Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003244112

‘ornell University Library

ritish fisheries; their administration

Tin

‘ BRITISH FISHERIES

THEIR ADMINISTRATION AND THEIR
PROBLEMS

British Fisheries.

Se eS Germ
Micropyie-
Diagram of Flounder ovum

Spermatozoon of Flounder

= $ \ : a
Yolk~ Blastoderm Yolksac Tail ‘Notochord
Flounder Embryo—34 aay Flounder Embryo —4q days

Notochord

Tail? — Kupffers vesicle
Flounder Embryo—5z days = ie Sune See

of the Ovum of the Flounder. Ova all magnified 40 diameters

Development
Spermatozoon magnified ery. ny

BRITISH FISHERIES

THEIR ADMINISTRATION AND. THEIR
PROBLEMS

A Short Account of the Origin and Growth of British
Sea-Fishery Authorities and Regulations

BY

JAMES JOHNSTONE

LONDON

WILLIAMS & NORGATE
14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, W.C,

1905

PREFACE

In preparing this book I have tried to give such
a reasonably short sketch of the present position
-of sea-fisheries administration and research in
the United Kingdom as might be of use to those
whose public duties compel them to give some
attention to the subject, as well as to the general
student of the sea-fisheries of Great Britain and
Ireland. It is obvious that, with this aim,
certain limitations have had to be kept in mind.
Thus, the salmon and fresh-water fisheries and the
oyster industry form altogether special subjects,
and there is, besides, an extensive literature in
existence dealing with the condition of those
fisheries. The natural history of the marine
economic animals is another subject which is
treated very briefly, but there are already several
excellent works, such as those of Cunningham and
M‘Intosh, which give very full accounts of this
part of our subject. Finally, much more attention
might have been devoted to the consideration of
the methods of catching sea-fishes practised in
Vv

vi BRITISH FISHERIES

British seas; but this would require much more
space than is consistent with the intention of the
work.

In Part I., I have attempted such a summary
of the development of modern legislation and
fishery authorities as may be verified in any
library containing a set of the Parliamentary
papers published during the last forty years.
Sea-fishery administration, in its modern sense,
may be said to have begun in Great Britain in
1863 with the appointment of the Royal Com-
mission of that year, and to go back further than
that date would be to enter into a study interesting
only to the antiquary. Part II. is a short account
of those fundamental facts of marine natural
history and oceanography, on the further study of
which rational fishery regulation must be based,
and of the special problems which at the present
time confront modern fishery authorities.

Fishery regulations have three main objects :
(1) to ensure that good order may be maintained
among fishermen; (2) to secure the greatest
possible yield from the fishing grounds at any
time that is compatible with the upkeep of the
fish supply from year to year; and (3) to give
“fair play” to every class of fishermen. This
latter aim is not clearly expressed in fishery
statutes or by-laws, but it is none the less
apparent to anyone who observes the operation
of the enactments in force. It is very proper

PREFACE vil

that the poorer classes of our fishermen should
be encouraged as much as possible, for in no
other section of the population of these islands
are the qualities of originality, resourcefulness,
and hardihood so highly developed. It is re-
grettable that present-day tendencies are in the
opposite direction. Concentration and specialisa-
tion, it has been observed, are the keynotes of
modern industrial developments in the fisheries
as in everything else. The capitalisation of the
industry, the formation of wealthy fishing com-
panies with huge fleets, may, in some ways, be
a source of national gratification, and may be the
means of providing cheap and abundant food ;
but the fact should not be overlooked that this
end is incompatible, to some extent, with the
maintenance of an increasing and comfortable
fishing population. At the present time there
is a danger that the small fishing village and
fishing vessel, and the comfortable and easy-going
coast population, characteristic of the immediate
past, may by and by disappear, and that their
place may be taken by overgrown fishing ports
like Grimsby and Aberdeen, inhabited by fisher-
men whose industrial condition may soon approxi-
mate to that of the ordinary seaman and fireman
of our merchant service. The skill and pluck
of the British littoral population is apparently in
danger of being exploited by the capitalist, and
sacrificed to the desire for wealth on the one

Vili BRITISH FISHERIES

hand, and to the modern craze for cheapness
on the other. The protective systems of the
beginning of the nineteenth century had for
their object the encouragement of the poorer
fishermen. Although these were, to a great
extent, done away with by the /aissez-faire policy
of the middle of the century, they have never
entirely been abandoned, and one is glad to
observe that the modern tendency is towards
their revival. Many restrictions on methods of
fishing, such as the practical exclusion of the
steam fishing fleet from the territorial waters and
bays of our coasts, have a differential effect, and
encourage the small fishing boat at the expense
of the larger; and if the maintenance of a
numerous and comfortable fishing population is
ai desirable a thing as the mere supply of cheap
food, then restrictive legislation of this nature is
to be welcomed.

“Experimental legislation” has been the rule
in the past. That this should have failed is due
to obvious causes, and one has to admit that for
the mass of obsolete, futile, and injurious fishery
laws both the fisherman and the administrator are
to blame. The growth of our knowledge of the
natural laws which govern the abundance of fish
in the sea has been a slow process, and the legis-
lators have not been patient enough to wait for a
sufficient basis of observation on which to found
their restrictions. Fishery authorities have not, as

PREFACE ix

a rule, sought to employ investigators whose sole
business it was to study the effect of the stringent
regulations proposed by them ; and one finds that
there are, even at the present day, few fishery
restrictions which are based on a rational con-
sideration of natural conditions in the sea. It is
perhaps true that the scientific man who advises
the administrator is often very much of an amateur,
and that his manner of looking at legislative pro-
blems is rather academic; but it is no less true
that unaided legislative interference with methods
of fishing has, not infrequently, been both foolish
and, at the least, unnecessary. There is at the
present time a very obvious tendency, on the part
of those who have to do with the control of the
fisheries, to expect “ practical results” from the
investigator in a very short time—and at a very
cheap rate. Attentive study of the application of
scientific research to fishery legislation will show
anyone who cares to see it that the only way to
ensure that the fisheries may by and by be adminis-
tered in the best interests of the fisherman and the
consumer, is to persevere slowly and patiently with
the acquirement of scientific facts. No one who
takes the trouble to make himself thoroughly
acquainted with the results of sea-fishery legislation
in the past can doubt that by this method alone
can results of lasting value be obtained.

J. JOHNSTONE.
Liverpoo., June 1905.

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
THE SITUATION IN I1903—-METHODS AND ae
VALUE OF THE FISHERIES . ‘ i XV

PART I.—THE DEVELOPMENT OF
MODERN LEGISLATION

CHAPTER I

THE FISHERIES IN 1863 . ; : j 3
CHAPTER II

THE ROYAL COMMISSION OF 1863. : 17

CHAPTER III

THE TRAWLING COMMISSION . . . 29

CHAPTER IV

THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS . 7 44
xi

xil BRITISH FISHERIES
CHAPTER V

THE SELECT COMMITTEE OF 1893

CHAPTER VI

THE FISHERY BOARD FOR SCOTLAND

CHAPTER VII

FISHERIES ADMINISTRATION IN ENGLAND

CHAPTER VIII

THE SEA-FISHERIES OF IRELAND .

CHAPTER IX

FOREIGN RESEARCH ORGANISATIONS

PART II.—FISHERIES PROBLEMS

CHAPTER X

THE LIFE-HISTORIES OF FISHES

CHAPTER XI

METABOLISM IN THE SEA

PAGE

54

73

97

114

133

151

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XII

HYDROGRAPHICAL INVESTIGATIONS

CHAPTER XIII

FISHERY STATISTICS . . .

CHAPTER XIV

THE IMPOVERISHMENT OF THE _ FISHING
GROUNDS . ‘ . .

CHAPTER XV

THE DESTRUCTION OF IMMATURE FISH : THE
FISHERIES BILL OF I9QO04

CHAPTER XVI

- MARINE PISCICULTURE . ‘

APPENDICES

I. REPORTS OF THE PRINCIPAL PUBLIC IN-
QUIRIES INTO THE CONDITION OF THE
FISHERIES HELD IN MODERN TIMES .

II, OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS OF BRITISH
FISHERIES AUTHORITIES ‘

Xill
PAGE

198

222

243

271

299

334

334

XIV

III.

VI.

THE FISHERIES STATUTES

LOCAL REGULATIONS

COST OF FISHERY ADMINISTRATION
THE UNITED KINGDOM,

IMPORTS, EXPORTS, AND RE-EXPORTS OF

FISH

BRITISH FISHERIES

IgOI—2

IN

PAGE

336

340

343

345

INTRODUCTION

THE SITUATION IN 1903—METHODS AND
VALUE OF THE FISHERIES

At the present time there are at least 27,000
vessels, manned by over go,000 fishermen, engaged
in fishing from the ports of the United Kingdom.
At any hour of the twenty-four, one-fourth of
this enormous number of vessels and men may be
on the seas, anywhere and everywhere round the
British Isles, from Iceland on the north to the
coasts of Portugal on the south. In the course
of a twelvemonth they will land over goo,o0o
tons of fish, worth about {£10,000,000. On
every week-day throughout the year they will
bring ashore some 3000 tons of fish, worth (to
them) about £33,000; and during the next two
or three days this enormous quantity of fish will
have been distributed all over the country, or
exported abroad; and the consumers will have
paid over {100,000 for it—for the produce of
a single day’s fishing in the fishing grounds about
the British Isles.

xXV

xvi BRITISH FISHERIES

These figures are.only an approximate statement
of the real worth of the British sea-fishing in-
dustry ; and, though they may be subject to con-
siderable qualification, they represent what is the
minimum value of the industry. They are a bald
and colourless summary of the value of a great
national asset. Looked at in the pages of a Blue
Book, they appear dry and repugnant, but the
imaginative reader will see in them the evidence
of an immense “ mine of wealth” ; of an incessant
struggle to obtain Nature’s most grudged posses-
sions; of the existence of a population whose
value to the nation it is difficult to over-appreciate.

Every mile almost of the extensive coast-line of
Great Britain and Ireland contributes its share of
this fishing population. But the density: is not
everywhere uniform, and there are remarkable
differences in the value of the industry at the
various parts. ‘The east coast of England and
Scotland, adjoining the important fishing grounds
of the North Sea, is, both absolutely and relatively,
by far the most important fishing district. Then
follow in order the west coasts of England and
Scotland, the coasts of Ireland, and the south coast
of England.

As I have indicated above, it is impossible to
give, with accuracy, the exact number of men and
vessels employed on the British coasts; and the
exact amount and value of the fish landed is also
very imperfectly known. Systems for the collec-

INTRODUCTION XVil

tion of these data are in existence in each of the
divisions of the United Kingdom, but while the
statistical account of the fisheries of Scotland is
very complete, that for England and Ireland
furnishes only an approximate idea of the extent
of the industry, and the figures must be taken as
representing minimum values.

I give here a short summary of the principal
data relating to the men, matériel, and value of
the British fisheries. The data are for the year

1903 :—’*

I. VessEts EMPLoveD IN FISHING

England and Wales

Steam trawlers . ‘ : z : » Ti4e
Other steam fishing vessels ' « Are
1st class (15 tons and upwards) sailing vessels. 1747
and class (under 15 tons) sailing vessels. » 370%

3rd class fishing vessels (navigated by oars only) . 2764

Total number of English fishing vessels . 9721

Scotland
Steam trawlers : : ‘ : : 280
Other steam fishing vessels . 1, 156
Sailing fishing vessels. : : : ~ BO,e72

Total number of Scottish fishing vessels . 11,008

1See—for England—Axnual. Report of Proceedings under Sea-
Fisheries Acts for 1903 ; for Scotland—7Zwenty-second Annual Report
of the Fishery Board, Part 1.; for Ireland—Report on the Sea and

Inland Fisheries of Ireland for 1903.
b

XViil BRITISH FISHERIES

Ireland
Steam trawlers . ; ‘ 12
Ist class (15 tons and upwards) sailing ‘vessels. 364
and class (under 15 tons) sailing vessels. 2939

3rd class fishing vessels (navigated by oars only) . 2.920

Total number of Irish fishing vessels ~ 6235

II. Persons Emptovep IN CoNNECTION
WITH THE SEA-FISHERIES

England and Wales
Regular fishermen . : ‘ ‘ 4,071
Persons occasionally employed . : : - 754.68
Total . : . F ; : - 41,539
Scotland
Fishermen and boys : : : , . 36,162
Fishmongers and hawkers : i : ~ S835
Curers, coopers, packers . ‘ 5 , - 19,981
Manufacturers of boats, nets, etc. . ‘ + A, 194
Other persons employed . ; : , . 18,401
Total persons employed ; é - 84,553
Ireland
Fishermen. : : : : ‘ . 24,206
Boys. : z ‘ . , : : 527

Total .

INTRODUCTION

Xix

III. AmMounT anp VaLve or THE Fish LANDED

Total wet fish .

Shell-fish

Total .

Herrings

Other sea-fish

Shell-fish

Total .

Mackerel .
Other sea-fish
Shell-fish .

Total

IV. Tue Capirat INVEsTED

England and Wales
Quantity,
cwts. Value.
11,198,000 £6,930,000
_ 279,000
£7,209,000
Scotland
Quantity,
cewts. Value.
452795485 £1,244,656
252395323 1,156,631
ve 732598
6,518,808 £2,474,885
Treland
Quantity,
cwts. Value.

448,217 £183,865
399,195 192,184
et 51,751
838,412 £427,800

It is difficult or impossible to obtain this infor-
mation, except in the case of Scotland. No official
returns of the value of the vessels and gear are
given for England or Ireland.

XX BRITISH FISHERIES

Scotland
Steam fishing vessels ‘ ; , - £155725338
Sailing vessels . , : : : 9945552
Fishing gear, nets (lines, etc. y-« P . 881,278
Total value . , i . £35448,168

These figures give a very bald idea as to the
importance of the fisheries in Great Britain, but
the reader must be content with them, and _ his
imagination, stimulated by their magnitude, will
more easily grasp the importance and the great
value of the national asset represented by the sea-
fisheries of the country. In comparing the three
divisions of the United Kingdom he must, how-
ever, bear many things in mind.

The total number of vessels and persons engaged
in the fisheries in each country does not give a
quite correct idea of the respective values of the
fisheries. Thus, the number of vessels and men
employed in Scotland, and still more in Ireland,
is much greater in proportion to the value of the
fish landed than in England. This is because the
sea-fisheries of England are pre-eminently trawl
fisheries, carried out by large and powerful steam
trawlers, which, for the number of men employed
and for their own numbers, are much more
efficient than sailing boats. In England, too, the
fish landed are relatively more valuable than in
Scotland ; the flat fishes—soles, plaice, turbot, etc.
—which, with cod and haddock, form the great

{NTRODUCTION xxi

bulk of the fish landed in England, are more
valuable than the herring, which is ¢he fish in
Scotland. A truer idea of the value of the
Scottish fisheries is, however, obtained if the value
of the fish sold fresh in the neighbourhood where
they are landed, and the value of the fish cured
for transport, are considered. Thus, the value of
such fish in Scotland for the year 1903 was
£1,065,040, while the value of all fish cured
for transport at home or abroad was (2,341,928 ;
and in addition to the fish represented by these
values, a considerable portion is carried away fresh
by rail.

The number of persons employed does not bear
a similar proportion to the value of the fish landed
in each country. This is due to the causes
indicated above—the nature and efficiency of the
vessels and gear employed by them. But it is also
due, in the case of Ireland notably, to the fact
that the fisherman there is, in very many cases,
a person who combines some other occupation,
farming usually, with that of fishing, and to that
extent he is to be regarded as a fraction of a fisher-
man, rather than as a unit, as I have considered
him to be in the above tabular statements.

We have now to consider the methods employed
by these fishermen for the capture of the fish they
bring to the market. There is no industry in
which the essentials of the methods employed have
changed so little as in sea-fishing. From time

XXil BRITISH FISHERIES

immemorial fishermen have employed apparatus
which to-day may be seen in use on our coasts.
It is easy to trace the causes of the few changes in
the nature of the methods, and of the still greater
change in the magnitude of the industry. Up
to the time of railways, there was no stimulus
to change; the difficulty of transport of such a
perishable article as fish, and the slow growth of
the population, kept the industry within narrow
limits. Fish were caught for consumption by the
fishing population itself, and for sale or exchange
in the narrow strip of coast country within easy
access of the sea. Fishing was therefore confined
to a somewhat narrow zone of sea round the coast.
But railway transport increased the market
enormously, and with the increased demand larger
boats began to be employed. Finally, steam power
was introduced into the fishing vessels themselves,
and ice was used to preserve the catches of fish
made. These changes increased enormously the
area of exploitation, and the quantity of the catch.

I can give here only a very summary account of
the various methods employed in sea-fishing, and
such an account will not relieve the conscientious
reader of the necessity for consulting other sources
of information on this part of our subject... One

1 A complete account of the methods of fishing practised round
the coasts of the United Kingdom has yet to be written. The
following works should, however, be consulted :—

E. W. H. Holdsworth, Deep-sea Fishing and Fishing Boats.

INTRODUCTION XXxill

can classify fishermen in various ways; it is
convenient at times to divide them into “ inshore ”’
or “longshore” men: these are such as work in
small boats and mostly within the territorial limits.
Opposed to them are the “offshore” or “ deep-
sea’ fishermen, whose area I have already indicated.
For our present purpose it is best to consider them as
“trawlers,” “liners,” “seiners,” ‘ drift-net fisher-
men,” “‘shrimpers,” and so on, according to the
method employed by them, and the kind of fish
sought for. Fishermen are now to a great extent
specialists ; but we may still find places where the
residents employ almost every method in turn,
according to season and opportunity.
Trawling.—By far the greatest quantity of fish
landed at British ports is caught by the method
of trawling. This mode of fishing is of great
antiquity, and it is difficult to determine where it
was first commonly employed. The older form of
trawl-net is a triangular flat bag or purse of netting,
the mouth of which is from 20 to 50 feet wide,
and the length about 40 to 100 feet. This bag is
attached by its mouth to a beam of wood, which at
either end is fixed to a stirrup-shaped iron frame—

London, Ed. Stanford, 1874. This work is rather old, but is, how-
ever, still very valuable.

E. W. L. Holt, Grimsby Trawl Fishery and Destruction of
Immature Fish, Plymouth, Marine Biological Association, 1895.

J. W. Collins, Ze Beam-trawl Industry of Great Britain, with
Notes on Beam-trawling in other European Countries, etc. ‘‘ Bulletin
U.S. Fish Commission” for 1887 (1889), pp. 289-407.

XXIV BRITISH FISHERIES

the “‘head”” ; and the beam forms the upper margin
of the mouth of the trawl. The lower margin is
formed by the “foot-rope,” which is fastened at
each end to the heads, and to which the lower
portion of the net is attached. The foot-rope is
not stretched tightly between the heads, but curves
back in a wide bight behind the beam. When fish-
ing the whole contrivance is dragged along the sea-
bottom by two ropes—the “‘ bridles,” one attached
to either head, which meet at the “shackle.” The
trawl-rope or “warp” is attached to the shackle ;
it may be 150 or even 200 fathoms in length ; it
is made fast on the deck of the vessel in various
ways, depending on the size of the latter and on the
size of the trawl.

Only such fishes as live on the sea-bottom, or
swim about within a foot or two from there,
can be caught by the trawl, as the heads keep
the beam from two to four feet off the ground.
The lower edges of the heads and the foot-rope
drag along on the ground, and the scraping action
- of the latter stirs up any fish resting there or
partially buried in the mud or sand, and they
are swept into the net by the onward motion
of the latter. Anything else lying on the sea-
bottom, sea-weed, invertebrate animals, stones and
loose débris, even old anchors, may be swept into
the net and find their way back to its apex.
When the net has been hauled for a variable
time—one to six hours—it is brought up on

INTRODUCTION XXV

deck—very laboriously if the vessel is without
steam power; the beam and foot-rope are made
fast to the rail, and the remainder of the net is
gathered in by hand; finally the contracted apex
or “cod end,” into which the whole catch has
been gathered, is brought on board and its end
untied, and the contents allowed to fall on deck.
The trawl is once more “shot,” and while it is
being dragged the fish are separated out, gutted,
packed into boxes, and put away with ice in the
fish-hold ; the miscellaneous mass of rubbish and
unmarketable fishes is then thrown overboard.

I have described such a trawl as was employed
previous to about 1893; since then the beam-
trawl has entirely disappeared from steam trawl-
ing vessels, and has been replaced by the “ otter
board” trawl. In this apparatus the net and foot-
rope are similar to those in the older form, but
the beam is replaced by a strong rope—the “‘ head
line,” which may be over 100 feet in length.
It is attached to two heavy wooden boards shod
with iron, and nearly the size of ordinary doors,
to which the trawl warps are attached in such
a way that the board drags on the ground by
one of its long edges, and its surface is set at an
angle to the direction in which the net is being
dragged. This keeps the mouth of the net
stretched open in the same way as in the beam-
trawl. The otter-trawl is hauled by two warps
instead of one, as in the beam-trawl. It is much

XXVvi BRITISH FISHERIES

more efficient than the beam-trawl, but it is only
suitable for the larger boats.

Lining.—A considerable proportion of the deep-
sea fishes landed is, however, caught by means
of “long lines.’ In some form or other this
is, of course, the most ancient method of fishing.
A typical long line may be as much as seven
miles in length, and is made up of a number
of pieces. At intervals of about a fathom, pieces
of line two or three feet long—the “snoods,”
which carry hooks—are attached, and a long
line carried by a deep-sea “liner” may carry
seven thousand hooks. Ropes and buoys mark
the position of the line as it lies on the bottom,
one buoy being situated at each end of the line,
and one at each intermediate mile. The line
is “shot” in the evening and fished at morning.
The hooks are baited principally with whelks or
mussels.

Drift-netting —Trawling and lining are carried
on at any depth down to about a hundred fathoms,
and anywhere and everywhere almost round the
British Isles from Iceland to the Bay of Biscay.
It will be evident to the reader that only such
fish—soles, turbot, plaice, halibut, cod, ling, and
haddock, etc.—as lie at the bottom will be taken
by either method. There is, however, an abun-
dant class of fishes, living at any depth from the
surface to the bottom, for the capture of which
neither of the above methods is applicable, and

INTRODUCTION XXVIi

for which “drift-netting’? must be employed.
Drift-nets are chiefly used for the capture of
herring, mackerel, and pilchards. A “train” or
“fleet” of herring nets may be as much as two
miles long and over ten yards in depth. It is
supported on a line carrying cork floats, which
is again attached to ropes and buoys which support
the net at a variable distance from the surface.
The whole contrivance floats or drifts with the
tide as a vertical wall of netting which the herring
shoal encounters. The fish striking the net
penetrates the mesh of the latter, and, if it is
a small fish, passes through. But if it is of a
suitable size, its head slips through, and the
increasing diameter of its body fixes or “‘ meshes ”’
it, in which position it is taken when the net
is hauled. The size of the mesh of a drift-net
will, of course, vary with the kind of fish it is
designed to catch. A herring net has generally
about thirty-three to thirty-six meshes to the yard,
a pilchard net forty-five or more, and a mackerel
net from twenty-five to twenty-eight. Fishing
for all these fishes is carried on at a variable
distance from shore, or, it may be, in bays or
estuaries.

Seining. — By a simple modification the drift-
net becomes converted into the “seine” and
“draw-net.” The seine is an ancient form of
fishing implement, and it resembles generally a
drift-net, but the manner of using it is very

XXVill BRITISH FISHERIES

different. At sea it is employed by two boats,
which carry the net between them. When the
latter is to be “shot,” the boats separate and pull
away from each other, describing a circle, and
putting the net overboard as they go. The latter
is thus put into the water in the form of a circular
vertical wall of netting, which surrounds the shoal
of fish. The ends are united, and the net as it
now stands is slowly towed shorewards till the
bottom touches ground, and the fish are secure.
They are then removed from the larger seine by
a special mode of using a small seine. Sometimes
the seine is used from the shore; one end is
retained there, while a boat, with the other, pulls
out to sea and describes a semicircle, “shooting ”’
the net as it goes. The latter, with its enclosed
fish, is then hauled on shore.

Inshore Fishing —This latter method of seine-
netting brings us to the consideration of the
methods of the inshore or longshore men. Many
of these are seiners, working as described above.
Then there are comparatively small sailing boats
using beam-trawls in the method indicated, but
in relatively shallow water and within the three-
mile territorial limit. Sea-fish are also largely
taken round the British coasts by various kinds
of “fixed engines.” Such fixed engines, so called
in contradistinction to the movable fishing
engines — such as trawls — are fishing weirs,
stake nets, trammel nets, and various other forms

INTRODUCTION XXixX

of apparatus. The ¢ramme/ net is a most attrac-
tive engine, which is, however, relatively un-
common. Three nets are fastened together at
top, bottom, and ends; they are only a little
distance apart. This triple net is anchored to the
bottom, the foot being weighted, and the top or
“back”? buoyed, so that it stands upright as a
vertical wall of netting. The peculiarity of the
trammel is that the middle member of the triple
net has a narrow mesh, while the two outer ones
have very wide meshes, and are so set that the
meshes are exactly opposite each other; the
middle narrow-meshed net is longer and wider
than the two external ones, so that it is gathered
up in slack folds. When a fish strikes the net
it easily passes through the mesh of the outer
net, but, striking against the restricted mesh of
the middle net, it gathers this up and forces it
through the opposing mesh of the outside net
on the opposite side. The fish is thus in a pocket,
in which it is hopelessly “ trammelled.”’

The stake net is simply a vertical wall of
netting of variable length supported on wooden
stakes. It is set on the ground at low water,
and so arranged that the tidal stream runs through
it at right angles to its length ; at next low water
after it is set, it is visited and the enmeshed fish
removed. It has a number of forms.

Fishing weirs are common on the coast of Wales,
and are an easy and safe (albeit destructive to

1

re BRITISH FISHERIES

young unmarketable fishes) method of fishing
which commends itself to the Welsh maritime
population.

Shell-fisheries. — But the shell-fisheries are by
far the most prolific of the inshore section of the
industry. The oyster, shrimp, and prawn fisheries
are carried on from sailing boats. For shrimps
and prawns a small trawl-net is used, in which
the meshes are about half an inch square; such
a net may also be used in shallow water from a
horse and cart worked by a “ farmer-fisherman.”
Such methods of fishing necessarily involve the
destruction of an enormous number of small fishes
of all kinds, which are nearly always found in
association with shrimps.

Oysters are taken by a dredge, which is practi-
cally a small trawl, except that the mouth of the
net is kept open by an iron frame, and the meshes
are made of strong cord or iron rings.

Crabs and Jodsters are taken in “pots” or
“creels” — wicker-work traps baited with frag-
ments of fresh or stinking fish ; they are moored
at the sea-bottom in suitable places, and “ fished ”
after an interval.

Lastly, mussels, cockles, and periwinkles are mostly
collected by hand, though in places the former
molluscs are dredged or brought up by means
of a large rake. Whelks may be taken by hand
or in baited traps. ‘These animals are, however,
used almost entirely as bait for long lines.

INTRODUCTION XXX1

These are the most common methods of taking
sea-fish. To describe fully every variation of
these and the other less common modes of fishing
would take too much space for a work of this
nature. ‘The above account may, however, give
the reader such information as will enable him
to follow with ease discussions in which the action
of the various apparatus is dealt with.

PART I

THE DEVELOPMENT
OF MODERN LEGISLATION

‘Every legislative restriction means the creation of a new offence.
In the case of fishery, it means that a simple man of the people,
earning a scanty livelihood by hard toil, shall be liable to fine and
imprisonment for doing that which he and his fathers before him
have, up to that time, been free to do.

“If the general interest clearly requires that this burden should
be put upon the fishermen—well and good. But if it does not—if
indeed there is any doubt about the matter, I think that the man
who made the unnecessary law deserves a heavier punishment than
the man who breaks it.” (Hux.ey, “Inaugural Address,” /uterna-
tional Fisheries Exhibition (London) Literature, 1883.)

CHAPTER I
THE FISHERIES IN 1863

Att legislation which professes to regulate the
conduct of a trade or occupation must, in order
that it should be just and successful, be based on an
intimate knowledge of the technical and economic
conditions affecting the occupation. But the
Legislature is so constituted that few, if any, of
its members can acquire this knowledge of the
numerous occupations with the regulation of which
they may be concerned. It is necessary, then,
that, to devise satisfactory laws of this kind, the
Legislature should be guided by the knowledge of
such persons as have, or are capable of acquiring,
this familiarity with the occupation in question,
and who are otherwise able to advise them as to
the best form of the legislation necessary.

This is particularly true of the fishing industry,
where we have an occupation of a very technical
nature, and one with which the amateur has
peculiar difficulties in becoming conversant. It

is always difficult to determine exactly what are
3

4 BRITISH FISHERIES

the evils for which a remedy is to be sought, and
what should be the precise form of the remedial
measures. On the one hand there is the fisherman,
with an intimate knowledge of the condition of
the industry—at least so far as his own branch is
concerned, but usually knowing little outside this.
He is generally a strongly biassed person, and,
like most of us, is naturally prone to regard his
own immediate interest as of paramount import-
ance; and he is generally in a position which
makes it difficult for his views and wishes to
obtain consideration in the proper quarters. On
the other hand there is the legislator, who is, as a
rule, more ignorant of the fishing industry than of
anything else. Between the two, then, there are
necessary either the administrative officials with
expert knowledge, or the Royal or Parliamentary
Commission.

This is the method by which fisheries legislation
has usually been elaborated. It has nearly always
followed inquiry by some such body. Obviously,
its success has depended on the ability and patience
displayed by the persons conducting the inquiry
and tendering advice to Parliament. That it
should often have failed has been due to causes
incidental to the nature of the fishing industry,
which differs notably in many respects from most
other occupations which have been the object
of legislation. The success of the sea-fisheries
depends almost entirely on the exploitation of

THE FISHERIES IN 1863 5

great natural resources which are extremely liable
to arbitrary fluctuations. It is characteristic of
the industry in any locality that it should be
subject to periodical depressions, which are due to
seasons of bad fishing ; and of the causes of these
bad seasons we have, even now, very little know-
ledge. An almost invariable feature of these
times of depression has been that they have given
tise to agitations for legislative restrictions of
some kind or other. Fishermen, as a class, are
extremely conservative, and generally resent the
introduction of new methods of fishing ; although
very observant, they have little notion of general
causes, and of the wider occurrences in connection
with their industry, and they are therefore very
apt to attribute a failure in the fishery to any
casual event which may have, in any way, pro-
voked their displeasure. We find accordingly that
during these bad seasons they have often sought for
interference with other forms of fishing than that
practised by themselves, or for interference with
the same form of fishing practised elsewhere ;*
and if the introduction of a new method happened
to coincide with such a bad season, they have con-
nected the two things together as cause and effect.”

1 For instance, in 1836—a season of bad herring fishing—the
fishermen of Loch Fyne entreated the Fishery Board to protect
their loch from ruin by putting down fishing for herring on the
east coast of Scotland. They believed that the Loch Fyne herring
went there to spawn and were caught.

2 Thus, the Irish Fishery Commissioners received the most press-

6 BRITISH FISHERIES

These depressions, due to bad seasons, or the
introduction of new methods, or both combined,
have in the past given rise to agitations which
have led to the appointment of committees or
commissions of inquiry; and during such agita-
tion the views of fishermen or of persons interested
in the sea-fisheries have been taken uncritically and
have been allowed to influence the inquiry and the
resulting legislation. It is beyond doubt that sufh-
cient investigation would, in many cases at least,
have shown that legislation was not necessary, or
would have suggested the proper remedy. It
would have been seen that fluctuations in the
abundance of fish in any one locality continually
occurred without permanent damage to the fishery,
and that these fluctuations were, moreover, beyond
the control of man. But an essential means for
such investigation—an accurate statistical history
of the course of the fishery—has not always existed,
and indeed is still wanting in many places; and
for want of this, and impartial scientific inquiry
into the conditions of the depression, incomplete
or erroneous conclusions have been arrived at, and
have led to unfortunate or, at least, unnecessary
legislation. It is necessary to bear these considera-
tions in mind to understand the nature and origin

ing remonstrances from the fishermen of Galway Bay because a
single yacht happened to trawl occasionally there. Trawling was
first practised during a time of bad fishing, and it was therefore
deemed to be an injurious method.

THE FISHERIES IN 1863 |

of the legislation of the first half of the nineteenth
century. It will be seen, then, that it was for
the most part spasmodic in its inception and
restrictive in character ; that it usually applied to
temporary conditions, and when these passed away
—as they usually did—the legislation remained, and
burdened the statute-book with futile, unnecessary,
or injurious enactments.

The chief code of fisheries legislation in England
was contained in the Convention Act of 1843.)
The quarrels of fishermen of different nationalities
have always been a fruitful subject for legislation,
and it was in consequence of such disputes that a
convention was arranged in 1839 between this
country and France, and embodied in Acts of the
Legislatures of both countries. These Acts gave
the fishermen of each country the exclusive rights
of fishing in territorial waters, that is, within an
imaginary line drawn round the coast three miles
distant from low-water mark, and from a straight
line joining the headlands of bays and estuaries not
more than ten miles apart.

Within these territorial limits each country
made its own fishery laws ; without them, on the
high seas, the Convention Act supplied a code
of regulations which applied to the following
matters :—

1. Numbering and lettering fishing boats, and
the flags and lights carried by these.

16 and 7 Vict. c. 79 (1843),

8 BRITISH FISHERIES

2. Forms and dimensions of fishing apparatus ;
close times for herring fishing.

3. General behaviour of boats and fishermen ;
supervision.

The Board of Trade, the Customs, and the
Admiralty were made fishery authorities under
this Act.

There was another Act in force (1 Geo. I. c. 18),
of a very stringent nature. This provided that all
fish-nets (with the exception of herring, sprat, and
pilchard nets) should have meshes of not less than
34 inches from knot to knot, and that nets of less
than this size should be seized and burned. It
forbade the landing or selling of unsizeable fish,’
and provided that such fish, if seized, should be
distributed among the poor of the parish. Need-
less to say, the provisions of this Act, if enforced,
would practically have destroyed fishing in the
open sea.

Neither this nor the Convention Act was
enforced. The latter was an example of legal
ambiguity, for opinions differed as to the limits
within which it was operative. It was contended
that it applied only to the territorial waters as
defined and to the English Channel. But it was
also held (and this was the better opinion) that it
operated all round the British coasts, even on the

1 The legal minimum sizes were :—Brill and turbot, 16 inches ;
codling, 12 inches; whiting, 6 inches; mullet, 12 inches; sole,
8 inches; plaice and dab, 8 inches; flounder, 7 inches,

THE FISHERIES IN 1863 9

north and west coasts of Scotland. A curious
anomaly resulted: so long as a trawler worked in
territorial waters (where small fish are relatively
abundant), he could use small-meshed nets, and
catch unsizeable fish, but on the high seas
(where unsizeable fish were relatively scarce) he
was compelled to use a wide-meshed net. Also,
under the Convention Act he was not allowed to
use a mesh of less than 13 inches square, but under
the Act 1 Geo. I. c. 18, he was compelled to use
a mesh of not less than 34 inches square. Both
Acts, be it remembered, were in force at the same
time. Fortunately, the fishermen were relieved of
the necessity of taking legal opinion as to their
liabilities, for there was practically no administration
and no supervision. There was no public body in
England concerned exclusively with the regulation
of the fisheries. The Customs people did indeed
enforce, to some extent, the law relating to the
numbering of fishing boats, and when numbers of
French and English boats were fishing together,
the Admiralty sent cruisers to preserve order.
The regulations as to the prohibition of Sunday
herring fishing and fishing in daylight were
observed, but only because these regulations agreed
with the wishes of the fishermen, and not by reason
of compulsion. Apparently the other regulations
in force were ignored.

A somewhat similar state of things existed in
Ireland. In that country the fisheries were in

fe) BRITISH FISHERIES

the charge of the Commissioners of Public Works,
who, by Acts of 1842 and 1848,! were given
almost absolute power to make by-laws for the
“government, protection, and improvement” of
the sea-fisheries. Numerous by-laws were indeed
made by this body, but no actual administration
existed. I shall refer to the state of the adminis-
tration in Ireland later on, and will only note
here that the authority there had to deal with
economic conditions without parallel in either of
the sister countries.

The fisheries in Scotland were regulated in a
very different spirit. A fishery board had been
formed in that country in 1808, expressly for the
purpose of encouraging the fishing industry—
chiefly the capture and curing of herring. This
authority, later on, took cognisance of other
matters than the fostering of the growing herring
fishery and curing industry. They had to
administer the Convention Act and other enact-
ments of a very special character. Generally,
the Scottish authority interpreted its powers in a
spirit of great discretion, but about the beginning
of the sixties a situation of much gravity arose.?

About 1848 a rival method of catching herrings
came into use in the Firth of Clyde. The older

1 5 and 6 Vict. c. 106 (1842), and 11 and 12 Vict. c. 92.

? There is an excellent account of the Scottish Trawling Acts by
Fulton in E£ighteenth Annual Report of the Fishery Board of Scotland,
part ili. p. 242.

THE FISHERIES IN 1863 II

method was that of the drift-net. The method
consisted in the use of a modification of the seine-
net, and was known locally as “trawling.”! The
new method was more profitable than the old
one, and there is really no reason why it should
not be practised wherever desired. But, as it
became generally adopted, violent disputes arose
between the fishermen using it and those still
following the older method, and it was generally
the drift-net men who were the aggressors in
these quarrels. The latter asserted that the
trawlers caught unwholesome fish, destroyed
spawn and fry, broke up the shoals and
ruined the season, and generally that they were
turbulent fellows, wanton in mischief. They
agitated for the prohibition of “ trawling,” and
in this they were supported by the fish merchants
and curers, who were influenced by motives of
self-interest, and who, in the trouble that followed,
were responsible for much discontent.

This agitation was successful in so far as the
Fishery Board were induced to press for prohibi-
tive legislation. An Act? was obtained in 1851
which prohibited the use of the seine-net for
catching herrings, and made the use of this
apparatus punishable by fine and imprisonment.
This Act was put into operation, but for various
reasons soon became disregarded, and “ trawling”

1 Tt had nothing in common with beam-trawling.
2 4 and 15 Vict. c. 26.

12 BRITISH FISHERIES

was again practised. Then a Treasury Committee
considered the matter, and found that the only
effect of the enactment was “to keep a consider-
able population in the habitual and successful
violation of the law.’ They recommended its
repeal, and, in consequence of this report, the
operation of the Act was practically suspended.
But disputes again arose, and the Board most
sensibly tried to obtain an Act enabling them
to restrict or prohibit seining wherever circum-
stances made this desirable. A Bill was intro-
duced by the Lord Advocate for this purpose ;
but in consequence of a strong agitation by the
fish merchants and curers, the intentions of the
Board were totally changed, and the Bill passed
into law as an Act? containing a much more
stringent prohibition of “trawling” than that of
1851. It was put in force, and for a time two
gunboats and a strong force of police were
stationed in Loch Fyne and the Firth of Clyde.

Even then it was found impossible to put down
“trawling,” and yet another Act” was passed in
1861, which provided not only for fine or im-
prisonment, but also for confiscation of the boats
and nets used, and the catches of fish made, in
contravention of the prohibition. Being rigorously
enforced, even to the extent that on one occasion a
fisherman was shot dead in Loch Fyne, this latter

1 23 and 24 Vict. c. 92 (1860).
2 24 and 25 Vict. c. 72.

THE FISHERIES IN 1863 ry

Act was found effective, and “trawling” for herring
was at length completely suppressed.

It must be pointed out that the Fishery Board did
not seek this additional restrictive legislation. ‘The
repressive Trawling Acts were brought about by
“ill-will and conflicts engendered among rival
classes of fishermen,” and by the influence brought
to bear on Parliament by drift-netters, curers, and
others, “‘whose immediate interests were deeply
concerned in obtaining a repression of trawling,
which interfered with the prevalent system of fish-
ing, and lessened its gains.”’ The opposition of
the merchants and curers to trawling was due to
the fact that, by means of this method of fishing,
large quantities of fresh herrings were thrown into
the market at low prices, because the trawlers pre-
ferred supplying the fresh-fish markets rather than
the curers. This helped the competition with the
latter, and the prices of cured fish fell. Under the
Trawling Acts this competition was minimised, and
the price of cured fish again rose, and the consumer
suffered. Also, in consequence of this, Norwegian
cured herrings were able, in bad years, to compete
favourably in British markets.

The Trawling Acts had other effects which
illustrate the extreme difficulty inherent in fisheries
legislation. By making the seine-net an illegal
instrument for catching herrings, a flourishing
fishery for sprats in the Firth of Forth (worth

1 Report of the Commission on Herring Trawling in Scotland, 1863.

14 BRITISH FISHERIES

£7000-£8000 yearly) was, for a time, destroyed.
It was only after a winter of much severity and
hardship, after an unsuccessful action for interdict
in the Court of Session by the sprat fishermen,
and after “imminent risk of conflict and blood-
shed,” that sprat fishing was allowed within a
specified boundary. The Act of 1861 also pro-
hibited herring fishing on the whole west coast of
Scotland during the first half of the year, and this
caused much hardship. In Mull the seine-net
had been used for catching such fishes as saithe,
mackerel, and flounders, and the Trawling Acts
made this illegal. They also made the cod and
ling fishery impossible, for to catch these fishes
fresh herrings were used as bait, and to catch
herrings during the close season was illegal. The
Sheriff of Skye, writing on this matter, said :—
“‘ Last year, 1861, the herring fishery was a failure,
and the crops both of corn and potatoes were
lamentably deficient, the former to the extent
of nearly one-half, and the latter to the extent of
two-thirds. To add to what must have been the
sufferings from deficient food, the fuel of the
country, peats, had only been partially secured,
and was scanty and bad. There was no cry of
destitution, no appeal to the public for relief ; and
though, through that dreary winter, herrings came
to the coast, and the people were prevented from
taking them, no resistance was made; and four
policemen, sent from Argyleshire for the purpose,

THE FISHERIES IN 1863 15

were sufficient to secure the observance of this close
time in a population of 20,000. But there is no
doubt that it was submitted to with bitter feelings,
and not without a sense, natural enough in the
circumstances, however unfounded it may be
deemed, of cruel oppression.” ?

I have discussed the operation of the Scottish
Herring Trawling Acts at some length, because
there is little doubt that it was due largely to the
consideration of the effect of these enactments that
the Royal Commission of 1863 took up an attitude
which was entirely hostile to restrictive fishery
legislation of nearly every kind.

All the methods of fishing referred to in the
Introduction to this work, with the exception of
otter-trawling, were in operation in 1863. Beam-
trawling was even then by far the most important
means of catching sea-fish. About 1000 sailing
trawlers were working regularly from about a
dozen English ports. ‘These vessels were manned
by at least 5000 souls, and represented a capital
of at least one million sterling. ‘They must have
landed about 300 tons of fish per day. Other
methods of fishing were of course followed, and
though it is impossible to obtain statistics, we
know that a great number of smaller boats must
also have been employed. A few steam trawlers
were working regularly, but steam was not gener-
ally applied to fishing vessels, and ice was not

1 Report of the Commission on Herring Trawling, p. 18, 1863.

16 BRITISH FISHERIES

generally used for preserving the catches. The
first steam trawlers were tug-boats which, owing
to the increased development of steam power in
merchant vessels, had insufficient towage to keep
them fully employed.

The principal fishery in Scotland was that for
the herring. The development of beam and otter
trawling, which now bids fair to render Aberdeen
the first fishing port in the United Kingdom, had
not commenced in 1863. Cod, hake, and ling
were caught by means of lines. Herrings, cod,
ling, and hake were sold, to a limited extent,
in the fresh condition, but the bulk of these fishes
caught were cured for export. 13,191 boats,
manned by 43,358 men and boys, were fishing from
Scottish ports. The capital invested was about
£845,724. The total value of fish landed cannot
now be obtained, but in 1863, 654,816 barrels of
herring were cured, and 407,761 were exported ;
129,725 cwts. and 7337 barrels of cod, ling, and
hake were cured, and 53,736 cwts. were exported. !

Ireland presented a miserable contrast with
England and Scotland. Instead of the “ progres-
sive increase’ which the British fisheries showed,
those of Ireland had exhibited on the whole a
steady decrease during the thirty years preceding
the Report of the Royal Commission of 1863.

1 Rept. Comm. of British Fisheries for 1863.

CHAPTER II
THE ROYAL COMMISSION OF 1863

Tue fishery laws in 1863 were in a state of great
confusion. I have only mentioned a few of them,
but there was really a great number.’ Most of
them were obsolete and were not enforced. Of
those that were enforced, some were unnecessary
and others were positively injurious in their
effects. The Scottish Herring Trawling Acts
belonged to this latter category, and it is evident
that it was because of the effect of these en-
actments that the attention of Parliament was
directed in 1863 to the general question of
the condition of the British sea-fisheries. <A
Royal Commission” was therefore issued in that
year, with very wide terms of reference. The
Commissioners were directed to inquire: (1)
whether or not the value of the fisheries was
increasing, stationary, or decreasing ; (2) whether

1 See the second schedule of the Sea-Fisheries Act of 1868.
2 The members were Professor Huxley, Mr (afterwards Sir) J.

Caird, and Mr G. Shaw-Lefevre.
7 2

18 BRITISH FISHERIES

or not the existing methods of fishing did
permanent harm to the fishing grounds; and
(3) whether or not the existing legislation was
necessary. In 1866 this body issued a report,
which is really a historical document of great
value. It contains, in 1500 pages, an exhaustive
summary of the condition of the British fisheries,
based on the personal examination of the methods
of fishing in use, and on the answers to 61,831
questions put to witnesses. It may be confidently
commended to the attention of the reader who is
conscientious (and courageous) enough to make a
first-hand examination of the literature relating to
the national fisheries. No such exhaustive report
has since appeared, and in none that I am aware
of are the conclusions deduced so courageous or
uncompromising.

Even at the present day it is difficult to answer
the questions put to the Commissioners of 1863.
Accurate statistical information is still unobtainable
in most cases, and in 1863 this information hardly
existed. It was nevertheless possible to make a
rough estimate of the productivity of the British
fisheries. In England, the returns of fish carried
by the railway companies, and the current market
prices of fish, yielded data which, used critically,
convinced the Commissioners that the fisheries of
England, so far from being on the decline, were
increasing in value, and admitted of a still further
progressive increase. The state of affairs in 1863

THE ROYAL COMMISSION OF 1863 19

contrasted very favourably with that in 1833.)
Then, the fisheries had declined steadily since the
peace of 1815; capital yielded no return, the
numbers of boats and men were decreasing, and
the fishermen in many cases were dependent on
the poor-rates for support. In 1863 the value
of fish landed was on the increase; the capital
invested was yielding a satisfactory return; the
boats were increasing in size and number each
year ; the number of fishermen had doubled during
the last twenty years, and no other class of the
labouring population were in so prosperous circum-
stances. The Scottish herring statistics showed
that in that country the fisheries were in a most
satisfactory condition. It is true that in Ireland
the industry had declined to an alarming extent,
but in that country the cause was a well-ascertained
economic one, and was not due to a_ natural
impoverishment of the fishing grounds.

This being the case, the second question sub-
mitted to the Commissioners was already answered.
For it is very improbable that there could have
been a progressive increase in the value of the
industry if the methods of fishing in use had been
destructive to a wasteful degree. Nevertheless, it
was necessary to examine the effect of the prevalent
methods of capturing fish, for it was asserted on
all sides that these were ruinous to the industry.

1 A House of Commons Committee reported in this year on the
condition of the fisheries.

20 BRITISH FISHERIES

The complaints that were made of injurious
fishing fall into two classes: it was asserted that
each class of fishermen interfered with the opera-
tions of others ; and it was also asserted that certain
methods in use had a permanent effect in reducing
the value of the fishing grounds. With regard
to the first class of complaints, it is evident that
almost any one kind of fishing must almost inevit-
ably interfere with some other. I have already
given an instance of such a kind in referring to
the Scottish herring trawling agitation. If beam-
trawlers, drift-netters, and liners are working to-
gether on a restricted area, it will frequently
happen that the trawler will sail over a train of
drift-nets and injure the latter with his trawl warp,
or he may drag his trawl across a long line and
do a certain amount of damage to this. Nearly
every class of fisherman made such complaints
against some other, but most of them combined
in crediting the trawler with more than his share
of this kind of malpractice. The latter was, in
fact, a kind of piscatorial Ishmael.

Now, these complaints had no doubt a real
basis of fact. But one method of fishing cannot
equitably be prohibited or restricted at the expense
of another. The Commissioners took up an
attitude on this matter which at first sight seems
eminently reasonable. The sea, they said, is the
property of all, and no one has any vested right
or exclusive interest in the exploitation of any

THE ROYAL COMMISSION OF 1863. 21

particular portion of it, to justify him in so
occupying it as to prevent others from fishing in
his vicinity. If, for instance, a line fisherman
chooses to set a line in a part of the sea where
trawlers are working, he has to take the risk of
interference by the latter, and he can resort to
ordinary legal methods to obtain redress, if he
can show that the trawler wilfully or negligently
damages it. But he cannot reasonably expect
that trawling should be prohibited from the locality
in his particular interest, or in the interest of the
class of fishermen to which he belongs.

On the other hand, the State (so the Com-
missioners contended) may reasonably prohibit or
restrict one kind of fishing in the interests of others.
If one method is greatly superior to others, then
the latter may be restricted, for it is in the public
interest that the greatest catch of fish may be
obtained at the least possible expense of capital
and labour (provided that no permanent harm
is done to the fishing grounds), for then the
public food-supply is increased and cheapened.

The State may also make regulations to secure
the preservation of peace among fishermen at sea,
and for this end it may prohibit or restrict any
particular method of fishing. For instance, seiners
and drift-netters worked together in Loch Fyne.
There was much to be said in favour of a policy
of non-interference in this case, if it had been
possible, for the method of fishing with seine-nets

22 BRITISH FISHERIES

was a superior one, and the public benefited in the
supply of abundant and cheap food. But disputes
arose, and the State had to interfere and prohibit
the use of the seine-net in these narrow waters.
There were, of course other motives underlying
the repressive Trawling Acts, but it was this con-
sideration (the public peace) that had led to the
retention of the prohibition of seine-netting in
Upper Loch Fyne; and to this day, and on that
account alone, drift-netting is the only method of
catching herring which is permitted there.

Then, interference with the conduct of fisher-
men on the high seas, however undesirable in
itself it may be, becomes highly necessary when
numbers of vessels and men belonging to different
nationalities, and perhaps employing different
gear, are fishing in proximity to each other.
Accidents in such circumstances are apt to occur,
and the consequent disputes and risks of disturb-
ance, and the difficulty and delay in obtaining
redress in foreign law-courts, can be minimised
by proper regulations and supervision. The series
of international conventions to which I shall
refer later on have been drawn up with this end
in view.

But it was also asserted that some methods of
fishing were destructive and wasteful. Every
fisherman is inclined to assert this about every
other kind of fisherman. In local agitations it is
nearly always asserted that some other kind of

THE ROYAL COMMISSION OF 1863. 23

fishing than that practised in the neighbourhood
is to blame for any falling off in the value of the
fishery. In 1863 complaints were made that
beam-trawling was very destructive, because
it killed incredible quantities of spawn, fry, and
animals serving as food for fishes. Also, it caught
too much and led to “over-fishing,” and to the
supposed impoverishment of certain grounds.
Much less was known then of the natural
history of fishes,’ but still enough was known to
convince the Commissioners that these charges
were without foundation. Fishermen, though
very observant, are apt to form absurd hypotheses
as to the nature of the organisms encountered by
them. As a matter of fact, it was found that
the only kind of spawn that might possibly be
destroyed by the trawl was that of the herring,
and there was then (and now) no evidence that the
destruction of this had any appreciable effect on
the abundance of herring. The charge that the
trawl destroyed animals serving as fish food was
also baseless. ‘The trawl does indeed sweep over
the ground at the sea-bottom, and no doubt
destroys many of the organisms resting there.
It must be remembered, however, that the crush-
ing action of the irons and foot-rope is minimised,
because a portion of the weight of the apparatus
is lost by immersion in water; and as the trawl

1G. O. Sars had just discovered the spawn of the cod, but the
Commissioners were apparently unaware of this.

24 BRITISH FISHERIES

warp passes obliquely upward towards the ship,
only so much pressure on the bottom is allowed
as will cause the net to sweep up the animals
lying there. Anyone who has looked over the con-
tents of a trawl-net, when these are emptied out on
deck, will see that the invertebrate animals brought
up, many of them extremely delicate in structure,
are for the most part uninjured.

But the other charge made, that trawling and
the use of fine-meshed nets in bays and estuaries
destroyed immature fishes and fry to a wasteful
degree, is apparently a very reasonable one. I
shall examine this in detail later on, and may
therefore dismiss it with little ceremony here.
The attitude of the 1863 Commissioners on this
question was interesting, and may be briefly
stated. It was true, they contended, that enormous
destruction was effected in fishing operations.
But was this destruction wasteful? Enormous
as it was, it was insignificant when compared
with the destruction which went on zormally in
nature, as the result of agencies over which man
had no control. The destruction of immature
fish by fishing operations was not, therefore,
wasteful in degree, and did no permanent harm
to the fisheries. I do not see how this con-
clusion could reasonably be denied in 1863,
however much it may be necessary to modify it
at the present time.

When the principles thus laid down by the

THE ROYAL COMMISSION OF 1863 25

Commissioners are borne in mind, it will be
easy to surmise what were their views with
regard to the utility of the legislation in force.
They regarded the whole code of 1863 as either
futile, unnecessary, or injurious. The only
regulations desirable were such as were necessary
to preserve peace and minimise legal disputes.
No administration was necessary, except what
was required to provide police supervision and
machinery for the collection of statistics. Restric-
tions and regulations might easily prove sources
of injury to the fisheries, and hardship to the
fishermen, in the hands of ‘“injudicious and
meddling administrators.” Their attitude with
regard to the Scottish Herring Trawling Acts
illustrates their general views with regard to
fishery regulations. Speaking of these Acts, they
said that their practical effects had been :—

“To reduce the population of some of the
western islands to misery and starvation, while
abundant food was lying in front of their doors,
by preventing them from taking herrings.

“To destroy, or greatly impede, an important
branch of fishery, by preventing the use of
herrings as bait for cod-fish.

“To require the introduction of a special
police, and to introduce a habit of smuggling
and a spirit of disobedience to the law among
an orderly and well-disposed, though very poverty-
stricken population.

26 BRITISH FISHERIES

“To produce all these effects without a shadow
of evidence to show that the enforcement of a
close time has a beneficial effect upon the supply
of fish, or in any way promotes the public interest ;
though without doubt the close time is exceed-
ingly convenient for the curers, in its twofold
effect upon the labour market and the herring
market.”

It has been said that the Commission of 1863
were influenced by the spirit of the Free Trade
movement, and that the doctrines of Cobden and
Bright were to a large extent responsible for the
liberating and liberalising tone of their report.
This is to be traced in the tone of their con-
clusions and recommendations, and it coloured
the questions put to the witnesses. The reader
of the fishery literature of the time will easily
trace the same opinions in the utterances of
many of the administrations of the two decades
following the publication of the report of 1863.?
They were strongly opposed to the bounty system
and to the system of branding herrings in
Scotland, a system which they considered to be
an unnecessary (and uneconomic) fostering of the

1 Report, Royal Commission of 1863, p. 114 (8vo edition). The
result of these representations was to secure the passage of an Act
(30 and 31 Vict. c. 52, 1867) that abolished the close time for
herrings on the west coast of Scotland north of the Clyde.

2 See a lecture by Sir Spencer Walpole on the “British Fish
Trade” in Literature, International Fisheries Exhibition, London,
1883. Wm. Clowes.

ke py he

\\

THE ROYAL COMMISSION OF 1863 | 27,

industry. Their recommended policy of throw-
ing open the ports and the territorial waters of
the United Kingdom to foreign fishermen was
dictated by the same views, and was in thorough
accord with prevailing economic doctrines.
Nevertheless, they had a profound conviction of
the incalculable resources of nature, and of the
insignificance of man’s operations in reducing
those resources; and however those views may
require modification at the present day, they were
then thoroughly justified by the development
of the fishing industry, and they were just
those views which aided (or perhaps made
possible) the prodigious after-development of the
fishing trade.

The recommendations made by the Commis-
sioners of 1863 were that all laws which professed
to regulate fishing in the open sea be repealed,
and that all similar laws applying to native
waters be also repealed, with the exception of
a local Act regulating fishing at St Ives, in
Cornwall, and of so much of the Scottish Herring
Trawling Acts as prohibited seining in Upper
Loch Fyne. They regarded these excepted
regulations as objectionable in themselves, but
nevertheless necessary in the interest of peace.
They also recommended the passage of an Act
securing police supervision at sea, so as to prevent
disputes among fishermen, and provide easy means
of obtaining legal redress.

14

28 BRITISH FISHERIES

All this was brought about by the passage
into law, in 1868, of the Sea-Fisheries Act.?
By this enactment over fifty Acts of Parliament,
dating back through several centuries, were
expunged from the statute-book. The Huxleian
ideal of unrestricted fishing was realised, and a
fisherman was enabled to pursue his calling,
“how, when, and where he pleased.’ A
beginning was made of the delicate task of
obtaining a code of international sea - fisheries
regulations. With these changes fisheries ad-
ministration emerged from a phase of restriction
without reasonable basis, and took on a more
liberal complexion. That a period of restriction
has again been entered upon is due to causes
which I will try to explain in the next three
chapters.

1 31 and 32 Vict. c. 45.

CHAPTER III
THE TRAWLING COMMISSION

Wuen we consider the laborious and exhaustive
inquiry made by the Commission of 1863, it
seems reasonable to suppose that the question of
the supposed injurious effects of trawling should
have been finally set at rest. This was, however,
far from being the case, and the reason is not
dificult to find. Beam-trawling was becoming
more extensively practised, and as no really
satisfactory code of sea-fisheries regulations had
been put in force, in spite of the recommendations
of 1866, collision between the various classes of
fishermen was still frequent, and gave rise to much
dispute. The effect of trawling on the spawn
and fry of fishes was still misunderstood, and, in
spite of the clear and accurate statements made
by the Commissioners of 1863, great misappre-
hension still existed with regard to this point.
Finally, there is no doubt that a considerable basis
of fact did exist for the statements made, during

the period we are now considering, as to the
29

30 BRITISH FISHERIES

depletion of many inshore fishing grounds as a
result of excessive trawling.

Two public inquiries, then, belong to this
period. In 1878 all the assertions made in 1863
were again repeated; the trawl-net was said to
destroy fish spawn and immature fish to a waste-
ful extent; the national fish-supply was said
to be decreasing, and restrictive legislation was
again called for. It is obvious that if a Govern-
ment department had been in existence, and had
kept itself conversant with the condition of the
fisheries, and had collected trustworthy statistics
of the fish landed, these assertions might have
been disposed of as they were made. However,
in 1878 the Home Secretary appointed another
Commission! to examine into the state of the
fisheries, and this body made a report in the
following year. It is unnecessary to go into its
proceedings and report at any length, as it covered
much the same ground as did its predecessor,
and it came to much the same conclusions. The
actual conditions of the fisheries had not, in fact,
changed much during the interval between 1866
and 1879. The Commissioners were evidently
strongly influenced by the opinions expressed in
1866, and they made few recommendations which
need concern us here. The question of inter-
national agreement as to matters of sea-fisheries
supervision was discussed by them, but while

1 Frank Buckland and (then) Mr Spencer Walpole.

1

THE TRAWLING COMMISSION 31

their inquiry was in progress, negotiations were
being dragged out, which resulted in the Inter-
national Convention of 1882. They recommended
that the powers exercised by the Home Office
under the Salmon Fishery Act of 18617 in respect
of the fresh-water fisheries be also extended to
sea-fisheries, and this was done in 1886, and
a definite Government department, under the
Board of Trade, was constituted in that year,”
which took some cognisance of the sea-fisheries.
One other recommendation was made by them,
and this led to an Act which is so good an
example of ill-considered and futile legislation
that I notice it here at length. Complaints had
frequently been made of the almost wanton de-
struction effected by trawlers working over shell-
fish beds, which were fished by the line fishermen
in order to obtain bait for their hooks. These
complaints were well founded, and the Commis-
sioners recommended that machinery be provided
to prevent this destruction. This “ machinery”
was furnished by the Clam and Bait Beds Act
of 1881,? which empowered the Board of Trade
to issue a Provisional Order prohibiting or re-
stricting trawling on any area within the territorial
limits, where damage might be done to clam or
bait beds. But, to obtain this Order, application

1 24 and 25 Vict. c. 109 (1861).
2 By the Act 49 and 50 Vict. c. 39 (1886).
3 44 Vict. c. 11 (1881).

32 BRITISH FISHERIES

had to be made to the Board by the representatives
of the fishermen, or by certain local authorities.
Then, after a local inquiry by an inspector of the
Board, an Order might be issued, but this Order
required confirmation by an Act of Parliament
before it could be enforced. The expenses of
these proceedings had to be borne by the appli-
cants, and the fishermen could not, as a rule, afford
this; while the local authorities were unwilling
to incur expense where a small class only of the
population were concerned, and in a _ matter
which lay somewhat apart from their ordinary
affairs. The difficulty and expense of obtaining
powers under the Act were, therefore, so great
that it became practically a dead letter.’

The Commission of 1878 had therefore little
effect on subsequent legislation; but the other
inquiry which I have to mention here was very
important, because of the influence it had on
fisheries administration and scientific research. Its
inception seems to have been due to the usual
causes—renewed agitation against trawling on the
part of the line and drift-net fishermen, accom-
panied by positive statements of the declining
yield of the fishing grounds since trawling became
extensively practised. The whole question was
now about to receive settlement, and the inquiry
and report of the Trawling Commission marks
the transition from the policy of J/aissez-faire,

1 It was repealed by 51 and 52 Vict. c. 54 (1888).

THE TRAWLING COMMISSION — 33

initiated by the report of the Commission of
1863, and the beginning of modern legislative
restriction.

The Commissioners were Lord Dalhousie, Mr
Edward Marjoribanks (afterwards Lord Tweed-
mouth), Professor Huxley, Mr (afterwards Sir)
T. F. Brady, and Mr W. S. Caine. Professor
Huxley, however, was prevented by illness from
taking part in the preparation of the report, and
did not sign it. They began their inquiry in
1883, and the report was presented to Parliament
in 1885. They made a departure in method by
securing the services of Professor W. C. M‘Intosh,
who made a series of observations on the effects
of trawling on board Scottish and English steam
trawling vessels, and whose report, published as
an appendix to the report of the Commissioners,
is still a document of some interest. The inquiry
was thus, to a certain extent, scientific in character,
and from the frequent allusions made to Professor
M‘Intosh’s report, there seems little doubt that
the Commissioners were strongly influenced by
his results and opinions.

Much knowledge had been gained, during the
interval between 1866 and 1885, of the nature
of fish spawn and of the spawning habits of fishes.
The Commissioners of 1863 had, indeed, come to
a perfectly sound conclusion as to the effect of
trawling on fish spawn; but, though it was easy

to show that the organisms brought up by the
3

34 BRITISH FISHERIES

trawl-net, supposed by fishermen to be of this
nature, had really nothing whatever to do with
fishes, the evidence that the trawl did not destroy
the spawn of fishes was inconclusive, so long as
the true nature of the latter was unknown. In
1864, Professor G. O. Sars of Christiania dis-
covered certain small, round, transparent bodies
floating on the surface of the sea in the areas
where cod-fishing was extensively carried on, and
he proved that these bodies were the eggs of
that fish, and that if they were observed for a
certain time the hatching out of the little fish
could be easily seen. This discovery was con-
firmed by Professor Malm of Gothenburg, who
also found that the spawn of the plaice and
haddock was of the same character, and by and
by the same was found to be the case with many
other fishes, and it was shown that, though
normally residing near the sea-bottom, they
emitted spawn which rose to the surface and
floated, and underwent its further development
there. By the time the Trawling Commission
had reported, these discoveries had been applied
to many other fishes, and it was known that,
with the exception of the herring, the eggs of
all the economic fishes were pe/agic in character,
that is, they floated about freely near the surface
of the sea. It was obvious, then, that the trawl-
net could do no damage to them, since it worked
at the sea-bottom. The eggs of the herring had

THE TRAWLING COMMISSION a5

long been known to be demersa/, that is, they were
heavier than sea-water, and underwent develop-
ment lying on the sea-bottom. In this case there
was no doubt that the trawl might, if it were
worked on a herring spawning ground, pass over
masses of these eggs, and at least seriously disturb
them. Herring spawning banks may, however, be
situated on stony ground, over which it is difficult
to trawl, and it appeared from Professor M‘Intosh’s
observations that, even if a trawl did pass over such
masses of herring spawn, much damage need not
necessarily result. Besides, the herring, from its
migratory habit and its enormous abundance, is
less susceptible to injury from this source than
most other fishes.

The assertion that the trawl-net was injurious
to fish spawn was thus finally disproved, and the
same result was obtained with regard to the other
commonly stated effect of trawling—that it
destroyed the bottom-living animals serving as
food for fishes. "The Commission concluded also
that there was no proof of the wasteful or un-
necessary destruction of immature food-fishes by
this method of fishing. There remained, then,
the last charge brought against trawling—that
it was a method of fishing which led to the
impoverishment of the fishing grounds.

So far the conclusions of the Trawling Com-
missioners were practically identical with those
arrived at by their predecessors ; but with regard to

36 BRITISH FISHERIES

this latter charge a remarkable change of opinion
is now, for the first time, apparent. Whatever
effect the great development of trawling, and
especially of steam trawling, had, would be most
likely to show itself first on the inshore fishing
grounds, and, as a matter of fact, they received
several complaints of a falling off in the number of
fishes frequenting those grounds, and they came to
the conclusion that these complaints had a basis of
fact. ‘We are of opinion,” they said,’ “that on
many fishing grounds” (on the inshore waters),
“from the Moray Firth to Grimsby, there has
been a falling off in the takes of flat fish, both as
regards quantity and quality. There has also been
a decrease in the takes of haddock in certain
places, chiefly in bays and estuaries.” With the
exception of soles, no decrease in the takes of sea-
fish has been demonstrated to have taken place on
the offshore fishing grounds of the North Sea.
The position thus taken up, in asserting the im-
poverishment of the fishing grounds, was a new
one for a modern commission of inquiry, but it
was supported by much evidence. The obser-
vations undertaken by Professor M‘Intosh led to
the same conclusions, and that investigator was of
opinion that there had been a diminution in the
number of round fishes and in the size of flat
fishes in the areas specially observed by him, viz.
the inshore waters of Aberdeen Bay, St Andrews
1 Report of the Trawling Commission, p. xxvii.

THE TRAWLING COMMISSION 47

Bay, the Firth of Forth, and the fishing grounds
off Scarborough.

Though the Commissioners seem to have been
satisfied that the inshore fishing grounds had
undergone some deterioration, they were not so
certain as to the exact cause. There was no doubt,
from the evidence laid before them and from the
observations made by Professor M‘Intosh, that
trawling had not produced this effect by damaging
the food or spawn of fishes; and they were
convinced that the destruction of immature fish
had no injurious effect on the fish-supply. There
remained, therefore, the hypothesis that trawling
might exhaust or impoverish a fishing ground
simply because of its great effectiveness as a
method of fishing: that a ground might become
“‘ over-fished,” and consequently less profitable. It
is notable that they were reluctant to come to this
conclusion, and they suggested that other causes
might, at least, co-operate in producing this effect.
Bad seasons of fishing might result from natural
fluctuations in the abundance of fish ; the evidence
itself was not sufficiently exact ; too much reliance
could not be placed on the impressions and re-
collections of fishermen. They could not conclude,
therefore, that trawling was the sole cause of the
impoverishment. “In so far as it may contribute
to that decrease,” they say,’ “we think it can only
be as part of a system of over-fishing, and not

1 Report of the Trawling Commission, p. Xxxvi.

38 BRITISH FISHERIES

because of any wasteful destruction of spawn,
fish food, or immature fish.” Professor M‘Intosh
was, however, more confident of the connection
between trawling and depleted fishing grounds.
“On the whole,” he says,! “ trawling seems to have
had a considerable effect on the inshore fishes at
Aberdeen as elsewhere”; and again, ‘“ Marine
fisheries, hitherto, have been conducted as_ if
practically inexhaustible, both liners and trawlers
taking as much from the sea as possible, while no
margin has ever been afforded the breeding fishes.
Fishermen and fishing boats have increased in
number at many places, and trawling has likewise
been extending, so that it is not a matter for surprise
that some changes in the fishes have occurred.”
And he comes to this conclusion: “The results
of successive hauls of the trawl over the same
ground appear to point to a reduction in the
number of the round fishes, but especially in the
size of the flat fishes.”

It is evident, then, that the Trawling Commis-
sion had come to the conclusion that some kind of
restriction on trawling would probably be required
in the interests of the sea-fisheries ; and further,
that there was urgent need of renewed investigation
of the effect of trawling on the stability of a
fishing ground. Hitherto the only observations
made with this end in view were those conducted
by Professor M‘Intosh, and these they could not

1 Report of the Trawling Commission, p. xvi.

THE TRAWLING COMMISSION 39

regard as being conclusive from a scientific point
of view. In shaping their recommendations they
seem to have kept sight of both these objects, for
they advised that statutory powers be given the
Scottish Fishery Board (then the only effective
fishery authority in existence in Great Britain), to
enable them to regulate or suspend trawling, or
any other method of fishing, within territorial
waters; and also that sufficient Treasury support
be given them to admit of the purchase of a steam
vessel and the prosecution of scientific investiga-
tions at sea. ‘The manner in which trawling
could be dealt with had previously been suggested
by the Fishery Board." Two courses were open,
they said: trawling should either be prohibited
entirely, except to vessels holding the licence of the
Board, or the sea should remain free to all, except
such areas as might be barred by by-law. Of
these two courses, they preferred the latter. ‘“ We
are against,” they said, “making the sea a mare
clausum. A public licence to exercise an honest
calling is opposed to the spirit of our institutions.
The true spirit is freedom, qualified by such
regulations as in the common interest may be
found to be just and necessary.”

