracked hoofs ---------------------------------- 46 Ringbone ~_.--~- hans a a ate cr ct aa rea 46 Weak and sickle-shaped hocks ~------ ae =e -. 47 Sound and unsound hocks ~------- Sis 2 47 Sound hock, showing tendons -__-__----_---..----.------------ 48 xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page Cocked ankle --- 48 Lower front teeth at three years of age — ---- 51 Lower front teeth at four years of age --.-------------------- 51 Lower front teeth at five years of age ------------------------ 51 Lower front teeth at six years of age ------------------------- 51 Lower front teeth at seven years of age ---------------------- 52 Lower front teeth at eight years of age ----------------------- 52 Upper front teeth at nine years of age ------------------------ 52 Upper front teeth at ten years of age ------------------------- 52 Upper front teeth at eleven years of age ---------------------- 53 Upper front teeth at fifteen years of age ---------------------- 53 Upper front teeth at twenty-one years of age ---------_------- 53 Upper front teeth at thirty years of age -----_----------------- 53 Front and side view of teeth at five years of age ~-.----------- 54 Front and side view of teeth at nineteen years of age ---------- 54 Changes in the skull, teeth and feet showing evolution of the HORSE 2222. eee eee eee eee eee ee Sree tens 59 Changes in the legs and feet showing evolution ~---_----------- 61 WANTtCRS yeaa te a ee te is ee et ee eo eee eet 64 Light breed. Arabian stallion, “Anizeh”_____-_.-.-____---_----- 70 Draft breed. Percheron stallion, “Intitule’___._______.-_.---_- 72 Coach breed. Hackney mare, “Queen of Diamonds”_.__.-.---- 74 Shetland pony sib See late te eit lee Me ed Seah ee Sia aaa 15 Arabian stallion, “Obbelan” Seno bece seo sse ae eee 79 Arabian stallion; “Antoe’ 2. esos he ee ee seers 80 Arabian: mare, “Hanita’ vena ea ae et 83 Arabian stallion, “Deux” ~-...-_...----_--_____----___--------- 85 Arabian stallion; “SMaleite? 2 ec ee 86 Thoroughbred stallion, “Chocornae” _.-__-.-..---------------- 89 Thoroughbred stallion, “Hermis” _-.___-______-_-____--__-----_- 93 Thoroughbred mare, “Blue Girl” _-.____._.----_---------------- 96 Thoroughbred stallion, “Jean Bereaud” uses --.. 100 Thoroughbred English Hunter mare, “Isenll’” ~__.______------- 104 American Saddle mare, “Carolina”—Major J. B. Castleman__-_-- 108 American Saddle horse, “Kentucky Choice” __.-.---_--..------ 109 American Saddle mare, “Edna May” _--_____---_-----_-----_-_- 110 American Saddle horse, “Kentucky Colonel” ~.---------------- 111 LISt OF ILLUSTRATIONS Gaited Saddle horse, “ Standardbred Morgan Standardbred stallion, stud Standardbred stallion, Standardbred stallion, Standardbred stallion, Standardbred stallion, Standardbred stallion, Hackney stallion, “Sir Hackney brood mares Hackney stock farm French Coach stallion, French Coach stallion, French Coach stallion, French Draft horse French Draft stallion Page Royalist” 113 Standardbred stallion “Directum,” 2.0514-___-__-______..______- 116 Standardbred stallion “Bretini,” 2.2214 _ 117 stallion __-. 121 “Carmon,” at the head of the Ft. Collins See tose cee a<5 122 “Kremlin,” 2.0734 124 “McKinney,” 2.11% ----.------------_--- 126 “BinGatar 22020 oh 2s oo ea ene 128 “Cresceus” 2.0234 _..-.----------------- 132 “Dan Patch,” 1.55% ~-_.-----__--_-____- 133 Hackney stallion, “Enfield Nipper,” ..---__-___________________ 136 EVUmiph ey? sce ett 138 Hackney stallion, “Lord Marlborough” ____________________-___ 139 Satta ete en ae ie 140 Sa cee pe cg a ose le ese occs celal 141 Ral agin iki a ee a 144 "Chatiderna gon centre ee eh els as 147 ‘Badiavolo” ace i oeo 222d veh 149 German Coach stallion, “Nero” ____-_.-_______-___--_--_ 152 German Coach stallion, “Landgraf” _..._.._____ 154 German Coach mare, “Fope” --_.____ E 156 German Coach mare, “Funge” -..--.------------- 158 Cleveland Bay stallion, “Beodloin Fred” 2e2 162 Cleveland Bay stallion ---------__------_--_----------------- 164 Cleveland Bay geldings ~--_--_--__ = _. 166 Cleveland Bay mares and colts _-_---------------------------- 167 Percheron stallion, “Calypso” ~------------------------------- 171 Percheron stallion, “Klaqueur” _------------------------------ 174 Percheron stallion; “My Lord? 222es2: 22222 s eee 177 Percheron:stallion; “Negro? 22 2-- 28 ek ees 180 Percheron stallion, “Jantier” --------------------------------- 181 eeeaomo el ioe eee Slee bbl ee ee ola sk. 184 eeu sse ee ne See ee ae Soe oe 186 Clydesdale stallion, “Silver Cup” ----------------------------- 189 Clydesdale stallion, “Caliph” ~-------------------------------- 190 Clydesdale mare, “Nunas Numice” ~_-_------------------------ 193 Clydesdale stallion, “Pride of Drumlandrig” -_--_-------------- 196 Shire stallion, “Bletchley Royal Duke” --2--_--_---___---------- 200 eA Se kw ee es ee 202 ae Shire stallion, “Narden Lad” xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page Shire stallion, “Lockinge Hingist” --..------------------------ 206 Belgian stallion, “Melon” oy, 2o8 209 Belgian stallion, “Leopard” _-__------------------------------- 211 Beleian mares “Bella fase pn eet Seee oe, 213 Belgian mare, “Gamine” _____._-..---------------------------- 215 Siiffolke stallion: 2-2 <-eces Leese seszslce en tbe ee eee eee 217 Suffolle mate: concen eok ee suns, 219 Suffolk stallion: .J2-nssec2 scence ee er ss eee 222 Suffolk stallion _----__----__ rae = 223 Shetland ponies at home. Lerwick, Shetland Islands --------~-- 226 Shetland pony, “Vespa of Belle Meade” ---------_------------- 227 Welsh ponies, “Queen Bee,” and her colts -----------------_--- 229 Pony showing style and finish -----_-------------------------- 230 American Saddler, “Carroll Preston” ------------------------- 235 Standardbred stallion, “Gay Audobon” _----------------------- 237 Burro at work --------------------- = Sats 241 Gatalonian jack 2245. 2- te sce esas cs socs ee secon es eenes 243 Prize jack, “De. Hartman” 22222-25-2ee oes ce 245 Prizéjacle “General Wood?" astcsesee aos see eee cece 247 Span ‘of prize-mules::.- 222 etek ee 250 Percheron stallion, “Galba” -------------------..-----.------- 254 Belgian mare, “Elequante” ~.-__----.------------------------- 256 American Saddle:mané eosssee se ses eee ew sence ce eee sseee 261 Shire stallion, “Lord Carlton” —_.- me 265 Percheron stallion: Ss22222--scei eee see sect Sof eccccesstos es 269 Arrangement of breeding hopples 272 Percheron mares of excellent type for breeding-_-_--.--.------- 276 Belgian mares of good conformation _-__-__._--.-_____------- 278 Brood mares, showing conformation, soundness and uniformity 283 Arabian mare and foal 2 288 Mares and foals at pasture ------_-_- ---- 290 Percheron weanling, well bred and well fed -----------------_- 292 Catalonian jack ae : 296 Jack colt, fifteen months of age £98 Spanvof prize mules 2.02. .2o0 t o 299 Grade Percheron colts ready for market -. 303 Shire stallions suitable for breeding farm or market horses.---- 304 Belgian mares for breeding _-_ 307 Heavy draft geldings, weight 4,000 pounds ..__---------------- 311 Percheron grade, weight 1,925 pounds at 4 years old ----------- 312 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xix Page Export chunk, weight 1,550 pounds __________-__.... 313 Wagon horses, weight 3,400 pounds _____-____.__________ Be oees, 315 Coach horses of stylish action _.-__-.-_-__________________ 316 Dish) hunter: <=i0ch oo ees oo sia a Ae leon 319 Percheron stallion, “Hyslope’ _.-.---_----_--______-________- 325 Shire stallion, “Dan Patch” _._----_----- 332 Pezcheron brood mares at work. Weight 3,200 pounds -_-____- 338 Percheron stallion and mare working side by side ----_---_____ 342 Fattening horses for the market _.___--_.--_-_________________ 347 Bulk in gain: tation secosc wh ee 349 Belgian stallion, “Ludia” _-.---..-.--__---___-----e 350 Modern method of making hay _-_--_______-_-__--_____-_____-_e 354 Arabian stallion, “Nimr” lea ol te 355 Grooming tools ____-_____-_-________ == 361 French Coach grades, well hitched and well groomed ____--___- 365 Saddlers, well groomed and well trained _-_-------____,_--___- 367 Well-fitted shoe -------------_.______ Bake 370 Methods of shoeing ~------._-________-_-_-- ee 371 Catching? the fal cot a re eer ta a end 374 Difhcultto lead qncs2-o esos ie eek bes 376 Bitting harness 378 Guy line : -- 381 Rarey’s double safety harness and guy line -------------------- 382 Rarey’s: throwing harness). -2-.----4-2s52--------4-222552-246 383 Noosé=twitelt..- = -she5-5s-- waste cho ase soe so ne asanescscees 391 Warebridle so2cncesscoes ose aceasta coe eS 392 ‘Types of bridle=bits 222 222-22=5222e5 23 toe ei A ee ees 396 MPypesiot collars! 222008 8 See Ve Se es wet ee 400 Heavy work harness he - 402 Light driving harness 2, 404 Harness repair kit 405 Horse barn, showing paved court and teams ready for work_--~ 408 Cross section through horse barn 411 Trotting-horse barn with track in foreground ----------------- 414 Litter carrier in use < Bees 417 Hackney brood mares 420 Shire mare, “Wyderlands Sunshine” _----- 423 Natural presentation of young ~------------------------------- 428 Belgian staliion, “Frank Briser” --------------------- 432 Arabian stallion, “Khaled” 437 CHAPTER I THE HORSE AND HIS MASTER For many centuries the horse has been the sturdy and esteemed servant of man. There is no more interesting and important subject for our study than the origin, de- velopment and improvement of the various breeds of the domestic horse. He is the noblest of all creatures that we have subdued to our will. His acquisition has been one of the chief factors in the rise and supremacy of the great nations of ancient, medieval and modern times. We have no history that is not intermingled with his. In all the ages he has occupied an important position. This is especially true at the present time. The founda- tion of our civilization rests on agriculture and our agri- culture rests on the horse. Saving human time.—In America we have learned to substitute brute force for human energy to a greater extent than any other country. The Thirteenth Census shows the horse and mule population of the United States to be approximately one-fourth that of the human popula- tion. In other words, the United States possesses four inhabitants for each beast of burden—horse or mule; whereas France possesses ten inhabitants, Germany twelve, and England twenty-four inhabitants for each beast of burden. Those who settled and developed our country were early taught that human muscle was the most expensive material from which to procure energy, even though the person be a slave. Human muscle, however cheap, cannot successfully compete with im- proved implements operated by well-bred horses adapted to their work and directed by intelligent workmen. As a nation we are extremely saving of time, but waste- ful of everything else. We have destroyed our forests, 2 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES wasted our coal and soil fertility; but we have used human energy more economically than it has ever been used before. The older nations are saving of everything but human time. Our extensive use of the horse has greatly influenced our national character and history. Because we make our labor count for so much, we are able to make farming an attractive business rather than a peasant’s drudgery. FIG. 2,—SAVING HUMAN TIME. PLOWING THE SOIL Horse labor and man labor.—The horse, properly directed, is equal in productive energy to ten men, and it will cost about one-half as much to keep him as one man. Hence a horse intelligently handled may be made to cheapen labor twenty fold over the old hand method. Here lies the secret of success in America. The Amer- ican farmer is not, as a rule, contented to direct the energies of but one horse at a time. He usually har- nesses two, sometimes three or four and even more, to a THE HORSE AND HIS MASTER 3 single implement or machine. Where the fields are large we frequently see two 16-inch plows mounted on wheels and drawn by four large horses plowing as much as six and even more acres in a single day, more than a hundred laborers could do in a day of the severest toil. A very striking illustration of the economy of horse over man power may be seen in the great wheat fields of California and the Northwest where 14 teams, 28 horses or even FIG. 3.—SAVING HUMAN TIME. FITTING THE SOIL more, are attached to a combined machine which cuts, thrashes, cleans and sacks one thousand or more bushels of wheat in a day. One man drives the horses and three others tend the machine and sew up the bags. It would require at least sixty men to accomplish this task in one day with cradle and flail. Equally as great economy of human muscle is seen in our large cities, where men are displaced by horses in the transportation of heavy merchandise. Because of the 4 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES crowded streets only a few horses are hitched together, in this case, to assist a single man; but the horses are large and strong. A single team, consisting of two horses, is able to move a load of four to ten tons over paved streets—a load equal to that carried by a freight car in the early days of steam railways. The horse cheapens production.—In 1830, it required an average of three hours and three minutes of human labor for each bushel of wheat grown; in 1896 it required FIG. 4.—-THREE GENERATIONS OF THE REAPER ten minutes. In 1855 it required an average of four hours and thirty-four minutes to grow, harvest and shell one bushel of corn; in 1894 it required 41 minutes.* The heavy, clumsy plow of 1830 has given way to more modern implements, such as the gang plow, disk plow, disk harrow and the like, which both plow and pulverize the soil in the same operation. Hand sowing has been displaced by the mechanical seeder drawn by horses. Hand harvesting with knife and peg, cradling and thrash- ing with flail has given way to reaping, thrashing and *Yearbook, United States Department of Agriculture, 1897, page 600, THE HORSE AND HIS MASTER 5 sacking with the combined reaper and thrasher drawn by horses. The horse as a pleasure animal—Not only is the horse of service to us in conserving our energies, but he pro- vides us with health-giving pleasure. There can be no doubt that the horse was used in war and sport many centuries before he began to take up our burdens. This is fully attested: by our earliest written history. In fact, the first improvement attempted was to increase the horse’s efficiency in war and sport and not in economic a at AO tay ec eT tem 8 eT FIG. 5.—A SIX-HORSE TEAM DELIVERING COAL industry. Breeding horses for sport and fashion consti- tutes a very large part of the industry at the present time, though this work has been affected to some extent by the automobile. Number and value of horse stock in the United States. —-According to the Thirteenth Census there are 27,618,- 242 horses, mules and asses in the United States, valued at $3,085,460,483. This value is twenty-eight per cent greater than that of cattle, swine, sheep and goats com- bined. At least one-half of this horse stock is capable of doing work, which is equal to more than one hundred million hand laborers. This illustrates the vast addition to the wealth and productive power of the nation that we 6 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES secure by the intelligent breeding and utilization of the horse, as well as the great economy secured in substitut- ing brute force for human energy. This also illustrates the strength of the horse as an economic animal. Though he has been threatened by the steam car, the bicycle, the electric street and suburban car, by the automobile and the like, he has steadily increased in numbers and value. As a source of power and as a substitute for human labor in combination with machines, the horse’s economic place is more strongly established than ever before. Since the horse is such an economic factor in our pro- duction and progress, we should acquaint ourselves with the history and methods of improvement of this most useful and pleasure-giving animal; so that not only good horses may be produced, but that such selection, breed- ing, feeding and training be practiced as will secure, not only the best horses, but those which shall be best adapted to the work for which they are intended. It is not only unwise but poor economy to grow a horse which will increase man’s productive power only fivefold, when a more intelligent effort might have produced one which would increase it ten times. CHAPTER II JUDGING A HORSE The ability to judge a horse accurately is acquired by careful observation, study and experience. Not all of us have the naturally keen observing powers and love for the horse peculiar to some persons, who become notable ex- perts; but each of us may acquire a practical, useful knowledge of the exterior of the horse by methodical and conscientious effort. To become a good judge of horses is well worth our earnest attention. -Such an attainment gives us much personal satisfaction as well as the neces- sary information for use in breeding, feeding, buying, selling and managing horses. REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD JUDGE To become proficient in judging any class of farm animals there are three faculties that should be well developed—familiarity with type desired, powers of ob- servation and good judgment. The use influences the type——In judging horses we must first consider the uses for which they are desired and the type or breed that will best accomplish the given purpose. Thus, if the horse is wanted for light harness and fast driving, it would be a mistake to choose an animal of the coach type; or if the object sought is style and high action, it would be none the less a mistake to choose a trotting or pacing horse. The more familiar we are with the demand and the type best suited to meet it, the better our chances of success. Cultivate the power of observation.—The power of ob- servation should be well developed. We must train the eye to see quickly and accurately, so that there may be no 7 3 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES mistake in the observations that are to form the basis for a conclusion. In addition to seeing things as they are, we should be able to detect deviations from the correct form. This is often difficult. We may be familiar with the fact that a few gray hairs on the inside of the pas- terns may indicate that the horse interferes, and yet when we examine him entirely overlook the white hairs. In such cases as this the difficulty is often increased by the horseman attempting to cover up such signs, and this should serve to put us on our guard. Having examined FIG. 6.—A WELL-EQUIPPED JUDGING PAVILION the horse carefully we should retain a mental picture of him, as it often happens that we are called upon to judge large rings of animals, and the work can be greatly facilitated if we can remember each animal. Further, retaining such a picture is of value in matching teams. Efficiency depends on judgment and practice.—After having noted each of the horses to be considered, the judgment is brought into play to decide which should be placed first. In judging horses, efficiency depends largely JUDGING A HORSE 9 on practice and experience. The type or breed to fill a given demand, and the value of the horse for such pur- pose, are recognized much more quickly and accurately by one who is in practice judging horses than by one who judges only occasionally. Method of judging a horse—To examine the horse, we should have him led into an open, well-lighted place and stood at ease. First, we should view him from all direc- tions, noting his general appearance—form, height, weight, action, quality, temperament and the like. To impress these general characters the animal should be moved around, first at the walk and then at the trot. While in action, view him from in front, behind and either side. Second, we should make a careful examination of the detail characters. To facilitate this detail examina- tion the score card was devised. In judging horses, we should learn to use our eye rather than the hand. The eye is master of the situation and the chief reliance with the expert judge. The hand should be used only as an assistant to the eye, and may be used when the eye unaided cannot determine a ques- tion of quality, size, condition or soundness. THE SCORE CARD The score card gives, in systematic order, a detailed description of the parts or characters of an ideally perfect animal, It emphasizes the relative importance of the various characters. The score card teaches the method of seeing the parts or characters in a logical, orderly way that none may escape observation. It deals with one animal, comparing it with an ideal. Purpose of the score card.—It is primarily an aid to the study and teaching of stock judging. It enables us to analyze the various characters of the horse in a logical order. Thus, point by point, we learn to estimate the value of each character that goes to make up the animal. 10 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES In time, practice with the score card will enable us rapidly to look over a horse, note his good and bad points and arrive at a correct estimate of his value. After having learned the method of examination, the art of seeing the parts of the animal instead of merely the animal as a whole, and securing an idea of the relative importance of the parts, we are ready to discontinue the use of the card and take up comparative judging. Using the score card.— Two types of horses have been placed on the same card (p. 11), although the descrip- tion and the numerical value differs in nearly every character. This has been done to facilitate teaching, as it indicates rather vividly the differences in the light and heavy types. It will be noticed also that the card has been divided into several main divisions, each assigned a numerical value, and these again divided into a number of parts or characters, each of which is described and given a figure which shows the percentage value attached to each particular part. In scoring a horse first note the part or character crit- ically and if the animal is as nearly perfect as is possible, leave blank the column headed “student’s,” which means that the part is worth all the card allows. If the char- acter is imperfect, make a “cut,” taking away from the numerical value given the part, the percentage which in- dicates how much it would have to be improved to be perfect. Make the “cut” on the percentage basis; that is, if scoring say the action of a driving horse which is deficient Io per cent, take 1o per cent of ten, the numerical value given the character, which is 1. Place I in the column headed “student’s.” Continue until all parts have been scored in the order given and the “cuts,” if any, re- corded. Add the “cuts,” which show the total deficiency, subtract this from 100 which gives the score of the animal. By this method we can tell at a glance the parts that are deficient, as they are the only ones marked. When the work has been completed by the class each JUDGING A HORSE If student should correct his card to correspond to that of the instructor, who will then give his reasons for each “cut” made and discuss the merits and demerits of the horse in detail. Rules for scoring.—In scoring a horse on the percent- age basis, it is not considered advisable to make a “cut” of less than 5 per cent. Seldom will a part deserve a “cut” of more than 50 per cent, as an important character deserving more than this is so seriously at fault that it may disqualify the horse. The scorer must use his judg- ment in deciding the proportionate score to allow be- tween these limits. StuDENT’s Score Carp. HORSES. For Draft |For Driving ol 21 Blu, 213 SCALE OF POINTS #1 8/3/18] 813 elueletlelsleé S| 3/6] 8) 8] 9 HALALOLalalo A. General Appearance: Draft 35: Driving 43: Age—Estimated.......... yrs; actual.......... yrs. Height—Estimated.......hands; actual....... hands] ..}..]..] 8 Weight—Estimated......... lbs; actual......... lbs.j 8]... me Form, for draft, low, massive, symmetrical; for driving, high, lithe, indicative of extreme activity] 6|..|..| 4 Quality, bone, flat; tendons, clean; skin and hair fine] 8|..]-. | 10 eer Color, according to breed.......-. eee reese eee eee 1G (Reem Were! ae? Action, step, smooth, quick, long; trot, rapid, straight, TOQULAT, fare esies eres ccceve ecoune wiecqind Hvala GSE See A]..]..]10 Attitude, members vertical..........ee creer neces SH ce feared] “5 Temperament, lively, pleasant........-+--00+- eee 3]..[..] 4 B. Head and Neck: Draft 5: Driving 5: ; Head, lean; length, two-fifths height of withers; width of forehead, more than one-third length of head; depth of head, one-half its length. For driving, smaller, carried higher and more hori- ontal....cc cece c cece reer e eee e eet seen ene 1 1 Muzzle, fine; nostrils, large; lips, thin; teeth, sound] 1 1 Eyes, full, bright and intelligent.........-++++-++- 1 1 Ears, short, clean, fine, directed forward, wide apart} 1 1 I2 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES For Draft |For Driving SCALE OF POINTS Standard Corrected Standard Student's Corrected Student's Neck, pyramidal, muscled; throat, clean, fine; wind- pipe large. Depth of insertion at shoulder equals length of underline 2 to 4 inches shorter than head. For draft, neck shorter, thicker, more horizontal} 1]..].. 1 C. Forequarters: Draft 20: Driving 19: Shoulders, long, extending into back; point of shoulder to point of withers, equals length of head. For draft, shorter and more upright............... eae eee ( Arms, relatively short, 12 to 13 inches. For draft, MIOrer MOTI ZON Gal sselvscevorevertak Spatceaveld 'vedebectd tvadesboe “avedees Da hat asdf ok Forearms, vertical, long, 14 to 15 inches; wide. For draft, shorter, more heavily muscled........... 223 eee meena De 4 Knees, clean cut, wide, deep; for driving, 3 inches, for draft, 4 inches, strongly supported......... SH ssl aes] 2S Canons, vertical, short, 9 to 10 inches, lean, wide; tendons well detached. For driving, longer....] 2]..] ..] 2 Fetlocks, wide, thick, clean, free from puffiness....] 1]..].. 1 Pasterns, angle 45 degrees, fetlock to ground, 7 to 8 inches. For driving, long, sloping; for draft, ShOnt;, Mores Uprieh Oh cosasacwecs cosusiaders-wies tore oandilotorsceiehs D5) \ssce! |Vavey lt 2 Feet, round, even size; horn, dark colored, dense; sole concave; bars, strong; frog, large, elastic; heel, vertical, one-half length of toe........... 6} ..]..] 6 D. Body: Draft 10: Driving 8: Chest in general, high, long. For draft, wide, half height of horse; for driving, higher............ Sali secif ses. $2 Withers, clearly defined for driving................ (0; een eee A desnlf se Breast, for driving, high, projecting. For draft, broad: and-museular: ccm sineaiueuaey sain emeet AC seal aovy!| | al Ribs, long, round curvature, wide apart 2 1 Back, straight, short, muscular; shoulders, to haunch equals length of head. For driving, longer....} 2]..}..] 1]..].. Loin, wide, short, thick, strongly joined to hips...J 1]..]..] 1]..].. Underline, long; for draft, flank low............... 5 | ees eras Aes Co eee Wee E. Hindquarters: Draft 30: Driving 25: Hips, level, wide in proportion to other parts, for draft, smooth; for driving, more prominent..... AG (reas rare (me Croup, wide, long, muscular, 2 to 4 inches shorter than head. For driving, horizontal; for draft, shorter, ‘more: Oblique. cascer esa saci Ve a 4]}..7].. 3 Tail, set and carried high, long, full, fine.......... DY seca | asec |) BE sce] aes JUDGING A HORSE 43 For Draft |For Driving ~~ is} ue) 2\o\0 nls SCALE OF POINTS S/§/8)8|8 2 a) ylelel}d a@|/ xloilais]2 &|/S\0|a)a]° Thighs, for driving, long, 15 to_16 inches, upright: stifle, deviated outward. For draft, shorter: more horizontal, muscular............ 00000 eee 3 3 . Buttocks, heavily muscled, well descended......... DN coef zee || OE dee Gaskins, for driving, long, 14 to 15 inches, upright; for draft, shorter, more horizontal, heavily IMIS C LOR arse snninarers sesbnnittwesaiohenie svete Senor cue svexenenitestieniac 3 2 Hocks, clean cut, large, straight, deep, for driving, 3 inches, for draft, 4 inches. For draft, wider] 6]}..|.--] 4 Canons, 11 to 12 inches long, otherwise as above..| 2]..]..| 2 Fetlocks ds abovers.ssass se ese he aes ee sa ees eed | Pasterns as above; angle 60 degrees..........----- Bliss ove 2 Feet, compared with above, more oval, more concave; heels, higher, more separated; walls, more vertical} 5]..].. 5 Gtalk ga icishutsiad ecnasattieae Seeomenette mee 100| ..| .. [100] .. TYPES OF HORSES There are two distinct types of horses. The light type, useful for light work and speed, and the heavy type used for heavy draft work. Horses belonging to the former type are usually designated “light horses,” while those belonging to the latter are commonly called “draft horses.” Light horses are further divided into running, trotting, pacing, saddling, coaching and like classes. Draft horses, likewise, are divided into light, medium and heavy draft classes. The light type—There is considerable variation in type among light horses, depending on the purposes for which they are adapted. Thus the trotting horse differs in many respects from the saddle horse, and the running horse has many characteristics unlike either. However, 14 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES since horses belonging to the light type are each intended for rather fast and light work, they possess many points in common. In form the light type of horse is rather tall and the legs long, so that the distance from the chest to the ground is more than one-half the height of the horse from the withers to the ground. The distance from the withers FIG. 7.—LIGHT ACTIVE TYPE to the knees and from the hips to the hocks is great. In general conformation the light type resembles the grey- hound. (Fig. 7.) The heavy type.—In form the heavy type of horse is low set and the legs rather short, so that the distance from the chest to the ground is about one-half the height from the withers to the ground. The draft horse re- sembles the bull dog. Weight is important. To pull efficiently the draft horse must possess weight. The draft horse in fair condition at maturity weighs 1,600 to 2,400 pounds, according to the class. (Fig. 8.) JUDGING A HORSE 15 GENERAL APPEARANCE OF A HORSE In judging the horse first consider the general char- acters, such as age, height, weight, form, quality, action, attitude, color and temperament. Age.—Since the age has an important bearing upon the general appearance as well as the various parts of the horse it is placed first on the card. The age, therefore, should be the first character considered (p. 49). ee FIG. 8—HEAVY DRAFT TYPE Height.—The unit for measuring the height of the horse is a hand—4 inches. The height is taken at the withers. A measuring staff (hippometer), marked off in hands and inches, is used where the accurate height is required. When such is not available, or where absolute accuracy is not demanded, a good way to estimate the horse’s height is to “chin” him. Find out how high it is 16 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES from the ground to the point of your chin when standing erect. Stand facing the horse close to his left side and note the height of the withers as compared with your chin. Gradually train the eye to estimate height unaided. In draft horses the desired height is from 16 to 17.2 hands, with the average approximately 16.3 hands. This should be due to depth of body instead of length of leg. In driving horses the height is exceedingly variable, but should be at least 15 hands. This should be due in a large measure to length of leg. The card does not give a numerical value to height in the draft horse for, as a rule, if he is heavy enough he will possess sufficient height. For driving eight points is a perfect score. Weight.—The draft horse must weigh at least 1,600 pounds. This weight should be due to strong bone, heavily muscled, as well as to large proportions, and not the result of excessive fatness. Weight holds the horse to the ground, enabling him to secure a foothold against which to exert his strength. Weight brought forward is power in itself and the greater the weight to bring for- ward the greater the power derived from it. This is of so great importance that on the market draft horses are divided into classes according to their weight: Light draft, weighing 1,600 to 1,700; medium draft, 1,700 to 1,800 and heavy draft, 1,800 pounds and up. For the draft horse eight points is a perfect score. Among light horses, weight is considered of minor im- portance and no numerical value is given to it on the card, as the horse that meets the height requirement and possesses sufficient action will, as a rule, be heavy enough to fill the demand. oa Form.—The draft horse should be broad, deep, mas- sive, evenly proportioned and symmetrical, the entire make-up suggesting great strength and weight. The body should be blocky and compact, with short, broad, JUDGING A IIORSE 17 clean, well-set legs showing fine skin, large joints and prominent tendons. Perfect score, six points. The driving horse should be more upstanding, rather lean, lithe and muscular, having a general appearance of extreme activity. In this type speed and action is de- sired. Animals of speed possess long bones, long muscles and slightly angular joints. Perfect score, four points. Quality.—This is a term rather loosely applied and has reference to the hair, skin, tendons, muscles and bones. Good quality is shown by fine, bright, silky hair; soft, pliable skin; clean, well-defined tendons; smooth, well- developed muscles; and strong, smooth bones. Freedom from coarseness in the hair, skin, tendons, muscles and bones emphasizes soundness and guarantees durability. The best way to determine quality is to run the hand down the legs, over the knees, hocks and cannon bones. The hair and skin should feel soft and pliable to the touch and the bones firm and smooth. The fingers should al- most seem to touch each other as they pass between the tendons and the bones, especially in the light type, where the tendons are well detached. Soundness also indicates quality (p. 42). Perfect score, eight points for draft and ten for driving. Action.—While very important, especially at the walk, action is usually considered second to weight in the draft horse. The walk, however, deserves special considera- tion, since it is the principal gait of the draft horse. It should be regular, straight, level and fast. He should be able to walk four miles an hour with a load. While action at the trot is not so essential, it should not be overlooked, as occasionally draft horses are required to work at the trot. There should be no “paddling,” “dishing,” or “winging” in or out, “cutting” or “interfering,” nor should the forelegs swing out or “roll,” or the hindlegs be carried too close together or too far apart. Watch closely for lameness. Good trotting action is not only valuable in itself, but it. indicates many other desirable qualities, such 18 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES as temperament, conformation and soundness. Perfect score, four points. Among light horses, theré is no single feature held in higher estimation than that of desirable action. Each class of light horses has an action peculiar to itself, that of the high-stepping coach horse differing materially from the trotter, while that of the Saddle horse is unlike either. While desirable action varies according to the object sought, the light horse ' should possess as much as may be displayed and used to advantage. As with the draft horse, good action indicates many other qualities. The walk, in addition to being regular, straight and frictionless, should be fast. This is a point often neglected, and many otherwise good- acting horses are pro- vokingly slow walkers. Fic. 9.—Goop AcTION Action at the trot varies according to the class. In the trotter the stride should be long and not too high; whereas in the coacher a rather high, bold knee-and-hock action is the most sought. In all classes the movement should be straight and regular as viewcd from the front, rear and either side. Perfect score, ten points. Attitude—This term refers to the position and direc- tion of the horse’s legs while standing. The legs should be viewed from the front, behind and either side, and should be formed so as to meet the following require- ments: The foreleg, when viewed from the front, should be formed so that a plumb line dropped from the point of the shoulder would divide equally the knee, the cannon JUDGING A HORSE 19 and the foot, leaving between the two front feet an inter- val almost equal to the width of the hoof in the light type, and somewhat wider in the heavy type; when viewed from the side the line lowered from the elbow joint should pass through the middle of the knee, the cannon and the fetlock and fall a short distance behind the heel. The hindleg, when viewed from behind, should be so formed that a plumb line lowered from the point of the buttock will pass through the middle of the hock, cannon, pastern and foot, leaving between the two hind feet an interval almost equal to the width of the hock. This line should also just touch the back of the hock and the fet- lock joint.* Perfect score for draft, five points, and for driving, five points. (Figs. 10, 11.) Color.—In scoring a horse the color of the hair should be taken into account. First, because some of the most beau- hi Fic. 10.—Front View tiful colors fade on ex- Fic. 11.—REAR VIEW Correct position 2 Correct position posure to sunlight, at- mospheric action and the like. Second, because there are many undesirable colors, such as duns, speckled, flea- bitten gray, rusty, leopard spotted and like colors, to which attention should be directed. Perfect score for draft, one point, and for driving, two points. Temperament.—The horse should show a vigorous, lively, energetic disposition, yet be docile, teachable and intelligent. The temperament is reflected in the action and manners. Horses may be divided into four general classes according to their temper: ‘Teachable, nervous, stubborn and treacherous. The horse with a teachable temper is kind and docile. He is easily taught and *Exterior of the Horse, Gouboux & Barrier, page 464, 20 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES readily adapts himself to various conditions. The horse with a nervous temperament is ambitious and deter- mined. He is quick to learn and acts with all his power, and if properly directed rapidly develops into the best kind of a horse. The horse with a stubborn temperament is willful and difficult to conquer. He, is slow to learn and requires tact and patience, otherwise he may become sullen and his senses blunted. The horse with a treach- erous temper is very resentful. He acts without apparent cause and when least expected. He may balk, fight or run away. The other classes when once conquered re- main obedient, but not so with the treacherous horse. Perfect score for draft, three points; for driving, four points. DETAIL CHARACTERS OF THE HORSE After considering the general appearance pass to the detail examination carefully noting each character, tak- ing them in a regular order, that none may escape ex- amination. Head and neck.—The head should be lean, with broad forehead, tapering toward the nostrils, and the features of the face distinct. In the draft horse the head will be larger, fuller, and coarser proportionately than in the driving horse. The muzzle should be fine; nostrils large, open and of pink color; lips thin; and teeth sound. The eyes should be large, full, clear and bright, indicative of a kind disposition and good health. The ears should be active, refined, directed forward and wide apart. The neck of the draft horse should be short, massive, well arched and carried horizontally. A nicely arched and well-muscled neck of sufficient length, carrying the head gracefully, is a very desirable feature of the light horse. The windpipe should be large and the outline appear dis- tinct from the rest of the neck. The head and neck, as well as the neck and body, should blend smoothly at the JUDGING A HORSE 21 attachments, Perfect score for draft, five points; for driving, five points. Forequarters.—To give elasticity to the movement and to permit of clean action the light horse’s shoulders should be long and sloping well into the back, thus strengthening the back and extending the length of the underline; the arms should be short and comparatively upright, giving an upstanding appearance; the forearms should be vertical, long and well muscled. The muscles should be well developed and stand out distinctly just below the junction of the leg and body and taper grace- fully downward. The knees should be clean cut, wide and deep. They should be much broader in front than the leg, either above or below. The cannons should be short, deep, clean, and the tendons well de- tached; the fetlocks should be wide, deep and free from puffiness; and the pasterns should | |, cane anadnas Godsae ae be clean, strong and See eee sloping. The feet should be round, dense, fine in texture and sound. The sole should be concave; the bars strong and the frog large and elastic and bear the mark of natural usage as a buffer. Perfect score for driving, 19 points. Among draft horses, the shoulders should be smooth, heavily muscled and moderately sloping into the back. A slope of about 45 degrees is proper. The arms should be short, heavily muscled and extending well to the rear, thus giving the horse a low-set appearance; the fore- arms should be large, wide and heavily muscled. The knees should be broad, deep and well defined, though , ot , S| 7 . fa Fic, 12.—PositioN OF FRONT LEGS 22 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES they may not be as clean cut as among lighter horses. The cannons should be short, deep and clean, with the tendons well detached; the pasterns should be clean cut, sloping, and of medium length. The feet, though often inclined to be large, should be round, dense, fine in struc- ture, of equal size, and perfectly sound. Dark-colored hoofs are preferred, and they should have an oily coat of natural wax. The sole, bars and frog should be much as suggested above. Perfect score for draft, 20 points. Body.—In the light horse the chest should obtain its capacity more from depth than width. A deep chest per- mits a freer play of the shoulders and indicates staying power. The breast should be carried forward with much prominence. The withers should be clearly defined. The ribs should be well sprung and of good length, as a well- sprung rib gives lung capacity and a long rib gives diges- tive capacity. The back should be short, strong and well muscled; the loin should be short and strongly joined; and the underline should be long. This combination favors action and speed. Perfect score for driving, eight points. In the draft horse, the chest should be deep, wide and full, with the breast broad and muscular. The front ribs should be well sprung and long, giving the horse a broad back and deep chest. The back and loin should be short and heavily muscled; the coupling should be close and strong; the ribs roundly arched; the flanks low, giving a deep, strong body with an abundance of room for the respiratory and digestive organs. This conformation favors draft and endurance. Perfect score for draft, 10 points. Hindquarters.—In the driving horse the hips should be wide in proportion to the other parts, and prominent. The croup should be long, muscular and comparatively straight. This allows greater play of the main muscles, which is favorable to the production of speed. The tail should be long, full, fine and carried high. The thighs JUDGING A HORSE 23 should be upright, well muscled and deep; the buttocks firmly muscled and well descended; and the gaskins or hind legs, from the thighs to the hocks, should be long and well muscled. The hocks should be large, deep, clean cut and properly set. The bone forming the point of the hock should be prominent, since this gives a better attachment for the ten- dons which pass over it, thereby giving the hind leg a deeper appearance and increasing its ef- ficiency. The cannons should be short, deep, clean, with tendons well detached and parallel to the cannon bones; the fetlocks should be wide, deep and clean; and the pasterns rather long, pe : sloping and strong. The PR Si ae as 2. standing under; 3. hind feet should be oval, dense, fine in texture, of good size and perfectly sound. Perfect score for driving, 25 points. In the draft horse, the hips should be level, wide and smooth. The croup should be broad, thickly muscled and moderately sloping, though there is considerable differ- ence in draft horses in this regard. The thighs and buttocks should be heavily muscled. The direction of the thigh and hind leg should be such as will give the muscles the most favorable attachment for the development of power. This means, perhaps, that the lower part of the thigh should be inclined well forward and that the leg should be moderately sloping from the thigh to the hock. The hock should be wide, deep, properly set and clearly defined; the cannons should be short and clean with ten- dons well detached ; the fetlocks should be wide, deep and Fic. 13.—PosiTion of Hinp LeEcs 24 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES clean; and the pasterns clean cut and of medium length. The foot, though inclined to be large, should be oval, dense, fine in texture and sound. Perfect score for draft, 30 points. COMPARATIVE JUDGING In comparative judging, instead of comparing the horse with a standard of perfection, we compare two or more animals. To do this carefully examine and compare the relative size, height, weight and the like; also the detail characters of the horses in a class, to be placed in the order of their merit. Make examination for soundness when comparing quality. While the horses are being moved to compare their action, note their temperament and style. The horse which is superior in the greatest number of these considerations and without notable fault will be of the greatest service and will sell for the highest price on the market; therefore, is the most desirable and should be placed first. Continue until each horse has been placed according to his merit. Examine the horse in his stall—When purchasing a horse, if possible, he should be examined in his stall. Note the manner in which he is tied to the manger; whether he has been chewing the tie-strap or the fixtures; how he stands in the stall, and his general behavior when one steps to his side. Note the animal’s behavior while grooming, particularly along the abdomen, the back of the forelegs and the front of the hind legs, as well as the flanks. Harness him. Note the manner of taking the bit; the general conduct when placing the head stall over the ears; the harness over the back; the crupper under the tail; and when buckling the girth. The horse may now be taken from his stall. Note the action as he is being turned around. Ina few sale stables there is a contemptible practice of introducing ginger into JUDGING A HORSE 25 the rectum as the horse is being taken out, as this serves to stimulate him and he shows to advantage. As the horse passes out of the stable, the doorway affords a good place to examine the eyes, nostrils, mouth, and to note the age. Examine the horse in harness—Lead the horse to halter, observing the action and temperament, first at the walk and then at the trot. These observations should be made from the front, from behind and from either side. Now attach the horse to a vehicle and observe the action and temperament at both the walk and trot as before. Do not neglect the walk, as this is a very important gait. Note the manner of starting, stopping, turning to the right and left, backing and the like. Drive the horse rapidly a short distance, stopping him quickly and ob- serve the ease and regularity of breathing and his man- ner of standing (p. 49). CHAPTER III PROPORTIONS AND MECHANICS OF THE HORSE 4. By proportions of the horse are meant the correlation and the agreement of the various parts with each other and with the body as a whole. The parts of the horse when studied in the light of proportions show us rela- tions of length, width, thickness, direction, devclopment and the like. This detailed study of the relationship of the various parts is very efficient in developing the “eye” and the judgment. The proportions of the horse are considered from two points of view. First, the relations existing between the length, width and thickness of the various parts of the horse; and second, the relations of the directions pos- sessed by the bones superposed one upon the other, thus forming angles. These relations tend to make the legs long or short and have an influence upon the production of speed or power. Dimensions of the parts—To study the relation exist- ing between the various parts of the horse, we must first obtain the dimensions of the parts. The lengths, widths, thicknesses, and the like, are taken with a measuring staff of parallel bars, the circumference with a tape and the angles and inclinations with a compass and plumb line, although for accurate results in measuring the angles an arthrogoniometer should be used. This is an instru- ment somewhat similar to a compass. The following list includes the more important parts useful in a study of the proportions of the horse: 26 PROPORTIONS AND MECHANICS OF THE HORSE 27 Stupent’s Carp ror THE PROPORTIONS OF THE Horse. Inches Inches Height at withers. Height to highest point of croup Height of crest of head from ground ou... see Length from point of shoulder to quarter... cue From lowest point of chest to the ground... cccssceeesee| coerce steeenenee From the point of elbow to the ground. From the point of elbow to Kme@ wo ccccsecscecseeceeeeenteneerse) conecseecsessvensene| cssscsecse eneeciee From: Veriee CO BrOun joss caccigiscsndssenssrnsnenencombengessiorowenseaissongs Circumference: ‘of the ianmsc..cssicessnssusssvste cies acsant stovie ccvsenisninsavesea| sgigiesstandentenesasfl cadgeeadeeeee eee Circumference of cannon in Cente... cece cece etree Circumference of foot at COrONet..w seers ce cet ete Length of head Width of forehead ........-ccsccincesssecstsssesnsssaviitunsenecantensnes mentees: From angle of lower jaw to forehead above eye From throat to superior border of neck.wccccccceee cn[ cee eee Circumference of muzzle at angle of mouth... Width of chest from outside of shoulder points.................. Top of shoulder to Wipe... secssecse sess ecnesene ces csseeereerenanenssee] cssssseensee sree ees Width across hips..ccsssscsscsscssceseessetenseesssssescensseestnssarsensne| Length of Croup.....siecrscscsscesiscssscssrssssesesescenacon sens anencasnense cass From center of dock to point of stifle 0.0... eerie From point of hock to point of hip.............. From point of hock to ground.............. Circumference of thigh... cee Circumference of shank in the center. Circumference of body at the girth... Measurements of horse.—Accurate measurements are extremely difficult to obtain: First, because the horse is continually shifting his position, which alters the meas- 28 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES urement; and, second, because some of the parts are not well dehazd and it is often difficult to know just where to begin the measurement. Where reliable information FIG. 14.—MEASURING THE HEAD is desired, the measurements should be carefully checked. The following table gives an idea of the measurements of some of the more important parts in both heavy and light horses: “MEASUREMENTS FOR DRAFT AND SPEED Horses Name of part Draft Speed Number of horses measured..........- eee eee eee 55.0 32.0 Weight, pounds! ...36 coe. 4 ardieec6;a:eneeara arecedecene mee 1,613.0 snes Height at withers, inches............... arta 66.0 61.7 Height at highest point of croup........... deny 65.6 61.6 Length from point of shoulder to quarter......... 67.8 62.8 From lowest point of chest to ground............ 33.5 34.0 Length of should eres sissies avsnciisjaranencnycea tneie erated ‘evecare 27.25 23.9 Length from top of shoulder to hip.............. 30.4 28.5 Circumference of body at girth................05 90.0 70.0 Length: of head wesg scams ondinieenere anaemia 26.6 24.6 PROPORTIONS AND MECHANICS OF THE HORSE 29 The unit of proportions.—In a study of the proportions of the horse, the length of the head is taken as the unit. This is because the head varies less, perhaps, than any other part and its length is easily obtained, as the boun- daries are clearly defined. It is interesting to note that the total height of the horse from the crest of head to the ground is equal to about three head lengths; that the height from the withers and from the croup to the ground, mer FIG. 15.—A STUDY IN PROPORTIONS as well as the total length of the horse from the point of the shoulders to the buttocks, is about 2% head lengths; and that the length of the neck from poll to withers, the length of the shoulder from the withers to the point at the elbow, the thickness of the body from side to side, and the depth of the body from back to the abdomen, is equal to about one head length. Dimensions of articular angles—Besides the relations 30 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES of length, width and thickness which exists between the different parts of the body, it is also important to know the relations of directions possessed by the different bony regions, superposed one upon the other, to form the fore and hindquarters. From the manner in which the bones are arranged angles are produced. The inclination of the bones and the dimensions of the angles have an influence upon the draft and speed. Such measurements as these, however, are exceedingly difficult to obtain, as the bones are so deeply imbedded in muscle that their direction can- not be located with exactness. The following table in- cludes the more important parts useful in a study of the proportions of the horse. STUDENT’s CARD FOR THE ARTICULAR ANGLES OF THE Horse, INCLINATION UPON THE HORIZON Degrees Degrees Sek put ea eeu sss cte served santo dase a tac vrs ha vs erp datos ol latte aiadesle fh bseae [remain cesoocatenie essaatuatastentees Mrimera hse dctiaticsacvuimirsd agers dea tartan teaicent einen arava tent sateen maateerents EEN Sea ce Sa hc i pirical gic Na uc othe UA taal danieind ARTICULAR ANGLES IN STATION Scapular-humeral....cccccecscscce cesses tees bute ee hl acnertiianneannncedente Meétacarpo=phalatigalaecccasiwerecsomvenenennenumakareeunnnares: Wis-femiOrall wesssevnvcete ess aanensarnsetgante a we ates Sau Me eae TRE MORG* CUB IA feos. ate desatcecscessa Space Uetaay ed destadzad gees anal enaaebecaiaa sees punecd|nes daar aaates Map iGzmmet atarsal ens sacssscruecaslatteilottedescehcacsbeted tien sidietnees ierabuateevsnettoad dl nlantnstatheds Metatarso-phalangal..... cee ATTITUDES IN STATION Anterior members viewed in profile... Anterior members viewed in front. Posterior members viewed in profile.. Posterior members viewed from behind... ccc *For location of parts see page 35. PROPORTIONS AND MECHANICS OF THE HORSE 31 Measuring the angles.—If an arthrogoniometer, useful for measuring articular angles, is not available, the in- clination of the members and the value of the angles may be obtained by sticking wafers over the joints, on the withers, hips and hoofs, which serve as marks to indicate the direction of the members. Place the horse in a good position and photograph him. Upon the photographic FIG. 16.—A STUDY IN ARTICULAR ANGLES print thus obtained the wafers serve as landmarks which may be joined by straight lines to obtain the real direc- tions of the members. It only remains now to estimate with a protractor the inclination of each line as well as the value of the angles which are formed by the lines. 32 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES INCLINATION OF THE Parts Upron THE Hor1zoON AND VALUE OF THE ARTICULAR ANGLES IN Fast Horsrs* Inclination Value of angle Name of part Contained Of the superior Of the inferior sigment sigment Forequarters Degrees Degrees Degrees Scapulo-humeralf.... 55 60 115 Humero-radial....... 50 to 55 90 140 to 145 Metacarpo-phalangal. 90 60 150 Hindquarters Coxo-femoral,....... 30 to 35 80 110 to 115 Femoro-tibial........ 80 65 to 70 145 to 150 Tibio-tarsal.......... 65 to 70 90 155 to 160 Metatarso-phalangal 90 65 55 * The Exterior of the Horse, Goubaux and Barrier, page 377. } For location of the parts see page 35. Mechanics of the horse—A study of the mechanics of the horse enables us to compare the horse with a machine. A machine may be defined as a combination of one or more of the six mechanical powers—lever, wheel and axle, pulley, inclined plane, wedge and screw—arranged in such a manner as to transmit power in a desired direc- tion. In a somewhat similar manner the bones and muscles of the horse are combined in such a way as to constitute a prime mover, also capable of transmitting power in a desired direction. In the horse as in the machine power is gained at the expense of speed, and speed is gained at the expense of power. In the draft horse power is obtained in two ways: By the weight of the animal and by propulsion through the hind legs, body and shoulders. In the light horse speed is obtained in three ways: By the long reach of the legs, by propulsion and by leaping. In the light horse the muscles have a tendency to parallel the bones, thus giving PROPORTIONS AND MECHANICS OF THE HORSE 33 a slender form; whereas in the draft horse the muscles work more at right angles to the bones, thus favoring power and giving a massive appearance. It can be stated FIG. 17.—A STUDY IN MECHANICS OF THE HORSE as a general law that in animals of speed the muscles are long and slender and have a tendency to parallel the bones; while in animals of power the muscles are short and thick and have a tendency to work at right angles to the bones. CHAPTER IV ANATOMY, UNSOUNDNESS, AND AGE OF A HORSE In order to be a successful judge of horses it is im- portant to be able to recognize the slightest unsoundness, as well as to tell the age of a horse. Since unsoundness often has its origin in the bones, muscles, tendons and ligaments, as well as in the respiratory and digestive sys- tems, we should have a general knowledge of the anatomy ofthe herse. ANATOMY OF A HORSE In this brief review of the anatomy we will consider the bones, cartilages, muscles, tendons, ligaments and con- nective tissues as well as the circulatory apparatus, respiratory apparatus, digestive apparatus and nervous system. Bones.— The framework of the horse's body consists of the skeleton, which is composed of a large number of con- nected bones moved by muscles. The bones that enter into the formation of the skeleton are of various forms and sizes according to the use for which they are destined. They are divided into three classes: Long, flat and irregular. Long bones, which are composed of a hollow shaft and two extremities, are situated in the legs. Flat bones, which are composed of two layers of compact bone with one of cancellated tissue intervening, form cavities; and, irregular bones, which consist chiefly of cancellated tissue covered by a thin, compact layer, enter into formation of joints. Good examples of.long bones are the humerus and radius; of flat bones are the scapula, ilium and 34 : ANATOMY, UNSOUNDNESS, AND AGE OF A HORSE 35 ischium ; and good examples of irregular bones are those of the knee—scaphoid, lunar and the like. (Fig. 18.) Cartilage.—This is a strong, flexible, bluish-white sub- stance, which is found in connection with bone and of FIG. 18—SKELETON OF THE HORSE . Pubis . Femur . Patella . Fibula . Tibia . Tarsus, 6 bones . Large metatarsus 1. Incisor teeth 2. Molar teeth 15. Humerus 28 3. Lower jaw 16. Ulna 29 "4, Cervical vertebra 17, Radius 30. 5. Dorsal vertebra 18. Carpus, 7 bones 31 6. Lumbar vertebra 19. large metacarpus 32 7. Sacral vertebra 20. Small metacarpus 33. 8. Caudal vertebra 21. Sesmoids 34. 9. Sternal ribs 22. Os suffraginis 35. 10. Asternal ribs 23. Os coronae 36 11. Sternal cartilages 24. Os pedis 37, 12. Asternal cartilages 25. Navicular 38 13. Sternum 26. Ilium 39, 14, Scapula 27. Ischium 40 which there are various kinds such as porary, prolongation and the like. . Small metatarsus . Sesmoids . Os suffraginis . Os coronea . Os pedis . Navicular articular, tem- Articular cartilage covers the ends of bones that form movable joints; tem- porary cartilage is bone in transition form; and prolonga- tion cartilage forms an elastic continuation of the top of the shoulder blade. 36 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Muscles.—The horse’s moving power is derived from muscles, which form the lean meat and which, as a rule, are indirectly attached to bones. Muscles act by virtue of the property they possess of being able to shorten themselves on being stimulated by the nervous system. FIG. 19.—-MUSCLES OF THE HORSE 1, Masseter 13. Levator humeri 23. Serratus magnus 2. Splenius 14. Postea spinatus 24. Intercostal muscles 3. Levator humeri 15. Triceps extensor brachii 25. Obliquus abdominis 4. Cervical trapezius 16. Triceps extensor 26. Rectus femoris 5. Dorsal trapezius 17. Flexor brachii 7. Vastus externus 6. Latissimus dorsi 18, Extensor metacarpi 28. Gluteus externus 7. Serratus parvus magnus . 29. Semitendinosus 8. Glutens medius 19. Extensor pedis 30. Glastrocnemii 9. Sterno maxillaris 20. Extensor suffraginis 31. Flexor phalanges 10. Rhomboideus anterior 21. Flexor metacarpi 32. Extensor phalanges 11. Pectoralis parvus 22. Pectoralis magnus 33. Extensors lateral 12, Antea spinatus They are composed of contractile fibers, and their strength, other things being equal, is proportionate to their thickness. (Fig. 19.) Tendons.—These are hard, fibrous cords of great tough- ness. In order to economize space, muscles are generally ANATOMY, UNSOUNDNESS, AND AGE OF A HORSE 37 attached to bones by tendons. In such cases, the tendons, at one extremity, are united to the end of the muscles, and at the other to the bones. It is difficult to tell how the muscle and tendon are joined, or by what means the union is brought about, for the parts become insensibly blended. Ligaments.—These are fibrous structures arranged in flat bands or bundles and sometimes in membranous form. They are composed of white fibrous or yellow elastic tissue, the former has a bluish-white, silvery ap- pearance, the latter a yellow color and is very elastic. Ligaments bind the ends of bones together and thus form strong bonds of union at the joints. Connective tissue—This consists of strong, fibrous lay- ers and bands which furnishes a supporting network for the muscles, skin and other tissues. Connective tissue has only the passive action of support, and the more of it a muscle contains the coarser and less powerful it will be; though it will be better able to resist the effects of ex- ternal violence than one of finer grain. The connective tissue, also, forms ligaments, tendons, surrounds bones, cartilages, nerves and the like. Where the tissue is present in large amounts the underlying parts will be ill- defined. This is especially noticeable about the tendons and ligaments below the knees and hocks, owing to the absence of muscle about these parts. The thickness of the skin is a measure of the amount of connective tissue contained in the muscle, and as the action of this tissue is only passive, the more of it a muscle contains, the slower will be the movements. Hence the horse having a thick skin and ill-defined ten- dons would warrant us in supposing that he was deficient in quality. Circulatory system.—This consists of the heart, ar- teries, capillaries and veins. The heart is the central organ of the system and is divided into four chambers— the right and left auricle and the right and left ventricle. The action and the function of the blood will be best 38 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES understood by following its course. The left auricle re- ceives the pure blood from the lungs and delivers it to the left ventricle, then through the arteries, to the capillaries in all parts of the body, where it is relieved of oxygen and other constituents necessary to the life of the tissue FIG. 20.—CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 1. Heart, right ventricle 12. Vertebral artery 23. Vena portae 2. Heart, left ventricle 13. Humeral artery 24, External iliac artery 3. Heart, left auricle 14. Radial artery 25. Internal iliac artery 4, Pulmonary artery. 15. Metacarpal artery 26. Lateral sacral artery 5. Pulmonary veins 16. Coronary artery 27. Femoral artery 6. Anterior aorta 17. Posterior aorta 28. Posterior tibial artery 7. Carotid artery 18. Celiac artery 29. Metatarsal artery 8. Maxillary artery 19. Mesenteric vessels 30. Venous network of foot 9. Left axillary artery 20. Renal artery 31. Internal sophenal vein 10. Dorsal axillary artery 21. Spermatic artery 32. Brachial vein 11. Cervical artery 22. Posterior vena cava 33. Jugular vein and is loaded with waste matters. It is then returned to the right auricle and delivered to the right ventricle, then through its branches to the lungs, where it gives up the waste materials and receives a fresh supply of oxygen. (Fig. 20.) ANATOMY, UNSOUNDNESS, AND AGE OF A HORSE 39 Respiratory system.—This consists of the nostrils, pharynx, larynx, trachial tubes and lungs. The lungs are the central organs and are two in number. They consist of a great number of small sacs, which are collected into lobes of various sizes, each of which is connected with the 1. Cranial cavity 7. Epiglottis 13. Left lung 2. Guttural pouch 8. Trachea 14. Sternum 3. Nasal cavity 9. Oesophagus 15. Ribs 4. Tongue 10. Left bronchus 16. Heart 5. Pharyngeal cavity 11. Right bronchus 17. Posterior aorta 6. Cavity of larynx 12. Right lung 18, Anterior aorta branches of the bronchial tubes. It is by means of these lobes and sacs that the lungs relieve the blood of its waste materials and invest it with a fresh supply of oxygen during respiration. (Fig. 21.) Digestive system.—This apparatus consists of a series of organs which receive and digest the food. These organs are the mouth, pharynx, cesophagus, stomach and intestines. The stomach of the horse is a single organ and is much smaller than the stomach of the cow, having 40 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES a capacity of about 19 quarts.