Cornell University Library OF THE Hew Work State College of Agriculture BOT sa wp co a as sp oien ee aoe x aaa 3514 Cornell University Library SF 487.R657 nT 3 1 003 181 371 924 t eepin Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www. archive.org/details/cu31924003181371 First Lessons | in ———— Poultry Keeping. FIRST YEAR COURSE. BY JOHN H. ROBINSON, Editor of FARM-POULTRY. FOURTH EDITION. PUBLISHED BY FARM-POULTRY PUBLISHING CO.,, BOSTON, MASS, FARM-POULTRY SERIES No. 8. FOURTH EDITION. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. FIRST YEAR COURSE. This series originally appeared in Farm-Poultry serially in 1905- on ide Ss BY _ "f & &é v4 ie aft John H. Robinson, Editor FARM=POULTRY. Author Poultry-Craft, The Common-Sense Poultry Doctor, Broilers and Roasters, Winter Eggs. PRICE 50 CENTS. PUBLISHED BY FARM=POULTRY PUB. CO., Boston, Mass.. 1909. Wy ae C= SF4+67 RGS7 Ao N41] CoPpyRIGHT, 1905 BY ¥ARM-POULTRY PUB. CO. Boston, Mass. Press of 8. G. Robinson, 267 Atlantic Ave., Boston, CONTENTS. INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER = = = LESSON I. WINTER RATIONS FOR LAYING STOCK - LESSON IT. Tu ‘‘ Hows” anp “ WHYS” OF FEEDING LAYING STOCK IN WINTER LESSON III. GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND RULES FOR POULTRY BREEDERS - LESSON IY. PUTTING PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING INTO PRACTICH - LESSON VY. HATCHING CHICKS WITH HENS - - = LESSON VI. REARING CHICKS WiTH HENS - = am LESSON VII. Tar Carn or CHICKS PROM WEANING TO MATURITY - LESSON VIII. POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION - LESSON IX. Two PLAIN CHEAP POULTRY HOUSES OF SIMPLE CONSTRUCTION ~ LESSON X. FrvE Goop SMALL POULTRY HOUSES é # 14 18 24 cz Ro 66 17 {ve CONTENTS. LESSON XI. SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS - - - LESSON XII. ’ CONTINUOUS POULTRY HouUsts.—CONTINUOUS Vs. SEPARATE HOUSES LESSON XIII. INCUBATOR ROOMS AND BROODER HOUSES - LESSON XIV. SIMPLE VS. SO-CALLED SCIENTIFIC POULTRY FEEDING - LESSON XV. POULTRY HOUSE FIXTURES - - - - LESSON XVI. POULTRY FENCES AND YaRDS - = LESSON XVII. GETTING READY FOR WINTER - - - LESSON XVIII. EXHIBITING FowLs - - “ LESSON XIX. THE FATTENING OF POULTRY - - - ~ = LESSON XA. SELLING MARKET POULTRY AND EGGs = - LESSON XNXI. SELLING EXHIBITION STOCK AND EGcas rok HATCHING - INDEX - “= - a a = ot 93 106 112 120 129 133 139 149 154 161 166 * First Lessons « Poultry Keeping FIRST YEAR COURSE.* Introductory. through the year should consider carefully a few propositions about poultry keeping. These may not be in accordance with some ideas about it which he has absorbéd, he knows not where; but if he is to get much benefit from these lessons he must accept them, at least provisionally, and pursue his study and carry on bis work on the assumption that they are correct. The first of these propositions is this: (1). Poultry keeping is a simple occupation in that it requires no great knowledge or ability. Among successful poultry keepers we find men and women of practically all grades of intel- ligence and all degrees of general capability. Why then are there so many failures in poultry keeping? The answer to this question is suggested in our second and third propositions. (2). Poultry keeping is an occupation involving a variety of simple operations. * (8). Successful poultry keeping depends upon the regular, fatthful, and general accu- rate performance of many small tasks. People fail in poultry keeping because they take bard and laborious ways of doing things that may be done easily ; or because they entirely omit some necessary though simple feature of the work; or because they are irregular and spasmodic in carrying out a routine which theoretically is all that it should be. Nine out of ten who have read this far will be ready to say :— ‘“ Why, that fs all very easy; anyone can do that from the start.” It is right there that nine out of tengo wrong. An occupation involving many simple opera- tions becomes complex if one and the same person has to carry on many of these operations simultaneously; and that is just the condition we have in poultry keeping. After one has learned these simple things and practiced them until the doing of them becomes almost mechanical, they come easy, but they have to be learned one by one, and time is required to become proficient in them through practice. Bee taking up the regular work of this course every reader who intends to follow it *These Lessons first appeared in serial form in FARM-POULTRY, 1905, in a course designed to run through several years, and are issued in pamphlet form for those who desire 1o preserve them in more compact form than iu files of the paper: and for later subscribers to the paper who desire to do the first year’s work either before or with the later course. 6 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. In this course of Jessons we are going to take up the many different things that have to be considered as nearly as possible at the time when the poultry keeper has to think most about “them in bis work with poultry ; and in this first year’s work we are going to discuss them only as far as is necessary to make it plain what ought to be done—what general practice, or the best practice, indicates as best to be done. The reader who will be content to let each lesson pass after be has got that much out of it will, I think, be the one who will get most actual value out of tbe lessons for the year. Remember that these lessons are but one part of the course; the other part is the work each one is doing in his poultry yard. The purpose of this course is to supplement practical work, to help each one to form his plans and apply his energies for practical results, and to give him a better insight Into the teachings of his own experience. As we proceed there will be propositions laid down and rules given that a good many will at the time think extreme, but the great majority of beginers will find it to their advantage to accept these propositions and conform to tbe rules, for they will be based on what the experi- ence of many beginners has shown js safe for the average beginner. I know that there are few beginners who do not think they are going to be the exceptions, but the beginner makes a mistake when he assumes that. The better way is to take it for granted at the start that at the best one is likely to get only average results, and to stick to con- ditions that are safe, and to methods that make the work as easy as possible. Here are three more things to think about: The thing of prime importance is to make a success, however small, by some method, however simple. A small success by safe methods is better,as far as learning from tt goes, than strik- ingly good results by unsafe methods. One can build safely on such a small success, while the longer he plans on the unsafe basis the more likely he ts to fail beyond his power to redeem the situation. Almost all readers will accept these as abstract propositions, but what I want of those who follow these lessons is that one and all keep their poultry keeping on a safe basis, and take only the unavoidable risks. If they will do that they will avoid many (I hope most) of the small losses that discourage the beginner. All should go slow in fact, as we will go in these lessons, on paper. Remember we have plenty of time. This is not to be a ten lesson course, or a one year course. The first year course is only the beginning. We expect to take three full years to complete the course, digesting and assimilating facts, principles, and rules as we go. There may be people who can learn faster than that, but a course of instruction should proceed at a pace adapted to the average, or, better, the slow student. Then the brighter and quicker ones can put their superiority to good use by doing better and more thorough work. You know the common fault of smartness is that it goes too fast for its possessor as well as too fast for others. In these lessons we want » pace all can hold, and that wil] hold all to their work. Sed I don’t want to discourage anyone from reading as much about poultry and poultry culture as his interest in the subject may tempt him to read, and his time allow; but I urge every student in this course to make a thorough mastery of the particular facts presented in the current lesson, his first object throughout the year, and let all other poultry interests be secondary. ; It will take but a little time — only a very few minutes a day — to learn the lessons in the paper. It will take hours of thinking and trying every day to put them into practice, and it is practice that makes perfect. The student can learn his lesson by rote in a very short time, but applying it in profitable practice is a very different matter. It is experience and experiment in the poultry yard day by day that gives him a real understanding of what he learns or reads. One can learn theoretically as much faster than he can acquire judgment and skill practically, as one cun think faster than he can put his thoughts in good language. Keep this in mind, Reading increases one’s information very rapidly, but thinking and working the same things over and over, make one thorough and skillful. In this is the true science of poultry keeping. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. q LESSON I. Winter Rations For Laying Stock. N this lesson we consider methods of winter feeding of fowls kept for laying purposes. I Let the reader note first, that the food while an important factor, is but one of several factors in egg production: hence it is possible for bens that are properly fed on a suitable ration to fail to produce eggs, or to give a very unsatisfactory yield. Other matters affect- ing the egg yield will be considered, each in its proper place. In this lesson we confine our- selves to the treatment (1) of the properties of the principal staple articles of poultry food gen- erally available at this season; (2) of the methods of feeding; (3) of a few good specific rations. Principal Poultry Foods and Food Accessories. The articles included under this heading may be grouped into seven classes, as follows: I. Whole Grains.—Corn, wheat, barley, oats, and millet. HW. Cracked Grain and Mixtures.— Cracked corn and the prepared “ scratching feeds.’? Ill. Ground Grains.— Corn meal, corn chop, ground oats, wheat bran, wheat middlings, “mixed chop” (corn aud oats ground together), ‘‘ provender,” (a mixture of ground corn, outs, and bran), and the various brands of mixed ground feeds. IV. Green and Vegetable Foods.— Cabbage, cut clover or clover meal, cut alfalfa or alfalfa meal, and the common root vegetables. V. Meat Foods.—Green cut bone, beef, pork and mutton scraps, meat meals, and animal ; meals so-called. VI. Food Accessories.—Shell, grit, charcoal, and condiments. VIL. Drinks.—Water and milk. % Considering these classes separately :— I. Whole Grains. Whole corn is to be fed very sparingly because the grains are so large that fowls fed it freely and often get too much of their ration without exercise. Wheat and barley may be fed very freely. Oats and millet are generally used in small quantities, as light midday meals. Ordinary lots of both contain so much unfilled grain that there is little advantage in using them. Il. Cracked Grains and Mixtures. Cracked corn may be fed in winter as freely as wheat and barley.. At usual prices it is the most economical grain food, and should be the major part of the grain ration in winter, ; The various brands of mixed grains are composed generally of cracked corn, smal] and broken wheat, barley, oats, buckwheat, millet, etc. The economy and advantage of using them depend upon ease or difficulty of getting the needful variety of unmixed grains of local dealers, and upon whether the keeper gives the necessary attention to variety when buying his grains separately. € 8 Tit. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. Ground Grains. The corn products, corn meal and corn chop, are the most important of these, and one or the other is almost universally used as the basis of the mash. Corn chop being coarser is preferable for stock food, but in many places only meal can be obtained. Mixed chop is a valuable food article, as also is coarsely ground oats, often purchased separately and used with corn meal and other stuffs in the mash. The by products of wheat flour, bran and shorts or midd‘ings are valuable and almost essential articles in making mashes. There is an unfortunate confusion in the use of the names of these stuffs, the term shorts, which is properly another name for middlings, is in many localities applied to bran, while the shorts are known as “white middlings’ or *‘red dog,” (sometimes red dog flour) according to color. White flour of quality unfit for household use is often used in mashes, and when obtuinable at about the same price is to die preferred to middling». A number of mixtures of ground feed stuffs are on the market, and many users of them report good results; but it is better for the beginner who wants to learn his business to learn to mix stuffs before buying mixtures, then if a mixture needs to be altered to suit bis purpose or the rest of bis ration he will soon discover tbat fact, Green and Vegetable Foods. The best of these, all things considered, is cabbage, but it cannot always be obtained ata satisfactory price. Indeed unless a poultryman has laid in a supply in the fall be is very uncertain of getting it. Then cut clover and alfalfa,and clover and alfalfa meal make excellent green foods, and can generally be obtained at reasonable prices. Potatoes, turnips, beets, carrots, onions, apples, etc., are useful when on hand or procurable at low prices, V. Meat Foods. While it is difficult to estimate relative values of meat foods exactly, and the quality of articles of the same name or brand is not always the same, green cut bone is generally considered the best of the meat foods, and would probably be used in preference to any and all othersif it could be obtained in ample supply at a price which would not too much increase the cost of the ration. Most poultry keepers use more or less of the prepared meat scraps, meals, etc. There are many brands of these, and they are of widely different feeding value. Food Accessories. Shell seems to be indispensable for laying stock. Ground oyster shell is most commonly used. : Grit is generally given with shell, both being kept before the fowls, but while con- siderable quantities of it are often consumed, it does not seem to be absolutely essential to fowls supplied with shell. Charcoal used as a corrective and blood purifier is kept before the fowls in granulated form by most poultrymen. Of coudiments, egg powders and foods, there are many, and they are very generally used by novices, and in a great many cases seem to contribute enough to results to justify their use. Their virtue is in tonic and stimulating properties. They help correct the novice’s faults in feeding. Drinks. Fow]s should be liberally supplied with good water. So large a proportion of their diet consists of concentrated foods that-an abundance of liquid is necessary to keep the digest- ive organs working freely. Milk — sweet, sour, or clabber — may be given them as a drink, or mixed in the mash; but as a drink, milk is but a partial substitute for water, which should always be supplied. The Food Supplies for a Flock. For economy, and a simple system of feeding, the poultryman should use as few articles as as consistent with an attractive variety In the ration, For bis mash he needs corn chop or meal, bran and middlings, or flour, Then if he supplies his hens with green food and meat food, us FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 9 he should, one grain will do, and if only one grain is used, cracked corn is to be preferred both for its feeding value at this season, and on the score of economy. If wheat or barley can be had at little more than the price of corn, one adds to his variety without materially increasing the cost of feeding, by using one or both, either with the cracked corn in a mixture or separately as one meal, preferably the noon meal. For green food he should have either cabbage or cut bay, (clover or alfalfa), and consider one of these necessary. Such other vegetables as he can get at a right price should be used in addition. For meat food, one article is enough if it can be had in constant supply, but because of the general variableness of supply of green bone, and the frequent occasions when it is incon- venient to prepare it, it is good policy to keep a supply of beef scrap or meat meal on hand for such emergencies. Then of the accessories, shell is necessary, absolutely. The consensus of opinion among poultry keepers is thatit is best to have grit and cbarcoal also constantly before the fowls. Tosum up. The necessaries of life, when a mash is used, are corn chop or meal, bran, middlings, cracked corn, cabbage, or bay, (clover or alfalfa), one article of meut food, shell, grit, charcoal, and water. ‘To these may be added such other articles as are available for economical use. Methods of Feeding. Methods of feeding poultry may be classified as follows: (1)- The Mash System, in which a wet, scalded, or cooked mash is fed once each day, grain being given once or twice. The mash may be given: (a) In the morning — the common way. (>) Inthe evening — as an important minority prefer. (c) Atnoon — the practice of a very few. There is no evidence that the time of feeding mash makes any difference to the hens. It is a matter of the convenience of the keeper. (2). Dry Feed Systems. (a) Dry mash, (ingredients same as in a wet niush), and grains. (o>) Alldry grains. Dry feeding is used by many regularly where it is inconvenient to make and feed a wet mash, or when results from the use of mashes have been bad or unsatisfactory, as they often are when badly prepared, or ill balanced mashes ure used, or when something in the rest of the ration does not work well with a mash. It might be used by many more occasionally to good advantage; as on an extremely cold day when « wet mash would freeze as soon as put down, or for a flock with mild chronie diarrhea. The limits and scope of this lesson do not admit of a full discussion of feeding systems in the course of which it is necessary to consider the relations of the method of feeding to each and allof the many points affecting the welfare and productiveness of fowls, but the following condensed statement of the subject may aid the reader to decide what method will best suit him and bis circumstances: Advantages of the [lash. The use of a mash serves these important purposes: (1).— Asis indicated by the list of ground grains given, and as will appear more fully when recipes for mashes are given, the mash contains a variety of ingredients, and the propor- tions of these can be varied greatly, and the consistency of the mash also varied some- what, thus making it possible to give considerable variety to the ration, as a whole, while using but one or two grains for the other meals. (2).— The mash being fed in troughs the feeder can gauge the quantities of it, and also of the other grains fed by the appetite the fow]s show for the mash more accurately than in any other way. . (8).— Through the mash the bulk of the ration may be increased, and the concentrated feed stuffs used diluted, (with hay and bran), and so rich foods used safely iu larger quantities tban if taken into the system undiluted. 10 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. (4).— Small potatoes and other waste vegetable most generally available for poultry food can best be fed in a mash. Common Errors to be Avoided in Mash Feeding. Whatever may be the advantages of a method properly applied, faulty application of it always involves possibilities of trouble which may lecome serious. In mash feeding these are: (1).— Too concentrated mashes; that is, mashes containing too large a proportion of the riche-t food elements, as meals and meat preparations. (2).— Too light and bulky mashes, that is, mashes composed mostly of hay and bran, which fill the crop without supplying sufficient nutriment. (3).— Too wet and sloppy mashes; and sour or moldy mashes. (4).— Feeding mashes too often, Experience has shown that more than one mash a day to adult fowls almost invariably and quickly produces indigestion. Advantages of Dry Feeding. In estimating the advantages of dry feeding, we have to consider some of them as, in a degree, apparent and theoretical rather than as actual, for it becomes clear, as the case is fully stated, that what seems a saving of time or Jubor is sometimes merely a sbifting of labor from one place to anether. We have then as the nominal advantages of dry feeding: (1). The saving of labor in making mashes. (2). Avoidance of the dangers of improperly prepared mashes. (3). Allows more variation in the time of feeding the meal, which takes the place of the wet mush, and so gives the keeper more freedom. Errors to be Avoided in Dry Feeding. The wet, or moist, mash fed daily, provides daily one feed which is practically a succulent food, and if properly prepared is a bulky food. In dry feeding :—If all hard grains ure fed, the fowls get no extra bulk in them, and of course no succulence:— If a dry mash is fed they get some increase of bulk without succulence. Hence it is apparent that in dry feeding unusual provision must be made for bulky and succulent food — especially green food. Taking this as the principal fault of the system, we have: : (1). Failure to supply sufficient succulent food. (2). Waste of food when ground grains are kept before the fowls in open dishes or hoppers. Which System ? The writer has no hesitation in stating his preference for the mash system as in his experi- ence and opinion the better system for most poultry keepers. He would therefore advise beginuers to use that system unless such greater convenience as dry feeding gives fitted into their days’ routine better. : As a matter of fact the two systems are nearly identical for all but one meal a day, and reduced to the last analysis the difference between them may be broadly stated thus :— The use of a good wet or moist mash containing a variety of ingredients, makes it necessary to give more time and care to the preparation of this one meal, but in it provision is made for requirements of the fowl which when only dry feeds are given must revularly be specially provided for. The omission of a mash, or substitution of a mixture of ground grains dry, makes an economy with reference to the feeding of one meal each day, but makes it imper- ative that vegetable foods in abundance should be provided at other times. As the careful reader will doubtless have observed, the two systems supply the requirements of the fowls in different ways. Hach is in effect an offset for the faults of the other. The prac- tice of the most skillful feeders is in etlect ajudicious blending of the systems. Some of the most enthusiastic advocates of dry feeding push it, not as the best method, but as easier and safer for the beginner. As there is nothing about poultry feeding too deep or too bard for any- one of ordinary intelligence who gives the subject of feeding a little careful attention and notes the effects of his feeding on his fowls, the better policy would seem to be to learn to properly apply tbe mash system — unless, as previously stated — circumstances make it too inconvenient to work by that method. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 11 A Few Good Sample Rations. Having learned something of common food stuffs and their properties, we are ready to begin to feed fowls intelligently; that is, with some appreciation of the reasons for doing things in the way we do them. The reader should keep it clearly in mind all the time that while there are many possible rations that will give good results, there are also many combinations possible tbat will not give good results, andthe way for the beginner to avoid a bad combination is to follow some one approved method, not attempting, as many do, to improve on the experts by combining features of different rations that have given good results. The sample rations given will cover all ordinary conditions, and the reader working by these lessons is advised to select that which suits him best, and follow it as closely as be can, departing from it only when he is absolutely sure that the change he makes cannot affect his results for the worse. Let us take up first a few.rations including a mash. As has been stated, it makes no differ- ence to the fowls when the mash is fed. The feeder may time it to suit his convenience. The time of feeding the mash may, however, make a difference in the other meals. Taking for our first illustration one of the most common rations in use, we have :— Ration I. Morning.—Mash of corn meal, bran, and beef scrap. Noon.—Wheat, barley, oats, or millet. Evening.—Cracked corn. Cabbage supplied practically all the time. Grit and shell always before the fow|ls. In this ration the morning and evening feeds are ‘‘ full feeds; ” that is, the fowls are given all they will eat. The noon feed is a light feed, say half as much as the evening feed of grain. The grains are fed scattered in litter spread over the floor of the house, so that the fowls have to scratch for them. If now, one using the ingredients in this ration wished to feed the mash in the evening, he could simply transpose the morning and evening meals, making his system :— Ration Il. Morning.—Cracked corn. Noon.—Wheat, barley, oats, or millet. Evening.—Mash of corn meal, bran, and beef scrap. Cabbage, etc., as in Ration I. But if he wanted to feed the mash at noon it might be neeessary to make some changes. For instance,—in either. of the rations given above, millet or oats, both light feeds, and not eaten freely by fowls, can be used to good advantage at noon when, with full feeds morning and evening, only a light feed is needed. But if the mash is given at noon, and made a light feed, both the other feeds must be full feeds, and neither oats nor millet is suitable for regular use as a full feed. So the ration with a noon mash must be like this: Ration III. Morning.—Wheat or barley. Noon.—Mash of corn meal, bran, and beef scraps. Evening.— Cracked corn. Cabbage, etc., as in Ration I. In this ration (a) the morning und evening feeds of grain should be full feeds, and the mash. at noon a light feed or half feed, that is, about half wheat, the fowls will eat freely; or (b) all three feeds should be rather scant feeds. I would advise beginners not to use the noon mash unless for special and urgent reasons, for I think it is more difficult to keep fowls’ appetites steady when the mash is fed at noon. Instead of feeding one grain at a time, several grains may be mixed together, and the mix- ture fed once or twice a day. Suppose we make this change in each of the rations given, designating our substitutes by the same numbers with the letter A added. Then we have: Ration I. A. Morning.—Mash as in Ration I. Noon.—Mixture cracked corn and wheat, equal parts, (a half feed). Evening.—Cracked corn and wheat, equal parts, (a full feed). Cabbage, etc., as in Ration I. 12 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. Ration II. A. Morning.—Cracked corn and wheat, equal parts, (a full feed). Noor.—Cracked corn and wheat, equal parts, (a half feed). HLvening.—Mash as in Ration IT. Cabbage, etc., as in Ration I. Ration II. A. Morning.—Cracked corn and wheat, equal parts. Noon.—Mash as in Ration IIT. Evening.—Cracked corn and wheat, equal parts. Cabbage, ete., as in Ration I. Making a Mash. No.1. A Grain and Meat Mash.— # To make the mash used in the above ration, making it in small quantities, and by a method calling for nothing special in the way of utensils, proceed as follows: For as much mash as can be readily mixed in an ordinary 3 gallon pail (preferably a pail of heavy tin, galvanized iron or granite ware), take 2 quarts of corn meal in the pail. Have a kettle of boiling water ready. Pour the water slowly over the meal in the pail, as you pour stirring with a long handled iron spoon. Pour on water and stir until you havea stiff smooth mash. Now take the bran—about 3 quarts at first and stir it in, adding a little more if you find you can mix it. Perhaps it willtake « quart more, and if the water was boiling and the meal swelled right, your mash should now be astiff and rather brittle dough. Now putin the beef scraps or meat meal you wish to feed in the mash. The quantity you can use will depend on the character of the article, and also on the remainder of the ration and the constitution of the fowls, but in general fowls given all their meat food in the mash will take meat scraps or meal to the amount of about 8 or 10% of the dry bulk of the grain stuffs in the mash, That would be in this case, say about a pint of scraps. In many cases twice as much scrap may be given to ailvantage, but the above proportions are safe. Having put in the beef scrap, stir vntil it seems to be thoroughly mixed. The mash is now ready to feed. No. 2. A Vegetable Mash.— We will call this a vegetable mash because the addition of cooked vegetables is all that makes it different from mash No.1. Any waste vegetables or parings can go into it. Cook them In water until they are quite soft and will break up readily with the spoon when mixed with the other {ngredients. Fora pail full of mash take about 3 or 4 quarts of vegetables. When reidy to mix the mash, have the meul in the pail asin masb No. 1, and pour the boiling water from the vegetables on it and stir as before. Then stir in the vegetables, bran and meat scraps us before. No.3. A Clover or Alfalfa Mash.— In this cut clover or clover meal —or alfalfa or alfalfa meal — is used instead of vegetables. Two or three quarts of the cut dry hay may be used ina pail fullof mash, and when hay ts used the quantity of bran should be reduced until the meal and bran are about equal. The cut bay may be stirred into the mixture at almostany stage. It may be cooked for a few minutes in the water ina pot and the corn meal stirred into the water, or mixed in after the meal or after the bran or with the bran. A Dry Grain Ration. ; Ration IV. Morning and Evening.—Mixed grain as in ration ILI. A. Noon.— Cabbage. Beef scrap, etc., in hoppers accessible at all times. This ration could be varied by using one grain in the morning and another In the evening; or if fresh meat, raw or cooked, or cut bone was used, the noon feed might be alternately cabbage and meat, but the substantial meals of the day must be given morning aud evening. Dry Mash Rations. In these a mash made of the same grain ingredients in the same proportions as the mash in Rations I., II., and III., may be used. The meat may be mixed with the dry grains or FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 13 fed separately. If mixed with them we could substitute the dry for the wet mash In each of these rations. For conveneince and future reference we will repeat these rations here, making the substitution. We have then: Ration V. Morning. — Dry mash of corn meal, bran, and beef scrap. Noon.— Wheat, barley, oats or millet. Evening.—Cracked corn. Cabbage, grit, and shell always before the fowls. Ration VI. Morning.—Cracked corn. Noon.—Wheat, barley, oats, or millet. Evening. — Dry mash of corn meal, bran, and beef scraps. Cabbage, ete., as in Ration V. Ration VII. Morning.—Wheat or barley. Noon.—Mash of corn meal, bran, and beef scrap. Evening.—Cracked corn. Cabbage, etc., as in Ration V. Before bringing this lesson to a close, I will give one more ration, including dry feed fed in a hopper: Ration VIII. Morning and Evening. — Mixed grain, 1 part wheat, t part barley, 2 parts cracked corn. Ground mixture, equal parts corn and oats, one-half bran added, always before the fowls in hoppers. Cabbage, grit and shell always accessible. This last isaration for one who has little time to give his poultry. Its simple aim ig to insure that the fowls will have enough to eat and a fair variety in food. 14 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. LESSON II. The ‘“ Hows’”’ and ‘“‘Whys”’ of Feeding Laying Stock in Winter. relation to their effect on the composition of rations. In this lesson we are to take up another class of questions on feeding, and try to give readers a useful understanding of these three topics :— L: THE preceding lesson we discussed poultry food stuffs and the systems of feeding with How often to feed. How much to feed. The relation of exercise to diet. These turee matters blend inseparably in practice, and we can hardly exclude anyone of them from a discussion of another. Yet to appreciate them correctly one must separate them more in his mind than he can in his work. How Often to Feed. Perhaps many are thinking that as all but one of the rations given in Lesson I. provide for three meals a day, the question of how often to feed is almost superfluous. It might be so con- sidered if everyone wag so situated that be could give his bens three feeds, corresponding to his own three meals, a day, but a great many poultry keepers cannot do this, so want to know what other arrangement is practicable. For the sbort winter days two feeds a day would generally give as good results as three, but for one thing —the difficulty of keeping fowls in confinement interested in something, and out of mischief when there is too long an interval between feeds. Idle fowls contract vices of various kinds — such as feather and egg eating — besides gradually going out of condition from want of exercise. So whenever it is practicable to do so, it is advisable to give some sort of light feed in the middle of the day. If, however, it is not convenient to do this, the noon feed may be either omitted or fed in the morning. Thus, in Ration J., the mash may ‘te fed in the morning, and the grain forthe noon feed fed at the same time, scattered in litter, and the fowls have something to keep them occupied through the greater part of the day. When cabbage or mangels are kept before the fowls, these things help to keep them occupied. ‘So we may say that, provided some provision is made to give the fowls something to occupy their attention between regular meals, two meals will work as well in winter as three. Feeding Once a Day.— I have had occasional reports from poultry keepers who could give their fowls attention only once each day, some in the morning and some in the evening, . FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 15 and these sometimes are able to report good result», but, as a rule, those who get good winter egg yields look after the fowls oftener and regularly. One who has time to look after his fowls in the morning only may arrange this way :— Mash, to be eaten at once, followed by grain for the remainder of the day, thrown in litter, and eaten as the fowls work for it. One who has only the evening to attend his fowls by daylight may use this plan :— Grain, to give a full feed in the morning, and something left to scratch for until well into the afternoon, may be thrown into the litter on the floor, either after the fowls go to roost at night or before daylight in the morning. Then theevening mash muy be given just before dark. Obstacles to Poultry Keeping When One Cannot Watch the Fowls.—The principal difficulties in the way of poultry keeping when one can give so little attention to the fowls by daylight come in in connection with other matters than the feeding of grain and mashes. Proper ventilation of a closed house /s almost impossible when the poultry keeper is away all day, and it is a problem to keep water from freezing in a cold house. One who can attend to bis fowls at noon can replenish the water supply, but one who cannot must use some kind of “‘anti-freez- ing” fountain. On the whole I would not advise anyone to attempt much with poultry or encourage them to expect much from hens in winter unless the hens can have pretty good attention, for taking one flock and one year with another the winter egg yields are in proportion to the judicious atten- tion given the flock. Hence, if the poultry keeper cannot make provision for some member of bis family to attend to such wants of his fowls as be cannot look after, he must not think that failure to get results indicates something wrong with the fowls, the house, or the ration. How Much to Feed. This question seems to cause beginners more worry than any other connected with the subject of feeding. ‘They find it bard to understand why fowls cannot be fed exactly by weight or measure. An explanation of this wouid require a much more exhaustive treatment of the subs ject than is appropriate in an elementary lesson; and the student must accept the fact and wait for experience and later Jessons to furnish the explanation of it. An experienced feeder can -tell a novice approximately how much to feed to average or medium sized hens. How Much Mash.—Mashes vary so much in composition and consistency that the best rule that can be given is:—all they will eat up clean and quickly, that is in, say, fifteen or twenty minutes. Some poultrymen leave mash before the fowls for several hours, or even give so much that they will not eat the last of it until noon, but it is better to give only what they will eat quickly and let them have grain, cabbage or roots to supplement it through the day than to give so much mash. If fowls do not eat mash readily and freely, it is either because the mash is not palatable, or because the previous feed was too heavy, or the interval between the meals not long enough. Generally, a dozen fow]s will eat about three pints of the No.1 mash, (Lesson I.) and a third to a half more of No. 2 or No. 3 mash. How Much Grain.—When grain is fed where the fowls can get it quickly, and with little etfurt,a pint is a fair allowance for eight or ten fowls. When it is fed in deep litter more than a full allowance must be in the Jitter if the fowls are to get their full feed within « reason- able time. In that case give about a quart to a dozen fowls. Thus iu using Ration I. (Lesson J.) give at the rate of a quart of cracked corn to the dozen fowls, giving the corn iu litter at least an hour before sundown. Then the fowls can get a full feed before dark, while what is left in the litter furnishes them something to work for in the morning, both before and after the mash is fed; while in Ration No. 1V., a quart of grain given in the morning furnishes a good meal within an bour or so, and leaves something for the fowls to scratch for until the evening meal is given. 16 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. How Much Meat and Bone.— If sound sweet food of this class is fed regularly and often it is generally safe to give the fowls ull they will eat, if the meat food is fed separately. Fresh meat may be used very freely in the mash, but the dried concentrated meat products must be used with some caution. (See “ Making a Mash,” in Lesson I.) How Much Vegetable Food.— In winter it is practically impossible to feed too much vegetable food to fowls well fed on grain, because the appetite does not demand it, and they will eat green stuffs in much more limited quantities than in hot weather when heavy grain rations required to make eggs aud growth are so heating that the fowls by choice fill up on green food which keeps them more comfortable, but does not always accomplish the results the poultryman is trying to get. Good Feeding Means Heavy Feeding. The longer I practice and study poultry feeding, and the more I see of the results of the feed- ing of others, the more I am convinced that the best feeding is not the most carefully adjusted rution, but the ration and the method that provides the fowls a little more than enough under conditions which require them to work for enough of what they get to give them the exercise they need to keep them in good condition. A fowl] can let a surplus alone, but has no way of making up a shortage—at least none that is satisfactory to the owner. As between feeding short and overfeeding, I have seen good egg yields come oftener from the latter, especially with young stock; but there is little danger of bad effects from overfeeding if fowls have to take exercise by scratching for several hours a day. Points to Consider in Determining Quantity in Feeding. In deciding how much to feed, the poultryman has in the fow] itself three guides, three things that should furnish indications whether he is feeding right. These in the order in which it is most natural to use them are:—(1) appetite, (2) results, (3) condition. Appetite.—The fowls should be ready and eager for each feed, even the light noon feed. If they are not there should be either a change of time of feeding or a reduction of the quantity given at the preceding feed. Frequently, poultrymen who feed the mash very early in the morning find that the hens do not seem to care for it ut that time, though an hour, oreven a half hour later, they will eat it readily. Ifthe mash must be fed early, the night feed should be reduced until they will eat the mash, but it will generally work better to give the full feed of grain at night, and delay feeding the mash until the sun is well up. Results and Condition.—If hens are laying well, the presumption is that the feeding is about right. In that case the point to watch is to see that the hens have food enough to keep them in good condition while laying. A hen tbat isin laying condition can hardly be overfed. If hens that presumably should be laying are not, the keeper should ascertain their condition by handling them. If not plump and solid they should be given more food, and richer food. If overfut they should be put on adiet of grain, and made to scratch for what they get until flesh is reduced. Egg production does not, however, depend entirely upon feeding, and the most tbat the poultryman can dois to keep his hens as nearly as possible in laying condition—that is, fat, but not so much so that the abdomen is packed with fat, and the ben either becomes sluggish or breaks down. Exercise and Feeding. Exercise by Scratching.—Throughout northerly latitudes the general provision for giving fowls exercise is by littering the floors of the houses with straw, hay, leaves, cut corn stalks, or any material in which the grain will bury itself, or with which it can be covered, so that the fowls must scratch for it. The proper use of litter calls for the same exercise of judgment as the adjustment of the meals or the determination of the proportions of the ingredients of the ration. Though errors both ways are numerous, the prevailing tendency is to use too much litter and compel too much exercise,—to make it so hard for the fowls to get feed that they FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEVING. 7 will work only for what is necessary to sustain life. One reason why some people get better results from evening mash is because the fow!s get a full feed before going to roost, when if fed in litter (as they use it) they cannot get a good meal, or canuot get it in the time allowed them. Generally speaking, the depth of any loose and easily worked litter should uot be less tham three or four, and not more than six inches. Exercise by Jumping.— A practice handed down since before the days when scratching litter was generally provided, is to hang a cabbage or fasten a root of beet or a piece of meat just out of reach of the fowls so that to get at it they must jump for every moutbful. I think this form of exercise of questionable value. A heavy hen carrying a lot of partly developed eggs is likely to be averse to taking exercise that way, or, if she does try it, to hurt herself, and it appears that sometimes jumping for exercise is responsible for the previlence in a flock of corns and bumble foot, particularly when that is the only exercise provided, and the floors are nots littered. Exercise for Occupation. So far we have considered exercise, especially with reference to its effects on the condition of the fowl, and as a check to rapid feeding. It serves another purpose which indirectly has quite an important relation to the matter of feeding as well as to production. The fow] with something to do keeps busy much of the time and is contented. With moderate exercise fowls probably more completely digest aud assimilate their food, and are productive and keep in good condition on less food either than when not taking any exercise or when taking too much exercise. Contentment aids digestion and economizes food. But we need not depend solely upon exercise dependent upon eating. Fowls given the opportunity to do so will take vigorous exercise dusting themselves. In fact, when the sun shines in on the earth floor they will work and wallow there by the hour, and this exercise does them just as much good as scratching. So occasionally on bright days rake the litter clean from a space on the floor where the sun shines, and give the fowls a chance to put variety into their exercise. 18 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. LESSON III. General Principles and Rules for Poultry Breeders. The terms poultry keeper, poutryman, pouliry raiser, poultry grower, and poultry breeder, are commonly used as synonymous, but with the exception of poultry raiser and poultry grower, they are not wholly so. Poultry keeper applies to anyove who keeps poultry, without regard to experience, skill, or success. Poultryman applies to a poultry keeper considered as in some degree an expert. Poultry vaiser and poultry grower apply to persons merely hatching and rearing poultry. Poultry breeder applies to those who regulate the reproduction of poultry. ‘One person may combine all these functions, but the number who do actually combine them iis very much less than the whole number of poultry keepers, | ET us first understand clearly that a poultry keeper is not necessarily a poultry breeder. T have been thus explicit in defining these terms because the first step toward right apprecia- tion of what poultry breeding demands is correct understanding of what poultry breeding means. Tbe breeder of a fowlis the person responsible for the mating of its parents. The mutter of first and greatest importance in the breeding of poultry is that the breeder should know something of the natural laws affecting his work, should understand in a general way the principles upon which breeding systems, methods and rules are based; should know the char- acteristies and tendencies of the breed, variety, stock and individuals with which he works, and should apply his knowledge with judgment, faithfully and persistently. This list of qualifications for poultry breeding may have a formidable look, but let no beginner be therefore discouraged. One need not be all this at the beginning. Indeed the Jist of qual- ifications presents an ideal rather than the complement of knowledge and experience which even the most skillful breeder brings to his work. Besides, these qualifications only come and grow by experience and use. No man ever had or can have a respectable practical knowledge of what a breeder must know without experience in breeding. Still a beginner need not feel disvouraged by a realization of how much he falls short of the knowledge und skill of the expert tireeder. As the saying goex, “What man has done man can do,” and a few years of study, observation, and experiment in breeding poultry often make a man a very good breeder. Two General Facts of First Importance. The first broad fact to he considered in connection with the breeding of poultry is:— That our varieties of poultry are all bred to artificial standards, to arbitrary, and often unnatural, requirements; that specimens perfect according to any such standard are virtually unknown; tbat in all varieties there are wide variations in individuals; that only a small proportion of an average good flock are of special excellence; and that a considerable number are not suited fur breeding specimens of their own kind true to type. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 19 This group of facts, which is given above as one general fact, 1s self-evident to the breeder of several years experience,.but is so at variance with the common ideas of persons oot familiar with the history and methods of the improvement of domestic animals and plants, that it needs to be specially emphasized here. The idea prevails that breeds. varieties, strains and stocks of fowls are fixed, established so well that a poultryman who wishes to use a certain kind of stock bas only to get that kind of stock and all will be plain sailing. Tbat thisis not the case the novice discovers very early in his work, but too often fails to realize what his discovery means. He frequently blames the breeder of the stock he begins with or the stock itself for unsatisfactory results, tries other stock with similar results, and perhaps repeats the process severa, times before he disvovers our second important general fact, which is:— That any grade of excellence attained in the breeding of poultry can only be main- tained or excelled by continuing the same careful selection by which such excellence was developed. A beginner cannot expect or be expected to do work that will rival that of the experienced breeder in the production of fine fow]s, but he may easily produce fowls that if not of high excellence in the special features of their kind are stil: good fowls, and using the experience and results of expert breeders and relying upon their advice, be may produce fowls of very good breed or variety type. The First Principle. The foundation principle in all breeding to ty pe or standard is, ‘Like begets like.” This does not mean that all fowls of one breed or variety are exact duplicates. What it means is, that the qualities and characteristics of each individual fowl are derived from its ancestors and chiefly from its immediate ancestors. This is one of those statements which at first may seem so self-evident as to make insistence upon it, or emphasis of the fact it declares absurd. To most beginners it seems like an insult to their intelligence to ask them to give the matter special consideration. But the beginner, no matter how clearly he may see the logic of the statement, cannot understand its real significance until he begins to study fowls for the purpose of mating them to produce wbat he wants in their progeny. Then he finds that with breed resemblances go variety differences, with variety resemblances go strain or family differences, with strain or family resemblances go individual differences. These individual differences are of varying character und value, and mark tbe fowl] as an ordinary or a superior or an inferior specimen; or as ordinary, superior or inferior in a par- ticular character or characters. A fowl] that is in all points ideal is so rarely produced that practically we do not have to con- sider the production of a union of two ideal spec’mens. What we have to do is to consider how to get fowls as nearly as possible of the type which is our ideal from fowls which while ip a general way of that trpe depart from itin some particulars. In practice the mating of fowls finally becomes a carefully studied system of balancing desir- able and undesirable characters, of offsetting lack of development in a certain feature in one fowl] by a full, or perhaps an exaggerated development of that feature in its mate or mates of the opposite sex, of securing certain points as a result of the union of fowls in which these points difter. All our established breeds and varieties of fowls have been made by breeders working in this way toward common ideals. Fowls tbat are not pure bred are for the most part results of breeding in which no intelligent selection was used, and asa rule will not trans- -mit their characteristics with uny such regularity and uniformity as is found even in ordinary thoroughbred stock. Because of this it ix much better for a beginner in breeding pouliry to begin breeding thoroughbreds than to waste his time with crosses or mongrels. For though the laws of breeding are always the same, the results of these laws in crosses and mixtures are often so confused that the breeder makes no progress either in the development of bis stock or in knowledge of the subject. Selection of Breeding Stock. The first step in breeding upon the principle that like produces like, is the selection of indf- vidual specimens considered most suitable for the production of offspring of the desired type and quality. Selection should be based on the following points: 20 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 1. Constitutional Vigor and Physical Perfection.—Only healthy, vigorous specimens should be used for breeding purposes. No deformed or seriously malformed specimen should be used for breeding. There are some minor malformations not in any way affecting the health, vigor or practical usefulness of the fowl which should be treated as defects to be offset in the mate; but such things as crooked backs, crooked breasts, crooked legs, twisted wings, wry tails (that is, tails carried to one side) and squirrel tails (that is, tails carried too high and inclining toward the head) should be rigidly excluded from the breeding pen.* There are some less serious malformations, perhaps more accurately described as lack of development, but as they are somewhat common in all varieties we will mention them here: Narrow and shallow bodies, pinched tails, and conspicuous lack of breast development, make a fow] unsymmetrival, detract something from its economic value as well as from its appear- ance, and often indicate lack of development of some of the internal organs. The breeder who carefully avoids using specimens having such faults rarely has cause to regret the loss of the use of birds attractive in other particulars which this severe selection rules out. Breeding from Fowls that Have Been Sick.— This is a question which properly comes under the head of constitutional vigor. A fowl that has been very sick, though appar- ently completely recovered before the breeding season, should not be used to breed-from, or if such a fowl] is of such excellence that it is desirable to get stock from it if possible, it may be used, but the breeder should not rely on it for the stock he needs. The chicks from such parents are apt to lack constitutional stamina, and frequently are weak in the parts affected by the disease the parent had. 2. Breed Shape.—This is where the breeder’s appreciation of the differences in shapes of fowls should begin. A fowl may be a well proportioned fowl], and not essentially lacking in physical developmentin any section, and yet not be at all of the shape considered typical for its breed. The breeder of thoroughbred stock should learn what is the ideal shape in his breed, and follow it as closely as possible in selecting for lis matings. 8. Color of Plumage.—While it is almost universally conceded as theoretically right to place shape before color, in practice more fanciers give color the precedence, because color counts for more in the show room. This actual precedence given color, however, is detrl- mental to the practical qualities of some of tbe varieties, and, in general, destructive of dis- tinctions in breed shape. Fanciers who compete with others in exhibitions where color is more important in awards, and prizes. depend on extreme development of certain color cbaracteristics, may find their success a justification of the use of breeding fowls of fine color but not at all of breed shape; hut those who breed for practical qualities first, or for ordinary excellence in fancy points, will always find results, on the whole, more satisfactory if they give due precedence to breed shape in selecting their breeding stock. 4. Comb and Head Appurtenances.— The matter of selection with reference to these is, of course, selection for quality, as a bird not having these features of the kind characteristic of its breed or variety, would never be considered at all. These features are practically of little, if any, importance, but, in breeding exhibition stock, some of them are of very great importance. They will be specially considered in connection with statements about mating in the next lesson. 5. Color of Beak and Legs.—This is a point to which novices in general vive undue importance, often selecting or rejecting on this more than all other points. Except as it may indicate healthy condition, color in these points has no absolute value; but considered as giving « finishing touch to a fowl, or as conforming with a market demand, it assumes some importance. *Some breeders would consider this rule too strict, especially with regard to defects which are either not dis- qualifications according to the Standard, or the rules regarding (hem not rigidly enforced, While L admit exceptional cases where for the sake of other special merit a fowl with one of these faults might be bred from I think it very evident that the general tendency is to he too lenient with sueh faults when selecting bresaiie stock, and that to (his carelessness much of the weakness and lack of general altractiveness in some pure bred stock Isduc, The cases where the use of malformed specimens is Justified by results are so few, and the cases where general results condemn thelr use so numerous, that if seems to me the net result, would be much better if no exceptions to the rule were allowed, FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 21 These five points cover the things to be considered in selecting breeding birds on appear- ance. I think it is as well not to go beyond that in this year’s lessons. Novices’ Errors in Selection. The first serious mistake made by most novices in selecting breeding stock ia to consider some particular feature, often a superficial one, as indicating purity of blood, and select with reference to excellence in that feature. With selection on this basis, goes rejection of speci- mens deficient in this feature. The result is the use for breeding of fowls which, for other considerations, ought to be rejected, and the rejection fur a minor fault in one place of really valuable breeding fowls. The breeder must consider bis matings first with reference to the more important points, then with reference to the others, and must carefully estimate the total breeding value of a fow] when the importance is given each point under consideration. In general, this method of selection gives one breeding fowls of good all round excellence rather than birds of phenomenal excellence in one particular point, and it is the all round good bird that experienced breeders find most reliable in the reproduction of its kind. Mating. The breeder having selected from his flock such specimens as seem to combine a pleasing quality in desirable characteristics with not too marked possession of undesirable features, finds his task by no means completed. Instead, he is only now ready to begin the balancing of char- acteristics meutioned in the first part of the lesson as distinctively the breeder’s work. The specimens which he bas selected are not all alike. Perhaps his selection has resulted in setting aside as possible breeders some specimens with very strong individual differences. It may be that his birds, if all bred alike, have some objectionable feature in common, or alike fail to show a pleasing excellence in a section of considerable importance. Standard Matings. Supposing the breeder has males and females of fair merit and nowhere notably deficient: if he is to make but a single mating it should be of the male he considers his best, with as many of the females as he considers suitable to mate with his male as the male is likely to be able to serve efliviently. This is what is called a “standard mating,” that is, a mating of specimens of opposite sexes conforming most closely to the standard requirements for their variety. Compensation Matings. After making his Standard mating or matings a breeder may have left birds which may make very valuable breeders if properly mated, but if not suitably mated will have no special breed- ing value. These are, as arule, specimeny deficient only in one or a few minor points. Such specimens in fact as the breeder hus whose stock is in some particular deficient. If one happens to have fow]!s of the opposite sex strong in the feature in which these fowls are weak, and in other respects not unsuitable to mate with them, he may make such compen- sation matings; or if be can buy breeding birds likely to offset these defects in the progeny, it is well to do so, if he has room to give to chicks from experimental matings of this kind, but it is poor policy to make a number of matings of different types of stock with the expectation of having radical defects on one side offset by special excellence on the other. The reasons for this cannot be given in the limits of a lesson like this, but the breeder who tries making many matings in expectation of getting something from all his stock will shortly realize, if (as he should) he keeps records of his matings, that taking one season with another he will produce more good stock from one mating of his best specimens than from ten times as many specimens mated up in a variety of compensation matings. While even a “Standard” mating introduces in a degree the compensation principle in the balancing of defects; with cloxe selection, this balancing is within comparatively narrow limits, and does not present the radical individual differences too often found when matings are in reality crosses of extreme types of the same variety. Such extreme matings are always experi- mental, and asarule are profitable only when the objectis to preserve in the stock special excellence appearing in an individual which also has faults which make it unwise to mingle the blood of this individual with that of the general stock, or make it dominant in it, before the special defects of the fow] have been to a considerable degree eliminated. 22 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. The field for the exercise of skill and good judgment is a very large one. There is prac- tically no limit to experimenting in making matings if one undertakes to discover all the possibilities a study of his fowls suggest, but the practical breeder soon Jearns to confine his production to what he can get from the matings which will probably give him good results, and the beginner may well pattern by him, and give little attention to possible resuJts of matings made merely to utilize birds for breeding purposes. The Double Mating System. The system of special matings or double matings, so called because exhibition types of the sexes are produced from different matings, is » system of matings for color, devised to produce color types required by the established standards, but rarely obtained in both sexes from the Same mating. It will be more fully explained in connection with descriptions of matings for varieties with which it is practiced. Where this system is generally used for any variety, the beginner will find it is to his advantage to follow it, regardless of whether he considers it wrong in principle. Should a Novice Make His Own Matings ? It will have occurred to many readers that it would be of material advantage to every novice to have the benefit of expert advice in muting his fowls. There can be no doubt that this is so, and that where the results of his matings has an important relation to the finances of his poultry keeping, the expense of securing the services of an expert for this work might well be considered a necessary expense, and the expert engaged, unless to do so would involve cost entirely out of proportion to the stock kept, in which event the breeder is wisest to do the best he can for himself. Miscellaneous Information. There are a number of general questions about matters relating to the breeding of poultry, which do not come under any of the topics we have considered. These we will take up here, ani treat as briefly as possible, and yet make the points involved clear. (1). The Age of Breeding Stock.— Under this heading we have a number of common questions which are given herewith, with reply following each. (a). At what age is u fowl fit for breeding? When full grown and well developed sexually. A cockerel will generally serve hens long before he fs full grown, and will fertilize eggs. A pullet will often lay before she attains her full growth. Such immature stock should not be bred. It will produce, but not often stock that in size and stamina will approach the offspring of better developed stock. (b). At what age does a fowl cease to be fit for breeding ? The age varies greatly. In general, the smaller breeds remain capable of breeding well longer than the larger ones. ‘Then the use of the same stock for laying and breeding purposes, and the custom of giving the males as many mates as possible tend to greatly shorten the period of usefulness of the fowls asbreeders. Many fowls are serviceabie breeders for only one season. Generally two seasons breeding is as much as can be relied upon. A few fowls breed well for much longer periods, but the fow] that is of value enough to the breeder to be used more than two seasons is the exception, (c). Should fowls of the same age be bred together, or isit better to mate old males with young females, and young males with old femules ? : It is a mistake to make too much of a point of the relative age of the sexes. If the young birds are well grown, fully developed, and in good condition, they wil: produce as good chicks as old birds. Itis really a question of condition rather than of age — or a question of ave only as age may have affected condition. Young stock of both sexes is much more reliable for fertil- ity early in the season. An old cock will sometimes not fertilize eges at all till toward spring, and old hens often give very unsatisfactory results in fertility, even though laying well, early in the season. The advantages sometimes found in mating old stock of one sex with young stock of the other, is that if the old is a little sluggish, the greater vigor of the young may Increase fertility, while if the young is not fully developed the effects of immaturity are to some extent overcome by the better development of the other sex. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 23 (2). Relative Proportion of Males and Females.— The breeder who follows the suggestions that have been given in regard to selection, will not . often find it necessary to ask the limit of the number of hens to be allowed to one male, because he will mostly find only a few hens like enough to be used in one mating. Where the rules -given are observed, where only such fowls as are suitable are mated together, matings are almost invariably small, and iu most cases there is no need of allowing the male more females. _ Tf occasionally a male is found which mated with a few females annoys them too much by excessive attentions, tone him down by allowing him to run for a day occasionally with a larger flock of hens not used for breeding, and not kept continuously with the male. Line Breeding and Inbreeding. These are topics to be treated at length at a more advanced stage in the course. For the present I would say of line breeding only that if one buys line bred stock be should follow as closely as possible the same line of breeding; and of inbreeding that if one selects his stock care- fully with reference to constitutional vigor and physical perfection, and avoids mating birds with the same, he need have no fear of immediate bad results from inbreeding, and may mate in absolute disregard of possible evil from mating birds of near kin. 24 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. LESSON IV. Putting Principles of Breeding Into Practice. in a general way. In this we are to consider more specifically the details to which at E last lesson stated some elementary principles of poultry breeding and discussed them those principles apply and the methods of their application. \u discussing the selection of breeding stock we found five points upon which selec- fiou should be based, namely: 1. Constitutional vigor and physical perfection. 2. Breed shape. 38. Color of plumage. 4. Comb and head appurtenances. 5. Beak and legs. The first of these points needs no further explanation at present. Discussion of it along the Hines followed for the other points would merely be a statement of the average relative vigor, hardiness, etc., of the different breeds, and on these points the differences that concern the breeder do not follow breed and variety divisions. On the other points there are a few things not mentioned in the last lesson to con- sider before special rules for mating are given. Breed Shape. The first thing for the novice in breeding to learn about the shape of the breed he is to work withis what is the typical shape for that breed. ‘To appreciate it correctly be must also know something about the types of form for other breeds, for our ideas of form in fowls are always relative. We find among fowls, even of the same breed and variety, great diversity of form, due Jargely to the general neglect to give shape due importance in mating and judging. Some of these forms are pleasing, some are not. A flew of them have been chosen as models for particular breeds, anid however disregarded in practice are still recognized as correct stund- ards, and easily recognized as distinct and dis- tinctive forms. Not all breeds Lave such dis- Light Brahma Cock, os FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 25 Buff Cochins, sion a wellshaped specimen gives is of massiveness. tinctive forms, but many do have, and the breeder with a little effort trains his eye to -Tecognize each wherever seen, and to give it due credit when found in the variety or breed to which it belongs. Dividing fowls (exclusive of Bantams) according to the more plainly apparent breed shapes, we have: 1. The Astatic types.— Of these there are three, each breed in the Asiatic class having distinet breed shape. These three are: The Brahma, Cochin, and Langshan, The difference between the Brabma and Cochin is largely due to the dif- ference in plumage; the standard Cochin being an extremely heavily feathered fowl, so much so that the female looks round.as a bali, and the male also suggests the appearance of having more feathers than he can use to advantage. The Brabma ix a closer feathered bird, and appears to have greater length of body. Both fowls are Jarge, and the first impres« The Langsban is of quite differ- ent type, not so massive looking as the others, shorter feathered, higher stationed, a big, well built but rather spare fowl. A comparison of tbe cuts which accompany this lesson will show the type differences quite plainly. The Mediterranean types. The principal types of this class are the well known Leghorn and Minorca types. Leghorn is a fowl of graceful carriage and fine curves yet with quite a sub- stantial body. The Minorca is larger with more angular curves, and longer, straighter lines. The other breeds in this class are the Ancona, which is a Legborn in shape; the Black Spanish, much like the Minorca, but with less breadth and depth of body; and the Andalusian a type intermediate between the Leghorn and Minorca. The American types. ‘We may speak of the American type or of American types. In a general way the fowls of the American class are of the same type, » type intermediate between the Asiatic and Mediterranean types. But in the several breeds of fowls in the American class we have clear sub-types. Thus the Plymouth Rock has a rather long and deep yet well rounded body; the Wyandotte, a ehunkier, rather square body. The Rhode Island’ Red standard calls for a body intermediate between Plymouth The Black Langshan Cock. 26 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. Rock and Wyandotte types, and though specimens conforming to that description have been rare in the past, more and more of them are seen each year. Breeders of these breeds should carefully dis- tinguish the different types. Of the other American varieties the Java is of extreme Plymouth Rock type, while the American Dominique does not properly belong to. this class of fowls. Some of the types which in a natural classification of the subject should follow these cannot be so easily placed or grouped, the divisions according to shape not following Standard classifica- tion. For this reason it is sometimes more difficult to give the type an appropriate name. Thus we have in the Orpington fowl a more massive American type, many of the Orping- tons being conspicuously * Cochinny,” but other differences make it seem inadmissible to put the Orpington in the American type class, so we must put it by itself as: S.C. White Leghorns, 4. The Orpington type. Intermediate between American and Asiatic types. Then we have in the Dorking and the Houdan, two breeds of different classes but with a con- spicuous resemblance in shape of body. We make them: 5. The Dorking-Houdan type. The characteristic of the shape in these two breeds is the full breast and rather long keel, giving the body some resemblance to that of a duck. This ismost pronounced in the Dorking, which is the - larger of the two breeds, and often a very massive fow], but is also easily distinguished in some Houdans, though others ( seem entirely lacking in this feature. 6. The Hamburg type. 7. The Polish type. These two types are somewhat similar, both small, fine boned, very symmetrical and stylish looking fowls, very energetic and nervous. The Polish more round and plump; the Hamburg, in the larger specimens, sometimes sug- gesting the Minorca or Dorking. 8. Game types. Under this heading we have three S.C. Black Aivoreas. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 7 pronounced types: the Pit Game, a compact round bodied, rather fine boned fow]; the Exhibition Game, an abnormally elongated type of the Pit Game; the Indian Game, a heavy, massive Game type, apparently an intermediate between the Pit Game and Asiatic types. The breeder will find in every breed many specimens which are not of good breed shape; many that approximate it; a few that are fine models of their type. Whatever his breed he should study shape, and learn to distinguish shape of body as readily as shape of comb or color. Color of Plumage. Generally speaking, novices in poultry breeding are not so likely to make mistakes in color as {u shape. Color differences are more pronounced. In white and black are presented extremes of color, which are exact opposites, while the most extreme shape types are in reality similar types. Differences in shape resemble rather differences in shades of the same color. Hence we find fanciers easily making the broad distinctions between color types, but when they come to the finer distinctions meeting the same difficulties they do in working with shape. Tbe colors and color combinations in poultry may be classed as follows: 1. Solid colors.—White, black, buff und red. 2. Parti-colors.—Which may be sub-divided ac- cording to the char- acter of the markings {unto barred, laced, penciled, spangled, and mottled plumage in varieties in which one or both sexes retain the same colors and markings through all sections; while in ‘ varieties where the col- ors vary systematically in different sections, we have combinations, such as the black-red combination seen in the Black Breasted Red Game and the Brown Leghorn, the descrip- ive manne: being the Barred Plymouth Rocks. color description of the male. Following the same method of deserihing the color type we would bave a black-white combination in the Silver Duckwing Leghorn and Silver Gray Dorking, and a white-red combination in the Red Pyle Game. A complete classified description of colors would be too elaborate for this stage of the treat- ment of the subject, if indeed it would be of any special use at any time, but it is worth while for a breeder to make sure that he distinguishes between the different arraugements of color, and clearly understands just what be js trying to do.. A good many breeders in the beginning pay little attention to the study of markings. They merely see certain color effects without Knowing how they are obtained, and for want of a proper appreciation of the color qualities of their fowls not infrequently make the mistake of breeding from specimens not suitable for their purpose or neglecting to use valuable specimens. Coler is not to be sought at the sacrifice of more substantial qualities, but if it is worth while to breed a variety at all, it certainly is worth while to know its color requirements thoroughly, and so be sure that specimens that are good in color as wel] as in other features will not be neglected. So I would urge the novice in any breed to study his color description with live models before him, and make sure that he knows just what the colors should be in each section. 28 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. Comb and Head Appurtenances. There are four principal types of comb: (1). The Single Comb, a single, upright, serrated comb, in some varieties very smull,in others medium in size, in still others very large, but the .general type always the same. (2). TheRose Comb.— By persons not familiar with the technical terms of poul- try men, every comb that is not single is commonly called a double com; the rose comb is the most common type. Itis a thick, fleshy comb, flattened on top, some- times small and “ neat,” as the typical Wyandotte comb, larger in the Leghorn and Hamburg, and in the Red Cap so exaggerated as to seem almost a deform- Ity. (3). The Pea Comb, « triple comb, looks like three parallel! single combs growing froin the same base. Seen in ily best development in the Brabma. (4). The Leaf Comb, a forked or branching comb, as in the Houdans and Polish. In one way the comb is of no practical importance. In itself it has no actual value. Yet a good comb adds much to the appearance of a fowl], and without developing fine combs at the expense of other features it is possible by simply avoiding the use for breeding of birds that have poor combs, or combs out of proportion to the size most favored for a variety, to add much tv the appearance of the flock. White Wyandoties. Wuttles.— These are the folds of skin pendant from the lower beak, and of the same quality and color as the comb. They vary much in shape and size, and due regard should be given to the selection of birds baving wattles such as are desired for their type. Ear Lobes.— The folds of skin just below the ears. It is always desired and gener- ally required that they be uniform in color — either red, or white, or creamy white. The tendency is to mix red and white. As witb all superticial points, while not to be given undue iwnportance, color of ear lobes should not be neglected. If neg- lected forafew yeursit is very diff- cult to eradicate red from a lobe that should be white, or white from one that should he red. Crests and Beards. — Compara- tively few crested fowls are bred. If one does breed fowls of that type he ought by all means to avoid using birds with poor crests, however good in other respects, for unless the crests of your fowls are ornamental, there is no object in having crested fowls. Beak and Legs. Beak. — In general the shupe of the beak of a‘fow! contorms to the struc+ ture of the fowl, und if one observes that the beak of a specimen he con- sidered typical In shape of body does not conform to the description of the S.C. Rhode Island Red Hen. typical beak for that kind of fowl], he FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 29 needs to reconsider his judgment on sbape— perhaps to find a new standard upon which to base his judyment. An elongated and rather weak looking beak ig rarely if ever found on a plump or stocky bird, while a specimen with a powerful, hawk like beak is likely to be too heavily built all through to be symmetrical. The color of the beak is of importance only as it harmonizes with the general color of the fowl], or appeals to individual taste. Legs and Toes.—In these again we have a good index of the general structure of @ specimen. If one has 4 fowl] which seems to him good in shape of body, but with poor leys—either poor in shape or not smooth, strouvg and well developed—he needs to recon- sider bis judgment on shape of body, and in most cases will find he was wrong. center, making a different looking and very much handsomer fowl. What puzzles the breeder is to get these Jacings uniform al] over the female and in the laced sections of the male. To accomplish this the double mating system seems to be preferred by our most successful breed- ers, two distinct lines being bred as with the Barred Rock, though it can hardly be said that the lines are as well established asin the Rocks. The type of Silver Wyandotte color has changed so much that we must regard the ideas of breeders as in a transition stage, and that being the case I wonld rather advise a reader handling that variety to eitber find out what lines his stork bas been bred on, and follow same lines, or supply himself with all the literature on mating the variety he can get, and after deciding what line he wants to follow in mating, begin to build the stock on that line, drawing for new blood as needed on some one breeder following the same line. Mating Golden Laced Varieties. Here we have the three varieties discussed above, each duplicated in its own breed with a variety having a golden or bay ground color of plumage instead of white, as in the Silvers. With the change of color, the principles and rules of mating are the same. In popularity too, the Golden Wyandottes, Polish, and Sebright Bantams have relatively much the same positions as the Silvers. None of the laced varieties are as yet very extensively 84 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. bred. Like the penciled varieties described above, they have been too difficult for the average breeder, but as knowledge of breeding increases there is more and more disposition to take up the breeds that have been let alone because they were difficult, and these breeds become more aud more popular. Mating Brown Leghorns. The Brown Leghorn male and the Partridge Cochin male are very like in color, but the females are quite different. The Partridge Cochin female is required to be uniform in color throughout. The Brown Leghorn female has a yellow neck with black stripe, a light brown back so very finely penciled as to produce an effect quite different from the heavy distinct pen- ceiling of the Cochin and Wyandotte. The breast is salmon colored, the body a light brown, the tail black with coverts penciled as is the plumage of the buck, the wings a combination of slaty brown and light brown disposed as are the black and white in the wing of tue Light Brahma. To produce males and females so different, the double mating system is generally used, tlie exhibition males being bred from exhibition males mated wilh females of the same line of breed- ing. Such females are, as a rule, much too dark for exhibition, and not nearly as handsome as the exhibition females. The exhibition females are produced from exhibition females mated to males that are not merely of the sume line of breeding, but known to be the sons of exhibition females of the highest merit. The exhibition male has, or should have, (he does not always) his hackle and saddle well striped with black, but no striping ut all is wanted in the saddle of the pullet breeding male, and provided a stripe is present in his hackle, the breeder is not disposed to be overparticular about the kind of stripe. These pullet breeding males are much lighter in color, a light orange where the others are red. hey are handsome birds, but will not often compare for depth and brilliance of color with the males of the exhibition type. Bed The Literature of Mating Fowls. T have given quite briefly, statements about color matings of fowls most commonly bred. What bas been given, while most elementary in scope, will help a good many breeders, will k-ep them from getting too far out of the way in their breeding operations. A full discussion of the mating of any single variety will easily take a long article. Asa matter of fact there are few, if an), special articles that are exhaustive, complete, and leaving nothing unsaid. So to get at all there is known about the breed or variety in which: he is interested, one has to sys- temuatically collect articles, booklets, and books in which it is treated. These vary greatly in their character. Some give minute descriptions of fowls point by point, some are largely his- torical, some are devoted almost entirely to mating, some combine all these features. Some- times one writer in an article that is on the whole very unsatisfactory brings out valuable points uot noticed by the writer of a better and much more complete article. Thus we must gather up our information little by little, remembering all the time that as we grow in our knowledge of a breed we can again and again go back to the articles we have read , and in the light of our added knowledge discover in them information we had not found at any previous reading. Because this is so it is good for every breeder to collect as much as he can of the literature | pertaining to his breed, and frequently take a spare hour or two to review and think it over. With regard to the purchase of books, which in cases where the literature of « breed or variety is unusually Jarge, might mean an outlay of several dollars, if one is going to breed ona considerable scale with the idea of selling stock, it is worth his while to get everything he can on his subject, even though some of the books contain comparatively little that seems of value to him, and therefore not worth their price considered us books. ‘That, however, is not the way to look atit. If I buy a book for a dollar that is compared with some other book treating on the subject worth not more than ten cents, still if it gives me one item of useful information { bad not before, it is worth the money. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 35 LESSON V. Hatching Chicks With Hens. artificial and natural systems of incubation, J want to state first of all that many of those who do not get satisfactory results by natural methods, and do get much better results by artificial methods would have had much better results than they did by natural methods if they had been as careful to make conditions right for the hens to do their best, as they try to be with the incubators. The cost of an incubator, the value of the eggs required to fill it, and the fact that anything going wrong with the machine may mean a total loss of the eggs put into the machine, and of three weeks time, makes operators of incubators appreciate the importance of doing all in their power to make conditions for a good hatch. But the fact that a hen left entirely to herself may bring off a good hatch, and the fact that hens can be put off with very indifferent hatching accommodations, leads many poultry keepers to do their batching with hens under conditions not favorable to good hatching. “Whatever is worth doing is worth doing well.” If one is going to batch with hens he should, as far as possible, give the hens a chance, He should go beyond this, and seek to avoid all things which operate against good hatching with hens. Wi eesti entering here into a discussion of the relative merits and advantages of Where to Set the Hens. Sitting Hens in Regular Poultry Houses.— The quarters for sitting hens should be com- fortable and convenient to work in. If possible such a house or pen as is used for laying and breeding stock should be used for the sitting hens. About the only changes desirable are the removal of unnecessary fixtures, and, if the place is very brightly lighted, some darkening of the windows. The floor should be cleaned, all litter and manure removed, and, if the floor is of earth, it should be forked over, to give as clean a surface as possible. While access to.a yard is not absolutely necessary, I consider it important; for my experi- ence has been that, on the whole, hatches were better, chickens more thrifty, and hens kept in better condition when they were able to get outdoors every time they came off the nest. If nests are placed only on the floor, ranged around the walls, a pen will accommodate about the same number of sitters as it will of layers. It can be used for a few more than it is advisable to put in it for laying, but to keep down the work of caring for the sitters it is best bot to crowd them too much. : Making Special Quarters for Sitting Hens.—If no quarters like those used for other stock can de taken for hatching purposes, and some other arrangement has to be made, the first con- sideration is to see that it provides freedom from disturbance, and that it is not a place in which 36 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. it will be inconvenient to care for the hens. Too many of the places improvised for sitting heng are faulty in these particulars, and as a result the hens may get. too much attention from others and too little from the keeper. There are often rooms, or sheds, or corners in large buildings that can be partitioned off that, as far as indoor accommodations go, are just as good as quarters ina poultry house, but often such quarters do not admit of letting the hens out doors during incubation, and in case it is possible to make arrangements that will give the hens a daily outing that ought by all means to be done. It is also important in taking a place sometimes used for other purposes for sitting hens, not to continue its use for other purposes if that would at all interfere with the proper treatment of the hens while incubating. Individual Compartments for Sitting Hens.—My experience in using a separate small coop for each sitter never went beyond the experimental stage, because I never had average hatches that way that made it seem worth while to continue any of the numerous arrangements of this kind that I have tried. The bens confined to nests and to very small runs when off the nest have always been restless, and good hatches under such conditions have, with me, been rare, The Unit of Nest Boxes for Sitting Hens. The single nest box for a sitting hen, shown in the accompany- a = ing cut, is so simple and works so well that it seems to me not tl inh ea necessary to discuss other possible forms of nest receptacles; if E barrels, half barrels, and boxes in almost endless variéty have ! . i Hey been used, but for economy of material and room, combined i ae i a i with convenience, | have never seen anything that approached Ha a system of nests in which this is used as the unit. The most convenient dimensions for nests for medium sized hens are 12 x 14in. on the ground, and 14 in. high, 12 in. high Single Nest Box for Sitting Hen. Will answer, but such low nests are not as convenient for hand- ling the hens. For small hens 12 x 12 on the ground will do, but I would not advise anyone cutting up lumber for nest boxes to make them smaller than 12x 14x 14in. Make the small nests only in case you can use a few of them and have odds and ends of lumber that will make them, but would not make the larger size. For large hens make nests up to16 x 16 x 16in size, that size making a roomy nest for the largest Brahma hens. Note that very much of the trouble with large hens breaking eggs is due to their not having room to turn in the nest. This nest may be made either with or without a bottom. For single nests it is advisable to have a bottom, because the nest is so light that it is easily moved out of position. In that case if the nest is in the box the eggs are not disturbed, but if the nest box is simply a cover-over a nest built on the ground the eggs may be injured. Where double or triple nests are used, the weight and the binding of the earth produced by shaping a nest in it when the box is in posi- tion, hold the nest box so firmly that it is not easily displaced, and there is no need of a bottom unless it is thought advisable to have nest boxes that can be moved with the hens in them if desired. The narrow strip at the bottom of the front of the box should be 3 to4 in. wide according to the height of the box. With nest boxes of this construction a hen cannot jump down on the eggs as she may if set in a barrel or balf barrel, or box open at the top, while it is very much easier to inspect the nest when the hen is on by simply putting a hand under the hen and lifting her body enough to let you see the eggs. She is disturbed but little by this, when she would be much annoyed by being lifted off to let the attendant see the eggs from above. The Beginning of a System of Nest Boxes. In the double nest box shown in the illustration on the next page, we have the beginning of a system of nests based on the unit just described. This box also has a movable frent which can be used to confine the hens to the nests. 1 have sometimes made nests in sets of three or four, but for my own use prefer to have them in pairs, because more easily handled and generally fitting better into spaces available. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 37 Placing Nests for Sitters in Tiers. When it is desired to set many more hens iu a room than can be accommodated with nests on the floor, poultrymen sometimes build the nests in tiers, two, three, or more tiers high, and instead of a loose front, like that shown in the illustration of the double nest, make a slat (lath) front, hinged to the strip at the bottom of the front of the nest, and either supported by a bracket below or by a string or hook from above, so that when open it makes a shelf for hens to go on when leaving and entering the nest. This arrangement of nests may be made with the nests built in large sections, each the full height of the combined tiers, or with each gmail section of two, three, or four nests independent of the others and combining like the sections in a sectional book case. When constructed in this way the nests must, of course, have wooden bottoms. How to Make a Nest. In a Nest Box With a Bottom the nest may be made of earth covered with fine straw or hay, or of straw or bay alone. The nest on a base of earth is usually more satisfactory if properly shaped; if not properly shaped at the start, hens are more likely to break eggs and crush chicks in it than in a nest of all hay or straw, because the latter will improve in shape ag a result of the movements of the hen, while the earth base formed once, there is no altera- tion in its form. To make the base of earth for the nest: Take a shovelful of fine loam, not wet, but moist; put itin the nest box, and with the hand make a hollow nest, working the earth up to the corners and around the sides, but leaving the a a bottom of the nest, while a little hollow, not so much so that eggs will roll to the middle. Now, after having worked the earth quite firm and smooth with the palm of the hand, take a good handful of . soft hay or straw — not too long—say six or eight EE ad 2 incheg long, and make the nest of it, distributing it evenly over the earth base, and working with the hand until you have it smooth and well pressed down. It does not tuke as long to do this as to tell about it. If it is not well done the hen will undertake to do it herself with the eggs in the nest, and the result Double Nest Box for Sitters. is apt to be bard on the eggs and also on the temper a— Wooden latch to hold front in place. of the keeper. a= When a Nest is Made Without Earth in the box, more nest material is used ; it must be much more carefully shaped, and it does not hold the shape given it as well—which is or is not a fault according as the work was well or badly done. To Make a Nest on an Earth Floor the box is placed in position and the earth shaped just as if earth had been put-into the box. All lumps of earth must be broken fine, and all stones or large gravel must be removed. Then the nesting material must be put in as described above. A Few Observations on Nest Materials.