The latter course was the one recommended
by the Trawling Commission, and speedy effect
was given to it by Parliament. In the same
year the Sea-Fisheries (Scotland) Amendment

1 Report of the Fishery Board for Scotland for 1884, pt. i., p. xlv.

40 BRITISH FISHERIES

Act" was passed. Whatever may have been the
exact view of the Commissioners, there is no doubt
that this Act contemplated the restriction or prohi-
bition of trawling in the interests of other forms of
sea-fishing. It empowered the Fishery Board to
make by-laws” restricting or prohibiting any form
of fishing in any defined area of the Scottish terri-
torial waters. This might be done if the Board
were satisfied that the given method of fishing was
injurious to other forms of fishing, or if it, inter-
fered with operations relating to fish-culture, or
with observations or experiments made with the
view of ascertaining whether any particular mode
of fishing was injurious. ‘The Board speedily took
advantage of these increased powers, and in 1886
they initiated their policy of closing the waters
under their control against any form of trawling.
The first by-laws closed certain areas off the
east coast—part of the Moray Firth, Aberdeen
Bay, St Andrews Bay, and the Firth of Forth ;
and the object was that the prosecution of scien-
tific trawling observations by the Board’s steamer
might not be interfered with. The object of
these observations was to ascertain whether certain
areas might become plentifully stocked with fish
on the cessation of trawling by commercial fishing
vessels. This was done by making periodical
monthly trawls by an experimental trawling

1 48 and 49 Vict. c. 70 (1885).
2 With the sanction of the Secretary of State for Scotland

THE TRAWLING COMMISSION 41

steamer, and by comparing the results of these
experiments; and the observations thus com-
menced were continued faithfully up to the year
1902. As time went on, however, the policy of
the Board changed to a certain extent; in 1889
a further extension of the closed area took place,
and the reason given was that the Board were
satisfied that, within the area to which the by-law
applied, ‘‘beam-trawling as a mode of fishing [was]
injurious to the sea-fisheries.” By this time all
the territorial waters off the east coast of Scotland,
from Tantallon Castle, on the south side of the
Forth, to the Ord of Caithness, on the north side
of the Dornoch Firth, were closed against trawling
vessels.

“This action gave great satisfaction to the line
and drift-net fishermen specially interested in the
areas so closed’; but those fishermen prosecuting
their calling in other territorial waters wished to
have the latter dealt with in like manner. The
Board were, however, as yet imperfectly equipped
with statutory powers to effect this, and it required
the passage of another Act! to enable them to
complete the carrying out of their policy of re-
striction of trawling. By this Act the whole of
the territorial waters off the coasts of Scotland,
with the exceptions of the Solway and Pentland
Firths, were closed against trawling, and, in addi-

1 The Herring Fishery (Scotland) Act, 52 and 53 Vict. c. 23
(1889).

42 BRITISH FISHERIES

tion, a number of other areas, lying outside the
true territorial waters, were also closed. The same
enactment also gave them power to close the whole
of the area lying within a straight line drawn from
Duncansby Head in Caithness to Rattray Head
in Aberdeenshire, that is, the whole of the Moray
Firth ; and in 1890 a large portion of this area
was closed. Finally, in 1891, the Board took full
advantage of the powers enjoyed by them, and
included the whole of the Moray Firth in their
list of closed waters. Their policy had again
changed somewhat, and the further reason assigned
for the closure of these offshore grounds was that
it was necessary to secure the protection of the
immature fish spawned there and inhabiting the
banks in the area. The capture and destruction
of these immature fishes, they held—and this
opinion had come to be commonly believed in—
was the chief cause of the diminution in the fish-
supply ; and this measure was adopted in the
interests of the preservation of the latter.

These by-laws naturally gave rise to much
dissatisfaction on the part of the trawling popula-
tion. It is to be remembered that they operated
very unequally on different nationalities. Thus
the foreign trawler was at perfect liberty to fish in
the offshore waters of the Moray Firth and the
Firth of Clyde, which, though still outside the
territorial limits, were closed to British fishermen.

1 Defined in the Schedule to the Act.

THE TRAWLING COMMISSION 43

But the foreign boat could not legally land and sell
the fish so caught at a Scottish port, though she
might do so at an English port. Thus there arose
this anomaly in fisheries legislation: a foreign
trawler might make (say) Fleetwood her port of
landing, and fish steadily in the closed offshore
waters of the Firth of Clyde, returning with her
catch to that port.! At the same time the Fleet-
wood trawler was prohibited from fishing in the
same area. The anomaly might have been pre-
vented by making the sale of trawl fish caught
within Scottish closed waters illegal in British
ports, but this was not done, and to that extent
the restrictive legislation failed in its object.

I have now traced the origin of the restrictive
trawling legislation so far as Scotland is concerned.
The same policy was initiated later on in England,
but at the initiative of fisheries authorities which
were not created till a later period.

1 This has actually been the practice. See Rept. Superintendent
Lancashire Sea-Fisheries District for June 1903.

CHAPTER IV
THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS

Apart altogether from the questions of the regula-
tion of times and methods of fishing, there is the
matter of the police supervision of fishermen and
fishing boats at sea, and this has been a fruitful
subject of legislation. If good order had to be
maintained among, and disputes settled between,
fishermen of the same nationality, this would still
be a task of great difficulty ; but when these things
relate to the fishermen of several countries working
on the same area, it becomes much more difficult.
The exclusive jurisdiction of a country over the sea
adjacent to its coasts extends only to a distance of
three miles from low-water tide-marks. Within
these territorial limits its subjects possess the sole
right of fishing, and foreign fishing boats, though
they enter under stress of weather and other cir-
cumstances, may not exercise any method of
fishing. The theory of the “three-mile limit ”
was that a country had control over the sea only
as far as a shot from a cannon could carry. This

44

THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS 45

theory has, of course, become upset by the advance
made by modern artillery, but the old limit has
become fixed in law. Curiously enough, the old
Scottish law seems to have held that the territorial
limits extended so far seawards as a man could see
from the shore, or to that distance at sea from
which the ordinary land contour could be ob-
served.! In the older days of fishing the three-
mile limit was probably sufficient, as sea-fishing
would not be practised much beyond that distance
from the shore. For a very long time, however,
the area over which fishing boats have worked has
continually extended, and it was soon found that
some jurisdiction was necessary over fishermen
working outside territorial waters. It seems clear
that the Government of this country, at least, has
the power of regulating the conduct of its own
fishermen, wherever they may be working, whether
within the territorial waters or on the high seas,
and the closure of the offshore portion of the
Moray Firth is a case which illustrates this. This
control over foreign fishermen also, and easy

1 Wider views were held at one time, however. “In the time of
K. James the 5th, the Hollanders having only a verbal licence to fish
at 28 miles distance cam neere the shore into the mouth of the
Furth of Edenborough, and ther fished in despight of the Kings
comand, Then the King sent out men of warre and took so manie
of them that he sent a barilful of their heads into Holland w* their
names fixed to their forheads uppon cards.” The King hada grim
sense of humour. (MS. in Public Records Office. State Papers,
vol. clii, No. 63; quoted in Mackenzie’s History of the Outer
Hebrides, p. 304, Paisley, 1903).

46 BRITISH FISHERIES

methods of obtaining redress from them in case
of injuries committed on subjects of this country,
became very necessary when fishing had extended
to the great offshore grounds. In_other words,
international regulation and an international sea-
police became very desirable.

I have already referred to the earliest efforts
made to acquire this control. It will be remem-
bered that a convention was arranged between
Great Britain and France in 1839, and that Acts
of Legislature giving effect to this arrangement
were passed in both countries. ‘The Convention
Act of 1843 was, however, a very defective piece
of legislation ; its provisions were generally not
beneficial to the sea-fisheries, and the limits within
which it operated were exceedingly obscure. The
Royal Commission of 1863 did its best to suggest
a workable and useful code of regulations, and the
only piece of constructive legislation effected by it
was the portion of the Sea-Fisheries Act of 1868
which dealt with matters of police and with the
better regulation of the oyster fisheries. This
Act gave effect, in Great Britain, to a convention
between that country and France, and it repealed
the Convention Act of 1843. Before it could
become operative on French fishermen, however,
reciprocal legislation was necessary, and this was
not adopted in France. The Act of 1868, there-
fore, became a dead letter so far as French fisher-
men were concerned ; and by the repeal of the Act

THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS 47

of 1843, no means existed whereby a British
fisherman could obtain redress for an injury com-
mitted by a native of France.

This was a state of matters which could not
continue, and it was found necessary to re-enact
the provisions of the Convention of 1839. This
was done in 1877,' and for a time an anomalous
system of jurisdiction existed. ‘The Conventions
applied only to the English Channel, and the
great and fruitful area of the North Sea was left
entirely unprovided for. Therefore, if a French
fisherman injured a British fisherman in the
Channel, he could be proceeded against ; but if he
committed the injury in the North Sea, redress
was impossible to obtain. Again, a British fisher-
man proceeding for compensation against another
British fisherman took advantage of the Act of
1868, but if he proceeded against a Frenchman,
he had to be content with the Act of 1843.

The state of the law, then, as regards the
regulation of the fishing boats on the offshore
fishing grounds was extremely unsatisfactory, and
the Commissioners of 1878 drew attention to the
need for reform. Several inquiries were also held
with the object of determining the nature and
scope of the legislation demanded. The facts
brought out by these inquiries are fairly repre-
sented by the evidence published in the report

1 By the Fisheries (Oysters, Crabs, and Lobsters) Act, 4o and
4t Vict, c. 42 (1877).

48 BRITISH FISHERIES

of an extensive investigation made in 1881 by
Mr W. H. Higgin into the question,’ from
which it appeared that injuries of various kinds
were frequent in occurrence. Many of these
were perhaps unavoidable, but there was evidence
of wanton destruction of fishing gear. Foreign
trawlers, for instance, in many cases, made use
of apparatus designed to cut through drift-nets
encountered by them, so as to save them the
trouble of hauling their nets to avoid fouling.’
Then there was no uniform and recognised method
of lighting and marking foreign boats, and identifi-
cation of the offender was usually impossible.
There were no regulations for the purpose of
preventing collisions between boats using different
gears and working in proximity to each other.
There was no international system of supervision,
and no convenient method of legal proceedings
with respect to a foreign country. Finally, a
most objectionable traffic in spirituous liquors had
grown up, and had been attended with particularly
unfortunate effects.

The necessity for international regulation of the
North Sea fisheries was therefore most urgent, and
a conference of the Powers was held at the Hague,
the result of which was the International North
Sea Convention of 1882, entered into by Great

1 Report on the Outrages committed by Foreign upon British
Fishermen in the North Sea, 1881 (c. 2878).
2 See the picture of the “devil” in Mr Higgin’s Report.

THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS 49

Britain, Germany, Belgium, Denmark, France, and
Holland. Effect was given to this arrangement
by the Sea-Fisheries Act of 1883,1 which gave the
Crown power to make regulations for the conduct
of sea-fishing boats in the North Sea by means of
Orders in Council. ‘The matters dealt with in the
Act are :—

1. A renewed statement of the exclusive rights of
British fishermen to fish in their territorial waters ;

2. The maintenance of good order among fisher-
men at sea ;

3. Close times for oyster-fishing ;

4. The prevention of wilful damage to fishing
gear; and

5. The lighting and registry of British sea-
fishing boats.

It also provided for legal proceedings, and
simplified these to some extent. For the enforce-
ment of the Act, certain classes of persons were
appointed fisheries officers: these were com-
missioned officers of the Navy, Consular and
Customs officers, Board of Trade and Coastguard
officers. They were given power both with
regard to British and foreign boats acting in
contravention of the Act, which included board-
ing, search, arrest, and detention. All the above,
it must be remembered, applied only to boats
fishing in the North Sea; and with respect to
French boats fishing in the English Channel, the

1 46 and 47 Vict. c. 22 (1883).
4

50 BRITISH FISHERIES

Act of 1843 was still held to continue in force.
Difficulties arose between Great Britain and
Belgium, with regard to proceedings under the
Act of 1883, and to simplify these a further
Declaration between those countries was entered
into, and this was given effect to in another Sea-
Fisheries Act.1 These Acts, with the Merchant
Shipping Acts, the Sea-Fisheries Act of 1868, and
the various Orders in Council made to give them
effect, constitute the existing body of sea-fisheries
police legislation.

Another aspect of international regulation had
long engaged the attention of those interested in
the sea-fisheries. This was the traffic in spirituous
liquors in the North Sea. For a long time boats
specially fitted out for the purpose had traded in
that area among the fishing fleets, and supplied
“tobacco, spirits of a vile quality, scents, obscene
cards and photographs.”* These boats were
known as “coopers” or ‘“ bum-boats,”” and were
sailed chiefly from Dutch and German ports.
Some of them were English smacks, but these
usually ended in being sold in foreign ports and
worked under a foreign flag. One at least was
owned, fitted out, and sailed by an Englishman.
They were officially described* as “ floating-grog-

1 54 and 55 Vict. c. 37 (1891).

2 Correspondence relating to the Liquor Traffic in the North Sea,
1888 (c. 5263).

3 Report by Mr W. H. Higgin, etc. (c. 2878), 1881.

THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS 51

shops of the worst possible description, uncon-
trolled or unregulated by any superior power or
force whatsoever.” An exhaustive inquiry was
made in 1881, and much evidence was obtained
showing the “nefarious nature of the trade carried
on by these ‘bum-boats,’ and the dreadful evils
therefrom resulting, evils which not only include
theft, gross breaches of trust, assaults, robbery,
obscenity, and smuggling, but even in a few cases
resulting in violent deaths.” ’ Fishermen sold
their catches, gear, and sails for the goods supplied
by these boats, and there was a direct inducement
to trade with them, for tobacco could be obtained
from them at a low cost, being free of duty.
The question of the abolition or regulation of the
traffic came up for discussion at the Conference
held at the Hague in 1881, which resulted in the
North Sea Convention, but no settlement was
arrived at; and it is almost incredible that the
regulation of the “coopers” was objected to as an
interference with trade. A further inquiry was
made by a committee appointed by the Board of
Trade in 1883, and this body presented a report
in which the evils of the trade were again insisted
on, and interference was recommended as “ im-
peratively necessary.” In 1886 a final inquiry
was made by Rear-Admiral Gordon-Douglas and
Mr H. N. Malan, and the same conclusions
and recommendations resulted.
1 Report by Mr W. H. Higgin, etc., p. 7.

52 BRITISH FISHERIES

As a result of these various investigations, a
Conference’ was held at the Hague in 1886, to
consider the best way in which to deal with the
evil. An attempt had, in the meantime, been
made by the Mission to Deep-sea Fishermen, by
fitting out special smacks which worked on the
fishing grounds and did their best to minimise the
evil ; but international treatment of the traffic was
obviously the only effective remedy, and the Con-
ference brought this about. Asa result, a Conven-
tion was agreed upon, which was signed in 1887
by the representatives of Great Britain, Germany,
Belgium, Denmark, Holland, and France. This
bound the signatory Powers to effect such legisla-
tion as would prohibit entirely the sale of liquor
in the North Sea, and would make the liberty to
traffic in provisions and other articles (liquor ex-
cepted) subject to the possession of a licence. It
was arranged to bring the Convention into force
at a date to be subsequently fixed on, and, for this
purpose, an Act of Parliament? was passed in 1888.
This Act, however, never came into force, for
France declined to ratify the Convention. The
other Powers, therefore, entered into a Protocol
in 1893, by which they agreed to enforce the
Convention as far as their own subjects were con-
cerned, leaving it to France to give her adhesion

1 The British delegates were Mr C. M. Kennedy and Mr C.
Cecil Trevor.
2 The North Sea Fisheries Act, 1888, 51 and 52 Vict. c. 18.

THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS 53

ata later period. The result of this last agreement
was the happy settlement of the matter, and in
the same year the Act of 1886 was repealed, and
another Act was passed,! which gave effect to the
provisions of the Convention. Acts of Legislature
of the other participating Powers were also passed,
and these came into force in May 1894, since
which date the liquor traffic has been made illegal
in the North Sea, and trafficking in all other goods
has been made subject to the possession of a
licence.

This is a very brief account of the history of
international fishery regulation. It will be seen
that the arrangement of joint action is a tedious
and difficult matter; ratification of the Conven-
tions, even if they are satisfactorily arranged, is
always uncertain ; and the exact working of inter-
national regulations cannot easily be foreseen. But
the existing legislation applying to the North Sea
fisheries is on the whole satisfactory, when the
difficulties encountered in attaining it are con-
sidered ; and if it falls below the standard of what
is desirable, it is largely on account of the great
expense of policing such an extensive area, and
because much energy and elasticity are difficult to
apply to official methods, even by repeated Acts
of Parliament.

1 The North Sea Fisheries Act, 1893, 56 and 57 Vict. c. 17.

CHAPTER V
THE SELECT COMMITTEE OF 1893

Ir will be remembered that the Commission of
1883 made certain recommendations which re-
sulted in the imposition of restrictions on the
areas on which trawling might legally be practised.
Other recommendations were also made which
had a very important effect on the future of
sea-fisheries administration. At the time when
the report was issued the Scottish Fishery Board
had been in existence for about three years, and
was actively engaged in the administration of the
fisheries under its control. There was, however,
no fisheries office in England. Under an Act of
18611 two inspectors were appointed by the
Home Secretary, whose duties were to undertake
the inquiries necessary for the administration of
the fresh-water fisheries, and to lay annual reports
before Parliament, which were to include statistical
accounts of those fisheries, as far as that was
practicable, and were supposed to contain sugges-

1 Salmon Fishery Act, 24 and 25 Vict. c. 19.
54

THE SELECT COMMITTEE OF 1893 55

tions for their better regulation and improve-
ment. We have seen that the Commissioners
of 1878 (who were also the inspectors of salmon
fisheries) advised that the Home Secretary should
have power, after due inquiry, to issue Provisional
Orders restricting trawling in defined areas. To
carry out such inquiries, some authority was
necessary, and they advised that the powers
possessed by the salmon inspectors should be
extended so as to include the sea-fisheries also.
This was not done immediately, so that when
the Trawling Commission met there was no
authority in England having jurisdiction over the
sea-fisheries, except the Board of Trade, in so far
as it had authority under the Sea-Fisheries Act
of 1868, and the Acts amending this, to regulate
the oyster and shell fisheries, and to grant orders
conferring rights of “several fishery.”

This state of affairs was unsatisfactory, and the
Trawling Commission made recommendations
designed to remedy it. We have already seen
that, on their advice, the Government effected
legislation which gave the Scottish Fishery Board
largely increased powers and resources, and
enabled them to institute the scientific investiga-
tion of the Scottish fisheries. The Commissioners
went further, however, and, taking a comprehen-
sive view of the situation, they recommended
that a central authority should be created, with
powers “to supervise and control the fisheries

56 BRITISH FISHERIES

of Great Britain, if not of the United Kingdom,”
and that money should be annually granted by
Parliament so as to enable this body to carry out
scientific work and collect proper statistics. They
also advised that an authority similar to the
Scottish Fishery Board should be created for
England ; and that, in the meantime, powers to
restrict or suspend any mode of fishing, and to
spend money on scientific research, should be
conferred on the Home Secretary, or on the
President of the Board of Trade.

Now, these recommendations, so far as they
related to the Scottish Fishery Board, were
carried into effect almost immediately, and that
body became a very real and practical fisheries
authority. A very different result followed,
however, in the case of England, and for several
years no attention was paid to the results of the
Trawling Commission so far as they affected that
country. ‘The Board of Trade did indeed under-
take the collection of fisheries statistics in 1885,
but this step is stated’ to have been taken on the
initiative of the Duke of Edinburgh, who was
then Admiral-Superintendent of Naval Reserves,
and who had paid some attention to the matter ;
and, following his advice, the Treasury consented
to an annual expenditure of £500 on the acquisi-
tion of this information !

1 Report of the Inter-departmental Committee on Fishery Statistics,
1902, p. V.

THE SELECT COMMITTEE OF 1893 57

Instead of creating an English Board on the
model of the Scottish authority, the Government
instituted the present Fisheries Department of
the Board of Trade, and the system of local com-
mittees, which is the present form of fisheries
administration. The Salmon and _ Fresh-water
Fisheries Act of 18861 transferred the powers
and duties of the Home Office, with respect
to those fisheries, to the Board of Trade, and
at the same time made the Board take cog-
nisance of the sea-fisheries.s The inspectors
of salmon fisheries were made inspectors also
of sea-fisheries, and they were required to
prepare an annual report to be laid before
Parliament, containing a statistical account of
the fisheries, with suggestions for their improve-
ment. In making this change, the Government
legislated along the line of least resistance ;
and in instituting the system of local com-
mittees they followed their policy of local
government, which resulted in the institution
of the county councils in 1888. By the Sea-
Fisheries Regulation Act? of that year the
present system of sea-fisheries administration
came into existence.

The Sea-Fisheries Regulation Act cannot be
regarded in any way as resulting from the recom-
mendations of the Trawling Commission. It
gave the newly-constituted county councils power

1 49 and 50 Vict. c. 39. 2 51 and 52 Vict. c. 54.

58 BRITISH FISHERIES

to form district fisheries committees. On the
application of a littoral county or borough council,
or of two or more of these bodies, the Board was
empowered to issue, after due inquiry, an order
constituting a district sea-fisheries committee,
and defining the area over which such a committee
had jurisdiction. The members of these bodies
were to be members of the councils, with the
addition of representatives from the Boards of
Conservators,! and of members nominated by the
Board of Trade and representing the fishery
interests—the fishermen, fishing-boat owners,
and fish-salesmen of the neighbourhood. Their
powers for the regulation of the fisheries are
fairly extensive, and they may make by-laws,
which, however, do not become operative until
confirmation, after due inquiry, by the Board of
Trade.2 The expenses of administration are met
by a rate imposed on the area returning the
members. The Act of 1888 was amended, and
further powers were given to the committees,
by the Fisheries Act of 1891,° which also gave
them powers to enforce the Shell-fish Act of
1877;* and by the Sea-Fisheries (Shell-fish)
Regulation Act of 1894.°

The enactments we have been considering
have practically fixed the present position of

1 The local authorities having charge of the salmon and fresh-water
fisheries. 2 Now the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries,

3 54 and 55 Vict. c. 37. 4 40 and 41 Vict. c. 42.

5 57 and 58 Vict. c. 26.

THE SELECT COMMITTEE OF 1893. 59

sea-fisheries regulation and administration, and we
come now to the latest phase of the question. The
question of the effects of trawling has been finally
settled ; and under the powers exercised by the
Fishery Board in Scotland, and by the District
Committees in England, large portions of the
British coastal waters have either been closed
against that method of fishing, or considerable
restrictions have been imposed on those prac-
tising it. The latest phase of fisheries restric-
tion concerns fishing on the high seas; and
the inquiries we have now to consider must be
regarded as initiating a future policy of fisheries
restriction in extra-territorial waters by the force
of international agreement.

Two public inquiries belong to the period I
am now considering. In 1893 the House of
Commons appointed a Select Committee to con-
sider the state of the sea-fisheries of the United
Kingdom. I will endeavour to trace the causes
which led to the appointment of this body. A
remarkable development of the sea-fisheries had
taken place during the interval between the report
of the Trawling Commission and that of the
Committee referred to; and this change is char-
acterised by the great increase of steam trawling
vessels, and the decrease in the number of smacks,
and by an extension of the area fished over. The
former change is represented in the following
table :—

60

BRITISH FISHERIES

Fisoinc VESSELS

Steam. First-class Sailing Vessels.

No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage.
1883 245 6,654 8058 244,097
1892 627 28,271 7319 244,668

These figures’ (which relate to the United
Kingdom) show that, during the period under
consideration, the number of steam fishing vessels,
which were mostly trawlers, had been nearly
trebled, and that they were, on the average, larger
boats than those used ten years previously. At
the same time, the number of sailing vessels had
actually decreased, although, since the total tonnage
was slightly increased, their average size was
greater than at the previous period. Another
important change, the substitution of the otter-
trawl for the beam-trawl, had also taken place with
regard to the fishing apparatus of the steam vessels,
and this change represented a very great increase
in efficiency.

A result of great significance attended these
changes in the catching power of the British fish-
ing marine: changes which also took place, though

1 Keport of the Select Committee on Sea-Fisheries, 1893, Appen-
dix IL, p. 379.

THE SELECT COMMITTEE OF 1893 61

to a lesser extent, in other North Sea fishing
countries. Under the influence of the greatly
increased catching power, the North Sea fishing
grounds were becoming less profitable than was
formerly the case. One ground after another was
discovered, exploited, and, though never entirely
abandoned, changed for a new one. There was,
it is true, no suggestion of exhausting the fish-
supply, but the result of the great extension of
trawling was that the catches made by the vessels
were less than in the days when the North Sea
was virgin ground. In the words of Professor
M<‘Intosh,’ “man (was) treading too closely upon
the supply.”” The evidence brought before the
Committee, whether furnished by scientific experts,
practical fishermen, or statisticians, was practically
unanimous on this point, and the Committee had
to come to the conclusion that “‘a considerable
diminution (had) occurred among the more valu-
able classes of flat fish, especially among soles and
plaice.” For the first time within the modern
period, a public inquiry revealed clear and un-
equivocal evidence of the impoverishment of the
fishing grounds over extensive areas.

This impoverishment of the fishing grounds
was made apparent to the trawling trade in the
diminution of their catches, and naturally gave
tise to much uneasiness. The agitation which

1 Report of the Select Committee on Sea-Fisheries, 1893, Question
No. 3516.

62 BRITISH FISHERIES

followed was unique among its kind: hitherto one
class of fishermen had called for interference with
the operations of others in the interests of their
own branch of the trade, but the North Sea
trawlers now called on the Government for inter-
ference with their own methods. An association
of persons interested in the sea-fisheries and the
allied trades—the National Sea-Fisheries Protection
Association—had been formed in 1882, and by the
end of 1892 this body was said to represent,
directly or indirectly, 80,000 persons. The grow-
ing depletion of the North Sea fisheries was dis-
cussed at successive annual meetings of the
Association, and at most of these meetings there
was an almost unanimous opinion that the cause
of the falling off in the yield of the North Sea
grounds was the extensive capture of immature
fishes on certain grounds off the Dutch, Danish,
and German coasts. Resolutions to this effect
were agreed on at meetings of the Association
in 1888, 1890, and 1892; and the Conference
of 1888 (in which, as in others, the influence
of trawlers predominated) agreed to petition the
Government to enter into negotiations with the
Continental Powers for the establishment of a
prohibition, by international law, of the capture
of immature fish. At the Conference which met
at Hull in 1890, the delegates agreed, both for
themselves individually and for the companies and
fleets which they represented, to abstain from

THE SELECT COMMITTEE OF 1893 63

trawling on certain defined grounds in the North
Sea,’ on which small fish were particularly
abundant. This self-denying ordinance is said to
have been voluntarily observed for two seasons,
after which it broke down. In 1891 an un-
official international Conference was held in
London, at which representatives of the fishing
trade in the North Sea countries met and dis-
cussed the question, and agreed that investigation,
scientific and otherwise, should be _ instituted.
These investigations were never made. Finally,
in 1892, the Annual Conference of the Association
suggested definite legislation, and agreed to request
the Government “to enact a law to prohibit the
sale of undersized flat fish in British markets—
undersized flat fish being as follows :—Brill, under
12 inches in extreme length; lemon soles, 11
inches; plaice, 10 inches; soles, 10 inches; turbot,
12 inches.” A deputation from the Association
afterwards waited upon the President of the Board
of Trade, and urged the appointment of a Select
Committee to consider the expediency of prohibit-
ing the landing of undersized flat fish. This was
done by a motion in the House of Commons in
March 1893; and the fishing trade obtained the
comfort of an inquiry, though, to be sure, they are
still waiting for legislation.

1 The defined area was bounded on the east by the German and
Danish coast, on the west by the meridian 7° 30’ E., on the north by
latitude 56°, and on the south by latitude 53° 50’.

64 BRITISH FISHERIES

The terms of reference to the Committee were
wide, and the inquiry was a somewhat comprehen-
sive one into the whole question of the British
sea-fisheries. Its chief interest, however, centred
round the question of fisheries impoverishment,
and the alleged cause of this, the capture and
destruction of immature flat fishes. ‘There was,
on the whole, unanimity of opinion that this was
a true cause, and two remedies were suggested to
put an end to the practice. One was a direct
remedy, and involved the prohibition of trawling
on the area defined. To effect this would have
required international agreement, and similar legis-
lation in the countries entering into the agree-
ment, and an international sea-fisheries police.
The other remedy was an indirect one: it was
proposed to make the landing and sale of under-
sized fish illegal in the North Sea countries. It
was contended that, even if international agreement
was not to be obtained on this question, the pro-
hibition of the sale of flat fish in Great Britain
would still do a great deal towards finding a
remedy, for the English markets were by far the
greatest ones for this class of food. By making a
market for these small fishes impossible, fishing
would be practically stopped on the eastern
grounds of the North Sea, for trawlers would avoid
working on them, and so obtaining unremunerative
catches. Other remedial measures were suggested,
and I only mention one of these as showing to

THE SELECT COMMITTEE OF 1893 65

what an extent legislative restriction in the case of
the sea-fisheries may be contemplated. Professor
M‘Intosh suggested that one-quarter of the whole
North Sea should be closed alternately against all
forms of fishing, except perhaps herring fishing,
leaving the other three-quarters open.’ It need
hardly be stated that this proposal did not com-
mend itself to the Committee.

The further history of this undersized fish agita-
tion may be stated at once. The Select Committee
did not adopt the size limits suggested by the
National Sea-Fisheries Protection Association ;
but, feeling that the limits which ought to be
adopted in this country should approximate to
those in force abroad, they suggested that 8 inches
for soles and plaice, and 10 inches for brill and
turbot, should be the sizes in question. They also
recommended “that a strong effort should be made
to secure the adoption of uniform regulations for
limits of size and other matters by the nations
interested in the North Sea fisheries.” Now, there
is no evidence that any effort was ever made to
obtain this international agreement, and certainly
‘no government ever attempted to legislate on the
lines suggested by the Committee. For years the
promoters of the Immature Fishes Bill endeavoured
to secure its passage into law, and were unsuccess-
ful. In 1g00, however, the Bill made some

1 Report of the Select Committee on the Sea-Fisheries, 1893, Question

3495.
5

66 BRITISH FISHERIES

progress, and was again referred to a Select
Committee. That body made the usual laborious
inquiry, and met with the same unanimous
testimony as to the growing impoverishment of
the North Sea grounds for flat fishes, and the same
agreement among the deep-sea trawling trade as to
the remedy. They felt “that the subject of the
diminution of the fish-supply is a very pressing
one, and that the situation is going from bad
to worse”;! and they were convinced that the
destruction of immature fish was undoubtedly a
cause. But the Bill necessarily involved consider-
able opposition on the part of the inshore fisher-
men; and though their reasons are somewhat
obscure, the Committee rejected the measure.
And there the matter rests.

The Select Committee of 1893, however, made
some other recommendations which resulted in
legislation of a comparatively harmless nature. As
we have seen, the state of fisheries administration
differed notably in the two divisions of the United
Kingdom. In Scotland there was a strong central
authority, but no system of local government, and
no evident need for such. In England, on the
other hand, there were the newly-formed local
committees and a weak central authority, obviously
hampered by its intimate connection with the
Board of Trade. Both systems lacked the element

1 Report from Select Committee on the Sea-Fisheries Bill, 1900,
p. iv.

THE SELECT COMMITTEE OF 1893 67

of direct representation of the fishing trades, and
this theoretical disadvantage appealed strongly to
the Committee, who were, in addition, strongly
impressed with the idea of constituting a sym-
metrical system of fisheries administration in the
United Kingdom. “At the present moment,”
they report,’ “while in England there are sea-
fishery committees, there is no fishery board; in
Scotland, there is a fishery board, and there are
no district fishery committees. Furthermore, the
district fishery committees in England, and the
fishery board in Scotland, both labour under one
.and the same disadvantage, that of being without
any directly elected representative element.” ‘They
urged strongly, therefore, that measures should be
taken to assimilate the two systems to each other ;
that the fishery boards should be partly constituted
of representatives of the local committees, and that
- the committees themselves should be directly elected
from representatives of the fishing interest, in what
manner they did not state. It is, perhaps, not
to be regretted that this recommendation did not
wholly commend itself to the Legislature, and that,
in so far as it was realised, it had no practical
effect.

Certain enactments were, however, made. The
English Sea-Fisheries Regulation Act was amended
by the Fisheries Act of 1891, and by a further

1 Report, Select Committee, 1893, p. Vv.
2 54 and 55 Vict. c. 37.

68 BRITISH FISHERIES

Act in 1894,! and these Acts increased the powers
of the committees for making by-laws, and gave
them authority to enforce the Shell-fish Act of
1877, and to spend public money on cultivating
shell-fish (molluscs and crustaceans), in stocking
public fisheries, and in making scientific experi-
ments and observations with those ends in view.
In so far as they went, these increased powers
were of some utility, but little or nothing has been
done by the committees in the way of restocking
the shell-fish beds.* The legislation applying to
the Scottish system was useful, just so far as it
was demanded by those conversant with the
sea-fisheries in that country. The Sea-Fisheries
Regulation (Scotland) Act of 1895 °* reconstituted
the Fishery Board, and gave the Secretary for
Scotland power (which was immediately taken
advantage of) to appoint a scientific superintendent
to supervise and control such scientific inquiries
as the Board might deem necessary for carrying
out the provisions of the Fisheries Acts. The
police cruisers under the control of the Board
were afterwards increased in number, and that
body was given authority to extend its jurisdiction
over the coastal waters to a distance of thirteen
miles out to sea, at any time when international

1 The Sea-Fisheries (Shell-fish) Regulation Act, 57 and 58
Vict. c. 26.

2 Except during the last year or two, when the Lancashire Sea-

Fisheries Committee began to “ transplant” mussels and cockles.
3 58 and 59 Vict.c. 42.

THE SELECT COMMITTEE OF 1893 69

sanction might be obtained to such arrangements.
All these powers were sought by the Fishery
Board, and, no doubt, have proved, or will prove,
eminently useful. The remainder of the Act
conferred powers upon the Board (which they
do not appear ever to have asked for) to form
district fisheries committees in Scotland on
the model of the English bodies, but with the
addition of the “directly representative element ”
on which the Select Committee laid such stress.
They were empowered to form such authorities
on application, and after due inquiry, by a county
or borough council or the commissioners of a
police burgh. The “directly representative
element’ was to be obtained in the following
way. The county and burgh assessors were
instructed to form a register of persons entitled
to return the element, by prefixing a “ distinctive
mark’ to the names of such persons on the register
of county council or burgh voters as were entitled
to possess the qualification included in the expres-
sion “fishing interests.” Each of these fishing
voters was to be entitled to vote for a certain
number of representatives on the district fisheries
committee. The elections were to take place
on the same days, in the same manner, and
at the same place, as the elections for county
councillors.

It isa striking commentary on the utility of all
this complex machinery, and on the familiarity

70 BRITISH FISHERIES

of the Legislature with fishery questions and needs,
that no district committees have been, or are
likely to be, formed in Scotland. The reason
for this is the great difference between the
fisheries of the two countries, and the satisfactory
manner in which the administration of the law is
already provided for by the Fishery Board staff.
Another reason which may be assigned is that
the expenses of these local committees would have
to be met by rates incident on the areas consti-
tuting them, whereas the expenses of the Fishery
Board’s administration are provided out of Imperial
funds! “I do not think,” the chairman of the
Board told the Select Committee,? “that Scotland
is ever willing to be assessed. Scotland’s view
is that she pays too much of the Imperial taxation
at present for what she gets in return.”

The consideration of this legislation completes
our review of the growth of sea-fisheries adminis-
tration ; and I will take the opportunity later on
to indicate what lines future development will
probably follow. Meanwhile, its general direc-
tion during the latter half of the nineteenth
century may be very briefly summarised. The

1 The contribution of the Treasury to the Fishery Board for
Scotland is of the nature of an “‘equivalent grant.” See a speech
by Mr Bonar Law at the Fisheries Conference at the Board of
Trade, 1903.

2 Report of the Select Committee on Sea-Fisheries, 1893, Question
3194-

THE SELECT COMMITTEE OF 1893 71

Royal Commission of 1863, as we have seen,
marked the change from the policy of legislative
restriction, which was that of the earlier adminis-
tration, to that which gave almost perfect freedom
from restriction of any kind; and however much
this policy may have changed in our own time,
there can be no doubt that it was justified in
1866, and that the absence of restrictive regula-
tions materially assisted the enormous develop-
ment of British fishery which took place during
the next few decades. The report of this Com-
mission also initiated the policy of international
regulation in matters of police which resulted in
the Fisheries Acts of 1868, 1883, 1888, 1891,
and 1893. The Commissioners held optimistic
views as to the resources of the fishing grounds,
which were perhaps justified by the state of
development of the fisheries in their time. As
time went on, and the fishing fleets increased
in number, and more especially when steam
trawling became extensively practised, it was
seen that these views were no longer tenable,
and that the marine fisheries could not be con-
ducted as if they were inexhaustible. The
pendulum then swung back to the policy of
legislative restriction, and we have followed in a
summary manner this development. But, unlike
the legislation that preceded the inquiry of 1863,
this has been founded on a real attempt to
understand the causes likely to affect the pros-

72 BRITISH FISHERIES

perity of the fisheries; and though the attempt
at fisheries investigation has received tardy recog-
nition and support, and has been carried out in
a superficial and wholly inadequate manner, there
is no doubt that it has given a surer foundation
for legislation, and that by persevering in it we
shall by and by succeed in legislating justly and
permanently in the interests of a hard-working

(and perhaps long-suffering) population.

CHAPTER VI
THE FISHERY BOARD FOR SCOTLAND

AtTHouGH the administration of the British sea-
fisheries, in the modern sense of the phrase, may
be regarded as beginning with the consolidation
of the law which resulted from the inquiry of
the Royal Commission of 1863, it is nevertheless
very instructive to consider the early history of
the regulation of the industry both in Scotland
and in Ireland. The Fishery Board for Scotland
has existed since the beginning of the nineteenth
century, and though in the course of over a
century’s administration many changes have taken
place, the essential features and functions of this
famous authority have remained much the same,
and its history has been one of almost continuous
orderly and progressive development.

The Scottish herring fishery owed its develop-
ment to jealousy of the Dutch. In the eighteenth
century many complaints were made that the
fishermen of that nationality were robbing Scottish

seas of their fish, and several attempts were made
73

74 BRITISH FISHERIES

to break down the practical monopoly enjoyed
by Holland of the herring fishing and curing
industry. The Dutch herring fishery in Scottish
seas was at one time of considerable magnitude.
“‘Since that year, 1594,” says a State paper of
the time of Charles I.,! “the Hollanders have
ci thither w* al their Fleet of Busyes sitimes
3000 Saile.” Fishing companies were formed
to exploit Scottish waters, but most of these
organisations had an unfortunate career, and little
good was accomplished by this means. At last
an expedient in accord with the economic
doctrines current at the time was adopted, and
an earnest and thoroughly successful attempt was
made to establish a herring fishery on the coasts
of Scotland, by means of a very direct system of
protection. When we consider only the present
prosperous condition of the Scottish sea-fisheries,
it is not easy thoroughly to appreciate the diffi-
culties that had to be encountered in establish-
ing a flourishing industry in a very poor country,
and on a comparatively inhospitable coast like
that of the eastern sea-board of Scotland. And in
these latter times we have become so thoroughly
saturated with Free Trade ideas, that it is difficult
to ascribe to the early protective systems the
credit to which they are undoubtedly entitled.
It is well to note that from its beginning the

1 Domestic, Charles I, vol. clii, No. 63, 1629; quoted in
Mackenzie’s /istory of the Outer Hebrides, Paisley, 1903.

THE FISHERY BOARD FOR SCOTLAND 75

work of the Scottish Fishery Board had three sides.
It was in its inception a semi-commercial body,
which had for its object the creation of a fishing
and curing industry, employing for means to this
end a system of bounties and other means of
artificial encouragement. Round this system, as
a nucleus, another system of regulation of the
methods, both of fishing and curing, and also of
the seasons when fishing might legally be carried
on, was developed. The payment of bounties gave
occasion for the collection of the commercial
statistics of the industry, and in this way a unique
and most valuable store of information was
gradually accumulated. Finally, there is the
scientific side of the work of the Board. This was
a feature of the administration almost from the
first, and at the present time the statistical and
scientific work of the Fishery Board forms perhaps
the most striking feature of the administration.
The semi-commercial objects of the Board are
indicated in the title of the enactment: “An Act
for the further Encouragement and better Regu-
lation of the British White Herring Fishery,” +
which gave it practically the present form.” This
Act constituted a Board of (unpaid) Commissioners,
the “ Board of British White Herring Fishery,” to
take account of the herring fishery, not only of

1 48 Geo. III. c. 1130 (1808).

2 Previous to the establishment of the British White Herring
Board the fisheries of Scotland were under the charge of the “ Board
of Manufactures.”

76 BRITISH FISHERIES

Scotland, but also of England and, later on, of the
Isle of Man.’ The duties of this body were:
(1) to disburse the sum of money annually voted
by Parliament for the payment of bounties, (2)
to “brand” herrings destined for export, (3) to
administer the regulations relating to the manner
of curing and packing herrings, and (4) to collect
statistics and furnish annual reports to Parliament.
It had an inspectory staff, with districts and brand-
ing stations, and it was given the assistance of
Government vessels for marine superintendence.
Two kinds of bounties were paid, which
were :—
I. TONNAGE Bounties
For herring vessels-—£3 per ton per year was paid to
every “buss” or herring vessel over 60 and
under 100 tons burden, built and owned in Great

Britain, and equipped for the capture of herrings
in British waters.

For cod and ling vessels—

1820 to 1826, Sos. per ton.
1826 to 1827, 45s. per ton.
1827 to 1830, 3$s. per ton.

All the tonnage bounties ceased in 1830.

2. Bountizs on Fish Curep

On herrings—1808 to 1815—2s. per barrel of this
fish caught in British seas and cured and packed
according to the regulations prescribed by the
Board.

1 The English and Manx stations were abandoned latterly, and the
Board became purely a Scottish authority.

THE FISHERY BOARD FOR SCOTLAND 77

1808 to 1815—in addition to the above bounty,
2s. 8d. on each barrel of herrings exported was

also paid.
1815 to 1826— 4s. per barrel of herrings cured
gutted.
1827—3s. per barrel of herrings cured gutted.
1828—2s. ”» »” ” »” ”
1829—IS. ” » »” ” »

The herring bounties ceased altogether in 1830.

On cod and ling—1822 to 1830—4s. per cwt. was paid
on fish cured dry, and 2s. 6d. per barrel for fish
cured in pickle (these bounties were earned by
vessels not receiving the tonnage bounty).

Cod and ling bounties ceased altogether in 1830.

Now, what was the effect of this very thorough-

going system of protection? This has, of course,
been very much discussed, and the opinion has
been very freely expressed that the Scottish bounty
system had very little effect on the development
of the herring fishery, and that, given a wise
administration, the industry would have developed
concomitantly with the growing wealth and
population of the country... The view one takes
of the question is of course largely dependent on
his adherence to one or other of the two present
schools of opinion with regard to the utility of
protective measures in commerce. It is very
difficult, of course, to obtain such information
now as would enable us satisfactorily to settle the
1 See Spencer Walpole, “The British Fish Trade,” in Jnternational

Fisheries Exhibition Literature, London, 1883, for an exposition of
these views.

78 BRITISH FISHERIES

question. On the whole, it would appear, how-
ever, that the bounty system had a very real effect
in establishing the Scottish herring fishing and
curing industry. It was wisely planned, the
sums paid were fairly liberal, and the whole
system was gradually abandoned. In 1809, when
the payments were first made, the total cure was
only g0,000 barrels, and in 1830, the year when
the bounties were discontinued, this had risen, with
very minor fluctuations, to 440,000 barrels. That
the catch and cure of herrings fell only very
slightly for a few years after the change, seems to
be a sufficient answer to the somewhat cheap
argument that vessels were fitted out “to catch
the bounties” rather than the fish. After 1834
the catch of herrings, the amount cured, and the
amount exported all gradually increased, although
the vicissitudes of the seasons had, of course, their
effects on the fishing. A policy which was per-
sisted in after the abandonment of the bounties—
that of branding herrings meant for export—had,
without doubt, a most important share in the
perpetuation of the stimulus afforded by the
bounty system.

When the bounty system was discontinued in
1830, a total sum of {927,110 had been awarded
on the results of the cod, ling, and herring fisheries.
The protective policy of the Board was, however,
far from being abandoned. An annual sum of
£3000 was voted for the repair and construction

THE FISHERY BOARD FOR SCOTLAND 79

of fishing piers and harbours, and the well-known
branding system which had come into operation
with the beginning of the Board was still retained,
and has been continued to the present day. There
was always a direct oversight over the herrings
cured and exported: every curer was bound to
give notice of his operations; his stores were
always open to inspection by the fishery officers ;
and he was compelled to pack the proper quantity
of herrings into barrels of a regulation size. But
the Board took no cognisance of the quality of
the fish, or the cure, unless the merchant desired
to obtain their certificate of excellence. Then it
was the duty of the officer at the curing station
to open and examine a sample of the barrels of fish
to be exported, and if the contents came up to a
certain standard, he caused a brand to be burned
into the head of the barrel. The brand indicated
that the fish were not injured in the catching, that
they were properly cured, and that the barrel
contained a certain average number. It also
indicated the condition of the fish as regards size
and the state of maturity of the reproductive organs
(ovaries or “‘roes,” and testes or “milts”). The
““Crown Brands” in use at the present time are:
“LA. FULL” (large herrings with ripe repro-
ductive organs—ovaries and testes), ‘“ FULL,”
“MAT. FULL” (smallish herrings with ripe
reproductive organs), “SPENT” (mature her-
rings which have spawned), and “MATTIE”

80 BRITISH FISHERIES

(‘“‘maiden” herrings—those in which ‘the ovaries
and testes are not fully developed).

Now, the branding system, though it continues
in operation to the present day, was the subject of
a long-standing dispute between the Treasury and
the Fishery Board. One gathers that the ob-
jections which the former body made to it were
not at first based on principles of political economy,
but had their origin in the reluctance of the
governments of the time to maintain an expensive
fisheries establishment on the coasts of Scotland at
Imperial expense. But later on the Treasury seem
to have decided that the perpetuation of the
branding system was directly opposed to sound
principles of economy, and they deputed Mr (after-
wards Sir) John Lefevre to make inquiry into the
grounds for its retention. This gentleman came
to the conclusion that the discontinuance of the
system was likely to cause “serious derangement
and contraction of that [herring curing] trade,
and consequent loss and inconvenience to those
engaged in it, and to the large bodies of the
working classes employed, not only in fishing, but
also in the various operations of curing for the
European market.” * He recommended that it be
maintained, but, recognising that it was, “in effect,
a bounty on the export white herring trade at the

1 Board of Fisheries (Scotland): Copy of Reports, etc., on the
Subject of the Fishery Board in Scotland, with correspondence,
printed in 1856.

THE FISHERY BOARD FOR SCOTLAND 81

expense of the other classes of the community,” he
advised that a small fee be charged by the Board
for the service of branding herring barrels.

No effect was given to this recommendation
at the time, and in 1855 the Treasury again took
the matter up, and issued a minute in which they
urged the abolition of the brands, and with this
the necessity for the existence of the work of the
Board as a separate organisation. The various
functions exercised by that body were to be rele-
gated to the Admiralty, the coastguard service,
and the Customs. The annual vote of £3000
for the repair and construction of fishing harbours
was not to be discontinued, but each application
of this nature was to be considered by itself,
and provided for in the estimates. The Fishery
Board replied to these proposals by a statement
in which they indicated the reasons for the reten-
tion of the system. ‘The Treasury now issued a
commission to examine into the whole question
anew. The members of this body (which reported
in 1856) found themselves, in the end, diametri-
cally opposed on the main questions submitted
to them, and the result was that no action was
taken. In 1859, however, the Board began to
charge a fee of 4d. for each barrel branded, and
the result of this action was to justify the con-
tinuance of the brands, for there was practically
no falling off in the number of barrels of cured

herring submitted to their officers for certification.
6

82 BRITISH FISHERIES

The Royal Commission of 1863 were the last
public body to deal with the vexed question of
the herring brands, and the whole of the arguments
for and against the system are summarised in their
report. On the one hand, we have the contention
of the Board that the system had proved of
immense benefit to the herring trade by establish-
ing a preference for Scotch cured fish on the
continent of Europe. Barrels of herring passed
to the shores of the Black Sea “current as a bank-
note.” It avoided serious inconvenience to the
curers in foreign markets, in that it obviated the
necessity for the inspection of the fish, which
would have required the opening of the barrels,
and the consequent deterioration of the product.
It was a guarantee to the buyer that the goods
he bought were of sound quality. Even at that
time the competition with Norwegian cured
herrings was being felt, and it was urged that the
cessation of the system of official brands would
most probably have been of great advantage to
the curers of the latter nationality. These con-
tentions were not seriously combated by the
Commissioners, who seem to have been of the
opinion that it was not a public duty to safeguard
the home merchant against foreign inspection
and official inconvenience, or the foreign buyer
against fraudulent or incompetent British trades-
men. And they expressed the optimistic opinion
that, even if the branding system were discon-

THE FISHERY BOARD FOR SCOTLAND 83

tinued, the trade in Scottish herrings would be as
flourishing as ever. But the real spirit in which
they dealt with the question is indicated in the
following quotation from their report... ‘We
conceive,” they said, “that such a violation of
a great principle of public policy is involved in
the very existence of the brand, with its con-
comitant system of regulation and inspection. It
is a direct violation of the greatest of all com-
mercial principles, and that which is now regarded
as the commercial policy of this country — the
principle of Free Trade, and the policy of
removing every description of restriction and
protection from commerce.” Holding such views,
the Commissioners saw no necessity for the ex-
istence of the Fishery Board and its staff, and
they unhesitatingly recommended its abolition.
At this time the Board had other functions besides
those to which I have alluded. They adminis-
tered the Convention Act of 1842, which pro-
vided for regulation of fishing boats on the seas,
as well as several other enactments relating specially
to the herring fisheries ; they policed the territorial
waters in the interest of the exclusive fishing rights
of British subjects; they administered the annual
vote of £3000 for the repair and construction
of fishing harbours; they were collecting what
has proved to be a most valuable series of fishery
statistics ; and even then they were encouraging

1 Report, Royal Commission of 1863, p. 134 (octavo edition), 1866.

84. BRITISH FISHERIES

or directly instituting scientific investigations.
All this activity would have come to an end, not
necessarily because it was expensive or useless,
but because it was in direct contravention of the
prevalent doctrines of political economy. Police
duties the Commissioners would have relegated
to the Admiralty—and we know now that fishery
superintendence at sea has always been grudgingly
performed by the naval service; the collection
of statistics would have been entrusted to the
coastguard—and this was the means latterly adopted
in England, and which has resulted in the most
faulty system of statistical collection yet devised
by any European country ; scientific work would
have been left to take care of itself, as it has been
in England, with the result that assistance from
public sources has been obtained only under the
greatest pressure. Fortunately, the recommenda-
tions of the Royal Commission of 1863 left the
Scottish organisation practically untouched.

So much for the commercial side of the functions
of the Fishery Board. A later series of enactments
developed what we may call the purely administra-
tive side, while leaving the branding system pretty
much as it was. The Fishery Board (Scotland)
Act of 1882! dissolved the old “ Board of British
White Herring Fishery,’ and constituted the
present Fishery Board in its place. Under the
Act the Board came to consist of nine members,

1 45 and 46 Vict. c. 78.

THE FISHERY BOARD FOR SCOTLAND 85

of whom one was chairman (and administrative
head, with a salary), three were sheriffs of Scottish
sheriffdoms, and the remaining five represented
various fishing interests. All these members were
nominated by the Crown. Several later Acts con-
ferred additional powers: the Sea-Fisheries (Scot-
land) Amendment Act of 18851 gave powers to
prohibit or restrict any method of fishing in the
territorial waters, and powers to institute, and
resources to carry on, scientific investigations.
The Herring Fishery (Scotland) Act of 1889?
gave powers to close all the territorial waters by
by-law against beam-trawling, and excluded a
number of areas lying outside the three-mile limit.
The Sea-Fisheries Regulation (Scotland) Act of
1895 ° altered the constitution of the Board, which
now consists of seven members—a chairman, a
sheriff, a “person of skill in the branches of
science concerned with the habits and food of
fishes,” and four other members. This latter Act
gave powers to create sea-fisheries districts as in
England, and it also enabled the Secretary for
Scotland, the Minister to whom the Board was
made responsible, to appoint a scientific superin-
tendent to institute and conduct such investigations
relating to the fisheries as the Board might from
time to time require.

The actual administration of the fishery laws is

1 48 and 49 Vict. c. 70. 2 §2 and 53 Vict. c. 23.
3 58 and 59 Vict. c. 42.

86 BRITISH FISHERIES

carried out in Scotland by the officials of the Board,
who are the secretary, the general inspector, two
assistant inspectors, and a staff of fisheries officers.
There are twenty-six fishery districts round the
coast, in each of which there are one or more
officers. The officers must have been coopers by
trade, and they must pass an examination before
entering ‘the service. There are five fishery
cruisers belonging to the Board, and these boats
are assisted generally by Admiralty vessels. The
cruisers undertake marine superintendence at sea:
they enforce the by-laws which close the terri-
torial waters against trawling (except in one or two
restricted areas) ; they maintain order among fish-
ing boats at sea in virtue of the powers conferred
by the Sea-Fisheries Acts, and on the high seas
in virtue of the regulations of the international
conventions. ‘They administer several special Acts
relating to the herring fisheries.

The duties of the fishery officers are confined
principally to the sea-coast. They see that the
barrels used in the export herring trade are of the
proper size ; they examine and brand the measures
employed in the trade between the fishermen,
merchants, and curers; and they examine the
herrings submitted to them, and affix the official
“Crown brands” to those which they judge
worthy of this distinction. The collection of
statistics is made by them and by the correspond-
ents, whose returns they supervise. They carry

THE FISHERY BOARD FOR SCOTLAND 87

out the regulations of the Acts of Parliament I
have mentioned so far as they can on land; they
arbitrate in disputes and restore nets, gear, etc.,
lost and recovered ; and they assist in carrying out
the provisions of the Sea-Fishery Acts which deal
with the registration, lighting, numbering, etc., of
fishing boats. Finally (and in this respect many
of them have been quite exceptional men), they
aid in the conduct of the scientific investigations
undertaken by the Board.

A considerable amount of scientific work ‘was
instigated by the White Herring Commissioners,
and, though no regular department of the old
authority existed for this purpose, some results
of first-rate importance were obtained. Most of
these investigations had a very practical bearing,
and they seem to have been initiated as the result
of complaints that the sprat fishing in the Firth of
Forth was responsible for the destruction of a vast
quantity of small herrings. Investigations were
therefore carried out in 1836, which showed that
the sprat was a perfectly distinct fish from the
herring, and that the young fishes known as
“sprats”” were a mixture, in variable proportions,
of the two species. ‘These researches were con-
tinued from 1843 to 1847 by H. Goodsir and
J. Wilson, and were extended to the elucidation
of the natural history of the herring. It had been
made known previously by Dr Walker’ that the

1 Transactions, Highland Society, 1803.

88 BRITISH FISHERIES

eggs of the herring were heavier than sea-water,
and sank to the bottom on being emitted by the
parent fish, and this fact was confirmed in these
later investigations, and it was also determined that
the food of the fish consisted of small pelagic
crustaceans. No further work was done till 1856,
when Dr Buys Ballot suggested an inquiry into the
course of the great herring fishery, and the Board
of Trade issued instructions for the collection of
samples from all parts of the coast of Scotland,
observations being made at the same time and
recorded on a form revised by Professor Huxley.
Much material was thus collected, but there is no
record of its examination.

Several investigations were then made into the
effects of trawling. Complaints were common
that the trawl destroyed the spawn and fry of
fishes, and Professor Allman made a number of
dredgings between 1860 and 1863, with the
object of determining whether or not this was
the case. ‘The demersal nature of herring ova
was again confirmed in the course of these
investigations, and the incubation period of the
egg was found to be from twenty-five to thirty
days. Two principal spawning periods were
found to exist, one in the spring and the other
in the autumn. These researches ceased with
the agitation which originated the inquiry of
the Royal Commission which reported in 1863,
and no further biological work was carried out.

THE FISHERY BOARD FOR SCOTLAND 89

Another suggestion was made by Dr Ballot
and given effect to, and numerous observations
were made with the intention of determining
what possible influence the temperature of the
sea and other meteorological conditions might
have on the abundance and migrations of the
herrings. Certain conclusions were drawn from
these observations, but the work was not con-
tinued later than 1878.

All this work, however, was of a very desultory
nature, and was only done under the pressure of
the various agitations which arose from time to
time with regard to the alleged pernicious effects
of various methods of fishing. When _ these
agitations ceased, scientific work was again
abandoned. A very different spirit actuated
the Board when it was reconstituted in 1882,
and was made evident in the appointment of
a biologist—Professor J. Cossar Ewart, to whom
the credit of the organisation of the scientific ,
work of the Scottish Fishery Board belongs—
as a member. A statement was then published
in which the necessity of scientific observations
was made clear. The Board was constituted for
the purpose of superintending the fisheries and
for taking “such measures for their improve-
ment as the funds under their administration
may admit of,” and it was soon discovered “ that
without further information as to the habits and
life-history of the food-fishes it would be im-

90 BRITISH FISHERIES

possible to submit satisfactory reports to Parlia-
ment, either as to the improvement or as to
the regulation of the fisheries.”1 A scientific
committee was therefore appointed, suggestions
for research work were drafted, and application
was made to the Treasury for funds to carry
on investigations. Meanwhile several expeditions
were made on the cruisers Vigilant and ‘fackal;
various scientific men began research work ;
and with the funds at their disposal the
Board assisted in the equipment of a marine
laboratory at St Andrews, under the direction
of Professor W. C. M‘Intosh—an institution in
which much research work of notable value was
afterwards effected. It was soon found, however,
that this organisation was quite inadequate, and
the Board came to feel keenly : ‘“ (1) That almost
everything has still to be learned regarding the
habits and life-history of our food-fishes; (2)
that, if provided with even limited funds, the
Board, with the assistance of the officers already
in its service, will be able to remove not a little
of this ignorance; (3) that the fishermen, fish-
curers, and the country generally are profoundly
interested in the scientific as well as the practical
side of the fishery industry, and are prepared to
do their utmost to secure for the Board whatever
may be necessary for its successful prosecution.” ?

1 Second Annual Report, Fishery Board for Scotland, 1883, p. xix.
2 Jbid., p. xxii.

THE FISHERY BOARD FOR SCOTLAND 91

A further appeal to the Treasury, widely sup-
ported by Scottish fishermen, curers, merchants,
and public bodies, was then made, but with no
result. Nothing of importance was done until
the report of the Trawling Commission was
issued. Experiments and observations at sea were
so strongly recommended by this body that the
Treasury were compelled to act, and in 1886
provision was made for the organisation of the
scientific side of the Board. A small steamer,
the Garland, was purchased; scientific men
were employed; and from this time onward
scientific investigation became an integral part
of the work of the Board. A great portion of
this work was carried on at sea on board ship,
and many investigations were made in laboratories
not under the control of the Board. In 1884,
however, a small station (which was destroyed by
fire some years later) was erected at Tarbert, on
Loch Fyne ; and in 1893 a laboratory and sea-fish
hatchery were established at Dunbar. Finally,
in 1900 the present laboratory and hatchery at
Aberdeen were built and occupied.

It is difficult to summarise shortly the large
amount of scientific work which has been carried
on under the auspices of the Scottish Fishery
Board, and I can only indicate the chief lines
along which research has been directed. When
the report of the Trawling Commission came to
be discussed, it was seen that there was urgent

92 BRITISH FISHERIES

necessity for the investigation of the effects of
various kinds of fishing on the abundance of fish
on a fishing ground, and that this should be done
was one of the chief recommendations of the
Commission. It was thought that valuable results
might be obtained by excluding trawl fishermen
from some particular area, and observing for a
number of years any effect which this cessation
of fishing might have on the fauna of the ground.
Certain areas off the east coast of Scotland were
therefore closed by by-law, under the powers con-
ferred by the Sea-Fisheries (Scotland) Amendment
Act of 1885; definite “stations” or trawling
lines were marked out on the chart ; and monthly
trawling experiments were made over these stations.
The procedure in these experiments was to trawl
on every occasion with uniform fishing gear for
a certain time, and always over the same strip
of ground. The fish caught were then counted
and recorded, and at the same time a number
of other observations—the identification of the
invertebrate animals caught by the trawl; the
determination of the “plankton” by “ tow-net ”
experiments; physical determinations, such as
the temperature and specific gravity of the
sea-water ; and meteorological observations—were
made and recorded. All these observations
(which are published in the Annual Reports
of the Board) were collated year by year, and
deductions were made as to the apparent changes

THE FISHERY BOARD FOR SCOTLAND 93

in the abundance of fish which had resulted from
the cessation of the method of trawl-fishing.

The primary object of these experiments, which
were made continuously from 1886 till r1gor,
was to ascertain whether a decided increase in
the abundance , of food-fishes resulted from the
cessation of commercial fishing. We now know
that certain considerations were overlooked which
have, to a great extent, invalidated the usefulness
of the observations, and further, that the vessel
and fishing gear employed were too small for
the attainment of trustworthy results. A great
number of results, many of decided economic
value, and others of purely scientific interest,
were obtained, however, during the observational
work of the Garland, both on the East Coast
stations and elsewhere. To the former class
belong the establishment of these, among other
facts: (1) the rate at which fishes grow; (2)
the size and age at which sexual maturity—that
is, the stage at which the fish spawns for the
first time in its life—occurs; (3) the fecundity
of fishes, or the number of eggs produced during
each season by the mature females of each species ;
(4) the migratory movements of fishes; (5) the
time of the year during which spawning occurs
in each case; (6) the distribution of fishes with
‘respect to depth, nature of ground, etc., and
at different periods in their life-history ; and
(7) the food of fishes. To the purely academic

94 BRITISH FISHERIES

class of facts belong the determination of the
bottom and pelagic faunas of the fishing grounds ;
and as an instance of this kind of work I may
mention the long series of papers by Dr T. Scott
on the crustacean fauna of the Firth of Forth
and other areas.

We understand by the life-history of a fish
or other marine animal the knowledge of the
series of stages through which it passes, from the
time when it is spawned until the time when
it becomes a sexually mature creature. The
initiation of this department of ichthyological
research is usually credited to Professor G. O.
Sars of Christiania, who made out the life-history
of the cod about 1864; but some facts of this
kind were known, with respect to the herring,
at the beginning of the nineteenth century.
Very little, however, had been done at the time.
when the scientific work of the Scottish Fishery
Board commenced, and the pioneer worker was
Professor M‘Intosh of St Andrews, who carried
on investigations for the Board after its formation
in 1882, and who was its scientific member from
1893 till 1895. It is not too much to say that
to him and his pupils we are indebted for a very
large part of our knowledge of this subject.

Physical and chemical research at sea, that is,
the determination of the periodic changes in the
temperature, salinity, specific gravity, etc., of sea-
water, the direction and causes of ocean currents

THE FISHERY BOARD FOR SCOTLAND 95

and drifts, and the nature of the sea-bottom,
began in this country with the famous voyage
of the Challenger, and was first taken up in
relation to sea-fishery matters by the German
Kiel Kommission. The importance of this kind
of investigation was from the first seen by the
Scottish Fishery Board, and several expeditions
were made with this object in view. Such work
formed a regular part of the routine investigation
of the Garland, and within the last few years,
when trawling experiments were practically aban-
doned, physical research has become for the time
the most important part of fisheries observations.
Finally, I have to mention two directly
economic departments of the Board’s work:
the collection of commercial fisheries statistics
and the artificial cultivation of sea-fish. The
collection of statistics has been carried out by
the Scottish authority since the beginning of
the nineteenth century. For a long time only
statistics relating to the herring fishery were
collected ; but very soon after its reconstruction
in 1882 the system was applied to other sea-
fisheries, and at the present time it is the most
perfect fishery statistical system in existence in
any part of the world. The information thus
obtained has been of the greatest value in sea-
fisheries administration, and this department alone
of the Board’s work has amply justified all the
expenditure in relation to Scottish fisheries.

96 BRITISH FISHERIES

Economic fish-hatching was first practised in
Great Britain by the Scottish Fishery Board. I
shall discuss this subject later on, and it is sufficient
to state in the meantime that opinion differs very
much as to its public utility.

Many scientific researches other than those I
have indicated have, of course, been undertaken
by the scientific staff of the Board, or by investiga-
tors working at their suggestion, and it would take
too long even to summarise the objects aimed at
and the results obtained. Anyone who glances
through the scientific reports issued during the
last twenty-three years will recognise that the
Board have interpreted their duties liberally and
wisely, and have not only done their best for the
encouragement and administration of the Scottish
fisheries, but have, in a truly catholic spirit, sought
to obtain all the information possible with respect
to the important industry committed to their

charge.

CHAPTER VII
FISHERIES ADMINISTRATION IN ENGLAND

An active administration of the sea-fishing industry,
such as I have just described for Scotland, did not
come into existence in England until comparatively
recent times; and even at the present day the
fishery authority in the latter country is a much
less active body, and with more limited functions,
than in the sister country. Why this should be
the case is difficult to make out, and one can only
suggest reasons. ‘The constitution of the Scottish
Fishery Board is almost unique in this country
among authorities exercising considerable powers
of regulation, and it is perhaps the case that its
“semi-private” status, and its practical freedom
from matters of departmental routine, has pre-
served it from that condition of mediocrity
which is so characteristic of the English central
authority. Then in England there has not been
in modern times any system of bounties or other
protective aids, round which, as in Scotland, the

general administration of the fishing industry
97 7

98 BRITISH FISHERIES

might centre. Finally, the influence of the Royal
Commission of 1863, which discouraged so strongly
all attempts at the regulation of fishing, was more
strongly felt in England than in Scotland, and no
doubt had considerable effect in retarding the
growth of a central authority.

The Sea-Fisheries Act of 1868, which gave
effect to the recommendations of the Commission
of 1863, provided for the regulation of the sea-
fisheries only so far as the preservation of order
or the interests of the navigation of fishing boats
were concerned. It gave the Crown power to
make Orders in Council for carrying out the
matters referred to in the Act. These were: the
policing of the territorial waters in the interest
of the exclusive fishing rights of British subjects ;
the registration, lettering, numbering, and lighting
of fishing boats ; and generally all matters connected
with the actual conduct of fishermen at sea, but
apart from the actual regulation of the methods
of fishing. It provided for the constitution of
corporate bodies with rights of “several fishery,”
that is, the exclusive privileges of fishing on limited
portions of the foreshore or sea-bed. It also
attempted to provide for the international regula-
tion of the deep-sea fisheries. Commissioned
officers of H.M. ships, British Consular officers,
and officers of Coastguard and Customs had powers
to carry out the provisions of Orders made under

the Act of 1868.

ADMINISTRATION IN ENGLAND 99

But there was no actual supervisory staff or
fisheries office, and it was not until 1886 that such
was created. The Salmon Fishery Act of 1861
had made somewhat elaborate provision for the
regulation of the fresh-water fisheries, and placed
their general superintendence under the Home
Office. Two inspectors were appointed, who
(with the local ‘ conservators or overseers for the
preservation of salmon”), were entrusted with the
task of carrying out the provisions of this Act.
One of the duties of these officials was to prepare
and lay before Parliament an annual report contain-
ing a ‘Statistical Account of the Fisheries, with
such other information as may be collected, and
suggestions for their regulation and improve-
ment.” This was the germ of the English central
authority. In 1886, the Salmon and Fresh-water
Fisheries Act transferred these inspectors from the
Home Office to the Board of Trade, and at the
same time extended the provisions of the Act of
1861, so far as this concerned the preparation of
reports, to the sea-fisheries. From 1886 to 1903
the Board of Trade contained the department
entrusted with the regulation of the fisheries.
During the last few years of the nineteenth century
the condition of this department seems to have
become very unsatisfactory, and, in response to
a widespread demand for its reform, another
transfer took place in 1903, and the Board of
Agriculture and Fisheries became the department

100 BRITISH FISHERIES

responsible for the superintendence of the English
sea-fisheries.

We have to consider not only a central but also
a local regulation of the English fisheries. This
latter was provided in 1888. Apparently it was
on account of the satisfaction experienced by the
Government of the time in having passed the
Local Government Act of that year, that the same
principle was applied to the regulation of the
fisheries. There was no precedent for such a
course, and there were strong reasons why the
system in existence in Scotland should also be
applied to England, as had been suggested by the
Trawling Commission of 1885. The Sea-Fisheries
Regulation Act of 1888, however, led to the
establishment of a series ‘of local fishery authorities,
to whom the actual regulation of the English in-
dustry was committed. Under this Act, and two
others—the Sea-Fisheries Act of 1891, and the
Sea-Fisheries (Shell-fish) Regulation Act of 1895
—the English system of sea-fisheries regulation
grew up. These Acts gave the county and
borough councils powers to establish Local
Fisheries Committees for the regulation of the
industry in defined areas. On application by one
or more of these authorities, the Board of Trade
(and from 1903 the Board of Agriculture and
Fisheries) had power to issue an Order for the
creation of a district committee, and define the area
of sea-coast and sea under the jurisdiction of the

ADMINISTRATION IN ENGLAND 1:or

latter. Usually this area is that portion of the sea
out to the three-mile limit adjoining the littoral
of a single county, or of several such areas, in
which latter case the committee is a joint one.
Each committee consists of a certain number of
members representing the county and borough
councils within the contributory area, and of at
least an equal number of members nominated by
the central authority, and representing various
fishing interests. This latter category of members
includes representatives of the local Boards of
Salmon Conservators, fishermen, fishing - boat
owners, merchants, and others. Each Local
Fisheries Committee obtains the money necessary
for carrying out the provisions of the Sea-Fisheries
Regulation Acts and other enactments by a local
rate raised by the rating authorities within the
area represented.