* The intestines consist of two parts of unequal size. The smaller, which is about 74 feet in length, has a capacity of approximately 70 he small intestine. The larger, in-length, has a capacity of ap=' FIG. 22.—DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 1, Mouth 7. Duodenum 13. Rectum 2. Pharynx 8. Liver. 14. Anus 3. Oesovhagus 9. Large colon 15. Left kidney 4. Diaphram 10. Caecum 16. Bladder 5. Spleen 11. Small intestines 17. Urethra 6. Stomach 12. Floating colon proximately 140 quarts, and is called the large intestine. It is divided into three parts, the cacum, colon and rectum. (Fig. 22.) While the capacity of the horse’s stomach is less than that of the cow, that of the large intestine is much greater due largely to the cecum—a greatly enlarged portion of the alimentary tract, linking the small and large intes- *Feeds and Feeding, W. A. Henry, page 19. ANATOMY, UNSOUNDNESS, AND AGE OF A HORSE 41 tines. Into the czecum is passed much of the undigested matter, together with the digestive agencies of the small intestine. Here the digestive processes are prolonged, thus compensating, in part at least, for the small capacity of the horse’s stomach. CAPACITY AND LENGTH OF THE HorsE’s STOMACH AND INTESTINES, COMPARED WITH THAT OF THE Cow, SHEEP AND Hoe. Animal Capacity, quarts Length, feet Stomach | Small Large -Total Small Large Total intestine | intestine intestine | intestine Horsey eve 19.0 67.4 137.4 223.8 73.6 24.5 98.1 COW essa. stg 266.9 69.7 40.1 376.7 150.9 36.3 187.2 Sheep...... 31.3 9.5 5.9 46.7 85.9 21.4 107.3 1 Col gees 8.5 9.7 10.8 29.0 60.0 17.1 7A Nervous system.—This system consists of the brain, spinal and sympathetic ganglia, and nerves. The dif- ferent organs of this system are composed of two struc- tures, the vesicular or gray matter and the fibrous or white matter. The nervous substance presents two dis- tinct forms—nerve cells and nerve fibers. The nerves arise from the cerebro-spinal axis and, branching as they go, are distributed to all parts of the body. Every organ and tissue has its supply of nerves connecting it with the brain or spinal cord. (Fig. 23.) The nervous system of the horse is the power which stimulates and directs the action of his muscles, and is the source of his mental capacity. In general, the amount of contraction force exhibited by a muscle is proportionate to the degree of stimulation given by its nerves. In con- sidering the form of the horse from a mechanical point of view, we must not lose sight of the marked difference which exists in the nervous system of various animals. 42 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Thus the horse possessing a very energetic nervous adaptation may be a very superior animal even though his conformation may not be all that is desired; or the "i \\ PSS eS \ FIG. 23.—-NERVOUS SYSTEM 1. Brain 13. Gastric solar plexus 2. Optic nerve 14, Solar plexus, center’ 3. Superior maxillary nerve 15. Sacro lumbar plexus 4. Inferior maxillary nerve 16, Anterior femoral and saphena nerves 5. Pneumogastric nerve, front 17. Sciatic trunk 6. Spinal cord 18. Small femoral popliteal nerve 7. Brachial plexus 19. Great femoral: popliteal nerve 8. Prehumeral nerve 20. Posterior internal tibial nerve 9. Anterior brachial 21. Posterior plantar nerve 10. Radial nerve 22. Internal radial nerve 11. Cubital nerve 23. Anterior plantar nerve 12. Pneumogastric nerve 24. Plantar nerve horse of excellent form may be rather inferior because of the lack of nervous application. COMMON UNSOUNDNESS AND FAULTS The imperfections of the horse may be divided into two general classes—tinsoundness and faults. A satisfactory definition of either an unsoundness or a fault is not easily ANATOMY, UNSOUNDNESS, AND AGE OF A HORSE 43 given. The term “unsound,” as used by horse dealers, is often loosely applied. It may mean anything from a slight injury to a defect so serious as to render the horse worthless. The best usage warrants dividing these im- perfections into two classes—blemishes and unsoundness. Likewise the term “fault” is applied to a variety of con- ditions. It may signify anything from a mere bad: habit to a vice that renders the animal worthless. Usage war- rants dividing these imperfections into two classes— whims and vice. A blemish—This may be defined as an imperfection that depreciates the value of a horse without interfering with his usefulness—as a wire cut, car bruise, and the like—which mar the appearance of the horse but do not limit his functions. An unsoundness.—This may be defined as an imper- fection of so serious a nature as to interfere with the use- fulness of the horse, as ringbone, sidebone, splints and the like. A whim.—This may be defined as a minor moral im- perfection, as tongue lolling, tossing the head, tearing blankets, pawing, and the like. A vice.—This may be defined as a more serious moral ‘imperfection, as balking, kicking, running away, and the like. Locating unsoundness.—The ability to locate unsound- ness depends largely on practice; although some imper- fections, principally the faults, cannot be detected by an ordinary examination, and it is only after becoming famil- iar with the horse that these will be observed. Hence, to detect faults the reader is referred to Chapter 37, Whims and Vices of the Horse (p. 385). In locating unsoundness it is well to follow a regular order beginning with the head. Poll evil——This is an enlargement of the poll at the top of the head, containing or discharging pus. It is a serious 44 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES unsoundness and difficult to cure. Look for scars, (Fig. 24.) Impaired vision—A horse by his action will usually betray imperfect eyesight. The ears are exceedingly active, as if trying to aid the eyes. The pupils should con- tract in the light. This indicates that the eye is sensitive and functional. Cloudiness or opac- ity denote “moon- blindness”—periodic Fic, 24.—Po.tt Evi ophthalmia. Defective hearing. -—-Lack of mobility in the ears and active eyes denote deafness. The horse is unresponsive when commanded. Discharge from the nostrils——The lining membrane of the nostrils should be healthy, pink in color and free from ulcers, or purple spots. r and endurance that reduced the pacing record to 1.59%. Three famous Standardbred brood mares.—While the list of notable trotting and pacing brood mares is very long, including many thousand of more or less distinction, yet there are three mares worthy special mention; FIG. 74.—STANDARDBRED STALLION “KREMLIN,” 2.07% namely, Beautiful Bells, Green Mountain Maid and Miss Russell. Beautiful Bells—This mare was bred by L. J. Rose of California, and was sired by The Moore, and out of Minnehaha and born in 1872. Early in life she was pur- chased by Leland Stanford of Palo Alto, who also owned Electioneer. She produced 11 standard trotters and eight producing sires, either by Electioneer or his sons. On her sire’s side she was a Clay and on her dam’s a Mambrino. THE STANDARDBRED HORSE 125 Greew Mountain Maid—This mare was bred by Samuel Conklin. of Middletown, New York, and was sired by Harry Clay, and out of Shanghai Mary, and born in 1862. She stood 15 hands high and was brown in color, with star and white hind ankles. She spent the most of her life in the possession of Charles Backman at Stony Ford Farm, dying in 1888, at the age of 26 years. Green Mountain Maid produced 16 foals, 14 of which were sired by Messenger Duroc. Her greatest son was Electioneer, her second foal, and sired by Hambletonian 10. Of the 16 colts, nine were standard trotters. In her memory, the year following her death Backman erected a granite monument with the inscription “On the spot dedicated to her worth and honored by her dust.” Miss Russell—A gray mare bred by R. A. Alexander, Woodburn, Kentucky, and was sired by-Pilot Jr., and out of Sally Russell by Boston. Miss Russell was the dam of 18 foals, -seven of them standard performers, five trotters and two pacers. Her first and greatest son was Jutwood, by Belmont, and her most famous daughter vas Maud S., by Harold, the champion trotter of her day. The famous present-day stallions——As with the dams, the list of famous trotting and pacing sires is a very long one, and it is‘not possible to consider each. There are, nowever, three modern sires that seem worthy of special mention, namely, Peter the Great, Bingen and McKinney. Peter the Great—This horse-was bred by D. D. Streeter, Kalamazoo, Michigan, and was sired by Pilot Medium, and out of Santos, dam of standard performers. He was born in 1895. Peter the Great stands 16 hands high and weighs 1,150 pounds. He has 99 standard performers, 94 trotters and five pacers. While he is now only 16 years of age, he has 13 performers in the 2.1@ list. He is the only stallion to win and sire a winner of the Kentucky futurity. : Bingen.*—This horse was bred by A. Smith McCann, but *Bingen died April 13, 1913. 126 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES was born the property of D. Bennett, Lexington, Ken- tucky, and was sired by May King, and out of Young Miss, and born in 1893. Bingen is the sire of 133 standard performers, 105 trotters and 28 pacers. In his eighteenth year of age he has 10 performers in the 2.10 list. He is particularly noted as a sire of extreme speed, his famous son, Uhlan, out of Blonde, by Sir Walter Jr., having a record of 1.58, the champion trotter of today. McKinney. — This horse was bred by H. H. Wilson, Cynthi- ana, Kentucky, and was sired by Alcyone, and out of Rosa Sprague. He was born in 1887. McKin- ney is the sire of Fic. 75.—STANDARDBRED STALLION “MCKINNEY,” 2.1114 165 stan dar d performers, 133 trotters and 32 pacers. He is famous as a sire of extreme speed, and at the close of 1911 leads the list of 2.10 per- formers with a total of 23—13 trotters and 10 pacers. Famous horses and prices paid.—The highest price ever paid for a Standardbred horse was $125,000, paid by J. M. Forbes of Boston for Arion, 2.0734, by Electioneer; the next highest price was paid by W. P. Ijams, president of the American Trotting Association, for Axtell, 2.12, by William L., and the amount was $105,000; Bradley of the Ardman Farm at Raritan, New Jersey, paid $50,000 for Bingen, 2.0614; Simpson of the Empire City Farms, Cuba, New York, paid $50,000 for McKinney, 2.1114, by Alcyone. Hanna of Cleveland, Ohio, paid $50,000 for Hamburg Belle, which is the highest price ever paid for THE STANDARDBRED HORSE 127 amare. Dan Patch, 1.5514, the champion pacing horse, was purchased for $60,000 by Savage, who has since refused $180,000 for him. Description of the Standardbred horse.—There are many pronounced types among Standardbred horses. Perhaps no breed of horses has been produced under more variable conditions, and certainly no recognized breed contains a greater variation in size, color and char- acter than does this light harness breed. Good examples of the two extremes are Lou Dillon and Sweet Marie; the former a speed marvel, slim and graceful, with a high nervous organization, the latter, a great campaigner, stronger framed, fuller muscled, of larger size, and of remarkable strength and endurance. The head should be of medium size, clean cut and carried high. The neck should be of medium length, muscular and graceful, with a noticeable crest in the stallion. The shoulders should be long and sloping, withers refined and chest low. The back should he fairly level, short and strong, while the underline should be long. The loin and croup should be strong and well muscled, but graceful, with the tail well attached and carried high. The quarters should be long and muscular. The legs above the knees and hocks should be long, lean and muscular, thus giving length from withers to knees, and from hips to hocks. The knees and hocks should be strongly supported and clean cut. The cannons should be short and clean, with tendons well detached, thus giving depth. The pasterns should be clean and slope nicely, while the feet, both fore and hind, should be even in size, moderately large, and of healthy, oily color. The Standardbred horse has a strong, quick and long stride, with clean knee and hock action and trots to better ad- vantage than any other breed. There is much discussion as to the correct conforma- tion for a pacer, as many of the most famous pacers show a steepness of the croup and curving of hocks, which 128 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES appears to be more or less associated with the gait, though many persons state this is not necessarily true. The height is exceedingly variable, averaging 15 to 16 hands, and good weights are 900 pounds for mares and 1,150 pounds for stallions. The trotting and pacing standard.—“ When an animal FIG, 76.—STANDARDBRED STALLION “BINGARA” meets these requirements and is duly registered, it shall be accepted as a Standardbred trotter: “tT, The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse and a registered standard trotting mare. “2, A stallion sired by a registered standard trotting horse, provided his dam and granddam were sired by registered standard trotting horses, and he himself has a record of 2.30 and is the sire of three trotters with records of 2.30 from different mares. THE STANDARDBRED HORSE 129 “3, A mare whose sire is a registered standard trotting horse, and whose dam and granddam were sired by regis- tered trotting horses, provided she herself has a trotting record of 2.30 or is the dam of one trotter with a record of 2.30. “4. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, provided she is the dam of two trotters with records of 2.30. “s. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, provided her first, second and third dams are each sired by a registered standard trotting horse.” The pacing standard is similar except the word “pacer” is substituted for the word “trotter;” “pacing” for the word “trotting;’ the speed standard 2.25 for 2.30; and the addition of a sixth paragraph, which is as follows: “6, The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse out of a registered standard pacing mare, or of a regis- tered standard pacing horse out of a registered standard trotting mare.”* Influence of the standard.—Recording performance when making the standard has been a most important factor in developing extreme speed in the trotter and pacer. This method not only distinguishes the slow and fast horses, but from the records the breeder can determine those that are actually producing fast horses. In breeding, the slow ones are discarded and the fast ones are propagated, which, in connection with improved conditions, enables us to get still faster producers. Again the slow ones are discarded and the fast propagated, with the results that the maximum speed of the race has been raised. The following tables show the reduction in time for a mile track with horses in harness between 1810 and 1912. The table gives the name of the horse, place of the race, date and time. *Wallace’s American Trotting Register, page 4. 130 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES TrottinGc Recorps REDUCED Date Name of horse Place of record Record 1810 Boston Philadelphia, Pa. 2.484 1826 Trouble amaica, N. Y. 2.433 1834 Sally Miller hiladelphia, Pa. 2.37 1838 Edwin Forest Philadelphia, Pa. 2.364 1839 Dutchman Hoboken, N. J. 2.32 1845 Lady Suffolk Hoboken, N. J. 2.294 1849 Pelham Jamaica, N. Y. 2.28 1853 Highland Maid Jamaica, N. 2 2.27 1856 Flora Temple saree N.Y. 2.24% 1859 Flora Temple alamazoo, Mich. 2.193 1867 Dexter Buffalo, N. Y. 217} 1871 Goldsmith Maid Milwaukee, Wis. 2.17 1874 Goldsmith Maid Boston, Mass. 2.14 1878 Rarus Buffalo, N. Y. 2.134 1879 St. Julien Oakland, Cal. 2.123 1880 Maud S. Chicago, Ill. - 2.10} 1884 ay-Eye-See Providence, R. I. 2.10 1885 aud S. Cleveland, Ohio 2.08} 1891 Sunol Stockton, Cal. 2.083 1892 Nancy Hanks Terre Haute, Ind. 2.04 1894 Alix Galesburg, Ill. 2.033 1900 The Abbot Terre Haute, Ind. 2.034 1901 Cresceus Columbus, Ohio 2.024 1903 Lou Dillon Readville, Mass. 2.00 1903 Lou Dillon Memphis, Tenn. 1.584* 1912 Uhlan Memphis, Tenn. 1.58 * Paced by runner to sulky carrying wind or dust shield. PacinG REcorps REDUCED Date Name of horse Place of record Record” 1839 Dover Hoboken, N. J. 2.28 1844 Fanny Etlsler Albany, N. Y. 2.273 1844 Unknown Hoboken, N. J. 2.23 1852 Pet Long Island, N. Y. 2.18 1855 Pocahontas Long Island, N. Y. 2.17 1879 Sleepy George Rochester, N. Y 2154 1879 Sleepy Tom Chicago, Ill. 2.12 1881 Little Brown Jug Hartford, Conn, 2.11 1884 ue Chicago, Ill. 2.06 1891 irect Independence, Iowa 2.06 1892 Hal Pointer Chicago, Ill. 2.053 1892 Mascot Terre Haute, Ind. 2.04 1894 Robert J Terre Haute, Ind. 2.01 1896 gone RD Gentry Portland, Me. 2.00 1897 tar Pointer Readville, Mass. 1.59 1904 Prince Albert Empire City, N. Y. 1.57% 1905 Dan Patch Memphis, Tenn. 1:55)° * Paced by runner to sulky carrying wind or dust shield. Trotting and pacing records.—There are many standard ‘trotting and pacing events, and while the horses at the THE STANDARDBRED HORSE 131 top of such events are constantly changing, yet it would seem that the fastest records were worthy special men- tion. The following tables contain the world’s records for the more important events up to January I, 1913, showing the name of the horse, place, date and record: TROTTING RECORDS Date Event Name of horse Place Record 1904 | Half mile Major Delmar Memphis, Tenn. 59} 1912 | One mile Uhlan Memphis, Tenn. 1.58 1909 | One mile in race Hamburg Belle North Randall, Ohio 2.014 1910 | Two miles The Harvester Lexington, Ky. 4.154 1902 | Five miles Zambra Lexington, Ky. 12.24 1893 | Ten miles Pascal New York, N. Y. 26.15 1865 | Twenty miles Capt. McGowan | Boston, Mass. 58.25 1846 | Fifty miles Ariel Albany, N. Y. 3.55.40} 1853 | One hundred miles Conqueror Centerville, L. I. 8.55.53 1910 | Fastest stallion The Harvester Columbus, O. 2.10 1912 | Fastest gelding Uhlan Memphis, Tenn. 1.58 1903 | Fastest mare Lou Dillon Memphis, Tenn. 1.584* 1912 | Fastest yearling Airdale Lexington, Ky. 2.15% 1909 | Fastest two-year-old Native Belle Lexington, Ky. 2.07% 1910 | Fastest three-year-old | Colorado E. Lexington, Ky. aa 1910 | Fastest four-year-old joao Lexington, Ky. 2.04 1904 | To high-wheel sulky ajor Delmar Memphis, Tenn. 2.07 1911 | To wagon bairee Cleveland, Ohio 2.00 an 1912 | Double team Lewis Forrest | Lexington, Ky. 2.033 * Paced by runner to sulky carrying wind or dust shield. Pactnc REcorps Date Event Name of horse Place Record 1903 | Half mile Dan Patch Memphis, Tenn. .56* 1905 | One mile Dan Patch Memphis, Tenn. 1.55}3* 1910 | One mile in race Minor Heir Indianapolis, Ind. 1.59 1903 | Two miles Dan Patch Macon, Ga. 4.17 1874 | Five miles Lady St. Clair San Francisco, Cal. 12.542 1905 | Fastest stallion Dan Patch Memphis, Tenn. tote 1903 | Fastest gelding Prince Alert New York, N. Y. 1.594% 1903 | Fastest mare Dariel Memphis, Tenn. 2.004 1911 | Fastest yearling Frank Perry Lexington, Ky. 2.15 1894 | Fastest two-year-old Directly Galesburg, IIl. 2.072 1911 | Fastest three-year-old | Miss DeForrest Lexington, Ky. 2.054 1912 | Fastest four-year-old Braden Direct Lexington, Ky. 2.032 1903 | To high-wheel sulky Dan Patch Macon, Ga. 2.043* 1903 | To wagon Dan Patch Memphis, Tenn. 1.574 Minor Heir 1912 | Double team George Gano Columbus, Ohio * Paced by runner to sulky carrying wind or dust shield. 132 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Famous drivers of racing horses.—The driver is a very important factor in light harness racing events. To be successful he must possess a keen knowledge of the tem- perament and capacity of the horse. Among the more famous drivers in America may be mentioned John Splan, Charles Marvin, Budd Dobie, E. F. Geers, T. W. Murphy, Alonzo and Alta McDonald, and many others. In 1912 the following sums were won in races by the driv- ers mentioned: T, W. Murphy, $58,- 038; W. B. Cox, $51,878; E. F, Geers, $35,169; A. McDonald, $32,- 841; A.S. Rodney, $32,250; W. F. Snow, $24,851, and W. G. Durfee, Fic. 77,.— ms 2? 2.024 1G. 77,—STANDARDBRED STALLION “‘CRESCEUS,” 2.0214 $22,730. —— Organizations and records—In 1870 the National Trotting Association was organized, with present head- quarters at Hartford, Connecticut, and in 1887 the American Trotters’ Association was organized, with head- quarters at Chicago, Illinois. The American Trotting Register, published by J. H. Wallace, appeared in 1868. Wallace also established the Year Book, now in its twenty-eighth volume, in which the performance is recorded. In 1891, Wallace sold the Register, Year Book and Monthly Magazine to the American Trotting Regis- ter Association, who now publish the Register and Year Book. The Orloff Trotter—As the name implies, this is a breed of trotting horses, and is of Russian origin, having THE STANDARDBRED HORSE 133 no connection with the American Standardbred, but is discussed in this connection because it is comparatively unknown in America and does not seem worthy an entire chapter. The origin of the breed dates back to 1777 when, it is stated, Count Alexis Orloff begun the work of develop- ing a new breed of horse to suit the needs of Russia, About 1777 or 1780 Orloff obtained an Arab stallion named Smetanka from the Orient. This horse was said to be silver white in color, very muscular, and to be about 15 hands high. He was used in the stud but a short time when he died, but he sired four stallions and one mare, mostly by Thoroughbred dams. Of these, the most noted was Polkan Ist, who sired seven stallions and Fic. Co ee “DaN 21 mares. Barss or Bars Ist was the most noted son of Polkan 1st. Bars Ist was foaled in 1784, and became a very important factor in founding the Orloff Trotter. He died in 1808. Count Orloff established a large stud, using his stallions on Thoroughbred mares from England. It is stated that he sold no stallions and that he developed two distinct groups, practicing in-breeding on one, but keeping the other group free from in-breeding, by using English a DAN PATCH 135 134. MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES stock. In 1845, when the stud was sold to the Russian government there were 21 stallions and 194 mares of the Orloff group, and nine stallions and 112 mares of the Orloff-Hackney group. The Russians continued to de- velop the breed, but it is practically unknown outside of Russia. Description of the Orloff Trotter——In conformation the Orloff Trotter is heavier set than the American Standard- bred, weighing 1,100 to 1,300 pounds, and standing from 15.3 to 16.2 hands high. While these horses are credited with great power and speed, they are not nearly the equal of the American trotter, as the best record known is that made by Wzamakb, 2.2734, imported by Jacob Heyl. In recent years the breed has been much improved by im- porting American trotters and crossing with the Orloff. It is stated that the half-bred offspring has shown greater speed as a rule than the sire. CHAPTER XI THE HACKNEY COACH HORSE Among stylish horses, the Hackney coach horse holds first place. The symmetrical form, as well as the very high and free action, are distinguishing features of the breed. The native home of the Hackney horse.—This breed of horses was developed in eastern and northeastern Eng- land, particularly in the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk and York. For many centuries the people of this region have encouraged the production of light active horses suited to saddle work, and succeeded in developing a strong, small trotter. The origin of the Hackney horse.—In the eleventh cen- tury, when the Normans invaded Great Britain, they brought front France the term Haquenee or Hacquenee, which is derived from the Latin Equus, horse, and cor- responds to the Danish word nag. The common people applied the word nag to any and every small horse, while the pacing and trotting horse of sufficient quality and substance to be owned by a Norman was spoken of as a Hackney. As early as 1303 this term is said to have come into common use. There can be:no doubt that the native horses of eastern England were much influenced by importations from the Continent, particularly by the Romans, Scandinavians and Norwegians. This mixture gave to the early British horse stock both speed and endurance. There seems to have been much interest taken in breeding trotting horses in Norfolk, as early as 1470, for in that year one of the family of Berney placed on one of his horses an estimated equivalent of $350. , The fact that so much money was asked of a neighbor suggests that there was much interest 135 136 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES taken in the horse, for eight years before, in 1462, Lord Howard, another Norfolk trotter owner, paid an equiv- alent of $28 for a gray nag to send to the French king. To encourage improvement in the native horse royal decrees were enacted, the first one dated as early as 1495, during the reign of Henry VII. These laws were in- tended to promote the breeding of horses fit for the army. Soon other laws were passed to pro- mote horse breeding, the most notable be- ing in 1540 dur- ing the reign of Henry VII This act was noteworthy, as it provided that all who were able should maintain one or more horses. A few years later followed the first English book on the horse. The book was designated “The Foure Chiefest Offices Belonging to Horsemanship,” and was written by Ralph Blunderville, and appeared in 1558. Development of the Hackney coach horse.—While much improvement had been accomplished in the road horses of Norfolk and Suffolk, the real development of the Hackney coach horse did not begin until the eighteenth century. During the early part of the century, mention is made of the use of stallions imported from Arabia, Barbary and Turkey and crossing them on the native mares of Nor- folk. The Thoroughbred was also used in crossing which, in connection with the Oriental crosses, increased the speed and improved the quality, thus providing ex- Fic. 79.—HACKNEY STALLION “ENFIELD NIPPER” “THE HACKNEY COACH HORSE 137 cellent foundation material for the development of the modern Hackney coach horse. Shales and descendants.—No single horse played so important a part in the development of the Hackney as Shales (699), variously referred to as the Original Shales, Shields and Schales. He was born in 1755, sired by Blaze (see chart, p. 120), and out of a Hackney mare. Shales sired Scot Shales (692), born in 1762 and Driver (187), born in 1765; the former said to have been famous as a breeder getting good stock out of common mares, though himself a poor racer, while the latter proved a great breeder, siring Jenkinson’s Fireaway (201), born in 1780, who in turn sired West’s Fireaway (203), born in 1800 and Wroot’s Pretender (596), born in 1788. Fire- away (203) sired Burger’s Fireaway (208), born in 1815, while Pretender (596) sired Stevens’ Bellfounder (52), born in 1797. Fireaway (208) sired Ramsdell’s Wildfire (864), born in 1827, and The Norfolk Cob (475), born in . 1819, while Bellfounder (52) sired Jary’s Bellfounder (55), born in 1816. Wildfire (864) sired Ramsdale’s Phenomenon (573), born in 1835, while The Norfolk Cob (475) sired The Norfolk Phenomenon (522), born in 1824. Phenomenon (573) sired Performer (550), who in turn sired Beal’s Sir Charles (768), born in 1843. Sir Charles (768) sired Bourda’s Denmark (177), born in 1862, and Denmark (177) sired Danegelt (174), born in 1879. During recent years Denmark and Danegelt have been the most potent of the descendants of Shales. Other noted stallions are Lord Derby 2d, Bourda’s Denmark, Triffitt’s Fireaway, D’Oyley’s Confidence, Duke of Con- naught, Pasador and Sir Horace. During the early development of the Hackney some of these Norfolk trotters showed remarkable speed (p. 115), especially when the distance traveled is considered, which, as has been stated, was of material benefit in the development of the Standardbred horse. Such records as made by Driver, said to have trotted 17 miles in one 138 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES hour, carrying about 200 pounds, are of common report. The Hackney coach horse in America While the first importation dates back to 1822, when James Ford of Boston introduced Bellfounder (55) (see chart, p. 120), FIG. 80—HACKNEY STALLION “SIR HUMPHREY” commonly known as Imported Bellfounder, no others of note occurred until 1881, when M. H. Cochrane of Hill- hurst, Canada, imported a fine stallion named Fordham, a son of Denmark (177). A. J. Cassatt of Philadelphia established the first Hackney stud founded in the United States. He imported the noted stallion Little Wonder and the mares Patience and Buttercup in 1883, though THE HACKNEY COACH HORSE 139 before this he had brought over the mare Stella by Con- fidence. Following this came the era of the horse show when extensive importations were made, chiefly into the New England states and Canada, with scattering ones to Ohio, Wisconsin and other Central states. The largest of these importations was made in 1890 by Seward Webb of Vermont, who imported 31 animals, four of which were stallions. Then came a lull in the horse-importing busi- ness, but the first decade of the twentieth century wit- Z nessed a revival of the indus- | gy try, and the following are] the best known of the more recent importers: F. C. Stev- ens, Attica, New York; Ebon | D. Jordan, Boston, Massa- chusetts; Robert Beith, Bow- manville, Ontario, Canada; |, A. B. Hobert, Greeley, Iowa; | oo, J. H. Truman & Sons, Bush- = z nell, Illinois; Fred Pabst, Fic. 81—Hackney Srattion “Lorp . MARLBOROUGH Oconomowoc, Wisconsin; Calkins and Angsbury, Byron, Michigan, and Seward Webb of Vermont. Famous Hackney coach stallions.—While there have been many notable Hackney stallions in the United States perhaps the most famous of the present time are Fan- dango and Langton Performer, owned by F. C. Stevens; Shawhill Duke, owned by P. E. Hoge; Bagthorpe Sultan, owned by Henry Fairflax; Tiger Lillie, owned by R. C. Vanderbilt; Meanwood Majesty, owned by Fred Pabst; Aquinus, owned by D. J. Driscoll, and Land o’ Burns, owned by C. H. Mackay. Some of the noteworthy prices paid during recent years are: Forest King, $13,000, by W. H. Moor; Matchless of Loudesboro, $15,000, by W. S. Webb; Hildred, 140 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES $10,000, by E. T. Bedford; $20,000 for the four ..n-hand Flashlight, Electric Light, Lord Burleigh and Lord Brooke; $10,000 by W. H. Moor for the bantan tallion Berkley Bantam; and $20,000 by Mrs. E. C. Brown for the bantam four-in-hand Master, Masterpiece, Masterkey and Masterman. Description of the Hackney coach horse.—There is much variation in type, although that most sought repre- sents a powerfully built horse with round ribs, muscular loin, plump quarters and short legs. Perhaps * 2 Hack- ney is more blocky in form than any of the other coach FIG. 82.—HACKNEY BROOD MARES breeds, giving him an extremely smooth appearance with gracefully curved outlines. The head is of medium size, rather full, but with clean- cut features, and well carried; the eyes are large and clear and the ears medium size and specially alert. The neck is often rather full and of medium length. The shoulders are long, sloping and well muscled, favoring lifting power, which gives high knee action. The body is deep, the ribs round, and the back short and well muscled. The quarters are full and deep, with thighs well set and strongly muscled, thus favoring high hock action. There is much variation in height. In 1885 the Hack- ney Stud Book Society of England, at the request of the ‘THE HACKNEY COACH HORSE I4I Royal :gricultural Society, increased the standard height for the breed to 15.2 hands. Hackneys are often classified accorg :g to height: Hackney ponies, under 14 hands; Hackney cobs, 14 to 15.2 hands; and Hackney coach horses, above 15.2 hands. The weight is also variable, but 1,000 pounds is a good weight for a mare and 1,200 pounds for a stallion. At present chestnut is the favored color, though all colors are found. White markings are also very common. Mucl }mphasis is placed upon soundness, and for the past few years the English Hackney Horse Society has FIG. 83.—HACKNEY STOCK FARM subjected the entries to its shows to veterinary examina- tion, This has favored keeping the breed free from un- soundness; and the percentage rejected is very small, perhaps about 5% on the average. The action.—Formerly the Hackney was valued for its long and strong action at the trot, but at the present time its chief merit resides in the high and often rather flashy action of the knees and hocks. It is said that Confidence (158) was noted for the transmission of this particular quality to his offspring. In the walk or trot the feet are lifted with snap and spring, and at the trot the front feet go forward after being uplifted, as if they were following 142 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES the rim of a wheel, while the hind feet are carried high as the hock is lifted sharply toward the body with much grace, strength and action. It is stylish, attractive action, not speed, that is important at the present time. Uses of the Hackney coach horse.—The high knee and hock action and the attractive appearance, either stand- ing or in motion, renders the Hackney very serviceable for stylish, heavy-harness, city driving. The breed has been improved with this special object in view, and it merits superior claims, excelling all other coach breeds in this particular field of activity. The degree to which the breed may be useful in producing a more general utility animal is not so clearly evident, though the Hack- ney is often used in crossing with common mares with a view of producing an all-around horse. Distribution of the Hackney.—This breed is more widely distributed than any other coach breed. From England it has gone into France, Germany, Holland, Denmark, Belgium, Spain and Italy in Europe; east into Japan; south into Africa and, Australia; and westward into the Argentine Republic in South America, as well as into Canada and the United States in North America. It is pressing its way into every country where heavy-har- ness horses are in demand. In the United States, the Hackney is found in largest numbers in New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts and Illinois, but numbers of the breed are becoming broadly scattered through the states in general. Organizations and records.—The English Hackney Horse Society was organized in 1883 and published the first volume of its stud book in 1884. The American Hackney Horse Society was organized in 1891, and the first volume of the stud book was published in 1893. Since then five volumes have appeared, registering 1,550 stallions and 2,000 mares. CHAPTER XII THE FRENCH COACH HORSE The name “French Coach” is of American origin, there being no breed of that name in France. The term “Demi Sang,” meaning half-blood, is the name employed to designate the coach horse in France, and was originally applied to the offspring of English sire crossed to Norman mares. The native home of the French Coach horse.—This breed of horses was developed in France, particularly in the counties of Calvados, Orne and La Manche, which, in connection with Eure et Loir and Sarthe, compose that section of France known as Normandy, a region famous for its horses. Because of the proximity to’ England this region was influenced by the race course, and much attention was given to the improvement of the horse stock, with the result that the light horses soon became noted for speed and endurance. The origin of the French Coach horse.—Following the lead of England the French very early begun racing horses. In 1323, during the reign of Charles le Bel, it is stated that racing was rather common. In the latter part. of the seventeenth century, during the reign of Louis XIV, systematic attempts to improve the racing horse were begun by the French government. Colbert, a representative of Louis XIV, established the “Admin- istration des Haras” (administration of the Studs). This experiment proved successful, and did much to promote horse breeding in France. The work went rapidly for- ward and in 1714 a stud was founded at Le Pin, and in 1755 another stud, with r2 sub-studs, were established at Pompadour, both being under government control. These studs were destroyed during the revolution, but were 143 144 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES restored by Napoleon in 1806, and have ever since re- mained important breeding studs, where French horses have been greatly improved. In the general improvement many sources were drawn on. English Thoroughbreds have been liberally imported FIG. 84.—FRENCH COACH STALLION “PALADIN” since the early days of the breed, and Norfolk trotters or Hackneys have been freely imported and liberally used. It is stated that in the inception of the breed 20 to 30 Hackneys were imported annually. Many importations from Arabia and other Oriental countries have been made, particularly at the beginning of government control, and THE FRENCH COACH HORSE 145 even stallions of American breeding have been used. Good examples of the varied sources from which the French Coach sprang are exhibited in the stallions Niger, Tigris, Aemulus, Conquerant and Young Rattler, all of which were famous in the studs of France. Niger, born in 1869, was sired by Norfolk Phenomenon, and out of Miss Bell, a half-blood American mare; Tigris traces in direct male line to the English Thoroughbred, The Heir of Linne, imported to the stud at Tarbes, in 1859; Aemulus, born in 1871, was sired by Mambrino -Paymas- ter, and out of Black Bess, a Morgan mare, thus combin- ing the Mambrino and Morgan families of American trotters; Conquerant traces through both sire and dam to English stock; and Young Rattler, born in England, served the stud in Normandy from 1820 to 1834. After the breed became established fewer animals were im- ported and in recent years it is claimed that the breeding has been confined to French animals entirely. The restriction was promoted by the establishment of a stud book. This was designated “The French Stud Book: A Register of Demi-Sang Horses,” and was established by royal decree in 1833, for the preservation of pedigrees; the first volume of which appeared in 1891, containing 3,219 stallions and 1,445 mares, registered between 1840 and 1890. French methods for improving the horse.—Since the establishment of the “Administration des Haras” during the reign of Louis XIV, the French government has made systematic efforts to promote the horse-breeding industry and to improve the horses of France. As early as 1690 the government owned 1,600 stallions, classed as either “royal” or “approved.” Notwithstanding the political disturbance and war the number of government horses increased, and in 1789 there were over 3,000 approved and government stallions in France, which served about 115,000 mares. The government continued to purchase stallions for its studs, and from 1815 to 1830 imported 146 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES 223 from Arabia and other foreign countries, and in ad- dition purchased 853 from the northern counties of France and selected 826 from the government studs, making a total of 1,902 stallions. It was at the close of this period that the French Jockey Club was organized and the stud book adopted by royal decree, which did much to further the industry. In 1870, the management of the government studs was given to the Department of Agriculture and Commerce. The general control of all government studs was placed in charge of a director, who is assisted by sub-directors, inspectors, superintendents and veterinarians. Another significant fact in this control is that to hold one of the offices one must be a graduate of the horse department at Le Pin. Perhaps this contributes to the general uni- formity of the horses throughout France more than any other single factor, and is in striking contrast to Amer- ican methods as brought about by the various states’ stallion laws, where instead of a few inspectors with a common type, there are many inspectors with equally as many types (p. 430). Classes of public stallions in France——There are three classes of public stallions standing in France: First, stallions owned in the government studs, In 1910 the number owned was 3,445, of which 2,214 were French Coach, 664 draft and 567 Thoroughbreds. Second, stallions owned privately, but approved or subsidized by the government. When thus approved the owners of such stallions are allowed from 300 to 5,000 francs ($60 to $1,000) bonus, annually, from the Minister of Agricul- ture. In 1910, there were 1,709 approved and subsidized stallions of all types in France. Third, stallions that are authorized, having been passed upon by the officials and found worthy of public service. In 1910, there were 191 authorized stallions of all types in France. All other stallions are prevented by a law passed in 1885 from standing for public service. THE FRENCH COACH HORSE 147 French Coach horse in America.—It is only recently that the French Coach horse has attracted attention in America. The late M. W. Dunham of Wayne, Illinois, and Powell Brothers of. Springboro, Pennsylvania, were the first important breeders and importers in this country for years. In the early eighties extensive importations were made, largely to the eastern states, though many found their way westward to Ohio and Illinois. In the middle west the French Coach horse has been liberally patron- ized and when the foundation mares were of suitable type and pos- sessed a fair de- gree of action, a high-class car- riage horse has been the product. At the present time more French fic. ¢5.—Frencr Coach STALLION “CHAUDERNAGOR” Coach horses are being imported than any other of the coach breeds, with the possible exception of the Hackney. The following are among the leading breeders or importers: Dunham Brothers, Wayne, Illinois; Taylor and Jones, Williams- ville, Illinois; Robert Burgess & Son, Wenona, Illinois; McLaughlin Brothers, Columbus, Ohio; and Singmaster & Brother, Keota, Iowa. Notable animals.—The following stallions are among the famous ones, each having 25 or more recorded produce in Volume I of the French Coach Stud Book of America: Perfection (993), by Bamjuls, and out of Charlotte, with 163 recorded produce; Paladin (1968), by Perfection, and out of Modestine, with 64 recorded produce; 148 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Pepino (1413), by Perfection, and out of Tempest, with 27 recorded produce; Vengeur (2525), by Ja- gellon, and out of Bettina, with 29 recorded produce; and Regent, by Leverant, and out of Norma, with 26 recorded produce. The following mares are among the more famous, and each have ten or more recorded produce in Volume I: Hirondelle (166), by Niger, and Paquerette (169), by Omega, each with 14 recorded produce; Gazelle (409), by Oriental, Godabal (626), by Seneschal, and Verta (19), by Tamar, each with 11 recorded produce; and Eclatante (1006), by Courtesan, Genevieve II (361), by Stade, Goelette (165), by Rivoli, and Ordonnance (847), by Oronet, each with 10 recorded produce. Description of the French Coach horse.—This breed presents much variation in general conformation, and will be described as consisting of two types, the coach type proper, which is the most common in America, and the trotting type, very popular in France. The Coach type.—This is the larger and smoother sort, the stallions averaging 16 hands high and the mares 15.2 hands. The most acceptable weight for the stallion is about 1,350, with mares at 1,200 pounds. This type is rather upstanding, carrying the head and tail high. The animals are smooth and symmetrical, with very graceful movements, having fairly high and bold knee and hock action. The head is intelligent and of medium size; the neck is graceful and of good length; the shoulders are long and sloping; the body is well rounded and snugly ribbed with well-muscled loin, giving a short, strong back; the croup is full and of medium length; and the quarters long and powerfully muscled. The knees and hocks are strong and clean; the cannons short, with tendons well detached, with pasterns moderately sloping and feet dense and elastic. In general appearance, there is an airiness and gracefulness about the French Coach that is difficult to find in any other coacher, with the THE FRENCH COACH HORSE 149 possible exception of the Hackney. The common colors are bay, black, brown and chestnut. The trotting type-—This is the smaller and perhaps more rangy sort; for, as might be expected, it is somewhat like the Norfolk trotter in general appearance, as the parentage is somewhat similar and the racing is con- ducted much as in Norfolk, largely under the saddle and carrying not less than 120 pounds. In this type stamina and substance as well as speed are re- quired, since the races are for long distances over turf, which demands strong, bold going and powerful action. Speed records and race tracks. — For many years racing under the saddle has Fic. 86.—FRENCH COACH STALLION ‘‘FADIAVOLO” been very popular among the French Coach breeders of France. In 1873 Niger trotted 214 miles in 6.55 ; in 1875 Zethus trotted 12% miles in 37.21, while Caen trotted the same distance in 37.19; and in 1877 the mare Zacinthe trotted 1834 miles on an ordinary road in 59 minutes. Up to 1877 the fastest record was by Pactole, who trotted 244 miles in 6.38. In 1891, there were 1,399 contestants in races, 312 of which trotted races from 2 to 334 miles in less than three minutes per mile, 137 under 2.50, 112 under 2.45 and 62 under 2.40. Of the ai2, there were 101 three-year-olds. The average dis- tance was 244, miles; the average time per mile, 2.50; the fastest time for the three-year-olds, distance 214 miles, 6.33; and the fastest time for the five to seven- year-olds, distance 34% miles, was eight minutes, 150 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES The French track is from two to three miles long, and is of turf. These sod tracks promote high knee action and long strides, as well as strong, well-flexed hock action, and in addition increase the stamina and endur- ance. Uses of the French Coach horse-—In America, this breed is prominent for heavy-harness driving, while in France it is also used for saddle purposes, for racing and for the cavalry. In this country the French Coach stallions are often crossed on common mares for the production of a grade coach horse for general city pur- poses. When the mares were of the proper conformation and possessed sufficient quality success has usually fol- lowed such efforts. These grades possess much style and action, and in addition are of sufficient weight to command a high price on the market. Distribution of the French Coach horse.—This breed is perhaps as widespread as the Hackney, but has not been bred systematically on a large scale except in France. Jarge numbers have been imported to America and are scattered throughout the North Atlantic and Central states, where they are in demand for general utility. Organizations and records.—As previously stated, the French Coach Stud Book was established and the French Jockey Club organized in 1833 by a royal decree. This organized effort has been responsible for much of the development of the breed in France. In America the I'rench Coach is represented by two societies, the French Coach Horse Society of America, organized in 1888, and with headquarters at Oak Park, Illinois, and the French Coach Horse Registry Company, organized in 1904, with headquarters at Columbus, Ohio. Each society has es- tablished a stud book and published at least one volume. CHAPTER XIII THE GERMAN COACH HORSE In America we are accustomed to considering all horses imported from Germany as German Coach horses; whereas, Germany has several distinct breeds of horses varying greatly in size and conformation. This has led to much confusion as to the correct form of a German Coach horse. The native home of the German Coach horse.—This breed was developed in northwestern Germany, particu- larly in the fertile lowlands drained by the Elbe, Weser and Ems rivers, a district in which the conditions are very favorable to the development of the horse. It was in this section that the great draft horse of Europe was originally found. The states that contributed to the development of the German Coach horse are Hanover, Oldenburg, Schleswig-Holstein and East Friesland. The origin of the German Coach horse.——The German Empire is composed of numerous states and principalities. Owing to the number of separate governments involved prior to the consolidation of the Empire, there was no single fixed policy followed, for which reason there are many marked differences between the various strains of horses found in Germany. The multiplicity of states likewise renders it difficult to reach very accurate con- clusions regarding the early history of most of the strains, but there is no doubt that in point of antiquity these horses rank with any of the other coach breeds. The German Coach horse owes its origin to horses im- ported from the Orient, and other countries, which were crossed on the native mares of Germany. As early as 1552 Count Johanna imported horses from Turkey and southern. Europe to Oldenburg, and took an active in- 1 152 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES terest in horse breeding. This eastern blood has been fused with the horses of Oldenburg for over three and one-half centuries. It is stated that a half century pre- vious to this, annual fairs were held in Friesland, near the border of Holland, which attracted much attention by their horse shows and, no doubt, resulted in many importations, as these events were attended by horse FIG. 87.—GERMAN COACH STALLION “NERO” merchants from Holland, Belgium and Germany. A catalog of Prince Geo. Albrichts’ stud, published in 1708, showed importations from Turkey, Poland, Hungary, Denmark, England and other countries. From this it would seem that the German Coach horse was of mixed ancestry. It does not appear, however, that the Ger- mans made extended use of the English Thoroughbred in the evolution of their horse, although trace of the blood is plainly discernible. THE GERMAN COACH HORSE 153 German methods for improving the horse——For cen- turies the governments of many of the principalities have promoted horse breeding. Early in the seventeenth cen- tury a government stud was established at Ilo which pos- sessed 182 horses in 1648; from 1628 to 1648 the stables of Count Ulrich II contained many famous stallions; and in 1658 Count Enno Ludwig sent Emperor Leopold a number of horses described as very beautiful and of great value. Early in the eighteenth century a govern- ment stud was in operation at Harlingerland, in East Friesland, and a report dated 1712 refers to 16 stallions that served 819 mares. Government supervision of horse breeding.— Formerly a few of the principalities, notably East Friesland, held very close supervision of horse breeding, which was regulated by royal edicts. Later more liberality was permitted, but it was made a law that no permits should be issued authorizing the public use of stallions, unless they passed a satisfactory government inspection. At présent the government and the agricultural societies are encouraging horse breeding by awarding prizes to animals of special merit, such animals to remain in the country for a specified time. A commendable feature of the system is that first prizes are given only to mature stallions and mares that have shown merit as breeders. Large horse shows are held at Aurich, East Friesland, where the horses are brought each year for government inspection and approval. Horse breeding in Germany is greatly influenced by military requirements which has a bearing upon the type approved. This is so great a controlling factor that few of the powerful and compactly built type can be found. TYPES AND BREEDS OF GERMAN HORSES As previously stated, owing to the conditions prevail- ing in Germany, many types of German horses have been at if 154 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES developed. Perhaps the most noted of these are the East Prussian or Trakehnen horse, Hanoverian horse, Holstein horse, Oldenburg horse, East Friesland horse, and the Schleswig horse. The East Prussian or Trakehnen horse.—East Prussia has more horses to the square mile, omitting towns of over 10,000 inhabitants, than any other part of Germany. FIG. 88—GERMAN COACH STALLION “LANDGRAF” It supplies annually from 4,000 to 5,000 remounts to the Prussian army. The most important horse breeding cen- ter in East Prussia is the stud of Trakehnen, founded in 1732 by Frederick William I, King of Prussia, and father of Frederick the Great. He established this stud with 1,101 horses from the royal studs. There were many importations from the East and a few English Thorough- breds added to the stud from time to time. The East THE GERMAN COACH HORSE 155 Prussian horse is described as having a good disposition, great endurance, a fine head, well-formed neck and a strong, well-ribbed back and loin. Count Wrangel states that the depth and slope of the shoulder are not satis- factory, legs rather too long, body too light for height, and that there is a lack of elegant action, though this is denied by Major Schoenbeck, who states that the action is usually good, and any faults in this respect can gen- erally be cured by careful training. The Hanoverian horse.—Through the influence of the English Hanoverian kings, many English Thoroughbreds were sent to Hanover between the years 1714 and 1837, where, owing to the fertile pasture lands and favorable conditions, the type of horse that resulted contains more substance than the East Prussian horse. The Hanover- ian horse is used more for draft than for saddle purposes, although they have strong legs and a good back on which they can carry a load sufficiently heavy to make them serviceable military horses. The horses are bred ‘by farmers who work the brood mares on their farms. The Holstein horse.—For many centuries Holstein has been noted for its good horses. The splendid pasture lands of Kremper, which is in the district of Steinberg, on.the banks of the Elbe, are particularly well known for their good horses. In size, these horses are about equal to the Hanoverian; they are powerful, with good legs and free action, are suitable for both riding and driving, and are in great demand. It is doubtful, however, whether the Holstein horse is as enduring as the East Prussian horse. The Oldenburg horse.—This is perhaps the parent of the German Coach horse, and, as we have seen, owes its origin to Oriental and other imported blood. The Oldenburg horse averages 15.3 to 16.2 hands high and 1,200 to 1,400 pounds in weight, and is used for heavy coach work, but seldom as a saddler. Some writers state that the horses of this type are not of the best quality, but 156 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES stand high in public favor because of their great size, some being 17 hands high and broad in proportion. They have good dispositions and mature at an early age. The East Friesland horse—During the middle ages East Friesland bred a strong and heavy war horse, which gradually changed into a stately coach horse. The East Friesland horse is about the size of the Oldenburg horse FiG. 89.—GERMAN COACH MARE “FOPE” and has been developed under similar conditions. In a description of this type the East Friesland Stud Book states that the object of the breed is to produce a strong, noble and docile carriage horse which will develop quickly, and can be put to light agricultural work in its third year, in order to refund a part of its cost of rearing. The Schleswig horse.—Though the character of the soil is variable in Schleswig the pastures are luxuriant and the conditions favorable for the production of horses which, in the middle ages, were able to carry knights in THE GERMAN COACH HORSE 157 heavy armor and to do all kinds of pack and draft work. While many kings and dukes established studs in Schles- wig the one which remained the longest in existence was founded by Friedrich III in 1648. It is stated that. present-day animals can be traced to his stud. In 1891 the Registered Union of Schleswig Horse Breeding So- cieties was formed with the stated object of “supplying a strong work horse that can fulfill agricultural, commer- cial and military requirements.” The German Coach horse in America.—It is only re- cently that the German Coach horse made his appear- ance in America, the first importations occurring in the eighties. About the year 1890 the breed began té gain recognition at our fairs and horse shows. Among the early importers may be mentioned A. B. Holbert of Greeley, lowa, who was perhaps the first to introduce the breed; the Altmans, Watseka, Illinois, and J. Crouch & Son, Lafayette, Indiana. Perhaps by far the more im- portant of the early animals imported was Moltke, who is credited with 51 recorded produce in Volume II of the German, Hanoverian, Oldenburg Coach Horse Stud Book. Other imported stallions of note are Kaiser Wil- helm (494) Young Altona I (458), and Young Adonis (476), as well as Bertus, Ento and Hannibal, the last four having distinguished show careers. In a study of the animals recorded in Volume II of the stud book it was found that Moltke leads as a sire, while others in order are: Ruthard with 48 recorded produce, Whittlesbacher with 35, Friebeuter with 31, and Elegant with 26 re- corded produce. The German government voted a large sum of money to make a display of German Coach horses at the Chicago World’s Fair in 1893, and sent over a fine exhibit of stallions and mares. The provinces of Oldenburg, East Friesland and Hanover repeated this enterprise at the St. Louis World’s Fair in 1904. 158 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Description of the German Coach horse.—While there is considerable variation among German Coach horses in America, as in Germany, the height ranges from 16 to 16.2 hands and the weight from 1,350 to 1,450 pounds. The prevailing colors are bay, black and brown. The head is of medium size, full and well carried, the neck long and arched, the shoulders moderately sloping and the FIG. 90.—GERMAN COACH MARE “FUNGE” withers prominent. Compared with the French Coach, the body of the German Coach is larger and longer, though the back and loins are powerfully muscled, the croup high and the tail well placed. Compared with the Hackney, the legs show considerable more length, al- though well muscled and clean, while the feet are ex- cellent. The action varies with the size and quality of the horse. Where there is not too much weight and suf- ficient quality the action is excellent, but as the weight THE GERMAN COACH HORSE 159 increases and the quality decreases it is the rule for the action to decrease also. Use of the German Coach horse.—In the German Em- pire this is the horse-of-all-work. At home this breed is called on to do saddle work, the light as well as the heavy carriage work, and the draft work. In America the Ger- man Coach horse differs from other coach horses in at least two respects: First, there has never been any at- tempt to breed or train them to speed at the trot, and, second, some strains are decidedly heavier than the other coach horses and for this reason are not so active, though the lighter types make fair heavy-harness horses. In this country the German Coach horse has been used’to.some extent in crossing on common mares, but with varying success, and for this reason the breed is not so popular in cross-breeding as either the Hackney or the French Coach. _ Distribution of the German Coach horse.—This breed is found in many countries throughout Europe, Eastern Asia, South Africa and both North and South America. In Canada, it is perhaps most popular in the Northwest. In the United States it is most popular in the Central States, particularly in Indiana, Illinois and Iowa, but is found in many parts of the ‘country. ; Organizations and records.—In Germany the breeders of each of the more important types, notably the East Prus- sian, Hanoverian, Holstein, Oldenburg, East Friesland and Schleswig, have organized associations and estab- lished stud books with a view of promoting the various types or breeds as they are known in Germany. The German, Hanoverian and Oldenburg Coach Horse Asso- ciation of America was organized in Illinois in 1892 and a stud book established. Later the Oldenburg Coach Horse Association was organized, also in Illinois, and a stud book started. Jn this country there is much con- fusion in the public mind as to the various types of Ger- man Coach horses, due, perhaps, to the consolidation of 160 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES names and types in the German, Hanoverian and Olden- burg stud book. It would seem that the advocates of the breed would do well to clarify, in some permanent way, this apparent confusion. Criticisms of the German Coach Horse.—In conforma- tion this breed is exceedingly variable, the East Prussian horse being of the lighter type, while the Schleswig horse, because of the luxuriant pastures in Schleswig, contains greater substance and is of a more massive type. Among German horses coarseness is not uncommon, as seen in the large heads, the large rough joints, and the coarse heavy bone. From a coach horse point of view the action is frequently deficient. This contrast in symmetry, uni- formity and stylish action can be clearly brought out by comparing the German coach horse with the Hackney, in which there is general harmony and frictionless move- ment. CHAPTER XIV THE CLEVELAND BAY COACH HORSE Although the oldest of the large-sized coach horses, the Cleveland Bay has not met with so popular a favor in America as some other breeds of coach horses, par- ticularly the blockier, more symmetrical and more stylish sorts. In England the breed has been more successful. The native home of the Cleveland Bay coach horse.— This breed was developed in northeastern England, in the counties of Durham, Northumberland and more especially Yorkshire. It is in Yorkshire, among the Cleveland hills in the North and East Riding, that this breed is found in its greatest purity. The conditions were eminently suitable for the production of superior light horses. The people were horsemen, and the fertile valleys and hills, underlaid in the best grazing districts with limestone, were very productive of nutritious grasses. The origin of the Cleveland Bay coach horse.—There is no authentic data regarding the origin of this breed, and the first records of the Cleveland horse connect him with being a pack or Chapman horse. Many theories have been advanced as to the probable origin, of which four are worthy of mention. First, it is asserted that the breed is a descendant of the “Old War Horse,” improved by crossing with Oriental and English stock; second, that it has been gradually developed from the horse of southern England; the adherents state this is supported by the fact that a similar breed formerly existed in Devon, in the south of England; third, that it is a descendant, of the old Scandinavian horse, improved by careful breed- ing under the different climatic conditions of England, and this claim, it is stated, is supported by the black points in the Cleveland horse; and, fourth, it is asserted 161 162 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES that the breed owes its origin to the use of Thorough- breds on English cart-horse mares, though this theory is denied by the Cleveland Bay authorities who wish to show a pure ancestry. Notwithstanding this objection, it is probable that a gradual use of horses of lighter breeding on heavy mares of the larger English breeds has finally resulted in the formation of the Cleveland coach horse. This is supported by the statement that of the three sires, Dark, Bar- ley Harvest and Hole Hill Horse, which had most to do in estab- lishing the Cleveland Bay, Dark traces in direct line to Darley Arabian. It is probable, z however, that the old Cleve- land Bay, the horse that was so popular in early days, had very lit- tle, if any, Thoroughbred blood in him considering the amount that has been used later. The decline of the Cleveland Bay coach horse.—At the opening of the nineteenth century the Cleveland Bay was in great demand for heavy coach work, particularly matched teams for the London market. ‘This stimulated breeding, which was carried on with system and success during the first quarter of the century. Following this came economic changes which influenced the type of horse demanded. Chief of these economic changes were the increased activity in agriculture and the development of the coal industry, which created a very strong demand Fic. 91.—-CLEVELAND BAY STALLION ‘‘BEODLOIN FRED” THE CLEVELAND BAY COACH HORSE 163 for heavier horses; and the improving of the public roads, resulting in the use of lighter vehicles, thus calling for lighter horses for road work, all of which operated to reduce the demand for a heavy coach horse. It was more profitable, therefore, to breed the heavy draft horse for draft and the lighter and more active horse for the road and so the Cleveland Bay fell into disfavor and was neglected. After some years the breed began to adapt itself to condition, and from 1851 to 1867 it was in considerable favor, when there came a second decline in its popularity. Perhaps the development of the railroads was respon- sible for this decline. When the outlook seemed darkest, the American trade opened up, and in 1884 the Cleveland Bay Horse Society was organized and a stud book estab- lished, the object being to promote the purity of the breed and to put it in proper relation to the public. This did not stimulate the anticipated interest, for in 1885, at the . show of the Royal Agricultural Society, held in the County of York, the stronghold of the breed, but one entry of a Cleveland Bay was made, and that was a mare in foal. During the last decade of the nineteenth, and the first decade of the twentieth century, the breeding of Cleveland Bays has attracted some attention, as is shown by the show of the Royal Society in 1900, again held in York, when 41 entries were made. Since then a number of creditable exhibits have been made in various English shows. The Yorkshire Coach horse.