— Hay and straw, cut short, do not make good nests, because the material works about, and does not retain the shape given it. Excelsior makes a very good nesting material. Waste tobacco leaves and stems make good nest material, whether used with other material to keep lice out, or used alone. Nests of earth without other material, I have never found satisfactory. True, hens that steal their nests and make such nests in them sometimes do well, but oftener they break eggs in them, just as hens do in any poorly formed nest, and a good proportion of the stolen nests are poorly formed. A hen by no means always makes a good nest, and seeing that the nest is a good one ig one way in which a poultryman can improve on nature. 88 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. Selection of Sitting Hens. Because not all hens that buave the disposition to incubate make good sitters, there must be a judicious selection of the hens to be used for hatching. Otherwise, good hatches will not be as frequent as they should — to say nothing of the difference in the work of handling good und poor sitters. While no rule will apply universally, I think it will be found to be the general rule that rather small hens make the best sitters, but large hens the best mothers. The superiority of the - small hen as a sitter is not due altogether to her light weight, and the greater danger of a large hen bréaking eggs — particularly when, as is too often the case, the large hen is set in a nest none too large for a small one. The great superiority of the small hen in incubation is that she is, as a rule, more warm blooded, generates heat more rapidly. When it comes to brooding the chicks, her smal] size and short plumage handicap her, and the chicks quickly reach such a stage of growth that she is too small a brooder for the chicks she hatched, aud unless the weather is very mild her chicks cease to thrive. The small hen often has the objectionable trait of being wild and nervous, not docile and easily handled as a sitter should be. This fault can generally be overcome by judicious hand- ling. While I do not think it is as necessary as some authorities on poultry keeping say, to “be sure your hen wants to sit” before you give her the eggs you want her to incubate, I do consider it very necessary to be sure your hen will allow herself to be handled before you set her. Hens that are unmanageable provoke tempers that are out of place among sitting hens, and the result is likely to be unsatisfactory. Be sure then, that the broody hen will allow herself to be handled, by dusk or dark, if not by daylight. Temperature of Hens.—That the temperatures of hens vary, and that hens that seem very hot, generally make the best hatches, is, I believe, agreed among poultry keepers who have closely observed conditions of hatching by natural methods. The difference in temperatures is apparent to the touch if hens are so handled that the palm of the hand comes in contact with the body of the hen, which is generally partially stripped of feathers when she begins to incubate. If, in handling several hens, you find one that seems to have perceptibly less heat than the others, do not use her; or, if you use her, watch her eggs and ehicks and you will nearly always find her a poor hatcher and a poor mother. Some poultrymen who hateh large numbers of chicks with hens, overcome the effect of using these low temperature hens for sitters by changing them from nest to nest, so that a low temperature hen will not be likely to be on the same eggs for more than a day at a time, and perhaps not for more than one day during the entire period of incubation. Under ordinary circumstances, however, I think it is better to reject low temperature hens when selecting sitters, for with no more hens sitting at one time than on the ordinary plant where hatching is by natural methods, it is an advantage to have the hens keep the same nests. When and How to Set Hens. When a hen is not to sit in the nest she has been laying in, it is best that she should be moved after dark, Itis not in all cases necessary to do so, but it will be found that a much larger pro- portion of the hens will settle down quietly in their new quarters if moved after dark, and their nests kept darkened until they are let out to feed just before dark the next evening. If there are many hens to be moved, and they have to be moved some distance, it is a good idea to have a coop to move them in, but if only a few hens at » time, and no great distance, take one hen under each arm and carry them. Whether carried separately by hand or in coops, the hens should be handled yently and not excited, A novice in handling sitting hens may find it better to keep them on nest eggs for a few days while breaking them and himself in. After one is sure of his steps it saves time to have the eggs that are to be incubated in the nests when the hens are moved to them. Except with the quietest hens it is necessary to close the nests after the hens are put on them, and advisable to darken them. When I use a single open nest I put a wide board in front of it. For darkening nests, like that in the second illustration, we use an old grain sack. With the nests darkened, and the place quiet, the hens will nearly always settle down to business, FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 39 About Eggs For Hatching. The eggs intended to be incubated should be kept in a dry place at a rather cool temperature, say 40 to 50 degrees. It is not advisable to keep them longer than two weeks before being incubated, and the fresher “they are when set the better chances of a good hatch and strong chicks. It is not necessary to turn eggs while kept in this way, nor does the position of the egg, whether on the side or on an end make any difference. ; Only well formed eggs with good strong shells should be set. A great deal of the breakage of eggs of which people using heus for hatching complain is of thin shelled and imperfect eggs, There is less breakage of such eggs in incubators than under hens, but it is doubtful whether there is any rea] gain in hatching them. When egys are bought outside and delivered by rail or wagon they should be rested for a day before being placed under hens. This is to allow the contents of the egg, sometimes much shaken up in transit, to regain their normal condition. When setting such eggs it is a good plan to divide each sitting, and under each hen used place some of the boughten and some of one’s own eggs. This gives a better opportunity to deter- mine whether a poor hatch is due to poor eggs or to some cause for which the party from whom they were purchased is not in any way responsible. Number of Eggs to a Hen.—This must depend on theseason and on the size of the hen. The usual] number for an average sized hen in the spring is thirteen. The same hen set in winter should not be given more than eleven. After the middle of May she would generally take care of fifteen average eggs. If one is in any doubt as to how many eggs he ought to give a ben he should err on the safe side and give a number he is sure is not too large, for when too many eggs are given a hen every egg in the lot is likely to be somewhat chilled at some period of incubation. Food For Sitting Hens. Nothing could be simpler and easier than the feeding of sitting hens. All they need is whole corn and water. Though I have tried other rations the hens have never seemed to me either to keep in as good condition or to hatch as well as when fed on corn alone. The condition of the hen js not at this time normal. She needs food that will generate in her body heat to be trans- mitted to her eggs, and whole corn seems to be the perfect food for the sitting hen. She can eat a crop fullin afew minutes. Being inactive, she digests it slowly, can get along on one meal a day, and I have had a good many hens that would leave the nest to feed only every other day, yet keep in good condition and make good hatches. Care of Sitting Hens. Assuming that the hens when set were confined to the nests, and they should be unless it is certain that they will not leave them, (some hens are so quiet that there is practically no doubt that they can be set anywhere, and from the first be trusted to come off to feed and go right back of their own accord), they should have an opportunity to leave the nest within twenty- four hours after being set, and if they do not come off of their own accord should be taken off, for if they do not leave the nest and void their excrement now, they are almost certain to foul the nests before the corresponding time on the following day, and during the first days of incu- bation the change of conditions and food often produce a disturbance of the bowels, and for awhile some hens will be loose and unable to retain the excrement as long as they will later. Hence, even if a hen is not hungry, and eats little or nothing, it is important to have her off the nest daily at first. Hens that are handled without any trouble may be let off the nests at any time convenient for the attendant. With hens that are inclined to be shy, the easiest way to break them to return promptly to the nest in a strange place is to let them off just long enough before dark to give them time to feed. They will often return to the nest quietly at this time, when if let off early in the day they would make a great fuss, and if handled roughly give the business up altogether. At dusk hens that do not go back of their own accord are more easily caught, and settle down quietly when returned to the nest. 40 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. Having returned to her nest once of her own accord, a hen may, as a rule, be allowed to leave it at any time convenient for the attendant, and unless there is something wrong with the hen or the nest, will generally go back within fifteen or twenty minutes, which is about as long as it is safe to have the eggs uncovered in cold or very cool weather. On bright warm days hens may remain off the nest half an hour to an hour without the eggs being any the worse for it. Indeed, the general rule is that the colder blooded hens stick closest to the nests, while the bot blooded ones give so much heat to their eggs that the nest gets uncomfortably warm, and they leave it for their own comfort, and instinct seems to prompt them to Jet their eggs cool longer than the cold blooded hen does. When Many Sitters are in the Same Room it might cause trouble to release them all at once, especially if they came from different flocks. There ure several ways of keeping things working smoothly. If the hens were all set at the same time, and all, or any considerable part of them, are so shy that it is advisable to let them-off late in the day, the attendant can watch them while off, and interfere if they go to fighting. If he does not wish to watch them daily he can, within a few days, arrange to let them off at different times in pairs or small squads, leaving the more troublesome ones to the last. If, as is the case on most small plants, the hens set in a pen are set a few ata time, they ure broken to return to the nest in the order in which they are set, and when new hens are set the others can be released at intervals earlier in the day. On a larger scale of operations, if several rooms or pens are required for sitters, they ean be prepared at the sume time, a few hens set in each, then « few more, and so on until filled. This admits of gradually breaking in a large number of sitters to the desired routine without having to watch them when off the nests. Thus itis possible to establish a routine of releas- ing sitters which will enable one to do all the work of caring for them as he goes ubout bis other work, yet take so little time for it that be never feels it as a burden — in fact, hardly nolices it. The routine just described will apply when up to twenty or twenty-five hens are sitting in the sume place, but with larger numbers together, as there often are when nests are several tiers high, it becomes necessary to let many hens off at the same time, watch them to some extent while off, and return them to the nests after a sufficient time off has been given them. Importance of Confining Hens to Nests. T have always had better hatches, on the whole, when I kept nests closed except when the hens were off for food, ete. By doing so, one is sure that no nest is uncovered too long, and no serious interference of hens going on without his knowledge. Making this the rule insures against the most common causes of spoiled eggs. It is one of the little things that it pays to do, and the rule should be broken only in emergencies. Keeping Sitting Hens’ Quarters Clean. General Cleantliness.—The dung of the sitting ben has a peculiarly strong and offensive odor, bence the importance of removing it daily. If itis not removed promptly from a pen in which there are many hers sitting the place soon gets very dirty. When hens are set in tiers, many in a sinall room, some poultry keepers as they watch them remove the dung, which is voided in large lumps, at once. If they did not do this the floor would soon be filthy, though cleaned daily. Keeping the Nests Clean.—Absolute cleantines in the nests is a condition of good hatching. If anest is fouled, or if eggs are broken in it, it stiwuld be cleaned, the eves washed in luke- warm water, the soiled nest material removed and the nest made new as soon as possible. Generally it will do no great harm if a nest goes for twenty-four hours uncleaned, but it should not go longer. There is some excuse for that much delay because it is not advisable to disturb the bens to Inspect the nests. The inspection of nests should be made as the hens come off to feed. If the nest isin very bad condition it should be cleaned up at once. If not very bad note should be made of it, and all nests which need cleaning cleaned as soon as the attendant can conveniently do ko, : FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 4l Treating Nests and Hens for Lice. Insecticides.—Tobacco leaves and stems, as noted in a preceding paragraph, are often used to keep lice away from sitting hens. When these are not used the nest should be liberally sprinkled with a good insect powder when made. Then a few days later the hen may be lifted from the nest in the evening and well dusted with insect powder. Another dusting of the hen about the middle of the hatch, and a third just before the eggs beyin to pip will generally insure chicks freedom from lice when they hatch, and make it unnecessary to treat them for lice in the nests. The Dust Bath.—When the earth of the floor of the place where the hens are set is clean and fine and dry enough that affords them a suitable place for wallowing, and hens that make liberal use of it will keep in much better condition than those that go back to the nest quickly after eating their fill. Wallowing gives them vigorous exercise, and also keeps the feathers clean, When there isa yard accessible, and the ground dry enough, hens will by preference go out in the sun to wallow, but this is too uncertain to rely upon. Testing the Eggs. It is always best to test eggs as soon as they have incubated Jong enough to show develop- ment, and remove all infertile eggs and all showiny dead germs or a general breaking up of the liquid contents of the egg. Itis such eggs that are most likely to break, and when they do break make the worst mess of the nest. Ezy testers are sold by all dealers in poultry supplies. One of the most common forms is a metal chimney to go on an ordinary lamp. One side of the chimney at the point opposite the flame of the lamp, is cut out and fitted with a piece of heavy felt in which is an oval hole of such dimensions that when an egg is held before it, the light shines through the egg, and what- ever developments are made inside the egg can be seen. A home made tester may be made of a box of such size as to contain a common hand lamp. The accompanying illustration shows how such a tester may be made. White shelled eggs may be tested at the fourth or fifth day. Dark shelled eggs can sometimes be tested at the fifth day, but when the shells are thick and strong, as well as dark, it is as well to let testing go until the seventh day. The most pronounced indications of fertility and beginning development of the chick are a clearly defined air space at the . large end of the egg, (the egg should be tested large end up), and a cloudy appearance, densest in the upper part of the egg. An absolutely clear egg is either an infertile egg or one in which the germ did not develop far enough for its death to immediately cause decomposition to begin about it. An infertile ege will not decompose during the period of incuha- tion, but would be clear if allowed at the end of three weeks to remain under the hen the full period. Heavy red lines or clots in the egg indicate dead germs. Ina white egg a spider like red spot is often seen at the first test. This is the beginning of the development of the arterial system, and the Home Made Egg Tester. egg showing itis all rigbt. When the air space, as seen through the tester, is not permanently defined, but the line between it and the fluids of the egy moves as the egy is turned ubout, the germ is dead, and the ege is decomposing. The various conditions described above are not always unmistakably plain. Practice is required before one becomes expert in distinguishing them. In all cases where there is doubt, mark the egg and leave it for the next test, which should be made about the end of the second week. At that time the air space should show very plain, while all below it ig dark. Chilled Eggs. If the instructions given in this lesson in regard to keeping nests closed are followed, there will be chilled eggs only in case of a hen becoming sick, or dying on the nest, or refusing to OSS MAA MAA SSS 42 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. sit. Such cases do occur, but the most common cause of chilled eggs is two hens taking the same nest, and leaving a nest uncovered. In freezing weather an hour is about the limit of time that eggs under ordinary conditions can be uncovered and still hatch. In warm weather they may be uncovered for several hours, or even all day without injury. When the Chicks are Hatching. After the eggs begin to pip, hens should not be disturbed more than is necessary. It is quite necessary, however, to look under the hens occasionally to see that everything is right. Some bens become very nervous at this time, move about and break the eggs. Such hens should be removed if possible and quieter hens that have eggs not far advanced exchanged for them. By shifting hens in this way when necessary, much of the loss common at this stage is saved. It is at this time that a badly formed nest causes most trouble. If the nest is too dishing, the eggs tend to roll to the center, and crush in the shells of picked eggs, and often crush chicks as soon as out of the shell. There are also some hens that will kill their chicks as hatched. One must watch for these, exchange them for others, and, of course, take them out of the sitters’ pens as soon as their services can be dispensed with. If, as sometimes happens, a part of the eggs in each nest hatch a day or so ahead of the others, it is a good plan to give some of the hens the chicks, and others the eggs yet to hatch. This gives much better chance of good chicks from the last eggs. As a general rule, eggs that have not hatched by the morning of the twenty-second day, will not, even if they do hatch after that, produce chicks worth keeping. Many people consider it an indication of exceptional vitality to have chicks come out in nineteen days, but I think most close observers will agree that the chick that takes twenty to twenty-one days to develop makes the best chick. Helping Chicks Out of the Shell. Asarule, it is best to let chicks get out by themselves. The chick that needs help is not often good enough to make it worth while to fuss with it. FIRST LESSONS IN POULIRY WEEPING. 43 LESSON VI. Rearing Chicks With Hens. coops for hens with chicks.. As we found in the last lesson that the necessary appli- ances for hatching chicks with hens were very few, simple, and inexpensive, and that the point of most importance was to provide quarters where the hens and nests would be as free as possible from all kinds of interference, and at the same time the place be con- venient for the attendant; so in rearing chicks with hens we find that the appliances essential when conditions are ideal are simple, and that a variety of makeshifts, costing practically nothing, are used by poultrymen. As special conditions have to be considered, we have to give more attention to providing appliances to meet those conditions, yet in no case need these appliances be such that « man handy with tools could not make them for himself with little expense for material. The primitive style of chicken coop was probably an old barrel lying on its side on the ground, with stakes driven into the ground across the open end, to confine the hen while giving the cbicks liberty. A wide board closed the end of the barrel at night, or at any time it was desired to confine the chicks; this board being simply set in position and held there by a stone, brick, or block of wood. Barrels are often so used still. An improvement on this form of quickly Bew discussing the care of chicks with hens, we must consider the question of improvised coop was the box turned over on Common 4 Shaped Coop. one side, with slats nailed across the open front. Should be not less than 12 inches wide; 14 or 16 inches With boxes of good size, and fairly substantial is better. Length of sides about 3 ft. construction, such an arrangement is still a good one where there are few enemies to molest the chicks, and they can have good range. The principal objection to it is that the hen is rather closely confined. : Of coops made for the purpose, the simplest is the common A shaped coop illustrated above. Ido not recommend it except as an emergency coop. It can be quickly and easily made, and almost any old material will work into it, so if a coop is needed in a great hurry this will do. A better form of this style coop is the 4 shaped coop with pen and movable shelter board shown in the accompanying cut. This coop may be made either with or without floor. If to be used on heavy soil that holds the water after a rain, it should have a floor. If used on land that drains quickly, no floor is needed. Many people use and like these A shaped coops. It has always seemed to me that must be because they were used to them, and had not tried the other style. I might use such coops temporarily, but for a regular thing I prefer a box coop in its general makeup resem- bling the coop shown below with knock down pen. 7 A4 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. Advantage of Box Style Coops. One advantage of this style of coop is that the entire floor space in the coop, and ground space in the pen, are available for the hen as well as for the chicks. In the A shaped coop the hen can stand upright only in the middle of the coop. This gives her actually much less room than she appears to have, and this close confinement in coops is one of the reasons why bens sometimes do not. do well with chicks. We must give the hen a chance. : A second advantage of the box coop {is that it is Another 4 Shaped Coop. more easily cleaned. JT used them for years in a dry Sides of roof 22 x 28 inches. climate, with the top nailed fast, cleaning the coop dy tipping tirst backward, then sideways toward the door, then forward, the droppings rolling ut atthe door. For climates where the floor gets damp, and the droppings adhesive, the top - should be hinged, thus making it easy to get at the inside of the coop toclean., Besides, the angles at the floor being right angles instead of acute angles, as in the other style of coops, the corners are much easier to keep clean in case of the coop with a floor, and this box coop makes a serviceable coop for all seasons. To go into all the details of coop construction dn this lesson would be out of the question. We smust have a special lesson on that subject next avinter at the time when coops should be made ©%P Shown in Last Illustration with Pen 4ft. Bong F ; and Movable Shelter Board, veady for the coming season, I give here only enough about coops to give those studying these lessons a fair idea of them, and wish to ‘impress on them as having special bearing on their success in rearing chicks with hens that the structure of the coops should combine these two features: (1). Comfort of both hen and chicks. (2). Convenience of the attendant. Coop Pens for Hens and Chicks. The illustrations so far show pens which confine the hen, but give the chicks full liberty. This is the best way to handle them if it can be done. Jt cannot be done, however, where enemies of chicks are so numerous that they would destroy many of the chicks if at = _. given liberty. Poultry keep- ers living in towns have espe- cially to guard against the maraudings of eats. Against = == these the best protection is wire covered pens. The il- < lustration on next page shows such & pen used with a box coop of the same width, This pen is a little more px easily handled than that I use, Box Coop With Knock Down Pen. which is wider, mine being 6 This coop Is 22 x 24 inches, outside measure on the ground, 2 inches oe Ue Te Oot Ue Sola Sas lid thigh In front, and 16 inches in the rear. When made of these dimen- thisis2x 12 ft. I prefer the peas door cut with practically no waste, The latter penis kirger ones as givin g the ak pape icon 2 ft. Nigh, Top and bottom rails are of 1 ineh ehloks more room, and not re- ; quiring to be moved so often, Now just « word about the use of such coops to protect the small chichs. They are more expensive, and it is more trouble to handle chicks this way than in the other oops with the I ees | 1 tT 1 a9 a i A i AX t Wy AN \ \Y v Ae FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. Ay chicks at liberty, but unless you are sure that losses from cats, hawks, ete., with the chicks at liberty will be very light, it pays to use safe coops. They have to be used only for a short time, and tbere is no use hatwhing chicks unless you take care of them after they are hatched. Why Coop Hens and Chicks ? This is the question which has suggested itself to many readers. They may see the advisa7 bility of confining hens and chicks to protect the chicks while small, but do not so readily see the need of confining the hen while the chicks run at large. In astate of nature the hen runs with the chicks. Yes, but in growing chicks we have to average very much better than nature, both as to quality and quantity produced. Hens have advantages as mothers. These we need not here consider. They also have their disadvantages. It is in guarding against losses from these that those who succeed well in growing chicks by natural methods excel. All hens are not alike in their habits with chicks. Some can be allowed full liberty; others cannot. You cannot know in advance which to trust. Cat and Hawk Proof Coop Pens. Dimensions of these coop pens are, — length 12 ft.; height 2ft.; width 2ft. They are made of lath, and cov- ered with l-incli mesh wire netting. Hence you must devise a system of handling them, and impose such restraints on all that you are sure that avoidable losses are reduced to the minimum. The faults of some hens as mothers are :— (1). Too great activity and restlessness, never still themselves, they wear the chicks out. I have seen fine broods of a dozen or more chicks reduced to two or three in less than two days, in this way, when, had the hen been restrained, nota chick need bave been lost. Confine the hen, and, as a rule, she soon learns to be contented in ber coop, if itis a suitable coop, and, if her wants are supplied, gives her chickens a great deal more brooding than if allowed to run with them. 45 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY HEEPING. (2). Weaning the chicks too soon. Many hens would leave their chicks at two to three weeks old, if allowed todo so. Some will brood chicks while laying, but many will uot, and as a well fed hen is likely to begin laying within ten to twenty days after hatching her chicks, many chicks will be forsaken while still in beed of a mother, if the hens could leave them at will. These are the general faults against which cooping is an insurance. The other special faults will be considered briefly under the next heading. Selecting Hens for Mothers. A hen that makes a good sitter does not always make a good mother. Some hens that sit very quietly become very fussy with a brood of chicks, are a constant aggravation to the keeper, and frequently injure chicks. The ideal mother is the hen that has made a good hatch, and, that on removal from the nest with chicks, settles down quietly in the quarters assigned her. If she tramps about and seems to move without regard to the chicks, change for another hen if possible. If she is vicious, don’t use ber for another unless you have to. The hen that fights for her chicks, with or without provocation, will do in fiction, but in practice she harms more than she helps them. For the sake of the chicks as well as for the sake of the attendant, only docile hens should be used as mothers. Taking Chicks from the Nest. Chicks should be removed from the nest about twenty-four hours after the first chicks in it hatched. If hatching has been uneven, there may be some chicks not ready to leave the nest then. If so, they may be put under other hens, orif that is not practicable, remove to a warm place, and keep them wrapped in flannel or cotton until well dried and up on their feet By the time the first hatched’ chicks (which are generally the'strongest), are u day old they want to get out from under the hen and move about a little, and may make her so restless that ‘if the nest is open she will leave it with such chicks as can follow her, and if closed so that she ‘cannot get out, may scratch around in it and doa good deal of damage. Except in warm bright settled weather, itis not, as a rule, advisable to take chicks at this ‘age direct from the nests to outdoor coops, Though they want to move about a little, and soon eat some, for the first few days warmth and quiet are of greatest importance. To secure these, have boxes with open tops protected by slats or wire netting, into which the broods can be put for a few days, and kept indoors. The hen and chicks can be fed and watered in these, and can move about a little, but must keep quite quiet, and in case « hen is not disposed to brood her chicks the vreater part of the ‘time, she can be ‘f persuaded” to do so by throwing a bag over the top of the box, making it dark. Chicks kept close and warm and quiet this _way for a few days go to the outdoor oops strong and lively.. In bad weather they may be kept in such boxes a little longer, but never more than four or five days, or they fret at confinement and do not thrive. Before putting chicks into the box, pnt a sprinkling of chaff, hay, leaves, or finely cut hay or straw into it. Use just enough to cover the bottom. Too much will often make trouble, the hen scratching in it and burying some of her chicks with it. Marking the Chicks. If the chicks are to be punch marked in the feet to identify them, it should be done as they are taken from the nest. For this purpose use a small size spring punch made for marking chicks, and sold by all supply houses and muny poultry journals. (We advertise one in this paper). If chicks are marked at this age, the operation gives as little pain as possible. The cut bleeds but little, sometimes not at all, and as the chicks remain under the hens most of the time for a day or two, there is less trouble with chicks, attracted by the blood on feet that bleed, pteking each other to pieces. In making the punch mark, mark well into the web, but not so far as to injure the bones of the foot. Pa a oe a ae aD a ad ae f An t AS >>> > Method of Punch Marking Chicks. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 47 The usual practice is to mark chicks according to the mating from which they came. Sometimes, bowever, each brood is given its special mark. As the accompanying cut shows, it is possible to make fifteer combinations of punch marks in the four webs. Culling Chicks as Taken from the Nests. A vigorous weeding out of deformed and weak chicks at tbis time is good insurance against trouble and loss afterwards. It pays to kill at this stage, every chick that does not seem to be just right. Some of the weaklings may outgrow their weakness if given a chance, but many more will not, and the best way is to take no chance on a chick that does not seem to be a good chick. The Joss on that chick is less now than it will be at any later stage, und the common experience has been that the great . majority of the deformed or weak chicks allowed to live, make a loss at some time. Some minor troubles, like club feet and crooked beaks, do not materially affect the health of the chick, but, on general principles, and for the sake of the good looks of the flock, it is well to dispose of these alxo. How Many Chicks to a Hen? If the chicks are all of one color, the hens will take chicks hatehed by other hens, but if there are chicks of several colors hatched at the same time, unless a hen hatched all colors one must be careful in giving her odd looking chicks. Some willtake them; others will kill them. With chicks allof one kind and age, then they may be divided up as desired umong the hens selected for mothers. As long as the weatuer is at all cool, nine or ten chicks is enough for an ordinary sized hen, and twelve or thirteen for a large one. As the season advances, more may be given, but I have found results much better in growth and quality of chicks when J never went very far beyond these figures. I have given as high as forty chicks to a hen, and had them live and grow to be healthy. I have run eighteen to twenty chicks with medium sized bens, and had quite satisfactory results. But comparing the general results under such conditions with results when broods were smaller, I have, for years, rarely given over twelve chicks to a medium sized hen, or fifteen to a large one, and think the better results well worth what little additional work the greater number of broods makes. Where to Place the Coops. There is not always opportunity for choice in this matter. With many there is just one spot available for coops, and the question becomes how best to handle chicks in this place. But when there are different . situations available, that should be selected which best combines the two points we have already emphasized once in this Jesson, i. e., the comfort of the hens and chicks, and the convenience of the attendant. The best place for chicken coops, and for young chickens, is in an orchard which furnishes abundance of sun and shade. If an orecbard near the dwelling can be used for chicks, this is quite the ideal place; and, of course, if on « small place, the few coops of chicks can be placed under the few fruit trees the place may have, we have the same con- ditions on a small scale. Another goou place is near a hedge, where the coops of the hens may be sbaded at least a part of the day, while the chicks can run in the shade of the hedge, or out into the open fields at will. The conditions for the chicks may be just as good as in an orchard, but the coops have to be extended in lines, and cannot be as compactly placed as in an orchard where they may be in parallel rows, and the attendant can look after them without going over so much ground. 48 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. When the hens are confined while the chicks go at will, the coops may be placed two or three rods apart each way, and the coops shifted as often as necessary to prevent the grass being ruined under them. When the chicks are confined while small to wire covered coops, these may be placed as close together as desired, or as the lay of the land admits, and moved the length of a voop to new ground in a block; or, if one prefers, he can place his coops separately, and shift them independently. A little study to locate coops at first with reference to the shiftings necessary, will often save some inconvenience later, What To Do Where There is No Natural Shade. Both shade and sun the chicks must have, and if there is no natural shade, shades must be made to cover either the whole or a part of the top of a coop. With such shade provided, the coops may be put right out in the open where they get the full strength of the sun, and will do well, though I think never on the whole as well as with natural shade, and the moist earth under it. Transferring Hens and Chicks to the Coops. Always, if possible, move the hens and chicks to the coops when the weather is bright and warm. Avoid moving hens with smal] chicks to new coops late in the afternoon. If you cannot get them out in time to give them several hours in the sun before they have to settle down for the night, better let them wait until next morning. Older chicks are easier to move after dark, butif the small ones are moved about, then one must be very careful or the hens trample some of them before they settle down. Let them get wonted to their new quarters before bedtime. Then, as a rule, if she has not done so several times during the day, the hen will go into the coop of her own accord, and make her nest in one corner, (the coop should have a good big handful of chaff or cut bay or straw thrown in for this purpose), and the chicks will follow her. If, as sometimes happens, the hen insists on staying out in one corner of the pen at night, try to drive her gently into the coop. If she will not goin and stay, wait until it ix almost dark, catch her and put ber in the coop, closing the door so that she cannot get out, but the chickens can getin. In view of possible cases like this it is well to have coops so constructed that you can get at the hens easily when they stay out. I have to confess that mine have not always been so built, and, in consequence, I bave sometimes had to fool away more time than I should with such cases, After being compelled to go to the coop for the night once or twice the hen seldom gives further trouble on that score. Feeding the Young Chickens. The feeding of young chickens need not differ much from the feeding of adult fowls. The young chick needs food oftener, and needs it in form appropriate to its size, but except for these two particulars the systems and methods of feeding can be the same for both small chicks and fowls, provided the method of feeding the-fowls ts yood. If the method of feeding the fowls is bad, the effects on the young chicks will be very much worse than on the fowls, and their digestive systems are easily ruined. In this we have the explanation of the fact that so many people do really find it necessary to use a ration for their chicks different from that given their fowls, and when they do the general tendency is to go much further than necessary in fussing with foods for the chicks. In thi-, too, we have an explanation for the fact that the dry feed system began to be applied exten- sively with young chicks some time before much attention was given it in connection with tbe feeding of old fowls, and while I personally do not use the dry feed system for young chicks I can easily see that a great many get better results by it than .by their application of a mash system. , What was said in Lesson I, of poultry foods and feeding systems for winter egg production applies generally to foods and feeding systems for young chicks, with the difference as indicated above, and with the additional difference that disadvantages in either System need to be more carefully watched with chicks than with fowls. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 49 Common Errors in Feeding Chicks. There is nothing mysterious, complicated or difficult about the proper feeding of young chicks, and yet most beginners have a great deal of trouble with them. So before discussing a few of the good methods of feeding let us have a statement of some of the more common errors in feeding. 1. When soft food is used, often too much of it is used. Too many meals of soft food are given, and not enough hard grain. People either do not know or do not appreciate the fact that the chick unlike the young of mammals and of pigeons, bas digestive organs that will take just the sume kind of food the adult fowls take. The old fashioned way of feeding chicks was to give them corn meal dough or merely wetted corn meal three, four, or tive times a day. Some chicks lived and grew on this feediny because they had good range and exercise, and plenty of vegetable food and insects, but they did not then and do not now make the growth on such feeding that they do when fed a more appropriate ration. 2. Too concentrated foods are used, especially meals—corn meal and oat meal, and hard boiled eggs. Corn meal may be used alone, if baked in a jobnnycake, with good results; but raw or only partly cooked corn meal alone is too likely to be hard to digest. Oat meal and various oat preparations if fed heavily have much the same effects as corn meal, One of the surprising things about opinions of feeding chickens is the persistence with which some authorities cling to the idea that oats are an ideal and very complete food, and oat meal the most desirable article for feeding young chicks; when the fact is that chicks do not Jike it, and the sentiment in favor of it is traditional, and not based on modern experience at all. Oat meal and corn meal mixed together, and with bran, make a good food for chicks. The proportion of the meals to bran may be slightly greater for chicks than for fowl-, because the growing chick can more readily utilize an excess of nutritious matter than the matured fowl] can, but the difference in this respect in rations should be slight. Hard boiled eggs are often fed very heavily—especially if fertility of eggs is poor— and when combined, as they too often are, witb a ration which without them would be too concentrated, they are likely to aggravate any digestive disorders that develop. 3. Animal and vegetable foods are not provided as they should be. Many poultry keepers who are no longer amateurs are like most novices in being afraid to feed meat meals and seraps to young chickens. There certainly is greater risk in feed- ing them an article of poor quality, but a good grade of meat scrap or meal may be fed quite as freely as to older fowls, though of course, if used in a mash or cake that is fed several times a day to the chicks where the mash for fowls is fed but once, the percentage of meat in the mash must be reduced or the chicks are fed more meat proportionately than old fowls. In supplying green food to chicks the great majority of novices give it very irregularly, and rarely in sufficient quantity. ‘ The three points stated and explained above cover, I believe, the most serious errors in the feeding of chicks. When these are avoided the other faults in feeding may not show conspicu- ously poor results. Methods of Feeding. Of these we wil consider a few which may be taken as typical: 1. Mash and grain feeds alternated. Baked cake and grain feeds alternated. Combination of 1 and 2. Alldry feed—small cracked and broken grains. Dry mash and dry grain. “ap hese are’ all simple systems calling for the use of only such foods as are used for the old stock, or may be bougbt in bulk at about the same prices. The use of foods which require entirely different bill of fare and mode of preparation for young chicks will not SV 30 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. be considered here. Readers using such foods, and desiring to continue their use rather _ than any of the methods here described, may ask such questions as they wish about them, and these will be answered ; but to consider the multitudes of ‘‘fussy” methods at length is out of the question. Ration I. Mash and Grain Feeds Alternated. I speak of the mash and grain as “‘alternated” for want of a word which in a word will convey the idea. They are not regularly alternated all the time, but as far as convenient and advisable the soft and hard feeds alternate. Morning. First Feed.—Mash as recommended for hens in Ration I., Lesson I. Middle of Morning.—Millet or a “chick feed” mixture. Noon.— Wheat. Middle of Afternoon.—Mash. Evening.—Cracked corn. If the chicks have grass run they get their own green food ; if confined where they have mo grass green food must be provided. As will be noticed, the only thing this ration calls for in addition to what is provided for the old fowls is the chick feed mixture. Such a mixture I would recommend generally in preference to ordinary millet because it gives greater variety, and is on the whole, more economical. Indeed often the cost per 100 Ibs. is no greater. Ration II. Baked Cake and Grain Feeds Alternated. In this ration we simply substitute a baked ‘‘johnnycake” for the mash in Ration I, This cake may be made entirely of corn meal or of a mixture of corn meal with other ground stuffs. This ration is to be preferred to Ration I. where only 2 few chicks are to be fed, as a large cake may be baked which will last several days, giving the soft food always ready, and making it uonecessary to mix a mash daily or oftener. When so muny chicks are kept that the baking of cake for them becomes burdensome, the mash is preferable. Ration III. Mash. Baked Cake and Grains Alternated. ‘This ration may be used if itis preferred not to have mash about after the morning feed, or if itis more convenient to mix only enough mash for that feed. A Few Recipes for Johnnycake. Add a little soda to sour milk; stir in corn meal or corn chop, to make a stiff batter — the stiffer the better. A few infertile eggs added improve the cake. Bake until well cooked through. Make cake thick to reduce proportion of crust. Take one pint corn meal, one teacup bran, one teaspoonful meat meal, one raw egg, one tea- spoon soda, one teacup cold water; bake two hours, Take three quarts corn meal, one quart wheat mi{ddlings, one cup meat meal; mix with water or skimmed milk to which has been added four tablespoons vingegar, two teaspoons soda. ee Ration IV. All Dry Grain. For this ration bought prepared mixtures are generally used. Ration V. Dry Mash and Dry Grain. For this again | would recommend those who use it to buy the prepared mixtures, because the chick dry mash is ground more finely than they can get it for themselves, and the inixture of grain contains a greater variety than they would give, and when they leave out mashes and johnnycakes with the variety which is secured in the use of these, and in their alternation with grain, they need greater variety in the grain, There are scores of very good mixtures for chicks on the market, and many of them at very reasouuble prices. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 5J How Often to Feed. In rations I., II., and II[., five feedings a day are indicated. This is about right for small chicks, up to the time of weaning, when conditions are such that it is not advisable to feed more at a time than will be eaten up within a comparatively short time. For Ration IV., five feed- ings may be used. For Ration V., the mash may be kept before the chicks all the time, if fed in troughs or hoppers they cannot get into, and the grain feeds given as used. Keeping Feed by Chicks all the Time. If Ration V. is used as indicated above, one kind of feed is kept before the chicks all the time. If chicks have good range, it is entirely practicable to put out at one time all the food for the day, a dry mash in hoppers or troughs, and the grain scattered over the ground they run over. It will be found that they feed themselves quite regularly. Mashes and baked cakes cannot be left long before chicks without souring or drying, but under any conditions which admit of scattering the grain for the day over the chicks’ range, the grain for Rations J., II., and LII. may be put out in the morning when the first mash or cake is fed, and if chicks are watered then, ovly one more visit is needed for the day, i. e., to give the second soft food, and perhaps renew the water supply. Sometimes it is practicable to feed all grain in hoppers, boxes, or troughs, the chicks taking sufficient exercise of their own accord, and as they forage for green food and insects. There is, however, the danger that chicks with all grain food so easily acquired, may fail to forage enough, hence, if one adopts this method, he should continue or reject it according as he finds it works well or otherwise with any particular lot of chicks. How [luch to Feed. Chicks that have opportunity and disposition to exercise may, as a rule, safely be fed all they will eat. Keeping food before them of course means that they can get all they will eat at any time. The danger in feeding more than is eaten at the time is not so much due to chicks overeat- ing of sound sweet food, as to their eating the food left over, after it has become sour or fouled. In feeding mash and cake, one must learn by experience how much to feed toa brood. At first the hen and chicks will eat so little more than the hen alone that, as the hen generally gets a share of each food given the chicks, and is likely to see that their wants are supplied before satisfying her own appetite, the best rule I can give for first feeds is to feed the hen and brood just as if feeding the hen without a brood. Then as you give the hen five feeds instead of three, this means that you are allowing the brood about two-thirds of what you would give a hen. Thisis for a brood of a dozen orso. Now the chicks do not eat so much as this, but the hen, after her three weeks on the nest, will take all they leave for awhile. Then by the time the chicks are eating a perceptible quantity, her appetite has moderated. So, while the rule will not always apply exactly, if for the first two or three weeks you give hen and chicks at each feed one hen’s allowance, you will be us near right as you can be by any general rule. After that time the chicks begin to eat so much more that you can better gauge the quantity by observation. Remember that almost all poultrymen feeding dhtekss with hens throw out a great deal more food than is necessary while the chicks are small. Feed Troughs for Chicks. For a brood of chicks a bit of board about 5 or 6 in. wide by 10 or 12 long, with strips of lath nailed around the edges to form the sides of a very shallow box, makes a satisfactory trough for feeding mash, and is large enough for the brood as long as they stay with the hen. Many otber simple styles might be described, but to do so here would take more space than is avail- able. A trough or box in which a supply of food is to be kept before the chicks must, of course, be deeper, and must be protected from rain. D2 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. Water for Chicks. Chicks should have always before them a supply of good water. Many cases of “ cramps” are caused by letting the chicks become very thirsty and then fill up with cold water. For a few chicks together with « ben [ prefer flower pot saucers for drinking vessels. Dif- ferent sizes of these can be used for different sized chicks. There is no possibility of their drowning in them. They keep the water cooler than either tin, iron or wooden vessels, and though more dirt will be kicked into them than into a drinking fountain they are more easily cleaned. Keeping Chicks Free From Lice. If the hen and nest were kept free from lice, the chicks should need no treatment for several days. They may not need it then, but for an inexperienced grower it is alwuys better to keep on the safe side and prevent lice getting established, for when they become numerous they doa great deal of damage in a very short time. Dust them with an insecticide within two or three days after taking from the nest, then at intervals of » week until they are three weeks old. After that they should not need treatment for lice. I have always used Dalmatian insect powder for young chicks. There may be some of the other insect powders not composed largely of Dalmatian that are as effective, but many of them will not kill head lice on young chickens, while fresh Dalmatian has never failed to do this for me. Apply it with a powder gun, such as can be bought at any drug store for 15 to 25 cents, according to size. Here the advantage of a convenient coop is apparent. With a box coop with hinged top, one may go in the evening, raise the top, take the hen in one hand, puff a few putts of powder over the chicks as they sit in one corner of the coop; then holding the hen by the feet, head down, with one hand, work the powder gun with the other, puffing the powder well into the feathers, especially around the vent and under the wings. Observe that the powder is very pungent, (it will make you sneeze) and a few puffs of it are enough. It willnot injure the chicks if used moderately. I never knew of its injuring them anyway, but some claim it has in some cases. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 53 LESSON VII. The Care of Chicks From Weaning to [aturity. if the chick lives through that ‘period it is likely to grow to maturity. There is some truth in this view, but itis not all true. It is not true to the extent that the poultryman is warranted in relaxing his efforts to produce chicks each of which shall make the best: development of which itis capable. Indeed, I am inclined, after a good many years listening to complaints about chicks that do not thrive, and with a vivid recollection of some faults I have seen in my own work with poultry, to consider the period just after wean- ing the most critical period in the life of a chick reared by the natural method Let me give a single illustration. While the hen remains, or is kept, with the chicks, she relieves the owner of responsibility in regard to supplying them with heat. After the chicks are weaned the attendant must make sure that they do not suffer for lack of heat. They may not need supplied heat at all, but if they do they must have it, and whether they get it or not depends generally upon the judgment of tue attendant, and his attention to his business. I: IS often said that the first three weeks in the chick’s life are the critical period; that ’ Age for Weaning Chicks The age at which chicks should be weaned depends upon the weather and upon their condition, especially the condition of the plumage. Left to herself, the average hen would wean her chicks at six to eight weeks of age. This may be all right for chicks coming to such age in this latitude after the middle of June, but earlier than tbat chicks left to themselves are very likely to get chilled, and it is safest to see that they have some heat supplied until one feels sure they do not need it. Prior to May 1st, chicks, unless in a very warm house or coop, may need more warmth than they themselves furnish, up to ten or twelve weeks of age. After that they should, if well developed and feathered for their age, get along very well with the same kind of accommodations the old fowls have. ‘ Coops for Weaned and Growing Chicks. The accompanying cuts show two somewhat similar styles of coops for growing chicks, (I would just say, by the way, that it has become quite the custom to apply the term “ growing chicks” to the chicks after weaning, perhaps because the rate of growth of thrifty chicks, from weaning to maturity, being very clearly noticed, while earlier growth seems slower). The first coop shown is one that may be used very early in the season, and which is so constructed as to make the chicks secure when vhe coop is closed. This coop may be built with or without board floor. Secure Coop for Growing Chicks, 54 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. The second style is more common, and, when there is nothing to molest the chicks at night, is preferable, because more airy in warm weather. It must be remembered in using coops like these that the cubic air space in the coop is very much less in proportion to floor and roo-t- ing space than in a house for adult fowls; bence the necessity of making ample provision for fresh air. oe Many other styles of coops suitable for chicks ys might be given, but this general plan seems to Ee be that which gives most general satisfaction. Wherever it is safe to use a coop without a A CUommon Style of Roosting Coop for Chicks. floor, coops should be built that way. Then they can be shifted easily to new locations, and no cleaning of floors is needed. The dimensions for such coops as these should be 6 to 8 ft. long, about 3 ft. wide, 2 to 2é ft. high in the rear, and 8 to 34 ft. high in front. Capacity of Roosting Coop.— The capacity of coops approximating the dimensions given above, is about thirty well grown chicks, and this is about as many as it is advisable to put into them, for though a much larger number of chicks just weaned could be kept in such a coop, it is much better to put into the coop at first not many more than the coop will conveniently accommodate when the chicks are well grown. Then one need not fear the effects of over- crowding by the chicks outgrowing their quarters. Other Arrangements for Growing Chicks. The coops illustrated above furnish substantial neat coops exactly adapted to this special purpose, but many other arrangements are possible. All the chicks really need is shelter, and during summer weather it need not be very complete shelter. One of the nicest lots of chickens J ever had were kept at night, from June uutil late in October, in a makeshift, tem- porary coop, the back of which was a strip of the board walk we used over the gravel walk in winter. This was 16 ft. long and 2 ft. wide, and made the coop two feet high at the back. The ends of the coop were two sides of a dry goods box, 2 ft. square. The open front of the coop was 2 ft. high the length of the coop. A board 10 in. wide at the top of the front kept the.rain from driving in, and to this and to the edge of the back were nailed short pieces of old goods boxes, making a roof through which rain might drip, but would not drive. This coop remained in one spot in an orchard where the ground sloped just enough to let all droppings work out of the coop, leaving the floor always clean. I give this as an extreme illustration of the useful makeshifts for the purpose our present lesson considers. We do not want such arrangements for permanent use, but for an emergency, and especially when it is necessary to get chicks out of a crowded and badly ventilated coop or house, such quickly improvised coops are a good thing. Give the chicks room if you can dono more to provide it than to made a rude shelter of boards. Letting Chicks Roost in Trees. On the score of general health there is no objection whatever to letting chicks roost in trees. The objectionable features of it are that the chicks acquire too much readiness to fly, that they are not easy to get at, if one has occasion to catch them, and that their habits have to be radically changed in the fall when they must go into the houses. Teaching Chicks to Roost. Many chicks of the light and medium weight varieties begin to roost of their own aceord about the weaning age. If, when they are first put into roosting coops, one or two hens are left with each bunch, the hens may soon teach the chickens to roost. The chicks may sit on the floor for awhile, but, as a rule, if a few begin to roost, the rest, one by one, follow their natural instinct, and before long the entire lot will be roosting. If they do not begin roosting as they should, even with a few old birds for guides, put a wide board in place of a roost, about ten inches from the ground, and extending back to the wall, and go after dark and put. chicks up on this. Generally after a few lessons they will go up of their own accord. Then FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. ‘5D the board may be moved out from the wall, so that chicks crowding to the wall will drop off, and when the chicks learn not to huddle to the wall, take out the board and put in its place an ordinary roost. ; Chicks of the heavy breeds ought not to roost as early as the others. Many of them will not roost until about full grown, and chicks from Brahma or Cochin stock that have been kept with- out roosts for generations are sometimes very hard to teach to roost. I have had some that I gave up, and let have their way. If chicks will roost it is better that they should, for on the roost they are not crowding and sweating, nor are they fouling themselves in their own droppings. Tbe one thing to avoid when chicks roost young is crooked breast bones, and with roosts three to four inches wide no more of these occur than would probably develop regardless of roosting conditions. Yard Room and Range for Growing Chicks. To grow good chicks without extraordinary attention it is necessary that they should have plenty of room outdoors. I would make the minimum of yard room about the same as for adult fowls when yards are to be kept in grass, and would double this if possible. The more room you can give your growing chicks the less care you will have to give them, and the less risk you run tu raising them. When chicks are kept iu small yards, the yards late in the season become very foul, and they will not thrive on fou] ground as they will on clean fresh ground— especially a nice grassy lot. By giving due attention to all their wants, seeing that their quarters are kept quite clean, and providing exercise and sufficient supplies of animal food and green food with the grain ration, good chicks may be grown in very limited quarters, but I doubt whether, when time and expense are considered, there is any profit iu growing stock that way except for market. Crowding tends to shorten the period of development, and to make chicks sexually mature before they are full developed physically. Thut is one of the reasons why market chicks, if thrifty, make a plumper, better filled out, as well as a softer meated, carcass than chicks given more liberty. The chick given good range develops a better frame which subsequently fills out fully, but for quick development for market condition confinement is preferable. So poultry- men are accustomed at about the weaning age to separate the chicks destined for market from those reserved for stock purposes, and handle the two lots differently. Feeding the Growing Chicks. The methods of feeding chicks after weaning are, or should be, a continuance, with some modifications, of the metbod followed previous to that time. A radical change of methods of feeding at this period is most unwise, and unless the feeding of the small chicks is much the same as that of old stock, the feeder should begin weeks before weaning, and change gradually from the baby chick ration to that which ia to be used this season. The growth of a thrifty chick at this period is notable from week to week, and the amount of food consumed increases very fust. The chicks have now attained. such size that they are no longer easy prey to cats, crows, small hawks, avd other enemies which hunt by day, and so may be given more liberty, and kept further from tbe dwelling with less risk of loss. Under such conditions, with good range and sun and shade, the feeding proposition becomes so simple that if the chick has reached this stage with good sound digestive organs, it is quite impossible to go wrong witb it. The general conditions correct any errors in feeding, and it will make practically very little difference what method is used — provided the chicks get enough to eat. Itis, further, almost impossible to overfeed chicks under such conditions, and the thing to avoil is not overfeeding on account of danger to the chicks, but overfeeding with consequent loss of food before the chicks eat it. Still, in giving food, one can put it out much more freely than if the chicks were confined to a small area, because if the grain is broadcasted they do not foul it as they do food in coops or smal) yards; and if fed in hoppers, or even in open troughs, they do not linger around these as they would if they had no opportunity to forage, and so the place is cleaner. If the yards, while giving a fair allowance of room, are still so smal] that it is thought best to feed several times a day, the feedings may be reduced to three or four, and these timed to suit the convenience of the Keeper. 56 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. My usual method of feeding chicky, from weaning until they go into winter quarters, is: Morning.— Mash. Morning.— (As soon after the mash is fed as I get around to it, say, within an hour). Wheat or cracked corn — wheat if price is right. Enough is thrown broadcast in the grass to give them something to look for, and still find good picking until late in the afternoon. Afiernoon.— (About 4 to 5 o’clock, as I happen to get home from the office).— A good feed of fine cracked corn. If it is early so that the chicks have time to hunt for it, and still get a good feed before 6 o’clock, I scatter the grain widely. If it is a little fate [ throw it down in handfuls on the shorter grass. Evening.—(Just as the chicks are going in for the night).—A1l the mash they will eat. Chicks will eat a good bit of mash after having had their fill of hard grain, and also will eat quite freely of grain after baving eaten all the mash they want. To get the best possible growth the chick must be full fed daily. If it has good digestion, and can take plenty of exercise, heavy feeding will not hurt it, unless the proportion of meat scrap in the mash is too great. My observation, however, has been that very few err by giving growing chicks too much meat. The general tendency is to give them too little, and the digestive troubles which chicks develop during this period are generally due to crowding and lack of exercise and green food combined with heavy feeding. In other words :— Under vatural conditions overfeeding is almost impossible, while, When chicks are confined in too restricted quarters we have to be careful in feeding them, not because the feeding system is bad, but because the other conditions interfere with digestion. Under artificial conditions we have to balance rations with a care we need not use under natural conditions, The system of feeding given above differs from that I use for adult fowls only in that grain is given rather more freely, and a second mash is given supplementing the last feed of grain. Such feeding as this constitutes “forcing,” or not, as you look at it. If chicks are given a meal of only one kind of food, and we take what they eat that way and the results obtained as our standards, then whatever induces them to eat more than by this system is forcing, and any better results thus obtained are due to such forcing. But consider this, instead, from our own point of view. Do we not eat more when we have a variety (not too great) at a meal than when the meal is comprised of but one or two plain and perhaps not very palatable foods? As I look at it, by giving a variety we are not forcing the ehick, we are simply securing the fullness of development. All the feeding and heavy feeding the chick can stand stops short of forcing. Forcing begins when the chick cannot stand the ration given it, and its digestion gives out, or it goes down on its legs, and as has been said these troubles are avoided by making conditions which admit of heavy feeding, better than by keep- ing conditions bad and making rations to suit faulty conditions, S Different Rations for Different Purposes. From what hasjust been said about the relations between feeding and conditions the reader is prepared to understand that the simplest way to arrange for feeding for different results is to change the conditions, letting the system of feeding remain the same. There are two kinds of results to be considered in feeding chicks after weaning, 1. Feeding chicks for stock purposes, that is, chicks to be used when mature Sor dayers or breeders. 2. Feeding chicks to be marketed at the most profitable marketable size. Wor chicks for stock purposes we have to either give conditions or make a ration which they ean stand indefinitely. For market chicks the final consequences of feeding and conditions may be disregarded—pro- wided they are not reached before the chick is to be marketed. Suppose now a poultryman bas a lot of chicks, the pullets and a few cockerels of which he wishes to reserve for stock purposes, while the rest of the cockerels he will market as soon as possible. FIRST LESSONS 1N POULTRY KEEPING. 57 He shuts the cockerels that are to be marketed in a small yard, and feeds them the same as the others, but as they take little exercise, they grow faster, put on fat more readily, and ure soon in salable condition. The chicks for stock purposes he gives more room, they take more exercise, develop larger frames and grow constitutionally stronger, while the others, though putting on weight more quickly, are growing constitutionally weaker. In the long run the chicks that are given the best conditions will make the better development, but for quick returns and profits from meat the other wuy is better, the chicks being disposed of before they break down under the forcing process. Making the difference in conditions, and consequently in the method of feeding, will be found the most economical way of special feeding for special results. There is no need of special foods for different purposes, Separating Chicks. Perhaps it would be more appropriate to say, “‘ussorting the chicks.” Some authorities put great stress on the separation of the sexes early in life; but separations according to age and size, and the separation of the thrifty from the unthrifty are of greater importance. The separation of the sexes of thrifty chicks of the same aye and size need not be made at all when they are to be handled the same way, except when the cockerels begin to annoy the pullets. This time will vary with different breeds, so we bave a general rule, but a special application of it in each case. Leghorn males are very precocious. In Asiatics it is not at all uncommon for the pullets to begin to lay before the cockerels of the same age would offer them any attentions. Between these extremes we have cockerels of different breeds arriving at the age when it is advisable to separate them from the females at varying periods, and the only point necessary to observe is to remove a male that annoys the females in advance of their inclination. Overcrowding. Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the importance of preventing the overcrowding ‘of growing chicks. With an ordinary sized brood with a hen there is practically no possibility of overcrowding while the chicks are small, but after the chicks are weaned they grow so rapidly tbat « coop that was adequate when they were eight weeks old, may be entirely too small when they are twelve. A great many poultrymen leave their chicks, after weaning, in the small coops in which they were kept with the hen. This practice sometimes works all right, but is uncertain, depending much on the disposition of the chicks in each Jot. If, when they find the coop too small and close, they sit on the ground outside, or on the coop itself, no over- crowding will occur, but if they all push into the coop and pile up there, one warm night will spoil many weeks of good growth. There is special need of guarding against overcrowding when chicks are kept in coops or houses that ure closed at night. Many coops or houses are so constructed that it is not possible to get such circulation of air into them on sultry nights as there should be to give the chicks what fresh air they need. Fresh air they must have. They can no more thrive without it than without food. It is bevause so many poultrymen fail to provide ventilation suitayle to warm weather conditions that so many lots-of chicks that start well in the spring are spoiled in the summer. The number so injured, and the total loss in consequence, are very much greater every yeur than anyone who has not looked into the matter would believe. Chicks can be kept (roost) in yuite small coops provided there is free circulation of air, but if the chicks are to be confined where air does not circulate freely the number that will do well in a place is hardly greater than the number of adult fowls that would be considered right in that place. ; Keep the Chicks Growing. A well known poultry writer is accustomed to assert that the secret of success in winter egg production is to keep the chicks growing from the shell to maturity. That may not be all there is of it. Looking over the subject we can see other essentials not included in his view, but it certainly is of great importance to have the chicks develop steadily without check or setback. To insure this there must be constant attention to the wants of the chick. Now I do not 58 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. mean by this that the attendant must be forever doing something for them. On the contrary I think chicks will stand a great deal of judicious letting alone. But tbe attendant must see that the chicks want nothing, lack for nothing essential to their comfort and development. They need alternate shade and sunshine. They need good water, and all they want of it. It should be before them all the time. There should always be food available for every chick to get all it willeat, and while a great variety is not necessary there should be sufficient variety to give the necessary proportions of grain, vegetable and meat foods. If these are supplied freely the chick balances the ration for itself. Too often the meat and vegetable foods are sup- plied spasmodically. This is especially the case when chicks are kept in close quarters and dependent upon the attendant for everything they get. While growing they need good feeding even more than after maturity. A hen of good constitution may go underfed for quite a long time and not suffer permanent harm, but a chick that is underfed fails to grow, and practical poultrymen agree that chicks of this kind are made up of subsequent good care and feeding so rarely that practically such injuries are irreparable. Late Hatched Chicks. For many years the idea prevailed that chicks hatched late in the season could not make the development of the earlier chicks, and that late chicks were as a rule not profitable. Gradually this notion has broken down as poultrymen find that given breeding stock in as good condition, given the same care the early chicks had, and above all, given fresh ground to start on, and not ground contaminated by the early chicks, late chicks will thrive as well as early ones, and will have made as good growth at corresponding ages. The first difficulty is to get the stock in good condition late in the breeding season, and it is quite bard to do this with hens except such as have had a rest during the spring. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 59 LESSON VIII. Points to be Considered in Poultry House Con- struction. the most suitable title for it, it seemed to me at first that it would be most aptly described as a discussion of principles of poultry house construction. But when I began to inquire which of the propositions I might produce in this connection I could call “principles,” I concluded that that was a word which might as well be omitted, for there are very few of the customs and methods of building, or styles and plans of houses for poultry, that are so universally accepted that ove is warranted in designating them as prip- ciples, or laws. Those upon which agreement is most general still lack very much of being even common rules. Occasionally we find a certain kind or type of poultry house prevailing in a certain territory, or used by many because highly recommended by someone whose opinion is regarded as authoritative, but, taking poultry houses as they come, the more one sees of them the more ‘‘ the wonder grows” that so great variety of plans should be devised for buildings for the simple purpose of affording shelter for fowls. It should be said, though, that the greater number of these houses, and especially the “‘ freak” buildings, were not designed by people who bad had experience in handling fowls. This is a matter the reader would do well to keep in mind when examining poultry houses, and listening to the opinions their owners express of them; and if an odd plan or feature attracts their attention, it is well for them to ascertain whether {t was designed before the owner began to keep poultry, or after some experience with various . styles of poultry houses. A. 8S I THOUGHT over the matters to be taken up in this lesson, and tried to determine Why the Housing Problem Sometimes Becomes Difficult. It is almost impossible to make a single poultry house for a small flock that will not, with reasonable use, give fair to good satisfaction. When, however, the owner of such « satisfactory small house makes it the unit in a system of houses for a large flock of poultry, he very often gets buildings that are far from satisfac- tory— an inconvenient feature that seemed trifling in the single house becomes intolerable when multiplied by ten, twenty, or perhaps fifty, while features of construction or design which were unobjectionable in the single small house, work altogether differently when applied on a larger scale. To illustrate: A one pen house may be 16 or 20 feet wide, and with windows in the ends, and three-fourths of the outside wall surface touched by the sun at some time of the day be dry and comfortable, and sunny. But make one such pen the unit in a house containing, say, ten pens, and in eight of these pens the only sunlight received comes through the windows in one side, and it is impossible to get the sunlight to the back part of a pen 16 feet wide without making the building bigh in front, thus adding to the cost without increasing the capacity. 60 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. Another point to consider in this connection is this:—In housing poultry we have too often 4 problem corresponding not to the housing of human families in roomy, detached dwellings, or of a few domestic animals in ample barns or sheds, but to the housing of population in flats and tenements, or to the provision for the health and comfort of human beings congregated in large mumbers as in schools, churches and public gatherings. The ventilation of a dwelling house is a comparatively easy matter. Under ordinary circum- stances no attention need be given it but such as any sensible person will give almost instinet- ively. But to maintain a supply of pure air and still keep up the temperature in a school room where forty or fifty pupils are kept for several consecutive hours, or in a church where 600 to 4,000 people are together for an hour or two, requires more general knowledge of the principles of heating and ventilation, and also special knowledge of their application to the existing con- alitions; and it is for want of such knowledge in those in charge of such places that bad air in an underventilated or drafts in an overventilated room make public places more productive of colds than private dwellings. In the poultry house, as a rule, we find much the same conditions. Nearly every poultry keeper either builds the smallest house possible for the number of fow]s he intends to keep, or having a building or buildings of certain dimensions stocks them to their fullest stated capacity —and sometimes away beyond. And if in anything different, the conditions are harder in the poultry house, for the children in school are there for two relatively short periods; the people at a public gathering are together in the same enclosure for only a short time, while the fowls are often confined to the same restricted quarters day and night for months. To state the point dnits simplest form, the artificial methods of managing fowls often make housing an intricate problem, when with more natural methods it would be a very simple one. It is for each poultry keeper to determine for himself what kind of problem in housing he must work out, and after presenting in this lesson general information on poultry houses, materials and construction, we will, in several consecutive lessons, describe houses adapted to a variety of conditions ranging from the simplest to somewhat complex, but stopping quite a dong way from the limit in that direction. Cod Methods of Housing Laying and Breeding Stock. Tn systems of housing adult fowls, we have at one extreme the colony plan, which, in its sim- :plest form, consists in placing small houses for flocks of a few dozen fowls far enough apart to obviate the use of fences, and give the flocks free range with very little mingling of fowls from different flocks; and, at the other extreme, a connected series of houses, each containing many pens which connect each with the adjoining pens, or all open on covered walks running ‘the entire length of each house. In whut we call the extreme type in this house arrangement, ‘the various accessory buildings of the plant are located in such manner, and so connected with ‘the poultry houses, as to make it possible to do all the work under cover. The number of possible plans and arrangements between these two extremes is unlimited. “To enumerate fully the common and familiar house plans would muke quite a formidable look« fing list. We will discuss here only a few of the most popular, the most useful, and the most interesting plans and arrangements. Some of the latter cluss call for notice not because of the merit of the plans, but because their features seem to appeal very strongly to novices in poultry culture. We classify the houses we are to discuss, then, as follows: 1. As to Position of Pens or Compartments. (a). SINGLE PEN Houses. Usually these are small houses, the ordinary one pen poultry house having a floor area of about 100 sq. ft., but sometimes they ure large enough for flocks of 100 or more, with floor area of 500 to 1,000 sq. ft. (b). Two (oR More) PEN Houses Wirt CONNECTING PENS. This is the most common arrangement where a few small flocks are to kept in the same building. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 6E (c). Two (OR MORE) PEN HovusEs WITH WaALKs EXTENDING THE LENGTH OF THE HOUSE, AND ACCESS TO EACH PEN SEPARATELY FROM ‘THE WALK. This is the most common arrangement where more than a few small flocks are kept in the same building. Position of the Walk. In a house facing south with one row of pens, it is customary to put the walk along ‘the back or north side, but occasionally the walk is putin front. This latter arrangement seems to me to have little to recommend it, and in many hundreds of houses that I have in- spected, I have seen SS Ti | OS : not more than two or Z| “YIN aN SA AS Se three with walk in ; SY 1] front. RrRrEnA In a house with two if} rows of pens, the walk I moust be in the middle. & = = SANG Such a house may face LE = AN YIN = south. In that case, ~— IS \ cw So the south pens in front WE Sr a Se ; of the walk should Oo a have low roof pitched to the south, the north Semi-Monitor Top Roof. pens « high roof pitched to the north, as shown in the accompanying cut. Or the pens may face east and west, the length of the building running north and south, and the walk in the middle the entire length of the building. I don’t think the walk in the middle is ever found very satisfactory, except in comparatively short houses. The east and west front does not work wel] where winters are severe, but where winters are mild and summers oppressively warm, ite faults are not serious in winter, while, as a summer house, it is superior. 2. As to Construction of House With Reference to Methods of Handling Fowls. (a). ORDINARY CLOSED HOUSEs. That is, houses with doors and windows arranged with reference only to ingress and egress, and to light. (b). OPEN FRONT SCRATCHING SHED HOUSES. In this type of house each house, or each section in a series of pens, consists of two compartments, a closed roosting room, and, connecting with it, 4 scratching shed with open front. (c). SCRATCHING Room HOUSEs. This type of house is intermediate between the other two, and is by all odds the best type devised to date. It differs from the ordinary closed house in having doors and windows designed to give it when open all the advantages of the open front scratching shed, while when closed in bad weather they make it a close house and more suitable to such condi- tions than the open front shed. It has the additional advantage of giving greater capa- city than the double compartment scratching shed plan. In that plan poultrymen found in practice that the capacity of a section was no greater than the capacity of the scratch- ing shed, in which the hens passed most of their time. The most common dimensions in such houses have been 10x 18 ft. sections divided into roosting room 8 x 10 ft., and scratching shed 10x 10ft. By removing the partition and throwing the two compart- ments into one the capacity became the capacity of the floor of the entire section. Why “Scratching” Shed and Room ?—Most readers whose interest in poultry culture dates not more than a few. years back will have some curiosity to know how the term “‘scratching” bas come to be given so much emphasis in connection with housing systems. The object of the open front scratching shed was to make a special place for fowls to take air and exercise 62 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. together, the floor being littered with hay, straw, or some such material into which the grain was thrown and the fowls obliged to scratch for it. The practice is so general now that many will be surprised to learn that so recently as ten years ago there were probably several poultry- men making no provision for exercise to every one who did make such provision. In the ordinary closed house the floor is often littered to furnish exercise, though there is not the same provision for fresh air as in the so-called scratching room houre. 3. Styles of Roofs. In describing these we will consider only roof plans for which there is a practical rea- son. In these we may have :— (a). The Single Pitch Shed Roof Sloping North. With this style of roof we may have either a moderately high (for a poultry house) front (or south) wall, and a low rear wall, or if we wish the wall at the back of ordinary height, the front wall must be quite high. Houses are sometimes built the latter way, but it is not an economical plan, and has, on the whole, no special advantage. (bv). The Single Pitch Shed Roof Sloping South. This plan is more popular for brooder houses than for houses for laying stock, though one may find a good many houses for adult stock built with such roofs. (c). The Double Pitch Roof With Equal Sides Pitching North and South. This is probably more generally used than all other styles of roofs combined. Monitor Top Roof Poultry fouse, (d). The Double Pitch Roof With Equal Sides Pitching East and West. This plan of course is out of the question on long houses running east and west, but it could be used to good advantage much oftener than it is on small houses, as will appear in some of the house plans to be given in following lessons. (e). Lhe Double Pitch Roof With One Long and One Short Pitch. This is often used on low houses with walk at one side, the short pitch being over the walk. , (f). The Monitor Top Roof. (g). The Semi-Monitor Top Roof. The last two styles should be considered only when peculiar conditions make it neces- sary to huild houses of such styles. Ileight of Walls.—The poultry house should be high enough to allow a manof sverage beight to work comfortably in it at any work that has to be done there. The relative height of opposite walls will depend on the roof plan, or vice versa. It is a mistake to try to economize in material, or tomake houses warmer by making them too low for convenience of those doing the work in them. 4. Quality of Construction. Many poultry houses are bunt much better than is necessary, either because the builder thinks that the more substantial building will be easier to operate, or because be wants the building dene once for all. It is better to begin with the least expensive buildings that will FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 63 answer the purpose. Then there is no capital unnecessarily tied up in buildings, and if — as is very likely to be the case—the poultryman with added experience thinks it advisable to build differently, he can do so, altering or replacing a cheap building, when he could not change or do away with an expensive one. A low cost building need not be unsightly. If neatly built, painted, and the surroundings orderly and well kept, it may present a much better appearance than a better building not so well cared for. Keeping what has been said in mind, and noting that the expensive house is built because the poultryman wants it, not because the fowls need it, we note these classes of construction: (a). SINGLE BoaRDSs, WITH OR WITHOUT BATTENS. (b). SINGLE BoaRDS COVERED WITH ONE OR TWO THICKNESSES BUILDING PAPER OR ROOFING. (c). SINGLE BOARDS COVERED WiTH PAPER AND SHINGLED, OR COVERED WITH LAPPED SIDING OR MATCHED LUMBER, MAKING A SOLID DOUBLE WALL. (ad). DouBLE Boards WirH DEAD AIR SPACE BETWEEN, THE OUTER WALL COVERED WITH PAPER, PREPARED ROOFING, OR SHINGLES. Of these constructions, b. and c. are the most common. The framework for such buildings is very light —only what is necessary to hold it together. Poultry houses may also be built of almost any material used for other buildings, except such material as the corrugated iron often used for cheap warehouses. I would not say positively that that form of construction could not be made satisfactory, but the few attempts to use it I have seen have not given good results, Poultry houses are also often bullt of discarded material of various kinds, not ordinarily used for building purposes. Very serviceable buildings are made of old railroad ties laid or set on end close together, and the interstices chinked with clay or mortar, as in the log houses of earlier days. In sections where stone is abundant the rear wall, (especially if the house is set into a bank), is often, and sometimes the end walls also, built of stone, and the whole building may be of stone or brick if desired; but unless it ean be built without cash outlay for labor this is too expensive where economy has to be considered. 5. Capacity and Dimensions. One of the first points to be considered is the capacity of a bouse of certain dimensions, or the dimensions required to give a desired capacity. Floor Space per Fowl.—The common rule is five or six square feet of floor space per fowl. This is for ordinary sized flocks of one dozen to, say, three or four dozen. For a smaller number of fowls more floor space per fowl should be given, for a larger flock the space per fow] may be somewhat reduced, for while it is customary to estimate poultry house capacity according to average square feet of floor space per fowl, that way is misleading if the avers age for flocks of ordinary numbers is made the basis of a general rule. Each fow] in a flock has the use,in house and yard room, of all the house or yard area not actually occupied by its companions. That is, the fow!] practically has the use of the entire house and yard, and while with a flock of ten hens {in a house containing 60 sq. ft. floor space, the average for each hen is 6 sq. ft., each hen really has the use of 60 sq. ft. of floor, aud has much more room than a single hen in a house, giving ber 20 or 30 sq. ft. floor space all to herself. Cubic Space per Fowl.— This need not be numerically reckoned. In a house with floor apace right for the number of fowls to be keptinit, and with height right for the workman, there will be air space enough if ventilation is properly done. Proportions of Floor.—For the maximum of floor space at the minimum cost, a building should be square. To make a buildivg of many pens square, or even approximately so, is obviously out of the question, and as buildings for poultry are usually constructed with side walls about 6 ft. high, if of equal height, and averaging about 6 ft., if the walls are of unequal height, the depth, from south to north, of a house facing south, and having windows only in the south side, cannot be more than twelve or thirteen feet, and have the sun reach every part of the floor at some time of day. A wider house must be higher, or,the parts not reached by the sun will be often damp and musty. 64 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEVING. Now if we establish the depth of » house, or the width of each pen, at 12 ft., and make the pen square, we get too short a frontage for each pen, when the length of the pen is to be the same as the width of the yard connecting with it, us it must be generally in a long house con- taining many pens. So to suit the yards better, as well as to get the larZest capacity in each compartment that we can, we make the pens in a long house slightly oblong, and in length, 14, 16, or possibly 18 ft, but pot more than 18 ft. in a house 12 ft. wide, because the longey a pen is made in proportion to its width, the narrower it becomes in proportion to its capacity, and a flock of fowls is disturbed w great deal more by an attendant moving about in a long narrow pen or yard than in a nearly square oue, where the distance they can keep from the attendant is always about the same. Planning buildings and small yards with reference to this simple point, will save the poultry keeper a great deal of future annoyance in his work with his fowls. Width of House With a Walk.