A local committee is not in itself a legislative
body. It may draft by-laws providing for the
regulation of the fisheries under its charge, but
before acquiring legal force these by-laws must
be confirmed by the central authority. A by-
law, on being suggested, is advertised and submitted
to the Board, and the latter may at once confirm
or reject it; but usually a local inquiry is held by
an inspector, and as a result of this, the Board
either confirms, or rejects, or suggests modifica-
tions of the proposed regulations. On confirmation
of the by-law the local committee has powers

102 BRITISH FISHERIES

to enforce its provisions and to exact penalties
for their contravention. The principal matters
embraced by the by-laws in force in the fishery
districts are :—

1. Regulation of the forms and dimensions of
fishing nets and other apparatus, including the
restriction or prohibition of methods of fishing
which are regarded as objectionable ;

2. Regulation of the seasons of the year during
which defined methods of fishing may be
practised ;

3. Regulation of the sizes below which shell-
fish (molluscs and crustaceans, but not sea-fish)
may be removed from a public fishery ;

4. The (nominal) prohibition of the discharge
into the sea of sewage and other substances re-
garded as detrimental to the health of sea-fish or
shell-fish, or the practice of sea-fishing.

In order to carry out the provisions of these
by-laws, the local committees may appoint super-
intendents and fishery officers, and may provide
and maintain vessels for the purpose of marine
superintendence.

The by-laws made by the local committees are
of course rather varied, since local conditions affect
the general nature of the administration differ-
ently in many places. Those of the Lancashire
and Western Sea-Fisheries Committee (abstracted
in Appendix IV.) illustrate very well their general
nature. Speaking generally, the by-laws are

ADMINISTRATION IN ENGLAND _ 103

directed towards the restriction of trawling,’ the
regulation of the sizes and meshes of fishing nets,
and the minimising of the capture of undersized
and immature sea- and shell-fish. Thus, steam
trawling vessels are absolutely forbidden to fish in
the English territorial waters, and even sailing
trawlers are not allowed to fish in the Northumber-
land territorial waters. In most other districts
there are considerable restrictions on trawling :
defined areas may be closed entirely, or for a
certain portion of the year, against this method of
fishing. Where it is allowed, the regulations in
force may limit the size of the trawl-beam, or that
of the meshes of the net; or trawling may be
allowed, subject to the provisions that the hauls
are of limited duration, and that the net be
raised and cleared, and undersized fishes returned
promptly to the sea. Shrimp-trawling is subject
to many restrictions, and in some cases is ab-
solutely forbidden. All these regulations are based
on the current belief that trawling in territorial
waters, whether for sea-fishes or shrimps, destroys
great numbers of immature fishes, and that its
unrestricted practice is detrimental to the per-
manence of the local fisheries.

Many committees regulate the fishing for shell-
fish, that is, oysters, mussels, cockles, shrimps,

1 See the chart in the Report of the Select Committee (H.L.)
on the Sea-Fisheries Bill, 1904. This represents graphically the
areas of coast where trawling is prohibited or restricted.

104 BRITISH FISHERIES

prawns, crabs, and lobsters. Very full powers are
conferred on them for this purpose by the Sea-
Fisheries Regulation Acts and by the Sea-Fisheries
(Shell-fish) Act of 1877. Certain sizes for mol-
luscs, crabs, and lobsters are laid down, under which
it is illegal to remove the specified shell-fish (usually
oysters, mussels, cockles, crabs, and lobsters) from
a fishery. Crabs and lobsters may not be taken,
except for bait, when “soft,” that is, when the
animal has cast its hard shell or exoskeleton.
Close seasons are prescribed for oysters and mussels,
and periwinkles in some cases. Finally, the kind
of apparatus used for catching these animals may
be defined, and certain objectionable forms may be
prohibited entirely. Local fishery committees may
also spend public money in restocking a public
fishery for molluscs or crustaceans, and they may
also undertake the artificial culture of these fish.
The object in these regulations is to prevent the
capture of immature or breeding shell-fish, and
to provide for the maintenance of a sufficient
stock on the fishing grounds, so as to ensure the
permanence of the fishery.

The powers of regulation possessed by the local
fishery committees are therefore ample, but in some
respects they are curiously limited. Thus, they
have no powers to restrict or to interfere in any
way with the methods of fishing in the areas under
the jurisdiction of the Boards of Salmon Conserva-
tors, or in those cases, which are not uncommon,

ADMINISTRATION IN ENGLAND | 105

where the fishing rights of a certain area belong
exclusively to some person or corporation, in virtue
of any local or special Act of Parliament, or of a
Royal Charter, or by right of immemorial usage.
In such cases the consent of the persons enjoying
the exclusive fishing right must be obtained before
the by-laws of the committee, in the area adminis-
tered by which the fishing occurs, can be enforced.
With respect to the matters which may form the
subjects of by-laws, there are several curious excep-
tions. Thus, shell-fish may be cultivated and
fisheries may be stocked, and scientific experiments
ancillary to those objects may be made; but with
regard to sea-fishes proper these powers do not
exist. Again, a local committee may impose a
legal limit on the sizes of shell-fish which may be
fished for, but not on those of sea-fish. There
is what is apparently a very salutary provision in
the Sea-Fisheries Regulation Act of 1888, which
enables a committee to take steps to prohibit the
discharge of sewage or other matters into the sea,
if such substances Should prove detrimental to sea-
fish or sea-fishing. Most of the committees have
obtained a by-law to this effect, but this provision
has turned out to be more ornamental than useful.
A saving clause forbids interference in such cases
where the sewage, etc., is discharged in virtue of
the powers conferred by any local or general Act
of Parliament. Now, since the Board of Trade
have held that the Public Health Act of 1875

106 BRITISH FISHERIES

conferred such a right, it happens that in most,
perhaps in all, cases the by-law is inoperative.
Again, the committee may only interfere when it
can be proved that the discharge of a noxious
substance in the neighbourhood of a fishery is
prejudicial to the health of the shell-fish or other
animals concerned, but not if the same contamina-
tion of a fishery should be prejudicial to the health
of persons using the fish as food. At present, our
knowledge of the physiology and pathology of
marine animals is so slight, that satisfactorily to
prove the detrimental effect of sewage or other
waste liquids is in most cases very difficult, or
even impossible.!

Then with regard to scientific research the
local committees are in a most unfortunate situa-
tion. There is no provision in the Sea-Fisheries
Regulation Acts enabling them to expend public
money for this purpose, except in so far as the
investigations are undertaken with the object of
stocking a shell-fishery. It has happened fre-
quently that scientific investigations would have
proved most useful in some question of regulation,
but the machinery for the prosecution of such has
not generally been in existence. Several of the
fishery committees, it is true, have a scientific
staff. Such was the case in Cornwall and in

1 An examination of the Statutes relating to the public health and
to the fisheries will show that there is, at the present time, no real
prohibition of the pollution of a public sea-fishery by sewage.

ADMINISTRATION IN ENGLAND 107

Devon, and at present it is the case in Northum-
berland, and notably in Lancashire. In the case of
the latter authority there are two marine labora-
tories where scientific investigations are carried
on; a small scientific staff is employed, and the
vessels and officers of the committee assist in such
work. This organisation has been made possible
only by the assistance of the former technical
instruction committees of the counties and
boroughs, and by the provision in the Act of 1895
which legalises the expenditure of public money
on investigations connected with the culture of
shell-fish. These provisions are, however, far
from being satisfactory, and it must be confessed
that the amount of scientific work which has
been carried on by the local committees is paltry
and inadequate in comparison with the value of
the industry concerned. The provision for the
collection of fishery statistics is also very unsatis-
factory. This is work which could be performed
very well by the local organisations, especially in
regard to those small fisheries which are only of
local importance, but which may nevertheless be
the object of much solicitude. The Act of 1888
does empower the committees to collect statistics,
if required by the central authority, and with the
assistance of money provided by Parliament. But
hitherto such assistance has not been provided.

On the whole, then, the system of local
regulation of the fisheries, as originally contem-

108 BRITISH FISHERIES

plated by the Sea-Fisheries Regulation Acts,
cannot be said to have been very successful. It
is obvious, when one considers the conditions of
the fishing industry, that the area of administration
is much too limited. Overlapping of interests
must continually occur, and there is not necessarily
any co-ordination between contiguous authorities.
Then it is the case that the rateable value of
some of the districts is too small to allow of the
upkeep of an adequate inspection staff. These
considerations have been instrumental in leading
to the amalgamation of authorities in some
cases, as in that of the Lancashire and Western
District Committee, which includes not only
Lancashire, but also Cheshire and most of the
Welsh maritime counties. This general tend-
ency may be observed, and there is little doubt
that the fisheries would be much better regulated
by authorities representing groups of counties
than by committees of the councils of each of
those areas. This amalgamation of the district
authorities was the plan suggested by the Com-
mittee on Ichthyological Research for the purpose
of scientific investigation. Where it has taken
place, the administration has been most successful.
As a result of the amalgamation of authorities in
some cases, the work of the committees is very
unequal, as a glance at the last report of the
inspectors of fisheries for England and Wales
will show. Thus, the Lancashire authority has

ADMINISTRATION IN ENGLAND tog

an administrative staff consisting of a superin-
tendent and about thirty fishery officers, and is
provided with a steamer and some _ half-dozen
sailing cutters for police superintendence at sea.
There is also a scientific staff, consisting of an
honorary head and two assistants, with the usual
laboratory aid. The income of the Committee
in 1902 was {7717, and there were seventy-four
convictions for infractions of the by-laws. Com-
pare with this the condition of the Glamorgan
District during the same year, when the income
was only £241, the administrative staff consisted
of one officer, and no convictions at all were
obtained.

It is generally agreed that the system under
which the regulation of the fisheries is obtained
by rates levied on the maritime counties is not
altogether a fair one. There is at first sight
something to be said in favour of the argument
that the expense of administration of an industry
like sea-fishing should be borne by the areas
immediately benefited. But it appears much
more reasonable to argue that, since the whole ~
country benefits by the labour of the fisherman,
by receiving cheap and abundant food, the task
of sustaining and developing the industry should
not be left in great measure to the maritime
counties, but should be provided for from Imperial
sources. It is at any rate an anomaly that such
purely inland centres as Manchester or Blackburn

110 BRITISH FISHERIES

should be charged with this expense, while
London and Bristol should be exempt.

The practical working of the committees has
shown that their constitution is open to grave
criticism, There is no guarantee of continuity
of policy in respect to principles of legislation.
Though one is inclined to defer to the principle
of representative government in the case of the
fisheries, as in most other things, it is nevertheless
the case that, in placing the regulation of the
fisheries under an indirectly elected representative
authority, we thereby set up an administrative
machine which is at once unwieldy and un-
necessary, and which in many cases makes the
administration the object of insincere and semi-
political agitation.

The constitution of the English central
authority is not less unsatisfactory than that of
the local committees. Until a comparatively
short time ago this authority was a sub-depart-
ment of the Board of Trade, which consisted
practically of an assistant secretary, and of three
inspectors of fisheries. This department is not
directly concerned with the actual regulation of
the industry, but exercises a kind of supervisory
control over the working of the sea - fisheries
committees. A great portion of its work con-
sists of the administration of the Acts relating
to the fresh-water fisheries, and this forms the
subject of a separate official report. The function

ADMINISTRATION IN ENGLAND itr

of the Central Fisheries Department may be
gathered from a perusal of the annual reports
of the inspectors. Much of the work of the
department consists in holding local inquiries
either into the necessity for new by-laws pro-
posed by the local committee, or in the con-
sideration of applications for Orders conferring
rights of “several fishery.” For the rest, the
annual reports form presumably the statutory
statistical statements regarding the sea - fisheries
which are demanded by the Acts of 1871 and
1886. They contain accounts of the working
of the Sea- Fisheries Acts giving effect to the
International Conventions, and of those provisions
of the Merchant Shipping Acts which refer to
fishing boats. Returns from the local com-
mittees are published, and a summary of the
returns made by the collectors of fishery statistics
is also appended: in the latter one may glean
such information regarding the weather as: this:
“The usual weather has been experienced, but
nothing remarkable”; or regarding the fisheries,
that they were good, and on the whole better
than in previous years.

The principal defect in the constitution and
working of the central authority lies in what
one may call its intelligence department. Ap-
parently the routine matters dealt with above
have in the past absorbed the whole time of
the staff, and there has been neither opportunity

112 BRITISH FISHERIES

nor inclination for original observation of the con-
ditions of the fisheries. It must have happened
frequently that highly technical questions have
been submitted to the officials of the department,
and apparently there have been no resources avail-
able for the study of these. It is true that the
Treasury makes an annual subsidy to the Marine
Biological Association of from {500 to {1000,
on condition that the scientific men in the service
of the Association should advise the Board on
fishery matters, should occasion arise. I am
not aware, however, that this advice has often
been invited. There is everything. to be said
for the employment, under the Board, of scientific
men with a special knowledge of the conditions
of the fisheries, who might undertake the in-
vestigation of any questions arising in the con-
sideration of the working of the local committees,
or in the preparation of legislative remedies.
This defect in the constitution of the Board
has been noticed very frequently in the various
reports of public inquiries into the fisheries.
“As regards investigation,” reported the Select
Committee of 1g00, “your Committee feel that
the materials for forming a just conclusion upon
such matters are not what they might be... .
Your Committee were particularly struck by the
fact that not only is there much doubt as to
the precise position of foreign law in regard to
restrictive legislation affecting fisheries and _ its

ADMINISTRATION IN ENGLAND | 113

result, but that upon the question of what has
been achieved in the United States of America
certain information is not easily available.’

Since 1903 the control of the fisheries has
been tranferred from the Board of Trade to the
Board of Agriculture. When this was suggested,
hopes were entertained that the central fisheries
authority would be provided with the means
for investigation, so that they might form in-
dependent judgments respecting the necessity for
changes in the law relating to fisheries, or for
any other purposes. This has not apparently
been provided for, and the present Fisheries
Department at the Board of Agriculture is not
much more satisfactory in this respect than when
it was at the Board of Trade.

1 Report, Select Committee of 1900, p. Vv.

CHAPTER VIII
THE SEA-FISHERIES OF IRELAND

Tuere is thus a marked contrast between the
manner in which the fisheries have been adminis-
tered in the northern and southern parts of Great
Britain. In Scotland the authority has always
been (in modern times) a strong and active one,
exercising a vigilant control over a continually
growing industry, and enjoying a relatively liberal
measure of State support. Such an authority
never existed in England, and it is only during the
last fifteen years of the nineteenth century that the
supervision of the national sea-fisheries has been
attempted ; and even now the central authority is
by no means so powerful or well equipped as the
corresponding Scottish body. The weakness of
the English administration has, however, had
little effect on the development of the fisheries,
for the natural energy of the people, the wealth
of the country, and the comparatively hospitable
character of the English coast, both on the North
Sea and in the Channel, were advantages which

pect

THE SEA-FISHERIES OF IRELAND 115

more than compensated for the lack of regulation
or the absence of bounties or other artificial means
of encouragement. In most respects Ireland offers
a strong contrast to the conditions in the sister
kingdom, and the history of her fisheries is a
curious and instructive study, into which I can
enter only very briefly. Although a central
authority, possessing relatively large powers of
regulation, has nearly always existed in modern
times, yet the administration has until quite
recently generally been characterised by apathy
or even abuse. There has been no continuity in
the policy of this authority, and State support has
been alternately given and then withdrawn. And
to these causes of depression are to be added the
general poverty of the people, and economic changes
without parallel in either England or Scotland.
Apparently there has always been abundance of
fish off the Irish coasts, so that the limited develop-
ment of the fisheries is not to be traced to natural
causes. Thereiare, of course, no statistics prior to
the beginning of the nineteenth century which
might give us any notion of the extent of the fish-
ing, but there are other indications that the seas
had abundant natural resources. From the time of
the Norman Conquest to the beginning of the
seventeenth century, the English sovereigns derived
a considerable revenue by granting licences to fish
in Irish waters. Thus the Dutch gave Charles I.
£30,000 for permission to fish off the west coast, and

116 BRITISH FISHERIES

Philip II. of Spain agreed to pay £1000 per year
for the privilege of fishing off the north coast. In
1650, again, Sweden, in return for certain services
rendered to England, was permitted to send 100
vessels to take part in the fishing in Irish waters."
There is unfortunately little doubt that, in
many instances at least, the development of the
Irish fisheries was intentionally discouraged by
the English Government. During the Common-
wealth, various petitions were presented to Parlia-
ment, praying that the Irish fisheries might be
discouraged in some way, because of the injury
which the competition of the fishermen there
was inflicting on the trade of England, especially
with Spain and the Straits. One such sup-
plication stated that sometimes as many as 200
vessels from Holland, France, and England might
be seen at Wexford, taking cargoes of fish from
Irish fishermen. If this continued, the petition
stated, it would be folly to catch herrings in
the English Channel, since the cost of a barrel
of this fish there was double what it would be
at Wexford. Apparently this request was com-
plied with, for according to Prendergast,’ the
Irish fishermen were to a great extent exter-

1 See Report on the Coast and Deep-sea Fisheries of Ireland, by the
Royal Commissioners on Irish Oyster Fisheries, 1870; also a rather
scarce pamphlet by J. A. Blake, entitled Ze Present Position of the Sea-
Fisheries in Ireland, and how they may be made to afford Increased
Food and Employment (133 pp.; Citizen Office, Waterford, 1868).

2 Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland, 1865.

THE SEA-FISHERIES OF IRELAND 117

minated by the transplanting laws. By the
beginning of the nineteenth century the fisheries
were evidently in great need of encouragement.
In 1804 the Marine Society of London promoted
a scheme to fish on the Nymph Bank, off Wex-
ford. No aid was sought from the Government,
but a Bill was introduced into Parliament.
Petitions, however, poured in from English fish-
ing stations, including Harwich, Gravesend, and
Faversham, and in consequence of this opposition
the Bill was lost by a small minority.

We have seen that a very thorough-going
system of protection by means of bounties
on the tonnage of fishing vessels, and on the
catches made, was initiated in Great Britain in
1809. This affected Scotland principally, for it
was there that the herring fisheries were most
in need of artificial aids. But though this en-
couragement was at least equally necessary in
Ireland, where the sea-fisheries had declined
ever since the Union, it was not until 1819
that it was attempted. In that year an Act?
was passed providing for the establishment of a
fisheries authority and a bounty system on the
coasts of Ireland. A Board was created, con-
sisting of twenty unpaid commissioners, with a
secretary, three clerks, and twenty-four inspectors
(involving an annual expenditure in_ salaries of

1 Report on the Coast and Deep-sea Fisheries of Ireland, 1870.
2 59 Geo. IIL. c. 109.

118 BRITISH FISHERIES

about £3249). The functions of this Board were
to administer the bounty fund, to improve and
construct fishing harbours, and to give loans to
fishermen for the purchase of boats and gear.
The principal bounties were :—f2, Ios. per ton
on vessels over 15 and under 60 tons burden; £3
per ton of whale-oil; 3s. a barrel on herrings,
pilchards, and mackerel cured according to the
regulations of the Board (this was not paid to vessels
earning the tonnage bounty) ; and 4s. per cwt. on
dried cod, ling, hake, haddock, “ glassen,”’ and
conger.! “Under the operation of this system a
great increase in the activity of the trade was ex-
perienced, much capital was drawn to it, and large
sums were circulated among fishermen, curers,
etc.”? The fishery began to assume respectable
dimensions. The statistics for the -period during
which the bounties were in operation are :—

Vessels. Men. Bounties.
1819 27 188 £73
1820 11g The 4,260
1821 4,889 21,422 14,150
1824 10,882 §2,482 | 30,642
1826 10,823 57,809 | 18,719
1828 {2,196 $9,321 12,162
1829 12,611 63,642 10,203

1 Report of the Commissioners of Inquiry into the State of the Irish
Fisheries, 1837+ The ‘‘glassen” is the “ coalfish” (Gadus virens).
2 Ibid, First Report, p. x.

THE SEA-FISHERIES OF IRELAND 119

The catches of fish during the same period
show corresponding increases. In 1819 the ex-
port of dried fish was 40 tons, and this rose to 3019
in 1829. Herrings in 1819 amounted to 1193
barrels, rising to 16,855 in 1829. Of the fishing

vessels registered in the latter year, there were :—

218 decked vessels of an average tonnage of 28,

769 half-decked 3 a3 is i2,

2483 open sailing boats, and

9522 rowing boats ;*
figures which contrast very favourably with those for
1901. The fisheries were therefore in a very re-
spectable condition, and this in spite of the gross
abuses, the errors of management, and the flagrant
jobbery of the administration.” It was, in fact, ac-
cording to Mr J. R. Barry (for long an Irish inspector
of fisheries), “‘a period of unexampled prosperity.”

It can, of course, be argued that the develop-

ment of the fisheries during the period 1819-
1829 was illusory, and depended entirely on the
payment of the bounties. This line of argu-
ment has, indeed, been adopted, both with regard
to the Irish and the Scottish bounty systems,
by those who are opposed on economical grounds
to the principle of protection. It is true, no
doubt, that the progress of the fishery depended
to some extent on the payment of the bounties ;
for, when the latter were reduced in 1824, the

1 Report on the Coast and Deep-sea Fisheries of Ireland, 1870.
2 [bid., p. 9.

120 BRITISH FISHERIES

statistics showed a decided decline in the numbers
of men and boats employed; and a few years
later, when they were withdrawn altogether, they
showed a further decrease. But they rose again,
showing that the industry had become established ;
and there seems little doubt that, but for a series of
lamentable events, the bounties would have conferred
permanent benefit on the Irish fishing industry.
The Scottish bounty system was discontinued
in 1830. But though after that year no further
payments were made on the tonnage of fishing
vessels or on the catches and exports of fish, the
whole establishment of the British White Herring
Commissioners, with its system of regulation, in-
spection, statistics, and brands, was continued.
Every chance was thus afforded for the impetus
which the bounties had given the fishery becoming
permanent, and an annual sum of £3000 was
still paid the Commissioners for the erection and
improvement of fishing harbours. Altogether, a
sum of £927,110 had been paid away in bounties
to the Scottish fishermen. In Ireland, on the
other hand, where the need of encouragement of
the fisheries was still more pressing, only £163,376
had been spent in bounties, and when the latter
were abolished, a few years after their cessation in
Scotland, a very different course was pursued, and
the whole fisheries establishment was practically
abolished. "The Commissioners remonstrated, but
to no avail, The Irish Fishery Department

THE SEA-FISHERIES OF IRELAND 121

became a nominal branch of the Board of Inland
Navigation, and, for all practical benefit it could
confer on the fishing industry, ceased to exist. A
period of depression followed, and in 1835 the state
of the industry had again become such as to call for
the appointment of a Royal Commission of Inquiry.

This body reported in 1837, and a Bill was
introduced in 1838 by the Chief Secretary (Lord
Morpeth) and the Attorney-General (Mr Serjeant
Wolfe), to give effect to its recommendations.
Apparently the prospect of further encourage-
ment of the Irish fisheries proved alarming to
fishermen in Scotland, and adverse influences were
brought to bear against the Bill. It was apparently
regarded as unfair to the latter country that the
bounty system should be re-introduced into Ireland
after it had ceased in Scotland. The Bill was
committed for 16th May 1838, but was deferred
three times a week till 23rd July. On the day
before that date a deputation from Scotland, headed
by the Duke of Sutherland, waited on the Govern-
ment and protested against the proposals of the
Bill. On the following day the latter was
abandoned. “There was every reason to justify
the belief that the interests of the Irish fisheries
on that occasion were sacrificed in order to appease
the jealousy of Scotland.”* No action was then
taken until 1842, when an Act of that year? trans-

1 See Report on the Coast and Deep-sea Fisheries of Ireland, 1870,
p- 8. 2 5 and 6 Vict. c. 106.

122 BRITISH FISHERIES

ferred the superintendence of the fisheries to the
Commissioners of Public Works, and gave this
body almost absolute powers to make by-laws for
the regulation of methods of fishing, both in the sea
and in inland waters. Whether or not the creation
of this authority had any effect on the develop-
ment of the fisheries is uncertain, but at any rate
the industry now began to improve a little.

Then came the great potato famine of 1847.
Whatever benefit the legislation I have alluded to
may have had on the fisheries was nullified entirely
by this great calamity, and the Irish fishing
industry received a shock from which it has never
recovered. The immediate effect of the famine
may be summarised in the following table? :—

Vessels. | Fishermen.

1830 | Fisheries under stimulus
of bounties and loan
funds. . . | 13,119 | 64,771
1836 | Fisheries under depres-
sion caused by with- | 10,761 | 54,119
drawal of bounties

1845 | Fisheries immediately

before the famine. | 19,883 | 93,073
1848 | Fisheries immediately

after the famine = | ©5932 | 7o,orr
1865 |. ‘ : : - | 95300 | 40,946 |

1 Report of the Royal Commission on the Sea-fisheries of the United
Kingdom, 1866.

THE SEA-FISHERIES OF IRELAND 123

Thus, during the twenty years following the
famine, the number of boats and fishermen was
diminished by more than one-half. There was no
question of a decrease of fish, nor were there any
other natural events which could be held account-
able. The sole causes of the decline of the
fisheries were the impoverishment of the coast
population resulting from the effects of the famine,
and the loss of a great part of the market for the
fish. Then the emigration following the famine
contributed further to the depression of the fishing
industry. “It might have been anticipated,”
reported the Commissioners of 1866," “that
during the famine the fishermen at least would be
secure from its ill-effects, and would not only have .
plenty of food themselves, but would be the means
of averting starvation from others. But this was
not the case. It was found that the people would
not live wholly on fish, nor would they, out of
the small means remaining to them, buy fish in
preference to meal or potatoes; the fishermen,
therefore, suffered not only from the loss of their
own crops of potatoes, but from want of market for
their fish. They shared to the full extent in the
sufferings of the famine, and as most of them
became physically incapable of going to sea, it was
frequently found that men were starving when
fish were in abundance on the coast. In many

1 Report of the Royal Commission on the Sea-fisheries of the
United Kingdom, p. 24 (the 8vo edition).

124 BRITISH FISHERIES

parts of Ireland the fishing population has not yet
[1868] recovered from the depression and ruin
caused by the famine ; and the subsequent emigra-
tion, by taking off the youngest and ablest of the
fishermen, and leaving behind the old, the feeble,
and the incompetent, has still further operated, not
only in reducing the numbers, but in lowering the
average condition, of those who remain behind.”

““Multitudes had to part with their boats and
gear for anything they could obtain, to procure
the means of appeasing the hunger of themselves
and their families. At last nothing would be
advanced on boats and materials, and a_ large
amount of both rotted on the beach.’ !

The result of these disastrous events was, there-
fore, that when the Royal Commission of 1866
came to report, they had to point out the striking
contrast between the state of the fisheries in Great
Britain and Ireland. While in the former coun-
tries the industry was everywhere in a flourishing
condition, and gave every sign of indefinite ex-
pansion, everything in Ireland indicated great
depression and want of prosperity. Even the
small numbers of fishermen and boats for 1865
gave an exaggerated impression of the state of the
fisheries. Very few indeed of the persons re-
turned as fishermen lived entirely by fishing. At
some places, such as Dungarvon, Waterford, and
Kinsale, they were real fishermen ; but almost all

1 Report, Royal Commission on Irish Oyster Fisheries, 1870.

THE SEA-FISHERIES OF IRELAND 125

the rest were small farmers who fished only at
irregular intervals and in a casual manner, and at
the time when fishing would probably have been
most successful they were mostly attending to
their farms. It was a case for some exceptional
kind of State encouragement. Nevertheless, the
Royal Commissioners of 1863, influenced, no
doubt, by the prevailing Free Trade doctrines
of their time, made no specific recommendation.
The industry was left to work out its own salvation,
and the legislation in force was allowed to per-
petuate a system of entirely futile and unprofitable
administration.

There was, indeed, little left to administer. The
Commissioners of Public Works, who had charge
of the fisheries under the Act of 1842, had exten-
sive powers. They were enabled to impose any
restrictions or prohibitions in relation to methods
of fishing which they regarded as necessary.
They had, in fact, “an almost absolute authority
to make regulations with respect to the different
modes of fishing”? carried on in Ireland, pre-
sumably with the object of the development of
the industry. How did they employ this power?
It must be remembered that they had to deal with
an ignorant people, who were intolerant of innova-
tion, and who were not averse to indicating this
spirit in a lawless fashion. Methods of fishing

1 Report, Royal Commission of 1863, Evidence, Q. 37,334-
2 Jbid., Report, p. 110 (8vo edition).

126 BRITISH FISHERIES

were poor, and capable of great improvement, but
such attempts were usually resisted. Trawling
was introduced into Galway before 1820, but
failed, on account of the violence with which the
prejudices of the native fishermen manifested
themselves. It was again attempted on a larger
scale in 1852, and, though opposed by complaints,
intimidation, and actual violence on the part of the
Claddagh fishermen, was persisted in until 1863.
Then the latter men took the law into their own
hands, and by violence and intimidation prevented
the trawl-owners from exercising their legal rights
of fishing. Boats and gear were then rendered
idle, and a memorial” presented to the Lord Lieu-
tenant (Lord Carlisle) by the fishermen, “the
magistracy, the gentry and inhabitants” of the
Claddagh, in Galway, prayed for the suppression of
this method of fishing. This was in 1863, and
when the Royal Commission of that year came to
inquire into the question, they were compelled to
hear the evidence of the trawl-owners privately, as
the latter persons alleged that they were in “ bodily
fear’ should their views be expressed publicly.’

In these circumstances, the spirit of the adminis-
tration is easily intelligible. No apparent attempt
at the real encouragement and improvement of the
fishing industry seems to have been attempted.

1 Hardiman, History of Galway, 1820.
2 Quoted in Report, Royal Commission of 1863.
3 Report, Royal Commission of 1863, p. 45 (8vo edition).

THE SEA-FISHERIES OF IRELAND 127

The Commissioners made many by-laws, most of
them prohibitions or restrictions of trawling in
certain localities, and in deference to local pre-
judices : regulations which most probably in many
cases only served to retard the development of the
industry, though no doubt they prevented for
the time local agitation and disputes. The duties
of the department seem to have been confined to
the elaboration of these local restrictions. Beyond
this, their policy was one of non-interference with
the course of the industry. The “Inspecting
Commissioner”’ of the Board found it somewhat
difficult to inform the Commission of 1863 what
his duties actually were. He had “to carry out
the directions of the Board; their policy was to
do as little as possible, but to preserve peace if
possible.” ‘To be candid,” he said, “J have at
times considered that our department was a species
of delusion. We were supposed to be the persons
having charge of the sea-fisheries of Ireland. Our
duties, though strictly observed, according to the
instructions given in the Act, were mistaken by
the public. It was believed that we were to be
the encouragers of the fisheries, and many persons,
who perhaps felt that that duty would have
devolved upon themselves as proprietors, looked to
us as the parties whose duty it was to do that
which we thought we had no right to do.”*

1 Report, Royal Commission of 1863, Evidence, Qs. 37,014 and
37,050.

128 BRITISH FISHERIES

Under this system of administration the sea-
fisheries of Ireland have on the whole declined from
the time of the Royal Commission of 1866. I
give the returns of the numbers of vessels, men,
and boys engaged in the industry since 1865, for
each fifth year :—*

Vessels. Men and Boys.
1870 8999 38,629
1875 5919 23,108
1880 6459 24,348
1885 5667 21,491
1890 5655 21,987
1895 6551 25,085
I9OI 6561 26,161

Even these figures, discouraging though they
be, do not represent the real depression and
poverty of the industry. Of the vessels engaged
in 1g01, only twelve were steam trawlers; the
majority of the second-class sailing boats were less
than ten tons in net register, and more than half of
the total number of vessels were rowing boats. In
1go1 this fishing population landed on a// the
coasts of Ireland fish of all kinds of a total value
of £374,109." Long-line fishermen in the same
year earned, on the average, from 20s. per week

1 Taken from the Annual Reports of the Inspectors.
2 In 1902 the quantity of fish (exclusive of shell-fish) landed on
the coasts of Ireland was 556,868 cwts., worth £296,606.

THE SEA-FISHERIES OF IRELAND 129

(at Kinsale, for about thirteen weeks) to 2s. 6d.
per week (at Queenstown, for fourteen weeks).!

Now contrast these figures with those for
the west coast of England and Wales.2 The
Board of Trade statement gives the total value
of the fish landed on that coast as £772,245;
of this amount, £299,288 represents the value
of the fish landed at one English port (Milford)
alone, a figure which is not far short of that
representing the value of the whole of the Irish
industry. There is no question here of un-
favourable natural conditions so far as Ireland
is concerned. The seas off the west and south
coasts of the latter country have been described
as a “mine of wealth,” and though this estimate
of their value is perhaps to be discounted, it is
no doubt the case that these areas are capable of
an enormously greater exploitation than they at
present undergo. Fleetwood trawlers have, in fact,
within the last few years exploited the Blaskets
fishing grounds, off County Kerry. All the causes
contributing to the depression of the industry are
economic ones: the maladministration of the
early part of the century ; the unfortunate with-
drawal of the bounties; the positive discourage-
ment due to English or Scottish jealousy ; the
famine and resulting emigration, and the further

1 Report on the Sea and Inland Fisheries of Ireland for 1901.

Appendix No. 9, p- 46.
2 Statistical Tables and Memorandum, 1901, p. 27.

130 BRITISH FISHERIES

reduction of the population; and, finally, the
apathy of the administration.

This apathy came to an end, and an infinitely
more hopeful régime was initiated, when the Irish
Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruc-
tion’ was created. This was the main expression
of the new spirit in which Sir Horace Plunket,
and those who were associated with him, began,
some ten or twelve years ago, the cure of the
economic disease which has afflicted Ireland for
centuries, and who, by “helping the people to
help themselves,” are playing a more worthy and
useful part than those who place their reliance on
political shibboleths. A Fisheries Branch forms
an important section of the Department. £10,000
is provided annually in the estimates for the
expenses of the administration of the branch.
Two inspectors and a scientific adviser, with
several naturalists, form the staff. The Depart-
ment administers loan funds (which one wishes
were more ample) for enabling fishermen to
purchase boats and gear. It endeavours to direct
the industry, in the way of providing better trans-
port and markets for the products of the fisheries,
and every attempt is made to develop the latter
by all possible means, such as by extending the
fish-curing industry and developing the unique

1 Bythe Agriculture and Technical Instruction (Ireland) Act of 1899.
See Jreland in the New Century, by Sir Horace Plunket, London, 1904,
p. 282, for a short account of the functions of the fisheries authority.

THE SEA-FISHERIES OF IRELAND 131

advantages for oyster-culture which the Irish
coastal waters possess, in their freedom from sewage
and trade contamination. Research is carried on
energetically by the scientific adviser and his
staff, both on shore, at a laboratory on the coast
of Galway, and at sea in the cruiser Helga.
Under the old conditions, prior to the establishment
of the Board of Agriculture and Technical Instruc-
tion, scientific research had naturally no place
in the administration of the Irish fisheries. It
was not until the eighties that any attempts at the
investigation of the Irish seas, from the point of
view of the fisheries, were made, and then these
were promoted first of all by the Royal Irish
Academy, and later on by the Royal Dublin
Society. These investigations were directed to-
wards the exploration of little-known regions off
the south and west coasts, and their object was
not so much the elucidation of special problems of
marine natural history as the survey of the sea
from the point of view of the establishment of
definite fisheries. Mr Spotswood Green, who
later on became one of the inspectors of Irish
fisheries, was the first naturalist to be engaged in
this work. Later on the Royal Dublin Society
promoted a more ambitious survey of the west-
coast waters, and were successful in inducing the
Government to contribute largely to the expenses
of the investigation. This took the form of a
survey, in the course of which fishing operations

132 BRITISH FISHERIES

were carried out on a number of stations over an
extensive area. Records were taken of the fishes
and other marine animals captured, and more
special investigations into such points as the dis-
tribution of mature and immature fishes, spawning
periods, food, etc., were made on the material so
obtained.}

It is perhaps too much to expect, at the present
time, that a return might be made in Ireland to the
early system of bounties on the results of the fishing.
But it is most probably the case that at no time
like the present, when the fishing industry is being
administered with a sympathy and energy which
had no place in the administration of the past,”
would the application of this policy be more pro-
ductive of good. If private enterprise and capital
cannot be directed towards the sea-fisheries of
Ireland, then direct protection might, even if it
should be considered by many as econemic heresy,
be of incalculable benefit.

1 See Holt, Sci. Proceedings Roy. Dublin Soc., vol. vii. (N.S.) pt. 4,
Pp: 225-477, 1892.

2 I may give, as an instance, the work of the Congested Districts
Board during the last few years. See the Reports of this authority.

CHAPTER IX
FOREIGN RESEARCH ORGANISATIONS

Even a brief mention of the authorities con-
cerned with sea-fisheries administration in foreign
countries would take more space than is consistent
with the aims of such a work asthis. No civilised
country has failed to regulate in some way or other
the fisheries within its own waters, and even a
summary account of the methods and results of
these bodies would be tedious and uninteresting
to the general student of the British fishing
industry. Fishery administration is, moreover, of
local interest only, since general principles do not
govern it so much as a consideration of those
natural and economic conditions peculiar to the
locality which is the area of administration.
Fisheries scientific research is of much more
general interest ; but even here a great amount of
work must be undertaken for each particular area
which need not necessarily have any direct import-
ance in relation to the fisheries of another country.

Nevertheless, no account of fisheries investigation
133

134 BRITISH FISHERIES

in any one country can pretend to be satisfactory
which does not include some mention of two
of the most notable research organisations in exist-
ence —the German “Kiel Kommission,”’ and
the United States “Commission of Fish and
Fisheries.””

The Kiel Kommission

The German ‘“ Kommission zur Wissenschaft-
lichen Untersuchung der Deutschen Meere in
Kiel,” usually known as the Kiel Kommission,
was established in 1870, at the suggestion of the
Deutsche See-Fischerei Verein, a powerful and
influential fisheries society. The German title
‘** Kommission” must not be interpreted according
to our English notions of the functions of a
“Commission,” Royal or otherwise. In_ this
country such a body is generally constituted for
the investigation of some matter of administra-
tion, and I have already given some account of the
great Commissions, appointed either by the Crown
or by a public department, which, from time to
time, have inquired into the condition of the
British sea-fisheries. The methods of a British
Royal Commission are fairly well known. It does
not generally make any investigation on its own
account, but contents itself with the examination of
a great number of witnesses, partial or otherwise ;
and from the mass of opinions so accumulated it
sifts out what it regards as the truth concerning

FOREIGN RESEARCH ORGANISATIONS 135

the matters submitted to it, and it then makes
certain recommendations as to the manner in
which a legislative remedy can be attained. In
case it should make a too exhaustive inquiry, the
subjects which it may investigate are always strictly
limited by its “terms of reference.”! It usually
“sits” for a number of years, after which it
publishes a report, the bulk of which is greatly
augmented by the ‘ minutes of evidence,” contain-
ing, among a mass of valueless statements, all the
useful information which it has been possible to
obtain by the cumbrous method consecrated by
long usage. Finally, one must not omit to note
that, when the whole matter has ceased to attract
public attention, the report is presented, and is
then decently interred in the Libraries among the
Parliamentary Papers of the year. By this time
another government may have succeeded that
which secured the appointment of the Commission ;
but whether or not this is the case, the result is
usually the same—the whole thing has ceased to
excite any interest, and the recommendations of the
Commission are soon forgotten and are quietly
ignored.

The constitution and methods of the Kiel Kom-
mission are entirely different from those which I
have indicated above. When, in 1870, it became
apparent that little was known of the natural

1 The scrupulous care taken so as not to exceed the “terms of
reference” extorts our unwilling admiration.

136 BRITISH FISHERIES

conditions on which the sea-fisheries depended, a
strong agitation was set up for the appointment of
a body whose business it would be to investigate —
marine biology, so far as this was suggested by the
condition of the sea-fisheries. Five professors at
the University of Kiel were therefore appointed to
undertake such work. At the present time the
Commissioners are Hensen,. Brandt, Reinke, and
Kriimmel, responsible respectively for the subjects
of physiology, zoology, botany, and geography,
at Kiel, and Heincke, Director of the biological
station at Helgoland. The President of this body
(Hensen) receives an annual salary of £90, and
each of the other members a salary of £45. An
annual grant of about £7500 is made by the
German Government for these salaries and the
expenses of the Kommission, which are the equip-
ment of laboratories at the University of Kiel, the
chartering of steamers for scientific work at sea,
the purchase of apparatus and materials, the
salaries of assistants and collectors of statistics, and
the printing of the beautiful reports—the Wissen-
schaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen— in which the
scientific results are published. From time to
time the Government has also made extra grants
for special investigations and surveys, the most
notable of which are the cruises of S.M.S.
Pommeranmia in the Baltic and North Seas in
1871-2, the ‘“Plankton-Expedition’”’ in the
North Sea and Atlantic in 1889, the Valdivia

FOREIGN RESEARCH ORGANISATIONS 137

deep-sea expedition of 18g0, the recent Antarctic
exploring voyage of the Gauss, and in 1901
the German share of the international scheme
of fisheries investigations which is now being
carried out. In 1892, shortly after the cession
of Helgoland by Great Britain to Germany, the
Government of the Empire established the present
biological station on that island, at a cost of about
£2875, and in 1897-8 it also gave a sum of {400
to assist in the equipment of a fisheries museum
in connection with the laboratory. An annual
grant for the station and staff is also made, which
in 1897-8 amounted to about £1037. These
are considerable sums, and in Germany, where the
emoluments of scientific men in the higher ranks
of their profession are on the whole less than
in Britain, they represent more than they would
in this country, and are a sufficient indication of
the interest displayed by the Fatherland in the
prosecution of scientific research.

The Kiel Kommission consists, then, of a body
of men all whose time, apart from that occupied
by their strictly professional duties, is occupied
with sea-fisheries research, and who sit in “ per-
manent session.” They are exceedingly active
investigators, and each has made most important
additions to our knowledge of marine biology and
fisheries science. They are all colleagues of one
university, and are thus in constant touch with
each other. Instead of being restricted to the

138 BRITISH FISHERIES

investigation of particular “practical questions,”
they are given a free hand in relation to the
subjects which they may investigate. They are
not concerned with the actual administration of
fishery laws. It is to these conditions, no doubt,
that the success of their work is to be attributed.
Finally, they differ from their British colleagues in
that their recommendations are occasionally acted
upon.

The amount of scientific work of first-rate im-
portance carried out by the Kiel Kommission is
very great, as a reference to the six reports or
‘Fahresberichte published from 1873 to 1893, and
the five volumes of Wissenschaftliche Meeresunter-
suchungen dating from 1894, will show. I can only
refer very briefly to the nature of this work, which
began with the preliminary survey of the Baltic
and North Seas by the Pommerania in 1871-2,
in the course of which biological and hydrographic
researches were made, and the sea-bottom was
examined from biological and chemical standpoints.
About the same time the inspection of the fish-
markets was undertaken, and a very detailed system
of statistical collection was instituted, in the course
of which the amount of fish landed at German
ports, and the numbers of boats and men engaged,
were tabulated. The area fished over was also de-
limited and charted, and an estimate was made of
the productivity of the sea, from which it appeared
that the yield in food of a given sea area was from

FOREIGN RESEARCH ORGANISATIONS 139

one-fifth to one-half of that of a similar fertile
and cultivated land-surface. In the meantime, the
general investigation of the economic fauna of the
sea was also commenced, and such subjects as the
reproduction and food of fishes were investigated.
The work on the herring, carried out about this
time (1878), is very noteworthy. Kupffer and
others investigated the natural history and embry-
ology of this fish, and Heincke, in several papers
in the ‘fahresberichte and in two colossal volumes *
published by the Deutsche See-Fischerei Verein,
made a most exhaustive study of the variability of
the morphological characters of the herring, which
has resulted in the demolition of the migration
theory long held. This work greatly extended
our knowledge of this important food-fish, and
supplemented in a considerable degree the earlier
work of the Scottish Fishery Board. Following
these, a number of papers on general fisheries
subjects have’ appeared, and a most fertile and
original line of research was instituted by Hensen
and his pupils—the quantitative determination of
the fish-population of the sea, and of the planktonic
organisms which form the ultimate food-material
of these animals. I shall refer to this work later
on, and in the meantime only notice it as one of
the most remarkable and suggestive studies which
has hitherto been made in marine biology.

1 Naturgeschichte des Herings, Abhandlungen Deutschen See-Fisch.
Ver., Bd. ii. Hefte 1-2, 1898.

140 BRITISH FISHERIES

I have referred in the briefest possible manner
to the scientific work of the Kiel Kommission,
It is necessary to mention that a large propor-
tion of it has been of academic, rather than
of what we speak of in England as “ practical,”
interest. This distinction, however, is more
apparent than real. In Germany, fisheries scien-
tific work has always been approached in a
different spirit from that which prevails in
England, where we are continually confronted
with a desire on the part of the official people
that scientific work on which public money is
to be spent should have a direct economic or
practical object and outcome; and where scien-
tific men are compelled to make this an excuse
for official encouragement and support. It is
to the existence of this spirit that the inadequate
nature of English fisheries investigation is due.
No one, for instance, a few years ago would
have suggested the investigation of the function
of respiration in marine fishes and molluscs,
or the bacteriology of the alimentary canal of
these animals, at the public expense, without
serious misgivings and a kind of apologetic tone
in his advocacy. Nevertheless, at the present
day, when questions of sewage contamination and
its effect on fish-life and public health are
receiving so much attention, the want of data
on just these subjects is most seriously felt.
One must, of course, distinguish somewhere a

FOREIGN RESEARCH ORGANISATIONS 141

division of scientific investigation into researches
of “purely scientific” and ‘“ economic” interest ;
but it is better that the catholic spirit, as ex-
hibited in the work of the Kiel Kommission,
should prevail, than that scientific research should
be marrowed and limited as has unfortunately
been the case in England.

The American Fish Commission

The United States Commission of Fish and
Fisheries resembles the German Kiel Kommission
in many ways. It is not an administrative body
in the sense of a British fisheries authority, being
concerned only with the acquirement and applica-
tion of scientific knowledge. Like the German
organisation also, it is not part of any public
department, and is responsible only to Congress.

The Fish Commission was established in 1871,
and the original resolution of Congress defined
its duties as follows: ‘‘To prosecute investigations
on the subject [of the diminution of valuable
fishes], with the view of ascertaining whether
any, and what, diminution in the number of the
food-fishes of the coast and the lakes of the
United States has taken place; and, if so, to
what causes the same is due; and also whether
any, and what, protection, prohibitory or pre-
cautionary measures should be adopted in the
premises, and to report upon the same to

142 BRITISH FISHERIES

Congress.” The resolution provided for the
establishment of a Commnissionership, stipulating
that the person appointed to this office should
be of recognised scientific attainments, and should
have a knowledge of the natural history of the
animals forming the objects of the fisheries.
He was also to be a civil officer of the Govern-
ment, but, on being appointed Commissioner,
should receive no additional salary. There was
only one person at the time possessing these
qualifications, and Professor Spencer Baird, then
assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
became the first Fish Commissioner.

The work of the Commission has _ three
sections :—

1. The systematic examination of the marine
and fresh-water fishery areas of the United States,
with reference both to biological and physical
problems ; systematic zoological and _ general
biological research ; collection of specimens of the
national marine and fresh-water faunas for museum
purposes and for research.

2. Practical fisheries investigation—the collec-
tion of commercial fishery statistics, with a view to
ascertaining the extent of man’s interference with
the marketable faunas of the seas, rivers, and lakes,
and with a view also to the development of com-
mercial fisheries, to the construction of treaties and
tariffs, and to finding the best markets for producers
and consumers ; and the study of fishing methods

FOREIGN RESEARCH ORGANISATIONS 143

and appliances, whether destructive, inefficient, or
serviceable ; and

3. Fish-culture. This was not contemplated
when Congress established the Commission, but
was undertaken later on at the suggestion of the
American Fish-Cultural Association. It includes
the introduction and multiplication of useful fishes
and other marine animals at the public expense.
It was provided for by a special “appropriation ”
of money.’

All these three departments of work have been
developed very vigorously, and pure scientific
research by itself, and in relation to fishery ques-
tions, has been carried out on a scale with which we
are quite unfamiliar in Europe. At first the Com-
missioner and his staff made parties which worked
all along the coast at temporary stations. The
research work of the Commission was then, and
is still, carried out to a very large extent by volun-
teers—scientific men and women belonging to
the universities, museums, and schools of America,
who give their time freely to this work, and who
are assisted by the funds at the disposal of the
organisation. At first this work was almost
purely biological The Commission at that
time possessed no laboratories or exploring vessels,
but were assisted freely by the vessels of the

1 The appropriation from Congress in 1900, for all purposes, was
$454,500. Most of the States, however, have Fish Commissions,
and make additional appropriations.

144 BRITISH FISHERIES

Coast Survey and Revenue marine services, and
of the Navy Department. The co-operation of
many national services, the lighthouses, lightships,
etc., was also obtained, and large numbers of
fishermen assisted by collecting and forwarding
specimens. Later on, however, the Commission
became equipped in such a way as to call forth
the envy and admiration of fisheries workers
on this side of the Atlantic. The first vessel
acquired, the Fish-Hawk (450 tons), was built
specially in 1880 for work in connection with
fish-culture. Then a larger steamer of 1000 tons,
the A/batross, was built, and was put in com-
mission in 1883 for special sea-fisheries services,
and was staffed by naval officers detailed to the
technical parts of deep-sea research work.! Marine
laboratories were then established for scientific,
fish-cultural, and practical fisheries scientific
work, and the chief of these, the magnificent
institution at Woods Hole, Boston, is probably
unequalled among the marine stations of the
world.

The artificial propagation of fresh-water and
sea fishes has been carried out by the American
Fish Commission to a much greater extent than
in any other country. This proposition was laid
down and acted upon very thoroughly: “It is
cheaper to make fish so plenty by artificial means,

1 See Tanner, Bulletin U.S. Fish Commission, vol. xvi. (for 1896),
1897, for a lengthy description of the A/azross and her equipment.

FOREIGN RESEARCH ORGANISATIONS 145

that every fisherman may take all he can catch,
than to enforce a code of protection laws.”
Thirty-five hatching stations, including the Woods
Hole laboratory, are engaged in this work, and
are assisted by the steamer Fish-Hawk and other
smaller vessels, and by the famous Commission
“‘fish-cars,” specially fitted railway carriages which
are engaged continually in the work of transport-
ing fish to the hatcheries, and eggs and larve from
these stations to the waters to be stocked. In the
year 1900 these cars made journeys of 101,796
miles altogether. The extent of the fish-hatching
work may be gauged from the fact that in that
year 1164 millions of young fishes and larve were
hatched and distributed throughout the waters
of the United States. The bulk of these were
fresh-water or anadromous fishes, but they included
265 millions of cod (hatched at Woods Hole),
87 millions of flat fish, and 77 millions of lobster
fry. It is claimed that this work is thoroughly
successful and has been attended with beneficial
results. Opinion in Europe is not generally in
favour of the improvement of the sea-fisheries by
artificial propagation, although this work is carried
on both in Norway and in Britain. American
expert opinion seems, however, to be quite
unanimous. “The great river fisheries of the
United States, which produced in 1880, 48
million pounds of alewives (C/upea pseudoharengus),
18 million pounds of shad (A/osa sapidissima), 52

10

146 BRITISH FISHERIES

million pounds of salmon, besides bass, sturgeon,
and smelt, and worth at first hand between
$4,000,000 and $6,000,000, are entirely under the
control of the fish-culturists to sustain or destroy,
and are capable of immense extension.” *

But however opinion may differ as regards the
utility of the fish-cultural work of the Commission,
there can be no question as to the value (first of
all to science, and ultimately, no doubt, to the
commercial fisheries) of the immense mass of
information embodied in the scientific papers
published by the staff and by volunteer work, in
the official reports—the Bulletin of the US.
Fish Commission and the Commissioner's Report.
Very many of these, perhaps the greater
number, relate to surveys of fishing grounds
in American waters, and are of interest to the
student of American industries rather than to the
general European reader. But a great number
relate also to general biological problems and to
systematic zoological work, and are therefore of
universal scientific interest, and it is by these that
the scientific work of the Commission is widely
known. One result of all this work deserves
special attention: although the scientific investi-
gations had a close relation to administrative
problems, and the diminution and protection of
the fisheries, no legislative restrictions resulted

1 U.S. Fish Commission, Commissioner's Report for 1884, 1886,
p. 1161.

FOREIGN RESEARCH ORGANISATIONS 147

from them. Comparing the results of investi-
gation, scientific and otherwise, in Europe with
those obtained in America, one writer remarks:
“In the United States, on the contrary, public
opinion is generally antagonistic to fishery legis-
lation, and our Commissioner of Fisheries, after
carrying on, for fourteen years, investigation upon
this very question, has not yet become satisfied
that laws are necessary for the perpetuation of the
sea-fisheries, nor has he yet recommended to Con-
gress enactment of any kind.”! It has to be
remembered, however, that the condition of the
sea-fisheries in America is very different from that
in Great Britain and in the North Sea countries.
Here there has been an intense and ever-increasing
exploitation of the fishing grounds in recent years,
such as does not yet exist in American waters, and
in an area which is trifling in extent when com-
pared with that which exists on the American
sea-board and in the rivers and great lakes.
Finally, we have to note the condition which, in
America, as in Germany and in Scotland, distin-
guishes the fisheries research authority from those
existing in England and Ireland at the present day
—its independence of any of the State departments.
In America, as in Germany and in Scotland, the
success of the scientific investigations, and in the

1 U.S. Fish Commissioner's Report for 1884 (1886), p. 1149. This
remark applies, however, to Federal statutes. Some of the States
impose restrictions on fishing methods.

148 BRITISH FISHERIES

former country, their
tion, have depended
the fishery research
routine.!

1 See G. Brown Goode in
1884 (1886), p. 1172.

successful practical applica-

on the entire freedom of
service from departmental

U.S. Fish Commissioner's Report for

PART II

FISHERIES PROBLEMS

‘FISHERY doctors at the present day remind me of human doctors in
my youth—they were always for doing something. I remember one
of my teachers laid down the notable maxim, ‘When you are in
doubt, play a trump,’ and I should think that those of us who have
followed his advice in the last forty years must have largely added to
the bills of mortality. Our fishery doctors are of the same mind as
my friend. They are (or at any rate they ought to be) very much in
doubt, and yet they continually want to play trumps in the shape of
stringent regulations and restrictions. If I might tender a piece
of advice, I would say—don’t.” Hux ey, “ Fish Diseases,” Zuéer-
national Fisheries Exhibition Literature, London, 1883.

CHAPTER X
THE LIFE-HISTORIES OF FISHES

Tuis is by far the most technical part of our
subject, and it is quite impossible to give more
than a mere summary of the present state of our
knowledge regarding the complicated life-histories
of marine fishes. Such subjects as the repro-
duction and growth of these animals have been
studied continuously in Britain, Germany, and
Scandinavia for the last twenty years, with the
result that so much is now known that the gaps in
our knowledge of the subject are capable of easy
enumeration. I can only mention the more salient
facts and principles of this department of marine
zoology, and will refer the reader who wishes
to study it in greater detail to the numerous
memoirs contained in the literature of sea-fisheries
science.’

1 Cunningham’s admirable account of British fishes should be
studied. This work, Marketable Marine Fishes, was published by the
Marine Biological Association in 1896. M‘Intosh and Masterman’s
Life-histories of British Marine Food Fishes (Cambridge University
Press, 1897) treats part of the subject in greater detail. In addition

151

152 BRITISH FISHERIES

The initiation of the study of the life-histories
of marine fishes is generally ascribed to Professor
G. O. Sars of Christiania University, though many
observations of the breeding and habits of the
herring were made in Scotland previous to the
date of Sars’ work.1 The latter zoologist was,
however, the first to make extensive observations
on the subject. Sars found the ova of the cod
and other Gadoid fishes in the sea in the neighbour-
hood of the Lofoden Islands, where there is an
extensive cod-fishery.2 He obtained them by
means of a fine-meshed silk net, and by keeping
them in jars of clean sea-water, was able to observe
the hatching of the embryo at the end of a period
of eighteen days. Sars also obtained the ripe ova
from the body of the female fish, and showed that
it was possible to impregnate them by milt
taken from the male fish of the same species.
This discovery was the germ of our modern
methods of sea-fish culture, and it may be stated

to these works, Fries, Ekstrom, and Sundevall’s Scandinavian Fishes
should be consulted. This is now the standard work on North
European ichthyology, but it is not easily obtained; and Day’s
British Fishes (1880-84), though less accurate in some respects, will
probably be more useful to the general reader. These works (which
represent, however, only a small fraction of the literature of the
subject) will give a very fair idea of the present state of our
knowledge.

1 By Walker in 1803, Goodsir and Wilson in 1843~7, and
Professor Allman in 1860-3. See Scottish Fishery Board Report,
ii., 1887, p. xii.

2 See a translation of Sars’ own account of his work in the Report
of the U.S. Commissioner of Fisheries, Washington, 1877.

THE LIFE-HISTORIES OF FISHES 153

here that very little advance has yet been made on
the results obtained by the Norwegian professor.
This was in 1864, and in 1865 Sars also obtained
and identified the eggs of the mackerel; and
another Scandinavan zoologist, Professor Malm
of the University of Gottenborg, obtained and
fertilised, in the same manner, the eggs of the
flounder. As early, then, as 1864-8 it had been
shown that the eggs of three important families
of food-fishes were to be found floating about at
the surface of the sea and undergoing development
there.

From this time until the beginning of the
eighties little general advance was made in this
subject. The German Kiel Kommission, how-
ever, which was instituted in 1870, began to
make investigations on piscine life-histories, and
one of the first important contributions made
by this body was a very complete investigation
of the development of the herring. These
investigations were published by Kupffer in
the ‘ahresberichten of the Kommission for the
year 1878, and still remain the most complete
account of the development of this fish in
existence.

Very little more was done in this country or
on the Continent until about 1884. The state
of general ignorance regarding the reproduction
and habits of sea-fishes may be gauged by a

perusal of the account of the life-histories of

154 BRITISH FISHERIES
fishes given by Frank Buckland in 1879.’ This

account, which is very faulty, included nearly
all that was known at the time. When the
Scottish Fishery Board was instituted in 1882,
this ignorance of a most important subject was
keenly felt, and provision was at once made by
that body for scientific investigation. Valuable
observations were made by Professor Cossar Ewart
and by Brook and Matthews in 1883-5,? on
the spawning and structure of the herring. A
very important step was taken by the institution
of a marine laboratory at St Andrews, on the
east coast of Scotland; and so much work was
done there by Professor M‘Intosh and his pupils,
that the former must be regarded as the pioneer
of systematic zoological research on the repro-
duction of North European marine fishes.

The Spawning of Fishes

Fishes are either male or female,? and the ova
produced by the females are termed the spawn.
At a certain season in the year, which extends over
two or three months, and varies for each species,
the female sheds a certain number of eggs, which
are then fertilised by the male; and thereafter
neither parent, as a rule, displays any solicitude

1 In the Report on the Sea-fisheries of England and Wales, 1879,
by F. Buckland and Spencer Walpole, Appendix, p. 178.

2 Scottish Fishery Board Reports for 1883-5.
3 With occasional lapses into hermaphroditism.

THE LIFE-HISTORIES OF FISHES 155

for the offspring. There are, however, certain
exceptions to this rule, and these are of much
interest to the naturalist. In some of the dog-
fishes of British waters (Muste/us, the smooth-
hound ; Ga/eus, the tope ; Acanthias, the pike-dog),
and in some tropical rays, the development is
analogous to that which takes place among the
warm-blooded animals ; that is, a kind of placenta
may be formed, so that the development might be
called “intra-uterine.” ’ Much the same kind of
thing takes place in the case of another British fish
(Zoarces viviparus, the viviparous blenny). In
these cases the young fish is born into the world
in a highly advanced condition. The very general
rule among fishes is, however, that unimpregnated
eggs are laid by the female; the class is, with
the exceptions noted, and a few others, oviparous,
not viviparous.

In some cases there is a kind of parental care of
the young. In the female of So/enostoma (a tropical
fish) the eggs are retained, after spawning, in a
brood-pouch which the female bears, and which is
formed by the coalescence of the edges of the
pelvic fins, and they remain there until the young
hatch out. An analogous provision exists in the
case of a British fish (Syngnathus, the pipe-fish),
where two cutaneous abdominal folds form, the
male, a similar brood-pouch. In the butter-fish

1 The structures concerned in the nutrition of the embryos in the
two classes of animals are, of course, not homologous.

156 BRITISH FISHERIES

(Centronotes), again, the female forms the extruded
eggs into a ball, and these are surrounded by
the coiled body of the fish. The lump-sucker
(Cyclopterus) of British seas deposits its eggs in
one large mass in a rock pool, and thereafter the
female indicates no concern for her progeny. The
male, however, keeps guard over the spawn, and
causes a current of water to flow over and through
the mass of eggs by gentle movements of his tail.
This paternal instinct is often fatal to the unhappy
sire, who is sometimes left stranded by the receding
tide, and either captured by small boys or destroyed
by crows or other predaceous birds. The fifteen-
spined stickleback (Gasterosteus spinachia) builds a
nest constructed of sea~weeds cemented together
by mucus.’ It is the male in this case which is
the architect ; the female takes no part in the
process, but, on the other hand, seeks to devour
the eggs contained in the nest, and is only pre-
vented from doing so by the efforts of the male.

There are, however, exceptions. ‘Fhe almost
invariable rule (except in the dog-fishes, sharks, and
rays) is for the female to shed her eggs into the
sea. At the same time the male, who is “ standing
by,” sheds the “ milt” or spermatozoa, which then
mix with the eggs and impregnate them. With
these acts the parents cease to give any attention
to the spawn.

1 See the beautiful figure of the nest of the stickleback in
M‘Intosh and Masterman’s British Marine Food Fishes..

THE LIFE-HISTORIES OF FISHES 157

All marine and fresh-water fishes have definite
breeding or spawning seasons. Generally these are
in the first half of the year. The cod, haddock,
whiting, gurnard, and most flat fishes spawn
between the beginning of February and the end
of May in British waters; but the sole spawns
towards midsummer, and the mackerel—which,
however, is somewhat variable in this respect—is
also a late spawner. Herring, on the other hand,
may spawn at any time, and indeed these fishes
_ may be found spawning in some part of the British
seas all round the year. In many places there
are two distinct herring spawning periods, a
spring period and an autumn period, and there
are also two distinct fisheries. This curious
condition has recently been established for the
cod also! But in these latter cases it is quite
improbable that the same fish spawns twice in
the year. It is most probably a case of two
distinct “races” or “schools” of herring or cod,
one spawning in the spring and the other in
the autumn.

As a very general rule, marine fishes are
enormously prolific. ‘The eggs laid annually by
the females of many species are to be numbered
by the million. Fulton first determined approxi-
mately how many ova were produced by each, and
the following table gives the average numbers of

1 Fulton, Fudiications de circonstance, No. 8: Conseil permanent
international pour l’exploration de la mer, Copenhagen, 1904.

158 BRITISH FISHERIES

eggs produced annually by each female of some of
the species investigated :—*

Turbot : : : : . 8,600,000
Cod . ; : : ‘ - 4,500,000
Haddock . : : : : 450,000
Whiting. ‘ . ; - 120,000
Plaice s ‘ : ‘ - 300,000
Flounder . : ‘ : - 990,000
Sole . , ; , ‘ . $70,000
Dab . ‘ ; ; : - 105,600
Herring : i 31,000
Skates, rays, ‘dog-fishes : Few, a dozen or so

Fulton estimated these values by weighing the
whole of the ovaries of a single fish, and then
weighing a small portion, and actually counting the
individual eggs contained in the latter. The
value so obtained was then multiplied by the
number representing the number of times the
fractional portion of the ovary counted was
contained in the total weight of both organs.
Obviously, the total number of eggs obtained can
only be an approximation to the number actually
present ; but the values obtained give a sufficiently
exact idea of the fecundity of the fish.

As a general rule, most sea-fishes which are used
as food spawn in relatively deep water and at some
distance from land. It has been supposed that in
the case of most species a definite spawning migra-
tion takes place, and that the fishes congregate

1 «Comparative Fecundity of Sea-fishes,” Minth Report, Scottish
Fishery Board, pt. iii. p. 243, 1891.

THE LIFE-HISTORIES OF FISHES 159

together on some particular areas known as spawn-
ing banks. Except in the case of the herring,
however, there is not evidence in favour of the
existence of such definitely localised spawning
grounds. It is more likely that the places which
depth of water and other conditions constitute
suitable habitats are also the spawning areas. If, on
a chart such as that of the north-west portion of the
Irish Sea, the portions where (say) spawning plaice
are fished be marked, it will be found that prac-
tically the whole of the sea where the water is
about twenty fathoms deep is a spawning area.
Hensen, in his North Sea quantitative plankton
investigations, found that fish eggs of any one
species, such as the cod, plaice, flounder, etc.,
could not be assigned to any particular places, but
were distributed generally over the whole area
investigated by him." In the case of the herring,
however, definite spawning places, such as that on
the well-known Ballantrae Bank in the Firth of
Clyde, and some other places on. the east coast
of Scotland, have been found. There are some
exceptions to the general rule that fishes deposit
their spawn in deep water off shore. Thus, it is
very probable that both flounders and dabs may
frequent water near the shore, and of comparatively
little depth (five to ten fathoms).

There are, however, some species of fishes which
make very definite spawning migrations. Thus,

1 Wissenschaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen, Band ii., Heft 2, 1897.

160 BRITISH FISHERIES

there is the well-known habit of the salmon,
which ascends rivers to deposit its spawn in the
upper reaches. The spawning migration of the
eels is a very extraordinary one, and, in spite of
much laborious research, this is very imperfectly
understood. Fresh-water eels with ripe repro-
ductive organs are never found in the rivers.
When the breeding season approaches, a change
in the appearance of the fish—the assumption of
a ‘‘bridal-dress”——has been observed, and then a
migration into the sea takes place. There is little
doubt now that, having once spawned, the fish
does not return into the river, but dies soon after
the eggs have been deposited. This is also the
case with the conger eel, which is supposed to
spawn in very deep water. It has never been
possible to observe the spawning of this fish in an
aquarium, for the death of the parent has always
taken place before the eggs were laid. There is
reason for the belief that this is the normal
occurrence in the sea also, except that the eggs
are, of course, deposited before the degenerative
changes leading to death (which have been ob-
served in specimens kept in tanks) are thoroughly
advanced. It is very probable that both conger
eel and fresh-water eel only spawn once in their
lifetimes, and that death soon follows the act of
breeding.

THE LIFE-HISTORIES OF FISHES 161

The Eggs of Sea-fishes

Sea-fish ova conform very generally to one
definite type of structure, though, as in the case
of the breeding habits, some notable departures
from such a type are known. Such an egg as
that of the cod is a good example of all the rest.
It is a small, perfectly spherical body a little over
a sixteenth of an inch in diameter. When ripe,
it is clear and transparent, and is not easily seen
when floating in sea-water. It is bounded by a thin
though fairly strong capsule or shell, within which
is a mass of transparent ‘‘food-yolk” (see the
diagrams at the end of this chapter), and at one
pole of this spherical mass of yolk is the “ germinal
disc,” a little cap of protoplasmic material which
is destined to form the body of the embryo fish.
Immediately over this germinal disc is a minute
aperture in the shell—the “ micropyle.” The yolk
is somewhat lighter than the germinal disc, so
that, when floating in the water, the latter, and the
micropyle, are directed downwards. Such an egg
can be compared with that of the fowl. In the
latter case there is a shell (which, however, is limy
and opaque), and within the latter is the albumen
or “‘ white,” and within the latter again the yolk,
which corresponds closely, except in colour and
opacity, with the yolk of the cod’s egg. If a
hen’s egg be carefully broken into a saucer, it will

be seen that the yolk comes to rest with a whitish
I!

162 BRITISH FISHERIES

spot at its summit: this spot is the “‘ blastoderm ”
or germinal disc, and it gives rise to the body of
the chick.

There are, of course, many variations from this
type of structure. Fish eggs vary in size, the smallest
common sea-fish egg being that of the solenette
(Solea lutea), and the largest that of the halibut.
The former is, roughly speaking, about 2, of an
inch in diameter, and the latter about 43, of an
inch, and within these limits the diameters of the
greater number of sea-fish eggs are placed. These
somewhat minute variations in size are, however,
of great importance, for they are fairly constant
for the eggs of each species in any one locality, and
it is possible to determine the species of an egg
found in the tow-net by measuring it with certain
microscopic apparatus. In such an identification we
are aided by other characters, such as the colour,
the structure of the yolk, the presence and size of
oil-globules within the latter, the markings and
appendages of the shell, and other things.

There are two principal categories of fish eggs,
according to their specific gravities. 4// sea-fish
eggs are heavier than distilled water, and, if placed
in the latter, will at once sink to the bottom.
But the majority of sea-fish eggs are slightly
lighter than sea-water, and when shed into this
medium they rise to near the surface and float
there. Such are termed “ pelagic” eggs, and to
this category belong the ova of the cod, whiting,

THE LIFE-HISTORIES OF FISHES 163

haddock, plaice, halibut, sole, flounder, and, indeed,
most of the fishes used as food by man. On the
other hand, some fishes produce eggs which are
slightly heavier than sea-water, and, when spawned,
these at once sink to the bottom. Such are
termed “‘ demersal” eggs, and the best example of
this type is the egg of the herring (but not those
of the sprat, anchovy, or pilchard). There are
others, of course, but they are spawned by species
of no economic importance. These demersal
eggs nearly all have another character in common ;
that is, they are all furnished with an adhesive coat-
ing when spawned, and this causes them to stick
together. They are therefore always found in
masses adhering to pieces of sea-weed, stones,
shells, and other objects of the sea-bottom on
which they were deposited by the spawning fish.’

Just as in the case of their breeding habits, so
the Elasmobranchii (gristly fishes)—sharks, rays,
and dog-fishes—differ very remarkably from the
Teleostei (or bony fishes). The eggs of the former
fishes are large, and are always very few in number,
comparatively speaking. The empty capsules or
shells of the ray are familiar to anyone who has
grubbed among the debris lying on the sea-beach
along high-water mark, as “ mermaids’ purses.”