—Because of its relationship to the Cleveland Bay the Yorkshire Coach is mentioned here. In England there is a Yorkshire Coach Horse So- ciety in addition to a Cleveland Bay Horse Society, and each has established a stud book, so that the horses are registered separately and the two breeds are distinct. In America, however, the Yorkshire Coach horse and the Cleveland Bay horse are considered as one breed, and are 164 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES registered in the Cleveland Bay Stud Book by the Cleve- land Bay Society of America. The Yorkshire Coach horse is an offshoot of the Cleve- land Bay, but it has been recognized as a distinct variety for over a century in England. It is designated as an improved Cleveland, free use having been made of Thor- oughbred blood. As to the origin and characteristics of the Yorkshire Coach horse, the Yorkshire Stud Book, published in 1887, states that it can- not be claimed for the Yorkshire Coach horse, that he is a pure-bred animal, but that on the contrary, by the judicious cross- ing of large-sized, good-colored mares with stallions, alto- gether or nearly Thoroughbred, a class of horses has been produced suited to the wants and circumstances of the times. By universal consent, the color should be bay or brown, with black eyes; mane and tail, abundant but not curly; the height, from 16 hands to 16 hands 2 inches, with fine head, sloping shoulders, strong loins, and lengthy quar- ters, high-stepping action, good sound feet, flat legs, and abundance of bone and muscle. From the early records it would seem that much was made of the speed, power and endurance of these horses, as Dreadnought, by Old Clothier, won a trotting match for £100, carrying 124 pounds 16 miles within an hour; Plato, the brother of Wonderful, the noted premium winner at the Ripon show in 1819, trotted 18 Fic, 92.—CLEVELAND Bay STALLION THE CLEVELAND BAY COACH HORSE 165 miles within the hour, carrying 144 pounds; and B. Pullen’s King William trotted a mile in three minutes at Selby, carrying 112 pounds. The Cleveland Bay coach horse in America.—This breed has never been popular in America. In the early eighties Geo. E. Brown & Company of Aurora, Illinois, W. M. Fields & Bro. of Cedar Rapids, Iowa, Jesse Harris of Fort Collins, Colorado, and Stericker Bros. of Spring- field, Illinois, imported a number of unusually good repre- sentatives, but the type and breed characteristics never found favor. Formerly there was considerable interest taken in the show ring, particularly by the Sterickers, who made many attractive exhibits, but at present speci- mens of Cleveland Bays are almost unknown in our horse shows. Further, importations are rarely made, as there is not a single breeder prominently advocating the merits of the breed. Description of the Cleveland Bay coach horse.—In the first volume of the Cleveland Stud Book, which was pub- lished in 1884, there is the following description of the Cleveland Bay horse: “From 16 hands 1 inch to 16 hands 2% inches in height, he should be possessed of good, sloping shoulders, a short back, powerful loins, and long quarters. His head is rather ptain than otherwise, and on the large size, but it is well carried, and his general appearance denotes activity and strength, combined in a manner not seen in any other breed. His action is not remarkably high, but it is the kind of action for getting over ground. In color he is bay—either light or dark— with black legs, clear of hair, and black zebra-like stripes on the arm and above the hock are sometimes seen. These are known as the ‘black points,’ and are supposed to denote special breeding. White, save a small star, or a few white hairs in the head, is not admissible, a blaze or a white foot proclaiming at once the admixture of foreign blood.” The best specimens that have been imported to 166 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES this country weigh from 1,200 or 1,550 pounds. While the breed ranks among the largest of the coachers, it lacks somewhat the quality and action of the other coach breeds. In coach and carriage horses, high and attractive knee action with good hock action is essential. Such action must be combined with a smooth, stylish and symmetrical appearance, which in turn must be associated with quality in all the parts. Since the Cleveland Bay did not approach the excellence shown by other breeds in this respect, it failed to attract popular favor. The Yorkshire Coach horse is described as strongly FIG. 93.—CLEVELAND BAY GELDINGS resembling the Cleveland Bay in some respects, but is taller and shows more style and quality. The head is more refined and the crest more developed. The action is also freer, as well as higher. Uses of the Cleveland Bay coach horse.——While this breed was formerly in very great demand for heavy- harness driving, it failed to keep pace with the times, and other breeds have succeeded it. Stallions of the breed have been used to some extent in crossing on the common mares, with varying success. They have one advantage in that there is uniformity in color and mark- THE CLEVELAND BAY COACH HORSE 167 ings, which they seem to be potent in transmitting, when crossed on common mares. Because of this their get is uniform and easily matched into teams. Cleveland Bay coach horses seem to have plenty of stamina and fair quality, which, in connection with their size and good disposition, adapt them to work on the farm better than the other breeds of light horses, but, for some reason, per- haps because of the deficient action, they have never met with favor in America. Distribution of the Cleveland Bay coach horse.—This breed seems to have enjoyed some popularity in South FIG. 94.—CLEVELAND BAY MARES AND COLTS Africa, to which country many are being exported at the present time. Aside from importations to North America, the Cleveland Bay has been taken to South America, Australia and Sweden. Those brought to America were distributed throughout the Central states and Canada. Organizations and records.—As previously stated, in England there is a society and stud book supporting each the Cleveland Bay coach and the Yorkshire Coach. In 1885, the Cleveland Bay Society of America was organ- 168 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES ized and a stud books established, of which two volumes have been published, the last dated 1891, thus showing the lack of interest in recent years. Both Cleveland Bay and Yorkshire Coach are recorded in the American Cleve- land Bay Stud Book. Criticisms of the Cleveland Bay.—As with the German Coach, this breed lacks the general symmetry of form and the stylish carriage so essential to coach horses in America. The Cleveland Bay is rather upstanding, with long legs, which are often deficient in quality. The head is often plain and often lacking in quality. The rear ribs are frequently deficient in length, giving the body a rangy appearance; the action, one of the most important charac- teristics of a coach horse, is not stylish and lacks in ani- mation. CHAPTER XV THE PERCHERON DRAFT HORSE Of the various breeds of pure-bred horses in America, the Percheron draft horse is the most popular. This breed secured a foothold in Ohio in the early fifties, from which place it has spread in all directions with amazing rapidity. The native home of the Percheron draft horse.—This breed was developed in northwestern France, especially in that section of the country known as La Perche, a district situated to the south and west of Paris, and em- bracing a considerable portion of the territory that is included in the modern departments or counties of Orne, Eure et Loir, Loir et Cher and Sarthe. La Perche is about 50 by 6o miles in area, with a rather broken surface, having numerous valleys and small streams of water. The soil is fertile, producing nutritious grasses, and the climate favorable for the production of horses of the highest excellence, while the inhabitants have long been noted for their attachment to the horse. All of north- western France, from Paris to the English channel, has from time immemorial been famous as a horse-produc- ing region. The origin of the Percheron draft horse.—The source of this breed is to be found in the large infusion of eastern lood upon the native stock of La Perche, a district already distinguished for the size and strength of its horses, as well as to the natural adaptation of the soil and climate and the habits of the people. In $732 France was invaded by the Saracens, 300,000 strong, who were defeated by Charles Martel on the ‘plains of Vonille. The Arab and Barb steeds upon which the infidels were mounted fell into the hands of the victors, and were assigned largely to the men of La Perche, Orleans and 169 170 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Normandy. Other large infusions of Eastern blood took place upon the return of the Crusaders, who brought with them many of the finest Arabian stallions. These horses, crossed upon the large, strong, native mares, imparted a degree of refinement and finish that has ever since char- acterized the horses of northern France. ‘There were other countries besides Arabia, however, that contributed horses to La Perche, to aid in the de- velopment of the draft horse of France. Madame du Barry of Paris received a gift of a pair of Danish horses about 1775, which became so popular that they were fol- lowed by others of the same kind, with the result that Danish horses were used extensively in Normandy. English stock was also introduced, as were horses from Belgium and adjoining districts, particularly Flanders. In addition, reference is made to horses being introduced from Andalusia, Spain. Early development of the Percheron draft horse—lIn 1820, two famous Arabian stallions, Godolphin and Galli- poli, were imported and extensively used under the direc- tion of the government at the stud of Pin. These horses were gray and no doubt had much influence in develop- ing the gray color of the draft horses of France. Fur- ther, these two sires are given credit for much of the quality, style and finish possessed by the Percheron. Galli- poli, in particular, had a very beneficial influence, es- pecially through his grandson, Jean Le Blanc, born in 1823, and regarded as the greatest sire of his day. The type of horse resulting from the use of eastern stallions upon the mares of La Perche was a smaller and more active animal than the Percheron of the present time, and was more suited to general purposes. This early type is described as showing much less scale and ranging from 15 to 16 hands high with a draft conformation; the head of medium size and clean cut, frequently as fine as an Arab’s; the neck rather short; the shoulders long and sloping with chest deep and broad; the body well ribbed Missing Page Missing Page THE PERCHERON DRAFT HORSE 173 being natural horsemen, take pride in preparing their horses for these shows. The more important shows are held under different conditions. A great central show is held at Paris each year. The annual Percheron show is held in a migratory way, coming back to the same place every 12 years. Each year the Percheron Society holds a show in the district of La. Perche at either La Ferte, Mortagne or Nogent-le-Rotrou. While the success of these horse fairs and the rapid improvement in the breed were due to the united effort of all the breeders, large and small, yet a few of the more noted breeders are Perriot Brothers, M. Fardonet, Sr, M. Tacheau, and Louis Eveline. Endurance and speed of the Percheron.—It is interest- ing to note the speed and endurance of the Percheron of half a century ago, when he was used extensively in the mail and coach service. Trials were made also under “the saddle and in light harness. These early tests “demonstrate the endurance of the Percheron as well as his ability to trot fast while carrying or drawing a heavy load. The courses most frequented were those at Illiers, rourtalain, Montdoubleau and Mortagne, which are escribed as very crude, often consisting of plowed fields, hich became hard in dry weather, but cut up like peat Pog in wet times. In 1864 Julie trotted 1% miles, under the saddle, at Montdoubleau, in 3 minutes and 50 seconds; in the same year Vaillante trotted 15% miles, at Mortagne, in 4 minutes and 38 seconds; while in 1861 Cocatle trotted two miles at Illiers in 6 minutes 514 seconds. In 1865 Achille trotted two miles in harness at Illiers in 7 minutes and 17 seconds; while in 1851, Vigoreux trotted 214 miles in 8 minutes and 30 seconds over the same course. It is stated that in 1854 a gray mare hitched to a traveling gig and belonging to Mr. Montrevil trotted 5534 miles on a hilly and difficult road in 4 hours and 24 minutes. 174 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES The Percheron draft horse in America.—The introduc- tion of French draft horses to America dates back as early as 1816 when a stallion was taken to Quebec. About 1826 this horse was sold to James McNitt of Washington county, New York, and was known throughout that FIG. 96..-PERCHERON STALLION “KLAQUEUR” region under the various names of European, Norman and the McNitt Horse. His fame has been chiefly per- petuated through this son, the Morse Horse, sire of Alexander’s Norman. In 1839 Edward Harris of Moores- town, New Jersey, made two importations, the first con- sisting of one stallion and two mares and the second of two stallions, Diligence and Bonaparte, and two mares. The first was unsuccessful, as the stallion died at sea, one THE PERCHERON DRAFT HORSE 175 of the mares landed in poor health, while the other in- jured herself by breaking through the floor of the car during shipment, which necessitated killing her. The second attempt was successful, as all four animals landed in good health. These were the smaller type of Per- cheron, standing about 15 hands high and weighing 1,200 to 1,500 pounds. Diligence, who died in 1860, was re- garded as a fine specimen, and left a marked impression upon the stock of New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania. Three famous imported Percheron sires.——It was not until about 1850 that the Percherons began to attract favorable attention in the United States. About this time there were three stallions imported that proved to be remarkable sires, namely, Louis Napoleon, Normandy and Success, Louis Napoleon—lIn 1851 Fullington and Martin of Milford Center, Union county, Ohio, imported a gray three-year-old colt under the name of Louis Napoleon. This horse is described as not of largest type, but short- legged, closely ribbed and compact, standing 15.2 hands high and weighing in full flesh about 1,600 pounds. At the time of his importation he was a dark ‘iron-gray, but long before his death became perfectly white. He was much criticized at first because of his size, but his colts showed up so remarkable that he became very popular as a sire. In 1856 Louis Napoleon was purchased by A. P. Cushman of De Witt county, Illinois, and his popularity in the West became even greater than in Ohio. A large number of Louis Napoleon’s colts were left entire, and it is estimated that over 400 of these were successful sires, Normandy.—In 1851 Marcus Brown of Circleville, Pickaway county, Ohio, imported a three-year-old colt, which was subsequently registered in Volume I of the Percheron-Norman Stud Book as Normandy 351. This colt was not so large as Louis Napoleon, and is described as never weighing over 1,500 pounds, and was about 15.2 176 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES hands high. He was kept for service near Circleville until 1856, when he was taken to Pleasant Valley, Madi- son county, Ohio, where he remained until his death in 1872. He was known by various names, as Old Bill, the Valley Horse, and the French Horse. Normandy was a sure breeder, and did more than any other to increase the popularity of heavy horses in Central Ohio. Success—In 1868 W. J. Edwards of Clifton, Iroquois county, Illinois, imported two stallions, Success and French Emperor, both of which were soon afterward sold to the Fletcher Horse Company. In 1874 M. W. Dunham purchased the company and Success, in whose hands the stallion proved the right to own his name, as he left a very marked impression on the heavy-horse stock of Illinois. Success is described as being about 16 hands high and weighing about 1,600 pounds. It is also stated that his get were usually large, compactly built, clean limbed, and very stylish, whether from large or small mares. Other famous imported sires ——The following table con- tains a few of the more notable early imported sires, the date of birth, the date of importation, and the sire and dam: Date | Date Name of |ofim- Sire Dam birth | por- tation Vidocuq 483 1869 | 1874 | Coco II (714) Dam by Cheri Brilliant 1271 1876 | 1881 | Brilliant (756) | Ragout, by Favori I (711) French Monarch 205 | 1865 | 1874 | Ilderim (5302) | Dam, by Vieux Pierre (894) Fenelon 2682 1880 | 1883 | Brilliant (755) eee by Duke of Perche, La Ferte 5144 1881 | 1886 | Philibert (760) | Julie, by Brilliant (756) Gilbert 5154 1882 | 1886 | Brilliant (755) | Sophie (7694) Seducteur 8850 1884 | 1888 | Fenelon (38) Rosalie, by Brilliant (756) Early importers.—There were a few other notable im- porters in the fifties which were followed by large num- bers in the sixties. In 1851 Captain Samuel Holmes of THE PERCHERON DRAFT HORSE 177 Chester Springs, Pennsylvania, brought two stallions from France, and during the same year two others were im- ported, one for J. J. Parker of West Chester and the other for Edward Shippen of Meadville. In 1856 Gordon and Martin of Woodstock, Ohio, imported a stallion subse- quently registered in Volume I of the stud book as Rollin 418. Soon afterward this stallion was taken to Illinois, where he acquired a great local reputation. In 1866 W. T. Walters of Baltimore, Mary- land, imported several stallions and mares. Wal- ters was the first person to estab- lish a_ breeding stud in America. He had lived in France, where he made a_ close study of horse breeding, and hence was able to Fic, 97.—PERCHERON STALLION “My LorD” buy to advantage. In 1870 M. W. Dunham, of Wayne, Illinois, and in 1874 W. Singmaster of Keota, Iowa, began breeding and importing, both of whom became famous Percheron authorities. In addition the Stubblefields of Bloomington, Ellis Dillon of Normal and Ezra Stetson of Neponset, Illinois, A. W. Cook of Charles City, Iowa, and the Fullingtons of Irwin Station, Ohio, were early breeders and importers. Notable American Percheron breeders.——While it is rather difficult to determine the leading breeders, because some persons have a few very famous animals while others have a large number of only fair animals, yet the following are among the more notable breeders of Per- cherons in the country at the present time: H. G. Mc- 178 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Millan & Sons, Rock Rapids, Iowa; A. L. Robinson & Son, Pekin, W. S. Corsa, White Hall, and Dunhams, Wayne, Illinois; C. M. Jones, Plain City, Ohio; and E. B. White, Leesburg, Virginia. During recent years some very fancy prices have been paid for Percheron stallions. In igto W. S. Corsa of White Hall paid $10,000 for Carnot (66666); in 1905 McLaughlin Brothers of Columbus, Ohio, sold Rosen- berg, grand champion Percheron at the International Live Stock Exposition, for $8,000; and in 1903 the same firm sold Pour-Quoi-Pas (27248) for $7,000 and Orangiste (29606) for $5,500. In addition to these some very good prices have been paid for Percheron geldings, especially when well matched and suitable for show purposes. In 1905 the Pabst Brewing Company purchased a pair for $1,300. Famous show animals.—In recent years the exhibits of Percheron horses at the various fairs and horse shows have attracted favorable comment, and the following table gives a few of the more noted prize-winning stallions and mares at the International Live Stock Ex- position, Chicago: Stallions Mares Imprecation, by Pinsion Castille, by Telamaque Hautbois, by Pavissant Imprudente, by Volcan ureur, by Fier-a-Bras Jupilles, by Conscrit elix, by Dynamo Jolanthe, by Calypso Intime, by Agricole Himere, by Etudiant Carnot, by Balleau Aueroita, by Aride Halicte, by Paulno, Annette, by Calypso Description of the Percheron draft horse.—The best type of Percheron calls for all the characteristics of a model draft horse. The general appearance is massive, muscular and powerful. In weight, mature stallions average from 1,700 to 2,000 pounds and mares from 1,500 to 1,800 pounds, though there are many exceptions, as THE PERCHERON DRAFT HORSE 179 stallions sometimes weigh as much as 2,300 pounds. In height the stallions range from 15.2 to 17 hands, and mares from 15.2 to 16.2 hands. The low-set and massive form is preferred to the upstanding one. In color there is much variation, gray being favored in France, while darker colors are preferred in this country. All colors are found, with black and gray predominating. The action, especially at the walk, is of the very best for heavy horses. The head is often rather large and full, but neat and clean, the forehead broad, the face straight or slightly dished above the nose, and the jaw strong; the eyes full and prominent, and the ears refined and attractively set and well carried. The neck is short but graceful. It is smoothly blended with the body and cleanly attached to the head, with an abundance of mane and foretop. The head and neck are very attractive, suggestive of the Arabian. The shoulders are set at a medium inclination, neither too straight nor too sloping, thus giving a power- ful movement for draft. The chest is full and deep, the distance from the withers to the floor of the chest equaling that from the chest to the ground. The ribs are strongly arched and of great depth, giving a broad, deep body. The, back is short, broad and well muscled, and the underline fairly long. The loin is broad and mus- cular. The croup is powerful, but often too sloping. The legs above the knees and hocks are powerfully muscled. While the joints and cannons are not so clean cut and dense as in the lighter horses, yet they are as clean and hard as in any of the heavier horses. The pasterns are not so long and sloping as in the lighter breeds, but are excellent for draft. The feet are large, with open heels and dense elastic hoofs. Uses of the Percheron draft horse—As a draft horse, the pure-bred or high-grade Percheron has no superior either in America or France. The greatest usefulness of 180 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES the pure-bred stallion lies in mating to the larger type of grade mares which furnish us our best draft teams. A large proportion of our draft teams contain Percheron blood, as this breed is used more extensively in grading up the draft horse than any other in the United States (p. 434). Good results are obtained by crossing the Percheron stallion.on pure-bred draft mares of other breeds, as the Clyde and Shire. The re- sulting offspring is usually clean legged and readily fills the general market demand. The most prominent buyers of New York and Chica- go have testified in the highest terms to the de- mand for Per- cheron grades. Distribution of the Percheron draft horse.—Because of the general excellence of this breed it is very widespread, having been introduced to all countries interested in the development of heavy horses. By far the greater num- ber have been imported to America and they have found their way into almost every state in the Union and into Canada. The records show that between 1851 and 1883 nearly 4,000 Percherons were imported or bred in the United States, which were distributed as follows: Illi nois, 1,834; Ohio, Indiana and Michigan, 577; Wiscot- sin, Iowa and Minnesota, 424; New York, Pennsylvania and New Jersey, 280; Missouri, Kansas and Nebraska, Fic. 98.—-PERCHERON STALLION “NEGRO” TIE PERCHERON DRAFT HORSE 181 186. Of the 4,000 it is stated that 2,600 were imported during the last three years, 1881-3, while in 1884 more than 2,000 of all ages were brought to America. At the present time there is great activity in the Percheron breeding and importing industry, which seems to center about Illinois, Ohio and Iowa, with all states represented. Organizations and records.—In 1883 the Societe Hip- pique Percheronne of France was organized, and during ‘the same year published its first stud book, which, ae since 1885, has accepted for entry only horses whose ancestors are reg- istered in the book. In America there have been many dissensions among the importers and breeders of French draft horses leading to the formation of several so- cieties and stud books. This dates back to 1876 when the first steps were taken to found an Ameri- can stud book. As this was before the establish- ment of the French stud book many of the draft horses imported from France were called Norman, and it was decided to adopt that as the breed name. J. H. San- ders, the secretary of the association, added the word Percheron to the title, so that it read Percheron-Norman Horse Association. Later his action was approved, as many draft horses were imported from France under the name Percheron. Many breeders of French horses, how- ever, were in favor of the term Norman, and accordingly withdrew and organized the National Register of Nor- man Horses, which was later changed to the National Register of French Draft Horses (p. 186). When the Fic. 99.—PERCHERON STALLION “JANTIER” 182 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Percheron Society of France was organized the word Norman was dropped from the American title, in order to correspond with the French Association. The Percheron Stud Book had reached the point of being recognized as the distinct representative of the Percheron breed, when internal dissension arose over the power vested in the secretary. The outcome was the organizing of three associations and the establishment of as many stud books. In 1902 the American Percheron Horse Breeders’ and Importers’ Association was organ- ized, but in 1905 the name was changed to the Percheron Society of America, with headquarters at Union Stock Yards, Chicago. In 1904 the Percheron Registry Com- pany was organized with headquarters at Columbus, Ohio, and in 1905, the American Breeders’ and Importers’ Percheron Registry was organized, with headquarters at Plainfield, Ohio. In 1904, after extended litigation, the American Percheron Horse Breeders’ and Importers’ As- sociation acquired the old stud book and all of the original records, and in 1911, after the name had been changed to the Percheron Society of America, it acquired the Per- cheron Registry Company, so that at the present time the only important society promoting the breed is the Percheron Society of America, which publishes the Per- cheron Stud Book of America, of which 12 volumes have appeared, registering about 78,000 animals. CHAPTER XVI THE FRENCH DRAFT HORSE In France, a number of types and breeds of draft horses have been developed taking their names largely from the localities in which they originated. Here they are recog- nized as distinct breeds, but from time to time specimens of most of them have been imported to America as French Draft horses, which has led to some confusion in names, as there is no single French Draft breed in France. The matter has been still further complicated, in the United States, by the organization of a French Draft Horse So- ciety, which publishes a French Draft stud book in which all draft horses introduced from France may be recorded. The Percheron is, of course, the best-known French draft horse in America, and by far the larger number of re- maining draft horses introduced to this country from France belongs to one of the following breeds: Boulon- nais, Bretons, Ardennais, Nivernais and Picardy, of which the first is the more important. Boulonnais draft horse.—This breed is a native of Boulogne, a district in northeastern France, adjoining Belgium, from which it derives its name. The Boulon- nais horses, without doubt, had their origin in much the same manner as the Percheron, although it is claimed by the French that there is no interchange between the horses of Boulogne and La Perche, and that the Boulon- nais has mainly been improved by selection and care. The breed has an excellent reputation in France, and is regarded as second only in importance to the Percheron. It is also growing in popularity in America. The Boulonnais resembles the Percheron in general characteristics, so much so that it is impossible in the best specimens to distinguish one from the other. They 183 184 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES are not so large as the Percherons and perhaps somewhat less refined, lacking the improvement in type of the Percheron. Many American breeders, however, favor the feet of the Boulonnais in preference to those of any of the other French breeds. It is stated that the feet are larger, more rounded and the pasterns have more slope than the Percherons. The colors are much the same as the Per- cheron, with perhaps a larger number of grays. Breton draft horse.—This breed is a native of Brittany, a prominent horse-breeding district, although the animals ope et Pea Sal EY FIG. 100.—FRENCH DRAFT HORSE bred are rather of a miscellaneous type. The early origin was much the same as the Percheron, and it is suggested that British horses were introduced into Brittany, which possibly accounts for the more luxuriant growth of hait about the legs of the Bretons. In recent years many Percheron stallions have been taken into the district in an effort to improve the breed in size and general characters. The Breton draft horse has much the same general character as the old-style Percherons, but is smaller and THE FRENCH DRAFT HORSE 185 more refined. He has an intelligent head, a clean-cut neck of medium length, a round, well-muscled body with a short back. As a rule, the croup.and rump is longer and straighter than in the other French breeds. The legs show more quality, though not so free from long hair as the Percheron, while the feet are larger and more rounded than the Boulonnais. The color is usually gray, although there are exceptions, as in the Boulonnais. Ardennais draft horse—This breed is a native of Ar- dennais, a district adjoining the Belgian frontier in north- eastern France. The early origin was much the same as the Percheron, though, no doubt, Belgian blood was used to a more or less extent, which is suggested by the resem- blance between the Ardennais draft horse and the Belgian draft horse, though the latter possesses more substance. In general appearance the Ardennais is more massive and blocky than the Percheron, although not so large. The head is large and strong, with small, clean eyes and small ears; the neck is short and thick, and the shoulders are rather straight and heavily muscled. The body is short, but thick and deep; the loins powerfully muscled, with the croup and quarters broad and heavily muscled. The legs are short and well muscled, of fairly good qual- ity, although the feet are often rather high and narrow. In color the Ardennais draft horse is more frequently roan and chestnut, although bay and brown are sometimes found. Gray, the common color among other French draft horses, is seldom found. Nivernais draft horse—This breed is a native of the department of Nivernais or Nievre in central France. The origin of the Nivernais draft horse is to be found in the large black horse, native to the low fertile valleys of Trance, from which it obtains its size and color. It is only within the last few years that its interests have been looked after and choice specimens of the breed are not very numerous. It is stated that the transformation in size and color of the Percheron horse in the past few 186 MANAGEMENT AND ‘BREEDING OF HORSES years has been brought about, to some extent at least, by the use of the best types of Nivernais draft stallions crossed on the mares of La Perche. The Nivernais draft horse compares favorably with the Percheron in size, possessing more bone, and perhaps a little more rangy in general conformation. The head is large and full; the neck of good length and heavy; the shoulders massive; the body of good length and well coupled; the hind- quarters powerfully muscled; and the bone strong, giving the legs a rather round appearance. The pasterns are fairly straight and the feet large. The color is almost uni- formly black, and it is very seldom that a gray, brown or chestnut is found. Fic. 101.—FRENCH DRAFT STALLION Picard y draft horse. — This breed is a native of northern France and Belgium. It is bred in both countries, and is variously classified. Some persons claim it to be Flemish, and hence a Belgian breed, while M. La Motte Rouge of the government studs of France, claims it to be a variety of Boulonnais draft horse. The Picardy draft horse compares favorably with the Belgian draft horse in size and general conformation, being blocky and compact. The color is usually bay, although others are often found. Organizations and records.—In France each of the types and breeds mentioned above, with the possible ex- ception of Picardy, has its own society, which publishes astud book. In America, however, all French draft horses THE FRENCH DRAFT HORSE 187 are recorded by the National French Draft Horse Asso- ciation in the National French Draft Horse Stud Book. This association was formed in 187@ as the National Norman Horse Association, but the name was changed in 1885, as there was no such breed of horses in France as Normans, notwithstanding the current use of the term in America. This association has published nine volumes of the stud book. Criticisms of the French draft horse.—Because of the several types involved this breed is exceedingly variable in conformation, weight and height. The Boulonnais horse resembles the Percheron, while the Ardennais horse is more like the Belgian. The former is often criticized for its light bone and weak joints, particularly the hocks, while the latter also lacks quality in the lower legs and feet, which is often aggravated by straight pasterns and low flat heels, which frequently predispose the parts to disease. The tendons are not well detached and the bones of the legs appear round. Further, the hocks do not show as great depth and strength as desirable. CHAPTER XVII THE CLYDESDALE DRAFT HORSE Because of the influence of the English-speaking people the Clydesdale draft horse is the most widely distributed of the breeds of draft horses. Notwithstanding this, in America, the breed has not met with the popularity of the Percheron and possibly of the Belgian. The native home of the Clydesdale draft horse.—This breed was developed in southern Scotland, particularly in the county of Lanark, which has long been famous for a breed of powerful draft horses. The character of the soil and the habits of the people were important factors in the development of size and strength among the native horses. The breed takes its name from the river Clyde which flows through southern Scotland. The origin of the Clydesdale draft horse.—There is no authentic data regarding the éarly origin of this breed. It is stated that there was more or !ess interchange of draft horse blood between Scotland and England. After the union of the crowns of England and Scotland in 1603 important trade relations sprang up between the two countries, and Scotch cattle dealers driving herds into England returned with English mares, which were bred to stallions in Scotland. Like most other breeds of horses, the Clydesdale is the result of the successful union of selected individuals from various other breeds, none of which possessed the good qualities in the same degree of efficiency as are now common among well-bred Clydes- dales. The credit for establishing the Clydesdale breed is now generally given to John Paterson, a tenant farmer of Lochlyoch, in Carmichael parish, in the county of Lanark. Between 1715 and 1720 he imported from England a black 188 THE CLYDESDALE DRAFT HORSE 189 Flemish stallion, which is said to have so greatly im- proved the breed in the Upper Ward as to have made it noted all over Scotland. This horse is often referred to as “Lochlyoch’s Black Horse,” while his get are spoken of as the most noted breed in the Upper Ward of Lanark- shire during the eighteenth century and described thus: Generally browns and blacks, with white faces and a little white on the legs; they had gray hairs in their tails, along with occasionally gray hairs on their bodies and usually a white spot on their belly, this latter being re- garded as a mark of distinct purity of blood. Early develop- ment of the Clydesdale draft horse.—For more than half a cen- tury following the introduction of “Lochlyoch’s Black Horse,” lit- tle is recorded of the development of the Clydesdale. About the year 1780, Scott of Brownhill, Car- Fie, 102.—Ciypespae STALLION “SiLvER CuP” stairs, imported a two-year-old colt from Ayrshire known as Blaze, because of a white mark in his face. This horse is described as standing 16.1 hands high, black in color and a noted prize winner. Nothing is known of his pedigree, but from his stylish shape and fine action—qualities, he is said to have transmitted—it is generally supposed that he possessed coach blood. In 1808, a man named Somerville of Lampits Farm, pur- chased a two-year-old filly, with which he founded a stud. This filly was mother of Glancer (335), also known as 190 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Thompson’s Black Horse, born about 1810. This horse proved a great sire and, it is stated, from him all the best and most noted horses of the present day are descended. Little is known of the breeding of this horse, but it is thought that he was related to Lochlyoch’s Black Horse. Glancer was black in color, save both hind legs, which were white. He had a strong, neat body set on short, thick legs, the clean, sharp bones which were fringed with nice flowing silken hair. He served for many years in the valley of the Clyde, between Glasgow and Lanark, and left a strong impression on the horse stock. The breeding of good Clydesdales was given consider- able impetus by the Highland Society, which very early began to hold open shows and offer premiums for horses. The prizes were divided so as to promote the breeding of both coach and draft horses. The breeders of Lanark- shire, particularly those of the Upper Ward, took much interest in these events and competition was very keen, which resulted in marked improvement of the horse stock. Famous Clydesdale sires. —Among the many _ notable stallions that have served a very important part in perfecting the Clydesdale draft horse are Bloomfield Champion (95); Clyde alias Glancer (153); Prince of Wales (673); Darnley Fic, 103.—CLYDESDALE STALLION “CALIPH’’ (222) ; and Baron’s Pride (9122.) THE CLYDESDALE DRAFT HORSE I9t Bloomfield Champion (95)—This horse was a great grandson of Glancer (335), and was born about 1831. He was described as being a rich dark brown with forelegs black, hind pasterns white, and a narrow white streak on the face. Bloomfield Champion proved a great sire, and is sometimes referred to as “Aberdeen Champion,” because he gained first prize at the Highland and Agri- cultural Society’s Show at Aberdeen in 1834. He sired Glancer (153), Glancer (338), Bowman’s Colt (1078), and a number of noted brood mares, many of which were noted show animals. Clyde alias Glancer (153).—-This horse was sired by Bloomfield Champion, and was born about 1835. He was described as dark brown in color, powerfully built, and having been ruptured, was known as “The Ruptured Horse.” He was a remarkable sire, as shown by the seven sons and one daughter registered in Volume I of the Scotch Clydesdale Stud Book. Many of these sons proved themselves sires of merit and great show animals. From 1844 to 1850 all of the important prizes at the Scotch horse shows went to the produce of Clyde. Prince of Wales (673).—This horse was sired by Gen- eral (322), by Sir Walter Scott (797), a great show horse and breeder, while his dam was Darling, by Logan’s Twin (741). He was described as being dark brown in color with a white stripe on his face and more or less white on three legs. He possessed a slightly Roman nose and perhaps somewhat straight hocks, although he had good action. Prince of Wales was not only a great show horse, but one of the greatest breeders of sires the. Clydesdale breed has produced, being credited with more offspring in Volume I of the Scotch Clydesdale Stud Book than any other sire. When 18 years old‘ he was sold for an equivalent of $4,725 at the Merryton sale. Darnley (222).—This horse was sired by Conqueror (199), and out of Keir Peggy (187), by Sampson (741). 192 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Keir Peggy, the dam of ten foals and with a great show- yard career, is regarded as one of the greatest brood mares of the breed. Darnley was born in 1872, and purchased as a three-year-old by David Riddell, the owner of Prince of Wales. Darnley was successful in the show ring and famous asasire. While Prince of Wales was a great sire of sires, Darnley was noted as a sire of dams, and both did much to improve the Clydesdale breed. Darnley’s most famous sons were MacGregor (1487), Flashwood (3604), and Top Gallant (1850). MacGregor’s sons did much to improve the Clydesdales of the United States and Canada. Baron’s Pride (9122).—This horse was sired by Sir Everard (5353), by Top Gallant (1850), and out of Forest Mollie (4740), by Pretender (599). He was born in 1890, and is described as brown in color with white stripe on face and white feet. Though criticized as being narrow in the chest and feminine in appearance, yet he is the most famous sire of the present time, and his 225 get, re- corded in the Scotch Clydesdale Stud Book, is approx- imately twice as many as credited to any other sire. His noted son, Baron of Buchlyvie (11263), out of Young Maybloom (12603), by Knight Errant (4483), stands second in the list of sires, with 110 get recorded to his credit. Baron of Buchlyvie was born in 1900 and sold as a three-year-old for an equivalent of $3,750, and in 1911 he was sold at Ayr, Scotland, for $47,500, the highest price ever paid for a horse of draft breeding. Benedict (10315), another son of Baron’s pride, was a noted show animal in Scotland, and was imported to Fort Wayne, Indiana, in 1900, where he stood at the head of the Brook- side Farm stud until 1904, when he was returned to Scot- land. The greatest breeders and owners of Clydesdale draft horses are A. and W. Montgomery of Netherhall and Bank, Kirkcudbright, Scotland. THE CLYDESDALE DRAFT HORSE 193 The Clydesdale draft horse in America.—The first im- portations were probably taken to Canada, because of the love of the Scotch settlers for their favorite breed. In 1842 Archibald Ward of Markham, Ontario,imported Grey . Clyde (78) ; in 1842 R. Johnson of Scarborough, Ontario, imported Sovereign (181) ; in 1850 David Roundtree, Jr., of Weston, Ontario, imported Cumberland (106); in 1851 John Wilson of Oshawa, Ontario, imported George Buchanan (182); and in 1854 William Cochrane of Claremont, Ontario, imported Bay Wallace (5). _ It was not un- til the early seventies that Clydesdales be- gan to appear in the United . States, when they were in- troduced from Canada and di- rect from Scot- land. The largest importations were made in the eighties and early nineties, when many thousands of both sexes were brought to America and widely distributed. The more prominent of the early importers were: Powell Brothers, Springboro, Pennsylvania; Robert Holloway, Alexis, Illinois; N. P. Clarke, St. Cloud, Minnesota; and Brook- side Farm, Fort Wayne, Indiana. Famous American Clydesdale sires——While the list of sires that has contributed to the improvement of this breed in our country is very long, yet the following table contains a few of the more notahle ones,-the date of birth, date of importation, and the sire and dam: Fic. 104.—-CLyDESDALE Mare “NuNAs NuMICcB” i94. MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Date | Date of of Name birth | im- Sire Dam por- tation Donald Dinnie (273) 1869 | 1873 | Glancer (339) Jess, by Prince Albert (1257) Cedric (929) 1875 | 1881 | Prince of Wales (487)| Knockdon Maggie, by Ivanhoe (91u) Glencoe (158) 1877 | 1881 | Prince of Wales (487) Pe (Clyde mare Lord Lyriedoch (4113) 1884 Lord Bantyne (2243) | Jess anes (452 Mac Queen (3513) 1885 | 1886 | MacGregor (1487) Bet pi Dellemac (5506 Lyndoch Chief (5642) 1889 | 1890 | Lord Lyriedoch (4113) sais Bloembull 80) Young Mac Queen (8033)| 1894 Mac Queen (3513) ae of ie Lyons j 3511 Laminated Steel (8700) 1896 Cedric 929 Princess of Craich- more III (5601) Benedict (9300) 1896 | 1899 | Baron's Pride (9122) | Mary MacGregor (12864) Famous show animals.—In recent years the exhibits of Clydesdale draft horses at the various fairs and horse shows have attracted favorable comment, and the follow- ing table gives a few of the more noted prize-winning stallions and mares at the International Live Stock Ex- hibition, Chicago: Stallions Mares Flisk Prince, by Marmion Princess Fortune, by Criterion Mikado, by Marcellus Purple Heather, by Baron Hood King Norman, by Mucius Lady Lustrious, by Borgue Chief Baron Chapmanton, by Baron's Pride Lady Effie, by McAra Gartley Pride, by Baron's Pride Pearl of Fairfield, by Netherlia Dinwoodie Star, by Pacific Harviestown Baroness, by Baron's Pride Lord Gleniffer, by Sir Ronald Lady Carruchan, by Gallant-Carruchan Description of the Clydesdale draft horse——The best type of Clydesdale calls for all the characteristics of a model draft horse. Perhaps the general appearance is not so massive as the Percheron, though the weights are approximately cqual, the stallions averaging 1,700 to 2,000 pounds and the mares 1,500 to 1,800 pounds. In height the stallions average about 16.2 hands and the THE CLYDESDALE DRAFT HORSE 195 mares one to two inches less, although occasionally animals of this breed are observed that will stand over 17 hands in height. The preferred color and markings are bay or brown, with a white star or blaze on the fore- head or face, and with white legs up to the knees and hocks. Other colors are found, particularly blacks, grays and chestnuts. Gray is unpopular, however, and chest- nut indicates English Shire blood. The head is large with nose often slightly arched; the nostrils wide and open; the eyes bright, clear and full of vigor, yet mild; the forehead, full between the eyes, but tapering upward; and the ears of fair length and active, indicative of good disposition. The neck is of medium length and massive, slightly arched in the stallion, and also in the mare when she becomes old or in high condi- tion. The shoulders are somewhat oblique, accompanied by high withers, thus providing conditions favorable to a free, easy and long stride. The back is straight and broad with the ribs well sprung. Formerly shortness in the rear ribs was a common defect in the Clydesdale, making him too light in the belly and leggy in appearance, although in recent years much atten- tion has been given to increasing the depth of the body by adding to the length of the rear ribs with a corre- sponding lessening of the criticism. The croup is muscu- lar with tail well set, and the quarters especially well de- veloped. The thighs are rounded and muscular. The set of the knees and hocks is one of the strong points of the breed. The hock is free from coarseness, suggestive of disease, with the hollows well formed. The cannons are short and flat with plenty of substance and the sinews at the back of the legs are strong and well defined. The fet- locks are large and strong and the pasterns fairly sloping. The feet are large and occasionally too thin and flat at the heels. White feet, though common, are objection- able, being frequently, though not invariably, softer than the dark colors. They are now so prevalent among the. 196 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES best horses that some authorities go so far as to say that a white foot and sock are essential in the pure Clydes- dale, although there seems to be well-supported objec- tion to both white feet and legs in southern climates where the white surface is liable to burn and blister in the sun so that the parts become swollen and painful, particularly when the horses have access to water in which they can wet the white places. FIG. 105.—CLYDESDALE STALLION “PRIDE OF DRUMLANDRIG” The backs of the cannons support a growth of long hair known as the “feather.” In horses of best quality the hair springs from the edge of the cannon and is fine, silky and long. The statement is often made that a proper feather protects the coronet and back part of the pastern from filth and mud, and, consequently, is a pre- ventive of scratches. At any rate, the feather when fine indicates that the other tissues, such as the bone, THE CLYDESDALE DRAFT HORSE 197 skin and hair, are also of fine texture. On the other hand, when the feather is wiry and coarse, and curly, it denotes a leg that is predisposed to grease heel and scratches. The Scottish breeders have given much consideration to the action, and as a result the Clydesdale draft horse is particularly noted for his free and snappy knee and hock action. It is stated that he surpasses all other breeds of draft horses in length of stride, and straight- ness and sprightliness of movement, and in the ability to keep the hock together with mechanical accuracy of motion, whether walking or trotting. Criticisms of the Clydesdale-——Horsemen often criticize this and other “feathered” breeds because of the hairylegs which are often difficult to keep clean, dry and free from disease, particularly when the horses are obliged to work on dirt roads or under conditions in which dampness and mud are prevalent in the cooler months of the year. The tendency to straightness in the pastern is also often ob- jectionable as is also the shortness of the rear ribs, which gives the body a rangy appearance and adds length to the legs. Uses of the Clydesdale draft horse.—This breed is es- sentially a draft one, the free, straight, rapid gait and strong, heavy frame, giving it high rank among draft breeds. In addition, Clydesdale stallions are useful in crossing on common mares, the resulting offspring being excellent for farm and city work. The standing of Clydesdale grades is indicated by the $3,200 paid for four draft geldings a few years ago on the Chicago horse market. They are of good disposition and active, though often lacking weight, which emphasizes the absolute necessity of using only such stallions for crossing as have plenty of middle as well as quality and bone. Distribution of the Clydesdale draft horse—The adaptability of this breed has led to a wide distribution, perhaps greater than that of any other draft breed. 198 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Besides the English-speaking countries of the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, the breed has been largely imported to the Argentine Republic, Cape Colony, Sweden, Russia and Germany. In America, the Clydesdale has been most prominent in Canada, where the good effects in grading up farm mares to produce drafters serviceable for farm and city work may be seen in all the large cities. In the United States the breed has found most favor in the north central states. Organizations and records——In 1877 the American Clydesdale Horse Association was formed and a stud book established in which, at the present time, are re- corded approximately 20,000 animals. The Scottish Clydesdale Horse Society was organized in 1878 and a stud book established of which, in 1912, there are 33 volumes recording approximately 27,500 mares and 16,000 stallions. CHAPTER XVIII THE SHIRE DRAFT HORSE Although enjoying the same advantage as the Clydes- dale, so far as the influence of the English-speaking peo- ple is concerned, the Shire draft horse has not met with the same degree of public favor here in America as that accorded the Clydesdale. The native home of the Shire draft horse.—This breed was largely developed in the lowlands of east central England, particularly in the district between the Humber and the Cam rivers occupying the rich lands of Lincoln and Cambridgeshire and extending westward through the counties or shires of Huntingdon, Northampton, Leices- ter, Nottingham, Derby, Warwick and Stafford, on to the river Severn. The climate, soil and habits of the people all contributed to the development of horses of size and substance. During its past history the Shire or its proto- type has been known in England as the Great Horse, War Horse, Cart Horse, Old English Black Horse, Giant Leicestershire, Strong Horse, and, lastly, Shire horse. The origin of the Shire draft horse-—Exact data as to the early origin is speculative, although the Shire is con- sidered to be a descendant of the old War Horse of Great Britain. It is stated of Caesar that when he invaded the British Islands he was impressed with the excellency of the horses that were attached to the war chariots of the Britons. In early times, heavy active horses, being in great demand for war purposes, led to the importation of heavy horses from Flanders and Normandy. It is recorded that large importations of heavy black horses were made from Flanders, Holland and Germany as early as the eleventh century. Sir Walter Gilbey, referring to the paintings of Paul Potter, who died in 1654, states 199 200 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES that the strains of North German and Flanders blood were so strongly represented in our English horses of the best stamp that we need not inquire whether this horse was of German, Flemish or English origin, the character of all being practically the same. From this it would seem that the early Shire was of very mixed breeding. In the reign of Henry VIII (1509-1547) special atten- tion was directed to the breeding of strong horses. Laws were enacted to promote increased size and strength, FIG. 106.—SHIRE STALLION “BLETCHLEY ROYAL DUKE” and mares: and stallions were only allowed to breed under certain restrictions. At the time this was thought necessary because of the heavy armor used by man and horse. It is stated that man’s armor weighed approx- imately 100 pounds, the horse’s 80 pounds and the spear 20 pounds, totaling 200 pounds, approximately. Adding to this the weight of a man, the war horse was obliged to support nearly 400 pounds. THE SHIRE DRAFT HORSE 201 Robert Bakewell improved the Shire draft horse.— Bakewell, often termed the father of improved live stock husbandry, because of his methods of breeding, was born in 1726, at Dishley Hall, near Loughborough, in Leices- tershire, and died in 1795. He was one of the earliest important improvers of the Shire draft horse, though it was then known as the Leicestershire Cart Horse. His belief that the familiar maxim, “Like begets like,” was not limited to a general similarity of the offspring and the parent, but extended to the minutest details of the or- ganization, led him to adopt for his guidance a definite standard of excellence representing the form and internal qualities that were best adapted to the highest develop- ment of the horse for a specific purpose. Thus, Marshall, who lived in Bakewell’s time, stated that he kept four points in view—the breed, the utility of form, the quality, and a propensity to fleshen, the three latter depending on the first. From Holland Bakewell imported large mares and used them in systematic crossing with English stallions. A well-trained eye enabled him to detect the slightest variations from the standard and a good judgment, which was not biased by non-essential conditions or fanciful theories, enabled him to mate his animals so as to add materially to the value of the breed. Descendants of his noted stallion, Bakewell’s Gee, through a grandson, Durn- ing’s Gee, of Stanley Gate, were well known in the vicinity of Liverpool for fully three-quarters of a century. The use of armor having become obsolete, on account of the invention of gunpowder, much attention was given to breeding horses for draft and farming purposes. With the improvement of the public roads and the use of coaches the draft horse came into special demand and improvement was stimulated by the liberal awarding of prizes at horse shows. Early types of the Shire draft horse—In the first 202 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES volume of the English Cart Horse Stud Book three types of Shires are mentioned. First. Horses having the upper lip garnished with a long, thick mustache, considered at one time a dis- tinguishing characteristic of the Lincolnshire horse. The color of the mustache was always black, white or a mix- ture of the two, and invariably corresponded with the hue of the skin from which it sprang. Second. Horses having the lips, muzzle and eyelids destitute of ‘hair. The skin in these places, being either bald or covered with exceeding fine down, is almost invariably flesh colored, and is some- times marked with small dark spots and blotches. This gave rise to the terms “bald horses” and “bald- faced horses.” Third. Horses hav- ing a long tuft of hair growing from the front of each knee, and rarer examples also having a Fic, 107.—Suire STALLION “NARDEN LAD” similar growth from the hind part of the hock, just below its joint. This is very much different from the ordinary hair on the back of the cannons and appears independent of sexual influence. This type was more frequently observed in Wales than in England. The early Shire of the various types were large, coarse and slow. ‘Their heads were large, ears coarse, and their lips thick; their shoulders were heavy, legs hairy and pasterns straight, and their feet were large, heels weak and the hoof of somewhat soft and spongy texture. The THE SHIRE DRAFT HORSE 203 rear ribs lacked depth and were so placed as to give the body an appearance of undue length and lightness. Famous Shire sires—Among the many notable stallions that have aided materially in the perfecting of the Shire draft horse may be mentioned Packington Blind Horse, Honest Tom, Prince William, and others. Packington Blind Horse——The village of Packington has the credit of possessing one of the oldest draft stallions of which we have record. This horse dédes not appear to have been recognized by any distinctive name, but is generally alluded to as the “Packington Blind Horse.” It is assumed that he was in the vigor of life some time between the years 1755 and 1770, also that his color was black with white markings. His chief descendants, of which we have record, were bred and owned by Oldacre of Peatland Lodge, Leicestershire. Honest Tom (1105).—This horse was sired by Thumper (2123), and out of Beauty, a noted winner of many prizes in Cambridgeshire and Norfolk and second prize brood mare at the Royal Show at Wolverhampton in 1871. Honest Tom was a bay, born in 1865, and owned for many years by T. H. Miller of Singleton Park, Lan- cashire, England. He won first prize each year from 1867 to 1872, at the Royal Agricultural Society shows of England, as well as at numerous others. Many of his descendants also proved noteworthy show animals. Prince [William (3956).—This horse was sired by William the Conqueror (2343), a very famous show animal, and out of Lockington Beauty, by Champion (457). He was born in 1883, and for twenty years stood at the head of Lord Wantage’s stud, where he was very successful. In 1894, 52 of his offspring sold at an aver- age of $600. Prince William died in 1905, at the age of 22 years. Other famous sires.—While the list of notable Shire sires that have contributed to the improvement of this breed is very long, the following table contains a few of 204 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING 0" « ORSES the more notable ones,.the date of birth and the sire and dam: Date Name of Sire Dam birth Honest Tom (1062) 1806 | John Bull (Fisher's) Dam, by Robin Hood John Bull (1169) 1839 | John Bull (1160) Dam, by Honest Tom William the Conqueror | 1862 | Leicestershire Dam, by William the Con- (2343) (Domber'’s) queror (2340) Champion (440) 1867 | Champion (413) ed Champion Nonpariel (1652) 1868 | A I (1) Matchless ae Lad II 1872 | Lincolnshire Lad (1196) | Madam 136 Bar None (2388) 1877 | Lincoln (1348) Tae Great Britain Premier (2646) 1880 | What’s Wanted (2332) | Star, by Drayman (640) Harold 3703 1881 snoeisiace Lad II Dam, by Champion (419) 1365 ae oo 1883 | William the Conqueror ee by Honest Prince 4458 2343 1 Bury Chief Victor 1889 | Prince ce (5287) Bury Daisy, by Chatteris (11105) Le Bon (3023) Dunsmore Jameson 1898 | Moors Zealot (15731) Moors eer by Regent (17972) IL (6316) Lockinge Forest King 1899 | Lockinge Manners The Forest Queen, b (18867) (16780) Royal Albert (1885) The Shire draft horse in America——No doubt Shire horses very early found their way to America, although the first authentic account is that of Tamworth, intro- duced from England to London, Ontario, in 1836, by the British troops, and described as a heavy artillery horse. Another, named King Alfred, is mentioned as imported in 1847, The first importations to reach the United States were in 1853, when Strickland introduced a Shire stallion from England to Aurora, Illinois, where he was known as John Bull. A few years later another stallion by the same name was imported to Bristol, Kendall county, Hlinois. A man named Slyke owned another called Sampson, which traveled along the Fox River, in northern Illinois, and became very popular as a sire. The descendants of these stallions attracted favorable comment, and sold at high prices for breeding purposes. In the first volume of the American Shire Horse Stud ‘' "THE SHIRE DRAFT HORSE 205 Book, George E. Brown, a prominent Shire breeder at Aurora, states that as far back as he has been able to learn the earliest advertisement of Shires by any im- porter in western agricultural papers was in 1875. Up to this time little progress had been made, but during the eighties much improvement was obtained, although the progress of the Shire in America has not been as rapid as might be expected, considering the merits of the breed. Among the more noted of the earlier importers were: Burgess Brothers of Wenona, and George E. Brown of Aurora, Illinois; W. M. Fields & Brother of Cedar Falls, lowa; Galbraith Brothers of Janesville, Wis- consin; Bell Brothers of Wooster, Ohio; and Powell Brothers of Springboro, Pennsylvania. Famous show animals.—At many of the leading agri- cultural and horse shows the exhibits of Shires have attracted favorable comment. The following table gives a few of the more noted prize-winning stallions and mares at the International Live Stock Exhibition, Chicago: Stallions Mares Royal Grey, by Kingsway Coldham Surprise, by Normoor States- Sone Castle, by Castle-Bronwick Coldham Charm, by Artillery Dan Patch, by Wellingborough Shelford Pride, by Childwick Majestic Farmers Grey, by Lake Lancer Prospect Fair Alice, by Nailston Coeur de Moulton Sergeant Weydeland’s Sunshine, by Bury Blood Lockinge Hengist, by Lockinge Forester Wellagece Sunbeam 3d, by Phenomenon Description of the Shire draft horse——In general char- acteristics this breed is similar to the Clydesdale, being perhaps a little shorter in the legs and slightly larger. This is the largest English draft breed, stallions weigh- ing 1,800 to 2,000 pounds being of comparatively common occurrence. The height averages from 16.2 to 17 hands for stallions, with mares two inches less. The common colors are bay, brown or black, with white markings on the 200 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES face and on the legs below the knees and hocks. Other colors are occasionally observed, though uncommon. The head is large with a tendency to a Roman face, and often lacking width between the eyes. The neck is short, well crested and muscular. The shoulders are likely to be too straight, making the action in front short and stilted, although this conformation is considered advan- tageous for draft. The body of the Shire is larger and deeper than that of the Clydesdale, with a stronger and more powerful appearing loin. The quarters are full and heavily muscled. The legs above the knees and hocks are well muscled and powerful, while the joints are large ha ig i. FIG. 108.—SHIRE STALLION “LOCKINGE HINGIST” THE SHIRE DRAFT HORSE 207 and strong. The cannons are fairly full, the pasterns inclined to be straight and the feet large, with rather flat heels. The backs of the cannons support a long growth of hair, as in the Clydesdales, which should be long, fine and flowing, as this indicates quality. Criticisms of the Shire-——As in the Clydesdale, the hairy legs are much criticized, particularly in America. The rather straight shoulders and straight, short pas- terns result in lack of action. The feet are often too flat, with heels too low. Owing to the weight, criticism is often passed on the lack of quality and the sluggish tem- perament. Uses of the Shire draft horse.—This breed is useful for heavy draft and for crossing on native common mares, in which capacity it is an important factor in improving our horse stock for draft purposes. This is attested by the high prices obtained for Shire grades upon our horse markets. In 1904 a Shire gelding, weighing 2,210 pounds, sold for $865, which, at that time, was the highest price reported. © Distribution of the Shire draft horse——This breed en- joys great popularity in England, where it is first among draft horses. From England it has spread into most other English-speaking countries and to Europe and South America; particularly to Germany and Argentine Republic. In America it is most popular in the north central states, especially in Illinois, Indiana and Ohio. Organizations and records.