— For a poultry house with pens 12 ft. wide, 3 or 4 ft. should be added to the width, if it is to have a walk. If a walk is used at all it is a good plan to add 4 ft., which gives a walk about 3 ft. 6 in. wide, this clear without taking anything from the pens. A 3 ft. walk is rather narrow, 6. About Foundations and Floors. The common, cheaply constructed poultry house, if placed on a well drained spot, needs no foundation or underpinning. The sills may rest on the earth, leveled to receive them, while the fioor is of earth filled in to the level of the top of the sills. The sills rot out in time, but in the judgment of some of our best poultrymen, it is much cheaper to replace them than to try to keep them from rotting, while the opinion that a poultry house must have the floor elevated enough to keep it always very dry is gradually dying out. If one wants to build foundations of stone or brick, or to set buildings on cedar posts and fill the floor to the depth of a foot or more with stone, that is his privilege, but it is expensive aud is rarely really necessary when a house is placed on a suitable site. If the site is defective, that of course is another matter. For floors there is nothing so good as earth renewed once or twice a year, and there are few places where fowls are kept that it is not possible to get fresh earth as needed. The labor of renewing the floors is more than paid for by the advantage of the earth floor, and, for one who bas a garden, by the complete saving of the manure dropped in the house and the thorough composting of manure, earth and litter. In situations not the best for poultry, a floor may be necessary, and may be of wood, cement, or brick. 7. Building Materials. Mention has been made incidentally of —I think — all the common building materials. The jow cost poultry house in any section is, as a rule, constructed of wood, and of the cheapest Jumber obtainable in that section. If it is to be of a single thickness of boards, some attention should be given to selection of lumber, and the boards for the walls surfaced on one side; but this need not add materially to the cost, for by a little care an ordinary Jot of boards will answer, the best being selected for the sides, while inferior boards are worked into the roof or inside partitions. For a building to be covered with shingles or building paper, the cheapest and roughest of lumber wil] answer. Shingles.—In buying shingles {t generally pays to buy good quality hecause they go further, and the labor of putting them on is Jess than for inferior grades made up largely of narrow shingles, and containing many that have to be rejected, and when laid they remain in good con- dition very much longer. Prepared “ Roofings.”—Within the last few years very much better grades of this class of goods have been put on the market, and where a few years ago I would have unhesitatingly affirmed that shingles were in the long run the best and most economical covering for a moder- ate cost poultry house, what I have seen of such materials as Ruberoid and Paroid roofirss makes me think it wise not to be too positive. Iam not prepared to say bow these goods will wear with shingles, nor can I give here the comparative cost, but will go into the matter in detail] in connection with one of the house plans to be given. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 65 Putting Money in Poultry Buildings. In concluding this Jesson I want to urge it on every prospective builder with all the emphasis possible, that the best policy is to put into poultry buildings only what money is absolutely necessary. The general tendency of beginners is toward comparative extravagance in build- ings and too great economy in stock, while very few provide for the reserve of working capita! which they need. In many cases the money unnecessarily put into buildings, or put into buildings before they were needed, would have given the poultryman the working capital he needed for expenses while bringing his plant up to a profit paying basis. Remember that if you fail your fine house is as near as anything can be to a dead loss, while if you succeed you can replace your cheap buildings by better ones designed as, with your sue- cessful experience you know you want them. 66 FIRST LESSONS IN POULIRY KBEEFILNG. LESSON IX. Two Plain Cheap Poultry Houses of Simple Con- struction. heen using — the single house for three, the other for four years. I take up these plans first for two reasons: A good many readers of these lessons are asking what kind of house I prefer; the construction is about as simple as it is possible to make it, and the cost about as low as it can be made in a house built of new material without patching. In some places short cheap boards (box boards) may be obtained, and with them houses may be built at less cost per fow] than in these houses, but the boards are very often of such quality that a house built of them needs to be covered with something else to muke it took well, to say nothing of making it tight—if that is considered necessary. [: THIS lesson I will describe and explain the construction of two poultry houses I have 4 House for a Dozen Fowls, FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 67 A House for a Dozen Fowls. The accompanying illustration shows a small house that I built in the fall of 1902. I had two broods of chicks batched the last of June that had run together all summer, making their night quarters in an old dry goods box, and baving the run of about an acre of mowing land. When they outgrew the dry goods box, all other accommodations were full, and I was very busy and had little time to plan or build. The house was designed almost impromptu, and built in the spare time of a few days. I did not try to keep account of time, but think ft was about a day’s work, as I did the work piecemeal and alone. Originally I had no thought of making it a model, or building others like it, In fact, intended to use it only for the chicks for which it was built until I had room for them elsewhere, and afterwards to use it as an extra house for any purpose for which a building of its size would be convenient, as for sitting hens, fattening cockerels, breaking up broodies, for a small breeding pen, to store leaves in, for any such use, or—if not needed—let it stand idle. It seemed so very satisfactory in use, however, that L afterward built one other Jike it—except in one particular in which the change does not apper to be an advantage — and from experience with these two bouses I would — for my own use — make this the model for small colonies of fowls, Dimensions and Materials. This house is § ft. square on the ground; 4 ft. high at the sides; 7 ft. high in the middle. It has only # part of a frame of dimension stuff. No upright studs or posts are used except at the door, and these are not absolutely necessary. It is built with 2 x 6 In. stuff for sills, 2 x 3 in. stuff for plates, rafters, and other frame parts; is covered with common bemlock boards surfaced on one side, is battened on the back and half way forward on each side, and the roof is shingled over a close covering of boards, The material for this house cost-me $12 (approximately). I was buying other lumber at the same time, and used out of the general supply, aud it is quite likely that in cutting up for this house, and other purposes at the same time, I used some odds and ends, and made the actual cost slightly less than I have figured it in the list of materials given below. In many places the lumber could be bought much cheaper than {n the immediate vicinity of Boston. Lumber (except shingles) for this house cost me about 10% more than for the next house to be described in this lesson, which was built the year before. Shingles cosf 20% more. List of Materials and Prices When House Was Built. 2 pieces hemlock, 2 x 6 x 16, 32 sq. ft. 4 pieces hemlock, 2 x 3 x 16, 82 sq. ft. 3 pieces hemlock, 2 x 3 x 10, 46 Sq. ft. 79 sq. ft. @ $20 per M., $1 58 250 sq. ft. hemlock boards @ $20 per M., 5 00 4-5 M. 2d clear shingles @ $3 per M., 2 40 Battens, 1 00 Sash 60 Nails, hinges, hooks, ete., 1 00 Total, $11 58 That $11.58 is about as near as I can estimate it now, and is close enough. We will call the cost of the house, for material, in round figures $12. The cost of building should not exceed $3, giving u3 the total cost of the house $15, not the cheapest possible house, but a neat looking serviceable building at a relatively very low cost. How to Build the House. The two pieces of 2 x 6 x 16 are for the sills. I have given the ground dimensions of the house as 8 ft.sq. As a matter of fact the house is 8 ft. by § ft.4in.on the ground. That is the measurement from outside to outside of sills. 68 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. It happens this way: When we cut each 16 ft. piece in two, giving us the four pieces for the sills, and put them together, nailing the side sills, which we call bb to the end sills, a a, we have our sill frame 4 in. longer one way than the other. To get the same dimensions hoth ways we would have to cut the pair of sill pieces to which the other pair is nailed 4 inches shorter. The difference is comparatively insignificant, but in building poultry houses, coops, nests, etc., I have always tried to follow the principle of taking advantage of little points like this whenever the lumber allowed. There is a slight gain in room, and alsoa slight increase in cost. The gain in room may not, in every case, be proportionate to the increase in cost, but in general I think the rule will be found a good one. The sill frame should be nailed together with large spikes, the pieces being set on edge, not Jaid flat. Nail each corner with one nail first, then square up the frame, using a steel square at the corners and bracing pieces in position with temporary brace across each corner as indicated by the dotted piece. ad If your lumber is not perfectly straight and true you may find it difficult to get the frame square. In that case measure 6 ft. from any corner along one side, then take a 10 foot straight pole, or strip of furring, and measure from this point to a point 8 ft. from the same corner on the adjoining side. To have your angle a true right angle, the point 6 ft. from the angle on one side must be just 10 ft. from the point 8 ft. from the corner on the adjoining side, your 10 ft. measure forming the hypothenuse of a right angle triangle. Have your sill frame approximately square, (a very slight variation due to crooked lumber is not material) then nafl the corners firmly and the braces fast. Now put the sill frame in just the position it isto occupy, level it up and block it solidly in position. Ifitis on uneven ground, and to put the whole floor above the level of the highest point would make too much filling, dig out the higher side and part way across the ends as much as seems advisable, making the resting place for the sills level, then block up on the lower side. We are ready now to begin on one side. First nail to the sills the two end boards e c, 4 ft. long, letting them project 1 in. beyond the corner to come flush with the face of the end boards d d when they are puton. For these as well as for the corner boards on the ends of the house select good, clear strong boards. Be sure your boards c ¢ are perpendicular to the sill to which they are nailed, and then put short braces n n to hold them perpendicular to the end sills, Now put the plate p in position, the upper side of the plate being about half an inch above the end of the boards ¢ ¢, to allow the first board of the roof to project over the side, and nail the upper ends of the boardscc toit. The piece o may also be put on now, its exact position to be determined by the height of the window. In my house this piece was about 6 ft. long, only its use {n connection with the window being considered, but when I came to put in the roost I found that the use of a short piece was a mistake. Muke the piece o the length of the side of the house; your sash will then rest, and slide on it, and the ends of the roosts can also rest on 00. Nail on the board which comes next the window about the middle of the side, taking care to have the plate p and the stringer o in correct position. The tendency will be for both to sag a little in the middle. Use the leve] and keep them true. The distance from this board to the board at the front corner is the width of the window opening, and should be an inch and a half less than the width of sash. Put the other side up the same way. Now the building is ready for the rafters, of which but three pair are required, one at each end and one half way between. To cut these nail a short strip of board x x at right angles to a longer strip of board y y, as at D in the illustration. Make a line through the middle of the short board x x toa point 3 ft. from the edge of y y. This gives the position of the apex of the roof. Now from the point where the line x x meets the edge of the board y y measure in each direction one half the length of the end of the house. In my house this is4ft.2in. Ina house just 8 ft. square it would be 4 ft. Now take a piece of 2 x 3 and lay it on your pattern so that one end and edge come at x, and the same edge crosses the board y y at g; and with a straight edge mark the lines x x andy y on the rafter. Saw on these lines and you have a correct pattern if your measurements are FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 69 ad pec ie P € a e¢ d B fi ¢ E ¢ ce b b bby | A é “ wal ¢ a... Ne . ¢ | ; x A J J ifs. “ ' x M fin oye ser bot sted ior. sec relae ! ag Be ced [irre cere: we i Ao x Se F y[ — NY H _ Ty BNI H y Nee be. s, Detatls of Construction of House for a Dozen Fowls, A—asill plan, with position of corner boards indicated at cece, dddd. E—construction of acorner. B—side. C—front, D—method of cutting pattern for rafters, correct, and you saw straight. You may if you prefer make a pattern of inch or lighter stuff. In either case having made the pattern from the upper x to one y, try it to the other one and make sure that you are right before you cut all your rafters. If the builder of such a small house has an assistant when putting up the rafters it is easy. If he is working alone it is a good plan to nail the rafters together at the apex, and put a short brace across them near the apex, while on the ground, then put the pair in position together and nail the lower ends to the plates. The stringer m m indicated by the dotted lines in C may now be putin position. Next put in the studs j j which make the door frame sides and the cross piece i at the top. Cut the ends of jj to fit sill and rafters, and let the face of the studs come flush with the face of sill and rafters. In my house the studs are each1 ft. from the center of the end, and the door is 5 ft. Tin. high. The “‘frame” of the building is now complete. : Before nailing the rest of the boards on the sides, put the lowest board on each side of the roof, letting them project 2in. beyond the boards cc onthe sides, and the ends come flush with the faces of the boards d d on the ends. If you do this you put the boards on the sides snug up against the roof projection, and there is no fitting to be done as there might be if the side boards were all put on first. If you neglected to have the ends of the side boards lower than the upper edge of the plate, you will find that they prevent the first roof board from going into the position you wantitin, flat on the rafters and projecting 2 in. beyond the side. It makes no difference whether therest of the roof is put on before the sides and ends or after. Leave joints about half an inch wide between the boards on both sides (and ends) and roof if you wish. If the boards happen to be of such width that wider joints will suit better, they may be as much as an inch wide on the front, or wherever they are to be 70 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. covered with battens, but where there are no battens on the sides, (principally the short boards below the window), put the boards closer together to prevent snow drifting in. Too wide joints on east and west sides may admit a good deal of snow. On the front let the boards next the door come only to the middle of the edge of the stud on either side, and those above the door only to the middle of the cross piece. Before beginning to shingle the roof nai) strips of batten on the ends as a finish, as shown in the {llustration, and make the edge of the shingles project half an inch beyond these, and the first course of shingles project two inches beyond the lower board of the roof on the side. Lay shingles five inches to the weather. If you have never done any shingling it willbe worth your while to take a lesson in the art from a practical carpenter. Observe how he “ breaks joints,” so that one joint shall not correspond with the nearest above or belowit. Observe also that he does not Jay the shingles close, but allows a little space for them to swell when wet. If shingles are laid too close they swell and bulge up when wet. The back of the house is battened, and the sides are battened half way forward, thus covering the joints toa point a little forward of the roost. Before battening the sides, nail a strip of batten, corresponding with the strip under the shingles on the ends, snug up against the under side of the roof projection. To finish the window, make the boards below it project an inch above the stringer vu, and nail a short piece of furring to the plate p above the window, opening and projecting an inch below the plate. Now if your sash is a close fit,a lath tacked too, and another to p, to hold the sash in place, make allthe finish necessary, and the window slides easily back and forth. If the sash is rather loose between the stringers, use an inch piece for an upper stop. To make the door take boards of the required length, having an aggregate width of one inch more than the distance between j j, thus allowing a lap of half an inch all around, and nail two cross piecex, two inches shorter than the width of the door at top and bottom, making the top one about six inches from top of door; the bottom one eight or nine inches from bottom. On so narrow a door no diagonal brace is needed. I have generally screwed cross pieces on, but on this‘door they are nailed with 6d. wire nailes clinched, and after nearly three years exposure the door is good. A Good Cheap House for a Stock of 75 Fowls. This house I describe here, not as I am now using it, but as I first built it; because I think it likely that a great many readers will be more interested in a house to fit the con- ditions J then had to consider than in one adapted to my present needs. After giving descrip- tion of the house as originally built, I will mention changes made in it on removal to present location. The house was built late in the fall of 1901, on a leased place from which I moved two years later. The fact that I would probably want to moveit with in a few years, and perhaps move it some distance, had to be considered in some points of construction. The diagram is for a house 12 ft. wide and 40 ft. long. At the east end of the house 12 ft. square is two stories high, the upper story being used for pigeons. The one story part, the dimensions of which are 12 x 28 ft., Is divided into two pens, each 12x14ft. The first floor of the two story part is divided in the middle from front to back, and the east half again divided in the middle at right angles with the first partition, giving on the ground floor of the two story part a pen 6 x 12,a smaller pen 6 x 6, and an entry and tool room 6 x 6. The one story part of the house is 6 ft. 2 in. high from the lower edge of the sill to the top of the plate. The extra two inches is taken because the lumber would allow it. The posts being cut from 12 ft. stuff, and the plates being spiked on top of the posts, bad the sides been just 6 ft., the posts would have been cut5 ft. 10in. This is what would have been done had it been necessary to make the boards outside completely cover the sill, but as there was no need that they should, I used the posts full 6 ft. long. The two story part of the house is 12 ft. 2 in. from lower edge of sill to top of plate, with the lower edge of tbe upper floor joists 6 ft. 6 in. from top of sill. At B in the diagram is shown the outline of the framing for the rear wall; at C for the front; at D for the west end of the one story part, and at E for the east end of the two story part. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 71 The sills are 2 x 6 in. stuff set on edge and resting upon the ground. As the land lay, the east end of the space the house would cover was about a foot lower than the west end. The sills at the west end were Jet down into the ground about 4 in., those at the east end blocked up. Afterwards the floor inside was fiiled to the level of the top of the sills, and the ground outside graded as required. The posts are of 3 x 4 in. stuff. I would have preferred 4 x 4 in., but the local lumber dealer did not have them,.so I took carefully selected pieces of what he had. The 3 x 4s are all right J. H, Robinson's Cheap Poultry House for 75 Fowis, as Used the First Winter. for the one story part, but for the two story part they would be too ligbt if any considerable weight were to go on the upper floor. There is one of these 3 x 4 posts at each corner of the two story part, one at each west corner of the one story part, and one midway of each side of the low part. The plates and intermediate scantlings are of 2 x 3 in. stuff. My method of joining posts and sills at corners is shown at Lin the cut. At TJ is shown in detail thejoints on a side of a corner post of the one story part of the house, and G the joints on an end corner. In the frame of the back of the low house the intermediate stringer divides the space between the top of the sill and the bottom of the plate, making each space 2 ft. 8 in. wide. In the buck wall frame of the high part the top stringer is so placed that the ends of the floor joists will rest upon it, and the lower stringer divides the space between the upper one and the sill, making each space 3 ft. wide. In the framing of the front of the low part the upright studs, with the exceptions of the posts mentioned, are of 2 x 3 in. stuff, one being placed in the middle of each pen, and the others at such distance from it as required by the width of the doors, which here is 3 ft. Pieces of 2x 8 at top and bottom of window complete this frame. The sash I used were second hand, bought at 60 cts. per pair. The front of the higher part has one stringer to correspond with the upper one in the rear wall, and another one parallel to it 30 in. from the lower edge of the plate, thus making the proper space for the upper windows to slide between the plate and this stringer. Pieces of 2x 8 studding are erected at the sides of the window in the middle of the 6 x 12 ft. pen, which KEEPING. IN POULTRY FIRST LESSONS @2 . ‘ Beene ot 7 “a+¢@ 7) q’¢ on | : \ SIXT . BIKE epee eer eis Pe ee I ee i ee ¥asrd ajtsoddo ao ajou OO} aag ‘asnoy AsyMog deayD s,uosurqoy “yy “pf yo URI d FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 18 West Pen of J. H. Robinson's Cheap Poultry House—Double Doors Closed. window is a full sized window with sash to move up and down. Then there are horizontal pieces of the same dimensions at the bottom of the window, and from midway of either side of the window to the corner posts. On the west end of the low part the stringer is 3 ft. 10 in. from the top of the sill. On the east end of the high part the space from the sill to the lower edge of the first hori- zontal scantling is 4 ft. 6 in., and the space between this and the next scantling the same. The short scantling above the window is simply nailed, to the boards on either side, and not con- nected with other frame work. The west end of the higher part corresponds with the east end above the upper floor, “put not below, the partition between the 6 x 12 pen and that next it being like that shown at F. The rafters are of 2 x 3 in. stuff, and are placed 8 ft. apart, except that between the pair of rafters at the east end of the low roof, and tue pair next to them, the spaceis4ft. This was because the furring used was in 12 ft. lengths, and as J intended to lay the shingles on strips of furring, and wanted to select the best of the furring for this purpose, I figured that there would be a. little less waste of material by using all 12 ft. furring, and spacing the rafters to suit. When I came to use the furring I found a good many split and weak ends which bad to be disearded, so that if I were doing it over again, I think would buy all 14 ft. furring, and space the rafters evenly. There would be some waste in cutting the battens to cover the joints between the boards, but what short pieces could not be utilized on short joints or in piecing out on the long joints, would come in handy for something else. There is almost always a place found ultimately for such bits of umber. The sides of the building are boarded up and down and battened with strips of furring. The *A, ground plan of house. D D, outside doors. dd, inside doors. ww, windows. rr, roosts, s,stair, B, out- line of frame work of rear wall. C, outline of frame of front wall; the dotted lines indicate the position of the windows. D, outline of frame of west end. E, outline of frame of eastend. F, an inside partition between pens. G, framing of west end at corner post. H, framing of back at corner post. I, framing of ,, posts and sills at corner, J,method of roof construction at peak, explained in the text. 74 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY WEEPING. boards are of hemlock, surfaced on one side. The furring is surfaced on one side, rough on one side and edges, and the rough side.is turned in, so that, as the reader will see, the covering of the joint is not wind tight. It should be added that no battens are put over the joints on the front of the low part,as with the number of hens kept in here it is not desirable that the house should, at any time, be as close as it would be with the doors shut if all joints were battened. The roof is of shingles laid 64 in. to the weather on strips of 24 in. furring laid 3 in. apart, except that the first courses on each side are on 6 in. boards, which project beyond the sides about two toches, This makes.a roof that is light and cheap, yet amply strong. The roof was put up with the idea that if it was ever necessary to move the building it could be easily taken down and set up again. With this in view, instead of directly joining the two rafters of each pair at the peak or ridge of the roof. or using — as is sometimes done — a 5 or 6 in. board asa ridge pole, I used two strips of furring, nailing the upper one firmly to the ends of the rafters of one side, and the lower one to the rafters of the other side, making practically a split ridge pole, as shown at J, in the cut. : As I framed the building tnaided, this part of the work had to be done on the ground. The frame of the roof was put together on the ground in four 12-ft. sections, the rafters in each section being held together by the first strip of furring at the lower end, and the half of the ridge board attached to that section, and by two strips of furring crossed on the under side of the rafters. Each such section was put up with sunports from the ground to the upper part unti( the lower parts of two opposite sections had been tacked to the plates. Then the supports were knocked out, and the upper parts fitted together, after which the ends of the rafters at the plates were securely nailed. All the nailing needed at the joining of the sections at the peak is what is required to prevent the light frame springing or slipping before all the strips of furring are or and nailed fast. Only one ten penny nail through each upper end of a rafter to the opposite rafter was used. The shingles used were ‘‘2d clear,” costing $2.50 per thousand. cai ataprra ESE ROSS. Se West Pen of J, H, Robinson's Cheap Poultry House—Double Doors Open, FIEST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. rp) There is a little waste in shingles of this grade, but the quantity to be discarded was less than I expected, and of the five thousand bought I had almost half a thousand left. The doors the floor of the upper story, and the partition through the middle of the lower story of the two story part are of matched spruce. The object of having this partition of matched stuff was to keep the dust from the pens off things kept in this part. The floor is laid on joists of 2x 6 inch stuff, placed 2 ft. Gin. apart from center to center. For the stairway two pieces of 2 x 9, 10 ft. long were used for stringers. Then nine steps, each having 8 in. rise and 8 in. tread. The inside partitions are boarded up for 28 inches from the ground. Above that is wire netting. The roosts are of 2.x 8 inch stuff, wide side up, placed 20 inches from the ground, the roost next the wall being 1S-inches from it, and the space between the two roosts 16 inches. The roosts extend the full length of each pen, thus giving in the large pens a little less than one foot of roost room to each fowl. There are no droppings boards. The construction of the outer doors is easily seen in the illustration of the house; the only fastenings on the doors in the front are hooks which, when the doors are closed, go into screw eyes in the stud in the middle of each wide doorway. The inside doors are fitted with springs. For nests empty boxes of suitable size set on the floor are used. Some of these will be shown in illustrations in connection with a future article on fixings. The list of materials in this house, and cost of same, is given in tabulated form herewith. The list as given does not include the fitting up of the second story room for pigeons, or the eages for them outside, though some few odds and ends of stuff left over have been worked in for that purpose. With what additional material is used to fit up the pigeons, the material in the completed building will come to just about $70 — will not vary more than a few cents from this either way. AsI did allthe work myself at odd times, I cannot give a very accurate idea of the probable cost of the labor if one hired the construction of such a building. It seems to me, though, that two good rough carpenters would do it in about three days. For the benefit of those who simply want the lower part, or a repetition of it in sections, [ give here list of materials and cost for building 12 x 28, with two pens and partition in the middle. The two sections of this house, with a capacity of sixty hens, would cost the man who built it himself $33.10. Tbat is $1.18 per running foot. Perhaps a better comparison of the cost as with some other styles of house could be made on the basis of the cubie capacity of the house and its cost per foot, which in this house is14cts. With cubic air space as cheap ag that there does not seem to be any good excuse for not giving 1he hens air, and the attendant head room. ad List and Price* of [laterials. 6 pleces 3 x 4 x 12 72 sq. ft. 4 pieces 2x 6 x 14 56 sq. ft. 9 pieces 2 x 6 x 12 108 sq. ft. ~ 25 pieces 2 x . x 14 175 sq. ft. 14 pieces 2 X 3 x 12 84 sq. ft. 525 sq. ft. @ $20 per M., $10 50 1,000 sq. ft. hemlock boards, 17 00 500 sq. ft. furring @ $18 per M., 9 00 5 M. 2d clear shingles @ $2.50, 12 50 6 12-light windows (9 x 15) @ 60e. each, 3 60 400 sq. ft. matched spruce flooring, 8 80 Nails and screws, 3 00 5 pr. 6 in. hinges @10c.; 5 pr. 4 in, hinges @ 8c., 90 Springs, hooks, basp, and staple, : 60 Wire netting, 50 —~ — $66 40 *When house was built, 1901. 96 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. Materials for Two 12 x 14 ft. Sections. 8 pieces3 x 4x12 36 sq. ft. : 4 pieces 2x6 x 14 56 sq. ft. ‘ 2 pieces 2x6x12 24 sq. ft. 8 pieces 2x3 x 12 48 sq. ft. 19 pieces 2x 3 x b4 133 sq. ft. 297 sq ft., $5 94 500 sq. ft. hemlock boards, 8 50 72 sq. ft. matched spruce boards, 1 58 300 sq. ft. furring, 5 40 2 windows, 1 20 34 M. shingles, 8 13 Nnils and screws, 1 50 Hinges, hooks, etc., 60 Wire netting, 25 — $33 10 Changes That Have Been Made or [ight be Made in This House. If I were going to build today a two pen house of the capacity of this one, I wouid change the construction in only two points. The roof would be sheathed close as on the small house first described, instead of shingled on furring. The reason for this is that while the skeleton roof is strong enough it does not give a smooth, clean, easily whitewashed surface as when sheathed with wide boards laid close together. The advantage of having a good “‘ceiling” I think much more than compensates for the slight additional cost of the roof. The other point I would alter would be that in each end I would put a window, either a full size window in the middle of the end, or a balf window near the front, that point to be deter- mined by the light as affected by surrounding conditions. When I moved the house I enlarged the windows in front, but find that it would huve been more satisfactory to put windows in the ends, and intend to change them before next winter. When the house was moved the larger two pen part was set up separately, and the pigeon house detached and made a one story house. I think tbat for either poultry or pigeons it is better to have everything on the ground floor if possible, but in case one is crowded for ground room it is sometimes advisable to use two story buildings. Another change made in this building after moving it was to put doors in the north side to allow passage for both fowls and attendant to yards north of the building used in summer. This change made it necessary to shorten the roosts ubout three feet, and board up beside the door to a point a little forward of the outer roost. In winter when the fowls are in yards south of the house the doors in the uorth side are nailed up. The Question of Cold Houses. It would he out of the question to enter here into such discussion of the relative merits of “warm” and “cold,” closed and open poultry houses, which consideration of the plans I have given suggests. Those who have files of the paper will find a great deal said both for and axainst the idea of using such a “shed” as this or anything at all approaching it in structure. I will only say here that while it is not yet demonstrated that this is the better way of houslug fowls, and will give better results than close, warm houses, results obtained in these houses and the condition of the stock kept in them beyin to make it necessary that one who argues against them should argue from practical experience with them—and also from sensible treatment of stock in them, FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 77 LESSON X. Five Good Small Poultry Houses. of keeping fowls and doing the work for them. In this paper I give plans for five small houses, furnished by as many different readers of FARM-POULTRY, in response to an offer made to bring out good ideas of poultry house construction. These five I selected from a large number, as combining good plans and good statements for low cost poultry houses. Let me refer in this connection to a criticism a reader of the paper occasionally makes about my advocacy of low cost poultry houses. Most poultrymen want houses to cost as little as possible, and still be as good as necessary. Itison the point of how good it is necessary for a building for fowls to be that their opinions differ. A good many people do not believe that fowls can be comfortable, contented, and productive in such houses as I use — and will not believe it until they try it. Others think that while these houses may suit my breed, they would not suit theirs — and probably they will not believe until they have gradually learned that the requirements of a breed are not absolute, but that the stock can be adapted—hardened in this case — to the conditions made for it, and that when once “ acclimated ” to the cold house, fowls may do as well or better in it than in warm houses. ° However, houses warmer and tighter than those described in the last lesson can be built at very little more cost. Where lumber ischeap they may be built at less than mine cost. We may have cheap warm houses as well as cheap cold ones, but always, and for all poultrymen, I am an advocate of cheap low cost poultry houses, and this for two good reasons :— (1). Because every dollar unnecessarily tied up in buildings is a handicap on the profitable operation of the plant. (2). Because costly expensive buildings always seem to me inappropriate for live stock. If a man wants to build expensive poultry houses, I feel that it is better he should look else- where for the expensive features at least. The plain, simple plans I give will, of course, work just as wellif worked out in more expensive material, and if that is all that is wanted, an architect’s or builder’s services are more useful at that stage than those of a poultryman — pro- vided always the builder or architect does not make some change to suit his ideas of what is correct from his point of view, but wrong froma poultryman’s. Thatis the point to guard against when professional builders begin to improve the plans of poultrymen. So because the great majority of readers of these lessons want to build economically, as well as because I have myself no interest in costly hen houses, I will introduce into these lessons no plans of poultry houses having features which poultrymen generally would agree were super- fluous, or calling for expenditure which would be commonly considered extravagant. In presenting the following plans I will give the descriptions as furnished with the plans, except where it is as well to condense; and where there seems to be occasion for comment on a plan or statement, will make such comment immediately after. ie THE last lesson I gave plans and descriptions of two houses that suit me for my way 78 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. A New Jersey Farmer’s House for Twenty-five Fowls. Grant Davis, Whitehouse, N. J. Of plans of hen houses there are noend. Many ure good, but many more fail as to the two main points of a good poultry house: First, dryness ; und second, a plain, smooth interior surface. J have tried various kinds, but have settled upon the following plan, which, I think. meets the requirements of a first class house, at the same time being plain and economical. I build for poultry on the tarm, and make the houses 12 ft. by 18 ft. or 21 ft., for accommo- dating forty to fifty hens. For twenty-five hens the house may be built in identically the same way, and smaller in proportion. As estimates of costs are wanted, I will make my figures ona building 9 ft. by 12 ft. In height it is 6 ft. at the buck and § ft. in front, with a roof of one slope. Pillars are set in the ground for a foundation and to receive sills 4x 5 in. in size. The enclosure is of novelty siding or sbip lap, and is boarded horizontally. The studding are 2 inches square, and placed 18 inches apart. The roof is sheathed with second class lumber, and covered with roofing paper or ruberoid. To have a hen house that is always dry it is necessary to bave double walls with an air space between. With a single en- 12 Ft. ace closure moisture will sometimes be condensed upon the walls, | and at times will make the i F house damp in spite of any- thing that can be done. A | damp house, whether it comes i from a leaky roof, condensed air moisture, or capillary water | from a ground floor, will soon take the profits out of the winter egg business. A double enclosure also gives greater warmth, as the dead air space, being a non-conductor of heat, A serves to prevent its escape at night. The added cost of this kind of building, as ordinarily made, is against it, but, as here constructed, the cost is not much Ground Plan of Mr. Davis’ Poultry House. {ncreased. D, Droppings boards. R, R, Roosts. The building having been made as described, the inner wall is made by simply nailing on to the studding a stiff building paper, something strong that the fowls cannot pick to pieces, and that will take whitewash readily. As this generally comes 36 inches in width, and enough more to allow for lap, I have put my studding the proper distance to receive. The ceiling is also covered in the same way. Where the lap comes a liberal application of coal tar is made, so that on the whole interior surface of the house there will be no hiding place for lice or mites. The ease with which such a house can be whitewashed is a strong point in its favor. oF#. After the interior covering is put on, a panel of 1 x 3 in. boards is nailed all around the inside about 4 ft. from the floor to hold the roosting poles and to receive the nails on which hang the movable nesting boxes. The roosting poles, two in number, will extend across the narrow way of the house, and the space beneath them is cut off from the remaining floor space by 8 hoard. Straw is kept here, and the droppings are occasionally dusted with land plaster to keep down odors, as they are not removed oftener than once or twice every month. There are no droppings boards, no rows of nests built to the walls, in fact, nothing but what can be easily removed when the time comes for the semi-annual whitewashing. Ido not put in board floors on account of extra cost. The ground within the building is graded up eight or ten inches higher than that outside, and the surface is covered loosely with any old boards — discarded weather boarding is good—and then sand {s hauled in to the depth FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 719 — Of three inches. The floor fa {| then always dry and warm, Hl with a wallowing place, and grit always handy. The plan of the southern TTT front shows the arrangement : \ of doors and window. The door is made of good width, so that wheelbarrow or cart ean pass through when clean- ing the house. From 12 to 16 5 sq. ft. of glass is sufficient for « house of this size. Too much glass is a mistake, as {t ry makes the room overly hot in the daytime, and too cold at night, as the heat at night front Elevation of Mr. Davis’? Poul'ry House. quickly passes out through a S%z FT. glass surface. It ig well to have a shutter of boards to close at night. It is useless to have a whole glass front in order to make summer time in the house in January. To do this, the building must be kept tight, and, with foul air, bot and humid by day, and damp and cold at night, there will soon be work for the poultry undertaker, No scratching sheds are thought necessary for poultry houses on the farm. The interior wire door is closed, and the outer door thrown open, and the house is turned into a scratching shed. Fresh air is thereby introduced into the house, and the dust which the industrious hens stir up has a tendency to discourage lice and mites on the house walls and fixtures, us well as on the fowls themselves. Following is an estimate of cost of house as described 9 ft. x 12 ft.: Sills, 4 x 5, : $1 50 Studding, 2 x 2, 2 00 12 rafters, 2 x 4, 1 40 260 ft. siding, 8 00 500 ft. roofing and interior sheathing, 5 00 Windows, 2 30 Doors, ete., 1 00 — $21 50 & Let the reader consider this plan in the light “Tf of the two points Mr, Davis states as of most. — importance — dryness, and a smooth interior surface. He considers the double wall with air space between essential to a dry house, but itis probable that his houses of this type have been dry because well ventilated, rather than because of construction. We may reasonably infer from his last paragraph that he appre- ciates the value of fresh air in the poultry house, and takes the necessary means to have it there. The proposition of the relation of construc- tion to dryness in the house may be put in this way :— A double walled house properly venti- lated will keep dry. End Elevation of Mr, Duris' Poultry House, 6st. 80 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. A double walled house not properly ventilated will not be dry, but will collect moist- ure on walls and ceiling just as a’single walled house would under the same conditions. The conclusion then is unavoidable that drynessin a house depends upon ventilation rather than upon the construction of the walls. Tn this connection I may appropriately refer to the occasional practice of filling or partly filling the space above the level of the eaves, in a house with double pitch roof, with hay or straw lying on a floor with wide spaces between the boards. By this means the house is kept dry without being opened, but whether the requisite amount of pure air is introduced is doubtful. I am inclined to think that it is not, except in cases where the Joft overhead is open, and in such cases it is open to question whether it would not be better to leave the hay out and ventilate through the lower windows and doors. In connection with the use of building paper to line the building arises the question of its durability, and especially of the effect upon it of repeated whitewashings, and this is a question upon which we have no authoritative information available. The only other points in connection with this plan seeming to call for comment are in regard to the method of making the floor, and the rated capacity of the house. Ido not know where the advantage comes in in putting a loose board floor over the filled floor before covering with sand. Generally speaking, it is better to have floors so constructed that they furnish no harbor, under boards or cement, for rats and mice. While I cannot show it to be true beyond a doubt I think that it will be found by those who take notice of the matter that, broadly speaking, poultrymen who use houses set right on ground that can be dug up if necessary are much less troubled with rats and mice than those who try to build to keep them out of the houses. In other words, the more practical way of dealing with such pests, as well as with lice, seems to be to so build the houses that it is easy to get at them iu their harboring places. : While rated as having capacity for-25 fowls, this house, the dimensions of which are 9 x 12, giving a floor area of 108 sq. ft., is a little small for that number. ead A Maine Poultryman’s Favorite Poultry House. J. GC. Pattison, Kennebunk, Me. In describing our ideas of the best plain poultry house for twenty-five fowls, we are giving practically the plans of a house which we have built and used a sufficient time to prove its worth. ‘The house referred to, however, has two pens, and is used during the breeding season for breeders. In our description, therefore, we are describing to all intents and purposes one pen in this house. Requirements. What are the requisites of a good plain poultry house? Neatness and simplicity of design, Economy and durability of construction, Convenience of equipment, Proper hygienic conditions, Would seem to vover the requirements, and we shall proceed to describe a house which embodies these requisites. Specifications. Single pitch roof—no sills or plates used. Dimensions, 15 ft. long, 104 ft. wide, 7 ft. high front, 5 ft. rear. Openings, four six-light sash 10 x 14 in. glass. Door, 24 x 54 ft. Sheathing, rough boards covered with sheathing and roofing paper. Interior.—Roosting box 9x 8 ft. Bank of nests 18in. above floor. Hopper for grit and oyster shells. Shelf for water pan, feed box. Dirt floor. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPINU&. 81 Construction. Roof.—tn the low single roofed house we have the warmest construction obtainable at a minimum of expense iu building, and overcome any objection that there may be on the score of poor ventilation by curtains in front of roosts and at certain windows. Framing.—The studs are toe nailed direttly to posts set into the ground 18in., and project- ing Gin. above ground, and the rafters are nailed directly to top of studs, which are cut at the right level to fit them, thus doing away with sills aud plates. This construction gives umple strength for buildings of this class. The front studs are spaced to take in the three windows shown in cut, Fig. 1, about 2 ft. 10 in. apart, which allows windows to slide vertically between studs. This also establishes the spacing of rafters and rear studs at 2 ft. 10 in. Dimensions. —The ground dimensions, 15 x 104 ft., gives a pen of sufficient size for twenty~ tive fowls, and lumber will cut to good advantage. The height, 7 ft. front, 5 ft. rear, is sufli- cient for doing the work, while contributing greatly to the warmth, and lessening the expense over higher studding. Windows.—Four six-light sash, three in front and one in opposite end to door, are sufficient for light and ventilation. These are arranged to slide up and down readily, and should be open a part of each day. For these window spaces also we should have ut least two frames sume size as sash covered with cotton cloth to slip in in place of glasson stormy days, to give ventilation and keep out snow and rain. Sliding frames are preferable to those hinged at the top for window opevings, as the latter catch dust when up, which excludes light. For our part we use no glass at all in our laying bouses, (exceptin a house for breeders, and this only to protect combs of males), but rely on curtains entirely. In summer,, with front and end windows out, and slat door, the: house will cool perfectly on Lottest nighta, Floor.--For almost all locations, or on practically all land suitable for fowls, a dirt floor is fur superior to one of boards or other material. The building should be fiiled in several incbes bigher than ground outside, with fine dry dirt. A dirt floor furnishes the best possible absorbent for droppings, and con- tributes greatly to the health of the fowls—a dusting medium which the fowls may use at will—a good foundation for litter, and the labor of removing dirt and replacing with fresh each spring and fall, is less than keeping a bourd floor properly clean, to say nothing of the high fertilizing value of the dirt removed, which is fined up ready for use. Covering. — The sheathing, being covered wilh paper, may be of upplaned lumber, if cheaper, and the bottom courses should be of hemlock, which w ill Jast longest when in contact with the earth. The sheathing runs lengthwise of the building; a sheath- ing paper is used to increase the warmth, and in laying work should be begun from the opposite end of building from that used in beginning to lay the roofing proper in order to break joints with the roofing and render the building warmer and more wind proof. A very good way to lay the paper is to run the strips from the ground or windows in fropt up over the roof and down to the ground in Front and End of Mr. Pattison’s Poultry House, R2 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. back in one piece, which saves material and insures tightness. Batten of isch pine laid two strips to a width of, pauper holds the covering best, although tins will do. Juteriov.+In cut, Fig. 2, the interior arrangements are shown. The roosting box, with bourd 1 fl. high at bottom to keep litter on main, floor, is 9 ft. x 3 {t., giving space for 18 ft, cof roost, and bas cloth covered frame hinged at top to let down in extreme weather and still permit fresh air to reach the fowls through cloth. The cut shows no droppings board, but merely the diit floor at the bottom; this is by all odds the Lest arrangement, (we are using both methods, und know) doing away with the unsanitary board, an abomination as usually taken cure of, A few sbovelsful of earth occasivnally thrown in the bottom of thiy box will keep everything iu good sanitary condition for several weeks without cleaning out. Those who prefer the board, however, may put it in, Roos(s ure 2 x 3 in. seant- lings, 18 in. from ground. The nests shown in the cut are up off the floor show- ing floor space, and givivg a secluded dark nest, which is an advantage when an egg eater develops; they are more easily reached by the attendant than the ‘ soap box in the corner,” although the latter is not to be de- spised. These nests are set upon a shelf run between the end of roost box and end of house 2 ft. wide, and 18 in. above floor. The cover, the lower half of which is hinged, should bave slant enough to make it objectionable as 4 roosting plaice, The hoppers for grit and oyster shells speak for them- selves. For a feed box we prefer one made by using a board 10 in. wide by 2 ft. long with strips 6 in. wide nailed to its edges, the strips to be neiled from their centers, thus making in effect a box 3 in. deep whichever side is up. By simply turning it half over, a clean side presents itself. Mash may be poured from a pail into a box of these dimensions easier than into a V trough. In conclusion let us say that there is no condition met by a scratch- ing shed house, or any other kind of house, that thie house Pattison's Poultry House, Showing Construction of Back End and Roof. of Mr, Interior FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 83 properly used (and with plenty of scratching material) will not eet also. The windows are intended to be open every day in the year. If it snows, slip in the cloth covered frames described, but give the fowls fresh air at any and all times day and night through their eur- tains, and don’t have a droppinys board six inches from their noses. ? Note:—Our healthiest and best layers jast winter, when the thermometer went to 20° below. zero on several occasions, were housed without using a single square of glass, just the two sets of curtains, If this be true in this latitude it suould be in almost any. Materials. The following isa list of materials required, with prices: 8 pieces 2 x 422 ft. long for rafters, 44 &q. ft. makes 2 each. 8 pieces 2x 310 ft. long for studs, 40 sq. ft. front and rear stud each, st sq. ft., @ $20 M., $1 68 16 cedar posts, 2 ft. long, 75 500 sq. ft. 12 ft. boards, $17 M., 8 50 4 windows, 6 light 10 x 14 glass, 60c. each, 2 40 Nails, hinges, etc., : 90 1 roll sheathing paper, 500 sq. ft., 1 00 1 roll red rope roofing paper, 500 sq. ft., ' 5 00 Total, $20 23 Bod In the matter of roofiog material opinions differ widely; some would prefer to use a more expensive material than the above. In thatcase a lighter weight can be used for the sides than for roof, which will effect a saving in the class of material referred to, which runs from $1.75 for one-half ply to $3.25 for four ply per square of 100 ft. The red rope, however, will last several years, properly laid, and if painted will Jast longer. We have then a house for 25 fowls costing little more thun $20 for material, which is ‘“good enough” for the purpose, and fulfills all the requisites cited in the beginning of this article. ad My first criticism on this house plan would be as to dimensions of the floor. If we admit as correct the proposition Jaid down in Lesson VITI., that the floor should beas nearly square as possible, the house 10 ft. wide by 15 ft. long is getting a little too far away from our standard. Under some circumstances I would criticise the form of the roof, but in a house as narrow as this the objections which may sometimes be made to a single pitched roof with northern exposure lose much of their force; and though observation of houses I used myself has seemed to indicate to me that as a genera! rule u double pitch roof was more satisfactory, J would not care to dogmatize on that point, and have my judgment on it judged by the experiences of others, because points like that are difficult to determine beyond doubt. One thing, however, should be emphasized: Whoever adopts this plan must consider the effect before making changes in the dimensions. Mr. Pattison figured out dimensions that keep him clear of faults which would be pronounced in a house of the same style with some other dimensions. If such a house is made 12 ft. wide, the front wall must be higher, or the rear wall lower, or both, and the rafters for a single stretch of roof become longer than is advisable for « roof witb no supports under it. : The enclosed roosting box I-would consider unnecessary, except perhaps to protect large combs, and I am not sure that it is necessary for that for fowls that are thoroughly rugged. Sod Another Maine Poultry House. Martin Ryan, Baring, Me. Although in this plan there may be notbing new, for a plain substantial poultry house that is warm, dry, and light, there is nothing better. The plan is for a house 12 x 16 ft., but it can be NN 84 FIRST LESSONS IN POULIRY KEEPING. built any length. The bouse is 4 ft. high at back, as low at side, and 64 ft. at front side, with long and short pitched roof. Itis plenty high enough for aman to stand inside back as far as the droppings board without stooping. The house rests on ten cedar posts that are set in the ground three feet, and extend above the ground eight inches. One post goes to each corner; two at equal distances apart under the front and back sills, and one under the center of each end sill. The posts are lined off level at top, and the4 x 4 sills spiked on top of the posts. The frameis2x4spruce. The studs and rafters are two feet apart, and the house is boarded tight down to the ground with rough boards, and roof, ends, and sides covered outside the boarding with good sheathing paper, and shingled with cedar shingles laid five inches to the weather. Inside between the sills is filled in with small stone to the depth of six or eight inches, and covered with gravel or sand level with top of sills; this will bring the floor up enough so it wil} be perfectly dry, and the fowls will always have a dust bath in the sand and gravel of the floor. The high side of the house should face the south or southwest, and have two windows fifteen lights each of 8x 10 glass. The windows are hung on hinges, and swing inside, and when these windows are swung open on bright sunny days the house is turned into a partial open scratching shed. The house can be divided with wire partition and frame door covered witb wire hung on spring hinges. This will give two pens thatare very convenient if more than one variety is kept, or when sorting fowls for breeding. The roosts are at the low side of the house. The droppings boards are put up two feet from the sill, and the cleats that the roosts rest upon are six inches higher than the droppings boards, The roosts are 2 x 4, the length of each pen, two roosts to a pen. They are ten inches from the wall and fifteen inches apart. The droppings boards are three feet wide. The nests are under the droppings boards, and are 14 x 14inches wide by 12 inches deep; they fit up against the droppings boards, leaving a space of one foot under them so the fowls have tue entire floor to roam and scratch in. These nests are not nailed in place, but slile in on cleats; they are made in one long box divided in four nests, each with a four inch board at back to hold the straw that the nests are made of. The front of the nest is a four and an eighth inch board. The wide board is hinged and drops down so the eggs can be gathered from the front. The back of the nest is provided with a four inch board for the hens to step upon when entering the nest. These nests are retired and dark enough so there is no danger of egg eating. The wall back of the roost from the droppings board up to plate, and the roof up toa line even with the outer edge of droppings boards is double boarded and stuffed with dry sawdust. My house that is built on this plan is forty feet long, and I find itjust the thing. I like it better every year; better than any other house that I have yet seen. There is no space taken up for walk or nests. The house is Luilt for hens, and the entire floor space is given to them. With the short and long roof sb aa you get a house high enough to work in without danger of head « ~ bumps; while with the single ° d = ’ pitched, roof the walls would Z have to be much higher to get oFR. 8 Fr. the same room at low side of house, and, therefore, much colder. The high side of this house faces the south, giving room for high windows, and giving larger area of building the benefit of the sun in the short winter days when it is so much needed, In my house the D D windows are open every day, | except when the snow blows = Ww {n, and I am never troubled with colds or roup among my (2% Ft, Ground Plan of Mr, Ryan’s Jlouse. D, door, W, window, 4, dropping boards, rr, roosts, ne FOULTRY KEEPING. 85 FIRST LESSONS IN hens. They are as healthy and vigorous a y lot of fowls as you can ¥.5 find anywhere. I keep the floor well covered with litter in which I scatter grain, and the fowls will scratch and dig and sing all day long as happy and con- tented us if they were in my wife’s flower veds in June. & This house I would i rate as having a capa- city of 12 hens to a pen, in all 24 hens. At a jioch it might be Outside Front and Inside Back oy Mr, Ryan's toultry House. N, nests, e, entrance to nests, d, droppings boards, rr, roosts. used for a few more, but with the droppings boards extending 3 ft. from the north wall, and the nests under them the floor space for use in the house is hardly more than 5 x 9 ft., or 72 8q. ft. Bill of Lumber. Sills, 2 pieces 4 x 4, 16 ft. long. Sills, 2 pieces 4 x 4, 12 ft. long. Studding, 9 pieces, 2 x 4,6 Studdivg, 9 pieces, 2x 4,3 ft 4in. long. ft. 10 in. long. Plates, 2 pieces, 2 x 4, 16 ft. long. Rafters, 9 pieces, 2 x 4, 9 ft. 6 in. long. Rafters, 9 pieces, 2 x 4, 4 ft. 6 in. long. Collar beams, 9 pieces, 1 x 4, 6 ft. long. End and partition studs, 4 In all—820 ft. of spruce for frame, @ $14 pieces, 2 x 4, 8 ft. long. Ten cedar posts 3 ft. 8 in. long, 4 !n. at top. 580 aq. ft. of hemlock boards, @ $10 per M., 150 sq. ft. of matched boards, @ $16 per M., 80 sq. ft. of furring 4 in. wide, @ $14 per M., 40 sq. ft. of furring 5 in. wide, @ $14 per M., . shingles, @ $1.50 per M., 5 30 Ibs. of nails, @ 4c. per | 3 rolls of sheathing paper, @ 50c. per roll, 10 cedar posts, @ 5c. each, Hinges and latch, b, ‘These are the prices that rule in this vicinity. While not disposed to quarrel with those who use and prefer them, the arrangement of nests 12. FY Cross Section of Mr, Ryan's Poultry House. under droppings boards never suited me, even when I used droppings boards in the poultry houses. The nest arrangement I like best for laying hens is an open nest to hang on the wall. This will be described in connection with other nests in a subsequent lesson. « As the reader may infer from a comparison ® of this with my own plans, the packed wall Ps and roof back of and above the fowls is a feature I consider unnecessary. During this lust winter I have had one pen of hens that had a shed full of Jeaves back of it, but I could not see that they were better off than the hens that had but one thickness of boards. 86 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. - A House With Single Pitched Roof Sloping South. E. A. O'Brien, South Dennis, Mass. This is a 10 x 15 ft. house; 7 ft. back; 4 ft. front, facing south. The claim for this house is a combination laying house and scratching shed. Its capacity is twenty hens. There are two windows 34 x 4 ft. in front, which are hinged at top, and opening inward, held up by a hook from roof, wire netting on outside of casing, so that in all stormy days these windows can be opened, and the fowls have plenty of good fresh air with no drafts. Trese windows are placed at the west end of the front of the house, one foot apart, leaving a space of six feet at the east end for laying and roosting room not partitioned off. The droppings board is 3 x 6 ft., and on hinges which can be made at any blacksmith’s shop —a four inch eye threaded — which is screwed into the corner upright, and into another upright six feet away; the hinge is made with an “L” to fit the eye, rounded. The roosts are made of three inch furring — two pieces 6 ft. long, 14in. apart, and two pieces 24 ft. Jong—and put on hinges the same as the drdéppings board, and attached to the same uprights, only 8 in. above droppings board, which is one foot above the lower stringer. iss. v v i od T 19 fF a ae CTITL EF Ground Plan of Mr. O’Brien’s Poultry House. D, door; 0, small door; w, window; d, droppings board; rr, roosts; ‘I, trough for droppings; w, water vessel. A flat trough, 10 in. wide and 6 ft. long, with 4 in. ends and sides, is placed between the two uprights close to the wall; this trough catches all the droppings as the droppings board is raised up to the back wall and hooked up out of the way. With the hinges made as above mentioned, the roosts and droppings board can be unhinged without any trouble, and taken out and cleaned. When going through the house mornings to feed, it is a matter of but a minute to raise roosts and droppings board, droppings falling into trough below; then when feeding at night let them down again and sprinkle a little slaked lime or ashes —just dust — which absorbs the moisture from droppings, and tbey roll off when the board is raised; trough may be cleaned once a week. Push wheelbarrow into house, and as the trough ts wide enough to admit a shovel, it takes but few minutes to clean it out, again using a sprinkling of lime or ashes. The arrangement of roosts and droppings boards gives the whole house for a scratching shed. Putin a foot of litter; throw grain in litter, and hens will do the rest. On extremely cold nights a curtain of burlap can be made very cheaply and dropped from roof to about six feet above the droppings board; the burlap is better than cotton or duck, as it is so loosely woven that it does not make a hot house of the roosts, but allows a free circus lation of air, and yet gives the needed warmth. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 87 The material used in building this house is as follows :— 5 sticks, 2 x 4— 16 fc long for strinvers, 15 sticks, 2 x 4 — 12 Jt. lony for roof, front and back uprights. 450 feet hemlock boards. 1 rol] Neponset red roof paper. 2 sash, 34 x 4 ft. 3 pair strap hinges for door and windows. 2 pair hinges and eyes for : oosts and droppings board. 5 hooks for door, windows, roosts, droppings board. 1 bundle laths for cleats for roof. 7 The price for material differs so much in different localities that I will not give prices, but this house, with lumber at $18 per 1,000 ft., should and can be built for less than $25. o ¥ Sad As in the case of Mr. Pattison’s house, we have here a plan in which the dimensions minimize what I call faults in the style of the house. In « house with the front only 4 ft. high, the sun does not get into the house as it does with higher windows, while tbe whole roof and front being exposed to the south, such a house, unless very carefully ventilated, warms up too much during the middle of the day, and cools too quickly after the sun goes down. Though I would not recommend this style of roof for a house built where any style of roof - might be used, there are times when it is the best style — as when a poultry bouse is to be built as lean-to beside another building. In a house of this style and dimensions, I think it would be found an -advantage to put windows in the ends as weli as in the front. The light would be better, and the ventilation through the windows could be better worked to offset the faults of this style of roof. The roosting arrangement is one that wil) appeal to many. roosts. Poultry House. O'Brien's d, droppings board ; ad A Neat House With Labor Cost Given. A. T. Grosvenor, Abington, Conn. Last year I wintered three pens of hens in houses constructed similar to the accompanying plan. This plan, however, in order to accommo- date twenty-five hens, is two feet longer and ws one foot wider than the plan of the house now in use, The pitch_of the roof on each house is the i : same, consequently the larger building is some- fp what higher. / In regard to the construction, the sills are 8 x 4 } Rg in. pieces, while the posts, plates, rafters, etc., __/ are all 2x3 in. The frame is covered with / ploughed and matched pine, or barn boards only. The roof is shingled, with no attempt to ure have the roof boards fit closely; in fact, on the D, door; 0, small door; Drawings Showing Structure of Mr. 88 four houses which I have, the roof boards are nearly two inches apart. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. course unnecessary, but I think it adds considerable to the appearance. The eight inch jet is of For light there are two windows with double sashes, each sash having two 12 x 16 inch panes One or both of these windows is opened a part of each day, the time determined by the tem perature and condition of the weather. The floor of each pen is sand and gravel. Materials’ and Labor. FRAME. Sits Q pieces 8x 4in.12 ft. long, 24 sq. ft. : 7 Lpiece 8x4in. 16 ft. lony, 16 sq. ft. 8 pieces 2x 3in. 16 ft. long, 2t>q. ft. 16 pieces 2x 8in. 12 ft. long, 96 sq. ft. $22.50 per M., 160 sq. ft. 83 60 BOARDS, E1C. 154 sq. ft. roof boards, 14 ft. long, @ $20 per M., 3 05 192 sq. ft. burn boards, 16 ft. long, @ $30 per M., 57 168 sq. ft. barn boards, 12 ft. long, 5 04 9 pieces square edge pine, 4 in. wide, 12 ft. long, @ $30 per M., 10s 3 pieces square edge pine, 4 in. wide, 14 ft. long, 42 1250 shingles, @ $4 per M., 5 00 2 windows, 2 20 Nails, hinges, taumb latch, ete., 109 Labor, 7 40 Total, $34 os Tn this plan we get away, a little, from the severely otber plans given, and geta build- ing somewhat more sightly, a point which sometimes has to be considered if a poultry house isso placed with reference to other buildings that an extremely plain one would mar the general effect. The one point which seems to me especially to call for criticism iy the leaving a space between the sheathing on the roof. Most of my houses are built that way, but [ would not build another without laying the roof sheathing close. The increase of cost is comparatively trifling, and the gain in looks, and « smooth sur- face to whitewash is considerable, As with some of the other plans given, the capacity of this bouse is rated rather high. Twenty-five hens may be kept in it in winter, but twenty is nearer right, and the latter nuniber is the safer one to use. ’ plain and simple construction of the fA g! | —| bLugians Showing Ground Plan and Seale, f-in bh FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 89 Which Plan ? In the above plans, and the two given in the last lesson, readers have been furnished plans for seven plain, good, and cheap poultry houses at low to moderate cost. While I have made some criticisms on the plans in this lesson, and also /ndicuted some faults in construction of the houses I built, I want to impress it on those studying these lessous, and about to decide what style of house to build, that—considered from tbe standpoint of practical work — the faults of these plans are what we may term secondary faults. There is nothing in any of them, that I can discover, that would make it possible for ove using such a house to attribute poor results to the house. The matter of the adaptability of these different plans to different conditions, and expecially to other climates, will seem to many to call for consideration. Many suppose — and not unnaturally — that a house suited to New England conditions would not suit conditions in Virginia, Maryland, Florida, or Texas. - The more substantially and warmly built houses used in northern states go beyond what Cy ——— [sae 1. F southern conditions re- Pagine quire ‘in construction. Lepr ereploor That they also go beyond what northern conditions require, a great many of Intertor ™ ushelieve, and are proving : ie our faith by the stvle of 8X/2 buildings we use. But a warm, tight house with small openings which might work satisfactorily in the north — except in occasional sultry weather, would be unsatisfactory In a warm climate. For such a climate an open shed house, such as those IT am using, is much bet- ter. However, from my own experience with houses of different styles in Colorado, where I have seen colder weather than in the vicinity of Boston, much warmer weather than we ever have here, Ly I = Se & and more sudden changes Dropping Board. LE OOSE Q' from floor “ JB from floor HA4SES (2, than I have seen here, I feel safe in recommending such houses as IT now use for any place where shel- al ter is required. As slight in construction as they cun be made and have them stand up and stay togetber, they still provide protec- tion from storms of all = oq kinds. The experience of many poultrymen in differ- Framing of Mr. Grosvenor’s House. ent sections is confirming to the fvot. this judgment. D9 Kas IN POULTRY KEEPING. LESSONS FIRST 90 APIS thos ‘Joos attd oF tour $ apwoy ‘asmoyp fit jnog 8 .touaaso.ty eed ed = “ayy fe ton apee , A A a a) EE] ARF MCE TC pug ysef “ FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 9h LESSON XI. Summer Management of Fowls. HIS subject naturally divides into two topics: 1.— What fowls to keep. 2.—How to handle them to best advantage. Both of these topics have to be considered with reference to future as well ag immediate results. Old Hens as Layers. In connection with the question of keeping over for another year the hens now from a year to fifteen or sixteen months old, arises the old question of the relative value of pullets and hens as egy producers, a question which has provoked as much controversy and as much needless and pointless wrangling as any of the many questions each swiftly passing generation of beginners in poultry culture has to solve anew for itself. The first cause of all this trouble is in the statement of the proposition — in the attempt to make an arbitrary division of fowls into profitable and unprofitable producers, anid make the line of separation at a certain age. I think it may be truly said that in no matter relating to poultry (or to anything else, but we have to do only with poultry here), is it possible to make arbitrary and sharp divisions and distinctions for certain alleged purposes, and have results as they come justify the rvles upon which the divisions were made. There is no best breed of fowls. There is no best method of feeding or housing. We are many men of many minds, working under many different circumstances, with stocks of fowls that have experienced many different conditions. So we cannot all use the same rules, nor will any of us be wise to make hard and fast rules to govern in the conduct of our business. To get back to the main point. In the discussion of question of the relative laying qualities of hens and pullets, the fowls are generally classed according to age at the beginning of the period for which results are to be compared, and considered as in that class throughout the entire period, though, as a matter of fact, the pullets may pass the pullet age at some time within it. Properly designated, a pullet is a hen less than a year old. The period for which results are usually compared is from the time the first pullets begin to lay —generally October or November — until the next spring or early summer. Hence, in such comparisons, no account, as a rule, is taken of the performance of tbe ben during summer and early fall, though it must be evident to every one that in considering the question at this season, (July 1st), we must consider what we may get out of the bens in the four months or so before the pulletS are laying, as well as what we may get in the winter and spring. Some authorities advise and some poultrymen make a practice of disposing of laying stock, 92 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. in the fall when the hens that were pullets in the preceding winter are sixteen to eighteen months old. I think it is much tbe better way to give the old stock a general overhauling before extreme warm weather comes on, and arrange at that time for the most profitable dis- position of each of the several lots into which the flock will be divided. When the general glean up is to be made in the fall the tendency is to leave in the flock many hens which should be disposed of without delay, the reason the poultryman gives himself for this being that, as the bulk of the lot is to be disposed of ut that future time, it makes little difference if the few unprofitables are allowed to remain in it. Consequently some proportion of the fowls in each pen or flock are non-producers, adding nothing to the income, while consuming their share of the food, occupying room, taking time and attention of the poultryman, and, last but not least, adding to his risks of loss, for the idle unproductive fowl at this season more, perhaps, than at any other, is detrimental to the flock. So it seems to me that the numerous beginners, and others young in the business, who are on their own initiative making preparations to cull their hens, now show a much better appre- ciation of the best policy than do those of longer experience who leave this culling until the summer is over. As-I come in contact, personally and through correspondence, with the experiences of a great mavy poultry keepers each year, it seems to me that it is still true as it was in the traditional times prior to the improvement of breeds and of methods of poultry culture, that most hens lay wellfor only a few months in the spring. It seems, also, to be the fact that a great many poultrymen who get fair to good egg yields in winter und sprivg get very poor yields after the warm weather comes on. In this fact we may find one reason for their prefer- ence for pullets for laying purposes, and for their failure to reckon summer and fall as profit- able seasons in egg production. Certainly it does not pay to keep hens over if they are idle for a period of five, six, or seven months; but, if we can have our hens giving fair to good egg yields through summer and fall, and have them idle, or nearly so, for but two or three months, that is the better way to manage. The question is: Can it be done, and how? Selecting Hens to Keep Over. Let me state first of all that it cannot be done with all hens. In every flock of yearling hens there are some it will not pay to carry over — hens that even at this age have outlived their usefulness. The proportion of such hens will depend on the vitality of the stock, on its general condition and performance through the winter,and on hpw well the poultry keeper bas succeeded in adjusting food and care to maintaining the hens in condition for future productiveness. If as the poultry keeper reviews his experiences of the past year he recalls any of the follow. ing things as circumstances in the history of his flock of yearling hens, he is warranted in con- sidering that an unusually large proportion of them are not good candidates to keep over :— If they were not thrifty as young chicks. If at any period of growth they were checked. If there was at any timé during the year any serious sickness epidemic among them. 4. If they were spasmodic layers. 5. Ifasler a period of good laying they suddenly fell off and were hard to get laying again. 6. If they are now generally in poor condition. A lot of hens may have had all these unfortunate experiences; few flocks entirely escape them, and most poultrymen have to tuke account of some of them every year. The years when we avoid them all are red letter yeurs in our lives, und the bens produced in those years ure jikely to be unusually long lived as profitable layers. Now, though in proportion as they have escaped the above ills, the yearling hens are more promising candidates for a longer stay in the poultry yard, we must not make the mistake of ecoudemning them on one or two counts, especially if the faults were remedied; but we must note iat every unfavorable condition in the life of the hen increases the danger that as she gasses her prime she will develop digestive or ovarian troubles, and with this in mind we must en FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 93 select much more carefully from such a lot of hens than from a flock. that has had no trouble and bis been steadily productive, and always in dealing with an individual of such history must. consider that its expectation of continued productiveness or of recovery from disease is below the average. In deciding upon his general arrangements for the year, the poultry keeper who has to deal with a flock like this can estimate that be will bave only a small proportion of year- Jing bens to carry over. In selecting from a flock of yearlings that have been generally in good condition, free from disease, und fair to good egg producers, take first those that are plainly in good health and con- dition, bright looking and presumed to be laying or about to lay, Hens that answer that description at this season of the )ear we may say quite positively that it will pay to keep over. Of course this does not meau that every such hen will be profitable. Every hen of a small lot may be, but the rule is that as hens advance in age an inereasing proportion of them develop disorders or from various reasons become unprofitable. What we say of this selected lot of yeurliny bens is that being at this season in fine condition these hens may be reserved and given regulur care with every reasonable assurance that they will give a good account of themselves, and their further culling need not concern the poultryman for some time. Having taken out the best hevs, take now the worst ones — the hens that are noticeably {inferior in size and appearance. Perhaps I ean make it plainer by telling how I go about it myself. When putting pullets into winter quarters in the fall,as long as I have room for them, I do not reject slightly undersized or those that lack typical shape, provided they seem vigorous and healthy. My experience has been that while not equal to well grown and well built pullets for continued egg production these inferior pullets are generally profitable as layers through their first winter and spring laying period. After that I find them as a rule less satisfactory, and except in case I reserve some for further tests, all such yearling bens go to the hen cart in the first general clean up in June or early July. When I was handling poultry on a Jarger scale, and peddling out my products, we were killing off old stock as customers wanted it every week in the year, yet always as the young chicks-came up and needed the room we found it necessary to go over the whole stock carefully and dispose of many of the least promising yearlings. These poorest hens are destined to go to the hen cart as soon as in marketable condition, whether they begin to lay or not. We have left now some hens about which we are uncertain. They do not seem to belong positively with either of the other classes. Most of them are good hens in poor condition. That being the case, the points for us to consider are why they are in poor condition, und whether their condition can be readily improved. The most common cause for healthy hens being in poor condition at this season is that egg production for some time has been so heavy that they could not keep it up and keep in good flesh atthe same time. The result is that they lay heavily as long as they can stand it, then have to stop, and will either not lay or lay only occasionally until restored to good condition. My hens are at all times full fed and with sufficient variety, yet I always find a considerable number of them that thus lay themselves out of condition. The lot of hens comprising this class, if put by themselves, as I put them now, generally give, for awhile, a very smail egg yield, though if one has been very rigid in selection of his first class hens, he will have left for this some that are laying, but not in good condition, and only more attractive than the others which go into the intermediate class because the comb is bright. If these laying hens go as they should into this intermediate lot we are likely to have from it at the start a low, but steady egg yield. The hens are now divided into three lots, I. e.: Lot 1.—Good hens in good condition. Lot 2.—Good hens in poor condition, and hens about which the keeper feels uncertain, Lot 3.—Poor hens and those which for other reasons it is not desirable to keep. Under this last specitication include scaly legged hens — no matter how good ib other respects. 94 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. Lot 1 ig to be kept over, and is to have the regular summer care to be described. Lot 2 is to huve special care and feeding to bring as many as may be into good condition, then be sorted out again, those which respond quickly to good care being transferred to Lot 1, or given the same care where they are, while those that do not get into condition with reasonable promptitude are to be marketed. With regard to these last, and also to hens in Lot 5, if they do not flesh up readily, though apparently healthy, sell them as they are for what they will bring. Don't try to fatten them revardless of time or cost, The probability is tbat such hens have weuk digestion, or some minor disorder that prevents getting them in good flesh, and if the attempt is made to force them pronounced disease may develop and make them a total loss. There is a market for poor fow |], but not for sick ones. We will refer again to pointsin tbe bandling of these lots of fowls after the general state- ment of the method of curing for fowls iu summer. The Season and the Systems. Allusion has been made to the fact that many poultrymen who get fair to good egg yields in winter and spring do vot do so well in summer. There may be other speciul reasons for this in special cases, but I think the prime reason is to be found in that the hens are kept under conditions that were made for winter, and cannot be properly adapted to summer poultry keeping. Ventilation in the Poultry House. Many poultry houses are so constructed that they cannot be thoroughly ventilated. Many thut might be well ventilated by leaving all doors and windows open day and night are but partly opened in the day time, and almost closed at night. Houses with the roosts next low rear walls, and houses with deep narrow pens give very unsatisfactory conditions on hot sultry nights. In cool summers hens may do fairly well in such houses, but in hot seasons the lack of air in such quarters is very debilitating. A summer poultry house sbould be airy day and night; it must be so if the fowls are to do well and keep wellinit. The Rhode Island colony poultry farmers block their houses up several inches trom the ground in summer, admitting fresh air all around. If thorough ventilation cannot be obtained any other way, mage openings in the rear wall of the house near the roof, with a slide or hinged cover that cau oe closed when rain or wind would beatin. There is, however, little danger of bad effects from such causes if the opening is protected by the eaves of the house; and there are few times in summer when one need fear lest fowls suffer from drafts through such openings. Yards and Range. Fowls keep in best condition in summer if they have good grassy range, with both sun and sbade as they may want to tuke them. They can, as a rule, be made more productive if confined to yards where the supply of green food does not exceed their actual needs, and fed well ou a ration differing but little from that given during coo] weather. The most productive fowl, however, is not always the most profitable fowl. The item of labor must be considered, and the more yard room fowls are given the less close attention to their wants is necessary. No ruleto govern the adjustment of labor to production can be given. It must vary under different circumstances. If a man has nothing to do but take care of his fowls, or bas ample time to give them all the care required under intensive methods, his best policy ix to get the largest possible product from his hens. If in the use of intensive methods, he gives time to poultry that otherwise would be devoted to other profitable work, he must decide just what division of his time will pay him best. Such decision requires some experience and some experiment in- adjusting methods to circumstances, Tbe essential thing in the early stages of one's work with poultry is to under- stand the need and advantace of striking the right balance in the distribution of time to different kinds of work, and direct one’s effort toward the gradual solution of the problem, FIRST LESSONS IN POULIRY WEEPING. 95 Consideration must also be given to the fact that, though by confinement and high feeding, bens may, as a rule, be made more productive than when given more liberty and lighter diet, the process wears them out faster, and it is not advisable to force in this way hens that are to be used the next season for breeding purposes, or indeed bens that are wanted to lay during the succeeding winter and spring. High feeding through summer should be carried to the limit only with hens that are destined to be sold as soon as they cease to Jay profitably. With those we want to produce longer we must be more moderate, and must modify the diet, even at cost of reduction in the egy yield, during extreme hot weather. The Effects of Change. Another point to be considered is that a change of quarters or a change from one system toa quite different one, with perhaps, changes in diet or method of feeding with the changing con- ditions, will at the same time better the condition aud the egg yield of fowls. Again und again poultrymen have taken breeding hens after months of beavy laying in con- finement, put them on range to recuperate, not caring whether the bens laid or not, and found that after a little rest they began to lay, and laid well for a long time, when if left in their old quarters they would probably have done nothing. Good laying under such conditions does not seem to take as much out of the fowis as the same production in confiuement. Such a change is not a sure way of making hens lay iu summer, but it seems to do so often enough to make it worth a trial when other metbods tuil. Summer Feeding. Except for extremely bot periods or conditions which give hot effects continuously—as small yards and badly ventilated bouses—the general summer and winter rations for laying stock may be virtually the same. Using such rations as are given in Lesson I. for moderate winter weather, increase the corn meal and corn in them for extreme cold winter weather, and for summer reduce the corn meal and (especially) the corn in warmest weather. In the last two or three seasons I have had more trouble with cracked corn than in all my previous experience, finding it difficult to get cracked corn free from mold. Consequently I have fed less cracked corn than formerly, and sometimes have omitted it altogether for weeks atatime. Good clean cracked corn free from mold and not beated may be fed to hens on range or in large grass yards quite as freely now asin winter, except in hottest weather, when itis advisable to leave it out. Green Food. Ordinarily fowls may be allowed all the green food they wil] eat, both winter and summer. Sometimes, however, when tbe weather is extremely hot they will, if liberally supplied with green food, fill up on it and take too little grain to sustain egg production at their usual mark. If egg production is to be maintained, if possible it is best at such times to feed green food only after the fowls have been fed on grain. Again, fowls on a range well supplied with grass and insects are apt to get in the habit of foraging early, maintaining themselves on insects and grass, aud lay very little. The best way to do in such cases is to keep the bens up until they have had’ one good feed of grain. If pruc- ticable the end sought may be gained by increasing the number of fowls on the range, thus making the supply of food each secures by foraging enough less than a comfortable sufficiency to keep it ready to take a fair ration of grain once or twice a day. Animal Food. A range must be very good indeed to furnish all the animal food they need to what fowls can get allthe green food they need on it. Hence under ordinary conditions it is more neces sary to supplement the animal food of hens on range than to provide special supplies of green food, and I think hens on range in summer will stand even heavier feeding of concentrated, prepared meat foods than when confined in winter. For hens that ure closely confined it is sifer to reduce the proportions of prepared animal food, and if it is desired to feed meat heavily , feed at least a part of fresh meat or green cut bone, which contain large percentages of water. In feeding concentrated animal foods at this season special attention should be given to the 96 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY WEEPING. quality of the articles used. Anything of this kind that is not sound, sweet and good will pro duce bad effects more quickly in hot weather than at any other time. Manner and Times of Feeding. Whatever may be said of dry feeding for winter, and close confinement, it must be admitted that for bens on range in summer it is a method economical of time, and saving the poultryman from tue necessity of giving close attention to every feeding, for when grain fora day, or two if need be, can be broadcasted over a range where it scatters enough to give the fowls all needed exercise in getting it, the task of feeding becomes light. In more restricted quarters the amount which may be thrown out at one time is smaller, and when we get down to small yards, times and ways of feeding differ from the winter practice only in that the days being long it is much easier to make a satisfactory adjustment of the regular meals. ‘ One of the great difficuities in winter feeding is to give the fowls in those shortest days enough for their own maintenance and good egg production, and yet not overwork the digestive organs. In summer, with it possible to feed in the morning several hours earlier, and in the evening several hours later, there is time for three full meals, and rests for the digestive system between them. That is why fowls often eat more in summer than in winter, and why when they do they stand heavy work better. Perhaps the poultry keeper does not want to get up early enough in the morning to give his fowls ap early breakfast. Jf so, he should see that they have something left over from the . night feed to give them an inducement tv be busy until he is ready to give them their break- fast. In very hot weather—indeed at all times in summer, but especially in very hot weather, the fowls should get out as soon as it is light, so that they may have opportunity to feed and exercise while it is cool and comfortable. When the heat is great they will keep still and go without food rather than make any effort to get it,and when they do this we see the same result us when they eat too liberally of green food to the neglect of the more substantial grain diet'needed to sustain egg production. As my poultry houses are never closed, the hens get out as soon as it is light. Where houses must be closed for safety the poultry keeper should be about early and Jet the hens out. If he isn’t willing to do that I should not expect to find him enthusiastic over summer eggs, The comment just made suggests a word in regard to attention to fowls in summer. There is little doubt in my mind that many instances of poor summer laying are due to lack of atten- tion to the needs of the hens. Too often the poultryman’s interests at this season are centered on the coming generation of chicks to the neglect of the old fowls. When this is the case there is generally mismanagement somewhere. It may be that there is not room to carry both. Io that case the stock should be reduced to what he has facilities to handle to good advantage. There is never a gain, and nearly always there is a loss, in overstocking a poultry plant. Special Feeding. Let us take up now the special feeding of such hens as we have designated as Lot 2 and Lot 3. Lot 2 contains hens which are probably to be kept over, and therefore should be given care and feeding that would build up the general condition of the hens, as well as cause them to put on flesh. So while being in all other respects treated like the hens in Lot 1, they should be fed heavily as long as the appetite seems good. Give them a good rich mash, and enough of it so that they will leave a little over, which, within an hour or so, they will come back and clean up. Have grain where they can get it by foraging, or scratching at any time through the day. Then, just before dark, give grain in troughs, or what mash they will eat up quickly. If a second mash is used at night, do not continue it too long, or it may produce indigestion. If fowls show any tendency to looseness of the bowels, give more grain and less mash, or use & dry mash, From ten days to three weeks of such feeding should show quite clearly what most of the “hens are going to do. Some will begin to lay as soon as in good condition, Others will grow fat very fast. Some may neither fatten vor lay. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY WEEPING. 97 Put those that Jay on the general ration, still feeding well, but with more caution. Sell those that fatten instead of beginning to lay. Sometimes poultry keepers try to make such hens lay by thinning them down again, the assumption being that they do not lay because they are toofat Usually it is the other way: They fatten because the reproductive organs are for some reason or otber dormant. The hens that do not fatten or lay should be marketed if, on close inspection, no reason is discovered for supposing them not fit for food. If one feels in any doubt about that, and has such scruples xs be ought to bave about selling diseased poultry, he can dress and draw the fowls, and market only those in which he -finds the organs normal. Sometimes there is digest- ive weakness without disease. It might be overcome, and the fow] put in good condition in time, but itis not profitable to keep and feed such fowls, for quite generally they consume as much food as the others, but the food passes through the system, and is voided without much having been assimilated. To Fatten Fowls in Summer. The fowls in Lot 3 are to be sold as soon as marketable. Some of them may need no fatten- ing and may, if convenient, be disposed of at once. To fatten the others, shut them up in a conifortable pen, feed once a day a mash composed of equal parts corn meal and bran, with about 10% of the combined bulk of the meal and bran red dog, or white middlings, or low grade flour, with as much good beef scrap or meat me} added as they will eat freely. Keep cracked corn before them all the time. Give a little green food daily, just enough for a relish. See that they are well supplied with water. Keep them quiet. If any hens are disposed to be quarrelsome, remove them and fatten by themselves in small coops. Sell the hens as soon as in good plump condition. Don’t try to get them excessively fat. Our market does not want that kind of poultry. There may, as in Lot 2, be a few hens that will not fatten; dispose of them the same way. This method of fattening is one that anyone can use anywhere — in almost any season, 1 say ‘“‘ almost any season,” because in an extremely hot season it is sometimes found hard or impossible to fatten fowls this way during the warmest period. I am not prepared to say whether crate fattening would accomplish the desired results with those hens at such times, but am inclined to think it would not. . Asa rule it does not pay to give much time at this season to the hens that are not to be kept over. If they cannot be put in good marketable condition quickly sell them just as they are. Molting. Of late years a good deal of interest hus been manifested in the matter of regulating the molt- ing of fowls. It has beep claimed that a period of fasting or short feeding followed by a period of very heavy feeding of rich foods would cause the fow]s to quit laying, drop the old feathers quickly, grow the new coat quickly, and promptly resume laying. This theory was, I believe, tirst exploited by an institute lecturer, who was also responsible for several other somew bat sensi- tional stories. I could not learn from him that the hens he claimed to bave made molt did resume laying promptly. In fact be appeared not able to produce any proof of real] results, though he maintained that he had succeeded in controlling the molt. Various experiments made along this line have had varying results, not all fowls being affected alike by the treat- ment. It seems to be established that in some cases a molt is enforced, but not that there is any practical advantage in doing this. Investigations, bowever, have not been general enougb to warrant any positive general conclusions, and as far us I know none have followed the hens through the year following the enforced molt. As the case stands I could not advise anyone to attempt to control the molt in this way except with fowls he was willing to experiment upon. The Time of the Normal Molt Varies. —Hens begin to drop some feathersin June, may drop many in July, and from that time on till winter in any large stock fowls may be found in different stages of molting. lf there are any general rules that could be laid down in regard to molting | have never discovered them. The greater number of hens will be “in fu!] molt,” 98 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. that is, quite bare of feathers, and not laying, in September and October, though often hens that keep on laying in the fall do not get right down to growing the new plumage until November. Rations for Molting Hens. The food requirements of the molting hen do not differ materially from those of the laying hen. Some authorities prescribe rations rich in protein and low in tats, as containing in better proportion the elements required for feather production. I began by using such rations, but soon discovered that my hens molted better, growing a much better and glossier cout of feathers if fed a ration rich in fats. Experience in this respect has been the same with hens molting in midsummer, and those molting in late fall, except that the hens molting in summer molted much more quickly and often laid continuously right through the molt. For many years my method of feeding molting hens bas been :— Morning.—Mash as in Mash No. 1, Lesson I., but nearly half corn meal. Noon.—(or all day feed)—Wheat or barley broadcasted in the yards. Evening.—Cracked corn scattered in the yards, followed just before the hens go to roost by as mucb more cracked corn, fed either in troughs or handfuls on the ground. Cabbage before the fouls all the time. Generally bens do not all molt alike. Some molt quickly, others slowly. It is a good plan, whenever practicable, to keep them sorted over, and have all hens in one pen or Jot very nearly fn the same condition. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 99 LESSON XII. Continuous Poultry Houses.—Continuous vs. Separate Houses. written me asking my opinion as to the relative merits of continuous and separate poul- try houses, that I have thought it better to make the discussion of that subject preface the descriptions of continuous houses, and so give those interested in them the oppor- tunity vo consider the plans and the advisability of building such plans in the light of what may pe said for or against the system of keeping poultry in large, long houses. It is undoubtedly more convenient for the poultry keeper to have his fowls all under one roof or in connecting buildings in winter. It is easier and in every way more agreeable to be able to pass from the grain and feed room to any and all of the buildings occupied by fowls without going from under cover, and without taking more steps than absolutely necessary. In winter, again, for long periods, and sometimes through quite the entire winter, it may be impossible for the fowls to get out beyond such little strip of ground next their house as may be kept clear of snow for them, and hence all the advantages of large yards and free range are for the time inoperative. As far as winter poultry keeping goes, in all latitudes and localities where there is much snow or mud, there is no advantage in detached, separate houses, in either of the matters alluded to above, i. e., economy of Jabor and benefit of ample outdoor room to the fowls, There is, I think, but one point In which a continuous house is objectionable in winter. If built as many such houses are built, withcut due precautions to avoid drafts and to secure uniform conditions throughout the building we are very apt to have conditions of temperature, dryness, etc., varying greatly within the house and in parts of it becoming so unsuitable that the fowls in those pensdo not do as wellasthe others do. This differ- ence in conditions in pens in the same house is not the only cause of uneven results, but it is the cause very often when not at allsuspected. Totest for it. If there are in a long build- ing with numerous pens certain pens of fowls laying well, and others not Jaying well, or some perfectly healthy while others either seem unthrifty or one by one contract some disease, (particularly colds) though there is no reason in the stock itself or in the care given that will explain the differences, try exchanging the fowls in two such pens. If, as will often be the case, the pens, soon after changing places, begin to change'in condition and produc- tiveness you may be quite sure that the bad condition and unproductiveness are due to some fault in the building.” If a building is so constructed that no difficulties of this kind arise in operating it, the continuous house system is, I think, without question the best sys- tem for winter poultry keeping. _ Sie the subject of this lesson was announced, so many readers about to build have 100 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. Equally without question, I think scenikar InimReeccan Gina ten satan RGR. CANGSE (2 that for other seasons of the year it a ee a a -<--|-- is the worst system. If a large nume ber of fowls are to be kept on a small piece of ground, we must consider the continuous house system the best A. for such circumstances; but itisa fA mistake, and a bad one, for a person 2 who wants to keep a large stock of N N fowls to use intensive methods, N I do not mean by that that poultry i E cannot be made profitable under such —w we db t 0 w conditions. It would be absurd to ‘ claim that they could not—for they Sy . have been kept ata good profit under ws ee such conditions by a great many peo- ots ple. But the profitable life of the intensive poultry plant seems to be A I. short. The ground becomes contam- f inated, and the stock does not thrive as it did when the plant was new. The system is a laborious one for the poultryman — keeping his nose on the grindstone all the time, and unless he —~ ; .is uncommonly pleased with that pro- cess, when results begin to be less satisfactory he becomes discouraged, and grows somewhat careless and slack about his work, and his plant soon becomes an unsatisfactory proposition. This has been the ‘ Ad: history of many a venture in which the poultryman, after a few years struggle, succeeds in getting his intensive poultry plant on a paying basis, only to discover after a few years more how difficult or impossible it will be to % keep the plant up to the mark made in those fat years. For all times of the year but winter, and perhaps we = should include early spring, the easiest way to handle fowls is to give them either free range, or yards so large that they have all the advantages of free range. To keep fowls in this way houses of one or two pens are used, What- ever may be said of the relative merits of warm or closed Connecting Pens, and cold or open houses in winter, there will be no dis- A ground plan, A lfront, A 2 partition agreement on the proposition thatalmost any old leaky shed between pens, will do for summer. -sz--9% Section of Continuous House With The ideal poultry plant I would consider a plant that gave the best conditions for both winter and summer. That means practically two sets of buildings; continuous houses con- venient to the dwelling and to other outbuildings for winter, and separate houses distributed about the farm for summer. This is what I would haveif I were keeping a large stock of poultry on alarge farm. On a place of but a few acres, or on a small lot, I would be governed by circumstances. On my place now I have the two pen building described in Lesson IX., and five smaller one pen houses distributed about the place. Winter before last we had these small houses up near the barn, the two pen house being farthest from the dwelling. In the spring all the small houses were put beyond the two pen house, the farthest away being some 200 ft. from it. Last winter the small houses were used as in summer, because I did not care to move them in and then back again In the spring. The intention is to have the south end of the barn basement fitted for poultry, and keep in 1t through the winter about as many hens FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 101 as the small outlying bouses will accom- modate in the summer. This, as the im Pitt i reader will notice, is «a modification of ie To peti Eee |e what I call the ideal system, which is a complete double system. “For my own use, and for all round economy, I would use the double capacity, B. one set of buildings for winter, and the other for summer, rather than adopt the plan of grouping small movable houses /d together for winter, and spreading them over the farmin summer, because I believe it would be.cheaper in the long run, and altogether.more satisfactory. It is a good deal of a job to move a building baving a capacity of over a dozen x to fifteen fowls, anyway you doit. To ie move a lot of such buildings twice a year, it willtake but a few years to make Bil. the cost of movings exceed the cost of a summer plant. Further, the moving of buildings twice « year may interfere seriously with other work; or if other work interferes with it the delays are expensive, and may put operations out of joint for the whole season. Then the grouping of| ! c= small buildings close together makes a very poor substitute for the continuous house system in bad winter weather. I would not say it was impossible to group the separate buildings temporarily, and arrange B2. everything conveniently, but I have notseen it done. Where —_— I have seen one pen houses placed close together, it would — have been as well in my judgment to have placed them far 7S d enough apart to make a system of houses like my two pen uw iat house. Such houses placed with ends 30 to 50 ft. apart, | Ma and the rows of houses 150 ft. or more apart give a } t medium between winter and summer conditions of con- venience that will be found very satisfactory on small sada 8 Rata need Wath farms, or on farms where it is desired to keep the fowls “°™™°"9 “ens an iain tis permanently on the same eround B ground plan, Bl front, B 2 partition 5 . between pens. In conclusion I want to say to the reader debating the house question—Don’t give undue weight to my opinion. I have tried to emphasize the need of adapting systems or plans to con- ditions. I would also emphasize the need of adapting them tc personal preferences. Because I don’t object to traveling even through the snow the few hundred yards which must be traversed in caring for my fowls as I have them in winter, it does not follow that you will be suited with such conditions. One reason J don’t object to it is that that may be the greater part ot my outdoor exercise at that season. If 1 were out doors all day it might be different. I might still continue to do it as on the whole the best arrangement, but very likely would con- sider that feature sometimes a drawback. , Plan your buildings to suit your conditions, your methods of poultry keeping and yourself. If you have preferences indulge them unless you find them condemned by persons of good and fairjudgment. Don’t take anyone’s ideas on authority unless the reasons they give seem good. Some useless features have been introduced into all buildings in a community merely because some one who was successful had them !n his building, though these features were superficial and did not at all affect results. 102 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. Continuous Poultry Houses. The continuous poultry house, as the descriptive name indicates, is a‘system of similar compartments, or pairs of compartments united in one long building. The single pen or pair of pens is made the unit of the system. When a single pen is the unit, each pen throughout the entire system, which may extend to a number of long buildings, is in construction a duplicate of every other pen. When the unit is a double one it is because the plan adopted makes some arrange- ' : ~ ments, as of doors, windows, roosts, : and nests alike in the alternate, but opposite in the adjoining pens. Of the plans of separate and two C pen houses, given in Lessons IX. and X., the first house in Lesson IX. is not adapted to become the unit of a system F houses s» equipped 4 have I found tbe CCPL a —d d work allbeing done | ars 5 , rai is Ok from the walk as , designed. It is not nearly as conven- ient in practice asit s R R $ looks on paper, and when the pens are never entered in a * doing routine work there is likely to bl... what a gtevane tes kt kad a paseseene aie be a great commo- : tion among the hens Diagram Showing Method of Building Scratching Shed House With Walk, when it is necessary to go into the pen. The Passing of the Continuous House. The continuous house plan in its extreme developments was a fud. Men seemed to vie with each other in building long houses, From buildings 100 to 150 or at most about 200 ft. in length they went toin one case, as my memory serves, about 600 ft. Tbe shorter buildings answered their purpose very well. The very long ones, as a rule, were on plants that failed, und these unwieldy buildings clearly had something to do with the failure. Just at present there is reaction against intensive methods, and with it inevitably goes a lack of interest in continuous bouse plans which may easily be carried too fur. In the preliminary remarks on this lesson I tried to show how and where the continuous house plan can be used to best advantage, ans is superior to separate houses, In considering house plans, as in nearly all matters relating to poultry heeping, we will find it best not to commit ourselves unquulifiedly to any one idea. 105 “aney us NPA WIA asnozyT pays Huryoppwogy juowy uadg ‘ONS AS V7 NI CIHS GNY V4 JONVId ANNOY Thoth [il "Py id ‘bint P 104 X,07 ge ags ‘SOUVA JD LY To! pve FSAOCH 49 NVI QNNOYD SLB) | ae I_LCo L lye ‘" peyt wYQ0IIS 24,8 \ ; 8 2406 Wooa wu iitery 1 h = ~. Lie wood ! a 044,07 LOG . Ho eras! 2 f— . ’ mas aT 4 ‘ab rm ahh abossny ht | i Seon ch oo Pesta dae 1tLA4 JUNG Panu yg THtn st S20v07 ‘FALL D3dSUTd “WYINDE- 106 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. LESSON XIII. Incubator Rooms and Brooder Houses. construction as fully as in the treatment of houses for adult stock, for these reasons : In the first place to do so would involve a good deal of repetition of what has appeared in the otber Jessous, for many small buildings used in connection with artificial methods are quite like some of those already described. In the next place the larger buildings for pipe systems of brooders must often be planned with reference to the arrangement of the heating system, and the incubator and brooder manufacturers that sell heating systems furnish plans especially suited to them, and I would by all means advise any who intend to build brooder houses for pipe systems of brooding to decide first on their heating arrangements, and build after designs furnished by the manufacturers, : T DISCUSSING the topics under the title of this lesson, I shall not go into details of os Incubator Rooms. For an incubator room most incubator operators prefer a cellar. It is desirable that the temperature of the room in which the machines are to be operated should not vary sharply with outside fluctuations of temperature. This condition might be obtained in a room wholly above ground by making the walls very thick, but such a building would be expensive. The conditions sought are as nearly as possible attalined—and thut at comparatively small expense by building cellars, as shown in the illustration. Sometimes the cellar used is under a building, but in genera) cellars built expressly for this purpose are placed at a little distance from other buildings. The use of the cellar of a house or barn for incubators is quite common when the number of machines operated is too small, or the permanence of the use of machines too uncertain to seem to warrant the expense of con- struction of a special cellar. In making use of house and other cellars under buildings of more value than poultry build- ings generally are, one has to consider first of all how it affects his iusurance. At present most insurance companies either refuse to take risks under such circumstances, or charge « very high rate. A movement is now on foot among incubator manufacturers to Induce insur- ance companies to modify their regulations about incubators and brooders. Almost. siinults- neously with the beginning of this movement some people in the insurance business seem to have discovered that harsh regulations about the operation of incubators and brooders were very poor policy. So it is likely that before long there will be a change in conditions, and an FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 107 agreement us to the circumstances under which incubators may be operated in dwellings and such other places as people are likely to want to use for them. More fundamental objections to putting incubators in places not originally made for them are that too often the surroundings are not what could be desired. When an incubator is operated in a cellar or room used for other purposes it is too much exposed to outside influences, and when a part of such room {s partitioned off for the incubators, the most favor- able conditions for the operation of the machines are seldom obtained. The chief fault in such improvised quarters for incubators is the lack of suitable ventilation. A common cellar is often but au ill ventilated place at best, and the air in it good only when brough in fa stronger currents than are wanted in an incubator room. When a portion of such ceflar is set apart for incubators the atmospheric conditions in that part are generally not made better than in the main cellar. How far poor ventilation of the place 1n which the incubators are operated is responsible for A New England Incubator Celldr, weak chicks and for losses of chicks which were thought all right when they hatched, it {s impossible to say. Some of those making careful investigations into diseases of and mortality among artificially hatched chickens are beginning to be very strongly of the opinion that a lack of fresh air in the machines is one-of the most common causes of trouble, and that this lack of air is due not so much to faulty in machines, but to the imperfect adjustment of the sur- roundings — that is, of conditions in the incubator room tothe requirements of the machines, and the impression gains ground thatin future more attention will have to be given to the balancing of external and internal conditions of the artificial hatcher. It appears from some observations and experiments made recently that the time may soon come when directions for operating incubators will be much more comprehensive than at pres- ent, the necessary variations for different conditions being tabulated so that the operator may the better adapt the running of bis machine to existing conditions. This may not be done witb absolute accuracy, but far better than by guess. Perhaps I can make the meaning more clear 108 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. by an illustration from amateur photography with which many readers are somewhat familiar. The photographer can purchase a little book containing carefully worked out tables which enable him to determine in a momentjust what time to give an exposure with the diaphragm of any given dimensions and with any possible combination of light and surrounding objects. By the use of such tables the photographer reinforces and regulates his judgment, and is enabled to eliminate from his work much of the risk of spoiling plates or films and losing much desired pictures. Soin the development of artificial incubation we are evidently coming to a time when the operator will be given more appliances to record conditions he bas to reckon with, just as the thermometer now records the temperature; and will be furnished tabulated instruc- tions as to the adjustment of the machine to conditions. ; Meantime the amateur incubator operator need not be discouraged because in the operation of incubators he must rely much on his own judgment. At this stage of affairs be may get as good results as others by simply being sure he is on the safe side. I went one day to see the new incubator cellar on a large duck plant in this state. It was | One of Farrer Bros. Brooder Houses, W. Norwell, Mass. ‘built something like that in the illustration, but with the walls high enough above ground to let ‘in full half windows on the sides, while the roof was high in the middle. As you entered the door and looked about the effect was much like that of an empty church. In u church or any other building for large gatherings the walls must be high that there may be in the rooma volume of air great enough to move and create the necessary ventilation without great change of temperature. The builders of this incubator cellar had the same end in view. There was room enough in the building for a cellar higher than usually used for incubators and for a very Jarge loft over it. There was so much room that my first question was as to whether they had completed the building, or intended to make a loft. The reply was that the building was to be used as it was; that it had been planned to give abundance of air to the machines. I noticed no odor from the lamps and machines in that cellar. I have gone into many incubator cellars {0 which the odor was very bud. In sone of these this was because ventilation was defective regardless of the number of machines in operation; ip others it was because entirely too many incubators were in operation in the room. : FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEVING. 109 Therefore, wherever you run an incubator see that ventilation is good enough to remove bad air, and wherever you run more incubators see that this good condition is maintained. Thatit is possible to hatch chicks in crowded cellars where the air is bad, there is no doubt. There is lots of it done. That it is such chicks that give most trouble many think they begin to notice. Build the incubator cellar as large as you are ever likely to use it. Though it may always he too large—better that than too smal]. Spuce in it not needed for incubators may he used for an egg room or for storage of light, clean articles, a» coops, egg boxes, and baskets, ete. As to the structure of the incubator room: Ifa cellar, the walls below the surface should be of stone or brick, the floor of cement, the entire room above the ground Jined with matcbed lumber, and the windows double, for this is a building in which it is necessary to keep the tem- perature moderate, avoiding both extremes. : & Brooder Houses. In artificial brooding there are two systems. In one small brooders each heated by its own lamp are used. In the other a hot water or steam heuter sends the heat through a system of pipes that extends throughout a building coustructed on the continuous house plan. A pipe system is sometimes used for two or three hovers, but in tbat case the heater is small, and the entire system quite as easily portable as an individual brooder. Usually the building for a pipe system approaches a hundred feet in length, and may very much exceed it. For individual brood- ers small buildings may be used, or the brooders may be put in such long buildings as are used for pipe brooding systems— a brooder withits lamp being required for eacb section in the building. For those who hatch only a few small hatches each year the individual brooder in its own small building is generally more’ satisfactory. When the chickens no longer need the extra View of Part of Exterior of Brooder House heat the brooder may be At Lone Oak Poultry Farm, Reading, Mass. removed and the build- {ng used to shelter the growing chicks, Later it may be used for surplus cockerels or even for a pen of Jaying or breeding fowls. Individual brooders may also be used in such continuous houses a& are used for laying stock, one brooder in each compartment; but the brooder house especially fitted for individual brood- ers ig as a rule used for brooding only, and the same is true of the pipe brooder houses, Where large numbers of chicks are to be batched in coll or cool weather I think the long brooder house with pipe heaters over the hovers is by all odds the best plan. We say, then, that for growing winter chickens, for growing broilers and for all chick~ which must be kept indoors or closeiy yarded the pipe system is preferable when operations go beyond the number of chicks which can be handled in a few brooders. A few years ago a favorite style of brooder house arrangement was to build one end of the house for nursery brooders—these being individual brooders—for the youngest chicks and use the pipe system in theotherend. A bank of pipes extended along the north wall of the nursery supplementing the heat of the individual brooders. This arrangement was devised because of the general difficulty in keeping youngest chicks under pipes warm through cold nights. Of late years it has been discovered that merely using a heater of sufficient capacity makes it pos- sible to maintain the heat under the pipes. 110 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY HEEPING. COAL Suio MEATER PIT i PASSAGE opr ure GO This house is oniy 3 £t. high at the plate on south (front) side, and 5 ft. from the level of the peu floors to the apex of the rovf. The floor of the passage in the rear of the pens is excavated to a depth of 2 fits The width of the house is 14 ft., the length of each pen being 10 ft., und the inside width of the walk a 8 fl.9in. Each pen is 5 ft. wide, \ and is lighted by a half window (6 lights, 9 x 12) in the middle of the front of the pen. To support the roof and carry G@ ound Plan and Cross Section—Brooder IIouse at Lone Oak Poultry Farm. the partitions between the pens there are two upright pieces of 2x3 scantling for each partition; one at the passage, going from the floor of the passage to the apex of the roof, and one a lit(le forward of the middle of the house, which goes from the floor of the pens to the roof. Partitions between pens are of solid boards 2 ft. high. The 8 in. bourd extending from the passage half way forward is not a part of partition, but a board used to put across pens to keep small chicks close to the hover. The real trouble here, as so many places in poultry keeping, was false economy, the desire to keep close to the limit. Poultrymen put more chicks than they should in a brooder, then tried to keep the brooder warm through extreme cold weather with a heater only equal to heating it in ordinary cold weather. They have learned now that it is easier and cheaper to use a heater that will do the ordinary work required of it without working near up to its capacity tban to try to get the results by overworking a smaller heater. In designs for continuous brooder houses, there has been variety without end. Almost every model of a continuous laying house, except the scratching shed and full monitor top plans, I have seen in brooder houses—ani«l these may : have been used. The pre- vailing style, however, is the plain long house with double pitched roof, and the [ < types of this style of house do not vary strikingly in re appearance or construction. “ oh Some ure full height (about i ee oN 6 ft.) at the sides. Others oe EN RS are built lower, the front i wall being not more than three and a balf to four feet ; —= high, and the rear walla {| || foot or so high. In such a house th2 walk is excavated to a sufficient depth to give /#7ition Between Pens and Passage in Lone Oak Farm Brooder House, plenty of head room over This partition consists of two light frames for each pen covered with il, while the rest of the inch mesh poultry wire, and hung on hinges. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 111 house hasa floor only a little higher than ground outside. The object in building the house low is not so much to save cost as to conserve heat, the low building being more easily kept warm than, the higherone. Whether there is, on the whole, any real economy in saving heat in this way seems doubtful. From what I have seen of the low and the full height houses in operation, I consider tbe latter the better plan. There are several reasons for this: 1.— The house heats up too much on warm winter days, and becomes uncom- fortable early in the season. 2.—Itis an inconvenient house to work in as soon as you have to get out of the walk. 8 —It cannot be well adapted to other uses. These reasons will seem strong, or not according as those who consider them look at the points involved. It seems to methat the low roofed house fails to meet several conditions which may have to be considered in operation, while with heaters of ample capacity the advantage of reducing the proportion of cubic to floor space is not of such importance as ‘when the smallest possible heater is used. Further, in view of the fact that it may become desirable to change the lines on which a business is done, it is good policy to use buildings adaptable to any line whenever it is prac- ticable to do so. ' 112 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEVING. LESSON XIV. Simple vs. So-Called Scientific Poultry Feeding. successful poultrymen. It is what migbt well be called the ‘‘ natural method” of feeding; and I might add that it seems quite the natural thing for the poultry novice to begin to learn to feed in this way. The first thing he wants to know about feeding is how successful poultrymen feed. Whenever he hears of unusually good, or even of average good results he wants to know how those fowls were fed and housed — that he may treat his the same way. In a general way we may Say that the instinct which prompts him to do this is a safe guide. In every matter in life we learn by doing as others do, and learn most by trying to follow those who have done best. As in other matters, one who tries to adopt the ways of another, or to follow general methods, does not always succeed. There may be various reasons for this; different conditions of which he makes no account may require a different method; be may not properly under- stand and apply the method ; or he may fail to adapt other features of his management to those he tries to introduce, etc. There is no way of guaranteeing success by imitation of the success- ful, but, on the whole, and in the long run, that is the way to achieve success, and, as I have sald, the instinct which prompts the beginner to find out and try to follow the methods of those who have succeeded is a safe guide. Following it, be may advance more slowly than is azree- able, and his progress may be marred by mistakes, but if he persists he wins out in the end. In his efforts to learn how to feed poultry in the simple natural way the novice is perplexed by the lack of explicit, exact instruction on what seem to him the points where it is most necessary that instructions should be very specific, and leave no chance for mistakes. Most important of these is the question of quantity. He wants to know how much to feed in the aggregate, und the exact proportions of the different foods used in a complete or balanced ration. He finds no practical feeder willing to give him this information. If one can tell bim just how much he feeds to a given number of hens under certain conditions, he qualifies the infor- mation by adding that this amount might not be just what the novice's flock of tbe same number might require, and that it also might be necessary to somewhat vary the proportions of the different articles in the ration. Ile must use judgment, feed according to results, con- dition of the fowls, ete. | To many novices this Jack of definiteness is exasperating, ‘They cannot understand the necessity for it, and they conclude that the trouble is not that it is impossible to give specific instructions, but that those who give them qualified instructions for feeding have not observed closely enough to be able to be exact. G eee poultry feeding I would define as following, or trying to follow, the practice of FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY HKEEVDING. 113 To the novice in this frame of mind comes the expert writer on scientific feeding, purporting to zive him in his science of feeding precise and exact instructions as to the feeding of fowls for any and all purposes. This science of feeding is very interesting, and as long as certuin essential things are dis~ regarded, seems very plausible. Let me state it briefly: The Modern « Science’’ of Feeding. The discussion of scientific feeding begins with the proposition that certain food elements of different character are required to sustain life, promote growth, and keep up the various functional activities of the body; and that the proportion of each of these elements required can be ascertained and expressed in mathematical figures, which, in turn, may be taken by the poultryman and applied in his practice. It is assumed that in this way be may arrive at sure results and absolute economy in feeding. The Needs of an Animal Organism. The food which a fow] takes into its system serves these three purposes :— 1.—To build up and sustain the organism. 2.— To keep up the warmth of the body. 3.— To furvish energy — strength — which is expended in every movement. Perbaps as the same classes of food elements serve the second and third purposes we can still further simplify the statement by saying that the two principal functions of food are :— 1.— Nourishment. 2.— Heat and energy. To provide for these two wants we have three kinds of food elements, technically known as proteids, carbohydrates, and Jats. These elements are found in varying proportions in the articles we use for poultry foods. Without attempting a scientific description of them J will give the following plain definitions suitable for the present purpose. Proteids (or protein ).— Albuminous or nitrogenous matier occurring in different forms in different kinds of food, but having everywhere the same essential qualities. In grains it is in the form of gluten. In milk it is casein; in meat and blood, fibrin; in bones, gelatin. Carbohydrates.—Carbonaceous matter, principally starches. Fats.— May be regarded as highly concentrated, condensed carbohydrates. These are the principal food elements. Besides them all foods contain some (and some a great deal of) water, and most foods contain mineral and fibrous matter which are mostly indigestible. The Theory of Scientific Feeding. The theory of scientific feeding is based on the assumed necessary relation of the needs of the fow] to the food elements which are given it to supply those needs. Thus the scientific authority on poultry foods says that having ascertained just what food élements, and in what proportions, were required to produce certain results with a certain number of fowls, we are able from this data to formulate a rule which will apply universally. Whether or not this is the fact we will inquire a little further on. The expert in scientific poultry feeding, following the lead of scientists in cattle (and io human) feeding studies, makes use of two measurements of food values which he calls nutritive ratio and potential energy. By nutritive ratio he means the ratio of the proteids or nitrogenous matter to the combined values of the carbohydrates or starchy matter, and the fats, (the value of which are for the purpose reduced to terms of carbohydrates). By the potential energy of a food he means its heating capacity, its fuel value, which be expresses in calories per ounce. His science of feeding proceeds upon the principle that, having established standards of nutritive ratio and potential energy as the proper standards, winitevier combination of foods he can make that will figure out this ratio and this heating capacity, will be a complete or balanced ration, while a ration that will not figure out to such standards is an incomplete, ill balanced ration. 114 FIRST LESSONS IN POULIRY KEEPING. Some Scientific Fallacies. . It is not necessary to explain the theory in every detail. Of more importance here are cer- tain fallacies promulgated in connection with the teachings of scientilic feeding. Chief of these is the oft repeated statement that a fowl fed on a single grain — corn being mo-t often used in illustration—would in time starve to death, because corn did not supply the elements it needed in proper proportion. Like most fallacies, this is a perversion of the facts upon which it is supposed to rest. Neither corn nor any other single article of food makes as good a dict for fowls as a ration in which a variety of grains is used. Nor isa grain ration, though com- posed of many different grains, as good as a ration in which vegetables and meat are used to supplement the grain foods, but the bad effects of poor rations are not so conspicuous as some suy, nor is the difference in results always as marked as some would have us believe. To sbow the absurdity of the common opinion that corn, as compared with such grains as whet, oats, etc., is very deficient in “flesh forming” elements, and contains a dangerous surplus of fats and starcby element, let us make a few comparisons, taking figures from the tables in “ Poultry-Craft,” which were made from U. 8. government bulletins, giving average analyses of food stuffs: Nutritive Potential Grain. Protein. Carbohydrates, Fats. ratio. energy. Corn, 10.4% 70.3% Gp 1:79 106 Wheat, 11.9% 71.9% 2.1% 1:6.3 102 UVats, 11.8% 59.7% 5% LG 96 Barley, 12.4% 69.8% 1.8% 1:6 100 Now it is plain that ordinury or average corn has in it a smaller percentage of protein than any other of the grains in the list, and that its nutritive ratio is very much wider, and its potential energy higher. And if we accept as right the standards of nutritive ratio and potential energy given by the writers on scientific feeding, we must admit that corn is a very bad and dangerous food. But in regard to these standards the position I take is this: So far as I can discover, not one of these would-be authorities bas in a scientifie way established standards for poultry feeding, and the standards which they use, adapted from other lines of feeding, require combinations which no practical feeder would think of using. It might be said that this was because of the ignorance of the practical men, but as far as T am able to learn, no “authority ” on scientific feeding has ever done any feeding that by its results attracted attention or made a reputation as a good and skillful feeder. Leaving out of the question then what the “ scientists ” say about corn as compared with these other grains, let us inquire what practical feeders find they can do with it in actual practice. The four grains mentioned above have certain physical characteristics which have to be con- sidered in feeding them, The prominent characteristic of corn is the size of its grains, an ordinary graiu of corn being about five times as large as an ordinary grain of wheat. Hence, a fowleating corn will pick up what it wants (provided the supply fs sufficient) with about one-fifth the effort, and in about one-fifth the time, that it would require to get a meal of wheat. This means that fowls fed whole corn do not take as much exercise as they feed as those fed smaller grains. In this point we find a reason why whole corn is not the most desirable food that is independent of its composition. The same objection would apply to any other grain if of like size. To overcome this objection to the form in which corn grows the corn is cracked to different devrees of fineness for fowls, and used in this form. I think it would be impossible for avy- one to show in practice any appreciable difference in results of the use of cracked corn and wheat in moderate weather, while in extreme hot weather it would give less satisfactory, and iu extreme cold weather more satisfactory results than wheat, ull other constituents of the ration remaining the same. Nature’s Checks and Balances. From the fact that under what might be called average conditions it makes no appreciable difference in results whether corn (cracked) or wheat is fed it is reasonable to conclude that FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 115 the differences between them which analysis shows have not the significance attached to them by those who consider wheat a good and corn a bad food for poultry. We bave then in a very large class of instanves the same results from rations which chem- ically show a difference which if each food element could be used only for its special purpose should also appear in the results. Why does it not appear in the results? Beeause the adaptation of each kind of food elements to its special purposes is not rigid. In the digestion and assimilation of food a shortage of one kind of elements is made up, within limits, from an excess of another kind, or failing that from reserves in the system of the animal or fowl. Just what the limits are within whieh the fowl] can adapt the food it takes to its wants we do not know. We may reasonably conclude that they are not fixed limits, but vary under different condi- tions and in different fowls. What we do know is that using the common food articles used by poultrymen in about the proportions in which they are mostly used, we are in absolutely no danger of any of the evils which “ scientific ” writers on poultry feeding assert are sure to result from improperly balanced rations. If feeding in this way we have trouble it is pretty sure to be due to other causes than the composition of the ration. The Scientific Rules Don’t Work. T have used corn and wheat in the above illustration because wheat is generally considered the best single grain for poultry, and corn, though more extensively used for poultry food than all other grains combined, is by many writers called a very unsafe and bad poultry food; and also because in corn we have the grain which is farthest from the assumed standards of scien- tific feeding. If comparisons of results of feeding wheat and corn in rations in which each ig made the exclusive unground grain food indicate anything at all, they show that it is nearly always possible for the fowl given « sufficient supply of either to adapt it to its needs, and therefore that itis not necessary for the poultryman to try to balance the ration exactly before feeding it. On the other side it is possible to show that oats, which theoretically are classed as nearest the correct standard for feeding of any grains, are not eaten well by the fowls if they can get other grains, and unless the outs are of much better quality than itis usually possible to get in our markets, fowls will eat only enough of them to sustain life. Soif we take wheat as our standard grain food and compare other grains with it both as to composition chemically and as to practical results in feeding, we find that the food which is theoretically poorer is practi- cally better, and vice versa. From which it follows that the application of the assumed feeding standards is not a reliable working rule. Whetber other standards could be selected which would give us a rule that would work accurately we need not here inquire. To dute they have not been. Fixed Standards Not Applicable to Varying Conditions. There is another most important point to consider: — Fixed standards can only exactly fit certain conditions. Ifitis necessary that the feeder should exactly adapt the ration to the needs of the fowl], it is necessary that he should vary the ration to suit varying conditions, and of course he must know just how and how much to vary it for any given conditions, In the simple, natural method of feeding, the feeder’s aim is to give the fowls enough food andin such simple variety that there will be be no serious shortage of any one element, Beyond this be does not try to go, but leaves it to the appetite of the fow! to select what pro- portions of each food shall be taken into the system, and to the natural operations of the digestive system to further compensate for errors of appetite. The scientific feeder may say that by his system and by the use of his rules or his rations the desired economies of food are made certain, and nothing left to the chances of the fowls’ appetites or functions, but this is all theory that has never been demonstrated. Still anotber obstacle to the practical application of the methods of scientific feeding is found in the lack of uniformity in quality of poultry foods. The analyses given are average analyses. Asa matter of fact a lot of corn may contain more protein than the particular lot 116 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. of wheat with which itiscompared. Without an analysis of every Jot of every article he feeds the feeder does not know how closely he approximates the standards he tries to apply in scientific feeding, and is in reality as much in the dark and leaving as much to nature as one who simply follows common practice. The plain truth about scientific feeding as it has been expounded for poultrymen is that: what there is of itcannot be applied by common poultrymen under common conditions, and: that it leaves out of consideration the variations in the needs of fowls from day to day which: must be reckoned with if there is to be anything like an exact adaptation of rations to actual needs. And the essential difference between simple or natural, and scientific feeding of poultry is- that the first trusts much to inherent tastes and tendencies presumed to be implanted in the organism by the creator, while the other depends wholly on arbitrarily assumed and arti- ficial rules. The Summary of the Whole Matter. In a nutshell the question of scientific feeding is simply this: The exposition of it has an academic interest, but to attempt to put its formulas into practice is to attempt to work a problem in which some of the necessary factors are not given, and can- not be obtained: Our science of poultry feeding is but a “‘ fragment of science.” FIEST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 117 How to Learn to Feed in the Natural Way. To wequire skill in feeding fowls one must’practice feeding, closely observe results, and use his judgment. Suppose I tell a boy that to project a ball through the air for a given distance a certain amount of energy must be applied, and applied in such a way that the ball, moving with the velocity given it, must describe a certain arc as it moves through the air. A scientist who perhaps could vot throw a ball within two rods of the spot he desired it to reach might have figured out all about energy, velocity, etc., applying to the movement of the ball; but what good would it do to tell all this to the boy? And what boy in his senses would think of going out to play ball, and, as he prepared for the first throw, stopping to say to himself, ‘‘I must put into this throw just so much strength, and the ball must leave my hand at just such an elevation?” No, the boy takes the ball and throws it at the point he wishes it toreach. The accuracy of his aim depends mostly on bis previous experience and skillin that line. If he misse’, he tries again, and without being very conscious of its efforts, his mind, too, works all the time, comparing each throw with others, and estimating differences and gradually bringing the muscles under contro] so tbat before long the boy is sending the ball to the mark every time, and he may acquire marvelous control of the ball, not only in accurate throwing and in speed, butin throwing it sothatits path shall be eccentric, or its speed changed in seeming defiance of nature’s laws as it flies through the air. And all this he does without either know- ing or caring anything about the scientific expressions of the various features of his perform- ance, There is practically no limit to the number of illustrations that might be made on this point. Every line of work and every sport abounds in them. When men work with machines, or with problems in which all-necessary quantities and conditions are known, they may be guided more by set laws and rules, but even in such cases experience and trained judgment and skill are essential to superior work. In handling live stock it is impossible to follow arbitrary rules and get the results the rules anticipate with the uniformity that would justify such use of rules. The poultry feeder bas to learn by experi- ment and observation how much to feed and when and how to vary his rations. Nothing Hard About It. From what has been said of the composition of the common grain foods, and of the functions of appetite and the capacity of the system of the fow] to adapt the food given it to its require- ments, the reader may see that experiment and observation on poultry feeding do not neces- sarily mean intricate and puzzling processes. On the contrary they are simple and easy, requiring only very ordinary attention, just such attention in fact as must be given to any process or work requiring some exercise of judgment. The greatest obstacle to learning to feed poultry well is that so many amateurs are wholly self trained, and are taught through books and papers, and such teaching and training cannot be anything like as effective as personal instruction. In addition to this the poultry keeper who begins in mature life to learn poultry keeping, and who is trying to learn and to make it pay at the same time, feels the effect of his errors and inefficiency much more than does one who learns while working for someone else. That is one reason why I always urge people going into poultry keeping to begin in a small way and increase very slowly. It takes time to acquire skill in feeding, and it is terribly expensive to practice on large stocks of fowls. Another thing to consider is that the results of feeding are sometimes dependent upon or affected by circumstances which the novice either fails to see as in any way related to the feed- 118 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. ing problem,—or does not see in their true relation to it. Not infrequently the methods be adopts make good feeding difficult, and sometimes some little peculiarity in a person’s way of managing his fowls will, when discovered, account to the experienced adviser for continued poor results. Such peculisrities and trifling errors are very hard to locate through corre- spondence. Leave Out ‘Original’ Ideas. In general I think that a large part of the difficulties of amateur feeders may be traced to some “original” ideas or combinations of methods that they have introduced into their poultry keeping. To me the easy assurance with which novices in poultry keeping go about the improvement of methods recommended by experienced poultry keepers is a never ending puzzle. How few of them are willing to take simple instructions and follow them to the letter! Still, to be fair to the novice, I must admit that a good dealof what is written for him about poultry keeping ovly adds to his confusion, und as those who know the Jeast about it are usually the most positive in assurances of good results if their instructions are followed, and therefore seem to him the best instructors, he is very apt to prefer the less reliable instructors and instruction at first. . If a novice in feeding, (and by novice, in this connection, I mean any one who has not acquired a fair skill in feeding), will follow the method used by any successful poultryman right through, he will generally be getting fair results within a short time. It may be—and often is the case— that there are poor features, or unnecessary features in the methods of the more expert poultry- man. As to this, the novice should not attempt tojudge, or if be forms an opinion, should not make it the reason for a departure from the method, but should learn from some one of more ‘experience whether the change he contemplates would work well. Having adopted general methods of caring for fowls and of feeding which have given such satisfaction to some others that we may call them “ tested” methods, the novice should direct all the attention he gives feeding to making a success of feeding by that method. Let him remember that whatever method he may try will give him the results he seeks only in proportion to the skill he acquires in using it. There are many good methods—mapny tested methods of feeding, but bis skill is as yet undeveloped and bis capacity untested. If he changes methods he simply begins over again, and many a time when success comes by some method of feeding adopted after a brief trial and rejection of several others, that success is not due to that particular method of feeding alone, but is the result of the whole experience acquired, and would almost certainly have been attained sooner by persistence in the first method adopted. «s Practice [lakes Perfect.’’ Take any good method (there are many of them) and learn to use it.. As far as the instruc- tions given are definite, try to follow them to the letter. Where they tell you to use your judg- ment, but give as they usually do, some statement of what should be about right, begin by using these approximate instructions and follow them until you have reason to suppose that some variation from them should be made. Then make the variation slight. For instance, in feeding fowls what is called ‘a full feed” of grain, the amount an average laying hen will take is an ordinary handful—not a heaping handful, but what one would grasp in the hand with the hand closed enough so that even if turned over only a few grains would fall. Thisis a rough way of measuring grain, but with practice many poultry men become surprisingly accurate in measur- ing grain out in this way as they scatter it for the fowls. They know or should know how many fowls are in each flock. If they expect the grain to be eaten up clean, as when fed on bare ground or very short litter, they give what they think the fowls will clean up. If they are feeding in deep litter they give more—as much more as they think necessary to let the fowls get a full feed of the grain in the time allowed. The judgment as to quantity does not have to he absolutely accurate every time, because as we saw in considering scientific balancing of food elements, the fowl could adapt them to its needs to some extent, so a‘fow] in good condition will not suffer if occasionally short-fed, for it has its reserves of fat to draw upon. Also the fow) FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 119. occasionally over-fed is not injured by it. If the feeder ‘is onto his job” he quickly notes that the food is not eaten, or if it is eaten the appetite is poorer at the next meal, and he feeds short for a meal or two, or perbaps omits a meal, and the fowl! is soon feeding right again. Feeling the Way. To go back to the novice, if feeding what be estimates to be the average amount his number of fowls should get, they are in good condition and laying well, he may reasonably conclude that he is feeding about right, and keep right on giving that quantity. If the fowls while in good condition, bright and hearty, do not lay well, the natural conclusion is that they need a little more food, and the ration should be increased. In such a case as this it is advisable to handle the fowls to ascertain just what condition they arein. If rather thin in flesh it is better to increase a little on every feed. If in pretty fair flesh it may be better to ‘increase only on one meal each day,—for if fed too heavily they may fatten instead of beginning to lay as desired. 1f hens begin to show lack of appetite, and “ go off their feed,” the rations should be reduced, and if « mash is fed it is best to make the principal reduction in the mash, for that is the meal that they get with least effort, and exercise is one of the best restoratives of condition and appetite When in doubt the novice should reread his instructions, and if he fails to find in them information that seems to suit the case, should not hesitate to axk questions. He sbould also try to make himself a good judge of food stuffs, for often the quantity to feed depends to some extent on the quality of the feed. Thus in feeding wheat I discovered a number of years ago what doubtless hundreds had discovered before, and thousands since, that bard wheat fed further than soft, and that réd wheats, being generally harder, were more economical poultry food than white wheat. Again, in feeding damaged foods, one must sometimes make allowance for the damage; and,in feeding wheat screenings containing other matter, must estimate the amount of waste and feed accordingly. Also in feeding mashes; though a bulky mash filly the crop up more quickly, it must be fed more freely than a rich concentrated mash, when the intention is to make a full feed of the mash. Jf we suppose that the feeder makes generally what we may ¢all a standard mash, and that in feeding it he allows one large iron spoonful to two fowls, if he makes a more bulky mash, that is, a mash with a larger proportion of such bulky and not highly nutritious stuffs as bran and clover, he must allow more. If he makes a highly concentrated mash with a large proportion of corn meal and of beef scrap or other meat, be must feed less than the usual quantity, for his fowls accustomed to cease eating when the crop bas reached a certain stage of distention, are very apt to eat at first just as much bulk of the concentrated as of the ordinary mash. If they are of robust digestion it may not burt them any. If they are not he may quickly have some bad cases of indigestion ou his hands. In using the bulky mash he may find tbat the fowls will not eat more than their usual bulk allowance of it, and if this is the case, and if it is necessary that they shou)d get the same putrition as before, he must increase on some other feed. As the reader may have guessed from what has been said, giving the mash more bulk is one way of satisfying the appetite of fowls without giving them more nutrition than they need. The occasior for this depends on the eating habits of the fowls, which vary as much as the eating habits of people. The Three Prime Factors. It would be possible to make a very long article of this, and then not have considered more than a very small part of the possible illustrations of adjustments of feeding. From what has been said 1 think most readers will see that the important factors in feeding fowls are common sense, familiarity with food articles and with fowls, and practice; and that the feeding of fowlsis not a matter requiring special academic education, and familiarity with technical terms and scientific methods, but a simple, every day process in which a person of very limited education and utter ignorance of ‘‘science,” as it applies to poultry feeding, may become higbly proficient, and in whicb, in fact, the mo-t successful feeders are men and women who give no attention to scientific expositions of feeding problems, “120 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. LESSON XV. Poultry House Fixtures. HE necessary fixtures of the poultry house are: i 1. Roosts—with or without droppings boards. 2. Feed troughs, boxes or hoppers. 3. Drinking vessels. 4. Nests. 5. Receptacles for grit, shell, etc. 6. Dust boxes —in houses with board floors. A poultry keeper may find plaees and use for all the articles enumerated, or he may get along with only a few of them. He may have his few fixtures simple and inexpensive— or may make the furnishing of his houses quite an item of expense when compared with the cost of the bouse and the value of fowls kept in it and of their product. He may make all fixtures himself, may convert old articles and utensils of various sorts to uses as furnishings for bis poultry houses, or he may take his choice of ready made articles that run from plain to elabo- rate in construction, and from moderate to high in price. On a large plant there is a decided advantage as well as appropriateness in having tbe fixtures uniform throughout the plant. The poultry keeper works faster und easier when the same operation is to be performed in the same way ull through. Ona small plant it does not make so much difference, yet uniformity is always attractive. On the score of appearances, too, the fixtures should be in quality in keeping with their surroundings. Sbabby or makeshift fixtures may not look at all out of place in a cheap, rougbly built house, but they do look most decidedly misfits in a house with some pretensions to fine tinisb. On the other hand, fine fixtures do not go well with very plain houses. The fixtures for a well finished house need not be elaborate. It is possible to have them simple and plain, yet well made and neatly finished, and quite as inexpensive too us rougher articles of the same pattern; and, all things considered, the poultryman is wisest who plans his house and provides his furnishings with an eve to simplicity, for complicated plans and eiabo- vate fixings make it harder to keep a house clean, und make harboring places for the vermin of various kinds which infest poultry houses. Droppings Boards. Tn the list of fixtures roosts are mentioned as with or without droppings boards. The need of the droppings board will depend on the methods of the poultry keeper. If he keeps his house close and finds it advisable to remove droppings daily, or every few days, he will find it more, satisfactory to use droppings boards, If he keeps bis house open, and can allow the droppings to accumulate under the roosts as Jong as they make no odor, he should leave out the droppings boards. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 121 Some of the farmers of Rhode Island divide the floors of their poultry houses In the middle, (the roosts being at one end and the door at the other) by a board set on edge. A cart load of sand is put in the half next the door in the fall. At intervals through the winter a few shovel- fuls of this are scattered over the droppings on the floor at the other side of the board. By spring all the sand has been moved, and is mixed witi the accumulation of droppings for the entire winter, and the compost is carted off at the convenience of the farmer. In these houses the roosts oecupy about balf the house. In the ordinary poultry house the roosts, according to number, extend two to three feet from one wall, usually the rear wall. Many poultrymen put a board on edgejust in front of the roosts to keep the droppings from being scattered over the floor and the litter iu front out of the droppings, and allow the drop- pings to remain for weeks without removing. If the droppings are of normal consistency and the earth of the floor or an applied absorbent takes care of the moisture in them, and if the house is thoroughly ventilated, there is no objection to this. But if droppings are soft and watery, or any fowls are sick, or if either for want of proper absorbents or lack of ventilation the smell of the droppings becomes objectionable they should beremoved. To have stated times for cleaning up is well, but the poultryman should remember that his rules are made for the degree of cleanliness he wishes to preserve, and that the prime thing is to preserve that degree of cleanliness. He should clean as often as necessary. His rules merely represent what his general practice determines is necessary. The board in front of the roosts may be left out and the hens allowed to scratch the litter back over the droppings. This is the practice tbat I prefer. The droppings will not be worked forward to any noticeable extent on a littered floor, for the hens scratch mostly away from the light, and pile the litter up at the back of the house. The coarser litter may be thrown forward with a fork, leaving finely broken stuff to mix with the droppings, and the mass may lie for weeks without any odor from it being discoverable. In very steady cold winters I have let the droppings lie four months. In warmer winters have found it necessary to remove often, but rarely oftener than once in four or five weeks. If droppings boards are used they should have smooth upper surface, be wide enough to receive all droppings from the fowls as they sit on the roosts, and unless they have an unusually wide margin would havea strip on the front edge to keep droppings from being scattered. The droppings board under a single roost should be 20 to 24 in. wide; under a double roost 30 to 36 in. The board should be 8 to 10 in. Jower than the roosts. It is generally placed level. Occa- sionally it is made on an incline to allow the droppingsto roll off, but most poultrymen prefer to clean the droppings from the Jevel board. If droppings are soft it is necessary that boards should be kept well sprinkled with some absorbent such as dry earth or sand or land plaster; coal asbes and airslaked lime will answer, but the articles first mentioned are better. If the manure is to be sold for tanning purposes no absorbent can be used on the boards, and as they quickly become saturated with the water from the droppings, the droppings boards in bouses from which manure is saved for tanning are often repulsive in appearance even when supposed to be clean. Roosts. The roosts in a poultry house should be all together, all on the same level, and as Jow as may be without depriving the fowls of the use of the floor space below them. The old ladder-like arrangement of roosts was a bad one. The fowls would crowd for the top perches, crowd each other off, and in such accidents and in jumping from the upper roosts in the morning many fowls were injured. Usually one or two roosts the length of one side of the apartment are all that a pen of fowls require. The Rbode Island farmers alluded to above have roosts in half the house, but their fowls are expected to be out doors most of the time, the snow rarely lying Jong there. The conditions in their houses when the hens are occasionally snow-bound are not the best. . The form of the roost is not of as much importance as many suppose. The primitive roosts were round poles, and some still insist that they are better than squared roosts, Evidence to support this proposition is not abundant. Wide flat roosts, three or four inches wide, seem to 122 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. give the best general satisfaction, though a good many use roosts.only two inches wide and either flat or more or less rounded on the upper side. Whatever the upper surface of the roost, it should be thick enough to sustain the weight of the fowls without bending or breaking. An inch board will answer for short roosts, or for roosts for light fowls up to about 8-foot lengths. For heavy fowls a roost 8 ft. long and 4 in. wide should be quite 2 in. thick. A roost of such dimensions and length needs support only at the ends, but longer roosts should | | have support in the Gy \ Z middle as well. The Y, roost should be oO @ D @ strong enough and its supports such that | | | it remains level and firm when filled witb fowls. A roost that sags is likely to break, and some of the fowls might in such event, be badly burt. Besides the sagging, springing roost is most uncomfortable, as any one may discover by watching the fow]s on it. For supports for roosts we have quite a variety. I use af the ends simple strips as shown in the cut, with notches in them to hold the roosts in place. These strips are fastened to the walls with screws, and are easily taken down when the house is cleaned. In fact all the fixtures in my houses are such tbat a compartment can be stripped bare in a very few minutes, a matter of considerable importance when fighting lice. . Just here let me say that with reasonable cleanliness and os healthy hens given opportunity to dust themselves, I have never had any trouble with lice in the houses. But because of the number of persons reporting it as impossible to get rid of lice though they were very thorough in treating the prem- ises with that end in view, I did, several years agolet my buildings get literally alive with red mites. Then stripping them of fixtures, whitewashing the walls, and using insect- icides on roosts and nests, [I had no trouble in clearing the premises of mites in short order. The way the houses were built and furnished made the work easy. I would not care to take the job of cleaning some houses I know of mites, For a middle support for long roosts I use a similar strip attached by oneend to the rear wall, and by the other to a strip banging trom a rafter. There are several styles of roost brackets, (all I believe of | Le ey the anti-louse type, with oil cups attached), on the market that are very good, be Some poultrymen attach the roosts to strips which hinge to the rear wall, so that the two, or more, roosts together swing back against the wall during the day. Where droppings boards are used the roosts may be attached to the walls as just described, or may rest on the WLI TTT I PP droppings boards. Various kinds of iron and wooden leys or Aerhow of Supporting Long Roosts at standards to support roosts above the droppings boards have Mididie, been devised. I think it may he said that in general the supports from the board interfere more or less with the removal of the droppings, especially when the ends of several roosts rest on the same support. So far we have been considering only plain straight roosts, Quite « number of ingenious Strip Attached to Wallto Support Ends of Roosts. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 125 arrangements designed to prevent crowding on the roosts have been devised and reported as highly satisfactory, but these rarely take with any but the inventors. In fact, I could not now name a single one that had gained any popularity. There is rarely serious crowding on the roosts if roost room is ample and the roosts on a level. Give fowls an allowance of a foot, or quite that, of roost room each, and you will have little trouble with crowding. As hens sit close on the roost they don’t occupy so much room, but some allowance must be made for opportunity to shift positions and get up and down. Feed Troughs, Boxes and Hoppers. Most of the feed troughs used are very simple. The accompanying cut shows cross sections of the styles most commonly used. The V-shaped trough and the single trough with low straight sides are oftenest seen, but I think the double reversible trough with straight sides is the best of all. Its superiority is marked on a large plant. Many different patterns of troughs have been devised to keep the fowls out of the troughs and to keep them from crowding while feeding. Some of these are shown in accompanying illustrations. I have used a good many such troughs, but went back for good long ago to the open troughs as much easier to feed in. I discovered accidentally a few years ayo that it was much easier to feed fowls in short wide trougbs tban in B long narrow ones. I needed some additional troughs, and ? being pressed for time, thought I would make shift for awhile with afew of the shallow boxes in which smal! . a =~ potted plants are sold, which I happened to have on hand. These boxes are about a foot wide and 16 to 18 in. long, bee ecce ere 8 or 10 fowls, and find that with the boxes a few feet apart T can throw or drop mash into them from a spoon or shake it from the pail much easier than into narrow troughs, and do it so quickly that the flock is fed before the crowding begins. I am still using some of these boxes and some nar- Cross Sections of Feed Trowgis. — .ow troughs, and the advantage of the wide short trough Ayv-shaped trough, @ board fixed 0 .eems ag plain as ever. ‘Though I have not tried it, I think edge to keep fowls out of trough. B “ shallow box trough. C double or box a foot square would answer for just as many hens as. reversible box trough. theoblong boxes T have. Occasionally when feeding a flock of chicks I find that they have outgrown their trough accommodations. I give them some mash in the earthen saucers I use for water, if those happen to he empty, and I notice that nearly balf as many chicks as are pusbing and crowding around a trough tbree or four feet long, will feed com- fortably and quietly in a circle around an 8 in. A\ saucer. The reason is easy to discover if you / watch the chicks forafew minutes. Ata long trough the fowls and chicks are constantly chang- iny positions, Atashort box or round pan all the food is within reach of all the fow]s about it 7 at the same time, and there is no inducement to Protected Feed Troughs. move. Sometimes the feed trough is attached at one end by a hinge to the wallof the house, and when not in use is raised and secured in position against the wall. The advantage of this is not. —— — C the sides being about 2 in. high. I allow one such box to : 124 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. as great as would be supposed, for dirt and litter collect between the trough and the wall, and when the trough is let down a good part of the dirt is likely to drop into the trough, necessitating raising it again to allow this dirt to drop out. Taking one thing with another, more poultry ‘men prefer the loose trough, and though some bang the troughs up on pegs or large nails when not in use, more leave them on tbe floor all the time. A fixed feed trough in or next the passage is sometimes used, but this arrangement is quite : = rare, and I have seen more than one ¢ plant in which it had been installed fe T where the feeding ; , mash was fed in : movable troughs in the pens. For feeding dry a co grains in bulk, and . . ground feed stuffs ! ! dry self-feeding hop- pers are much bet- ter than troughs, and if feeding is regularly a os =i s done in this way hop- : i pers should be used. : Theillustrations show d -a = : = = different methods of | constructing hoppers. The size required Fig. I. fig I. depends on the size Dr, Noitage’s Hopper for Dry Feed—Five Compartments, of the flock and the Fig. 1—Cross Section, Fig.2—Front View. frequency of feed- ing. Some poultry keepers keeping hens on the colony system, with free range, use hoppers darge enough to hold a bag of grain. Drinking Vessels. Of these there is « great variety made especially for fowls, and a still greater variety made for other or general purposes are used for drinking vessels in the poultry yard. Of the drinking fountains made especially for poultry, some are stone ware: some of earthenware; some of metal, usually galvanized iron. Most of them are of the self-feeding pattern, a receptacle for water over a shallow pan into which it feeds by pressure, keeping the pan full as long as the water in the reservoir holds out. Some have reservoir and saucer in onc piece, others in two pjeces, that they may be separated and more easily cleaned. While a great many such drinking fountains are in use, the greater number of poultrymen seem to prefer an open vessel, at Jeast for adult fowls. For chicks perhaps the majority prefer_ self-feeding fountains with shallow pans into which the chicks cannot get. These fountains too are better for fowls having large crests and beards or combs and wattles. For an open drinking vessel for fowls or good sized ‘chicks, almost anything that will hold the required quantity of water will answer. I use mostly 6 qt. wooden pails, but have a gal- vinized iron pan or two, and one old porcelain lined open kettle. On one of the largest plants in this vicinity all the drinking vessels are porcelain lined iron kettles holding about a gallon each. On another plant stone jars of about the same capacity are used. On a farm I visited a few years ago, I saw shallow cast iron pans, as I remember about 24 or 3 in. deep and 8 in. ‘equare, which the owner bad had cast at a nearby foundry for that purpose. The cost was I believe about 15 cents each, but after this lapse of time I would not say positively. As between closed and open drinking vessels the latter seem to be preferred by most poultry keepers, except as noted above. Theoretically and in the eyes of the novice the covered FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. . 125° Hopper for Fowls. vessel is better because it is supposed to keep the water cleaner. Practically the open vessel is easier to keep clean, and further is less dangerous to the health of the fowls when not absolutely clean, because air and light, the great purifiers, get into it as they do notintoa closed vessel. An objection some —mostly novices—make to the use of open vessels ig. Hopper for Chicks, Anti- Waste Feed Hoppers Designed by Subseriber to F-F. Dark Nest to Hang on Wail. A—Exterior View. B—Interior View. a—block to hold nest in place. that occasionally the fowls void their droppings into the water. It must be admitted that the sight of a drinking vessel so poiluted offends the senses, but as a matter of fact neitber fowls nor other animals are as nice as refined human beings about matters of this kind, and no harm results from occa- sional pollutions of this kind which are removed at the next watering. As o further matter of fact, the dust which in any poultry houseor yard will often get into a drinking vessel, whether open or protected, is as dirty and more dangerous. By using open vessels that are as deep as the fowls can drink from, and no larger in circumference than necessary to keep them from being easily upset, very little droppings will get into them. It is the wide shallow pan that catches the droppings. Nests for Laying Hens. Number of Nests Needed.—The old method was to provide almost as many nests as there were hens in the flock. Indeed I have before me an old drawing of a model poultry house for twenty-four hens in which there were twenty-four nests. It was early observed and continues to be observed, tbat no matter how many nests are provided, the hens usually all go toa certain few of the nests, and rather than lay elsewhere wil] Dark Nests to Go Under Droppings Boards, crowd on those nests or sit near them waiting their turns, 126 FIRST LESSONS 1N CVOULTRY KEEPING. Most poultry keepers still continue to provide many more nests than are used. I find a nest to every five or six bens enough, and have often allowed only one nes! to seven or eight hens, say three nests ina pen of twenty totwenty-five bens. and found the allowance satisfactory, even when the hens were laying well. That, however. depends on the flock. Sometimes al] the hens in a flock are quick layers, again they are slow to very slow, or the laying habits of the Triple Set Skeleton Nests in Place in Pouliry House. fens are very uneven. So I allow as a rule one nest to a pen of three or four hens, two to a pen of six to twelve hens, and from four to six to a pen of twenty to twenty-five hens, according as they seem to need them. Styles of Nests. ; The nest boxes should be movable. Whenever more than one nest is necessary it is custom- ary to make the nests in sections of two or more. Sometimes these are built under the drop- pings board, but even here the construction may and should be such that the nests are easily moved and taken out of the house for thorough cleaning and airing. It has been a very common practice to make and place the nests so they would be quite dark. This is done in part because the hen is supposed to prefer a secluded place to lay, and in part to prevent the development of the egg eating habit among the hens. To economize floor space as much as possible, it is customary to place the nests on the wall several feet from the floor; or if they are put under the droppings boards, these are usually placed high enough to allow the hens the use of the floor below the nests, though sometimes in a house with low north wall and roosts next this wall, the nests are on the ground, with the droppings board forming the top of them. Leghorns and other high flyers will go asarule to the highest nest accessible. I once nailed a small box in a corner close up to the roof in a pen of Silver Dorkings, and all but ove or,two very heavy hens would goto that nest though there were others more accessible. Hens of the larger breeds will often go to the corners on the floor of the poultry house to lay, no matter how many or how attractive nests are provided for them elsewhere. It is very difficult to break hens of that habit. In many of them it is hereditary, and the best thing to do is to either put a box — a common soup box_is good — on the floor in the corner, and let them use it for a nest, or by fastening a nest to the walla few inches from the floor try to FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 127 induce them to lay in it. After they begin to lay in this nest it may be raised gradually from the floor until it is at the usual height. Some hens, however, will make their nest.on the floor as near the corner as they cun, no matter what arrangements are made to tempt them to do otherwise, and all that can be done with them is to puta low box in the corner so that the eggs will not be rolled out or cov- ered up, For several years I have been using nests reproductions of photo- grapbs of which are shown here- with. These are my own design, and as far as J kuow none like them are in use except such as were made from them. I like them better than anything I have used, and poultrymen who see them seem totake to them. The object was to muke nest boxes that were as near skeletons as possible, easy to keep clean, and eusy to knock apart for thorough cleaning if that seemed necessary, and put together again. In use in my houses these ‘. : an ened 4 oe nests have seemed to have some a were altachec oor : : ean Rati per yeaa ie rat ion Hoimesusi-ucune. dpsiranile etieclsy same good Points This frame is 12in, wides28in. long. Ends 10 iu. high in front, which I had not anticipated, 18 in. high atback, Front strip4in. wide; 2backstrips2in, chief of whicb is that with them wide, the hens seem to have no favor- ites, but go to one as readily as to another. When a hen gets up on the front rail and finds one nest occupied and the next vacant she almost always steps promptly into the empty nest. Just why she should do this I cannot say, unless it is because the divisions between the nests being so low in front, as long as she remains perched on the edge of the nest the empty nest is right before her eye. The nests in most of my houses are on the sidé wall or cross partition near the front where they get the full light, yet I have not found the hens more disposed to go to the corners of the house to lay than when I tried to humor them by giving them secluded nests, and I have bad very little egg eating in them. I find eggs broken, but not touched many times oftener than I find evidences of broken eggs having been eaten, It would be premature to consider any general principle or fact as proved by my observations on these nests, but I am inclined to think that in trying to devise an easy nest to clean I inad- vertently stumbled on a point which is of some use, i.e., that the nest on the floor, entered from the floor, and the nest with running board in front to accommodate the hens, are the great encouragers of egg eating, because in such nests the hens have better opportunities to spy out the condition of things in the ne&t, and also the waiting hens have a better vantage ground from which to quarrel with the hens in the nest than in nests like these, or boxes nailed to the wall. The hen in this nest has all the advantage of position. My nest boxes are made with the bottom a little narrower than the ends, and thestrips next it on front and back are placed about half an inch from the bottom edge of the end and division pieces. This leaves a space too narrow for an egg to go through, yet wide enough to Double Skeleton Nests, 128 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. drop through any nest material or dirt that cannot be easily lifted out with the hand. There are in these nests no corners formed by three sides, no places for dirt to muss and collect. The nests can be cleaned inside without removing them, or detaching any part of them. Receptacles for Grit, Shell, etc. - Where supplies of all these accessories are kept constantly before the fowls, the best way to do is to have self-feeding hoppers with as many compartments as there are articles used. Usually there are three—grit, shell, and charcoal. I use only shell, and for it have small boxes nailed to the wall near the door in each house, just high enough from the floor to let the fowls get at the contents easily. If I had more fowls or used more of these accessories I would use hoppers for them, but we have old butter boxes more than enough for the purpose, so what’s the use of Luying or makiog hoppers? As to the use of these articles: Shell is generally agreed to be indispensable. Grit and char- coal are so considered by the majority of poultrymen, but I am free to say that in my own yards J have never found any advantage in the use of charcoal. I used a good deal years ago, quit because I could see no benefit from it, and have never been able to see that my fow!s suffered for wunt of it. Advocates of charcoal with whom I have discussed this will insist that the fowls would be better for it, but that is begging the question. ‘Grit used with shell until a few years ago, and quit it because I found that when constantly and liberally supplied with shell the fowls bardly touched the grit. I would not conclude from my experience that no fowls needed grit and charcoal, but it seems very plain to me that mine do not. Fowls managed differently might, and of course mine might get in condition that would require them. So while personally I discard the two articles mentioned, as I leave out some of the tasks of poultry keeping that are generally done on the “ better be sure than sorry” principle, I don’t advise anyone else to doso. I merely say that these things do not seem to be always essential, and that if a man can:bave confidence enough in hisown judgment to determine when they are needed, it is not necessary for him to con- stantly supply articles or regularly perform tasks merely to be sure that he does not err through omission or neglect. Each ove can easily determine for himself how much grit or charcoal bis fow]s will take, and to what extent they seem benefited by them, or to suffer from Jack of them. Dust Baths. In a house with an earth floor, no special dust bath is needed, Clear away the litter occa- sionally from a space near the door or window, where the sunlight falls on the floor, see that the earth bere is loose, and the fowls will prefer such a place to the old fashioned dust bath. This for winter. For other seasons you need do no more than fork up a little spot here and there in the yards. Where the houses have not earth floors dust baths must be provided. They may be made by putting a board diagonally across a corner and partly filling the enclosed triangular space with dry earth; or the enclosed space may be square or rectangular in form, two boards joining at an angle which projects into the floor being required to make the two sides of this dust box, ora box with sides and bottom may be used and shifted about as desired. Failing a supply of dry earth, coal ashes may be used, but their effect on the skin and plum- age of the fowls is bad. They take away the oil in them, leaving feathers rough and brittle, and the skin dry, and leave the feet and shanks in a condition in which they are especially suscepti- ble to the attacks of the scale insect. To add to the effectiveness of the dust bath in ridding the fowls of lice, lime, sulphur, ete., are sometimes mixed with it, and doubtless give it udditional virtue, though the dry earth alone is sufficient provided hens have opportunity to use it freely, FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KELPING. 