They are oblong, black, leathery-looking objects,

1 See Ehrenbaum, Wissenschaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen, Bad. vi.,
Abth. Helgoland, Heft 2, 1904, for a series of most exquisite photo-
graphs of such egg masses é stfu.

164 BRITISH FISHERIES

about two inches in length and one inch broad, and
corners are produced to form horns. Within
these cases were the soft eggs proper, which
consist, when the egg is alive, of a large mass of
yellow yolk, on the surface of which is the blasto-
derm, or formative material of the embryo, or, it
may be, the partially developed embryo skate itself.
The eggs of the dog-fish are somewhat similar, but
are more elongated, and the corners of the case are
produced into long twisted cords. The live eggs
of skates and dog-fishes can generally be procured
only from the bottom of the sea, in water from five
to twenty fathoms deep, by means of dredging.
They too are heavier than sea-water, and sink to the
bottom when emitted by the mother.

Impregnation and Development

In the case of these Elasmobranch fishes there is
an actual physical connection between the sexes at
the breeding season, and the eggs are impregnated
while still within the oviduct of the female, and
before the horny egg-capsule has been formed. In
the Teleost fishes, whether they produce pelagic or
demersal eggs, this connection is only an indirect
one ; eggs and spermatozoa are shed by males and
females into the sea at the same time. Whether
the spermatozoa reach the eggs fortuitously, or
whether there is some obscure attraction between
these sexual elements, we do not know, but at

THE LIFE-HISTORIES OF FISHES 165

any rate each egg soon becomes surrounded by
a number of spermatozoa which adhere to their
capsules. By and by one of these reaches the
micropyle, and immediately passes through this
aperture in the capsule into the protoplasmic
germinal disc. As soon as this has happened the
micropyle closes, so as to prevent the entrance of
other spermatozoa. The egg is now impregnated
or “fertilised,” and development of an embryo
begins. The germinal disc divides to form a
number of cells or “blastomeres,” and grows until
it forms a skin enveloping the whole yolk-mass.
On this skin the body of the embryo is formed,
and in the course of a few days the young fish
becomes apparent. First of all, the spinal cord and
brain are formed, and round this central nervous
system the whole structure of the little animal
becomes built up. After a variable incubation
period, the embryo hatches out from the egg-
capsule. This incubation period depends first of
all upon the species, and is usually from six days to
about three weeks. But it also depends upon the
temperature of the sea-water in which development
takes place, and by altering the latter the egg of a
flounder, for instance, may hatch out in from five
to ten days. I am speaking just now of the small
eggs of the bony fishes. The large egg of a skate
or dog-fish pursues much the same course, but the
incubation period in these fishes is prolonged, and
may extend over the greater part of a year. In

166 BRITISH FISHERIES

the case of a bony fish, the creature which hatches
from the egg is called a “larva,” and is one of the
most helpless of organisms. It has very feeble
powers of locomotion, and for a time it is physi-
cally incapable of feeding, for the mouth may not
be formed, and the esophagus or gullet is usually
not a tube, but a solid cord of cells. This con-
dition persists for about a week or fortnight, and
the larva depends for its nutrition on the food con-
tained in the yolk of the ovum from which it is
formed. When the fish is hatched this food-yolk
is contained in the “yolk-sac,” a prominent
rounded structure projecting from the belly of the
larva, and which gives it a most characteristic
appearance. At the end of about a fortnight this
yolk-sac completely disappears, during which time
the larva has been growing actively. It is now
able to find and devour its own food, which con-
sists naturally of very minute organisms—diatoms,
micro-crustacea such as copepods, and the very small
larva of various invertebrate animals. When it has
grown for some time the “‘ metamorphosis ” takes
place. It has hitherto been quite unlike the parent
fish ; the larva of a flat fish, for instance, like the
plaice or sole, is almost exactly similar to the larva of
a cod, is round, and has one eye on each side of its
head. With the metamorphosis the whole appear-
ance of the fish is changed. The round fish, like
the cod or herring, takes on the adult colour and
conformation, and the larva of the flat fish flattens

THE LIFE-HISTORIES OF FISHES 167

from side to side, and the head begins to twist, so
that by and by both eyes appear to lie on one
side of the body. Sooner or later the fish passes
out of its larval into its “ post-larval”’ stage, and
can be recognised easily as belonging to a definite
species. Hitherto it has been drifting helplessly
about at the surface, or indeed at any depth in the
sea; but with the termination of the larval or post-
larval stage it acquires the habits and enters the
habitat of the adult. The assumption of sexual
maturity may be long delayed, but after a period
of from one to three or four years, depending on
the species, the reproductive organs become mature
and the fish begins to produce ova or spermatozoa,
according to its sex.

When we consider the enormous differences in
the fecundity of various fishes, we encounter a diffi-
culty which at first sight is not easily explained.
A turbot, we have seen, may spawn each year some
nine millions of eggs, each of which is potentially
a distinct fish ; on the other hand, a skate lays two
eggs at a time, and probably only produces a dozen
or so during its hatching season. Yet common ex-
perience shows that skate are much more numerous
in our seas than turbot, in spite of this almost
incredible difference in fecundity. Every species
of organism in the sea is subject to enormous de-
struction. There can be no doubt that the pelagic
eggs of the turbot are devoured by numerous pre-
daceous animals, as are also the larval and the post-

168 BRITISH FISHERIES

larval stages. It is clear that of the nine millions
of fertilised eggs produced by a male and female
turbot only two or three can reach reproductive
maturity, else the species would be on the increase,
which we may be sure is not the case. To com-
pensate for this prodigious mortality among fishes
in the sea, two distinct means have been evolved.
On the one hand, the destruction is permitted (if
we may think of natural selection as something
personal) and is compensated for by the great in-
crease of the individuals produced. An incredible
number of larve are bred, all of which, except
two or three, are destroyed. On the other hand,
the destruction may be minimised, as in the case
of the skate. In the turbot we have enormous
fecundity associated with small eggs, an insignificant
store of food-yolk, rapid development, and small and
almost helpless larva. In the skate we have a very
restricted degree of fecundity associated with large
eggs unattractive as food, with a large store of food-
yolk, a lengthened incubation period, and large and
vigorous fishes when hatching occurs. The young
skate, when it issues from the capsule, is perfectly
formed, and can feed and hide itself. The mortality
is therefore reduced to a minimum among marine
animals. In the viviparous fishes the same end is
attained by another means, viz. the nutrition and

1 Countless numbers must also be destroyed by physical agencies ;
larvee and post-larva may be stranded on the beach or may diein the
brackish water of estuaries,

THE LIFE-HISTORIES OF FISHES 169

growth of the embryo while still in the “uterus”
of the parent. Generally it may be said that, the
more prolific a fish is, the greater are the destructive
agencies at work on the eggs and young ; and con-
versely, the less prolific it is, the more perfect are
the means securing the nutrition, and safety from
enemies, of its offspring.

Migrations and Habits of Fishes

Dismissing the very early history of young fishes,
we have now to consider the migrations, habits,
and food of the adolescent and mature stages. It is
very commonly the case that, while the mature
adults inhabit the sea at some distance from land,
and in relatively deep water, the young forms live
near the land, in comparatively shallow waters. It
would appear that one reason for this distribution
is that there is a richer fauna near the land,
and that food is more abundant there. But
imperfectly understood physical conditions also
tend to produce this contrast in the habitats of
the young and mature stages. In the case of the
plaice, for instance, it happens that the spawning
areas are so situated that the resultant effect of
winds, currents, and tides is such as to impel the
drifting eggs and larve towards the shore. So we
find that, a month or two after the time when the
eggs of this fish may be taken in the tow-nets
offshore, the young are present in the shallow

170 BRITISH FISHERIES

waters inshore. On almost any sandy beach on
the north-west coast of England immense numbers
of these little plaice, no bigger than one’s finger-
nail, may be picked up in the shallow pools left
by the receding tide. But these may only be
seen for a few weeks in May or June, and then
they disappear. If we now fish in water from one
to several fathoms deep with a fine-meshed trawl-
net, we may get very large numbers of plaice about
an inch long, and these belong to the same brood
as the fish which were being stranded on the beach
a month or two earlier. Then, still later in the
year, we may find the fish a little bigger and a
little further out at sea. As it grows,’ the plaice
gradually moves out into deeper water. Finally,
when it has reached the size of maturity (13
to 17 inches long), it has come to inhabit the
deep water of fifteen or more fathoms, some
considerable distance from shore. The inshore
migration, be it remembered, from the spawning
grounds to the “nursery” is a purely passive
one, and depends on the natural movements of
the sea-water. The offshore migration, on the
other hand, is an active one, and depends on the
inherited instincts of the fish. I am speaking here
of the plaice, and such other flat fishes as resemble
it in habits. It must be understood that these
migrations of the eggs, larva, and growing young

1 It only grows during part of the year. Growth practically
ceases between the months of October and March.

THE LIFE-HISTORIES OF FISHES 171

vary with each species and with the locality
studied. As an instance of a life-history differing
from that of the plaice I may cite that of the
fresh-water eel ; here the adult descends from the
rivers into the sea to spawn, and the young eels
ascend the rivers as “elvers” to feed and grow to
reproductive maturity. Opposed to such a life-
history is that of the salmon and some allied forms.
These fishes ascend the rivers to spawn, and descend
again into the sea, where they grow to maturity.
Such migratory periods as that of the plaice, eels,
and salmon are comparatively simple; but there
are others which are not yet understood. So much
has been written about the migrations of the
herring that I hesitate to mention the subject here.
The old theory had nothing to commend it but its
simplicity. It was supposed that the fish had its
home somewhere in the northern seas, and that
regularly every season the shoals migrated south-
ward ina mass. This explained why the fishing
season is generally a little later the farther down
the coast, starting at (say) Wick, we go. But it
does not explain why in the summer and later
herring fisheries the fish caught always have ripe
reproductive organs. If the shoals which are
fished on the north-east coast of Scotland in
summer are the same that visit the south-east
coast of England in late autumn, then it is difficult
to see how in doth cases the fish can be spawning.
Many observations have, in fact, led to the belief

172 BRITISH FISHERIES

that the fish which form the fishery at any one
place are peculiar to that place. The Wick
herring are a different school of fish from those
which appear in November at Lowestoft. It is
fairly certain now that the herring which frequent
Loch Fyne belong permanently to the Clyde basin,
and spawn somewhere lower down the Firth.
Heincke, a member of the Prussian Kiel Kommis-
sion, made a most laborious investigation of the
herrings of the German North Sea and Baltic
coasts and elsewhere, and showed that there is a
probability that, in addition to the distinction
into spring and autumn (or summer and winter)
herring, there are also a number of local
races or varieties, and that each of these have
their own spawning ground and migration paths.
They travel to and from the coast, visiting for
a long series of years the same ground, and
then perhaps deserting it in a perfectly arbitrary
manner.

It is very probable that the migrations of fishes
are much less perfectly defined than our knowledge
at present leads us to believe. Most species are
possibly always ‘“‘on the move.” But we only
recognise certain broadly defined paths. We say,
for instance, that the eggs and larve of plaice
migrate from the open sea towards the shore, but
it is quite probable that vast numbers of eggs and
larve drift farther out to sea and are destroyed
because the young forms do not find the habitat

THE LIFE-HISTORIES OF FISHES 173

suitable to their mode of life. We can find those
which reach the shallow, sandy shores, but we are
unaware of the proportion which go elsewhere.
Fishermen are always struck with the apparent
facility with which plaice find areas of sea-bottom
where food is very abundant. A “strike” or
deposit of mussels or other shell-fish larve may take
place on a certain area, and in a short time an
extensive bed of young molluscs is formed. ‘Then
it is very often the case that enormous numbers of
plaice may be found feeding on these young shell-
fish, and the fishermen immediately credit the fish
with some occult power of scenting out this food
from great distances. It is a much more probable
explanation that the plaice, which are ¢ontinually
moving about in all directions, come across this
food by pure accident, and are immediately arrested.
If this goes on for a few weeks, there will soon be
a vast number of fishes aggregated on one limited
area, not by reason of any remarkable powers of
sense possessed by them, but in a perfectly simple
and commonplace manner.

Food of Fishes

Finally, I may notice the different habits which
have been adopted by various fishes in respect of
the manner of feeding. There are two principal
categories of marine fishes, characterised by the
zone of sea frequented and the kind of food usually

174 BRITISH FISHERIES

sought for. Pelagic fishes, of which the herring
and mackerel are the best-known types, live
generally in the open sea, and frequent water of all
depths along the shallower part of the continental
slopes, At certain periods shoaling movements
occur, and it is then that the great fisheries are
held. These two fishes are plankton-feeders,
subsisting on the pelagic life of the sea, crustacea
(copepods and schizopods) usually. Such plankton-
feeding fishes are furnished with appropriate
feeding organs ; in these species the gills are pro-
vided with “gill-rakers,’ comb-like structures
attached to the gills, which act as strainers.
When the creature takes water into its mouth, any
small organisms, such as copepods, become strained
out by the gill-rakers, and are then brushed off by
the tongue and are swallowed. These fishes are
caught by appropriate fishing apparatus—mackerel
by drift-nets or hooks, and herring by drift-nets.
The drift-net is simply a vertical wall of netting
of great extent which drifts in the sea, and herring
or mackerel striking against it become enmeshed.
On the other hand we have the bottom-living
species, like the sole, plaice, cod, etc., which live
at or near the bottom of the sea, lying on, or

1 From the point of view of the naturalist, fishes may be divided
into shore and deep-sea species. The former inhabit the seas within
the 1oo-fathom contour line, and the latter live in the great ocean
depths—down to 2000 fathoms or more. There is, of course, no
absolute distinction between these two categories. Probably the
deep-sea forms have originated from shore or pelagic species.

THE LIFE-HISTORIES OF FISHES 175

actually in, the mud and sand forming the bottom
deposits. In such species gill-rakers are not re-
quired, and are absent, for the food consists of
comparatively large animals, such as small shell-fish
like mussels (in the case of the plaice), or worms
(in the case of the sole). These animals live in
the mud or sand, and are caught individually and
swallowed by the fishes. The fishing apparatus
adopted for the capture of these latter species is
the trawl-net, which sweeps along the sea-bottom,
or hooks fastened to long lines, which also lie on
the sea-bottom.

I have given here only the barest summary of
the principal classes of facts relating to the natural
history of marketable fishes, and will again refer
the reader to the abundant literature which deals
with the subject. Although our knowledge is
still very far from being complete on this head,
yet so many investigations have been made during
the last twenty-five years that we have now a
very fair notion of the principal facts in the life-
history of fishes. The subject is one of very
great interest, and the reader who is interested
generally in sea-fishery investigations may very
profitably pursue it further.

CHAPTER XI
METABOLISM IN THE SEA

On taking a general view of life in the sea, it
becomes possible to group the multitudinous
assemblage of organisms contained there under
three great categories, according to their general
habits and method of occurrence. There are first
of all a great number of plants and animals which
live throughout the greater part of their existence
permanently rooted to the sea-bottom, either in
deep or in shallow water, or burrowing among
the deposits which cover the sea-floor. These
are the sea-weeds, the zoophytes, animals like crabs,
lobsters, and their kindred, star-fishes and sea-urchins,
molluscs like the mussel, oyster, or cockle, sponges,
sea-anemones, and a host of other creatures which
are either sedentary, or which, if they do move
about, have a very limited range of movement.
All these organisms have been grouped together
by Haeckel and called the Benthos. They are
found everywhere on the sea-floor, though they

are most abundant in fairly shallow water, down,
176

METABOLISM IN THE SEA 177

perhaps, to about fifty fathoms. Opposed to this
class of organisms is another more limited one,
which has been called the Nekton. These animals
are very active, possessing powerful organs of
locomotion, and they swim about in the sea,
with, in many cases, very considerable ranges
of migration. The fishes themselves are the best
examples of nektonic animals, but many other
creatures also fall under this category, such as
cetaceans like the whales, dolphins, and porpoises,
and molluscs like the squids and cuttlefishes.
Then contrasting strongly with both these classes
is the group of organisms which Hensen has
called the Plankton, under which category we
now include the vast assemblage of plants and
animals which, possessing little powers of loco-
motion, simply drift about in the sea at the
mercy of winds, tides, and currents.

This latter class, by reason of its universal
distribution throughout all the seas of the world
and throughout the whole body of the water,
from the surface to the bottom, is by far the
most abundant. Planktonic plants and animals
are found everywhere and at all times. Even
when the sea-water may appear most pellucid,
it contains an abundance of microscopic life, and
it is no exaggeration to say that in some places,
and at certain times in the year, every drop
of water may be inhabited by one or more

organisms. Usually the creatures forming the
12

178 BRITISH FISHERIES

plankton are so small as to be invisible to the
naked eye, but sometimes they are so numerous
as to discolour the water. ‘They have an im-
portance in the natural economy of the sea which
is quite incommensurate with their size as indi-
viduals. Every class in the animal kingdom is
represented in the plankton, and whole groups
of plants have no other method of occurrence,
Amongst the plants are the diatoms, which are
to be regarded as minute sea-weeds or alge
composed each of a single organic unit or cell,
the desmids and other unicellular plants, spores
of sea-weeds, etc. The animals are extremely
varied in character. At the bottom of the scale
of life are the protozoa, or animals of microscopic
size, each of which, like a diatom, consists of
one cell. These organisms, amongst which are
the foraminifera and radiolaria, protozoa provided
with limy and flinty skeletons respectively, are
the most numerous, form the great bulk of the
animal plankton. ‘Then we have the “ jelly-fishes,”
by which popular term is meant a multitude of
larger organisms—meduse, ctenophores, siphono-
phora, and the like. Crustacea are very abundant,
particularly the copepoda, a very large group of
minute animals belonging to the same class as the
shrimp and crab. Among the molluscs, a group
called the pteropods (‘‘ winged-shells” or ‘“‘sea-
butterflies”) are so abundant in the plankton as
to form the major portion of the food of the whale.

METABOLISM IN THE SEA 179

Worms, too, are abundantly represented. All these
groups of animals, with the unicellular plants and
an incredible number of bacteria, form what we
may call the permanent portion of the plankton,
which, throughout their lives, pursue this drifting,
pelagic existence, which is characteristic of the
assemblage of organisms we are considering. But
there are a vast number of other animals which
have a planktonic phase ; which, when young, drift
freely about in the sea, but which, when they enter
on their adult career, belong either to the benthos
or to the nekton. This transitory plankton consists
chiefly of the eggs and larve of molluscs which
live resting on, or burrowing in, the mud or sand
at the sea-bottom, the larve of sedentary worms,
of crustacea, and of zoophytes, star-fishes, etc., and
the eggs and larvae of ascidians and fishes. For
a variable time these and other animals belong to
the plankton, and it is in this stage that they
become distributed far and wide in the sea by the
mechanical agencies of the winds and currents.

Of all the departments of marine investigation
the study of the plankton is the most attractive,
because of the astonishing variety and abundance
of life which is contained in it, and because of the
surpassing interest of the problems which we
encounter in this kind of work. Its study is com-
paratively recent, and may be said to date from
1845, when Johannes Miller, the great anatomist
and physiologist, began to use the “ tow-net” in

180 BRITISH FISHERIES

the sea off Helgoland. The method thus initiated
was prosecuted by Huxley, Haeckel, Vogt, Gegen-
baur, and a host of others,’ and at the present day
it is employed by every marine naturalist. In all
questions and studies belonging to marine biology or
economic fisheries research, the study of the plankton
becomes indispensable at some stage or other.
Generally speaking, there are two principal
points of view from which the study of the fauna
and flora of the sea can be approached. The
latter form a vast storehouse of biological material
on which the systematic biologist, or the investi-
gator who concerns himself with the identification
and recording of species of plants and animals,
can draw at will. Then there are the life-
histories of marine organisms to be studied; and
in the plankton we meet with stages in the
development of nearly all marine organisms, so
that the latter is a great storehouse of material
for the comparative embryologist. An excellent
sample of this latter kind of work is to be found
in the researches on the life-histories of the British
marine fishes carried out by M(‘Intosh and the
St Andrews school of zoologists ; but an enormous
number of such investigations have been carried
out in all civilised countries. The distribution of

1See Haeckel, Plankton-Studien, G. Fischer, Jena, 1885 (or the
English translation in the U.S. Fish Commissioners Report for
1889-91, Washington, 1893), for a historical account of plankton
investigations,

METABOLISM IN THE SEA 181

the animals and plants of the plankton in the dif-
ferent seas of the world is a department of research
closely related to those I have just mentioned.
This work was first systematically pursued by the
naturalists of the CAal/enger in the famous expedi-
tion of 1872-6, and has been taken up by every
marine exploring expedition of recent times.
Such research, purely zoological, embryological, and
distributional, is characteristic of the marine investi-
gations of Britain, America, France, and Italy more
particularly. In Germany the study of the fauna
and flora of the sea has been approached from a some-
what different standpoint and by different methods.

If we might compare the investigation of life in
the sea with the study of the population of a great
city, these two lines of marine research can be illus-
trated rather well. The British and American in-
vestigations might be compared with the methods
of the census enumerator, whose task it is to
identify and record the individual inhabitants, with
respect to occupation, locality, etc., or with the
“amateur vagrant,” or journalist, who searches for
curious and interesting types of humanity. But
we can also consider a great city more as a polity
than a congeries of individuals, however interesting
those may be individually, and study the economical
relationships and interactions of the different classes
of its population. This latter method of investiga-
tion may be compared with the plankton studies
of a modern school of German biologists.

182 BRITISH FISHERIES

Victor Hensen, who was the first to make a
systematic study of the plankton of the sea from
this latter point of view, attempted to answer two
main questions: (1) What does the sea (or any
given small volume of it) contain at a given time
in the way of organisms; and (2) how does this
material vary from season to season and in different
places? Formerly the quality only of the plankton
had been taken into account ; Hensen endeavoured
also to determine the quantities of the different
organisms in it. ‘To attain these results it was
necessary to devise an entirely new scientific
method, and by the exercise of great patience it
became possible at length to devise quantitative
fishing apparatus. The ordinary plankton net is a
conical bag of silk cloth, the meshes of which are
so fine as to strain out practically all the smaller
microscopic animals and plants found in the sea.
This net is usually one to two feet in diameter at
the mouth, which is kept open by an iron ring,
and it may be a yard or more long. It is simply
dragged through the water from a vessel travelling
slowly, and a portion of the water entering its
mouth is strained through the fabric of the net,
which retains the organisms present. Now,
though it may be possible, by the use of such a
simple contrivance, to obtain relative ideas of the
quantities of plankton in the sea at different times
and places, it is practically impossible to obtain
any correct estimate of the absolute number of

METABOLISM IN THE SEA 183

organisms present. ‘This latter knowledge is what
Hensen tries to obtain by the use of a specially
constructed net, which is lowered down to the
bottom of the sea and is then slowly hauled up to
the surface. By a series of ingenious calculations,
in which the “ filtration capacity” of the net, the
depth to which it is lowered, the speed with which
it is hauled up, etc., are factors, it is possible to
calculate what fraction of the water entering the
mouth of the net passes through its meshes. The
plankton present in the net is, then, that which
was present in a column of sea-water of a certain
cross area, and extending from the surface of the sea
down to the depth to which the net was lowered.
It is, in fact, a sample of the contents of the sea,
both in quality and quantity, in the place where
the experiment was made. A number of such
fishing experiments are made, and an average is
struck from their results and expressed in this way :
Every square yard (or square metre) of (say) the
North Sea or the Baltic contained so much plankton
at the time when the experiments were made.

By a series of ingenious operations,’ the plankton
“catch” is then removed from the net and is

~

1 It is quite impossible to give even a brief account here of the
methods involved. The reader is referred to a paper by Jenkins in
Proceedings and Transactions of the Liverpool Biological Society, vol.
xv., Liverpool, 1901, or to an appreciative paper by Reighard in the
Bulletin of the U.S. Fish Commission, vol. xvii., Washington, 1898.
Hensen’s original memoirs are published in the Wissenschaftliche
Meeresuntersuchungen of the Kiel Kommission.

184 BRITISH FISHERIES

preserved for future study. This consists in the
measurement of its volume or weight, in the
chemical analysis for nutritive material, and in the
enumeration of the separate individuals belonging
to the different species of plants and animals caught.
All these determinations have been made by the
Kiel biologists, and the solution of the various
difficulties encountered in these investigations is a
striking tribute to German patience and technical
skill. Obviously, the results obtained can claim
to be only approximations to the truth. Many
sources of error exist, the principal of which are :
(1) the difficulty of measuring the exact quantity
of water filtered by the net; (2) the fact that
many of the smaller organisms (diatoms) in the sea
slip through the meshes of the silk cloth ; and (3)
the fact that the distribution of the plankton is
rather irregular, so that an exact estimation of
the organisms present in one part of the sea may
not be true of adjacent regions. All these, how-
ever, are errors which are minimised as much as
possible, and will, no doubt, ultimately be got
rid of more or less completely. They certainly
do not justify the somewhat severe criticism
which Hensen’s method has received,’ both in
Germany and Britain: Hensen’s results may, not

1 As, for instance, in the partial and injudicial criticisms by Haeckel
in Plankton-Studien, Fischer, Jena, 1895. An English translation of
this paper is published in the U.S. Fish Commissioner's Report for
1889-91, Washington, 1893.

METABOLISM IN THE SEA 185

unreasonably, be compared with Lord Kelvin’s
estimation of the age of the habitable earth
founded on experiments made on the cooling of
certain rocks from high temperatures. These
results, though only approximations, gave at least
an approximate measure of the age of the globe,
and prevented “unlimited drafts on the bank of
time.” Henson’s results give at least a sufficient
quantitative idea of the contents of the sea to
enable us to arrive at results of extreme theoretical
and practical interest.

All these investigations, the “ tow-nettings” of
the older naturalists and the newer Hensen and
other quantitative methods, have furnished us with
a mass of information relating to microscopic life
in the sea, which, merely to summarize, would be
beyond the compass of a work like this. We may
note only a few salient points. The varying
distribution of the plankton according to the season
was one of the first things to be made out.
Speaking in general terms only, a series of tow-
nettings made on (say) the north-west coast of
England, at the surface of the sea, would present
a sequence approximately as follows: early in the
year, in January and possibly February, there
would be a general scarcity of life, but about the
end of the latter month, or perhaps later, according
to the season, we should expect to meet with an
increase in the bulk of the plankton. This is the
beginning of the “seedtime” of the sea, fishes and

186 BRITISH FISHERIES

other animals are beginning to spawn, and by the
end of March the eggs of the former and the
larve of other marine animals, like crabs, are
abundant. At this time, as on the land, there is
a great development of vegetation in the sea;
diatoms have become very abundant, so that, since
these constitute the bulk of the catch, the
maximum bulk of plankton in the sea occurs about
this time. Other groups of marine microscopic
animals, like copepods, also now become abundant.
With the onset of summer this luxuriance of
plankton passes away, diatoms are not so abundant,
while larve of fishes and other marine animals
have entered their nektonic or benthotic phases.
Towards the middle of the summer and for some
time later “jelly-fishes” become abundant. Such
animals are Noctiluca (one of the causes of phos-
phorescence in the sea), ctenophores, medusz, etc.
There may also be a second maximum of diatoms
during the autumn, again augmenting the bulk of
the plankton. Finally, in the last two or three
months a general scarcity in all forms of life again
occurs.

This is only a very general scheme, and all
plankton studies have shown that the nature and
amount of microscopic life in the sea are greatly
affected by a number of conditions. Inshore, in
shallow waters subject to the influence of the
land, of fresh water, and consequent changes of
salinity and temperature, and under the influence

METABOLISM IN THE SEA 187

of tidal streams and minor currents, great varia-
tions in the abundance of the plankton and the
sequence of the various forms occur. Speaking
generally, in shallow water the plankton is more
abundant and more variable in nature and amount
from place to place. It varies in the same place
with the time of day ; catches made in the dark
usually present some differences from those made
in the daylight. It varies also with the depth.
Fish eggs, for instance, are only found near the
surface. Every zone of depth in the sea in any
one place has a fauna and flora which are slightly
different from those frequenting any other zone.
Far out at sea, however, though this irregular
distribution with the depth still holds good, the
general nature and amount of the plankton is
much more uniform, a result which is to be
expected when the disturbing influences of the
land cease to be apparent. Then, contrary to what
might be expected on a first consideration, the
colder seas in polar and sub-polar regions are
richer in plankton than tropical and sub-tropical
seas. This wealth of life in the colder waters
of the globe is due almost entirely to the diatoms,
and for a reason to which I shall refer later on.

All these results and many others have been
obtained by the ordinary methods of plankton
fishing. But when it became possible, by means
of the Hensen methods, to enumerate the in-
dividuals of the plankton, many striking and

188 BRITISH FISHERIES

suggestive lines of investigation opened up. The
amount of labour entailed by these methods is
very great—Hensen tells us that he took a week,
working for eight hours per day, to enumerate the
organisms in a single catch,'—but the results are
commensurate with the labour employed. The
most interesting, and those of most practical
value, were obtained by the enumeration of
the pelagic fish eggs in the Baltic and North
Seas. In the course of three voyages in the
North Sea in 1895,? Hensen and Apstein found,
as the result of 158 hauls with a quantitative
plankton net, an average number of g2 eggs and
larve belonging to fishes used as human food
per square metre of surface. ‘The surface area
of the North Sea is 547,623 million square metres,
and a simple calculation (after applying certain
corrections) showed that that sea contained in
1895 at least 157 billion eggs and larve of food-

1 Haeckel (in the Plankton-Studien) has referred to this statement
of Hensen’s in a somewhat slighting manner, and has deprecated
generally the value of quantitative investigations in biological
science. Such a criticism seems very curious now, when quantitative
methods have become so largely developed in general biological
as well as in pathological investigations. The quantitative methods
in connection with problems of variation and heredity developed
by Heincke, Galton, and Karl Pearson are producing results of
notable value, and the methods of the enumeration of the red blood-
corpuscles of the human blood in health and disease, and of the
enumeration of microbes in sewage and other liquids, are essenti-
ally similar to Hensen’s plankton estimations.

2 Wissenschaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen, Kiel Kommission, Bd.
ii., Heft 2, 1897.

METABOLISM IN THE SEA 189

fishes. The importance of this result is at
once apparent, for, since it is easy to calculate
the average number of eggs spawned annually
by each species of fish, it becomes possible to
estimate, within certain limits of error, the abso/ute
number of mature food-fishes inhabiting the fishing
grounds of the North Sea. By no other method
known to us is this possible. A similar investiga-
tion of a portion of the West Baltic (the Ecken-
forde fishing area) gave most interesting results.
It was estimated, from quantitative plankton fishing
experiments, that during the four months, January
to April 1885, there were spawned in all 370
eggs of cod and plaice per square metre of surface.
Now, the numbers of cod and plaice captured
during the same four months by the Eckenforde
fishermen was also known (being calculated from
a nine-year average), and knowing how many
eggs may be produced from a mature cod or
plaice, it is easy to calculate the number of eggs
those fishes would have produced if they had
been left in the sea. The result was 110 eggs
per square metre. That is, all the cod and plaice,
captured and free, on this fishing ground would
have produced 480 eggs per square metre. But
men captured (in the shape of the parent fishes)
110 eggs per square metre. Therefore in each
year the Eckenférde fishermen captured one-
fourth of the total number of adult plaice and
cod present in their fishing grounds, a result

190 BRITISH FISHERIES

which shows how much fishing operations tax
the population of the sea.

In the sea and on the land one form of animal
life depends for its sustenance on the capture and
utilisation as food of some other form of life. It
is easy to trace this in the case of any particular
animal, such as man. AA large portion of our own
food consists of the flesh of other animals, and the
remainder is some form of vegetable tissue. We
know from constant observation the animals on
which the fishes used as food by man feed. In
the case of cod, we find that an almost constant and
favourite form of food consists of crabs of various
kinds. ‘The cod (which is one of the foods of
man) therefore feeds on the crab, and it now
becomes our object to determine the food of this
crustacean. The crab is catholic in its tastes, but
we shall, in many cases, find it feeding on various
worms inhabiting the bottom deposits of the sea,
and these worms again we shall often find feeding
upon the smaller crustacea (among other things).
Pushing our inquiry still further, we may find
these smaller crustacea feeding upon the copepods
which live in the. mud, and with these micro-
crustacea our chain of animal forms which are
linked together as the food and sub-foods of the
cod (and man) comes to an end. Or if we take
the plaice, again, as another food of man, we can
establish another, though shorter, series. This
fish usually feeds on small bivalve shell-fish living

METABOLISM IN THE SEA IgI

in the sea-bottom deposits, but we do not find
that these shell-fish feed to any extent on any
other form of animal life. These are only two
cases out of many which could be given, in each
of which inquiry into the foods and the foods of
the foods enables us to establish series of animal
forms linked together in such a way that one
regularly preys on the other.

But it is not true that

“Large fleas have little fleas

Upon their backs to bite ’em ;

And little fleas have lesser fleas,

And so ad infinitum.”
Sooner or later each series of animal forms
comes to an end, and we find that the last, and
smallest, member does not prey on an animal
smaller than itself, but obtains its food by eating
some form of vegetable life, sea-weeds, diatoms or
other unicellular marine plants. In the sea, as on
the land, all animal life depends ultimately on vegetable
life for its sustenance.

There is, in the long run, no essential morpho-
logical difference between an animal and a plant.
However obvious may be the differences in form
between a highly developed animal, such as a fish,
and such a relatively highly developed marine
plant as an alga, the corresponding differences
between the lower forms of animals, such as the
protozoa (say foraminifera and radiolaria), and the
unicellular plants like diatoms, are not apparent on

192 BRITISH FISHERIES

inspection. ‘The real differences are physiological,
not morphological. A plant feeds in a different
manner from an animal. The latter must obtain
for its food the living or dead tissues of another
animal or plant; the former can utilise material
which is not alive. The animal feeds on organised,
the plant on inorganic, materials. Now, since it
is only the plants which can convert inorganic
materials into a form suitable for assimilation by
animals, it follows necessarily that the animals are
in the long run ultimately dependent on the
plants. No matter how many forms of life may
be intercalated between the cod and the diatoms
or other plant-material on which the copepods
feed, or between the plaice and the diatoms on
which bivalve shell-fish feed, it is no less true that
these plant-forms are the ultimate food of both
cod and plaice. The plankton constitutes the
“meadows of the sea.” How rich these
“‘meadows”’ are has been estimated by Hensen
and his colleague, Brandt. In March, one par-
ticular species of diatom alone (Chetoceros) was
so abundant in the West Baltic that there were
457 millions in every cubic metre of sea-water ;
that is, every block of water which measured about
one-third of an inch along each side contained
about 457 diatoms. Next to the diatoms, the
group of micro-crustacea known as copepods are
most important. Every cubic metre of West
Baltic water was estimated to contain about

*

METABOLISM IN THE SEA 193

80,000 of these little animals. In some parts of
the Antarctic Ocean the diatoms are so abundant
as perceptibly to colour the surface water, and in
the same region the deposit at the sea-bottom is a
soft white ooze which consists almost entirely of
the dead flinty shells of these organisms. The
diatoms and the copepods form the fundamental
organic food-material of the sea.

It is possible to estimate the productivity of
the sea, just as one .can estimate the productivity
of the land. Hensen and Brandt found that each
square metre of the Baltic produced on the
average about 150 grammes of dry organic food-
substance in the shape of plankton. A similar
area of cultivated land -produces (according to
Biebahn and Rodewald) about 180 grammes of the
same ultimate food-substance. The productivity
of the sea, judged by the amount of plankton
generated, is therefore about 20 per cent. less
than that of cultivated land. The productivity
of the sea may also be compared with that of
the land by comparing the quantity of produce
obtained in each case from similar areas ; that is,
the weight of fish obtained from an acre of sea
may be compared with the weight of agricultural
produce obtained from an acre of cultivated land.
Some interesting observations of this kind are
contained in the Report of the Fisheries Commis-
sioners of 1866, according to which “an acre of

good land carefully tilled produces [per annum]
13

194 BRITISH FISHERIES

a ton of corn, or two or three hundredweight of
meat or cheese. The same area at the bottom
of the sea yields a greater weight of food to the
persevering fishermen every week in the year.”*
According to Brandt,” the fishermen of Northern
European countries take from the North Sea about
nineteen million kilogrammes of nitrogen, in the
form of edible fish, every year. At any one
moment there is about double this quantity
present in the North Sea. Since this withdrawal
of nitrogenous food-material continues year by
year, the loss of nitrogen (and of course the
other food-forming elements) must be made up.
The nitrogen taken from the sea in the shape of
fish is returned to it as nitrogenous compounds
washed down from the land by rivers. On the
death and decomposition of the bodies of animals
and plants, the organic material of which they are
composed is resolved, by the action of putrefactive
bacteria, into compounds of nitrogen (ammonia,
and salts of nitric and nitrous acid), carbonic acid,
water, and other substances. The nitrogenous
substances, being easily soluble in water, are soon
washed into the sea by the agencies of rain and
rivers. It has been computed that all the rivers
of the world convey in this way no less than thirty
billion grammes (about twenty-nine million tons) of

1 p. 26 (8vo edition),
2 Wissensch, Meeresunt., Kiel Kommission, Bd. iv,, Abth. Kiel,

1899.

METABOLISM IN THE SEA 195

nitrogen from the land into the sea every year.’
Animals are unable to use these inorganic nitro-
genous substances as food, but the plants can. By
the agency of the latter the salts of nitric and
nitrous acids and of ammonia are converted into
the protoplasmic material of the plant tissue—that
is, into a form which can be assimilated by
animals. There is thus a perpetual cycle of
changes—the nitrogen is taken from the sea in the
form of fish food, and it is then assimilated and
built up to form the substance of the living body.
Then either after death, or during life in the
ordinary processes of excretion, this living proto-
plasmic substance breaks down and decomposes,
and is resolved by putrefactive and other bacteria
into simple nitrogen compounds. ‘These find
their way into the sea through drains and rivers,
and are utilised as food by plants.” The plants are
then eaten, directly or indirectly, by marine
animals, among which may be the fishes, and the
latter may then be returned to the land.

An important part is performed by the bacteria
of the sea in this cycle of changes. One class of
microbes—the putrefactive bacteria—have the power
of decomposing organic nitrogenous substance,
and by their action the dead body of a fish,

for instance, is resolved into simpler organic

1 Brandt, loc. cit., p. 217.
2 Diatoms and unicellular plants chiefly, but also by some

unicellular animals which feed like plants.

196 BRITISH FISHERIES

compounds. Then the mitrifying bacteria come
into action and resolve these organic nitrogenous
substances into, first of all, ammonia, then nitrous
acid, and finally nitric acid." But another set of
bacteria, the denitrifying bacteria, also exist in the
sea, and these reverse the action of the nitrifying
bacteria, that is, they convert nitric acid into
nitrous, nitrous acid into ammonia, and ammonia
into free nitrogen. ‘The latter is then returned to
the atmosphere. It is probable that a considerable
degree of denitrification takes place in the sea.
But the denitrifying bacteria are more active in
the warm tropical seas than in the colder polar
waters. Therefore more of the nitrogenous
compounds are broken down there, and there is
less food for diatoms and other organisms which
feed in the manner of plants. The plankton is
therefore scarcer.”

Apparently, then, the atmosphere should be
becoming richer in nitrogen because of this
denitrification. But leguminous plants (peas,
beans, etc.) have the power of taking free nitrogen
from the air and utilising this as food. Every

1 Carbonic acid and water are, of course, also formed in this
process, and oxygen is taken up from its solution in the surrounding
sea-water.

2 Apstein (Das Stisswasserplankton, Kiel, 1896) and Brandt
(Stoffwechsel im Meere) showed that, in the fresh-water lakes of
Holstein, the plankton was more abundant where there was a large
proportion of nitrates than where the proportion of these substances
was relatively small.

METABOLISM IN THE SEA 197

flash of lightning, too, causes some of the
nitrogen to combine with the oxygen, and to reach
the ground as nitric acid. By these two processes
the balance is kept between the processes of nitri-
fication and denitrification, and the atmosphere
retains a constant composition.

CHAPTER XII
HYDROGRAPHICAL INVESTIGATIONS

By far the greater portion of the literature of
fisheries science deals with the biological investiga-
tion of the natural conditions of the fishes and
other animals sought by the fisherman. Anyone
making a somewhat cursory survey of this literature
may well conclude that only such investigations
as the life-histories of marine economic animals,
their habits, food, abundance, migrations, and the
like, are likely to prove of practical value. But
a more attentive study will show that another
line of research, which we may call the hydro-
graphical investigation of the sea, is just as essential
for a proper understanding of sea-fisheries questions.
Such investigations deal with the depths of the sea,
the nature of the deposits forming its floor, the
movements of water caused by tides, winds, and
ocean currents, the chemical composition of sea-
water, its varying temperature, salinity, and specific
gravity. The exact nature of the connections

between all these phenomena (and meteorological
198

HYDROGRAPHICAL INVESTIGATIONS 199

changes) and the movements and abundance of
fishes is not always apparent; but nothing is
more certain than that such physical phenomena,
and others, which we may call purely biological
ones, are closely related. There are two main
factors which govern the migration and abundance
of fishes: the search for suitable foods, and some
imperfectly understood conditions leading to the
choice of suitable spawning localities. In each of
these cases we may be fairly sure that physical
events taking place in the sea are the remote causes
which we seek.

Now, though this is well known, yet the exact
_nature of the connection is not easily seen. Fisheries
science is less advanced than agriculture in this
respect, but there are some instances that may be
given of the manner in which the two sets of
events are connected. A temporary abundance of
plaice on a certain fishing ground may often be
proved to be due to a “strike” of young mussels
on the fishing ground in question, and this
abundance of mussels can be traced to some par-
ticular set of the currents, which has transported
the “spat,” or larve, to that particular ground ;
and further, the growth of shell-fish may be pro-
moted by a rich diatom flora, which again may be
due to suitable conditions of weather. Again, it is
well known that the spawning seasons of fishes
are variable, and it is also known that the begin-
ning of the spawning season depends to a consider-

200 BRITISH FISHERIES

able extent on the nature of the weather during
the preceding winter. We know, too, that the
incubation period of fish eggs depends closely on
the temperature of the water in which they are
developing. Thus, a flounder egg will hatch in
from five to ten days, the incubation period vary-
ing with the temperature. Plankton studies show
that the appearance and nature of microscopic life
in the sea depend on the weather. Diatoms are
more abundant during a temperate spring, when
there is plenty of sunlight. It is well known that
fishes are closely affected by the temperature of the
water: soles seek deep channels in cold weather,
and plaice may bury themselves in the sand in
such circumstances. It has even been shown that
there is an actual connection between temperature
and the abundance of anchovies in the Scheldt
fisheries. The catch of this fish varied in some
years according to the average temperature of the
water during the previous summer months.'
There are other cases which might be quoted from
a study of the literature, all showing that the con-
nection between the abundance and movements
of sea-fishes and the physical conditions of the
medium in which they live is very close indeed.
The earlier hydrographical research in Great
Britain was purely scientific in its aim. In the
famous voyage of the Challenger in 1872-76 an

1 See Journal Mar. Biol, Association, 1889-90, vol. i. (new
series), p. 340.

HYDROGRAPHICAL INVESTIGATIONS 201

immense amount of such research was catried
out: all the seas of the globe were traversed, and
an ‘enormous number of observations were made.
The methods of the Challenger were to make
a series of soundings, at the same time securing
a sample of the deposit forming the floor of the
ocean. In this way the depths and contours of the
ocean beds were determined, and a very full know-
ledge was obtained of the nature of the bottom.
The temperature, specific gravity, and salinity of
the sea-water, both at the surface and at a number
of depths down to the bottom, were also observed,
and samples of water from various depths were
taken in many parts of the oceans for chemical
analysis. ‘The movements of oceanic waters form-
ing the great currents were also determined by
direct observations, by floats, etc., and by a study
of the temperatures and specific gravities. Baro-
metric and other data were also obtained. The
result of the Challenger’s work was to give us a
very full knowledge of the sea from the point
of view of that department of physics called
“oceanography.” Little or no attention was,
however, directed to the study of the practical
problems of the sea-fishing industry, though, no
doubt, the observations of the Challenger were
of immense assistance in further hydrographical
fisheries research.

1 Our knowledge of these matters has been largely supplemented
by improved methods elaborated by the deep-sea cable companies.

202 BRITISH FISHERIES

The earliest important application of these
methods was made in Germany. The first large
piece of work carried out by the Kiel Kommission
was the cruise of S.M.S. Pommerania in the
North Sea and Baltic. This was in 1872-3.
This enterprise, described as a “ physikalische,
chemische und biologische” expedition, led to
results of great importance,’ and until the be-
ginning of the eighties the results of the
Pommerama expedition represented our know-
ledge of the hydrography of North European
waters. When the Scottish Fishery Board began
work, close attention was directed to physical
investigation, and a beginning was made by a
cruise by H.M.S. ‘acka/ in the Moray Firth
in 1883.2 The resources of the Board were,
however, inadequate for sustained hydrographical
research, since they possessed no vessel equipped
for the purpose. A number of other expeditions
were, however, made, and when in 1887 they
obtained a steamer to be exclusively employed in
scientific work, physical observations were made
almost continuously as part of the routine scientific
investigation.

Scandinavia, however, more than any other
country, has been the centre of this kind of
investigation, and Professors Otto Pettersson (of

1 For the full accounts of these voyages, see the Kiel Kommission’s

Jahresberichten for 1872-74.
2 Scottish Fishery Board Report for 1886, p. 189.

HYDROGRAPHICAL INVESTIGATIONS 203

Stockholm University) and Cleve (of Upsala) have
long been associated with the physico-biological
investigation of the North Atlantic, the North
Sea, and the Baltic. In the investigations carried
out by these hydrographers and their colleagues,
two objects have apparently been kept in view:
(1) the investigation of the movements of the
water in these seas from the point of view of
the fisheries—the migration of the herring to
and from the fishing grounds, for instance; and
(2) the elucidation of the conditions affecting
the climate of the countries bordering on the
Skagerack, the Cattegat, and the Baltic Sea.
After much preliminary work, in which results
of great importance were obtained, Pettersson
and Ekman, in 1892, formulated a scheme for
an international survey of the North Sea and the
entrance to the Baltic. To obtain results on a
large scale was beyond the resources of any one
State, and it was seen that only by the simultaneous
employment of a number of surveying vessels
could the condition of such an extensive area
be ascertained. The co-operation of Norway,
Sweden, Denmark, Germany, and Great Britain
was fortunately obtained. Great Britain was
represented by the Scottish Fishery Board, and
Germany by the Kiel Kommission. The survey
was carried out in the months of May, August,
and November of 1893, and in May of 1894,
and the results of this, the first international

204 BRITISH FISHERIES

fisheries scientific undertaking, are of such interest
that I may profitably treat them in some detail."

The characters of sea-water which are made use
of by the hydrographer in tracing the movements
of large bodies of water are :—

1. The temperature at the surface and at a number
of intermediate depths down to the bottom. ‘The
temperature is always changing. Generally it is
warmer at the surface than at the bottom. In all
deep oceans the temperature of the water at the
bottom is very little above freezing-point, and it
undergoes hardly any variations.

2. The density. Sea-water is heavier than fresh
water, because of the salt and other substances
dissolved in it. The number representing the
density expresses how much heavier is a certain
bulk of sea-water (say a gallon), as it exists in the
sea, than an equal bulk of pure water at the
temperature of 4° C.

3. The salinity—that is, the salt-contents. The
number representing the salinity expresses how
many grammes of solid matter are dissolved in
1000 grammes of sea-water. The salinity varies
with the source of the water. In North European
seas (excepting the Skagerack, the Cattegat, and
the Baltic, where the water may at times be very

fresh) it may be as low as 30 and as high as 35°5.

1 See Dickson in Geographical Journal for March 1896; and an
excellent review by Cunningham in Journal Mar. Biol. Association,
vol. iv. p. 233, 1896.

HYDROGRAPHICAL INVESTIGATIONS 205

4. The gaseous contents. Sea-water always con-
tains a certain amount of various gases—oxygen,
nitrogen, and carbonic acid—dissolved in it. "These
are dissolved from the atmosphere or derived from
the respiration or putrefaction of marine organisms.
In deep, stagnant seas the amount of oxygen at
the bottom may be very small.

5. The plankton. Different regions, such as
the Baltic, the North Atlantic Ocean, the Arctic
Ocean, or the Black Sea, have characteristic
plankton organisms at certain periods of the year.
By identifying the plants and animals present in
any one place, it is possible to tell what was the
source of the water examined.

Temperatures are determined by means of care-
fully constructed thermometers. If the tempera-
ture of the water at the sea-bottom or at any
intermediate depth is required, a sample is obtained
by means of a specially constructed bottle, which
is lowered down open. When it reaches the
depth required it is closed by means of a special
arrangement, and a sample of the water at that
depth is obtained. The bottle is so constructed
that while it is being raised to the surface the
temperature does not appreciably change. The
latter is then taken by an ordinary thermometer.
If the depth to be investigated is very great, the
temperature is obtained by means of a “reversing
thermometer,” that is, an instrument which
registers the temperature of the water at the depth

206 BRITISH FISHERIES

to which it is lowered. Salinity is determined
by a chemical method. A solution of nitrate of
silver of a known strength is added drop by drop
to a measured quantity of water under examination.
The silver precipitates the salt as a white curd.
From the amount of silver solution required to
precipitate all the salt, the amount of the latter
present in the sample is very exactly determined.
The gaseous contents are estimated by somewhat
more complicated chemical methods.

Now, by making use of these methods it was
found by Pettersson and Ekman, and afterwards by
the hydrographers of the 1893 survey, that at any
one time the water of the North Sea might be
derived from one or more of three sources :—(r1)
North Atlantic water. This enters the North Sea
round the north of the Shetland Islands. Its
entrance into the latter area is the result of the
“ Gulf Stream” current. The real Gulf Stream
does not, of course, actually reach the British
Islands; but the effect of the prevalence of cyclonic
storms reaching our coasts from the south to
south-west of the Atlantic is to drive the surface
layer of the sea towards and to the north and east
of the British Islands. This North Atlantic water
is heavy, possessing a normal salinity of over
35 parts per thousand. Most of it in the North
Sea enters from the north-west, but a_ small
portion enters through the Straits of Dover. (2)
Baltic water. This is very light water, with a

HYDROGRAPHICAL INVESTIGATIONS 207

salinity of 30 to 32 per thousand. It flows out as
a surface current from the Skagerack along the
Norwegian coast. It is produced by the rivers
falling into the Baltic, and at certain seasons, owing
to rainfall and the melting of snow, land and sea
ice, its volume is enormously augmented. It is a
mixture of fresh water with the salt water which
enters the Baltic as a deep current. In addition
to these two contributory kinds of water, two
others may be present in North European seas,
which are: (3) North Sea water, with a salinity
of 34 to 35. At certain times in the year this
forms the greater part of the water covering the
surface of the North Sea. (4) Bank water. This
forms an edging of variable width along the con-
tinental coasts. It is relatively light, possessing a
salinity of 30 to 32 parts per thousand. Both
Bank water and North Sea water are mixtures of
the two original components, Atlantic and Baltic
waters. Finally, a certain quantity of Arctic water
may reach into the North Sea in some seasons.
This is cold water, and has a salinity of less than
35. It enters the North Atlantic as a deep
current.!

In May 1893 the waters of the North Sea had
the following arrangement” :—There was little

1 See Pettersson, Scottish Geographical Journal for 1894, and
Hjort, Nordgaard, etc.

2 Dickson’s charts of the North Sea in 1893, published in the
Geographical Journal for 1896, illustrate these changes very well.

208 BRITISH FISHERIES

Atlantic water either at the north or south en-
trances, and the bulk of the area was filled with
water having the salinity characteristic of the
North Sea ; its saline contents were 34 to 35 per
thousand. The Baltic current had not begun to
flow out of the Skagerack ; on the contrary, there
was a decided inflow of Bank water northwards
along the coast of Jutland, and southwards along
the coast of Denmark, into the former area.

In August 1893 this state of things had altered
greatly. North Sea water was restricted to the
central portion and the coastal margins, and from
the north and south large tongues of Atlantic water
were projecting. At the same time a very wide
surface current was flowing out from the Baltic
through the Cattegat and Skagerack.

In November 1893 this restriction of North
Sea water and the increase of Atlantic water was
still in progress. But the outflowing current from
the Baltic had ceased, and instead of it there was an
influx of Bank water into the Skagerack from the
north and south, as in May of the same year.

The observations in February 1894 completed
the yearly cycle. The tongues of oceanic water
entering at the north and south had now become
continuous, and the greater portion of the North
Sea was filled up by water of this origin. North
Sea water proper was restricted to comparatively
narrow margins on either side. Bank water, as
before, was flowing from the north down the

HYDROGRAPHICAL INVESTIGATIONS 209

Norwegian depression, and from the south along
the continental coasts into the Skagerack.

These results of the international survey of 1893
showed, then, that the prolific fishing grounds of
the North Sea were subject to important seasonal
variations in respect of the nature and source of
the water covering them, and of the organisms
which composed the plankton inhabiting the sea.
But the problem was one of very great magnitude
and importance, and it was seen that, if it were to
be investigated on a sufficient scale, a wider area
would have to be taken into account, and a greater
number of exploring vessels would be required.
International co-operation was the only means by
which the work could be done, and several attempts
were made to secure this on the part of the States
interested in the fisheries of the North Sea. There
were other important reasons which made inter-
national co-operation in fisheries research very
desirable. The agitation for some restriction on
the capture of small flat fish in the North Sea had
assumed its present form. The grounds on which
these small fishes are captured are outside the
territorial limits of any State ; and while it is within
the power of any one of the governments concerned
to impose restrictions on the area exploited, or the
methods adopted, dy its own vessels, international
agreement only could affect a// the vessels catching
these small fishes. A further argument in favour

of international agreement is that this might lead
14

210 BRITISH FISHERIES

to a virtual extension of the territorial limits in |
cases where this is of some importance. The
experiments of the Scottish Fishery Board, which
led to the closure of the Moray Firth, have been, ©
to some extent, rendered valueless by the fact that
foreign trawlers can, and do, fish in that area,
though it is closed against British vessels. If
international agreement to respect the closure of
such an experimental area could be secured, it
was felt that much good would be done. These
considerations argued strongly in favour of the
formation of an international association for marine
fisheries exploration, and official people in touch
with the British fisheries authorities seem to have
been influenced by such arguments. The Select
Committee of the House of Commons which
considered the Sea-Fisheries Bill of tgoo made a
recommendation in favour of international action.
‘“‘ No effort,” they said, ‘‘ ought to be spared, first,
to arrange for international treatment of the
subject generally [scientific investigation and regula-
tion], and especially for regulation of the North
Sea area.””? Between 1893 and 1900 there was,
it is quite evident, a growing feeling in favour of
international research and regulation.

In 1899, therefore, the Swedish Hydrographical
Commission made representations to the Swedish
Government, which resulted in the extension of an
invitation by the latter to those States interested in

1 Report, Select Committee of 1900, p. vi.

HYDROGRAPHICAL INVESTIGATIONS art

the fisheries of North European seas to hold a
conference, at which some plan for international
research might be drawn up. The result of this
invitation was that a meeting of representatives
took place at Stockholm in June 1899. The
States represented were Great Britain, Russia,
Germany, Denmark, Holland, Norway and
Sweden. Our country sent Sir John Murray,
Professor D’Arcy Thompson, and Mr W. E.
Archer to this conference. A scheme was recom-
mended and passed unanimously by the delegates,
and it was resolved to submit this to the States
concerned. No effect, however, was given to
this recommendation, and it was felt that the
information and time at the disposal of the dele-
gates were insufficient to allow of a detailed
programme being drawn up. A second con-
ference was therefore held at Christiania, at the
invitation of the Norwegian Government, in May
1901, and the proposals of the Stockholm
conference were revised and put into final form.”
Great Britain on this occasion was represented by
Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff and Professor D’Arcy
Thompson, with the expert assistance of Mr W.
Garstang and Dr H. R. Mill.

These proposals had reference to two main
lines of research work which were mutually

1 See Journ. Mar. Biol. Association, vol. vi. p. 101, 1900, for a
full account of this scheme.
2 Journ. Mar. Biol. Association, vol. vi. p. 389, 1902.

212 BRITISH FISHERIES

dependent on each other. On the one hand,
there was the hydrographical work—the study of
the physical conditions of the sea, the temperature
and chemical composition of oceanic waters and
their movements; and on the other, there was
the study of the plankton, both from the point
of view of hydrography and the natural history
of economic fishes. Then there were numerous
other departments of marine research, such as the
migration of fishes, the distribution in the North
Sea and other areas of the various stages of fishes,
the nature of the bottom fauna, the distribution
and abundance of fish eggs, and the elaboration
of uniform statistics of the sea-fisheries by the
participating States. ‘The conference recommended
that a central organisation be created to co-
ordinate the researches, to prepare publications,
and to act as an intermediary between the different
governments.

The scheme thus propounded by the Christiania
conference was accepted by the various States re-
presented, and the legislature of each voted a sum
sufficient for the purpose. Germany, Norway and
Sweden, Holland, and the Senate of Finland accepted
the programme, and agreed to continue to take part
in the researches for the period of five years pro-
posed by the conference. Denmark voted a sum
sufficient for three years’ work, and decided to con-
sider whether the results achieved at the end of that
time would justify their continuing their support.

HYDROGRAPHICAL INVESTIGATIONS 213

Great Britain took up the same position. Russia
also took part in the work, and Belgium decided
on taking a share at the beginning of 1903.
The Danish Government then invited repre-
sentatives of the participating States to meet at
Copenhagen, and at a third conference, held there
in July 1902, the “International Council for the
Exploration of the Sea” was constituted. In its
final form this body consisted of the following
members :—

Denmark : Captain Drechsel and Mr M. Knudsen.

Germany : Drs Hertwig and Krummel.

Great Britain : Sir Ed. Goschen and Professor D’Arcy
Thompson.

Finland : Mr J. Alb. Sandman.

Holland : Drs Max Weber and C. H. Wind.

Norway: Drs Fridtjof Nansen and J. Hjort.

Russia: Dr Oscar von Grimm.

Sweden: Drs Pettersson and Trijborn.

With these members the following experts were
associated :—

Denmark : Drs C. G. J. Petersen and C. H. Ostenfeld.

Great Britain: Dr H. R. Mill and Mr W. Garstang.

Sweden: Professor Cleve of Upsala.

Russia: Mr L. L. Breitfuss.

The council thus included most of the best-
known North European hydrographers and fisheries
investigators amongst its members. It then con-
stituted a bureau for the purposes of administra-
tion and publication. This body consisted of a
president (Hertwig), a vice-president (Pettersson),

214: BRITISH FISHERIES

a general secretary (Dr Hoek), with a clerical
and technical staff. Its headquarters were at
Copenhagen. A central laboratory, with Dr
Nansen for director and with a scientific staff, was
established at Christiania. Each State contributes
to the upkeep of the central organisation in the
following proportion per annum :—

Denmark : : , : £262
Germany j ‘ ‘ : 1250
Great Britain . : ; , 1250
The Netherlands . ‘ , 262
Norway . . . ‘ ‘ . 262
Russia and Finland. : : 1250
Sweden . , : ‘ , 262

and in addition to these sums, each State contributes
the money necessary for the upkeep of its own
exploring vessels and staff. Great Britain voted a
sum of £42,000 for the three years over which
the investigations were in the first instance to
extend. Part of this sum goes for the upkeep of
the bureau and central laboratory, and the re-
mainder is spent on the vessels and staff employed
in the investigations. The national organisation
was entrusted, in England, to the Marine Biological
Association, and in Scotland to the Scottish Fishery
Board. Each of these bodies has hired a steam
vessel for the work at sea, and employs a chemical
and biological staff. In England the research
work on shore is carried on at the biological
station at Plymouth and at a marine laboratory at
Lowestoft, organised for the purpose of these special

HYDROGRAPHICAL INVESTIGATIONS 215

investigations. Scotland makes use of the Scottish
Fishery Board station at Aberdeen for the
biological work, and a laboratory at University
College, Dundee, for the hydrographical investiga-
tions. The direction of the researches is exercised
in Scotland by Professor D’Arcy Thompson, and
in England by Dr Allen and Mr W. Garstang.
Each State investigates a particular portion of
the whole sea area. The investigations are some-
times referred to as if they were carried out in
the North Sea only. The area in question is in
reality very much wider than:this. Britain has
charge of the eastern part of the North Sea, the
Atlantic as far north as the Feroe Islands, and to
the west of the Outer Hebrides, and the English
Channel. Germany investigates the western
portion of the North Sea, and the Baltic Sea off the
German coast. Russia has the rest of the Baltic
(except the Gulf of Bothnia, which is investigated
by Finland), and the Arctic Ocean to the north of
the White Sea. Denmark has the Cattegat, the
Belts, and the Sound, and the Feroe-Iceland
channel. Norway and Sweden between them
work the Skagerack and the seas off the Baltic
coast of Scandinavia, and Norway also explores an
extensive area extending fron Iceland and Jan
Mayen to the opposite Norwegian coast. Each
vessel makes quarterly cruises along certain lines

1 See the chart in Journ. Mar. Biol. Association, vol, vi. p. 402,
1902.

216 BRITISH FISHERIES

within the area assigned to it, and in the course of
these cruises the hydrographical observations are
made, and samples of the sea-water are taken for
analysis at the laboratories on shore.

In reality these hydrographical observations form
the least part of the sea-going work, so far as time
is concerned, and very considerable attention is
being devoted to the several questions of very
great practical importance to the fisheries. These
are: (1) the migrations of the principal food-fishes
of the North Sea, especially herring, plaice, and cod ;
and (2) the important question of over-fishing by
trawlers in the North Sea and adjacent fishing
grounds. These two questions are treated co-
operatively by the vessels working in the areas
affected. Each question is entrusted to a com-
mittee, the conveners of which are Dr J. Hjort
(migrations) and Mr W. Garstang (over-fishing).
In addition to this co-operative biological work,
each State is, of course, free to make whatever
investigations are judged of importance.

“The chief aim of the whole work is to increase
our knowledge of the conditions of the fisheries,
and thus to further the interests of a rational ex-
ploitation of the sea. It must be remembered,
however, that only those results are permanently
and really useful which will bear the test of severe
scientific criticism. The study of the sea is to
proceed orderly and as rapidly as possible, but it
would be unpractical to sacrifice the accuracy of

HYDROGRAPHICAL INVESTIGATIONS 217

the results, even if only a little, to a desire to
reach an end more quickly.” ?

The international organisation has been severely,
and perhaps rather unfairly, criticised in this
country. Two main charges have been made
against its methods and aims. It has been
thought by some British naturalists that far too
much attention was devoted to hydrographical
observations, ‘““which have not in any way ex-
plained the problems associated with the fisheries,” ?
and too little to general fisheries questions of a
biological nature. Now, while the exact value
of hydrographic research, as far as “ practical”
fisheries problems are concerned, may, in the
present state of our knowledge, be a matter of
opinion, there is no doubt that it is @ priori
extremely probable that an exact knowledge of
meteorological and hydrographical events in the
sea is of fundamental importance to the fishery
investigator. There are, it is true, few actual
proofs so far of the precise relationship between
physical changes in the sea, and changes in the
productivity of the fishing grounds. I have,
however, quoted one such instance in the relation-
ship between the temperature of the sea and the

1 Rapports et Proces-verbaux, Conseil Permanent International pour
Exploration de la Mer, vol. i, Copenhague, 1903. This book
gives avery complete (and, of course, an official) statement of the
formation of the international organisation, and a full account of the
work contemplated.

2 M‘Intosh, Lvidence, Ichthyological Committee, 1903, Q. 1217.

218 BRITISH FISHERIES

catch of anchovies in the Scheldt ; and Hjort and
Pettersson, both investigators of the first rank,
have stated the probable relationship between the
herring fisheries and hydrographical changes in
the North Sea. The autumn herring fishery on
the east coast of Norway is due, according to Hort,
to a “feeding migration,” and is determined by
the movements of the Bank water of the North
Sea. The arrival of the herring shoals coincided
in time with that of water of a relatively high
temperature and of a salinity of 32—34.1__ Pettersson
also * ascribed the appearance of the herring shoals
in the Cattegat in autumn and winter to the move-
ments of Norwegian and Danish Bank water. No
one has yet contended that minute differences in
salinity and temperature as such affect the move-
ments of the herring. But this fish is a plankton
feeder, and such organisms as copepods and diatoms
are, no doubt, affected by these changes. And
since every fish is, in the long run, a plankton
feeder, we can recognise no essential distinction
between pelagic fishes, such as the herring, and
bottom-living forms like the plaice.

Two other main charges have been made against
the methods of the international observations.
One of these appears to me to be founded on
some misapprehension of the precise methods

1 J. Hjort, AMydrographic-Biological Studies of the Norwegian
Fisheries, Christiania, 1896.
2 See papers in Scottish Geograph. Journ., 1894.

HYDROGRAPHICAL INVESTIGATIONS 219

agreed on at the Christiania conference.! In all
the agitations for fishery legislation since 1893, it
has been tacitly assumed that the fishing grounds
of the North Sea were being depleted. One of
the objects of the international investigation is to
determine this with certainty, and it has been
assumed by the writer in question that this object
was to be attained by the “fishery experiments”
of the Christiania programme, that is, by trawling
observations of the nature of those made by the
Scottish Fishery Board on the east coast of Scot-
land. Now this method was (rightly) shown to
be faulty when carried out in such an extensive
area as the North Sea, and it was concluded that
the results of the international investigation would
not be of value. This would be a just criticism, if
it were the case that an important part of the
investigation was the determination by trawling
experiments of the degree of depletion of the
fishing grounds. But a reference to the official
programme of the work to be undertaken will
show that this was certainly not the case.

The other charge was made by the Committee
on Ichthyological Research,’ and referred to the
probable accuracy of the results which might be
expected from the organisation of the international
work. Nearly all scientific work at sea, which
has reference to the condition of the fisheries,

1D. N. Paton, ina letter to the Zimes, 31st March 1902.
2 Report of this Committee, Memorandum, p. xxiv., 1903.

220 BRITISH FISHERIES

depends on the study of “samples,” whether
these be samples of sea-water, plankton, or fishes
or invertebrates trawled from the sea-bottom.
Naturally, the value of the deduction made from
the study of such samples depends on their
number, and it did not appear probable to the
members of the Committee that these samples
would be numerous enough. ‘“ We feel bound,”
the Committee pedantically state, “to express our
grave apprehensions of the danger of using in-
adequately substantiated quantitative conclusions
as a basis for action or regulation of fisheries—
for if ‘samples’ misrepresent the actual con-
ditions, or inadequately suggest the causes of
those conditions, they may prevent the possibly
quite legitimate grievances of the fishermen being
redressed, or they may be detrimental to the
supply of fish generally.” Now, such a criticism
is theoretically sound enough, but it may be
urged, to some extent, against any scheme of
fisheries research ever undertaken, or which may
be suggested.t There is always the chance that

1 An alternative scheme of North Sea fishery investigations was
suggested by the ‘Chief Inspector of Fisheries. In this it was
proposed that a number of “reliable captains” of trawlers should
furnish returns of their fishing operations to the Fisheries Department.
At the same time sample boxes of fish would be bought from these
vessels at the port of landing and examined by “trained experts,” and
if necessary these fish would be sent to the biological laboratories.
Observations at sea were not apparently regarded as an essential
part of the work. (Report, Ichthyological Committee, 1903, Evidence,

Q. 1585, p- 71+)

HYDROGRAPHICAL INVESTIGATIONS 221

conclusions founded on the study of samples may
be wrong ones, and no one will deny that, the
greater the number of observations, the more
valuable the conclusions. In any well-considered
scheme of fisheries or oceanographical research,
this source of error is taken into account. The
history of the science of the zoological distribu-
tion of animals on the surface of the earth (which
science is based on the study of “samples ”)
abounds with instances of errors of this kind;
but the conclusions have, nevertheless, a very
real value, because the errors were discovered
and checked. There is no doubt that those who
formulated and are carrying out the scheme of
international investigations in connection with
the sea-fisheries have considered this source of
error, and are taking steps to minimise it. The
more exploring vessels, voyages, and samples there
are, and the longer the period of investigation,
the more reliable will be the results. Even
with much more limited resources than the
international organisation possesses, very valuable
results have been attained. If there were more
vessels and a larger staff employed, it is, of course,
certain that the ultimate results would be better.
But there are limits to the generosity of govern-
ments supporting schemes of scientific investiga-
tion, and in the present case these were reached.

CHAPTER XIII
FISHERY STATISTICS

Ir will be seen that any discussion of sea-
fisheries problems, such as I have attempted in
these pages, involves constant reference to statistical
information. The question of the impoverish-
ment of the fishing grounds, for instance, would
be a comparatively simple one, if we could obtain
full and accurate figures showing, for a series of
years, the exact number of vessels and fishermen
working on the fishing grounds, the nature and
extent of the fishing gear, and the quantities of
fish of each species and of certain size-limits
landed per year from the areas in question. Such
data, however, as we can obtain are very imperfect,
and are in many cases of very questionable value ;
and it therefore happens that our conclusions as
to whether the yield of the fishing grounds is
increasing or decreasing are, at the best, deductions
from a great number of considerations, and cannot
be regarded as having more than provisional value.
Any proposed legislation which attempts to check

222

FISHERY STATISTICS 223

the capture of immature fish is opposed in many
quarters—by the inshore fishermen of the north-
west coast of England, for example. It is claimed
that a lower limit of eight inches in length for
plaice would deprive these men of a considerable
portion of the material by which they make a
livelihood. Now, experience shows that the state-
ments of fishermen with regard to the exact sizes
of the fish which they catch are not always to
be taken without question, and it becomes very
important to ascertain for the area in question
what proportion of all the plaice caught are under
eight inches in length, and what is their market
value. Such information would at once show
what the effect of the proposed legislation would
be, and whether it would or would not inflict
hardship on any considerable class of fishermen.
Speaking generally, no question of regulation can
properly be discussed without the aid of accurate
and copious statistics. And most scientific
inquiries into sea-fisheries questions are now of
such a nature that statistical information is quite
indispensable, if our conclusions are to possess
more than academic interest. The distribution of
species of fishes, in respect of their different life-
phases over several different areas, for instance, is
one that occasionally becomes of considerable
practical interest. Most of our knowledge on
this head is derived from “fishery experiments,”
which are often very restricted in their scope,

224 BRITISH FISHERIES

and which are necessarily treated somewhat
inadequately. But a complete statistical statement
of the number of fishes of the species considered,
and of the different ranges of size, landed by fisher-
men from the areas in question would provide the
data necessary, when supplemented by scientific
investigation, for a complete understanding of the
question.