—The English Cart Horse Society was organized in 1878 and a stud book estab- lished. In 1884 the name of the society was changed to the Shire Horse Society, which at present has a large and influential membership. Thirty odd volumes of the stud book have appeared, recording many thousands of animals. In 1885 the American Shire Association was organized and a stud book established, of which eight volumes have been published containing a total of 12,850 pedigrees. CHAPTER XIX THE BELGIAN DRAFT HORSE While but recently introduced to America, the Belgian draft horse is very popular, especially where massive drafters are demanded. At the present time, possibly, this breed ranks next to the Percheron and Standardbred in public favor (p. 434). The native home of the Belgian draft horse—As the name indicates, this breed is a native of Belgium. Though a small country, Belgium has a reputation as the home of draft horses extending back through several cen- turies. The soil and the climate, as well as the habits of the people, provide ideal conditions for the development of large horses. The Belgian people are passionately fond of horse breeding, although the farms are small and, consequently, the breeding of horses is carried on in small holdings and on a limited scale. The origin of the Belgian draft horse-—As with many of the other breeds of horses, the real origin is obscure. It is stated that as early as the time of Cesar, and even be- fore, the Belgian people were great judges of horses and willing to pay high prices for superior animals. For many centuries the horses of Belgium have been in great demand, and it is stated that the greater part of the Roman cavalry consisted of Belgian horses. Certain it is that up to about the sixteenth century horse breeding was a very important industry in Belgium, but with the invention and general use of gunpowder, it seems that the horse was largely relegated to agricultural pursuits. In the early history of the Belgian draft horse no par- ticular animals appear to have been prominent, nor has any breeder of outstanding influence appeared. Unlike most of the other breeds of horses, the Belgian has been 208 THE BELGIAN DRAFT HORSE 209 almost entirely the product of its environment. Further, many, if not all, the draft breeds of Great Britain and France were greatly improved during their formative period by the use of the heavy Flemish horse, the early progenitor of the Belgian. While this country has long been famous for its ponderous horses, yet modern horse breeding, in its greatest activity, is comparatively recent. Early types of Belgian horses.—In the early develop- ment of the breed, with each district trying to produce the highest type of draft horse, several types, more or less distinct, sprang into existence. Thus we find refer- FIG, 109.—BELGIAN STALLION “MELON” ence to the Flanders horse, the Brabancon horse, the horse of Hageland, the horse of Hesbaye, the horse of Hainaut, the horse of Condroz and the horse of Ardennais. These types have very largely disappeared, although in western Flanders horses having the characteristics of the Frisonne-Flemish are sometimes found, but they are be- coming more and more rare. The Belgian methods for improving the horse.—In 1850 interest in horse breeding was greatly stimulated 210 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES by the establishment of a government breeding stud at Tervueren. Since that date the government has given special attention to the improvement of draft horses. The sum of about 400,000 francs ($75,000) is annually ex- pended in behalf of this work. Much of this money is awarded as prizes at horse shows, which are controlled by provincial regulations and which occur in about 50 different places. Foals, mares and stallions are each recognized, and an idea of the extent and influence may be gained by a brief review of the stallion regulations. At each show a first and second prize is awarded to both three-year-old and aged stallions, which includes all stallions four years old and over. In the three-year-old class the first prize is 400 francs and the second 300 francs, while in the aged class the first is 550 francs and the second 400 francs. Further, the examining committee may award a maintenance bounty of 700 francs to an aged stallion that has won a first prize at a previous annual show. A similar prize of 500 francs may be awarded to an aged stallion that has won second place for two years. The committee may nominate exceptional stallions that have won bounty prizes, to compete for a grand prize of 6,000 francs, payable annually by fifths, so long as the animals remain approved. At the end of the five years the owner of such a stallion, if remaining approved, may draw an annual bounty of from 600 to 800 francs. In order to retain the best stallions in Belgium the regu- lations provide that in case a stallion, which has received the 6,000 francs bounty, is sold to leave the country, the fifths already received by the owner must be returned ,... to the state treasury. In addition to all this there are other extra prizes that may be awarded to stallions that win a first or a second prize as well as to stallions of sub- ordinate rank. Bounties for maintenance may also be awarded to the owners of the best mares in order to retain them in the country. THE BELGIAN DRAFT HORSE 2i1 The draft horse shows of Belgium are very notable events, because of the large amount of prize money awarded the horses exhibited. The annual June show at Brussels is by far the largest exhibit of one breed made in Europe. The number of entries often runs well up toward 1,000, with hundreds of stables represented from all parts of Belgium, although the provinces of Liege, Namur, Brabant and Hainaut contribute the more famous horses. In addition to the annual show at Brussels many agricultural associations also hold fairs in Belgium, at which local horses are exhibited. These serve to stimulate interest among the small owners. FIG. 110.—BELGIAN STALLION “LEOPARD” The Belgian draft horse in America——The first au- thentic importation of horses from Belgium to America was in 1866 when A. G. Van Hoorebeke introduced them to Monmouth, Illinois. These horses were designated as Boulonnais at first, but a few years later were given the correct name of Belgians. There were but few importa- 212 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF’ HORSES tions until the eighties, when they were brought over in large numbers. The following are among the more noted early importers: The Wabash Importing company of Wabash, Indiana; D. P. Stubbs & Sons of Fairfield, Iowa; Nicholas Massion of Mintonk, Illinois. The following names are the more common among the recent importers: A. B. Holbert of Greeley, and Lefebure & Sons of Fair- fax, Iowa; J. Crouch & Son of Lafayette, Indiana; Mc- Laughlin Bros. of Columbus, Ohio; Dunhams of Wayne, Illinois; and H. A. Briggs of Wisconsin. While many stallions have been brought over only a few mares have been imported. In the past this may have been due, in part at least, to the fact that there was not the demand for Belgians to encourage importing and breeding, as the trade was better satisfied with the Per- cherons and some of the English draft breeds, although at present this condition cannot be said to exist. Another factor that is serving to keep the Belgian mares at home is the high price asked for them in Belgium. Growing popularity of the Belgian.—In the past decade this breed has received very favorable comment among breeders and consumers of heavy draft horses. This is forcibly illustrated by the high prices obtained in the horse market for Belgian grades as well as by the many attractive exhibits shown at the various fairs and horse shows. This growing popularity is due to the size, strength and endurance as well as to the action possessed by Belgians of quality. The conformation and color are attractive, the legs clean and free from long hairs, which adds to the popularity. Famous show animals.—Since the World’s Fair at St. Louis in 1904, the Belgians, particularly the stallions, have made a strong public impression at the show ring. While the list of prize winners is very long, the following table contains a few of the more important stallions and mares that have won at the International Live Stock Ex- position, Chicago: THE BELGIAN DRAFT HORSE 213 Stallions Mares Mon Gros, by Champetre de Labian M-dor-de-B-C, by Bacchus Bonaparte de Boulant, by Reve d’Or Chauteur, by Ideal du Fosteau Richelieu, by Apollon Coco, by Cagney i Cyclone, by Marquis de Klenyem Betsy de Voorde, by Volcan de Cortie Lucie de Ostende by Bienfoit de Ron- quieres Catherina, by Nickle Soupette, by Parfait de Mar Diana du Kat, by Grand Duc du Fosteau Margarine, by Duc de Chenay Eliza, by Avenir de Bruges FIG. 111—BELGIAN MARE “BELLA” Description of the Belgian draft horse——This breed is one of the most compact in form of any of the draft breeds in America, possessing a maximum of weight within a given space. The weight and height are variable, stallions from Flanders weighing about 2,000 pounds and averaging 16.2 to 17 hands high; stallions from Brabant weighing about 1,600 pounds and averaging 15.3 to 16.3 hands high; while stallions from Ardennais weigh only about 1,200 to 1,500 pounds and average 15 to 15.3 hands high. The common color is chestnut, although 2I4 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES bay, brown and roan are frequently found. Grays are not in favor and not often found. The Belgian is much praised for his superior temperament. This kind dis- position is due, in part at least, to the fact that the breed has been developed on small farms, so that the horses were in close relationship. with the everyday life of the people. The head is of good size, face straight, nostrils large, but eyes rather small and not very prominent. The ears are small, set wide apart and generally well carried. The neck is short, very thick and well crested. The shoulders are upright, strong and heavily: muscled. The chest is deep and wide, giving a very large girth. The ribs are long, well sprung and closely coupled at the loin, giving a better body than is found in any other breed of draft horses. The back is short and very broad, but is often in- clined to sway more than is desired. The rump is short, very wide and muscular, but is inclined to be steep with the tail attached low, although well carried. In fact the head, neck and rump suggest the French breeds in general appearance. The quarters and thighs are heavily muscled. The hocks are rounded, lacking defini- tion, and the legs, though short and devoid of long hair, are rather thick, and the tendons and bones lack defini- tion. The pasterns are often rather short and straight, which, in connection with hoofs inclined to be straight, give a rather short and stilted action, although good action is claimed for the better specimens. Criticisms of the Belgian.—American breeders state that the conformation and quality of the legs are not all that could be expected. Often the bones of the legs lack suf- ficient substance to support the body weight and with- stand the severest of labor. It is also stated that the rather straight pasterns and feet often predispose the lower legs to disease, which is aggravated all the more by narrow and high heels. Frequently the hocks do not THE BELGIAN DRAFT HORSE 215 show as great depth and strength as is desirable. Among a few breeders the back is often criticized for a slight tendency to sag, giving a sway-back appearance. Uses of the Belgian draft horse.—The short, stocky legs and low-set, blocky body make this breed very useful for slow, heavy hauling over city streets, thus it ranks high for heavy draft over smooth roads. The Belgian draft horse is especially adapted for crossing on common mares, lacking in weight and substance for the pro- duction of heavy draft horses. This cross is particularly successful when grade Clydesdale mares are used, as it gives an increased depth of body with a corre- sponding shortening of the legs, and a general massiveness of form not easily secured by the use of any other Fic, 112—Be.cian Mare “GAMINE” breed of draft stal- lions. Such animals command a fancy price in the horse market. Distribution of the Belgian draft horse——In recent years this breed has enjoyed a widespread distribution because of its desirability for the heaviest kind of work. Large numbers have been taken to Germany,’ France, Holland, Sweden, Austria and other European countries ; to Argentine Republic and other South American coun- tries as well as to both the United States and Canada. In the United States, the Belgian has been longest known, and the largest number are found in Iowa, Illinois, In- diana and Ohio, although in recent years it has been distributed wherever heavy draft horses are needed, 216 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Organizations and records.—In 1886 the National Draft Horse Society of Belgium (Le Cheval de Trait Belge) was founded and a stud book established. This society is very aggressive, having a very large membership. It receives an annual grant of 30,000 francs ($5,000) from the government to promote horse breeding. Up to 1909 the stud book consisted of 17 volumes, recording 52,134 stallions and 66,633 mares. In 1887 the American Asso- ciation of Importers and Breeders of Belgian Draft Horses was organized and a stud book established. While this association has worked in complete harmony with the one in Belgium, it has not been nearly so effec- tive. In 1911 three volumes of the stud book had been published recording 4,700 stallions and 1,440 mares. CHAPTER XX THE SUFFOLK DRAFT HORSE Of the six major breeds of draft horses in America, the Suffolk was the last to be introduced, and is, perhaps, the least known, although the breed as such is one of the oldest of the draft type. The native home of the Suffolk draft horse.—This breed was largely developed in the eastern part of Eng- land, especially in Suffolk county, which has long been FIG. 113.—SUFFOLK STALLION noted for the general excellence of its heavy horses. This county comprises about 1,500 square miles. The soil is fertile, providing nutritious pastures and suitable for the development of heavy horses. Another important factor is the habits of the people, who possess a natural love for the breeding of horses, a characteristic of all Britons. 217 218 MANAGEMENT, AND BREEDING OF HORSES The early origin of the Suffolk draft horse—While exact authentic data is wanting, it is believed that, in purity of blood this breed surpasses any other breed in Great Britain. As early as 1700 much attention was given to improving the native horses of Suffolk and Essex counties by better care and management. For almost a century there is no reliable data of the introduction of foreign blood. While it is sometimes stated that horses from Normandy played an important part in the forma- tion of the breed, no positive information exists on this point, and the evidence indicates that there was little or no admixture of outside blood until well toward the close of the eighteenth century. Crisp’s Horse of Ufford (404), the Suffolk foundation. —All pedigrees of the breed that are recorded in the stud book of either England or America trace to the Crisp Horse (404). He was owned by T. Crisp of Ufford, Sussex; was born in 1768, and by an unknown sire. He stood 15.2 hands high, was of a light chestnut color and active. The Crisp Horse proved a remarkable breeder, as is shown by a tabulation in the first volume of the Suffolk Horse Stud Book, which includes over 700 of his descendants in 15 generations, the first five of which cover a period of almost thirty years and brings the horses to the starting point of the pedigrees of Suffolk horses, as recorded in the stud book, though little is known of the dams previous to this time. The Crisp Horse is the sire of five recorded offspring, but his line is represented through Glud’s Horse (587), born about 1775 and died at Laxfield in 1783. He stood about 16 hands high, of a beautiful chestnut color and was well boned and free from blemishes. Smith’s Horse (1110), born in 1799, and a great grandson of Glud’s Horse (587), is the next most noted animal in the Crisp Horse’s descent and the one through which all of our present-day Suffolks trace. He is described as a choice specimen of the breed in his day, THE SUFFOLK DRAFT HORSE 219 and was the sire of two famous stallions, Brady’s Briton (198), born in 1809, and Julian’s Old Boxer (755), born in 1805. From this point the descendants of the Crisp Horse become very numerous. Mention should be made, however, of Crisp’s Cupbearer (416), as he is the sire of 39 of the more than 7oo descendants of the Crisp Horse tabulated in Volume I of the stud book. He was born in 1864, of a dark chestnut color, and is described as a large horse with a grand fore end, great depth of girth, and splendid muscular shoulders, but plain behind. He and his sons were famous show ani- mals in their day. Foreign tribes introduced.—That foreign blood was introduced to Suffolk county to improve the native horse stock is now well known. This introduction, however, did not take place until nearly a century after the early origin of the Suffolk breed. There were, at least, three tribes introduced; namely, the Blake tribe, the Wright tribe, and the Shadingfield tribe. The Blake tribe—This tribe had its origin in a horse named Blake’s Farmer (174), born about 1760, and in- troduced from Lincolnshire to Suffolk in 1764, by a man from whom the horse takes his name. Nothing is known of this animal’s ancestors, as it is thought the advertised pedigree, given him when imported, was incorrect. He is described as a trotting stallion and chestnut in color. His noted son, Blake’s Everett (173), was born in 1778, Fic. 114.—SuFFOLK MARE 220 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES who in turn sired Blake’s Old Briton (171), perhaps most noted sire of the Blake tribe. He was born in 1784, and is described as standing 16 hands high, remarkably short legged, full of bone, and chestnut in color. His noted son, Blake’s Young Briton (172), born in 1796, sired Spink’s Suffolk Farmer (1127), born in 1802, both of which were very notable sires. of the tribe. The Wright tribe.—This tribe originated from a horse introduced from Lincolnshire known as Wright’s Farm- er’s Glory (1396), or the Attleboro horse. He was born about 1796, though nothing is known of his parentage. He is described as chestnut in color and not a trotting horse, but having more size, and perhaps may have been a half-bred Suffolk. He sired several notable sons, tht most famous being Adam Hawes’ Farmer (674), born in 1803. This horse in turn sired Pattle’s Gye (939), born in 1810, and who was the grandsire of Nunn’s Boxer (913), perhaps the greatest sire of the Wright tribe. This horse is described as red chestnut and very stylish, though small. The Shadingfield tie: —This tribe takes its early origin from a horse named Barber’s Proctor (58), bo: in 1793, and said to have been sired by a Thoroughbreu He was bay in color and perhaps the greatest sire of the Shadingfield tribe. In describing the animals of this tribe the Suffolk Stud Book states they were thin in the shoulder and light of bone below the hock, but were hard- fleshed, wiry, active horses, with long, lean heads, and that the mares of the tribe are more or less given to breed back to their bay ancestors. These tribes were all introduced to improve the breed, and each was popular for a time, but they presented de- ficiencies along with the desirable qualities. They all were submerged into the Suffolk, as they could not over- come the breed characteristics. Modern Suffolk draft horse—The present-day perfec- tion of this breed is due to the efforts of the farmers in THE SUFFOLK DRAFT HORSE 221 _ afolk and vicinity generally. All introductions have long since ceased, but those remarkable features of short legs, rounded bodies and longevity, with vitality, are still the well-known characteristics of the Suffolk horse. The Suffolk draft horse in America—Although this breed was first introduced to the United States in 1880 by Powell Brothers of Springboro, Pennsylvania, yet progress has been slow, only a few having been imported. In 1888 Galbraith Brothers of Janesville, Wisconsin, made their first importation of stallions, and during the same year Peter Hopley & Company of Lewis, Iowa, intro- duced the first mares, and these parties have since been the leading exponents of the breed in this country. A ‘ew scattering importations have been made from time to time, the largest in 1903, when 41 were brought over. During recent years the Suffolks have increased in popularity somewhat, and at the present time there are several breeders in this country the more important of whom are Peter Hopley & Son of Lewis, Iowa; Samuel Insull of Libertyville, Illinois; O. C. Barber of Barber- ton, Ohio; C. A. Hamilton of Loveland, Colorado; and Villiam Anson of Christoval, Texas. Show animals.—In recent years there have been several creditable exhibits of Suffolks at the various live stock shows. At the 1911 International Live Stock Exposition at Chicago the stallions Westside Chieftain, by Ormonde, and Ashmoor Luther, by Rendlesham Captain Gray, as well as the mares Sudbourne Ruby, by Golden Grain, and Ruby, by Bowdsey Harvester, attracted favorable com- ment. Description of the Suffolk draft horse—This breed is not so large as the other major draft breeds, the average weight running from 1,600 to 2,000 pounds, and the aver- age height 16 to 16.2 hands. In general type, however, it is as low set, short legged, deep bodied and muscular as any of the draft breeds, if, indeed, it does not excel all others, with the possible exception of the Belgian. The 222 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES color is exceptionally uniform, and it is generally some shade of chestnut, as the breeders have adhered almost from the beginning to this color. The head is of medium size, clean cut, with small ears, full forehead and a nose that tends to Roman form, which has been rather characteristic of the breed. The jaws are strong, with cheeks deep and full. The neck is short and ‘ regrh hy FIG. 115.——SUFFOLK STALLION full. It is often arched, particularly in the case of stallions, and sometimes joins the head a bit heavy or thick, but at the shoulders, as a rule, it is well connected. The shoulders are of good length and powerfully sup- ported. The body of the Suffolk is one of its notable fea- tures ; the chest is deep and wide; the ribs are well sprung and deep, especially near the flank, giving a short-coupled and compact barrel. This undoubtedly contributes to the strength of the statement that the Suffolk is an easy keeper and possessed of unusual endurance. The rump if THE SUFFOLK DRAFT HORSE 223 is broad, the tail well set and the quarters deep and power- fully muscled. The heavy muscing of the legs above the knees and hocks is one of the special features of the breed. The lower legs are devoid of long hair, and are clean cut and cordy. The feet are of good size and in good in- dividuals are dense and elastic. FIG. 116.—SUFFOLK STALLION The action is free and easy, notwithstanding the mas- sive conformation, which, in connection with the some- what lighter weight, easy keeping and docile disposition, particularly adapts the Suffolk for farm work and for light draft, where a certain amount of weight may be sacrificed for activity and durability. Pulling contests at an early time were common among Suffolk breeds and this, no doubt, did much to improve the muscling, the general quality and the action. oe4, MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Criticisms of the Suffolk—The seeming lightness of limb, compared with the depth and weight of body, as well as fullness of the neck, has given the Suffolk the appearance of lacking the proper proportion of such parts. It is stated that one or two of the early strains were troubled with weak or bent hocks, a criticism often heard at the present time. Formerly it was stated that the feet were flat and the hoofs brittle, and such remarks are often passed at the present day. Uses of the Suffolk draft horse——This breed ranks high as a medium draft horse, because of its free action and endurance. It finds its true place on the farm and at rapid, rather light draft work. Its value in crossing has not been fully tested, principally because of the few Suf- folk stallions available, although it is stated that when crossed on common mares the resulting offspring make high-class animals for heavy farming and express-wagon work. Distribution of the Suffolk draft horse.—AIthough this breed has not found favor in America it is extremely widespread, having been exported to France, Germany, Spain, Austria, Sweden and Russia in Europe; to South Africa and the Nile region; to Australia; to New Zea- land; and to Argentine Republic in South America. While there are but few in America, they are scattered through- out many states and Canada. The breeders report an in- creasing interest in the breed. Organizations and records—In 1877 the Suffolk Stud Book Association was organized and the first volume of the Suffolk Stud Book appeared in 1880, which, in addi- tion to the pedigrees of some 2,500 animals, contains the most authentic early history of the breed. In 1911, 17 volumes had appeared, containing the pedigrees of 3,744 stallions and 6,755 mares. A few years ago the American Suffolk Horse Association was organized and a stud book established, of which two volumes have appeared con- taining the pedigrees of 622 animals. CHAPTER XXI PONIES Formerly the dividing line between the horse and the pony was vague and undefined, but in 1883 the Hackney Horse Society of England designated all animals meas- uring 14 hands or under as ponies, and registered them in a separate part of the stud book. This height was accepted as the standard by the leading horse show so- cieties in England and America. Later the standard height of polo ponies was increased to 14.2 hands, and in 1905 the American Hackney Society increased the height of Hackney ponies to 14 hands and 1 inch. The Shetland pony.—Because of its intelligence and docile disposition the Shetland is the more popular of the imported ponies. He is useful for pleasure driving, es- pecially for children. The native home of the Shetland pony.—This breed of ponies was developed on the Shetland Islands, which are situated about 200 miles north of Scotland. ‘There are about 120 of these islands, comprising a total area of about 500 square miles. They are rocky, barren and cold. Not more than fifteen of the islands are inhabited, the principal one being Mainland, on which is located Ler- wick, the largest port and a town of less than 4,000 peo- ple. In addition to Mainland, Fetlar, Bressay, Fair Isle, Yell and Unst also take an active interest in breeding ponies. The history of the Shetland pony.—The early ancestry of this breed of ponies is not known. When ponies were first introduced to the islands is not a matter of record, but they have been bred there for centuries. Perhaps they are more or less related to the ponies of the British Islands, or of Iceland and Scandinavia. As with most 225 226 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES other breeds of horses, the Shetland pony owes its present perfection to its environment. Scant forage, oftentimes entire lack of grain, and a cold climate, are responsible for the diminutive form. The improvement of the Shetland pony began in 1873 when the Marquis of Londonderry took an active interest in the breed. He purchased the Island of Noss and a part of Bressay on which he maintained large studs. He had a stud at Seaham Harbor, on the northeast coast of Eng- land. FIG. 117.—SHETLAND PONIES AT HOME. LERWICK, SHETLAND ISLANDS In 1891 the government returns gave the number of ponies on the islands as 4,803, but because of the demand in recent years the ponies are steadily decreasing. S. B. Elliot, who toured the islands in 1906, made a careful estimate of the number of ponies, and could not account for over 4,000 of all ages and sexes. Further, he estimates the number of foals produced annually at 400. The Shetland pony in America.—The history of. this breed of ponics in America is comparatively brief, as but few are found, although the first importations occurred more than 25 yearsago. While in their native home they PONIES 227 are the horse-of-all-work, yet in America their use is limited nearly exclusively to children, whom they serve very well, being even tempered, intelligent and active. In 1888 the American Shetland Pony Club was organ- ized and a stud book established. In 1911 eight volumes had appeared, recording about 8,000 ponies. The Shet- land Pony Stud Book Society is the official organ of the breed in Scotland and on the Shetland Islands. Description of the Shetland pony.—The limit of height FIG. 118.—SHETLAND PONY “VESPA OF BELLE MEADE” . established by the Shetland Pony Stud Book. Society is 10 hands and 2inches. Ponies over this height cannot be registered, although in America the Shetland Pony Club has increased the height to 11 hands and 2 inches. The size is more or less the result of feeding, ‘but the weight on the average should approximate 300 to 400 pounds. 228 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES The type of the Shetland is usually that of a small draft horse, although many are seen that have fine bone and slender bodies similar to the trotting type. In fact, the type varies somewhat on the different islands. The com- mon colors are brown, black and bay, but other colors, such as dun, chestnut and gray, are often found. Piebalds are not considered desirable, though there is a demand for broken colors in America. A long, heavy coat of hair occurs on the body in cold weather. When shed, however, the coat is fine and glossy and the animal is much more active in his movements. The foretop, mane, and tail are heavy and long, and add much to the attrac- tiveness of a well-kept pony. The Welsh pony.—This breed of ponies was largely developed in Wales and in the borders of the adjoining counties. The country is very hilly and contains much waste land, which provides very scant pasturage. The horses raised in such environment develop quality and endurance and become verv sure-footed, but, of course, lack in size. This breed of ponies has been improved from time to time by the introduction of superior blood, chiefly Thoroughbred, Arabian and Hackney. It is stated that the Welsh pony is more numerous than any other breed of ponies on the British Islands; the exact number is not known, as there are no statistics on the subject. The Welsh Pony and Cob Society is the association in- terested in the improvement of the breed. This society has its headquarters at Greenfield, Penybout, Radnor- shire, Wales. At present there is no society in America. Description of the Welsh pony.—The ponies of Wales vary so widely in conformation, height and weight that even in their native country they are not altogether re- garded asa breed. In general, however, they have a neat head, good shoulders, strong back, well-muscled quarters, and the best of legs and feet. The Welsh Pony and Cob Society divides the ponies into four classes, depending largely on the height and form. In the first class the PONIES 229 height does not exceed 12.2 hands, with any color per- missible. This class is found in the more hilly sections, and has superior bone, muscle and endurance. In type it resembles the Arabian, possessing much the same car- riage of head, neck and tail. In the second class the height ranges from 12.2 to 13.2 hands, but the type is more cobby in general appearance. This class lacks the action of the former and is not so well adapted to mountain lands. In the third class the height ranges from 13.2 to 14.2 hands, and the type is even more blocky than the second class. In fact, this class would rank as acob. In FIG. 119.—WELSH PONIES “QUEEN BEE” AND HER COLTS the fourth class the height ranges from 14.2 to 15.2 hands and the animals are described as being suitable for mounted infantry and cavalry service. The Welsh pony in America.—While these ponies have been used in America for many years, they are compar- atively few in number, although during recent years they have increased in popularity. ‘The Welsh pony possesses more size, style and action than the Shetland, and is suited to either saddle or harness. The smaller strains are use- ful principally for children; larger ones, because of their general activityand endurance, find favor for polo playing. The Exmoor pony.—This breed of ponies was de- veloped on the moors of southwestern England, in Devon- shire. The early origin is not known, but the Exmoor pony has been bred more or less wild for many centuries, 230 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES : This breed has been classed as the highest type of pony. It has no doubt been greatly improved by the Arabian horse, which it closely resembles in conformation, as well as by the Thoroughbred. The improved form meets with favor as a saddler and in harness. Because of their ac- tivity and endurance they are useful in polo playing. There are but few Exmoor ponies in America. FIG. 120.—PONY SHOWING STYLE AND FINISH The Polo Pony Society Stud Book contains a descrip- tion of the Exmoor pony in which the average height is given as 12 hands, but W. C. Kerr, in his description, gives the height as 13 to14 hands. The color is usually bay or brown, with black points. The head is neat and well carried, the forehead is broad, the nostrils large, the eyes -clear and the ears pointed. The shoulders are long and sloping, the back short and powerful and the legs short, possessing good bone. The Exmoor pony has great en- durance and is surefooted. The New Forest pony.—This breed of ponies originated in southern England in the county of Hampshire, the PONIES 231 greater part of which is unclaimed and waste land. As with the other breeds of ponies, the early origin is not known, but certain it is that they have been bred in a more or less wild state for many generations. It is stated that there are about 2,500 of these ponies. Like the other breeds of British ponies, the New Forest has been much improved in recent years. The breed owes much of its present perfection to Lord Arthur Cecil, who it is stated turns out with his mares 30 to 40 good stallions each year. Many of these stallions come from the Island of Rum, purchased by Lord Arthur in 1888. No doubt much of the' recent improvement has been due to Arabian and Thoroughbred blood. The Polo Pony Society Stud Book gives the average height as 12 to 13 hands. Most of the Rum ponies are black, although some are bay or brown. These New Forest ponies are generally more spirited than most of the other British ponies. They have good shoulders, strong backs and excellent quarters, although sometimes criticized for being low at the withers and possessing a droopy rump and cow-hocked. Like all ponies that have been developed on scant nutrition, they improve under good management. A few years ago the New Forest Pony Association was organized to look after the interest of the breed in Eng- land. This breed has no organization in America. The Dartmoor pony.—This breed of ponies had its origin in Dartmoor, an extensive tract of land in Corn- wall, embracing about 325 square miles. Here ponies have been bred in a half-wild state for many generations, although in recent years they have been much improved by crossing with Arabian and Thoroughbred stallions. Dartmoor ponies are comparatively few in England and there are practically none in America. The Dartmoor pony is described as never exceeding 13 hands in height. The official description states that if the height exceeds 14 hands it suggests cross-breeding. 232 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES The color is usually brown, black or bay, although an occasional gray will be found. In recent years efforts have been made to improve the Dartmoor by the intro- duction of good stallions of the best pony breeds. The Irish pony.—As the name suggests, this breed of ponies was developed in Ireland, particularly in Galway county, where ponies have been bred in a semi-wild state for generations. Like other breeds that run practically wild in a hilly country, it is hardy, active and sure-footed. It has been much improved by the use of Barb, Arab and Thoroughbred blood and in its present form stands 12 to 14 hands high, sometimes more. The color is usually black, brown or bay, but chestnuts are often found. The Irish pony has a thick, shaggy coat of hair. The polo pony.—The increasing popularity of polo is attracting much attention to ponies suitable for playing this game. The polo pony is really not a pony, but a small horse. He does not necessarily belong to any dis- tinct breed, and is generally a cross. For this purpose any horse possessing the necessary speed, activity, en- durance and intelligence will do. He must be able to carry 160 to 200 pounds weight, make incessant turns, twists and stops at full speed, and make short spurts at the rapid gallop. The maximum height allowed by the American Polo Association is 14.2 hands. Small Thor- oughbreds, western ponies and cross breds are popular. Breeding polo ponies, however, is somewhat of an ex- periment and presents many difficulties, the chief one being the limit of height, and the training. Other ponies.—\Vhile the above breeds of ponies are more commonly known in America, yet distinct types of ponies are found in almost every country. Thus we have the Mongolian, Japanese, Korean, Burmege and Man- ipuri pony; the Sumatra and Java pony; and the Rus- sian, Scandinavian or Norwegian pony. Adverse climatic conditions, promiscuous breeding and privation have had much to do with the development of most of these ponies. CHAPTER XXII AMERICAN HORSES At the time of the Spanish conquest there were no horses, either wild or domesticated in any part of America. This seems astonishing considering the pre- dominance of the prehistoric horse, especially since the soil and climate are very favorable to the horse, as is evidenced by the thousands now roaming the plains of both North and South America. In this connection it should be stated that worthy evi- dence exists which some authorities state favors the as- sumption that herds of wild horses roamed over the pampas of South America, before latter-day communica- tion had begun between Europe and the New World. In 1527, when Cabot discovered the east coast of South America, it is stated that he found drawings representing the horse, and in his description of the upper reaches of the La Plata river, the horse is given with other animals which are known to have existed in that region. It is possible, therefore, that native horses ranged the plains now included in the territory of Argentine Republic and of Paraguay. Possibly these wild horses entered into the ancestry of the present stock. This is problematical, for. certain it is the Indians of-North America knew nothing of the horse previous to his acquaintance with the white man. Early importations of horses to America.—There are but few records of early importations of horses to America, although no doubt many found their way to the New World along with the first settlers. The first im- portation was made by Columbus in 1493, but these all perished. The next importation of which we have recotd was in 1519, when Cortez landed 16 horses in Mexico. 233 234 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Possibly the feral horse of Mexico owes his origin to this importation. The next importation of which we have knowledge was in 1527, when De Vaca landed forty-two head in Florida. Possibly the feral horse of: eastern United States owes his origin, in part at least, to the 1527 importation. During this same year horses were landed in South America. Another noteworthy importa- tion occurred in 1540, when De Soto made his discoveries in the Mississippi valley. Possibly this importation added to the feral horses in southwestern United States. Colonial horse-breeding centers——The early improve- ment of American horses was especially favored about certain centers, though, of course, more or less interest was taken in horse breeding wherever the white man settled, as the horse proved a very useful beast of bur- den in the new country. The principal centers were Virginia, New York, New England and Canada. The characteristics of the horses, developed about each of these centers, were modified to a more or less extent by the habits of the people. ; The colonial horse of Virginia—The first authentic importation to this colony occurred in 1609, when six mares and two stallions were brought from England. In 1611, it is reported that 17 mares and horses were in- troduced along with other live stock. A third importa- tion occurred in 1614, but the number landed is not given. In 1619, the Virginia company imported four mares, and in 1620 this same company ordered 20 mares to be sent over at a cost, delivered, of £15 each. Many other im- portations followed. The early settlers of Virginia and the Carolinas were the cavaliers of old England. They were men who loved the horse. Long military training had taught many of them that a man well horsed had his battles half won. It is natural, therefore, on coming to the conquest of a new land, the men who had been mounted in their own land upon horses capable of carrying them at great speed AMERICAN HORSES 235 and of maintaining such speed under difficulties for a great length of time, should want animals of such character to be their companions in the new country. Rac- ing was the popular sport from the beginning, thus a type of horse was developed patterned after the English Thor- oughbred. The height is given as ranging from 12 to 15 hands; the carriage as lithe and active and the quality as unexcelled, as indicated by a clean-cut form, and clean legs with dense bone and detached tendons. Horses of this type later found their way north to New York and FIG, 121.—AMERICAN SADDLER “CARROLL PRESTON” west to Kentucky, where they played an important part in the development of the American trotter, American saddler and the Thoroughbred. The colonial horse of New York.—The first authentic importation to New Amsterdam, as New York was then called, occurred about 1629, when several horses were introduced from Holland. There is a lack of definite in- formation regarding other early importations until the middle of the century, though many horses were intro- duced, as they had become numerous. 236 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES The early settlers of New Amsterdam were from Hol- land. They did their riding upon cumbersome animals more calculated to carry great burdens slowly than lighter ones with vim and dash. The Dutch settlers, therefore, introduced from Holland the ponderous animal of burden, rather than the prancing steed for which the Virginians were noted, thus a type of horse developed patterned somewhat after the drafter, although much lighter in weight. This type became known as the Conestoga. This comparatively light draft horse, bred primarily for freighting heavy merchandise across the mountains and over the primitive roads, was well adapte. to the pioneer’s farm, where such work required pa- tience, strength and hardiness. Horses of this type soon spread into Pennsylvania and westward, where th formed the blood of the mare stock that produced ou. grade draft horses. The colonial horse of New England.—In 1629 the Lon- don founders of the Massachusetts Bay plantation landed 25 head of mares and stallions at Boston harbor. Dur- ing this same year six mares and one stallion were landed at Salem. Several other shipments followed, but nothing worth special mention until 1635, when two Dutch ships arrived at Salem with 27 mares and three stallions. These were followed by numerous importations. The Puritan who settled New England was not a man for display. He was given to humility and to simple drudgeries, denying himself all indulgences. He was sturdy and reliant, asking’ the horse to share his bur- dens, thus a type of horse developed noted particularly for general utility. This type was larger than the Vir- ginian, more muscular and with greater weight of bone, but not the equal of the Conestoga in either size or strength. This type was spread through all New Eng- , land, where it was perfectly adapted to conditions. It played an important part in the formation of the Morgan strain of horses, which, in turn, entered into the develop- AMERICAN HORSES 237 ment of both the American trotter and the American saddler. The early Canadian horse.—While it seems certain that horses were introduced from France to Port Royal as early as 1609, yet this settlement played no part in the distribution of the Canadian horse. The next notable authentic importation did not occur until after the mid- dle of the century, when Marquis de Tracy arrived at agp i FIG. 122._STANDARDBRED STALLION “GAY AUDOBON” Quebec with his expedition including a large number of horses. Other large shipments followed. Since the St. Lawrence region was largely settled by the French, who were at that time breeding medium weight horses, we find them developing a type of semi- draft horses in Canada, although later many light horses were introduced, so that the region became famous for two types of horses, one fashioned after the Thorough- bred, the other after the drafter, though lacking the pon- 238 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES derous size of the present day draft horse. It is worthy mention that in the acclimation the Thoroughbred lost some of his speed as well as the drafter his size, but both gained in hardiness and endurance. Because of the speed and endurance the light type became widespread, many of the horses finding their way to New York and Ken- tucky, where they entered into the formation of the American trotter and the American saddler. While the eastern colonies and the eastern central and southern states were being settled and populated, the horses that had escaped from the Cortez expedition of 1519 in Mexico and from the De Soto expedition of 1540 in the Mississippi valley and perhaps others, were mul- tiplying rapidly in Mexico and southwestern United States, due to the very nutritious foods available, and to the favorable climatic conditions. The Indian pony.—This is the name given the feral ponies in western United States. They are not a dis- tinct breed. Certain it is, however, that they have roamed the plains for so many generations that their characters have become sufficiently fixed to be trans- mitted from parent to offspring, and, in fact, they have become perfectly adapted to the environment. Mustang, Broncho and Cayuse.—The Indian pony is often designated by various names common to particular localities. Thus in the South he is known as the Mus- tang; in the West as the Broncho; and in the North as the Cayuse. Because of the great endurance, the Indian pony has been very useful on the ranges, particularly in herding cattle. In recent years this strain has been much improved by crossing with the Arabian, Thoroughbred and American trotter. In his improved form, the Indian pony is useful wherever hardy, active and enduring horses are needed. Description of the Indian pony.—In size the Indian pony averages 12 to 14 hands high and weighs 600 to 800 pounds. All colors are found, but duns are perhaps the AMERICAN HORSES 239 more common. The head is often large and bony, the barrel short and closely ribbed, the legs strong and cordy, and the feet excellent. The disposition has been much criticized, but this is largely a matter of training. Asa rule, the tame ponies range the South, and the wild ones the North. The Mexican pony.—This strain of pony was de- veloped in Mexico, where it has ranged in a wild and semi-wild state for many generations. The Mexican pony is similar to the Indian pony in all important re- spects. In size the Mexican is perhaps the smaller, aver- aging 12 to 13 hands in height, and weighing 500 to 800 pounds. The color, conformation and quality are much the same in the two strains. In recent years the Mexican pony has been improved by crossing with the Thorough- bred, the Arabian, and the American trotter with a view to increasing the usefulness as cow ponies. The best of both types are sometimes used as polo ponies, which usually requires more than one cross. CHAPTER XXIII THE DOMESTIC ASS The domestic ass is commonly known as the jack or the donkey, although the latter is often restricted to the smaller species, as the burro. The male is usually desig- nated as jack or jackass and the female as jennet. Species of the ass.—There are several species or varic- ties of the wild ass found in various parts of Asia and Africa, two of which are worthy of mention, namely, the Asiatic wild ass and the African wild ass. The Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus).—This species is found in Asia, from the plains of Syria through Persia, Afghanistan and Thibet to the Chinese frontier. As a rule, it travels in smal! herds, The color varies some- what, though gray, fawn and pale chestnut are the most common. The belly is of a whitish color. This species is notable for its speed and endurance. The height varies from 11 to 12 hands. The African wild ass (Equus asinus).—This species is found most numerous in Nubia, Abyssinia, and in north- eastern Africa, between the Nile and the Red Sea. It is assumed that the domestic ass descended from this species. The color markings, the ears, and the cry or bray are similar to the domestic ass. It is stated also, that this species dislikes streams of water, dark holes and the like—notable traits of the domestic ass. Early history of the ass—This animal was used as man’s beast of burden at the dawn of authentic history. From the evidence it seems that the early people appro- priated to their use those things which lay easiest at hand and from this it has been assumed that the wild ass easily passed into a state of domestication. Little at- tention was given to improvement until modern times. 2ae THE DOMESTIC ASS 241 Breeds of the domestic ass.—As with the horse, the dis- tribution of the ass has been widespread and he has been subject to variation in food supply, temperature, moisture and general environment, with the result that many breeds or varieties have been developed. These breeds vary in size, ranging from the diminutive burro, often only 36 inches high, to the medium-sized draft horse. Of the large number of breeds only six are useful for FIG. 123——BURRO AT WORK mule breeding in America, namely, the Andalusian, Mal- tese, Catalonian, Majorca, Italian and Poitou. The Andalusian jack—This breed was developed in southern Spain, particularly in the ancient Kingdom of Andalusia. It is a very ancient and distinctive race, as is evidenced by the statements of the profits arising from its use in propagating mules during the Roman occupa- tion and before the time of Christ. The prevailing color is gray, and often practically white, with black very uncommon. This is a large breed, standing 14.2 to 15.2 242 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES hands high. The bone of the leg is large and firm and the breed possesses much substance. The Andalusian in America.—In 1787 the King of Spain presented to General George Washington a jack and a jennet of this breed, which were taken to Virginia. The jack was called Royal Gift. About the same time General Washington received a Maltese jack, which he mated with the Andalusian jennet. The result of this union was a very famous jack called Compound, which proved to be much more popular as a breeder than Royal Gift, although the latter was selected from the royal stud. A few years later Henry Clay introduced into Kentucky a few jacks of this breed. These two men did much to promote the breed in America. Notwithstanding their influence, however, this breed never found favor in this country, due largely to the gray color, which is very ob- jectionable in America, although a great favorite in southern Spain. The Maltese jack—This breed was developed on the Island of Malta, which is located in the Mediterranean Sea. This being a small island, with very poor soil, the number of jacks produced is exceedingly lintited. The Maltese jack is the smallest of the more important Span- ish breeds, rarely exceeding 14.2 hands high. The color is black or brown, with the latter more characteristic of the breed. The breed is described as of good form with well-carried head and ears. The bone resembles that of the Thoroughbred horse, and the breed is characterized by much life and vigor. The Maltese in America—About 1787, Marquis La- fayette and the Knight of Malta each presented General Washington a jack of this breed. It was the present by Lafayette that sired the famous Compound. It is also stated that the frigate Constitution, during her first cruise in the Mediterranean, imported jacks from Malta to the District of Columbia. Not long afterwards others were introduced by officers of the navy, and a few very THE DOMESTIC ASS 243 valuable ones were brought over in merchant’s ships. Formerly the Maltese jacks were broadspread, but in re- cent years they have become rather unpopular because of their small size. The Catalonian jack—This breed was developed in northeastern Spain adjacent to France, particularly in Catalonia, although it _ is widespread and often found in France. The color is usually black, and often jet-black, which is marked with light points about the muzzle, eyes and belly. While brown of vary- ing shades is some- times found, it is un- common. The hair is naturally thick and short. The size is classed as large, the height averaging 14.2 to 15 hands, with good specimens occasionally exceeding this height. The Catalonian is a jack of great style and beauty and superb action. The head is trim and neat, with ears well carried, suggestive of character. The bone, while not large, is very hard, fine of texture, and free from meatiness. The breed is wiry, tough and ma- tures early. The Catalonian in America—In 1832, Henry Clay in- troduced an excellent specimen of this breed to Ken- tucky. This jack was so successful and his popularity grew so rapidly that Clay imported a number of others of this breed. At an early date a few jacks of this breed. Fic. 124.—CATALONIAN JACK 244 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES found their way to Virginia, where they were received favorably. Long before the Civil War, Benjamin Frank- lin and others made importations to middle Tennessee and to Charleston, South Carolina. Since the war, a large number have been brought to this country, es- pecially to Tennessee, Kentucky and Missouri, the prin- cipal mule-breeding states of the Union. Mules sired by the Catalonian jacks have much size and quality, and have been ranked as the best in the world. They are stylish, active, early maturing and good sellers. A large percentage of the jacks imported to America come from Catalonia. The Majorca jack.—This breed is a native of Majorca, one of the Balearic Islands, in the Mediterranean Sea, off the coast of Spain. The soil is very fertile, and though it is necessary to irrigate much of the island, it is very productive of rich, luxuriant pastures. This, no doubt, accounts for the size of the Majorca, which is the largest of the domesticated asses, ranging in height from 15.2 to 16 hands, and even more. The head and ears are de- scribed as conspicuously large, the latter being larger than those of any other breed and poorly carried. The bone is exceedingly large, with a body to correspond. There is a general coarseness throughout, as well as a lack of the indications of sufficient quality. Because of the enormous size and poor quality the Majorca lacks in style and action, and, in fact, is often criticized as inclined to sluggishness. In its native home it has long been bred with much purity and large numbers are used in the government artillery service. It is usually black or brown. The Majorca in America—There is no authentic data as to the first importations, though they were introduced about the middle of the nineteenth century. Formerly the breed was popular, because of its large size and good color, and many were introduced, but it is not destined to attract favorable comment in this country because of the general coarseness, lack of quality and sluggishness. The Italian jack—This breed is a native of Italy, where THE DOMESTIC ASS 245 its distribution is widespread, although little attention is given to its breeding. Its principal use is that of a pack animal. The color is usually black, but bluish and gray- ish colors are not uncommon. In size the Italian jack is among the smallest, rarely exceeding 13 or 14 hands. Considering the height, these jacks have rather large bone and good weight of body. They are well propor- tioned and have good action. The Italian in America.—As with the Majorca, there is no record of the first importations although jacks of this breed very early found their way to Tennessee and other | mule-producing states. The chief cause for their early introduc- tion is said to have been their cheapness. They did not meet with favor in America, prin- cipally because of the small size, although they have also been Fic, 125.—Prize Jack “Dr. HARTMAN” criticized as being prone to serve a mare, and as having a tendency to viciousness. L. M. Knight, who has written much on jacks, jennets and mules, states that it is his observation that small jacks are more likely to develop vicious habits than large ones, and he also adds that jacks are not trust- worthy animals, The Poitou jack—This breed was developed in south- ern France, especially in the province of Poitou, border- ing on the Bay of Biscay. Here, in the departments of La Vendee and Deux-Sevres, the most fertile part of all France, the Poitou ass is bred in his greatest purity. This is a very old breed, as mention is made of it as early 246 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES as 1016 in French literature. The prevailing color is black, with light points, although grays are occasionally found. The height ranges from 14.2 to 15 hands, with the larger specimens sometimes standing somewhat taller. The Poitou is one of the most powerful of the breeds of jacks. He is covered with a thick growth of long, silky hair, which is particularly noticeable in the legs, neck and ears. For this reason he is very unattractive unless kept well groomed. These jacks are in great demand in France, where they are bred to draft mares, from which are produced large mules of the most valuable kind. The Poitou in America.—This was the last of the dis- tinctive breeds of jacks to be introduced to this country. Notwithstanding this breed of jacks produces a good type of mules, few are to be found here. In fact, the province of Poitou cannot supply the home demand for the Poitou jack, and the French breeders, at least in cer- tain parts of the county, are obliged to use the Catalonia and the Majorca jack. Because of the great demand, Poitou jacks command fancy prices, many selling for $2,000, with the best specimens realizing approximately twice as much money. According to Knight, the Poitou jack is the best for mule breeding in this country, and he places it above the Catalonian, stating that the mules have sufficient size, with more quality and action than can be obtained by any other breed of jacks. The characteristics of the ass.—The domestic ass pre- sents a great contrast to the horse. In the ass, the head is large and bony, the ears very long, the foretop and mane very scanty and the tail has no long hairs except at the lower part. The entire body is often covered with long hair. The bone is often large, while the joints and feet are small. The hind legs have no callosities (chest- nuts), although they are present on the forelegs. The ass makes a peculiar cry called a bray. Jacks useful for mule breeding.—This animal is very surefooted in going over mountain passes and slopes dif- THE DOMESTIC ASS 247 ficult for horses, and hence extremely useful as a pack animal, in which capacity it was formerly used almost exclusively. While it is still useful as a pack, in mining regions, in difficult passes, and the like, yet its major use in America is that of siring mules. Since it is the larger mules that are the more useful and command a premium on the market, only jacks of considerable size should be used in mule breeding. The rules of entry to the American Jack Stock Stud Book on the subject of height and color, are as follows: After’ | January I, 1892, jacks and jennets, of unrecorded sire or dam, shall be eligible Fic. 126.—Prize Jack “GENERAL Woop” to registration only when black with light points and of the following height, standard measure: Imported jacks and jennets, and na- tive jennets, the produce of unrecorded sire or dam, 15 hands; native jacks, the produce of unrecorded sire or dam, 15.2 hands. From this it would seem that for best results in mule breeding the jack should stand approxi- mately 15.2 hands high and be black with light points. The temperament, quality, style and action should also be considered, as these will be reflected in the offspring. Organizations and records.——In 1888, the American Breeders’ Association of Jacks and Jennets was organ- ized as,a stock company and a stud book established, of which several volumes have been published. In France an association for registering jacks and jennets also exists, CHAPTER XXIV THE MULE While England, France, Belgium, Germany and Spain have developed most of the breeds of horses and jacks, it has been left for America to prove the usefulness of the mule. It seems strange that these older countries should have given mule breeding so little attention, particularly in view of the animal’s usefulness. The only excuse for this neglect is that the producing of a mule removes the opportunity of raising a horse. The mule a hybrid.—The mule is not a true breed, but is a hybrid, the result of a cross between a jack and a mare. As is usually the case, where two species are crossed, the mule is sterile and will not breed. The sexual organs are supposed to be incomplete, although several cases are on record where mare mules have con- ceived and produced young. These are remarkable cases, however, and are not accepted as authentic by most scientists. The history of the mule.—We have no reliable data as to when the first mules were raised, although they have been used more or less since the time of Christ, and per- haps even before. The literature of ancient Rome and Greece makes frequent reference to the mule, in which he seems to have served various purposes. While the mule seems to have served a useful purpose since very early times, it is only in recent years that his true value has been appreciated. The mule in America—From the time that the King of Spain presented General George Washington with an Andalusian jack until the present, mule breeding has had a steady and rapid growth in America. In fact, mules were bred in this country as early as the sixteenth cen- 248 THE MULE 249 tury. Notwithstanding ours is one of the newest coun- tries in the world, it was left to us to establish the true economic value of the mule. At present more than one- half of all the mules in the world are to be found in the United States. This recognition of the value of the mule is very largely due to the intelligence of our Southerners, who were the first to adapt him to general purposes. The characteristics of the mule—Like all other animals, the mule inherits qualities from both sire and dam. Thus the mule differs from the horse. The head is larger and more clearly de- fined; the ears are longer; the foretop, mane and tail tufted; the body smaller and more cylindrical; the quarters not so heavily muscled, although, considering size, the mule is equally as strong, if, indeed, he is not more powerful than the horse; the legs are superior in quality; and the feet of the mule are smaller and longer than those of the horse, with the arch of the hoof greater. The mule is exceedingly vari- able in size and weight, depending on the parentage. On the market mules are divided into classes according to their size and the work they are capable of performing (p. 320). While the color is exceedingly variable, black, brown and bay, with light points, are the most popular. The color is a very important consideration in America, there- fore, blue, gray, white, buckskin, yellow and like colors are objectionable. In temperament, the mule is quiet and patient. He is less nervous, less subject to fright, and more certain than the horse. For hard pulling and steadi- ness in the collar he has no equal in the world. The 250 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES temperament of the mule has been a subject for much unjust criticism, for when properly handled he is among the coolest of animals. The endurance of the mule.—In this respect the mulc is superior to the horse. It is often true of hybrids that they are more resistant than either parent. For long, hard journeys through semi-desert regions, over moun- tains, precipices and through difficult passes the mule is preferred to the horse. Mules usually live longer than horses and their period of usefulness is much greater. Wallace gives the mule the fol- lowing advan- tages over the horse: Not par- ticular as to the quality of the food; more surefooted and not nearly so liable to fall; less liable to become lame; more pluck and Fic. 127.