129 LESSON XVI. Poultry Fences and Yards. the kind of fence required depends upon the size of the yard even more than upon the powers of flight of the fowls to be restrained. When fowl]s are confined to small yards the height of the fences must be adapted to flying capacity, for the fowis so closely restricted in movements willdo their best to break bounds. When yards are Jarge the fowls may be restrained with very low fences. I have had fowls that would quickly fly a six foot fence when in a small enclosure so surrounded never even attempt to go over the three foot fence of a larger yard, and I have seen Leghorns in a large yard where, on the side toward the road was a stone wall one could easily step over, that I was told never went over the wall — a stutement which I could credit because of what I saw of the fowls in their yard, and did not see of evidencesof their having been outside. This, however, we must regard as an exceptional case, and I would not advise anyone to trust toa low stone wall to keep any active fowls out of places in which there was something to tempt them, and where they might do some damage. The low fence to be effective must be one which offers no inducement to the fowls to try their powers of flight. A fence of pickets or laths presents a top Jine on which the fow] can secure a footing. A wire fence of any of the styles in common use offers nosuch - resting place if the stakes or posts are small or pointed at the top. This is one point in favor of wire netting. Other points are cheapness, durability, ease and quickness of construction, and adaptation to temporary fencing. This last feature of wire fencing is one that Is only beginning to be appreciated. It is most conspicuous when Jow fences are used, though the high temporary fence may be made with but little more trouble. To two subjects we have to consider together, The height, and to some extent The Simplest Fence. Except for gate posts at the few places where there are gates, and for the fence of the fly of the house built for pigeons, I have no set posts for my poultry fences. All fences are on stakes driven into the ground. When the ground ‘is soft we drive the stake right into it; where bard or stony we first make a bole with an iron bar. It fs not necessary, as when using lumber, to have posts equally distant. I generally drive stakes four paces apart, but if at the point marked for a stake I find a stone the bar will not displace, move a few inches or a foot if necessary, either way. Except at end posts or gates the wire for temporary fences is fastened to the posts with only two staples, one next the ground and the other at the top of the wire. These staples are not driven in tight, only enough to hold the wire, leaving a quarter of an inch or more of the staples to give a good hold to draw it out by. For wider fencing proportionately more stuples should be used, as the additional weight of wire increases the strain on those near the top. With wire three feet wide and less, the strain on the stuples is very light. 5 130 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. Fences built in this way are easily and quickly built, and easily and quickly taken down and put away or moved. For Brabmas I have fences from two to three feet high, preferably two and alait feet. The widths varied because sometimes when I wanted an extra roll or two of wire 1 could not get thirty-inch stuff, so took what I could get. Two feet is rather low, though only old males are likely to cross it. Three feet is higher than necessary, and a little barder for the poultry keeper to walk over. For Rhode Island Reds, Mr. P. R. Park uses four foot wire, placing bla posts or stakes farther apart (as I recall it about twenty feet) With posts far enough apart the wire will slack enough in the middle to allow one to step over. A man of average height or above the average, not overburdened with flesh, will get around much quicker going over fences this way than opening and closing gates. .A gate isa necessity it a wheelbarrow is to be taken through. the yards, but even with yates all round it is easier and quicker for the aver- uge man to step over the fence—beside the gate. For ashort man it ina different proposition. {In this style of fencing there are no boards, no part ot the fence tight. The lower wire rests ou the ground; where there js an elevation too abrupt for itto follow it will double over, where there is a depression which leaves an opening below it, it may be drawn down close with pegs driven into the-ground A possible objection to fencing 1n this way ix that males may fight through the fences. Mr. Park’s Reds get used to each other, and do hittie damage. JI have had no trouble with Brahmas except in afew cases where males began ‘ scrapping’’ through the wire, and in au rush and spring together landed both on the same side of the fence. Then the fight was toa finish. No serious fighting through wire netting is possible. This year 1 bad one male I was not willing to take any chances on, and between his yard and the next one containing a male I doubled the fence, the yards joining only for a shot distance, and there was no fighting at all. This double fence was made just as the temporary fences I bave been describing, with only a few inches between the two fences. Last year where there was danger of males damaging each other, | ran » second piece ot thirty-ineh wire above the first. The objection to that was that you could not walk over such afence. The parallel lines of low fence prevent fighting, while not interfering with the method of going from yard to yard. The simple way of fencing poultry just described iy applicable only when there is room enough to give good sized yards, and especially wide yards. It will not answer for such narrow yards as are usually used with continuous bouses; nor in the Jimited space in which many must yard their poultry, nor where males with large combs ure kept; nor is it advisable for permanent fencing. lt a fence is to remain in the same place permanently it is better to build it, though of wire, more substantially, to set the posts plumb and firmly, to fasten the wire on well, stretching itto fity and F think it is better to put a six-inch board along the ground, especially if one wishes to keep the grass or the ground smooth, cléan and well trimmed along the fence. About Permanent Poultry Fences. More and. more poultrymen are beginning to agree that the permanent poultry fence is a bad thing—an evilto be tolerated, perhaps, in some places, but avoided wherever possible. It is only when poultry keeping ison a very limited scale, and the poultryman can keep his small yards thoroughly renovated—in fact, treating the yards us he does the house, that the evils of permanent fencing are done away with. The great fault of permanent fencing is that the yards, unless very carefully looked after, soon become foul, while the fences so interfere with a thorough working of the soil thut the soil either is pot thoroughly worked or is worked largely by hand tools, and at great expense The resuit of this condition is that the yards are generally not thoroughly worked over, and disease and filth lurk in the corners. about the posts, and under the fence boards, furnishing the unsuspected cause for many a supposed mysterious epidemic, As in discussing the structure of the poultry house and the character and arrangement of the fittings, I tried to impress on readers the importance of having everything plain and simple, hecause this made it easier to be thorough in treating the house for lice especially— but, also, in all ordinary cleanings—so in regard to the arrangement of yards and fences I FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 131 would emphasize the importance, which as a plant grows old becomes necessity, of making ft easy as well as possible to keep yards thoroughly clean. It isn’t much of a job to spade over a large area on paper; but it takes time and lots of muscle to do the actual work on a comparatively small plant. Even when yards are so arranged that the greater part can be plougned, there must be a strip along each side of every fence that has to be worked over with spade or fork,—a tedious job. a This difficulty of giving the soil of the yards proper attention is one of the strong argu- ments aguinst the continuous house plan as an al) year round plan. Some poultrymen, notably those growing winter chickens, and some of the large duck growers, use stake and wire netting fences for the outdoor runs connected with their brooder houses, and after the young stock is out of the brooders, take up all fences, plough the ground, and sow to some crop, usually winterrye, This annual renovation and disinfection of the yards has been an important factor in their continued success with intensive methods. Itis more easily adapted to brooder house yards than to yards in which laying stock are kept, but unless a poultryman is very much crowded for room, or has a very large stock, it should be possible to get the laying hens out of their permanent or winter quarteis for at least a few months in the summer and early fall, and so muke an opportunity for a thorough cleaning up and purifying. If the house is so situated that yards can be made both front and back, and used alternately, the problem becomes easy. Temporary fences may be used. Yards in front of the houses may be used for a year or two, then all fences removed to the rear of the house, and the ground in front kept in cultivation or grass for a year or two. The character and extent of the land, and the requirements of the situation, have to be considered in determining just how fo work the rotation, and how to arrange the chickens and the crops, On some soils a rapid alternation would be better; on others, yards might run for a series of years without any pressing demand for change. This {s especially true of some of our porous, sandy sites in New England. Indeed I have seen some places here where if the land was not overstocked with fowls so that it would get too foul between rains, poultry could be kept on it indefinitely without any other purification of the soil than is brought. about by natura) agencies. This condition, however, would not obtain if yards were small, and the washing of ‘the soi] interfered with by post and boards of perma- nent fences, beside which the droppings would lodge instead of being carried away. It is to be observed, further, of such a location, that the fertilizing elements which, retained fn 4 soil unused, poison it for the fowls running on it, being either washed away or dissolved and leached through the light surface soil, are wasted and lost, while with an alternation of yards on richer, heavier soil the fertilizer can be made to contribute something to the income. I know a very few plants on good land where stock bas been kept low enough, and grass yards in such good condition that the bad results of permanent fencing have not developed, but most poultrymen who yard their fowls need to change the runs often, or else give as careful attention to the cleanliness of the yards as of the houses. The Usual Permanent Fence. The prevailing style of permanent fence for small to moderate sized yards is a fence six feet high, the first two feet of boards, the remainder of wire netting. Posts are usually set eight feet apart. With the wire no top rail is required. The netting is made fast to the posts and to the upper edge of the board part of the fence with staples. For such fencing the common two inch mesh poultry wire netting is used. Fences on this general plan are sometimes made with Jath in place of wire, but that style is not as good or as satisfactory. I used lath fences for the yards of a plant I built fifteen )ears ago, but after a few years experience with them, resolved never to do it again. My object in using lath was to have the shade which it would give the fowls in summer. It was all right for that, but it also made too much shade in the yardsin winter. It would have been better to put for shade in each yard some sort of shelter that could be removed when not wanted. The great objection to a lath fence is that the wind soon works the laths loose, and in a compara- tively short time they get to the stage where not even frequent circuits of the fences driving in the nails will keep them in good condition. By all means avoid the lath fence. Use wire, and 132 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. if shade must be provided, make shelters of boards or cloth, or plant trees in the yards. The trees answer permanently; the other shelters will do until the trees are of size to make shade. Japanese plum trees have been favorites with poultrymen. They make a quick growth, and for a few years bear well, but are short lived. Some poultrymen have planted plum, cherry, or peach trees, or some of all of these in their yards, alternating with apple trees. The other trees will have passed their prime by the time the apple trees are crowding them out, and can then be taken out, leaving a nice apple orchard. A six foot fence is not always necessary for small yards. For Asiatics tt is higher than required, and is also higher than needed for some American breeds; but if yards are small it is better to make fences high, unless it is certain they will never be used for fowls that can fly. -The additional cost does not exceed bualf a cent per running foot of the fence, and the six foot fence is practically safe for ull the popular varieties of fowls, while a five foot fence is not high enough for a small enclosure for Leghorns, and many fowls of all breeds but Asiatics can go over it if they try. The six-foot fence, while generally safe. will not answer for light, active fowis that have acquired the habit of flying over it. For sucb various devices have been tried, some of which seem to work in one case, some in another. Rarely the fence is built to a greater height than six feet. ‘Oftener a narrower strip of wire netting is placed at the top of the fence,in a horizontal position, being attached to horizonta) strips of wood fastened to the tops of the posts. This wire extends out a foot or more from the perpendicular fence. The object is to prevent hens which bave caught the trick from alighting on the top wire of the fence proper. Sometimes instead ot wire netting one or more single wires are strung to cross pieces on top the posts, the purpose being the same, to have the fow]s flying for the top of the fence strike them and be thrown back None of these devices are absolutely sure. To be sure of retaining breeding fowls in small yards with six-foot fences the yard must be covered over with wire netting. In this connection it may be well to point out that flying is with fowls very much a matter of habit. Chicks that are ralsed where they have no inducement to fly, or where the fences are so high that they could not fly over them until quite well grown seldom get into the habif. Those which find conditions and fences which encourage flying early acquire the habit, and it becomes difficult to break them of it. There are of course some differences due to breed and family, but on the whole fowls kejt where the fences easily retain them while smal! rarely become troublesome as flyers. Gates. Gates are usually made like small sections of the fence of which they are a part. Different styles of self-opening and closing gates have been devised, but the old simple gate seems to hold !tsown. Probably because it ix inexpensive and reliable. The hinges are sometimes of springs, or a spring is attached to the gate to shut it, but the poultryman who is wise in his craft will not rely on a spring. A strong breeze often swings a gate which is not securely fastened, fow]s slip from one pen to another; there is confusion, annoyance, and often serious loss from such mischances. It ts safer to have every gate fastened with a fastening that can be depended upon. hiLST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 133 LESSON XVII. Getting Ready for Winter. special work of each season as it comes. When this condition exists, the work Is easier, and results more reliable. We may say in discussing the matter academically that this ideal condition ought always to exist, and thatin as much as he fails to attain it, the poultryman shows poor man- agement or poorjudgment. But in practice we find even the best poulirymen able to maintain this ideal condition only occasionally, even when their operations are on such a scale that so far as it depends upon them, nothing that needs to be done need be delayed or neglected. When, asis oftener the case, the poultryman is diligently making the most of every promising means of adding to the proceeds of the year’s work, a setback making a difference of only a few days in certain preparations or results may easily handicap him through the remainder of the season. Besides such delays as this, there are occasionally others for which he may not be at all responsible. Of this kind are delays In getting out chicks, due to disappointing fertility in the first eggs set. The effects of such delays may extend through more than one season in spite of all that the poultryman may do to overcome them. I call attention to these things not to discourage anyone, but because a full appreciation of possible difficulties in the way of any undertaking is nearly always a condition of success in it, and the average poultry keeper is too prone to put off special preparations until the occasion for them becomes urgent. A mistake at any season, such procrastination is doubly danger- ous at this season, for fall weather is uncertain, winter may set in earlier than anticipated, and winter conditions often make it impossible to do work that needs to be done. There is less chance of recovering lost ground at this season than at any other. Hence the urgent need of forwarding the development of the stock, and the preparations for winter protection and comfort. TT? ideal state of the work in a poultry yard is to be always prepared—ready for the Keep the Young Stock Growing. There may be some very early pullets that by moving about, and by light diet, need to be held back from laying until October, but the greater part of the young stock should be fed now all it will stand, and it should be able to stand very heavy feeding. The conditions now are especially favorable to rapid growth. Iu northern latitudes where excessive heat is rarely long continued. growth should have been good right through the summer. Where summer heats are oppressive, the growth of the chickens may be very slow ‘through July and August, but with September they take a fresh start, and to make up as far as possible they should now be pushed to the limit of safety. With the cooler weather of this season we have still days that are long enough to get in three good meals, and still have time for the digestive organs to rest a little in the daylight interims. Luter when the days grow so short that the meals come closer together the fowls will not take and assimilate as much food, and that-is one reason why itis so hard to push them when it is 134 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. neglected until the failure of the pullets to begin laying early in winter plainly indicates the need of forcing. Then the keeper is often disappointed in results, the pullets not seeming to respond as they should to the extra food and special care given them. Itis of greatest importance that through the fall the fowls should be well fed. The need of good feeding at this, and at all times, would appear to be so self-evident as not to need to be thus specially emphasized, but for many years, and in the experiences of a very great number of poultry keepers, I have noticed tendency to skimp the feeding at this period. The most common cause of such efforts to economize is that the poultry keeper is carrying a stock of growing fowls too large for his finances, and in his efforts to go into the winter with a certain number of possible layers, he not only keeps many pullets which ought to be sold for poultry, but,in order to go no deeper in debt than is unavoidable, he gives his stock a mere maintenance ration, which, in the case of the pulleta, means delayed development, and in the case of the old hens, slow molting and retarded resumption of laying. The policy of short feeding is often pursued until the lack of results at the expected time points to something wrong, and then the poultry keeper expects in a few days of special feeding to make up for weeks or months of insufficient rations. It may happen occasionally that it is advisable to feed short with early pullets that would otherwise begin to lay sooner than was advisable, (with the risk of a molt early in the winter), but such cases are comparatively rare. Most poultry keepers with most of their stock need to feed all the stock can stand. The Best Way to Economize in Feeding. The expense of feeding a stock of growing, and, as yet, unproductive pullets, is nearly always a heavy burden on the poultryman working up a stock, because the proportion of unproductive to productive stock is usually much greater than in a flock established for some time upon a given basis. To make tbe burden as light as possible, the poultry keeper should cull his pullets closely, retaining only those that are vigorous, strong, and well developed for their age. If, after such culling, he stil] has more than he can give proper care, let him sel) a part of the remainder, and bring the stock down to what he can “ swing.” Many poultrymen are reluctant to do this because they feel that in thus reducing their stock in advance of the season of its productiveness they are deliberately cutting off a large part of the most promising source of income. That would be the case if the pullets were all good, and if the whole number could be carried to maturity in « proper manner. I am not, however, talking now to those who are able to keep the pullets growing, but to that large class who try to economize in feeding at this season, and then wonder why they do not get results a little later. The most profitable course for them is to reduce the stock to what they can give liberal rations. Itis « great deal better for one who is sailing close to the wind in his poultry business to go into the winter with 100 pullets ready to lay in November than with 300 that will not lay until February. For the 100 will give a profit all winter, while the 300 will not begin to pay for their keep by their winter laying. In sections where eggs eommand high prices through the most of the year, one may make perhaps as much on a flock of late pullets beginning to lay in February, and laying late the next year, as on earlier pullets that began to lay at the same age; but if he needs the income from the hens to pay his feed bills, and has to go into debt if eggs are not forthcoming, he should strain every nerve to get eggs early, and keep no more pullets than he can carry without seriously handicapping next year’s work if eggs come slowly this winter. If one has room for them, and js able to handle them, late pullets may be very profitable. Not so the early pullet that lays late. Keeping the stock down, or cutting it down at this stage, is one of the essential features of building a poultry stock or business up slowly. Just us many readers in mid-summer found that it had been easy to get out chickens enough to overcrowd their accommodations before the chicks were half grown, so about this season many are made to realize that they have been able to rear to present stage of development, und have accommodations for more chickens than they are financially able to take care of until they begin to produce eggs. The common practice is to goin debt for feed, and even then feed short. The better way is to reduce the stock. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 1385 Culling the Young Stock. Apart from the point of a poultryman’s financial ability to carry what stock he has, is the question of the policy of keeping it all, Nearly all poultrymen—even those of long experience and generally satisfactory success, hold more of their stock than is wise. Unless a stock has been bred by very careful selection, and is very uniform in quality, there is almost certainly a considerable percentage of both pullets and cockerels not wortb reserving for stock purposes. The very backward inferior specimens of both sexes sbould be relentlessly weeded out. Thereisno profit in keeping them. The novice who has thorough- bred stock js likely to think that all being of the same breeding, every specimen must have some value for stock purposes. The inferior pullets he has nouse for himself he holds to sel] to some one who wants low price stock. They are salable for such purposes if the price is made low enough, but I don’t think that in the long run it pays to make such disposition of them. If one is selling thoroughbred stock and wants to make a reputation that will profit him in coming years he cannot afford to let such poor stock go for breeding, at any price — much less at a low price. Cockerels of like quality he holds to sell to the trade that buys at $1.50 to $3 each. Neither does this pay. Considered individually, there is some profit in the cockerel sold before spring at $2.50 to $8, but on a lot of cockerels of low grade itis generally impossible to figure a profit that will pay for giving them house room and attention. A few birds lost or unsold in such a lot offset the narrow margin of profit on the others. The novice with no established trade willas a rule find it safe to dispose of all but the best tenth of his male birds before winter. This will seem to many rather radical culling. Let those who doubt the wisdom of such policy keep account with the cheap cockerels they hold over. Asto selling any consider- able proportion of cockerels of that grade at this season, it cannot be done. The trade that takes them {s on the whole a trade that buys only at the beginning of the breeding season. If, then, the reader wishes to put his poultry keeping for the winter on the best possible economic basis, let him dispose of all pullets that are not thrifty and vigorous and likely to begin laying before midwinter, and of all but a few of his best cockerels. These with such old hens as he has selected to keep over should give hima stock that reduces his chances of loss to the minimum, while what he receives from the sale of the discarded stock may go a good way toward paying the keep of the remainder until it begins to be productive. Putting the Stock Into Winter Quarters. The pullets not already in winter quarters should go there as soon as possible now, for their laying will depend somewhat on conditions being good, and no further disturbance necessary. They should not be crowded, but given as much house room as {s to be allotted to them through the winter. It is generally found a mistake to crowd them into winter quarters, perhaps to twice the capacity of a house, thinking it will be time enough to reduce the num- ber when they begin to lay. They should have as much bouse house room now as when matured. The Importance of Fresh Air. To say that pullets should now be in winter quarters does not necessarily mean that the houses should be operated asin winter. If cold houses are used there will be no difference, perbaps; butif the houses are tight, warm, and are to be shut up in cold weather, the winter method of operating the house is not suitable to present conditions. This is the season when colds seem to develop and become epidemic without such plaim causes of colds as may be found later on. Most of the cases of epidemic cold developing now are due not to cold, butto heat. Tbe houses are shut up too early, the air in them is close and bad, and the fowls and chickens accustomed to more open coops and houses during the sum- mer, take cold. For years there has been bardly a case of colds reported to me in early fall that was not evidently due to lack of ventilation and fresh air, and reports of results of better ventilation have almost invariably shown improvement as a result of the more air treatment. Better keep doors and windows open until real winter weather comes. 186 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. Making Houses Ready. While it is better to have houses in first class shape, clean, and the floor (if of earth) renewed, when the pullets are put into them, it is much better to put the pullets in the houses, and fix up afterwards than to keep them out until the houses are ready, especially if (ae is quite generally the case) the pullets are by this time overcrowded in the summer quarters. The ideal way, as has been said, is to have everything ready at its proper time, but this is so difficult to accomplish that many times we bave to take the course that seems to have the least disadvantages. When detached houses are used it is much easier to clean up while the house is in use tban when houses are on the continuous plan, but even in that case with a little ingenuity in shifting the fowls from pen to pen as cleaning progresses, the fowls being driven and not handled at all, it is possible to do the'work almost as expeditiously as if the houses were empty. With me the cleaning process consists in removing all of the earth floor that shows any mixture of droppings, brushing down walls and underside of roof with a broom, filling the floor with new earth, and making whatever repairs are necessury. Sometimes the interior is whitewashed, though that seems to me generally not to be necessary for cleanliness, but rather advisable because it makes the place look better, und makes the light better on dark days. These advantages make whitewashing well worth doing if time can be found for the work, but if something has to be left undone, let it be the whitewashing rather than the renewal of the floor, repairs, or alterations that will make the winter’s work easier. Look Out for Mites. When cleaning up the house look out for red mites. They are most likely to be found on the undersides of the roosts, and about the supports on which the roosts rest, and about the nests. If they are present, indications will be plain, even before the mites themselves are seen, in the abundance of greyish white specks about their barboring places. If these specks, resembling fly specks, are noticed on walls or fixtures, you may be sure the mites are there. In that event, whether the house is to be whitewashed or not, give all the places where traces of mites are found a thorough swabbing, spraying, or drenching with water containing an insecticide that will kill them. I use Chloro-Naptholeum, about a balf teacupful to a three ‘gallon pail of water. Some use Sulpho-Napthol, some nuptbalene flakes dissolved in kerosene, some straight kerosene, some one of the numerous other liquid insecticides and disinfectants on the market. Whitewash alone will kill all the mites it reaches if a Lit thick, but if thin enough to go into the eracks and crevices is not us effective as the other things mentioned. Whatever application is used, if the mites were bad go over the infested places again after an interval of three or four days, and ayvain after another like interval, if, on examination, any mites are found. Two, or at most, three treatments at this season should settle the mite question until the return of warm weather next summer, Renovating the Yards. The yards being, in this latitude, little used in winter, it is not as necessary to clean them up at this time as it is to clean the houses, but if opportunity can be found now to turn over soil that would require turning over in the spring anyway, it is worth while to doit. The contam- inated soil is thus turned under, and if there should happen to be much open weather in the winter the fowls have cleaner ground to run over, If it is desired to grass u yard, now is a better time to prepare it than in the spring. J‘lough or spade and smooth the surface. Then just before it freezes up sow the seed. Keep the fowls off the land through the winter and until after the grass is well established in the spring. In this way you will vet a better start of grass, and have the use of the land much sooner than if the seed 1s sown in the spring. Laying in Supplies for Winter. Dust.—IJf, as T think by far the best way, the floor of the house is used as a dust bath, no special provision for material for the dust bath need be made; hut if Moors are of wood or «eement, and dust bas to be supplied specially, a good supply should be stored before the ground freezes. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 137 Litter.— If leaves are to be used for litter, they should be stored as soon as possible. The quicker they are collected and put away after they fall, the tougher they are, and the longer they last on the scratching floor. If allowed to lie exposed to the weather for some time, they become much more brittle, and are quickly pulverized by the fowls. Farmers who bave their own straw, of course have it stacked, and do not need to specially consider the supply for the hens. Those who cannot get leaves, aud have to buy other scratching material, are likely to find this the most favorable time to get their supply, and the poultryman who has provided 4 place for the storage of such supply, finds now what a convenience it is, While I consider leaves the most satisfactory scratching material for those who can get a -good supply with Jittle trouble and expense, they are practically available only for those who can get them nearby. Those who buy stuff for scratching litter will find oat straw and corn stalks the most satisfactory — the straw to be used witbout cutting, the stalks to be cut into about six inch lengths. Most kinds of hay make less satisfactory litter; fine hay packs too close, while coarse Jong hay is tough, and mats and tangles. Green Foods and Roots.— Cabbage is tne best of winter green foods, and the most con- venient to feed. A poultryman who does not grow his own cabbage should lay in a supply before winter, otherwise he is likely to have to pay too much for what he uses. Failing a supply of cabbage, good clover or alfalfa makes a substitute that insures the fowls will not suffer for lack of green food. Of root crops, beets are the best for poultry, and large mangel or sugar beets the most satis- factory. These are seldom grown for sale in the localities where they would be most in «demand for poultry, and unless the poultryman grows them himself his supply is likely to be anucertain. Exhibition Fowls. For most exhibitors the show season is still several months away, yet it is not too early to begin to prepare birds for show if one intends to show. Indeed, if there is even a remote pos- sibility that one may want to show, or if he thinks it at all possible that there is in his stock a bird anyone else would buy to show, he should begin now to consider the matter, to provide against anything occurring to spoi] an otherwise useful exbibition specimen, and by every means in his power to.put such birds in good condition and keep them so. The almost universal fault of novices iu exhibiting fowls is to put off the preparation of the Specimen to be exhibited until the show at which it is to be exhibited is close at hand. Then they find all sortsof things wrong. Birds so short in weight that it is hopeless to think of getting them up to weight; birds with scaly legs, with broken feathers, etc.,and in many cases the owner has little idea how to remedy the trouble, and loses still more time in finding out. Now many of the most common faults discovered by the novice when trying to select birds to show are faults that in a specimen of any value should be remedied whether the specimen is to be exhibited or not. Scaly legs should not be tolerated in a yard, nor should such lack of condi- tion as exists when a fow] with a frame that should easily carry the weight required by the Standard is a pound or two short of that weight. By taking the possible exhibition birds in hand now, they may as a rule be quite easily fitted and well fitted. With twoor three months to make weight they will come on fast enough on ordinary good feeding; scaly legs may be cleaned up gradually and be in fine condition long before the show; broken or clipped feathers may be removed, und new ones have ample time to grow in their place. Besides this, special precautions may now be begun to avoid accidents to specimens that may be wanted to show. This is most necessary with the young males. They wust not only be kept from injury by fighting, but a good specimen must not be kept where he will be bossed and cowed by another male even if the other is so much the boss that no special «dlamage is done to comb or plumage. A male to show to advantage must show spirit, and though most of them have spirit enough when given a chance to develop and display it, a male that bas been knocked about for months takes more than a few days or weeks to come out and show all that is in him. 138 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. There is still another reason why attention should be given to the selection and fitting of pos- sible show specimens. It leadsthe poultryman to study his stock much closer than he is likely to do if he gives no attention to exhibition quality and condition, and though he should not show a single specimen, al] the time and thought he has given to this work will be found when he comes to mate his fowls for the next season, to have been well spent. The matter of fitting birds for exhibition will be treated more at length in the next lesson. The Poultryman Who Begins in the Fall. Tam often asked what time of the year is best to begin poultry keeping. Judging by results of first efforts I cannot say that it makes a great deal of difference, but the fall has always seemed to me the best time to begin, because beginning at this season experiences come in their logical order, and something of the handling of adult stock is learned before batching and rear- ing questions press for consideration. The poultryman beginning now, if on an old plant, has to take much the same steps in getting houses ready for winter us have already been mentioned. One building new houses, of course has no cleaning up or repairing to do, but unless buildings are already well advanced they must be pusled rapidly to have them ready for the stock before winter sets in. It is best not to buy stock until the buildings are practically ready, for fowls coming to a new place will not stand confinement in makeshift quarters as well as fowls reared on the premises do, being continued longer than advisable in the summer quarters. In fact the stock in summer quarters may come along as fast at present as if in winter quarters, but the point is to avoid moving them just as they are about to begin Jaying, and to guard against too much exposure, when, as is often the case, the coops are unsultable for cold, stormy weather. With fowls brought to a new place, sickness may easily develop if conditions are specially unfavorable. Hence it is better to have the house all ready before a fowl is put into it, and not to get fowls until the house is ready for them. A great many do buy fowls and keep them con- fined in small coops perhaps for a month, while making the house ready. This gives the fowls a very poor start for the winter. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 139 LESSON XVIII. Exhibiting Fowls. Practical Value of Exhibiting to the Exhibitor. eggs for the home table, regard the exhibiting of fowls and the breeding of fowls for “fancy” points, as of no particular interest to “practical” people, and of no actual value to them. This is anerror. Without conceding to ‘ the fancy ” that preeminence in the development of poultry interests which fanciers like to claim for it, everyone well informed in poultry matters must allow it credit for a great deal of the progress made and still making, and must also admit that a thorough knowledge, or even a fair knowledge of the characteristics of fowls and the principles of breeding for uniform results is rarely acquired by a poultryman who takes no interest in exhibition points and exhibits of many fowls. There are, of course, a great many so-called fanciers who know little of breeding, but the poultryman who takes no interest in “fancy” points, and does not breed at all for appearance —for beauty, either according to the general standards or according to some fixed ideas of his own, and still pro- duces good fowls, is such a rarity that I have yet to meet the first one. Practical poultrymen who disregard “‘fancy” points, as a rule, breed absolutely without intelligent selection. A very large proportion of their stock is decidedly inferior, even when nominally their stock is thor- oughbred, and I have repeatedly seen in the yards of such breeders very poor birds, both male and-female, in the breeding pens, and good ones not used for breeding, or good males mated’ with inferior females, and vice versa, with the result that only a very few good specimens were produced when there was good stock enough in the yards,if properly handled, to have given the poultryman two or three times as many good young birds as he got by his way of mismat- ing, and many of them very much superior to any that he did produce, Now through books and papers a poultry keeper who is sufficiently interested in a variety of fowls to “‘ read up” on it, may learn a great deal without ever attending a show or making an exhibit; but he is sure to get a great many ideas that are wrong, to entirely overlook many points of importance, and fail much oftener than is necessary in assigning to various excellencies and faults their proper values. Without exhibiting, a poultry keeper who will attend the shows and mingle with the fanciers. there, will learn a great deal that self-taught he misses, and will learn more easily and quickly many of the things he would learn by himself; but it is the universal testimony of those who have gone through these several degrees of instruction in breeding and selecting for points that a personal experience in exhibiting when the exhibitor attends the show and gets the benefit of it is the best way to learn—so much better than any other way that there is no comparison. In such experiences the results of errors in judgment in breeding, selection, and preparation of fowls for exhibition become conspicuous while the corresponding correct condition or method may be clearly illustrated by a more successful competitor, Then there is no place like the exhibition room for a breeder to learn to estimate the types and characteristics whick TT’: many poultry keepers who keep poultry primarily for profit, or for poultry and 140 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. please him in his fowls at home at their true value, and without disregarding his individual tastes and preferences to learn to modify them to harmonize better with popular ideas. If one wishes to sell fine stock, or to gain a reputation for producing and having good stock he must keep his ideals somewhere near those of the rest of mankind interested in that kind of stock. Exhibitions of poultry are now so numerous and so well distributed that there are compara- tively few poultry keepers too far from any show to make an exhibit and look after it in person at least during a part of thetime, and I would urge every reader of this lesson who keeps thoroughbred fowls to make it a point to exhibit at the most accessible show. If one begins early to make preparations to exhibit, and gets his birds in good’ physical condition they willhuve to be very poor indeed to discredit him. Where most novices “ fall down” is in putting off selection and preparation of specimens to be exhibited until within a few days of the show. Then the birds go into the show in poor condition, and attract attention more by poor condition than by lack of merit. I have at such length urged readers to exhibit not merely for reasons already given, but because so many breeders of thoroughbred fowls attach undue importance to the matter of winning at a show, and feel that it is a disgrace to lose and therefore poor policy to show unless one has a reasonable expectation of winning. Then assuming that there will certainly be many good birds in their class, shown in good condition, they conclude the wiser course for them is to keep their birds at home. There is pleasure and generally credit In winning, but wherever competition is strong many must lose, and there is no disgrace in losing with a good exhibit to a rival with a better one. And in the show room merit gets the recognition of visitivg fanciers, whether decorated with prizes or among the unplaced. I might say much more to urge reluctant breeders to show, butI hope that what hus been said will prove enough, and in passing to the matters properly in this lesson will only say furtber that the reader fol- towing these lessons who neglects to learn what he can in that way will get much less out of some of the more advanced lessons in the course than those who do. Something About the Poultry Shows. American poultry shows may be roughly divided into two general classes :— The poultry exhibit held in connection with an agricultural fair. ‘The poultry show, proper, held by an association organized solely or primarily for that purpose. ; Though there is a.rapidly increasing number of exceptions it is still true in a general way ‘that the exhibits at fairs, where they usually occupy a subordinate position, bring out a decidedly inferior class of fowls, are often judged by incompetent persons, and do not begin to afford the opportunities for instruction and comparison of ideas that are found in even the smallest of the special poultry shows. 7 For this reason readers who wish to exhibit for the sake of what they may learn by exhibit- {ng are advised to exhibit af.a winter show unless the poultry exhibit at the fair accessible to them is conducted in about the same way as a winter show, and is well patronized by fanciers in the territory from which it draws exhibits. A number of the more important fairs now run their poultry departments on such a basis, and some of them are as good or better than the winter shows in their vicinity. Ovcasionally there is enough local interest in the poultry exhibit at a small fair to secure suituble classification, the employment of a competent judge, and consideration of standard requirements in the placing of awards. At such a fair it is worth while to exhibit. But the general run of agricultural fairy, with primitive classification, Jack of orderly arrangement, poor care of exhibits, and judgment according to no known stand- ards and by men of no qualifications for the work, do not afford the opportunities for acquiring knowledge which I bave in mind; and while I would not dissuade anyone from exhibiting at such a fair to help the exhibit, I would not want a reader to limit himself to such experience in exhibiting and think he bad followed my advice, Fowls Are Judged by the «« Standard.’ At all well managed shows in the United States and Canada, fowls are judged by the ‘‘ Amer- Jean Standard of Perfection.” This book is a collection of descriptions of varieties of fowls made to conform to a general model, compiled by the American Poultry Association, and 1s by , FIRST LESSONS IN POULILRY KEEPING. 141 custom and general consent the common “ law ” as to requirements for the varieties included. A copy of this book it is essential that every exhibitor and every breeder of thoroughbred tow] should haye. Trying to breed and exhibit without the information in this book is like tr§ing to do any kind of work requiring accuracy without a model, pattern or plan. Probably four- fifths of the mistakes of new exhibitors are directly due to their failure to inform themselves about Standard requirements. True the Standard contalus errors, and errors are sometimes made in applying it. For these an exhibitor is not responsible. The exhibitor is responsible for his own failures to conform to the Standard requirements that are plain and unmistakable, and he can only he sure thut he makes no errors here by consulting the Standard on every ‘point which may concern his exhibit. Applying the Standard in Selection of Specimens to Exhibit. To a novice who has never seen the application of the Standard demonstrated in judging, and had the opportunity to have the demonstrations which specially interested him further explained by the judge or other breeders, many of the descriptions in the Standard are vague and indefinite, put with these descriptions he need not concern himself at this stage. Leaving them for the present he should give his attention to the points that are clearly and unmistakably plain, for these are, asa rule, the points upon which judges most nearly agree in the applica- tion of the Standard, and under any competent judge a specimen is almost certain to suffer if “off” in any of these points. In regard to them, knowing what the Standard says, even the novice may know what the judge will do about them. The best way to study the Standard description of a variety of fowls is to have one or more males and females of the variety under consideration cooped where they can be handled at will, and examine each section in the birds as the description of itis read in the book. The better the specimen the easier it is to understand the description. It is advisable for the prospective exhibitor to give himself several drills of this kind to familiarize himself with the Standard requirements before he undertakes to select specimens to exhibit. The descriptions state in a concise way, and almost without explanation, what is required in an ideal specimen. Having selected one or more specimens which seem to be his best according to the descrip- tion, the novice should next look up the disqualifications and examine carefully for them, for a bird that is plainly disqualified, though in every other way a fine specimen, and the disquslify- ing feature a very trivial one, is not only not given a prize, but in score card shows most judyes quit scoring as soon as they find a disqualification, and the exhibitor is thus left witbout the record of the judge’s complete estimate of the quality of the specimen, a distinct disappoint- ment and misfortune when he shows to learn. On page 28 of “ The Standard of Perfection” is given the list of general disqualifications — that is, of disqualifications which are the same for all or many breeds. Preceding the descrip- tion of each variety the additional special disqualifications for that variety are given. To illustrate the method of looking for disqualifications :* Suppose a Barred Plymouth Rock fs under examination. Turning to the list of general disqualifications, the reader sees at once that the first three do not apply to Barred Plymouth Rocks. Coming to the fourth he finds it reads thus:— “Tn all breeds required to have unfeathered shanks, any feather or feathers on shanks, feet, or tees, or unmistakable indications of feathers having been plueked from the same.” Now the novice whose idea of a feathered leg is of a Jeg profusely covered with feathers is apt to let that pass without a thought; but he needs to give the point attention, and the legs and feet of the fowl a very careful examination, for tiny feathers are often found on the out- *JThe reader must not understand that what follows is the method pursued by a judge, or an experienced exhibitor, or the method he willhimself pursue when familiar with the Standard and with his breed. The expert knowing the disqualifications without reference to the book, and having them all in mind, sees the more conspicuous ones at a glance. The brecder will look next for those most common in his stock. The judge using the score card generally begins with the first section, and going right through the list, takes note ef a disqualification when he reaches the section it is in. 142 FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. side of the shank of a fowl] of a clean legged breed, and frequently they are so small that {t takes a very careful examination to discover them. Sometimes there is only a stub of a quill, but that is as fatal as more. While examining for feathers he shouid also look for down between the toes of the fowl, By “down” is meant, as he will see by referring to the glossary of technical terms, a feather so minute that the quill is not visible to the naked eye. Formerly down disqualified the same as feathers, but now it is cut as a defect. The next general disquulification in regard to clipped wings also applies to Plymouth Rocks. If any of the specimens under consideration have had their wings clipped there is ample time ow to pull out the clipped feathers and let new ones grow in their place. Even if not full grown at the time of the show the new feathers show the quality of the wing. The reason for disqualifying for clipped wings is that if they are allowed to pass with a cut it is possible in some varieties by clipping a wing to remove a disqualification. The next general disqualification which might apply is lopped comb. The glossary defines a ‘Yopped comb, Such combs are rarely found now on Plymouth Rocks. Next, ‘“‘decidedly wry tails,” that is, the tail carried to one side. This is quite a common defect, and is often unsuspected. A badly wry tailed bird it is no use to exhibit, but one that is only slightly wry, or only occasionally carried wry, an exhibitor will take chances with, for ‘at is the practice of judges examining such a bird to try to get it to carry the tail straight, and if it will do so for only an instant the tail will pass. Next, “ crooked backs.” This is another fault often unsuspected by even exhibitors of some experience, but easily found by the judge who passes his hand over the back of the fowl. Next, “‘ side sprig or sprigs on the comb of single comb varieties.” This is a very common defect. Next, ‘‘ decidedly squirrel tail,” that is, the tail carried so high as to suggest the habit of the equirrel which carries its tail curving to the back. In short tailed breeds like Plymouth Rocks this defect is rarely conspicuous. Next, “blind in both eyes.” A very rare defect. Next, ‘(in four toed breeds, more or Jess than four toes on either foot.” Not a very common defect. Next, “‘entire absence of main tail feathers.” The feathers will not be absent unless they fbave been removed. They do sometimes get removed accidentally. The disqualification is to cover the case of the exhibitor who would remove them to hide a fault or disqualification. This completes the list of general disqualifications for faults which apply in this case. Turn- dng to Barred Plymouth Rocks, we find the following special disqualifications :— “ Positive white in ear lobes; red in any part of the plumage; two or more solid black primaries, secondaries, or main tail feathers; shanks other than yellow with due allowance for fading with age, dark spots not to disqualify.” The search for these disqualifications leads to un examination of the ear lobes for white, of the entire plumave for feathers with reddish spots on them, of the stiff feathers of wings and tail, and of the color of shanks and toes, In looking for these disqualifications the exhibitor will have given his birds a pretty careful exumination, but he is not through yet. On pages 29 and 380 of “The Standard,” is a list of cuts for the more common defects, by reference to which be will learn the common faults and find some for which a specimen may be punisbed so severely tbat as far as chances of winning are concerned it might as well be disqualified. We will not go through these here in detail, but refer only to the more important ones which apply in the case. These refer to irregular barring and to black feathers. Irregular barring {s very common, and there are very few Barred Rocks which have not some black or partly black feathers in the plumage, which an inexperienced observer might not notice at all, but which the judge as a rule quickly discovers. It is the common practice of exhibitors to remove these feathers before showing the fowls. I will not attempt here to go into the ethics of the practice, ‘out pass the matter with the remark that it is quite useless for one who leaves them to show in competition, and that as the Standard is worded now their removal is not “faking.” For any other variety the prospective exhibitor should proceed in the same way, letting no FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. 143 section connected with a disqualification pass without a careful examination, and paying special attention to the common defects mentioned for the variety he is considering. It takes time, and itis work; burt itis work that must be done if one would compete successfully in the exhibition room, and is quite as necessary, if though never exhibiting he wishes to breed to Standard requirements. Without this careful examination, and the thorough knowledge it gives both of the variety and of the individuals bundled, a breeder will soon find his stock more dis- tinguished for its faults than for its excelleucies, Fitting Fowls for Exhibition. Bavieg selected such specimens suitable for exhibition as are required, the next thing in order is to make or keep them fit for exhibition. Occasionally a specimen can be taken from the yard and sent to a show without any preliminary ante or handling, but most birds need something done for them. Broken feathers should be removed that they may grow out again. Sculy legs should be nd where i! renee wary Roepe j haw ey wathority ou poultry Sent sis. f digirey aie Sold on Approval. Price $1.50, post paic. wt ot recula of P = Special Offer. MyM vivtve yor tony this book ana One ¢ar's subscription Fou eoaios iOUTILy, FARM-POULTRY PUBLISHING CO,, Boston, Mass. Nothing on Earth WILL Make Hens Lay LIKE Sheridan's Condon Powe. Given to newly hatched chickens it insures their health Potaist in ite use and the pal th ‘bh the winter, when emu ate high. Invaluable for bens. It Is a Scientifically Prepared Food sete oe aekara Neind of od It will ton Ealine it en healthy birds fie pari a it was the of all edvert on equal. of & cont o day, sages Mh, a et ma a Tee eo, 1. 8. dats OO,, 338 gaxsnar Oy oven Maes. i a i a ae DSeruperiESSeS aeB | } FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING Se) ‘ — Y oN 2 Su SECOND YEAR GOURSE. SN AS nppeancnegs E— BY JOHN H. ROBINSON, Editor FARM-POULTRY. q) oS SKE sea > => Va A) os ae 9 “0 wn SECOND EDITION, PUBLISHED BY FARM-POULTRY PUBLISHING CO., BOSTON, MASS. rag prypeesmants Z WS x fe hk — ny a The Successful POULTRY PAPER becomes such through the belief of a whole lot of people, that it will give them the kind of information they need to make them successful poultry keepers. FARM - POULTRY SEMI- MONTHLY is a shining example of what constitutes a ‘(Successful Poultry Paper.’”’ Established in 1889, it has been and is an unfailing, practical, helpful aid to the utility as well as the fancy poultry keepers all over the country. Through its enterprise in securing original matter and illustrations, its tireless energy im digging deep into all matters which promise to yield results of value to its readers; its quick approval and support of ways and means shown to be good, and its premptness to condemn fads and unpractical schemes, which would prove detrimental to the powltry interests, FARM-POULTRY has come to be regarded asa safe, sure guide for poultry keepers who seek success, and through its careful, con- servative conduct, bas established a enviable reputation for reliability. Spectak attemtion is called to our practice of printing ‘‘show reports” in full, whether winners are our advertisers and subscribers or not. Will not such a paper as we have described be helpful to YOU? Published TWICE A MONTH (twenty-four times a year) for ONLY FIFTY CENTS. SAMPLE COPY SENT FREE ON REQUEST FARM-POULTRY PUB. CO., Boston, Mass. rAS FARM-POULTRY SERIES No. 9. SECOND EDITION. FIRST LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING. SECOND YEAR COURSE. This series originally appeared in Farm-Poultry serially in 1905-06. The third year course series is now running in that paper. BY John H. Robinson, Editor FARM-POULTRY. Author Poultrv-Craft, The Common-Sense Poultry Doctor, Broilers and Roasters, Winter Eggs, PRICE 50 CENTS. PUBLISHED BY | FARM-POULTRY PUB. CO., Boston, Mass. 1907. si COPYRIGHT, 1906 BY FARM-POULTRY PUB. CO. Boston, Mass. Press of 8. G. Robinson, 267 Atlantic Ave., Boston, CONTENTS. LESSON I, INBREEDING AND LINE BREEDING - - m - LESSON II. . SOME COMMON PHENOMENA OF PRIFFDING - - - LESSON IIT. MarRKET Duck CULTURE - - 1 = - s #8 LESSON IV. ‘GOOSE CULTURE - a Ms s “ LEXSON V. ‘TURKEY GROWING - - - sa “ = LESSON VI. POSSIBILITIES AND PROBABILITIES IN POULTRY CULTURE - - - ’ LESSON VI. — SEcTION II. ‘SOME TYPICAL VENTURES IN POULTRY KEEPING - ~ - LESSON VI. — SECTION ITI. BRANCHES OF POULTRY CULTURE AND CLASSES OF POULTRY KEEPERS CONSIDERED IN THEIR RELATION TO PROSPECIrIVE POULTRY KEEPERS’ EXPECTATIONS oF SUCCESS - - - ~ is os s es LESSON VII. LOCATING AND LAYING OUT POULTRY PLANTS - - - ee é LESSON VIII. Kinps, BREEDS, AND VARIETIES OF FOWLS - - - ie LESSON IX. STOCKING THE POULTRY PLANT - - ~ - = e 16 24 34 43 52 61 10 15 86 96 vv. CONTENTS. LESSON X. THE MosT ImporTANT PART OF THE POULTRYMAN’S EQUIPMENT LESSON XI. THE EXTERNAL PARASITES OF POULTRY - = = LESSON XII. INTERNAL PARASITES OF POULTRY = - - LESSON XIII. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF POULTRY, AND THEIR VALUES ~- LESSON XIV. POULTRY NOMENCLATURE AND ABBREVIATIONS _ LESSON XV. EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTION . - ~ LESSON XVI. SOME ELEMENTARY MORAL SCIENCE FOR EXHIBITORS = LESSON XVII. BUSINESS MORALITY IN POULTRY CULTURE ~ LESSON XVIII. WINTER EGG PRODUCTION - - - LESSON XIX. First TREATMENT OF SICK FOWLS - - LESSON XX. POULTRYMEN’S ORGANIZATIONS = - Iimk «ll Se ee 102 106 110 114 125 129 183 1389 146 150 154 158 NOTE. — First Lessons in Poultry Keeping appeared in serfal form in FARM-POULTRY, in 1905. The Second Series of Lessons in Poultry Keeping, which takes up some advanced subjects, and some necessarily omitted the first year, was published serially in thesame paper in 1906, The third year’s course now appear ing in FARM-POULTRY, describes and discusses special branches and combinations in poultry culture with _ the same fullness of detail and explanation as the Lessons in the earlier series, Lessons In Poultry Keeping. SECOND SERIES. LESSON I. Inbreeding and Line Breeding. which the facts bearing upon them require will be in a measure disappointing to many readers. Outside of those who have made a somewhat thorough study of the principles of breeding, comparatively few people can be found who will come to a consideration of the subject without a prejudice against inbreeding, while among novices in poultry breeding “line breeding” is very commonly regarded as an elaborate scientific system of mating by which expert fanciers produce their finest specimens. Both of these attitudes are wrong. The prejudice against inbreeding, though ages old, almost universal, and supported by religious and social teachings, will not stand impartial investigation. A reasonable test of inbreeding, with due regard to recognized general prin- ciples of breeding, while it will not invariably give results which confound the claims of those who oppose it, will do so often enough to discredit their arguments, and demonstrate that their position is not tenable. Systematic line breeding, according to a prearranged “‘ scientific” system designating the exact lines to be followed, and approximately the individuals to be used, is rarely practiced by the oest breeders. Their “line breeding” pians are designed not to perpetuate certain blood lines, but to secure certain results or establish certain characteristics. If the results they seek can be best obtained within the blood lines which they are breeding they keep to those lines, or rather within certain lines; but they regard adherence to a particular line of breed- ing as a good thing only as long as it furnishes the best route toward the goal they seek—the best means of attaining the ends for which they are working. At any time that they see results in other lines which make it appear thdt blood from those lines might be introduced into their stock to advantage, they try to get such breeding specimens of those lines as seem most suitable for their purpose. They use this new blood at first experimentally to learn what results will come from the introduction of the new blood. If results are satisfactory the new blood is gradually distributed through their whole stock, and with its introduction begins a new general line of breeding to be followed only as long as it gives better results than are to be obtained by other matings. Now while the breeder does not bind himself to follow * certain line or system, and, theoretically, is free to introduce new blood at any time, in practice he does so only at long intervals. The reasons for this will appear further on in this lesson. The two facts I wish to impress before taking up the special consideration of each of our subjects are: 1.— That inbreeding is neither a necessary evil nor necessarily an evil. 2.— That there is no virtue in line breeding except as it secures and fixes certain desired results. iy. TAKING up these two closely related subjects, I anticipate that the treatment of them 6 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. What is Inbreeding ? Inbreeding is breeding from fowls that are near kin. If the practice is continued through a number of generations it is in-and-in breeding—if one wishes to be precise in speech, though common usage tends more and more to the simpler term. Inbreeding in fowls extends to unions of the nearest kin — sire and daughters, dam and son, brother and sisters. Objections to Inbreeding. Primarily the objections to inbreeding are based, as has been stated, on social and religious arguments. Asthese can apply in a question like this only in so far as it can be shown that they affect physical condition we need not enter into them here. Itis sufficient to consider the subject solely from the physical standpoint, and as it practically concerns the poultry breeder. It is claimed by those who oppose inbreeding that it produces certain and rapid physical deterioration. That it leads inevitably to degeneracy and sterility. They will admit that by inbreeding some superficial, ‘‘ fancy” points may be obtained in greater perfection, but claim that inbreeding cannot be carried beyond a very few generations except at the expense of vigor, stamina, size, productiveness, and that if persisted in it leads surely to the extinction of the line. In support of their position they refer to instances cited by early writers of the Darwinian school, to the conclusions of leading investigators of that period, to occasional experiences with or experiments in inbreeding poultry, and to the very evident fact that a great many stocks of pure bred fowls are deficient in stamina and “ practical” qualities. The fact that many mongrel stocks on farms and elsewhere which breed indiscriminately, quickly deteriorate is also cited in this connection. How the Objections to Inbreeding are Disposed Of. First let us take up the points just mentioned in the order in which they have been given. Even if the later scientists of the Darwinian school, and some of its leading exponents in these latter days, had maintained the early attitude on inbreeding, it would be pertinent to observe that few of the examples upon which they based their earlier conclusions are of more authority than the ordinary newspaper story of like occurrences, and that nove (I believe) will stand such a test as would be required were they presented today as new evi- dence. But, inasmuch as the leading scientists of this school, on further investigation of the subject, concluded that inbreeding did not necessarily Jead to bad effects, and modified greatly their earlier views about the advantages of crossing—tbat is, of uniting wholly unrelated or different lines of blood, the reference to their views is chiefly interesting as showing bow little the condemnation of inbreeding rests upon a careful and thorough investigation of the subject. What is said of experiences and experiments in inbreeding merits more attention. As to the experiences: There ix no doubt that there have been countless instances where inbred fowls have shown lack of stamina and general deterioration. But we have to take account also of like results where inbreeding is carefully avoided. Any impartial observation cover ing a great many cases will show that these results are so common where inbreeding is avoided as to suggest that the real cause or causes of them must be sought elsewhere. Experiments in inbreeding poultry made by those who advise against it have—so far as] have seen the reports of them — invariably shown quickly and unmistakably the evil effects they anticipated; but I have never yet seen a report of such experiment which showed that it had been planned with an understanding of what was required to make a test, nor have I ever known an instance where a man who had gone on record in condemnation of inbreeding eitber attempted to reply to criticism of bis experiment which showed where it failed, or by further experiment with conditions corrected attempted to verify his results. Tbat this statement constitutes a severe arraignment of the advocates of what (as far as the numbers who accept it go) isthe popular side of an important question, I am well aware; but asa poultryman who, after years of breeding in which inbreeding was carefully avoided, becaus¢ the weight of authority on poultry culture seemed to lie that way, began to test the matter INBREEDING AND PRACTICAL QUALITIES. 7 for himself, and as a result of repeated experiments arrived at the conclusion that the opposi- tion to inbreeding had little real support either in fact or reason, I muke the statement deliberately, for 1 question whether there is any other important matter upon which poultry- men take opposite views, where the side having the greatest numerical support —the popular side — can muster so slight a support in facts and logic. To the general argument that the stocks of fancy fowls said to be inbred are often lacking in stamina and practical qualities as a result of inbreeding, the reply is thut though so often assumed as the cause of deterioration, no one to my knowledge has ever even attempted to show it—to prove it in any case. The reasoning in this connection invariably is that if inbreed- ing has been practiced that is all that is necessary to account for deterioration. Every thing wrong is charged to inbreeding, and no effort made to connect a trouble with any other cause, though there may be other and more probable causes oltruding themselves upon the attention of anyone making even 2 most cursory study of the cause. The stutement already made about experiences in inbreeding applies with equal force to the general argument about Jack of vitul- ity in inbred stocks. Such lack of vitality and the loss of practical qualities which often goes with it are not the peculiar and inevitable results of inbreeding, but are the common results of breeding from poorly developed specimens that are good in some superficial point prized by fanciers, and are just as likely to be found in the progeny of birds that are no kin as in the offspring of those that are near akin. The use of flocksin which indiscriminate breeding is the rule to illustrate an argument against inbreeding furnishes no substantial support to such an argument, for it is just as appropriate to assign degeneracy in such flocks to violation of principles of breeding about which there is no dispute. The truth is that the case against inbreeding does not rest upon trustworthy evidence, but derives most of its strength from the prejudice against it which poultry breeders almost with- out exception bring with them to their first efforts in breeding fowls. Before a breeder is in a position to begin to breed intelligently, and to put in practice the principles of breeding, he must divest himself of all prejudice in the matter, and consider it at least possible that inbreed- ing is a safe us well as a sure way of arriving at certain results. In the statement of the case for inbreeding which follows, I will try to make the reasons which justify it as clear as the facts which disprove the general argument against it will be to anyone who gives it a full and fair test. To those who will not be convinced by argument and statement of facts I can only recommend a practical test. Inbreeding and Practical Qualities. That “like begets like,” is the fundamental principle in breeding for definite purposes. Every theory, rule, principle, law, method, and system of successful production of live stock depends more or less on this fundamental fact, and must take account of it. An interpretation of facts which fails to consider it, a rule which excludes it, advice opposed to it, is theoretically unsound, and practically defective. The idea that inbreeding is useful or necessary to develop “ fancy” points, but detrimental and. destructive in other respects involves two absurd assumptions: : (1).—That in the progeny of a union of fowls (or animals) near akin the universal law that “like produces like,” is operative in regard to one class of charucter- istics, but inoperative with respect to another. (2).—That in the progeny of a union of fowls (or animals) not near akin, the law “ like produces like,” operates as to the qualities in which in matings of related fowls (or animals) it is not operative. Such contradictions in the facts bearing upon the operation of a supposed law or principle would, if they actually existed, make the practical application of that law or principle so unreliable and uncertain that it could not be made a fundamental principle. But there is no such contradiction in the facts. It has repeatedly been shown that “like produces like” in practical or substantial, as well as in fancy or superficial qualities, both when the individuals used in the mating are near akin and when they are no kin. This does not mean that the progeny of » mating are exact duplicates of their parents, or 38 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. aniformly of an intermediate type, or that desired qualities are always reproduced. In opera- ‘tion the law ‘like produces like,” is modified, as we shall see, by the fact that it includes the more remote as well as the immediate parents, but, as we shall also see, these modifications of -and seeming variations from the law are strictly in accordance with ‘it, and afford no basis ew hatever for assuming that the law fails to operate in regard to any characteristics or qualities. That it often happens that fowls in which some superficial qualities bave been improved or intensified by inbreeding bave at the same time deteriorated in size, stamina, and productive- avess, no one familiar with the phenomena of breeding poultry would deny. But — as has already been pointed out — it also often happens that size, stamina, and productiveness are diminished in fowls that are not inbred. In such cases the explanation given — and it is the correct explanation — is that lack of size, stamina, and productiveness are due to breeding from birds lacking in these points. They may also be due to external causes, but these need mot be considered here. Now if in mating unrelated fowls it is necessary to select for size, stamina, and productive- aress, if we wish to reproduce those qualities in the offspring, it is also necessary to use the same cure in selecting for maticgs of related fowls. And if by selecting for a mating of wnrelated fowls, specimens having the size, stamina, and productiveness we want in their offspring, we, as a rule, get those qualities in the offspring; then if we select in the same way for a mating of related fowls, we may reasonably expect to get offspring like their parents in hese essential qualities. We not only may reasonably expect to get them, Lut we do get them Waron Burr. my wele = 2, 2 oz pe 1 < is Er} Felch Breeding Chart Applied to Line Described in Text. Females from No, § mated back to the original male, No. 2, produce group 8, that are § the blood of No.2, and a cockerel from No.4, mated back to the original dam, No. 1, produces group No. 6, that is § the blood of the original dam, and only § the blood of the original sire. Again we select a male from No.8 and females from No. 6, and for a third time produce chicks (in group No. 11) that are half the blood of the original pair. This is the 3d step, and the 9th mating in securing complete breeding of our new strain. In all this we have not. broken the line of sires, for every one has come from a group in which the preponderance of’ blood was that of the original sire. Nos. 2, 8,13, and 18 are virtually the blood of No. 2. We have reached a point where we would establish a male line whose blood is virtually that. of our original dam, and we now select from No. 6 a male which we mate with a female from No. 4.and produce group 9, which is 13-16 the blood of the original dam No.1, and 3-16 the blood of the original sire. Again we select a male from No. 9 and a female of the new strain, No. 1, and produce group 14, which becomes 21-32 of the blood of the original dam, thus preserving her strain of blood. ay 14 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. A male from No. 13, which is 13-16 the blood of the original sire No. 2, mated to females from No. 10, which are 5-16 the blood of the original sire, No. 2, gives us group 17, which is 9-16 the blood of said sire. While in No. 16 we have the new strain and in No. 18 the strain of our original sire, No. 2, we have three distinct strains, and by aad with this systematic use we can go on breeding for all time to come. Remember that each dotted line is a female selection and each solid line the mule selection. To make all this plain to the novice, I shall, in showing by the pedigrees of individual fowls how to follow my diagram, number both mules and females by the number of the group as seen in the chart, they being of that group; while in the list of names will be added =4, §, , tc., as the case may be, the fraction showing the extent of the preponderance of the blood of the strain, the balance of the unit being the percentage of the strain mated :—all names commencing with A being of Honest Abe, No. 2 strain; all names commencing with W having in excess the blood of Lady Washington and her strain; other names representing one-half the blood of each of these two strains. This middle ground or reservoir of blood, we create of our two strains, that we may both preserve line breeding as applied to the individuals, and when we see fit to break the individual line, may still maintain the line breeding of the strains. We now proceed to name the individuals and create their pedigrees, The Male List. Honest Abe, No. 2, our original sire. Adam Wall, No. 3, (4) ; sire, Honest Abe, No. 2; dam, Lady Washington, No. 1. Walsingham, No. 4, (4) ; sire, Adam Wall, No. 8; dam, Lady Washington, No. 1. Advocate, No. 5, (4) ; sire, Honest Abe, No. 2; dam, Julia, No. 3. Warwick, No. 6, (§) ; sire, Walsingham, No. 4; dam, Lady Washington, No. 1. Acrobat, No. 7, (4); sire, Advocate, No. 5; dum, Lady Wiley, No. 4. Aaron Burr, No. 8, (§); sire, Honest Abe, No. 2; dam, Anna, No. . Waldermier, No. 9, (18-16); sire, Warwick, No. 6; dam, Lady Wiley, No. 4. Albert, No. 12, (11-16); sire, Aaron Burr, No. 8; dam, Calve, No. 7. ‘Gen. Adams, No. 13, (18-16); sire, Aaron Burr, No. 8; dum, Anna, No. 5. Gen. Walker, No. 14, (21-32); sire, Waldermier, No. 9; dam, Kate, No. 11. Wallace, No. 15, (9-16); sire, Albert, No. 12; dum, Winfred Luss, No. 9. Gen. Arthur, No. 18, (21-32); sire, Gen. Adams, No. 12; dam, Kate’s sister, No. 11. The Female List. Lady Washington, No. 1, original dam. Julia, No. 3, (4); sire, Honest Abe, No. 2; dam, Lady Washington, No. 1. Anna, No. 5, ($); sire, Honest Abe, No. 2; dam, Julia, No. 3. Lady Wiley and sisters, No. 5, ($); sire, Adam Wall, No. 3; dam, Lady Washington, No. 1, Lady Weeks, No. 6, (f); sire, Walsingham, No. 4; dam, Lady Washington, No. 1. Calve, No. 7, (4); sire, Advocate, No. 5; dam, Lady Wiley, No. 4. Winfred Lass, No. 9, (18-16); sire, Warwick, No. 6; dam, Lady Wiley, No. 4. Lady Wallace, No. 10, (11-16); sire, Acrobat, No. 7; dum, Lady Weeks, No. 6. Kate, No. 11, (4); sire, Auron Burr, No. 8; dam, Lady Weeks, No. 6. Lady Wade, No. 14, (9-16); sire, Albert, No. 12; dam, Winfred Lass, No. 9. Countess, No. 16, (4); sire, Albert, No. 12; dam, Ludy Wallace, No. 10. It now becomes easy to mate up our pens. Pen No. 1—sire, Honest Abe, No. 2; dam, Lady Washington, No. 1,—produe.s group No. 3, half-bloods. Pen No. 2—sire, Honest Abe, No.2; dams, Julia, No. 8, and sisters, by Honest Abe, No. 2, produces group No. 5, three-fourths blood of Honest Abe, No. 2. Pen No. 3 — sire, Honest Abe, No.2; dams, Anna, No. 5, and sisters, by Honest Abe, No, 2; 2d dam, Julla, No. 8, by Honest Abe, No. 2; 3d dam, Lady Washington, No. 1, — produces group No. 8, seven-elghths blood of Honest Abe, No. 2. BREEDING LINE OF SIRES. 15 Pen No. 4—sire, Adam Wall, No. 8, by Honest Abe, No. 2, out of Lady Washington, No. 1; dam, Lady Washington, No. 1 — produces group No, 4, three-fourths blood of Lady Washing- ton, No. 1. Pen No. 5 —sire, Walsingham, No. 4, by Adam Wall, No. 3, out of Lady Washington, No. 1; dam, Lady Washington, No. 1,— produces group No. 6, seven-eighths blood of Lady Wash- ington, No. 1. Pen No, 6— sire, Advocate, No. 5, by Honest Abe, No.2, out of Julia, No. 3, by Honest Abe, No. 2, out of Lady Washington, No. 1; dams, Lady Wiley, No. 4, and sisters, by Adam Wall, No, 3; 2d dam, Lady Washington, No. 1; produces group No. 7, one-half the blood of each strain. Pen No. 7—sire, Aaron Burr, No. 8, by Honest- Abe, No. 1, out of Anna, No.5; dams, Tiady Weeks, No.6, aud sisters, by Walsingham, No, 4; 21 dam, Lady Washington, No. J, produces group No, 11, one-half the blood of each strain. Thus do I name pedigree and mate up to and including the fourth generation, leaving the reader to mate the remainder of the chart. Up to this point it is line bred both individually and as to the strains, and'so is it line bred on the Honest Abe strain both as individuals to the end of groups 17 and 18. But we now break the female lineby producing a male of her line as her heir, and mating him, Warwick, No. 6, to Ludy Wiley, No. 4, to produce Waldermier, No. 9, and his sisters, Winfred: Lasses, continuing the male line by mating Waldermier, No. 9, to Kate, No. 11, thus producing Gen. Walker, No. 14, and bis sisters as geen in group 14. In all this we bave pre- served the preponderance of the blood of Lady Washington strain, Now the whole strength of this line of breeding stands on the breeder being able to produce a croup of balf-bloods from within his own flocks. To make the strain line of breeding more plain: —Suppose we follow the rule many do of buying a foreign pulletto produce a group of hulf-bloods, and her set of pullets are bred back to the sire, ora male of his strain, these three-fourths blood pullets again bred back to a male of the sire’s strain. This would be breeding in line to one strain, which is just half the force of our chart. These three males being different males of one strain, this would be only strain breeding, not line breeding with an unbroken line of sires. If our selections are carefully made, ever keeping in mind the types we start with, or the vherisbed types of our strain, then this breeding in line to one’s strain may prove as forceful in results as adhering toa line of sires — from sire to son. 16 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. LESSON II. Some Common Phenomena of Breeding. of breeding to special] standards. In this lesson we are to consider various phenomena of heredity as they practically concern the breeder in his work. Since the selling and buying of eggs for hatching purposes bas become so general, the old question, ‘‘ Which is the mother of the chick —the hen that laid the egy, or the hen that batched it?” has become of less interest than the question,— Which is the breeder of the chick, the man who produced and mated the stock from which it came, or the man who hatched and reared it? : Without attempting to make a final answer to that question, let me say that the production of fine fowls requires a combination of skill in mating and skill in growing. To produce the finest stock we must have first of all parent stock of fine quality, properly mated, but the product will not equal or even approach the excellence of its ancestors unless it is properly handled as it grows. It is important that the reader should keep this fact constantly in mind both when applying principles of breeding, and when looking for confirmation of those principles in the results of his matings, for if the conditions under which a fowl! is grown are unsatisfactory the result may bea bird very different in shape, color of plumage, vigor, etc., from what it might have been under conditions providing for the full development of its possi- bilities; and conditions adverse to full natural development are apparently not limited in their effects to failure to fully develop the qualities directly transmitted from the parent stock 3 but there is some reason to suppose that features eliminated from a stock by careful selection some- times reappear in {ll nourished, ill cured for chickens, when they would not have developed under better conditions. Such a point as this is of course difficult to demonstrate, for we cun- not show positively in what way any given individual fowl might have developed differently under different conditions, But comparison of chicks from the same breeding stock, hatehed and reared by different parties, often shows them so different that it is hard to believe they could have been produced from the same parents. Hence, for a proper appreciation of the laws of heredity, we must discriminate between results as found in well developed specimens and results as found in ill developed specimens. t the last lesson we discussed the subject of heredity in its relation to systematic methods Prepotency in Breeding. As arule, pure bred fowls transmit to their progeny a much greater proportion of their individual excellence than mongrel fowls, and pure bred fowls that have been carefully bred in line transmit their qualities to their offspring more surely than those that have been bred ina haphazard way. This is because of the cumulative breeding back of them, and is easily explained by the general law of heredity given in the last lesson. WHAT PREPOTENCY LS. 17 The fancier and careful breeder, however, are not working merely for fair to good average results in the transmission of breed or variety characteristics. Their constant endeavor is to bring the average of the stock as near as possible to the best prevailing types, and while work- ing zealously toward this eud they are still seeking for new, improved, and advanced types. The law of heredity we have discussed deals with the problems of heredity only in a general way. In.its general application it seeks to secure uniformity by having an ancestry as solidly as possible in representation of the qualities sought. As far as is known there is no way of telling beforehand what qualities will appear in any mating or generation, or in what com-- binations or proportions. While, as has been said, it is a general fact that good breeding tells plainly in the product of a muting, itis also true that it does not show an equality of results. Some fowls have special power to murk their progeny like themselves, either in general appearance or in one or more important characteristics. This power is not dependent upon quality or stamina. It is found in fowls of all degrees of quality and vigor, but as it is prized ouly when found in those of some special merit it is apt to be passed without recognition in others. ' A fowl! which has this power to ‘‘mark” its offspring like itself is said to be prepotent. The combination of quality and prepotency in the same individual, while comparatively rare, occurs often enough to have a very conspicuous influence on the deveJopment of our stocks of thoroughbred fowls. A prepotent bird may transmit only its other qualities, (or some of them), to its progeny, or it may transmit its prepotency also, giving a line of stock remarkable for great excellence and the power of transmitting it. This prepotency is not the same thing as the cumulative breeding power which is gained by eareful breeding, though the two may so unite that it would be practically impossible to dis- tinguish between them. ‘The difference between them is easily seen when a fow] is found that is notubly superior to its ancestors, and marks this superiority on its progeny to a much larger degree than our law of heredity indicates would be the average influence of a parent. Jt may also be seen in cases where an objectionable feature persists in a stock to a much greater extent than is usual. Though in most cases objectionable features disappear at about the rate the law indicates, it happens quite often that when a fowl with some specially good qualities and one or more pronounced faults is bred from in the expectation of breeding the good quality into a stock, and tbe bad quality out of it as quickly us possible, the fowl] proves to be prepotent as to the bad quality as well as the good, or, perhaps, prepotent as to the bad quality and not as to the good, and the effort has to be abandoned. The prepotent fow] can be known only through the results obtained by breeding it. Some fowls seem to be prepotent however mated, others. are prepotent in some matings and not in others. The reagons for this cannot be explained, but the breeder can ascertuin the facts, and frequently can learn them in time to make good prac-- tical use of them. It is generally considered the best policy to continue a mating that bas given especially good results as long as the fowls init are fit for breeding. When a fowl of good quality proves an unsatisfactory stock getter in one mating, a breeder generally tries it mated differently the next season, and every season as long as fit for breeding, until he gets such results as the quality of the bird leads him to expect it might give if properly mated. In all work of this kind, the greater one’s experience in breeding, and the more thorough his knowledge of the stock he is working with, the oftener he is likely to make matings that give satisfaction, though none know better than the breeders of greatest experience and skill how often their most careful matings produce stock not up to their expectations. The Ways of Heredity. There is quite a prevalent opinion among breeders that the female marks her progeny especially with size, shape, snd practical qualities, while the male gives them color, com), and superficial characteristics. How this opinion arose, we do not know. Thatit is erroneous, a little experience in crossing breeds of fowls, or observations on buman families of our acquaint- ance, will quickly convince most people. The latter test is easier to make, for anyone can at any time make it mentally, 18 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. Students of the features of heredity recognize several very common phenomena: The male offspring resemble their sire, and the female vffspring their dam. The mule offspring resemble their dam, and the female offspring their sire. ‘Lhe offspring, both male and female, or either, resemble a grandparent more than either parent. A The offspring may, in any point considered, inberit from both sire and dam, their quality being, in some deyree, intermediate between the parents, or, in case of a quality in which the parents are alike, being in excess of either. These are the most common and conspicuous features of heredity. In the breeding of pure bred fowls, 50 like in many respects, it would be difficult to trace the influences of individual parents and grandparents clearly enough to distinguish such phenomena in ordinary cases, but they may be seen occasionally when birds of marked prepotency are used for breeding, and they are traced with ease in many matings of crossbred fowls, especially in points of strony resemblance or great difference. Se I think the reader is now ready to believe that the phenomena of heredity are very complex. Tue different features of heredity just mentioned do not occur independently and separately. All of them are sometimes observed, and in many degrees, in the progeny of a single mating, aud all may be accounted for by the general law of heredity given in the preceding lesson, when considered in connection with a few other breeding principles, such as prepotency, which we have just discussed, and reversion or atavism, which will be discussed a little further on. The point I wish to introduce here is that the law of heredity or inheritance is responsible for variations from established or favorite types as well as for the perpetuation of those types. It is often ussumed that in the production of stock there are two warring tendencies— the tendency for like to beget like, and a tendency to variation, that is, to the production of features differing from those found in the parents. These, supposedly different and antagonistic tendencies are for the most part simply different manifestations of the same general law of beredity, though there is no doubt that many variations in the way of special development due ¢o especially favorable conditions are at least in part transmitted 10 offspring. Bad Let us see how variations, not due toexternal conditions, arise: All thut the fowl] is as it begins life as a chick it is by inheritance. In every pars, feature, ebaracteristic, quality, and possibility it is like some ancestor. We found in studying the ques- tion of inbreeding that the fowl] inherited au appreciable part of its qualities from some thirty aeurest ancestors, and that the chances of a characteristic not found in any of these being pro- 2 2 a a B a a > te C. F. Thompson & Co.’s Poultry Plant Scale, 1-80 inch to the foot; ts A, B,C, stock houses, long houses with walks, brooder house in east end of C; is a Jarge yard, used, asarule, for a breeding pen. On the otber side of Grove streetisa pasture used for a few broods of chicks in the early part of the season, and later for pullets, these being housed through the summer in slatted front roosting coops placed in a row under the trees near the street with intervals of about 100 ft. between the coops. Mr. Bright’s Farm Plant. On the home plant Mr. Bright had to make the buildings and yards fit the space available, but on the thirty-five acre farm, less than half a mile away, be had ample room for whatever sort of building equipment be might want. The beginning of the poultry plant on this farm was the 200 ft. house A, with cook and feed house attacbed. This house faces squarely south, It is 15 ft. wide, and contaius 19 pens 103 ft. wide by 11 ft.deep. The passage in the rear of the pensis 4 ft. wide. The cook and feed house is just back of the west end of this house, and consists of one room 20 ft. square, in which ure the cooker, bone cutter, pump, ete., an L, 12 x 20 ft., containing the feed bins, and a lean-to § ft. wide, in which is the boiler. At the east end of the 200 ft. house is a shed for manure. The arrangement of yards here is similar to that on the plant first described, except (bat the large yards are longer, and there are more of them. The yards next the house, corre- sponding to the pens inside are 104 ft. wide by 80 ft. long. ‘he general plan isa lurge yard for every two of these, just the width of two yards, and 120 ft. long. The lust long yard is irregular, As the number of small yards is uneven, it is made the width of three small yards. There are grape vines in the small yards running up over the division fences and affording fine sbade. The large yards are set with fruit trees. About 200 ft.’ back of the house A is a scratching shed house B, 126 ft. in length. This house was made from part of an old barn and some other out buildings, and is of such irregular construction that I did not attempt an accurate diagram — not thinking that a matter of special importance in this connection. There are about twice as many pens as yards, some having scratching sheds, and some small pens having none. These small pens are used mostly as accessory to the large pens, or for sitters'’or extra males, Tbe yards in front are [2 ft. deep, and of varying widths, the narrowest being 26 ft.; the widest 85 ft. A TWO THOUSAND HEN PLANT. 