Now, such considerations have always been
present in the minds of those who have conducted
inquiries into the condition of the sea-fisheries, and
successive governments have repeatedly been
advised to institute the collection of systematic
fishery statistics. The Royal Commission of 1863,
embarrassed by the lack of data on which to found
an opinion as to whether the sea-fisheries were
decreasing, were stationary, or were increasing,
drew attention to this matter. ‘“‘ We think it a
matter of great importance,” they reported in
1866, “that fishery statistics should be systemati-
cally collected. It is only by such means that the
constant recurrence of the panics to which the
sea-fishing industry has hitherto been subjected
can be prevented, and that any trustworthy
conclusions can be arrived at regarding the effect
of the modes of fishing which are in use.” No
attention was paid to these words, and in 1878,
when another inquiry had to be made into the

alleged falling off of the fish-supply, the same lack
1 Report of the Royal Commission of 1863 (8vo ed.), p. 178.

FISHERY STATISTICS 225

of information was commented on and the same
recommendations were made.' Still no attention
was given to the question of fishery statistics, and
in 1885, when the Trawling Commissioners had
completed a lengthy inquiry into the vexed
question of the effects of this mode of fishing,
further attention was directed to the matter.
They regretted “the absence of any official fishery
statistics, with the exception of those relating to
the herring fishery and the cod and ling fishery of
Scotland. The collection of such statistics was
recommended by the Royal Commission of 1866,
and again by the Commission of 1878. Eighteen
years have elapsed since the recommendation of
1866 was made, and we are still without official
statistics by which the accuracy of statements as
to the decrease of fish may be tested.” ”

Almost while these words were being written,
the officials at the Board of Trade were elaborating
a scheme for the acquisition of the desired data.
The ingenuous reader may imagine that the
advice of such men as Huxley, Shaw-Lefevre, Mr
Marjoribanks, Frank Buckland, Spencer Walpole,
Lord Dalhousie, and Professor M‘Intosh had at
length borne fruit, and that some credit was to be
ascribed to the laborious investigations of these
gentlemen. But we are fortunate in possessing an
official account of the reasons which induced those

1 Report of the Fisheries Commission of 1878, p. Xxxix.

2 Report of the Trawling Commission, 1885, p. xii.
15

226 BRITISH FISHERIES

in charge of the fisheries of England to take steps,
the utility of which had long been admitted by
everyone conversant with the condition of the
fishing industry. ‘The Board of Trade began
the collection, in a systematic form, of statistics of
fish landed on the coasts of England and Wales in
1885. H.R.H. the late Duke of Saxe-Coburg,
then Duke of Edinburgh and Admiral-Super-
intendent of Naval Reserves, collected through
the Coastguard some statistics as to the quantity
and value of the fish landed, and in 1883 His
Royal Highness read a paper’ on the subject
at a conference held in connection with the
International Sea-Fisheries Exhibition at South
Kensington. Copies of this paper having been
sent to the Board of Trade, and the whole
question having been duly considered, it was
decided to establish a collection of fishery statistics
for England and Wales, on the same lines, and
generally by the same machinery, as had been
recommended by His Royal Highness.” *

The Treasury, being consulted, gave their consent
to the scheme thus proposed, and voted an annual
sum of {500 for the purpose. It was subsequently
felt, however, that this sum was not enough, and
it was increased to £700. The money so ob-

1 Published in Literature, Inter. Sea-Fisheries Exhibition, London,
1883.

2 Report of Inter-departmental Committee on Fishery Statistics,
1902, p. V.

FISHERY STATISTICS 227

tained was expended in the payment of collectors
stationed round the coast. These collectors were
mostly Coastguard officers, but some were Customs
and Board of Trade officers ; others were “‘ connected
with the fish trade” ; some were private persons,
but one at least seems to have been an alderman.
The average annual salary enjoyed by them was
about £3, but one was paid £25, two were paid
£8 and {10 respectively, nine were allowed £63
in all, and a number received {1 per year. ‘There
were altogether 157 collectors at about 161 places.
They had to send to the Board monthly statements
which distinguished thirteen different kinds of
“wet fish” and three kinds of “shell-fish,” giving
the quantities of these products landed, and their
values to the fishermen as sold at the seaside.
They had no statutory powers to demand a state-
ment of any kind from anyone whatsoever engaged
in the fishing trade, and they had no power to
board vessels, and examine catches or books, or to
examine markets or railway returns, beyond those
enjoyed by any other member of the public.
They were not, apparently, supervised in any
way, or if they were, the supervision must have
been the merest matter of form. Apparently they
were left to employ what ingenuity they naturally
possessed in furnishing the returns on which the
official abstracts of the Board were constructed.
These annual abstracts—‘ Copies of Statistical
Tables and Memoranda relating to the Sea-Fisheries

228 BRITISH FISHERIES

of the United Kingdom,” as they are officially
termed—have now appeared since 1887, and they
profess to give—

1. The quantity and value of all the fish landed
annually on the coasts of England and Wales
belonging to thirteen separate species, and to an
unknown number of species placed in two cate-
gories: “prime fish not separately distinguished,”
and “fish not separately distinguished” ; of crabs,
lobsters, and oysters ; and “ other shell-fish ” ;

2. The quantity and value of all the fish landed
annually on the east, south, and west coasts of
England and Wales ;

3. The quantity and value of all the fish landed
monthly on all the coasts ;

4. The quantity and value of all the fish landed
at each port of which the Board took cognisance ;

5. The average prices of the fish landed ;

6. A summary statement of the number of
fishing boats registered, and the number of fishermen
engaged in the industry ; and

7. Imports, exports, and re-exports ; statements
of the fisheries of Scotland and Ireland, and of
foreign countries.

Now, it is unfortunate that such an array of
figures as are presented in the Statistical Tables and
Memoranda should have a kind of fictitious value
by virtue of their mere appearance, and from the
accuracy of the manipulations to which they are
subjected by the statisticians of the Board; for

FISHERY STATISTICS 229

they are sure to be used by those who cannot be
aware of the questionable value of the data from
which they are constructed. All the subsequent
treatment of the returns furnished by the collectors
cannot, of course, render the annual statements of
any real value, if the actual figures obtained at the
fishing ports do not represent the real state of the
fishing industry. That such is the case is beyond
all doubt, and the literature relating to problems of
fishery regulation and investigation contains plenty
of statements showing the (in some cases gross)
inaccuracy of the fishery statistics of the Board of
Trade. This is now admitted, but a perusal of the
evidence given in some of the public inquiries will
show that the officials of the Fisheries Department
were loth, in the past, to make any admission of
the faults of their system, and they appear to have
resented criticism, and at any rate they ignored for
a long time the complaints and recommendations of
those who, in default of any other material, were
compelled to use their data.’ But finally they recog-
nised that improvement was desirable, and in 1g00
an inter-departmental committee, representing the
Board of Trade, the Treasury, and the Fishmongers’
Company, was appointed by Mr Ritchie to inquire
into the whole system, and as to how it could be
improved, and “ what additional cost (if any) would
be entailed thereby.”

1 See Report on Fishery Statistics, Marine Biological Association,
Plymouth, 1896,

230 BRITISH FISHERIES

The evidence submitted to this committee
showed very clearly how very imperfect the system
of collecting statistics must have been. Take the
case of Grimsby, for instance. Over 60,000 tons
of fish are landed yearly at this port. Some fifty
boats arrive daily, all between the hours of 6 a.m.
and noon, and the fish brought by them are landed
on a pontoon which is about a quarter of a mile
long. It is, of course, quite impossible that one
man should be able to ascertain personally the
quantities of fish of each different species con-
tained in this mass of produce (about 300 tons),
and the collector was obliged to depend on
returns furnished by the railway company of fish
carried away from the port. Now, the railway
people do not distinguish between different kinds,
their figures representing merely the gross quantity
dealt with; and it was, therefore, necessary for
the collector to ascertain as best he could, presum-
ably by observation of the catches as displayed
on the pontoon, how this gross quantity was
to be apportioned among the species enumerated
in his returns. Then an allowance had to be
made for the fish sold for consumption in the
neighbourhood, and a deduction had also to be
made for the weight of boxes, packing, and ice
carried by rail. Even then the figures could not
represent the approximate number of fishes landed,
for the catch consisted of fish of different sizes:
one box of plaice might contain fifty large fish,

FISHERY STATISTICS 291

for instance, while another might contain twice
or thrice that number; and with regard to this
very important consideration—the sizes of fish
landed — no information was included in the
published returns. In the smaller places the
difficulty of estimating the quantity of fish landed
would, of course, be less ; but even at those places
the collector could not always be at the fish
docks or quays, and the catches might be landed
by steam trawlers, sailing trawlers, by carts or
by hand, and at all times during the day; so
that even at the small fishing ports it must have
been quite impossible for the collectors to ascertain
for themselves what was the value of the trade
of their district. In nearly all cases it seems
to have been the custom to obtain the returns
of fish landed from the railway returns of the
amount of fish carried away !—a very different
thing, for the amount of fish sold in the neigh-
bourhood of the fishing ports must vary very
considerably, and in some cases is quite a large
proportion of the total quantity.

Then the number of fishing ports and districts
included in the official list of places at which

1 Even then the published returns were very far from accurate in
some cases. The official figures for the quantity of mussels landed
at Morecambe in the season 1901-2 were 1375 tons, but it was
ascertained that 2500 tons were actually sent away by rail from
that port during the same season. Further, all this quantity, with
the exception of a very few bags, was landed direct from the local
fishing grounds.

232 BRITISH FISHERIES

statistics were collected was incomplete, as any-
one with local knowledge of the industry will be
able to show. Altogether, 161 places or districts
were taken into account. Two ports, Grimsby
and Hull, head the list, and over 60,000 tons are
landed at each of these places annually. Then
follow 15 places at each of which over 2500 tons
are landed, 18 places with an annual yield of
from 2500 to 500 tons, and 121 places at which
less than 500 tons are landed in the year.!

Now, taking the Lancashire Sea-Fisheries District
alone, it will be found that nine ports or districts
are omitted from this list, and at these nine
places there are over 300 persons employed in
gathering and landing shell-fish. It has been
said that at the places included in the official list
by far the greater portion of fish taken from the
British fishing grounds are landed. But a know-
ledge of the yield of the local fisheries, small
though they may be, is of vital importance
for purposes of purely local regulation, and the
omission of any consideration of the trade of
these places is most unfortunate.

Other extraordinary errors in the official
statistics may be detected by anyone possessing a
local knowledge of any one area. Thus, the value
of the “ shell-fish ” landed from the Lancashire Sea-
Fisheries District for the year 1898 is stated in the

1 See Report of the Inter-dept. Committee on Fishery Statistics for the
complete list.

FISHERY STATISTICS 2.33

Statistical Tables and Memoranda for that year
(p. 27) to have been £29,475. But the officials
of the Lancashire Committee estimated the value
of the cockles obtained from their fishing grounds
to have been, for that year, at the /east, about
£13,370... Then, a year or two before that a
public inquiry was held by a Board of Trade
inspector, in the report of. which it is stated
(and the statement is apparently accepted) that the
value of the shrimps landed annually in the same
district is about £50,000. Thus we have :-—

Board of Trade figures for sota/ shell-fish, £29,475.
Local Committee’s figures for cockles and shrimps

only, £63,370.

Even then, the total value of Lancashire shell-
fish is not stated, for no account is taken of mussels
(and at Morecambe alone over 2000 tons are some-
times landed annually), oysters, periwinkles, and
some other shell-fish.

But apart altogether from these defects in the
actual working of the official system of collecting
fishery statistics, it is evident to anyone conversant
with the conditions of the industry that the whole
system is at fault in many respects, and was, in
fact, devised in some ignorance of the nature of
the fishing trade. Far too few species of fishes

1 Report of the Lancashire Sea-Fisheries Laboratory for 1899,

p. 104.
2 Report of the Inspectors of Sea-Fisheries (England and Wales) for

1895, Pp. 42.

234 BRITISH FISHERIES

and shell-fishes were included in the official list.
Thus, lemon soles, witches, gurnards, skates and
rays, congers, and other fishes were lumped
together under the heading “fish not separately
distinguished.”” These are all fishes of consider-
able economic value. Similarly, mussels, cockles,
scallops, periwinkles, shrimps, and several kinds of
prawn were included under the heading of “ other
shell-fish.” This has been perhaps the principal
defect of the old system, and is indeed very imper-
fectly remedied in the improved system which is
now being introduced. Again, in the case of sea-
fish, weight and value alone are considered, and no
regard is paid to the quantities of the same species
of fish, but of different sizes, which are constantly
landed. Thus, “cod” may be large cod or
codling ; haddock may be “large” or “small” ;
and a “box” of plaice may contain 50 to 1000
fish, while boxes of about 100 are always dis-
tinguished from boxes of about 250. But no
account whatever is taken in the official figures
of these differences in size, though the dif-
ferences in value may be very great. Another
defect, which has often been commented upon, is
so notable that it renders the Board’s statistics of
very little value for most purposes. No account
is taken of the fishing ground from which the
fish have been obtained. In late years the area
exploited by British fishing boats has widened
enormously, and the fish now landed at Grimsby,

FISHERY STATISTICS 236

Fleetwood, or Milford may have come from the
Iceland-Feroe Channel, the North Sea, the West
Atlantic, the Bay of Biscay, or the Firth of Clyde.
Nevertheless, this information, which for many
purposes is perfectly essential, is not to be obtained
in any of the official: publications of the English
fishery authority.

Fishery statistics have been collected in Scotland
since 1809.1 The payment of bounties by the
Board of British White Herring Fishery on
herring caught, cured, and exported, necessitated
the collection of statistics, and these were confined
in the first instance to herrings ; but when the cod
and ling fisheries were brought under the operation
of the bounty system in 1820, account was also
taken of the quantities of these fish caught and
exported by Scottish fishermen. For a time no
general statistics of fish taken were kept, only of
those species which earned bounties. When these
payments ceased in 1830, the collection of statistics
was still continued, and from time to time various
reforms were made, which rendered the returns
more complete. The general discouragement of
fisheries administration affected the system in
1857, in which year two Treasury Commissioners
(Messrs Bonamy Price and Fred. St John) recom-
mended that the Scottish statistics be ‘made
less elaborate.” Happily, no attention was paid

1 See Fulton, Report of the Scottish Fishery Board for 1891, part
iii. pp. 171-193.

236 BRITISH FISHERIES

to this advice, and though for a time the figures
collected were not published, they were kept in
manuscript form and were still accessible. When
the Fishery Board was reorganised in 1882 the
statistical system was retained, and has since then
been greatly improved and extended ; and since
1885 the officers of the Board have possessed
statutory powers! to demand statements of all fish
landed and cured in Scotland, from all persons
engaged in the sea-fishing trade in that country.
The statistical system thus elaborated has
furnished a mass of information of the utmost
value, not only to those engaged in the adminis-
tration of the Scottish fisheries, but to those in-
vestigating general questions relating to the natural
conditions under which the industry is carried on,
and is the most elaborate and complete system
adopted by any fisheries authority. The method
of collection resembles that adopted later on in
England, but it is much more thorough, and the
persons responsible for obtaining the information
are aided greatly by the possession of statutory
powers enabling them to demand compulsory
returns. ‘There are a number of correspondents
stationed all round the coast, who make daily state-
ments of the quantity of fish landed and of the
numbers of boats and men engaged in the fisheries
in their districts. These correspondents are super-

1 Conferred by the Sea-Fisheries (Scotland) Amendment Act of
1885,

FISHERY STATISTICS 237

vised by the fishery officers, who are in turn
superintended by inspectors. The returns are
forwarded to the clerks of the Board, are
abstracted, and are published annually in the
General Reports. These annual returns include
statements of :—

1. Matériel—the number of fishing vessels,
arranged in various categories, ze. steam vessels
engaged in various fisheries; sailing vessels en-
gaged in the line, trawl, and drift fisheries, and
classified according to the length of keel; and
rowing boats of different lengths. Also the
length of lines and netting, and the value of
the fishing gear employed.

2. Persons engaged in fishing and allhed in-
dustries—fishermen and boys, fishmongers, curers,
coopers, gutters and packers, boat-builders, and
others engaged in making nets and gear, etc.,
carters, labourers, porters, hawkers, and clerks.
Foreigners are distinguished in the returns from
British fishermen and others.

3. Fish landed—This includes herrings and
fifteen other different species of fish, “ flounder,
plaice, and brill” (these are grouped together),
“unclassified white fish,” oysters, mussels, clams,
crabs, lobsters, and “unclassified shell-fish.” A
separate statement is also given of fish which
are landed and sold for use in a fresh state, and
consumed in the neighbourhood. Much informa-
tion is given with regard to herrings, such as the

238 BRITISH - FISHERIES

number of barrels cured and exported, as well
as those branded (under each class of brand),
unbranded and rejected, the places to which the
fish are consigned, etc.

4. The industry at each “creek” or station—
boats and men, method of fishing, amount and
value of fish captured, etc.

5. Other statistics, complaints, prosecutions, etc.

It will be seen, from a perusal of Part I. of
the reports, that an almost exhaustive account
of the sea-fishing industry of Scotland is rendered
by the officers, and this is all the more valuable
since it deals with almost every aspect of the
fisheries, economic, commercial, and scientific, and
is discussed very fully in the General Statement
of the Board.

A thoroughly efficient and practical scheme of
fisheries statistics would give all the information
yielded by the Scottish system, but would, in
addition, go much further in many respects.
Not enough species of fishes are distinguished
in either the Scottish or English system, and the
list would have to be extended so as to include
some twenty-five to thirty different species of sea-
fishes, about half a dozen species of molluscs,
and three or four species of edible crustacea.
More information would have to be given as to
the sizes of the fishes landed: when the fishing
trade recognises several distinct classes of the same
kind of fish, according to the average size, these

FISHERY STATISTICS 239

should be distinguished in the statistics. The
approximate locality in which the fish landed
were caught should also be included in the re-
turns. It would not be necessary to state this
with great accuracy. Fishermen have generally
a very fair idea where they are fishing, and all
the fishing grounds have now local or general
names, and these can usually be identified on the
charts of the fishing areas round the British
Islands. The nature of the fishing gear and
the size and equipment of fishing boats are
also factors of much importance, and much more
information is required on these heads than is
at present given.

There is absolutely no reason why all this
information should not be obtained direct from the
captains of fishing vessels, or from the fishermen
themselves, in the case of shell-fish gatherers, or
those who work along-shore or in small rowing
boats. At the present time the masters of fishing
vessels have to prepare returns of the fish landed for
the information of their owners, and there would
be no real difficulty in arranging that copies of
these returns should be made and sent to the
nearest custom-house immediately after the re-
turn of the vessel. Such returns would also state
where the vessels making them had been fishing.
And monthly or even yearly returns might also
be furnished, giving particulars as to the vessel
and its equipment and crew; all these returns

240 BRITISH FISHERIES

could be treated as confidential, and published
only in abstract. There could be no reasonable
objection on the part of the fishing trade to
furnish this information, unless, as has been
pointed out, a certain reserve usually observed
by a man when his income exceeds a certain
figure, might encourage him to evade making
fishery returns. The evolution of a system
applying only to fishing vessels of the first and
second classes could not possibly present any
difficulty. To take account of the numerous
class of fishermen who work along the shore
would be more difficult, but even here there
is no obstacle which could not be surmounted.
At present the officers of a local fishery com-
mittee, in a district where administration is not
a farce, know personally every fisherman in their
area, and have exceptional opportunities for super-
vising the work of such a system of fisheries
correspondents as exists on the Scottish coast.
For both these methods of obtaining statistical
returns statutory powers would be required. It
should be obligatory on every fisherman to make
a return, when required, giving the information
alluded to above. Such statutory powers are
actually enjoyed by the Scottish Fishery Board.’

Now, it was confidently expected that, when the
Inter-departmental Committee on Fishery Statistics
reported, a recommendation suggesting the re-

1 They are, however, seldom exercised.

FISHERY STATISTICS 241

organisation of the official system on such lines as
I have indicated would be made. This, however,
was not the case. The Committee in their report
suggest that the general evidence deprecated the
adoption of compulsory powers —a_ conclusion
which few readers who study the evidence will
arrive at. ‘The organisation of a scheme founded
on compulsory powers ‘would have entailed no
little trouble, and an Act of Parliament would have
been necessary. It is probable, then, that the
general inertia of a Government department pro-
vided the reason why the recommendations of the
Committee should have presented absolutely no
originality. It isalso probable that the Committee
paid too much attention to the considerations sug-
gested in the following questions and answers :—?

“Question 161. (Mr _ Bence-“fones) You do
not think you will get from these captains what
you get very often from farmers in the agricultural
returns—‘ Ask my grandmother’ is not an un-
common answer ?—(Mr G. L. Alward) I am
just expecting you will meet with the same results.
I have always stated that this* must be compulsory ;
but at the same time I hope the Board will deal
with it, if they do get legislation, gingerly, and so
get the people to work into it properly.

“Question 162. Would not such compulsory

1 Report of the Inter-dept. Committee on Fisherv Statistics, p. 7,
Evidence.

2 Returns of fish caught, etc. 2
1

242 BRITISH FISHERIES

legislation be very unpopular: would itjnot lose
the Government a considerable number of seats ?—
That is for the Government of the time being to
consider.”

The report of this Committee, then, left the
question of the fishery statistics in almost exactly
the same state as it was. No new plan was re-
commended ; no further powers have been sought
from Parliament ; and no further resources have
been given the local committees to obtain statistics,
either for the Board or for themselves. The old
system was maintained, except that additional
attention is being paid to: two or three large ports
on the east coast of England. Whereas, before
1902, about {7004 year was paid to the collectors,
after that date about {1400 has been paid. But
it was also recommended that an additional £1000
a year be provided, to enable the Board to under-
take the supervision of the persons collecting the
statistics.

It has been observed that the official fishery
statistics—and, I may add, the changes and reforms
of the central English administration—are de-
scribed by the French phrase, “‘ Plus ¢a change,
plus c’est la méme chose.”

CHAPTER XIV
THE IMPOVERISHMENT OF THE FISHING GROUNDS

Tus is the fundamental problem of sea-fisheries
administration, for upon its answer depends the
further question of the practical utility of restric-
tions on methods and seasons of sea-fishing. If
the fishing grounds in the seas of the British Islands
are, for all practical purposes, capable of much
more extensive exploitation than they undergo at
present, then it is useless to regulate the forms and
dimensions of fishing apparatus, the sizes at which
sea-fish may be captured and sold, the times at
which they may be taken, etc. If, on the other
hand, it is possible by excessive fishing so to
impoverish these fishing grounds that they may
become unprofitable to the fishermen, then some
degree of regulation is necessary. It must clearly
be understood, however, that in any case regulations
of a police nature are necessary, so as to ensure
safety of navigation on crowded fishing grounds,
and to prevent unwarrantable interference of one
class of fisherman with the operations of another.

243

244 BRITISH FISHERIES

Now, it might be expected that a question of
this nature is so important, that no pains would be
spared to acquire such information as would answer
it in such a manner as to leave no reasonable excuse
for doubt. But owing to the lack of investigation
on a sufficiently large scale, and, above all, to want
of accurate and copious fishery statistics, there is
still some doubt as to whether the fisheries of the
British Islands are deteriorating or otherwise, and
opinions are expressed on both sides. Generally
speaking, there is a consensus of opinion in this
country that the commercial development of the
sea-fisheries has reached such a point as to justify
legislative restrictions on the methods of the in-
dustry. This was not always the view that was
held in England and Scotland. Forty years ago
very optimistic opinions were expressed, and it
was owing largely to the influence of Huxley!
that these opinions were widely held, and _pro-
duced a reaction against restrictive fishery legisla-
tion which resulted in the freeing of the industry
from all laws except such as were absolutely
necessary in the interest of the maintenance of
order among fishermen at sea. Then, when the
great modern development of steam trawling took
place,” it became apparent that “man was tread-
ing too closely upon the supply,” and legislative

1 “Tnaugural Address,” Fisheries Literature, International Fisheries
Exhibition, London, 1883.
2 Between 1885 and 1893.

IMPOVERISHMENT OF THE GROUNDS 245

restrictions were revised. And though some
investigators, whose views carry much weight,!
express a different opinion, this may be said to
be the generally accepted position. I am speaking
just now of British opinion. On the Continent,
particularly in Germany, Denmark, and Norway,
fisheries investigators preserve generally a neutral
attitude. In Germany, this may be due to the fact
that, at the time when British administrators were
calling for international regulation of the North
Sea fisheries, the German fishing marine was largely
undeveloped, and it was felt that international
restrictive legislation would hamper this develop-
ment of the national deep-sea fishing industry.

It is well known that the deterioration of the
fishing grounds was a very common cry in the past,
and it would be an unprofitable inquiry to trace
the numerous representations of a decaying state
of the fisheries and the necessity for restrictive or
prohibitive legislation that have been made for
several centuries. It is most convenient to begin
with the great Commission of 1863. This inquiry
was held at a time when, owing to the spread of
trawl fishing, this complaint of the impoverish-
ment of the fisheries was made very seriously.
The Royal Commission of 1863, as we have seen,
decided that this complaint was entirely without
foundation. The fisheries were not deteriorating,
but, on the contrary, were capable of development

1 See M‘Intosh, Resources of the Sea.

246 BRITISH FISHERIES

to an extent which could not be foreseen. Gener-
ally speaking, the Commissioners based this opinion
on three distinct lines of evidence :—

1. The statistics available at the time. These
were not very abundant or enlightening ; but the
returns furnished by the leading railway companies
for the three years (1862-64) preceding the
report of the Commission showed that there was
a well-marked increase in the quantity of fish
carried from the principal fishing ports. The
statistics of the Scottish herring fisheries showed
also that for a period of twenty-five years the
quantity of herrings cured and exported had, on
the whole, increased. There was also an increase
in the quantity of the same fish sold in a fresh
condition. So far, then, as statistical information
went, there was no room for apprehension.

2. The prices of fish in certain public markets
during a period of ten years. If the prices main-
tained the same general level, it was clear that the
supply was keeping pace with the demand. On
the whole, the prices were fairly constant, and
since the demand had steadily increased, owing to
a growing population and increasing means of
transport, it was evident that the supply, too, was
steadily increasing.

3. What we may call an @ priori argument.
This is less clearly expressed in the report of the
1863 Commission than in the report of one held
a year or two before that date, but it is to be

IMPOVERISHMENT OF THE GROUNDS 247

traced in the general tenor of the report. It does
not follow that the fish population of the sea
should diminish to a serious extent, in spite of
the enormous quantities of fish captured in fishing
operations. For the area of the sea is so vast,
its population so enormous, and the destructive.
agencies at work in nature, irrespective of the
fisherman, are so great, that the operations of man
in reducing this population are quite insignificant.

All three lines of evidence tended to show that
fishing operations, as they were carried on at the time,
could not result in the deterioration of the fishing
grounds.

The report of the Royal Commission of 1863
was reassuring, and the same is also to be said of
the report of a commission issued by the Home
Secretary (Mr Cross) in 1878. The Trawling
Commission of 1885 was the first inquiry in the
course of which evidence of deterioration was
discovered. The conclusions of this body were
not founded on statistical data. ‘‘In the absence
of a proper system of fishery statistics and scientific
observations,” the Commissioners reported, “it is
impossible to discover the causes, or measure the
fluctuations of the fisheries.” ! The Commissioners
had the assistance, however, of Professor M‘Intosh,
and from the observations of this naturalist, as well
as the general evidence presented, it was apparent
that significant changes had taken place on the

1 Report, Trawling Commission, 1885, p. xliii.

248 BRITISH FISHERIES

fishing grounds. Trawling, because it was a most
effective method of fishing, had had a considerable
effect on the inshore fisheries on certain parts of
the east coasts of England and Scotland. Much
fishing, both by trawls and long-lines, had led to
a scarcity of fish in these waters, and it was then
necessary to go further to sea in order to get good
catches. This change from inshore to offshore
fishing was caused by trawl-fishing. It was sup-
posed to be the case even with round fishes like
haddocks, which we now believe to be so prone to
temporary migrations and changes that it is difficult
to make any safe deductions as to their permanent
abundance. Flat fishes had not apparently decreased
in numbers to a notable extent, but a decrease in
their average size had taken place, and this change
was indicative of their diminished abundance. All
this referred to inshore waters. No change of any
importance (except, perhaps, in the case of soles)
had taken place on the offshore grounds.! :

The next inquiry into the question of fisheries
impoverishment was made by a Select Committee
of the House of Commons in 1893. When the
Trawling Commission reported in 1885, there
were no statistics in existence which might sup-
plement the observations made by Professor
M‘Intosh, which, with the recollections and
impressions of many witnesses, furnished the only
evidence obtainable that commercial trawl-fishing

1 Report, Trawling Commission, 1885, p. xvii.

IMPOVERISHMENT OF THE GROUNDS 249

was making inroads on the resources of the sea.
Apparently the question of fisheries impoverish-
ment could be solved by either of two methods :
(1) by the collection of accurate statistics of the
actual progress of the industry, and (2) by direct
experiment. When the Select Committee of 1893
came to hear evidence, both of these methods
had been adopted. The Sea-Fisheries (Scotland)
Amendment Act of 1885 had given the Scottish
Fishery Board powers, and the Treasury had reluct-
antly given them resources, to make experiments.
About the same time the Board of Trade began
at last to collect fishery statistics, and had already
published a series of statements’ which professed
to give an accurate account of the men and vessels
employed in the English and Welsh fisheries, and of
the quantities and values of the fish caught each year.

The Experimental Evidence

It was concluded by the Trawling Commission
that the excessive use of the beam-trawl as an
instrument of fishing could (temporarily, at least)
reduce both the numbers and the average sizes of
the less migratory fishes on a limited area. The
object of the experiments initiated in 1886 by
the Scottish Fishery Board was to determine
whether or not this was the case, and if it were,
whether such an impoverished ground would
recover if trawl-fishing were prohibited on it for

1 The Statistical Tables and Memoranda.

250 BRITISH FISHERIES

a number of years. Two areas off the east coast
of Scotland—the Firth of Forth and St Andrews
Bay—were therefore “closed ” against commercial
trawl-fishing, and a number of “stations” were
made on each of these areas. Each station was a
line of one or more miles in length laid out on
the chart. At the same time several stations were
chosen outside the closed areas. Once a month
the trawling vessel employed by the Board visited
each station, and the trawl was dragged from one
end of the trawling line to the other. The fishes
caught were counted and measured, and the results
were recorded. It was expected that, since the
stations within the Firth of Forth and St Andrews
Bay were prohibited to the trawlers, while those
outside were open, there would after a time be an
increase of fishes on the inner and protected areas,
and no change, or a decrease, on the stations
outside, which were open to commercial fishing.
Now, the results of the first year’s experiments
were apparently such as to justify these expecta-
tions. It was found? that, both in the Firth
of Forth and in St Andrews Bay, the catches of
flat and round fishes had increased to a considerable
extent. It was almost impossible to avoid the
conclusion that the cessation of trawl-fishing on

1 See the Annual Reports of the Scottish Fishery Board (pt. iii.),
1886 to 1903, for these records. At the same time physical obser-
vations were also made. ‘‘ Tow-nettings” were taken, and biological
work of a most important nature was carried out.

2 Report, Scottish Fishery Board for 1887, pt. iii. p. 25.

IMPOVERISHMENT OF THE GROUNDS 251

these areas had led to a considerable augmentation
of the numbers of fishes inhabiting them.

The results of further experiments, however,
showed that these conclusions were premature,
and the problem was seen to be much less simple
than had been originally supposed. I may antici-
pate, and give the results of the first ten years of
experimental trawling. ‘These results have been
discussed very freely,! but the following statement ”
shows what had, beyond doubt, taken place.
Four species of flat fishes are dealt with, which
are: plaice (Pleuronectes platessa), lemon sole
(Pleuronectes microcephalus), dab (Pleuronectes h-
manda), and long rough dab (Drepanopsetta
(= Hippoglossoides) limanoides). The whole ten-year
period is divided into two quinquennial periods.

Plaice and Dabs and
No. of Hauls. | Lemon Soles} Long Rough
caught. Dabs caught.

First period 325 29,869 19,825
(1886-1890)

Second period 466 28,044. 29,483
(1891-1895)

1 See in particular M‘Intosh, Resources of the Sea, Cambridge
University Press, 1899 ; Banffshire Journal, April-June, 1899, Banff,
1899: a destructive criticism of M‘Intosh; and Garstang, Journal
Marine Biological Association, vol. vi., No. 1, 1900.

2 Fulton, Report, Scottish Fishery Board for 1895 (1896), pt. iii.
p. 25; and Report for 1898, pt. iii. p. 10 (1899).

252 BRITISH FISHERIES

These figures apply to the closed areas only.
They represent large numbers of hauls spread
over a number of stations and over five-yearly
periods, and so accidental flunctuations and minor
inequalities have no effect on the conclusions.
The latter are: (1) During the ten years the
numbers of plaice and lemon soles, both valuable
food-fishes, had decreased to a considerable extent ;
and (2) during the same time, and on the same
grounds, dabs and long rough dabs, both relatively
worthless fishes, had increased to an equally
noticeable extent.

Now, these results are unintelligible unless we
remember some peculiarities in the life-histories
of the two categories of fish. Plaice and lemon
soles are fishes which spawn at some distance
from land and in deep water. Besides, they are
relatively large fishes, and mature individuals, if
they get into a trawl-net, are always captured.
Therefore the mature individuals were captured
on the offshore open grounds by the commercial
trawlers. The shallow inshore waters should have
been replenished from these offshore grounds, and,
because of the increasing exploitation of the latter,
they suffered to the extent indicated by the table.
The dabs and long rough dabs, on the other hand,
spawn to a considerable extent on the shallow
inshore waters, and the latter are replenished from
their own stock. Even on the offshore grounds
many mature dabs escape capture, because they

IMPOVERISHMENT OF THE GROUNDS 253

become mature at a relatively small size, and may
escape the trawl-nets. ‘The inshore waters are
therefore replenished also from the offshore grounds.
Probably, also, the dabs benefit to a greater extent
from protection than the plaice and lemon soles,
because they compete naturally with the latter
species.

The Scottish Fishery Board experiments led,
then, to conclusions entirely different from those
which were anticipated. It was expected that
they would indicate that trawling operated in
reducing the fish population of the area on which
it was practised, and that if it were discontinued,
the population on this area would increase again.
This is most probably the case, and it is very
likely that the immediate increase of flat and
round fishes in the Firth of Forth and St Andrews
Bay did actually prove it. But what the whole
series of trawling experiments did prove was in
all probability this: that the continual and grow-
ing exploitation of the offshore fishing grounds
was producing a certain impoverishment of the
inshore fisheries; and that the trawl-fishing of
the ten years during which the experiments were
carried on had rendered the sea less productive
than was formerly the case.

It is as well to point out that this method of
experimental trawling had serious limitations. It
was thought at one time that, by making periodical
hauls with a trawl-net on a portion of a fishing

254 BRITISH FISHERIES

ground, the changes taking place in the abund-
ance of fishes on the latter could be estimated ;
that is, that the fishes caught in a haul taken
on an area of, say, 100 square miles in extent
were a sample of all those actually present. Now,
such a trawl-net as has been commonly used
in these investigations sweeps a portion of the
sea-bottom of two or three miles long at the
most, and about twenty-five feet wide. This is
only a very small fraction of the whole area,
and if we are to regard the catch made as a
fair sample of the whole, we must assume that the
fishes present are uniformly scattered over the
whole area. But experiment shows that this is
far from being the case.! Again, a trawl-net as an
instrument of research is far from being perfect.
What it does catch does not depend alone on the
quantity of the fish actually present on the fishing
ground on which it is used, but also to a great
extent on the exact construction and “trim” of
the net, on the state of wind and tide, on the skill
of the fisherman using the net, and on a variety
of circumstances well known to fishermen, but
generally neglected by those who have adopted the
method in the past. Subsequent manipulation of
the results obtained by statistical methods will
obviously not render them of any more real value,
if the data themselves are of such questionable

1 Johnstone, Report Lancashire Fisheries Laboratory for 1902;
p. 83.

IMPOVERISHMENT OF THE GROUNDS 255

value.'| In order to obtain results of real value by
the application of such a method, a large trawl-
net fished for several hours must be employed, and
the results obtained can apply only to a com-
paratively limited area, and conclusions can only
be drawn from the averages yielded by a great
number of such trawling experiments spread over
several years, and even then the conclusions can
only be of the most general character. The useful
limits of the method are indicated by the results of
the series of trawling experiments of the Scottish
Fishery Board to which I have alluded above.
Only a small area, such as the Firth of Forth, could
successfully be investigated. ‘To attempt to estimate
the productivity of such an area as the Irish Sea, or
even of one of the fishing banks in the North Sea,
by means of trawling experiments made by a single
vessel would probably be quite impracticable.

The Statistical Evidence

So far as it goes, then, the evidence deducible
from trawling experiments points to a distinct

1 Trawling statistics are sometimes corrected without due regard
being paid to the method of working of a trawl-net. See Sixteenth
Report of Inspectors of Fisheries for England and Wales, for 1902.
It is there attempted to compare the result of a haul of a trawl-net
made over (say) three miles of sea-bottom with one made over
one mile. This is the correction: A trawl will catch three
times as many fish in a three-miles drag as it will catch in a one-
mile drag. This is not the case, however, as any experienced
fisherman will know ; for as the net becomes full of fish, weeds, etc., it
becomes choked up and does not fish nearly so well as it did at first.

256 BRITISH FISHERIES

falling off in the yield of the British sea-fisheries
in respect of the less migratory flat fishes ; and the
same can be said of the evidence quite unsupported
by figures of any kind, and consisting only of the
recollections and impressions of persons who had
been interested in the sea-fisheries for a consider-
able time. All this evidence (I am speaking now
of that submitted before the two most recent
fishery inquiries—the Select Committees of 1893
and 1900) pointed to the same conclusion, that
there had been a distinct degree of depletion of the
fishing grounds. “All persons interested in the
fisheries, whether trawlers or linesmen, whether
smack-owners or fishermen, whether scientific
experts or statisticians,” agreed that ‘a consider-
able diminution has occurred amongst the more
valuable classes of flat fish, especially among soles
and plaice, and this diminution must be attributed
to over-fishing by trawlers in certain localities.” *

Now, taking the information given by statistics,
a study of the various official reports shows that the
great extent of the change which converted the fish-
ing fleet of the time of Huxley and the 1863 Com-
mission into that of to-day, took place in the interval
between 1893 and 1900. Several changes of great
significance had taken place, and a detailed study of
these is of much importance for a correct apprecia-
tion of the present state of the fishing industry.

1. The number of steam vessels employed in

1 Report, Select Committee, 1893, p. iv.

IMPOVERISHMENT OF THE GROUNDS 257

fishing has increased to a very great extent. Not
only has steam power been employed as the means
of propulsion, but even on many of the sailing
smacks steam power has been introduced for the
purpose of hauling the nets and hoisting the sails.
These changes, and a further one—the greatly
extended use of “carriers,” vessels which visit the
fishing grounds and convey the catch from the
fleet back to harbour—have added enormously to
the catching power of the British fishing marine.
One steam trawler at the present day may be
regarded as the equivalent, so far as the power of
catching fish goes, of seven or eight sailing smacks.

2. There has been no corresponding increase
in the number of sailing vessels. On the contrary,
these are steadily decreasing. As they become worn
out or obsolete, they are not replaced by vessels of
the same class, but by steam trawlers. Where sail-
ing fishing vessels are being built, they are usually
of a larger tonnage than the older type of boat.

3. Trawling is taking the place of lining as a
method of catching fish. This change is much
more perceptible in the Scottish statistics than in
those which apply to England."

[These changes indicate the increasing con-
centration and specialisation which is taking place
in the sea-fishing industry. Formerly the small
fishing villages were much more important than
they are to-day, and the old-time fisherman

1 See Report, Scottish Fishery Board for 1902, pt. i. p. ix.
17

258 BRITISH FISHERIES

engaged in each method of fishing as circum-
stances and seasons made it profitable or convenient.
Thus he might reap the harvest of the year in the
herring fishery, and for the remainder of the year
he would be engaged in line fishing. At the
present day the fisherman is usually a specialist.
He is either a herring fisherman, a trawler, a liner,
or he pursues more or less exclusively one of the
other branches of sea-fishing. As for the small
villages, these are fast losing their former import-
ance, and fishing is becoming concentrated in the
large centres, like Grimsby, Hull, Aberdeen,
Milford, or Fleetwood, where harbour and market
accommodation are good, and there are abundant
means of transport, so that fish can reach the great
inland centres in a very short time. Formerly the
fishing boat was, in most cases, owned by the men
who sailed her. At the present time, though many
fishermen own at least a part share in the vessel
they sail, many of the sailing vessels and practically
all the steamers are owned by large fishing com-
panies. In the course of the last thirty years the
fishing industry has undergone the characteristic
commercial developments of the age—capitalisation,
concentration, and specialisation. Apparently these
processes are not at anend. Already there are indi-
cations of market “rings,” and a great fishing trust
is by no means an inconceivable development. |

4. The area exploited by the fishing fleets has
widened very greatly. Long ago, fishing was con-

IMPOVERISHMENT OF THE GROUNDS 259

fined practically to a narrow coastal region, not
much exceeding, if at all, our present territorial
water margin. Then deep-sea fishing was prac-
tised, and about the beginning of the sixties the
greater part of the North Sea had been fished over.
In the interval under consideration fishing vessels
have gone much further afield. Every portion of
the North Sea has been fished; not a foot of its
bottom, it has been said, has not felt the fisher-
man’s sounding lead, trying for suitable trawling
ground. At the present day steam vessels go
round the Shetland Islands to the westward, as
far north as the coast of Iceland and the Feroe
Islands, and as far south as the coasts of Portugal.

5. The last and most significant change, or
rather want of change, affects the quantity of fish
landed. This has increased, of course ; but when
one remembers the enormous increase in the
machinery for capture represented by the great
extension of steam fishing, the rapid improvement
of steam and sailing vessels, the improvement in
fishing apparatus, such as the introduction of the
“otter” trawl, it is very surprising that the increase
in the quantity of fish caught should be so slight.

The changes in the numbers and composition of
the fishing fleet are represented in the following
table :—1?

1 Rept. Sel. Comm., 1893, p. 378; Luspectors’ Report (England and
Wales) for 1902, p. 9; Rept. Sel. Comm. Sea-Fisheries Bill (H.L.),
1904, P. 157.

260 BRITISH FISHERIES

England and Wales

No. of Sailing
Fishing Vessels
(1st and 2nd class).

: No. of Steam Average
Pena: Fishing Vessels. | Tonnage.

1883 181 30°8 8443
1893 564 39°6 7369
1902 1373 56°3 5887

This shows clearly the increase in the numbers
and tonnage of the steamers, and the decrease in
the numbers of sailing fishing vessels.

It is not possible to obtain statistics of the total
quantities of fish landed in England and Wales
earlier than for 1886. The changes taking place
since then are shown below :—!

England and Wales

‘ Average Quantity of Fish landed
Period, (exclusive of shell-fish) per year.

1886-8 6,263,328 cwts.
1890-2 6,184,135 ”
1900-2 9,242,425 5,

1 Rept. Sel. Comm., 1893, for the periods 1886-8 and 1890-2, and
Statistical Tables and Memoranda for 1900-2.

IMPOVERISHMENT OF THE GROUNDS 261

There was, therefore, an actual decrease in the
total quantity of fish landed in the interval between
1886-8 and 1890-2. It is true that a great
increase took place between 1890-2 and 1901-3,
but comparison between these figures and those
representing the numbers of fishing vessels em-
ployed will show that this increase in the quantity
of fish landed is not proportional to the fishing
power expended.

The average price of fish landed during the same
period is shown in the following statement :—1

Period. Average Price of all Fish per cwt.
1886-8 12s. 2d.

1890-2 14s. 64d.

1900-2 148. 33d.

The several relations between the total quantity
of fish caught and the means employed in catching
it is best understood by considering the average
catch per vessel employed in the fisheries. This
is a method first adopted by Fulton, who showed
in 1891” that a great expansion of the Scottish
fisheries had taken place, and that this increase

1 Rept. Sel. Comm., 1893, for the periods 1886-8 and 1890-2, and
Statistical Tables and Memoranda for 1901-3.
2 Rept. Scottish Fishery Board for 1891, pt. ili. p. 171.

262 BRITISH FISHERIES

in men and matériel was not accompanied by a
marked increase in the quantity of fish caught. A
much more complete investigation of the same
relationship was made by the same writer in 1900,
and was submitted in evidence to the Select Com-
mittee of 1go0.1 In this calculation the flat
fishes, turbot, halibut, lemon sole, flounder, plaice,
and brill only were considered. The number of
steam trawlers registered out of Scottish ports
was known, as well as the total quantity of flat
fishes landed annually by them. If, then, these
annual total quantities of fish are divided by the
number of vessels catching them, results are obtained
which express the average quantities of flat fish
caught by each vessel employed. This relationship
will be easily understood on reference to the chart
which I have constructed from Fulton’s figures.
Only the total quantities of flat fishes captured
are considered in the chart. Much the same
results would be obtained, whether we consider
turbot, lemon sole, or “ flounder, plaice, and brill.”
The chart shows clearly that the catching power
(number of steam trawlers) increased up to 1892,
then for four years was practically stationary, and
from 1896 to 1899 rose very rapidly. It will be
seen, too, that, in spite of this increase in the catch-
ing power, the total catch of fish remained much
the same, and only increased in a slight degree
towards the end of the period. On the other

1 Rept. Sel. Comm., 1900, p- 148.

IMPOVERISHMENT OF THE GROUNDS 263

hand, the average catch per trawler has, on the
whole, fallen, except for the years 1895 and 1896,

THICK LINE: total quantity of fish caught; numbers
200 represent hundreds of tons.

_ THIN LINE: numbersof steam trawlers.

DOTTED LINE: averagg catch of fish ber yeor per
180 trawler ; numbers represent ton

of fish caught.

1890 1891 1892 1895 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899

Scottish Flat Fish Trawl Fisheries: Chart to show the Relation between the
Total Flat Fish caught and the Means of Capture.

when the otter-trawl came to be generally used,
and, by its great superiority over the old beam-

264 BRITISH FISHERIES

trawl, increased the catch of fish for the time. If
we consider the catch of halibut for each of these
ten years we shall find it to differ strikingly from
that of the other fishes; instead of remaining
practically the same throughout the period, the
total catch of halibut rose from 44 cwt. in 1890
to 2746 cwt. in 1899, and the average annual
_catch per trawler rose also from 1 cwt. in 1890
to 13 cwt. in 1899. This is accounted for very
easily. During the period 1890-99 the steam
fishing fleet of Scotland were gradually opening up
new ground to the north in colder and deeper
water. The halibut is a deep-water fish, so was
caught in greater numbers as the fishing fleet
came to frequent the water forming its character-
istic habitat.

Exactly the same results were obtained by
Garstang’ from a consideration of the statistics
of the English bottom sea-fisheries. The total
quantities of fish caught annually during the period
1889-98 were divided by the numbers of fishing
vessels employed (reduced to a common standard) :
it was found that one steamer was equal in catching
power to from four to seven smacks, according to the
year taken into consideration. ‘The whole fishing
fleet, steam trawlers and liners included, was then
reckoned up as so many “ smack-units.” Garstang’s
results are represented graphically on the chart.

In this case also it is seen (1) that the fishing

1 Journal, Marine Biological Association, vol. vi. No. 1, 1900.

265

IMPOVERISHMENT OF THE GROUNDS

power gradually increased during the ten years

‘ainjdes jo suvayy ay} pue
WYSneo YsyyT ay} uaaMjoq UoNepY ay} Surmoys peyD :soyeAA pus puelsug jo savaysiy our] puv [MeL],

9691 2681 968) c6gr = $681 s6g1 = 26g | 1631 o681 6981

"SaYSl} [JD foSuo, jo Spuvsnou}
juaseida, Saaquinu ‘jlun ysDus aed
avak seq ysi} JO yDjp2 abyleav :3N17 G3.1Lod
“Spaapuny juasaadas Saaquinu $spiun yoDWS Jo StaqUINU 2 3NI1 NIHL
‘SUOL jo SpUDSNOU} 40
Sua}, jpuasaideai Saaquinu ‘Siaul|
pun Saajmval Aq YSI} JO YD4D> JOJO} > ANITHIIHL

0°

08

(2) that the total quantity of fish

caught increased also, though not to a great extent ;

.
?

considered

266 BRITISH FISHERIES

and (3) all the time the average catch per vessel
gradually fell.

Now, is this a good method? Such a question
brings us to the consideration of what is meant by
the term “ fisheries impoverishment.”

The total quantity of fish landed on the shores of the
British Islands may remain stationary during a series of
years, or it may actually decrease. If the population
during that time had increased, and if the demand
for fish food had been maintained, we should have
“fisheries impoverishment ” from the public (the
consumer’s) point of view. But from the point of
view of the fisherman or the fish-merchant there
might be no impoverishment, for it might have
happened that no more, or even fewer, vessels had
been engaged in the industry during the period in
question.

The quantity of fish actually present on the fishing
grounds of the British Islands ts less now than it was
thirty or forty years ago. Therefore it is harder to
make a good catch. Vessels have to go further
afield ; they become larger and more powerful ;
they have to employ heavier and more effective
fishing gear. This is what the fishermen under-
stand by “fisheries impoverishment,” and it is the
proper meaning of the term.

But is the average catch per vessel a test of the
existence or degree of such impoverishment? It
is necessary to point out, in the first place, that the
statistics of English fisheries, both of the number,

IMPOVERISHMENT OF THE GROUNDS 267

the classification, and the fishing capacity of fishing
vessels, and of the total quantities of fish landed,
are so imperfect that all deductions made from
them are more or less uncertain. Then the area
over which fishing is carried on has changed so
much that this introduces a further element of
uncertainty." It may be said, too, that it is an
imaginary vessel which makes the decreasing
average catch. But Garstang ® gives also the actual
catches made by four Grimsby trawling smacks
from 1875 to 1892, and in each of these cases the
annual catch has decreased, with but few fluctuations,
during the period under consideration.

It has been contended, however, by the Inspec-
tors of Fisheries? that the above treatment of the
problem involves a fallacy. “‘ A knowledge merely
of the total quantity of fish landed is not sufficient
to enable us to arrive at any trustworthy conclusion
regarding the condition of the fisheries. On the
other hand, care must be taken to avoid the
opposite error of thinking that the fisheries are
becoming depleted if the increase in the quantity
of fish landed does not keep pace with the powers
of capture; . . . for unless the supply of fish in the

1 Tf the area widens it is an indication, however, of impoverishment,
for it means that the older fishing area is becoming unprofitable ;
else trawlers would not expend time and stores in going farther to
catch fish.

2 Journ. Mar. Biol. Association, vol. vi. No. 1, p. 65, 1900.

3 Fifteenth Annual Report, Inspectors of Fisheries (England and
Wales), for 1900, p. 5.

268 BRITISH FISHERIES

sea is unlimited, there must be a point at which
the quantity taken by each boat would be affected
by the number of boats fishing ; and a decrease in
the annual average take per boat might, therefore,
be due simply to the catch of fish being distributed
among a larger number of boats, and not to any
depletion of the fishing grounds.” With this
observation the Inspectors apparently dismiss the
subject without further investigation. It seems
quite clear that some confusion of thought
exists here. The supply of fish in the sea is not
unlimited, but bears a proportion, which we are
beginning to know, to the means of capture. And
if the quantity of fish taken by each boat is affected
by the number of other boats fishing, it surely
means that between them they have made fish on
the sea-bottom less abundant. If a boat (either
steam trawler or smack) catches fewer fish in the
course of the year,’ it can mean nothing else than
this, that on the portion of sea-bottom swept by her
trawl-net there are fewer fish now than was formerly
the case. That is, the density of fish per unit of
area of the North Sea fishing grounds is less
now than it was thirty years ago. This is a real
impoverishment of the fishing grounds.

Now, how may this impoverishment have
occurred? There are three ways :—

1 Provided her fishing apparatus is as effective and she has made
as many voyages as formerly. We know that these conditions have
been satisfied.

IMPOVERISHMENT OF THE GROUNDS 269

1. By the fishing out of an accumulated stock. At
one time the great extent of the North Sea was
virgin fishing ground. When it was first fished
large catches were made: a great weight of fish
were secured, because not only were they more
numerous, but they were also larger. When the
Iceland fishing grounds were first opened up this
was the case. Very large plaice were numerous
there.

2. By simple overfishing. It is possible by
ordinary methods of agriculture to raise only a
limited quantity of produce from a certain area
of agricultural land. So with the sea. There is a
definite quantity of ultimate food-material in it per
square mile (say), and on this depends the number
of fish that area can raise.' We may fish up to
this limit, but if we go beyond it the area becomes
impoverished.

3. By the destruction of fish eggs, larva, and immature
fishes. It is well known that large numbers of
spawning fishes are annually captured. The spawn
which these animals were producing or would
shortly have produced represents potential fishes,
and is lost. By the capture of immature forms,
fishes are destroyed before they have had time to
reproduce. Further, they are caught at a time
when their weight is small.

All three causes have probably operated in the

1 I do not mean that a fish necessarily confines itself to one square
mile of sea-bottom.

270 BRITISH FISHERIES

past. It would take far too long to examine the
first two at length, but it is the last which is
commonly regarded as the great cause of fisheries
impoverishment, and I propose considering it
later on in some detail.

It is well to remember that we have been discuss-
ing fisheries impoverishment in relation to certain
species of fish only. Soles, turbot, and plaice have
undoubtedly suffered through the operation of the
causes to which I have referred ; but it is no less
clear that there are a number of other species of fish
with regard to the supply of which we can trace
no continued decrease. Such fish are the herring,
the cod, whiting, haddock, and some others. In
certain places the abundance of these fishes may
undergo large fluctuation, but in such cases ex-
perience has usually shown that such changes
are temporary. When we speak, then, of the
impoverishment of the national fisheries, it should
be remembered that we refer only to the reduction
in the general fish-supply on the fishing grounds
which results from the decreased abundance of the

flat fishes only.

CHAPTER XV

THE DESTRUCTION OF IMMATURE FISH: THE
FISHERIES BILL OF 1904

TuaT the capture and destruction of immature
fish should inflict permanent damage on the sea-
fisheries is a conclusion which anyone who wit-
nesses, for the first time, a drag with a shrimp
trawl on a thickly populated fishing ground, or a
haul with a sprat or whitebait net, must almost
inevitably arrive at. In each of these methods of
fishing (as in many others) an enormous number
of young fishes are caught and destroyed. When
one realises that all these animals are killed before
they have the opportunity of reproducing their
kind, and that the same destruction is going on
almost continually all round the coast, the above
conclusion appears perfectly sound, and indeed is
almost irresistible. ‘Nothing can seem more
consonant to reason, or more necessary @ pruri,
than that the supply of any kind of fish should
be permanently diminished by this great and
constant destruction of breeding fish, or of their

271

272 BRITISH FISHERIES

young fry; and yet nothing is more certain than
that, in many cases, this apparent necessity does
not exist.”’?

In some form or another this subject has almost
continually been discussed since fisheries adminis-
tration became a public duty. It has constantly
been maintained in many quarters that the destruc-
tion of immature fishes was a great evil, and
nothing has been a more fertile subject of dis-
cussion and legislation. Long before modern
administration began, complaints that the capture of
fry was damaging the fish-supply were commonly
made, and, in many cases, led to regulations. The
matter was one of the subjects for inquiry which
were referred to the Royal Commission of 1863,
and again to the Commission of 1878. Each of
these bodies came to the conclusion that the harm
done to the fisheries had been greatly exaggerated,
and they deprecated any legislation which pro-
posed to minimise or restrict the practice. It was
not until the great expansion of the sea-fishing
industry in the interval between 1885 and 1893
(when the conditions under which fishing was
carried on had changed greatly), that there was a
general consensus of opinion as to the harmful
effects of the capture of young fish. An un-
doubted diminution in the supply of certain kinds
of sea-fish had taken place, and it became very evi-
dent that this was due, partly at least, to the increas-

1 Royal Commission on Sea-Fisheries of 1863: Report.

DESTRUCTION OF IMMATURE FISH 273

ing capture of fish fry and young forms. When
this became generally admitted, an agitation for
regulations designed to minimise the practice was
entered on, and various Bills were promoted, having
for their object the imposition of a statutory prohi-
bition on the landing of fishes of certain specified
kinds, under certain minimum standards of length.
So far none of these Bills have passed into law.
When the local regulation of the fisheries began
in England, however, a considerable number of
regulations were made, all of which had for their
object the total prohibition, or the restriction, of
certain methods of fishing which were responsible
for the destruction of young fish (using the latter
term in its widest signification, and taking it to
include not only the true fishes, but also molluscs
and crustaceans).

The term “immature”? has been used in a
variety of senses in connection with this subject.
In the strict sense, it indicates that the fish or
other animal to which it is applied has not yet
attained the condition of sexual maturity, that is,
that it is incapable of producing ripe eggs, if it is
a female, or ripe spermatozoa if it is a male. In
the course of its life-history a marine animal
generally passes through several distinct phases of
development. These are :—

1. The embryonic phase, when it is still under-
going development within an egg-capsule or in

the body of the parent ;
18

274. BRITISH FISHERIES

2. The larval phase, which lasts from the end
of the embryonic period until the time when the
“* metamorphosis” has been completed ;

3. The period of juvenescence, lasting until the
reproductive organs have been matured ; and

4. The period of sexual maturity.

In most cases the limits of all these phases have
been determined. Thus, the embryonic period of
the plaice is about 14 to 18 days; the larval
period lasts from the time of hatching until the
little fish is about six weeks old; and the con-
dition of sexual maturity is only attained during
the third or fourth year, when the fish has reached
an average length of about 15 inches. Turbot be-
come mature when they are about 18 inches long,
brill at about 15 inches, soles at about 12, cod
about 30, haddock about 12, and whiting about 9.
But these sizes at sexual maturity vary within rather
wide limits: thus, mature plaice are smaller in
Danish waters (the Cattegat, for instance) than in
the English Channel, and smaller again in the
latter area than in some parts of the North
Sea. Local conditions will influence the sizes
at which sexual maturity is attained to a very
considerable extent, and the determination of the
latter must be carried out for each particular
locality.’

1 See Fulton, Report, Scottish Fishery Board for 1889, part iii.
p. 157, for the first attempt at the determination of the spawning sizes
of fishes.

DESTRUCTION OF IMMATURE FISH 275

But it generally happens that a fish becomes
large enough to be marketable before it has
attained sexual maturity. Codling, which are
only young cod, are large enough to be sold for
food when they are only about 10 inches long, and
plaice of 8 to ro inches in length may very
- easily command a ready market. Certain trade
standards become established in different places,
and fish may be classified with reference to these
rather than to their biological conditions. In the
language of the markets, fish may be “large,”
“medium” or “sizeable,” and “ small,’” command-
ing, in each case, different prices, and those which
are too small to obtain ready sale may be called
“undersized”? or “immature.” Then if legal
standards of size exist, as in the cases of the
mussel, cockle, or oyster among shell-fish, or are
proposed in restrictive legislation, all fish below
these legal minimum sizes may again be termed
“undersized ” or “immature.” Thus, if the Bill
of 1900, which proposed limits of ro inches for
turbot and brill, and 8 inches for plaice and soles,
had become law, all fish of the kinds mentioned
under those sizes would have been called
“immature,” and the popular significance of the
term would have related to the legal, rather
than to the biological, standard. Marketable and
biological size-limits may, but generally do not,
coincide. Cockles, mussels, and oysters, for
instance, become sexually mature at sizes lower

276 BRITISH FISHERIES

than those which are fixed by law ; but most kinds
of sea-fish are marketable before they have attained
the biological lower limit of maturity.

Nearly every method of sea-fishing involves
the capture and destruction of immature fish, and
I can only allude very briefly to those which are
more noteworthy. Sprat and whitebait fishing
are, no doubt, responsible for the greatest absolute
destruction, though it is probable that neither
method is so wasteful as several other modes of
fishing. Fishing for sprats and whitebait is carried
on at different parts of the British coasts, but the
fisheries in the Thames, the Firth of Forth, and
the Solway are the most important. ‘“‘ Bag-nets”
or ‘“‘stow-nets” of peculiar construction, and
often of enormous size, are used in the Thames,
while large seine-nets with small meshes are used
in the Forth. The catch made with such nets
consists of a mixture, in varying proportions, of
sprats and herrings, with occasionally other small
fishes. These two species, the sprat and the
herring,! were confused with one another for a
long time, for, though it was well known that
they were distinct fishes, no attempt was made to
analyse what is called “whitebait” until 1861,
when a committee” of the Scottish Fishery Board
made an investigation of the subject. This was
repeated at a later date, and the results of the

1 Clupea sprattus and Clupea harenga respectively.
2 Vice-Admiral Dundas and (then) Dr Lyon Playfair.

DESTRUCTION OF IMMATURE FISH 277

investigations! made showed that the proportion
of young herrings present varied from 1 per cent.
to about 20 per cent., sprats forming the bulk of
the total fishes caught. An estimate was made of
the extent of the fishing in the Firth of Forth,
the Firth of Tay, and the Moray Firth during
a single winter (1882-3), and it was found that
over 143 millions of young herrings had been
caught, in addition to a much greater quantity
of sprats. Most of this bulk of fish was used as
manure. It is only in respect of the herrings
caught that we can speak of whitebait fishing
as destroying immature fishes. The sprat is a
fully developed and mature animal, though its
average size is not much over three inches. The
herrings caught are, of course, all immature.
Trawl-fishing is also a most effectual method
for capturing immature fishes, particularly in
shallow inshore waters, which in most places are
the chosen haunts of these animals. Inshore
trawling by small sailing boats is responsible for
a great amount of such capture and destruction ;
but even in what is called deep-sea trawling, which
is prosecuted far out at sea, a large proportion of
the fish caught are not sexually mature. Attention,
in recent years, has been mainly focussed on the
destruction of immature flat fish on a certain area
of the North Sea off the coasts of Denmark,
Germany, and Holland, where the water is

1 Matthews, Rept. Scottish Fishery Board for 1883, p. 60.

278 BRITISH FISHERIES

relatively shallow, and where great numbers of
young plaice, brill, turbot, soles, and other fishes
are to be found. The physical conditions of the
area—depth, nature of bottom, temperature, pre-
vailing tidal drift, etc.—render it eminently suit-
able as a habitat for these young fishes. It is,
in fact, a fish-nursery on a large scale, and
although adult fish are to be found on it, the
characteristic fish population is an immature one.
For a number of years this area has been ex-
ploited by English sailing and steam trawlers, for
reasons that are rather obscure. It appears,
however, that the skipper of a trawler might be
unfortunate in securing a good “voyage of fish”
on his ordinary fishing grounds, and though he
could rely only on obtaining fish of small size,
and therefore of little marketable value, on these
“Eastern Grounds,” yet it would be preferable
to return with a large catch of these, rather than
to come back with a relatively empty fish-hold.
Then a few large fish would be caught, and these
would enhance the value of his catch. It is very
difficult, in the absence of reliable statistics, to
obtain any definite idea of the amount of de-
struction of young flat fishes on this area, but
the returns from the Billingsgate fish-market give
some kind of idea of the magnitude of the practice.
In 1896, 368 tons of small fish were seized by
the officials of the Fishmongers’ Company as un-
saleable, and were sold as manure, destroyed, or

DESTRUCTION OF IMMATURE FISH 279

otherwise disposed of. In 1897, 143, and in
1898, g2 tons were dealt with in a similar manner.
When it did sell, very small prices were obtained
for this class of fish. In June 1896, an average
price of ts. for ten “trunks” of plaice was
obtained, as compared with a price of 28s. per
trunk for good-sized fish of the same kind. Such
boxes of small fish generally contained a few
larger specimens, and it was apparently for the
sake of these that the fish were captured and sold,
the rest of the contents acting only as a kind of
“make-weight.” These figures represent only a
small proportion of the small fish actually landed
in England, to say nothing of those landed at
Continental ports.’

Even in ordinary trawling, with the object of
obtaining fair-sized fish, large numbers of im-
mature fish are landed. Thus Holt gives an
estimate of the numbers of mature and immature
plaice landed at Grimsby alone in the year April
1893—March 1894. His figures are :—?#

Mature plaice ‘ : ‘ 7,084,560
Immature plaice. : : 9,166,240

or, classifying the fish in another way—

Plaice over 13 incheslong 9,721,720
3 ander 4, a , 6,529,080

Shrimping, however, far more than ordinary fish

1 See Evidence, Select Committee of the House of Commons on
the Sea-Fisheries Bill of 1900, Questions 361-381.
2 Journ. Mar. Biol. Association, vol. iv. No. 4, 1897, p. 414.

280 BRITISH FISHERIES

trawling, is a most destructive method of fishing,
so far as young fishes are concerned. Various
kinds of gear are used, the commonest being the
shrimp trawl. This apparatus has the same general
form as the large beam-trawl, but it is smaller, the
beam being about 25 feet long, and its meshes are
usually about half an inch square. It is dragged
from a sailing boat, and is “‘shot” and hauled in
the same way as the fish trawl. There are various
modifications in common use. The “shank ” net
or “‘bow-net” is a trawl in which the mouth is
formed by a rectangular frame of wood, 10 or
more feet long, and about a foot or more high.
One edge of this frame drags on the ground, instead
of the foot-rope in the proper trawl. Sometimes,
as in the Thames estuary, the upper and lower
bars of the frame are supported bya central vertical
bar, and sometimes a rope or a second bar of wood
is stretched a few inches above the bar which
drags on the ground, and the lower margin of the
mouth of the net is attached to this upper bar or
rope. The object of this latter contrivance is to
minimise the quantity of fishes captured. When
the frame encounters a shrimp, the latter jumps,
clearing the top bar or rope, and so entering the
net. The fish, on the other hand, often swims
through the space below the net, and so escapes
capture.! On some parts of the coast, the “‘ bow-

1 See Holdsworth, Deep-sea Fishing and Fishing Boats, London,
1870, for an account, with figures, of these nets.

DESTRUCTION OF IMMATURE FISH 281

nets,” two or more, are dragged in shallow water
from a horse and cart. The net may be hauled
while the cart is in the water, or it may simply be
dragged on shore and emptied there. In other
methods of shrimping, a large hand-net may be
pushed by a man who wades in the water, or
“‘hose-nets” may be employed: these are long
cylindrical nets, kept open by rings and furnished
with trap-like pockets. They are set on the sand
at low water, so that the tidal stream flows through
them, and they are fished at next interval of low
water.

Wherever shrimps are found, young fishes are
also present on the same grounds, often in immense
numbers, and no method of catching shrimps, except,
perhaps, the one last mentioned, and the French
method of traps (one which is not practised in this
country), can avoid capturing fish. The young
food-fishes associated with shrimps are usually dabs,
plaice, founders, soles, whiting, haddock, sprats,
herrings, etc., and the quantities and proportions
of these vary with the locality and the season of
the year. Along with these fishes and shrimps,
the net, when “fished,” usually contains a mis-
cellaneous mass of crabs, star-fishes, inedible fishes
of various kinds, jelly-fish, sand, mud, and weeds.
Everything except the shrimps and the few larger
fishes often caught are described as “muck” by
the fishermen. The net is hauled for a variable
time (one-half to two hours), and at the end of the

282 BRITISH FISHERIES

drag its contents are dumped out on the narrow
deck of the boat... The net may then be “shot ”
again, and the fisherman then begins to sort the
catch. Small fish, crabs, etc., are quickly thrown
overboard, an operation not free from most serious
inconvenience, on account of the presence of “ sting-
fish” (Trachinus vipera), which can inflict most
painful wounds. The shrimps are put into a
riddle, the smaller ones are shaken out and returned
to the sea, and the larger ones, which are destined
for the market, are usually boiled at once. The
operation of sorting the catch is performed in a
surprisingly short time, and in cool weather a large
proportion of the fish caught are returned to the
sea alive. But in hot weather the latter die very
quickly, and the whole contents of the net are
sometimes stowed away for the time in baskets and
sorted at leisure. In the latter case the fishes
caught die, of course, and usually also when, by
reason of the presence of mud in the net, they are
smothered. Cart “shankers,” too, may sort their
catches on going up the beach, and young fishes
thrown overboard on the dry sand are obviously in
an unfortunate predicament.

1 Shrimping boats are usually half-decked, and are about 36 feet
long. They are worked by two men, a man and a boy, or by one
man. It speaks volumes for the skill of English fishermen, and is
almost incredible to the ordinary landsman, that ome man may
manage such a boat (with perhaps a mainsail, topsail, foresail, and
jib all set), work two ‘“ bow-nets,” shoot them, haul them, and sort
his catch, unaided.

DESTRUCTION OF IMMATURE FISH 283

In many places, of course, but little destruction
of young fishes may accompany shrimp trawling,
but the usual state of matters is that large quantities
of these animals, all too small to be of use for food,
are taken, and often destroyed. This is particularly
the case on the coast of Lancashire, where a large
shrimping industry is carried on. As many as
10,407 young plaice have been taken there in a
single drag with a shrimp trawl. I will quote, as
an example of the contents of a shrimp trawl, one
of many such experiments witnessed by myself.
In a two miles’ drag there were caught 20 quarts
of shrimps, 896 dabs, 265 plaice, 257 soles, 285
whiting, and 18 skate, besides a large number of
inedible fishes, and the usual quantity of star-fish,
crabs, and other invertebrates. The majority of
the young flat fishes were from 14 to 2 inches long,
and the whiting were about 5 inches. The results
of some hundreds of such experimental trawls on
the Lancashire coast, extending over a period of
seven years, gave an average of 567 plaice caught
per haul of the shrimp trawl.’ When the large
numbers of boats and men engaged in this locality
are considered, it is evident that the quantity of
young fishes of value, caught and destroyed in-
cidentally in shrimp fishing, must be enormous,
and is probably to be measured by the hundred
million annually.