—SPAN OF Prize MULES perseverance; walk faster; pull steadier; and in competition with a horse of equal weight the mule will accomplish more work. Resistance of mule to disease—Unlike the horse, the mule will seldom eat more than is good for him, even though the food be placed before him. Thus the mule very largely escapes all diseases caused by overfeeding, which often proves fatal to the horse. The legs and feet of the mule are less subject to disease than in the horse, although ringbone, sidebone, spavin and like troubles do occur. In most contagious and infectious diseases the mule is perhaps no more resistant than the horse, THE MULE 251 Uses of the mule—As a working animal, the mule’s adaptability is almost universal. He is unaffected by the climate, working equally as well in the cold, in the hot, in the moist, and in the dry climate. He serves his mas- ter in any capacity—as a pack animal, under the saddle, and in harness, both light and heavy. He is found wher- ever man needs a beast to help bear his burdens. The mule’s docility and coolheadedness, as well as his resist- ance to disease, especially those resulting from over- feeding, make him a very desirable animal when ignorant and careless workmen must be relied upon. Distribution of the mule—While more than one-half of the mules in the world are found in the United States, yet these animals enjoy a widespread distribution. This is due in a large measure to their general adaptability. They find especial favor in Spain, France, Portugal, Italy, and Africa. Mules are found in every state in the Union, but more especially in the southern states. Kentucky and Tennessee have been noted for producing mules of quality for more than a century. Missouri also has long been noted for the production of mules of quality. To these states many fine jacks have gone, and from them in turn many fine mules have been sold. St. Louis is the leading mule market of the world. At this market thou- sands of mules are purchased by the various govern- ments for military purposes. Organizations and records—As mules do not breed there is no association promoting their interests as such, although the American Breeders’ Association of Jacks and Jennets, which was organized as a stock company in 1888, has the welfare of this animal in hand. This is because the jack is used almost exclusively to sire mules, and it is to the interest of jack breeders and importers to strive for progress in mule breeding. CHAPTER XXV PRINCIPLES OF HORSE BREEDING The development of the various breeds of horses dates back to the middle of the eighteenth century. About 1760, Robert Bakewell assumed the management of the estate on which his father and grandfather had resided at Dishley Grange, Leicestershire, England. Young Bakewell conceived the idea that he had only to select the most valuable strains, such as promised the greatest returns to the breeder, and that he should then, by care- ful attention to progressive improvement, be able to produce a breed from which he could derive the maxi- mum advantage. He made excursions into different parts of England, in order to inspect the different breeds and to select those best adapted to his purpose. In this study Bakewell separated the characters of form, func- tion, quality, as well as propensity to fatten, consider- ing them as his units of selection. Thus Bakewell recog- nized the two cardinal principles of animal improvement —similar produces similar, and the form bears a close relationship to the function—based upon which he orig- inated a system which has resulted in the development of our specialized breeds of horses. VARIATION IN HORSES Variation is the basis of improvement among all farm animals. If characters were absolutely fixed and un- changeable, then no improvement could be secured. The size of the draft horse could neither be increased nor diminished, and the speed of the trotter would remain constant from generation to generation. Thus the off- spring would be no better, or poorer, than the parent. 252 PRINCIPLES OF HORSE BREEDING 253 Frequency of variation—Among farm animals, varia- tion is universal. No two horses are alike. To those unfamiliar with horses, one animal of a well-matched team may look exactly like the other, yet the trained eye will readily recognize differences, and can describe each animal so that those with equal training may recognize it. These differences involve all characters. Two horses of the same breed may differ widely in conformation and carriage, particularly of the neck and tail, in color, qual- ity, action, and the like. Kinds of variation.—There are four kinds of variation quantitative, qualitative, functional and deviation from the common pattern. Quantitative variation has to do with size, and is one of degree only. This is the simplest form of variation and is very common. ‘Two horses of the same breed, one may be large, the other small; or on the same animal one foot may be larger than the others; and, in like manner, all characters may vary in size. Qualitative variation has to do with quality only, and is distinct from size. Evidences of this are also abundant, the quality of no two horses being alike, as one may have a coarser, rougher hair and a thicker hide. Functional variation has to do with functions only, and is distinct from either size or quality. It has reference to the activity of the various organs and parts of the body, such as muscular activity, glandular secretions, and the like. Evidences of this are common, as some horses walk faster than others, and some trot faster, while still others pull heavier loads. Deviation from the common pattern has reference to the irregular appearance of re- peated parts, such as extra toes, extra teats, and the like. This class of variation is seldom observed among horses, but is common among plants, such as the stooling of corn, wheat and oats, as well as the deabling up of flowers. Principal causes of variation.—Since variation plays so important a part in improvement, it is of interest to 254 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES note the conditions that produce it, particularly since by modifying these conditions, we can aid in producing variation in a desired direction. Thus, if we wish to increase ‘the size of the horse, the conditions that cause the animal to vary in that direction are of interest and should be well understood. In horse breeding the prin- cipal causes of variation are the environment, crossing and use. Environment.—By this term is meant the surroundings of the animal. The chief factors of en- vironment, through which we seek to improve our horses, are those of climate, food and care. The climate is of interest largely as it controls the food supply, although it does affect the ex- ternal coat to some ; 3 as extent. When the Fic. 128.—PERCHERON STALLION “GALBA” horse is exposed to cold, damp weather, the hair becomes longer and thicker than if protected. The natural effect of the climate is modified by housing, and we can move the horse from one climate to another without serious results. No single factor influences development to a greater extent than the food supply. Full feeding increases the size and the constitutional vigor, while withholding the food not only arrests growth, but weakens the capacity for future development as well. In order to secure in- creased development of all the organs, the animals must be supplied with more food than is required for the per- formance of the normal function. PRINCIPLES OF HORSE BREEDING 255 The care that the horse receives has a molding influ- ence upon the variation he is likely to undergo. The animal that is well cared for—that is, properly housed, fed, watered, exercised, groomed, and the like—cannot fail to respond to such treatment. Many persons have fallen short of success in horse breeding by depending upon blood alone for improvement. They have for- gotten that all of our improved breeds are the product of adequate nutrition, combined with intelligent breeding. suitable environment and kindly care. Crossing. —The mating of dissimilar animals is a prime cause of variation. Up to the time of Bakewell, cross- breeding was a favorite method of seeking improvement. Previous to this time crossing was made easy from the fact that no record of breeding was kept. It was ob- served that mating two animals reared under different conditions, resulted in increased size, more vigor and greater prolificacy. While this system of breeding ren- dered valuable service in the formation of new breeds it must be remembered that the cross-bred animal does not breed true in general characters; in fact, he has nothing to breed true to, as his parents were unlike. While cross- ing, such as the mating of two animals from different breeds, is a course of much variation, the results are usually disappointing in the end. Use.—It is well known that use stimulates and disuse dwarfs development. Examples of the beneficial effect of exercise are common. Athletes train and musicians practice for many hours each day that they may become skilled. Horses intended for racing are trained from colthood in order to make the most of any natural ability to trot or run. Thus, use and disuse become important factors in causing variation. SELECTION IN HORSE BREEDING In establishing or creating a type, selection plays an all-important part, as it enables us to encourage the 256 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES production of those animals that meet the demand and to prevent, in part at least, the production of undesir- able individuals. In selecting horses for breeding pur- poses, there are three important factors to be considered: First, the individual merit, or the perfection of the animal as a representative of its race, type or breed; second, the pedigree, or the purity of the ancestry and the probable capacity of the individual to reproduce itself or to show FIG. 129.—BELGIAN MARE ‘ELEQUANTE” improvement; and, third, the suitability of the two in- dividuals to be mated. Individuality—In breeding horses the perfection of the animals selected should be carefully considered. Oc- casionally we give too little attention to this and select breeding animals on the basis of their pedigree. Such practice may prove disappointing, as many inferior in- PRINCIPLES OF ILORSE BREEDING 257 dividuals are recorded. because such animals command a good price on the market. In choosing breeding horses each animal should be closely inspected and only superior individuals placed in the stud. Pedigree.—The purity of the ancestry is an important factor in choosing breeding animals, as the capacity of a. horse to produce superior offspring will depend largely upon his ancestors. It is often a question which should receive the more attention, the individual merit or the pedigree. There are four possible conditions that should always be borne in mind: First, the offspring of a superior individual with a good pedigree is likely to possess merit; second, the offspring of an inferior individual’ with a good pedigree may possess merit; third, the offspring of a superior individual with a poor pedigree is likely to be inferior in merit; and, fourth, in all probability the off- spring of an inferior individual with a poor pedigree will be distinctly inferior. Formerly we associated great length of pedigree with breeding quality, but the present evidence goes to show that it is the immediate ancestors that are of most im- portance. Galton, in his “Law of Ancestral Heredity,” sets forth the idea that one-half of the full heritage comes from the parents; one-fourth from the grandparents, and so on to infinity. This being true, an offspring will pro- cure seven-eighths of its.full heritage from the three nearest generations of ancestors. In selecting breeding horses, the performance, when available, as in race horses, should be considered, as it affords valuable information as to what the offspring will probably be like. A good example of this is seen itt the speed reduction table where the record time was reduced from 2.48% to 1.5514 in one century (p. 130). Mating—Two animals, to be suitable for mating, should be as nearly alike in general characters as it is possible to select, otherwise the outcome of a union can- not be foretold. Since, as we have already seen, no two 258 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES horses are alike, we are obliged to strike an average between the characters of the parent and what we desire to get in the offspring. When the offspring shows good qualities the mating is considered a fortunate nick; when there is no resemblance to either parent, but to some near ancestor, it is called atavism,; and if to some of the far- removed ancestors, it is called reversion, although these terms are often used interchangeably. The success of a horse breeder often depends upon his ability to mate the animals properly. Some persons become very skilled in such matters. Re HEREDITY There are two great forces underlying all breeding operations: First, similar tending to beget similar, which has to do with heredity; and, second, the great run of variation through which improvement is sought. On heredity, or the extent to which variations are trans- mitted or passed down from parent to offspring, all suc- cessful breeding operations depend. Variations that are not transmitted are of no importance in breeding, though they may be of consequence to the animal possessing them. While the transmission of variation is a much- discussed question, practical animal breeders work on the supposition that such is the case. Horse breeders believe that: If high-class trotters are to be produced, they must mate animals that can trot fast; that, if high acting horses are desired, high actors must be united; and that if heavy horses are wanted, then horses of weight must be mated. Prepotency.—There is variation among parents in their power to stamp characters upon the offspring. When the offspring resembles one parent more than the other, the one transmitting its characters is said to be pre- potent over the other parent. Thus prepotency becomes of importance in improvement, and the influences that PRINCIPLES OF HORSE BREEDING 259 tend to produce it in the individual are worthy note. While many of the factors that influence prepotency are little understood, those that do aid and are under the con- ‘trol of man are: First, purity of breeding, which makes for stability. The introduction of outside blood lessens the stability and the certainty of transmission. Second, strong constitutional development, which strengthens the characters; and, third, in-breeding, which aids pre- potency, as it strengthens dominant characters. In breeding horses the prepotency of the male is given more consideration than the female. This is due to the fact that the sire is the parent of more individuals than the dam, and not to individual resemblance. This is fortunate, as improvement can be more cheaply secured through a good sire from the mere fact that he is repre- sented in more progeny. Fertility —The number of offspring produced by horses of either sex varies greatly. Some mares fail to breed at all, some breed once and go barren, and some breed every other year; while others breed with much regularity. The English Thoroughbred mare Pocahontas produced fifteen living foals and lived to the age of 33 years, while Old Fanny Cook also produced fifteen, the last one in the twenty-ninth year of her life. Stallions vary likewise, some producing a very low percentage, while others are almost fully fertile. The Standardbred stallion, Gam- betta Wilkes, has 229 standard performers, and Allerton has 246, while there are 10 that have over 150 (p. 120). In these cases, however, much depended upon the oppor- tunity, as the better the sire the better the class of dams offered, and hence the better the offspring, all of which leads to still further opportunities. Sterility—Perhaps the horse breeder’s greatest diffi- culty is the failure of his animals to breed freely. The causes which lead to sterility are many, some of which are understood and more or less preventable, while others are little known and perhaps beyond control. Some of 260 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES the known causes are: Confinement and lack of exer- cise; irregular supply of food; food lacking the proper nutrients; animals in too fat a condition; in-breeding; excessive breeding; and the like. To lessen sterility, we should avoid all causes likely to produce it. Sire and dam.—The relative influence of the parents is a much-discussed question, and all kinds of statements are made concerning the influence that each parent exerts on the offspring. So far as is known, however, the parents play an equal part in their control of the char- acters of the offspring. This, of course, is aside from the question of prepotency, discussed above, and in which either parent is likely to dominate over the other. SYSTEMS OF BREEDING The system of breeding to be employed in raising horses will depend on the purpose and circumstances of the breeder. If the object is the production of pure-bred animals the system employed may differ from that used in raising horses for the market. The circumstance of the breeder may modify the system, as he may be so situ- ated as to make it practically essential for him to employ a given method. , Grading.—The mating of unimproved animals with those more highly improved is perhaps the most common system of breeding. Usually the improved parent is the sire and the unimproved one the dam. This is the safest for beginners, as it is cheap. Ifa worthy pure-bred sire is used improvement follows rapidly. The first genera- tion of offspring is half pure, the second three-fourths and the third seven-eighths, and so on. By continuing this grading process, selecting the best mares as breed- ers, it is entirely possible and by no means difficult, to produce animals equal to pure breds in the production of work. In view of the ease with which improvement can be obtained by this method it is surprising that our horse stock does not improve more rapidly. PRINCIPLES OF HORSE BREEDING 261 Crossing.—Because of the strong tendency to produce variation, crossing is seldom employed as a system of breeding horses. The crossing of breeds results in the production of nondescript offspring, that lacks in efficiency and that fail to command a remunerative price when placed on the market. Attention is directed to crossing as a system of breeding, largely because.it is the method employed in breeding mules, the offspring of a jack and a mare; as well as the hinny, the offspring of a jennet and a stallion. It is interesting to note that the mule more nearly resembles the jack, while the hinny resem- bles the stallion. This has given rise to the statement that the off- spring resembles the sire in external char- acters and the dam in the internal characters. |, Gregor Mendel crossed a number of || plants and studied the inheritance of contrast-. ing characters in the hybrids. By pairing certain characters, as color, form, and the Fic, 130.—-AMERICAN SADDLE MARE like, he discovered that hybrid parents produced offspring of which one-half were again hybrids; while one-quarter were pure to each of the original parent forms. This is called “Mendel’s Law of Hybrids,” and through its application plant breeders are able to transfer certain characters from one group of plants to another. This promises a great field of useful- ness among plants and the law is receiving universal at- tention, although it is little used by horse breeders. Line-breeding—When animals of a single line of descent are mated the system is called line-breeding. It 262 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES combines animals similar in their characteristics, narrows the pedigree to a few and closely related lines of descent and thus gives stability to the strain or breed. This sys- tem secures uniformity and increases the prepotency among horses, but it must be remembered that it acts on good and bad characters equally, and, therefore, necessi- tates vigilance in selecting breeding animals. In-breeding.— When animals closely related are united the system is called in-breeding or in-and-in-breeding. This is line-breeding carried to its limits, and conse- quently it intensifies all the advantages and disadvan- tages of that system of breeding. This system was first employed by Robert Bakewell, who shocked the modest people of his time by mating the animals that possessed the characters he wished to propagate without regard to relationship. Since his time it has been successfully em- ployed by many breeders and many of our breeds of farm animals owe their early origin to this system. Breeding from the best.—The feasibility of this system will depend on the situation. Ifa pure-bred sire is mated with common grade mares due consideration should be given the characteristics of each, as unsatisfactory re- sults would probably follow uniting animals of widely differing characters. The suitability of the animals to be mated should be recognized as well as the perfection of the individuals, otherwise one will soon find himself in possession of animals varying in all essential character- istics. For the beginner, however, and until he learns the attributes of the animals with which he is working it is perhaps safest to recommend the system of breeding from the best, as it is likely to result in the production of good individuals even though they lack in uniformity. CHAPTER XXVI PRACTICAL HORSE BREEDING The average farmer has constant use for his horses approximately one-half of the year, during which time they are often overworked because of insufficient horse power. The remainder of the year the cost of maintain- ing the animals often exceeds the value of their services. This is likely to be the case on farms where horses are kept simply for the work they can do. On the other hand, there are many very successful farmers who keep sufficient animals to do the work without rushing, even during the busy seeding and harvest season. On such farms mares are usually kept and in order to make them earn their keep during the idle season, they are bred, thus producing a colt in addition to the work. The money obtained from the sale of horses produced in this way will fully compensate for the extra horses, and for the maintenance of all horse stock during the idle season. Thus, instead of purchasing a team every few years, as is the custom on so many farms at the present time, the horse-breeding farmer has an income from the. sale of surplus stock. Number of horses produced.—There are no data avaijl- able in the United States on the number of horses con- sumed, or used up, in a year, but conservative estimates place it at approximately two million. In addition to the horses consumed at home there are a few exported. These animals must be replaced or there will be a horse famine. There are approximately Io million mares on farms in the United States, of which we will assume that one-half, or five million, are of breeding age. If we are to produce more than two million colts it means that something like one-half of these mares must be bred each year. 268 264 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Horse-breeding states—The thirteenth United States census gives figures showing the number of colts pro- duced in each state for the year 1909, as well as the total number of mature horses at the time the census was taken. In this classification all horses over fifteen and one-half months of age are considered mature. From these figures we learn that for every 100 mature horses there were 9.9 colts produced in the United States—28 colts in the New England states; 5.0 colts in the middle Atlantic states; I0.5 colts in the north central states; 7.6 colts in the south Atlantic states; 9.2 colts in the south central states; 14.2 colts in the mountain states; and 11.3 colts produced for each 100 head of mature horses in the Pacific states. Conditions favorable to horse breeding.—So far as natural conditions are concerned much of the United States affords ideal breeding ground for the horse. This is emphasized by the manner in which feral horses bred when given their freedom by the early settlers. Per- haps nowhere else in the world do the natural conditions surpass those of Kentucky, especially for the production of light, stylish horses, such as the Thoroughbred, the American Saddler and the Standardbred horse. The same is true of the heavy drafter throughout many of the north central states. Mechanical power.—The usefulness of mechanical power is going to relieve the horse of much of the cheaper forms of labor such as long distant deliveries, plowing large areas, and the like. While the future influence of these motors cannot be foretold, past experience is en- couraging to the horse breeder. It is not likely that these machines will affect the horse market, at least for some time to come, any more seriously than did the railroads and electric cars. During the past decade, in which motors have been an active competitor, the price of the horse has risen 138 per cent. Evidently these machines have not seriously affected the demand for horses, as such increase in value would be impossible. PRACTICAL HORSE BREEDING 265 At present it cannot be denied that the automobile is affecting the price of fancy and pleasure horses; but past experience and present conditions indicate that the time is near at hand when automobiles will be as common and as cheap in proportion as bicycles, and then the fancy and pleasure horse will be as great a luxury as ever. PRACTICAL PLAN FOR BREEDING HORSES Perhaps the most discouraging factor in horse breeding in this country is the lack of type and quality among the common horse stock. This is due largely to the lack of a definite plan in breeding horses. Our horse breeders have crossed types and breeds promiscuously, which has resulted in general de- terioration. To avoid this condition the begin- ner should decide upon a clearly defined plan of procedure. A good lnowledge of horses and horse breeding should be obtained. Breeding establishments and horse-producing farms should be visited. A careful study should be made of the conditions, such as the market, the ric. 131.—Sutre STALLION “LORD CARLTON” kind of work to be ac- complished, and the like. Some markets and some con- ditions will favor the breeding of one type of horse, while other conditions will favor another type. In working out the plan, it should be kept clearly in mind, whatever the type or breed chosen—whether it is draft, coach or driving, for draft, stylish action or speed—that none but superior horses will sell at remunerative prices. There 206 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES will always be an overproduction of common horses, which will be the first to be affected by oversupply and business depressions and the last to be revived. Co-operative horse breeding.—This system has been extensively introduced into some of the states and most excellent results are reported. A number of farmers possessing the same type or breed of mares band to- gether and form a horse-breeding association. This as- sociation provides a suitable stallion, advertises stock, holds sales and often makes exhibits at the local and state fairs. Meetings are held for the discussion of horse-breeding matters and in this way each member re- ceives the benefit of the others’ experience. This serves to promote uniformity, to improve the quality and to im- prove the standard of the horses raised in the locality. “Company plan.’—-Often a salesman representing an : importing firm enters a locality and forms a “company” in order that he may sell a horse. This company con- sists of a varying number of men, each paying a pro- portionate amount. The company thus formed usually pays a high price for the horse, as the price must cover many expenses. Further, the stallion thus thrust upon the community is seldom of the proper type to mate with the local mares. Often a good start is made in the grading up with a certain breed, as the Percheron, when a company is formed for the purchase of a stallion of an- other breed. Such a stallion is a detriment to the com- munity, although he would have been valuable if of the same breed as the mares in the locality. The company plan of purchasing stallions, therefore, is objectionable, not alone because of the high price, but because they are often unsuited to mate with the mares of the locality. Selection of animals for breeding —The general prin- ciples of heredity and variation must be kept in mind in choosing breeding stock. This applies to the mare as well as to the stallion. When the colts are not up to standard there is a tendency to criticize the stallion, PRACTICAL HORSE BREEDING 267 whereas undesirable qualities of the mare are as likely to appear in the offspring as are the bad qualities of the stallion. It is a serious but common error in horse breed- ing to suppose that the bad points of one animal can be overcome by the good points of the mate. Undesirable characters of the mare are not to be offset by choosing a stallion that is abnormally developed in a contrary direction. In selecting breeding stock we must remem- ber that success will depend largely upon the perfection of the foundation animals, both mare and stallion. Breed and type—In formulating the general plan for breeding horses we should first decide upon the breed and type. The most profitable breed will be influenced by the local conditions and the tastes of the breeder, as there are no best breed and type for all conditions. The light types naturally belong to farms devoted to dairy- ing, fruit farming, market gardening, and the like. On such farms there is little heavy work, such as plowing and heavy hauling. Further, the necessity of reaching the market or the creamery requires light, active horses. On general purpose farms where there is much plow- __ing and other heavy work to be done, the heavy horse . finds his true home. While the horses belonging to the draft type are not so active or stylish as those of the light type, they possess many advantages. Draft horses can be reared with less risk than the lighter and more active types. They are not so likely to injure themselves as the |, higher strung animals; and should a slight blemish occur, it is not considered so serious as in the case of a roadster or coacher. Draft horses can be put to light work much younger and do not require so much training to fit them for their life work. Further, the horses of this type are in constant demand for city traffic. They are the last to . be affected by business depressions and the first te re- cover; they are the least affected by automobiles, motor cars, and the like; they are not affected by fads, fancies, or fashions, and always command a remunerative price. 268 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSFS The mare.—In selecting breeding stock, the influence of the mare in transmitting qualities to the foal is often underestimated, and frequently ignored entirely by horse breeders. No doubt this accounts for much of the disap- pointment in breeding horses. No matter what type or breed is selected, the brood mare should be as nearly per- fect as it is possible to obtain. She should be of good size for the breed to which she belongs, ponies excepted. Her conformation should be rather open, showing much chest and girth capacity, and insuring constitutional vigor. The pelvic region should be broad, to insure ease of foaling. The legs and feet of the brood mare should be care- fully considered. The bones of the limbs should be clean and free from coarseness, so that the legs appear wide and flat. The tendons should be prominent and free from meatiness, and the hair fine, silky and glossy. The feet should be of medium size, well shaped, dark colored, tough, elastic and close of texture. Mares having poor hoofs, too small, too large, too soft and spongy, too weak, brittle, wide and low in the heels, too shallow and flat, too steep and contracted, are not desirable for breeding purposes. The wearing qualities of the horse depend largely on the character of the legs and f The brood mare should have a good pie tere In- firmities in temper seem to be transmitted to the off- spring. Pregnant mares are often quarrelsome and many distressing accidents occur when the mare has a naturally mean disposition. The stallion.—If possible, choose a sire of known breed- ing qualities. The stallion that is known for the produc- tion of uniform colts of excellent quality is the one to patronize. For this reason middle- aged stallions are preferred to young ones. ” Pure-bred sires always should be patronized, although the individuality of the animal should be given equal prominence with the pedigree. As an individual, the sire PRACTICAL HORSE BREEDING 269 should be a perfect representative of the breed to which he belongs. The pedigree alone does not guarantee his worth, as many inferior pure-bred animals find their way into the stud books. The conformation, quality, action and temperament should be carefully considered. Note the condition. Stallion owners like to have their animals very fat, as this covering often conceals many defects. When possible it is preferable to patronize stallions that are worked moderately. This exercise serves to keep the animal in excellent condition and a better grade of colts will.be obtained than if this exercise is withheld. It is not sufficient that he simply be jogged, as this does not stimulate proper development. he stallion fee.—Perhaps no ‘single factor has done more to discourage profit- able horse production than the low service fee of the grade or scrub stallion. The services of a desirable stal- lion cannot be had for less than $15 without the owner losing money en his invest- ment, yet many cheap and inferior horses stand for less money. The common farm- er, not appreciating the value of good blood, patronizes Fic, 132.—PERCHERON STALLION the inferior animal because of the low fee, with the result that the offspring is a nondescript and not worth the food required to raise him, while the superior animal is driven from the locality for lack of patronage. There are three methods of charging stallion fees in common practice: To insure a living foal; to insure the mare in foal; and by the service. Often a stallion stands at a certain fee for a single service and at a higher one SLU, 270 MANAGEMENT AND RREEDING OF HORSES to insure a living foal, the farmer being given his choice. To get at the relative value of these propositions we will consider some data compiled by Sanders which, accord- ing to our own observations, seem to be approximately correct. This data was obtained from the German studs, in. which 1,000 stallions served 42,000 mares, with re- sults as follows: Mares: Serv ed si ui2)5 deer diebtved chaos ued hd WERE TAR S Hee Sears 100.0 Mares tay foals fate sceuses Soasseeds ck augutse o? axdunse-dceltnd abc al tetpeva-oSnegba- bs anscbuet seaea Live foals dropped.................05 ae Mares aborted and miscarried Mares dying or misSing......... 00. c ccc eee cent eee e eect neeeee According to this table a stallion will make as much money for his owner by standing at $10 for a service as he will at $15 to insure the mare in foal, or at $20 to in- sure a living foal. These sums are approximate, and they serve as a very good guide in deciding which of the three conditions to accept when they are optional with the farmer. Lien laws.—Many of the states now have laws grant- ing a lien on mare and foal, resulting from the services of a properly recorded and advertised stallion. These laws make the mare or foal, or both, holden for the service fee. These laws differ widely in the various states and the horse breeder should become familiar with the provisions made by the statutes of his own state. The wording of some of these statutes is not clear, and in such cases the advice of a lawyer should be sought. Soundness.—Both sire and dam should be free from all forms of unsoundness or diseases that are hereditary, transmissable or communicable to the offspring. While absolutely perfect animals can rarely, if ever, be found, and few horse breeders can afford to reject breeding stock for small and unimportant defects, yet not until both mare and stallion are free from unsoundness can we hope to raise the excellency of our horses to the PRACTICAL HORSE BREEDING 271 degree possible as the result of intelligent breeding and development. It would seem logical to expect that if we used un- sound sires and dams their progeny may prove equally unsound, or if one parent is unsound its unsoundness may offset the soundness of the other parent and endow the offspring with a tendency to like unsoundness. Many breeders have fallen into the grievous way of considering any broken down, halt, maimed, blind or otherwise un- sound mare fit for breeding purposes when no longer able to work, It is certainly poor policy to knowingly use unsound breeding animals and thus promote un- soundness in the offspring. Uniformity and persistency in breeding —We have not had sufficient regard for uniformity and type in our horse-breeding operations. All sorts of crosses have been made, with the result that our horses are of mixed breed- ing and many of them mongrels and misfits. The only certain method of raising the general average of our horses, in respect to type, quality, action and specific utility, is by persistent breeding to sires of the same breed until the blood of that breed has wholly obliterated the native blood derived from the mares originally used. Were this practice followed, for even a few generations, we would find general excellence of form, quality, action and utility, such as characterize the breed, used in the work of improvement. Our farmers have been using pure-bred sires, to a greater or lesser degree, for more than half a century, yet few, if any, communities have persistently used such sires in a right line until the characters and quality of any one breed have become predominant. The importance of persistency of effort in horse breeding is well illustrated in the district of La Perche, in France. This county has become famous throughout the world for one breed of horses—the Percheron—which possesses marked breed prepotency and breeds so true to type. The Clydesdale 272 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES of Canada affords another example. The early Canadian settlers were partial to the Clydesdale breed, and hence imported Clydesdale stallions of best character which have been employed in the breeding operations of that country since the year 1842, when Archibald Ward of Markham, Ontario, imported Grey Clyde (78). Prac- FIG. 133 ARRANGEMENT OF BREEDING HOPPLES tically no outside crosses have been made. This has enabled the farmers to select suitable mares and to ade- quately develop their progeny. The result is that Can- ada has but one type of draft horse, and it is a good one, showing to a marked degree the characteristics of the pure-bred Clydesdale. The individual farmer will do well to cast his lot with the majority of his neighbors and breed the same type that they are breeding, even though that type may not be the one that best suits his fancy or even the one that is best suited to the district. PRACTICAL HORSE BREEDING 275 ' : paddock The process of breeding.—The stallion should *) 7.8 = 9.8 Nutritive ratio 1 : 9.8.—This means that for each pound of digestible protein in corn, there are 9.8 pounds of diges- tible carbohydrate equivalent. Computing rations.—To illustrate the method of cal- culating a ration for a given purpose we will assume the case of a horse weighing approximately 1,000 pounds and at light work. In order to compare the Wolff-Lehmann and Armsby standards we will take the same kind and amount of food in each computation. Let us choose from PRINCIPLES OF HORSE BREEDING 333 Table VIII of the Appendix, 12 pounds of timothy hay, five pounds of corn and five pounds of oats. If we arrange these in a table and compute the digestible nutrients in each, according to the Wolff-Lehmann method, we get the following: Carbo- Food Dry matter Protein hydrates Fats 12 pounds timothy hay.. 10.41 0.33 5.08 0.15 5 pounds corn......... 4.47 0.39 x 3.34 - 0.21 5 pounds oats......... 4.48 0.44 2.46 0.21 19.36 1.16 10.88 0.57 According to the Wolff-Lehmann standard (p. 331), this ration is deficient in protein and rich in carbo- hydrat- thereby giving a nutritive-ratio of I : 10.4, insteaa . 91 : 7.0, as called for in the standard. Accord- ing to this standard, the ration could be improved by the addition of one pound of linseed meal. Let us use the same food and calculate a ration by the Armsby standard (p. 331) for a 1,000-pound horse at light abrk. Taking the composition from Table VII of the Appendix and arranging the nutrients and energy in a table, we get the following: Digestible protein, Energy value, Food Dry matter pounds therms 12 pounds timothy hay 10.416 0.246 4.027 5 pounds corn....... 4.455 0.339 4.442 5 pounds oats........ 4,450 0.418 3.313 19.321 1.003 11.782 According to the Armsby standard this ration, al- though composed of the same kind and amount of food as before, is slightly too rich in digestible protein and considerably so in energy value. This serves to em- phasize the statement that feeding standards should serve as mere guides, to be modified according to atten- dant conditions. CHAPTER XXXIII PRACTICAL HORSE FEEDING In seeking to improve our horses, we must not under- estimate the importance of generous feeding. Breeding and selection make success possible, but will fail unless we provide a sufficient supply of the most suitable foods to the horse at all ages and stages of development. Horse feeding is essentially different from the feeding of other farm animals. Because of the small size of the digestive organs a relatively small quantity of roughage and a correspondingly large amount of grain is de- manded. Further, the kind of work to which horses are put calls for the least possible load in the digestive organs. Regularity of feeding.—The horse should be fed regu- larly and uniformly at all times. He anticipates the hour of feeding and becomes nervous if it is long delayed. He neighs and coaxes for his food with great regularity, and his system becomes accustomed to a certain order that must be followed. Sudden changes, even for a single meal, may produce more or less digestive disturbance. The working horse should be fed often, as undue fasting is followed by taking an excessive supply of food or by eat- ing too rapidly, either of which are likely to result in digestive disorders. Order of supplying grain, hay and water.—As the stomach of the horse is not large enough to hold the entire meal, the order of supplying grain, hay and water is of much importance. It is stated that the stomach of the horse must fill and empty itself two or three times for each meal. During the fore part of the meal the material is pushed into the small intestines almost as soon as it enters the stomach by the food which follows. while to- 334 PRACTICAL HORSE FEEDING 335 ward the end of the meal passage is slow and the diges- tion in the stomach is more perfect. This would lead to the conclusion that the bulky foods should be fed first and the more nutritious foods toward the end of the meal. This practice leads to the serious objection that the horse is anxious, nervous and unsatisfied until fed his grain, for which reason he is usually fed grain before hay. Watering the horse—A discussion of the order of sup- plying food should include the time of watering the horse. Many persons think that the horse should be watered before feeding, while others are equally as certain that feeding should precede watering. This difference of opinion may be due to the fact that either method will sometimes result in digestive disorders. If the horse is watered before feeding he may drink to excess, which may cause digestive disorders and will surely affect the appetite, and he will not consume as much food as he otherwise would. On the other hand, if the horse is very thirsty and water is withheld until after feeding, he may not eat heartily and may drink so much water as to lessen his usefulness while at work. The object to be attained is to water the horse so fre- quently that he will not become thirsty and, therefore, not drink to excess. To do this the work horse should be watered four times each day; perhaps better results would be obtained from watering six times. Little or no difficulty will be experienced if the horse is watered after breakfast, both before and after dinner, and before sup- per. Perhaps better results would be obtained if the horse was watered before breakfast and again after sup- per, thus making six times daily, as is the custom in many large stables. Changing foods.—Sudden changes in the food are to be avoided, as the digestive system may not be able to accommodate itself at once to such, and digestive dis- orders follow. Such changes sometimes result in scour- ing, as when the horse is too suddenly transferred from 336 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES a dry to a watery diet. Sometimes a sudden change in- duces constipation, as a change from pasture to a dry ration. Such changes often overtax the digestive sys- tem to such an extent that it is permanently weakened, as when horses unaccustomed to grain are too quickly put on full feed. If the changes are made gradually, the system can digest without risk quantities of newly- ingested food that would have produced serious digestive disorders or derangements had they been given at first. Preparation of food.—The food of farm horses and other horses at moderate work need receive little atten- tion. Such animals have ample time to masticate and digest their food. On the other hand, work horses that are taxed to the limit of their endurance should have all grains ground and some of their hay cut or chopped. Foods thus prepared are more thoroughly and rapidly masticated and perhaps more thoroughly digested, es- pecially the ground grain. Long hay should be supplied the animal, to be consumed at leisure. As hay is always more or less dusty, it should be fed in such a manner as to cause the horse the least annoyance. Moistening or sprinkling the hay with water is the simplest way of reducing this trouble. Of course, dusty hay should be avoided whenever possible. Salting the horse.—Salt in limited quantities should be kept before the horse at all times. It is not best to place too much before him at a time, as some horses will eat it to excess, thus creating an abnormal thirst, and if given sufficient water may result in digestive disorders. Do not put the salt in the feed, as this practice often results in derangement of the digestive organs. Food required to grow a horse.—The cost of raising a colt has been a much-discussed question, and the es- timates vary widely. This variation in estimated cost is due largely to the conditions. In some cases, the cost has been estimated by considering the food at the market value, in other cases at the value on the farm, and in still PRACTICAL HORSE FEEDING 337 other cases at the ac.ual cost on the farm, thus giving three cost prices. The better way to state the cost of raising a horse is to give the food required to grow him and then each person can estimate the cost according to the value he wishes to place on the food. The sucking colt, fed grain as suggested (p. 291), will consume about 180 pounds up to weaning time. As a weanling he will consume five pounds of grain and seven pounds of hay per day; as a yearling seven pounds of grain and 18 pounds of hay; and as a two-year-old he will con- sume nine pounds of grain and 20 pounds of hay daily. These figures represent averages obtained from four years’ work in growing colts. The heavy draft colts con- sumed somewhat large quantities, while the light ones ate considerably less. The grain consisted of 50 parts corn meal, 25 parts wheat bran and 25 parts ground oats, while the hay consisted of sweet, clean clover or alfalfa. The total food consumed up to three years of age is as follows: Foop ConsuMED By Growinc CoLts Age of colt Period Grain, Hay, pounds Pasture pounds Sucker June to October 180 Perey 5 months Weanling November to May 1,050 1,470 Yearling June to October rdaceas see 5 months Yearling November to May 1,470 3,780 Two-year-old . June to October oor iss te 5 months Two-year-old November to May 1,890 4,200 Total 4,590 9,450 15 months According to this computation, a three-year-old colt costs approximately 2% tons of grain, 434 tons of hay, and 15 months’ pasture, on the average. Factors in reducing cost of horse labor.—There are a number of factors operating to affect the cost of horse labor, chief of which are increasing the efficiency of the 338 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES horse and raising colts. Farm horses work a very small fraction of the time. On a number of Minnesota and New York farms, horses were found to work an average of about three hours a day. On such farms the cost of horse labor could be reduced by using horses more ef- fectively. Another way to reduce the cost is to raise colts. From the nature of farm work, it would seem that the average farmer should raise more colts than are necessary to keep up the horses, so that there will be an income from the sale of surplus horse stock. FIG. 154.—PERCHERON BROOD MARES AT WORK. WEIGHT, 3,200 POUNDS Feeding the work horse—The work horse should have rich food, as the richer the food the more easily it is digested, and the greater the proportion available for work. He should be fed liberally and frequently. The hard-working horse has a good appetite, a vigorous diges- tion and responds to intelligent care. Regularity in feed- ing, watering and working brings comfort and long years PRACTICAL HORSE FEEDING 339 of usefulness, while irregularity in these details is likely to result in digestive disorders and other derangements. Amount to feed.—The feeding standards serve as a guide as to the amount of food that the work horse should receive. In general, this will be regulated by the size of the horse as well as by the amount and kind of work he is required to perform. In practice the work horse is sup- plied with approximately 2% pounds of provender daily for each hundred pounds of weight. Of this amount from one-third to two-thirds, the exact amount depend- ing on the severity of the labor, should be grain and the remainder sweet, clean hay. When the work is very heavy, the grain in the ration should be increased and the hay diminished, as grain contains more energy and is more easily digested. On the other hand, when the work is light, the grain should be diminished and the hay in- creased. The morning and midday meals should be light. They should not possess much bulk, as very bulky food lessens the animal’s usefulness. The heavy feeding should come at night, when the horse has ample time to masticate and digest his food and is not obliged to go to work immediately after eating. Method of feeding and watering.—The hard-working horse should be fed and watered so frequently that he will neither become hungry nor thirsty. Thus, he should be fed at least three times, watered not less than four times and if convenient six times daily. If accessible, there- fore, the horse should be watered in the morning before feeding. For the morning meal feed one-fourth of the daily allowance at least one hour before going to work. This should be in condition to be easily and rapidly con- sumed, so as to be well digested when the animal goes to work. He should be watered as he goes to work, and after five hours of exhaustive labor he should be given his midday meal. Before being fed, however, he should have a drink of fresh, cool water, taking care that he does not drink too rapidly or gorge himself if very warm. 340 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Feed another quarter of the daily allowance, and if con- venient remove the harness so he can eat in quiet and comfort, and thus gain a few minutes of much-needed rest. Allow one hour to consume the midday meal. After being watered, he is ready for the second half of his day’s labor. When worked five hours he should be given the evening meal. As he comes to the stable in the evening, he should, first of all, be given a drink, exercising care as before to see that he does not drink too rapidly. The horse is now ready for the remainder of his day’s allowance. Unharness at once and when the sweat has dried give him a thorough brushing. Blanket him for the night. If convenient, he should be given a drink in two hours after feeding, when he may be bedded down and left for the night. ‘Tf, for some reason, the horse is forced to stand idle in the stable for a few days, the grain ration should be reduced. Otherwise, he will become stocky and his legs become swollen and stiff. Many horsemen give a bran mash Saturday evening and reduce the grain on Sunday. Individuality in feeding—While we can estimate closely the amount of food to be given a large number of horses, yet the individual ration should be modified to meet the needs of each animal. Possibly one horse should have a little more than the regular allowance, and the next a little less, because some horses are more dif- ficult to keep in condition than others doing the same work and under similar conditions. The object sought is to keep each in the desired condition. Cost of the ration—In formulating a ration for the work horse, due consideration should be given the cost, which will vary with the size of the animal, the nature of the work performed and the cost of the food. Hays are ordinarily much cheaper than grains, especially on farms, but a hard-working horse is unable economically to dis- pose of a large proportion of bulky food. It requires time and energy to masticate and digest rough food, which PRACTICAL HORSE FEEDING 341 lessens the usefulness of the horse. Within proper limits the more concentrated the food, the less time and energy will be required to make it available. While the relative proportion between the grain and roughage in the ration will depend upon the amount and kind of work per- formed, yet a hard-working horse should never be ex- pected to consume more roughage than grain by weight. In the choice of grains the cost is given little or no con- sideration by the average person. Thus, we often con- tinue to feed oats when it is the most expensive grain upon the market, whereas equally as good results would be obtained by feeding some other grain, in part at least, and the cost would be lessened thereby (p. 348). Feeding the driving horse——The periods of compara- tive idleness, followed by long drives and hours of over- exertion, make the feeding of the driving and carriage horse a difficult task. The irregular work, necessitating irregular feeding, often weakens the constitution of the driving horse, which generally has but a brief career. As far as possible, the same general plan as that sug- gested for the work horse should be followed. When the horse is not driven the grain part of the ration should be reduced and the normal allowance should not again be given until the work is resumed. Driving horses are often overfed because of the desire of the owner to keep them in the pink of condition. This overfeeding and ir- regular exercise is the cause of most of the ills of the driving horse. Oats and bran easily lead among the concentrates and timothy hay among the forages. A bran mash should be given once a week if bran is not more regularly fed. Care must be exercised in feeding laxative foods, such as green grass, clover or alfalfa hay, and too much bran, as such foods prove very draining on the system of the horse as well as disagreeable to the driver. Wintering the idle horse.—Since practically all of the farm work comes during the growing season, many 342 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES horses are idle during the remainder of the year. As they do not do sufficient work to pay for their keep, they should be fed as economically as possible. It is more economical, and, perhaps, advisable, that idle horses be turned to a lot to be roughed through the winter rather than confined too closely in the barn, particularly if they have access to a dry, well-protected shed. Under such conditions they grow long, heavy coats, which afford them excellent protection. Idle horses have ample time FIG. 155.—PERCHERON STALLION AND MARE WORKING SIDE BY SIDE to masticate and digest their food and can subsist largely on forage, such as hay, corn fodder, straw, and the like. Some grain should be fed once a day. If the shed is kept well bedded and dry, idle horses can be comfortably win- tered in this way at much less expense than by stabling. Grain feeding, together with some work, should begin three weeks before spring work starts to put the animals into condition. | Feeding the stallion——The object to be attained in the management of a stallion is to so feed, groom and exer- PRACTICAL HORSE FEEDING 343 cise/him as to keep the horse up to the very highest pitch of strength and vigor. Many persons, among them some who should know better, endeavor to have the stallion in fine show condition at the time the breeding season opens. The horse is heavily fed, closely blanketed, and denied sufficient exercise, he becomes loaded with fat, his muscles become soft and flabby, and although he may seem in the pink of condition, he is not nearly so well fitted for service in the stud as he would have been had he received plain food and an abundance of exercise each day. To insure exercise the stallion should be worked moderately when convenient. During the breeding season the grain ration should con- sist mainly of good sound oats, as nothing is better; but this should be varied from time to time by adding corn, barley, wheat, and the like. Wheat bran is a valuable adjunct to the ration, and should never be dispensed with. It is not only rich in protein, an especially important element of nutrition for the stallion, but is the cheapest, safest and best of all regulators of the bowels. The roughage should consist of sweet, clean hay, timothy or timothy and clover mixed. A few carrots occasionally is a very valuable addition to the ration of breeding animals. Feeding mules——Mules should be fed similar to horses. There is a prevailing notion that mules eat less than horses under similar conditions. Such is not the case, al- though they are less likely to overfeed and gorge them- selves than horses, and will make use of coarse foods that horses will not eat unless forced to do so by neglect. Mules are sometimes preferred by large business firms, not that they consume less food for a given amount of work than do horses, but that their management, both feeding and working, can be trusted to less skilled hands and with better results than can be obtained with horses. In all important essentials, mules are very similar to 344 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES horses and should be fed, watered and worked accord- ingly. Fattening horses and mules for market.—In certain parts of the country feeding horses and mules for the market has become as much a regular business as feed- ing cattle and swine. While excessive fatness may lessen the future usefulness of both horses and mules, yet the market demands such and it is the business of the producer to supply the demand. Providing the animals are sound, it is not possible to get them so fat that buyers will object for that reason. The methods practiced in various parts of the country differ widely, as do the foods used. The animals are purchased, their teeth are floated, and they are put in the barn and fed gradually, as care must be taken for a few days to avoid colic. On account of the small size of the stomach it seems most profitable to feed grain five times a day, while hay is placed in the racks so they may have access to it at all times. One large firm gives three feeds daily of mixed feed, bran, shorts and oats; and two feeds of corn with clover hay available at all times. The animals are kept closely blanketed and stabled, with no exercise whatever. To keep the blood in good order, thus preventing in part stocklegs, glauber salts are some- times used. These salts are used once a week. The assertion is made that the salt aids in putting on flesh, and that it gives the skin a soft, mellow touch. In some instances, horses fed in this manner have made gains of as much as five pounds per day for a period of 50 to 75 days. The average feeding period, however, is from 75 to 100 days and an average gain of three pounds per day is considered satisfactory. Sample rations for the horse.—The following rations are collected from various sources and furnish a guide in determining the kind and amount of food that should be fed under various conditions ; PRACTICAL HORSE FEEDING 345 5 Ration Horse and work Weight of horse Grain Roughage Farm team, east 1,400 9 lb. oats 18 th. mixed hay 9 1b. corn Farm team, east 1,220 8 Ib. oats 10 1b. hay 6 lb. corn 2 Ib, bran Farm team, east 1,230 8 lb. corn 10 lb. hay 7 Ib. bran Farm team, west 1,230 12 Ib. oats 15 Ib. alfalfa hay Farm team, west 1,870 5 lb. bran 25 Ib. alfalfa hay 5 lb. shorts Farm team, west 1.385; ff aeaddaderaeeaaes 20 lb. alfalfa hay Light draft, east 1,350 4 lb. oats 15 Ib. hay Light draft, west 1,350 10 1b. oats 7 lb. hay 2.5 Ib. bran Medium draft, east 1,350 12 lb. oats 12 lb. hay Medium draft. west 1,350 8 lb. oats 16 lb. hay Heavy draft, east 1,600 9 lb. oats 24 Ib. timothy hay 9 lb. corn Heavy draft, east 1,600 23 lb. oats 12 lb. hay Moderate driving 1,000 8 Ib. oats 10 lb. timothy hay Moderate driving 1,000 4 Ib. oats 10 lb. timothy hay 4 lb. corn Heavy driving 1,000 14 Ib. oats 10 Ib. timothy hay 1,000 7 lb. oats 10 lb. timothy hay 7 Ib. corn GRAIN MIXTURE FOR COLTS 40 parts ground oats 40 parts wheat bran 20 parts corn meal WINTER RATION Age of colts Grain Hay Weanlings 5 lb. 7 Ib. clover hay Yearlings 7 Ib. 18 Ib. clover hay Two-year-old 9 Ib. 20 Ib. clover nay CHAPTER XXXIV GRAIN AND CONCENTRATES FOR THE HORSE The ration of the horse usually lacks variety. If we study the ration for horses in a locality we find it com- posed of one or at most two kinds of grain and one kind of forage. The owner insists that this is the most prac- tical and economical ration he can feed with safety to his horses. We need not travel far, however, to find the list of foods more or less changed, sometimes entirely so, yet with the same claim of superiority or necessity as before. Thus in one section the most common feeds for the horses are oats for grain and timothy hay for rough- age; in another section corn serves as grain and clover hay as roughage; in another, crushed barley is the com- mon grain, while the hay comes largely from the wild- oat and barley plants; and in still another section corn serves mainly as the grain, with corn fodder for the roughage. In fact, the range of foodstuffs that may be fed the horse with safety and success is rather large. THE CEREAL GRAINS Most of the grain fed to the horse comes from the cereal plants—oats, corn, barley, rye and wheat. The cereal grains are very similar in composition. They con- tain a fairly low water and protein content and a con- siderable amount of nitrogen-fee extract, fiber and fat. They are palatable and digestible. The question of a choice of cereal grain for feeding the horse will be largely determined by the relative cost. Oats.—There is no other grain so safe for horse feed- ing as oats, the animal rarely being harmed if by acci- dent or otherwise the feeder gives an oversupply. This 346 GRAIN AND CONCENTRATES FOR THE HORSE 347 safety is due to the oat hull, which causes a given weight of grain to possess considerable volume. This lessens the liability of mistake in measuring the ration. Fur- ther, the digestive tract cannot hold a quantity of oat grains sufficient to produce serious disorders. It is said that horses fed on oats show a spirit which cannot be attained by the use of any other feeding stuff. It has been urged by many that this is due to a peculiar stimulating substance called “avenin,” which the oats is said to possess. Oats may have a flavor that makes FIG. 156.—FATTENING HORSES FOR THE MARKET it a favorite food for horses, but the most careful chem- ical study has failed to reveal any substance of the nature of “avenin.” Again, it is stated that the fats of oats are more thoroughly digested than those of other cereals. The weight of oats determines the quality of the grain. If the oats is light it indicates that there is a large pro- portion of hull to grain and the oats is worth less than if it were heavy, which indicates a large proportion of grain and a small amount of hull. Unless the horse is pressed for time or has poor teeth, the oats should be fed whole. It is generally agreed that new oats should not be fed to horses. Musty oats should always be avoided. Corn.—Next to oats, if, indeed, it does not exceed it, 348 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES corn is the common grain for the horse in America. It is used largely in the corn belt and to the southward in the cotton states. Much has been said against the use of corn. However, it is ordinarily the cheapest of all the cereal grains. A given weight furnishes more energy than any other food. It furnishes the largest amount of digestible nutrients, at the least cost, and is universally palatable. While conceding that corn is not equal to oats as a grain for the horse, nevertheless, because of its low cost and high feeding value, this grain will be ex- tensively used when large numbers of horses must be economically maintained. Corn contains large quan- tities of nitrogen-free extract, and when fed exclusively is too fattening. If fed in too large quantities it pro- duces digestive disorders. Corn also lacks a sufficient amount of mineral matter and protein for the prop development of young animals. Oats and corn—Ground corn and oats, mixed half ar half, make a very good grain ration for the horse, and much cheaper than oats alone. In a three years’ te: with gelding and brood mares worked on farms and a heavy draft, this mixture gave equally as good result as'whole oats, and reduced the cost of the ration an proximately 10%. The bulk of the oats overcomes, i. a large measure, the objectionable features of the cort. while the corn, with its large amount of easily digestible materials, supplies the ration with much energy. Barley, rye and wheat.—Each of these grains is some- times fed to the horse. The question of their use depends largely upon their market price. Usually they are worth more for other purposes. Wheat especially is worth more for milling. Wheat has, however, been fed to the horse with varying success, depending largely on the feeder and the method of feeding it. Barley is not fed to horses in the East to any great extent because of its demand for malting, but on the Pacific coast it is extensively used for feeding horses at GRAIN AND CONCENTRATES FOR THE HORSE 349 all kinds of work. When the horse’s teeth are good and the labor not severe, barley may be fed whole. Ground barley when mixed with saliva forms a pasty mass in the mouth, and is therefore unpleasant to the horse while eat- ing. Crushing the grain makes it less objectionable. Rye is often fed to horses. It is the least palatable of all the grains and many horses will hardly eat it unless -round and mixed with other foods. In many localities, rye is likely to be infected with ergot, which has a bad effect upon the horse and may be the cause of abortion in brood mares. : Leguminous grains.—Besides the cereal grains there are a few leguminous -eeds that are ‘red as horse 4. These le- ninous seeds ‘er from cereals their composi- in, in that they ‘ntain a relative- “large percent- zt of protein, “id are perhaps wt so digestible S some of the cereal grains. - Horse beans, treld peas and cowpeas. — These are perhaps the most used leg- umes as a food for the horse. Fic. 157.—BuLK IN GRAIN RATION 1. Shelled corn. 2. Corn meal. 3. Whole oats. 4. are beans and Ground cate e coe at exe pe ester gmat e x= whole oats. 6. One-half corn meal and one-half groun e peas aie e oats. 7. One-third wheat bran, one-third corn meal and tensively fed in ones tulnd ground oats. ‘ a i Each lot contains the same amount of digestible Europe and Can- nutrients. Note the larger bulk in lots 5, 6 and 7. 