81 Nw ISney aso4S per weed) o (=x wn] ? a at Lynnfield Center, Mass. 1-16 inch equals.5 feet. u, 4, e, detached coops for hens aud chicks, or for surplus stock; b,c, and J, small, houses, West of the house, with « roadway 14 ft. wide between them, is the building C, the main part of whichis a cockerel house 11 ft. wide by 40 ft. long. At the east end of this is a shed 16 x 20 ft. for hitching place for teams. This cockerel house contains eight pens 5x7 ft., with walk a little over 3 ft. wide in the rear, ‘he outside meusurement of the width of the building is 11 ft. The other measurements were made inside, bence the discrepancy of some inches. There are no outside pens connecting with this house. Directly west of the feed room and 100 ft. distant from it isa second cockerel house D,12 x 36 ft., containing 6 pens 6 x 12 ft. Outside are yards 36 ft. long und of the same width as the inside pens, : : In front of this house, and 98 ft. from the line of the front of the 200 ft. house is a third cockerel house built last fall. This house is 15 ft. wide, not quite 100 ft. Jong, and contains over fifty pens. f The land actually oceupied by the poultry plant described, including spaces between the separate buildings and yards comprises a little over three acres. Much of the remainder of the farm is given to the young stock, the growing stock in roosting coops being well spread over it. he mowing land gives a heavy crop of grass before it is needed for the chick~. A couple of acres ure planted to cabbage for the fowls every year. Some grain is grown for bay and litter, and there is some ground in garden crops, but the growing chicks have all the Tange they cun use, Then several hundred yards in front of the house A there is a grassy shrubby piece of low ground where several sheds are erected. In these ufter the breeding season the hens from the breeding pens take their vacation. A Two Thousand Hen Plant. The plant of C.F. Thompson & Co., at Lynnfield Center, Mass., is another case where the land, some dozen acres, allowed a liberal margin around the houses and yards, and so required no close figuring on space. ; Still it is quite on the extensive plan, and while I have called it a 2,000 ben plant, and the winter capacity is over 2,000 hens, Messrs. Thompson & Co. do not attempt to grow even half their young stock bere, but have over balf of it grown for them elsewhere. 82 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING—SECOND SERIES, Viewing the diagram of this plant first as « whole, we see first a row of small houses, a,a. Then the smuli house b, with the pump bouse nextit. Then back of this another small house, ve. Then the three long houses, A, B, and C, and the cook and feed houses, Back of these again are more small detached houses, and far back of these a single house, i, Back of the cook house ig a house which could be used for a man if required, but is now occupied hy aten- aunt. The distance from the road in front of the residence to the rear line of the farm ix nearly a quarter of a mile, The poultry bouses face the southeast. A narrow road runs from the public road in front along the northeast line of the plant as platted. The long houses, A, B, C, are of the same width, 12ft. Aand Bare each 240 ft. long. C is 200 ft. lony, There ix 3 ft. walk in each house. In A there ure 12 pens; in B, 13. In C the first 68S ft. from the northeast end is the brooder house. The remainder of the house is divided into seven pens, The yurds for A are 12 yards, each 42 ft. long, corresponding with the interior pens, ani six Jurger yards with the width of two small wards, In front of B the small yards are 38 {t. deep, and between them and the house A is u large undivided yard to which the fowls from B have access alternately. There is quite a dip in the ground at-this point, and for convenience in work this little valley is bridged by an elevated walk extending from the end of A to B, which suves a great deal of up and down bill work in feeding and watering. The large cook and store house is 244 x 42 ft., the smaller feed house 15 x 30 ft., with « root cellar underit; the small houses, b and c, are old buildings that were on the farm when pur- chased by Mr. Thompson. For yard room the fowls in) have the long yard running cross- ways of the plant back of the small houses a, a, while those in « are given the run of the large yard which should, in accordance with the plan, be used for the first pens in house A. The small houses a, a, are each 6 x 8 ft., divided in the middle, and are used especially for hens and chicks, for the young broods first, later for the growing stock. In winter they fur- nish good places for surplus males. Except for the first two where the yards had to be short on account of the projection of the dwelling house and barn, these yards are 58 ft. in depth. The small houses in the rear of the plant are each 5 ft. wide by 183 ft. long, divided in the middle, giving pens suituble for detached brooders, for roostiny quarters for growing stock, or for small pens of mature fowls. As will be noticed, the Ps house at the extreme end of each row is out of the sys- tem, and these houses are in fact extra, not regularly ---; sai ‘ used. That in the first row has a small yard in front of : it; the otber has none. Their principal use is for vaca- We ieee eh ‘gf tion quarters for the breeding stock. ; sf Tt will be noticed that the yards for the pens in the | as southwest half of each house in the row d, d, are smalier than the others. To compensate for this, the chicks from these pens are clternately given free run in the vacunt space back of them. Something like « hundred yards back of this row of houses is a house 14 x 30 ft., which has been used for different purposes, but will next year be used for breed- ing pens of Lezhorns. Scattered about this undivided space are coops similar to those commonly used as roosting coopa for growing stock. In these the breed- iny hens kept over are every year given their vacation through the hot months. A Roomy Plant for a Small Space. By a ‘small space” here 1 mean small as compared A Plant to Fit a Small Space. with those we have been considering. This plant was State, 1-80 inch to the foot; 1-16 br yaa 1! in th id ; A : inch equals 5 feet. on a three acre lot in the residence portion of a town, ‘Accoll Helsos I MES NoUsES ec baiilant As described it occupied about half an acre, such & house. A ROOMY PLANT FOR A SMALL SPACE. 8&3 space as it iy possille to give poultry on many large village lots. I occupied these premises as lessee for several years before buying my home, and the buildings used were put up with the intention of removing them at the expiration of the lease, and were moved then, though circumstances necessitating my absence from home at the time made leaving the work toa man not familiar with the construction of the large building unavoidable and the job was badly handled. A part of the house A was on the place when we moved there. At u cost of about five dollars ashed was added to this little house which more than doubled its capacity. This house was used in the season for one breeding pen. The yurd joining it is 40 ft. wide by 150 feet deep. For shade it has a large grape vine, a small apple tree, and several pear trees. The yard space available in front of the new house B, wus not quite 100 ft. in width, and 155 ft. in depth, There were three rows of apple trees in this space, and in order to divide the shade as evenly as possible, as well as to make yard room for the fow]s in the 6 x 12 pen,.the principal division fence was put on the line of the middle row of trees, this being about 10 ft. nearer the west than the east wall. Then the yard for the small pen was taken in the corner of the east and larger division. Back of A, and a little to one side is the bantam house, C, the fowls from which had the liberty of the lawn. By dotted lines in the west pen of B fs indicated a partition put in tempo- rarily at times for the accommodation of a small special mating, the yard being as indicated by the dotted lines outside. ad The plots and descriptions of these plants as T have given them, indicating the positions and dimensions of houses and yards, afford but an incomplete idea of the plants themselves. In each the spaces avuilable outside of the yards must be regarded us essential features, giving the opportunity to raise young stock under better conditions than are possible with close yarding, aud also to put out the old stock at times to give it a change and rest. I might describe a number of other plants, but cannot at present give plots of them, and ina general way the descriptions of the best of those where continuous long houses are used would be but a repetition of some of these, with variations according to the size of the plant, the “lay?” of the land, and the proprietor’s appreciation of the needs of his stock and the advantages and possibilities of the situation. Where the colony plan, or any modification of it, is used, the houses ure usually so much scattered that to plot the poultry houses and ranges on « scale that would give any correct appreciation of the arrangement, is not practicable for use in this connection. Besides, the colony plan more thun any other, requires to be adapted to the features of the farm and to otber operations carried on upon it, and the variations in it made from time to time with refer- ence to those things muy give very different arrangements in each of a series of years. In a nutshell this system consists in distributing about the farm, as is at any time most convenient, a number of small poultry houses of a capacity of several dozen hens each. ad In the laying out of a permanent system of houses and yards the most important point to cousider is the convenience of the keeper and economy of time and Jabor in caring for the fowls. In making this statement I assume that the comfort of the fowls and their needs indoors and out have had due consideration in the decisions as to the style of house to be used and the kind of yards. Of course in practice we cannot make such a separation of points to be considered, taking up one at a time and deciding it. We have rather to settle each point tentu- tively, then taking it up in connection with the next decide whether it can be carried out as we had planned or must be modified or entirely changed to get best results. One style of house might be preferred if each house was to contain only a few pens, while if a house of many com- partments was to be built another plan might be better. The house plan preferred might require a system of yards which in some situations would be the best, because they would utilize all the lund available for yards, but in other situations would not be satisfactory because they left out of use Jand which with another style of house and arrangement of yards could be used to the great benefit of the stovk, and with some saving as well. 84 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. | Occasionally it happens that the possibilities of a piece of ground are plainly seen at a glance, and almost anyone at all familiar with the laying out of poultry plants would know at a glance just the best way to arrange a poultry plant there. Oftener the best arrangement for the poul- try plant comes to one only after a good deal of thoughtful study of the situation. To anyone, however inexperienced, looking at a well arranged poultry plant it seems a very simple thing to lay out such a plant, but sometimes the simplest and most natural looking arrangements bave been reached only after a good denl of puzzling over the situation and several remodelings. This is a feature by no means peculiar to cases such as we are now discussing. Indeed partiality to a certain style of house or arrangement of yards has been a stumbling block in the laying out of many a plant, when if, as it was found that the preferred style of house and yard did not suit the case, the poultryman had set about making yards to fit the land and bis convenience and houses to suit, the solution of the problem would not have been long delayed. A long continuous house requires for its location a piece of ground that is level one way, otherwise the house must be built with one end higher than the other, or with short sections on different levels, either of which arrangements is unsatisfactory, the former making the tem- perature in the house very uneven, and the latter making passage through the house very inconvenient. Again it very often happens that a piece of land most suitable for a Jong poultry house is so situated that by locating one or more long houses on it the yards are very much restricted. I have seen more than a few plants where all the advantages of giving the fowls good range had been sacrificed in this way. : Often the desire to have the poultry plant convenient to the dwelling and to other outbuild- ings is responsible for placing it where it is restricted on every side. Convenience in this respect is a point well worth considering, but it ought not to be secured at a loss of otber advantages. It is certainly very much better to have a little Jonger walk between the dwell- ing and the poultry buildings than to expend in other ways more time and Jabor than is saved by having the poultry plant convenient to the house. If the poultry layout. can be close to the dwelling, and convenient and suitable in every other way also, so much the better. The small plant of which a plot bas been given combined in an unusual degree convenience to the dwelling and convenience in’every part of the work. For the most satisfactory layout of a poultry plant that is not made to exactly fit a prescribed space, the poultryman must take time. Even the “expert” is likely to make mistakes if he goes on a-place to lay out a certain type of plant, and does so uccording to the situation as it appears to him at the time. Indeed, plants that are Jaid out by experts in this way, and, in fuct, almost all poultry plants laid out on a Jarge scale at the beginning are quite sure to prove unsatisfactory unless all features of the business can be carried on according to the original plan — which very rarely happens. The usual thing is for the business to develop along lines somewhat different from what the proprietor designed, and in this case the equipment must he changed to suit, or used at some disadvantage. If the poultryman, as T have more thun once advised in the course of these lessons, is con- tent to let his plant grow slowly, build only as he needs, and build inexpensive buildives, be gives himself ample time to consider different plans in their adaptability to his needs and opportunities, and also to test different types of buildings and different methods on a small scale before introducing them on a:large scale. This subject is one to which expert knowledye is more difficult to apply than to most of the subjects on which poultrymen ask for advice. To know a location thoroughly you must have summered and wintered with it several times over, and seen the effects of different weather conditions. So I have always been reluctant to give suggestions about the laying out of poultry plants for anything more than suggestions which would help the parties interested to solve the problem for themselves. I have laid out for myself one large poultry plant and two small ones. In no case was I able, though I was reasonably deliberate about it, and in the two later instances had a good deal of knowledge of otber plants to draw upon, to make a plan that was so good I could not, after using it a little while, improve on it. ‘This, I think, has been the common experience of those who have given VALUE OF VISITING POULTRY PLANTS. 85 the subject much attention. One of the most convenient plants I ever saw finally took shape on a spot that would generally have been condemned as quite unsuited for the laying out of a model plant. Tbe man who planned it was much above the average in intelligence and invent- iveness, but the plan as ultimately worked out dic not come to him all at once. So I feel that in a Jesson on this subject the most that I can do for a poultryman of some experience is to tell him what some others have done, and perhaps remind him of « few points he bas overlooked. And for the beginner the most that I can do is to give him a general idea of how several good plants have been laid out, sucgest for his consideration a number of points, and urge bim to go slow, to take his time, not to plan too far beyond his necessities, and in his building to consider how far each part of the plant constructed can he adapted to changes. If the first buildings are of light and simple construction they may either be moved about or torn down und the materials worked over into other buildings with very little loss. If they are expensive buildings of very substantial construction they must either be used as they are or remodeled at un expense which not infrequently is as yreat as the cost of 1ew cheap houses, A most important thing for the person who expects to lay out a poultry plant is to visit as many plants as possible and study them, not so much with the idea of making a model plant, combining the best features of them all, but to find out how in the light of the owner’s experi- ence each plant answers the expectations with which it was planned. This gives one a better idea of the thines that affect operations differently under different circumstances. It also gives one a better insight into the adaptability of different styles of bouses and systems of poultry culture to diflerent locations, and of the possibilities of tracts of lund containing features not generally regarded as desirable for a poultry farm. If one has the opportunity to visit a large poultry farm again and again at different seasons, he can get a very much better comprehension of the good and bad points of its plan. If he is learning the business and can make himself something of a journeyman working for a season on each of several good plunts, he should be able, if he is constantly studying the subject for himself, to get something of the best out of each method and plan, and thus bring to his own plan when the time comes to make it a practical combination of good methods and features which it is rarely possible for those who plan without having had practical experience to make. 8 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING —SECOND SERIES. LESSON VIII. Kinds, Breeds, and Varieties of Fowls. for want of any otber specific English term, are often called “ chickens,” though “ chicken” applies properly only to their young. Perbaps in time, common usage will limit the use of the word “ fow!” as we limit it here. There seems to be a tendency that way. Most poultrymen so use the word, but the explanation of this use of the term is sometimes necessary for readers not familiar with that usage. We may classify fowls as:— Common or mongrel, cross bred, grade, pure bred, or thorough- bred, and ‘* Standard ” bred. , Mongrel fow)s are fowls of no special breeding, generally a mixture containing the blood of many varieties of pure bred fowls, though in some sections there are still to be found flochs in which the blood of the old common stock is still strong. A flock of mongrels generally presents numerous very distinct types of fowls. i Cross bred fowls are the result of a union of two pure breeds. The term is usually limited to the produce of a first cross. Grade fowls are produced by a systematic series of crosses, beginning with a thoroughbred male and females of mongrel stock, and mating ench year a male of the sume pure breed with females from the mating of the previous year. By this process, in the course of a few years. the stock becomes practically thoroughbred. Sometimes pure bred females are used in the first instance. ; The terms pure bred and thoroughbred are synonymous, and the term Standard bred is also generally synonymous with the others. As a matter of fact there are few, if any, glocks of fowls that are absolutely pure in blood ; that is, entirely free from any mixture or trace of the blood of fowls not of their kind; but most of our pure or thoroughbred races are sufficiently well bred to make the production of specimens plainly showing obsolete ancestral characters extremely rare. A Standard bred fowl is a fowl] bred to conform to the requirements of the “American Stundard of Perfection.” as promulgated by the American Poultry Association. To be admitted to the * Standard,” a breed or variety must be able to reproduce its type in a large proportion of its progeny. here are also other qualifications to be considered, us whether the breed presents new and distinct features; but as the judgment of the association is sometimes erratic, it happens occasionally that some fowls that ure entitled to recognition ure excluded, and also that unworthy varieties and breeds are admitted. Hence we find some pure breeds not “ standard bred,” because they are not “in the Standard ;” and some breeds in the Standard that breed very indifferently. We also find breeds in the Standard in whieh poultrymen are little interested, while we may frequently find very great interest taken in breeds outside of the Standard, B “FOWLS”. in this lesson we mean birds of the species “gallus domesticus,” which KINDS, BREEDS, AND VARIETIES OF FOWLS. 87 In this lesson we limit special consideration of fow!s to thoroughbred or pure bréd fow l<. Common or mongrel stock rarely satisfies for long the person trying to get pleasure or protit from poultry. The lack of uniformity in it, and the uncertainty of resulta in breeding from it, usually makes persons especially interested in poultry turn to pure bred stock to get these points, even if they have not been convinced that well bred stock are more profitable — better egg producers, and better for market poultry. That well bred, thoroughbred stock is better for egg production, has been demonstrated in practice over and over. This statement will hold good in spite of the fact that some successful poultrymen do not use well bred stock — are not good breeders, while there is a very geveral belief that crosses are hardier, and many will affirm that crosses make better layers. Without entering into any argument in the premises, it may be said that there are two general facts that prove the general superiority of thoroughbreds: Tirst.— The great development of the poultry industry in this country followed closely the comparatively general introduction of thoroughbred fowls. Second.— An overwhelming majority of poultry keepers whose successes attract attention keep pure bred fowls. It would be absurd to maintain tbat success in poultry culture could be achieved only with thoroughbred fowls. Success depends on other things quite as much as on the kind of fowls kept. Butit will be found a general rule that — whatever the .cause — inability to vet as good results from pure bred fow!s as from mixtures is a serious handicap to a poultry keeper. a A brief reference to the history of the breeds of fowls will show bow thoroughbred fowls supplanted others among progressive poultrymen, and also how some classes or types of thor- oughbreds have generally replaced others. This historical showing sbould have a most important bearing on the attitude of the poultryman toward the various breeds and types, for in few things does the law of the survival of the fittest work more relentlessly than in the determination-of tbe status of a variety of fowls, and 1850 that the to le interested in the tic fowls. Prior to that country were not of a siasm, or to suggest development which We may assume that here and there through- of well bred fowls — ly by the fanciers born some, perhaps, brought from foreign countries fowls were to be found ; ‘erally was not attracted made no distinct im- culture of the time. ties” some gigantic Asia began to attract which are as accurate history, say that vari- were brought from the It was between 1840 American public began improvement of domes- time the fowls of the class to arouse enthu- the possibilities of have since unfolded. there were scattered out the country flocks some developed crude: before their time, and in by people coming where superior types of but the public gen- bv them, and they pression on the poultry Early in the “?for- fowls imported from attention. Traditions as much that passes ss ous lots of these fowls Orient by sea captains. Some who donotcredit the detailed stories of the importations of particular lots of these Buff Plymouth Rocks. fowls, claim that they 88 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING —SECOND SERIES. ed in this smuggled vessels reput- brought them Such an expla- ever, merely importation for it is not suppose = that class and type to the public ed from our or developed tracting atten- These Aosiu- of the general present Coch- mus, but with- of form and without the entiation into which bas place. They birds. Their were develop- country and aboard the ed. to have: from abroad, nation, how- removes the furtber back— reasonable to fowls of this as introduced were develup- common stock without at- tion. uc fowls were dpe of our ins and Brah- out the finish feutber, and shurp differ- varieties since taken were lurge wreat-size as compared with the com- mon fowls seeins to have been their first point of attraction. They were docile and hardy, and were. generally given, by those who tried them, the reputation of being good Jayers. hey laid large brown egys—then a novelty in our markets, and as poultry were considered very superior to the common fowls, They were immediately tuken up both by ‘fanciers’? and by poultry keepers. The fanciers immediately began to multiply breeds by giving different names to different types and colors. Quite a number of poultrymen began at once to try to improve the common stock in their bands by crossing the large males on it. It is said that one effect of this was that within a few yeurs the poultry brought into the Boston markets was noticeably improved in size. Another result was a general quickening of interest in better poultry. People began to try to learn something of established breeds of fowls; numerous importations were made from England especially, though there may have been some from continental countries. Within a few years most of the hreeds having any vogue in England were pretty well represented here, and forty years ago Ifumburgs, Polish, and Spanish were distributed quite generally throughout the northern etates—not in such numbers as ure found of popular fowls today, but still numerous enourh t> become fumiliar objects. Asiatics seem to have been distributed more slowly. All these worked into the common stocks of the country until, when I was a boy beginning to be much interested in poultry, a large proportion of the farm flocks contained many specimens showing unmistakable evidence of well bred parentage of some of these races, Such breeding, however, was indiscriminate, and led to nothing definite. None of the new types produced were able to gain more than local prominence. Nor did the thoroughbred fowls of those days take with the public, especially the farmers, as did those which were to ve brought out Jater. Silver Laced Wyandottes. Bed Jt is less than thirty years since the first of our present ““American class” of fowls was intro- duced to the public as the “Plymouth Ryck,” to be known later, as other varieties of the same breed type appeared, as the Burre:l P.ymouth Rock, Into the disputes with regard to the origin of this fowl] we need not enter here, Suffice it to say that in it were combined for the POPULARITY OF THE NEW TYPE OF FOWL. 89 first time with promise of race permanence the most generally desirable qualities of the Asiatic and the smaller races of fowls. Soon afterward the Silver Wyandotte appeared. This was a combination of the Hamburg and Brahma, and « most attractive intermediate between those types. A few years before the introduction of these ‘‘general purpose breeds,” the- Leghorns had been introduced, and they quickly distanced the older ‘“‘every day layers” in that field, while with the new Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes they awakened a generalinterest in poutine cul- ture which has enormously increased the volume of our poultry products, and is still-steadily growing. The remarkable success of the new class of fowls led to an immediate multiplication of varie- ties of the same type — if indeed some of these were not already making when the pioneers of each breed appeared. In afew years more we hind White Plymouth Rocks, Golden Wyan- dottes, and White Wyandottes. Then came Buff Plymouth Rocks and Buff Wyandottes, and after them Partridge Wyandottes, Silver Penciled Wyandottes, Columbian Wyandottes, and Partridge and Silver Penciled Plymouth Rocks. Of the duration of popularity of each of these, and of their rela- be occasion to speak a Meantime the develop- type of fowl have not ties of the two breeds of the state of Rhode serves a degree of isola- of eusy communication, Asiatic fowls half a cen- the beginning - of the breed, the only one portant place for itself Rhode IsJund Red. These type and characteristics and Wryandottes. As fanciers became interest- pure bred fowls, for introduced, one farmer breed, another of another general was the mixture - I, Reds a few years ago S. C. Rhode Island Red Cock. mixed ancestry were conspicuous. tive popularity there will little further on. ments of this favorite been limited to the varie- mentioned. Ina section Island which still pre- tion rare in these days the introduction of tury or more ago marked making -of a. “local” which has made an‘im- in this country, the are fowls of the general of the Plymouth Rocks commonly bred before ed in them they were not foreign blood was often using a male of one breed, and so on. So that in most flocks of R. evidences of a very But through all these mixtures a common type was fol- lowed, and when fanciers took up the breed it required only a few seasons of careful breeding to make them as “thoroughbred” as most breeds have been within the same time after their introduction. In England the success in America of the medium sized general purpose type of fowl led to the development of a breed of fowls much the sume in type, a little more ‘“beefy,” as English types of poultry usually are when compared with American, but still very like. This breed was called the Orpington. The object of the originator, as repeatedly stated by himself, was io make a breed of the general type of the Plymouth Rock and Wyandotte, but better suited to English tastes and markets. The American productions had the yellow legs and skin popular iv American markets—the English markets wanted a white skirined fow! with flesh colored legs. 3 In considering the relative merits of the many breeds and varieties in this class of general purpose fowls, the reader should always bear in mind that they are essentially very like; that the differences between them are mostly superficial; that in many cases differences observed between the lots of two different breeds or varieties of this class when compared are peculiar to the case under consideration, and not general differences running, all through the variety ‘or breed. Hence as we shall see, any one of these varieties may be substituted for another in any 90 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING—SECOND SERIES. superficial dif- material. ficial difference | ence not affect- ness or develop- actual adapta- for the purpose a superficial dif- of great impor- poultryman, portance at all instance, the except in so far of good condi- lies in quality than in any par- has nothing to of flesh — yet in people generally skinned fowls, them more often will pay a premium for them. There- fore if one is \ growing fowls to sell for table S. C Brown Leghorns. purposes, this superficial matter becomes for him an essential matter, meaning easier sales and better profits, with no difference in cost of production. If be isgrowing fowls only for bis own table, and bas no prejudice in the matter of color of skin, it will make no difference whether his stock is yellow skinned or white skinned. Or, again, take the color of plumage: A white or buff fowl! is easier to dress in the pinfeather stage than others. If one is selling much poultry this slight difference in time and cost of dressing may amount to a large item in the course of a season, so Jarge an item indeed, that he will prefer to keep only white or buff fowls; but if one is dressing only for his own use, or dressing fer sale in small amounts, this advantage of color may not be of importance enough to call for consideration. With these two illustrations we will pass the subject of superficial differences. I think that what bas been said about them will enable the reader to see the point without further explana- tion, in each case of this kind to which allusions will become necessary as we discuss the relxtive merits of the varieties of fowls. case where ferences are im- By a super- I mean a differ- ing productive- ment, or the tion of the fowl intended. Such ference may be tance to one and of no im- to another. For eolor of skin — as itis an index tion, and that of color rather tleular color — go with quality this country prefer ,ellow and will buy readily, and — 1 ssa | ] & Returning to our main eubject: In the Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, and Orpingtons, (of which there are some eight or ten varieties), we have a common type of medium sized, active, hardy, vigorous fowl, a good egg producer, and a good table fowl; we lave now varieties representing quite all the colors, and combinations of colors, that have ever heen popular in anv breed of fowls, In other words, we have now fowls of this class to suit every taste in color, Now on their economic merits and their general adaptability, this class and type of fowl, i the comparatively short time since its introduction, has far outstripped all others combined, Not only so, but in each breed in this class, (with the exception of the Rhode Island Red, of which there are but two varieties, differing only in comb), one or two varieties have gained a long lead on all the others, This means that it is these varieties that are best adapted to tbe needs of the greatest number of poultry keepers. Then in the choice of « breed the beginner who is wise will not look through the entire list, and endeavor to select for himself on the descriptions be may find, He will rather consider first the most popular varieties, assuming ut the outset that it is best to take one of there unless for some special reason another kind of fow! is to be preferred. CHARACTERISTICS OF PLYMOUTH ROCKS. ot I suppose that for nine-tenths of those who keep poultry, a general purpose fow! is the best fowl] — will be found most satisfactory. What proportion of this nine-tentbs are best suited with the most popular varieties of this class, is not so easy to estimate, but I should say cer- tainly three-fifths, and possibly as much as four-fifths. These estimates will indicate to any reader interested in the matter, something of bis ‘‘ expectation” of suiting himself better by going outside of the popular varieties of the general purpose type of fowl. But while the advantage in general popularity is overwhelmingly with one class of fowls, and with a few varieties in this class, there is still a large field for the others, and if the tendency is for growers of poultry for economic purposes to concentrate on a few varieties, the tendency among fanciers is quite opposite, and the number of people open to interest in other varieties is always great enough to make possible a liberal demand for any fowl that bas merit and beauty. ‘ ad Coming now to a detailed consideration of the varieties mentioned, we have Plymouth Roucks—Barred, White, © Standard,” and well and Partridge and Silver recent introductions, not determined). Plymouth Rock in this varieties in popularity. ago it was probably cor- ing both special poultry some attention was given profitable, and fanciers’ Barred Rocks iu ‘the all other thoroughbred great predominance in all to their being first in superficial faults: They difficult to breed to a and they had many black dressed in the pin feather these drawbacks, they eminence, because the and Buff, (which are established varieties), Penciled, (which are whose status is as yet Of these, the Barred ‘country has Jong led all Until a very few years rect to say that — count- farms, farms on which to making poultry plants, there were more country at large than of fowls combined. Their pumbers was due first of the field. They had two were, and still are, very high excellence in color; pin feathers when stave. But in spite of long held their pre- early White Plymouth Roeks were Jacking in Indian Game Hen. vigor, and the White Wyandottes, which, in some sections, surpassed the Barred Rocks in popularity, were, on the average, smaller fowls, and many breeders had injured their stock by forcing early egg production. . White Plymouth Rocks are now fully equal to the Barred in every economic quality, and have the superficial advantage of color, which is gradually bringing them to « popularity more nearly equal. As between White and Barred Rocks, choice hinges on taste, and on whether easier preparation for market is an advantage. It is when many chicks are to be dressed in the pin feather stage. When stock is not dressed until mature — as is the case on most farms — the white color is no advantage. Buff Plymouth Rocks are quite popular, but not so much so, nor with such promi-e of permanent general popularity as the Barred and White. Their most serious fault, from the average breeder’s point of view, is that common to all buff and red fowls— the wide departure from approved shade of color even when bred with great care and good judgment to maintain color. To the fancier this may not be a fault. Those who admire buff fowls, and find pleasure in producing them, will readily sacrifice the culls, but a poultryman not especially interested in the fancy will not long be suited with buff or red fowls if be wants uniform appearance in his flocks, for he cannot afford to sacrifice off colored hens. If he is indifferent to lack of uniform 92 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. appearance he will not count this fault against them. Partridge and Silver Penciled Plymouth Rocks are very band- some fowls, but ut present require great skill in breeding. Like all laced and penciled fowls, they will always be difficult for most breeders to handle, and if their popularity, us compared with the other varieties of the breed, follows the sume course as tbhatof simi- lar colored varieties in the old breeds, they are not likely to come into a general and lasting popularity, but will be bred mostly by those who want gen- Houdans. eral purpose fowls with single comls, and have a decided preference for one of these colors. In Wyandottes we have, naming them in the order in which they were admitted to the “Standard,” the Silver Laced, Golden Laced, White, Black, Buff, Partridge or Golden Penciled, Silver Peuciled, and Columbian. The typical Wyandotte, as compared with the typical Plymouth Rock, is a shorter bodied, compact, blocky fowl, and a little smaller fowl. But many breeders of Wyandottes breed them as large as Standard Plymouth Rocks, and larger than the general run of Plymouth Rocks, while it fs probably true tbat Wyandottes as they run are smaller than Plymouth tocks as they run. The difference in size is one which any breeder of either variety wbo chooses to do so may easily overcome breeding 'Wyandottes to Plymouth Rock weights, and vice versa, so that for general use we may sny that there is no material difference in size between Rocks and Wyandottes. The real differences in this respect are, that the most sym- metrical fowl in each breed is likely to be the fow] about standard weight and size for the breed. Weyandottes of Plymouth Rock weights are apt to be a little coarse and “cochinny ; ” Plymouth Rocks at Wyandotte weights a liltle undersized. From this it follows that if a poultryman wants fowls which we may term small medium in size, he can get them in Wyan- dottes without departing as far from a good type as he would if be tried to breed Rocks to the same weights. Cunversely, if he wants large medium fowls he can get them in extra large Plymouth Rocks, which will be a little course, but not so far away from the breed type as if he tried to get as larse fowls in Wyandottes. In egg production there is practically no difference in average number of eggs laid. The Wyandotte eggs average a little smaller, as would be expected, hut the difference in this respect is not important. — As between the different varieties of the Wyandotte, the White is by far the most popular, tanking as one of the few most popular fowls. The Buff, though far behind the White, comes next in popularity, and so far these are the only varieties of the breed to gain and bold any great popularity, though all the laced and penciled varieties bave bad their booms, and buve maintained a following Inrge enough to keep them well in the public eye. The Black Wyan- dutte has never attracted much attention. The Columbian Wyandotte is by many regurded, as a “coming” variety. Being « white fowl with black points like the Light Brahma, it will dress like a white fowl. Of all these varieties the White furnishes the greater proportion of specimens of good size and with true Wyandotte shape. This is because more people are interested in it, and more of those interested in it are especially interested in market poultry culture. Of Rhode Island Reds there are, as has been said, two varieties differing only in the shape of the comb, one having a single, the other a rose comb. Tuking tbe average Reds as we find them, the single combed variety might — on its looks — be termed a Red Plymouth Rock, and THE MEDITERRANEAN CLASS. 93 the rove combed vuriety a Red Wyandotte. Fanciers of Reds try to make the Rhode IJsjand Red of a shape intermediate between Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes, but as the reader who examines many specimens of the three breeds will find, the breed shspe is still very rare in the Reds. As u matter of his- torical fact, the first Buff Ply- mouth and Buff Wyandottes exhibited were Rbode Island Reds, and a good part of the stock of both these Buff varie- ties is of Rhode Island Red origin. In Rhode Island Reds, then, we have two more vurieties of the medium sized general pur- pose fowl, not essentially different from Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes in practical qualities. * Silver Spangled Hamburgs. It is from the varieties of the three breeds just described that most poultrsmen will make choice of the fow] that suits them, and whatever else they may begin with or try, most poul- trymen will eventually settle on a variety of this class. All these breeds have, with the excep- tion of an occasional stock, the brooding faculties active. All lay tinted exes varying from rich creamy color to very dark “brown.” All are easily handled, and give fair to good results when fed and cared for with ordinary good judgment and regularity. The Buff Orpington is the only variety of that breed at all generally introduced into this country. Without denying it as great economic merit as any variety of the American class, and admitting that as seen on exhibition Orpingtons have generally shown better table form than the American varieties at the same shows, one is quite safe in predicting that their genera! effect on the varieties with which they come into competition will be to improve rather than to displace them. The other varieties of Orpingtons, Black, White, and Spangled, have attracted little attention here outside the circle of enthusiastic Orpington exhibitors. Considered as a commercially popular fowl, the question of the popularity of Orpingtons in this country turns on the question of the continuance of American prejudice in favor of yellow skinned table poultry. If one can convince himself that this is passing he may see a large popularity coming for the Orpingtons. Otherwise he is likely to believe that the American varieties will continue to give general satisfaction. Next to the American class in popularity comes the Mediterranean class, comprising Leg- horns, Minorcas, Spanisb, Andalusians, and Anconas. These all lay white eggs, und are non- sitters. Leghorns. In these there are seven varieties, of which only two have a broad popularity — the S. C. Brown and the S. C. White. Of the two the White seems to be most popular through- out the territory which contributes New York city’s supply of fancy white eggs, Throughout the rest of the country the Browns are generally more numerous. The Single Comb Buff Leg- born made very rapid advances in popularity for a while, but then went backward. The rose combed varieties of the colors mentioned have never approached the single combsin popularity, though the Whites and Browns are quite well distributed. Black Leghorns are not often seen, and the Silver Duckwings are still more rare. The Lechorns’ chief claim to attention is ‘their laying propensity. They lay better under indifferent care, except in early winter, than any fowls not of their class, and except when frost is severe enough to affect their large combs they are reasonably hardy, Average Leghorns are too smull to be of much value as market poultry. Many breeders breed to a size to mate 94 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. their Leghorn chicks, and young hens compare favorably with ordinary stock of the American breeds, but the average Leghorn is a very poor table fowl. The Bluck Minorcas are the next breed in this class in popularity, though far behind the popular varieties of Leghorns in this respect. Ordinary Minorcas as found distributed through- out the country do not differ greatly from Leghorns, Indeed it is not an unbeard of thing for breeders to supply customers with Black Leghorns and Black Minorcas from the same pens. Typical Black Minorecas, as bred in the sections where they are most popular are medium large fowls, sometimes as large as Plymouth Rocks; are good Jayers of very large white eggs, and are fine table fowls for home use, though their white skin and dark legs are not in favor in most markets. Andalusians and Anconas do not differ much in anything but color, from Leghorns. The Andalusian is a trifle more on the Minorca type; the Ancona on the Leghorn type. The Andalsian is a slaty blue in color, and very difficult to breed to standard color requirements, The Ancona is a mixed (speckled) black and white fowl. Both have their admirers, and the Andalusian in particular is given a good deal of attention by fanciers. They may be rated as fowls for the fancier and amateur rather than for those looking for the most suitable fow] for commercial purposes. The Black Spanish are practically extinct, except in the hands of a few fanciers. Of much the same general type as the Leghorns are the Hamburgs and Polisb. Varieties of hoth breeds were popular before the introduction of the Leghorns, but being generally less hardy, more difficult to keep and rear, and Jacking the yellow legs and skin which our markets prefer, they were rapidly crowded into the background on the udvent of the Leghorns. ‘They ure stil bred by many fanciers, and seen in considerable numbers at some shows. Most Hamburgs are so small as to be of little practical value. A few breeders maintain good size, and a type that is well suited both for egy production and for the family table. The Polish fowls, though small, are generally plump and meaty. They are good layers under favorable conditions, but their large crests make them very susceptible to colds and roup when exposed to wet weatber. In the Asiatic class we have another group of fowls generally crowded out by the “ general purpore” fowls. The Asiaties, of which there are three breeds — Brabmas, Cochins, and Langshans — are large fowls — too large for general market demands, and among those keeping fowls for commercial purposes are bred mostly for special markets. With the exception of the Light Brabma, it may be said that the Asiatics are of no economic importance today, and it occupies a very limited field. Light Brahmas in a few localities are produced in very large numbers for large roasting fowls, They are the largest of fowls, and as it takes them so long to attain full size, they remain soft meated much longer than fowls of the smuller breeds. With judicious management they are good layers, but comparatively few poultrymen succeed in vetting satisfactory egg yields from any Asiatic fowls. The Langshan, the smallest of the group, is the best layer under ordinary management, but its color, (black, the White Langshun has never become well known), is against it for market poultry. An objection, in most sections, to all Asiatic fowls, is the foot feathering. Wherever the soil is heavy and there ts much wet weather, or where these fowls are not provided with houses where the floors are dry and littered with material that will quickly absorb the water in the foot feathers after they bave been out on wet ground, this foot feathering is really a fault. Asiatics are the most docile of fowls and the hardiest, but unless one gives them plenty of room and uses judgment in handling them he will not get as good results from them as from fowls of the American class for any purpose. In the hands of those who understand them they are good layers —compar- ing favorably with any other breed, but the average poultry keeper gets very few eggs from them, and soon changes to a breed easier to handle, In our “ Standard of Perfection” Dorkings, Red Caps, and Orpingtons are grouped together in the ** English” class, though the three breeds are of distinctly different types. The Dorking is an English production of great antiquity. The Red Cap is perhaps best described as a fow] of the Hamburg class bred to large size, while the Orpington, as has been seen, is an English translation of the type which prevails in the American class. Red Caps are rarely seen in this country. Dorkings are found in considerable numbers at ECONOMIC QUALITIES OF GAME FOWLS. 95 some of the leading shows, and in Canada are quite extensively kept as farm fowls. They are commonly reputed indifferent layers and rather delicate. I kept a small flock secured from a Canadian breeder for several years, and in this limited experience with one stock found them hardy and good layers. As table poultry the Dorking bas long ranked as of finest quality, and fully deserves its reputation. Houdans are the only French breed well known in this country. They are as good layers as Leghorns, and first class in table quality, but not as rugged as is desirable for fowls for general use. Like the Polish, they have heavy crests which to many are objectionable. The color of their skin (white) and their dark legs are also against them as market fow]s. In Game fow]s we bave three distinct types — the Pit Game, the Exhibition Game, and the Indian Game. The Pit Game fow] is practically the Game fowl as it has been bred for centuries in England, with perhaps a little more differentiation in colors. The Exhibition Game is a long legged, long necked, exaxyerated Pit Game, which has no place outside the exhibition room and the vards of the fancier. Pit Games are really valuable economic fow]sas far as productiveness and quality yo, though not to be classed for general purposes with the breeds of the American class. Perhaps their greatest fuult from economic standpoints is their “gameness,” — their pugnacity, and quarrelsomeness, These are qualities destructive to com- fortable and profitable work with poultry, and tue Game as a farm or practical fowl, soon dis- appears from sections where the economic value of 4 fow! becomes the first consideration with poultry keepers. Tbe Indian Game is a larger and meatier type of fowl than either of the others, and, as bred in England and America, is less pugnacious. I think it should be regarded as a useful type temporarily somewhat neglected because of the disappointments which followed its intro- duction to the American public, with widely exaggerated reports of its laying and table qualities. Of course it is out of the question to discuss in a single lesson exhaustively the qualities and adaptabilities of all these breeds and their severa] varieties. As I suid near the beginning of the lesson, the poultry keeper should limit consideration of varieties to the few popular general purpose breeds unless there are spevial reasons for not doing so. The most general illustrations of exceptions to this rule may be found where one is going into some special branch of poultry culture, as the production of white eggs for the New York city trade, or the production of large roasting chickens for the Boston market. Even in these exceptions, the principle of the Tule I have given applies, and the poultryman should follow custom, and take the breed, or one of the breeds most popular among those in the line in which he is engaging. 96 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. LESSON IX. Stecking the Poultry Plant. to different conditions and purposes discussed. In this lesson we take up a number of questions in which beginners, wherever located, or whatever their objects, are about equally interested. How Many Breeds or Varieties Should a Poultryman Keep? Those who have-been long in the business ure generally agreed that one variety is better than more —is enough, Even those who keep several or many varieties are quite unanimously of the opinion that it is better to start with a single variety, and to limit oneself to that one variety. It does not necessarily follow from their taking this position with reference to what it is best for one beginning now to do, that it is also better for one who bas several or numerous varieties of fowls to drop all but one. Granted that it might have been better not to keep more than one variety, it still is true that when the thing thut was not best has been done, conditions are sometimes created which inake it better policy to keep on as one has begun than to change to the more approved situ- ution. A breeder of several varieties who has established a trade in each, cannot drop any of them without letting go trade which it cost him something to secure, and he cannot afford to let such trade go unless he is reasonably sure that increased sales from the variety he retains will compensate for the loss of trade which follows the dropping of the others. .The beginner's situation is different. He can take the one variety of his choice, and concentrate all his efforts on securing a fine stock of that variety, and building up a trade init. If be is successful in the first, and has ordinary good business ability, he can hardly fail to succeed ultimately in the second. In the earlier days of poultry culture it may sometimes have been good policy to start with several breeds; as to that, opinions differ. Bat of late years trade tends more und more to go to ‘* specialists” — that ix, to breeders making a specialty of a single variety, and in the stronger competition for exhibition honors, and for business that exists today, the man of several breeds is more apt-to be crowded aside by competitors, and neglected by purchasers. He finds it harder to win a satisfactory share of the prizes where in each variety he keeps be bas to contend with men of equal or greater skill in breeding who are applying to that one variety as much skill as be has to divide among two, three, or a half a dozen, and to add to his difficulties, buyers generally prefer to buy of the man who keeps but one breed. The reasons some have for doing this are fallacious, but it is the condition of which the breeder must take account. He can adjust his business to conditions much more readily than he can change conditions to fit his ideas of how business should be done. Beginners often think it advisable to keep two varieties of different classes and types to meet different demands or serve different purposes. The most common cases are to keep larve fowls for table purposes and small fowls for laying; and to keep fowls of the Asiatic or American breeds for winter layers, and Leghorns for summer layers, Usually they find that results do ie THE last lesson the different varieties of poultry were described, and their adaptability ORDINARY GOOD STOCK FOR BEGINNERS. 97 not justify the arrangement. ‘The special adaptabilities of the different breeds to different pur- poses are more theoretical dr fancied than real. Thus Leghornsy though eusier to get egys frou than heavier breeds, and generally steadier layers in summer because they are non-sitters, frequently surprise the man who would keep them for summer layers, by laying as well in winter as bis supposed winter layers, while the difference between the two kinds for the year may be insignificant. The fact is that in general the different breeds Juy about alike when given good care —such as those trying to muke poultry pay commonly give their fowls, and in time the poultryman realizes that the few practical advantages of heeping two types of fowls are about offset by the disadvantage of huving to maintain two stocks, und the frequent incon- venience in adapting the accommodations to the different habits of the fowls. What Quality of Stock? The next question of interest to the beginner is the quality of stock to buy. Beginners usually purchase low priced stock — that is, low priced from the funcier’s standpoint. From the beyinner’s point of view, two or three dollars for a female, and three to five dollars for a male is extravagance. Hemuay pay such prices, but prefers not to Jet bis acquaintanecs not much interested in poultry know the amounts. Occasionally a beginner will pay much higher prices. If financially able to do so, beginuers often buy the highest priced birds. Their idea is that by so doing they buy a place and a standing among the foremost breeders. There certainly is an advantage in buying high quality stock, and it may be from every con- sideration the best policy for one who is financially able to do so, and who knows how to main- tain its quality. Itis on the latter point that most beginners fail. No money can buy shill m breeding except money which may be paid to a breeder for birds be has produced, or as salary. His goods and bis services may be bought if heis willing to part with them for a consideration, but this kind of knowledge and shill is not to be had separate from individuals who bave it. As we Saw in the lessons on breeding, it requires quile xs careful selection to maintain excel- lence in fowls us it did to secure it. In unskillful bands the bestof stocks are apt to deteriorate rapidly. A single season of unskillful management of the breeding stock muy put the stock of the mun who bought the highest priced birds he could get on a level with that of one who bought much cheaper stock. Unless one is in a position to get expert services in mating his stock itis as well for bim not to pay extremely high prices. [ would not say that be should limit himself to the lower figures I have mentioned. He might go several times as high, and if he proves an apt student of mating problems and successful in growing chicks, bave results that justify the larger expenditure for stock, but as a rule the poultryman who buys extra good stock at the start does not establish his sto¢ék on that foundation. The rule is that in bis inex- perience and unskillfulness his first stock goes back, and when he realizes this and sees where and why he failed be buys anew for foundation stock, and on this stock bought when he has a meusure of experience to show bim how to use it, he builds up his permanent line, Hence in buying ordinary good stock ut about the range of prices mentioned, the beginner with poultry is simply applying the common principle in use wherever people work with materials which muy be damaged or Jost in manipulation, of using rather cheap material to experiment witb. Beginning With Stock or Eggs. The determination of this question is settled in part hy the season when the beyinning is made—people are going into poultry keeping at all seasons. Unless the start is making duiing the late winter or spring, thut is, during the hatching season, beginning with eggs would not be considered (except in the batching of winter chickens, in which line, as stated, most growers buy their eggs fot hatching). For those beginning at times when the start might be made with either stock or eggs, it is often a puzzle to decide which way to begin. Results by either method of starting are so variable that one has to be cautious about making positive recom- mendations, but I believe that the greater number of satisfactory beginnings are made from stock. Perhaps as good a way as any is to try both ways, — divide the amount available for the purpose, buy a few fowls, and invest the rest in eggs. Though there is no sureness about results, unless luck goes entirely against the beginner, he is likely to get some good chickens from fow]s mated as they were sent him by the breeder from whom he bought them. But in buying eggs there is always the possibility of getting a good batch and a lot of exceptionally 98 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING —SECOND SERIES. good chicks at a cost away below what birds of the same quality could be bought for at matur- ity. This chance is attractive enough to make most of us risk the total failure which comes to the buyer of eggs about as often as a satisfactory hatch of chicks that turn out well. Buying young chickens is much like buying eggs except that the uncertainty of hatching is eliminated as far as the existence of the nuniber of chicks desired is concerned, The chicks are shipped before it begins to appear whether they would generally live and thrive, and the results at the end of the season are likely to average only a little better than with eggs, That little, however, is an inducement to many to buy new hatched chicks rather than eggs. It is not possible to eliminate risks in starting, or —for that matter, at any stage of the pro- ceedings. Whichever way one elects to begin, or if he prefers to try them all, there is risk of failure to succeed in any of the attempts. Nowhere is persistence more necessary than in efforts to get a start with stock of poultry of the kind one desires. In what follows I sball try hy suggestions and advice to belp each beyin- ner to avoid mistakes, but ] cannot assure him of any way of certainly avoiding them. J] made the common mistuhe invself, of beginning with a number of varieties, and made no more thun the average number of mistakes in buying, yet it took me two to 1bree seasons to get a goud start — just a start with a few birds in most varieties, and some it took longer than that. In many cases the question as to beginning with eggs or stock is better answered by consier- ing it with the question, Where to Buy. The greater number of novices in poultry culture seem to think they can buy better stock, whether in birds or eggs by sending tou some breeder ata distance for it. They see the faults— some of them — in the stock of nearby breeders whose yards they visit. The stock they donot see they judge by the breeder’s advertisement and descriptive literature which rarely admit that the stock has any serious faults, and bis correspondence, which only occasionally refers to the weak points in the stock, and then minimizes faults more than a disinterested person would. Commen sense might teach even the novice in poultry transactions tqadiscount liberally the sulesmun’s enthusiastic recommendations of his goods, but npparently only experience in buying teaches this lesson cffectively, and the average beginuer in buying poultry will pass by his neighbors and cheerfully pay a Jitlle higher price, plus a beavy express charge, for stock no better than be could get close by. J would not bave any reader conclude that there is never an advantage in buying from a dis- tunce, for there often is a great advantage in it, but when buying stock of ordinary grades, if you haye an opportunity to buy from a nearby breeder whose stock you can inspect, within the range of prices mentioned earlier in this lesson, the chances are that you will be better satisfied in the end than if you send the same amount of money for the same number of birds to a breeder at a distance. After one begins to be able to Judge of the quality of bis stock, to know where it is weak, and to know something about the characteristics of different stoeks of the sume Variety, it will be his best policy to buy what he needs where he can get what suits him best, but a considerable purt of the present buying away from home js of no benefit to anyone but the transportation companies, If every poultry keeper who had not a good reason for sending wway for breeding stock and eggs for hatching would buy at home, sellers generally would sell as much as they do now, and the business would be on a much better basis, There is another and a strong reason for the novice buying his first stock in his own locality if possible. Fow]s, like all kinds of live stock, and like human beings too, are with few excep- tions affected by change of climate. Nearly all fowls are unfavorably affected for a time — for afew weeks or months, After that some are likely to be better for the change, some worse, others mot notably affected either way. On the whole the period of acclimatization is an unsettled period, and the beginner will almost invariably do better to work with acclimated stock, ’ But not all beginners can luy stock at home. There are still many localities in which thor- oughbred stock israre. Within a few years J have had a letter from a poultryman in a section where a show, at which he was an exhibitor, hud been beld annually for several years, asking for a description of White Wyandottes, one of our most popular varieties, and stating that BUYING FOWLS ON APPROVAL. 99 they were unknown in that vicinity, So, while our popular varieties are quite well distributed there are still many places where they are not tobe bad. The beginner located in such a place must go or send abroad for stock. If it is at all possible for him to go himself to yards where ~ stock of the variety he wants is to be procured, it will pay him to do so. He can then see how the stock he buys compares with other specimens of the same stock, and have a better idea of its actual quality. Seeing the stock as it grows, he will also better appreciate the variations in it, and be better able to judge of the general quality of the stock he produces from it. If it is impossible for him to inspect und select his stock, and he must buy by mail, be will still find it to his advantage to buy as near home as possible. By doing this he saves express, and, further, when the express charges do not constitute too large a proportion of the cost of the fowls delivered, he can return the fowls if not satisfactory. Sometimes in waking shipments a breeder will agree to pay return express on a lot of birds not found satisfactory, but in general the buyer pays express both ways. There is room for an argument as to what is fair in such cases, 1 think the best way for a buyer to look ut it is this; —If he bought the fowls himself ut the breeder’s yards, whatever the distance from his home, he would not expect the breeder to pay his traveling expenses, or uny part of them. He buys “on approval,” because of the inconvenience or expense of going to see the fowls. He should then consider return express charges on uvsatisfactory birds as an expense arising from his inability to inspect the stock before buying, and not an expense on account of the breeder’s failure to send him stock that would suit, and therefore an expense for which not be but the breeder is responsible. If the buyer will look at the matter in that way he will enjoy more peace of mind than if he resents the payment of return express as an imposition for which the party who sent him the fowls is responsible. In deciding from whom to order stock by mail, a beginner is necessarily very much in the dark. Many write to me for advice, information, and sometimes recommendations in this matter, saying that their resources are limited, and they cannot affurd to make any mistakes, J can appreciate their position, and also approve the caution they display. At the same time I know of no way of avoiding “‘mistakes” in buying stock. I have been buying fowls, some- times a good many «nd sometimes only one or two in a season, for sixteen years now, and I am somewhat acquainted with the quality of stock kept by a very large number of breeders, yet I cannot avoid “mistakes” of this kind. I don’t think anyone can. The best I can do is to reduce the cost of mistakes in buying to the minimum by never buying more fowls than I actually need. That point we will take up again. In deciding from whom to buy, give the preference (for reasons previously stated), to breed ers nearest you. Write to as many of these as you wish, stating your wants, and asking for prices, and terms. Most breeders state their terms in a general way in their circulars, but not all are as explicit asis desirable. If you are going to buy stock on approval, (and it is the only way to buy if you cannot buy on inspection), you should bave it distinctly understood before you send your order on what conditions the shipment is made. Some breeders make the stute- ment that stock may be returned at their expense “if not as represented” in their circulars or correspondence. This is not enough. It is too easy to misinterpret both the buyer’s statement of bis wants and the breeder’s statement of what be will send to fill the want. Make your order conditional on the stock being satisfactory to you. Have the seller’s written agreement to that effect before you send him the money. If he will not ugree to that don’t buy of him. A man who will not make such an agreement may be perfectly square. Looking at the matter from bis point of view he may think it not good policy to make sales that way. 1 think, how- ever, that most breeders will without hesitation agree to such terms for shipments within reasonable distances, How [luch to Buy. To make mistakes or misfortunes in buying of as little consequence as possible buy only for actual needs. I mean now your own actual needs, I think one of the greatest mistakes a beginner can make is to buy more stock at the start than he needs for himself, expecting that by selling eggs for hatching he is going to get back the additional money put into the stock, and more. The novice is wisest who lets the egg trade alone until he has his stock well estab- 100 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. . lished, One cannot be certain of the number of fowls or egys that will supply him as many chicks for the season as be wants, but he can take the number that should do so if results are about average. Generally speaking, a breeding pen — that is, a male und four females — is enough to begin with. In more cases a trio will be better. Then if the fowls do not treed sutisfuctorily the outlay bas not been heavy. There is, of course, a loss of time, but that can- not be avoided. Indeed, it is no uncommon thing for breeders of considerable experience to lose practically a whole season through the fuilure of their stock to breed satisfactorily. Returning Unsatisfactory Stock. The novice generally is not capable of judging the quality and value of the stock sent him accurately, nor is it possible to give him instructions tbat will enable him to arrive at an ‘exact estimate; but there are some points that may be given that will help him to know some faults for which he should reject stock, and some reasous why he should sometimes hesitate to reject it on his own unfavorable impression of it. Unless bought in the fall, birds that are decidedly immature and undeveloped should not be accepted. Breeders sometimes, in their eagerness to fill orders, send chickeas whose quality is as yet uncertain, telling the buyer that they will yrow into fine birds by the breeding season. If the buyer was advised before ordering thut this class of stock would be sent him, he has no cause.to complain, but such birds too often fail to develop into what the breeder said they would, because they are not, when received, what they should be at their age. , Sick, injured, or dead birds the buyer should refuse to accept from the express companies, This leaves the settlement of responsibility for damage where it belongs — between the shipper and the transportation company. The mere fact that on inspection a pen of fowls fails to realize the anticiputions one hud been indulging of what he was to get, ought not to lead him to reject them as unsatisfactory. If the birds are apparently in good condition, take them out of the coop, put them in a pen by themselves, and observe them for a little while — at intervals for a few hours, or, at most, a day. Give them and the seller a chance. A reasonable time is allowed — and should he taken for inspection. Often birds just from a journey look quite different after a short rest. But don’t keep the birds more than a day. If you are then still not satisfied with them, return them promptly. For whatever troubles may develop while the stock is in your bands, you ure properly responsible. A buyer cannot, In fairness, keep stock for one or two or more weeks, aud then ask the seller to make losses good, Do not let a small fault, as you see it, decide you to return birds bought at ordinary prices. There are few specimens produced free from faults, und they are not for sale except at very high prices. If one fow] in a lot seems to you decidedly superior to the rest, don't use that fowl as the standard of the value you should get at the price, and be dissatisfied with the others. It may be tbat in that Gne specimen tbe breeder bus given you special value. It is not at all an uncommon tbing for breeders anxious to extend their reputation to give customers some rather better birds than the prices warrant. Don’t allow any ideas you may have of distinctive marks indicating the absolute purity of stock of the variety you are buying, to lead you to reject or find fault with it. Many novices huve « notion that pure bred fowls have certain distinctive features which invariably appear in well bred stock. This is not the ease, and inv rejecting « fow) for luck of such mnark, one may reject a fowl! that is especially valuable for other or general excellence. Don’t be too much influenced in your opinion of the stock you buy by the comments or judzment of others who see them. Consider all such on the basis of the speaker's actual knowledge of and experience with the kind of stock in question. On the whole, itis safe to vive the seller and the stock tbe benefit of any small doubts you may have on points other thin sickness, damage, or immaturity. Persons selling stock cannot afford to send out stock that will not suit, and {n most cases where this Is done the party doing it is at fault becnuse ot his lack of experience in selling, rather than because of any deliberate purpose to deceive or defraud. = TESTING THE STOCK. 101 Testing the Stock. It is always safest to breed one’s first pure bred stock as mated up by the breeder from whom it is purchased. The beginner sbould remember, however, that failure to get resulis that suit him may be due to his inexperience — to mismanagement of the stock. Even if his experience with inferior stock has been such that he is sure of his ability to grow good chicks, failure to get such from his new thoroughbred stock the first season should not lead bim to discard it. In such cases I would advise buying a few more birds from another breeder, and breeding them separately, but continuing to breed the first stock bought, for it not infrequently happens that stock that did poorly the first season in a new place, does uncommonly well the next, and it is therefore pocr policy to turn it off without a further trial, 102 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. LESSON xX. The [lost Important Part of the Poultryman’s Equipment. want to coasider more particularly some of the pointy that have had incidental men- tion in them. We have discussed a number of matters of prime importance to the beginner in poultry culture :—the possibilities of the business, the different branches of it, locations, markets, the kinds of stock, and vurious like questions, and I have tried to indi- eate how a venture in poultry keeping may be as free as possible from mistakes that use up the beginner’s capital and often exhaust his enthusiasm. But not only through these lessons, hut constantly in correspondence with readers of the paper, I find that many express in varying degrees the feeling of the correspondent whore letters with my comments on them appear in this issue of the paper. They think it would be much easier for them to get along if I would explain and decide for them in everything, down to the last and least detail, and where I stop they imagine that there are other reasons for stop- ping than thosé that are given, and that my freedom of speech is restrained by consideration for other interests. When in connection with this series of lessons, I organized a special class in poultry keeping, with the purpose of keeping more closely in. touch with a number of poultry keepers, and following their work in its details, and advising them more definitely than is possible in the majority of cases, [ found in connection with this class an obstacle I had not at all anticipated. By far the greater number of the class evidently failed to understand that the “Special Section” was in effect only au effort to give individual instruction, as far as it could be given under such conditions, to a limited number of readers of the paper. The questions they asked, and the comments they made soon made it clear that the general idea was that the special section students were to be given such an answer as they wished to any question they saw fit to ask. At the time I was quite at a Joss how to account for this, for I bad tried in the announce- ments and in all correspondence relating to this plan, to make it entirely clear that I was not going to do these very things. I have since thought that this general misapprehension of the purpose of that plan was owing to the general feeling among novices that the greatest hindrance to quick and sure progress in poultry culture was in the impossibility of getting absoluteiy wuthoritative and reliable directions as to what to do in every instance where the poultryman is culled upon to make a decision. In a sense this is true:—but what to the novice seems to he the trouble is not the real trouble. His view of the situation is superficial. His difficuity is not that he can find no one to direct him, but tbat he does not know bimself. He is undertaking to do things for which he has bad no preparation, or inadequate preparation. The first and strongest reason for urging begin- ners in poultry culture to begin sinall and go very slowly, is that only in this way is it possible Bo Jeaving the class of topics we have been discussing in the last few lessons, I TIME REQUIRED TO MAKE POULTRYMEN. 103 for those who learn by themselves (that ix, who through the agency of books, papers, their own experience, and an occasional interchange of opinions with another poultry keeper, are self-tuught) to be in any sense well prepared to muke choice and decisions when necessary. Where a man learns poultry keeping as he would a trade, ovcupation, or business in which a thorough training covering a period of yeurs is regarded us essential to proficiency, he bis, during all that period, frequent — perhaps daily — opportunities to see bow others under various conditions make such choices as he would bave to make if in business for himself. He can also see subsequently how events mark a course as wise or unwise, and through it all be hears from those interested in the matter discussion of all phases of the situation. Now there are, as we all know, some men whom no amount of training, experience, and instruction will fit for positions of independent responsibility. They need a] ays someone to oversee and direct their work,to plan for them and decide for them. And there are some men who, wherever you put them, Jearn very quickly, as compared with the average of their fellows. But I bave never yet scen a man who in any position acquitted himself well who had not the particular kind of knowledge and skill needed for effective work in that position. He may not have acquired this knowledge and skill for the purpose of using it in this particu- Jar way, but it was knowledge and skill that could be applied, and when you hear of a man accomplishing wonderful things in a line new to him, you may be very sure either that his previous training adapted him to this work, or that the reports of whut he is doing are exaggerated. In poultry culture the stories of phenomenal successes hy novices are--I[ think without exception—greatly exaggerated, or refer to accidental successes never repeated. As I have said in one of the recent lessons, the plants that I know ure successful have all been developed very slowly from small beginnings. The attitude of the beginner who thinks he would get along all right if only someone would tell him just exactly what to do in each situation as it arises, after baving outlined for bim the general scheme upon which his poultry keeping is to be conducted, is practically that as be looks at it the poultry business is one that, witb all conditions right or best, runs itself. Most beginners will unhesitatingly affirm that this is not their attitude at all, butin practice will still continue to show that that is exactly their position. Mr. J. begins poultry keeping with White Plymouth Rocks, because in some way he has formed the opinion that they are the best fowls fur his purpose. If his hens do not lay, and his neighbors’ Buff Rocks Jay well, he concludes that the fau't is in the stock. It never occurs to him thatit is in his inexperience. When he hegan poultry keeping he fed by the metbod that seemed best to him. Perhaps it was recommended hy someone who used it very succes>- fully, Not getting results by it, be casts about for another method. He takes that of the poultry keeper who, so far as he can learn, is most successful —just at that time. He succeeds no better by it, and tres another, with no better success. Perbaps be tries a dozen different ways of feeding before he begins to get a satisfactory egy yield. Then he thinks results are due to the particular feeding formula used. The fact usually is that out of his varied efforts in feeding he has developed judyment and skill in feeding, and the results he is getting are not due to special virtue in the feed in use, but to the cumulative knowledge and skill that have been ucquired little by little. There ig another fact closely related to this which many do not appreciate. It requires a good deal of familiarity with « subject to enable one to grasp understandingly anything beyond the simplest and briefest statement of matters in it. Even in « series of simple und easily understood statements many will make no lasting impression on the mind of one not familiar with the matters treated. Some readers who thought the elementury lessons of Jast year very complete when they read them first, write me that in reading them over again in book form they find much more in them— much that escaped their attention in the first reading, though they read carefully. The printed matter is precisely the same. There is neither more nor less of it. The difference is in the reader. He knows more of the suhject— perhaps more from other reading, but certainly much more by experience. This is his own knowledge — what he knows at first hand. The first year that I was in the poultry business I bought breeding stock of several varieties, partly from and partly through an acquaintance in the business. [ did not get the results I 104 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. thought [ should have had, and blamed it on the stock, and discarded it all and bought new stuck elsewhere, meantime harboring the thought that my acquaintance’s aid had been more of a Lindrance than a belp to me, By the time I was getting good results in breeding I had discovered that, in general, the trouble that first year was not in the stock so much as in my inexperience. Later I learned that the stock soon became whut its owner made it; that the most essential things in applying methods, and in the management of fowls, were good judg- ment and a thorough knowledge of the fowls with which one worked, and the various articles used; that —in short — the poultryman was the determining factor in every poultry venture, Nearly every beginner supposes that be appreciates this. He counts as an important part of his equipment for the business a liking for fowls, or for outdoor life, habits of industry and perseverance and intelligence, These are all necessary, but they become directly available and «tfective only as they are displayed in connection with practical personal knowledge of the detuils of poultry keeping. The acquisition of such knowledge requires time, because variety in experience is required to give one such a general working knowledge of any subject that he is ready to act promptly and quickly in any situation in which in bis line of work he is hkely to be placed, and the beginner in poultry keeping often finds himself in situations that are full of trouble for one who does not know just what to do and how to do it, while one who did bave that knowledge would soon have matters right or on the way to mend with the least possible loss, Again, in every poultry undertaking there is a very Jarge element of chance. Opportunities come which only the poultry keeper who is. qualified to use them can estimate at their true value and take and use to advantage. This is, of course, equally true in all lines of work, but J doubt whether. there is any other line in which so few of those engaged in it bave bad a thorough training. Tbe newness of poultry culture as a business, or on a business basis is largely responsible for this. As I have explained in earlier lessons, there are conditions in regard to training of poultry keepers which Nmit opportunities to get a thorough practical training. But because this is so it is not necessary that the poultryman who learns by keeping his own fowls should get his experience regardless of expense. The waste and loss of capital and of inclination to continue poultry keeping due to efforts to Jearn it on a large scale, are appalling — the more so because they are so utterly unnecessary. There is absolutely no need of anyone losing any considerable amount of money in poultry keeping while estublishing a business, if he follows the simple rule of increasiny bis stock no faster than he is sure — entirely sure of his abil ty to handle it to advantage. If when making his plans a poultry keeper will base them on what he has done, rather than on what someone else has done or what he hopes to do, there is little danger of his planning beyond his capacity to perform. To be safe in his venture he must observe the necessary relation between his own development in knowledge of poultry and the growth of his plant. He must remember that it is always possible to adjust operations to bis ability, but not always possible to adjust his ability to the svale of operations on which he endeavors to work. In such matters as the purchase of stock, of appliances, ete., the only way a poultry keeper can buy goods to suit is by buying and discarding until he gets what suits him, not being too hasty about discarding unsatisfactory stock or goods, but giving each a fair trial. What suits one does not suit another, and each has to suit himself. It is possible, and when it can be done itis advisable, for «a while, for a beginner to rely to some extent on the advice and suggestions of others, though I believe the beginner gets along best and advances fastest who, while considering advice and suggestions, makes the decision for himself when the responsibility for it, and the consequences, are his, and no one else’s. I believe it is better for the beginner who is learning by himself to put the responsibility for what he does with himself, and not with his advisor, for—after all—when he takes advice, and acts upon it, he usually makes a choice between the advices available, and so the responsibility really is his own. He needs to consider that he is likely to make mistakes, to fail to fully understand instructions given him, to neglect to do some things that ought to be done, and, in a variety of ways, to be personally and directly responsible for things that go wrong. I do not urge this with the idea of making novices feel that others are always blameless if advice they give does not result THE POULTRYMAN THE, MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR. 105 satisfactorily. There ure cases where information given is misleading, and the novice cannot know it until by repeated experience the truth is made clear to him. But the usuul attitude of the beginner is to look anywhere and everywhere but. to himself for the causes of bis troubles, and this attitude is a greater handicap on his progress than anything else could be, for it keeps bim always searching outside of himself for reasons for the things that go wrong, when the commonest source of trouble is his own inefficiency. So T say tbat the most important factor in poultry culture is the poultry keeper. It is only as he makes himself a poultryman that one is able to get value out of good methods, good stock, a good location, and good general ability. 106 LESSONS: IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. LESSON XI. The External Parasites of Poultry. and mites which infest domestic fowls, — parasites which make poultry their special prey. If a poultryman takes pleasure in that kind of knowledge, and bas the time at his disposal, there is no reason why he should not study these creatures, learn their names, study them microscopically, learn to distinguish between them, and in general become well informed on the sulject. But practically all that is necessary is that be should know how to keep them out of bis premises, both by preventing their increase and reducing their numbers when increased to the point where they become troublesome. A few lice ona healthy fowl do no perceptible harm — so long as they are few in numbers. It is even asserted by some authorities that a few lice are beneficial rather than injurious, con- suming dead cuticle and causing just enough irritation to prompt the fowl] to dust itself — its way of batbing — regularly; this, however, is all theory, und bas not been demonstrated. The evident facts are :— That fow Is are very rarely wholly free from lice. Thatin limited numbers lice do little damuge. That when from any cause they become numerous they are a very serious pest. Many writers on poultry topics preach constant preventive treatment as the only sure way of avoiding losses through the ravaves of live. It is a very common thing to see statements pro- claiming lice as a coustant menace to the health and profitableness of fowls, and urging the necessity of unceasing warfare against them. Impressed by such statements many poultry keepers carry on a systematic treatment for lice which takes a great deal of time and Jabor, adding greatly to the drudgery of their routine work. Such continuous preventive treatment is not necessary when fowls are kept under ordinary good conditions, with no conditions existing which are favorable to the increase of lice. When I make this statement I do not wish any reader to misunderstand it. It will not do to assume that conditions are right, and therefore — in accordance with my statement — precau- tions against lice and treatment for lice are not needed. Look at the matter from the otber side. Find eut —if you do not already know — to what exteat lice affect your poultry, or would uffect them under your management with special pre- cautions against lice omitted, and then, if lice are troublesome try to find in what respect con- ditions supposed to be good, are favorable to the increase of vermin, and therefore bad. The most frequent conditions favorable to the increase of lice, are debilitated stock, dark {il ventilated houses, and buildings that by reason of the abundance of conveniences in the fittings are difficult to keep clean, and furnish many nooks and corners to which the sunlight rarely penetrates. l his hook, ‘* Diseases of Poultry,” Dr. Salmon gives a Jist of more than forty kinds of lice HOW TO DESTROY RED MITES. 