1 Report for 1901 of the Lancashire Sea-Fisheries Laboratory,
Appendix, p. 229.

284 BRITISH FISHERIES

It is perfectly obvious, then, that a great amount
of destruction of many kinds of young fishes is
involved in ordinary fishing operations as carried
on at the present time. The practical questions
now arise: Is this capture and destruction wasteful
to the general fishing industry? that is, does it
tend to diminish the total quantity of fish landed
on the British coasts? And if it could be avoided
by legislative restrictions on methods of fishing,
would the total value of a// the fisheries increase?
There is yet another consideration which ought
not to be lost sight of : would the disturbance of
employment caused by this legislation—the pro-
bable shifting of a great amount of fishing from .
the inshore to the offshore waters, from fishermen
using small boats and possessing little capital to
largely capitalised fishing firms and companies—
not produce social-economic effects which it would
be much better to avoid?

The destruction of immature fish per se is not
necessarily an evil. Sardines are immature fishes
which are much more valuable in the form in
which they reach the consumer than as adult
pilchards, and whitebait are just as much a legiti-
mate object of fishing as herrings or sprats. To
borrow an illustration from agriculture, we need
not give up using lamb or veal because by doing
so we destroy immature sheep and cattle, or eggs
because thereby we are destroying potential fowls.
In these cases, as in the cases of sardines and

DESTRUCTION OF IMMATURE FISH 285

whitebait, the immature products have a directly
commercial value, and are sought after without
regard to the adult animals into which they
develop. But the latter must also be preserved in
sufficient numbers to keep up the stock of the
immature stages; and when both immature and
adult animals are of marketable value, regulations
must take account of the relative value of each,
and of the relative demand for them.

Even admitting that the destruction of im-
mature fishes is economically wasteful, it remains
to consider the further question whether restric-
tions on their capture would lead to the increase
of the adult and (generally) most marketable
stages. This is not necessarily the case. In a
mussel-bed on the foreshore, for instance, which
extends from some distance below high-tide mark
down to the extreme low-water line, we may
generally find that, the higher up the beach we
go, the smaller and more stunted are the animals.
By legal standards these are immature shell-fish,
and in many localities they may not be taken for
food nor any other commercial purpose. But no
amount of protection will enable such small mussels
to grow to the statutory size (say 2 inches in
length), because they are in an unsuitable environ-
ment. It has to be considered, then, whether the
same may not be the case in many other forms of
fishing in which there is an apparently wasteful
destruction of immature fishes. Every such case

286 BRITISH FISHERIES

must be studied with reference to the particular
conditions involved, and regarded as a_ special
problem.

Whitebait, sprat, and sardine fishing may be
dismissed at once, for there is no evidence that
the destruction of immature herrings or pilchards
has any prejudicial effect on the fisheries for these
creatures, whether in their immature or adult
stages. The immature fish question, so far as it
has become “ practical politics,” resolves itself into
two main sub-inquiries, which concern the de-
struction of small fish by deep-sea and inshore
trawlers, and by the shrimpers. I shall take the
former question first. We have seen that there is
a very considerable fishery for small flat fish on the
eastern side of the North Sea. At the very outset,
however, we are confronted by the invariable
difficulty encountered in all fishery inquiries—the
lack of accurate statistics. There are no figures
in existence which give (1) the relative numbers
of adult and immature flat fishes of the different
species on the grounds in question, and (2) the
quantity of fish landed from these grounds
annually by British and Continental fishermen.
It is certain, however, that a large amount of small
and nearly worthless fish ave landed in England,
and that a great quantity are never packed and
brought home at all, but are at once thrown back
into the sea. It has nearly always been assumed
that all this destruction is wasteful, and that it is

DESTRUCTION OF IMMATURE FISH 287

the cause of the admitted decrease of certain kinds
of flat fish in the North Sea. At first sight there
appear to be three remedies: (1) to prohibit
fishing on these “small-fish grounds”; (2) to
regulate the methods which may be practised, by
restricting the length of the drags, and by in-
creasing the size of the meshes of the trawl-nets
used ; and (3) by a prohibition of the landing of
fish under certain specified sizes. Now, (1) is
impossible without international agreement; (2)
would require an international police on so large
a scale as to be quite impracticable, while the
efficacy of the regulations suggested is not generally
admitted. ‘The third remedy is the only one left
to consider. If the sale of small flat fish were
made illegal, then trawlers would cease to work on
grounds where these are generally found. This
was the remedy suggested by the trawling trade,
and embodied in the Sea-Fisheries Bill of 1goo.
I have already alluded to the fate of this measure.
It failed most probably because of the general lack
of statistical and scientific data, and also because
it seems to have been felt that its operation was
too wide, and that its application all round the
coast would have involved very considerable
interference with the methods of inshore fishing,
and most probably a good deal of hardship to men
fishing in a small way, and possibly depending to
a great extent on just those small fishes which it
was the object of the Bill to prevent them catching.

288 BRITISH FISHERIES

In such cases the Legislature is naturally (and very
properly) slow to impose legal restrictions, unless
it could be shown very clearly (which is not the
case at present) that the remedy proposed would
be productive of so much benefit as more than
to compensate for the disturbance and hardship
brought about.

In the case of shrimp trawling there are con-
siderable restrictions in force already. So long
as the capture of shrimps is a legitimate form
of fishing, the destruction of young fishes can-
not be avoided. But though this is the case, it
has been found that, when short drags are made
on clean ground, a great proportion of the fishes
caught are alive and uninjured when the net is
hauled and its contents emptied on deck. There-
fore drags are made short (half-hour to one hour)
in some districts, and the fishermen are expected
to sort out the fish rapidly and restore them to
the sea. The dimensions and form of the net
may be regulated, and in some cases, where certain
shrimping grounds harbour great numbers of
young fishes, trawling may be prohibited absol-
utely. It is also the case that young fishes are
much more abundant at some seasons of the
year than at others, and it has. been proposed
to close the grounds for these latter seasons,
either absolutely, or to allow fishing subject to
the employment of certain forms of gear.

Now, what would be the effect of such restric-

DESTRUCTION OF IMMATURE FISH 289

tions as are proposed or have actually been adopted
with regard to deep-sea trawling or shrimping?
Obviously, such a question can only be answered
in a thoroughly satisfactory manner by trying,
and then noting what are the results, as displayed
by abundant statistics. But inasmuch as all such
legislation involves more or less interference with
employment, hardship to poor or unadaptable
fishermen, and expense in changing or laying up
fishing gear; and as it creates new offences, re-
quires a special police, and generally causes bad
feeling and friction between the fishing popula-
tion and those whose duty it is to administer
the law, it is only reasonable to ask those who
propose such steps what grounds they have for
the belief that the restrictions suggested would
yield benefits at least commensurate with the
disturbance and loss caused by their operation.
Now, a knowledge of the present state of fishery
science forces one to the conclusion that the case
for the imposition of such restrictions is purely
an @ priori one, and though it is probably a good
enough case, yet it rests on incomplete scientific
results.

I will put this case as strongly as possible.
If we return to our imaginary mussel-bed, we
can easily convince ourselves that no restriction
on the capture of the small animals on the higher
parts of the beach can possibly be of any use.

They are inadequately nourished and cannot attain
19

290 BRITISH FISHERIES

a greater size, and for all practical use they are,
they may as well be carted away for manure.
It is true that they produce spat, which may
lead to the formation of new mussel-beds in
better localities, but there is no scarcity of mussel
spat in most localities. The mussel, however, is
a sedentary animal. It is fixed on the place
where it grows, and has a most limited range
of movement. It is quite different with the small
flat fishes on the shrimping grounds or on the
“Eastern Grounds” of the North Sea. The
investigations made on the life-history of the most
abundant of these fishes—the plaice—show that
it lives during the first two years of its life on
shallow, sandy flats, grows there till it is about
6 to g inches in length, and then begins to migrate
outwards into deeper water. These shallow inshore
areas are therefore “ fish-nurseries” which “feed”
the fishing grounds offshore where the larger fish
are found. On the other hand, the mature plaice
on the latter areas spawn, and the eggs drift in-
shore, where the little fish, when it is hatched,
passes through its post-larval and immature stages.
In the “ Eastern Grounds” of the North Sea we
have such a fish-nursery on a large scale—a
nursery which owes its position to physical causes.
The general drift of the surface water in the
North Sea is such as to cause small objects floating
on the surface to move down the north-east coast
of Great Britain as far as Norfolk, while at the

DESTRUCTION OF IMMATURE FISH 291

same time there appears to be a northerly drift
from the Straits of Dover along the Dutch coast.
The general result of such a drift is to carry the
eggs of any fish, such as plaice, spawned almost
anywhere in the North Sea, towards, and into,
the Bight of Helgoland and the shallow waters
off the coasts of Denmark and Holland. These
eggs undergo development and the little fishes
pass their first year of life close inshore, and
then move out towards deeper water—such water
and such a sea-bottom as are found on the
“‘ Eastern Grounds.’ ’ The same general move-
ment of eggs and larve towards the coast, and
an opposite movement of the fishes as they grow
from the coast towards deeper water, exists on
a smaller scale on the east coast of Britain in
some places, and on the west coast of England.
Whether we consider these latter places, in many
of which shrimping grounds are situated, or the
larger area in the North Sea, the apparent result
is the same. We are not dealing with small
or stunted fishes in these inshore areas, but with
migratory fishes which are on their way outshore,
where they will grow into much larger and more
valuable animals. If we capture and destroy
them, we impoverish to that extent those off-
shore fishing grounds. The capture of these
fishes is therefore unfortunate :—

1 Cunningham, Marketable Marine Fishes of the British Islands,
1896, pp. 221-2.

292 BRITISH FISHERIES

1. Because it is economically wasteful, inasmuch
as they are of little or no value when caught by
the inshore trawler or shrimper, and the price
which they would have brought, if caught a year
or two later, would be comparatively high ; and

2. Because in catching them we are destroying
animals which have never spawned, and are so
reducing the stock of eggs destined to keep up
the plaice population of the sea.

Now, this argument will probably turn out to
be quite a sound one, and if we knew no more,
it would be enough to justify legislation, in a
provisional sense at least. It is necessary, however,
to point out that it is by no means so firmly
established by investigation as might be desired.
Theories in biological matters, when they have
been stated and have come to be repeated in books
and memoirs, often become so generally believed
that the need for verification by and by becomes
less apparent. Now, however desirable it may be
to verify any theories of migration, spawning,
distribution, and the like, from a purely scientific
point of view alone, this is all the more desirable
when they are to form the bases of restrictions on
methods of fishing. No one familiar with the
literature of sea-fishery science will say that those
theories with which we are now concerned have
been sufficiently verified by observation and ex-
periment. Only one thorough investigation has
been made with the object of determining the

DESTRUCTION OF IMMATURE FISH 293

surface drift of the water of the North Sea,! and
it is very desirable that this should be repeated
with this particular question in view. Then,
though it is probably the case that floating fish
eggs are carried by this drift towards the Helgo-
land Bight, this is rather a deduction from Fulton’s
experiments than an actually observed fact.
Hensen’s work on pelagic fish eggs is the only
piece of experimental evidence of which I am
aware that is relevant to this question, and his
distribution maps? do not lend very decided sup-
port to the contention in question. Again, it is
probably the case that young flat fishes do migrate
from the small-fish “‘ Eastern Grounds” towards
the deeper water fishing grounds of the North
Sea; but here too direct experimental evidence is
wanting.

So also with regard to the effects of shrimping
on shallow inshore waters, though in this case
the question is rather more complex. If we wish
to be assured that the cessation or diminution of
the capture of young fishes on any shrimping
ground is to be of material benefit to the fisheries,
it must be proved, for the particular area in question,
that the young fish (say plaice) are only present
there during a particular stage in their life-history,
and that on the completion of this they migrate

1 Fulton, Report, Fishery Board for Scotlund, 1894, pt. iil. p. 153.
2 Hensen, Wissenschaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen, Kiel Kom-
mission, Bd. ii. (N.F.), Heft 2, 1897.

294 BRITISH FISHERIES

towards the fishing grounds offshore. The gener-
ally accepted theory of the migratory movements
of the plaice is that the young fish spends its
early life in shallow water, and migrates into
deeper water as it becomes older. This theory
has been deduced from observations on the dis-
tribution of plaice of different sizes in water of
varying depths. Generally speaking, large plaice
are more abundant in deep water, and small plaice
in shallow water. But, again, the evidence for this
is not very complete. Plaice may be found in
certain shallow inshore areas, where traw/-fishing
has been prohibited for a number of years, and we
must remember that the apparent natural distribu-
tion of the plaice may be due to the fact that the
shallow-water areas have been more thoroughly
fished than the deeper water offshore, and that
it is generally agreed that the principal effect of
extensive fishing is to reduce the average size of
the fish on the areas fished on, for the larger fishes
are fewer and are more easily caught than the
smaller ones. Most theories of the distribution
and migratory movements of fishes have been
constructed during the time when modern fishing
has been so largely developed, and subsequent
to the initiation of the above changes in the
distribution of large and small fishes.

Further, it is very difficult to forecast the
probable changes in the fish fauna of a particular
area, such as a shrimping ground, which would

DESTRUCTION OF IMMATURE FISH 295

result from the cessation of fishing there ; and it is
by no means certain, however probable it may
appear on a priori grounds, that the prohibition of
shrimping would lead to the increase of young
fish (say plaice) on the area in question, and, in
consequence of the offshore migration, to an increase
in the number of large plaice further out at sea.

It would appear, then, that we are not yet
prepared to give thoroughly convincing reasons
for the adoption of legislative restrictions on those
modes of fishing in which small fishes are destroyed
to a notable extent. At the same time, there can
be no doubt that what we do know of the life-
histories of fishes does justify us in recommending
the adoption, as a tentative measure, of some of
the remedies proposed—say, the imposition of size-
limits on the fishes landed in certain districts, or
the restriction of shrimp trawling during certain
seasons and in certain localities. Such tentative
restrictions or prohibitions might be abandoned
later, if it became evident that no beneficial result
followed from their imposition. But when we
consider—

1. That the imposition of such legislative re-
strictions would, in many cases at least,
provoke much resentment, create new
offences demanding an increased police
superintendence, and might be the cause
of (at least) temporary hardships ; and

2. That it is certainly quite practicable, by well-

296 BRITISH FISHERIES

planned’ fishery investigations, to obtain
much more information than we at present
possess : information which would certainly
show with great probability whether or not
such legislative restrictions were likely to
be beneficial—
then it is better, on the whole, to press for investi-
gation on a much more adequate scale than has
hitherto been contemplated, before recommending
any drastic change in the fishery laws.

The Sea-Fisheries Bill of 1904

I may bring the discussion of this portion of our
subject up to date by referring briefly to the fate
of this measure. It will be remembered that the
Select Committee of the House of Commons
which considered the Fisheries Bill of 1900 came
to the conclusion that, largely because of the lack
of information of a statistical nature, it was not
advisable to pass the Bill into law. They recom-
mended that no effort should be spared to secure
international treatment of the subject of the de-
struction of immature fish in the North Sea; and
that the Government Department of Fisheries
should be adequately equipped for the investigation
of the question. In the interval between the
discussion of the two measures much was done.
The control of the fishing industry was transferred
from the Board of Trade to the Board of Agricul-
ture, and the Department became better organised.

DESTRUCTION OF IMMATURE FISH 297

The prospects of international treatment of the
question became appreciably better, one reason for
this being the growing recognition in Germany of
the fact of the depletion (so far as certain classes of
fish are concerned) of the North Sea area,! and the
other being that the international investigation of
the North European fishing grounds was directing
very general attention abroad to the condition of
the fishing industry. Finally, the Board of Agri-
culture and Fisheries had obtained statistics bearing
closely on the question of the destruction of under-
sized fishes in the North Sea. It was shown that
a very considerable fishery for small plaice was
going on in the seas round Helgoland ; that the
bulk of this fish was caught principally from March
to October. In the year 1903 extensive statistics
were collected by the officers of the Board. These
were obtained from steam “carriers” which took
the fish from certain fleets fishing in the North Sea
and landed them at Billingsgate Market. These
figures showed that—

In 1902-3, 229,076 cwts. of plaice were landed in
London, and that 173,693 cwts. of
these were caught in the seas round
Helgoland.

In 1902, 82 percent. by weight were “small,” and
71 per cent. in value were small.

In 1903, 67 per cent. by weight were small, and
56 per cent. in value were small.

1 Henking, Mitthetlungen deutschen See-Fischeret-Vereins, No. 1,
rgor (extracted in Report of Select Committee on Sea-Fisheries Bill,

1904, p. 191).

298 BRITISH FISHERIES

By “small” plaice is to be understood plaice of
less than 11 inches in total length. Further, the
pathetic state of matters was revealed that the
fried-fish trade of London found it was increasingly
difficult to get plaice of a size sufficient to meet
the demand, and that they were compelled to use
turbot, brill, witches, and even skate and dog-fishes
in the fried-fish business ; and that, because of the
popular preference for plaice, the trade was com-
pelled to sell all fish under that designation.”

The Bill introduced was an “enabling” one.
It proposed to give the Board power to make
Orders prohibiting the landing of fish, of kinds
and sizes to be specified, and in such localities as
were found necessary. This elasticity was claimed
as the great merit of the Bill, for, as investigation
revealed the necessity for action, Orders could be
made or modified accordingly. The Bill was
introduced in the House of Lords by Lord Onslow,
the President of the Board of Agriculture and
Fisheries, and passed through the various stages
there. Finally, it was made to apply only to
steam trawlers and sailing smacks over seventy tons
burden. It appears to have met with general
approval, but in the end it was rejected in the
House of Commons.

1 Rept. Sel. Comm., 1904, pp. vi.—vii.
2 Tbid., p. vi«

CHAPTER XVI
MARINE PISCICULTURE

WHEN it became evident that over-fishing of the
sea was taking place, and that, as a consequence,
certain species of fish were less abundant on the
great fishing grounds than was formerly the case,
two remedies were suggested and discussed. These
were: (1) to impose restrictions on the capture
of the young and comparatively valueless stages of
certain species; and (2) to attempt to make fish
more abundant by means of artificial culture. Both
remedies have, as a matter of fact, been adopted.
In the general discussion of the efficacy of these
measures, it was agreed that the first would be
likely to prove effective, but that there were
grave practical difficulties in the way of its general
adoption. Restrictive legislation has always been
very unwillingly adopted in this country, not only
on account of the expense of enforcing it, but
also because of the prejudice and ill-feeling which
measures of this kind always arouse. ‘Then it

could practically be applied to territorial waters
299

300 BRITISH FISHERIES

only ; and legislation with regard to the high
seas (which was just as necessary as within the
three-mile limit) was only possible by inter-
national agreement, and was almost impracticable.
Restriction on the capture of young fishes, then,
was regarded as only one of the possible means
of restoring the productivity of the fishing grounds.
The prospect of achieving valuable results by our
second remedy was, on the other hand, a very
alluring one. It avoided the necessity of vexa-
tious interference with the fishermen—a view
which was held in the United States, where it
was regarded as cheaper to make fish plentiful by
culture than by restriction. Further, the @ priori
argument in favour of it was apparently a rather
strong one. Fishes are enormously prolific; a
cod, for instance, produces annually between five
and ten millions of eggs. The destruction of
these eggs and their resulting larve in the sea
must be very great. But this destruction would
be avoided if the eggs were incubated under
artificial conditions, and the saving would represent
an enormous gain to the fishing industry. It was
“‘ Nature’s offer and man’s opportunity.” Again,
fish-culture with respect to fresh-water fish was
a very old and well-understood industry, and had
been practised with great success in Germany,
where it was minutely studied. It was concluded,
then, that the artificial culture of sea-fishes
could not fail to be of enormous benefit to a

MARINE PISCICULTURE 301

decadent fishing industry, and that it would, in
the long run, be cheaper, and moreover would
not cause friction between the administration and
the fishermen.

As I have said, restrictions were also applied ;
but, where artificial culture was practised by public
bodies, such, no doubt, was the line of argument
adopted, though not always clearly expressed.
The credit of having first practised fish-hatching
on a large scale belongs to the United States.
We have seen that the Fish Commission of that
country made it a most important department
of their work, and public fish-culture has been
carried on in North America, both by the United
States and Canada, to a greater extent than by
any European country. The method has con-
tinually been developed on the other side of
the Atlantic, and, judging from the reports of
the authorities, with conspicuous success. Great
encouragement was afforded by the striking results
which attended an experiment started in 1871.
The shad (C/upea (or Alosa) sapidissima) was an
important food-fish on the Atlantic seaboard of
North America, and it occurred to the officers
of the Fish Commission to attempt its introduction
on the Pacific side. Shad eggs were accordingly
obtained, were artificially fertilised and incubated,
and the larve were introduced into suitable waters
on the eastern seaboard. In a few years, this
fish, which was previously unknown, became,

302 BRITISH FISHERIES

next to the salmon, the most abundant fish in
the rivers of the Pacific slope, and became cheaper
than on the Atlantic side. When first taken, its
price was $1.20 per pound, but after a time this
fell to about 2 cents in many places. In 1892
the catch of this fish, which, however, was not
the sole object of a fishery, was 700,000 lbs,
These results were held to be highly gratifying,
and encouraged the Americans to develop the
system of fish-culture to the extent at present
represented by their official reports.?

At the present time, then, fish-culture is
extensively practised on the other side of the
Atlantic. According to the last report of the
Commissioner, there were hatched in 1902
1,495,5435374 fish eggs, all the resulting fry of
which were distributed throughout the rivers and
fishing grounds of the United States by means of
the very complete system of transport developed
by the Fish Commission. Of this enormous
number of fish fry, the majority consisted of
fresh-water species, and were principally salmon,
trout, bass, etc. About fifteen millions were
game fish, but all the rest belonged to species
forming the object of the commercial fisheries.
The principal salt-water species dealt with were :—

1 One suspects, however, that this was a “ fancy price.”

2 See Commissioner's Report, U.S. Fish Commission, for 1893
(1895), p. 72, for an account of the results of shad culture and
acclimatisation.

MARINE PISCICULTURE 303

Cod . ‘ . ‘ : é - 338,120,000
Flounders (Pseudopleuronectes americanus) 194,000,000
Lobsters. : : : ; . 81,000,000

The fresh-water species were hatched at a
number of stations situated at convenient places
on the rivers and great lakes, and the marine
forms were dealt with at the two marine stations
at Wood’s Hole, Boston, and Gloucester.

Fish hatching was also taken up in Canada
and Newfoundland. The Dominion Government
undertook the hatching of lobster eggs. There
is an extensive fishery for this crustacean in
Canada, and the lobsters caught are, for the most
part, sent to the “canneries” to be canned for
export. But “berried” females—that is, animals
carrying developing ova attached to the abdomen—
are previously “stripped,” that is, the eggs, which
would otherwise have been lost, are removed
from the parents and incubated in suitable ap-
paratus. The Dominion lobster hatcheries hatched,
in this way, 742,000,000 lobster fry in the
period 1891-97. In Newfoundland, cod hatch-
ing is principally practised, and the average annual
number of fry of that fish treated in the period
1890-96 was 145,435,555.

Sea-fish hatching in Europe was first started
in Norway by Captain G. M. Dannevig, at
whose suggestion the Flodevigen hatchery for
salt-water fish, at Arendal, on the south-east coast,
was started, at a time when the decrease in the

304 BRITISH FISHERIES

local cod fisheries was severely felt. The institu-
tion was a private one at first, and the expenses
were met by a local society in Arendal. All the
details of the hatching apparatus were elaborated
by Captain Dannevig, and it was here that cod
eggs were first incubated on a large scale. In
1889 the Government took over the work, and
voted money for the erection of a hatchery on
a larger scale, and during the period 1890-96
1,203,000,000 cod fry were incubated and were
liberated on the south coast of Norway, between
Christiansand and the Swedish frontier. Accord-
ing to Dannevig, the result of this work has been
that cod are rapidly increasing on the south
coast of Norway, and especially at the places
where fry have been “ planted.”

Sea-fish hatching was begun in Scotland by
the Fishery Board in 1893. The report for that
year | contains a statement by the members, which
gives the reasons which induced them to begin
this kind of work. The great diminution among
the more valuable classes of flat fish, which had
taken place during the decade preceding the issue
of the report, is referred to, and it is pointed out
that the regulative measures with regard to beam-
trawling —the mode of fishing by which flat
fishes are principally obtained—adopted in Scot-
land were more extensive and were longer in
force than in any other country. Not only

1 Part iii. p. 8.

MARINE PISCICULTURE 305

the territorial waters had been closed, but also
extensive areas lying outside these, such as the
Firth of Clyde and Moray Firth. Nevertheless,
statistics showed a continued falling off in the
supplies of flat fishes, and the trawling investiga-
tions of the Board showed a general diminution
in the average abundance within these protected
areas.

The artificial culture of these flat fishes was
felt, then, to be a remedy worthy of adoption,
and in 1893 the fish-hatching establishment at
Dunbar, on the east coast of Scotland, was erected.!
Plaice and cod were the fishes first dealt with,
but attempts were made to cultivate turbot and
soles. The latter form is very scarce on the east
coast of Scotland, and the breeding fishes were
obtained from Lancashire waters. The fry pro-
duced in the hatchery at Dunbar were first
liberated on the fishing grounds in the neighbour-
hood of the station; but in 1895 the Board,
although convinced of the economic value of
the practice, yet thought it would be desirable
to prove experimentally whether the planting of
large numbers of plaice fry in a portion of the
sea did increase the abundance of adult fish on
the same area. “It is, however, of importance,”
they say, “that the economic results of marine
pisciculture should be as speedily as possible

1 There is an excellent account of this establishment in the Board’s

Report for 1893, pt. iil. p. 196.
20

306 BRITISH FISHERIES

ascertained. Its utility as a means of benefiting
the sea-fisheries depends on the extent to which
it is likely to increase the abundance of the fishes
propagated. There is at present no means of
judging what proportion of the fry distributed
on the fishing grounds survive to a marketable
size; and it has been thought desirable, as the
most likely way to discover this, to place the
fry in one or more selected lochs on the west
coast, which are to a large extent shut off from
free communication with the open sea, and care-
fully to watch the results on the abundance of the
same species within its waters. Accordingly, the
fry are now, for the most part, being transported
in special apparatus by rail to the west coast,
and distributed in confined lochs.” Upper Loch
Fyne was selected as the most suitable place to
experiment in, and from 1893 practically all the
fry produced at the Dunbar hatchery, and at the
station at the Bay of Nigg, Aberdeen, to which
the whole work was removed in 1899, have been
carried across the country and planted in that
loch. Investigations were also made to show,
for the year 1898, what was the condition of
Upper Loch Fyne as regards the abundance of
pelagic fish eggs.

The numbers of eggs of sea-fish hatched at
the Scottish Fishery Board stations so far have
been, up to the year 1903 :—

1 Report of the Fishery Board for Scotland for 1895, pt. iii. p. 10.

MARINE PISCICULTURE 307

Plaice . , : : : 34.0545 5,000
Lemon soles . ‘ : : 6,727,000 ”
Turbot. : : : ‘ 5,160,000
Cod . : : 2 H 4,010,000
Other fishes . : : : 2,000,000

Since 1897, sea-fish hatcheries have also been
established in England, at Piel, in Lancashire,
by the Fisheries Committee of that county ; and
at Port Erin, Isle of Man, by the insular govern-
ment.

The methods adopted in the artificial culture of
sea-fish differ somewhat in the various establish-
ments. ‘This is particularly the case in the manner
in which the eggs are obtained. Commonly sea-
fish eggs for incubation in hatcheries are obtained
direct from fishes kept on the establishment.
Several months before the onset of the breeding
season a sufficient number of fish are obtained, of
such sizes that they may be expected to yield
spawn at the next spawning season. Generally one
male produces sufficient spermatozoa to fertilise
the eggs of several females, so in obtaining the
fish this is taken into account—a somewhat
difficult matter, as it is not always possible to
distinguish between immature females and mature
males. The stock of breeding fish are either
specially fished for, short drags with a fish trawl-
net being made, so as to obtain the fish in as healthy
a condition as possible, or they are purchased from
the vessels engaged in the commercial fishery.

308 BRITISH FISHERIES

Once obtained, they are put into the “spawning
pond,” which is a large and somewhat deep pond
excavated or built, and kept supplied with a current
of pure sea-water pumped into it by means of
engines and pumps, or perhaps let into it at
intervals, if the pond be situated at a lower level
than that of high-water mark. The fish are kept
supplied with suitable food, and in the course of
time they spawn naturally in the pond; and as
there are generally some males in a ripe condition
while spawning is going on, the eggs are fertilised.
The latter then rise to the surface of the water
in the pond, and this surface layer of water
may be constantly running off, passing through a
large horse-hair sieve as it does so. The eggs are
therefore retained by this sieve. Or perhaps the
surface of the pond may be swept daily by a
large net made of fine material, so as to gather the
eggs. ‘There are other methods of obtaining the
eggs. Ripe fishes may be caught, and the eggs
and spermatozoa obtained by stripping them, that
is, by gentle pressure on the abdomen in the
region of the reproductive organs. These stripped
fish may then be put back into the sea. Or the
commercial trawlers may be visited, and such ripe
fish as are taken in the trawl-net may be stripped,
and the fertilised eggs then brought back to the
hatchery. But when it is desired to obtain a large
number of eggs, the method of the spawning pond
is always adopted.

MARINE PISCICULTURE 309

The fertilised eggs, by whatever method they
are obtained, are cleaned by washing in pure sea-
water, and they are then put into the “ hatching-
boxes.” ‘These apparatus are generally small boxes
about a foot square, open at the top, and having a
bottom made of a fine but strong sieve of horse-
hair. They are arranged in sets, and float in
connected compartments in a large wooden tank,
also filled with water. Water enters into each
hatching-box at the top, and passes out through
the sieve forming the bottom. By an automatic
arrangement of some kind or other the hatching-
boxes are jerked up and down at regular intervals,
and in this way the eggs, which normally float at
the surface of the water, are kept from collecting
there as a layer, and receive sufficient aeration by
the motion of water caused by the jerking of the
boxes. The sea-water which is made to circulate
through the hatching-boxes is selected for its
freedom from sediment and its high specific
gravity. If there should be much sediment in the
water, this is apt to settle down on the eggs, and so
impede their oxygenation. If the specific gravity
is low, then the eggs may sink to the bottom. It
is often necessary to filter the water used in the
hatching-boxes, though a high degree of freedom
from sediment is not so essential as is often
supposed.

The average volume of the eggs dealt with is
known, so that, by measuring the total bulk put

310 BRITISH FISHERIES

into the hatching-boxes, and applying a factor
obtained by experiment for each kind of egg used,
the total number incubated is ascertained. About
two or three days after the beginning of incuba-
tion, a certain proportion (roughly, ro per cent) of
the eggs die and sink to the bottom. These are
removed by allowing the floating living eggs
to run off with the current. The quantity of
dead eggs is measured, and the numbers ascer-
tained by calculation. Then the proportion of
living eggs, and, consequently, the mortality, are
obtained. At the end of a variable incubation
period, depending (1) on the species of egg dealt
with, and (2) on the average temperature of the
water in the boxes during the incubation period,
the embryos hatch out.

Now, so far the work has not been difficult.
There are many things which are trying to the
fish-culturist, of course ; but, compared with most
ordinary industrial processes, the operations of sea-
fish hatching are simple, easy, and straightforward.
But when the embryos have hatched out the
really difficult part of the work begins. If sea-fish
culture on a large scale is ever to be successful,
then it must be emphasised that the rearing of the
embryos through the period of the metamorphosis
is most essential. In most hatching establishments
this rearing is attempted, but in all cases with very
doubtful success. The embryos are retained in
the hatching-boxes for a time which is, roughly

MARINE PISCICULTURE 311

speaking, a week to a fortnight, and they are then
transferred to rearing-tanks or ponds. During
this period the little fish is feeding on the supply
of food contained in its own yolk-sac. When this
food-yolk is exhausted, then the troubles of the fish-
culturist begin.

It has been suggested that a kind of inherited
anemia afflicts the embryo hatched in artificial
conditions, and probably also in, the sea in a state
of nature. It is extremely difficult to induce a
considerable proportion of the larve to feed on any
kind of food-material supplied to them. All kinds
of food have been tried, both natural and artificial ;
but it has always been found that by far the
greater number of the larve hatched out from the
eggs die in the hatching-boxes, or in the rearing-
tanks or ponds. It is true that considerable success
has been achieved by various investigators in rear-
ing sea-fishes hatched artificially—H. Dannevig
did this, with regard to plaice, on at least two
occasions. In 18961 he reared a number through
the metamorphosis. No figures are given, how-
ever, showing what proportion of those started
with were successfully reared. In 1900 Dannevig
again reared “‘a few specimens” for about nine
months, by which time they were about 3} inches
long.? These results are very interesting, and are
of very considerable theoretical importance. The

1 Report, Fishery Board for Scotland for 1896, pt. ili. p. 175.
2 Tbid., 1900, pt. ill. p. 229.

312 BRITISH FISHERIES

same is to be said of experiments made by Garstang !
and by Cunningham,” the former of whom reared
young blennies successfully, while the latter was
successful with flounders. But in these cases
also the experiments were not carried out success-
fully on the large or economic scale. Finally,
M. Fabre-Domergue*® made a most encouraging
experiment with soles at Concarneau, on the coast
of France, and was able to rear a considerable
number of these fish through the critical stage
of metamorphosis. Unfortunately, the French
investigator did not experiment with large num-
bers, and we are unable to regard his work as a
satisfactory solution of the rearing problem. In
hatching operations we deal with numbers like ten
to two hundred millions of fry, and if rearing
operations are to be successful, we must be able
to deal with as large numbers, rearing, say, fifty
millions of plaice larve through their metamor-
phosis, and with a loss corresponding to that
incurred in hatching, viz. little more than 10
per cent. Hitherto this has not been possible, and
there are few indications that it will become
practicable in the near future.

In actual practice, then, the fry are liberated
within a few days after hatching, or, at the latest,
just before the yolk-sac has been completely absorbed.

1 Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass., vol. vi. 1900, p. 70.
2 Tbid., vol. iii. 1893-5, p. 206.
3 Comptes Rendus Acad. Franc., Section Sci., 6th May 1got.

MARINE + PISCICULTURE 313

The great mortality which occurs when the mode
of nutrition of the larva is changing is thus avoided
in the hatchery simply because the fry are liberated
before this mortality begins. Now, with regard
to the part of the sea in which the fry are set
free, two considerations have to be borne in mind.
The reader will remember that the pelagic eggs
of most fishes are spawned well out at sea, and
that those which come within the influence
of a favourable drift of the surface water ulti-
mately find themselves in shallow waters near
the land, on those sandy bottoms which seem
to be necessary for their further development.
Further, this drift inshore must be completed
about the time when the little fish is abandoning its
pelagic mode of life, and is assuming the bottom-
living habit characteristic of its after-existence. If
the larve drift on to arocky, deep-water coast, then,
from what we do know of the life-histories of such
fish as the plaice, it is probable that they do not
meet with the conditions favourable to the develop-
ment of further stages. Again, if they drift into
shallow water some time before the metamorphosis
begins, there is a probability that they may be
stranded by the receding tides and destroyed. And
if they do not accomplish this drift in the proper
time, it may also happen that the metamorphosis
may take place in relatively deep water, and that
the larve may go to the sea-bottom in too great
a depth and on unsuitable ground. Therefore,

314 BRITISH FISHERIES

in correct practice they should be set free (1) in
such a place that the surface drift will carry
them to the nursery grounds, and (2) so that
the duration of this inshore drift will coincide
with the duration of the period between the stage
at which they are liberated and the stage of the
metamorphosis.

In all economic sea-fish cultural operations, the
intention is to benefit some particular local area.
To be certain of doing this, it is further necessary
that we should know that the migratory course
pursued by the young fishes added to the inshore
nursery is such as will carry those fishes, when
they become marketable, from the latter to the
fishing grounds offshore.

Now, a consideration of the literature of sea-
fishery science will show that, so far as this
country, at least, is concerned, we do not know
enough of the migrations and distribution of
fishes at all stages, to be sure that all these con-
ditions may be satisfied. In actual practice,
moreover, questions of expense must be con-
sidered, and it is not generally practicable to
liberate the larve on the offshore spawning
grounds, at the times when winds and currents
contribute to secure the most favourable inshore
drift for the fry liberated. The best has to be
done, and this is not always the theoretically
correct (so far as we know) procedure.

There are two main arguments for the utility

MARINE PISCICULTURE 315

of sea-fish culture: (1) the argument a priori, from
what we know of the life-histories of fishes ; and
(2) the argument @ posteriori, from what we have
been able to discover of the actual results of the
method. ‘The first line of argument may be stated
in the following manner :—!

Sea-fishes producing pelagic eggs are enor-
mously prolific, but the destruction in nature of
the eggs produced is just as enormous. This
destruction is due to three main causes—

1. The physical causes. The eggs may drift
out to sea and be lost to the fisheries, or they
may be stranded or drifted on to an unfavourable
shore, or they may drift into an estuary, where the
low specific gravity of the water may destroy them.
But in artificial cultural work they are liberated at
such a place and time as to avoid these causes of
destruction.

2. Many eggs spawned in natural conditions on
the fishing grounds fail to be fertilised by the
males of the same species, and are thus destroyed.
But in the hatchery we can be sure that practically
all are fertilised.

3. There is an enormous destruction of pelagic
eggs in natural conditions, because they are eaten
as food by other pelagic animals. But in the
hatchery we can exclude these natural enemies, and
so avoid this destruction.

4. There is most probably a great mortality at

1 The case of such a fish as the plaice is considered here.

316 BRITISH FISHERIES

the time of the absorption of the yolk-sac, and further
during the metamorphosis. .In the hatchery we
seek to avoid this mortality by providing the larve
with suitable food.

In an “ over-fished” area, we assume that there
are fewer mature fish this year than last (or this
year than formerly). Therefore fewer fry reach the
nurseries. This loss of fry must be compensated.
If we take a number of spawning fish from the
sea and let them breed in the hatchery, and take
all imaginable care of the resulting larve, and
then turn out the parent fish and the larve under
the theoretically correct conditions, there is a
distinct gain. We have saved the larve which
would have been destroyed in nature. Now, this
gain in the number of larve must be equal to that
number of larve which would have been produced
(and attained the nursery grounds) by the excess
of fish caught this year over those caught last
year (or formerly). In this way we compensate,
by artificial culture, for over-fishing.

This is the rationale of sea-fish culture. Is the
above argument sound? Apparently it would be,
if the premises were sound. But, on examining
the latter, it is not certain that this is the case.

1. We do not know, even approximately, what
proportion of the eggs and fry produced naturally
are lost through the physical causes mentioned.
We suspect, with reason, that great loss occurs, but
we do not know to what extent this takes place.

MARINE PISCICULTURE 317

2. It is a pure assumption that pelagic eggs
escape fertilisation in the sea. In all the records
of plankton examination I do not know of any
in which the presence of unfertilised pelagic fish
eggs has been observed.. An unfertilised pelagic
egg lives and floats for some days, and if such
did occur among the plankton, it is hardly likely
that they would have escaped record.

3. We do know that an enormous destruction
of demersal fish eggs occurs in nature. Haddock,
for instance, have been taken with their stomachs
full of herring spawn. But we do not think
it necessary to cultivate herring. There are
instances on record of pelagic animals like
copepods, or the Chetognathous worm, Sagifta,
doing the same with regard to pelagic eggs.
But these cases have not often been observed,
and we cannot say that the incidence of destruc-
tion in the life-history of a pelagic fish is greatest
during embryonic and larval development. It
is indeed possible that the greatest degree of
mortality may occur at a later stage.’

4. The destruction which is assumed to take
place at the time of the total absorption of the
yolk-sac has not, so far, been avoided in the
hatchery. Indeed, it is from experience gained
in the hatchery (and from theoretical considera-

1 This question might be resolved by the application of quantitative
plankton methods—by observing the relation between the numbers
of eggs at each different stage of development.

318 BRITISH FISHERIES

tions) that we postulate the existence of this
destruction in nature. Again, it has been found
impossible to rear large numbers of artificially
hatched fry up to the stage of the metamorphosis,
It would, of course, be quite wrong to say that
we shall never be able to avoid these two causes
of mortality in artificial conditions. If we could
do so, then sea-fish culture would have made an
enormous advance. Conversely, until we can do
so, the utility of the method must remain an open
question.

Another line of argument, of much the same
logical order, which has frequently been advanced,
is at once ingenuous and plausible. In a specific
case’ the cost of running a sea-fish hatchery for
one year was {600, and during that year some
300 millions of cod larve were hatched and
liberated. The cost of 2000 larve was therefore
1d. Suppose that one larva in 2000 attains
maturity, or even grows to such an age as to be
worth 1s. There is, therefore, a very clear gain
in the process of hatching the fish.

It is not difficult to discern the fallacious reason-
ing here. It has been pointed out that from this
assumed gain we must deduct the cost of catch-
ing the fish. This, however, is not the case,
because the process of putting more fry, and, to
a less extent, more marketable fish, in the sea
renders an impoverished fishing ground more pro-

1 That of the Arendal (Norwegian) hatchery in 1895.

MARINE PISCICULTURE 319

ductive, and the same fishing operations which
formerly caught a reduced number of fish will
now catch more at the same expense. We must
remember, however, that the whole number of
fry turned out from the hatchery does not re-
present clear gain, but the gain is the difference
between the assumed (greater) number of fry
produced in the hatchery and the (lesser) number
which would have been produced from the same
parent fishes if they had been allowed to remain
in the sea, and this difference must be the basis of
the profit and loss calculation. There would be
a difference, (1) because of the advantages gained
in hatching under artificial conditions, and (2)
because some of the parent fish would, presumably,
have been caught if allowed to remain in the sea ;
but the gain resulting from (2) is to be discounted,
because if some of the parent fish had been caught
fishing operations would have been more lucrative
than if there had been no hatching. Again, it is
tolerably certain that a// the marketable fishes
added to the sea by hatching would not have
been caught, any more than all the fishes of the
same stage present in the sea apart from those
artificially added. The argument, indeed, cannot
be considered to be a sound one, but I mention
it because it has occasionally been used.

The argument @ posteriori is much more difficult
to discuss, and it is very probable that the materials
for its proper consideration do not exist in the

320 BRITISH FISHERIES

case of any sea-fish culture operations. One
instance of the apparently beneficial results of fish-
culture is made use of frequently, viz. the success
which attended the operations of the American Fish
Commission in introducing shad into the waters
of the Pacific coast of North America! Two
distinct results have been confused here: (1) the
effect of artificial hatching in increasing the
number of fish already present on a fishing
ground; and (2) the result of the introduction
and acclimatisation of fish in an area where the
species dealt with did not previously exist. There
were no shad in the rivers of the American Pacific
seaboard, and what the U.S. Fish Commission
did was to introduce them there—an eminently
useful piece of public work, and highly credit-
able to a scientific organisation, but a piece of
work which does not bear the interpretation
frequently put on it. The Americans proved (1)
that it is possible to introduce fishes into an area
where suitable conditions exist—not an extremely
difficult thing to prove, by the way; and (2)
that the larve of fishes planted in a_ suitable
habitat may grow up to maturity—a result which
has an important bearing on the discussion of
fish-culture. It did not prove, however, that
it is possible, by artificial culture, to increase
the number of marketable fishes of a species
already present on the fishing grounds, to such

1 Report Comm. U.S. Fish Commission for 1893, p. 72 (1895)-

MARINE PISCICULTURE 321

an extent as to provide a direct remedy for
over-fishing.

All the success which has attended the artificial
culture of fresh-water fishes, or of anadromous
fishes,! can hardly be urged as an argument for
the utility of the similar treatment of purely
marine species. ‘The conditions in the two cases
are very different. Fishes in a river or lake have
a distribution which is extremely limited, when
compared with that of marine species, even of such
“‘semi-sedentary ” forms as the plaice. And the
ova and fry of fresh-water fishes like the trout
or carp are, when compared with those of marine
fishes, easy to hatch and rear to maturity. The
large amount of food-yolk in these eggs, and
other properties which we do not understand,
greatly facilitate their culture. ‘Then the plant-
ing and distribution of such fry can be controlled
with great ease. There can be no shadow of
doubt as to the success of trout-hatching and
distribution in this country, and still more of
carp-rearing as it has been practised in Germany.
In the latter country the art of carp-rearing
is perfectly understood, and a literature, both
philosophical and technical, exists with regard
to this subject.” Pisciculture with regard to the
carp in Germany is quite an industry, just as

1 Fishes like the salmon or shad, which migrate regularly from the

sea into rivers, and vice versa.

2 See U.S. Fish Commission Report for 1884 (1886), pp. 467-655.
21

322 BRITISH FISHERIES

it is likely to become in the United States with
respect to many fresh-water fishes. In the latter
country the culture of these species appears to be
highly successful, and it can even be compared
with the introduction of the rabbit into Australia,
for in some cases fish-culture has been attended
with pernicious results.‘ But it must be repeated
that we cannot justifiably utilise the unequivocal
success which has attended fresh-water pisciculture
as an argument in favour of the utility of what is
a very different and a much more difficult thing,
viz. marine pisciculture. Indeed, we can hardly
say that the utility of the artificial culture of a
British anadromous fish like the salmon is beyond
question.

Marine fish-culture, as a means of restoring the
productivity of an impoverished fishing ground,
cannot be said to have emerged from the purely
experimental stage in Great Britain. The only
marine fish hatcheries at present in existence in
our country are those of the Scottish Fishery Board
at Aberdeen, the Lancashire and Western Sea-
Fisheries Committee at Piel, and the Manx
Fishery Board at Port Erin. None of these
institutions has received the financial support
necessary for developing them to the extent

1 See Reports of the Inspectors of Salmon Fisheries for England
and Wales for 1897 and 1898, pp. 14 and 6 respectively.

2 See Report of the Royal Commission on the Salmon Fisheries,
1902, p. 55 [Cd. 1188].

MARINE PISCICULTURE 323

necessary for giving the method—as an economic
process—a fair and adequate trial, and all are to a
large extent purely scientific organisations. It is
therefore unnecessary to argue as to the results
achieved—except experimentally—in Great Britain.
With regard to America, there are great difficulties
in the way of arriving at a correct estimate of the
benefit conferred on the sea-fisheries there by the
sea-fish hatcheries at Wood’s Hole and Gloucester,
and the same is to be said of the Newfoundland
hatchery at Dildo. No American investigator
thoroughly conversant with local conditions has
attempted a critical analysis of the methods and
results. This has been done by Mr C. E. Fryer,
one of the English Inspectors of Sea-Fisheries,'
and so far Mr Fryer’s argument, that no useful
results have been obtained, has not satisfactorily
been answered. But American fishery statistics
throw very little light on the problem. It
ought to be stated, however, that the Americans
themselves, so far as one can judge from the
official publications, are thoroughly impressed with
the value of their methods, and regard them as
having yielded notable results.

In Norway, results of much value have been
claimed by Captain Dannevig, the pioneer of sea-
fish hatching. In that country, however, the
conditions are different from those with which we

1 Reports of the Inspectors of Sea-Fisheries (England and Wales)
for 1895 and 1897, pp. 22 and 29 respectively.

324 BRITISH FISHERIES

are familiar on this side of the North Sea. Out-
side the coast of Norway, and at a distance of only
a few miles from land, there is a great submarine
depression where the depth is never less than 100
fathoms, and, quite near to the site of the Flodevigen
hatchery, is in one place as much as 450 fathoms.
This Norwegian depression isolates a narrow strip
of fishing ground from the relatively shallow-
water fishing grounds of the Skagerack and North
Sea, and may possibly form a barrier across which
the more stationary fishes like the cod and plaice
find it difficult to pass. Although restricted in
area, this coastal region, because of the numerous
fjords, bays, and inlets on the mainland, and the
islands which fringe the latter, and the character of
the sea-bottom, forms an excellent fishing ground,
and one having the great practical advantage of
being accessible to the fishermen in all weathers.
Strong tides and currents are absent, and fry planted
in these waters are not likely to be carried out to
sea. But, on account of its very limited extent,
this fishing ground is very easily over-fished, and,
according to Dannevig, this is what has happened
during the last fifty years or so. It therefore
presented an area where the prosecution of sea-fish
culture was likely to be attended with success,
and, according to Dannevig, this success is beyond
question. The planting of cod fry for many years
was associated by him, and by a number of fishermen,
with the increase of cod of the smaller sizes. Not

MARINE PISCICULTURE 325

only so, but the fishes in question were claimed to
belong to a variety differing slightly from those
normally present on the fishing grounds dealt with,
and were claimed to have been those resulting
from the growth of the fry produced in the
hatchery.

It is difficult to discuss this question of the
success of the Norwegian cod-hatching operations
here, and I will only point out that the utility of
the practice, so far as it refers to the Norwegian
fisheries, has been very severely criticised by Dr J.
Hjort, the official chief of the Norwegian fisheries
administration, who has maintained that the useful
results are imperceptible. Dr Hjort’s views have
obtained wide currency among those interested in
these questions in this country, and it is rather
unfortunate that Captain Dannevig’s defence is not
so well known.! The whole matter is very
technical, and can hardly be discussed here. But
it ought to be remembered that, even if it is
certain that Dannevig’s cod-hatching operations
have had an economic success commensurate with
the money spent on them, this can hardly be used
as an argument in favour of sea-fish culture in this
country, where, so far as we know, conditions
similar to those outlined above do not exist.”

1 Dannevig’s defence of his work is published in a Norwegian
fishery journal. It is, unfortunately, written in Norwegian, and is
therefore practically inaccessible to the majority of English readers.

2 The nearest approach to them is in such an area as Upper
Loch Fyne. But there is no plaice fishery there.

326 BRITISH FISHERIES

Successfully to deal, by artificial culture, with
such areas as the North Sea or the Irish Sea would
be quite impossible. This is evident when we
come to consider the scale on which fish-cultural
operations would have to be conducted. Hensen!
and Apstein found that in the North Sea in 1895
there were over 31 billions of plaice eggs and embryos,
and this estimate was most probably under the
mark. Even in such a small area as Loch
Fyne, Williamson found 483 millions of plaice eggs
to have been present during one season.?_ Even if
we try to consider the number of mature plaice
landed in England from the fishing grounds, and
attempt to form an estimate of the loss of fry
which has, presumably, to be made good, the
impossibility of hatching operations becomes very
evident. Holt® estimated that over 17 millions
of mature female plaice were landed at Grimsby
alone in one year (ending March 1894). It is
quite impossible to determine what is the total
number of such fish landed from the North Sea
fishing grounds by all the fishing boats working
there, and still more, what is the annual reduction
of this fish population which has to be made good
by taking advantage of the immunity which the
hatchery confers on the fish and eggs dealt with.
But the figures I have quoted above will suffice

1 Wissensch. Meeresunt., Kiel Komm., Bd. ii. Heft 2, p. 71, 1897.
2 Report, Fishery Board for Scotland, for 1898, pt. iii. p. 79.
3 Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass., vol. iv. No. 4, p. 414, 1897.

MARINE PISCICULTURE 327

to show on what an enormous scale economic
hatching operations would have to be conducted.

Finally, it may be observed that our relative
ignorance, both scientific and statistical, of the
condition of the fisheries, and of many portions of
the life-histories of economic fishes, is so great as
to prevent us from undertaking sea-fish culture in
what may be called an intelligent manner. It has
been assumed, in this discussion of the matter, that
impoverishment of the fisheries with regard to any
one species can be made good by adding to the
number of fry (fishes at the stage of the meta-
morphosis) of that species already present in the sea.
But it is not even certain that by doing so we
should be making any sensible increase in the
number of fishes of marketable size on the fishing
grounds ; for we do not know that the mortality
at about this stage is of so much significance as
that between it and the stage at which the fish
becomes of value to the fishermen. (It is much
more probable that protection of the immature,
but just marketable, fish is the step most likely
to be of direct economic value.) There are so
many things to be considered before we can under-
take fish-culture in any particular locality, with
any degree of confidence of success, and we
know so little of them, that lengthy scientific
investigation must, in each case, precede the
purely economic work.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I

REPORTS OF THE PRINCIPAL PUBLIC INQUIRIES
INTO THE CONDITION OF THE FISHERIES
HELD IN MODERN TIMES

On ty the more important Reports are mentioned, but
all those of interest to the general student of the sea-
fishing industry are included. Many other documents
of special interest may be traced in the classified indices
of Parliamentary Papers. The short titles are those by
which the Reports are usually known.

1837. Royal Commission on Irish Fisheries.—
“Report of the Commissioners of Inquiry into the State
of the Irish Fisheries.” Reports I. and II.; pp. xxiv+
452 and pp. v+ 71.

1863. Royal Commission on Herring Trawling.
—‘“ Report of the Royal Commission on the Operation
of the Acts relating to Trawling for Herrings on the Coasts
of Scotland.” Report and Appendix, pp. 37 ; Evidence,
pp- 34. (This is the Report by Dr Lyon Playfair, Prof.
Huxley, and Col. Maxwell which led to the repeal of the
repressive herring trawling legislation. It contains Prof.
Allman’s account of the natural history of the herring.)

1866. Royal Commission of 1863.—“ Report of
the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the Sea-
Fisheries of the United Kingdom.” Report and Appen-
dix, pp. cvii+72 ; Evidence, pp. 1409. (Historically the
most important inquiry of modern times. The appendix

331

332 BRITISH FISHERIES

contains Holdsworth’s article on fishing methods and:
implements.)

1870. Report on Coast and Deep-sea Fisheries
of Ireland. — “Report on the Coast and Deep-sea
Fisheries of Ireland by the Royal Commissioners on
Irish Oyster Fisheries.” pp. 42. [C. 226.] (Includes
an historical summary of the decadence of the Irish sea-
fisheries.)

1878. Report on the Herring Fisheries of
Scotland. — “Report on the Herring Fisheries of
Scotland, by F. Buckland, Esq., and Spencer Walpole,
Esq. (Inspectors of Salmon Fisheries for England and
Wales); and A. Young, Advocate (Commissioner of
Scottish Salmon Fisheries).” pp. lvit+246. [C. 1979.]

1879. Sea-Fisheries Commission of 1879. —
“ Report by Frank Buckland, Esq., and Spencer Walpole,
Esq., Inspectors of Fisheries for England and Wales,
and Commissioners for Sea-Fisheries, on the Sea-Fisheries
of England and Wales.” pp. xl+282. [C. 2449.]
(Includes appendix by Buckland, giving an account of
the natural history of fishes.)

1881. Outrages committed by Foreign Fisher-
men in the North Sea.—“ Report by W. H. Higgin,
Esq., Q.C., on the Outrages committed by Foreign upon
English Fishermen in the North Sea.” pp. 68. [C. 2878.]

1883. Sea-Fishing Trade Committee.—“ Report
of a Committee appointed under a Minute of the Board
of Trade to inquire into, and report whether any, and
what, legislation is desirable with a view to placing the
relations between the masters and crews of fishing vessels
on a more satisfactory basis.” pp. xlii+665. [C. 3432.]
(Deals, inter alta, with “ coopering ” in the North Sea.)

1885. Royal Commission on Trawling. —
“Report of the Commissioners appointed to inquire and
report upon the complaints that have been made by line
and drift-net fishermen of injuries sustained by them in
their calling owing to the use of the trawl-net and beam-

APPENDICES 433

trawl in the territorial waters of the United Kingdom.”
pp. xliv+ 517. [C.4324.] (Appendix contains M‘Intosh’s
report on trawling observations and scientific results.)

1888. Liquor Traffic in the North Sea.
“Correspondence respecting the Liquor Traffic in the
North Sea.” pp. xcvui. [C. 5263.]

1893. Select Committee of 1893.—“ Report from
the Select Committee on Sea-Fisheries.” pp. xxiv+ 472.
1893, 377. (Deals with the whole condition of the
fisheries, but with special reference to the immature fish
question, and the question of fisheries impoverishment.
The appendices contain statistical tables.)

1900. Select Committee of 1900. — “Special
Report from the Select Committee on the Sea-Fisheries
Bill.” pp. xvi+180. 1900, 287. (Deals with the
Immature Fish Bill of 1900: brings questions discussed
in 1893 up to date.)

1901. Sea-Fisheries Restrictive Legislation in
Foreign Countries.—“ Return to an Address of the
Hon. the House of Commons, dated 13th December 1900,
for ‘Return of the precise position of foreign law affecting
sea-fisheries, 19th July 1901.” pp. 155. 1901, 271.
(The response to the complaint of the Select Committee
of 1900 that the Board of Trade had no information
regarding fishery laws in other countries. Professes to
give an account of foreign restrictive fishery laws.)

1902. Committee on Fishery Statistics. —
“Report of the Interdepartmental Committee appointed
to inquire into the system of collecting Fisheries Statistics
in England and Wales, and to report how it could be
improved and extended.” pp. xili+ 74.

1903. Committee on Ichthyological Research.
—Report of the Committee appointed to inquire and
report as to the best means by which the State or Local
Authorities can assist scientific research as applied to
problems affecting the Fisheries of Great Britain and
Ireland.” pp. xxv +168.

334 BRITISH FISHERIES

1904. Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal.
—“Fourth Report of the Commissioners appointed in
1898 to inquire and report what methods of treatin
and disposing of sewage (including any liquid from
any factory or manufacturing process) may properly be
adopted.” Vol. i., Report, pp. xliv. [Cd. 1883]; vol.
i, Evidence, pp. 283 [Cd. 1884]; vol. iii., Reports by
Dr Houston on bacteriological methods, etc., pp. viii+
316[Cd. 1885]. (These reports deal with the contamina-
tion of the fisheries.)

1904. Select Committee of 1904.—“ Report from
the Select Committee of the House of Lords on the Sea-
Fisheries Bill (H.L.).” pp. xvit+192, 4 charts. 1904,
36. (Report on the Immature Fish Bill of 1904.)

APPENDIX II

OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS OF BRITISH FISHERIES
AUTHORITIES

ScoTLaAND

1. “Annual Report of the Fishery Board for Scotland.”
Pt. I., General Report (administration and statistics) ;
Pt. II., Salmon Fisheries (administration and research) ;
Pt. III., Scientific Investigations. Occasional papers are

also published.

ENGLAND

2. “Sea-Fisheries (England and Wales). Annual
Reports of the Inspectors ” (administrative).

3. “Salmon and Fresh-water Fisheries (England and
Wales). Annual Reports of the Inspectors of Fisheries”
(administrative).

4. “Copy of Statistical Tables and Memorandum
relating to the Sea-Fisheries of the United Kingdom, etc.

APPENDICES 335

(statistics). (Monthly reports are also issued to fishery
authorities.) See also “Annual Statements of Trade of
the United Kingdom” for details of fish imported and
exported.

5. “Journal of the Marine Biological Association ”
(scientific research; published at irregular intervals.
Not strictly an official report; but, as the Association
receives Treasury aid, it is to be regarded as “semi-
official.”’)

6. Lancashire and Western Sea-Fisheries Joint Com-
mittee. ‘“Superintendent’s Report” (administrative ;
published quarterly). ‘Report of the Lancashire Sea-
Fisheries Laboratory ”’ (scientific ; published annually).

7. “Report on the Scientific Investigations carried on
under the Northumberland Sea- Fisheries Committee”

(published annually).

TRELAND

8. “Report on the Sea and Inland Fisheries of
Ireland.” Pt. I., General Report (administration and
statistics); Pt. II., Scientific Investigations. Both
published annually.

g. “Report of the Congested Districts Board.” (Deals
with Government assistance to the sea-fishing industry ;

published annually.)

Istze or Man

10. “Annual Report of the Committee, Isle of Man
Fish Hatchery.”

DenMaARK

t1. “Conseil Permanent International pour I’Explora-
tion de la Mer: Bulletin des Résultats.”

12. “Conseil Permanent International pour |’Explora-
tion de la Mer: Publications de Circonstance.”

(11 and 12 are the official publications of the North
European international fishery investigation organisation.

336 BRITISH FISHERIES

11 is published in English and German in parallel
columns. 12 is published in various European languages.
II appears quarterly ; 12 at irregular intervals.)

APPENDIX III
THE FISHERIES STATUTES

Onty the more important enactments are mentioned
here. In addition to the Statutes, there are a number
of Provisional Orders made under various Acts, and
Orders in Council of like origin. The Merchant
Shipping Acts contain provisions dealing with fishing
vessels. Enactments dealing solely with the fresh-water
fisheries are not included."

1. Tue Sea-Fisueries Acts, ENGLAND AND GENERAL

Sea-Fisheries Act, 1868 (31 and 32 Vict. c. 45)
—Confirms Convention between Great Britain and France,
and gives Crown power to make Orders in Council
regulating conduct of fishing boats at sea. Deals with
registry of fishing vessels, and oyster fisheries. Repeals
a number of obsolete Acts. (General.)

Sea-Fisheries Act, 1875 (38 Vict. c. 15). —
Amends 31 and 32 Vict. c. 45.

Fisheries (Oysters, Crabs, and Lobsters) Act,
1877 (40 and 41 Vict. c. 42).—Establishes “close time”
for oysters. Gives Board of Trade power temporarily
to prohibit or restrict oyster fishing. Regulates crab and
lobster fishing. Revives Convention of 1843. (General.)

Fisheries Act, 1883 (46 and 47 Vict. c. 22).—

Confirms Convention between Great Britain, Germany,

1 See, however, a list ‘of these by C, E. Fryer.

APPENDICES 337

Belgium, France, Denmark, and Holland, and gives Crown
power to make Orders in Council regulating fishing at sea
in interest of the maintenance of good order. (General.)

Sea-Fisheries Act, 1884 (47 and 48 Vict. c. 27).
—Amends Sea-Fisheries Act, 1868. (General.)

Fisheries Act, 1891 (54 and 55 Vict. c. 37).—
Confirms Declaration between Great Britain and Belgium

providing for simpler legal procedure in fishery disputes.
(General.)

North Sea Fisheries Act, 1893 (56 and 57
Vict. c. 17).—Confirms Hague Convention of 1887
between Great Britain, Germany, Belgium, Denmark, and
Holland, prohibiting the liquor traffic in the North Sea.
(General.)

2. Tue Sea-Fisnerres Recuiation Acts .

Sea-Fisheries Regulation Act, 1888 (51 and 52
Vict. c. 54).—Provides for local regulation of the sea-
fisheries by District Committees.

Fisheries Act, 1891 (54 and 55 Vict. c. 37).—
Part II. confers additional powers on District Fisheries
Committees.

Sea-Fisheries (Shell-fish) Act, 1894 (57 and 58
Vict. c. 26).—Extends powers of District Committees
with respect to shell-fish and scientific investigations.

3. Tue Centrat Autuority, Encranp anp WALES

Salmon Fishery Act, 1861 (24 and 25 Vict.
c. 109).—Provides for superintendence by Home Office
Inspectors of the salmon fisheries.

Salmon and Fresh-water Fisheries Act, 1886
(49 and 50 Vict. c. 39).—Transfers superintendence
of salmon fisheries to Board of Trade, and extends s. 32

22

338 BRITISH FISHERIES

of Salmon Fishery Act, 1861, so as to include sea-
fisheries.

Board of Agriculture and Fisheries Act, 1903
(3 Edw. VII. c. 31).—Transfers superintendence of
fisheries to Board of Agriculture.

4. Tue ScorrisH FisHery Boarp!

Act for the Encouragement of the British
White Herring Fishery, 1808 (48 Geo. III. c.
110).—Established the “ Board of British White Herring
Fishery.”

Fishery Board (Scotland) Act, 1882 (45 and 46
Vict. c. 78).—Dissolved the White Herring Board and
constituted the Fishery Board for Scotland.

Secretary for Scotland Act, 1885 (48 and 49
Vict. c. 61).—Appointed a Secretary for Scotland, and
transferred to him the powers previously vested in the
Home Office with respect to the Scottish sea-fisheries.

Sea-Fisheries (Scotland) Amendment Act, 1885
(48 and 49 Vict. c. 70).—Empowered Fishery Board
to prohibit or restrict trawling ; provides for lettering and
numbering steam trawlers ; gives Board power to demand
statistical information from fishermen, etc. ; regulates
procedure in case of damages to fishing boats, etc. ; gives
Board powers under Sea-Fisheries Acts and under
Fisheries (Oyster, Crab, and Lobster) Act, 1877.

Sea-Fisheries Regulation (Scotland) Act, 1895
(58 and 59 Vict. c. 42).—Reconstituted Fishery Board ;
appointed scientific superintendent ; empowers Board to
establish district committees as in England ; gives Board
power, with certain limitations, to prohibit trawling within
thirteen miles of low-water mark; gives Board power
to regulate, lease, etc., mussel fisheries.

1 There are altogether fifty-nine statutes regulating the Scottish fisheries. See
Manual of Sea-Fisheries (Scotland) Acts and Statutory Bye-laws in force at 31st
December 1900, pp. 285 [Cd. 428], 1901. Complete text of Acts and by-laws.

APPENDICES 339

§. Scottish Herrinc Fisnery Acts

Herring Fisheries (Scotland) Act, 1865 (28
Vict. c. 22).—This amended several existing Acts, and
made herring fishing illegal on the west coast of Scotland,
south of Ardnamurchan Point, between February 1 and
May 31.

Herring Fisheries (Scotland) Act, 1867 (30 and
31 Vict. c. 52).—Removed certain restrictions on herring
fishing.

Herring Fishery (Scotland) Act, 1889 (52 and 53
Vict. c. 23).—This Act is far more important than its
title indicates. It legalised certain measures for use in the
trade ; it made herring fishing illegal on Sundays and on
week-days from sunrise to sunset, on the west coast
south of Ardnamurchan Point ; it made trawling illegal
in Scottish territorial waters and in a number of scheduled
areas, including the Moray Firth and the Firth of Clyde ;
and it made the landing of fish caught in contravention of
the by-laws illegal on the Scottish coasts.

Herring Fishery (Scotland) Amendment Act,
1890 (53 and 54 Vict. c. 10).—Increased the penalty
for trawling in Scottish prohibited waters.

6. Iris Srs-FISHERIES

Irish fishery legislation is extremely complex. There
are altogether about forty enactments applying to the
industry.’ The foundation of the existing code is—

Fisheries (Ireland) Act, 1842 (5 and 6 Vict. c.
106). Subsequent Acts may be regarded as amending or
extending this one. Statutory by-laws are very numer-
ous. A great number of enactments impose judicial
duties on, and vest powers in, the inspectors. Other
Acts provide for the encouragement of the industry, by
loans to fishermen, and, as in the case of Scotland, by

1 See Manual of Fisheries (Ireland) Acts, pp. 397+xxvi, 1904 [Cd. 2277], for
the text of the purely Irish Acts.

340 BRITISH FISHERIES '

grants for building and repairing piers and harbours. A
new departure was made in 1899 by the

Agriculture and Technical Instruction (Ire-
land) Act, 1899, which created a new department with
largely increased powers and with a fairly ample vote for
the expenses of administration. Besides control of the
industry, piscicultural operations, technical instruction,
and scientific investigation became the duties of this
department.

APPENDIX IV
LOCAL REGULATIONS

Recutations made by District Committees vary from
county to county. Those in force in the Lancashire and
Western Sea-Fisheries District (all the English and Welsh
coast from Cumberland to Milford Haven) are abstracted
below : they will serve as an example of the general code
of local regulations.

AsstTract OF LANCASHIRE AND WESTERN COUNTIES
Fisueries By-Laws

Trawling for sea-fishes (except shell - fish,
mackerel, herrings, sparling, or garfish)—The mesh of
the trawl-net must not be less than 13 inches from knot
to knot, except during part of the year in certain specified
inshore areas, where it is legal to use a mesh of 14 inches
from knot to knot.

Dimensions of the trawl-nets to be used.—For
an 18-feet beam, the circumference of the net must not be
less than 50 meshes ; for a beam over 18 and less than
25, the net must not have less than 60 meshes in its

1Sce Annual Reports of Inspectors of Sea-Fisheries (England and Wales), for
the full text of all the English District Committees’ by-laws.

APPENDICES 341

circumference ; and if the length of the beam is over 25

feet, the circumference of the net must not be less than
80 meshes.

Mackerel, herring, sparling, and garfish nets
must not be less than 1 inch from knot to knot.

Drift-nets must not be deeper than 200 meshes.

Shrimp and prawn trawl-nets.—The mesh must
not be less than 2 inch from knot to knot. The
minimum circumference is: for a 20-feet beam, 120
meshes ; over 20-feet beam, 140 meshes. The length of
the beam must not exceed 25 feet. (Other local forms
of nets have their dimensions defined.)

Steam trawl vessels are prohibited absolutely from
fishing in territorial waters.

Stake-nets must be marked with the owner’s name,
and must be marked by poles or buoys, so that they are
visible at high water. They must not be set in navigable
shallow channels. They must have meshes of not less
than 12 inches from knot to knot. Different stake-nets
must be at least 150 yards apart. Stake-nets must not
be longer than 300 yards.

Cockles must not be “removed from a fishery” if
they are so small that they will pass through a gauge
having a square opening of +3ths of an inch. Fishing
implements in local use have their dimensions regulated.

Mussels must not be taken if they are less than 2
inches long. ‘The dimensions of local fishing implements
are regulated.

Oysters must not be taken if they are less than
24 inches in diameter.

Crabs must not be taken if they are “ berried,” that
is, if they are females carrying spawn. They must not
be less than 5 inches across the broadest part of the back.

Lobsters must not be taken if they are “ berried,”
nor if they are less than 9 inches in total length.

342 BRITISH FISHERIES

Methods of fishing are only permissible if they are
permitted in the by-laws ; or if they are hooks and lines,
or “pots, hooks, or baskets for taking eels, prawns,
crabs, or whelks” ; or if they are “ hedge-baulks” in use
previous to August 9, 1893, and in accordance with
certain regulations.

Deposit of sewage or refuse in the sea.—This
is prohibited, but because of the saving provisions of the
various enactments concerned, this prohibition is purely
nominal, and cannot be enforced.

“ Close seasons.”—Sparling must not be taken from
April 1 to October 31 following. Mussels must not be
taken from April 1 to August 31 following.

Closed areas.—An area of about 10 square miles off
Blackpool is “ closed” against all kinds of trawling.