350 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES ada, while cowpeas are used in the southern states. The horse usually takes to these grains after a time, and they have a good effect upon the animal unless fed in too large quantities, when they prove harmful. Five pounds per head per day may be considered the maximum that can be fed with safety. BY-PRODUCTS AND COMMERCIAL FEEDS Aside from the whole grain there are on the market numerous feeds containing only parts of the various grains and are called — by-prod- ucts, commercial feeds,and the like. These constitute the part of the grain left after the manufacture of some product. Thus, when starch is manufactured from corn, the nitrogenous part of the grain is re- Fic, 158.—BELGIAN STALLION “LupIA” jected and consti- tutes gluten feed or meal. Cottonseed cake or cottonseed meal is the ma- terial left after the oil has been expressed from the cotton seed. In the same way, linseed meal is the residue ob- tained in the manufacture of linseed oil. Dried brewer's grain is the dried barley grain after it has been brewed. Bran, middlings and shorts are left after the manufacture of flour. Wheat bran.—Because of its physical effect, bran is considered a very valuable addition to the ration of the horse. It has a loosening effect on the bowels and a tendency to allay feverish condition. It is entirely too : | GRAIN AND CONCENTRATES FOR THE HORSE 351 bulky to constitute any considerable part of the ration of a hard-working animal. It is a very good food for young and growing animals, as it is rich in mineral matter and protein, elements that the young animal must have to build up his body. It serves the needs of the ero horse best when given as a “condition” food. Linseed meal.—This food is very rich in protein, and is often fed to the horse in limited quantities, more for the specific effect it has on the horse than for the actual nutrients it contains. It stimulates the skin secretions and gives the horse a very smooth and glossy hair. It can be used as a laxative. Linseed meal is very palatable and easily digestible. It is fattening in its nature and hence desirable if one wishes to fatten his horse. Lin- seed is valuable as a food for the growing colt because of its high amount of mineral matter and protein. It cannot be fed, however, in very large quantities’ because of its laxative effect, and some horses cannot eat it at all, as it scours them at once. Cottonseed meal——This meal has about the same com- position and the same effect on the mature horse as has linseed meal. Cottonseed meal should not, however, be fed to young and growing animals. Gluten meal or feed.—Gluten is sometimes fed to the horse. It is rich in protein, but rather deficient in mineral matter. It has the objection that when mois- tened with saliva it has a tendency to form balls in the mouth and is not so palatable. However, it is quite digestible. Like linseed and cottonseed meal, it should not be fed in very large quantities. Because of its low mineral matter content it should not’ be given to the young and growing colt. Dried brewer’s grains.—These grains have been used in the ration of the work horse with success. An experi- ment is quoted when they were compared with oats and the following conclusions drawn: In both rations the nutrients furnished were sufficient to maintain the weight 352 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES of the animal under average work; taking all in all, a pound of the dried brewer’s grains was quite as useful as a pound of oats in the ration for work horses. Molasses.—Numerous trials have been made of feed- ing molasses to horses, particularly in the South. It is rich in nitrogen-free extract and hence is quite diges- tible. In the South, where it is fed extensively, it is fed from a large trough, and the animals are allowed to eat at will. In the North it is customary to dilute it with water and sprinkle on the hay. Molasses has a good physical effect upon the animal. It encourages skin secretions and keeps the hair fine and glossy. There are some disadvantages connected with the use of mo- lasses, however, as it attracts insects, especially flies and ants, sticks to the animal’s coat, halter, tie strap and manger, and is difficult to mix with other foods. Patent stock foods.—If the horse is out of condi- tion, or if the food is not so good as it should be, the use of condimental or patent stock foods may be of advantage in bringing the animal up to the normal con- dition. The price at which these patent foods are sold makes them extremely expensive to the consumer, and the profits that accrue from their sale are great. Yet if one has a horse that is out of condition it may be profitable to buy a package of this food. There is noth- ing difficult in the making of these foods, and any one can mix a “conditioner” himself if he has the time and disposition to do so. CHAPTER XXXV HAY AND FORAGE FOR THE HORSE The kinds of forage that are available for horse feed- ing are even more numerous than the grains, and they vary as widely in their composition and nutritive value. Dry forage, on the average, contains from one-third to one-half the energy value of grain. It differs from grain in that it contains more water.and more fiber. Because of the high percentage of water, succulent forage con- tains from one-third to one-half the energy value of dry forage. Many of the succulent foods, especially roots and tubers, are almost entirely digestible. HAY AND DRY FORAGE It is better to have the digestive tract of the horse moderately distended with coarse material rather than contracted, as would be the case if grains possessing only the requisite nutrients were supplied. In fact, horses fail to thrive when fed concentrates alone; even oats with their strawlike hulls do not provide sufficient bulk. Fur- ther, on farms roughage is ordinarily much cheaper than concentrates and, therefore, should be used as much as possible, although some grain should always be fed in addition, especially to working animals. Timothy hay.—Although not particularly rich in digestible nutrients, timothy is the standard hay for horse feeding. There are many reasons for its popu- larity. It can be grown successfully in nearly all local- ities and is the principal market hay; it is difficult to adulterate with other grasses or weeds without detec- tion; it is relished by horses; it is free from dust—all of which conditions commend good timothy hay as a horse food. 353 354 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Clover hay.—This hay has not been held in high es- teem as a forage for horses. The reasons are obvious. It is generally loaded with dust, and this is often hard to prevent. The clover stem is not stiff enough to hold the plant upright and it falls to the ground, and more or less dirt is splashed upon it by rain. Then the leaves and stems are very brittle and crumble into dust in the curing of the hay. Further, the hay often goes into the mow so moist that fermentation takes place. Dur- ing this oxidation or slow-burning process, particles of blackened, partially carbonized leaves are produced, FIG. 159-—-MODERN METHOD OF MAKING HAY which finely divided matter rises in the air in clouds of dust when the hay is moved. Some of it enters the nos- trils of the horse and is drawn into the lungs, there setting up serious irritation. This can be prevented in large measure by moistening the hay before feeding. When bright and clean, clover is a very valuable food for the horse, especially for the young and growing colt, as it is rich in protein and mineral matter; in fact, it makes a better ration than timothy when fed in limited quanti- ties. Alfalfa hay.—This hay belongs to the same natural HAY AND FORAGE FOR THE HORSE 355 family as clover hay, and meets with similar objections. It is likely to be dusty, especially when grown in regions of considerable rainfall. It seems certain that alfalfa fed in limited quantities will prove as efficient as timothy to the slow-going draft horse. Horses are very fond of alfalfa, and it is necessary to guard against feeding an oversupply. Like clover, there is no better forage for the young and growing colt. FIG. 160.—ARABIAN STALLION “NIMR” Cereal hay.—Cereal plants, such as oats, barley and wheat, are often harvested before the grain matures and the forage used as hay. Such hay is extensively used on the Pacific Coast, especially in California, where it is held in high esteem as a forage for race horses. Cereal hay may often be advantageously employed for horse feeding in the eastern United States. When timothy commands a very high price, many successful farmers sell their timothy and raise oat hay for their work horses. 350 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Millet hay.—Hay from Japanese millet, Hungarian grass, and like forages, may often be advantageously fed to horses, provided the allowance is limited (p. 358). When such hay is properly cured, and fed in moderation, | | or in connection with some other hay, it makes a very good forage for the horse and produces no unfavorable effects. Perhaps some grain should always be fed when millet forms a part of the ration. Corn forage—Thickly grown corn, when properly cured, makes one of the best dry forages for the horse. Corn thus seeded bears small palatable ears which are easily masticated. The leaves are free from dust, as well as palatable and full of nutrients. When the yield of such forage and its feeding value are compared with that of timothy hay from the same area, the usefulness and economy of the corn plant becomes apparent. Corn stalks.—Dry corn stalks that have been cured in the shock are sometimes fed as a substitute for hay. Ex- periments and experience have shown that in the fall before the leaves are leached it is as valuable as timothy hay, pound for pound consumed. The stalks cost only one-third as much as the timothy and therefore they prove much more economical. The question is often raised whether cutting or shredding improves their digestibility. It will not improve the digestibility, but cutting or shredding has other advantages: The cut or shredded stalks can be much more conveniently stored; they are more easily handled; they will retain their nutrients longer than if left to leach in the shock. If the stalks are to be fed in this manner, emphasis must be put upon the necessity of cutting the corn as the ear hardens and be- fore the blades and stalks become dead or are bitten by frost. Straw.—The straw of the various cereal grains is some- times fed to the horse as a part of his roughage. While the straw has some value, the horse requires much more grain when hay is replaced by straw. Idle work horses HAY AND FORAGE FOR THE HORSE a57 in wit ter can utilize some straw, but they should not be compelled to subsist wholly on it, as it contains much fibrous material and is largely indigestible. It should never be fed to hard-working animals. In relative value for horse feeding the straws rank in the following order: Oats, barley, wheat and rye, the latter being of little use as a horse food. SUCCULENT FOODS In addition to the dry hays, the horse can make good use of many of the succulent foods and will be much benefited thereby. These succulent foods are all char- acterized by their very high water content and by their low energy values, the latter about one-half that of dry hay. : Green forage.—Sometimes it happens that the feeder runs short of hay before the new crop comes on, and he either cuts the grass and feeds it green, which we call soiling, or turns the horses out to pasture. When the grass is cut and fed green, it is well to bear in mind that it contains very much water and very much more of it by weight must be fed. The leguminous forages, such as alfalfa and clover, are richer in protein, and may cause a larger excretion of urine. Either of these methods is practicable when the animals are at moderate work, but neither should be employed when the work is severe, as it takes the animal too long to get sufficient nutrition. Silage—This succulent food has been fed to the horse from time to time with varying success. If the silage is good and is fed in moderate quantities, it may be given to idle horses, to idle brood mares and to growing colts with safety. It should not be fed to the hard-working animal, as he must consume too much to get sufficient nutrients to avail him much energy, because of the high percentage of water. Roots and tubers.—Carrots, rutabagas, potatoes and 358 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES other roots and tubers are occasionally fed to the horse. These foods contain a high percentage of water and small amounts of nutrients. The use of such materials for horses has been attempted at different times with vary- ing success, but they are not used to any great extent in this country, although very common in Europe. Carrots are often fed as-“conditioners.” For this pur- pose their value is high, but for actual nutrition very low. Fruits.—Apples, dates and prunes have been fed in the regions where they thrive, when the price was sufficiently low. Such foods are of little or no use, with the possible exception of apples. Injurious feeding stuffs.—In feeding the horse precau- tions should always be taken to avoid materials harmful in themselves, or those which may become harmful. Dirt, sticks, small stones, and the like, should be removed from the grain before feeding. All feeding stuffs should be cleaned. Millet.—This hay, when fed in large quantities, is con- sidered injurious to the horse. It is reported that it pro- duces increased action of the kidneys, causes lameness and swelling of the joints, destroys texture of the bone, and the ligaments and muscles are torn from their places when the animal attempts to move. Ergot.—Plants which are ordinarily wholesome may become harmful if infested with ergot. Some investiga- tors say that it causes rheumatism in the horse and that it may cattse pregnant mares to abort. Feeds that are ordinarily wholesome may, under cer- tain conditions, be harmful. There is a widespread prejudice against moldy or decomposed feeding stuffs. It has been shown that the continued feeding of moldy corn induces intestinal and nervous disorders of a serious nature. Foods that influence digestion——Some foods, in addi- tion to the nutrients they furnish, exercise an influence on the digestion so favorable as to place their value HAY AND FORAGE FOR THE HORSE 359 far above what is represented by the nutrients which they contain, The influence thus exerted tends to correct the harmful results that grow out of constipation or undue laxity of the bowels. Because of this, when used mainly to give proper tone to the digestion, the real value of such foods is usually far above their market value. When fed for such use, small and: moderate, rather than Yarge quantities should be supplied. This list of foods includes all kinds of field roots, as carrots, turnips, ruta- bagas, parsnips, and the like; such by-products as bran, oil meal of various kinds, and condiments; such hays as alfalfa and clover, and green grass. CHAPTER XXXVI CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE The efficiency of the work horse depends largely upon his general care and management. This fact is often overlooked and in an attempt to make up for the de- ficiency the horse is given too much food, which usually shortens his career. The successful horseman must be a man of industrious habits. His work is, in a sense, never done owing to the ever-present necessity of furnish- ing the horse substance and protection. In some lines of work the neglect of one day may largely be made up the next, but in caring for the horse this is not possible. Injury resulting from neglect is always attended with loss and cannot be atoned for even by extra care sub- sequently. The caretaker must be devoted to his work. lf he does not take to it kindly he does it in a perfunctory manner. Food is given by rule, regardless of the in- dividual needs of the animal. Such a person is likely to be impatient, and perhaps positively cruel. On the other hand, the person who loves his work has a more careful regard for the individual needs of the animals intrusted to his care. If anyone is to wait for a meal beyond the usual time it will be himself rather than his horse. Gentleness in handling the horse.—The horse is a very sensitive animal. We should handle him quietly and gently at all times. Striking or shouting commands at a horse is an inconsiderate practice. It not. only causes the animal to lose confidence in his master, which ren- ders him less teachable, but it destroys nervous energy, thereby making the horse a less economical producer than if he was protected at all times from such nervous shocks. Possibly it is a reflection upon our humanity, but the statement is made that here in America more 360 CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE 301 horses are made short-lived by ill-treatment and exces- sive work than by poor feeding. Grooming the horse.—The work horse should be thor- oughly groomed each evening after the day’s work is done as well as in the morning before the work begins. In some respects this is almost as essential as feeding and watering. The cleaning and rubbing of the skin stim- ulates the secretions and improves the tone of the entire system. More important than this, however, is the good effect upon the feet and legs. Cleaning and rubbing the feet and legs are very important factors in preserving soundness. FIG. 161.—GROOMING TOOLS 1. Common currycomb. 2. Body brush. 3. Reform currycomb. 4. Mane and tail comb. In grooming the horse, the principal tools needed are a currycomb, body brush,-flannel cloth, mane and tail comb, a hoof hook and a half-worn broom for use on the legs. The currycomb is used to loosen the hair which has become matted with sweat and dirt, and to remove splashes of mud, thus preparing the way for the body 362 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES brush, which it also serves to keep clean. In currying and brushing the horse with a sensitive skin, great care should be exercised, as carelessness often provokes kick- ing, striking, biting, and the like. After currying and brushing, rub the hair free from dandruff with the cloth. Straighten out the snarls and tangles in the mane and the tail with the comb. The hoof hook, which is some: what similar to a hay hook, is used to clean foreign ma- terials from the sole of the foot. The half-worn broom is a very convenient tool for removing loose mud from the horse’s legs when he first arrives at the stable. When the horses are worked in the mud, their legs should’ be clipped as far up as the knees and hocks, for by so doing the limbs may be kept clean with much less difficulty. Much difficulty is often experienced in keep- ing the legs of horses that possess “feather” free from disease, especially when the footing is muddy and the weather cold. In case the legs are clipped, it is all the more important that they should be thoroughly cleaned and rubbed each evening after work. Clipping the horse—There is much discussion as to the wisdom of clipping horses. Those persons that favor clipping state that it improves the general appearance; renders the coat more easily kept clean, and that a clipped horse is less liable to take cold than a long- coated one, because the evaporation is more rapid and the animal does not get so warm. On the other hand, those that oppose clipping state that it is not possible to make a clipped coat show the luster of an unclipped one; by the proper use of blankets it is possible to keep the coat rather short; and that by judicious grooming it is easily possible to keep the coat from becoming too thick, thus avoiding the necessity of clipping. When this is the practice warm boiled food given one or two evenings each week materially adds to the luster. Horses thus managed will shed very early in the spring. Under average conditions the horse that has a long, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE 363 thick coat will be greatly benefited by being clipped. The same is true of the horse that does not shed readily in the spring. The long coat causes the horse to sweat profusely, which drains heavily upon his system. Thus such an animal is difficult to keep in condition until clipped. When the horse is to be clipped twice each year the first clipping should be soon after the hair has grown out in the fall. This gives time to become used to the change before cold weather, and there is some growth of hair before winter. The second clipping should be in the early spring as soon as the weather begins to get warm and before shedding the winter coat. The horse thus treated will be much more easily kept in presentable condition, and if protected by blanket and well groomed, will pay many times for such extra care. When the’ horse cannot be properly blanketed either in the stable or out of it, he should not be clipped in the fall or winter. Animals exposed to the weather grow long coats for their own protection, and it is cruel to remove it when artificial protection cannot be supplied. Mane and foretop.—When properly cared for the mane and foretop add to the attractiveness of the horse. On the hard-working horse, however, these may become very annoying, the foretop getting into the eyes and obstruct- ing the vision, while the mane, in addition to being very warm, often becomes matted under the collar and pro- duces a sore neck or sore shoulder. Under such circum- stances it seems advisable to keep both mane and fore- top closely cropped. Blanketing the horse.—The efficiency of the horse can be increased, and his appearance improved by the proper use of the blanket. Sudden changes in the temperature, as well as cold rains and heavy winds, are very exhaus- tive on the work horse unless protective measures be taken. The blanket is also very useful in improving the general appearance of the coat of hair and in preserving its color. , 364 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Use of the stable blanket—When stable blankets are used, two should be provided during the summer as well as during the winter. One, to be employed as a sweat blanket and used immediately after the horse returns from work and while he cools off, then to be removed and in a few minutes to be replaced by the night blanket, to remain on the animal overnight. In case the first blanket is left on the horse during the night, little oppor- tunity is given him to dry off, the blanket soon becomes damp and remains so all night. This proves very ex- haustive on the horse’s system. In case the sweat blanket is replaced by a night blanket after the animal has ceased to steam and is somewhat cooled, which will be in a quarter of an hour, the hair will be dry and smooth thes following morning. The evening grooming should be done after the sweat blanket is removed. Both blankets should be kept scrupulously clean at all times. Stable blankets may be dispensed with in the hot sum- mer months if the flies are excluded by screens or by some other means. If blankets are used at this time they should be of some light material and kept clean, other- wise they will do more harm than good. As soon as the nights begin to get cool, however, the use of the blankets should be continued, as an early use will arrest, to a marked degree, the growth of hair and may obviate the necessity of clipping. Use of the outdoor blanket During the cold weather, when the horse is allowed to stand outdoors, he should be well protected with a blanket, otherwise he may chill. This precaution should always be taken even if we are going to stop but a short time, as the horse cools rapidly and may take cold. During very inclement weather it is a good plan to secure the blanket about the abdomen with safety pins. As warm weather approaches the ‘heavy blanket should be substituted for a light one. Use of the fly blanket and fly net—The proper use of fly nets brings much comfort to the horse. Whether to CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE 365 'use nets or blankets will depend on the circumstances. “he blanket, being much warmer and not so presentable -as the net, is not advised by many persons; but there are conditions in which it proves very desirable, particularly on horses whose color is such as to fade on being exposed to the direct rays of the sun. Nets are more presentable and, therefore, more desired by horsemen generally. Both nets and blankets are rather annoying to the teamster, warm to the horses, and more or less expensive, for which reasons they are often discarded entirely. How- FIG. 162—FRENCH COACH GRADES, WELL HITCHED AND WELL GROOMED ever, when the botflies are present, the work horse should always be provided with a throat latch cloth, as these flies are very annoying, and the animal in fighting them often becomes excited, with a consequent lessening of his usefulness. Temperature of the stable—-The temperature in the horse stable may vary according to circumstances. The horse is thought to be a native of the north, and can en- dure almost any temperature so long as the stable is dry and free from drafts of air. Above all things, however, we must avoid changes, as taking a horse from a stable provided with artificial heat and compelling him to stand 366 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES in acold one. This may prove fatal. To take him from a cold stable and compel him to stand in an artificially heated one may be almost as bad. If the horse is prop- erly groomed and provided with a dry, clean bed the tem- perature of the stable may vary in accordance with that of the climate. Bedding the horse.—The horse should be provided with a dry, soft bed. The hard-working horse needs rest at night, and he can rest much more comfortably if given a good bed. The bedding should be kept fresh and clean. To this end it is very important that the stalls be cleaned each morning. The unsoiled bedding may be placed in front of the horse under the manger, but the soiled bedding and the manure should be removed. The manure should also be removed in the evening before the bedding is shook out and arranged for the night. Never allow the stall to become foul, as this not only lessens the comfort of the horse but promotes disease as well. Wheat straw makes the best bed. Old straw is pre- ferred, as it is drier and more elastic, thus making a soft bed and acting as a good absorbent. When straw cannot be obtained, or when it is high in price, shavings from the planing mill make a sweet, clean bed. Many persons prefer this material, as it leaves an agreeable odor in the barn. Other materials that are sometimes used are re- jected portions of corn stalks, tan bark, peat moss, leaves, and the like. Care of the horse’s teeth—The teeth of the horse are subject to many irregularities which prevent him from thoroughly masticating his food. The upper jaw is some- what wider than the lower, so that the teeth are not ex- actly opposite; thus the wear is not equally distributed, and as a result sharp edges are often left unworn on the inside of the lower molars and on the outside of the upper, which may cut or lacerate the tongue or cheeks, which become sore. When the horse attempts to eat, the food materials irritate the sores and he will not feed 4 4 ' CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE 3607 well. These sharp edges should be rasped down with a guarded rasp. The teeth of the growing colt should be watched closely to see that they appear regularly and uniformly. This is very important when the milk teeth are being replaced ‘by the permanent teeth (p. 51), as the former often per- sist, thereby causing the latter to grow in crooked or FIG. 163.—SADDLERS, WELL GROOMED AND WELL TRAINED irregular. To avoid this, the persistent milk teeth should be removed with forceps. In all cases when a horse quids his food, slobbers or otherwise evinces pain in mastication, as shown by hold- ing his head to one side while chewing, the teeth should be carefully examined. In addition to not feeding well, a horse with a sore mouth is likely to drive badly, to pull to one side, not to bear on the bit, or to bear on too hard, to toss the head, to start suddenly when a tender spot is touched, and the like. ' 368 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Care of the horse’s feet Formerly much of the litera- ture on the horse pertained to the anatomy and care of the feet. The early writers recognized the very great importance of the feet. At present more attention 1s given to the general conformation and the general ap- pearance, and the feet are being neglected, with the re- sult that many of our breeds of horses have notably poor feet. Because of the importance of the feet, they should be carefully cared for throughout the active career of the horse. Each evening after returning from work, as well as in the morning before being sent out, the soles of the feet should be carefully examined and all foreign ma- terials removed. Frequently nails, stones and other foreign materials are found driven into the sole, or col- lected in the cleft along the frog. It is very essential that all such materials be removed if the hoof is to remain in a healthy condition. Some hoofs have a tendency to dry out, thus becoming hard and brittle. Such hoofs should be packed with clay mud and left on overnight. This will soften the wall of the hoof and make it less likely to crack or break. For this purpose some ‘persons prefer oil or hoof ointment, but the mud leaves the hoof in a better physical condi- tion. Should the hoof become broken or worn in such a way as to throw the foot out of line, it should be leveled at once, otherwise the weight of the body will strain the joints and cause deformity and disease. Further, when the horse is closely confined to the stable the hoofs grow out long and if not trimmed may deform the limb and make traveling difficult. It is very important that such feet receive proper attention and be trimmed with a rasp. Growth of the hoof.—We are often interested to know the rate of growth of the hoof so that we may estimate how long it will take an injury, such as a cleft, calk or crack, to grow out. While the rate of growth is influ- enced to some extent by the work, exercise, grooming, moisture and food, yet the time required for the hoof to CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE 369 grow from the coronet to the ground is in approximate proportion to the distance of the coronet to the ground. On the average, the hoof grows one-third of an inch a month, although hind hoofs grow faster than fore hoofs, and unshod ones faster than shod ones. The toe, there- fore, grows down in nine to twelve months, depending on its length, the quarters in six to eight months and the heel in three to four months. The hoof often grows out irregular, sometimes show- ing rings of growth. This is frequently noticed on horses that are confined to soft lots and foul stables, where it is due to the soft footing.» This irregular growth can be avoided by leveling the hoof so the weight bears equally on all parts, and by placing the horse in a paddock with solid footing, thus providing the foot with the proper condition to function normally. SHOEING THE HORSE The horse should be shod as frequently as is necessary to meet the demands, which will vary according to the condition under which he is worked. In some parts of the country horses at moderate work are seldom shod; in other parts only the fore feet are shod; but the con- ditions in most of our country are such that the horse can perform his work more efficiently if kept properly shod. Why the horse should be shod—While there are a number of reasons for applying the shoes, the more important are to prevent excessive wear on the hoof, to prevent slipping on ice or mud, and to modify the action. The hoof of the work horse wears off faster than it grows out and soon becomes sore. To pre- vent this the shoe is attached. For this purpose the light shoe is preferred. It is difficult for the unshod horse to travel on the ice and through the mud; his efficiency is not only lessened, but he is liable to fall and injure himself and his driver as well. To pre- 370 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES vent this the horse is shod with shoes possessing sharp calks. There are several makes of shoes with removable calks. A smooth-shod horse is liable to slip more on the ice than a barefooted one. Many horses possess notably poor action, some overreaching, forging and clicking; others interfering, striking, cutting and brushing. In many cases this faulty action can be improved by proper shoeing. In such cases the shoes must be made and set to suit each individual animal. Fitting the shoe.—In fitting the shoe to the hoof care must be exercised not to rob the hoof or leave too much horn,.as either mistake may lead to injury. Of the many factors to be considered in pre- paring the hoof, perhaps the most important is to keep the foot perfectly level, thus pre- venting undue weight being thrown on any part, with all the attending injuries. The frog should not be touched fur- ther than to remove tags or layers that are so loose as to form no protection. The object Saar sought is to make the foot nor- Fic. 164-—Weut-Fitten SHoze ‘Mal, and then make the shoe fit ' the foot. In leveling the hoof, carefully note the wear of the old shoe. It gives evidence of the manner in which the hoof has been set to the ground since the shoe was nailed to it. The shoe should be fitted cold. Never place a hot shoe against a freshly pared sole, as it not only causes the animal pain but may lead to injury. Nailing and clinching the shoe.—In nailing the shoe to the foot the nails should not be driven too near the edge of the sole, for in such cases it is necessary to drive the nails too far up into the wall to make them hold. If CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE 371 driven high, when the shoes are reset or the horse reshod, the former nail holes are near the edge and serve to weaken the hoof and interfere with driving the new nails. On the other hand, if the nails are small in size and set well back, they can be driven so as to come out well down on the hoof, say an inch and one-half above the shoe. Nails thus driven destroy the least possi- ble amount of horn and have a wide, strong clinch, thus giving the strongest possible hold on the wall, because the clinch holds more nearly at right angles to the grain of the wall, than if driven high. After driving the nails they are clinched in a small groove fitted for the purpose. Smooth with a rasp, but never rasp the outside of the hoof, as it will remove the natural protective covering. It is of the utmost importance that this natural covering be not removed, as the hoof will absorb water Fic. 165.—METHODS OF SHOEING 1, Normal position; 2, hasten the action; - 3, retard the action. in the wet season and dry out much more rapidly during the dry season. _ Resetting the shoes.—It is important that the shoes be reset frequently, as the hoof grows out over the shoe, thereby causing the shoe to bear on the sole instead of 372 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES on the wall of the hoof. As to the frequency of resetting, all depends on the conditions, such as the severity of the work, the nature of the footing, whether icy or dirt, and the individuality of the animal. Some horses at very severe work may require the shoes to be reset every week, while others at light work may suffer no incon- venience if left on eight weeks or until the shoes wear out. Shoes for unsound feet——There are a great variety of horse shoes upon the market, many of which have been designed from time to time to save and perfect unsound feet. Such shoes may allay the pain and prolong the use- fulness of the horse, but most of them allow dirt and filth to gather under the protecting pad. Because of the wet, dirty and filthy condition of the frog and sole of the foot, due to the dirt being retained by the pad and to the partial exclusion of the air, the foot tends to become soft, tender and diseased. Various forms of rubber pads, rubber shoes, rope shoes, fiber shoes and other contriv- ances to diminish the shock and prevent slipping on the hard slippery pavements of our large cities are in use. They are usually expensive, but many of them are rather efficient in deadening the sound and preventing slipping on paved and cement streets, though not so effective on ice. CHAPTER. XXXVII PRACTICAL HORSE TRAINING The usefulness and value of a horse depend on his training and on his being readily subservient to his mas- ter’s will. The horse is man’s principal beast of burden, and is constantly associated with him in the perform- ance of his work. This association establishes a close relationship. Since the effectiveness with which the work is performed depends on their mutual understand- ing, it seems well worth while to give the methods of establishing agreeable relationships between horse and master careful consideration. In common usage, the term “breaking” is employed to designate the preparation of the horse for his life work. This usage is unfortunate. Only too often the horse is broken in spirit and obeys, or, more accurately, does not resist his master because he is worked down and worn out and does not have the energy to resist. Through- out this book the term “training” is employed to signify the educating of the horse, as it conveys the proper mean- ing, the object being to train the horse so as to increase his efficiency, and not to break that high and superb spirit that makes him the most desired of all farm animals. Training the foal—The foal should be handled and taught a few simple lessons while young. It is so much easier to train the foal at this time, as he has fewer ideas of his own and fewer fixed habits. If the youngster is thrifty and strong, the very first day of his life is none too soon to begin the training, as we can show, rather than force him to do that which he does not understand. Catching the foal—The first time the young foal is caught he should be held in such a manner as not to 373 374 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES cause him fright. In order to do this we should make a careful study of the factors that govern the movements of the animal. If we touch the hindquarters, he moves forward, and if we touch the forequarters he moves back- ward. Ifa horse gets his fore foot over an obstruction of any kind and feels the pressure on the foot or leg, he moves backward until he frees himself, even though he injures himself in doing so, whereas he could very easily step over the ob- struction by a forward movement. If the hind foot is fast he moves for- ward in a similar manner. Thus it is that pressure in front stimulates a back- ward movement, while pressure behind stimulates a forward movement. This is an important observa- tion and perhaps the gov- erning principle in all horse training, and should always Fic. 166.—CATCHING THE FOAL be kept in mind when handling horses. In catching a foal, gently place one arm under the neck and the other under the hams. If he attempts to go for- ward, apply pressure at the neck, or if he attempts to go backward, apply the pressure at the hams. If it is de- sired to have him step forward, relieve the pressure at the neck and apply it at the hams, or if it is desired to have the foal step backward, relieve the pressure at the hams and apply it at the neck. The young foal that is caught in this manner will soon become quiet, when he should be caressed. (Fig. 166.) Secure the foal’s confidence.— Young foals are naturally very timid and when caught should be handled very —~ PRACTICAL HORSE TRAINING 375 gently. Itis important to secure his complete confidence before he is set free. To do this feed him sweets from the palm of the hand; as sugar is sweeter than the dam’s milk, it seems to give him the idea that we are his friend, and instead of fleeing as we enter the stall he will come to meet us, placing as much confidence in us as in his mother. In handling the foal, we should be careful to avoid confusing or exciting him. Extra care should be taken when handling the ears, the back of the fore legs, the flanks and the front of the hind legs, as these parts are extremely sensitive to the touch. The foal should be handled from both sides so as to become familiar with strange objects from every quarter. Teach the young foal useful things only. It is important to make the first lessons short and simple, and of such a nature that they can be understood very easily and even more easily accomplished. Teach the foal to lead—When the foal is about ten days to two weeks old he should be taught to lead. A web halter is preferable to a leather one, as it is much lighter and softer on the head. Never usea rope halter on a young foal. Adjust the web halter to the head, fastening up any loose straps that may be hanging down, as these annoy the foal. Do not be in a hurry, but let him get acquainted with everything as you proceed. When ready, coax the youngster along behind his mother on some ac- customed route, as to the water trough and back. If sweets are available, let him taste them occasionally and he will soon follow promptly. If he resents, however, do not pull on his head, but take advantage of his natural instinct and apply pressure at the rear as we wish him to move forward. Difficult to lead.—Secure a small rope, or sash cord, and tie a large ioop in one end. This loop should be of sufficient size so that when placed in position on the foal it will surround his quarters, leaving the knot well for- ward on the back, Pass the free end along the back and 376 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES through the ring on the halter. This is called the quar- ter hitch. Now take the halter strap in one hand, the quarter hitch rope in the other. Pull gently on the halter strap and as the foal begins to shake his head give the quarter hitch rope a strong pull and he will immedi- ately move forward. Do not hurry, but give him time FIG. 167.—DIFFICULT TO LEAD to get used to the lesson. Caress him and feed sweets. Soon he will follow wherever you lead. (Fig. 167.) Teach the foal to drive with lines.—After the foal understands the use of the halter, he should be taught to drive with lines. To do this adjust a surcingle around the foal’s body. The surcingle should be provided with a loop on each side, placed well below the center of the body. Pass the lines through the loops and fasten to the rings on the sides of the halter. Never use any kind of bit in the mouth of a young animal. Now the lines will pass the quarters low down and thus prevent the foal from turning his head toward us, which he will do occasion- PRACTICAL Hukst TRAINING 377 ally if the surcingle is not used. Keep the lines low in turning to make the guiding process easy. At first, walk close up to the foal so as to encourage him to go forward by occasionally touching the rump with the hand. Do not hurry the foal. The first day teach him to guide to the right and left, the second day of driving teach the command “whoa,” the third day “get up,” and the fourth day teach the command “back” (p. 379). Training the work horse—In training horses, young or old, there are a few general considerations that should be kept constantly in mind. A horse should never be trusted more than is necessary. Children, women or incom- petent persons should never be left in charge of a horse unless the animal is thoroughly acquainted with them. In handling a horse, the safest way is to remain close to the animal’s left shoulder, grasping the bridle close to the mouth with the right hand. In tieing to a post or hitching rack, the horse should be secured by a strong rope or strap placed about the neck, then passed through the ring of the bit and on to the post. In bridling, har- nessing and saddling a horse the work should be done from the left side. In hitching, the lines should be at- tached into the bit and then placed where they can be reached easily before hitching the horse to the vehicle. In unhitching, the lines should be the last disengaged, and care should be taken that the animal is free from the vehicle before he is led away. Age to train the horse for work.—There are many fac- tors influencing the most profitable age at which to train horses for work, chief of which are the breed, the in- dividuality and the work to be performed. Asa rule, the draft breeds mature younger than the lighter breeds, and, therefore, may be put to moderate work younger. Some individuals develop more rapidly than others, and as they mature earlier, they may be put to work younger. The work performed likewise has a bearing upon the age of training. Draft horses and saddle horses, because of the 378 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES force applied at the collar and the weight borne on the back, should be reasonably mature; whereas among horses intended for fast driving on the race track, where the weight borne is light, many good horsemen feel that the training cannot begin too soon, and such horses are often put into training at a very early age. Some persons find it profitable to put colts to moderate work as early.as two and one-half years of age, and even before, while others delay training until coming four years FIG. 168.—BITTING HARNESS old. These ages represent the extremes. In general, the horse should not be put to work until two and one-half years of age, and even then the work must be moderate and the working hours short. On the other hand, if the animal is thrifty it is poor economy to keep him in idle- ness after he is four years of age. Bitting the horse-—Perhaps no factor in the training of horses, whether for work or pleasure, is of greater im- portance than that of educating them to the uses of the bit. The thoroughness with which this is done will go PRACTICAL HORSE TRAINING 379 far toward determining their usefulness. Before bitting the horse, the mouth should be examined for sores, as it is not possible to train a horse to the uses of the bit while suffering from sore mouth. While the proper bit to use will depend somewhat on the object sought, yet in most cases a straight or slightly curved bar bit cannot be im- proved upon. In case the horse’s mouth is tender the bar bit should be covered with rubber or leather. The horse can usually be made familiar with the uses of the bit by the application of the bitting harness. This harness consists of an open bridle with check rein, a surcingle and crupper, and two side lines running from the bit to rings on either side of the surcingle. (Fig. 168.) With this harness properly adjusted, turn the horse loose into a paddock to familiarize himself with the bit. The side and check reins should be slack at first, but gradually tightened from day to day. The first lessons should not continue more than-half an hour at a time, but two may be given each day. Subsequently the lessons may be longer. The number of lessons necessary to teach the uses of the bit will vary according to the individual. Some horses will drive after one or two, while others will require a week or more before they will fully understand its uses. Teaching the commands.—As soon as the horse be- comes familiar with the bit, the side reins may be sub- stituted for lines, and he may be driven about the paddock. After driving the horse until he is going smoothly, give the command “whoa,” followed by a strong swinging pull on both lines, and the moment the horse stops slacken the lines. If necessary to stop the horse, repeat the word and action. The next day teach the command “get up.” When ready to start, give the command “get up,” pausing a moment, then striking him a light tap with the whip. When going smoothly, stop at the command “whoa.” Repeat until he obeys both commands promptly. Next teach the command “back.” 380 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES The work horse should be taught few words, and each should stand for a definite action. Six words will answer all practical purposes, and it is important that the horse be thoroughly trained to obey each. “Whoa” means to stop and stand still; “get up,” to go forward; “back,” to move backward; “steady,” to give attention; “haw,” to go to the left; and “gee” means to go to the right. Hitching and driving.—As soon as the horse obeys the commands he should be harnessed and hitched. To familiarize him with the pressure of the shafts he should first be poled. To do this, procure a light pole five or six feet long, and let the horse smell and feel it with his nose. Then gently rub the pole over the nose, face, neck and the entire body, especially along the inside and outside of the fore and hind legs. Tf at all convenient, the first time the horse is hitched, a training cart—one with long shafts, substantially con- structed, and the seat so arranged that the driver can get off and on quickly—should be employed. Before attach- ing to the vehicle, the horse should be made thoroughly familiar with it. To do this, lead the horse up to the rig and allow him to smell and feel the shafts. Rub them along his head, neck, shoulders, body and legs. Now the horse may be attached with perfect safety, although a kick strap should be employed at first. Training the horse to objects of fear—After the horse drives smoothly he should be made familiar with the various sounds and objects he is likely to meet, particu- larly along the busy thoroughfares of cities. To famil- iarize the horse with a street car, choose a road or street where the car line crosses, drive the horse up to within 1oo yards of the track and stop until the car passes. If he seems nervous, caress him. Drive over the track an equal distance and stop while another car passes. This time the noise is in the rear. Repeat this process, work- ing the horse closer as each car passes. Ina similar manner familiarize him with other objects that cause him fright. PRACTICAL HORSE TRAINING 381 Train the horse to walk fast—There is no gait so valu- able or so much appreciated and so practically useful in a horse as a fast, square walk. It is not difficult to train the average horse to walk fast, providing the proper methods are employed in the early training. From the very beginning keep the horse walking up to his limit. We should never allow him to mope along at this time, or the habit will become so strongly fixed that it will be difficult to overcome. During the entire training FIG. 169.—GUY LINE process, therefore, urge him to his limit and he will get into the habit of walking fast. Training the wild horse——The training of stubborn, re- fractory and wild horses calls for more strenuous methods than have hitherto been suggested. Perhaps the greater number of such animals owe their faults to inequalities of temper. It is, therefore, of much importance that the temperaments be studied carefully. Horses may be divided into four general classes according to their tem- 382 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES per: Teachable, nervous, stubborn and treacherous (p. 19). The methods to be employed in training such horses will vary according to the individual, but the ap- plication of appliances somewhat similar to the following may be necessary to bring them under subjection: The guy line —This is a lead line or rope for controlling wild, refractory and stubborn horses. To make it, pro- cure a soft, three-cighths-inch rope about 20 feet long. Make a small stationary loop in one end. Place this loop under the Jeft jaw, carrying the free end over the neck FIG. 170.—RAREY’S DOUBLE-SAFETY HARNESS AND GUY LINE from right to left, then down through the loop and to the mouth, passing it through the mouth, back under the lower jaw and between the jaw and the rope coming from the neck, thus forming a loop around the neck and a half- hitch around the jaw. This makes a very efficient lead line, though it should never be used in prolonged pulls, but in short, quick jerks. (Fig. 169.) Rarey's safety harness——This harness was devised by Rarey for use in training wild and vicious horses. There are two forms, the single and double safety. In the former one front leg only is under control, while in the PRACTICAL HORSE TRAINING 383 latter both front legs are under restraint. This harness consists of two straps fitted with D-shaped rings, which are buckled about the pasterns; a surcingle fitted with two rings on the belly, three on either side and one over the saddle; and a long rope. To arrange the double safety, pass one end of the rope through the left ring at the belly, then down and through the ring at the left FIG. 171.—RAREY’S THROWING HARNESS pastern, then up and through the other ring at the belly, then down and through the ring at the right pastern, then up and tie off at one of the rings on the right side. Now, by taking hold of the free end of the rope, we have the harness completed. In case the horse is difficult to manage, pull on the safety rope and restrain his fore legs. If he continues to act up, pull his fore legs up by a jerk on the rope and he will come to his knees. As this is a very humiliating position it serves to bring the horse under subjection. (Fig. 170.) 384 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Rarey’s throwing harness—In the case of some wild horses it is necessary to lay them on the ground to teach them subjection. Rarey also devised a harness to ac- complish this. It is practically the same as the safety harness, with the addition of a heavy strap, which is attached to the surcingle on the left side. One end of the rope is tied to the ring at the belly, the free end is passed . through the ring at the right pastern, then the rope is passed up through one of the rings on the right side, and then on up over the back and the harness is completed. (Fig. 171.) When ready to lay the horse down, first strap up the left fore leg. Take a position near the left shoulder and pull the horse’s head to the left, then, as he lifts his right fore foot draw it up against the breast by pulling on the rope over the back. Pull steady on the rope, as the horse ° ° may rear. Soon he will settle down on his front knees, when to lay him down is simply a matter of pushing him over. Keep pulling on the rope, however, otherwise he may surprise you by quickly jumping to his feet. A few lessons of this kind will bring the wildest of horses under subjection, when they should be trained as suggested for the work horse, although it may be necessary to use the single safety for a time. CHAPTER XXXVIII WHIMS AND VICES OF THE HORSE There are very few horses to be found in any vicinity but that have some faults which detract from their use- fulness. These faults vary widely in their effect upon the horse; some are scarcely noticeable and affect the horse but little, while others are very serious and not only render the animal useless, but often make him posi- tively dangerous. These bad habits may be divided into two general classes according to their seriousness: Vice and whims; the former comprising the more important moral defects, such as balking, kicking, running away, and the like, and the latter imperfections of less im- portance, such as tongue lolling, tearing blankets, gorging grain and the like. Causes of whims and vices.—The chief cause of all bad habits of the horse is poor management at some stage of his career. Such habits may have been formed when the colt was small and when he is only too often made to do things that seem “cute.” In later life these very things may serve to lessen his usefulness. They may have been formed while the horse was in training. Often the horse’s mouth is spoiled by the use of a severe bridle-bit or an improperly fitting one. Often his shoulders, back and tail are made exceedingly sensitive to pressure by im- properly fitting harness. Many a young horse has been spoiled the first day he spent in the stable by the treatment he received. Many persons think a green horse should stand much the same asa work horse. Thus, if he appears indifferent and fails to stand over when commanded, or if he will not permit his sen- sitive abdomen and legs to be curried, or if he objects to hav- ing heavy harness with flopping bands thrown over his back, he is punished with the first thing the excited attendant 385 386 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES can lay hands on, with the result that a habit is established which may be exceedingly difficult to overcome. All such excitement and resulting bad habits easily can be avoided by a little patient effort in properly training the horse. It is seldom if ever that a horse is really born vicious. While it may be true that tempers are trans- mitted, and that certain tempers are more predisposed than others to develop vice, yet vice itself is not a hereditary character. Overcoming whims and vices.—In overcoming bad habits in horses we should make a careful study of each case in order to ascertain the cause, and, if possible, re- move it. Then we must establish a new habit that will have a stronger influence on the horse’s mind than the old one which impairs his usefulness. To do this we must impress upon his mind that we are superior and our commands must be obeyed. From the beginning, there- fore, we must use such appliances as will give us the advantage. This can readily be accomplished in either of two ways: First, by the application of such appli- ances as will use the horse’s strength in overcoming him; and, second, by the use of self-punishing harness, which will inflict punishment at the instant’he violates our wish. The horse must be given to understand that he must obey us or suffer accordingly. Next, he must be im- pressed with the fact that we are his friend. This can be accomplished by caressing him and feeding sweets when he obeys our commands. To aid in securing his con- fidence we should abstain from all forms of punishment likely to cause him pain. Thus we should not use the whip or spur in overcoming bad habits, as the pain in- flicted may provoke further rebellion. The most efficient means of punishing the horse in overcoming faults is to humiliate him. This seems to have a greater effect upon the stubborn horse than any form of punishment whereby he is caused physical pain. There are two common methods of humiliating the proud WHIMS AND VICES OF THE HORSE 387 and vicious horse: First, by pulling him to his knees and holding him there until he becomes calm, which can be easily accomplished by means of the Rarey double safety; and, second, by laying him on the ground and holding him down until he gives in, which can be accomplished with the Rarey throwing harness. The great advantage of each of these methods is that they do not cause the horse physical pain. Outdoor whims and vices, and how to overcome them. —There are a number of outdoor faults to which the horse is subject, some of which are easily overcome, while others are practically impossible, especially after the horse becomes confirmed in his habits. Balking.—This is largely a nervous trouble, and it is useless to punish the horse, if indeed it does not increase the difficulty. We must divert the horse’s attention from his fixed determination not to obey. In young horses this can usually be done by quietly arranging the collar or bridle; by giving a dainty, as a bite of grass; and by picking up one front foot and gently tapping the shoe as if there was something wrong. This serves to attract the horse’s attention, and he will move on without fur- ther trouble. , In older horses and where the habit is fixed, more strenuous methods must be employed. First of all, teach the commands so that they are obeyed with promptness. If necessary use the double safety until the horse understands that “whoa” means to stop and stand still. Next attach the guy line, which should be managed by an assistant while you drive and tend the safety. If the horse shows any tendency to balk give the command “whoa” at once, and before he has time to stop of his own accord. This serves to puzzle him. When ready to start the assistant should quickly take a position in front of the horse and smartly jerk him forward with the guy line at the same time you give the command “get up.” As a signal, you should snap the whip to the right, but without touching 388 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES the horse, as the command is given. Repeat the process of stopping, starting and snapping the whip several times. TJse the guy line, and use it severely, on the slightest intimation that the horse does not want to go when com- manded. After a few such lessons there should be no further trouble. Kicking.—To overcome the habit of kicking, give the horse a thorough course in poling (p. 380). If he resists attach the guy line and double safety, pull him to his knees and continue the poling process. At first refrain from touching the hind legs, gradually working the pole back along the body. When he becomes submissive while down, let him up and continue the poling as before. Now place the harness over the double safety, arranging the breast band and breeching rather loosely, and placing the traces through the rings on the breeching, so that the ends will flap about the hind legs and quarters. If he resents the pressure on the harness and attempts to kick, give the command “steady” and pull him to his knees rather severely. Hold him in this position until he becomes calm. Continue the process until he submits. Procure two long poles, secure one end of each on either side at the shaft tug, and allow the other end to drag on the ground behind the horse. Drive him about, and if he attempts to kick, command “steady” and pull him to his knees as before. After he becomes submissive to the poles dragging on either side, place them between his hind Iegs and continue as before. At this time care should be exercised, for the horse may injure himself. Do not continue this part of the lesson long, as the poles will rub the legs sore. If he resents this, however, pull him to his knees. Repeat until he submits. Running away.—To overcome the habit of running away first make the horse thoroughly obedient to the com- mands and uses of the bit, much as suggested in the case of a balking horse. With the guy line and the double safety still attached familiarize him with strange objects, WHIMS AND VICES OF THE HORSE 380 such as papers, umbrellas, robes, and the like; and to sound, as sleigh bells and steam cars. Now pad the knees and hitch the horse to a vehicle. After driving him about for a time give him an opportunity to run away, choosing a straight, wide road. When he gets well under way command “steady” and begin to restrain his front feet with the safety rope. Slacken him gradually until slow enough to permit a sudden stop, then give the command “whoa” and bring him to his knees. Repeat this a few times. Now try him again and just before applying the safety rope give him a severe pull on the lines in order to impress him that we have the same power with the lines that we have with the safety rope. Continue this work, driving the horse past objects that formerly excited him to run. After a few rather hard falls he will usually become submissive. Tossing and shaking the head.—Many otherwise good driving horses have the very aggravating habit of tossing the head up and down, or throwing it from side to side. Such nervousness not only detracts from the general appearance of the horse, but makes him difficult to drive properly, as he pulls the lines through the hands and may throw the lines over the end of the shaft and an accident result. Such habits are often difficult to over- come.-. First examine the mouth to see that it is free from sores and that the bit and bridle are properly ad- justed. Procure a short strap about six inches long provided with a snap on either end and a loose ring in the center. Snap the leather to the bit rings so the loose ring on the leather will remain under the lower jaw. Now secure a strap to this loose ring, pass it down be- tween the front legs and attach to the belly band, similar to a standard martingale. When the horse is properly reined this is a very effective appliance, as he is unable to move the head out of position. Tongue-lolling—Many good driving horses have the disagreeable habit of protruding the tongue from the 390 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES mouth. This is very unsightly and lessens the sensitive- ness of the mouth, besides exposing the tongue to injury. The habit is usually due to improper bitting and is often difficult to overcome. The tongue-lolling bit was de- vised to overcome the habit and is perhaps the most effective measure that we have at present. (Fig. 174; 15.) Halter-pulling—There are three hitches in common use in overcoming the habit of halter-pulling, the loin-hitch, the tail-hitch, and the foot-hitch. To arrange the loin- hitch secure a three-quarter-inch rope about 15 feet long, and tie a small stationary loop in one end. Place the rope around the horse’s body just in front of the hips with the loop under the abdomen, and run the free end through the loop, pass it forward between the fore legs, up through the ring at the halter, then around a solid post, and back and tie into the ring at the halter. Now excite the horse to pull back. The moment he feels the pressure around the body he bounds forward. To avoid any further trouble, force him back into the rope severely by tapping him across the nose with the whip. This causes him to go back into the rope with much force, which, coupled with the fright caused by the whip at the nose, never fails to bring him forward. Caress him while he stands by the post. After a few such struggles it will be difficult to get him to pull back. In overcoming halter pulling some persons prefer the tail-hitch, although it is rather severe. To arrange the tail-hitch, tie a stationary loop in one end of the rope sufficiently large to go about the tail similar to a crupper, passing the free end forward through the turret at the saddle, on through the ring at the halter, then around the post, and back and tie into the halter ring as before. With this appliance the pressure is brought to bear at the tail, a very sensitive part, and he bounds forward. This hitch is likely to abrade the tail. To arrange the foot-hitch, secure one end of the rope about a pastern, pass the free end up through the ring at the halter and WHIMS AND VICES OF THE HORSE 391 on to the post, then back to the halter and tie as before. Now when the horse pulls he jerks one leg out from under him, which puzzles him so greatly that he soon ceases to pull back. Stable whims and vices, and how to overcome them.