107 When lice once become established in 2 house in sufficient numbers to cause serious trouble, the most common reason for difficulty in exterminutiny them is lack of thoroughness in treat- ment. Often the treatment while of the right kind is done by piecemeal, and when repetitions of treatment are required the intervals between are allowed to be too Jong. I find that this is nearly always the case when complaint is made that usual remedies are not effective. I have often bad letters from poultrymen who said that they found it impossible to rid the fowls and premises of lice, though the treatment — as they described it — left nothing to be desired. It being out of the question to go back of their reports and aseertain the facts in any case, I several years ago concluded to let some of my own houses become badly infested with lice, reproducing as nearly as possible the conditions of the typical poultryman who found the lice too many for him. So one season, beginning in the spring, I systematically neglected or omitted every usuul operation which might prevent the increase of live. By midsummer I had one houre badly infested with red mites. It is worth noting in connection with the fact that under ordinary good conditions lice rarely become troublesome, that the mites did not appear in numbers thut made their presence plain without close investigation, until the conditions became very bad. The droppings had been allowed to lie for months. Even then {t was only after a period of nearly two weeks of very hot damp weather that the mites began to be noticeable. Then within another week the place became literally alive with them. At the sume time — in order to give the body lice a chance to develop — I omitted to make provision for the hens to dust themselves. So I had at once a flock of bens hadly infested with lice, and their bouse alive with red mites. The ravages of the insects under such con- ditions began to be discernible almost at once. For the live I did nothing whatever hut pro- vide dusting places as usual by spading up here and therein the yards a few square feet of ground, Had the hens been badly infested for a long time this would not have been sufficient. As it was, they made almost constant use of the dust baths for a few days, and soon had the lice reduced to normal numbers. The red mites which prey on the fowls at night, and leave them during the duy to hide in rough places or crevices about the roosts, are said to remain on the fowls during the day ax well as night when very numerous, but I could find none on the hens in these houses by day, though they were in such numbers at the ends of the roosts that they could not begin to find places for concealment by day, and remained in a mass so great that a slight movement of the roost would make a great bloody smear of them. The first thing done for these was to remove all roosts and nests from the house, taking out also the cleats of wood on which the ends of the roosts rested, which were screwed to the wall, Then I brushed down the walls thoroughly with a broom preliminary to whitewashing. In doing this, quantities of mites were brushed to the floor, und undoubtedly many of them worked back again, but I paid no attention at all to them. I began treatment by applying to the mites on roosts and nests, taken out into the sun, various preparations, and carefully noting their action. I found kerosense effective, but did not think after trying chloro-naptholeum in water, applied to the mites and roosts with « brush, that kerosene was as economical. I did not feel like using it as freely as I did the water and C.N. Whitewash also was effective for all mites it reached, though not as quickly as the chloro-naptholeum preparation. I used some of this in quite a weak solution, pour- ing into a pail just enough to color the water up well, and with a brush threw and spattered it over the walls for some distance from the ends of the roosts, taking care to get it into joints and cracks as much as possible. In one pen I used nothing but whitewash, putting it on the underside, edges, and ends of the roosts, as well as on the walls of the pen. In the other two pens I gave roosts, supports, and nests a free application of water and chloro-naptholeum, and then whitewashed the walls. Note that: — Every part of walls, roosts, and attachments was thoroughly treated at one time with some preparation destructive to mites. The fowls roosted in the houses the same as usual that night; the whitewash not being yet quite dry, no special indications of mites were looked for until after the second night. Then enough mites that had escaped treatment had worked their way back to be quite conspicuous, 108 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING—SECOND SERIES. But bere is a point for the poultryman who is combating mites to observe. The mites which escaped the first treatment were those which were most conceuled, and, perhaps, some brushed to the floor in the preliminary sweeping which had worked their way back. My observation of mites on some pieces of board well covered with them to which I applied road dust freely was that many of them were killed by it. But these mites, having worked their way back to the fowls, and got a full feed, would not retreat to the inaccessible places in which they bad escaped the treatment, but stopped in the first place that wfforded a refuge, and after that one thorough application to all parts of the house I directed my attention exclu- sively to mites found on the roosts in the morning, working on the theory that it was easier to tuke time aud gradually exterminate the mites as they remained on the roosts where they were easy to get at than to try to follow them to their furthest possible hiding places. Tn the pen that bad been treated wholly with whitewash, I would turn over the roost in the morning at intervals of two or three days, and whitewash it, thus killing all mites that huppened to be on it. Jn the other pens I would do the same thing with the other prepara- tion mentioned. At each treatment the pumber of mites found became Jess until within two weeks practically none could be found, and they made no more trouble until the next season. Then with the houses neglected for « little while they began to multiply, but were quickly checked by a repetition of the treatment. I have since used C, N, in water whenever traces of mites became numerous, but bave never 1ound it necessary to treat more than once a season. I suppose the better policy would be to muke a thorough application, or possibly two or three in succession at the beginning of warm weather, and thus prevent their increas- ing to the troublesome points, but since my first experiment I have rather liked to have at least one opportunity during the season to demonstrate that the red mites were not so trouble- some « proposition if one made a thorough job of the treatment. The plain indication of the presence of these mites is found in their excrement, little grayish patches, like fly specks, on the roosts and adjacent parts which they traverse. When you see these spee¢ks you may know with certainty that the mites are there. If treatment is begun at once the mites may be practically exterminuted with a few applications to the roosts and adjacent parts where their tracks are seen. Promptness is important as much on account of the loss of vitality to the fowls, and profit to the owner, as because of the greater difficulty of getting rid of the mites when their numbers have greatly increased. With prompt and thorough treatment whenever signs of mites are observed, there is no need of regular weekly, or even monthly, applications to prevent their increase, For lice on the bodies of fowls, as I have suid, no treatment is necessary if the fowls are vigorous and have an opportunity to dust us they wish. Lack of inclination to dust is a symp- tom of lack of vitality. If a fowl showing such a symptom is found to be lousy, treatment for lice may be given a time or two, but unless the fowl! then with such other treatment as is neces- sary on other accounts, begins to shows vitality enough to keep itself free from lice It is not likely to be worth doctoring. It is when hens are incubating that they require treatment for lice by the attendant. They may not suffer if neglected. Indeed I have had many hens go through an entire period of incubation, bring off a good brood and rear every one with no treatment for lice at any time, but the conditions during incubation are so much more favorable to the increase of lice, and the annoyance of lice is so likely to cause hens to break eggs or leave their nests, that it is better to take regular precautions against lice. Similarly with the chicks when hatched. I have this season a number of very thrifty broods from nests which I allowed to become badly infested with live. ‘I'hese chicks have had abso- lutely no treatment for lice except the opportunity given them and the hen to dust as soon us the chicks were ready tocome from the nests. Some of these broods, after being kept fora week or ten days where they could dust at will, were put in coops on the grass with no dust bath, but have shown no signs at all of lice. I do not advise this as a practice, but the experi- ence is useful in showing how great a part the opportunity to take proper care of themselves playsin keeping stock free from lice; and I think it will nearly always be found that by making conditions unfavorable to lice and mites, and giving the fowls and chicks suitable opportunities to take care of themselves, systematic and regular precautions against these parasites muy be THE EXTERNAL PARASITES OF POULTRY. 109 reduced to two or three a year for the adult stock, und as many for each brood of young stock. In this lesson I huve mentioned only a very few insecticides, none but articles commonly used for other purposes, kept on hand in many homes, and easily obtainable everywhere. Chloro- naptholeum is a special preparation, but as far as its use in the manner described is concerned, seems to me to be just the same as sulpho-napthol, which I have since used sometimes in the same way witb the same results, and I suppose that there are other preparations of the same character which may be substituted. The point I want to impress is that a common article of household use, with water, everywhere abundant is an effective remedy for mites, und an inex- pensive one. Hence there is no occasion for delay in treatment while waiting for some special insecticide ordered only when actually needed. It would be possible to greatly extend this lesson, giving a long list of insecticides, both proprietary and home made, but of these I shall say nothing here except that if convenient any standard insecticide may be used, provided it is applicable for the special purpose for whicb an insecticide is wanted. For adult fowls use a powder, if it seems necessary to give them indi- vidual attention. For chicks use a powder, treating each brood as u whole. For lice and mites in coops and on fixtures, use a liquid, applying with spray, brush, or broom as most con- venient. In every case be thorough and persistent. Let the intervals between treatments he short, a week or ten days for live to which powder is applied, and two to four days for liquid appliances. Don’t keep up a constant warfare on possible parasites, not knowing whether they are there or not, but keep a sharp lookout for parasites and signs of parasites, and when necessary go after them aggressively. 410 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING— SECOND SERIES. LESSON XII. Internal Parasites of Poultry. do not at all suspect their presence. By “infest” bere I mean that the worms are present in sufficient numbers to be troublesome. Some good authorities say that intes- tinal worms, like lice on the skin and feathers of the fowl, are almost invariably pres- ent, but as long as they are not too numerous they make no trouble, and may even have some function of benefit to the fowl. Just what this is, or how it operates, I have never seen stated, nor so far as I have read on the subject have I seen any suggestion of usefulness for the gape worm which infests the esophagus of the fowl. The literature of this subject is not large. Salmon in the ‘‘ Diseases of Poultry,” devotes about thirty pages to worms, giving them, I think, more space than all other American poultry books combined. His material is drawn largely from European writers and investigators. ‘Little original work in investigation of diseases of this class has been done in this country. Dr. Paige, of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, has investigated several mysteridus ‘troubles in poultry yards in the state, and found worms causing the trouble, and has had a good many diseased birds at the station for observation and experiment. When I was last at the station he was testing remedies on u number of diseased specimens, and, as I understood, finding results too variable to warrant any general conclusions. Salmon’s treatment of worms, while the best accessible to poultrymen, is often far from sat- isfactory. He seems to write almost wholly after the European investigators of the subject, cand is often too technical in descriptive statements. Worms, when present in troublesome numbers, interfere seriously with the health of the fowl. Considering the conditions produced by them as diseases it is found that the symptoms are not marked until a rather acute stage, and even then are not so unique as to immediately ‘identify them. Tbe presence of the gape worm in the throat is most easily determined, yet «‘gapes” is commonly confounded with other troubles like gastritis, in which gas escaping through the mouth causes belching; acute lung troubles accompanied by labored breathing; or, indeed, any difficulty or distress in breathing. As — especially in small chicks—general weak- ness from any cause is apt to be accompanied by difficult breathing, it is readily seen that the possibilities of mistaking other things for gapes are quite unlimited. And, as a matter of fact, ‘a great many reported cases of gapes are not gapes at all, and the general impression that “capes”? is a malady that annually ravages the crop of young chicks all over the country isa great big general mistake due to the fact stated above that a symptom which might be described as gaping accompunies other more common diseases, With regard to intestinal worms we have just the opposite popular attitude. They are rarely ‘suspected as the cause of trouble, and rarely discovered until diseased specimens or infested premises are examined by men with medical training. All in all, the detection and effective treatment of these parasites that live within the body of the fowl ts one of the most puzzling propositions the poultrymen to whom it comes have to deal with, What I can say on the subject is suid from the rather peculiar standpoint editors sometimes Preenss worms — particularly intestinal worms — infest many fowls whose owners THE TROUBLESOME GAPE WORM. : lit attain. I have never seen a case of gapes, nor have I had any trouble with intestinal worms in my own fowls. I have frequently been able by reference to authorities on poultry diseases to indicate intestinal worms as a probable cause of troubles about which readers of the paper asked me, and in many such cases treatment for worms hus seemed effective, furnishing rea- sonable grounds for concluding that worms caused the trouble, though I must say that in more than one case in which satisfactory result of treatment for worms was reported to me the correspondent had not been able to diseover worms, and could only say that after applying the remedies conditions improved, So I am in the position, not of an authority on this or other diseases, but of a plain poultryman with perhaps a little more than averaye familiarity with both unprofessional statements of cases and the professional descriptions of diseases and pre- scriptions for the same, The Gape Worm. The disease known as the ‘“‘gapes” takes its name from asmall red round worm woich attaches itself to the mucous membrane of the windpipe. The conspicuous symptom of the disease is the gaping which gives it its name. As has been said, gaping, while the character- istic symptom of this disease, is not peculiar to it, but is a symptom in several other troubles. So to make sure of the nature of the trouble, and of the proper treatment to apply, the windpipe should be examined for worms. If they cannot be detected by opening the mouth of tbe bird wide and looking into the passage, take a stiff feather, not too large, and having stripped the quill to leave only a little brush at the end of it, put it gently down the wind- pipe, turn once or twice, and then withdraw. If there are gape worms present some should be found adhering to the feather. If the worms are found, the only way to treat them ¢ffectively seems to be to operate on each chick separately with a feather, as just described, or with a looped horse hair, or a gape worm extractor made of fine wire. Anyone can make such an extractor for himself, using No. 80 wire. Take a piece about 12 or 14 inches Jong, double it, and then twist the two endsso that a loop just wide enough to go down the windpipe, and half to three-quarters of an inch long is Jeft at one end, while the wires twisted tovether for the rest of their length, make the long handle for the instrument. When this is inserted in the windpipe, and turned around, the worms ure cut loose, and what are not withdrawn with the wire will be coughed up by the chick. Several other remedies have been given. One that used to be very generally recommended was to put the chicks in a box, and cause them to inhale lime dust. This treatment seems to have survived on paper rather than in satisfactory practice, for though it seemed to have tue indorsement of many writers I pever could learn that it was effective. When the disease is discovered on premises, give the affected birds the individual surgical treatment just described; then take precautions to prevent it in future. According to the best authorities, and also to the most observant poultrymen who have bad to contend with it, the gape worm, (syngamus trachealis), is communicated to fowls through earth worms whicb they eat from ground on which chickens with the gapes have run. The eggs and embryos of the gape worm are scattered over the ground, some in the excrement and some coughed up by the sick birds. They may be taken by other chicks or fowls direct from the ground, but the common method of receiving them is believed to be through earth worms. It is said to have been shown conclusively that they are taken into the digestive tract of earth worms, and may he carried for some time there, and communicated to the chick by the worms it eats. Sometimes the infested tract is small, and trouble may be avoided by fencing the chicks out of it, A lady in Pennsylvania wrote me some years ago that she found she had no trouble with her chicks if she kept them away from a particular spot in the garden. A poultryman, some time ago, stated in one of our leading poultry journals that he raised chicks on infested ground by keeping them confined while small to pens or sheds, the ground under which had been treated with lime. In these enclosures the chicks could get no worms, and were free from gapes, while those outside soon beeame diseased. He says that he has found that if chicks are kept off an infested piece of ground for three years few gape worms will be left in it. Where the gape worm is prevalent it is a most serious pest. It abounds most on wet heavy 112 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING —SECOND SERIES. soils, that is, on soils least suited to poultry. On the sandy hills and knolls of New England, we have no trouble with it. It might get a foothold on scme of our low, rather swampy spots, but very little poultry is kept in such places, the ‘‘ sandy, well drained ” locations having been fuvored more perhaps than their merits deserve. When I was a boy in Illinois we used to hear much of the gapes, and from the character of much of the soil there, it is probable that many of the cases were genuine, but I never happened to come in contact with them. In Colorado, with fts dry sandy soll, we had no gape worms. I am inclined to think that if a careful investigation of poultry and yards were made all over the country, and a map prepared to show the areas free from the gape worm, those in which it was found, but not generally us a serious pest, and those where it was very troublesome, poultrymen would be surprised at the small area actually badly infested. I mention this particularly because people so often, supposing they have a case of gupes, fail to prove it or find out what really is the trouble, and so allow some other serious trouble to develop to a stage where it is bard to deal witb, when, if they bad been more thorough in the first diagnosis they might have learned just whut was wrong in time to treat the disease easily and successfully. Intestinal Worms. S:lmon gives a list of forty-five parasitic worms found in the intestines of fowls and in the neighboring parts. Some of these are found only in one kind of fowls; others infest all kinds of domestic land and water fowls. These worms he groups as tape worms, round Worms, flukes, and thorn headed worms, the most numerous in varieties and the most common in occurrence being the tape worms and round worms, : The general symptoms of worms in the intestines are the sume. The kind of worm present can only be determined by finding worms in the droppings, or by post mortem, snowing them fixed in the parts of the fowl, If the droppings as voided by the fowl] before treat- ment show no traces of worms, a vermifuge may be given, and the fowl kept where its droppings are easily examined. It is not certain that no worms are present because none are evacuated. Some worms are very difficult to dislodge. But a dose of the remedy to endeavor to secure from the droppings confirmation of the suspicion of the presence of worms in the intestines of the fowlis the only way practicable for the poultry keeper, short of kill- ing one or more fowls, and making u careful examination of the intestines. The inexpert examination is, of course, especially liable to error, though often it does show the presence of worms. Wherever astute has its experiment station equipped for the exam- ination of such animals and fowls, poultrymen in that state should communicate with the director or the veterinary at the station whenever a serious trouble arises which they do not understand. Write the experiment station authorities stating the case. If they find on corre- spondence that there seems to be a case requiring investigation they give directions how to pro- ceed, In practically all of the eastern states the experiment stations are prepared to do work of this kind, “The symptoms which indicate worms in the intestines,” says Salmon, “are not very characteristic, but are such as would be expected from ill health due to any chronic disease. The birds become dull, weak, emaciated, isolate themselves, are indisposed to search for their food, are stiff in their walk, their plumage loses its brilliancy and becomes rough, they have diarrbea, and sometimes epileptiform attacks. Jn certain cases the symptoms develop rapidly, and the birds die as though from an acute disease. The most certain evidence of the nature of the trouble is the discovery in the intestines of Jarge numbers of one or more svecies of worms * * * upon examination of birds from the flock which have died or have heen killed.” For treatment Salmon recommends first hyglenie preventive measures. Sayshe: ‘ One of the most important of these measures is to move the fowls upon fresh ground every two or three years, or certalnly in all cases where such parasites are frequently observed in the intestines of the birds, Another practical measure which may be adopted at the same time is to remove the excrement daily from the houses and destroy any parasites or their eeys which may be in it, by mixing with quick lime, or saturating it with a ten per cent solution REMEDIES FOR WORMS. 113 of sulphuric aca. The acid is cheap, but requires that yreat care be used in diluting it, owing to danger of it splashing upon the clothing and flesh, and causing severe burns, It should always be poured slowly into the water for dilution, but on no account should water be poured into the acid, as it will cause explosions and splashing, When treating diseased birds these should always be isolated and confined, and their droppings should either be burned or treated with lime or sulphuric acid as just recommended. Without these hygienic measures, medical treatment cun only be partially successful.” For medical treatment the same autbority says:—‘‘ One of the best methods of treating tape worms in fowls is to mix in the feed a teaspoonful of powdered pomegranate root bark for every fifty head of birds. In treating a few birds at a time it iy well to follow this medicine with a purgative dose of castor oi] (two to three teaspoonfuls).” * * * “For the treatment of the heterakis (round worm) Meguin recommends mixing santonine with the food given to the fowls. The powdered santonine may be incorporated in a cake, the dose being 7 or 8 grains for each bird. An efficient remedy is made hy boiling an ounce each of male fern, tansy, and savory ina pint of water. The resulting liquid is mixed with flour, which is then made into pills and administered to the affected birds. * * * Oil of turpen- tine is un excellent remedy for all worms which inbabit the digestive canal. It may be given in the dose of one to three teuspoonfuls, and is best administered by forcing it through a small, fiexible catheter that has been oiled and passed through the mouth and esophagus to the crop. The medicine is less severe in its effects if diluted with an equal bulk of olive oil, but‘4f it fails to destroy the parasites when so diluted it may be given pure.” The remedies given by Sanborn ia‘ Farm-Poultry Doctor,” are slightly different. He advises for round worm a two grain pill of santonine followed by a bulf-teaspoonful of castor oi]. This to be given about an hour before feeding every other morning fora week. For tape worm he prescribes five dropsof oil of male fern in one teaspoonful of sweet oil. This to be given before feeding in the morning, and the morning feed given about two haurs after to be a warm mash of bran and milk containing for each bird one teaspoonful of castor oil. The Last Resort. When worms of any kind become so troublesome as to cause heavy losses it is probably the best policy to discontinue keeping poultry on the premises for a time proportionate to the violence of the epidemic and the general condition of the buildings and soil. On an old plant it might be advisable to keep no poultry for two or three years. On anew plant a thorough cleaning up and disinfecting preliminary to the introduction of new stock presumed. to be free from the trouble should be sufficient. To what extent losses of poultry are due to worms, it is not possible to say. Doubtless many epidemics of so-called cholera and dysentery are caused hy worms, and the unfortunate poultry keeper never suspects the real cause of the trouble. It is for this reason that anyone engaved in poultry keeping who bas heavy losses be cannot account for ougbt to try to bave an expert examination of diseased fowls made. This will in most cases show where the trouble lies. 114 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. LESSON XIII. External Characters of Poultry, and Their Values. a Introductory. HE title of this lesson is borrowed from the cbapter of the same title in Mr. Edward Brown’s book, ‘* Ruces of Domestic Poultry,” to which I am indebted for the idea of attempting a complete discussion of the subject. The practical value of the matter seems to make it worth while to preserve such u treatment of it in form that will make it available for future distribution. Hence, I include it in the series of lessons, and adopt for it the method of treatment appropriate. Mr. Brown, in his treatment of the subject, seemed to me to limit the discussion to superficial characters, tbat is to those points of which fanciers make much, but which poultry keepers who are not fanciers generally regard with indifference if not with disdain, and to treat these characters solely with reference to tbeir relution to the production of food values in eggs or meat. That may be the best present treat- ment of the subject for the British public for which primarily he writes, but in tbis country we have a very large class of poultry keepers whose aim it is to combine fancy and utility qualities, and in ever increasing degree we find poultrymen producing “ fancy” and ‘ prac- tical” fowls from the same stock, the difference between them being a matter of individual selection, rather than of breeding. Under such circumstances the proper disposition of a fowl becowes simply a matter of correctly classifying it, and using or disposing of it accordingly. It is not far from the truth to say that wrong principles of or errors in classifying fowls according to the purpose for whicb they should be used, cause by far the greater part of the dissatisfaction with results which buyers of eggs and stock for batching manifest. To misunderstandings and misap- prebensions of the points involved we must also credit the perennial discussion of * beauty and utility,” which, in general, confuses more minds than it clears. External Characters Enumerated. Whether we consider a fow] as an individual whole, or consider it section by section and point by point, the various characteristics we see impress the eye by either form (including size) or color,or both. The impression in any particular may be favorable or unfavorable. Without attempting to make and maintain sharp distinctions as to their proper classification, I enumerate the following characters visible to and measured by the eye as baving value or meaning beyond the mere fact that iu themselves they please, or fail to please, the bebolder :— Size, shape, and carriage of body. Size, suupe, and carriage of head, (including head appurtenances — comb, wattles, ear lobes, crest, beard). Size, shape, and carriage of wings and tail. Size, shape, and carriage of legs and feet. Color, quantity, and quality of plumage. Color and texture of skin, both bare parts and those covered with feathers. Even witbout any knowledge of ideas prevalent among poultrymen, a person would con- clude after reading thag list that many of these points were of special fmportance qnly under PRACTICAL VALUE OF FANCY POINTS. 115 special circumstances, and that in a great many cases, if not generally, they were immuterial. And that would be a correct conclusion. But, to a very great extent, profitable modern poultry culture consists in the development and use of special features for special purposes, a proposition which brings us back aguin to the relations of ‘ fancy” and ‘ economic” quali- ties of ‘* beauty”? and “utility,” and the possibility and advisability of producing from the same stock individual] fow]s to satisfy more than one special demand. The practical question, then, in each instance is whether the features the breeder would like to combine are compat- ible or necessarily antagonistic. The Logical Fallacy. In considering the possibility of producing for different purposes from the same stock, a great many fall into an error which apparently bas its origin in the fact that most of us are by nature partisans, inclined to tuke extreme positions, and to regard those who will not go with us to,our extreme as, therefore, at the opposite extreme, and the things which do not suit our purpose as, therefore, adapted to their needs, or produced by their methods. There is a very general disposition also to regard everything especially prized for some purpose we do not appreciate as on that account objectionable for purposes we seek, and this is responsible for no small part of the idiocies that enter Into most discussions of the attitude of fanciers to practical poultrymen, and vice versa. Such a statement as the above, when put in the form of a general proposition, always seems to overstate the case, but if the reader will note the literature of the never ending debate, and the frequent incidental references to points in controversy, ] think he will soon avree that the application of a little simple logic to the situation would often show one the error of his ideas more forcibly than reams of argument in opposition. When we prove a proposition false we do not necessarily thereby prove a contrary propo sition true. Oftener we prove only that the point is immaterial, but that ‘only? may mean a great deal, may, in fact, be of greater importance than to bave proved what was desired, for the more immaterial points we can establish the easier it becomes to cater to demands based upon such immaterial points, while still maiutaining those points which we consider of first importance, and for our purposes essential. Practical Value of Fancy Points. Before tuking up the detailed consideration of the points enumerated, let us consider briefly the practical value, the economic or cash value of fowls valuable for ‘ fancy points.” As we sball see as our investigation proceeds, some ‘fancy points” are of very substantial value, and fanciers are to be blamed not for preserving them, but for not giving more atten- tion to them. But, in considering bis own attitude toward points of no importance to bim which the fanciers prize, the so-called practical poultryman sbould look at these points, not merely with reference to their value to his trade. He sbould consider their selling value to whoever appreciates them and wants to buy them. While it is true, as often stated, that only a very small part of the poultry produced is or enn be of the kind tbat commands high prices for fancy purposes, it does not therefore follow that it is better for a variety or breed of fowls, or Letter for most poultry keepers, or for the industry as a whole, that the regulation of standards and types should follow the tdeas of the class containing the greatest number. The reasonable position to take in a matter of this kind is that, provided the qualities the mass of poultry keepers want are maintained, every point for which they care nothing that can be added iy so much prospective gain, for it opens up possibilities of profit beyond what is possible in the class of fowls which suits the average keeper. It is after we have reached tbis point that we come to the parting of the ways between “fancy” and ‘ practical” ideas. It may, und often does happen, that a fowl, or the fowls of acertain stock generally possess certain characteristics or an all round high quality from the fancier’s point of view, but bave faults which make them far from desirable for economic purposes. Now ag long ag these are not faults which in time,will also affect their “ fancy” quality, the breeder who can sell them all at “fancy prices can continue to be indifferent to 116 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. those faults. Indeed it would be foolish for him to neglect the trade that pays good prices, and cater to that which halts at very moderate prices. He is working for the dollars and cents the beauty of his fowls will bring him, just as another is working for the dollars and cents he can get for their eggs and meat. The end of each is the same — dollars and cents. It is on the method of getting these from poultry that they differ. The question comes how far the same‘kinds, classes, breeds, and varieties of fowls can be maintained of the same uniform type and yet be well adapted to both purposes. The study of the values of external characters of fowls should give results that will answer this question as well as indicate their relation to strictly consumptive uses. Size. It is evident from a comparison of fowls of sizes within the ordinary grades, that size ha3 no necessary relation either to the prolificacy of the fowl, or the quality of its flesh, or to its vital ity. When we come to a consideration of the extremes in size the conclusions are not so plain. In bantams, in which the smallest specimens are preferred, these small specimens are to some extent the result of inferior digestive and ussimilative power, and in such cases it is reasonable to suppose that the functional inferiority which brought about the desired reduction in the size of the fow] would be a bar to productiveness — perbaps not so much to sexual activity as to high actual prolificacy. However, no study of that point has been made, and we must leave the question open. There bave been instances of very good Jaying by bantams, and there does not seem to be reason to say that buntums in every way normal and with digestive power pro- portionately the same as that of medium sized or large fowls, should not liy as well. In fowls that are extremely large of their kind it sometimes appears that their great bulk resulted from failure to develop in some function — notably the sexual function, while digestive and assimila- tive power were equa] to all requirements of the system. If at the age when sexual activity should manifest itself it fails to do so, and the usual quantities of food are consumed the result may be eitber excessive fat or growth, the former condition being, 1 think, by far the more common, Such conditions are abnormal. That very large fowls may be as prolific as any, bus been seen again and again. ‘I'he common opinion that large fowls are always coarse meated, I believe to be erroneous. The coarsest fibred poultry meat I have ever seen was on medium sized fowls, and I bave seen as fine grained meat on very large fowls as on any. The sbupe of the fowl, especially the character of the bony structure, seem to me to bave a much more inli- mate relation to texture of meat than has size, | The reasons given for some small and some large fowls being poor producers, or in some eases barren, explain how it might often appear that large fowls were lacking in productive capacity, when in reality the size resulted from some interference with the functional develop- ment of the fowl. In small fowls again we can see how general constitutional weakness interfering with the full development of every function would bring about lack of size und Jack of reproductive quality at the same time. This, however, would not be observed once in ten times for the other case, for very small fowls are apt to be marketed, while the best developed specimens are retained and often regarded as the most desirable from which to perpetuate the race. But if we accept the reasons given we may admit that to some extent departure from the normal or average size may be objectionable. That the objection applies to actual size cannot be maintained in the face of results of comparisons between fowls of the same size from breeds in which the average size is different. The final conclusion in regard to size {s that in any long estublished breed the best results are likely to be obtained from specimens of tbe average size. To put it another way, a lot of aver- age sized fowls of any breed taken as they run, would be much more likely to give good uni~ form results than an equal lot either below or above the average size. But in making and maintaining improvements in poultry, we always seek to go a little beyond average conditions or results, and when we find, as we sometimes do, specimens Jarge or small of their kind witb normal vitality, productiveness, and meat quality, we can, if we succeed in reproducing in its progeny the combinations in an individual, soon establish a stock of whatever type, including size, we desire. {MPORTANCE OF SIZE — SHAPE OF BODY. 117 Apart from any possible or fancied relation between size and actual quality and productive capacity, the matter of size is sometimes of great importance. Certuin sizes of fowls are in more general demand for certain purposes than others, Thus in our markets generally con- cumers call for fowls dressing four to five pounds each. This size ig what is most in demand for ordinary roasters and for fowls. The demand for larger fowls is more limited, and many times the large fow] bas to be sold at less per pound than the smaller one. Except in localities where there is a special demand for extra large roasters, it is no advantage to a poultryman producing for market to have his stock run larger than five pounds each. From the point of view of the fancier breeding Asiatics or breeding fowls of the American class generally up to standard weights, fowls dressing five to four pounds each are medium to small in size. Com- pared with the bulk of poultry marketed they are good sized to large fowls. Breeders of thoroughbred fowls divide quite sharply on the question of size, especially as to the desirability of maintaining full standard weights, or, perbaps, exceeding them. In the hands of most poultry men all breeds deteriorate in size. Hence there is a very widespread demand for lurge fowls for breeding purposes to counteract this tendency. But this demand is not merely a demand for size. It calls for good size with general excellence and vigor. I think it may be truthfully said that great or excessive size in fowls that have no other claims to attention is vot especially valued by one poultry man in a hundred. Taking five to six pounds live weight as the most desirable weights for the poultry farmer, and therefore his standard weights, we may say that above these weights size is desirable some- times in special markets, and quite generally in breeding birds, counteract the tendency the other way; while everything below these weights falls short of the standard for general demands, is a little less satisfactory for market, and to be used in breeding only with mates large enough to offset its deficiency. Shape of Body. Not as much now as some years ago, but yet u great deal, is said of the shape of the body of » fowl as an index of laying capacity. Like many other theories, the {dea that a fowl with a long, deep, wedge shaped body is the best “‘ machine” for the production of eggs, looks very plausible. But it bas not stood either close observation or practical tests. Still there is a certain correlation between shape of body and producing capacity. There must be an appre- clable fullness in the lines of the body to give suitable accommodation to well developed internal organs. The proportions ‘may not be ideal. They may seem objectionable according to accepted standards of sbape for the breed to which a fowl belongs, but if there is nothing in the shape suggestive of weakness or deformity, one type is as good as another for egg produc- tion as far as the evidence goes. ‘ In table quality shape counts for a great deal. Tbe most desirable carcass is that which earries the largest. proportion of white meat. This meat is on the breast, body, and wings. It constitutes the muscular system for the wings, and there is therefore a very necessary cor- relation between good breast development and power of flight, (or perhaps I bad better say capacity for flight). With power of flight, as a rule, we also find associated greater general activity. This is as true when we compare specimens of the sume breeds as when we compare different breeds. I have often bad occasion to note in handling Light Brahmas that those with well developed breasts were more energetic and active than the others, and consequently less liable to the ills which result so quickly from inactivity in heavy fowls. In such comparisons as this we must of course make allowances for the effects of condition and habit, but T think it will be found generally true that under the same conditions fowls with well developed breasts not only look more robust than those deficient in that section, but are inclined to be more alert and, as a class, are more free from disease, and have a longer productive life. The apparent size of the breast does not, however, depend exclusively on wing power or capacity. Sometimes we find fowls which, when carved, yield more breast meat than their appearance indicated, because the bones of that region are contracted, reducing the space occupied -by the heart and lungs, thus compressing those organs within the space they normally occupy, or by crowding them on others. Suéh specimens are usually those which a poultryman with an eye for good shapé discards on general principles even before they have had time to show what excellence they might develop. 2 118 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. Conversely, we find many specimens much more deficient in breast meat than their appear- ance as they stand in tife wou!d indicate. In these the “trunk” is amply developed, but the eapacity for flight is small. Naturally the most conspicuous instances are found in the larger breeds, but cases in plenty may be found. everywhere, It is a fact sometimes lost sight of that in proportions of desirable meat such breeds as Polish, Hamburgs, and Leghorns excel so-called general purpose and table fowls: The objection to them for table purposes is their lack of size, and the precocity which makes the meat, especially in the males, hard and dry long before they have reached full growth. Breadth and straightness of back are highly desirable attributes of shape in fowls. The apparent shape of the back, (more perhaps than of any other part, though all are subject to ‘the same influence), depends much on its length, on the general carriage of the fow], and on the quantity of the plumage. Close observation of this section in fowls will soon sbow the reader that it contains a great deal of “ character.” Apart from its outward expressiveness of strength and vitality which a good back gives in a fowlas in man and other animals, the straight wide back in the fow] indicates a normally formed body cavity in which the organs are in all probability constitutionally and mechanically perfect, while any irregularity or narrow- ness or deformity of the back indicates weakness of structure, possibly malformations or internal organs, and, quite certainly, limitations on the operation of the functions of Ilose organs. With good development of back and breast it Is usual to find the abdominal region in keep- ing; but we do sometimes see specimens in which the development here is cunspicuously Jach- ing. The length and texture of the feathers on the abdomen have. much to do with its appear- ance, If itis evident that the deficiency is not a superficial one, but that there is an actual luck of development here, I think it will be found that a femule so formed is either a poor Jayer or a producer of small eggs, or that she is especially liable to trouble in passing eggs, all of which faults are associated with the fault in mechanical structure of the fowl. The posterior develop- ment which some regard as a sure ‘‘sign” of u good Jayer may be a help or a hindrance in the production of eggs, but it neither causes nor regulates egg production. In mules the abdomen is naturally not so well developed as in females, and bas no particular significance as long ay it does not suggest deformity. Males from a line in which the females are full in this section will sometimes be larger here than is consistent with a trim figure and pleasing carriage in a male, but such a fault belongs to the class known as “good faults.” Shape as the characteristic of a breed, is simply the type which those interested in the breed have decided upon as the standard. In some strains and stocks of fowls the breeder has suc- ceeded in fixing shape to which his fowls conform with quite as much accuracy as to the stand- ard for color, but in most stocks of all varieties variations in shape are common and numerous. It is only the occasional breeder and judge that give breed shape the consideration it should have. While the breeder of thoroughbred fowls for sale and competition will find some recog- nition of succe-s in breeding fowls that are models in form, he will rarely find it fully appre- ciated unless combined with a superiority in superficial points which challenges attention. Then it is likely to get due recognition. It is held by some that in each breed there is a certain shape which represents the hishest utility development of the breed. According to the same authorities there is also for each breed a certain size with which the bighest excellence \s associated. It requires but a very limited observation of fowls to convince an unbiased mind that these views are both erroneous, Carriage. The carriage of a fowl, its habitual attitudes and movements, bave significance first of all as an expression of its degree of vitality and health. When sick or tired the actions and attitudes of fowls of all breeds are singularly alike. When in bealth and good spirits different classes of fowls and sometimes to a lesser degree different breeds of the same class, exhibit peculiarities of carriage which are regarded as desirable characteristics of the breed, and which sometimes are a considerable factor in breed shape. But without strict regard to breed characteristics many specimens show a distinctive and pleasing carriage which commends them to a buyer, aod often wins them a better place than they would otherwise get in competition. EXPRESSION IN HEAD CHARACTERS. 119 Head Characters. Fowls differ as much in size, shape, and expression of the bead as in size and shape of body and color of plumage. Marked differences in head types may be found in the same variety, and even in birds of the same strain or stock. We are so accustomed to consider the head as 4 mere base for its appurtenances, beak, comb, earlobes, wattles, crest, beard, tbat itis only ina very few breeds that size aud shape of the head proper are given particular consideration. The head least adorned with superfluities in flesh and feathers is the most expressive of quality, for in it the correlation with the other parts of the fow! is discernible, while a head profusely ornamented does not show for whatitis. Undoubtedly the character is there, but the append- ages ure so much more prominent that it is not readily observed. Tuis lack of discernment of the character of the head proper is not, however, a serious mat- ter. For as the head expresses with reasonable accuracy the character of some points of structure of body and of constitution, its appendages generally partake of the character of head and body, and by their greater conspicuousness show them even more unmistakably to those versed in their meanings. The comb, the wattles, the earlobes, the face, the heak, the eyes, all tell the shrewd observer something worth while for him to know. I would not be too, positive in making a statement of this kind, but I think that though they may not always realize it, most critical judges of a fowl by external appearances ure more influenced by the character of the head of the fow] than by the shape of the body, that the expression and impression on their eye of the head of the bird has an influence on their judyment of it as a whole which is not often changed as they pass the other sections in detail. To the average poultryman of tolerably keen perceptions, crests and beards have less meaning as expressing the general char- acter of the fowl], but to the breeder of crested and bearded fowls who has studied them closely they mean much. Indeed it isin perception and appreciation of tbe correlation of the parts and qualities of fowls with details which ordinarily escape notice that the skillful breeder has his greatest ad vantage over others, J do not think it can be shown that the size of combs, wattles, earlobes, crests, and beards bas any special relation to any practical quality. Large combs are sometimes said to indicate laying capacity, but I bave not found it so in individuals, nor will a comparison of breeds dif- fering in size of comb substantiate this idea. The shape of the comb we must consider in two ways: First, as to the kind— single, rose, pea, leaf. Jt is often said that rose and pea combed fowls stand cold better than those with single combs. This is but a half truth. It depends as much on the size as on the shape of the comb, and we have to consider also the development of the wattles, with relation to suscepti- bility to cold and frost. A very large fleshy rose com) that has no spike, is lumpy and only a “rose comb” because it is not anything else, is often associated with very long, pendulous wat- tles which freeze as quickly as the wattles of a large single combed fowl. A rose comb of the type generally preferred in Wyandottes is usually associated with a medium sized wattle not readily affected by cold. A single combed fowl] having wattles of the same size generally has a comb low enough not to be affected by frost at any temperature that would not affect the wattles. We must count size of comb then as a point indicating in a general way the capacity of a breed of fowls to resist cold. When it comes to the matter of individual resistance to cold, the comb, unless quite incon- spicuous, becomes a very accurate indicator. Observe your fowls on any raw cold day, and’ see how some combs are bright as usual, otbers slightly discolored, and others quite blue or purpe. The discoloration of some combs may indicate only constitutional susceptibility to cold, or it may mean that the fowl is at the time out of condition and therefore unusually sus- ceptible to climatic influences. The texture of the com) is also a point of importance. The fancier prizes fine texture in the comb for itself; the poultry grower because he considers it an indication of fineness of fiber in tue meat of the fowl. The carriage of the comb in single combed fowls conveys impressions which probably are misleading, though I would not care to dogmatize on this point. A comb that is erect and smooth looks strong and gives the fowl an appearance of strength. A comb that bulges, bends, lops or wrinkles suggests weakness, just as any lack of symmetry does, au 1 doubt whether any ratio dependent upon such variations could be established. 120 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. Considering the shape of the comb and wattles as compared with others of the same kind: It is found that there is a type of unsymmetrical comb quite common in all fowls, and espe- cially conspicuous in single combed fowls, which gives an expression in the fowl correspond- jog to that made by a human profile with retreating forehead and chin. With such a comb is usually associated a rather long narrow head and a bill that without being abnormally lony, and giving the fowl] a ‘ peaked ” look, yet conveys an impression of lack of force and stamina, It is commonly held that such fowls are lacking in sexual vigor. I think this opinion requires modification. My observation of such fowls suggests that the reproductive faculties are as active in them as in others, but that their operation tends to exhaust the vitality of the fowl] more rapidly, that it is a lack of general stamins rather than of sexual capacity. The precise understanding of it, however, is not a matter worth quarreling over. It is a quite well assumed fact that such birds are not desirable breeders, and the hens not likely to be as persistent layers as those more symmetrical in these points. To the shape of the bill fanciers attach considerable importance. In nearly all breeds a strong, sometimes stout, well curved of moderately curved bill is required. Such a bill looks better than one thut falls short of the specifications. Market poultrymen find the strony, stout, well curved bill the mark of a good feeder. Experimenters in special fattening methods say birds with such bills are much better subjects for fattening. The color of the bill is a point of importance to the fancier. He requires a bill of a cer- tain color in each breed. To the market poultryman the color of the bill is of importance only as it indicates the color of the skin. The bill is almost invariably of the color of the lews, and generally the skin of the fowl corresponds both as to kind and quality of color. Thus in bill and Jegs one may judge the color of the skin of « fowl] without examining under ihe feathers. To the color and expression of the eye breeders attach great importance—far more than a careful comparison of results has ever showed me. It is held that a red eye indicates vigor und vitality, especially sexual vitality. It certainly gives an impression of boldness and strength toa bird, but I question whether this impression has any better basis than geveral opinion. Wein this country also think white or flesh colored bills and legs make a fowl look weak as compared with one in which bill and legs are a good yellow, but the facts about the breeds do not substantiate this view. The Wings and Tail. The size and shape of the wings of a fow] would naturally be expected to be in proportion to the development of the breast, which is largely the qevelopment of the muscles which move the wings. In general the proportion is probably maintained. This we may conclude trom a comparison of breeds. How closely the correlation of size of wings and development of breast is maintained in individuals, I do not think has ever been made the subject of inquiry. We look usually for a similar degree of development in the feathers of the wings and tail of the fowl], and such probably exists, according to a natural law, except where, by artificial selection, different degrees of development have been brought about. With general similarity of development thereis always much individual variation, This probably has no particular meaning. Indeed, if one were to attempt to make the supposed meanings or values of differ- ent external characters harmonize with each other he soon arrives at a situation where he must either admit that some things he felt very sure indicated certain qualities are really imma- terial with respect to those qualities, and their simultaneous occurrence merely a coincidence, or, that the whole subject is so complex that he cannot follow it in detail. For instance: We may note in general that a fow! with large tail has large wings. The tail of the male bird is a sexual character, and its development is with some reason supposed to bear some relation to his sexual development. That It is a measure of such development I would not affirm, though it is wellknown that males with ‘hen tails,” the Stundard type in Sebright bantams, are likely to be sterile or quite so, For a male to be well furnished with distinctive male plumage, neck hackle, saddle, bangers, and tail with abundant coverts is generally supposed to indicate virllity. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CARRIAGE. 121 There is as we have seen, a general correlation of the size of the wings to the development of the breast. Now, unless we assume that there ix no correlation, or no meaning in correlation of the stiff or main tail feathers with the soft feathers of the tail which cover them, we find, reasoning from one couclusion to another, that a well developed breast is an indication of sex- ual activity. And if we pursue this same course of reasoning from section to section through- out I think we will finally resolve the whole matter into the simple general proposition that the fow] that is best developed physically, that is, with the best all round development, should be the most productive 10w]l and the most reliable breeder. Such a proposition looks very reason- able, but every experienced poultryman and breeder knows that though partly true it is true with so many modifications and limitations that it does not furnish the simple rule it would if absolutely correct. The carriage of wings and tail we do not readily dissociate from the general carriage of the fowl], for its habit with regard to them is what makes fully fifty per cent of its distinctive carriage. Fanciers find that bad faults in carriage of these parts, whether due to malforma- tions or to laziness and general lack of liveliness, are very persistent in the progeny of fowls. Not only so, but they are distinctly a handicap to a fowl] in the exbibition room, and also con- tribute to an unfavorable first impression which makes them Jess salable than birds that are full of life and style. Any departure from tbe usual habit of carrying tail and wings indicates a degree of exhaus- tion or perhaps the presence of disease. A fow] that is weak and debilitated carries its wings and tail as if they were burdens and incumbrances, dragging it down. A fowl in the full vigor of health carries wings and tail so easily and naturally as to attract no special attention to them as parts of itself, or uses them so bandily that they add to the impression of Leauty, strength, and gracefulness which it makes, The Legs and Feet. Tn the shank and foot of the fowl we have the most reliable external sign of some things of importance. It is the only part of the frame of the fow! not so covered with feathers that we cannot judge by sight of the general character of the skeleton or frame work of the fowl. The sbank, and especially the clean, unfeathered shank, indicates very accurately the character of the skeleton of the fowl. If it is fine with small, neat joints, that same structure will be found turoughout, and in such a fow] there will appear to be a larger proportion of edible meat and less waste in bone, tendons, and cartilage Tbe common beilef is that this not only appears to be, but is actually the case. Mr. Brown, in the chapter of bis book to which I have frequently made reference, quotes M. Abozine as stating at the poultry conference at St. Petersburg some years ago, that ‘ton examination of the skeletons of a large number of fowls be always found that the relative weight of the dried skeletons to that of the entire living bird and its edible parts is the same for all breeds, and equivalent to six per cent.” Mr. Brown quotes this state- ment as one culling for further inquiry. I would pot deny it in the face of what purports to be a careful report, nor would I indorse it without more extended investigation. If it is cor- rect tbere is no variation in proportions of weight of skeleton to flesh, and some of our ideas about producing table poultry carrying the largest possible proportion of edible meat, seem to be wrong. However, this theory, though it may, if proved, contradict the old dictum that in a fine honed fowl] the skeleton is produced at less cost, does not necessarily interfere with the idea that fineness of bone is associated as « rule with fineness of flesh. This, I think, is the general and apparently well founded belief of, most of those who handle poultry. Prof. W. R. Graham, in a recent lecture called attention to the texture of the skin of the shauk of a fowl as always indicating the texture and quality of the flesh as well as of the skin covered with feathers. This point I had noted in a number of cases, but not enough to enable me to be as positive of its general truth as he was. Knowing bow thoroughly he has gone into the subject of table poultry, I think his judgment on this point worth acceptance. The carriage of the feet and legs — the fowl’s way of standing and walking — go far toward ‘the making of the impression it presents. To some extent the position of the legs and feet are dependent upon the general structure of which.they. are.a part, yet often peculiarities in 122 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. regard to them are plainly local, and in their contribu’. on to the carriage of the bird they express its spirit quite as faithfully and conspicuously as do some of the superior sections, Ido not know that there is anything indicated in the legs and feet of a fowl] that cannot be known without special reference to them. ‘Their indications of structure and of quality of flesh are discernible also in the head and comb. The testimony of different parts of the fowl to the same facts, however, is cumulative, and ought to make the requisite impression on the person seeking for evidence of quality, or Jack of it, much more forcible than if confined to a single section. Further, all do not value the same sections alike, and evidence of a fault appearing in one section might make little impression on one mind, while the evidence of the same fault in another section would make a very strong impression. So, also, with respect to excellence. Some require one sign, some another, of the same quality. Whoever depends on a single point is apt to find his judgment on it occasionally leading him astray, while with two or three points of velw,if his udgment misses on one he is likely to be set right on another. bus { have known men who saw in a peaked looking beak and bead only evidence of “fineness,” but when they looked at the unsymmetrical, rough, or shriveled looking shanks and toes of the same specimen, saw at once that it was weakness. The condition of the legs is generally considered a reliable index of the age of 9 fowl, but it is as often misleading. To mistake the Jegs of an immature fow1 for those of a mature fowl, if both were in good condition, wou'd be quite impossible to most experienced poultry- men, but as soon as the legs and toes begin to be out of condition, either because of external conditions or because of the condition of the fowl, judgment by them becomes all guessing, while in the case of mature fowls age alone may make little difference in the appearance of the leg of the yearling and the bird of two, three, or four years. In young chickens the leg and foot often furnish the first indication of trouble. Especially is this the case with chickens raised artificially. Improper temperatures and luck of ventilation soon show their effects on the feet, which seem to wither away, while the chick that finds cou- ditions right has a smooth skinned, well rounded, sturdy looking pair of legs under it. Color, Quantity, and Quality of Plumage. The color of a fowl] {n no way influences any other quality, though color defects are some- times (perhaps rightly) held to indicate a degree or period of weakness. Thus in black fowls if a feather containing some white or gray, when plucked, is repizced by a solid black featber, the presumption is that the first feather was not perfect because of some lack of perfect con- dition in the fowl, But it would be bard to show by comparison of black fowls that those with a trifle of white in the plumage were in any way, except in this variation from Standard color, inferior to either the solid black birds or to those which, from excess of coloring pigment, shosved purple bars in the black. The actual difference is too trifling — even if it does exist — to have an influence marked enough to be noticeable. Superficially, however, and considered with reference to the demand for certain colors and markings in exhibition fowls, and with reference to such points as ease of dressing and the better appearance of fowls of certain colors when dressed, color is of great importance. With the fancier excellence in color compensates for many serious faults in other matters, and afow] remarkable for color will sellor win regardless of other faults where a fowl poor in color would not be considered for its otber merits. It is the fow] of this character which the ‘utility ” poultry keeper should buy of the fancier —a cull for superficial faults in no way affecting any substantial quality. This is a point both breeder and buyer should keep con- stantly in mind, The utility poultryman wants not any cull from the fancier’s yard, but the bird which is acullfrom the fancier’s point of vision, and at the same time not a cull from his own. The history of the popularity of varieties of poultry indicates that even those who do not breed for high excellence in color and markings are not long satisfied with fowls that, as they run with ordinary selection in breeding, show too great diversity of color. This accounts in part for the steadily increasing preference for white fowls — the fact that the white fowl is at any age easy to dress clean, the pin featbers not being full of pigment which, if it exudes, Stains the carcass, and if it remains in‘the quill disfigures it. COLOR AND TEXTURE OF SKIN. 123 The quantity of plumage, profuse or scanty, is advantageous or otherwise according to conditions. The Asiatic with abundant plumage will stand cold and exposure better than any other fow], but in a long experience with Asiatics 1 have found that in extremely hot periods a much larger proportion of the adult fowls will die simply from the effects of beat tban of any other fowls. The young stock, not often being in full plumage in summer, is not often so affected. Fowls “ with short or scant plumage stand hot weather best, and’are miost susceptible to cold’ and to such temperature changes as are common in fall, winter, and spring. There seems to be a close connection between abundance of feathering and foot feathering. Not that the two points are not separable, but in general in a feather legged breed the volume of the foot feathering is in proportion to the length and abundance of the plumage of the body. It is notable, also, that an excess of plumage on the body and feet of the fowl] is often, (if not generally) associate: with a shortening of the feathers of the wings and tail, and (whether there is any necessary relation of these facts, I do not know) twisted wing feathers and wing feathers narrow almost to deformity, are fur more common in heavily feathered fowls than in those in which the development of featbers is more moderate. The quality of the plumage, like the texture of the skin of the fowl, is an index of its physical condition, and varies with it. This is a point to which little attention is given by any class of poultrymen. : Color and Texture of Skin. Some reference has already been made to the texture of the skin of the legs in relation to the texture of the flesh. The fancier, a3 a fancier, takes no specific account of the skin of the fow] that is covered witb feathers, but if the skin of the exposed parts, the head, legs, and feet, is what it should be the skin that is concealed is not at all likely to be wrong, for there is a natural correlation of texture and quality of the skin which extends to all parts. The skin of the exposed parts not being as desired or required, does not necessarily mean that the skin of the body is not right. There are numerous diseases and some conditions which affect the exposed skin, but may not extend further. The bleaching of the skin of the legs and feet of fowls which run on very dry earth or ashes may be quite marked, yet the skin of the body be of good color. Dust and dirt may disfigure the comb of the fowl] so much ag to give it a faded or unhealthy looking color, yet the protected skin show no such effects. The texture of the skin of the legs is of great importance in the matter of resisting disease and conditions injurious to the skin. Fine grained, firm skin and scales resist to a remarkable degree the action of soils, ashes, etc., and also of the insects which cause the loathsome disease known as scaly leg. In general it will be noted that a fine soft oily skin fs associated with fine quality, firmness, and glossiness in the plumage. These conditions or characteristics are to some degree depend- ent upon the constitution and general health and condition of the fowl, but it seems quite clear also that this quality contributes much to the health and good condition of the fowl. It may be a question of opinion which is the cause and which the effect in such matters, but the value of the external characteristics and their meaning are apparent. In most American markets the demand is for poultry with yellow skin and legs. In this respect the color has an actual cash value for table purposes, just as color of plumage has for exhibition. Of course in the consideration of single specimens, the value of color of plumage may he represented by many dollars, while color of the skin of a table fowl! increases its selling value only a few cents, but the demand for yellow skin in table poultry is general and insistent, while preferences for colors of plumage are various and changeable. In Conclusion. We have seen as we have discussed these various characteristics that in the majority of instances where a character has special value, it is because it meets an artificial demand. This in as true of “practical” as of “fancy” points. If demands change we change our fowls or our styles, sizes or types of fowls accordingly. As we bave, even with the most careful breeding and skillful growing, considerable variety in each year’s product, the profitable disposition of ! 124 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING—SECOND SERIES. it depends on selecting for each demand to which one caters such fowls as will best meet that ‘demand and would not meet a better paying demand. Not all good qualities can be combined in equal degree in the same fowl, but by proper selection of breeding stock year by year a breeder can have stock in which be combines with good market and laying qualities the posst- bility of great excellence from x fancier’s standpoint. If he does this he has always three -classes of prospective customers—fanciers, farmers, und poultrymen who wish fowls which they are not ashamed to have those who know good fowls see, which will at the same time give a good account of themselves at the nests and on the table. All these can be supplied from the same flock, if the needs of the two extreme classes are always jointly considered in breeding. If either is neglected the stock is quickly brought to the point where only one class can be satis- factorily supplied. No matter which class this is the possibilities of immediate profit, and what is more important, the opportunity to extend one’s business are greatly curtailed, Breeders should distinguish bevween essential and non-esscuttal points, work for every point essential to any profitable demand, and despise no non-essential because it is immaterial to them personally. ABBREVIATIONS FOLLOW USAGE, NOT SYSTEM. 123 LESSON XIV. Poultry Nomenclature and Abbreviations. poultry culture, and regarding every breed they hear of as a possible fuvorite, are often puzzled by the use in poultry literature of abbreviations of names of varieties. The habit of abbreviation is so universal that poultrymen need make no apologies for it. At the same time, there are so many varieties of poultry, and so many varieties and sub-varie- ties have names that to one who has an idea of the breed constitute a very good description of them, that it is worth while for a novice to inform himself in regard to the abbreviations used. As nearly everywhere, abbreviations of poultry names are not made to follow one consistent system. The method of giving names, while to a considerable degree systematic, is not wholly so. What, considering other varieties and names should be the name of a variety, is not always the name given it. An abbreviation of a part of the name of » variety commonly used for it, and equally applicable to the name of a second variety, may never be used in the name of the second. Hence in making abbreviations one must consider what is common usage much more than what would be logically correct. This is a point the reader who occasionally writes. either to give or to ask information about fowls, should keep in mind. An abbreviation may be admissible, but if people are not in the habit of using it many will not take the trouble to be sure they know just what is meant, and sometimes those who do try to make sure of what is said have difficulty in doing so. Indeed the use of abbreviations by those not familfar with most of the abbreviations of names in common use often use an abbreviation which does not clearly distinguish the fowls to which they apply it because equally applicable to another variety. The most troublesome cases of this kind are where an abbreviation in common use for years is made ambiguous by the advent of a new variety having » name with the sume initial. The boom in buff varieties caused more trouble in that way than any other recent occurrence. In Plymouth Rocks we have three varieties — Barred, White, and Buff. The original Ply- mouth Rock was the Barred variety, and for a long time Plymouth Rock meant nothing but Barred Plymouth Rock. Even now the club devoted to Barred Plymouth Rocks is “ The American Plymouth Rock Club.” ‘With the introduction of the White variety it became necessary in speaking of Plymouth Rocks to differentiate. Even before this it had been com- mon to speak of the Barred Plymouth Rocks simply as Rocks. Now in addition to the abbrevi- ations B. P. Rock and W. P. Rock, we had B. Rock and W. Rock for Barred Rock and White Rock. Ocvasionally someone would use the term Barred Plymouth or White Plymouth, but such usage was rare. With the coming of the Buff Plymouth Rock an element of doubt was introduced into the use of the initial B. as an abbreviation for names of varieties of Plymouth. Rocks. B. might stand for either Barred or Buff. Though more than ten years bave pussed. since then the plain B. is still often used, especially in connection with the Barred variety. Some poultrymen and writers make a point of doing this on the ground that the Barred had preempted the use of that abbreviation. Enough, however, will not look at it that way to make it generally uncertain what is meant by a B. Rock, or B. P. Rock. I have sometimes Boers in poultry keeping, interested — as many are — in everything pertaining to 126 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. used Br. for Barred and Bf. for Buff — a usage which looks all right when only Rocks are con- sidered, but as Br. is becoming somewhat generally used for Brown Leghorns and for the word Brown-when occurring.in the name of a variety of Games or Game Bantams, Bd. for Barred would be preferable. The breed name Wyandottes is very commonly shortened to ’Dottes, and abbreviated to “Wy.” The original Wyandottes were the Silvers, —alaced variety. In the American ‘‘Standard of Perfection” they are still called Silver Wyandottes, and the abbreviations S. for Silver, and S. Wy. for Silver Wyandotte ure common. Since there has been also a Silver Penciled Wyandotte, there has been an increasingly general use of the more complete descrip- tive name Silver Laced Wyandotte, abbreviated sometimes to S. L. Wyandotte, or S. L. Wy. For the Golden Laced variety the abbreviations have been the same with the substitution of G.forS. For Whites the initial W. with the abbreviation Wy.,is very common. Buff and Black having the same initial, the abbreviations may be Bf. and BI., though there is no estab- lished usage. Partridge Wyandottes are properly described as Golden Penciled Wyandottes, though the other is the “‘official” name of the breed. Partridge may be abbreviated to P. or to Part., which is more suggestive, but | think you will find the name used in full many times oftener than you will find it abbreviated. Silver Penciled Wyandotte may be abbreviated to 8. P. Wy., or Wyandotte. Itis quite common to call them especially Penciled Wyandottes, but that leads already to the habit of speaking also of the Partridge as Penciled Wyandottes, and I frequently get communications speaking of Penciled Wyandottes, which leave me in doubt as to which is meant. For Columbian Wyandotte Col. Wy., or Wyandotte, seems right, and is occasionally used, though Columbian without the breed name seems to gain favor. For Javas and Dominiques no abbreviations are in use. Rhode Island Red is commonly shortened to R. I. Red, or simple Red. The two varieties being distinguished by the shapes of the comb, as Single Combed or Rose Combed, it is common to abbreviate either to S. C. R. I. Red, and R. C. R. I. Red, or still further to S. C. Red, and R. C. Red. The varieties of Brabmas — Light and Dark — have variety names which indicate their colors as compared with each other. These descriptive terms are abbreviated sometimes to Lt. or L. for Light, and Dk. or D. for Dark, but the abbreviations are not as much used as the full names. In Cochins we have the varieties Buff, Black, White, and Partridge. W. Cochin, and P. Cochin, for the two latter cannot be misunderstood, but to be sure of the others we must add a letter to the B. , Langshans have but two varieties — Black and White, the names often abbreviated to B. Langshan, and W. Langshan. In Leghorn names, the Brown for years was given a monopoly of the use of the initial B., though the Black might claim,it, and there was little if any trouble, because Browns were common and Blacks very rare. I suppose there are in this country today several thousand persons who have Brown Leghorns to every one who has Blacks. But when the Bufis came with some promise of popularity, it had to be Br. and Bf., or else use the words unabbreviated — which has perhaps heen the more common practice. The Browns, Whites, and Buffs being subdivided according to the shape of the comb, we have the abbreviations S. C. and R. C., which were explained above in connection with the R. I. Red. In all of these varieties when there is no reference to the comb the Single Combed variety is usually meant. Silver Duck- wing is abbreviated to S. D. The two Single Combed varieties of the Minorca are the Black and White, and the usual abbreviations for these color names used without reference to the shape of comb will almost always mean the 8, C. Minorcas. In writing of the R.C. varieties of the same colors the abbreviations of the full name should always be used. For the Spanish, the full descriptive name (or its abbreviation) of White Faced Black Spanish is very generally used, though there is no possibility of error in speaking of Spanish, there being only the one variety. For Andalusians and Anconas we have no abbreviations. For Dorkings the Silver Gray is quite generally abbreviated to Silver Dorkings, Gray Dork- ings, or 8S. G. Dorkings, but the White Dorkings and the Colored Dorkings names ure not often abbreviated. For Redcap no abbreviation is used. POULTRY NOMENCLATURE AND ABBREVIATIONS. 127 For the Orpington variety names we have the usual abbreviations for the colors of the varie- ties, White, Black, and Buff, — and for the subdivisions of these according to shape of comb. Spangled and Jubilee Orpington are not abbreviuted. Of the Polish, the White Crested Black is the only name generally abbreviated. This is reduced to W. C. B. Polish. There is a Buff Laced Polish, and there are both Bearded and Non-Bearded divisions of the Golden, Silver, and White varieties, but these names, perhaps because of the infrequency of occasion for using them, are usually written in full. For Hamburgs, the names White and Black, are but rarely abbreviated; the names Golden Spangled, Silver Spangled, Golden Penciled, and Silver Penciled, are quite generally reduced to the initials giving G.S.,S.S.,G. P., and 8, P. Hamburgs. No shortening or abbreviation of any kind obtains in our use of the names of the French breeds — Houdans, Crevecceurs, and La Fleche. Abbreviations of names of Game and Game Bantam varieties cause most inquiry. A B. B. R. G. Bant. is a Black Breasted Red Game Bantam, Omit the Bant., and you have the abbrevia- tion for Black Breasted Red Game. In both the large and the small fowls there is also a Brown Breasted Red, known as a Brown Red. The other is sometimes called simply a Black Red. As far as proper discrimination in abbreviation of these names is used, the usual way is to write B. B. R. for the Black Breasted Red, and B. R. for the Brown Red. Golden and Silver Duckwing Games and Game Bantam are ubbreviated to G. D. and S. D., ete. For Birchen, Black, and White, abbreviations ure seldom used. Red Pyle is abbreviated to R. P. In the “Standard of Perfection” the word Game is dropped from the names of Cornish Indian and White Indian Games, and they are known simply as Indians, Cornish, and White. The precedent seems to have found little favor, and the old usage quite generally continues with the abbreviations C. I. Games and W. 1. Games. For Malays and Sumatras no abbrevia- tions are used. Golden Sebright and Silver Sebright Bantams may be abbreviated either as to one or both descriptive names. Rose Comb Bantams are of two colors—Black, and White. It is customary to use the abbreviation R, C. (there is no S. C. variety of the breed), but not to abbreviate the color term. In fact, it is not uncommon to see it written R. C. Blacks, or R. C. Whites, with particular reference to their being Bantams. For Booted White Bantams no abbreviation is commonly used, except that as in all varieties of Bantams it is quite customary in writing the name to shorten Bantam to Bant., even when the rest of the nume is written in full. With those who abbreviate intelligently it may be said to be the rule—perbaps not specifically framed in the mind, yet still generally observed in practice to abbreviate, to cut short, as soon as the meaning isclear. In names of Brahma, Cochin, and the three varieties of Polish Bantams, we have the same sets of abbreviations as for the larger varieties of the same name, always, of course, with the name Bantam or its abbreviation added. Of Japanese Bantams there are three standard varieties, — Black Tailed, White, and Black. The first of these is more fully and correctly described as a Black Tailed White Japanese Bantam. This gives us a very long name — for a very small fowl. It may be abbreviated to W.T. W. Jap. Bant. The other two varieties are in the same way made W. Jap. Bant., and B. Jap. Bant. The non-Standard Gray Japanese Bantam must be Gray Jap. Bant., for G. generally stands for Golden, and would be misleading. Names of Silkies, Sultans, and Frizzles are not abbreviated, nor is it common to abbreviate pames of either turkeys, ducks, or geese, though abbreviations of a few of them are admissible. On the contrary, it is more customary in some cases to use more words than is necessary. Thus a Pekin Duck is sufficiently described by that term, for there is only one variety, the White, but it is very common both in speaking and writing to say White Pekin Duck. Most of the varieties of the turkey take their names from the color. There are Bronze, Buff, Slate, White, and Black. Then there is the Narragansett, which might be described as a bronze-gray in color. The White Turkey described in the Standard is called the White Hol-- land Turkey. White Turkeys called Mammoth (a name also sometimes applied to the Bronze), have also been shown. Finally, there is the Bourbon Red Turkey which is perbaps best described as a Buff with the constituent colors unmixed, and tending to go each to certain sec- tions instead of being evenly distributed. 128 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING —SECOND SERIES. The Pekin Duck takes its name from the port of Pekin, China. The Aylesbury, also a White Duck, from the district of Eugland where it is most extensively grown. The “Standard” gives Rouen Ducks as of one variety, “Colored,” but I do not remember ever having heard or seen the expression Colored Rouen Duck. The Cayuga Duck is Black, and it is quite usual to use the full descriptive title, Black Cayuga Duck. East India Ducks also are generally mentioned as Black East India Ducks. The Call Ducks, White and Gray, generally get their full titles. Muscovy Ducks, too, are fully described as Colored or White. The term ‘‘Colored,” when applied to the name of a breed of poultry is, as is very evident, used as the readiest term to differentiate tbe variety to which it is applied from others which get a more specific description. Hence it may be observed that in the making as well as the using of names we may find evidences of easy going tendencies. A Colored Muscovy Duck is black and white. A Colored Dorking is a Dorking that is not white por yet silver gray, but runs rather to shades of red or brown. A Colored Rouen Duck best deserves the term, for in the male, especially, there isa profusion of colors. The Crested White Duck is just a plain white duck with a top-knot. The Indian Runner Duck bas a sort of hybrid name. It is not an Indian Duck, but according to best authorities, a Belgian production, and properly named and described as a simple Runner Duck, the name coming from its active habit. The Blue Swedish Duck takes its name from its color and from the country of its supposed origin. Names of geese are seldom, if ever, abbreviated. The breed name may be used alone or witb the color more specifically describing it. Toulouse and Embden Geese are quite frequently mentioned as Gray Toulouse and White Embden Geese, thus describing them more fully, though it is not necessary to do this to fix their identity. African Geese, described in the Standard as “Gray,” are not at all such a gray as the Toulouse, but rather on the brown order. The Chinese Geese are the only breed having two varieties. These are Brown and White. It is quite common to call them China geese, instead of Chinese. The Wild Goose is also known as the Canada or Canadian Goose, and frequently given both titles, Wild Canada Goose. EGGS A NECESSARY OF LIFE. 129 LESSON XV. Eggs and Egg Production. point of view, and tor the common people not versed in any of the “ologies” into which the study of the egg is most iittingly introduced, or which may be applied most interest ingly to the examination of the egg and the problems of egg production. The egy owes its great commercial importance first of all to its food value. Init we have combined as in few otber simple food articles the qualities of delicacy and substantial nourisb- ing quality. Eggs alone constitute an important article of diet. But in the average family or hostelry their use as a separate article of diet is second in importance to their use as an ingredi- ent in an almost endless variety of dishes. Exceptin the bomes of the well todo the use of the egg us a separate article of diet depends largely on the relative prices of egys and meat, the general tendency being to use eggs freely when they ure cheaper than the popular cuts of meat, and to be economical in their use when the meats are cheaper. The matter of cost also enters into the question of the free or economical] use of egys in cook- ing, though not to the same extent, for so many are the common dishes requiring eggs for their Preparation that it ix impossible fur most housewives to muke any considerable: eduction in the quantity of eggs used in that way without entirely changing the ordinary bill of fare. As lack of freshness and flavor are less noticeable in eggs when mixed with other articles, it becomes possible, and is customary to use as “cooking eggs” eggs which served separately to most people would be rather unpalatable. Indeed itis a matter of common knowledge among poultry men that the infertile egys from an incubator, tested out the fourth or fifth day, find ready sale to bakers — and possibly alxo to go into channels of more particular trade. Egys preserved by various processes or kept in cold storage, and “held” eggs, that ix, eggs kept. witbout preservatives by the producers for weeks or even months in anticipation of rising prices, ure also salable as “cooking” exgs. Of course these inferior eggs from various sources are not as good even for cooking as nice, fresh eggs, but +0 many people are satisfied to use them when the prices of fresh eggs ure very high, that almost any kind of an egg that is not actually bad will sell readily for cooking purposes. oe Eves sell according to their quality as they reach the buyer, Thisis true as a general proposi- tion — though some exceptions and seeming exceptions to the rule may be found, If they reach the buyer in as good condition as they left the producer there is no oceasion for difler- ences ‘of opinion as to quality and value, but it is only when they go direct from producer to consumer that this is, generally speaking, possible. Most producers of eggs must send their goods to the consumer through channels of trade which require several transfers, more or le++ delay, and sometimes exposure to deteriorating influences. Sometimes the producer can exert some degree of control over the vicissitudes to which the egg in transit is subjected by investi- gating the course bis goods take after leaving him, and selling to the middlemen who get thenp into consumption by the most direct route and with the least possible delay. It might be sup- posed that as a matter of business every dealer in produce would do that, but as a matter of fact there is a great deal of slackness in the handling of eggs, much more than in the handling of poultry, which more quickly shows deterioration whether alive or dead. i this lesson we consider the egg and the subject of egy production from the “business”? 