“ Removal from a fishery.”—Fishes or shell-fishes
must not be “ removed from a fishery” if the capture of
such is in any way or in any circumstances illegal. But
the meaning of “removal from a fishery” is not always
clear.

Bona-fide fishing.—In fishing for any food-animal
with an apparatus permissible for the capture of that
animal, it is imperative that a fisherman should not take
any other animal, the capture of which is illegal with the
apparatus he is using. But if a fisherman is bona fide
fishing for (say) shrimps with a trawl-net of 3-inch mesh,
he may take fishes over certain specified sizes, even
though the use of a shrimp-net for the capture of these
fishes is illegal with the apparatus he is using.

Scientific investigations, etc.—The regulations
in force do not apply to persons fishing for scientific
purposes, or for stocking or breeding purposes, provided
that the written authority of the Committee, through their
clerks, has been obtained.

Penalties.—A maximum fine of £20, and a maximum
continuing penalty of £10 per day, may be enforced for

APPENDICES 343

breach of the by-laws. Illegal fishing implements may
be forfeited.

Powers of officers.—Include stoppage and search of
vessels and vehicles employed in fishing or in conveying
fish. Fisheries officers have the powers and privileges of,
and are subject to the liabilities of, constables in their
constablewicks, under common and statute law.

APPENDIX V

COST OF FISHERY ADMINISTRATION IN THE
UNITED KINGDOM, 1go1-2

Ir is difficult to give an exact estimate of the total sum
expended in fishery administration. This is particularly
the case with respect to the English Central Authority.
The public accounts do not appear to give any informa-
tion as to the proportion of the whole vote for the Board
of Trade which was expended by the Fisheries Depart-
ment. The estimate of £2500 is founded on the
statement of salaries given in Whitaker's Almanac.

England and Wales
Fisheries Department, Board of Trade (about) £2,500!

Vote for fisheries statistics . : , ‘ 1,600
Incidental expenses under Sea-Fisheries
Acts : : ‘ ; ; : . 100
Grant to Marine Biological Association ‘ 1,000 2
Expenditure by Local Fisheries Committees 17,2188
——_ _ £22,418
Carry forward £22,418

1 Since the transfer of the fisheries staff to the Board of Agriculture and
Fisheries this expenditure must have increased.

2 The English share of the international fishery investigations was carried on
by the Marine Biological Association, which received the proportion of the grant
on these investigations allocated to England. :

3 Nearly £11,000 of this total sum was expended by the Lancashire and
Western Sea- Fisheries Committee alone.

344 BRITISH FISHERIES

Brought forward £22,418

Scotland

Vote for Fishery Board . é . £18,097
Provision for Fishery Board expenses in
other estimates 3 7 ‘ 2,903
Vote for scientific investigations !. i P 77°
Treasury allowance to fishery correspondents
collecting fishery statistics ‘ ‘ : 730
22,500

Ireland

Vote for fishery purposes to the Department
of Agriculture and Technical Instruction . 10,000

Isle of Man
Annual grant of £200 for the fish hatchery . 200

Great Britain

One year’s expenditure on International
Fishery Investigations. ‘ ‘ : 16,000

Total, . ‘ : ‘ : : A71,118

1 Reduced this year by £2000, because of the grant for the international
fishery investigations. A large proportion of this was given to the Scottish
Fishery Board, and the naturalists on the scientific staff were thereupon engaged on
these investigations,

APPENDICES 345

APPENDIX VI
IMPORTS, EXPORTS, AND RE-EXPORTS OF FISH!

1. Imports of Fish into the United Kingdom in the

Year 1902
Kind of Fish From British | From other Foreign Countri
. Possessions. ‘rom other Foreign Countries. Total.
Quantities in Cwts.

Fresh herrings. 952 414,046 (Norway, chiefly ?) 414,998
Other fresh fish . 59,659 174,316 (Europe, generally) 233,975
Shell-fish (all ae) 3,482 241,213 (Holland, U.S.A.) 244,695
Sardines ‘ 273 252,174 (France, Portugal) 252,447
Canned salmon . 368,938 452,486 (U.S.A.) 821,424
Canned lobsters. 37,325 13,353 (U.S.A.) 50,678
Other canned fish . 209 30,198 (Norway, U.S.A.) 30,407
Other fish cured

or salted, but not

canned. ‘ 149,754 383,681 (Norway, Denmark) | 533,435

_

Totals . , 620, 592 3961, 467 2,582,059

Values in £s.

Fresh herrings. 486 150,912 151,398
Other fresh fish. 64,700 326,211 390,911
Shell-fish (all caus 11,862 183,289 195,151
Sardines : 444 638,247 638,691
Canned salmon . 890,631 908,156 1,798,787
Canned lobsters . 190,532 70,423 260,955
Other canned fish . 235 71,988 72,223
Other fish cured
or salted, but not
canned. . 157,404 443,266 600,672
Totals . . | 1,316,294 | 2,792,492 4,108,786

1 See Annual Statement of Trade of the United Kingdom in 1902 (1903)

(Cd. 1582].
2 The countries’ names are those from which the bulk of the fish is imported.

346 BRITISH FISHERIES

2. Exports of Fish, the Produce of the Fisheries of the
United Kingdom, in 1902 *

To British Possessions. To Foreign Countries. Total.
Herrings 7,140 2,243,032 2,250,172
(in barrels)
Salmon : F 40 53633 5,673
(in cwts.)
Pilchards .. ° 15,365 15,365
(in hogsheads) i
Unenumerated fish
(quantities are
not given)
Value in £s,
Herrings .. 8,502 2,925,416 2,933,918
Salmon 3 é 421 39,579 40,000
Pilchards : fo) 45,674 45,674
Unenumerated fish 254,725 432,275 687,000
Total . 263,648 31442,944 3,706,592

3. Re-exports of Fish (i.e. exports of fish previously imported),
Foreign and Colonial Produce, 1902*

ger es
Fresh fish . . : , : 1,889 4,496
Cured or salted . F ‘ é 437,884 804,826

Total . «we 439,773 809,322

1 Annual Statement of Trade,
2 Statéstical Tables and Memorandum for 1902 (1903, 112).

Notes.—The bulk of the fish exported from the British Islands consists of cured
herrings ; thus, of the total export in 1902 of 43,706,592, nearly £3,000,000
represents the value of this fish. The greater portion of cured herrings exported
are fish caught and cured in Scotland. The total number of barrels exported in
1902 was just over two and a quarter millions, and of this enormous quantity
about one and a half million were shipped from Scottish ports. Germany is the
principal customer, receiving well over a million barrels. Then. come Russia,
Norway and Sweden. The principal ports to which cured herrings are exported
are Stettin, Konigsberg, Hamburg, Danzig, St Petersburg, and Riga.

1

INDEX

Act—

Clam and Bait Beds (1881), 31.

Convention (1843), 7.

Fishery Board (Scotland)
(1882), 84.

Fisheries (Oysters, Crabs, and
Lobsters) (1877), 47, 58.

Herring Fishery (1867), 26

Herring Fishery (Scotland)
(1889), 41, 85.

North Sea Fisheries (1893), 53.

repressive Herring Trawling
Acts, 11.

Salmon Fishery (1861), 31,
54, 99- ;
Salmon and Fresh-water Fish-

eries (1886), 31, 57, 2
Sea-Fisheries (1868), 28
Sea-Fisheries (1882), 49.

Sea - Fisheries (Scotland)

Amendment, 1885, 39, 85,

98, 236.

Sea-Fisheries (1891), 50, 58,
67.

Sea - laeege Regulation

(1888), 57;
Sea-F ede (Shell: -fish) Regu-
lation (1894), 58, 68.
Sea-Fisheries (Scotland) Regu-
lation (1895), 68, 85.
Allman, Professor, 88. _
American Fish Commission, 141.
Anchovies and sea temperatures,
200.

Bacteria in the sea, 195.
Baltic, variations in temperature

of, 206.
Beam-trawl, xxiii.
Billingsgate, under-sized fish

landed at, 278.

Board of Agriculture and Fish-
eries, 113.

Board of British White Herring
Fishery, 75.

Board of Manufactures, Scotland,

75:

Board of Trade, Fisheries De-
partment, 110.

Bounties on fish landed in Scot-
land, 76.

Brady, Sir T., 33.

Brands, Scottish herring, 79.

Buckland, Frank, 30, 154.

Butterfish, breeding habits of,
156.

Caine, Mr W. S., 33.
Caird, Sir J., 17.
Capital invested
fisheries, xix.
Carp-rearing in Germany, 321.
Challenger expedition, 181,
200.
Closed area in North Sea pro-
posed by N.S F.P.A., 63.
Cockles, method of fishing,
XXX,

in Scottish

3474

348

Commissions and Committees,
Reports of—
Committeeon Fishery Statistics
(1902), 226, 241, 333.
Foreign Restrictive Legislation
(1901), 333.
House of Commons Com-
mittee (1833), 19.
Ichthyological Research
(1903), 108, 219, 333
Liquor Traffic in North Sea
(1888), 333.
Report on North Sea Outrages,
48, 332,
Royal Commission on Herring
Trawling (1862), 331.
Royal Commission of 1863,
17, 331:
Royal Commission on _ Irish
Oyster Fisheries (1870), 116,
121, 331.
Royal Commission on Sewage
Disposal (1904), 334.
Sea-Fisheries Commission of
1378, 30, 332.
Select Committee of 1893, 59,
333- f
Select Committee of 1900, 333.
Select Committee of 1904, 334.
Trawling Commission of 1885,
29, 332.
Conferences—
at Hague in 1886, 52.
at Hull in 1890, 62.
at London in 1891, 63.
Conservators, Boards of, 58.
Conventions—
International, of 1839, 31.
International, of 1867, 47.
North Sea, of 1882, 48.
Cornwall Sea-Fisheries
mittee, 106.
Crabs, methods of fishing, xxx.

Com-

DatuHousi£, LorD, 33.
Dannevig, Captain, 324.
Demersal fish ova, 163.

BRITISH FISHERIES

Density of sea-water, 204.

Development of fish ova, 164.

Devon Sea-Fisheries Committee,
107.

Diatoms and animal life, 191.

Dog-fishes, breeding habitsof, 155.

Drift-net fishing, xxvi.

Dutch herring fishing in Scottish
waters in 1594, 74.

Ewart, Professor J. C., 89, 154.
Exports of fish, 345.

FEcunpity of fishes, 158.
Fish, average price of, 261.
food of, 173.
landed in Britain, 260.
landed, value of, xix.
Fishermen employed in Britain,
xviii.
Fishery administration, cost of,

343-
Fishery Board for Scotland—

constitution of, 85.

fishery cruisers belonging to,
86.

fishery officers of, 86.

nature of Treasury grant, 70.

origin of, 74.

scientific work of, 87.

system of collecting statistics,

235.
Fishery Board proposed for
England, 67.
Fishery laboratories—
at Dunbar, 91.
at Aberdeen, g1.
at Piel, 307.
at Plymouth, 112.
at Port Erin, 307.
at St Andrews, go.
at Tarbert, 91.
Fryer on fish-hatching, Mr C. E.,

323.
GLAMORGAN Sea-Fisheries Com-

mittee, 109.
Goodsir, Mr H., 87.

INDEX

Green, Rev. J. Spotswood, 131.
Grimsby, fish landed at, 320.
plaice landed at, 270.

HakckEL, Professor E., 180, 188.
Hatcheries, fish—

in Britain, 322.

in America, 323.

in Newfoundland, 323.

in Norway, 323.
Heincke, Herr Fr., 139.
Helgoland biological station, 137.
Herring landed, value of, xix,
Higgin, Mr W. H., 48.
Hjort, Dr J., 325.
Huxley, Professor, 17, 33.

Immature fish question, 273.
Immature fishes in North Sea, 64.
Imports of fish, 345.
International fishery investiga-
tions—
cost of, 214.
Copenhagen Conference on,
213.
Christiania Conference on, 241.
criticisms of, 219.
International Council for, 213.
nature of, 212.
Select Committee of 1900 on,
210.
Stockholm Conference
2q1.
International survey of North
Sea in 1893, 206.
Trish sea-fisheries—
Board of Inland Navigation,
I2s.
bounties on fish caught, 118,
120.
Commissioners for, 10, 117.
Department of Agriculture and
Technical Instruction, 130.
discouragement of, 116.
potato famine of 1847, effect
on fisheries, 123.
statistics of, xix.,
123, 128,

on,

118, I19,

349

Kre~ Kommission, 134, 153.

LANCASHIRE and Western Sea-
fisheries

Committee, 102,
109.
Lancashire, value of fish landed
in, 232.

Lefevre, Sir J., 80.

Lefevre, Mr G. Shaw, 17.

Legislation, local, 340.

Line fishing, xxvi.

Liquor traffic in North Sea, 5o.

Local fisheries committees,
powers of, 100,

Lumpsucker, breeding habits of,

156.

M‘Intosu, Prof. W. C., 33, 61,
gi, 153.

Mackerel landed in _ Ireland,

value of, xix.
Malm, Professor, 33, 153.
Marine Biological Association,
112.
Marine Society of London, 117.
Marjoribanks, Mr E., 33.
Migrations of fishes, 159, 169.
Morecambe, mussels landed at,
231.
Mussels, method of fishing, xxx.

NaTIONAL Sea-Fisheries Protec-
tion Association, 62.
Nitrogen in the sea, amount of,

194.
North Sea, variations in tempera-
ture of, 206.

Northumberland Sea- Fisheries
Committee, 107.

OTTER-TRAWL, XXV.
Ova of sea-fishes, 161, 188, 200.
Over-fishing—
in Scottish flat-fisheries, 263.
in English trawl fisheries, 265.
causes of, 269.
German opinion on, 245.
Professor M‘Intosh on, 37, 61.

35°

Over-fishing—continued.
Select Committee of 1893 on,
61,
statistical evidence of, 256.
Trawling Commission on, 37.
Oysters, method of fishing, xxx.

PELAGIC fish ova, 162.
Periwinkles, method of fishing,
XXX,
Pipe-fish, breeding habits of, 155.
Plaice eggs in North Sea, number
of, 326.
Plankton, composition of, 178.
quantitative methods of in-
vestigating, 182.
variations of, 178, 185.
German Plankton-Expedition,
136.
Plunket, Sir Horace, 130.
Pollution of fisheries by sewage,
106.
Pommerania, cruise of, 138, 202.
Prawns, method of catching, xxx.
Productivity of the sea, 193.

REcGuLations, local English fish-
ing, 102.

Re-imports of fish, 345.

Restrictions on trawling in Eng-
land, 103.

SALINITY of sea-water, 204.

Sars, Professor G. O., 23, 34, 152.

Seining for herrings in.Clyde, 11.

Seine net fishing, xxvii.

Sexual maturity in fishes, 274.

Shell-fish landed in Britain, value
of, xix.

Shrimp trawling, 281, 288.

Shrimps, methods of fishing, xxx.

Sizes for fish, legal, 8.

Sizes of fish at sexual maturity,

274.
Sizes of fish proposed by N.S.P.A.,
6

3.
Skates, breeding habits of, 155.

BRITISH FISHERIES

Skye, effect of Herring Trawling
Acts in, 14.
Spawning habits of fishes, 155.
Spawning seasons of fishes, 157.
Sprat and whitebait fishing, 276.
Sprat fishing in Forth, 13.
Stake-nets, xxix.
Statistics—
of fisheries in 1863, 15.
of fishing vessels in 1883-1892,
60; in 1883-1902, 260.
of fish landed in Britain in
1903, xix.
Board of Trade, 225, 228.
collection of, by Duke of
Edinburgh, 226.
compulsory returns of, 239.
cost of collection of, 226.
inaccuracy of Board of Trade
Statistics, 229.
Report of Inter-departmental
Committee on, 241.
Stickleback, nesting habit of, 156.

TEMPERATURE Of sea-water, 204.
Territorial limits, 45.
Trammel nets, xxix.
Transplantation of shell-fish, 68.
Trawlers—
decrease of sailing, 257.
in Firth of Clyde, foreign, 43.
number of steam and sailing,
xvii.
Trawling—
experiments, 92, 251.
methods of, xxiii.
restrictions on, 40, 43.

VESSELS, numbers of fishing, xvii.
Viviparous fishes, 155.

WaLkKer, Dr, 87.

Walpole, Sir Spencer, 26, 77.

Weirs, fishing, xxix.

Whitebait, nature of, and method
of fishing, 276.

Wilson, Mr J., 87.

PRINTED BY NEILL AND CO,. LTD., EDINBURGH.

Cable and Telegraphic Address—
“ LIBRORUM, LONDON”

Inland Telegrams—
“LIBRORUM, RAND, LONDON”

P.O. Telephones—
Nos. 2877 CENTRAL and 9570 CITY

A Catalogue
of

Williams & Norgate’s

Publications

LONDON
14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, W.C.

CONTENTS

PAGES

ALPHABETICAL LIST IN ORDER OF AUTHORS’ NAMES _ 1-33

LIST OF LIBRARIES AND SERIES ARRANGED IN
ALPHABETICAL ORDER. . . . « . . 33-43

INDEX OF TITLES . 4 « «© © * «+ & © wee

A CATALOGUE OF

WILLIAMS & NORGATE’S
PUBLICATIONS

ADDIS (W. E., M.A.). Hebrew Religion to the Establish-
ment of Judaism under Ezra. Crown 8vo, cloth. 4s. 6d. net.
See Crown Theological Library, p. 34.

AINSWORTH DAVIS (j. R.) and H. J. FLEURE, B.Sc.
Patella (the Common Limpet). With 4 Plates. 2s. 6d. net.
See Liverpool Marine Biology Committee Memoirs, p. 39.

ALLIN (Rev. THOS.). Universalism asserted as the Hope
of the Gospel on the Authority of Reason, the Fathers, and Holy
‘Scripture. With a Preface by Edna Lyall, anda Letter from Canon
Wilberforce. ‘Crown 8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d: net.

ALVIELLA (Count GOBLET D’). Lectures on the Origin
and the Growth of the Conception of God, as Illustrated by Anthro-
pology and History. Translated by the Rev. P. H. Wicksteed.
Hibbert Lectures, 1891. Cloth, Library Edition, ros. 6d. Popular
Edition, 3s. 6d. ,

ANDREWS (CHARLES M‘LEAN, Ph.D., L.H.D.). The
Colonial Period. F’cap. 8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d. net.

ANGLICAN LIBERALISM. By Twelve Churchmen. Rev.
Hubert Handley, Prof. F. C. Burkitt, M.A., D.D., Rev. J. R.
Wilkinson, M.A., Rev. C. R. Shaw Stewart, M.A., Rev. Hastings
Rashdall, D.Litt., D.C.L., Prof. Percy Gardner, D.Litt., LL.D.,
Sir C. T. Dyke Acland, Rev. A. J. Carlyle, M.A., Rev. H. G. Woods,
D.D., Rev. A. A. Caldcott, D.Litt., D.D., Rev. W. D. Morrison,
LLD., Rev. A. L, Lilley, M.A. Crown 8vo, cloth. 4s. 6d. net.

ASHWORTH (J. H., D.Sc.). Arenicola (the Lug-Worm).
With 8 Plates. 4s. 6d. net. See Liverpool Marine Biology Com-
mittee Memoirs, p. 39.

AVEBURY (Lord, D.C.L., F.R.S.). Prehistoric Times, as
Illustrated by Ancient Remains and the Manners and Customs
of Modern Savages. 6th Edition, revised, with 239 Illustrations,
a large number of which are specially prepared for this Edition.
Demy 8vo, cloth, gilt tops. Cheap Popular Edition, 7s. 6d. net.

AVESTI, PAHLAVI, and ANCIENT PERSIAN STUDIES
in Honour of the late Shams-ul-Ulama Dastur Peshotanji Behramji
Sanjana, M.A., Ph.D. Paper cover, 12s. 6d. net; cloth, 13s. 6d. net.

BACON (Professor B. W., LL.D., D.D.). The Making of the
New Testament. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, rs. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net.
Forming Vol. 56 in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

2 WILLIAMS & NORGATE’S

BACON (ROGER), the “Opus Majus” of. Edited, with Intro-
duction and Analytical Table, by John Henry Bridges, Fellow of
Royal College of Physicians, sometime Fellow of Oriel College.
Complete in 3 vols., 31s. 6d.; Vol. III. sold separately, 7s, 6d.

BAILEY (JOHN, M.A.). Dr Johnson and his Circle. F'cap.
8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. Forming Vol. 64 in Home
University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

BALSILLIE (DAVID, M.A.). An Examination of Professor
Bergson’s Philosophy. Crown 8vo, cloth. 5s. net.

BARRETT (Sir W. F., F.R.S.). Psychical Research. F'cap.
8vo, cloth, 1s. net ; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 28 in the
Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

BARRY (WILLIAM, D.D.). The Papacy and Modern Times
(1303-1870). F’cap. 8vo, cloth, xs. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net.
Forming Vol. 14 in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

BAUR (F.C.). Church History of the First Three Centuries.
Translated from the Third German Edition. Edited by Rev.
Allan Menzies. 2 vols. 8vo, cloth. 12s.

— Paul, the Apostle of Jesus Christ, his Life and Work,
his Epistles and Doctrine. A Contribution to a Critical History
of Primitive Christianity, Edited by Rev. Allan Menzies. 2nd
Edition. 2 vols. 8vo, cloth. 12s.

BAYLEY (HAROLD). The Lost Language of Symbolism.
With above 1400 Symbols. 2 Vols. Medium 8vo, cloth. 25s. net.

BEARD (Rev. Dr C.). Lectures on the Reformation of the
Sixteenth Century in its Relation to Modern Thought and Know-
ledge. Hibbert Lectures, 1883. 8vo, cloth. ros. 6d. Cheap
Edition. 3rd Edition, 3s. 6d.

—— The Universal Christ, and other Sermons, Crown 8vo,
cloth. 7s. 6d.

BEGBIE (HAROLD). See “ Character and Life,” p. 4.

BELLOC (HILAIRE, M.A.). The French Revolution. (With
Maps.) F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s, 6d. net. Forming
Vol. 3 in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

—— Warfare in England. (With Maps.) F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net ;
leather, 2s. 6d. net. Vol. 51 in the Home University Library ;
for list, see p. 38.

BENEDICT (F. E., Ph.D.). Elementary Organic Analysis.
Small 8vo. Pages vit+82. 15 Illustrations. 4s. 6d. net.

BERGEY (D. G.). Handbook of Practical Hygiene. Small
8vo. Pagesv+164. 6s. 6d. net.

BEVAN (Rev. J. O., M.A., F.G.S.). The Genesis and Evolu-
tion of the Individual Soul scientifically Treated. Including
also Problems relating to Science and Immortality. Crown 8vo,
cloth. 2s. 6d. net.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 3

BIBLE. Translated by Samuel Sharpe, being a Revision of the
Authorised English Version. 6th Edition of the Old, roth Edition
of the New Testament. 8vo, roan. §s.

BILTZ (HENRY). The Practical Methods of determining
Molecular Weights. Translated by Jones. Small 8vo. Pages
viii+ 245. 44 Illustrations. 8s. 6d. net.

BLACKBURN (HELEN). Women’s Suffrage. A Record of the
Women’s Suffrage Movement in the British Isles, with a Biographical
Sketch of Miss Becker. With portraits. Crown 8vo, cloth. 6s.

BOIELLE (JAS.). French Composition through Lord
Macaulay’s English. Edited, with Notes, Hints, and Introduction,
by the late James Boielle, B.A. (Univ. Gall.), Officier d’Académie,
Senior French Master, Dulwich College, etc., etc. Crown 8vo,
cloth. Vol. I. Frederick the Great. 3s. Vol. II. Warren Hastings.
3s. Vol. III. Lord Clive. 3s.

—— See Victor Hugo, “ Les Misérables ” and ‘“‘ Notre Dame.”

BOLTON. History of the Thermometer. 12mo. 96 pages. 6
Illustrations. 4s. 6d. net.

BOUSSET (Prof. WILHELM). Jesus. Trans. by Janet Penrose
Trevelyan, and ed. by Rev. W. D. Morrison, LL.D. Cr. 8vo. 3s. 6d.
net. Forming Vol. 14 in the Crown Theological Library ; see p. 34.

BOUTROUX (EMILE). Education and Ethics. Authorised
Translation by Fred. Rothwell. Crown 8vo, cloth. 5s. net.
BRADLEY (A. G.). Canada. F'cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net ; leather,
as. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 34 in the Home University Library ; see

list, p. 37.

BRAUNS (Dr REINHARD). The Mineral Kingdom. The
author is the well-known Professor of Mineralogy in the University
of Bonn. Translated with additions by L. J. Spencer, M.A.,
F.G.S., Assistant in the Mineral Department of the British
Museum. In demy 4to, comprising 91 full-page plates beautifully
executed in colours, 73 of which are chromo-lithographs, 18
photographic reproductions, and 275 figures in the text. Bound
in half-morocco. £2, 16s. net.

BREMOND (HENRI). The Mystery of Newman. With
Introduction by the late Rev. George Tyrrell, M.A. Medium 8vo,
cloth. os. 6d. net.

BREWSTER (H.B.). The Theories of Anarchy and of Law.
A Midnight Debate. Crown 8vo, parchment. 5s.

—— The Prison. A Dialogue. Crown 8vo, parchment. 53.

—— The Statuette and the Background. Cr. 8vo, parchment. 4s.

BREWSTER (Prof. W. T.), Editor of the Home University
Library ; for list, see p. 37.

—— The Writing of English. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net ; leather,
as. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 73 in Home University Library ; for list,
see p. 38.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

4 WILLIAMS & NORGATE'’S

BRUCE (ALEX.,, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.E.). A Topographic:
Atlas of the Spinal Cord. F’cap. folio, half-leather. £2, 2s. ne

BRUCE (Dr W. S., F.R.S.E.). Polar Exploration. (Wit
Maps.) F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Formir
Vol. 8 in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

BURKITT (Prof. F. C.). Euphemia and the Goth. With tt
Acts of Martyrdom of the Confessors of Edessa. 21s, net. S$
Text and Translation Society, p. 40.

BURY (Prof. J. B., Litt.D.). A History of Freedom ¢
Thought. F’cap. 8vo, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Formir
Vol. 74 in Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

CAMPBELL (Rev. COLIN, D.D.). The First Three Gospel
in Greek. Arranged in parallel columns. 2nd Edition, Revise
Crown 8vo, cloth. 3s. 6d. net.

CARPENTER (Rt. Rev. W. BOYD). Some Pages of M
Life. By the present Canon of Westminster and late Bishop |
Ripon. With portrait of the author as frontispiece, and oth
interesting portraits. Medium 8vo, cloth, gilt top. rgs. net.

CARPENTER (Prof. J. E., LL.D.). Comparative Religio1
Wcap. 8vo, cloth, rs. net ; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. ¢
in Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

CARTWRIGHT (Captain) and His Labrador Journal. Edite
by Charles Wendell Townsend, M.D. With an Introduction by I
Wilfred T. Grenfell. With Illustrations from old engraving
photographs and a map. Crown 8vo, cloth. 5s. net.

CECIL (Lord HUGH, M.A.,M.P.). Conservatism. F’cap. 8v
cloth, 1s, net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 11 in the Hon
University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

CHADWICK (HERBERT CLIFTON). Antedon. With
Plates. 2s. 6d. net. See Liverpool Marine Biology Memoirs, p. 3

— Echinus. With 5 Plates. Price 2s. net. See Liverpool Mar
Biology Memoirs, p. 39.

CHANNING’S COMPLETE WORKS. Including “ThePerfe
Life,” with a Memoir. Centennial Ed. 4to Ed. Cloth. 7s. 6

CHAPMAN (Prof. S. J., M.A.). Elements of Politic
Economy. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net ; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Formi
Vol. 59 in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

CHARACTER AND LIFE: A Symposium. By Dr Alfr
Russel Wallace, John A. Hobson, Harold Begbie, Walter Cran
and the late Dr Emil Reich. Arranged by Percy L. Parke
Editor of “ Public Opinion.” Crown 8vo, cloth. 3s. 6d. net.

CHESTERTON (G. K.). The Victorian Age in Literatur
F’cap. 8vo, cloth, rs. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. |
in Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

CHEYNE (Rev. T. K., D.Litt., D.D.). Bible Problems ar
the New Material for their Solution. A Plea for Thoroughne
of Investigation, addressed to Churchmen and Scholars. Cro
8vo. 4s. 6d. net. See Crown Theological Library, p. 34.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 5

CHILD AND RELIGION, THE. Essays. By Prof. Henry.
Jones, M.A., LL.D., University of Glasgow ; C. F. G. Masterman,
M.A.; Prof. George T. Ladd, D.D., LL.D.; Rev. F. R. Tennant,
M.A., B.Sc.; Rev. J...Cynddylan Jones, D.D.; Rev. Canon
Hensley Henson, M.A.; Rev. Robert F. Horton, M.A., D.D. ;
Rev. G. Hill, M.A., D.D.; Rev. J. J. Thornton; Rev. Rabbi
A. A. Green; Prof. Joseph Agar Beet, D.D. Edited by Thomas

‘Stephens, B.A. Crown 8vo. 5s. net. See Crown Theological |
Library, p. 34.

COIT (STANTON, Ph.D.). National Idealism and a State
Church. Demy 8vo, cloth. 7s. 6d. net.

— National Idealism and the Book of Common Prayer. An
Essay in Re-Interpretation and Revision. Demy 8vo, cloth
tos. 6d. net.

COLBY (ALBERT LADD). Reinforced Concrete in Europe.
Demy 8vo, cloth. 14s. 6d. net.

COLE (FRANK J.), and JAMES JOHNSTONE. Pleuro-
nectes. With rx Plates. 7s.net. See Liverpool Marine Biology
Memoirs, p. 39.

COLLINS (F. H.). An Epitome of Synthetic Philosophy.
With a Preface by Herbert Spencer. 5th Edition. The Synthetic
Philosophy Completed. 8vo, cloth. Reduced to 5s. net.

CONYBEARE (F.C., M.A.). The Ring of Pope Xystus: a
collection of Aphorisms and Short Sayings in use among Christian
Communities in the Second Century. Beautifully printed on hand-
made paper. 4s. 6d. net.

CORNILL (Prof. CARL). The Introduction to the Canoni-
cal Books of the Old Testament. Demy 8vo, cloth. os. 6d. net.
See Theological Translation Library, p. 41.

CRANE (WALTER), contributor to “Character and Life,” see p. 4.

CREIGHTON (Mrs). Missions: their Rise and Develop-
ment. F'cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming
Vol. 60 in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

CREIGHTON (CHAS., M.D.). Cancer and other Tumours
of the Breast. Researches showing their true seat and cause. The
Author was sometime Demonstrator of Anatomy, Cambridge
Medical School, and is the author of *‘Bovine Tuberculosis in
Man,” etc. With 24 Lithographic Plates containing 138 figures
from the Author’s drawings. Royal 8vo, cloth. 2s, 6d. net.

—— Contributions to the Physiological Theory of Tuber-
culosis. Royal 8vo, cloth. 12s. 6d. net.

CUSSANS (MARGARET, B.Sc.). Gammarus. With 4 Plates.
2s. net. See Liverpool Marine Biology Memoirs, p. 39.

DAKIN (W. J., M.Sc.). Pecton. With 9 Plates. 4s. 6d. net.
See Liverpool Marine Biology Memoirs, p. 39-

DARBISHIRE (OTTO V.). Chondrus. With 7 Plates. 2s. 6d.
net, See Liverpool Marine Biology Memoirs, p. 39.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

6 WILLIAMS & NORGATE’S

DAUDET (A.). Contes Militaires. 2s. 6d. See Army Series, p. 33.

DAVENPORT (CHARLES BENEDICT). Heredity in
relation to Eugenics. The Author is Director, Department of
Experimental Evolution, Cold Spring Harbour, Long Island, N.Y.;
Secretary of the Eugenics Section American Breeders Association.
With Diagrams and Coloured Plate. Demy 8vo, cloth. 8s. 6d. net.

DAVIDS (Mrs RHYS, M.A.). Buddhism. F’cap. 8vo, cloth,
1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 47 in the Home
University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

DAVIDS (T. W. RHYS). Lectures on Some Points in the
History of Indian Buddhism. The Hibbert Lectures, 1881. 2nd
Ed. Demy 8vo, cloth. Library Ed., 10s. 6d. Cheap Ed, 3s. 6d,

DAVIS (H. W. C., M.A.). Medizval Europe. (With Maps.)
F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 13
in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

DELBOS (L.). Nautical Terms in English and French and
French and English. With Notes and Tables. For the use of
Naval Officers and Naval Cadets. By Leon Delbos, M.A., of
H.M.S. Britannia, Dartmouth. 4th Edition, thoroughly revised
and considerably enlarged, with additional Plates. Crown 8vo,
cloth, 7s. 6d. net.

—— The Student’s Graduated French Reader. Remodelled
and rewritten. Edited, with Notes and a Complete Vocabulary.
First Year—Part I. Anecdotes, Tales, and Exercises. Part II.
Tales, Historical Pieces, and Exercises. 1s. 6d. each. Second
Year—Parts I. and IT. in the Press.

DELITZSCH (Dr FRIEDRICH). Babel and Bible. Author-
ised Translation. Edited, with an Introduction, by Rev. C. H. W.
Johns. Crown 8vo, with 77 Illustrations, cloth. 4s. 6d. net.
See Crown Theological Library, p. 34.

DEWALL (JOHANNES V.). Auf Verlornem Posten and

Nazzarena Danti. 3s. See Army Series, p. 33.

DIBBLEE (G. BINNEY). The Newspaper. F'cap. 8vo,
cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 69 in the Home
University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

DICKSON (H.N., D.Sc.). Climate and Weather. F’cap. 8vo,
cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 36 in Home
University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

DILLMANN (A.). Ethiopic Grammar. Trans. from C. Bezold’s
Second German Edition. By Rev. J. A. Crichton, D.D. With Index
of Passages, Philological Tables, etc. 1 vol., royal 8vo. 25s, net.

DIPAVAMSA (THE): A Buddhist Historical Record in the.
Pali Language. Edited, with an English Translation, by Dr H.
Oldenberg. 8vo, cloth. 21s.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 7

DOBSCHUTZ (ERNST VON, D.D.). Christian Life in the
Primitive Church. The Author is Professor of New Testament
Theology in the University of Strassburg. Translated by Rev.
G. Bremner, and edited by the Rev. W. D. Morrison, LL.D.
Demy 8vo, cloth. 10s. 6d. See Theological Translation Library,
New Series, p. 41.

DOLE (CHARLES F.). The Ethics of Progress, or the
Theory and the Practice by which Civilisation proceeds. Small
demy 8vo, cloth. 6s. net.

DRUMMOND (Dr JAMES, LL.D.). Philo Judzus; or, The
Jewish Alexandrian Philosophy in its Development and Completion.
2 vols. 8vo, cloth. rs.

Via, Veritas, Vita. Lectures on Christianity in its most Simple
and Intelligible Form. Hibbert Lectures, 1894. Demy 8vo.
Library Edition, ros. 6d. Cheap Edition, 3s. 6d.

DUNCAN (DAVID, LL.D.). The Life and Letters of Herbert
Spencer. With 17 Illustrations. Cheap Reissue. 6s. net.

EMERY (F. B.,M.A.). Elementary Chemistry. With numerous
Illustrations. 8s. 6d. net.

ENGELHARDT (V.). The Electrolysis of Water. 8vo.

Pages x+140. go Illustrations. 5s. net.

ENGLAND AND GERMANY. By Leaders of Public Opinion
in both Empires, among whom may be mentioned :—Rt. Hon.
Arthur J. Balfour, Viscount Haldane of Cloan, Rt. Hon. A. Bonar
Law, Baron Alfred von Rothschild, Rt. Hon. Herbert Samuel,
Sir Rufus Isaacs, Norman Angell, J. Ramsay MacDonald, M.P.,
J. A. Spender, Excell. Karl Galster, Ernst Basserman, Professor Dr
Riesser, Baron Wilhelm von Pechmann, Professor Wilhelm Wundt,
Dr Walther Rathenau, August Thyssen, sen., His Excellency
Dr Adolf Wermuth, Excell. von Holleben, etc. With Portraits.
Stiff Wrapper. 1s. net.

ERMAN’S EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. Translated, under Pro-
fessor Erman’s supervision, by J. H. Breasted, Professor of Egypt-
ology in the University of Chicago. Crown 8vo, cloth. 18s.

ERSKINE (Prof. J.) and Prof.W.P. TRENT. Great Writers
of America. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Form-
ing Vol. 52 in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

EUCKEN (Dr RUDOLF, Jena). The Life of the Spirit. An
Introduction to Philosophy. Second Edition. Third Impression.
8vo, cloth. 4s. 6d. net. See Crown Theological Library, p. 35.

— The Truth of Religion. ‘Translated from the latest revised
German edition by Rev. W. Tudor Jones, Ph.D., with a special
preface by the Author. Demy 8vo, cloth. 12s. 6d. net. See
Theological Translation Library, New Series, p. 41.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

8 WILLIAMS & NORGATE’S
EUGENE-FASNACHT (G.). Eugéne’s Student’s Compara-

tive Grammar of the French Language, with an Historical Sketch of
the Formation of French. The Author was for many years French
Master, Westminster School. For the use of Public Schools.
With Exercises. 23rd Edition, thoroughly revised. Square crown
8vo, cloth, 5s.; or separately, Grammar, 3s.; Exercises, 2s. 6d.

—— French Method. Elementary French Lessons preparatory to the
same Author’s Grammar. 18th Edition. Cloth. 1s. 6d.

EVANS (GEORGE). An Essay on Assyriology. With 4to
Tables of Assyrian Inscriptions. 8vo, cloth. 5s.

EWALD’S (Dr H.) Commentary on the Prophets of the
Old Testament. Translated by the Rev. J. F. Smith. [Vol. I.
General Introduction, Yoel, Amos, Hosea, and Zakharya 9-11.

_ Vol. II. Yesaya, Obadya, and Mikah. Vol. III. Nahtm,
Ssephanya, Habaqqfg, Zakharya, Yéremya. Vol. IV. Hezekiel,
Yesaya xl.—Ixvi. Vol. V. Haggai, Zakharya, Malaki, Jona, Baruc,
Daniel, Appendix and Index.] 5 vols. 8vo, cloth. 30s. See
Theological Translation Library, Old Series, p. 42.

— Commentary on the Psalms. Translated by the Rev. E.
Johnson, M.A. 2 vols, 8vo, cloth. 12s,

— Commentary on the Book of Job, with Translation. Trans.
from the German by the Rev. J. Frederick Smith. 8vo, cloth. 6s.

FAGUET (Prof. EMILE, of the French Academy). Initiation
into Philosophy. Translated by Sir Home Gordon, Bart. Crown
8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d. net.

FARMER (Prof. J. B.). Plant Life. (Illustrated.) F’cap. 8vo,
cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming: Vol. 72 in. Home
University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

FARNELL (L. R., D.Litt.). The Evolution of Religion: an
‘Anthropological Study. Crown 8vo, cloth. 4s. 6d. net. See
Crown Theological Library, p. 34.

—— The Higher Aspects of Greek Religion. Lectures delivered
in Oxford and London. Being Vol. 1 of New Series of Hibbert
Lectures. Demy 8vo, cloth. 6s. net. See Hibbert Lectures, p. 36.

FARQUHARSON (Rt. Hon. ROBERT, LL.D.). The House of
Commons from Within, and other Reminiscences. Med. 8vo. With
Portrait by J. S. Sargent, R.A., never before published. 7s. 6d. net.

— In and Out of Parliament. With a number of portraits and
caricatures. Medium 8vo, cloth. 12s. 6d, net.

FARRIE (HUGH). Highways and Byways in Literature.
A volume of original Studies. Demy 8vo, cloth. 5s. net.

FINDLAY (Prof. J. J., M-A., Ph.D.). The School. An Intro-
duction to the Study of Education. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net ;
leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 38 in the Home University
Library ; for list, see p. 38.

FISCHER (Prof. EMIL, of Berlin University). Introduction
to the Preparation of Organic Compounds. Translated with the
Author’s sanction from the new German edition by R. V. Stanford,
B.Sc., Ph.D. With figures in the text. Crown 8vo, cloth. 4s. net.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 9

FISHER (HERBERT, M.A., F.B.A., LL.D.), Editor, Home
University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

— Napoleon. (With Maps.) F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net ; leather,
2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 61 in Home University Library ; for
list, see p. 38.

FOUR GOSPELS (THE) AS HISTORICAL RECORDS.
8vo, cloth. 15s.

FOWLER (W. WARDE, M.A.). Rome. F'cap. 8vo, cloth,
1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 42 in the Home
University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

FOX (FRANK), Author of “Ramparts of Empire,” etc. Problems
of the Pacific. Demy 8yo, cloth. With Map. 7s. 6d. net.

FRY (The Rt. Hon. Sir EDWARD, G.C.B., etc.). Some In-
timations of Immortality. From the Physical and Psychical Nature
of Man. Royal 8vo, sewed. 1s. net.

GAMBLE (Prof. F. W., D.Sc., F.R.S.). The Animal World.
With Introduction by Sir Oliver Lodge. Many Illustrations.
F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 19
in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

GARDNER (Prof. PERCY, D.Litt., F.B.A., Oxford). Modernity
and the Churches. 4s. 6d. net. See Crown Theological Library, p. 35.

—— The Religious Experience of St Paul. Crown 8vo, cloth.
5s. net. See Crown Theological Library, p. 35.

GELDART (W. M., M.A.,B.C.L.). Elements of English Law.
F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 30
in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

GIBBS (PHILIP). The Eighth Year. The Dangerous Year
of Marriage. Crown 8vo, cloth. 2s. net.

GIBSON (R. J. H.) and HELEN P. AULD, BSc. Codium.
With 3 Plates. Price 1s. 6d. net. See Liverpool Marine Biology
Memortrs, p. 39.

GILES (H. A., LL.D.). The Civilisation of China. By the
well-known Professor of Chinese in the University of Cambridge.
F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 25
in the Home University Library; for list, see p. 37.

GILL (CHARLES). The Book of Enoch the Prophet. Trans.
from an Ethiopic MS. in the Bodleian Library, by the late Richard

“Laurence, LL.D., Archbishop of Cashel. The Text corrected
from his latest Notes by Charles Gill, Re-issue, 8vo, cloth. 53s,

GIVEN (JOHN L.). Making a Newspaper. Cloth, above

00 pages. 6s. net.

GOLDAMMER (H.). The Kindergarten. A Guide to Frobel’s
Method of Education. 2 vols. in 1. 120 pp. of Illustrations.
8vo, cloth. 1os. 6d.

GOOCH (G. P., M.A.). The History of our Time, 1885-1911.
F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 23
in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C,
t

10 WILLIAMS & NORGATE'S

GOULD (F. J.). Noble Pages from German History. Crown
8vo, cloth. Illustrated. 1s. 6d. net.

GRAVELY (F. H., M.Sc.). Polychaet Larva. With 4 plates.
2s. 6d. net. See Liverpool Marine Biology Committee Memoirs, p. 39.

GRAY (Rev. H. B., D.D.). The Public Schools and the
Empire. A plea for higher education in citizenship. Cloth. 6s. net.

GREEN (Rt. Rev. A. V., D.D. Bishop of Ballarat), The
Ephesian Canonical Writings: Being the Moorhouse Lectures for
1910. Crown 8vo, cloth. §s. net.

GREEN (Mrs J. R.). Irish Nationality. F’cap. 8vo, cloth,
1s. net; leather, 2s, 6d. net. Forming Vol. 6 in the Home
University Library; for list, see p. 37.

GREGORY (Prof. J. W., F.R.S.). The Making of the Earth.
(With 38 Maps and Figures.) F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather,
2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 53 in the Home University Library ;
for list, see p. 38.

GRIEBEN’S ENGLISH GUIDES. Practical and handy ; size,
suitable for the pocket, 64+ 44, and bound in cloth.
Switzerland. A practical guide with seven Maps. Cloth. 3s. net.

Norway and Copenhagen. With six Maps. Cloth. 3s. net.

Ostend and other Belgium Watering Places. With two
Maps. Cloth. 1s. 6d. net.

Lakes of Northern Italy. With Maps. Cloth. 3s. net.

The Rhine, With Maps. Cloth. 3s. net.

North Sea Watering Places. Cloth. 3s. net.

Belgium. With Maps. Cloth. 3s. net.

Brussels and Antwerp. With Maps. Cloth. 1s. 6d. net.

Holland. With Maps. Cloth. 3s. net.

The Riviera. With Maps. Cloth. 3s. net.

Winter Sports in Switzerland. A practical guide for those
visiting Switzerland in the winter. With Map. Cloth. 3s. net.

Dresden and Environs. With Maps. Cloth. 1s, 6d. net.

Munich and Environs. With Maps. Cloth. Is. 6d. net.

Nuremberg and Rothenburg on the Tauber. With 2
Maps. 1s. 6d. net.

The Dolomites. With 3 Maps. 35. net.

Naples and Capri. With 7 Maps and3 Ground Plans. 1s.6d.net.

GUPPY (H. B., M.B., F.R.S.E.). Studies in Seeds and Fruits.
An Investigation with the Balance. Demy 8vo, cloth, nearly
600 pp. 15s. net.

HAERING (Prof. THEODOR). Ethics of the Christian
Life. Translated by Rev. J. S. Hill, B.D., and edited by Rev.
W. D. Morrison. Demy 8vo, cloth. ros. 6d: net. See Theological
Translation Library, New Series, p. 41.

HALLIGAN (JAMES EDWARD, Chemist in charge Louisiana
State Experiment Station). Soil Fertility and Fertilisers. With
Illustrations and Tables. Demy 8vo, cloth. 14s. 6d. net.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 11
HANNAY (DAVID). The Navy and Sea Power. F’cap. 8vo,

cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol, 66 in Home
University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

HANTZSCH (A.). Elements of Stereochemistry. Translated
by Wolf. 12mo. Pages vilit+ 206. 26 Figures. 6s. 6d. net.
HARDY. Elements of Analytical Geometry. 8vo. Pages
iv+365. 163 Figures. 8s. 6d. net.
—— Infinitesimals and Limits, Sm. 12mo, paper. 22 pp. 6 Figs.

Is. net.

HARNACK (ADOLF, D.D.). The Acts of the Apostles.
Being Vol. III. of Dr Harnack’s New Testament Studies. Crown
8vo, cloth, 5s. net. Vol. 26 in the Crown Theological Library ;
for list, see p. 35. ;

—— Bible Reading in the Early Church, Forming Vol. V. of New
Testament Studies. 5s. net. See Crown Theological Library, p. 35.

—— The Constitution and Law of the Church in the First
Two Centuries. Crown 8vo, cloth. 5s. net. Vol. 31 in the Crown
Theological Library, p. 35.

—— The Date of the Acts and of the Synoptic Gospels. Cr. 8vo,
cloth. 5s. net. Forming Vol. IV. in Dr Harnack’s New Testament
Studies, and Vol. 33 in the Crown Theological Library, p. 35.

—— History of Dogma. Translated from the Third German Edition.
Edited by the late Rev. Prof. A. B. Bruce, D.D. 7 vols. 8vo,
cloth, each ros, 6d. ; half-leather, suitable for presentation, 12s. 6d.
See Theological Translation Library, New Series, p. 40.

—— Letter to the “ Preussische Jahrbiicher” on the German
Emperor’s Criticism of Prof. Delitzsch’s Lectures on ‘ Babel and
Bible.” Translated into English by Thomas Bailey Saunders. 6d. net.

—— Luke, the Physician. Translated by the Rev. J. R. Wilkinson,
M.A. Being Vol. I. of Dr Harnack’s New Testament Studies.
Crown 8vo, cloth. 5s.net. See Crown Theological Library, p. 34.

—~ The Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the First
Three Centuries. Second, revised and much enlarged Edition.
25s. net. Forming Vols. 19 and 20 in Theological Translation
Library, New Series ; see p. 41.

—— Monasticism: Its Ideals and History; and The Confes-
sions of St Augustine. Two Lectures. Translated into English by
E. E. Kellet, M.A., and F. H. Marseille, Ph.D. Crown 8vo,
cloth. 3s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 28 in the Crown Theological
Library, p. 35.

— The Sayings of Jesus. Being Vol. II. of Dr Harnack’s New
Testament Studies, Crown 8vo, cloth. 5s.net. Forming Vol. 23
in the Crown Theological Library, p. 35.

—— What is Christianity ? Translated by Thomas Bailey Saunders.

Third and Revised Edition. Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d. net. Forming

Vol. 5 in the Crown Theological Library, p. 34.

and Prof. W. HERRMANN, of Marburg. Essays on the

Social Gospel. Crown 8vo, cloth. 4s. net. Forming Vol. 18 in

the Crown Theological Library, p. 34.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

12 WILLIAMS & NORGATE’S

HARNACK (AXEL). Introduction to the Elements of the
Differential and Integral Calculus. From the German. Royal 8vo,
cloth. 10s, 6d.

HARRISON (JANE, LL.D., D.Litt.). Ancient Art and Ritual.
Fcap. 8vo, cloth, rs. net ; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 75
in Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

HART (EDW., Ph.D.). Chemistry for Beginners. Small 12mo.

Vol. I. Inorganic. Pages viii+188. 55 Illustrations and
2 Plates. 4th Edition. 4s. 6d. net.

Vol. II. Organic. Pages iv+98. 11 Illustrations. 2s, net.

Vol. III. Experiments. Separately. 60 pages. 18. net.

—— Second YearChemistry. Sm.12mo. 165pp. 31IIlus. 53s. net.

HATCH (Rev. Dr). Lectures on the Influence of Greek
Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church. Edited by Dr
Fairbairn. Hibbert Lectures, 1888. 3rd Edition. 8vo, cloth.
tos. 6d Cheap Edition, 3s. 6d.

HAUSRATH (Prof. A.). History of the New Testament
Times. The Time ofthe Apostles. Translated by Leonard Huxley.
Witha Preface by Mrs Humphry Ward. 4 vols. 8vo, cloth. 42s.
(Uniform with the Theological Translation Library, Old Series.)

—— History of the New Testament Times. The Time of
Jesus. Trans. by the Revs. C. T. Poynting and P. Quenzer.
2 vols. 8vo, cloth. 12s. See Theological Translation Library,
Old Series, p. 42.

HAWORTH (PAUL LELAND). Reconstruction and
Union 1865-1912. F’cap. 8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d. net.

HEATH (FRANCIS GEORGE). Nervation of Plants. By
the well-known Author of ‘‘Our Woodland Trees,” ‘The Fern
World,” etc. Well Illustrated. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d. net.

HEBREW TEXTS, in large type for Classes: Genesis.
2nd Edition. 16mo, cloth. 1s. 6d. Psalms. 16mo, cloth. 1s.
Isaiah. 16mo, cloth. 1s. Job. 16mo, cloth. 1s.

HENSLOW (Rev. G.). The Vulgate; The Source of False
Doctrine. Crown 8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d. net.

HERDMAN (W. A.). Ascidia. With 5 Plates. 2s, net. See
Liverpool Marine Biology Committee Memoirs, p. 39.

HERFORD (Rev. R. TRAVERS). Christianity in Talmud
and Midrash. Demy 8vo, cloth. 18s. net.

—— Pharisaism: Its Aims and its Methods. Crown 8vo, cloth.
5s. net. Forming Vol. 35 in the Crown Theological Library, p. 35.

HERRMANN (Prof. WILHELM). The Communion of the
Christian with God. Trans. from the new German Ed. by Rev. J. S.
Stanyon, M.A., and Rev. R. W. Stewart, B.D., B.Sc. Cr. 8vo, cloth.
4s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 15 in Crown Theological Library, p. 34.

—— Faith and Morals. New Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth. 4s, 6d.
net. Forming Vol. 6 in the Crown Theological Library, p. 34.

HEWITT (C. GORDON, B.Sc.). Ligia. With 4 Plates. 2s, net.
See Liverpool Marine Biology Memoirs, p. 39.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 13

HIBBERT JOURNAL: A Quarterly Review of Religion,
Theology, and Philosophy. Edited by L. P. Jacks and G. Dawes
Hicks. In quarterly issues, 2s. 6d. net; or yearly volumes bound
in cloth, 12s. 6d. net. Annual Subscription, ros. post free.

HIBBERT JOURNAL SUPPLEMENT, 1909, entitled
JESUS OR CHRIST? Containing 18 Essays by leading
Theologians and Thinkers. Super royal 8vo, cloth. 5s. net.

HICKSON (SYDNEY J., D.Sc. F.R.S.). Alcyonium. With
-3 Plates. Price 1s. 6d. net. See Liverpool Marine Biology
Committee Memoirs, p. 39.

HINKS (A. R., M.A.). Astronomy. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net ;
leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 31 in the Home University
Library ; for list, see p. 37.

HIRST (F. W., M.A.). The Stock Exchange. F’cap. 8vo,
cloth, 1s. net ; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 5 in the Home
University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

HOBHOUSE (Prof. L. T., M.A.). Liberalism. F’cap. 8vo,
cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 21 in the
Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

HOBSON (J. A., M.A.). The Science of Wealth. F’cap. 8vo,
cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 16 in the Home
University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

—— Character and Life. See p. 4.

HOFER (E.). Erzdhlungen. 3s. See Army Series of French
and German Novels, p. 33.

HOFF (J. H. VAN’T). Studies in Chemical Dynamics. Re-
vised and enlarged by Dr Ernst Cohen, Assistant in the Chemical
Laboratory of the University of Amsterdam. Translated by
Thomas Ewan, M.Sc., Ph.D., Demonstrator of Chemistry in the
Yorkshire College, Leeds. Royal 8vo, cloth. ros. 6d.

HOLDERNESS (Sir T. W., K.C.S.I.). Peoples and Problems
of India. The Author is Secretary of the Revenue, Statistics, and
Commerce Department of the India Office. F’cap. 8vo, cloth,
1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 37 in the Home
University Library ; see p. 38.

HOLLINS (DOROTHEA). The Quest. A Romance of De-
liverance: Demy 8vo, cloth. 4s. 6d. net.

HOME UNIVERSITY LIBRARY OF MODERN KNOW-
LEDGE. Every volume is specially written for this Library by
a recognised authority of high standing. Each volume is complete
and independent, but the series has been planned as a whole to
form a comprehensive library of modern knowledge. The Library
is published under the direction of Professor Gilbert Murray and
Mr Herbert Fisher of Oxford, Professor J. Arthur Thomson of
Aberdeen, and Professor William T. Brewster of New York.
Each volume consists of 256 pages and is issued bound in cloth at
1s. net, or in leather, 2s. 6d. net. For list of volumes, see p. 37.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

14 WILLIAMS & NORGATE’S

HORNELL (JAMES, F.L.S.). Report to the Government of
Baroda on the Marine Zoology of Okhamandal in Kattiawar.
With Supplementary Reports on Special Groups by other
Zoologists. Demy 4to, cloth, with full-page Plates. Part I. rss. net.

HOWE (J. L., Washington and Lee University). Inorganic
Chemistry for Schools and Colleges. Being a Second Edition
of “Inorganic Chemistry according to the Periodic Law.” By
F. P. Venable and J. L. Howe. Demy 8vo, cloth. 12s. 6d. net.

HUGO (VICTOR). Les Misérables: Les Principaux.
Episodes. Edited, with Life and Notes, by the late J. Boielle.
2 vols. 6th Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth. Each 3s.

— Notre Dame de Paris. Adapted for the use of Schools and
Colleges. By the late J. Boielle. 2 vols. 2nd Edition. Crown
8vo, cloth. Each 3s.

HUNTER (Rev. J., D.D.). De Profundis Clamavi, and
Other Sermons. Large crown 8vo, cloth. 53s. net.

— God and Life. A Series of Discourses. Uniform with “De
Profundis Clamavi.” Cloth. 53s. net.

— The Coming Church. A Plea for a Church simply Christian.
Cloth. 1s. 6d. net.

ILBERT (Sir C. P., K.C.B.). Parliament: its History, Con-
stitution, and Practice. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d.
net. Forming Vol. 1 in Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

IMMS (A. D., B.Sc. Lond.). Anurida, With 7 Plates. 4s. net.
See Liverpool Marine Biology Memoirs, p. 39.

ISGROVE (ANNIE, M.Sc.). Eledone. With ro Plates. 4s. 6d.
net. See Liverpool Marine Biology Memoirs, p. 39.

JACKS (L. P.), Editor of the Hibbert Journal. Mad Shepherds
and Other Human Studies. With a frontispiece drawing by Leslie
Brooke. Crown 8vo, cloth. 4s. 6d. net.

— Among the Idolmakers. Crown 8vo, cloth. 53s. net.

—— The Alchemy of Thought, and Other Essays. Demy 8vo,
cloth. ros, 6d. net.

JEREMIAS (Prof. ALFRED). The Old Testament in the
Light of the Ancient East. The Translation is edited by Professor
C. H. W. Johns of Cambridge. With a large number of Illustra-
tions. In two volumes, demy 8vo, at 25s. net. See Theological
Translation Library, New Series, p. 41.

JOHNSTON (Sir H. H., K.C.B., D.Sc.). The Opening-up of
Africa. (With Maps.) F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather 2s. 6d. net.
Forming Vol. 12 in the Home University Library; for list, see p. 37.

—— Views and Reviews. Essays on Racial, Political, and Colonial
Questions. Crown 8vo, cloth. 3s. 6d. net.

JOHNSTONE (J.). British Fisheries : Their Administration
and their Problems. A short account of the Origin and Growth of
British Sea Fishery Authorities and Regulations. tos. 6d. net.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 15

JOHNSTONE (J.). Cardium, With 7 Plates. Price 2s. 6d. net.
See Liverpool Marine Biology Memoirs, p. 39-

JONES. The Freezing Point, Boiling Point, and Conduc-
tivity Methods. rzmo. Pages vii+64. 14 Illustrations. 3s. net.

JONES (J. T. SHARE-). Surgical Anatomy of the Horse.
To be completed in 4 Parts. With above too Illustrations, a
number being in colour. Part I. Head and Neck. Part II. Fore
Limb. Part III. Hind Limb. Price per part, 15s. net, sewed ;
cloth, 16s. 6d. net.

—— Life-size Models Illustrating the Superficial Anatomy of
the Limbs of the Horse. Price per set of four models, £21; or
separately—Fore Limb, Inner and Outer Aspects, 46, 16s. 6d.
each ; Hind Limb, Inner and Outer Aspects, £6, 6s, each.

JONES (Rev. R. CROMPTON). Hymns of Duty and Faith.
Selected and Arranged. 247 pp. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 2nd
Edition. 3s. 6d.

—— Chants, Psalms, and Canticles. Selected and Pointed for
Chanting. 18mo, cloth. ts. 6d.

—— Anthems. With Indexes and References to the Music. 18mo,
cloth. 1s. 3d.

—— The Chants and Anthems. Together in 1 vol. Cloth. 2s.

—— A Book of Prayer. In Thirty Orders of Worship, with Additional
Prayers and Thanksgivings. 18mo, cloth. 2s.6d. With Chants,
in 1 vol. 18mo, cloth. 3s.

JONES (Rev. W. TUDOR, Ph.D.). An Interpretation of
Rudolf Eucken’s Philosophy, Crown 8vo. 5s. net.

JORDAN (HUMFREY, R., B.A.). Blaise Pascal. A Study in
Religious Psychology. Crown 8vo, cloth. 4s. 6d. net.

JOURNAL OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY. Botany. At
various prices. Index to Journal (Botany), 20s. Zoology. At
various prices. General Index to the first 20 vols. of the Journal
(Zoology) and the Zoological portion of the Proceedings, 208.

JOURNAL OF THE QUEKETT MICROSCOPICAL
CLUB. Nos. 1-26, 1s. net; Nos. 27-31, 28. 6d. net. 1893,
No. 32, and following Nos., half-yearly, 3s. 6d. net.

JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL
SOCIETY, containing its Transactions and Proceedings, with
other Microscopical information. Bi-monthly. Previous to 1893
at various prices; after that date bi-monthly, each 6s. net.

KAPP (GISBERT, D. Eng., M.I.E.E,, M.LC.E.). Electricity.
The Author is Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of
Birmingham. (Illustrated.) F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net ; leather, 2s. 6d.
net. Forming Vol. 58 in the Home University Library ; see p. 38.

KAUFFMAN (RUTH and R. W.). The Latter Day Saints :
A Study of the Mormons in the Light of Economic Conditions.
Medium 8vo, cloth. tos. 6d. net.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

16 WILLIAMS & NORGATE'S

KAUTZSCH (E., Professor at Halle). An Outline of the History
of the Literature of the Old Testament. With Chronological Tables
for the History of the Israelites, and other Aids to the Explanation
of the Old Testament. Reprinted from the “Supplement to the
Translation of the Old Testament.” Edited by the Author. Trans-
lated by John Taylor, D. Litt., M.A., etc. Demy 8vo, cloth. 6s. 6d.

KEIM’S History of Jesus of Nazara. Considered in its connec-
tion with the National Life of Israel, and related in detail. Trans-
lated from the German by Arthur Ransom and the Rev. E. M.
Geldart. In6vols. Demy 8vo,cloth. 6s. each. See Theological
Translation Fund Library, p. 42.

KEITH (A., M.D., LL.D.). The Human Body. The Author is
Conservator of Museum and Hunterian Professor, Royal College of
Surgeons. (Illustrated.) F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net ; leather, 2s. 6d.
net. Forming Vol. 57, Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

KENNEDY (Rev. JAS.). Introduction to Biblical Hebrew,
presenting Graduated Instruction in the Language of the Old
Testament. 8vo, cloth. ras.

— Studies in Hebrew Synonyms. Demy 8vo, cloth, 53s.

KER (Prof. W. P., M.A.). English Literature: Medizval.
F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 43
in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

KIEPERT’S Wall-Maps of the Ancient World—

Wall-Map of Ancient Italy. Italia antiqua. For the study of
Livy, Sallust, Cicero, Dionysius, etc. Scale 1 : 800,000. Mounted
on rollers, varnished. 20s.

General Wall-Map of the Old World. Tabula orbis terra-
rum antiqui ad illustrandum potissimum antiquissimi evi usque
ad Alexandrum M, historiam. For the study of ancient history,
especially the history of the Oriental peoples: the Indians, Medes,
Persians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Egyptians, Phcenicians, etc.
Scale 1 : 5,400,000. Mounted on rollers, varnished. 205.

General Wall-Map of the Roman Empire. Imperii
Romani tabula geographica. For the study of the development
of the Roman Empire. Scale 1 : 300,000, Mounted on rollers,
varnished. 24s.

Wall-Map of Ancient Latium. _Latii Veteris et finitimarum
regionum tabula. For the study of Livy, Dionysius, etc. Scale
I : 125,000, With supplement: Environs of Rome. Scale
1 : 25,000, Mounted on rollers, varnished. 18s.

Wall-Map of Ancient Greece. Greciz Antique tabula. For
the study of Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Strabo, Cornelius
Nepos, etc. Scale 1: 500,000. Mounted on rollers, varnished. 245.

Wall-Map of the Empires of the Persians and of Alex-
ander the Great. Imperia Persarum et Macedonum. For the
study of Herodotus, Xenophon, Justinian, Arian, Curtius. Scale
1 : 300,000. Mounted on rollers and varnished. 20s.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 17

KIEPERT’S Wall-Maps of the Ancient World—continued.

Wall-Map of Gaul, with Portions of Ancient Britain and
Ancient Germany. Gallize Cisalpinee et Transalpinze cum partibus
Britanniz et Germaniz tabula. For the study of Cesar, Justinian,
Livy, Tacitus, etc. Scale 1 : 1,000,000. Mounted on rollers
and varnished. 24s.

Wall-Map of Ancient Asia Minor. Asiz Minoris Antique
tabula. For the study of Herodotus, Xenophon, Justinian, Arian,
Curtius, etc. Scale 1 : 800,000. Mounted on rollers and var-
nished. 20s.

— New Atlas Antiquus. Twelve Maps of the Ancient World, for
Schools and Colleges, Third hundred thousand. 12th Edition,
with a complete Geographical Index. Folio, boards. 6s.
Strongly bound in cloth. 7s. 6d.

KING, THE, TO HIS PEOPLE. Being the Speeches and
Messages of His Majesty George V. as Prince and Sovereign.
Published by permission. Square 8vo, art canvas. 55, net.

KITTEL (Dr RUDOLF, of Breslau), A History ofthe Hebrews.
In 2 vols. 8vo, cloth. Each vol., ros.6d. Forming Vols. 3 and 6 of
the Theological Translation Library, New Series ; for list, see p. 41.

—— The Scientific Study of the Old Testament: Its Principal
Results, and their Bearing upon Religious Instruction. Illus. 5s. net.
Forming Vol. 32 in Crown Theological Library ; for list, see p. 35.

KUENEN (Dr A,, of Leiden). The Religion of Israel to the
Fall of the Jewish State. Translated from the Dutch by A. H.
May. 3 vols. 8vo, cloth. 18s. See Theological Translation Fund
Library, p. 42.

KYRIAKIDES (A.). Modern Greek-English Dictionary.
With a Cypriote Vocabulary. 2nd Edition, revised throughout.
Medium 8vo. 920 pages. Cloth. 153s. net.

— A Modern Greek-English and English-Modern Greek
Pocket Dictionary. In 2 vols., about 650 pp. each. 7s. net each vol.

LAKE (KIRSOPP). The Historical Evidence for the Resur-
rection of Jesus Christ. The Author is Professor of New Testament
Exegesis in the University of Leiden, Holland. Crown 8vo,
cloth. 4s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 21 in the Crown Theological
Library ; see p. 34.

LANDOLT (Dr HANS). The Optical Rotating Power of
Organic Substances and its Practical Applications. 8vo. Pages
xxi+751. 83 Illustrations. 31s. 6d. net.

LAURIE (Prof. SIMON). Ethica: or, The Ethics of Reason.
By Scotus Novanticus. znd Edition. 8vo, cloth. 6s.

—— Metaphysica Nova et Vetusta: A Return to Dualism.
2nd Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth. 6s.

LEA (HENRY CHARLES, LL.D.). History of Sacerdotal
Celibacy in the Christian Church. 3rd Edition. Thoroughly
Revised and Reset. 2 vols. Medium 8vo, cloth. 21s. net.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

++

18 WILLIAMS & NORGATE’S

LEAVENWORTH (Prof. W.S.,M.Sc.). Inorganic Qualitative
Chemical Analysis for Advanced Schools and Colleges. 8vo.
Pages vit+154. 6s. 6d, net.

LEBLANC (Dr MAX). The Production of Chromium and
its Compounds by the Aid of the Electric Current. Demy 8vo,
cloth. 5s. net.

LEIPOLDT (C. LOUIS, F.R.C.S. Eng.). Common - sense
Dietetics. Strongly bound in Cloth. Crown 8vo. 2s, 6d. net.

LE ROY (EDOUARD). A New Philosophy: Henri Bergson.
Translated by Vincent Benson, M.A. Crown 8vo, cloth. §s. net.

LETHABY (Prof. W.R.). Architecture. Over 40 Illustrations.
F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 39
in the Home University Library ; for list, see page 38.

LEWIS (AGNES SMITH), Edited by. Old Syriac Gospels,
or Evangelion Da-Mepharreshe. This is the Text of the Sinai
Palimpsest, including the latest additions and emendations, with
the variants of the Curetonian Text, corroborations from many
other MSS., and a list of quotations from ancient authors. With
4 facsimiles. Quarto, bound half-leather. 25s. net.

LLURIA (Dr ENRIQUE). Super-Organic Evolution.
Nature and the Social Problem. With a Preface by Dr D. Santiago
Ramon y Cajal. Large Crown 8vo. Illustrated. 7s. 6d. net.

LOBSTEIN (PAUL). The Virgin Birth of Christ: An His-
torical and Critical Essay. The Author is Professor of Dogmatics
in the University of Strassburg. Translated by Victor Leuliette,
A.K.C., B.-és-L., Paris. Edited, with an Introduction, by Rev.
W. D. Morrison, LL.D. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 2
in the Crown Theological Library ; for list, see p. 34.

LODGE (Sir O.). Life and Matter: An Exposition of Part of the
Philosophy of Science, with Special References to the Influence
of Professor Haeckel. Second Edition, with an Appendix of
Definitions and Explanations. Crown 8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d. net.
Popular Edition. Paper Cover. 6d. net.

— School Teaching and School Reform. A Course of Four
Lectures on School Curricula and Methods, delivered to Secondary
Teachers and Teachers in Training at Birmingham. 3s.

LONDON LIBRARY (St James’s Square), Catalogue of.
xiv +1626 pages. 4to, boundin buckram. 42s, net. Supplements
I.-VIII., bound in buckram, 5s. each.

— Subject Index. 4to, bound in buckram. xxxviii+ 1256 pages.
31s. 6d. net.

LONG (J. H.). A Text-book of Urine Analysis. Small 8vo.
Pages v+249. 31 Illustrations. 6s. 6d. net.

LORIA (ACHILLE). Les Bases Economiques de la
Justice Internationale. 4to. 3s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 2 of
Publications de l’Institut Nobel Norvégien.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 19

LYALL (Sir C. J., M.A. K.C.LE.). Ancient Arabian Poetry,
chiefly Pre-Islamic. Translations, with an Introduction and Notes.
F’cap. 4to, cloth. ros. 6d.

MACAN (R. W.). The Resurrection of Jesus Christ. An
Essay in Three Chapters. 8vo, cloth. 53s.

MACAULAY (THOMAS BABINGTON). The Lays of
Ancient Rome. With 8 Illustrations faithfully reproduced in
colours, and a number in black-and-white, from original drawings
by Norman Ault. Small 4to, cloth. 6s. net.

MACCOLL (HUGH). Man’s Origin, Destiny, and Duty.
Crown 8vo, cloth. 4s. 6d. net.

MACDONALD (J. RAMSAY, M.P.). The Socialist Move-
ment. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Vol. z0 in
the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

McDOUGALL (Prof. W., F.R.S., M.B.). Psychology: the
Study of Behaviour. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net.
Vol. 49 in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

MACFIE (RONALD C., M.A., M.B.). Science, Matter, and
Immortality. Crown 8vo, cloth. 5s. net.