— Horses are even more likely to develop bad habits in the stable than outdoors, particularly if ill-treated or denied sufficient exercise. These habits are often very danger- ous and usually lessen the usefulness of the horse pos- sessing them. Difficult to harness.—Some rather nervous horses have very sensitive skins and, if not properly trained, may be difficult to groom and harness. Many horses are especially sensitive along the abdomen, the back of the fore legs and the front of the hind legs, and care should be exercised in handling these parts. To overcome horses difficult to groom, harness or crupper, first pole them thoroughly as ~ suggested for a horse that kicks. After becoming sub- missive to the pole, arrange a noose twitch or a war bridle on the horse. Fic. 172,—NooseE TWITCH To make a noose twitch procure a small rope, such as a sash cord, and at one end tie a small stationary loop. Hold this loop on the right side of the horse’s head, placing the free end of the rope over the head just back of the ears, down the right side and in the mouth just under the upper lip and on top of the teeth, and then up and through the loop at the right side of the head and the twitch is completed. (Fig. 172.) To make a war bridle take a small rope, as a sash cord, and tie a small stationary loop in one end just large 392 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES enough to go in the horse’s mouth and around the lower jaw. Place this in the horse’s mouth with the knot and free end on the right side. Bring the free end up over the head, down the left side and through the loop at the mouth. Now pass the rope back over the head, this time from left to right, and just back of the ears, then down the right side through the mouth under the upper lip and on top of the teeth, and then pass the rope through the part which passes over the head and the bridle is completed. (Fig. 173.) With either the noose twitch or war bridle attached, we are in a position to punish the horse by jerking on the rope should he attempt to resist as we harness or groom him. Continue with the appliance un- Fic. 173,—WAR-BRIDLE til he becomes per- fectly submissive to being groomed or harnessed. To complete the work, in a similar manner, educate him to stand while being har- nessed from the right side. Biting.—When the horse is troubled but mildly, biting can be overcome by the use of the war bridle. Place this on him, and when he attempts to nip, punish him severely with the bridle. Now tempt him to bite, and then punish him if he does. Soon he will associate the punishing with the nipping, and will cease. If he still persists, apply the wooden gag. This gag is made from a block of hard wood, about five inches long and 114 inches square. A hole is bored through the center, longways, for a chain which is attached to a headstall. The gag is then put in WHIMS AND VICES OF THE HORSE 303 the mouth the same as a bridle bit. Now should the horse attempt to bite the corners on the gag cut his gums. A few lessons, one each day, will serve to overcome most biters. Tearing blankets——When standing in the stable many horses have the habit of biting and tearing their blankets. To overcome this, attach one end of a bar‘to the halter and the other end to a surcingle. As this prevents the horse from turning the head to either side, he cannot reach the blanket. with his teeth. Another device is made by using a noseband and suspending small, short chains from the front, back and side in such a form, that when the horse turns to get hold of the blanket with his teeth, the chain appliance prevents him from doing so. This has the advantage of the muzzle in that the animal can eat with it attached. Gorging grain.—There are many methods of overcom- ing the horse that eats greedily, often swallowing his grain without mastication. A very good plan is to feed the grain in a large, flat-bottomed grain box, as this prevents the horse from getting much grain at a mouthful. Some persons feed the grain on hay, and others recommend placing round stones in the grain box, but the confirmed grain gorger is usually an adept at throwing stones out before eating the grain. Rolling —To overcome the habit of rolling in the stall, secure a small ring and sew it in the top of the halter. Suspend a small rope from the ceiling so that it will hang directly over the horse’s neck when standing at the man- ger. Attach a snap to the lower end of the rope, and snap into the ring at the top of the halter. This rope should be long enough to allow the horse to get his nose to the ground. This will permit him to lie down, but as he cannot place the top of his head on the ground he is un- able to roll. Difficult to shoe.—Because of improper training many horses are difficult to shoe. To overcome this habit, 394 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES first pole the legs thoroughly as suggested for the kicker. Next attach the war bridle and gently run the hand down the left shoulder toward the leg. If the horse resists punish him with the bridle. Continue working the hand down the leg and punish with the bridle, until he sub- mits. Lift the foot, and if he resists strap it up as in throwing with the throwing harness. Now lead him about on three feet for a few minutes to teach him to balance himself. If he attempts to settle down on one knee punish with the war bridle. Change the leg strap to the other side and gentle the right front foot in a similar manner. To gentle the left hind foot, rub the hand along the body and down the hind leg to the hoof, punishing with the war bridle if he resists. Attach the rope to the left hind pastern. If he attempts to kick, strap up the left fore foot. Should he attempt to kick in this position he will throw himself out of balance and fall. As soon as the rope is secured to the hind pastern, unstrap the front one. Now have an assistant take this rope and attempt to lift the foot with it, first standing well in front and out of the horse’s reach should he attempt to kick. If the horse refuses to lift the foot, give several sharp jerks on the war bridle, when he will usually raise it. Next have the assistant take a position in the rear, and try to lift the foot as before, standing well back behind the horse. If the horse refuses, punish with the bridle, when he will usually lift it. Gentle the other hind foot similarly. CHAPTER XXXIX HARNESSING THE HORSE The various parts of the harness should be properly adjusted, as a perfectly fitted harness adds much to the horse's comfort and increases his usefulness. The horse not only accomplishes his work by means of the harness, but receives much of his information concerning our wishes by it as well. Thus unequal pressure due to poorly fitting harness is likely to abrade the parts and leave the impression with the horse that we are punishing him, which may provoke vicious habits. This is em- phasized by the fact that a sore mouth produced by a poorly fitted bit or bridle often excites the horse to running away; a sore neck or shoulders, the result of an ill-fitting collar, often induces the horse to balking; and a sore tail, produced by an improperly adjusted crupper, often provokes the horse to kicking. Since not only the usefulness of the horse, but his safety as well, depends so largely upon the adjustment of the harness, much careful consideration should be given to the harnessing of the horse. Bridle and check rein.—Since the bridle and bit is our main reliance for conveying orders to the horse’s mind for execution, it is important that it be properly adjusted so as to retain the natural sensitiveness of the mouth. A responsive mouth contributes to the efficiency and safety of the horse. A good mouth—one with sensitive bars— is natural to the horse. “Tender,” “hard,” and all kinds of “spoiled” mouths result from improper training and handling. When we recall the extreme tenderness of the horse’s mouth, the cruel manner in which it is often fitted and the pain resulting from the sores thus produced, we can appreciate why a horse may lag behind until the parts 305 306 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES become numbed, then begin pulling on the bit, going with mouth open, holding the head to one side, lolling the 10 6 Jt f) g iy) / F ZIT BE| TTT OPT oe TTT AIG E, we, ia (7 FIG. 174.—TYPES OF BRIDLE BITS 1, bar bit; 2, jointed bit; 3, chain center soft rubber bit; 4, bar bit, half chee: 5, jointed bit, half cheek; 6, triumph bit; 7, Victor bit; 8, Norton bit; 9, Success bi 10, Sanborn bit; 11, regulation bit; 12, J. S. C. bit; 13, W. wire bit; 14, mumane bit; 15, tongue-lolling bit; 16, Perfection bit; 17, Lecompt bit; 18, riding bit. tongue, slobbering, rearing, mixing the gaits, and in many other ways showing the discomfort he is suffering. The bridle bit——As a rule, in the control of the horse, HARNESSING THE HORSE 397 ‘too much is expected from the bit alone. Some persons seem to think that by using a severe bit they should be able to control the horse, even though he has not been properly trained. Because of this feeling many types of bits have been devised to meet the various and peculiar habits of the horse, most of which have been designated to punish him and to irritate the sensitive parts, thus defeating the object they were devised to accomplish. In the control of the horse it must be remembered that if the bit is to be effective, it is essential that the bars of the mouth retain their natural sensitiveness, which can be attained by the use of an easy and light bit handled with care. . Bridle bits may be classified in two ways: First, ac- cording to their form, such as straight bar, jointed and curb; and, second, according to their function, as mild, medium and severe. The straight bar bit consists of a solid mouthpiece without lever action. It is the mildest form of bit, as there is a minimum amount of pressure on the bars of the horse’s mouth. The jointed or snaffle bit consists of a jointed mouthpiece, also without lever action. This is a mild bit, although considerable pressure may be brought to bear upon the bars of the horse’s mouth. Curb bits are made in a num- ber of styles, but each consists primarily of a solid mouth- piece, which may be straight or slightly curved. This bit is used with a curb chain or strap attached and a lever action is obtained, the efficiency of which depends on the manner in which the bit and chain are arranged. There are also a number of styles of severe bits upon the mar- ket, each having for its main object that of punishment, which is always to be avoided, as it destroys the natural sensitiveness of the mouth. These bits usually consist of double bars so arranged that when drawn tightly by the lines they have a tendency to pinch the jaws and may cause the horse much pain. (Fig. 174.) The straight bar bit is useful for horses with tender 398 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES mouths. To make the bit still more mild, it is often cov- ered with leather or rubber. Not only are bits of this type used on animals with very tender mouths, but they are very efficient in overcoming bad habits where severe bits utterly fail. The jointed bit is a very useful type, and many horses work more agreeably with it than with the bar bit, as it gives more room for the tongue. The severe bit should never be used unless it is absolutely necessary, as it is likely to result in more harm than good. While the mild bit is the one to use as a general rule, there may be times when a severe one is needed. Be- cause of this, several attempts have been made to con- struct a bit that can be variously applied, so as to form either a mild or severe one as desired. The curb bit is used to improve the action of driving and high-acting horses. Thus the horse properly fitted with a curb bit gets his head up and nose in and shows himself to much better advantage than with any other kind of bit. However, the curb bit should be used only by those who are familiar with it, as it may become a very cruel instrument in the hands of the inexperienced. Head stall and blinds.—The comfort and usefulness of the bit depends largely upon the adjustment of the cheek straps. The bridle should be so adjusted as to keep the bit in its proper place—right across the bars of the mouth just above the tushes. This is very important, for if the cheek straps are too long, then the bit drops and is loosely applied, with the result that the horse becomes careless and unmindful of our wishes. On the other hand, if the cheek straps are too short, then the bit is drawn upward into the angles of the mouth and becomes a constant source of annoyance to the horse and may produce a sore mouth. The advisability of using blinds on the bridle depends largely on the conditions. During the training period blinds should not be used. No horse can be said to be trained until he is familiar with objects at all angles, and HARNESSING THE HORSE 399 this can be accomplished only by the use of an open bridle. After training, however, there is no important objection to the use of blinds, although even then they add weight, are warm in summer and very annoying to the horse. When blinds are used they should be of the same height on the horse’s head and firmly attached to the bridle so they cannot swing back and forth. The check rein.—The efficiency of the horse depends much upon the manner in which the head is held. If the horse is given the freedom of his head he is likely to be- come careless in his habits and shambling in his gait. On the other hand, if the head is checked too high the animal’s usefulness is lessened thereby, as he cannot apply himself. There are two common methods of checking the horse’s head: First, by the means of the side rein, and, second, by the overdraw check rein. The former is used largely on work horses and the latter on driving horses. While the side rein is not so effective in hold- ing the head up, it is more comfortable and enables the horse to perform his work more effectively. He is not so likely to stumble, and will pull a much heavier load. This is because he has more liberty with his head, thereby enabling him to see the ground immediately in front, and to lower the head, thus throwing more power into the collar. While the overdraw check rein holds the head higher, yet there are many objections to its use. This rein was devised for trotting horses, to be used for short periods of time only, and where the surface was as smooth as the floor. At present, however, it is used almost exclusively on driving horses, on all kinds of roads, and for indefinite periods of time. When so used there are many strong objections to the overdraw check, chief of which are that it holds the head in such a position that the animal is unable to see the ground immediately in front of him, and he has not the freedom to apply himself so as to pull effectively, particularly in ascending a grade, He is 400 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES unable to lower his head, and hence can put little power into the collar. Further, when reined too tight it holds the head and neck in such an unnatural position that they soon become numbed and the horse is. seen to toss his head from side to side and to take other characteristic attitudes in search of relief. Collars—The service of the horse is very largely ac- complished by means of the collar, and it is of the utmost importance that it fit the neck and shoulders perfectly. The unequal pressure due to a poorly fitted collar causes FIG. 175.—TYPES OF COLLARS 1, Humane; 2, pneumatic; 3, steel; 4, leather. the horse much pain and often results in a sore neck or sore shoulders. Such sores are a rather common cause of vicious habits among horses, particularly balking, striking and kicking. Kinds of collars.—Because of the difficulty in keeping the neck and shoulders in a thrifty condition, many types of collars have been devised to meet the needs of the horse. Chief among these types are the various styles of the common leather; the pneumatic, the metal, and the humane. The adherents of each of these types assert superiority over the other. The humane collar differs in shape from any of the others. It consists of a metal frame and two broad leather pads, one for either shoul- HARNESSING THE HORSE 401 der. The pneumatic cbllar consists of a metal frame lined with rubber, which is inflated similarly to an auto- mobile tire. The bearing surface of a metal collar is shaped somewhat like that of a leather collar, and all the parts are of metal. (Fig. 175.) While all kinds of claims are made by the adherents of these patent collars, the leather collar still holds first place among horsemen generally. To meet the various needs of the horse, leather collars are made in many shapes, chief of which are full sweeny, half sweeny, kan- garoo leather face, Irish or cloth face, common leather face, and the like. Fitting the collar—To avoid sore neck and sore shoul- ders the collar should be properly adjusted. Leather collars are so firm and stiff that it is difficult to adjust them to the neck and shoulders. To overcome this dif- ficulty take the poorly fitting collar, new or old, wrap it round and round again with thoroughly wet sacking and let it remain overnight. In the morning place it on the horse, and with the hame straps adjust it snugly to the shoulders and neck, then work the horse moderately through the day. Soaking the collar in this way serves to soften it and then it will adjust itself to every inequal- ity of the shoulders and neck, so that the horse will sel- dom be troubled with soreness. The shoulders of no two horses are exactly alike, and each should have his own collar. Sweat pads and housings.—A collar that will fit in the early spring when the horse is fat may be too large later, when he is worked down, so that it may be necessary to use pads or get another collar. Sweat pads,. however, are rather objectionable, as they are very warm and the neck and shoulders can be kept in a more healthy condi- tion without them. When the pads are used they should be kept clean. Horses that work in the winter, or during the rainy season, should have their necks protected by housings, 402 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES as these serve to keep out the water. While these hous- ings are rather expensive, they will prove economical for the working horse during the winter season because of the protection given the neck and shoulders. Breast harness.—For light driving, the breast harness is preferred to the collar. It is lighter and cooler and when properly adjusted does not interfere with the action so much as collar harness. In fitting breast harness care FIG. 176.—HEAVY WORK HARNESS must be exercised in adjusting the neck strap, for if too long, the harness will drop and interfere with the action of the fore legs, or if too short, the harness will be drawn up and choke the animal, particularly in ascending a grade. Crupper and back strap—To mect the needs of the horse a. variety of types of cruppers have been devised, some of which are very large, for preventing a horse from dropping his tail down on the lines and for improving the general appearance. The medium-sized crupper, free from folds, is recommended. In fitting the crupper extra care must be exercised in adjusting the check rein and back strap, for if either are too short the crupper will be HARNESSING THE HORSE 403 drawn tightly against the tail. The under part of the tail being very tender, this is likely to cause soreness and thus lessen the reliability of the horse, as the horse with a sore tail is often difficult to control, particularly when he gets his tail over the line. On the other hand, if the back strap is too long and the crupper too loose it may result in the harness sliding to one side. Saddle and back band.—The importance of the saddle and back band depends on the arrangement of the breech- ing and holdbacks. If the holdbacks are so arranged that in backing pressure is brought upon the saddle, it is im- portant that it be properly fitted. Often this is neglected and a sore back results. With the saddle in its proper place on the back there is little or no danger that the horse’s back will become sore or abraded, particularly if the parts are kept smooth and clean. If there is extra pressure on the saddle, as is often the case when hitched to single rigs, saddle pads should be used. Breeching and holdbacks.— Where there is much back- ing to be done, or in sections of the country that are hilly or mountainous, the breeching and holdbacks assume much importance. While there are a variety of types of holdbacks on the market, they can be divided into four general classes: Breeching and shaft holdbacks, yoke and collar holdbacks, breeching and belly martingale holdbacks, and Boston holdbacks. These holdbacks may be attached in a variety of ways. The breeching is com- monly employed with each except the yoke and collar holdback. The saddle may be discarded in the breech- ing and belly martingale holdback as well as in the Bos- ton, in which case crotch back straps and hip straps are usually employed. The breeching and shaft holdback is used only with single rigs and the breeching is attached directly to the shaft by means of holdback straps. The holdback straps must be properly adjusted. If too short, they draw the horse forward, and interfere with his action, whereas if 404 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES too long the breeching hangs loose and the rig will have a jerky motion. The yoke and collar holdback is intended only for light rigs. The backing is accomplished very largely with the neck by means of the yoke and collars. Sometimes a martingale is used, and a part of the backing is accom- plished by pulling down on the saddle. With the breech- ing and belly martingale holdback, much of the backing is accomplished by means of breeching, though extra pres- sure is often brought to bear on the top of the neck. While this. is a more efficient backer than the yoke and_ collar, both are open to the same _ general criticisms in respect to producing sore necks. In case the loads Fic. 177.—LicGHT Drivinc HARNESS are heavy and there is consider- able backing to be accomplished, the Boston holdback is recommended. The backing is accomplished with the breeching by means of tugs extending from the breech- ing to the jockey yoke. The draft, therefore, is in a straight line from the end of the tongue to the quarters, thus giving the horse his maximum efficiency in backing. This is by far the easiest on the horse, as there is but little pressure on the neck and none on the back. Care of harness.—Harness should receive good care, as this will increase the length of its usefulness and lessen the liability of its injuring the horse. When not in use, HARNESSING THE HORSE 405 it should be covered with a sheet and hung in a room con- structed especially for it, as dust, dampness and vermin tend to injure the leather and tarnish the fixtures. It is very important that the bearing parts be kept scrupu- lously clean at all times. This applies especially to the parts in constant contact, with the horse, as the collar, FIG. 178.—HARNESS REPAIR KIT saddle, crupper, and the like. It is not possible to pre- vent sores if these parts are permitted to become dirty, which they will, because of the sweat and dandruff. The collar, saddle and crupper should be thoroughly cleaned each morning before harnessing. The entire harness should be oiled frequently. The simplest way to do this, especially with work harness, is to take it apart and soak the parts for fifteen minutes in a tub of lukewarm water containing a handful of wash- 406 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES ing soda. Then scrub the parts with a scrub brush, and when dry oil with neatsfoot oil to which a small amount of kerosene and a little lampblack have been added. Now hang up to dry, exercising care not to dry in the sun or by the fire. When thoroughly dry sponge with castile soap and buckle the parts together. Common harness treated in this way will neither turn red nor become gummy, and if often sponged with white castile soap, can be kept looking like new. Repairing harness.—Where many work horsés are kept a harness repair kit should be available. It is convenient as well as economical to be prepared to mend harness whenever needed, as it often saves delay in sending to the shop. To make simple repairs is not difficult, and a repair kit is inexpensive. We should provide a wood clamp for holding the leather while stitching, gauge knife to cut new straps, four-tube punch, a paper of needles, ball of thread, ball of wax, three different size awls, collar awl, rivet set, box of assorted rivets, and a pair of pliers. Such a kit can be obtained for approximately five dollars, and with it one can keep his harness in the best of repair at a very small cost. (Fig. 178.) CHAPTER XL THE PRACTICAL HORSE BARN The planning and construction of all buildings on the farm should receive careful consideration. They should be adapted to the environment. Features of the natural landscape give character to the homestead. It is a com- mon error to give little thought to the placing of build- ings, either in relation to each other or to the surround- ing conditions. There are many fine homes that owe their beauty and much of their value to the arrangement of the buildings, lawns, gardens and fields. The horse barn, in common with the other buildings, should be planned to meet the attendant conditions. No one type of building is of universal suitability. The farm barn must fit the farm and the needs of the farmer, while the city barn must be planned to meet the individual con- ditions. On the average farm there is but one barn, which must house all the animals, with the possible exception of swine and poultry. Because of the variety of conditions under which horse barns are planned no attempt is made to suggest a type, and only a few of the more important essentials, which apply in the construction of all build- ings where horses are housed, are considered. Essentials in location and construction.—The horse barn should occupy a subordinate location in relation to the house. It should occupy a position so that the pre- vailing winds will not carry the stable odors toward the house. The exact position and arrangement of the out- buildings and inclosures will vary according to use, and to be convenient should be few and compact, rather than scattered over a large area. Drainage—In choosing a location for the horse barn consideration should be given the natural drainage. This 407 WHOM YOA AGVAN SWVAL GNY LYNOD GYAVd ONIMOHS ‘NUVA ASYOH—'6LI ‘OIA 408 THE PRACTICAL HORSE BARN 409 is often overlooked and many barns are so situated that it is practically impossible to drain the soil sufficiently to prevent muddy lots with all attendant disadvantages. Choose a slightly elevated location if possible, so that the water naturally will drain away in all directions. Dryish, sandy soil is preferred, as the water drains out readily and there is no trouble from mud about the barn. Through- out much of the country, however, the best that can be done is to locate the barn on slightly sloping land, which should be well underdrained before the barn is con- structed. Any protection against prevailing north and west winds in the winter season, such as hills, trees or any other natural objects in the track of the regular storm, should be made use of, but cool and refreshing winds should not be hindered in their direction during the summer. Ventilation—In the construction of the horse barn one of the most important considerations is thorough ventila- tion. It is essential that the hard-working horse be sup- plied with an abundance of fresh air while he is resting. Not only does a damp and poorly ventilated stable lessen his efficiency, but it also increases the liability to disease. It is comparatively easy to ventilate the horse stable, as the horse does not suffer from the cold so much as some other farm animals. If the introduction of an abundance of fresh air should lower the temperature to the freezing point no harm will be done, providing the air is admitted at many small openings. Large and few openings, how- ever, tend to produce strong and dangerous drafts. There are a number of methods by which the horse barn may be ventilated, chief of which are the -windows, grates and ventilating shafts. In ventilating tightly ceiled barns, shafts are preferred. While there are many methods of arranging these ven- tilating shafts, they consist essentially of two parts, the inlets and the outlets. The inlets should be numerous, of small size, and placed on all four sides of the stable in 410 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES order to take advantage of the wind, regardless of the direction from which it blows. In this way a large quan- tity of air is admitted and evenly distributed throughout the stable. A convenient size for these inlets is 4 x 12 inches, as this permits them to be built between two four- inch studding. They should begin near the ground on the outside and end near the ceiling on the inside. The outlets must be so constructed as to, meet three conditions: First, they should remove the stable air from near the stable floor. The refuse gases are heavier than the other air of the stable and remain near the floor, as does the colder air. Second, they should be provided with openings near the ceiling, which can be closed at will, for the removal of the warm air when the stable becomes too warm, particularly inthe summer. Third, it is important that these ventilators be so arranged as to afford as little inconvenience as possible, particularly when they extend through the hay loft, where they are sometimes in the way of the hay fork. These outlets should be as large as convenient. The essentials of a good ventilating flue are similar to a good chimney. Ventilating shafts are expensive, particularly if con- structed so as to work properly, for which reason windows are more commonly used for ventilating the horse barn. The windows can be so arranged as to form a good system of ventilation. When so used they should be hinged near the center, allowing the top to open in- ward. This is important, for if the bottoms open into the stable, the windows are likely to be broken by the animals running against them. By opening windows so arranged a good circulation of air is provided. (Fig. 180.) Light.—Sunlight is nature’s disinfectant. With suf- ficient light and proper ventilation, germ disease is not likely to occur. Window glass is inexpensive and should be abundantly supplied in the construction of the barn. Best results are obtained by cutting the windows long from top to bottom and by having them extend low, as THE PRACTICAL HORSE BARN 4II more direct sunlight will fall on the floor. This is the chief objection to underground or bank barns for horses. Bank barns are usually dark and damp, and, therefore, objectionable as horse stables. True, windows increase the temperature in the daytime and serve to radiate heat at night, but this is not so important as an abundance of light, particularly for horses. Further, light shows dirt q i FIG. 180.—CROSS SECTION THROUGH HORSE BARN Showing partition, manger, concrete floor, covered with plank, and the arrangement of windows. and makes it easy to keep the barn clean. Dark stables are likely to be dusty, dirty and damp, thus providing con- ditions for germ growth. In addition to cleanliness, free- dom from germ disease, and the like, a barn into which the sun shines freely furnishes a cheerful place in which to work. Cleanliness—In the planning of a horse barn, it should be so arranged as to facilitate ease of cleaning. Horse manure being damp and warm decomposes rapidly and the gases thus formed contaminate the stable. In sum- mer this decomposing manure is a favorite breeding place 412 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES for flies. Therefore, the stables should be cleaned fre- quently and a liberal supply of absorbent bedding should be provided to take up the liquids voided. The mangers should be kept clean at all times. They must receive special attention in case corn on the cob is fed, otherwise the cobs will accumulate in the bottom of the mangers, where they form a fertile media for the propagation of germs of all kinds. The ceiling and walls should be cleaned frequently with a cobweb broom to prevent ex- cessive dust and filth accumulation. It is a good plan to have the stable fixtures, walls and ceiling of a light color. as this facilitates both cleaning and lighting. Convenience.—In the planning and construction of horse barn due regard should be had for convenience, m only in respect to cleaning the stable and in feeding, bt for all other farm work as well. As a rule, the barn i more convenient to the farm when centrally located, but more convenient to the market when located near the highway. In this respect, therefore, the location would depend on the type of farming. Thus if most of the produce was to be sold it would be more convenient near the highway, whereas if the major part of the crops were to be fed it would be more convenient near the center of the farm, as both the crops produced and the resulting manure are nearer the place where needed, thus lessening team work. As a rule, the horse barn should be planned to hold sufficient food for the animals housed therein. An abundance of loft space can be secured at little additional expense. The barn should be arranged so as to feed the horses with the minimum amount of labor. This can be accomplished more satisfactorily by arranging two rows of stalls, standing the animals with their heads toward the center. A six to eight-foot feeding alley should be ar- ranged through the center and a four to seven-foot lead alley behind the horses along the wall. Such alleys will give ample room for the feed and litter carriers and pro- THE PRACTICAL HORSE BARN 413 vide sufficient space for the harness closets, behind the horses along the wall. Immense barns, however, in which large quantities of grain and hay are stored, and many animals housed may have other objections which offset the advantages of concentration and ease of feed- ing. The risk of total destruction by fire is great, as are dangers from contagious disease, and the like. Under such conditions perhaps a number of medium-sized, well- regulated barns, located some distance from each other, would prove more economical in the long run. Box and straight stalls—There are two types of stalls ‘n common use, the box stall and the straight stall. In ilanning and constructing horse stalls there are a number f factors to be taken into consideration, chief of which jare the comfort and safety of the horse; the economy of barn space: the economy of labor in feeding, cleaning, and the like; the economy of material in the construction of the stall; and facilities for lighting and ventilation. The comfort and safety of the animal is promoted by the use of the box stall. He has more freedom and can as- sume any position, lying down and getting up with ease. The economy of barn space is favored by the straight stall. The box stall must be at least Io x 12 feet square, while the straight stall need not be over five feet wide and nine feet long. The economy of labor is promoted by the straight stall. Not only is the box stall more difficult to keep clean, but the animal requires more grooming to keep him in pre- sentable condition. The feeding and bedding can be more easily accomplished in the straight stall. The straight stall also favors economy in material, as the par- titions need not be so high as in the box stall. While box stalls are very comfortable for the horse, yet they are rather difficult to ventilate properly and hinder the general lighting of the barn, particularly in case they are boarded up solid to the ceiling. All things considered, the straight stall is preferable for working horses, al- 414 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES though every horse barn should be provided with a few well-lighted and well-ventilated box stalls, as they are indispensable for brood mares, colts and sick animals. At present it seems to be fashionable to construct low, open stall partitions. This is.a serious mistake, as the animals frequently injure themselves by kicking, which the open partition encourages. Occasionally, an animal kicks over the top of the low partition and injures him- self permanently, as he is unable to free himself. Stall FIG. 181.—TROTTING-HORSE. BARN WITH TRACK IN THE FOREGROUND partitions between straight stalls should be boarded up solid for at least five feet. Mangers and grain boxes.—The hay should be fed from a manger. The hay rack is objectionable, as the horse pulls the hay out and drops much of it under his feet. The seed and dirt get into his mane, which is difficult to keep clean. The top of the manger should be about three feet high. The bottom should be slightly raised from the floor and should be so constructed that the dirt may sift through, thus preventing its collecting in the bottom of the manger. The manger should slope inward, to pre- vent the horse from injuring his knees when stamping flies. The hay should neither be thrown from the mow THE PRACTICAL HORSE BARN 415 into the manger nor directly in front of the horse, but into a small room separated by a door from the stable. Neither should the bedding be thrown down in such a manner as to cover the horses and harness with dust. The grain should be fed from a grain box with a level, broad bottom. Some horses eat their grain too rapidly and a large flat-bottomed box tends to make them eat slowly, and hence to insalivate their food. Metal boxes are preferred to wood, but are too expensive for common use, The stable fittings, mangers, grain boxes and stall par- titions should be constructed of hard wood. Horses love to gnaw pine, and once they get into the habit, no matter what the original cause, they are hard to stop. Further, if the partitions and posts are of soft wood, the horses will splinter them by kicking so-that they are very unsightly. as well as lacking in endurance. Even if the fixtures are of hard wood it may be necessary to cover them with strap iron to prevent the horse from gnawing and splin- tering them by kicking, when feeling good, as in the winter. (Fig. 180.) Harness room or closets.—In constructing a horse barn special provision should be made for the care of harness. Usually the harness is hung just back of the horse in the stable. This is very objectionable, as gases escaping from the manure are very destructive to harness, and it frequently happens that the harness is knocked down under the animal’s feet and becomes soiled with manure. To avoid this a harness room convenient to the horses should be provided. If there are a great number of horses housed in the barn it is perhaps more convenient to arrange harness closets just back of the horse along the wall and between the windows. A well-kept harness room or closets is a source of comfort to the owner and increases the usefulness of the harness. Flooring materials—The stable floor should be dur- able, waterproof and cheap. It should be so constructed that the horse will not slip and injure himself in getting 416 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES up. Many materials are used in the construction of stable floor, such as clay, brick, cobblestone and cement, al- though the latter are rather hard on the feet. For box | stalls perhaps no other material excels clay, as it is good for the feet. For straight stalls perhaps no other ma- terial excels cement, covered with plank in the stall where the horse stands. The cement floor is durable, sanitary and inexpensive. If given a rough finish the horse will not slip, although if heavy loads are to be drawn over the floor, the cement should be creased before it sets. The cement in the wagon room and lead alleys should be six inches thick, although in the stalls, where it is covered with plank, a depth of four inches is sufficient. The floor of the straight stall should slope to the rear at least one inch in eight feet, so that the liquid excrement will drain off quickly. It is a good plan to leave a very shallow but broad gutter just to the rear, along the ends of the plank, to catch this liquid. A very shallow gutter one-half inch deep and six inches broad gives good results. From this shallow gutter the liquid can be absorbed by straw, shavings or any bedding material. It is a good plan to sprinkle daily a little dry earth or gypsum on the floor of the stable where it is damp. (Fig. 180.) Construction of the walls.—Since the horse does not suffer from a moderately low temperature, it is a com- paratively simple matter to construct a horse barn, es- pecially when compared with that of the dairy cow. The walls should not be airtight, as the moisture condenses rapidly and the stable becomes damp and cold. For sid- ing the horse barn, unmatched boards planed on one side are preferred. The boards should be placed vertically and the cracks properly battened. If harness closets are constructed along the wall and between the windows as suggested, it will be necessary only to ceil under and above the windows. This inside covering should consist also of unmatched boards. The outside covering should be given a thorough painting every three years, while the THE PRACTICAL HORSE BARN 417 inside should be whitewashed once every year, as this serves to promote lighting and sanitation. Roofing materials—There are a great variety of roof- ing materials on the market, many of which are scarcely. worth the time required to put them on, notwithstanding the fact that they are easily laid. While there is no roof- ing more durable or satisfactory than slate and tile, yet they are heavy and require strong raft- ers. All things con- sidered, perhaps a good shingle roof is best. Soaking wooden shingles for a moment in boiling linseed oil adds to their durability. A trifle of red color added to the oil, just enough to stain, im- proves the appear- ance of the roof. Dip the shingles in large _ -~ BE handfuls to the tips, ~ = lay them on a piece — — of sheet iron and let Fic, 182.—LiTTER CARRIER IN USE them drain back into the kettle. For shingles the roof should be fairly steep. Dipped shingles on a steep roof will last a lifetime. Metal, rubber and paper are often used for roofing barns, but, as a rule, give poor satisfaction. Labor-saving appliances.—In constructing a barn it is important to install all of the adaptable labor-saving ap- pliances available. The framework and the rafters should be of sufficient strength to carry a hay fork to facilitate mowing the hay. In large barns the alley ways should be 418 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES of sufficient width to permit the use of both feed and litter carriers. While these carriers may be of little ad- vantage in small barns, they are practically indispensable in large ones. Grain, hay and straw chutes should be arranged wherever they can be used to advantage. To facilitate watering the horse there are several watering devices upon the market, some of which are so arranged that there is a constant supply of water before the animal at all times. When these vessels can be kept clean and free from odor the practice seems a good one. In many instances, however, these watering: devices are traps of filth and foul-smelling water. Perhaps a better plan is to use large troughs that can be cleaned frequently. Care of manures.—The voidings, including the neces- sary bedding, will reach six to eight tons per horse per year. On the basis of the fertilizing ingredients this manure is worth from $10 to $20 a year. It is, therefore, of importance that the manure from the horse stable be carefully husbanded. If convenient, a separate small building should be constructed for temporary storage. If horse manure is unmixed with that of cows, it should be thoroughly wet from time to time. Some salt may be used on the manure, a quart to a load. This will retard heating and discourage the flies from breeding in the manure. If convenient, swine may be allowed to roam over the manure, as this aids in solidifying it and the swine will find some food in the voidings. Paddocks for breeding stock.—In planning the horse barn a few paddocks, or still better, small fields should be provided for near the barn. These lots should be of sufficient size to allow some pasturage. As a rule, these paddocks are so small that the grass is destroyed by the tramping of the animals. A few small grassy paddocks near the barn are very convenient in separating pregnant mares or foals and dams from other horse stock. Such paddocks afford ideal runs for young foals while the dams are at work, CHAPTER XLI COMMON AILMENTS OF THE HORSE When properly cared for the horse is the most health- ful of our farm animals. He is thought to be a native of the north and can endure adverse conditions so long as given his freedom. His troubles begin, however, when he is closely confined, improperly fed or watered, and overworked. Under such conditions the horse is subject to a very large number of ailments, some of which are simple and easily cared for, more of which are compli- cated and require skilled treatment. This chapter simply directs attention to the more common ones and how to avoid them rather than to suggest treatment. Everyone who owns a horse should know how to care for the simpler difficulties, and when to call for the advice of a veterinarian. Nursing a sick horse.—-The sick horse should receive careful attention. In many of the lesser ailments good care is preferred to the use of medicine, while in many others rest is preferred to both. Thus, in the case of the horse that is run down in flesh, appetite gone, and other- wise out of condition, comparative idleness is essential. Under such conditions there is nothing better than a good blue grass pasture, well watered and well shaded, es- pecially in the early summer, before the flies become troublesome. The aim is to hasten recovery from the ill. effects of the ailments. To do this we must understand the horse thoroughly and be able to supply his every need, This calls for careful, painstaking and patient effort. First of all look for the cause of the trouble, and, if possible, remove it. If the disease is contagious, the sick horse should be separated from the others and placed in well-ventilated and comfortable quarters. 419 420 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Feeding the sick horse.—As the appetite is usually poor and sometimes lacking, much care should be exercised in feeding the sick horse. The food should be attractive, nutritious and readily digestible. It should not contain much bulk and should be rather laxative. Natural foods, such as fresh grass, carrots and warm bran mash, are to be preferred to prepared foods, though the use of patent stock food may prove beneficial when a tonic is valuable. FIG. 183.—HACKNEY BROOD MARES In case the animal refuses the food it should be removed from sight, and under no condition left in the feed box until the next meal. Do not place medicine in either the food or water if it can possibly be prevented, as the horse is likely to refuse the food just at a time when it is im- portant that he should have it. Giving medicine.—Medicine should be given only for a definite purpose, otherwise more ill will result than good. As a rule, too much medicine is given the sick horse. Nature should be given a chance. Medicine of itself is worth little except as it gives the system tone, thereby enabling it to overcome the disease. If a horse is out of condition the remedies administered should be those of known value and proven worth. While there are many COMMON AILMENTS OF THE HORSE 421 methods of giving medicine, the more common and sim- ple are by drenching, external application, enemas or si a into the rectum, blistering and firing. Drenching.—Dissolve the medicine in water, using just enough water to thoroughly dissolve the medicine, as more makes thedrench bulky. Shake the drench immedi- ately before administering. Slightly elevate the horse’s head and gradually pour the drench into the corner of his mouth. To prevent him from strangling give him the freedom of his head a few times while administering the drench, and do not elevate the head too high. External applications.—Medicine is frequently given by applying it to the skin in the form of baths, liniments, ointments, salves, poultices, and the like. Bathing the parts in hot or cold water often proves very beneficial. It is much used and with good results in lessening pain, inflammation and swelling in recent injuries. Liniment is a thin, liquid solution of a medicinal substance, and is used to relieve pain and inflammation as well as to pro- duce local stimulation. It should never be applied to fresh wounds or sores. Ointment is a waxy material consisting of medicines mixed with fats, and is used to soften, soothe and heal inflamed parts. A poultice is a soft, moist substance used to soften, soothe and relieve severe inflammation. It should be changed frequently. There are many substances used in making poultices, chief of which are flaxseed meal, bran, bread and milk, and mashed boiled turnips. Whatever the substance, it should be clean, soft and capable of retaining heat and moisture. To keep it clean and sweet, add a teaspoonful of carbolic acid to a quart of poultice. Blisters —These are counter-irritants to be used in chronic or long-continued ailments. There are two kinds in common use, the “fly blister,” made from cantharides, and the “red blister,’ made from biniodide of mercury. Both are poisonous, and their application requires skill and experience. They are made by mixing one part by 422 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES weight of the drug to eight parts of lard or vaseline. For most uses the fly is preferred, but in removing bunches the red is most used. First clip the hair from the area, then rub on blister from three to ten minutes, depending on severeness of irritation and the thickness of the skin. A light blister repeated is preferred to a severe one. Care should be taken to see that the horse does not scratch the blister. After 24 to 36 hours, or when a watery, gummy fluid exudes from the skin, the area should be thoroughly washed with warm water and soap, then wiped dry and greased with fresh lard or vaseline. When large areas are to be blistered, as in pleurisy, inflamma- tion of the lungs, and the like, a mustard plaster should be used, as fly blisters irritate the kidneys. Firing—This is also a counter-irritant, useful in re- moving bunches, ringbones, spavins, and the like. The application requires skill and experience. The hair is clipped from the area, the horse blinded, a twitch applied to the nose, and the opposite foot lifted, and then the hot irons are applied to the area. At first the skin is barely touched and the lines marked and then the lines are burned to a good russet brown. A fly blister is then rubbed on the fired area and the case treated as for blis- tering. The horse should be given plenty of time to recover. Enemas or injections——Medicine is often given by in- jections into the rectum when it cannot be given by the mouth, and when it is desired to stimulate the bowels to action. Food may also be given in this way. Injections are best given by means of a rubber hose about four feet long, to which a funnel is attached. Oil the hose and gently insert it into the rectum about two feet, then pour the liquid into the funnel and by raising it above the horse the liquid will force itself into the bowels. Six to eight quarts of warm water is sufficient for the adult horse, and if to this is added a half teacupful of pure glycerine, much better results will be obtained. COMMON AIUMENTS OF THE HORSE 423 Indigestion —This/ one of the most common ailments of the horse. It is br ught about by feeding indigestible food, improper feeding, hard work immediately after feed- ing or watering, and any cause that profoundly disturbs the system. It may occur in either mild or acute form. In mild attacks the animal refuses his food, lies down and FIG. 184.—SHIRE MARE “WYDERLANDS SUNSHINE” immediately gets up, looks toward his flanks, and often paws the ground. In such cases but little treatment is necessary. Feed a light laxative diet such as bran mash and fresh grass, and allow the digestive system to rest afew days. Two-ounce dose of Jamaica ginger in a pint of moderately hot water, given as a drench three times daily, is excellent. In acute cases the causes and symptoms are similar, but the pain more severe. The horse may stand stretched out and strain, as if trying to pass urine, then lie down and get up, look at the flanks and paw as before. The care and treatment is the same as in mild cases, 424 MANAGEMENT AND BREED"NG OF HORSES except that the ginger drench n y be repeated every three hours. Colic.—This term is loosely applied to almost all diges- tive troubles that are accompanied by pain. There are two forms, spasmodic or cramp colic, and flatulent or wind colic. Cramp colic is a violent and painful con- traction of the muscular coats of the bowels. It is caused by some irritant in the intestines, such as undigested food, large amounts of cold water when the horse is tired or warm, sudden changes in the food, and like causes. The pain is severe and often comes on suddenly, the animal sweats and the respiration and pulse increase rapidly. He looks toward his flanks, stretches and strains, paws, kicks his belly, throws himself down, and rolls. Soon the _pain passes, only to return in a few minutes. Get the horse into a comfortable place where he can roll without injury. Inject into the rectum eight quarts of warm water, containing half a teacupful of glycerine. This should be done slowly, so as to allow the horse to retain it as long as possible. Drench with two-ounce doses of Jamaica ginger. Sweet spirits of niter in ounce doses is good, as is a tablespoonful of common baking soda. Blankets wrung out of hot water and applied to the belly relieve the pain, as does also rubbing the belly vigorously. In wind colic the causes and symptoms are the same, except that the pain comes on more gradually and is con- tinuous. There is an accumulation of gas, resulting from the fermenting food. The treatment is much the same as suggested in cramp colic. Tn all bowel trouble the cause is usually due to an irri- tant, which should be located and removed. It is usually a good plan to give a physic. For this purpose a quart of raw linseed oil is best, but should be given with great care, as there is danger in choking the horse. The giving of oil requires skill and experience. Worms.—Horses of all ages are more or less subject to troubles caused by intestinal worms, especially when thin COMMON AILMENTS OF THE HORSE 425 in flesh and otherwise out of condition. Thus the horse that is liable to attack should be kept in a vigorous and thrifty condition. In many cases affected horses that are given a good variety and an abundance of nutritious, laxative food, with some tonic, recover their normal con- dition. Turpentine in two-ounce doses, is an excellent remedy. The turpentine should always be well diluted, either with milk, olive oil or raw linseed, so that it will not blister the mouth or throat. These doses should be given once daily for two or three days, and followed by a good physic, as a quart of linseed oil, which should be given with care. Azoturia.—This is an ailment resulting from high feed- ing and lack of exercise. It is known by a variety of names, as lumbago, black water and holiday disease, so called because of its occurrence after the horse has stood idle a day or longer without usual work or exercise. It often comes on quickly, attacking the horse after travel- ing only a short distance. He becomes stiff, particularly in the hindquarters, and sweats profusely. The muscles tremble, the hind parts become difficult to control and the animal goes down and is often unable to rise again. The treatment in mild cases is a laxative and daily exercise. In sudden attacks friction of the limbs is good. Blankets wrung from hot water and placed over the loins and hips assist the circulation. Rubbing the affected muscles with iodine often relieves the tension. Purgatives are also of value. The horse should have free access to water. Distemper.—This ailment is known by a variety of names, chief of which are strangles, colt ill, catarrhal fever and shipping fever. It appears as a fever lasting a few days, with formation of matter or pus in the air tubes, and often the formation of abscesses under the jaw. At the end of a couple of days a cough is heard and the dis- charge comes from the nastrils. The disease passes from one animal to another, and there are few that escape it when once exposed. Light cases require little treatment 426 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES beyond proper protection from damp and cold, and the feeding of nutritious, easily digested food, such as bran mash and fresh grass. If more serious a simple way of reducing the temperature is to inject cold water into the rectum. To ease the cough and allay the inflammation of the mucous membrane, place a blanket over the head, and steam with the vapor of warm water poured over a bucket of bran and hay in which belladonna, camphor gum or tar has been placed. If the bowels are con- stipated give an injection of warm water and glycerine. If an abscess forms, poultice with warm linseed, changing daily, and after the abscess breaks wash with three per cent solution of carbolic acid. Influenza.—This disease is known by a variety of names, such as pink eye, bilious fever, grippe, and the like. It appears as a rapidly developing fever, which becomes in- tense within a very short period. The horse seems greatly depressed, standing with his head down, but not back on the halter, as in lung disease. There is sneezing and a troublesome cough. The mucous membranes of the eyes are very frequently enlarged and inflamed, giving rise to the name pink eye. The disease passes rapidly from one horse to another, although one attack often protects the animal from another, but not always. The treatment is to give rest, provide well-ventilated, well-lighted and comfortable quarters and feed easily digested and nutritious foods, such as bran mash, good oats, clean hay, roots and fresh grass in season. The horse must have protection and warmth or complications will develop. To reduce the fever inject cold water as suggested in distemper. To ease the cough and allay the inflammation of the mucous membrane, steam the head, as suggested in distemper, using a piece of camphor gum about the size of a walnut, and holding the horse’s head over the pail for fifteen minutes at least three times daily. If the bowels are constipated give an injection of warm water and glycerine. If the throat is sore, rub on COMMON AILMENTS OF THE HORSE 427 a little mustard once a day for a few days. Care must be taken to avoid complications. Sweeney shoulder.—This is a rapid wasting away of the muscles on the outside of the shoulder blade. While occasionally seen in horses of any age, it is more common in young animals. It is caused by straining, severe pull- ing and jerking movements, such as in plowing stony land. Idle horses when put to work are most subject to the ailment. The nerves or blood vessels of the affected part seem to be injured by the pressure of the collar. The treatment is to remove the cause and give the horse rest. The skin over the affected muscles should be loosened from the tissue beneath by manipulation. Rub the skin and muscles. Later, apply a mild liniment and failing in this try a mild blister. At least two months should be allowed for a complete recovery. In case there is a wasting of the muscles of the shoulder, with severe lameness, the cause should be sought in the foot. When the cause of the lameness is located and removed the muscles will resume their normal condition. Sore shoulder and neck.—Hard-working horses are fre- quently troubled with sore shoulders and neck. This is largely due to poorly fitting collars and certain kinds of work especially when the load borne by the neck is great. The treatment is to remove the cause. If nothing else is at hand wash the parts with cold salt water and when dry dust with finely pulverized, air-slaked lime. Oxide of zinc ointment is good. This is made by mixing one ounce of oxide of zinc with four ounces of benzoated lard. If the parts become callused, apply a dull red blister, which will absorb the callus. It will be necessary to rest the horse while applying the blister. Foul sheath in geldings.—This is an accumulation of material from the glands of the sheath which often hin- ders the free passage of urine. The sheath may become stopped up and the retained urine increase the trouble. In such cases the sheath should be well cleaned with 428 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES warm water and soap and then greased with fresh lard or vaseline. Mud fever.—This is an inflammation of the skin of the legs. It is caused by the irritation of mud and water in FIG. 185.—NATURAL PRESENTATION OF YOUNG the spring of the year. In geldings it is often caused by spattering urine against the fore legs. The treatment is to keep the parts clean. Clip the hair, cleanse the parts COMMON AILMENTS OF THE HORSE 429 by washing with warm water and tar soap, wipe dry, and then rub with vaseline. Scratches.—This is an inflammation of the skin in the region of the heel, and is commonly called “grease heel.” It is due to mud and filth, and is more common on the hind legs because of the exposure to the manure. The treatment is to cleanse the parts by clipping the hair and bathing in warm water and tar soap. Then apply a warm poultice of scalded bran or linseed meal, changing twice in 24 hours. After the scabs are removed, thor- oughly cleanse the parts, wipe dry, and apply an antisep- tic, as boric acid, dusting into the sores and then cover with some oily dressing, as vaseline. Cracked hoofs.—These are of common occurrence in the horse. They may be due to severe work, to dry weak hoofs, and to injuries at the hoof head. When the cracks extend from the top of the hoof they may cause severe lameness. The treatment is to cleanse the crack, wash- ing with a five per cent solution of carbolic acid. The crack should be drawn together with shoe nails or clips made especially for the purpose. Keep the hoof clean and well oiled. Difficult parturition—Occasionally the mare experi- ences difficulty at parturition time. If presentation is abnormal the fetal membranes may be disconnected and result in injury to the young. If the mare is in trouble and examination shows the young to be in any other position than natural at once call for the advice of a veterinarian. (Fig. 185,) CHAPTER XLII STALLION LAWS AND REGULATIONS While the American horse breeders have produced the fastest trotting and pacing horses in the world, little progress has been made in the draft horse breeding in- dustry. This lack of progress is due, in part at least, to the indifference of breeders in choosing stallions for service, preferring to take their mares to a grade stallion, rather than pay a little higher service fee, or go a greater distance in order to secure the service of a pure- bred stallion of merit. The necessity of some move that will bring about an improvement in the quality of the horses raised on our farms has been realized for some time. Without doubt, France and Belgium, the leading draft horse producing countries of Europe, owe their reputation to the government regulation of stallions offered for public service. This served as a stimulation, and in recent years many of our own states have enacted laws regulating the public service of stallions and jacks, with the hope of raising the general standard of the horse and mule-breeding industry. State stallion laws.—The first state law to regulate the standing of stallions and jacks for public service was that of Wisconsin, which went into effect January, 1906. Since then many other states have enacted similar laws. Although each of these laws varies more or less in detail, they have for their chief aims, first, the barring of all stallions and jacks from standing for public service which are affected with any unsoundness or infectious disease; and, second, the providing of a means whereby the public may be able to know for a certainty whether the animals are pure bred or grades. It is claimed that such regula- tions serve as a protection to many, as the average 430 STALLION LAWS AND REGULATIONS 431 breeder is unable to recognize all the unsoundnesses and infectious diseases, or to obtain accurate information con- cerning the breeding of a stallion or jack, unless he has had considerable experience in horse and mule breeding. The chief points of difference in these laws as enacted are, first, the methods of inspecting stallions or jacks before being accepted for public service; and, second, the manner in which they are disqualified from standing for public service. In some states, as Wisconsin, the owner must make oath before a notary public or other author- ized officer that the stallion or jack is, to the best of his knowledge, free from hereditary, contagious or trans- missible unsoundness and disease; while in other states, as New Jersey, the stallion or jack must be examined by a qualified veterinarian appointed by the stallion regis- tration board in charge of the work. In some states, as Wisconsin, stallions or jacks affected with certain un- soundnesses and diseases are disqualified from public service; while in other states, as Kansas, no stallion or jack is barred from public service, but they must be ad- vertised for just what they are, whether pure bred, grade or cross bred, and whether sound or otherwise. In some states, as Nebraska, stallions and jacks are divided into three classes, pure bred, cross bred and grade; while in other states, as Wisconsin, they are divided into a num- ber of classes, as pure bred, cross bred, grade, non- standard bred, and mongrel or scrub. Soundness as a qualification.