130 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. However, the producer’s control of his egys after their delivery to the first buyer or trans- portation company practically ceases as far as personal ability to protect their quality is con- cerned. Every producer of eggs can be very sure that there is no possibility of his eggs ever becoming better in quality than they were when produced. Age does not improve them to the normal taste, nor will any process of ‘‘ripening” render them more palatable. No tricks of manipulation will improve their appearance. The shipper of poultry may find the skill of the sulesman who wipes, and shapes and makes more presentable the carcasses of the fowls, of benefit to him, making the fowls show often to better advantage than originally. But dirty eges are graded as “dirties,” and sold at an appropriate price. Small and misshapen eggs reduce the grade of their entire lot. Weak and watery eggs are readily detected by dealers and buyers. Bad flavored eggs in a line of good trade cannot come from the same place very many times in succession without someone in the line being called to account, and ultimately it comes back to the culprit among the producers. ofle When one begins to give special attention to the production of eggs, he must work for quality ax well as for quantity, otherwise he gets but a part of the benefit of his efforts. Producing eye. in quantity and of good quality, he must market them to the best advantage. If he does not he may be no better off than he was in the first place. Now let us take that the other way around. Suppose man desirous of getting a better price for his eggs begins to study the ways of the markets, and finds that his egys compete not with the best, but in the grade of cooking eggs. It is not impossible that there is discrimination or misrepresentation on the part of those handling the eggs, but it is far more likely that the eggs never were of the quality thut they should be to command the best prices. This is especially the vase with eggs from fowls for which most of the food is purchased, eggs from yarded fowls and eggs from fowls whose ration is too carefully balanced. It is a matter of common observa- tion and frequent comment among eastern handlers of eggs that the western eggs as a class are superior in original quality to the eastern or nearby eggs. They are richer in color of yolk and in substance of white. At seasons when there is little deterioration in transit these western evs muy come into our eastern cities actually better than the nearby product, but during the vieater part of the year time and exposure in transit operate to take away their freshness and flavor. Now, us we have seen, it is easier for the producer to control original quality than to provide against a quick deterioration after the eggs leave his hands. Hence it should be apparent to the eastern producer that it is much easier for him to get good quality in his eggs than it is for the western producer to provide for the preservation of quality in his. There is really no excuse — but that of mistaken economy — for the producer near a good market not getting every advantage of price which excellence of product and nearness of markets combined should give bim. Yet many producers do not get them. Why not? Here are the principal reasons: Debilitated stock. Lick of variety in food and insufficient supplies of green foods and fats. Excessive feeding of swill and other wastes, Mistaken ideas of the food constituents required for egg production. a It takes bealthy hens to produce eggs of first rate quality and fine appearance. Compare the eyes of individual hens in a flock, or better select certain eggs and then find and compare the bens that lay them. Your flock and their eggs may be too uniform in condition and appear- ance to make the comparison I suggest remarkable, but the average flock is not so. I succeed in having mine that way only in proportion as [ limit my breeding to individuals carefully selected from stock bred in my own yards for generations. I find that when I go outside for new blood to improve some point in which I wish to muke improvement, my most careful mix- ture of the new blood introduces a variety into the appearance and to some extent into the quality of the eggs which was absent during the years of close breeding. I find also that the lack of quality in eggs is colncident with a Jack of vitallty in the individuals producing them. It has sometimes happened, too, that in fertility my best layers and most vigorous birds were RELATION OF FOOD TO QUALITY OF EGGS. 131 inferior to some of the others, and so I have sometimes bad a larger proportion than desirable of laying hens from tbe weaker stock, and in such cases ] have found the eggs averaging lower both in appearance and quality than when I succeeded in getting what pullets I wanted from ny most vigorous birds. One can make more careful comparisons in matters like this in his own stock, but it is possible to see the facts in observations of the stocks of others. Itis as unreasonable to expect first cluss quality in eggs from hens in poor condition as to expect good fruit from an unbealthy plant. A‘ laying hen should be in good condition, with smooth, healthy looking skin and firm flesh. Some fut is desirable. Fat hens generally will lay richer eggs. A distinction should be made between fat and excessive fat, between bealthy fat on an active fowl and the dead weight of fat an unhealthy fowl may carry. Bad Whatis variety? To different persons it means different things. A farmer may say that his cow gives so much milk or makes so much butter on grass. ‘That may mean a considerable variety, though the one term g7ass covers it all. Itis said that there are often ag many as forty varieties of grass on an old pasture. Such a fact as this should be taken into account in con- sidering the diet of hens on good grass range. On a western farm they may be fed nothing but corn, but they get also all the various kinds of grass which the pasture provides, many suc- culent weeds besides, and an almost endless variety of seeds of weeds and grasses, in addition to such waste grain other than corn asthe farm may afford, and worms and bugs in great profusion. Compare such variety at this with the usual variety given hens kept in confinement, and it is easy to see where the greater variety is, and, how meager by comparison is the variety afforded in a balanced ration containing even a dozen articles. Where bens in confinement suffer most for lack of variety is in green and succulent food. Variety in grains is more readily provided. Grains are not perishable, and supplies can be kept onband. Butthe dried substitutes for green foods, while excellent as far as they go, fall far short of the natural provision that way. Where fowls must be kept in confinement, and the ground room is very limited, I am inclined to think it is better to give up as much space as is necessary to the growing of vegetables especially for the fowls, even though by doing so the fowls are contined much more closely than desirable, and grow a variety of vegetables for them, lettuce, cabbage, rape, auything that they will eat. a The dack of fats in the ordinary ration results from overcaution in feeding fowls. To this is due the abhorrence of corn, which is far more prevalent in the east than it should be. A dealer in ezgs in Boston who is also proprietor of a poultry tarm bas told me repeatedly that he had bad many shippers whose eggs were so lacking in fats that they would not sell to the best trade, who had remedied the trouble by feeding corn. Indeed, he said, he always felt so sure that a shipper whose eggs were weak did not feed corn that he was in the habit of advising such to feed corn. Many handlers of eggs claim that they can readily distinguish between the eggs of corn fed bens and of hens fed wheat and oats and no corn by the appearance and consistency of the egys when broken, Fats may be provided in other ways, but corn is cheapest. The excessive feeding of swill is very common on “egg farms” near cities and towns where large quantities of swill and table waste cxn be bad for the collecting, and there is generally a disposition to feed all of this that the bens can possibly be made to eat, and as little as possible of anything else. Weak and watery eggs and stock debilitated by an excess of soft food are common results. Much of the refuse food thus used is spoiled before being collected, and often the waste contains stuff the fowls ought not to have. Table waste properly saved and properly used is one of the best of foods for poultry, but feeding almost wholly on such food makes neither good poultry nor good eggs. It is a common idea that for egg production ‘‘protein” especially is required. The fact is that what is needed in much larger proportion than it occurs in ordinary food articles is “fat.” This fact explains why laying hens may be fed so freely of fattening foods and not only not become excessively fat, but even lose fat, sometimes. In this connection I would emphasize another point too generally unappreciated. The prevailing idea of egg production is'that eggs are the product of such surplus of food taken into the body as a hen digests, and assimilates, 132 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. and does not require for the maintenance of other functions. Thisisasortof half truth. Food taken in excess of current needs of the body for maintenance goes to eggs in one hen, to fat in another, causes digestive disorders in another. What makes the difference? Bed The attempt to answer that question brings us face to face with one of the most puzzling of the poultryman’s problems — the control or regulation of egg production. Novices almost without exception suppose that expert poultrymen can regulate egg production. Experienced poultrymen know that when bens have started laying they can generally keep them laying, but that to assure the hens starting at or about any desired time is beyond their power. Given a laying hen, and the volume of her egg production does depend very much upon the amount of food that she can use in excess of her bodily needs, though the maintenance require- ments do not always take precedence. On the contrary it is quite a common thing for a laying hen’s food to be diverted to egg production at the expense of bodily maintenance. When this continues for a long period the hen is greatly weakened, sometimes to the extent of becoming emaciated and exhausted beyond recovery. Such cases, however, are exceptional. The rule is that when egy production has appreciably exhausted a hen it ceases, and for a period longer or shorter according to the readiness with which the system is rebuilt all the energy of the fowl] goes to restore it to perfect physical condition. < Generally speaking, it is correct to say that because a hen is laying she requires and takes food’ in excess of the needs of her body for maintenance and the performance of other functions, and that the volume of her product depends largely upon the amount of such surplus of food that she is capable of digesting and converting into eggs; but it is not correct to say that furnishing a surplus of food compels egg production and makes the hen Jay. What difference does it make which way we look at this matter? Just this difference :—Our way of looking at this matter is likely to govern our efforts to ‘make hens lay.” If we believe that asurplus of the right kind of food will force egg production, we, very logically, devote ourselves to experiments with foods until we find one that seems to answer our purpose. If we believe that the activity of the hen’s organs of reproduction depends upon something not so directly within our control as the kind, quality, or quantity of food furnished her, we are more ready to settle down to a good system, and have more patience in waiting for results when they do not come when we want them. Itis conducive both to peace of mind and to continuing faith in a good method to know that egg production is measurably dependent upon causes or conditions beyond our control, and that failure to have hens begin laying wben we want them to does not necessarily imply anything wrong — which by foresight or management we might have avoided. SOME EXHIBITION EVILS. 133 LESSON XVI. Some Elementary [floral Science For Exhibitors. conflicts between the rules of exhibitions, 1s be reads them, and some common practices of exhibitors. Thus the rules almost invariably say that specimens, except Games, which may have the combs dubbed, must be exhibited in their natural condition, but it is the universal practice among exhibitors to improve in various ways on the “natural” condition and appearance of the fowl. As to the legitimacy or illegitimacy of these practices, opinions may differ. All grades of opinion are found, from severe condemnation of even the most harmless and apparent forms of “grooming,” to apology for or justification of practices which need only to be described to be recognized as wrong. It is in the list of practices intermediate between these extremes that the things are found which cause the most concern to exhibitors who wish at the same time to be honest and fair, and to take advantage of every permissible method of improving a bird’s chances of winning, To the beginner in the exhibition room some of the practices which seem to the older exhibitor necessary and right appear to be of a very heinous nature. As he becomes more familiar with the conditions which occasion these practices, and learns to know the men he at first condemned for practicing them, he is very likely to considerably modify bis views about both the men and the practices, even though he may not be able fully to approve them, or to join in them with a conscience entirely clear. In this lesson I have no purpose or wish to persuade anyone to adopt a course with reference to these matters which he cannot justify to himself and his own conscience. I shall merely present certain facts in the relutions in which they are commonly considered by experienced breeders and exhibitors, with the arguments by which the practices generally regarded as legitimate are justified, indicate the common attitude with regard to them, and occasionally give a personal opinion when it seems appropriate. Some of the Evils of Exhibitions. The great evils in poultry exhibitions as they discover themselves to the novice are:— 1.—The faking of birds; that is, treating them in some matter to circumvent arule or gain an unfair.advantage of a competitor. 2.— The borrowing of birds for exhibition. 3,— The collusion of exhibitors and judges. . What is. Faking ? In the above classification of show room evils I have given a brief and comprehensive definition of a common term which means many different things to many different people. Strictly and literally interpreted, the rules,,-as promulgated by most shows, do prohibit practices which it may be said are followed by experienced exhibitors without exception, for it would be utter folly for an exhibitor competing. with experienced exhibitors in strong com- “petition not to-do these-things. ‘ His chances of winning without -them would be so rare that T: novice in exhibiting fowls finds, when he ventures into the show room, certain 134 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. it would be foolish for bim to enter his birds at all. Hence-we may assume that # man who continues to successfully engage in strong competition in shows of any degree of importance does habitually do a number of things which the rules of the show say he shall not do. On this point there can be no dispute. The facts are self apparent to anyone who knows the con- ditions with which exhibitors have to deal, Let us briefly examine these conditions: To the visitor at a poultry exhibition, to the public at Jarge, it is merely an exhibition, a dis- play of fine fowls. For the exhibitors the poultry show consists of many competitions in the results of skill in breeding to a prescribed set of ideals, the full accomplishment of which, in combination, is practically impossible. In some respects these standard requirements are absurd :—as when a fow!] is disqualified for a defect inconspicuous until the fow] is subjected to a very close examination, 'or so obscure that its existence may not be positively identified without the aid of a magnifying glass. Were these requirements part of a consistent system they might be treated with more respect hy exhibitors, hut as the application of the same standards admits with trifling punishment and sometimes even wituout punishment blemishes and faults conspicuous as far as any quality of the fowl could be distinguished, the more familiar exhibitors become with the difficulties of producing fowls free from faults and with the incongruities in standard requirements tle less evil they will see in disregarding or breaking rigid requirements about trifles. Novices in the breeding of fowls rarely appreciate the scarcity of specimens which even approximately measure up to an educated conception of the requirements of the standards for their variety. The erroneous prevalent idea of the uniformity of thoroughbred birds and the fixity of characters in them is responsible for the common misapprehensions on these points ux it is for many other difficulties of beginners. To illustrate:—In many varieties what are known as “‘foul” feathers (that is, feathers not colored or marked as required) are likely to be found even in stock that has been most carefully bred. Indeed specimens on which an expert judge who made a thorough search for them could not find such feathers are very rare. The rule which requires specimens to be exhibited in their natural condition is commonly held to prohibit the removal of such feathers. It would generally be affirmed by officers of associations who might be questioned on that point that the intent of the rule was to prohibit the plucking of such feathers. But the plucking of feathers which mar the appearance of the fowl, and the removul of which makes no visible defect or lack in the plumage is an act practically impossible of detec- tion, after the job is done, and between this protection from consequences and the general feel- ing of exhibitors that the rule is unreasonable it has come about that exhibitors almost without exception — after a few seasons experience — pluck all the feathers that should be removed to muke the bird appear at its best. Hence the rule is practically a dead letter except with novices who wish to strictly observe regulations and do not know the facts in regard to the common neglect of the rule, and do not appreciate the conditions which have made it obsolete. While the facts given above do not justify a violation of such rules by those whe consider such violation wrong, they do explain how it is that a great many exhibitors consider the violation of such rules an act involving no special moral turpitude. I have always maintained that such rules were wrong, because they could not possibly be enforced, and the disregard of unreasonable rules, while perhaps not of itself deserving severe condemnation, is to be deplored because of its effect on the observance of reasonable requirements, From this point of view J say that of the two evils the rule which prohibits fitting of this kind is the greater. The constant publication of such a rule also tends to confirm the prevailing error among beginners as to the possibility of producing fowls which ure fit for‘exhibition without special attention to the removal of superficial faults. They naturally argue that if it were not a reasonable requirement it would not exist. To show that such disregard of rules or laws is not peculiar to poultry exhibitors, and has been, and is, practiced by very large numbers of people without subjecting them to condem- nation as particularly bad, let me cite the general disregard in this country of laws of the kind known as “ Blue Laws,” and the almost universal failure of people subject to taxation to return full schedules of their taxable property. If the reader disposed to be severe on poultry THE GREATER EVILS. 135 exhibitors for their peculiar disregards of regulutions will consider the number of regulations of all kinds which are practically obsolete so far as observance of them goes, it may dis- pose him to be more lenient in bis judgment of them. To me the evils of these practices, as between competitors, do not seem to be of as much importance as the evils which may follow after the exbibition, Every exhibitor understands. —or has opportunity to know and understand — that such manipulations of birds as plucking foul feathers, washing white birds to give them the pearl white color required, coloring, or strengthening the color of legs and toes, etc., etc., are generally practiced, and knows also thut the results of competition in the show room depend as much on the ability of exhibitors to condition their birds and fit them properly as upon their skill in breeding. The competition in the show room muy, therefore, be considered one in which all meet on the same level, it being understood that each competitor, in addition to exerting his utmost skill to produce fine speci- mens, has also availed himself to the extent of his ability of the advantages to be gained hy skillful preparation; it also being generally appreciated that birds which could go into com- petition without special fitting, with any hope of winning, are very rare. Now, if with this general understanding the competitors meet, prizes are awarded, and each takes his birds bome, we cannot readily discover that any particular harm has been done to anyone. The breeder who bas exhibited birds whose faults have been treated knows what tbese faults were, and therefore can make an intelligent effort to eliminate them or reduce them in the progeny of the stock in the next generation. But suppose he sells them with the assurance to the customer that they have not been treated in any way, and the customer, reiying upon his positive assurance, buys the birds, and perhaps in his ignorance of their fault mates them in just the way that will reproduce and perbaps exaggerate them in the offspring. Here we have a case which the consensus of opinion among poultrymen does not excuse, and while there are, of course, no data covering such points, I think it is a fact that in transactions between exhibitors the sellers will, with few exceptions, inform buyers of faults of this ula>». I have known many instances where, without stating their reason, exhibitors refused to selk such birds, Another fact not generally understood hy novices in exhibitions is that a fowl, having none of the blood of a variety, or perhaps but a fraction of blood of that variety, may to all out- ward appearances be a fine specimen of that variety, und the owner of such a fow] may exhibit it in the class to which, in appearance, it belongs without violating any rule of either the Standard or the association giving the show to which he sends the bird. The judge pro- nounces judgment on the specimens as they come before him. Neither be nor any officer of an association assumes to go back of the entries in considering the merits of a fowl. The Standard calls for certain peculiarities, but does not prescribe how they shall be produced. I do not think it misrepresents the general attitude of poultrymen to say that they would see no special wrong doing in entering such a specimen for competition, but would consider it wrong for the owner of the bird to sell it except for just whatit was. The distinction they make may not satisfy every requirement of a rigid’ moral code, but measuring the extent of an evil by its special results their attitude has something to commend it. In a general way the extent to which a practice prevails affords a tolerably accurate measure of the degree of toleration or condemnation which the general opinion of the community or class interested assigns it, and the newcomer in a community and the novice in an interest alike need to be slow to condemn what may at first seem to them very serious and inexcusable faults commonly practiced by persons of general good character, for on further acquaintance with the - facts it may develop that considerable justification of the practices in question may be found, and that toleration of them by those accustomed to them is as likely to be the toleration devel- oped by a better understanding of conditions as the toleration of indifference to wrong through familiarity with it. Buying and Borrowing Exhibition Birds. Though I had cited only the borrowing of exhibition birds as am evi] to be specially con- sidered here, that can hardly be discussed as it should be without some reference to the buying of birds for exhibition. 435 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. Every novice in the show room, and I think I may say every veteran as well, is possessed of ‘the ambition to put into an exhibition a string of birds of his own breeding that will win prizes ‘enough to give him high honor as a breeder. To the novice it looks like a matter of buying good stock to start with and carefully selecting and reserving his choicest specimens. The veteran sees the matter differently, He knows that while it might be an easy matter to do tbat if he had the field to himself, with so many others striving to do the same thing there will almost invariably be a general division of prizes in any competition which is a competition in fact as well asin name. Itis only at rare intervals that a breeder of a variety in which there is strong competition produces in his own yards as many first class specimens as be needs to enter in a strong class with reasonable expectation of getting his share of the prizes given. The really first class specimens are as a rule produced a few here and a few there — many of them by persons who either do not care to exhibit or would rather part with them at a good figure than take the trouble, risk, and uncertainty of winning in exhibition, Hence there are every year for sale a good many birds such as the breeders who wish to make large displays need to supplement their own production. The rules of shows generally require that the bird exhibited shall be the bona fide property of the owner. That means that it must be his absolutely without any understanding or reserva- tion. Occasionally at some show or in some special competition it is required that only birds dred by the exhibitor be entered by him, but as a rule the shows make no requirement of this nature going back of present ownership. The buying and selling of exhibition fowls cannot by any reasonable interpretation or application of common principles of right and wrong be made a wrong or even an objectionable practice. On the coutrary, in its legitimate phases it may be said to be the most important feature of the interest in standard bred poultry. But about this entirely legitimate feature of the business have grown up several abuses, most eouspicuous of which is the lending and borrowing of specimens for exhibition. This is carried on in two ways:—By simple borrowing and lending with not even a nominal ehbunge in the actual ownership of the bird; and by fictitious sale, or sale on such terms that it ‘is substantially fictitious. 3 The practice began with simple borrowing and lending, lut as poultry exhibitors generally frowned on it and general opinion would not condone it as it does some of the more prevalent forms of faking, those who wished to avail themselves of the use of exhibition specimens which they could not buy outright, and those who for various reasons were willing that their ‘birds should be exhibited by others, devised the plan of selling birds conditionally, the bird to be returned after the show, and the price paid for it to be refunded. Such an arrangement is of course a mere juggle with right and wrong. The fiction of a sale does no more than muke it impossible to prove the facts in the case until after the awards are made and the premiums paid. It does not often happen that birds “lent” in this way get back to their owner without interested competitors of the exhibitor finding it out sooner or later. Actual and positive. proof ‘of wrong doing and identification of birds is however so difficult that so far no effective check vas been put on the practice. I do not think anyone has ever attempted to justify it. The advantages to be gained by it, both for those who borrow and those who lend, are so great thut the temptation to make arrangements of this kind are very strong, and though the proportion of specimens in any show not actually the property of the exhibitor in whose name they are entered is probably always very small, I suppose that there are few exhibitors who have not at some time, perhaps in a very small way, yielded to the temptation to lend or to borrow. Many who would not exhibit birds not their own, have occasionally lent birds. Many who think the practice wrong have in emergencies borrowed birds. With the great majority such lapses have Seen exceptional, not babitual, The disposition to lend—to do a fellow fancier a favor —is 1 manifestation of an excellent trait in human nature. With many fanciers the need of not indulging it-does not become apparent until, having indulged it, they find that they must share in the common condemnation of the borrower. The opportunity to:borrow, say, at the time when a loss of or injury toa specimen upon which an exbibitor was relying has greatly diminisbed his prospects of making a good win- wing, presents itself as an evil of very small importance compared with the loss from which oe CHARACTER OF POULTRY JUDGES. . 137 it may save him; but unless of feelings more callous than is usual among poultrymen, the borrower in the end resolves that he will never do it again. On the whole, it may be said of this particular abuse that while it is prevalent enough to he avery disturbing influence, the general attitude of exhibitors toward it, and the fact that of late there bas been a good deal of serious discussion of practical ways of preventing it, give reason to hope that it is an evil practice which is doomed to become less and less prevalent. Much might be said of the results of this practice, but the limits of this lesson make it neces- sary to pass over that phase of the subject with the remark tbat it develops consequences similar to those consequences of faking which especially concern the purchasers of stock, and ‘develops them in larger proportions and more aggravated type. Collusion of Exhibitors and Judges. Poultry judges, as a class, are scrupulously careful and honest in placing their awards. Such a statement may surprise some who have at the same time the opposite idea about poultry judges, and think they have observed that I try to make no statements I cannot maintain. But I make this stutement deliberately from a tolerably large acquaintance with poultry judges, extending back over many years, in which I have watched their work in the show room, seen some of their mistakes there, talked with them, and beard them talk with others about their errors, and learned also of their shortcomings outside of the show room, There are few positions in life where it is harder for a man to avoid the appearance of evil than in the position of poultry judge, and few men who in that position are not constantly called upon to meet situations where they must decide off-hand matters for which anyone would, if possible, ask time for deliberation. This is true of points which must be passed upon in judging; equally true and of more importance on points that come up with reference to his relations to officials and exhibitors. To some extent it is true of any transaction of any kind in which be may engaye. For instance, a judge, as a breeder, may sell exhibition fowls to parties upon whose exhibits he never expects to be called to pass, and in the course of bis judging engagements may recognize those birds. There are very few judges who, in such a case, would not endeavor to place the awards bonestly and fairly, yet probably every judge who is ever placed in such a position bus realized the difficulty of feeling sure that he was acting without bias either for or against this stock, and has realized also that if it received awards he would be charged with having favored it — charged with collusion with the exbib- itor; and thatif it failed to get recognition the exhibitor might charge him, as a breeder, with selling as first class stock which he, as a judge, would not award a prize. There ure few, if any, judges who have managed to keep clear of every possible ground for suggestion or suspicion of collusion with exhibitors, Most judges, without giving cbapter and verse, would probably admit in a general way that at times they bad erred io their relations with officials and exhibitors, as well as made mistakes in the placing of awards. With so many exhibitions, so many judges, and so many exhilitor-, there is always somewhere some- thing that furnishes occasion for talk about the mistakes or the crookedness, or-tbe vices of judges, and, given the occasion, there is generally a great deal more talk than the circumstances warrant. The result of it all is to give to many an impression of prevailing wrong doing by judges entirely out of proportion to the actual conditions. While itis the little mistakes and little errors of judges that furnish most of the material upon which people build the opinion that crookedness prevails, there are unquestionably some- times very wrong things done by judges, and often in such cases there is good reason to believe that they are done deliberately. Whetber the judges who do them are indifferent to common standards of right and wrong, or feel so convinced of their own integrity and reputation that they think they may disregard appearances, I do not know. The general poultry public, and the novices who form an uncomplimentary opinion of judges, hear comparatively little of the larger and worse instances of delinquencies of judges. Usually, with experience in poultry shows, a wider acquaintance witb judges, and more par- ticular knowledge of their faults, and of the judges who oftenest furnish occasion for criticism, -one outgrows the attitude of general condemnation, #nd applies his disapproval more specific 138 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. ally, and with better discrimination. With a more correct appreciation of the situation I think an exhibitor is much more likely to so govern his conduct toward his exbibits and the judge as not to put the judge in an equivocal position. Exhibitors who do this become more careful on their own account as they learn that while they may, by attempting to act on the supposition that a judge’s decision may be influenced, put him in an equivocal position, their acts are observed by other exhibitors, and these may feel doubtful about the judge in such cases, but their attitude toward the offending exhibitor is one of unequivocal condemnation. An exhibitor who feels tempted — and perhaps especially tempted because he has imbibed the notion that judges are crooked — to tamper with the judge, may be interested in knowing that instances of judges being directly influenced in the placing of awards are extremely rare. Almost as rare are instances where a judge does not resent any palpable attempt to influence his decision. The common eases of apparent bias or prejudice for or against an exhibitor depend generally on the fact that the occasion takes the judge off bis guard — that is, the judge’s errors are unintentional — unconscious. Probably if anyone had the same interest in circulating stories of instances where the judge had shown a judicial cold blooded disinter- estedness in the exbibits of bis friend it would be found that such instances were many times more numerous than the others. The general disposition of officials at shows and exhibitions is to hold judges to a very high standard of work, and in their dealings with those whose interests their decisions in any way affect. At the same time a correct appreciation of the conditions under which their work bis to be done makes the veteran show official or exhibitor much more lenient in his judgment of a poultry judge’s occasional shortcomings, and he is not so ready to utterly condemn a judge for things which while objectionable or deplorable do not seriously affect his efficiency or irretriev- ably ruin his reputation with discriminating fanciers, STANDARD OF MORALITY IN POULTRY CULTURE. 139 LESSON XVII. Business Morality in Poultry Culture. discovers almost at once that a considerable proportion of persons similarly interested believe that the moral tone of the industry is distinctly below the average. He will find many people who believe and say this, and many others who go further and declare that this extent of business immorality among poultrymen has so disgusted them with the business and those engaged in it, that they have either withdrawn from it entirely, or limit their active interest in it 1s much as is necessary to keep them quite strictly apart from those who indulge in or condone the practices which they condemn. It is wise and well to tuke such statements with a liberal degree of allowance for tbe accuracy of the narrator’s information as to general conditions and the correctness of his representation of his own case. The poultry industry, like every other, bas its peculiar con- ditions offering temptation or inducement for peculiar manifestations of the errors of omission and commision to which buman nature is prone, and the well known rule that men are much more impressed with the exceeding sinfulness of sin with which they are not familiar, applies here as elsewhere. Sothat it may readily be admitted that such evils as are complained of do exist, and that they do make a very strong impression upon the minds of many who see something of them. : Whether these evils are such and of such proportions as to give an uncommonly low general moral tone to poultry culture; and whether the persons who complain so much of them, and attribute their own lack of greater interest in poultry culture to them, are correct in their diagnosis of their case, are questions upon which I wish to make some comments before proceeding to discuss independently some of the real evils of the poultry business, their causes, and the means to be taken for minimizing them. General [Morality in the Poultry Business. I think that, with very few exceptions — perhaps witbout exception — those familiar with the general conditions in the pouliry business, and intimate with a great many men engaged in it, will agree that tbe general moral tone in the industry is the same as tbe general moral tone of the community. That means that, on the whole, the transactions of poultrymen and between poultrymen must be satisfactory to all parties concerned. Now we know that it is possible in some kinds of business for those engaged in the busi- ness to do a dishonest business and still hold a large proportion of their clients or customers. This is accomplished by concealing the disbonesty of transactions, by deceiving customers ax to their character. Inthe poultry industry by far the greater number of the acts of crooked- ness alleged to have occurred are of such character that to continually deceive the same persons by them is impossible. In fact, they are acts which—if actually committed — ure ‘detected even by a tyro in the business, with comparative ease. A bucket shop operator’s victims cannot readily discover the mechanism, or follow the intricacies of the methods hy which their separation from their money seems to be the result of causes beyond the control -of the operator, but the man who buys a fowl that does not answer the description given Wi trove becomes interested —ever so little —in thoroughbred poultry culture 140 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. him, and who finds that other people buying from the same parties receive the sume treatment, has to do with a very plain and simple case of error or fraud involving nothing beyond the personalities and judgment of the two parties to the transaction. Hence it is theoretically true, (and, as a rule, is found to be true in practice), that it is impossible for poultry breeders either to perpetrate colossal frauds, or to continue indefinitely a regular system of dishonest dealing. Sotrue is this that it is commonly said that a fraud is more easily detected and more quickly compelled to go out of business in this industry than in any other line. Asa general proposition, I believe that this iy true, though occasionally we find a case which we think is the exception — a breeder of and dealer in poultry commonly believed to be habitually dis- honest, yet able to go on doing business, and apparently .a good business, for a Jong period. Such a man’s successful dishonesty may be explained by unusual capacity for getting the benefits of crookedness without incurring its penalties, Such “crooks” in the poultry business have their counterparts in every calling. In no legitimate calling, do they establish the moral tone of that calling. How Some Failures Let Themselves Down Easily. One of the commonest things in everyday life is to heur men assign for their conduct ina mutter, or for any condition for which they might be censured, a reason more creditable to themselves than the true reason. This is not always done with deliberate intent to deceive ‘others. Often the person giving the reason deceives himself first. He looks for a reason that suiis him, and, having found one, takes it as sufficient for himself. I would not say that everyone who gives as a reason for his failure to develop his interest in poultry the crooked- ness of the business was a failure in what he had tried to doin it. I would say, and I| think the concensus of opinion of well informed poultrymen who have thought the matter over will agree with the statement — that most of the persons I have known who have given this reason for going out of poultry, or doing little with it, have been persons for whose failure, or lack of interest, experienced poultrymen who knew them-would have assigned other reasons. Theirs is merely a case of ‘sour grapes.” Because of the frequency of instances of persons who not having realized their expectations in poultry culture attribute their lapses of activity to the evils of the calling in general, or to the deceptions or frauds of ‘specified individuals or concerns, I advise those wishing to form for themselves » true estimate of the matter, to keep the point I have just mentioned in mind, and not to accept an explanation discrediting the calling generally from men who individually were no credit as fanciers or poultrymen either to themselves or to the fraternity. Peculiar Conditions in the Poultry Business. To properly appreciate moral conditions in the poultry industry it is necessary first of all to recognize in it certain peculiar conditions which foster what we may call the ‘sins of ignorance” —the mistakes of novices which furnish a much larger proportion of the trans- actions which might at first seem fraudulent than is commonly supposed. In thoroughbred poultry we are dealing with a commodity in which good judgment of values cannot be acquired quickly, because the adjustment of values is a very complex problem. At the same time we are dealing with a commodity of the class in which, as a rule, novices who are much interested greatly overvulue their own judgment, because they do not realize bow much values depend upon distinctions which, as novices, they are not yet able to make. To put it briefly and bluntly, the real cause of the failure of a great many sellers of poultry to do what they ought to do is ignorance of qualities and values in the goods in which they are dealing. This fact need not surprise anyone who will consider bow common It is to see people beginning to sell thorougbbred poultry and eggs for hatching ‘while their acquaintance with the breed or variety they handle goes no further than the stock they bave in their own yards, and their experience with this may date back but a few months. Now so far as the individuals in question are concerned, this period of ignorance of values is a stage in their poultry experience. Most of them outgrow it quickly as to serious errors, -and quite completely within a few years, And so far as the industry at large is concerned, ‘the presence in it'of a class of*novices who unintentionally make mistakes which .are due to INFLUENCE OF IDEAS ON CONDUCT. 141 ignorance, but may be attributed to crookedness, is a condition which, for all we can see bow, must continue indefinitely, for each year the industry tukes in a considerable body of new recruits, and there is no apparent diminution in the confidence of novices in their judgment of fowls. So we have always the same mistakes made, but made mostly by newcomers. I am speaking now of the great body of errors that furnish occasion for charges and rumors of crookedness and fraud, not of the occasional instances of intentional crookedness. Sub- stantially all of those who continue in the business show by their later conduct in it that the errors of the first years were errors in judgment — not intentional frauds. There is another side to the story of errors of this class. A considerable proportion of the buyers of poultry are even more ignorant of quality and value than the average novice selling poultry, and no whit less confident in their own judgment of these points. Such buyers are prone to find fault when no ground for fault finding exists; not always because they are dis- posed to find fault, but because their ideas of quality in fowls are badly distorted. These buyers, too, as they grow in experience and judgment, mostly pass out of the class who have many stories to tell to illustrate the prevalence of fraud and deceit in the poultry business. While there are to be found here and there persons who, even after they are competent judges of the goods of different kinds handled in this industry and its allied branches, are still so much impressed by the evils they do see and meet that they see them out of proportion to the transactions which involve no crookedness, the bad reputation for morality, as is given the poultry business, does notin general get much confirmation from those who know the business. Among them it is regarded, as in fact it is, as neither better nor worse in a general way than other lines. The importance to the poultryman, whetber a dealer or a buyer, of appreciating the real moral status of the industry is found in the connection between his ideas of business morality among poultrymen, and bis own standards of practice in selling, and the attitude which he takes when buying. If one who has poultry to sell believes that the general moral tone in such transactions is low, he will often — perhaps unintentionally — be less careful in his own dealings than he would be if he believed that the usual practice was to give honest. values, It is human nature to measure conduct by tbat of others, and to be satisfied if we can feel that we are a little better than the average. If one who is buying poultry believes that. all dealers in fowls are rogues looking always for opportunities to defraud, and indifferent as to whether customers are suited or not so long as they get their money and escape the penulties. of their practices, he is afraid to be satisfied with what he gets, and is upt to condemn it on general principles first, and then begin to look for specific faults. Some Specific Alleged Evils of the Poultry Business. When we say that the poultry business is neither better nor worse, on the whole, in moral tone, than the community, we admit that it contains a great deal of evil. I have already said that a very large proportion of the evils in the poultry business — of the wrongs done by poultrymen in their dealings with each other — consists of unintentional evils which most poultrymen avoid after they bave learned wherein they were at fault. Another considerable proportion of the wrongs of which complaint is made consists of disappointments which come —according to my view — as phases of the ordinary risks of the business. In a great many cases these two classes of unsatisfactory incidents are mixed, both contributing to make the unsatisfactory situation. So, it would be difficult to make any hard and fast classification of evils according to causes, and I shall not attempt to do so, but simply mention a number of the most common sins attributed to poultrymen, and discuss each in order. Doctoring Eggs for Hatching. , A beginner in poultry culture buys eggs for hatching, and gets nothing at all, or a few chicks from them. He is disappointed and sore. An acquaintance professing to be acquainted with the ways of poultrymen, suggests that probably the eggs were infertile, or were treated in some way to prevent their hatching. He will say positively that this is a common practice among breeders of fine stock who wish at the same time to get an income from their stock commensurate with its quality and reputation, and to prevent their customers becoming their successful competitors, So much is said and has been said with great positiveness in regard 142 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. to the prevalence of this practice that a great many people who are by no means novices in the business believe that the reports of it must be true, and that it must be very general, or there would not be so many people so sure of it. Considering the extent to which descriptions of evil constitute to some minds suggestions of evil,.it would be strange if, with so much suid of this evil, instances of it were not numer- ous, yet I have vever personally known of a single instance of this being done; nor have I ever beard an instance of it reported by one whose testimony could be accepted as conclu- sive. Hence while'I would not affirm that such an evil did not exist, I think that, consider- ing the exceptional opportunities I have Lad of discovering it, that I am justified in asserting my belief that instances of such dishonesty are extremely rare. The fact is, that there is no reason why any sensible or shrewd person should not want the evgs be sells to hatch, and there are many reasons why it is to his advantage to have them . hatch well. Substituting Eggs from Inferior Stock in Filling Orders. This is an evil which, on their general impression of the unreliability of poultrymen, many suspect even when they have no positive proof of it. Absolute and positive proof of it is hard to get, but traces of it may be found on all sides. While it is probable that the great majority of breeders are strictly honest in this matter, I think that there is ample reason to believe that the number of those who, either as a regular practice or in emergencies, will substitute eggs that are not what the customer ordered, is very considerable, I base this opinion not on com- plaints of persons who think they have been imposed upon in this way, but upon the number of poultrymen I have found who, without actually admitting that they did this, would refer to it in such a way as to give the impression that they considered it a not very culpable offense; on a number of instances coming under my own observation when visiting poultry plants where it appeared that the orders for the best grades of eggs said to have been received could not have been filled with eggs from the stock of that grade; and on the occasional statements of men I believe to be trustworthy who told me that it was a regular or occasional practice on certain plants on which they had been employed. With regard to the matter treated under the previous heading, I would say that the prob- abilities of a buyer of eggs being supplied with eggs which the seller had treated to prevent batching, were extremely smal], and the point need not be considered in ordering. With regard to the matter of filling orders with eggs not filling the specifications, I would consider that a buyer ran some risk, but not a very great risk. In what ratio this risk would be-repre- sented, 1 donot know. Probably one in ten would be an excessive estimate of the chances of getting an order made up in any part of eggs not as ordered, and I would suppose one in fifty a liberal estimate of the proportion of poultrymen who make a practice of giving eggs of grade inferior to those ordered. I offer these estimates only as indicating how much more rare this practice is than many suppose. The application of general moral principles to the situation presents two phases: First, there is the seller’s side of the question. This phase of it presents no complexities, There is only one thing for an honest man to do, and one alternative: The one thing is fill orders with goods of the class and grade advertised for sale at the price. The alternative is to state his inability to fill the order, and to return the money. Tbe other phase of the question is not so simple. Many persons who wish to buy eggs for hatching must buy of poultrymen of whom they know nothing, or not buy at all. To say that if ove cannot be sure of the honesty of the parties with whom he is dealing he bad better let transactions of tbat class alone, is not to: offer a practical solution of the difficulty. More- over such a rule imposed on transactions in eggs is unreasonable because it putson a transaction into which an unusual element of chance inevitably enters a rule more rigid than could be applied even in transactions from which chance might be almost completely eliminated. In other words, » person who takes the position that he will buy eggs or poultry only from breeders he thinks he is sure of, arbitrarily makes this a thing in which he will take no risks. It is his privilege to do that if he wishes, but doing it too often puts one in the list of those who are said to cut off the nose to spite the face. A more reasonable way to look at it is to ORDINARY RISKS IN POULTRY TRANSACTIONS. 143 make allowance for possible fraud of this kind, and consider it not as an outrage to be carried to the press, or into the courts, but as an ordinary risk, figuring the price of eggs which, for any reason give unsatisfactory results, into the total cost of the articles purchased. To illustrate: Suppose A is a novice who is so situated that he cannot have any direct knowledge of any breeder of the variety of fowls in which be wishes to invest. Suppose he wants to begin with eggs. Itis clearly impossible for him to learn of the different breeders’ stocks and of their methods of dealing with customers in any other way than by buying of them. He musttuke some risks or not buy. The first man from whom he buys may not use him right. He may avoid a large loss by making his first investment small. If be is in a position to buy a considerable quantity of eggs he can reduce the risks of unsatisfactory results by dividing his order among several breeders. By doing this he is not likely to get us good results in the aggregate as le would have bad if be had placed the entire order with the party or parties whose egys gave him best results; but he knew nothing of what to expect when he placed the order, and we may assume that he has done much better on the whole than if he had placed the whole order with one of those whose eggs gave him poorest results. Further, while a single test and compurison of this kind does not furnish conclusive evidence as to the character of breeders and the quality of the various stocks, it does afford useful information on these points, and the beginner enters upon his next transaction with better assurance of getting what he wants. One who will not buy until he is sure of those he deals with may easily lose more by wait- ing than another who takes chances will lose by the crookedness of some with whom he may dexl, Itis simply a case of ‘‘uothing venture, nothing have.” Boughten Eggs Which Hatch Unsatisfactory Stock. The result indicated in the above heading is properly classed as an evil only when the unsutisfactory results are due to causes reasonably within the control of the person selling the eggs. It is not always possible to say in any particular case whether the seller or the buyer is responsible for unsatisfactory results. It is a fact, well known to poultry keepers whose experience has made them observe the point, thdt eg¢ys from good stock may produce chicks which, under certain unfavorable conditions of care, feeding, and environment develop into spevimens so inferior to the parent stock as to muke it hard to believe that they are the progeny of that stock. The fact that the inferiority is due to such causes as are mentioned above is established in cases where from eggs produced at substantially the same time, chicks hatebed by one party develop as would be expected, while those hatched by another party are adisappointment. Most of the inferior chicks from stock of fine quaiity are accounted for by lack of. accommodations and Jack of skill in those caring for them; but change of climate some- times has decidedly unfavorable effects on chicks.. From this the reader will see that the fact that chicks from certain stock were unsatisfactory, does not prove that the breeder was dishonest. It should leave it an open question in the buyer's mind whether the fault lay with the seller, with himself, or with some person who had opportunity to change the eggs in transit. That is done to some extent, though how much it ix not possible to say. It can be prevented by sealing packages. Some poultrymen selling egys for hatching seal every package sent out, and advise customers to take notice whether seals are intact, and report if it is found that they have been tampered with. The point we are now considering is not readily separated from the preceding matter in an effort to determine what is wrong in an unsatisfactory case. A breeder of poultry may send eyys that are not as represented, which yet give satisfaction in their results. He may send just what he advertised at the price, and the buyer get stock not at all up to bis expectations, It may be a question then whether the breeder properly estimated the quality and value of what be offered for sale, or if the buyer is a competent judge of the value of what he produced. We cannot bere follow the intricacies of such questions. I mention them to show the reader how impossible it is to make off hand or general decisions as to right and wrong in such matters. We can, however, say that when a person advertising poultry sells eggs he would not expect to give him the results he knows his customers want, he is acting dishonestly, and that when the poultry keeper who is not quite sure of his own judgment of his stock, relies upon his judgment only in selecting and mating it for selling eggs for hatching, he makes a mistake. 144 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. As far as the buyer is concerned, he takes the usual risks on this as on other points when deuling with parties not known to him. ‘There ure times when, were he disposed to take the matter to law, he might secure redress in that way, but usually the amount involved is too small to make that worth while, and the common sense of most poultrymen leads them to charge such losses to experience, to avoid further dealings with those they find unsatisfactory, keep buying in sample lots wherever they think they are most likely to get what they want, aud having found one or more breeders of the variety of their choice, whose stock and methods suit them, to do business mostly with those breeders. Fowls That Are Not as Represented. The number of fowls not up to descriptions sold each year is considerable when reckoned in numbers, yet not so impressive when compared with the whole number that changes bands. Transactions in fowls are on quite a different basis from transactions in eggs. Generally speaking it is not possible for any marked change to tuke place in the appearance or condition of the fowl in the few hours, or, at most, few days, that intervene between its shipment by the seller and receipt by the customer. It may reasonably be assumed that instances iu which fowls do not reach the buyer in approximately the condition they were in when packed for shipment are exceptional. So if » fowl, on receipt, is found to be unsatisfactory we say that either the seller gave too little or the buyer expected too much, or that their ideas of what was wanted were so different that the transaction was on both sides a mistake. I have known many instances where people finding fault with the quality of the stock sent them bad no occasion to find fault at all, the stock being just as represented, and the fault being in the buyer’s ideas of what constituted quality. I huve heard breeders vigorously denounced for having shipped a customer high priced stock decidedly inferior to some they had bought at bargain prices, when the conditions as to quality were just the reverse of what the buyer supposed, aud the trouble was thut his ideas were all wrong. When so much dissatisfaction of buyers is due to ignorance it is inevit- able that there should be quite as many instances of people well satisfied with goods that are not worth what they pay for them. Jn this is found the breeder’s greatest temptation to take cbances in selling rather low grade fowls to people who do not uppreciate quality, but want fowls that represent considerable sums of money. The ethical and moral arguments that develop in considering this phase of the question are too deep for me. I have never tried to come to any detinite general conclusions on them. I will here only briefly allude to a few of them that the reader may, perhaps, get some insight into the considerations which influence men with no wish to do wrong to do things which to many may seem very wrong. Let me give first, in illustration two points given to me by two very successful poultry salesmen, one mentioning one point, the other the other point. A poultryman whom I was once visiting, discussing the matter of values and prices of fowls of different grades of quality, remarked that the controlling factor in fixing prices was not the actual or relative quality of the birds, but the number of people who wanted to own expensive fowls. In illustration of his point he told how one day a gentleman and lady drove to his farm in a fine turnout and wanted to look at poultry. They were much pleased with the birds in the first yard shown them, and asked the price of a trio. He mentioned a figure which prob- ably correctly expressed the value of the fowls, say $25. Having named the price of these, he observed that the visitors lost interestin them. Being u shrewd man and experienced in the ways of buyers of thoroughbred poultry, be concluded that the price mentioned was too low. So he took them to a pen a little further along, and when they asked the price named a little higher figure; still further, and stopping before another pen, he priced what birds they wanted from that lot ut seventy-five dollars, and a sale was quickly made. ‘You see,” said he, “they didn’t want fine fowls, they did not know or care anything about them. What they wanted wus to have a few fowls that they could point out to their friends as having cost so much money. The birds I sold them at $75 were a little better than those I priced them at $25, but not much, But it would have been a crime to waste birds worth $75 on people who could not apprecinte them, and only wanted to pay money for fowls.” RELATIONS OF DEMAND, QUALITY, AND PRICE. 145, Said another man to me one duy :—‘ The art of selling thoroughbred fowls to make a good Prolit on them consists in finding out whut « customer wants, and giving him a fowl that wilb an-wer his requirements. I have customers who want fowls I could not use, and would have: difficulty in disposing of to others, and they are willing to pay as much for then as for birds L would consider good. Why aloud I take the position that only the points I and those who- think as I do prize make quality? It is demand that makes prices. Breeders often have to breed to standards they do not like in order to sell their stock. I will sella mau anything [ bave that will suit him, and ask the highest price I think I ean get. If I make a mistake, and the fowls do not suit hrm, I take them back and refund his money. If both the fowls and the price suit him, why is sat that the value of the fowls? You may say he is satisfied because he ix ignorant of standard requirements. That is none of my business. JI cannot put myself in. the position of assu ming that a customer is ignorant; I have to take him at his own estimate of his knowledge of what be wants. How do I know but that be can make good use of birds. worthless to me, and not salable to others? I bold that when an order is filled to the customer’= satisfaction it is filled right.” In such bald statements or in the extreme instances of their application we see things whicln most of us unhesitatingly condemn as, at best, questionable. But the more we consider them: the more we find that logically they lead us back to the question: Whut makes the value of faucy poultry?” and we find © difficult to place a boundary line between what is and what is; not permissible, ry In practice the question of values seems to resolve itself into the question of suiting the customer, while most of the friction that arises between buyers and sellers is traceable ta errors in what were really sincere efforts to please the customer. Selling Unsexed Fowls. Occasionally someone comes out and charges a breeder with having sold him “ caponized 7” males or females. It is not likely that any breeder ever knowingly or intentionally did this. It is not improbable that breeders have often shipped fowls that were sexually impotent, and tbat in some cases post mortem examination would show a condition of the reproductive organs which was abnormal. Even in such a case it is not necessary to assume that the abnormal condition of the parts results from an operation, for it may result from disease of the organs which would not ordinarily be noticed; but in the case of a fowl in which the poultryman had special interest might be discovered because an effort would be made to deter- mine what was wrong. It would be the height of folly for a breeder to castrate a fowl] he intended to sell for breeding, or to sell a castrated fow!] for that purpose. There is no authen- tic instance of it known. . Honesty the Best Policy. While there are many points upon which people may differ as to honesty of certain trans~ actions, I find no reason, a8 my acquaintance with poultrymen extends more and more, to change the opinion that, with rare exceptions, they intend to be honest. Butif one had a leaning the other way, he would soon find that, as a matter of business policy, be could not afford to have many dissatisfied customers. Competition in the business is keen. It costs money in advertising to get a customer. It costs most breeders so much that if they had to depend on their new customers they would socn go out of business. After the breeder bas once secured a customer he hopes to biave him continue with him, and if he does not know he soon finds that while advertising may bring customers and continue to interest them, what holds the customer and brings further orders is satisfactory treatment. 146 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. LESSON XVIII. Winter Egg Production. OST poultry keepers want to get eggs in the early winter when eggs are scarce and M high in price. The difference between the fancier who says he does not cure whether his bens lay them or not, and the poultry keeper who is greatly disap- pointed if they do not lay at that time, is not as great as at first thought it appears to be. Fanciers, as I,find them, are not so indifferent to egy production as they sometimes profess to be. When their bens do lay well early in winter they are as pleased and as ready to boast of it as anyone. When they do not lay well at that time they console themselves with the thought that there are two strings to their bow, and that what they miss on early winter market eggs may be made up to them in the spring when they can sell the eggs for hatching, The poultryman whose eggs are not salable for hatching purposes has not another period of especially bigh prices to which to look forward, hence his disappointment over failure to get early winter eggs is greater, for he knows that bis loss, if made up, must be mide up from the profits of the remainder of the year on sules at lower prices. His need of winter eggs being greater, his desire to get them is greater; be plans for them and works for them, making it a point to have his stock ready to lay by winter if possible. The fancier may be indifferent about the laying of such fowls as he intends to show, but for the rest of his stock he would, as a rule, rather have it laying than not laying. There are few fanciers who are indifferent to the receipts from market eggs, and fewer still who try to , and the sun comes out warm, and the houses are overheated. I1is such conditions that baffle tbe poultryman who with a warm house, hens fit to lay, and good food, has to take chances on the ventilation that is right in the morning being right through the day. If one wishes to get the largest egg yield possible; if he can look after the ventilation prop- erly; and if be is indifferent about the usefulness of the hens after the first winter, I would say, by all means use a warm tight house. One is surer of big egg yields in it. But if there are likely to be occasions when the ventilation of such a house would not be given proper attention, or if it is desirable that the hens should come through the winter in good physical condition, use a more open house, and be satisfied with the prospect of a more moderate egg yield. Bear in mind that the kind of house does not control the egg yield. It is only a factor — a factor which varies in value according to other condiiions. The warm house seems to offer the great- est possibilities of heayy winter egg production, and at the same time to involve the greatest risks of poor egg production and debilitated fowls. It is a forcing house, and the dangers as well as the advantages of forcing are in it. ‘ The matter of yard or range also séems to have an important bearing on egg production. The largest egg yields are almost invariably made by hens that are quite closely confined. The common experience is that as between two equal lots of fowls, fed as nearly alike as possible, but one confined quite closely and the other given a large yard or free range, the hens that are most restrained will give the better egg yield, often » very much better yield. The most reasonable explanation of this seems to be that the closer confined hens utilize all their food for maintenance and egg production, while the others put much of it into energy expended in running about. It is also reasonable to suppose that hens at large are more often frightened or disturbed, and it is well known that such experiences are likely to have a marked and imme- diate-effect on egg production. Dairymen know that to get the largest possible flow of milk from their cows they must be kept quiet and contented — not disturbed or frightened ; but poultrymen do not so generally appreciate the effects of such things on the functions of the fowls. : : Exercise {gs not always essential. By exercise here I mean compulsory exercise, compelling hens to exercise for much of the food they take. Undoubtedly many poultry keepers tind that their hens do better when compelled to take exercise than when fed all they will eat, and taking almost no exercise; but a great deal of good laying is by hens which take little exercise. If hens have sound digestion and are not overfat to start with, they are likely to lay fully as well without much exercise during the early part of the winter, though as spring approaches they may get too fat or develop digestive troubles. We may say of cases where exercise is found necessary as (in a preceding lesson) of cases in which very careful attention to diet is found necessary, that these are abnormal. We may leave the matter-of exercise in this way :— Exer- cise is not always essential; when it does appear to be essential provision for regular exercise should be made; it is always advisable if it is desired that the hens should go through the winter in good condition. If they are to be disposed of in the spring it does not make so much difference about exercise. ' Generally the most convenient and satisfactory way of providing exercise it by littering the floors and feeding the grain in this litter. Winter Rations for Fowls. In this connection the reader should refer to the sample rations given in Lesson I., in the preceding series (1905). Indeed, ft would be well to revicw the entire subject of feeding. LAYING HENS HAVE GOOD APPETITES. 149 Those rations may be used as given, or, if it is desired to further cheapen the cost of feeding, the proportion of corn and corn meal iu them may be increased, especially for hens that are evidently not overfat, or that ure laying. After hens begin to lay it is not as necessary to guard against overfeeding and overfattening as itis with those that are not laying, When the reproductive organs are active the tendency is for them to take and use all available nourish- ment. When the reproductive organs are not acting the fowl, as a rule, eats less, though it may still eat more than is required for maintenance. When that is the case the surplus goes to fat. How far such futusis accumulated prevents laying, is a question not yet satisfactorily answered. I tbink that there are relatively few cases where the ovaries of the hen are normal where any ordinary accumulation of fat preyents laying. There is some reason to suppose that the activity of the ovaries, and consequent production of eggs, are often retarded for months after the hen is otherwise fully developed, and that the reasons for this are not easily controlled. When this is the case a hen is likely to fatten, but when the ovaries do become active — which may be earlier in the winter, but is more likely to occur after midwinter — these fat hens and pullets usually lay a few abnormal egys, and then lay normal eggs regularly —and usually such hens after beginning are heavy layers for that period. I speak of this because of the prevailing impression that slightly overfat hens will not lay — that there is a point in physical condition that must not be passed if hens are to produce eggs. The conditions in winter admit of more latitude in liberality of feeding, as well as of the use of more of the “ fattening” foods. Whole corn may be used quite freely during the cold weuther, but us spring approaches should be fed with more caution, especially if the fowls generally show a tendency to become very fat, and they are to be kept through the spring and summer. Meat and bone may also be fed more freely than in warm weather. For vegetable food clover, alfalfa, cabbage, mangels, and waste vegetables of nearly all kinds are used, and there is practically no danger of using too much of anything of this kind that is fed sepurately to fowls liberally provided with grain. Rarity of Heavy Laying in November and December. Novices in poultry keeping are quite generally under some misapprehension as to what is considered a good eyg yield in these months. While occasionally better yields are obtained q yield of twenty to thirty per cent is an unusually good yield, and a poultryman who is getting as much as a ten per cent yield from his flock in November, has no reason to feel dissatisfied, and much reason to feel encouraged. Tbose who watch their flocks closely enough to get some idéa of what individuals are doing, and of the relative proportions of pullets of the same age that are laying and not laying at this season are likely to discover that for most pullets the age at which they begin to lay is greater than the age usually given for laying maturity in their breed, and this knowledge can be turned to account next season by hatching enough earlier to have the bulk of the stock come to laying at the desired time, though the earliest layers may lay earlier than is desirable. 150 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. LESSON XIX. First Treatment of Sick Fowls. have their counterparts in poultry diseases. This fact is more generally recognized now than even a few years ago. It does not seem to be definitely established that diseases of like symptoms are identical in fowls, animals, and human beings. In the few cases in which we have reports of comparative studies of germ diseases of like nature in fowls and human beings, the conclusion reached has been that the germs were not the same. Some scientists, following the theory of development by evolution, suppose that 4s men, animals, and fowls were originally of one stock, so were the germs which produce certain diseases in them, but that many generations of life in a particular kind of organism, as a fow], animal, or man, has especially adapted the germ to development in that organism and unfitted it for develop- ment in organisms of the other classes, and tuat while it is not impossible for a disease to be developed in any organism as a result of the introduction of the peculiar germ of another class of organisms, that result isextremely rare, and authorities are not at all agreed on the subject. The practical value to the poultryman of a knowledge of this general fact of the similarity of human and poultry diseases is that it gives him a more reasonable attitude toward the diseases of poultry, and also enables him to apply such knowledge of the treatment of human heings presenting certain symptoms as he may have to the treatment of similar symptoms or condi- tions us they appear in his flock. Thereis no need of any poultry keeper, however inex peri- enced, standing in the presence of any of the poultry diseases most likely to occur in his flock helpless until he can get explicit directions from some poultry keeper or supposed expert on poultry diseases as to how to treat such cases, unless he is as inexperienced iu the treatment of human ills as in those of poultry. Very few people who have arrived at an ave, whatever that age may be in any case, when they can take the small responsibility of caring for a flock of fowls bave not some knowledge of the treatment of the minor and more common human ail- ments, colds, indigestion, diarrhea, etc., for which there are many simple treatments in use. This knowledge can be applied to the treatment of ailing fowls, perhaps not always with the best results, but still as much better than doing nothing until specific directions can be obtained. A sick person shows that he is not in good physical condition in a variety of ways, and first of ullin extreme irritableness or in a reluctance to follow the every day routine of his life. The mature person whose sense of responsibilities impels him to continue bis work when nature honestly rebels against it, is apt to be,cross. With children unusual restlessness or unusual inactivity occur according to the nature of the trouble and the disposition of the ebild. With fowls, so much lower in grade of organization. and comparatively so deficient in brain and nerve force disease almost invarlably means inactivity, separation as far as possible from the remainder of the flock, and a general attitude of listlessness or distress. Occasionally instances of the other manifestation of i]l condition are seen, but they are rare. Now the first step in the treatment of any trouble that has reached the stage where the fow] shows a desire for quiet and seclusion, is to furnish those conditions. It may be noted, further, that fowls—(T will not continue the comparison between fowls and bumans, for as I proceed discussing the case for fowls, the reader whose attention has now been fixed on the Powe are subject to a great many diseases. Quite all the more common diseases of men TREATING DISTEMPERS AND COLDS. 151 point will observe for himself bow like human beings fowls are in these matters) —it will be noted that fowls in this condition try to find a comfortable place. The most comfortable place thdf affords quiet and seclusion, or as much of them as can be obtained in their quar- ters, is the place they take. Too often the poultry house and yard afford no suitable place for the fow] that is not fit to rough it with its companions. Especially is this the case whem houses are stocked to their full capacity, and yards are small. Then it is often pitiful to see a sick chicken knocked about and run over by the rest of the flock, and thus deprived not only of the quiet it seeks, but of the strength it needs to concentrate on nature’s effort to restore health. The natural tendency of the organization to recover its balance when weak- ened at any point, or in any function, is after all the most important factor in the treatment of poultry diseases, and he doctors best whose first step is to place the fow! in conditions where nature has a chance to begin the work of recuperation. Take the ailing fow] away from the others, see that it has an opportunity to rest. Make it comfortable, remembering that what conditions will be comfortable for it depends some- what on the nature of the trouble. A fowl! that is weak and debilitated by indigestion and diarrhea, and has a low fever, with symptoms of alternate chills and fever, will be most comfortable in a warm dry place. So will a fow] that seems to have poor circulation, that acts sluggishly, and the comb tends to turn dark. A fow] that has a cold with collection of phlegm and mucus in the throat and nostrils, and discharges from the head, needs more than anything else, pure fresh air. It would be foolish, as it is unnecessary, to expose such a fow] to severe weather to give it fresh air, but it will generally be found that such fowls are benefited rather than injured by a degree of exposure much greater than most poultrymen think advisable for their poultry as a regular thing. Probably the best place for such patients is in an open coop in a sheltered spot. Lame fowls should be put where they will be warm and dry. Itis often difficult to deter- mine the cause of lameness. Rheumatism is a frequent cause. With laying hens a strain when extruding the egg often results in a temporary or partial paralysis, which may dis- appear within a few hours, or, at most, a few days, if nature is given full opportunity to per- form the work of recuperation. In all sorts of cases of Jameness in hens in flocks in whick there are males, it is especially necessary to remove the hen from the pen, for whether it ts that the unusual attitude of the hen attracts his attention, or from some other cause, it fye- quently happens that a male forces his attentions on a sick ben in his flock to such an extent -as to completely exhaust the strength of the hen. Even when the trouble is not so serious the recovery of ailing bens will always be more sure and rapid if it is impossible for the male to annoy them. For this reason it is advisable in cases of general indisposition in « flock, when all hens may be somewhat affected, though not enough to require isolation for all, to remove the male, when the hens will get ulong very well. A point worth noting is the tendency, under certain climatic conditions, for fowls, animals, and people to have similar distempers in epidemic form. Conditions which result in many cases of a disease like “grip” or pneumonia among the people of a community are almost invariably accompanied by similar diseases in epidemic form among the fowls. Observing this, the poultryman will find {t quite safe to treat the fowls for the same trouble for which the people are taking treatment. When medical treatment is to be given in such cases, give an ordinary full grown fowl the usual dose for a child of two or three years of axe. Jn applying externai treatment for such troubles as colds people give hot foot baths, some- times giving the whole body a bot bath or u sponging with hot water, then rubbing witht Jard or vaseline, or a mixture of such substances with turpentine or camphor, or both, or with a little earbolic acid. Such applications are very effective with fowls, though the mode of application must be varied. Instead of treating the feet and body of the fowl we steam and bathe the head, throat, and nostrils, then anoint with mixtures described. When fowls are found with the face slightly puffed, or the eyes closed, and the lids gummed together try steaming with hot water and carbolie acid, (2 parts acid to 100 parts water) then rubbing with lard and carbolie acid in about the same proportions. Do this at intervals of two or three hours for a day, and in nearly every case taken in the early stages 152 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. recovery will be immediate. Keep the fowl] quiet and comfortable for a day or two before returning to the pen. Meantime try to determine whether there was any special reason in the conditions in that pen for a fowl to take cold that way, and if found, correct thé'truuble. Fowls with diarrhea may be given a purgative if treatment is undertaken while the fowls, though somewhat distressed, are quite active, and eat and move about quite freely. But if the diarrhea has evidently greatly weakened the fow] it is better to check it promptly und to give a stimulants well. For any of these purposes treat a fow] as you would a child of the age specified above, and you cannot go far wrong. For a fowl! that is crop bound, or that has the crop filled with gas and fluid as a result -of disorders of the stomach, the first thing to do is to relieve the condition of the crop. It is in connection with such simple operations us these that the personality and deftness of the operator become factors. Some people are so rough in handling the patient, or bungle the operation so tbat the general condition of the fow] after relief is worse than before. Others will, witbout special instruction or experience, quickly and neatly do what isto be done. If ‘one finds be is bungling such un operation badly he had better Jet it alone, and kill the fowl] if tbe cuse seems too serious to be likely to recover without treatment. Of what may be exiled minor ailments of poultry, I bave found nothing so hard to deal with as the sweating and exhaustion that come from overcrowding young chickens in brood- ers or roosting coops. In these cases we have a combination of severe conditions continued for hours after the chicken has begun to be seriously affected by them. Either the crowding, or the overheating, or the partial smothering alone, if continued through the greater part of anight, would buvevery bad results. When the three are combined, and some chicks killed aluring the process, itis not strange that many of the survivors are so weak and exhausted ‘that the system is very slow to begin to recuperate. How far very careful feeding, nursing, and care to see that each chicken was comfortable at night, would be successful in such cases, donot know. With such attention as it is profitable to give ordinary chickens, those that jiave gone through an experience of this kind show the effects of it for months, or even all through their lives. This may not be observed if there is not another flock at hand with which to compare them,but when a poultryman’s own stock furnishes opportunities for such com- parisons he can hardly fail to notice it. My experience has been that, though some of them nay turn out all right, on the whole it is more profitable to kill every chick in a lot that has suffered conspicuously from such conditions than to keep them for the sake of the few that anay turn out well. In cases of indisposition which might be due to food taken or some irritant substance taken with food, the best thing to do is to confine the fowls for a time where it is certain that they can get nothing but what the keeper gives them, and then feed only foods known to be pure and of good quality until the cause of the trouble bas been discovered. Thus if a mixture of round feed stuffs has been used, that is, an article sold in mixture, and there is any sus- jicion that something in it might be responsible for some trouble that has developed, discon- ‘tinue its use, and feed only whole or cracked grains, or mashes mude on the premises of known jingredients of good quality. In most cases of this kind careful feeding alone will soon bring ithe fowls back to bealth. I doubt whether it ever pays to do anything more than this for them. Tn all such cases one should do all that can be done to learn the cause of the trouble. If itis in ithe mixture of food used, discontinue that article, but be reasonably sure first that it is in that food. The trouble may be due to irregularity in feeding, and all that is necessary to do for it is to be regular in feeding and let nature work the cure. No change of food may be necessary —just regulation. For mild attacks of indigestion accurring when there is no reason to suppose the trouble is ‘due to the quality of food, there is nothing better — nothing so good, in fact,— as fasting, letting ‘the fowls go without food, except green food, for one or two days then feeding sparingly. In -highly fed hens the digestive system is often overworked. A system of feeding and quantity of ‘food that one hen or one flock stands all right may be too much for another. The poultry ikeeper has to judge of what and how to feed, not by someone else’s results, but by results in is own yards. To get good growth and heavy egg production we must feed heavily, and in feeding heavily we are always running risks of breaking down the digestive system by over- THE VALUE OF FASTING. 153 work. So the poultryman should watch closely for signs of indigestion, especially lack of appetite or looseness of the bowels, and when such symptoms appear let the hens go without grain for a feed or several feeds, as the case may seem to require. Careful attention to this point is the best preventive of digestive disorders. I have found it a good plan to omit one feed a week asa regular thing, and for many years have made it a practice to give the fowls one less feed on Sunday. Another point of importance in the treatment of ailing fowls is to know when to let them alone — when to do nothing further than to put them in a quiet comfortable place, and let nature take its course. As an economical question 1 think that the poultry keeper who is wisest will adopt this sort of let alone treatment as his general policy, making exceptions only in the case of a fowl] of unusual importance to him, or in cases where he feels sure a few very simple treatments will suffice. But apart from the economical question there is the question of when letting alone will be the best treatment for the fowl. This can only be determined by experience and experiment. When a number of fowls are sick at the same time, and with the same trouble, try treating a part and leaving the rest to recover if nature is able to work a recovery. You will be surprised to find how often the fowls that have no treatment recover just as quickly as the others. Whenever a poultryman finds things going wrong in his flock, with no special cause for that he can discover, he should sit down and consider whether there is anything in his situation or his methods, or any special condition existing, not in accordance with generally accepted ideas of correct conditions and methods, and whether any possible connection can be traced between his departure from usual things and the trouble that has arisen. In a majority of instances it will be found that the common practice of poultrymen is the safest to follow. 154 LESSONS IN POULTRY KEEPING — SECOND SERIES. LESSON XxX. Poultrymen’s Organizations. which in general has been pursued in the lessons of the past two years, I take the liberty of departing in a way from the method of selection of topics which I have heretofore tried to follow. The subjects treated in the forty lessons of the two series have been chosen because of the evident interest of poultrymen in them, aud as far as circumstances permitted have been presented at times when they were most appropriate. The subject of this lesson is one in which too few poultrymen are interested, and most of those who are interested too little interested. The weakest point in the development of American poultry culture today is the lack of adequate organization of poultry interests and the almost universal indifference of poul- trymen on the question of organization. True, conditions in this respect are improving some- what, but unless the rate of improvement is greatly increased this gener ation of poultrymen will hardly begin to reap the adyantages that must come to all when our poultry interests are efficiently organized, We have in this country today these several kinds of organizations of poultrymen ;— 1.—The American Poultry Association, a general organization in that it draws its membership from all parts of the United States and Canada, but so constituted that only a very few members can have any continuous activity in shaping its policies or directing its efforts. Poultrymen who are not fanciers rarely interest themselves at all in this association, and the average fancier is indiflerent to it except when its existence is forced upon his attention by some inconvenience imposed upon him as a result of its manipulation of the standard descriptions of thoroughbred fowls. 2.—Vurious “ state” poultry associations — a few of them properly so designated, but more of them merely local associations describing themselves as state associations either for the prestige the name may give them, or for the appropriation which may sometimes be secured from a state legislature for a state association, or one supposed to be of that class. 3.—A few sectional organizations, leagues of local associations; as yet none of these can be said to be completely organized and on an established working basis. So far they represent tendencies rather than actual accomplishments. I concluding this series of lessons, and leaving for the present the method of treatment 4.—Local poultry associations, organized primarily to hold a local poultry show and increase the local interest in fine fowls. Of these there must be now more than 400. The number is steadily increasing, and where a few years ago it was hard to find associations of this class that had been in active existence for more than two or three consecutive years, each season now adds substantially to the number which have had a continuous existence long enough to be regarded as permanent organizations, POULTRYMEN NOT ENOUGH INTERESTED. 155 5.—Local poultry associations organized for instruction and information and exchange of ideas on poultry topics. Of these there are only a very few in existence. A few local associations organized primarily to hold shows also hold a number of meetings of an educational character during the year. 6.—Spectalty clubs — organizations of breeders of a particular breed or variety; the object of the organization being to advance the interest of that breed or variety. These clubs generally draw membership from all parts of the country, though in a few instances where interest in the breed or variety to which the club was devoted was strong in some locality or section, the local members dominated the club. In such cases the government of the club is likely to be very democratic, the members generally attending the meetings and taking part in them, but the specialty cluly usually is an organization of which the secretary is during the period of his incum- bency the autocrat. Most readers will agree with me that the above enumeration shows variety enough in organ- ization. As to the numerical strength of these organizations, it varies from less than ten to over a thousand. But with ull these organizations it happens almost invariably that when the occasion arises for organized effort on the part of poultrymen, either to advance or to protect their interest-, there is no organization in the field so constituted that it can make its influence felt and its power respected by legislatures and corporations. The estimates of the value of poultry prod- ucts which make them outrank many crops commonly considered as of greater importance ure doubtless often exaggerated. But allowing a great deal for exaggeration, it still remains a fact that the value of our poultry products ranges wellinto hundreds of millions of dollars annually, and far exceeds the value of articles whose producers by combined and persistent effort are able to force a consideration of their interests on those responsible for state and national legis- lation. Why is it? My answer is:—Because most poultrymen are too absorbed in the details of most intimate concern to them to have more than an occasional passing thought for the larger matters which should be of iuterest to all poultrymen; because poultry keeping being with most. poultry keepers a side issue, the individual poultryman’s financial dependence upon it is not great enough to strongly impel him to unite with others for the remedy of conditions that need improving; and because poultry keeping as a hobby, fad, or recreation draws its recruits largely from people of very modest means who have neither the money nor the inclination to make it as conspicuous, and their wishes or interests as much regarded by the rest of the people as some of the other forms of recreation. In fact, the average poultryman’s dis- position 4g quiet and retiring. The push and rush and noise of strenuous and spectacular sports do not draw him as do the quiet interest and occupation he finds in taking care of and developing his fowls. He may be and often is somewhat interested in popular sports, but rarely follows them with the zeal of their more pronounced devotees.