—There is a rather strong feeling among stallion registration board officials that stallions and jacks should not be disqualified from public service because of unsoundness alone, particularly when the animal in question is known to be a good sire. Per- haps conformation is as important as soundness. In many states any kind of a sound stallion or jack is quali- fied for public service, even though of notably poor con- formation and of unknown breeding. It is difficult to convince the average farmer that a stallion possessed of 432 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES the best breeding, and a sire of good colts, is unfit for service, due to the presence of a slight unsoundness, as defined by law, while a nearby stallion, being free from any of the unsoundnesses mentioned by law, possessing notable defects, as well as of unknown breeding and the sire of many undesirable colts, is worthy of public patron- age. Nevertheless, in many states stallions and jacks are disqualified from public service for certain unsoundnesses FIG. 186.—BELGIAN STALLION “FRANK BRISER” irrespective of the breeding and reputation as breeders. While the unsoundnesses that disqualify a stallion or jack from public service vary somewhat in the different states, yet many of them are similar to the Wisconsin law, which is as follows: Diseases that disqualify a stallion or jack from public service: “Cataract; amaurosis (glass eye) ; periodic ophthalmia (moon blindness). STALLION LAWS AND REGULATIONS 433 “Laryngeal hemiplegia (roaring or whistling). “Pulmonary emphysema (heaves, broken wind). “Chorea (St. Vitus dance, crampiness, shivering, string halt). “Bone spavin; ringbone; sidebone; navicular disease. “Bog spavin; curb, with curby formation of hock. . “Glanders, farcy; maladie du coit; urethral gleet; mange; melanosis.” It is interesting to note the relative frequency of the various classes of unsoundness in draft and light horses. In Minnesota the common causes of disqualification for draft horses are sidebones, which are by far the more common, bone spavin, roaring, ringbone and cataract in the order named, while in light horses bone spavin, ring- bone and sidebone occurs in the order named. This is illustrated in the following table, which shows the cause for which stallions were disqualified from standing for public service in Minnesota :* Draft horses Light horses 4135 examined 930 examined Disqualification 115 disqualified 13 disqualified Pure- Grade | Total Pure- | Grade | Total bred bred Sidebone. 31 32 63 0 2: 2 Bone spavii 2 15 17 2 3 5 oaring 7 7 14 1 0 1 Ringbone 0 4 4 2 2 4 Cataract...... 2 1 3 Ophthalmia 2 1 3 MAES, s-tsigays eaters hese ee 0 1 1 Spavin and roaring....... 0 2 2 Sidebone and roaring .... 3 1 4 Sidebone and ring-bone .. 1 (0) 1 Sidebone and spavin..... 1 0 1 Spavin, ring-bone and curb 0 1 1 Sidebone and Amaurosis.. 1 0 1 Roaring and stringhalt... 0 1 1 According to this table over 50% of the stallions dis- qualified from standing for public service in Minnesota are troubled with sidebones. * Bulletin No. 3. A Report of the Horse-Breeding Industry in Minnesota. 434 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Breeding of stallions that qualify—The number of horses of each breed that qualify for public service gives an idea of the relative importance of the various breeds. By choosing a few states at random the Percheron is seen to be the favorite draft horse. In the four states selected, namely, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Pennsylvania and North Dakota, there were two and one-half times as many Percherons qualified for public service as all other draft breeds combined. There are approximately the same number of Belgians and Clydesdales as well as of Shires and French Draft horses. After the Percherons the next most popular breed is seen to be the Standardbred, which includes the American trotters and pacers. Number or Pure-Brep Horses THAT QUALIFIED FOR Pus- LIC SERVICE THE First YEAR THE REGULATIONS WENT Into EFFECT IN THE STATES MENTIONED. Breed. Wisconsin Minnesota | Pennsylvania }North Dakota Percherott sss 3 excaies oe 455 568 231 614 French Draft......... 37 63 24 61 Belgian, arias: ates vee 50 110 34 62 Clydesdale... .. re 66 65 24 93 English Shire... 39 41 30 53 Suffolk Punch........ 3 2 0 3 Hackney ess oeccctia sd 10 5 23 3 French Coach........ 54 18 19 5 erman Coach....... 39 25 23 7 Cleveland Bay........ 4 5 3 0 Yorkshire...... : 0 0 1 0 Standardbred... 275 135 211 96 American Saddl 3 0 5 1 Thoroughbred 2 0 5 0 Morgan...... 11 10 is 2. Orloff... . i) 0 1 0 Shetland. é 2 2 2 1 Jackies sie 90868 donsace 5 0 0 6 National Association of Stallion Registration Boards.— As has been stated, there is more or less difference be- tween the stallion laws of the various states. The neces- sity of some move that would harmonize these laws has been realized almost from the beginning. Thus, in August, 1910, to meet this apparent necessity, an associa- STALLION LAWS AND REGULATIONS 435 tion was formed, to be known as the National Association of Stallion Registration Boards. The chief purpose of this association is to harmonize the efforts of the various state boards and to encourage the passing of similar laws in other states in order that the legislation may be more widespread. This association has adopted recommenda- tions embodying the essential principles to be observed in the adoption or amendment of state stallion laws, and the list of stud books to be recognized in determining a pure-bred animal (Table I of the Appendix). The result of state stallion laws.—“As a result of the public advertising of licensed stallions, required by the law, which has been in force in Wisconsin since January I, 1906, it may be safely asserted that owners of mares are more than ever before patronizing pure-bred stallions, while grade and mongrel or scrub stallions are becoming less popular. Progress in the improvement of our horses is, however, greatly retarded by the indifference of many owners of mares who persist in using grade and scrub sires for the insufficient reason that the service fees of such horses are comparatively cheap. Such practice is poor business policy. The cheap sire means cheap progeny and loss of profits at selling time. The higher fee of the pure-bred sire is returned tenfold or more when the colt is sold; or if retained for work, the colt proves of greater practical value than his base begot mongrel rival. It is deplorable, too, that year after year men persist in licensing grade and scrub stallions. It is noticeable, however, that most of the new licenses go to new owners. Presumably, these are not aware of the state-wide effort being made toward the improvement of our horses. They have still to be educated to under- stand that by offering a grade or scrub stallion for public service they are working against the best interests of their neighbors and retarding the progress of state horse breeding. Their work also invites criticism from inter- ested people throughout the country who are looking to 436 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES Wisconsin to quickly rid herself by education of the large number of undesirable stallions now patronized by many unthinking farmers.’’* The effect of the laws has been to increase the number’ of pure-bred stallions and jacks offered for public service. Few people realized that so large a proportion of the stal- lions and jacks standing for public service in this country were grades until figures were obtained as the result of the enforcement of the state stallion laws. Since it is dif- ficult for a grade to compete with a pure bred, when the fact is published, the grade sire is rapidly disappearing in those states where stallion laws are effective. This is clearly illustrated in the following table: TABLE SHOWING THE PER Cent INCREASE OF PURE AND THE PER CENT DECREASE OF GRADES FOR WISCONSIN AND PENNSYLVANIA SINCE THE STALLION Laws BECOME OPERATIVE Wisconsin Pennsylvania Year Pure-bred Grade Pure-bred Grade 40% 60% 35% 65% 40% 60% 33% 67% 42% 58% 37% 63% 47% 53% 38% 62% 52% 48% 39% 61% 46% 54% 41% 59% Inspection and quarantine for horses, mules and asses. —"All horses imported into the United States from any part of the world except North America shall be required to pass a veterinary inspection at the port of entry by an inspector of the Bureau of Animal Industry. Such in- spector shall not allow the landing of any hay, straw, or forage which accompanies shipments of harses from any *Circular No, 28. The University of Wisconsin, Agricultural Experiment Station. United States Department of Agriculture. Bureau of Animal Industry. Order 18Q STALLION LAWS AND REGULATIONS 437 country on the continent of Europe until it has been disin- fectedas the inspector may prescribe. In case the inspector finds horses affected with any contagious disease he shall isolate them and immediately report the fact to the chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, who may refuse to allow the landing of horses so diseased. When horses FIG. 187—ARABIAN STALLION “KHALED” imported from a country of Continental Europe from which hay is permitted, arrive in a healthy condition and no diseased condition is discoverable, the hay, straw and other forage from such country may remain on board the steamer and be returned. This forage may be used without disinfection in the feeding of animals exported on the same ship, provided it is accompanied by a certifi- cate issued by the proper government officer of such coun- try, as required by the regulations of this department for the importation of hay and straw from Continental Europe, and that there are no indications that it is in- 438 MANAGEMENT AND BREEDING OF HORSES fected; but if the forage is found to be infected the fact must be reported to the chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, who will direct the disposition to be made thereof.” Canada.—“Horses for breeding, racing, show and sale purposes, for grazing or for work, shall be inspected at the port of entry, and when so ordered by the chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry must be accompanied. by a satisfactory certificate of mallein test signed by an official Canadian veterinarian or by an inspector of the Bureau of Animal Industry. Those belonging to Indian tribes and settlers or immigrants, and those used in connection with stock raising (cow ponies) or mining, and those for temporary stay at points along the frontier not exceeding two weeks, whether for pleasure, driving, or teaming, shall be required to pass a veterinary inspection at the port of entry by an inspector of the Bureau of Animal Industry; or they may be admitted without inspection upon written permission from the secretary of agriculture first had and obtained. Provided, however, that neither inspection by an inspector of the Bureau of Animal In- dustry nor written permission from the secretary of agriculture shall be required for Canadian horses for pleasure, driving, or teaming, whether driven or ridden into the United States for a temporary stay not to exceed three days. The same rule will apply to American horses returning to the United States from Canada after a stay in Canada not to exceed three days. Horses admitted in bond for export from the United States shall be subject to inspection at any point at which this department has inspectors stationed.” Mexico.— ‘All horses infested with ticks are prohibited from entering the United States from the Republic of Mexico, when destined to an area in the United States from which cattle are excluded by the federal, state, or territorial authorities on account of ticks, unless and until such tick-infested horses are first dipped or otherwise STALLION LAWS AND REGULATIONS 439 treated as hereafter specified in this regulation. However, if horses intended for importation into the United States are held for six months immediately pre- ceding the date they are offered for importation, on premises known to be free from ticks, they may be ad- mitted for any destination without dipping,” etc. Disposal of diseased animals.—‘‘Whenever any animal on arriving at the port of entry or in the quarantine sta- tion (healthy horses are not quarantined) is found to be affected with a contagious disease or to have been ex- posed to such disease, said animal and all animals that have been in contact with or exposed to said animal shall either be refused landing or placed in special quarantine. All such animals found to be so diseased or exposed, either on arrival at port of entry or after being placed in quarantine, shall be at once reported to the inspector to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, who will direct whether or not said anima! or animals shall be landed and quarantined, and as to whether or not said animal or animals shall be appraised and slaughtered, as provided by section 8 of the act approved August 30, 1890.” APPENDIX APPENDIX TABLE I HORSE BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATIONS TABULATION SHOWING THE NAMES OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS or Horses, THE NAME OF THE SOCIETY PROMOTING THE BREED AND THE NAME AND ADDRESS OF THE SECRETARY IN CHARGE. Breed Registered by Secretary Address Percheron........ Percheron Society of America W. Dinsmore Union Stock Yards, Chicago, IIl. French Draft..... National French C. E, Stubbs Fairfield, Iowa Draft Horse Association Clydesdale....... American Clydes- R. B. Ogilvie Union Stock Yards, dale Association Chicago, IIL. SHIne aie eiete cans American Shire Charles Burgess Winona, Ill. Horse Association Belgian.......... American Associa- J. D. Connor, Jr. Wabash, Ind. ciation of Importers and Breeders of Belgian Draft Horses Suffolityaswccanaaes American Suffolk A. Galbraith Janesville, Wis. Horse Association Hackney......... American Hackney }| Gurney C. Gwe 308 West 97th St. Horse Society New York French Coach.... French Coach Horse Society of America Duncan E. Willett Oak Park, Ill. APPENDIX TABLE 1—Continued 443 Breed Registered by Secretary Address German Coach... German Hanoverian and Oldenburg Coach Horse Association of America J. Crouch Lafayette, Ind. Cleveland Bay.... Cleveland Bay Society of America R. P. Stericker Oconomowoc, Wis. American American Trotting | W. H. Knight 355 Dearborn St., Standardbred.... | Register Association| Chicago, Ill. Morgan*,........ American Morgan T. E. Boyce Middlebury, Vt. Register Association Thoroughbred.... | The Jockey Club W. H. Rowe Fifth Ave. and 64th St., New York Arabian seas areleseeets Arabian Horse Club] Henry W. Bush- Newburgh, N. Y. of America Brown American Saddler American Saddle J. N. Ball Louisville, Ky. Horse Breeder Association Shetland Pony ... American Shetland Pony Clu Miss Julia M. Wade Lafayette, Ind. Welsh Pony ieee os Welsh Pony and Cob Society of Tica, J. Alexander , Aurora, Ill. * Sometimes considered merely as a family of the American Standardbred. TABLE II STATISTICS OF HORSES AND MULES* NumbBer or Horses, Mutes AND Asses ON Farms AND Not ON FarRMS FOR THE UNITED STATES; ALSO APPROXIMATE NUMBER BY CONTINENTS Country United States: On farms.... Not on farms Horses Mules Asses 20,509,000 4,362,000 105,698 3,182,789 270,371 16,502 * Agricultural Yearbook 1911. 444. APPENDIX TABLE 11—Continued Country Horses j Mules Asses Total North America............00. 27,873,248 5,076,513 436,122 Total South America............0005 9,155,425 893,019 608,397 Total. Burope ics i cssic «sures cane wads 43,502,876 1,810,365 3,011,349 Total Asia... 15,082,239 113,643 4,162,310 Total Agric tierra) waves c asja le agisece wee 1,035,964 318,368 666,180 Total Oceania, including Australia.... 2,577,203 416 1,858 Grand Totalycnses buces nakvou'e dawees iss 99,226,955 8,212,324 8,886,216 TABLE III NuMBER AND FARM VALUE oF Horses AND MULES ON FARMS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1870-1912, BY FIvE-YEAR PERIODS. Horses Mules Jan. 1 Price per} Farm value Price per| Farm value Number head Jan. 1 Number head Jan. 1 ; Jan. 1 Jan. 1 1870.. 8,249,000 | $ 67.43 $556,251,000 {$1,180,000 | $ 90.42 | $106,654,000 1875... 9,504,Q00 61.10 580,708,000 1,394,000 71.89 100,197,000 1880.. 11,202,000 54.75 613,297,000 1,730,000 61.26 105,948,000 1885... 11,565,000 73.70 852,283,000 1,973,000 82.38 162,497,000 1890.. 14,214,000 68.64 978,517,000 2,331,000 78.25 182,394,000 1895.. 15,893,000 36.29 576,731,000 2,333,000 47.55 110,928,000 1900.. 13,538,000 44.61 603,969,000 2,086,000 53.55 111,717,000 1905.. 17,058,000 70.37 | 1,200,310,000 2,889,000 87.18 251,840,000 1910.. | 21,040,000 108.19 | 2,276,363,000 4,123,000 119.84 494,095,000 1912.. | 20,509,000 105.94 | 2,172,694,000 4,362,000 120.51 525,657,000 TABLE IV Imports, Exports AND AVERAGE Prices oF Horses AND Mutes, 1892-1911, BY FIvE-YEAR: PERIODS Imports of horses Exports of horses Exports of mules Year end- ing Aver- Aver- Aver- June }Num-} Value age | Num- Value age |Num-| Value age 30 | ber import | ber export | ber export price price price 1892 |14,074]$2,455,868]$174.50] 3,226] $ 611,188/$189.46] 1,965] $ 238,5911$121.42 1897 | 6,998 464,808} 66.42) 39,532] 4,769,265] 120.64] 7,473 545,331] 72.97 1902 }] 4,832! 1,577,234] 326,41]103,020] 10,048,046] 97.53/27,586| 2,692,298] 97.60 1907 | 6,080) 1,978,105] 325.35} 33,882] 4,359,957] 131.99] 6,781 850,901] 125.48 1911 | 9,593) 2,692,074] 280.63} 25,145} 3,845,253] 152.92] 6,585] 1,070,051] 162.50 APPENDIX TABLE V Numeser, AVERAGE PrIcE AND FARM VALUE oF HorsES AND MuLEs on FarMs IN THE UNITED STATES JANUARY I, IQI12. 445 Horses Mules Aver- Aver- age age State Number | price Farm Number | price Farm Jan. 1 per value Jan. 1 per value head Jan. 1 head Jan.1 Jan. 1 Jan. 1 109,000|$127.00 $13,843,000, 46,000} 126.00) 5,796,000) 84,000} 121.00) 10,164,000 Massachusetts. 64,000} 144.00! 9,216,000 Rhode Island... 10,000} 150.00) 1,500,000 Connecticut... 47,000} 131.00) 6,157,000) New York.. 609,000} 133.00) 80,997,000 4,000/$150.00 $660.000 New Jersey. . 91,000} 143.00 13,013,000) 4,000) 160.00 640,000 Pennsylvania. . 572,000} 130.00 74,360.000 44,000] 147.00 6,468,000 Delaware 34,000) 108.00) 3,672,000) 6,000} 133.00 98,000 Maryland 163,000} 112.00 18,256,000) 23,000} 136.00) 3,220,000 Virginia os 340,000} 109.00) 37,060,000 61,000} 126.00) 7,686,000 West Virginia..... 182,000] 113.00 20,566,000 12,000} 122.00 1,464,000 North Carolina.... 173,000] 126.00 21,798,000] 182,000} 146.00} 25,988,000 South ee 82,000} 135.00) 11,070,000} 166,000] 165.00] 27,390,000 Georgia...... F 124,000) 132.01 16,368,000} 310,000] 158.00} 48,980,000 Blond ais ei ccesnineve 85 52,000] 106.00 5,512,000 25,000) 154.00 3,850,000 OhiO:; 2 serene E 901,000} 126.00) 113.526.000) 24,000} 127.00) 3,048,000 Indianalessss wesc as 838,000] 118.00 98,884,000 84,000] 124.00] 10,416,000 Illinois... 1,497,000] 115.00) 172,155,000] 151,000) 123.00} 18,573,000 Michigan. . 634,000] 131.00; 83,054,000 ,000] 135.00 540,000 Wisconsin. , 652,000] 124.00) 80,848,000 3,000] 125.00 375,000 Minnesota. 806,000} 116.00; 93,496,000 6,000) 119.00 714,000 OWA... 6. 1,558,000} 113.00 177,184,000 57,000] 119.00, 6,783,000 Missouri.......... 1,095,000} 102.00 111,690,000} 333,000] 115.00] 38,295,000 North Dakota..... 91,000] 114.00) 78,774,000 ,000] 127.00 1,016,000 South Dakota..... 675,000} 92.00) 62,100,000} 13,000) 108.00 1,404,000 Nebraska......... 1,059,000] 91.00) 96,369,000; 85,000]. 106.00 9,010,000 Kansas 1,169,000} 96.00 112,224,000] 218,000] 108.00] 23,544,000 Kentucky 443,000] 107.00 47,401,000} 234,000} 118.00) 27,612,000 Tennessee 354,000) 114.00 40,356,000] 279,000} 123.00] 34,317,000 Alabama... 143,000] 99.00 14,157,000] 265,000] 127.00] 33,655,000 Mississippi. 2% 234,000] 89.00 20,826,000] 277,000} 113.00) 31,301,000 Louisiana......... 187,000] 79.00 14,773,000] 134,000} 116.00] 15,544,000 Texas. sas spt et 3 1,158,000} 74.00 85.692,000] 703,000) 104.00} 73,112,000 Oklahoma...... .. 750,000] 76.00) 57,000 000} 272,000] 98.00] 26,656,000 Arkansas.... ae 265,000] 86.00 22,790.000} 228,000) 110.0 25,080,000 Montana.... 347,000) 87.00 30,189,000 4,000) 107.00 4,000 Wyoming .... 159,000] 69.00 10,971,000) 2,000] 99.00 198,000 Colorado...... 321,000] 80.00 25.680,000 17,000} 100.00 1,700,000 New ents 185,000} 50.00 9,250,000) 15,000] 86.00) 1,290,000 Arizona. . 104,000] 69.00 7,176,000 4,000} 118.00 472,000 Utah... 131,000] 93.00 12,183,000 2,000} 85.00 170,000 Nevada 72,000] 77.00) 5,544,000} 3,000} 82.00 246,000 Idaho........ 214,000) 96.00 20,544,000 4,000] 112.00 448,000 Washington 293,000} 107.00 31,351,000 14,000} 112.00 1,568,000 Oregon.........-. 289,000} 102.00 29,478,000 10,000} 112.00) 1,110,000 California......... 493,000| 117.00! 57,681,000] 72,000] 136.00] 9,792,000 United States..... 20,509,000]$105.94 $2,172,694 ,00014,362,000|$120.51 $525,657,000 446 APPENDIX TABLE VI AVERAGE WEIGHTS OF FEEDING STUFFS As a rule it is not practicable to weigh each ration, nor is it necessary in practice, as measuring is sufficiently ac- curate. To aid in approximating the weights of the various foods, the following table of weights and meas- ures is made up from Farmer’s Bulletin, No. 222: One quart One pound weighs measures Feeding stuffs Pounds Quarts Gorn amealllssesccnsesiees ov satevd -e-osauss erapaiiate peslerord avalens oft Corn) branes; is cele er adtsos Tease wate oe emeredeteee ae Gluten meal.... Gluten feed Germ meal... Hominy meal....... Distiller’s dried grain: Wheat, whole...... i Wheat, grove iicieecccsaced sccn ig seas oes HEIRS Se Wheat. Bran sec desc Gasca c eercya sd Fai cves accede Rca aS Wheat middlings (standard).............2.00006 wheat middlings (flour)... 0... cece eee ee eee Buckwheat middlings......... 0... cece eee eee Oats, whole 2): 05.005 codatnusiacwer Shake tieeee eave Oats, Broun d acissec cieeesnacerandvesie sessterdiae teeta nso aiecs Gob ARGC; WHOL 8.58 seas es asaya tesatouenie tnsadieee i sr tibia ear beeen RY Cy Dranieqars is secrets oy Ae E ale kg Rees args x Os Barley: whole x2 ise ipcng erseie ta lee A mwas BIS Barley:meals.. s: se. ¢ seine eden os Seed Sa Brewer's dried grains..... Malt sprouts............. Linseed meal, old process. Linseed meal, new process Cottonseed meal......... Ol © One OE Oe OO RNS Oe bibibs Or MOR AAEAAUNNTOAONOMNNOAR RE WR SOE POST OSH OSH Sar eo pl ONSS NRO WON DUO ROR DWOUAN ON RDANOUA TABLE VII ENERGY VALUE AND DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN FEEDING STUFFS In choosing foods and computing rations for farm animals by the use of the energy values, it is necessary APPENDIX 447 to know the digestible protein and energy value of the feeds used. The following table is from Farmers’ Bul- letin No. 346, and contains the dry matter as well as the digestible protein and energy values of each of the more common feeding stuffs. Dry Matter, DicestinLE PRoTEIN, AND ENERGY VALUES PER 100 Pounps Feeding stuff Total dry Digestible Energy matter protein value Green fodder and silage: Pounds Pounds Therms TAM: 5. scieseisd ao eosjaneces Syeuers eg enattnegs Ses 28.2 2.50 12.45 Clover—crimson.. 19.1 2.19 11.30 Clover—ted............ ige,ibyasevone ese 29.2 2.21 16.17 Corn fodder—green hc orate Wavaierte se 20.7 0.41 12.44 Corti Silage’ ivescs ¢S:scsueé laleve debjatier die 25.6 1.21 16.56 Hungarian grass... 28.9 1.33 14.76 ADE ceseiee'g Suseigne eave eianvere Sepeters 14.3 2.16 11.43 ViGiod scakiare wiayers. a wentane we aactare eaves 2 23.4 1.44 11.63 DAMOth Veer. ciscees ec atpahe en tee aanes: a6 38.4 1.04 19.08 Hay and dry coarse fodders: AMA at Hay cesses: 2 cyescsoie ‘evita Seas eces 8c 91.6 6.93 34.41 Clover hay—red.. ee 84.7 5.41 34.74 Corn forage, field cure 57.8 2.13 30.53 Corn stover.........- 59.5 1.80 26.53 Cowpea hay 89.3 8.57 42.76 Hungarian hay 92.3 3.00 44.03 Oat hay..... {84.0 2.59 36.97 Soy bean hay.. 2 : 88.7 7.68 38.65 Timothy hay ise. igs o¥ ocise tes ad 86.8 2.05 33.56 Straws: Oat SUPA Wiis gsia i saaha ie eiiepe aanenaes “ 90.8 1.09 21.21 IRey CXS CLAW vero avers Gece saiede a oetaane ene 92.9 0.63 20.87 Wiheati straws sniss.casiee gay iene stares 90.4 0.37 16.56 Roots and tubers: GarrObS hernias vetans cote hea a Pie B18 1IL4 0.37 7.82 Mangel-wurzels.......... 00000005 9.1 0.14 4.62 Potatoesieic.ccesevresahoisva: seuss peepee 21.1 0.45 18.05 RRUtaba@ asin. igdie w tesacen eters Baers 11.4 0.88 8.00 TRIN ips dseks. suqyane starters VER MSa orchare, 9.4 0.22 5.74 89.1 8.37 80.75 89.1 6.79 88.84 84.9 4.53 72.05 89.0 8.36 66.27 89.5 16.77 71.75 88.4 8.12 81.72 89.5 8.90 82.63 By-products: : Brewer’s grains—dried............ 92.0 19.04 60.01 Brewer’s grains—wet........-...- 24.3 3.81 14.82 Buckwheat middlings............- 88.2 22.34 75.92 Cottonseed meal.........-....--- 91.8 35.15 84.20 448 APPENDIX TABLE vil—Continued Total dry Digestible Energy Feeding stuff matter; protein value By-products—Continued Distiller's grains—dried— Principally corn.............. 93.0 21.93 79,23 Principally rye............... 93.2 10.38 60.93 Gluten feed—dry................. 91.9 19.95 79.32 Gluten meal—Buffalo............. 91.8 21.56 88.80 Gluten meal—Chicago............ 90.5 33.09 78.49 Linseed meal—old process......... 90.8 27.54 78.92 Linseed meal—new process........ 90.1 29.26 74.67 Malltssprouts ics 6 cat -a-accceancafsies st ees 89.8 12.36 46.33 Riven bra mt ier dioncacecgaycise yanensere anes te 88.2 11.35 56.65 Sugar-beet pulp—fresh............ 10.1 0.63 7.77 Sugar-beet pulp—dried........... 93.6 6.80 60.10 Wheat: bramtiscs: ¢ airs aqettn mates 3 88.1 10.21 48.23 Wheat middlings................. 84.0 12.79 77.65 TABLE VIII DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN FEEDING STUFFS In choosing foods for a ration, the digestible nutrients should be known, as it is the digestible part only that is The following table is adapted from Henry’s “Feeds and Feeding,” eleventh edition, and gives a very complete list of American feeding stuffs, their digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents: of use to the animal. AVERAGE DiGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FErRTILIZING Con- STITUENTS Digestible nutrients Fertilizing constituents Total in 100 pounds in 1,000 pounds dry Name of feed matter in 100 Carbo- Phos- pounds | Crude hy- Fat Nitro- | phoric | Potash protein | drates gen acid CONCENTRATES Grains, seeds and their | Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. parts DentsCOmm. i) 6 a cacdedeeeus 89.4 7.8 66.8 4.3 16.5 TA. iad Pint COT: sree ss, nated oes 88.7 8.0 66.2 43 16.8 TA 5.7 Sweet corn............. 91,2 8.8 63.7 7.0 18.6 TA 5.7- Con meals aici sce una ease 85.0 6.4 64.3 3.5 14.7 6.3 4.7 COrniCODinise sem mamsacinciien 89.3 0.5 44.8 detont 3.9 0.6 6.0 Corn-and-cob meal... 84.9 4.4 60.0 2.9 13.6 5.7 4.7 APPENDIX 449 TABLE vill—Condinued Digestible nutrients | Fertilizing constituents Total in 100 pounds in 1,000 pounds dry Name of feed matter in 100 Carbo-| Phos- pounds | Crude hy- Fat | Nitro- | phoric | Potash protein | drates gen acid Concentrates—Continued | Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs Lbs. Gluten meal............ 90.5 29.7 42.5 6.1 54.8 3.3 0.5 Gluten Feeds siecccssedsecsehls 90.8 21.3 52.8 2.9 40.0 3.7 0.4 Hominy feed (chop)..... 90.4 6.8 60.5 7.4 16.8 9.8 4.9 Germ oil meal.......... 91.4 15.8 38.8 10.8 34,7 3.9 2.1 Cort DraMisycin sac es Hace « 90.6 6.0 52.5 4.8 17.9 10.1 6.2 Wheat: ccsas eonicne scat 89.5 8.8 67.5 1.5 19.0 5:5 8.7 High grade flour........ 87.6 10.6 65.1 1.0 19,2 5.7 5.4 Red dog flour........... 90.1 16.2 57.0 3.4 29.4 tates em Flour wheat Sect R Te 90.0 16.9 53.6 4 30.7 12.2 9.6 Standard wheat mid lings (SHOTS). ccc: ses's ye txevers ce 88.8 13.0 45.7 4.5 27.0 26.3 15.3 Wheat bran, all analyses. 88.1 11.9 42.0 25 24.6 26.9 15,2 Winter wheat bran...... 88.5 12.1 37.1 2.8 25.1 Pune Si Spring wheat bran. a 88.0 11.9 43.1 3.1 25.1 ee Nees Wheat feed...... 89.1 12.7 47.1 4.0 26.1 20.4 5.4 Wheat screeni 88.4 9.6 48.2 1.9 20.0 11.7 8.4 Rye..... 91.3 9.5 69.4 1.2 18.1 8.6 5.8 Rye flour...... 86.9 5.6 72.2 0.5 10.7 8.2 6.5 Rye middlings. 88.2 11.0 52.9 2.6 22.9 12.3 9.6 Rye’bran...... 88.4 11.2 46.8 1.8 23.3 22.8 14.0 Rye feed............... 87.6 12.6 56.6 2.8 25.1 Tek 4.7 Barley jevcss.saues ov ssaevnuesstnenetls 89.2 8.4 65.3 1.6 19.2 7.9 4.8 Barley screenings ....... 87.8 9.5 49.9 25 19.7 tae eee Barley feed ............. 91.1 11.5 60.3 2.9 22.1 6.6 3.4 Emmer (speltz)......... 92.0 10.0 70.3 2.0 18.4 7.6 5.7 Oats iiss cass is Mees aoe ss 89.6 8.8 49.2 4.3 18.2 7.8 4.8 Ground oats............ 88.0 10.1 52.5 3.7 19.7 7.6 5.0 Oat meal....... 92.1 11.9 65.1 6.7 23.5 ees oes Oat middlings.... 91.2 13.1 Sed 6.5 25.9 22.5 15.3 Oat feed........ a 93.0 5.2 30.1 2.6 12.8 6.1 7.2 Oat, Gusti sic sore eetee oe 93.5 5.1 32.8 2.3 21.6 eee eae Oat hullsiss cscirte osiies « 92.6 1.3 38.5 0.6 5.3 1.6 4.9 Buckwheat............. 86.6 8.1 48.2 2.4 17.3 6.9 3.0 Buckwheat flour........ 85.4 5.9 63.0 1.2 11.0 6.8 3.4 Buckwheat middlings.... 87.2 22 sd. 37.5 6.1 42.7 12-3 11.4 Buckwheat bran........ 91.8 5.9 34.0 2.0 20.2 4.2 12.7 Buckwheat feed......... 88.4 15.6 38.2 4.4 29.3 15.8 10.5 Buckwheat hulls 86.8 1.2 28.6 0.5 7.3 4.3 14.7 Ric@ yore vans 8 ee 2 87.6 6.4 79.2 0.4 11.8 1.8 0.9 Rice meals: 2 ces exes 2 89.8 7.4 48.3 11.9 19.2 nee ‘Rice polish..........+.. 89.2 7.9 58.6 5.3 19.0 26.7 7A Rice bran......-...... : 90.3 7.6 38.8 7.3 19.0 2.9 2A Rice hulls.........0.006 91.2 0.3 19.9 0.7 5.1 1.7 14 Canada field pea........ 85.0 19.7 49.3 0.4 37.9 8.4 10.1 Canada field pea meal... 89.5 16.8 51.7 0.7 32.3 8.2 9.9 Canada field pea bran... 89.0 7.7 41.6 0.6 16.0 3.1 10.3 Table bean meal... as 89.1 20.2 42.3 1.3 37.1 12.0 12.9 Cowpea.. 85.4 16.8 54.9 1.1 32.8 10.1 12.0 Soy bean.....e.. eevee 88,3 29.1 23.3 14.6 53.6 10.4 12.6 450 TABLE VU APPENDIX CoNlinted Dipestible nutrients Bertitiving constituents i L,QQ0 pti y Pista i LOO pounds dev Name of food matter in 100 Carbo- Whites pounds | Crude hy - Fat Nitros | plovic | Potash protein | drates wen netd Conventrates—Continned Lbs. Uhs. Lbs, Vitis Lbs, Lh. Lbs, Vtorse bean... 5... 88.7 198 OR 1a fo (eo Kafir corn. .... on t Wei V4 Ground katie corn hea: 86.1 Leal ea ro Sryghum seo, a7.) oll 28 Bil Milo maize seed. . Cont) ths 13 Ground tilo maize heads 90.8 1 ASO tl Broom-ecorn seed si? Lo 2 ts Millet sec S29 res 18,5 a Tlangarian re ws seed, 90.5 od IS.8 ret Tax seed. oc... 90.8 20.0 17.4 290 80.4 13.0 Linseed meal, oli proc ONS 90.2 zit) 22 8250) O92 Oe, loco Linseed meal, new process 91.0 41.5 35.7 a oO ted Cottonseed : SOT 18 30.0 17,3 1 1s Cottonseed, toastert 93,0 7.9 US8 19,0 Piet) 4 c Cottonseed meal. 94,0 Bo al oo Hon 30.4 {5.8 Cottonseed hulls ....... 88.9 0,3 33.2 JED od bs tod Paltnut cake oo... SOO 1o.0 So oO 0.0 that s.0 Cocoanut cake... XOv7 15.1 I Wat lay ShicS. too 10 Surallawer seed. tis od 14.8 LOT 1&.2 ad Wet 5.6 Sunflower-seed cake, 89,2 10,5 een 0 SG eS 11.7 Peanut kernels, without ntti Se ae Scat acce tease ase OES, 281 137 35.6 lho (rt 1? Poa! GaliGhe's ste. dbs ROS pes 1 aes 10? “0.0 {8.0 Rape secd rithe 90,0 Patt YG 7.0 19 20.0 14.0 Sesame oil cake... O26 RENO) 1a al S87 42.7 145 Factory by-products Dried brewer's peains, Os 00 2 0.0 10.0 lod oO Wel brewer's grains P40 1o Od erg Lo; ba 05 Mal! sprouts 90.5 3 1o.0 14 1h] Lit oo Dried clistiller’s joains, Os | res sO 7 lo 19.0 ou ‘ee: Apple pomace Ane 0 i OS 1.6 Ot Cassava starch refuse al Tho Qo te Oo Starch refuie. . 24 | 70.0 tt lo ro Wel staceh feed... ad 12.4 Xo RO OS5 Potato pomarce ooo. Od Os Of ao Ot Bakery refuse, 7.0 S55 Ls fogs thay os Wet heet pati, 05 ii vi os | re Dried heet pulp it O19 (ou ag at Supe treet Molasses , ti Stal V5 0.8 Sot Porto Rico matisses : tal 49.2 ‘ Ad 1,2 AOS Dried molasses beet pulp YO ol O87 . tad 1,5 Ist Mohuises prains . ss 80 1s ASLO 22 ae 45 es | Alfialow . 90,9 O48 10.8 0,9 20,0 ‘ Cow" somilk 4 ALS an 5.8 1a Vat Cow's milk, Cotes. tuum, li.o i 3.0 sO? 04 (4 Shani mith es Baty S..8 Os vO est oO Bullermilke oe... ee. 3.8 39 1.0 ol 1,7 Lo APPENDIX TABLE VIU—Cond/inucd 451 Digestible nutrients Fertilizing constituents Total in 100 pounds in 1,000 pounds dry Name of feed matter in 100 Carbo- Phos- pounds | Crude} hy- Fat Nitro- | phoric | Potash protein | drates gen acid Concentrates—Continued | Lbs. Lbs, Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. | Lbs. Lbs. Whey i scoiens onus ae iats 6.2 0.6 5.0 0.2 1.0 1.1 2.0 Meat scrap..........008 89,3 66.2 eRe 13.4 | 114.0 81.1 hs Meat and bone meal..... 94.0 36.7 5.5 10.6 63.2 | 146.8 es Dried blood............ 91.5 70.9 seek 2.5 | 135.0 13.5 ee Tanka; each Pen - Vaaats Eh 93.0 50.1 Big ee 11.6 86.2 | 139.0 3.0 Dried fish.............. 89.2 45.0 She b%e 11.4 77.4 | 140.0 3.0 DRIED ROUGHAGE Field-cured corn forage Fodder corn, ears, if any remaining.......... 57.8 2.5 34.6 1.2 7.2 5.4 8.9 Corn stover, ears removed | 59.5 1.4 31.2 0,7 6.1 3.8 10.9 Corn husks............- 49.1 0.8 33.8 0.2 4.0 os aa Corn leaves............. 70.0 2.8 37.8 0.8 9.8 - 2 Sweet corn forage....... 60.0 3.4 36.2 11 9.8 4.0 ‘ wee a from the grasses, English hay 86.0 4.5 44.0 1.2 12.6 3.2 16.1 Hay from mixed grasses 84.7 4.2 42.0 1.3 11.9 2.7 15:5 Timothy, all analyses... 86.8 2.8 42.4 1,3 9.4 3.3 14,2 Timothy, cut in full bloom | 85.0 3.4 43.3 1.4 9.6 5.0 14.1 Timothy, cut soon after OOM i aio Modano s 85.8 2.5 39.2 1.5 9.1 - Timothy, cut nearly ripe 85.9 24 40.1 11 8.0 7 Meadow foxtail......... 93.4 53 41.0 1.3 14.9 hss beaten Orchard grass........... 90.1 4.9 42.4 1.4 12.9 3.7 16.9 Red top....... 91.1 4.8 46.9 1.0 12.6 3.6 10.2 White top..... 86.0 6.8 40.6 1.5 17.9 soars aa ee Meadow fescue 80.0 4.2 36.9 1.5 10,3 4.0 21.0 Kentucky blue grass..... | 86.0 4.4 40.2 0.7 12.5 4.0 15.7 Tall Oabecs eee acig 4 sia 4 86.0 3.3 41.4 11 10.3 asteeeds ele Italian rye grass..... are 91.5 4.5 43.4 0.9 12.0 7.6 24.6 Perennial rye grass...... 86.0 6.1 37.8 1.2 16.2 7.4 24.1 Rowen hay.........-.-5 86.0 7.9 42.2 1.4 18.2 4.3 14.9 Bermuda grass......... 92.9 6.4 44.9 1.6 17.1 — wer ohnson grass........... 89.8 2.9 45.6 0.8 11.5 ies ee Macaroni wheat...... oer 93.0 4.4 48.7 0.8 10.9 aieezse perce gs SSsaievs te ‘sou dfecahaa Ssccnseuait. 85.0 Od: 43.6 1.0 14.1 sfepsita fos i Grataiata Weis thd oiedatere wie 86.0 4.7 36.7 1.7 14.2 6.7 25.4 Bramec (speltz).......05 93.4 7.0 43.9 0.6 17.1 ete pes y Barnyard millet......... 86.0 ‘532 38.6 0.8 16.9 4.3 28.8 Cat-tail millet.......... 89.0 7.2 41.6 1.0 18.5 tegups a dees Hungarian grass........- 86.0 5.0 46.9 1.1 12.1 4.3 15.4 Wild oat grass........-- 85.7 2.9 48.7 1.7 8.0 re Bes Prairie grasS........e00 90.8 3.0 42.9 1.6 9.9 ease reece APPENDIX TABLE vili—Continued Digestible nutrients Fertilizing constituents Total in 100 pounds in 1,000 pounds dry Name of feed matter in 100 Carbo- Phos- pounds | Crude} _hy- Fat | Nitro-| phoric | Potash protein | drates gen acid Dried Roughage— Lbs, | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. Continued Buffalo grass............ 85.0 3.0 42.0 1.6 7A Gama grass. 85.7 4.2 39.9 0.9 11.8 Texas blue grass 85.7 5.1 36.3 1.4 14.6 Guinea grass. Sb Sates 3.3 47.2 0.5 8.8 Para QTasS...........00- 5.5 45.6 0.6 14.6 Swamp grass.......--.+- 88.4 4.0 38.9 0.7 11.5 nia Bey Salt marsh grass. . 89.6 3.4 39.7 0.9 8.8 D5) 7.2 Buttercups....... 90.7 4.8 40.7 1.8 15.9 wed oe Ox-eye daisy......... 2 89.7 3.7 41.0 1.7 12.3 4.4 12.5 Australian salt bush..... 93.0 3.8 28.8 0.7 18.6 5.9 21.3 Cured hay from legumes and mixed legumes and grasses Red clover............. 84.7 7A 37.8 1.8 19.7 5.5 18.7 Red clover in bloom 79.2 TT 34.0 2.8 19.9 en Mammoth red clove 78.8 6.2 34.7 2s 47.1 5.2 11.6 Alsike clover... : 90.3 8.4 39.7 1.1 20.5 5.0 13.9 White clover............ 90.3 11.5 42.2 1.5 25.1 7.8 13.2 Crimson clover.......... 90.4 10.5 1.2 24.3 4.0 13.1 Japan clover.. é 89.0 91 1.4 22.1 Measles on Sweet clover. 92.1 11.9 0.5 28.8 5.6 18.3 Soy bean.. 88.2 10.6 1.2 23.8 oe Peers Cowpea... 3 89.5 9.2 1.3 14.3 5.2 14.7 Alb Alb ats cesctiane S95 91.9 10.5 0.9 23.4 6.1 17.9 Alfalfa leaves........... 95.1 16.8 Les, 37.3 one eased Bur clover ices sia vatates 91.0 8.2 2.1 21.8 as ee Hairy (winter) vetch.... 88.7 11.9 1.6 27.2 9.7 24.4 Serradella. 90.8 11.4 1.7 24.3 7.4 26.3 Peanut pine.... 92.4 6.7 3.0 lege | 3.2 11.6 Velvet bean...... 90.0 9.6 1.4 22.4 a Beggar weed............ 90.8 6.8 1.6 18.9 DATLOUM gach. 4, Sdiiod se Maes 85.0 10.4 2.0 23.7 5.0 14.7 Wheat and vetch. 85.0 10.6 1.2 23.2 dae winced Oat and pea...... 2 89.5 7.6 1.5 16.5 6.1 18.1 Oat and vetch.......... 85.0 8.3 1.3 20.5 6.0 12.7 Mixed grasses and clover 87.1 5.8 1.3 16.2 Ba anes Mixed rowen........... 83.4 8.0 1.5 18.6 90.4 0.8 35,2 0.4 5.0 2.2 6.3 92.9 0.7 39.6 0.4 5.0 2.5 8.6 90.8 1.3 39.5 0.8 5.8 3.0 17.7 85.8 0.9 40.1 0.6 7.0 2.0 10.6 85.0 0.9 34.3 0.6 6.5 1.8 17.3 90.1 1.2 37.4 0.5 8.0 1.3 11.4 Field bean........... 95.0 3.6 39.7 APPENDIX 453 TABLE vill—Continued Digestible nutrients | Fertilizing constituents Total in 100 pounds in 1,000 pounds Ty Name of feed matter in 100 ial Phos- pounds | Crude Fat | Nitro- | phoric | Potash protein Pa gen acid Dried Rowshage— Continued Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Soy bean.......... ens 89.9 2.3 40.1 1.0 6.8 2.5 10.4 Horse bean...........05 90.8 4.3 39.5 0.8 14.1 och Wheat chaff 85.7 1.2 25.4 0.6 7.2 3.8 8.2 Oatich alls 555 sce. 6: irene 85.7 1.5 33.0 0.7 6.4 1.4 4.5 Flax chives........ eer 90.0 1.2 34.4 1.0 8.1 Sorghum bagasse 88.8 0.5 52:2 0.7 5.5) Green corn and sorghum forage Fodder corn, all varieties 20.7 1.0 11.9 0.4 2.9° 1.1 3.9 Dent varieties....... 21.0 0.9 12.2 0.4 2.7 asenete Dent, kernels glazed..... 26.6 1.1 15.0 0.7 3.2 teens Flint varieties........... 20.2 1.1 11.4 0.5 3.2 1.3 3.1 Flint, kernels glazed..... 22.9 1.5 13.2 0.6 4.3 aoe Sweet varieties.......... 20.9 1.2 12.6 0.4 3.4 1.4 3.8 Sweet corn, without ears 20.0 0.7 11.6 0.4 2.2 ecaage Red kafir corn......... As 18.4 0.8 9.7 0.4 2.9 1.3 4.5 White kafircorn ....... 16.6 0.8 8.3 0.5 3.0 1.2 5.0 TeOSINCE: ss5;90.5:snerers eee 9.9 0.9 4.9 0.2 2.2 0.6 9.2 Yellow milo maize. 16.8 1.1 9.3 0.3 2.7 1.1 5.7 Sorghum fodder... bes 20.6 0.6 11.6 0.3 2.1 0.7 3.4 Sugar cane......... satan 15.8 0.5 9.5 0.3 1.9 0.9 4,4 Fresh green grasses Pasture gtasS.........-- 20.0 2.5 10.1 0.5 5.6 7A Kentucky blue grass..... 34.9 2.8 19.7 0.8 6.6 iat Timothy: seca oscsene «a cers 38.4 1.5 19.9 0.6 5.0 2.6 7.6 Orchard grass........... 27.0 1.2 13.4 0.5 4,2 1.6 7.6 Red top, in bloom....... 34.7 1.9 21.3 0.5 4.5 assis Wheat forage........... 22.7 1.7 12.0 0.4 3.8 1.6 6.0 Rye forage.........-.-. 23.4 2.1 14.1 0.4 4.2 2.5 7A Oat forage, stage uncertain 25.0 2.6 11.0 0.6 5.6 ao ne Oat forage, in milk...... 37.8 2:5 18.2 1.0 5.4 1.3 3.8 Oat forage, in bloom..... | 25.0 11 12.4 0.5 2.6 oe Moree Barley forage........... 21.0 1.9 10.4 0.3 4.3 Ss Meadow fescue.........- 30.1 1.6 18.6 0.5 3.8 Jags siusees Italian rye gras: iba 26.8 1.5 12.6 0.7 5.0 2.9 11.4 Tall oat grass.. 30.5 1.2 15.7 0.5 3.8 ieee Joumsa grass 25.0 0.6 13.7 0.2 1.9 bine ermuda grass. 28.3 1.3 13.4 0.4 3.5 ee Hungarian grass... 28.9 2.0 15.9 0.4 5.0 152 4.2 Japanese millet. . 25.0 1A 13.6 0.3 3.4 2.0 3.4 Barnyard millet. é 25.0 1.6 14.4 0.3 3.8 1.1 5.8 Pearl millet.........-.-+ 18.5 0.6 10.0 0.2 1.9 1.5 7A Common millet.. 20.0. 0.8 11.0 0.2 2.4 0.7 4.7 Hog millet.........+++5- 20.0 0.8 10.8 0.3 2.4 eta rae} 454 APPENDIX TABLE VillI—Continued Digestible nutrients Fertilizing constituents in 1,000 pounds Tatat in 100 pounds d Name of feed matter : in 100 Carbo- Nitro- | Phos- pounds | Crude hy- Fat gen | phoric | Potash protein | drates acid Dried Roughage— Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. Continued Fresh green legumes, grasses and legumes combined Red clover............. 29.2 2.9 13.6 0.7 7.0 1.5 4.8 Mammoth red clover. 20.0 2.0 9.1 0.2 4.8 ea or Alsike clover......... DS, 2.6 11.4 0.5 6.2 1.1 2.0 Crimson clover,. : 19.1 2.4 9.1 0.5 5.0 1,2 4.0 Sweet clover............ 20.0 2.5 8.4 0.4 6.1 2.4 6.7 PLEA Biv s cst sito, cea 28.2 3.6 12.1 0.4 77 1.3 5.6 Spring vetch.. - 15.0 1.9 6.6 0.2 4.3 1.0 4.5 Cowpea.........-... 16.4 1.8 8.7 0.2 3.8 1.3 4.6 Hairy vetch, winter. : 15.0 2.8 6.4 0.3 5.8 1.4 5.2 Hairy vetch, in bloom... 18.0 3.5 7.7 0.3 6.7 sei aes Soy: beani vieweoiia wines 24.9 3.1 11.0 0.5 6.4 1.4 5.6 Serradella... 20.5 21 8.9 0.4 4.3 1.6 5.5 Horse bean.. 15.8 2.3 7.3 0.2 4.5 0.5 21 Velvet bean. 17.8 25% 8.4 0.4 5.6 nye mers Sanfoin...... 25.0 2.9 11.1 0.5 7.0 1.4 5.7 Canada field pea........ 15.3 1.8 6.9 0.3 4.5 1.6 5.0 Canada field pea, in bud 15.0 2.6 6.8 0.3 5.0 1.1 44 Canada field pea,in bloom } 13.0 2.3 5.3 0.2 4.5 1.1 3.2 Canada field pea, in pod 16.0 1.9 7.0 0.2 3.7 1.3 3.7 Barley and vetch........ 20.0 2.1 6.5 0.3 45 2.0 5.7 Barley and peas.... 20.0 2.1 9.1 0.4 4.5 i fot Oats and peas. 20.3 1.8 10.2 0.4 3.8 1.5 5.0 Oats and vetch.. . 20.0 2.3 10.0 0.2 4.8 1.4 3.0 Wheat and vetch........ 20.0 2.6 10.3 0.3 5.4 ee ss Mixed grass and clover. . 25.0 2.3 14.6 0.5 4.6 Roots and tubers POtatOnis 22 dah 2 aie ety 20.9 1.1 1537 0.1 3.4 1.6 5.8 Common beet 11.5 1.2 7.9 0.1 2.4 0.8 4.8 ANGE). eck: 1 1.0 5.5 0.2 2.2 0.9 3.8 Sugar heet. 13.5 1.3 9.8 0.1 2.9 0.8 3.7 Flat turnip 9.9 0.9 6.4 0.1 2.1 0.9 3.4 Carrot ined mative hae ot 5 11.4 0.8 7.7 0.3 1.8 0.9 2.6 Rutabaga.. 3 11.4 1.0 8.1 0.2 1.9 1.2 4.9 Parsnip.... < 11.7 1. 10.1 0.2 2.6 2.0 4.4 Artichoke..... 20.5 1.3 14.7 0.2 4.2 1.4 4.7 Sweet potato. . 28.9 0.8 22.9 0.3 2.4 0.8 3.7 Chufa scsi canes 20.5 0.6 91 5.6 ee shoud. sh COSSAY Bios 5 wea Gy ees ¥ HbR 34.0 0.8 28.9 0.2 2.0 1.0 4.0 Miscellaneous ACODNS es ee Et 44 ea bon 44.7 24 34.4 1.7 4.0 Seis sine MAD Pl eS si3%stiecsiehs Seiad se sacs 22.2 0.8 16.5 0.2 1.2 Q.1 1.7 APPENDIX TABLE ViIlI—Continued 455 Digestible nutrients | Fertilizing constituents Total in 100 pounds in 1,000 pounds Dry Name of feed matter in 100 Carbo- Phos- pounds} Crude] _hy- Fat | Nitro- | phoric |, Potash protein | drates gen acid Dried Roughage— ag | Lbs: | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs, | Lbs. Dwarf Essex rape....... 14.3 2.0 8.2 0.2 3.5 1.2 3.5 Dwarf Essex rape, summer, southern states .... 15.0 1.9 8.6 0.2 3.4 Dwarf Essex rape, winter, southern states...... 15.0 2.0 8.1 0.2 3.7 rennet ieee ‘Cabbage ise: is scseners ‘ 10.0 2:3 5.9 0.1 4,2 1 4,3 Sugar beet leaves. 12.0 1.9 5.0 0.2 4.2 1.5 6.2 Field pumpkin. . 9.1 1.0 5.8 ° 0.2 21 whee wens Garden pumpkin. . 19.2 1.4 8.3 0.4 2.9 1.6 0.9 Prickly pear.. a 15.8 0.4 6.2 0.2 1.1 0.2 3.7 Cane cacti........ 21.5 0.9 114 0.4 2.3 0.6 3.5 6 ts 44 36.6 0.8 21.1 ieee ast ss aes 2.1 37.1 0.9 10.2 as ia 20.0 1.5 9.8 0.3 3.8 2.5 5.9 13.0 1.7 5.1 0.2 3k 1.2 7.6 Purslane....... ~ 9.0 2.0 4.5 0.1 37 ite 638 Bakes Dandelion .. 15.7 1.1 75 2.0 1.9 pened s Greasewood 95.5 10.9 40.9 1.8 a ie : Common little sage...... 65.0 3.2 19.7 0.9 21.9 ie eh Common sage..........+ 50.4 1.2 14.1 2.8 TA se oak Australian salt bush .... 22.0 2.0 8.5 0.3 44 1.4 5.0 Dried oak leaves, gathered ind ful yids ids ons £2 3% 95.1 3.2 34.6 1.6 15.2 Dried mixed tree leaves, gathered in July.... 84.0 3.5 30.4 1.1 16.8 Dried beech twigs, gath- ered in winter....... 84.7 0.9 21.8 0.6 6.4 Silage Corn, early analyses..... 20.9 0.9 11.4 0.6 DF 1.4 3.7 Corn, recent analyses.... 26.4 1.4 14.2 0.7 4.3 11 3.7 Corn, ears removed 26.3 1.1 14.9 0.7 3.5 ape Poh Sorghum. 2.2 sche as 23.9 0.1 13.5 0.2 1.3 1.5 1.9 Millet..... 26.0 0.2 13.1 0.6 Qe 1.4 6.2 RY Giri 2 ties Does A tened 19.2 0.7 9.0 0.2 3.8 See hag Red clover...... 28.0 1.5 9.2 0.5 6.7 eae Pere Canada field pea. 49.9 3.4 25.5 1.0 9.4 aids ede Bau Soy bean.......... 25.8 2.7 9.6 1.3 6.6 1.6 75 Cowpea vine...... 20.7 1.5 8.6 0.9 4.3 1.5 4.6 Brewer's grains axe 29.7 4.6 11.5 1.8 10.1 4.2 0.5 Apple pomace........... 15.0 0.7 9.6 0.5 1.9 1.5 4.0 Corn cannery refuse, husk 16.2 0.4 10.1 0.4 2.2 Corn cannery refuse, cobs 25.9 0.3 13.7 0.9 2.4 Pea cannery refuse...... 23.2 21 13.1 0.8 4.5 Sceies Cowpea and soy bean.... | 30.2 229. 12.9 0.8 6.1 tea Rs Corn and soy bean...... 24.0 1.6 13,2 0.7 4.0 1.5 3.6 Barnyard millet and soy DOAN asin wera aides Bae 21.0 1.6 9.2 0.7 4.5 pes) 4.4 INDEX Page A Peoria Tih cctsennis tains aa adok pases 118 Abdallah 15. 119 Abortion in mares 282 322 308 in horses. 17 Age of horses....... 308 how to estimate. 49 Aged horses......... 53 Ailments, of the foal........... 287 of the horse............+-- 419 Alfalla hay cencus. gsc adage Anta ied 354 Altman: Brosisoins wiiecen leads be dais 187 American Breeders’ and Importers’ Percheron Registry........... 182 American horses...............5-- 233 American Percheron Horse Breeders’ and Importers’ Association American saddle horse classes......... 111 Denmark, F. S.. 107 description................ 109 development..... 106 famous animals............... 109 ATES wee coittnc Saheb sce ativienends gerAnecer one 12 organizations and records...... 114 OTB A arenes Haran hinge aces 1 popularity......... American speed records..... American Trotting Register. Anatomy of the horse........ Ancestors of the horse... Anchitherium.......... Andalusian Jack.. Anezah race.. Animal body.. Ankle, cocked. . Anson, William Antiquity of the horse.. Appearance of the horse Appendix Arabia........ Arabian horse. breeders... description. pace origin. .... popularity Ardennais draft horse....185, 213, 208 Armsby standard............. 31 Articular angles of the horse. a5 size of 458 Ash in food Ass, African wild coed wild 0. Boards Attitude in horses Auction, rules of,...... at the halter legs go serviceably sound... SOUN wes tn orgs wind and work... work only Azoturia Baling), «eserves, shiver doting tebe Ad te 387 Bakewell, Robert Bakewell's Gee.. Balanced ration. Barb mares..... Barber, O. C. Barley Baron of Buchlyve.. Baron's Pride (9122)... 192 Barrenness in mares.. 281 Beans. siti ssnavcyosa widest S-sonee 349 Beautiful Bells......... 124 Bedding the horse... 366 Beith, ELE ioiexs res 139 Belgian draft horse........ 208 CHILICISINS a. oy ask Tas 214 description...........4 213 distribution. 215 famous show ‘animals 212 ry vee Cana 209 in America. . Belgian Horse monica 216 Bell Bros.. 205 Bellfounder. . 116 Bingens..e geoas ees 125 Biting 392 HES ieee aint 396 Bitting the horse. . 378 Blake tribe ..........2...-5 219 Blanketing the horse.......... 363 Blankets, tearing.......... 398 Blemish jee sewn arate navn eee 43 Blindness, cccnas vaus Rea REO ¥ Blinds on bridle. . Blisters.... ae Bloomfield Champion’ alae Blunt, Lady Anne.. 3% Body of the horse........... aCe Bog spavin.......... ccc eee eee Boils, collar... Bonaparte. . Bones......... Bone spavin...... Borden, Spencer...............4.. Boulonnais draft horse............ Box and straight stalls............ Brabancon horse................. Brabant horse.............. 0.0005 Bradley, Peter B.. Brain.. Bran, wheat... Breast harness Breeching and holdbacks Breeds........---0 55 ; of horses.. origin of...... study necessary type........ on Breeders’ ‘Associations. Breeding. prepotency. selection..... sterility.... variation.... Breeding horses. . brood mare...........ee seen PNANCS ecco d owe mechanical power... number produced... practical plan..........--.0-- INDEX Page 44 398 pregnant mare..........-+++++ 2 productive period of mare..... season to breed - selecting animals.. stallion.........+ Breeding hopples..........-+00005 Breeding jacks....... selecting stock.... Breeding mules....... number produced. selecting stock.... Breton draft horse...... Brewer’s grains ..... Bridle and check rein.........-... Brown, Marcus. 459 Page Brood. niate cc cong swans wanes xo aps breeding..... care of.... foaling time. pregnant........c.cseeveeee acs productive period............. Brown, G Brush, DODY.oascssineave-creceiare Goclae ane Bunions icecscavie wens < coev aw niieven Burges, R. and Son............... Burgess Bros........... 00 eeseeee SHB Usb acacgearatays ene cate ARENA Us Bush-Brown, H. K............... Carbohydrates in food............ Canada, inspection of horses. Canadian horses............ Canadian pacers....... ausvare aMouniere can Caer wicca ase sesins 26, Scarabs asda ote! duainetere-ass Carmion ies i aici savers tetra e tiererereres Carriage: hors@ inci sasireiecg wee a Cart: Horse: sais ian ewes exaen sve Castleman, John Boos 0000000 Castleman, Maj David. 222200000: Catalonian Jack................08 Cataract.........seeeee : Catarrh, observing... Cayuse............ Cereal grains.. Cereal hay. Chapin, enry.. Characters of the horse aor agiricd crop produc 4 Check rein 395 Chorea.........- 433 Chunk horse class 313 Circulatory system. 37 Clare, (Nis. Riv aties acres tees .. 193 Classes of stallions in France...... 146 Clay family.......-....-...-- ve 123' ‘Cleanliness in horse barn.......... 411 Cleveland Bay coach horse........ 161 ETILICISTIAS 6. cunini gin. shaksni sreceiars s(ecas064 GECLING ueiadoiesitarerk D.ccadele notions, cosunaiye description..........0 0. ee eee distribution. . in America... native home organizations and records...... 167 ouei Se a ee ee 161 sa anasaye- aidyata ce: wie a SP SEE Paes 166 Gliopine the horse..i sess cee gee 362 Clover Ha yin seacans.¢ spate narra 354 Clyde, alias Glancer (153).. 191 Clydesdale draft horse...... «os 188 CriticisMS.. 1... cee eee eee eee 197 description.......cceeseeceeee 194 development....... Siete Side eS 189 distribution........6-.eeeeeee 197 famous sires,............. 190, 193 460 Clydesdale draft horse in America... native home OUIBAS see IS 8 Bide BOT ea show animals. Clydesdale Horse Association. Coach breeds Cochrane, M. Cocked ankle Colonial horses. Color Colorado ‘stud. care of feet castration. Commercial fee: “Company plan” of breeding horses Compound Concentrates for the horse..... Condition’. cc. 2 taces ths 9 enee Condroz horse......... Conestoga horses...... Connective tissue.... Constipation in foal Convenience in horse barn..... Cook, “Coon footed”. ....... Co-operative breeding. . Corn for horses........ stalks Corsa, W. S of ration.......... Cottonseed meal... Cowpeas...... Cow’s milk for foal.... Crest, broken......... Cribbingiassicg, scoters Mabey Gatos Crisp's Horse of Ufford (404). Crops, cheapening production. CrOSSIN Ge. oisie ynkece Daa 4 seebtae la in horse breeding.. be bases Crouch, J. and Son...... a Crupper and back strap......... Curb vaca. sm torah cece Curry comb.... Cushman, A. P. Darley Arabian Darnley (222).. Dartmoor pony.. Davenport, Homer. Dedinessiwusin. scamecte angus aeaeneaas Denmark, F. S. (foundation stock) 107 Derby race meeting............... Diarrhea: ign ass saan 2 nee ea eda oe INDEX Digestible nutrients. . Digestion of food conditions favoring: amount to feed........ foods that aid............---- 358 Digestive system........-.5---+-- 39 Diligence......... . 174 Dillon, Ellis.......... - 177 Dillon, Miss Ethelred...........-. 83 Dimensions of articular angles Meee 29 of -the ‘parts.c16 cag. eee tee ce 26 Diseased horses..... 419, 439 Distemper... 0024 eters eeaee sts 425 observing. . 44 Doble, Budd... 132 Draft breeds........... 71 Draft horse, class..... 311 for heavy work... 305 Draft mule, class........ 320 Drainage about the barn. 407 Drenching:... 20.2. eces oi 421 Dry matter in bod ° eda 2S. Dunham Bros. 147, 212 Dunham, M. W.. . ......... 147, 177 4 East Frieslana tothe 156 East Prussian horse. 154 Beli psec 3 causes te. 91 ~ Economic value of th 6 Education...........: 307 Edwards, W. J. 176 Elbow, capped. 45 Electioneer... 119 Elliot, S. B. 226 Enemas or injections . 422 English Black Horse......... 199 English Cart Horse Society........ 207 English Speed Records........ 102 Environment... 254 Eohippus.. 58 Ephippus. 58 Equus...... 61 asinus... 65 caballus. . 65 hemionus.. 65 Przewalskii . 65 EPO Ob wecccinie Vasco add Steen ob 358 Evolution, causes ‘of. Pesan ted eet 63 in teeth and feet...... 62 of the horse......... 57 Exmoor pony..... 229 Export mule class 321 Exports of horses and mules. . 444 External application of medicine... 421 Fairs and horse improvement...... 172 Fra) £0 aS acess c-syehayed sasdinw aysari wie equines 5% 279 False mouth.... 54 Farmer's horse. . 303 Farm mule class. 320 Fat ‘in. f00d esc easier tasi Oe 326 Fattening horses and mules.. 344 Faults, common 42 “Beather’™ s:sceese ¢ 196 Feeding horses...... 334 INDEX 461 crs Pag Page Feeding horses French coach horse changing foods....... sibctese weave 335 development...... memes 1. food to grow a horse........ « 336 distribution. . db nawaie wees o> 190: RAIDS oii Cie sceans ar ceichnel Canara «. 346 in, AMOriC Bes cinies 5c cise sans ». 147 hay and forage tise Se ae the 353 native home..... b Watonet Be 143 individuality in feeding 340 notable animals............-- 147 order of supplying food.. 334 organizations and records...... 150 principles...........eseeeeees 323 OTAB UT fis ss5.:40 8 siardatce-ateakieie & weee 143 Tegularity..........00seeeeeee 334 speed prceea ts a the driving horse............. 341 HeRENS type.. the idle horse the stallion.... the work horse watering and feeding.......... Feeding. mules..............000005 Feeding pregnant mare.. Feeding sick horse.... Feeding standards................ Feeding stuffs, composition of..... energy value of............... 446 fertilizing constituents of...... 448 WEIGAES cia csgsatec a ausouia 8, bani doachreo sce Feeding the foal.. Feet, care of colt... Flanders horse Flooring materials for barn........ Fly blanket and net ie FRG AD sytevaiess agasg: sos osregeiot Sete Asdyoieo usd catching...... development driving with lines. exercis€.........- spring... training... weaning... Foaling time Food composition digestibility. . preparation that aids digestion............ Fox trot.- French Goach hors coach type.. description.........--.-+ CLULICISIMS foie nives cosas oteysien arated organizations and records...... French methods for improving the 1 Fruits General General Stud B e George Wilkes......... ccc eeeeeee German Coach horse..........2005 criticisms. ...... age ee description ......... 3.3 distribution......... doce RRS acs 159 IMPrOViNGs 655s ese vs vee ees 153 in America... ian, UST native home.............e0e 0 151 organizations and records...... 159 OT AGI ciays onsestons sd: shessea: 6 aucdsearednuse 27 151 types and breeds........ saeco oe LSS MUSES pa pdre. s'eouess'g clade statenicve o. eoreace 159 German horses (see German Coach horse) German supervision of horse breeding 153 Gestation period in the mare...... 284 Giant Leicestershire horse. . . 199 Glancer (153).. hi 191 Glanders, observin, 44 Gluten meal or feed Cun for the foal.. Gravel..... roiDuateeunvelinnadsiacatogede due ax Grease heel.....+-seeeeeee ssodantiace 46 Great Horse.. Green forage.... “Green horse’’ Green Mountain Maid Grey Clyde (78)........+ Grooming $a Guy line ..........-065 asta is seareare' H Hackney Coach horse.......+eeee 462 INDEX Page Page Hackney Coach horse Injections or enemas.........+4+ o. 422 ACTON oes 'edisia area e' eines SAF 141 Inspection of horses and mules.... 436 description.... 140 Insull, Samuel ..........-0--0ee oye LOD development... 136 Interfering..........s.se+eeee +» 49 distribution..... 142 Intestines, capacity........... eo AL famous animals. . 139 Irish pony......... ++ 232 in America.... 138 Irregular teeth... +. 54 mative HOME 5: 54 cecne vu 8 ca 135 Atala Jack .cccss exces eee 244 Toke Spoccea bai feds 2 80 Hageland horse. 209 Hainaut horse.ses sac cere avec ys 209 lal ‘famitl yess sia creo cere a sesancias co sincace see 123 Halter, pulling ssco.5.6 suse & siescsece suture. 390 Hambletonian (10)............... 117 Hambletonian family. spilt 119 Hamilton, (Cy. Ab cscs oa a Sicnes Sayaka 221 Hanoverian horse................. 155 Happy Medium.................. 119 Harness, care of...........+.00005 404 TED AIS Hab oss eons vs atentee ae patene ee ¥ 406 room or closets............+.+ 415 Harnessing the horse 395 the horse difficul 391 Heep stock farm. 84 sPakavacafinle a thie: 8 ANOS ations tare eS, 353 Head and neck. 20 Cart i savenie aes 37 Heaves........ 49 Heavy TPO soca ss 14 Height in horses. 15 Heredity............ 258 Herod (King Herod). 91 Hesbaye horse............-.00+ .. 209 Heyl, Peter.......... 22. cecee .. 83 Hindquarters of the horse...... se ABZ “Hippe@ ces sa ree es _ History of the horse. Hobert, By. sant “Hog: back! vas. 22 Holloway, Robert...... Holstein horse......... Homdani............ Honest Tom (1105).. Hoof growth........ cracked. ........ Hopley, Peter & Son FLOUSINGS 5 cians saci yes Humane collar 400 Human time, Satine 2) Huntington, R....... 83 Hypohippus... 60 Hyracotherium 58 I Ijams, W. P............- Importance of the horse 1 Imports of horses and mules...... 444 Un Dreed inp ey psceeica’ esis 3c Favsts alan shied SHS 262 Indian pony. ewe 238 Indigestion iri eectce esti sete Als 423 Individuality in horse breeding.... 256 Influenza des sas cere edits aes Ra 26 g zi for mule breeding......... Fi organizations and records...... 247 Jack and Jennet Breeders’ Associa- for bree: pregnant.. 297 John Bull..,. .. 204 Jones and Taylor. 147 Jones, C if 4 178 Jordan, E. D.. riskier atau, te 139 Judge, requirements of, 7 Judging, comparative.... ee We Judging a horse........... es 7 in harness. .... ae 25 in the stable.. «. 24 method....... . 9 Judging pavilion. lee Se Justin, Morgan...........eeeeeee 121 K Keheilet, Ajuz.....ceee cee s eee ee . 80 Keir Peggy.... : stvan, 19L Kerry. WiC daaw egy 230 Kachang es sa 2c owas arettig 388 King’s mares... 90 Knee, unsound. 45 Knuckling...... 46 L Labor-saving appliances........... EAMENESS cies eases afses oR Sic , Laminitis. . . La Perche Laryngeal hemiplegia . Laws and regulations. . lien laws.......... Lefebure & Son.. Leguminous grains. Lexington Thoroughbred horse ....- Ligaments.......c cece eens e een ee Light in horse barn. . “Light in timber’’.. Light type......... INDEX 463 Page Page Linseed meal.. sieieenveriee SO ” Lochlyoch's Black’ Horse... 1...” HES ppt pen DAMN so ca msciscnn anne ORE Lou, Dillon MING Bo cass scan midoneae +. 358 Louis Napoleon hay 356 FANGS. ov ee es Mining mule class. a) 320 Tanker” aemescssonnen sence ates Miss Russell. 125 Molasses..... 352 Montgomery, A. & W. 192 Manes BOK we snsicses Maltese Jack..... brino family Management of the horse......... 360 Mane and tail comb. cose s ies 361 Maneg hits ecicsccc-ueveaeoaeeacite avs, 80 Mangers and grain boxes.... 414 Man labor and horse labor........ 2 Manures, care of................. 418 cotton mules................. 321 Bib POE oxen c ic eey en ebe et 320 export mules. farm mules... mining mules. sugar mules........... acl sheteers 321 Market requirements....... 306 ACTON ie iceetcascdueneucrssa ve 308 ABE... ee ee 308 appearance 306 reed... 309 color 308 condition. 308 education... . Matchem Mating in horse breeding McDonald Bros............... de MeKinney:s seg: acrsn neater eas 42 McLaughlin Bras ange cnecaney McMillan, H. ‘ McNitt, James Measuring the angles............. Measurements, of the horse....... 27 of draft horses............... of light horses..........-..2.. Mechanics of the horse Medicine, giving............e00ee- Mesohippus........ - Messenger..... Mexican pony.. sy Mexico inspection “of horses.....+-. Morgan family vee fever. hybrid 2 organizations and records...... 251 resistance to disease 2. USES cua tracing osape grein exe Mule-breeding Jacks .............. 30 Mule breeding (see breeding mules) Murphy, “D.. Wejswcosacnsen. 9-95 o0e% 132 Muscles evn ncinos-c ete RR 36 Mustang..... yee? Test Sah oat oh 238 N Narragansett pacers..............4 117 National French Draft Horse Asso- CIATION soi a cnaitstons wend-le henge ses 187 National register of Norman horses He Navel infection...............0.05 289 Navicular disease................4 47 Nervous system aise tai whe fice AL New England Horace Siissocdunsaeaesevs 236 New Forest pony............-.0.- 230 New York horses............00006 235 PENTOKCEY i sscacesscsgiusrapeichsusasuctaesste: sesmtats: 322 Nivernais draft horse... vee 185 Normandy......... fuickavarecehnaveveayecat's 175 Number of horses..............4- of horses per man... ........ 1 Nursing a sick horse.............- 419 Nutritive: Patio seins nnaremeviaegees 331 Oldenburg horse...............004 155 Old Fanny Cook................- 97 Orlofe Trotter escceievsiccsnecasavesveieceseseracecn 132 OT OHIPDUSE sdvaxsarensgucrsenueriesvave/oueVevosedebens ue 58 Outdoor blanket..............-00 364 Overreachin gaa. dcc. eecdiecwee creer aicvasievece 49 P PADS te. ORE ies siic we ossnensics dcaslscuets Mapecens 139 Pacing oe (see Standardbred) Pacing records..............000006 131 nea TOMUCED s.cceyasssacevscsuenerscavn 130 standard............. ae 128 Packington Blind Horse..,... 203 Paddocks for breeding stock....... 418 Parahip pus’ ieveieissoeis-esnsavarardreterahaeo reve 60 Parker, Joc J ovisiarsiecasirsiarecticuteciesitiec 177 464. eatly development.. early importers. . 176 endurance......... 173 famous show anim: 178 als.... famous sires............. improvement. . in America.... native home............... Periodic ophthalmia............... 432 Permanent teeth................., 52 Petey the Greate oak 4 yes esas aoa 125 Picardy draft horse............... 186 Pick's Turf Register... 105 Pilot family......... 123 Pink eye.,.. 426 Phohippus..... 60 Plowing the soil.. 2 Pneumatic collar. 400 Pocahontas.......... 97 Points of the horse.. 11 Poitou Jack........ 245 Poll fewal sss wicca Prepotency............ Prince of Wales (673)............. 191 Prince William (3956)............. 203 Productive: mation. «<6 244 cick s< ua 330 Proportions of the horse...... 26 unit of in horses Quittorsiess céireys Racing in England. Racing Register. Rach xistens danny cits Ramsdell, J. A. P Range horse class...... Rarey’s safety harness... throwing harness... . Ration is: ccak es vaed ho uee balanced.... computing. . cost nutritive. BAM PLC set sec wyssis- dvonsye sige Records of performance....... Registration boards........... Respiratory system... Rhode Island pacers. . Ringbones.......... Road horse class Roaring......... Robinson, A. L.. Rolling...... Roofing materia Roots and tubers. “Rough behind’. “Rounding hock’ Royal (Gift ses sacs ¢ ec ccaac Rye Salting the horse................, Sanders, J. H..,. Schleswig horse. Score: cardi. re. 8 wes purpose of...... MASLIDG 5 to Fiera: Saud vecfomedae eda acd Scoring, rules of cir Scratches............ 46, Selection in horse breeding. eA RIE Koc wna do Radnid eden, a teases Shading field tube................ Shales ccc scroaw Ouaiers smnknceee eee ay Shammar race.. Sheath, bone... Shetland pony.. description. in America...... description... distribution. . early types... aseaeh famous show animals... famous sires. , ‘ TD MOTOS nears ia » wales 2 ak ef INDEX 465 Page Page Shire draft horse Stud book.. dactaed aeaquedia: Gogkens 68 Native: home sieciediecece hones e058 199 Student’s score card. daeese se AE Dee anizetens and cau “Stump sucker’.............. 322 Success. . . 176 Succulent foods. . . 356 Suffolk draft horse.. . 217 CPMBICISINS «sche ceceties Seance . 224 description............... , 224 Sie for unsound feet............ distribution.............. 224 Shoulder, sore.......... 45, 427 improvement............. 220 _, Sweenied... 45, 427 int Americas... siie4 saved 221 Sidebones..... 4 native home,............. 217 Silage ....... 0. eee eee ee oieanizations and records. 224 Singmaster and Brother... LDDs gscesive acct ane “anap ae b-4senest 218 Singmaster W shar animals. . 221 Skeleton........... tribes..is cece. ee 219 Slow USES ccd sites. catecens 224 pace Smith's Horse cree) “Smooth Mouth’. Soil, plowing abi Soundness.............. as a qualification. . in horse breeding.. SPAV IM icc anasto Species of the horse. a2 se peck in eye” Speed in light horses.............. Speed records, French Coach horse ee of Percheron..........-.05005 runnin Stable whims. . Stallion.......... LOC stern echie nee ovata so aleve Standardbred horse......... chart showing descent.. description............ PAMIINES: craters 'e ease ovat famous brood mares. . famous drivers....... famous present-day sire: famous prices paid.. influence of standard....... organizations and records.. (OT LERI ot seves o's stators Sosdaaeigia-e 34 source of blood.. State stallion laws... result of Statistics of horses and mules.. Sterility Strangles............ Stringhalt..... Strong Horse.... Stubblefield Bros. Stubbs, Ds. Resesii scrote deeds sunsets Suffolk Horse Association Sugar mule class..... 2d Sweat pads........ . 401 Sweenied shoulder. 45, 427 Sweet Marie...... astalenaiece stares sie: L2H T Tail SOre.....ce ee eee SGEACE BANS -gStaNS 48 Taylor and Tones. cuca biste 7 147 Teams, size of.. 3 Teeth, care of... 366 decayed... 44 TUIMDER ices: swine eae 50 Temperament in horses. 19 Temperature in stable.. 365 Tendons.,........+00+ 36 Thoroughbred horse. 88 description.... 98 famous mares. . foundation stock. improvement... in America... Lexington... native horse.... notable animals OTM caesar vane ceckeseoee popularity... record prices. speed records. . Thoroughpen........ Thrush Tiiling the soil.. Time, saving.. 2 Time, trotting ‘and eens aii 130 running records,. 1 Timothy hay......... Tissue, connective. 37 Toe, seedy.......- 47 Tongue lolling.. 3389 Tossing the head... 389 Training the horse.. 373 age to begin.. ‘317 Ditting sc csi ge ee eee et 378 hitching and driving. Mace eke 380 areeenet HOLSE bsisvesios staiavesa eesenw ease 134 TenGae horse (see Standardbred) 466 INDEX Pago Page Trotting records...............06, 131 Ww reduced... 6. sees eres eee eee 130 Wabash Importing Company...... 212 Trotting standard.. ++ 128 sTagon horse class. eeiasanenscet Goi we. 314 Truman, J. H..... .. 139° Wal ‘ ad petabeteencaeae wane: LEZ: Tully, Be Wwsncus vaews «nen Veews © 84 ee J. 132 Tumors, fibroid ins von v eee aa wks 45 Wallace's Year Book. 132 Types of horses. . +.+++ 13 Walls of horse barn.. 416 Walters, W. T.......- 177 U eee rapes ei ee ‘ teed i ar Horse....-...--- Unit of proportions... nrc... 29 Water in faa, ae vs 328 United States inspection of horses 436 Weaning ie Gaal ae meeee yt peeve ae, BO Weanling, management........... 293 iaseniinees, common. ae Woon payee BERANE ne Gerke te pton, AJ OB ies diciedoseteantees cack BS) eB See ete ee BAe as Uses of the horse............... Wheat. pony. Sagano An ei ckaasaitgs ssc 2 BRE SAS 350 Vv labor to produce...........eee 4 Whim.......... A . 43 Value of horses and mules...... 5, 444 of the horse an BES Van Hoorebeke, A. G...... vee 2410 coWThistler’.... 0c eee cece cence 322 Variation in horses.... -. 252 Wind, unsound.......... TIT 49 cause ayes -. 253 -Wintering the idle horse.....,.... 341 frequency 253 Wolff-Lehmann standard.... 331 iar saguce so 253- Wibemis : Ventilation of horse barn.. Vermont stud............. e122 WiC iccwwwens eas +4 2. 43 of the horse... «. 385 ¥ Vidal, Rev. F. F 83 Yorkshire Coach horse............ 163 Virginia horses...........0005 fovea 234 description «acu isees oseees sos 164 pis a Mer ena ss Te eis pers caters s f ty ‘a Ae a ae Secapas Gs : fire! ey Paar soya ay! z ta Lege ta atin Teo ee ae Cae ele t . 2 Et ey wr ret) 3 aca REO aoe Foe ie r rn i Pie iain MoCo ety, ioe aed — > fren He Tey Lane oral * ‘ ilearohel GER wot ae: Me =