MACGREGOR (Prof. D. H., M.A). The Evolution of
Industry. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Vol. 24
in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

McKENDRICK (Prof. J. G., M.D.). The Principles of
Physiology. cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net.
Vol. 44 in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

MACKENZIE (W. LESLIE, M.D.). Health and Disease.
F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 17
in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

MAIR (G. H., M.A.). English Literature: Modern. F'cap.
8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 27 in the
Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

MARETT (R. R., M.A., of Oxford). Anthropology. F'cap. 8vo,
cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Volk 41 in the
Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

MARGOLIOUTH (Prof. D. S., M.A., D.Litt.). Mohamme-
danism. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net ; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming
Vol. 15 in the Home University Library ; 5 for list, see p.37. 0.

MARKHAM (Sir CLEMENTS, K.C.B.). Vocabularies of the
General Language of the Incas of Peru. Crown 8vo, cloth.
7s. 6d. net.

MARRINER (GEORGE R.,, F.R.M.S.). The Kea: A New
Zealand Problem. With Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. 7s. 6d. net.

MARTI (KARL, Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Bern). The
Religion of the Old Testament: Its Place among the Religions of
the Nearer East. Crown 8vo, cloth, 4s. net. Forming Vol. 19 in
the Crown Theological Library ; ; for list, SCE P. 34.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

20 WILLIAMS & NORGATE’S

MARTINEAU (Mrs ALICE). The Herbaceous Garden.
Gives full particulars how to make and arrange hardy borders, and
containing an alphabetical index of the most suitable plants.
With a large number of illustrations and a frontispiece in colour.
Demy 8vo, cloth. 7s. 6d. net.

MARTINEAU (Rev. Dr JAMES). The Relation between
Ethics and Religion. An Address. 8vo, sewed. 1s.

—— Modern Materialism: Its Attitude towards Theology.
A Critique and Defence. 8vo, sewed. as. 6d.

MASEFIELD(JOHN). Shakespeare. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net;
leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 2 in the Home University.
Library ; for list, see p. 37.

MASON (W. P.). Notes on Qualitative Analysis. Sm.
I2zmo. 56 pp. 3s. 6d. net.

MEADE (RICHARD K., B.Sc.). Chemist’s Pocket Manual.
16mo. Leather. Pocket Edition. Second Edition. 12s. 6d. net.

~— Portland Cement: Its Composition, Raw Materials,
Manufacture, Testing, and Analysis. Second Edition. With 170
Illustrations. 20s. net.

MELDOLA (Prof. RAPHAEL, D.Sc., LL.D.). Chemistry.
F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. Forming Vol. 67 in
Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

MELVILLE (HELEN and LEWIS). The Seasons. An
Anthology in Prose and Verse. Forming an attractive volume,
bound in art linen. 3s. 6d. net.

MERCER (Rt. Rev. J. EDWARD, D.D.). The Soul of Pro-
gress. Being the Moorhouse Lectures for 1907. Cr. 8vo, cloth. 6s.

MERCIER (Dr C. A., F.R.C.P.). Crime and Insanity. F'cap.
8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s, 6d. net. Forming Vol. 22 in the
Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

MEREDITH (LEWISB.). Rock Gardens. Howto Make and
Maintain them. With an Introduction by F. W. Moore, A.L.S., and
an Alphabetical List of Plants suitable for the Rock Garden, with Notes
on the aspect and soil they require. Demy 8vo, with Plates. 7s. 6d. net.

MERIMEE (PROSPER). Le Coup de Pistolet, etc. 2s. 6d.
See Army Series of French and German Novels, p. 33.

MILINDAPANHO, THE. Being Dialogues between King
Milinda and the Buddhist Sage Nagasena. The Pali Text, edited
by V. Trenckner. Crown 8vo, sewed. 21s.

MITCHELL(Rev.A.F.). Howto Teach the Bible. 2nd Edition,
thoroughly revised and reset. Crown 8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d. net.

MITCHELL (Rev. C. W.). The Refutation of Mani,
Marcion, and Bardaisan of St. Ephraim. 21s. net, See Text and
Translation Society, p. 40.

MOISSON (HENRI). The Electric Furnace. 8vo. Pages

x+305. 41 Illustrations. ros. 6d. net.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 21

MONTEFIORE (C.G.). Origin and Growth of Religion as
Illustrated by the Religion of the Ancient Hebrews. The Hibbert
Lectures, 1892. 2nd Ed. 8vo, cloth. ros. 6d. Cheap Ed., 3s. 6d.

MOORE (Prof. BENJAMIN). The Origin and Nature of
Life. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s.6d. net. Forming Vol.
62 in Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

MOORE (G. E.,M.A.). Ethics. The Author is Lecturer in Moral
Science in Cambridge University. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net;
leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 54 in the Home University
_Library ; for list, see p. 38.

MUNSTERBERG (Prof. HUGO, of Harvard), The Ameri-
cans. Translated by Edwin B. Holt, Ph.D., Instructor at Harvard
University. Royal 8vo, cloth. 12s. 6d. net.

MURRAY (Prof. GILBERT, D.Litt, LL.D., F.B.A.), Editor of
the Home University Library. For list, See Pp. 37.

MYRES (J. L., M.A. F.S.A.). The Dawn of History. The
Author is Wykeham Professor of Ancient History, Oxford. F’cap.
8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 29 in the
Home University Library ; 3 for list, see p. 37.

NAVILLE (EDOUARD, Ph.D., Litt.D.). The Old Egyptian
Faith. Translated by Colin Campbell, M.A., D.D. Illustrated.
4s. 6d. net. Vol. 30 in Crown Theological Lib. ; for list, see p. 35.

NESTLE (Prof. EBERHARD, of Maulbronn). An Introduction
to the Textual Criticism of the Greek New Testament. Translated
from the Second Edition, with Corrections and Additions by the
Author, by William Edie, B.D., and edited, with a Preface, by
Allan Menzies, D.D., Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism
in the University of St Andrews. With eleven reproductions of
Texts. Demy 8vo, ros. 6d.; halfleather, 12s. 6d. Forming
Vol. 13 in the Theological Translation Library, New Series, p. 41.

NEWBIGIN (Dr MARION). Modern Geography. Illustrated.
F’cap. 8vo, cloth, rs. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 7
in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

NEW HEBREW SCHOOL OF POETS OF THE
SPANISH-ARABIAN EPOCH. Selected Texts with
Introduction, Notes, and Dictionary. Edited by H. Brodey, Ph.D.,
Rabbi in Lachod (Bohemia), and K. Albrecht, Ph.D., Professor in
Oldenburg (Grand Duchy). English Translation of the Intro-
duction, etc., by Mrs Karl Albrecht. Cloth. 7s. 6d. net.

NIBELUNGENLIED. “The Fall of the Nibelungens,”
otherwise “The Book of Kriemhild.” An English Translation by
W.N. Lettsom. 5th Edition. 8vo, cloth. 5s.

NIKAIDO (Y., B.Sc, M.A.). Beet-Sugar Making and its
Chemical Control. With a number of valuable Tables and Illustra-
tions. Demy 8vo, cloth. 12s. 6d, net.

NISSENSON. The Arrangements of Electrolytic Labora-
tories. Demy 8vo. 52 Illustrations. 5s. net.

(4 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

22 WILLIAMS & NORGATE'S

NOLDEKE (Prof. THEODOR). Compendious Syriac Gram-
mar. With a Table of Characters by Julius Euting. Translated (with
the sanction of the Author) from the Second and Improved German
Edition by Rev. James A. Crichton, D.D. Royal 8vo. 18s. net.

—— Delectus Veterum Carminum Arabicorum Glossarium
Confecit A. Muller. Crown 8vo, cloth. 7s. 6d.

NOYES (ARTHUR A,, Ph.D.). Organic Chemistry for the

Laboratory. Small 1zmo. Pp. xii+257. 22 Illus. 6s. 6d. net.

and SAMUEL P. MULLIKEN, Ph.D. Laboratory

Experiments on Class Reactions and Identification of Organic

Substances. 8vo. 81 pp. 2s. net.

O'GRADY (STANDISH H.). Silva Gadelica (I-XXXI). A
Collection of Tales in Irish, with Extracts illustrating Persons
and Places, Edited from MSS. and Translated. 2 vols. royal 8vo,
cloth. 42s, Or separately, Vol. 1, Irish Text; and Vol. 2,
Translation and Notes. Each Vol. 21s.

OORDT (J. F. VAN, B.A.). Cape Dutch. Phrases and Dialogues,
with Translations, preceded by short Grammatical Notes. Crown
8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d. net.

ORTH (SAMUEL P., Ph.D.). Socialism and Democracy in
Europe. Demy 8vo. 360 pages. Cloth. 6s. net.

OSTWALD (WILHELM). Natural Philosophy. Translated
by Thomas Seltzer. Crown 8vo, cloth. 4s. net.

OTTO (Prof. RUDOLF). Naturalism and Religion. Translated
by J. Arthur Thomson, Professor of Natural History in the University
of Aberdeen, and Margaret R. Thomson. Edited with an Intro-
duction by Rev. W. D. Morrison, LL.D. Crown 8vo. 5s. net.
Forming Vol. 17 in the Crown Theological Library; see p. 34.

PARKER (PERCY L.), Editor of “ Public Opinion.” Character
and Life. A Symposium. Containing contributions by Dr
Alfred Russel Wallace, John A. Hobson, Walter Crane, Harold
Begbie, and the late Dr Emil Reich. Crown 8vo, cloth. 3s. 6d. net.

PAXSON (Prof. F. L.). The American Civil War. With
Maps. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming
Vol. 48 in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

PEARSON (JOSEPH, M.Sc.). Cancer. With 13 Plates. 6s. 6d.
net. See Liverpool Marine Biology Memoirs, p. 39.

PEDDIE (R. A.). Printing at Brescia in the Fifteenth Cen-
tury. A List of the Issues. 5s. net.

PERCIVAL (G. H.). The Incarnate Purpose. Essays on the
Spiritual Unity of Life. Crown 8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d. net.

PEROWNE (J. T. W., M.A.), Editor of the Army Series of French
and German Novels. For list, see p. 33.

PERRIS (G.H.). AShort History of War and Peace. F'cap.
8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 4 in the
Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 23

PETERS (JOHN P., D.D.). Early Hebrew Story. A Study
of the Origin, the Value, and the Historical Background of the
Legends of Israel. Crown 8vo, cloth. 4s. 6d. net. Forming
Vol. 7 in the Crown Theological Library; for list, see p- 34.

PETIT (ROBERT). How to Build an Aeroplane. Trans.
from the French, with some additional matter, by Messrs T. O’B.
Hubbard and J. H. Ledeboer. With nearly roo Illustrations. Demy
8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d. net.

PFANHAUSER (Dr W.). Production of Metallic Objects
Electrolytically. 5s. net.

PFLEIDERER (Dr O.). Lectures on the Influence of the
Apostle Paul on the Development of Christianity. Translated by
Rev. J. Frederick Smith. Being the Hibbert Lectures for 1885.
Library Edition. Demy 8vo, cloth. ros. 6d. Cheap Edition,
cloth. 3s. 6d. See The Hibbert Lectures, p. 36.

-— Paulinism: A Contribution to the History of Primitive
Christianity. 2 vols. Demy 8vo, cloth. r2s. See Theological
Translation Library, Old Series, p. 42.

—— Philosophy of Religion on the Basis of its History. In 4
vols. Demy 8vo, cloth. 24s. See Theological Translation Library,
Old Series, p. 42. [Vol. 2 quite out of print.]

—— Primitive Christianity: Its Writings and Teachings in
their Historical Connections. 4 vols. ros. 6d. net each. See
Theological Translation Library, New Series, p. 41.

—— The Early Christian Conception of Christ: Its Signifi-
cance and Value in the History of Religion. 3s. net. See Crown
Theological Library, p. 34.

PHILLIPPS (V., B.A.). A Short Sketch of German Litera-
ture for Schools, 2nd Edition, revised. Pott 8vo, cloth. rs.
PHILLIPS (FRANCIS C.). Methods for the Analysis of
Ores, Pig Iron, and Steel. 2nd Edition. 8vo. Pages vili+170.

3 Illustrations. 4s. 6d. net.

PICTON (J. ALLANSON, M.A. Lond.). Man and the Bible.
A Review of the Place of the Bible in Human History. Demy 8vo,
cloth. 6s. net.

PIDDINGTON (HENRY). The Sailors’ Horn-Book for the
Law of Storms. Being a Practical Exposition of the Theory of the
Law of Storms, and its uses to Mariners of all Classes in all Parts
of the World. Shown by transparent Storm Cards and useful
Lessons. 7th Edition. Demy 8vo, cloth. tos. 6d.

PLATTS (J. T., Hon. M.A. (Oxon.)). A Grammar of the Persian
Language. Part I. Accidence. Broad crown 8vo. tos, 6d.
POLLARD (Prof. A. F., M.A.). The History of England: A
Study in Political Evolution. With a Chronological Table. F’cap.
8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 33 in the

Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

24 WILLIAMS & NORGATE’S

PRAY (Dr). Astigmatic Letters. Printed on Millboard, size 22
by 14 inches. 1s,

PROCEEDINGS OF INTERNATIONAL CONFER-
ENCE under the Auspices of the American Society for Judicial
Settlement of International Disputes, held at Washington, Dec.
tg910. In 1 vol., sewed. 4s. net.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ARISTOTELIAN SOCIETY
FOR THE SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF PHILO-
SOPHY. Old Series—Odd Numbers at various prices. New
Series (yearly volumes bound in buckram)—Vols. I.-XI. ready,
ics. 6d. each net.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE OPTICAL CONVENTION,
No. 1, 1905. Crown 4to, cloth. ros. net.

PROCEEDINGS AND PAPERS OF THE FIFTH
INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF FREE CHRIS-
TIANITY. Held at Berlin, 1910. Edited by C. W. Wendte,
D.D., and V. D. Davis, B.A. Medium 8vo, cloth. gs. 6d. net.
Sewed, 8s. 6d. net.

PUNNETT (R.C., B.A). Lineus. With 4 Plates. 2s. net. See
Liverpool Marine Biology Memoirs, p. 39.

RADER (A.). L’Arbitrage International chez les Hellénes.
4to, sewed. tos. net. Being Vol. I. of Publications de l'Institut
Nobel Norvégien. :

RAY (Prof. P. C.). A History of Hindu Chemistry from the
Earliest Times to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century A.D.
With Sanskrit Texts, Variants, Translation, and Illustrations.
Vol. I. 2nd Edition. Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, tos.
6d. net. Vol. II. Cloth. ros. 6d. net.

REICH (Dr EMIL), Contributor to “ Character and Life.” See p. 4.

RENAN (E.). On the Influence of the Institutions, Thought,
and Culture of Rome on Christianity and the Development of the
Catholic Church. Translated by the Rev. Charles Beard. Being
the Hibbert Lectures, 1880. 8vo, cloth. 10s. 6d. Cheap
Edition (3rd Edition), 3s. 6d.

RENOUF (P. LE PAGE). On the Religion of Ancient
Egypt. Hibbert Lectures, 1879. 3rd Edition. 8vo, cloth.
tos. 6d. Cheap Edition, 3s. 6d. ;

REVILLE (Dr A.). Onthe Native Religions of Mexico and
Peru. Translated by the Rev. P. H. Wicksteed. Hibbert Lectures,
1884. 8vo,cloth. tos. 6d. Cheap Edition, 3s. 6d.

—— Prolegomena of the History of Religions. With an Intro-
duction by Prof. F. Max Miiller. 8vo, cloth. 6s. See Theological
Translation Library, Old Series, p. 42.

REVILLE (Prof. JEAN). Liberal Christianity: Its Origin,
Nature, and Mission. Translated and Edited by Victor Leuliette,
A.K.C., B.-és-L. Crown 8vo, cloth. 3s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 4
in the Crown Theological Library ; for list, see p. 34.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 25

RHYS (Prof. J.). On the Origin and Growth of Religion as
Illustrated by Celtic Heathendom. Hibbert Lectures, 1886, 8vo,
cloth. 1os. 6d. Cheap Edition, 3s. 6d.

RIEDEL (Prof. W.) and W. E. CRUM. The Canons of
Athanasius of Alexandria, in Arabic, Ethiopic, and Coptic. 1s.
net. See Text and Translation Society, p. 40.

RIX (HERBERT). Tent and Testament. A Camping Tour
in Palestine, with some Notes on Scripture Sites. With 61 Illus-
trations, Frontispiece, and Maps. Demy 8vo, cloth. 8s. 6d. net.

ROBERTSON (Prof. J. G., M.A.). The Literature of Ger-
many. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net.; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming
Vol. 65 in Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

ROGET (F. F.). An Introduction to Old French. History,
Grammar, Chrestomathy, and Glossary. 2nd Edition. Crown 8vo,
cloth. 6s.

—— First Stepsin French History, Literature, and Philology.
For Candidates for the Scotch Leaving Certificate Examinations, the
various Universities Local Examinations, and the Army Examina-
tions. 4th Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth. 5s.

RUFFINI(FRANCESCO). Religious Liberty. The Author is
Ordinary Professor at the Royal University of Turin. With an Intro-
duction by Prof. J. B. Bury of Cambridge. Demy 8vo. tras. 6d. net.
Forming Vol. 32 in the Theological Translation Library ; see p. 4r.

RUSSELL (Hon. BERTRAND, F.R.S.). The Problems
of Philosophy. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net.
Forming Vol. 40 in Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

SABATIER (Late AUGUSTE). The Doctrine of the Atone-
ment and its Historical Evolution; and Religion and Modern
Culture. Translated by Victor Leuliette, A.K.C., B.-és-L. Cr. 8vo.
4s. net. Forming Vol. 9 inthe Crown Theological Library ; see p. 34.

— — The Religions of Authority and the Religion of the
Spirit. New impression. Demy 8vo, cloth. 10s. 6d. See Theo-
logical Translation Library, New Series, p. 41.

SADI. The Gulistan (Rose Garden) of Shaik Sadi of Shiraz.
A new Edition of the Persian Text, with a Vocabulary, by F.
Johnson. Square royal 8vo, cloth. 15s.

SADLER (Rev. Dr). Prayers for Christian Worship. Crown
8vo, cloth. 3s. 6d.

—— Closet Prayers, Originaland Compiled. 18mo,cloth. 1s. 6d.

SADLER (GILBERT, M.A., LL.B.). A Short Introduction
to the Bible. Crown 8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d. net.

SAGAS OF OLAF TRYGGVASON AND OF HAROLD
THE TYRANT. A new translation, well illustrated with
drawings by Erik Werenskiold, Christian Krogh, and others of the
best Norwegian artists. In small 4to, printed on specially mould-
made paper, comprising above 200 pages, bound with linen back
and paper sides, done up in box. ras. 6d. net.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

26 WILLIAMS & NORGATE’S

SALEEBY (C. W., M.D., F.R.S.). Individualism and Col-
lectivism. Crown 8vo, cloth. 2s.

SAUNDERS (T. BAILEY). Professor Harnack and his
Oxford Critics. Crown 8vo, cloth. 1s. 6d. net.

SAYCE (Prof. A. H.). On the Origin and Growth of Religion
as illustrated by the Religion of the Ancient Babylonians. sth Ed,
Hibbert Lectures, 1887. 8vo, cloth. 1o0s.6d. Cheap Edition, 3s. 6d,

SCHLOSS (DAVID F.). Methods of Industrial Remunera-
tion. 3rd Edition, revised and enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth.
7s. 6d. Popular Edition. 3s. 6d.

SCHRADER (Prof. E.). The Cuneiform Inscriptions and the
Old Testament. Translated from the Second Enlarged Edition,
with Additions by the Author, and an Introduction by the Rev.
Owen C. Whitehouse, M.A. 2vols. Witha Map. 8vo,cloth. ras.
See Theological Translation Library, Old Series, p. 42.

SCHREBER (D. G. M.). Medical Indoor Gymnastics, or a
System of Hygienic Exercises for Home Use, to be practised
anywhere, without apparatus or assistance, by young and old of
either sex, for the preservation of health and general activity.
Revised and Supplemented by Rudolf Graefe, M.D. With a large
plate and 45 illustrations in the text. Royal 8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d. net.

SCHROEN (L.). Seven-Figure Logarithms of Numbers
from 1 to 108,000, and of Sines, Cosines, Tangents, Cotangents
to every 10 Seconds of the Quadrant. With a Table of Propor-
tional Parts. By Dr Ludwig Schroen, Director of the Observatory
of Jena, etc., etc. 5th Edition, corrected and stereotyped. With
a description of the Tables by A. De Morgan, Professor of
Mathematics in University College, London. Imp. 8vo, cloth,
printed on light green paper. gs.

SCHUBERT (HANS VON). History of the Church. Trans-
lated from the Second German Edition. By arrangement with
the Author, an Additional Chapter has been added on “ Religious
Movements in England in the Nineteenth Century,” by Miss
Alice Gardner, Lecturer and Associate of Newnham College,
Cambridge. Demy 8vo, cloth. tos. 6d. See Theological Trans-
lation Library, New Series, p. 41.

SCHURMAN (J. GOULD). Kantian Ethics and the Ethics
of Evolution. 8vo, cloth. 5s.

—— The Ethical Import of Darwinism. Crown 8vo, cloth. 55.

SCHUSTER (ERNEST J.). The Wife in Ancient and
Modern Times... Crown 8vo, cloth. 4s. 6d. net.

SCOTT (ANDREW). Lepeophtheirus and Lernea. With
5 Plates. 2s. net. See Liverpool Marine Biology Committee
Memoirs on Typical British Marine Plants and Animals, p. 39.

SCOTT (Dr D. H., M.A., F.R.S.). The Evolution of Plants.
Fully illustrated. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net.
Forming Vol. 9 in the Home University Library; for list, see p. 37.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 27

SCOTT (E. F.,M.A.). The Apologetic of the New Testament.
Cr. 8vo, cloth. 4s. 6d. net. See Crown Theological Library, p. 35.
SEEBERG (Prof. R., of Berlin). The Fundamental Truths
of the Christian Religion. Sixteen Lectures delivered before the
Students of all Faculties in the University of Berlin. Crown 8vo.

350 pp. 48- 6d. net. See Crown Theological Library, p. 35.

SECER (HERMAN AUGUST), Collected Writings of, Papers
on Manufacture of Pottery. 2 vols. Large 8vo. £3, 3s. net per set.

SELBIE (Principal W. B., M.A.). Nonconformity: Its Origin
and Progress. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net.
Forming Vol. 50 in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

SEVERUS (Patriarch of Antioch). The Sixth Book of the
Select Letters of Severus, Patriarch of Antioch, in the Syriac
Version of Athanasius of Nisibis. Edited and Translated by
E. W. Brooks. Vol. I. (Text), Part 1, and Vol. II. (Translation),
Part I. 2vols. 8vo, cloth. 42s. net. Vol. I. (Text), Part 2, and
Vol. II. (Translation), Part 2. 2 vols. 8vo, cloth. 4zs.net. See
Text and Translation Society, p. 4o.

SHARPE (HENRY). Britain B.C.: As Described in Classical
Writings. With an Inquiry into the positions of the Cassiterides
and Thule, and an attempt to ascertain the ancient coast-line of
Kent and East Sussex. With Maps. Crown 8vo, cloth. 53s. net.

SHEARMAN (A. T., M.A.). The Development of Symbolic
Logic. A Critical Historical Study of the Logical Calculus.
Crown 8vo, cloth. 5s. net.

SMITH (The Rt. Hon. F. E., K.C., M.P.). Unionist Policy
and Other Essays. Large 8vo, cloth. 5s. net.

SMITH (L. PEARSALL, M.A.). The English Language.
Fcap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 45
in the Home University Library ; ; for list, see p. 38.

SNELLEN’S OPHTHALMICTEST TYPES. Best Types
for the Determination of the Acuteness of Vision. 14th Edition,
considerably augmented and improved. 8vo, sewed. 4s. Single
Sheets: ETB, MOV, BDE, WW, and Large Clock Sheet.
8d. each. Small Clock Sheet and RT Vv Z. 4d. each.

SNYDER (HARRY, B.Sc.). Soils and Fertilisers. 2nd Edition.
8vo. Pagesx+294. 1 Plate, 4o Illustrations. 6s. 6d. net.

SODDY (F., M.A., F.R.S.). Matter and Energy. F'cap. 8vo,
cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 46 in the
Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

SODEN (Prof. H. VON, D.D.). The Books of the New
Testament. Translated by the Rev. J. R. Wilkinson, and edited
by Rev. W. D. Morrison, LL.D. Crown 8vo, cloth. 4s. 6d.
net. See Crown Theological Library, p. 34.

SOLILOQUIES OF ST AUGUSTINE, THE. Translated
into English by Rose Elizabeth Cleveland. With Notes and
Introduction by the Translator. Small demy 8vo, cloth. 6s. net.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

28 WILLIAMS & NORGATE’S

SOMERVILLE (Prof. W., D.Sc.). Agriculture. F’cap. 8vo,
cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 26 in the
Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

SONNTAG (C. 0.). A Pocket Flora of Edinburgh and the
Surrounding District. A Collection and full Description of all
Phanerogamic and the principal Cryptogamic Plants, classified
after the Natural System, with an artificial Key and a Glossary of
Botanical Terms. By the late C. O. Sonntag. F'cap. 8vo, limp
cloth. 3s. 6d. net.

SORENSEN (S., Ph.D.), Compiled by. An Index to the Names
in the Mahabharata. With short explanations. Royal 4to, in
twelve parts, which are not sold separately, at 7s. 6d. per part net.
Parts I. to VI. now ready.

SPEARS (J. R.). Master Mariners. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, ts. net ;
leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 55 in the Home University
Library ; for list, see p. 38.

SPENCER (HERBERT). A System of Synthetic Phil-
osophy—

Vol. I. First Principles. With an Appendix and a Portrait.
Finally revised. New Edition, large crown 8vo, cloth. 7s. 6d.
Specially printed cheap edition, bound in cloth. 2 vols. of 240
pages each. 1s. net per volume. Complete in one volume. 2s. net.

Vols. II. and III. The Principles of Biology. 6th Thous-
and. 8vo, cloth. Revised and greatly enlarged. 2 vols. 18s. each.

Vols. IV. and V. The Principles of Psychology. sth
Thousand. 2 vols. 8vo, cloth. 36s.

Vol. VI. The Principles of Sociology. Vol. I. Part 1, The
Data of Sociology ; Part 2,,The Inductions of Sociology; Part 3,
Domestic Institutions, 4th Thousand, revised and enlarged. 8vo,
cloth. 21s.

Vol. VII. The Principles of Sociology. Vol. II. Part 4,
Ceremonial Institutions; Part 5, Political Institutions, 3rd
Thousand. 8vo, cloth. 18s.

Vol. VIII. The Principles of Sociology. Vol. III. Part
6, Ecclesiastical Institutions; Part 7, Professional Institutions ;
Part 8, Industrial Institutions. 2nd Thousand. 8vo, cloth. 16s.

Vol. IX. The Principles of Ethics. Vol. I. Part 1, The
Data of Ethics; Part 2, The Inductions of Ethics; Part 3, The
Ethics of Individual Life. 8vo, cloth. 15s,

Vol. X._ The Principles of Ethics. Vol. II. Part 4, Justice;
Part 5, Negative Beneficence; Part 6, Positive Beneficence;
Appendices. Demy 8vo, cloth. 12s, 6d.

— A Rejoinder to Professor Weismann. Sewed. 6d.
—— Data of Ethics. Reset uniform with popular edition of “ First
Principles.” Sewed, 2s. 6d. net; cloth, 3s. net.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 29

SPENCER (HERBERT). Descriptive Sociology; or, Groups
of Sociological Facts. Compiled and abstracted by Professor D.
Duncan of Madras, Dr Richard Scheppig, and James Collier.
Folio, boards.

No. 1. English. 18s.

No. 2. Ancient American Races. 16s.

No. 3. Lowest Races, Negritto Races, Polynesians. 18s.
No. 4. African Races. 16s.

No. 5. Asiatic Races. 18s.

No. 6. American Races. 18s.

No. 7. Hebrews and Pheenicians. 215.

No, 8. The French Civilisation. 30s.

No. 9. Chinese. Compiled and abstracted by E. T. C.

Werner, H.M.’s Consular Service, China. 63s.

No. 10. Greeks: Hellenic Era. By Rev. Dr J. P. Mahaffy,
and Professor W. A. Goligher, Trinity College, Dublin. ts.
—— Education: Intellectual, Moral, and Physical. Popular
Edition. Entirely reset. Crown 8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d. Cheap

Edition, cloth, rs. net.

— Essays: Scientific, Political, and Speculative. A new
Edition, rearranged, with additional Essays. 3 vols. 8vo, cloth.
(Each ros.) 30s.

—— Facts and Comments. Demy 8vo, cloth. 6s.

—— Justice. Being Part 4 of the Principles of Ethics. 2nd Thousand.
8vo, cloth. 6s.

—— Reasons for Dissenting from the Philosophy of M. Comte.
Sewed. 6d.

—— Social Statics. Abridged and revised, together with “ The Man
v. The State.” 8vo, cloth. tos.

— The Man versus The State. 14th Thousand. Sewed. ts.

—- The Study of Sociology. Library Edition (21st Thousand),
with a Postscript. 8vo, cloth. ros. 6d.

—— Various Fragments. Uniform in Library binding. Demy 8vo,
cloth. Enlarged Edition. 6s,

STATUTES, THE, OF THE APOSTLES. The hitherto
unedited Ethiopic and Arabic Texts, with Translations of Ethiopic,

Arabic, and Coptic Texts, by G. Horner, M.A.
STEPHEN (Rev. Canon REGINALD, M.A.). Democracy

and Character. Being the Moorhouse Lectures for 1908. Crown
8vo, cloth. 5s.

STERNE (LAURENCE). A Sentimental Journey through
France and Italy. With 12 Illustrations faithfully reproduced
from water-colour drawings by Everard Hopkins. Ordinary
Edition in crown 4to, ros. 6d. net. Edition de Luxe, limited to
500 copies, in demy 4to, 21s. net.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

30 WILLIAMS & NORGATE’S

STILLMAN (THOS. B., M.Sc., Ph.D.). Engineering Chem-
istry. 4th Edition. The 4th edition has been mostly rewritten
and altered to incorporate the latest approved methods of chemical
testing. Medium 8vo, With 147 Figures in the text. 215s. net.

STOCKER (R. DIMSDALE). Social Idealism. Crown 8vo,
cloth. 3s. net.

STRACHEY (G. L.). Landmarks in French Literature.
F’cap. 8vo, cloth, rs. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 35
in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

TAYLOR (A. CAMERON). General Sir Alexander Taylor.
A Memoir by his Daughter. 2 vols. Demy 8vo, cloth.

TAYLOR (Rev. Dr J.). The .Massoretic Text and the
Ancient Versions of the Book of Micah. Crown 8vo, cloth. 5s.

TEN SERVICES OF PUBLIC PRAYER, with Special
Collects. 8vo, cloth, 3s.; or 32mo, cloth, 1s. 6d.

— PSALMS AND CANTICLES. 8vo, cloth. 1s. 6d. [cloth. 2s.

— PSALMS AND CANTICLES, with Anthems. 8vo,

—— SERVICES OF PUBLIC PRAYER, taken in Sub-
stance from the Common Prayer for Christian Worship, with a few
additional Prayers for particular Days. 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d.; or

2mo, cloth, 1s.

TENNYSON (ALFRED, LORD). The Princess: A
Medley. With Six Illustrations beautifully reproduced in colours,
and a number in black-and-white, from Original Drawings by
Everard Hopkins. Small 4to. 7s. 6d. net.

THOMAS (Rev. J. M. LLOYD). A Free Catholic Church.
Crown 8vo, cloth. 1s. 6d. net.

THOMSON (J. ARTHUR, M.A., LL.D.). Introduction to

Science. F'’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Form-

ing Vol. 32 in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

and Prof. PATRICK GEDDES. Evolution. F'cap. 8vo,

cloth, rs. net ; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 20 in the Home

University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

—— Editor of the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

THURSTON (E. TEMPLE). The “Flower of Gloster.”
By the well-known Author of “City of Beautiful Nonsense,” “ Sally
Bishop,” etc. With six Illustrations faithfully reproduced in
colours, and other Illustrations in black-and-white, from drawings
by W. R. Dakin. Small 4to, cloth. 7s. 6d. net.

TISCHENDOREF (C.). The New Testament. Novum Testa-

"mentum Greece. 3 vols. 8vo. 70s. net.

TOWER (CHARLES). Germany of To-day. Fcap. 8vo,
cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net. Forming Vol. 71 in Home
University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

TOWER (O. F., Ph.D.). The Conductivity of Liquids. 8vo.
Pages iv+1g90. 20 Illustrations. 6s. 6d. net.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY.

Issued in parts at various prices.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 31

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY,
DUBLIN. Vols. 1-XX. 4to. £22, 5s. 6d. Vols. XXI.-
XXXI. Various prices.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDIN-
BURGH. Issued in parts at various prices. General Index to
First Thirty-four Volumes (1783-1888), with History of the
Institution. 4to, cloth. zs.

TRENCKNER (V.). Pali Miscellany. Part I. The Introductory
Part of the Milanda Panho, with an English Translation and Notes.
8vo, sewed. 4s.

TRENT (Prof. W. P.) and ERSKINE (Prof. J.). Great
Writers of America. F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, zs. 6d. net.
Forming Vol. 52 of the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

TROELTSCH (Prof. ERNEST, of Jena). Protestantism and
Progress: The Significance of Protestantism in the Rise of the
Modern World. ‘Translated into English by Rev. W. Montgomery,
B.D. See Crown Theological Library, p. 35.

UPTON (Rev. C. B.). On the Basis of Religious Belief. Hibbert
Lectures, 1893. Demy 8vo, cloth. 10s.6d. Cheap Edition, 3s. 6d.

VEGA. Logarithmic Tables of Numbers and Trigonometrical
Functions. Translated from the 4oth, or Dr Bremiker’s Edition,
thoroughly revised and enlarged, by W. L. Fischer, M.A., F.R.S.,
Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge; Professor of Natural Philo-
sophy in the University of St Andrews. 75th Stereotyped Edition.
Royal 8vo, cloth. 7s.

VEILED FIGURE, THE, and other Poems. Large post 8vo,
buckram, gilt, cover designed by Mr T. Blake Wirgman. 2s. 6d.

VELASQUEZ. Large Spanish Dictionary. Composed from the
Dictionaries of the Spanish Academy, Terreros and Salva. Spanish-
English and English-Spanish. 1279 pp., triple columns. 2: vols.
int. Imp. 8vo, cloth. 24s. ‘

VENABLE (T. C., Ph.D.). The Development of the Periodic
Law. Smallizmo. Pages vilit+321. Illustrated. ros. 6d. net.

—— The Study of the Atom. 12mo. Pages vi+290. 8s. 6d. net.
~—- and HOWE. Inorganic Chemistry according to the
Periodic Law. 2nd Edition. See under Howe, p..14. .
VINCENT (JACQUES). Vaillante. 2s. 6d. See Army Series of

French and German Novels, p, 33.
WALFORD (Mrs L.B.). Recollections of a Scottish Novelist.
With Portraits and other Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. 10s.6d.net.

WALLACE (Dr ALFRED RUSSEL). See Character and Life,

p- 4

WEDMORE (Sir FREDERICK). Painters and Painting.
(Illustrated). F’cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net; leather, 2s. 6d. net.
Forming Vol. 63 in Home University Library ; for list, see p. 38.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

32 WILLIAMS & NORGATE'’S

WEINEL (Prof. H., of the University of Jena). St Paul: The
Man and his Work. Translated by Rev. G. A. Bienemann, M.A.
Edited by Rev. W. D. Morrison, M.A., LL.D. Demy 8vo, cloth.
tos. 6d. See Theological Translation Library, New Series, p. 41.

WEIR (T. H., B.D.). A Short History of the Hebrew Text
of the Old Testament. By Thomas H. Weir, Assistant to the
Professor of Oriental Languages in the University of Glasgow.
2nd Edition, with Additions. Crown 8vo, cloth. 6s.

WEISSE (T. H.). AShort Guide to German Idioms: being a
Collection of the Idioms most in use. With Examination Papers.
3rd Edition. Cloth. as.

—— Elements of German. With a Course of Exercises instructing
in Simpler Composition. Crown 8vo, cloth. 3s.

WEIZSACKER (Prof. CARL VON). The Apostolic Age.
Translated by James Millar, B.D. Demy 8vo, 2 vols., cloth. Each
tos. 6d. See Theological Translation Library, New Series, p. 40.

WELD (A. G.). Glimpses of Tennyson and of Some of his
Friends. With an Appendix by the late Bertram Tennyson.
Illustrated with Portraits in photogravure and colour, and with a
facsimile of a MS. poem. F'cap. 8vo, art linen. 4s. 6d. net.

WERNER (A.)andG. HUNT. Elementary Lessons in Cape
Dutch (Afrikander Taal). 16mo, cloth. 1s. 6d.

WERNLE (PAUL). The Beginnings of Christianity. The
Author is Professor Extraordinary of Modern Church History at the
University of Basel. Revised by the Author, and translated by
the Rev. G. A. Bienemann, M.A., and edited, with an Introduc-
tion, by the Rev. W. D. Morrison, LL.D. Demy 8vo. tos. 6d.
per volume. See Theological Translation Library, New Series, p. 41.

WHITEHEAD (A.N., Sc.D., F.R.S.). Introduction to Mathe-
matics. With Diagrams. F’cap.8vo, cloth, 1s.net; leather, 2s.6d.net.
Forming Vol. 18 in the Home University Library ; for list, see p. 37.

WILEY (HARVEY W., A.M., Ph.D.). Principles and Prac-
tice of Agricultural Chemical Analysis. 3 Vols. 8vo. New
Edition in preparation. Vol. I. Soils. Ready. 18s. net. Vol. II.
Fertilisers. 20s. net. Vol. III. in active preparation.

WILLIAMS (The Right Rev. W. L., D.C.L.). A Dictionary
of the New Zealand Language. 4th Edition. Edited by the
Right Rev. Bishop W. L. Williams, with numerous additions and
corrections. Demy 8vo, cloth. 12s. 6d.

— Lessons in Maori. 3rd Edition. F’cap. 8vo, cloth. 3s.

WIMMER (R., Pastor of Weisweil-am-Rhein in Baden). My
Struggle for Light: Confessions of a Preacher. Crown 8vo, cloth.
3s. net. See Crown Theological Library, p. 34.

WINSTEDT (E. O.), Edited by. Coptic Texts on St Theodore
the General, St Theodore the Eastern, Chamoul and Justus. 1s.
net. See Text and Translation Society, p. 40.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 33

WOODS (C. E.). The Gospel of Rightness. A Study in
Pauline Philosophy. 300 pages, cloth. 58. net.

WRIGHT (Rev. C. H. H.). Light from Egyptian Papyri
on Jewish History before Christ. Crown 8vo, cloth. 3s. net.

WRIGHT (G. H. BATESON, D.D.). The Book of Job. A
new critically revised Translation, with Essays on Scansion, Date,
etc. 8vo, cloth. 6s. ,

— Was Israel ever in Egypt? or, A Lost Tradition. 8vo,
art linen. 7s. 6d.

WRIGHT (W. ALDIS, LL.D.), Edited by. A Rabbinic Com-
mentary on the Book of Job, contained in a unique MS. at Cam-
bridge. With Translation and Commentary. 21s. net. See Text
and Translation Society, p. 40.

WUNDT (WILHELM). Outlines of Psychology. Trans-
lated, with the co-operation of the Author, by Charles Hubbard
Judd, Ph.D., Instructor in the Wesleyan University. 3rd Enlarged
Edition. Demy 8vo, cloth. 8s. net.

WYSOR (HENRY, BS., Assistant Professor of Analytical
Chemistry, Lafayette College). Metallurgy. A Condensed
Treatise. Demy 8vo, cloth. 12s. 6d. net.

YOUNGHUSBAND (Col. Sir FRANCIS E., K.C.1E.).
Within: Thoughts during Convalescence. 3s. 6d. net.

COMPLETE LIST OF LIBRARIES AND SERIES
ARRANGED IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER.

ARMY SERIES OF FRENCH AND GERMAN NOVELS.
Edited, with short Notes, by J. T. W. Perowne, M.A.

This series is equally well adapted for general reading, and for those preparing
for the Army, Oxford and Cambridge Certificates, and other Examinations—in
fact, for all who wish to keep up or improve their French and German. The
notes are as concise as possible, with an occasional etymology or illustration to
assist the memory. The books selected being by recent or living authors, are
adapted for the study of most modern French and German.

Le Coup de Pistolet, etc. Prosper Merimée. 2s. 6d.
Vaillante. Jacques Vincent. 2s. 6d.

Auf Verlornem Posten and Nazzarena Danti. Johannes
v. Dewall. 3s.

Contes Militaires. A. Daudet. 2s. 6d.
Erzihlungen. E. Hofer. 3s.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

34 WILLIAMS & NORGATE’S

CROWN THEOLOGICAL LIBRARY.

The only undertaking of its kind in the English language; each
writer is at liberty to express his deepest convictions with absolute
freedom—a freedom which is the only ultimate security of truth.

Vol. I.—Babel and Bible. By Dr Friedrich Delitzsch.
' 4s. 6d. net,

Vol. I.—The Virgin Birth of Christ. An Historical and
Critical Essay. By Paul Lobstein: 2s. 6d. net.

Vol. III.—My Struggle for Light. Confessions of a

. Preacher. By R. Wimmer. 35. net.

Vol. IV.—Liberal Christianity. Its Origin, Nature, and
Mission. By Jean Réville. 3s. 6d. net.

Vol. V.—What is Christianity? By Adolf Harnack.
4s. 6d. net.

Vol. VI.—Faith and Morals. By W. Herrmann. 4s. 6d. net.

Vol. VII.—Early Hebrew Story. A Study of the Origin, the
Value, and the Historical Background of the Legends of Israel.
By John P. Peters, D.D. 4s. 6d. net.

_ Vol. VIII.—Bible Problems and the New Material for
their Solution. By Prof. T, K. Cheyne, D.Litt. D.D. 4s. 6d. net.

Vol. IX.—The Doctrine of the Atonement and its His-
torical Evolution, and Religion and Modern Culture. By
the late Auguste Sabatier. 4s. net.

Vol. X.—The Early Christian Conception of Christ. Its
Significance and Value in the History of Religion. By Otto
Pfleiderer. 3s. net.

Vol. XI.—The Child and Religion. Eleven Essays by

‘Various Writers. 5s. net. —

Vol. XII.—The Evolution of Religion. An Anthropological
Study. By L. R. Farnell, M.A., D.Litt. 4s. 6d. net. :

Vol. XIII.—The Books of the New Testament. By Baron
Hermann von Soden, D.D. 4s. 6d. net.

Vol. XIV.—Jesus. By W. Bousset. 3s, 6d. net.

Vol. XV.—The Communion of the Christian with God.
By W. Herrmann. Revised and much enlarged edition. 4s. 6d. net.

Vol. XVI.—Hebrew Religion. To the Establishment of
Judaism under Ezra. By W. E. Addis, M.A. 4s. 6d. net.

Vol. XVII.—Naturalism and Religion. By Rudolf Otto.

Ss. net.
? Vol. XVIII.—Essays on the Social Gospel. By Dr Adolf
Harnack and Dr Herrmann. 4s. net,

Vol. XIX.—The Religion of the Old Testament. By Karl
Marti. 4s. net.

Vol. XX.—Luke the Physician. Being Volume One of Dr
Adolf Harnack’s New Testament Studies. 5s. net.

Vol. XXI.—The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection
of Jesus Christ. By Prof. Kirsopp Lake. 4s. 6d. net.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 35

Crown Theological Library—continued.

Vol. XXII.—The Apologetic of the New Testament. By
E. F. Scott. 4s. 6d. net.

Vol. XXII1.—The Sayings of Jesus. Being Volume Two
of Dr Adolf Harnack’s New Testament Studies. 5s. net.

Vol. XXIV.—Anglican Liberalism. By Twelve Churchmen.
4s. 6d. net.

Vol. XXV.—The Fundamental Truths of the Christian
Religion. By Dr R. Seeberg. 4s. 6d. net.

Vol. XXVI.—The Life of the Spirit. An Introduction to
Philosophy. By Dr Rudolf Eucken. 4s. 6d. net.

Vol. XXVII.—The Acts of the Apostles. Being Volume
Three of Dr Adolf Harnack’s New Testament Studies. 5. net.

Vol. XXVIII.—Monasticism and the Confessions of St
Augustine. By Dr Adolf Harnack. 35. 6d. net.

Vol. XX1X.—Modernity and the Churches. By Prof.
Percy Gardner. 4s. 6d. net.

Vol. XXX.—The Old Egyptian Faith. By Prof. Edouard
Naville. Illustrated. 4s. 6d. net.

Vol. XXXI.—The Constitution and Law of the Church
in the First Two Centuries. By Dr Adolf Harnack. 53, net.

Vol. XXXII.—The Scientific Study of the Old Testament.
Illustrated. By Dr Rudolf Kittel. 5s. net.

Vol. XXXIII.—The Date of the Acts and of the Synoptic
Gospels. Being Volume Four of Dr Adolf Harnack’s New Testa-
ment Studies. Cloth. 53s. net.

Vol. XXXIV.—The Religious Experience of St Paul.
By Prof. Percy Gardner. §s. net.

Vol. XXXV.—Pharisaism: Its Aims and its Methods.
By R. Travers Herford, B.A. Cloth. §s. net.

Vol. XXXVI.—Bible Reading in the Early Church.
Being Volume Five of Dr Adolf Harnack’s New Testament
Studies. Cloth. 5s. net.

Vol. XXXVII.—Protestantism and Progress. By Prof.
Ernest Troeltsch of Jena. Cloth. 3s. 6d. net.

Descriptive Prospectus on Application.

THE HIBBERT LECTURES.

Library Edition, demy 8vo. ros. 6d. per volume.
Cheap Popular Edition, 3s. 6d. per volume.

Alviella (Count Goblet D’). Lectures on the Origin and
the Growth of the Conception of God, as illustrated by Anthropology
and History. Translated by the Rev. P. H. Wicksteed. (Hibbert
Lectures, 1891.) Cloth. 1os. 6d. Cheap Edition, 3s. 6d.

Beard (Rev. DrC.). Lectures on the Reformation of the
Sixteenth Century in its Relationto Modern Thoughtand Knowledge.
(Hibbert Lectures, 1883.) 8vo,cloth. 10s.6d. Cheap Edition, 3s. 6d,

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

36

WILLIAMS & NORGATE'’S

The Hibbert Lectures—continued.

Davids (T. W. Rhys). Lectures on Some Points in the
History of Indian Buddhism. (Hibbert Lectures, 1881.) 2nd
Edition. 8vo, cloth. 1os. 6d. Chéap Edition, 3s. 6d.

Drummond (Dr). Via, Veritas, Vita. Lectures on Chris-
tianity in its most Simple and Intelligible Form. (The Hibbert
Lectures, 1894.) 10s. 6d. Cheap Edition, 3s. 6d.

Hatch (Rev. Dr). Lectures on the Influence of Greek
Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church. Edited by Dr Fair-
bairn. (Hibbert Lectures, 1888.) 3rd Edition. 8vo, cloth.
los. 6d. Cheap Edition, 3s. 6d.

Kuenen (Dr A.). Lectures on National Religions and
Universal Religion. (The Hibbert Lectures, 1882.) 8vo, cloth.
los. 6d. Cheap Edition, 3s. 6d.

Montefiore (C. G.). Origin and Growth of Religion
as Illustrated by the Religion of the Ancient Hebrews. (The
Hibbert Lectures, 1892.) 2nd Edition. 8vo, cloth. ros. 6d.
Cheap Edition, 3s. 6d.

Pfleiderer (Dr O.). Lectures on the Influence of the
Apostle Paul on the Development of Christianity. Translated by
the Rev. J. Frederick Smith. (Hibbert Lectures, 1885.) 2nd
Edition. 8vo, cloth. 10s. 6d. Cheap Edition, 3s. 6d.

Renan (E.). On the Influence of the Institutions,
Thoughts and Culture of Rome on Christianity, and the Development
of the Catholic Church. Trans. by the Rev. Charles Beard. (Hibbert
Lectures, 1880.) 8vo, cloth. 10s.6d. Cheap Ed., 3rd Ed., 3s. 6d.

Renouf (P. Le Page). On the Religion of Ancient
Egypt. (Hibbert Lectures, 1879.) 3rd Edition. 8vo, cloth.
ros. 6d. Cheap Edition, 3s. 6d.

Rhys (Prof. J.). Onthe Origin and Growth of Religion
as Illustrated by Celtic Heathendom. (Hibbert Lectures, 1886.)
8vo, cloth. 10s. 6d. Cheap Edition, 3s. 6d.

Réville (Dr A.). On the Native Religions of Mexico
and Peru. Translated by the Rev. P. H. Wicksteed. (Hibbert
Lectures, 1884.) 8vo, cloth. ros. 6d. Cheap Edition, 3s. 6d.

Sayce (Prof. A. H.). On the Religion of Ancient Assyria
and Babylonia. 4th Edition. (Hibbert Lectures, 1887.) 8vo,
cloth. ros. 6d. Cheap Edition, 3s. 6d.

Upton (Rev. C. B.). On the Bases of Religious Belief.
(Hibbert Lectures, 1893.) Demy 8vo, cloth. ros, 6d. Cheap
Edition, 3s. 6d.

Second Series.

Farnell (L. R., D.Litt, Wilde Lecturer in the University of
Oxford). The Higher Aspects of Greek Religion. Lectures de-
livered in Oxford and London in1g1r1. Demy 8vo, cloth. 6s. net.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 37

HOME UNIVERSITY LIBRARY OF MODERN

Editor:

KNOWLEDGE.
s: Prof. Gilbert Murray, D.Litt., LL.D., F.B.A., Herbert Fisher,

M.A., F.B.A., LL.D., Professor J. Arthur Thomson, LL.D., and Pro-
fessor Wm. T. Brewster. Each volume is written by an expert of the
very first rank, and consists of 256 pages. Issued bound in cloth at 1s,
net, or beautifully bound in leather, levant morocco grain, 2s. 6d. nec.

COW AMAw So

Scott.

Sixty Volumes Now Ready,

Parliament. Sir C. P. Ilbert, K.C.B.

Shakespeare. John Masefield.

French Revolution. (With Maps.) Hilaire Belloc, M.A.
History of War and Peace. G. H. Perris.

Stock Exchange. F. W. Hirst, M.A.

Irish Nationality. Mrs J. R. Green.

- Modern Geography. (lllustrated.) Dr M. Newbigin.

Polar Exploration. (With Maps.) Dr W. S. Bruce.
Evolution of Plants. (Fully Illustrated.) Dr D. H.
, ERS.

to. Socialist Movement. J. Ramsay MacDonald, M.P.

11. Conservatism. Lord Hugh Cecil, M.A., M.P.

12, Opening Up of Africa. (With Maps.) Sir H. H.
Johnston, G.C.M.G.

13- Medieval Europe. (With Maps.) H.W.C. Davis, M.A.

14. The Papacy and Modern Times. Rev. Dr W. Barry.

15. Mohammedanism. Prof. D. S. Margoliouth.

16. The Science of Wealth. J. A. Hobson, M.A.

17. Health and Disease. Dr W. L. Mackenzie.

18. Introduction to Mathematics. (With Diagrams.) A. N.
Whitehead, Sc.D., F.R.S. [F. W. Gamble.

Ig.
: Evolution. Prof. J. A. Thomson and Prof. P, Geddes.

. Liberalism. Prof. L. T. Hobhouse.

. Crime and Insanity. Dr C. A. Mercier.

. History of our Time, 1885-1911. G. P. Gooch, M.A.

. The Evolution of Industry. Prof. D. H. MacGregor.

. The Civilisation of China. Prof. H. A. Giles, LL.D.

. Agriculture. Prof. W. Somerville, D.Sc.

. English Literature: Modern, George Mair, M.A.

. Psychical Research. Sir W. F. Barrett, F.R.S.

. The Dawn of History. Prof. J. L. Myers.

. Elements of English Law. Prof. W. M. Geldart, B.C.L.
. Astronomy. A. R. Hinks, M.A. [M.A.
. The Introduction to Science. Prof. J. Arthur Thomson,
. The History of Engiand: A Study in Political Evolution.
. Canada. A. G. Bradley. [Prof. A. F. Pollard.
. Landmarks in French Literature. G. L. Strachey.

6

The Animal World. (With many Illustrations.) Prof.

Climate and Weather. (With Diagrams.) Prof. H. N.

Dickson, D.Sc.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

38

WILLIAMS & NORGATE’S

Home University Library of Modern Knowledge—continued.

37. Peoples and Problems of India. Sir T. W. Holderness,
K.C.S.I. [Prof. J. J. Findlay.

38. The School. An Introduction to the Study of Education.

39. Architecture. (Over 40 Illustrations.) Prof. W. R. Lethaby.

40. Problems of Philosophy. The Hon. Bertrand Russell,

41. Anthropology. R. R. Marett, M.A. [F.R.S.

42. Rome. W. Warde-Fowler, M.A.

43. English Literature: Medizeval. Prof. W. P. Ker.

44. Principles of Physiology. Prof. J. G. M‘Kendrick.

45. The English Language. J. Pearsall Smith, M.A.

46. Matter and Energy. F. Soddy, F.R.S.

47. Buddhism. Mrs Rhys Davids.

48. The American Civil War. (Maps.) Prof. F. L. Paxson.

49. Psychology. The Study of Behaviour. Prof. W.
McDougall. [W. B. Selbie.

50. Nonconformity, Its Origin and Progress. Principal

51. Warfare in England. (With Maps.) Hilaire Belloc, M.A.

52. Great Writers of America. Profs. W. P. Trent and
J. Erskine. [ Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S.

53. The Making ofthe Earth. (With 38 Maps and Figures.)

54. Ethics. G. E. Moore, M.A.

55. Master Mariners. J. R. Spears. [LL.D., D.D.

56. Making of the New Testament. Prof. B. W. Bacon,

57. The Human Body (lIllustrated). Prof. Arthur Keith,
M.D., F.R.C.S. [M.LE.E.

58. Electricity (Illustrated). Dr Gisbert Kapp, D.Eng,,

59. Political Economy. Prof. S. J. Chapman, M.A.

60. Missions: Their Rise and Development. Mrs Creighton.

61. Napoleon. (Maps.) Herbert Fisher, M.A., F.B.A.

62. The Origin and Nature of Life. Prof. Benjamin Moore

63. Painters and Painting. (Illus.) Sir Frederick Wedmore.

64. Dr Johnson and his Circle. John Bailey, M.A.

65. The Literature of Germany. Prof. J. G. Robertson,
M.A., Ph.D.

66. The Navy and Sea Power. David Hannay.

67. Chemistry. Prof. Raphael Meldola, D.Sc., LL.D.

68. Comparative Religion. Prof. J. Estlin Carpenter, LL.D.

69. The Newspaper. (Illus.) G. Binney Dibblee.

yo. The Victorian Age in Literature. G. K. Chesterton.

71. Germany of To-day. By Charles Tower.

72. Plant Life. (lllustrated.) By Prof. J. B. Farmer, F.R.S.

73. The Writing of English. By Prof. W. T. Brewster.

74. A History of Freedom of Thought. By Prof. J. B.
Bury, Litt.D.

75. Ancient Artand Ritual. By Jane Harrison, LL.D., D. Litt.

A Detailed List, containing Particulars of more than
One Hundred Volumes, to be had on application.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 39

LIVERPOOL MARINE BIOLOGY COMMITTEE.
MEMOIRS ON TYPICAL BRITISH MARINE
PLANTS AND ANIMALS. Edited by W. A. Herdman,
D.Sc., F.R.S. All demy 8vo, stiff boards.

1. Ascidia. By W. A. Herdman. With 5 Plates. 2s. net.

2. Cardium. By J. Johnstone, Fisheries Assistant, University
College, Liverpool. With 7 Plates. 2s. 6d. net.

3. Echinus. By Herbert Clifton Chadwick, Curator of the
Port Erin Biological Station. With 5 Plates. 2s, net.

4. Codium. By R. J. Harvey Gibson, M.A., F.L.S., Professor
of Botany in University College, Liverpool, and Helen P. Auld,
B.Sc. With 3 Plates. 1s, 6d. net.

5. Alcyonium. By Sydney J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.,
Beyer Professor of Zoology in Owens College, Manchester. With
3 Plates. 1s. 6d. net.

6. Lepeophtheirus and Lernea. By Andrew Scott, Resident
Fisheries Assistant at the Peel Hatchery. With 5 Plates. 2s. net.

7. Lineus. By R.C. Punnett, B.A. With 4 Plates. 2s. net.

8. Pleuronectes. By Frank J. Cole, Jesus College, Oxford,
Lecturer in the Victoria University, Demonstrator of Zoology,
University, Liverpool, and James Johnstone, B.Sc. Lond., Fisheries
Assistant, University, Liverpool. With 11 Plates. 7s. net..

9. Chondrus. By Otto V. Darbishire, Owens College, Man-
chester. With 7 Plates. 2s. 6d. net.

1o. Patella (the Common Limpet). By J. R. Ainsworth
Davis, M.A., Professor of Zoology in the University College
of Wales, Aberystwyth, and H. J. Fleure, B.Sc., Fellow of the
University of Wales. With 4 Plates. 2s. 6d. net.

11. Arenicola (the Lug-Worm). By J. H. Ashworth, D.Sc.,
Lecturer in Invertebrate Zoology in the University of Edinburgh.
With 8 Plates. 4s. 6d. net.

12, Gammarus. By Margaret Cussans, B.Sc., Zoological
Department, University of Liverpool. With 4 Plates. as. net.

13. Anurida. By A. D. Imms, B.Sc. (Lond.). With 7 Plates.
4s. net.

14. Ligia. By C. Gordon Hewitt, B.Sc. Demonstrator in
Zoology; University of Manchester. With 4 Plates. as. net.

15. Antedon. By Herbert Clifton Chadwick. With 7 Plates.
2s. 6d. net.

16. Cancer. By Joseph Pearson, M.Sc., Demonstrator in
Zoology, University of Liverpool. With 13 Plates. 6s. 6d. net.

17. Pecton. By W.J. Dakin, M.Sc. Withg Plates. 4s. 6d. net.

18. Eledone. By Annie Isgrove, M.Sc. With ro Plates.
4s. 6d. net. ,

19. Polychaet Larvae. By F. H. Gravely, M.Sc. With 4
Plates. 2s. 6d. net.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

40 WILLIAMS & NORGATE’S

TEXT AND TRANSLATION SOCIETY. Established for
the purpose of editing and translating Oriental Texts chiefly
preserved in the British Museum.

The Sixth Book of the Select Letters of Severus,
Patriarch of Antioch, in the Syriac Version of Athanasius
of Nisibis. Edited and translated by E. W. Brooks, M.A.
Vol. I. Text, Parts I. and II. Vol. II. Translation, Parts I.
and II. 84s. net.

The Canons of Athanasius of Alexandria, in Arabic,
Ethiopic, and Coptic. Edited and translated by Prof. W.
Riedel (Griefswald) and W. E. Crum. 21s. net.

A Rabbinic Commentary on the Book of Job, contained
in a unique MS. at Cambridge. Edited, with Translation
and Commentary, by W. Aldis Wright, LL.D. rs. net.

An Ancient Armenian Version of the Apocalypse of St
John; also The Armenian Texts of Cyril of Alexandria,
Scholia de Incarnatione and Epistle to Theodosius upon
Easter, the former incompletely preserved in Greek, the latter
unknown in Greek or Latin. All edited, with English versions, etc.,
by F. C. Conybeare, formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford.

Remnants of the Later Syriac Versions of the Bible.
Part I. (Sixth Century). The Four Minor Catholic Epistles. Re-
constructed Text, with Apparatus Criticus, Part II. (Seventh
Century). Extracts, hitherto unedited, from the Syro-Hexaplar
Text of Chronicles, Nehemiah, etc. All edited, with Greek
versions, etc., by John Gwynn, D.D., Regius Professor of
Divinity, Dublin. 21s. net.

Coptic Texts on St Theodore the General, St Theodore
the Eastern, Chamoul and Justus. Edited and Translated
by E. O. Winstedt, late Senior Demy of Magdalen College, Oxford.
21s. net.

The Refutation of Mani, Marcion, and Bardaisan of St
Ephraim. Edited by the Rev. C. W. Mitchell. 21s. net.

Euphemia and the Goth. With the Acts of Martyrdom of
the Confessors of Edessa. Edited and Examined by Prof. F. C.
Burkitt. 21s. net.

THEOLOGICAL TRANSLATION LIBRARY.

New Series. A Series of Translations by which the best results
of recent Theological Investigations on the Continent, conducted
without reference to doctrinal considerations, and with the sole purpose
of arriving at the truth, are placed within reach of English readers.

Vols. I. and V.—The Apostolic Age. By Prof. Carl von
Weizsicker. Translated by James Millar, B.D. 2 vols. ros. 6d. each.

Vols. II., VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XIL—A History of
Dogma, By Adolf Harnack, Berlin. Translated from the Third
German Edition. Edited by the late Rev. Prof. A. B. Bruce,
D.D. 7 vols. ros. 6d. each.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 41

Theological Translation Library—continued.

Vols, III. and VI—A History of the Hebrews.—By R.
Kittel, Ordinary Professor of Theology in the University of
Breslau. os. 6d. per volume, _

Vol. IV.—The Communion of the Christian with God: A
Discussion in Agreement with the View of Luther. By W. Herr-
mann, Dr Theol., Professor of Dogmatic Theology in the Univer-
sity of Marburg. tos. 6d. net.

Vol. XIII.—An Introduction to the Textual Criticism of
the Greek New Testament. By Prof. Eberhard Nestle, of
Maulbronn. Cloth, ros. 6d.; half leather, tas. 6d.

Vols. XV. and XVII.—The Beginnings of Christianity. By
Paul Wernle, Professor Extraordinary of Modern Church History
at the University of Basal. Vol. I. The Rise of the Religion.
Vol. II. The Development of the Church. tos. 6d. per volume.

Vol. XVI.—The Religions of Authority and the Religion
of the Spirit. By the late Auguste Sabatier. 10s. 6d.

Vol. XVII.—Christian Life in the Primitive Church.
By Ernst von Dobschiitz, D.D., Professor of New Testament
Theology in the University of Strassburg. 1os. 6d.

Vols. XIX. and XX.—The Mission and Expansion of
Christianity in the First Three Centuries. By Adolf
Harnack, Berlin. Second, revised and much enlarged edition,
25s. net. Vols. not sold separately.

Vol. XXI.—St Paul: The Man and his Work. By Prof.
H. Weinel, of the University of Jena. os. 6d.

Vols. XXII, XXVI., XXVII., and XXXI.—Primitive Chris-
tianity: Its Writings and Teachings in their Historical Connec-
tions. By Otto Pfleiderer, Professor of Practical Theology in the
University of Berlin. 4 vols. ros. 6d. each net.

Vol. XXTII.—The Introduction to the Canonical Books
of the Old Testament. By Carl Cornill, Professor of Old
Testament Theology at the University of Breslau. ros. 6d. net.

Vol. XXIV.—History ofthe Church. By Hans von Schubert,
Professor of Church History at Kiel. ros. 6d. net.

Vol. XXV.—Ethics of the Christian Life. By Theodor von
Haering, Professor of New Testament Dogmatics and Ethics at
Tiibingen. ros. 6d. net.

Vols. XX VIII.and XXIX.—The Old Testamentin the Light
of the Ancient East. By Alfred Jeremias, Pastor of the Luther-
kirche, and Lecturer at the University of Leipzig. With numerous
illustrations and maps, 25s. net. Vols. not sold separately.

Vol. XXX.—The Truth of Religion. By Dr Rudolf Eucken,
Senior Professor of Philosophy in the Universityof Jena. 12s. 6d. net

Vol. XXXII.—Religious Liberty. By Prof. Francesco Ruffini.
With a Preface to the English Edition by Prof. J. B. Bury of
Cambridge. Demy 8vo, cloth. 12s. 6d. net.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

42 WILLIAMS & NORGATE’S

THEOLOGICAL TRANSLATION FUND LIBRARY.

Old Series. Uniform Price per Volume, 6s.

Baur (F. C.). Church History of the First Three

Centuries. Translated from the Third German Edition. Edited
by Rev. Allan Menzies. 2 vols, 8vo, cloth. ras.
Paul, the Apostle of Jesus Christ, His Life and
Work, His Epistles and Doctrine. A Contribution to a Critical
History of Primitive Christianity. Edited by Rev. Allan Menzies.
2nd Edition. 2 vols. 8vo, cloth. ras.

Ewald’s(Dr H.). Commentary on the Prophets of the Old
Testament. Trans. by the Rev. J. F. Smith. 5 vols. 8vo, cloth. 30s.
Commentary on the Psalms. Translated by the Rev.
E. Johnson, M.A. 2 vols. 8vo, cloth. tras.

—— Commentary on the Book of Job, with Translation.
Translated from the German by the Rev. J. Frederick Smith.
8vo, cloth. 6s.

Hausrath (Prof. A.). History of the New Testament
Times. The Time of Jesus. Translated by the Revs. C. T.
Poynting and P. Quenzer. 2 vols. 8vo, cloth. tas.

Keim’s History of Jesus of Nazara : Considered in its con-
nection with the National Life of Israel, and related in detail.
Translated from the German by Arthur Ransom and the Rev.
E. M. Geldart. Complete in 6 vols. 8vo. 36s. (Vol. I. only to
be had when a complete set of the work is ordered.)

Kuenen (Dr A.). The Religion of Israel to the Fall of
the Jewish State. Trans. from the Dutch by A. H. May. 3 vols.
8vo, cloth. 18s.

Pfleiderer (O.). Paulinism: A Contribution to the His-
tory of Primitive Christian Theology. Translated by E. Peters.
2nd Edition. 2 vols. 8vo, cloth. 12s.

Philosophy of Religion on the Basis of its History.
Translated by Prof. Allan Menzies and the Rev. Alex. Stewart.
4 vols. 8vo, cloth. 24s. (Vol. I. out of print.)

Réville(DrA.). Prolegomena of the History of Religions.
With an Introduction by Prof. F. Max Miiller. 8vo, cloth. 6s.

Schrader (Prof.E.). The Cuneiform Inscriptions and the
Old Testament. Translated from the Second Enlarged Edition, with
Additions by the Author, and an Introduction by the Rev. Owen
C. Whitehouse, M.A. 2 vols. With a Map. 8vo, cloth. ras.

LIST OF PERIODICALS, REVIEWS, AND TRANS-
ACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED
SOCIETIES published by Williams & Norgate.

The British Review. With which is incorporated the Oxford
and Cambridge Review. Monthly. rs. net. Postage Inland 3d.
Abroad 4d.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 43

List of Periodicals, Reviews, etc.—continued.

The Hibbert Journal: A Quarterly Review of Religion,
Theology, and Philosophy. Single numbers, 2s. 6d. net. Sub-
scription, 10s. per annum, post free.

Journal of the Federated Malay States Museums,
Issued quarterly. Single numbers, 1s. 6d. net. Subscription, 5s.
per annum.

Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, containing its
Transactions and Proceedings, with other Microscopical Information.
Bi-monthly. 6s. net. Yearly subscriptions, 37s. 6d., post free.

Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club, Issued half-
yearly, April and November. Price 3s. 6d. net. 7s. 6d. per
annum, post free.

Linnean Society of London. ‘Journal of Botany and Journal
of Zoology. Published irregularly at various prices. Also Trans-
actions, published irregularly.

Royal Society of Edinburgh. Transactions. Issued irregu-
larly at various prices.

Liverpool Marine Biology Committee. Memoirs. I.-XIX.
already published at various prices. Fauna of Liverpool Bay.
Fifth Report, written by Members of the Commitee and other
Naturalists. Cloth. 8s. 6d. net. See p. 36.

Publications de Institut Nobel Norvégien. Vol. I.
L’Arbitrage International chez les Hellénes. Par A. Raedar.
4to. 10s. net. Vol. II. Les Bases Economiques de la Justice
Internationale. By Achille Loria. 3s. 6d. net.

Royal Irish Academy. Transactions and Proceedings issued
irregularly ; prices vary. Cunningham Memoirs. Vols. I.-XI.
already issued at various prices. See p. 28.

Royal Dublin Society. Transactions and Proceedings.
Issued irregularly at various prices.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

INDEX OF TITLES.

Acts of the Apostles, Adolt Harnack, 11.

Acts, The Date of the. Adolf Harnack, 11.

Aeroplane, How to Build. Robert Petit, 23.

Africa, The Opening Up of. Sir H. H. Johnston,
14.

Agricultural Chemical Analysis. Wiley, 32.

Agriculture. Prof. W. Somerville, 28.

Alchemy of Thought, and other Essays. Prof.
L. P. Jacks, 14.

Alcyonium. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 39.

America, Great Writers of. Trent and Erskine, 7, 31.

American Civil War, Thee , Prof. F. L. Paxson, 20.

Americans, The. Hugo Minsterberg, 2r.

Among the Idolmakers. Prof. L. P. Jacks, 13.

Analysis of Ores. F.C. Phillips, 2t.'

Analysis, Organic. F. E. Benedict, z.

Analytical Geometry, Elements of. — Hardy,rz.

Anarchy and Law, Theories of. H. B. Brewster, 3.

Ancient Art and Ritual, Harrison, 12.

Ancient Asia Minor, Wall Map of, 16.

Ancient Assyria, Religionof. Prof. A. H.Sayce, 26.

Ancient Greece, Wall Map of, 16.

Ancient Italy, Wall Map of, 16.

Ancient Latium, Wall Map of, 16.

Ancient World, Wall Maps of the, 15.

Anglican Liberalism, 1.

Animal World, The. Prof. F. W. Gamble, 9.

Antedon, Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 39.

Anthems. Rev. R. Crompton Jones, rq.

Anthropology. R. R. Marett, 19.

Antwerp and Brussels, Guide to, ro.

Anurida, Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 39.

Apocalypse of St. John, 40.

Apologetic of the New Test. E. F. Scott, 27.

Apostle Paul, the, Lectures on. Otto Pfleiderer, 23.

Apostolic Age, The. Carl von Weizsicker, 32.

Arabian Poetry, Ancient. Sir C. J. Lyall, 19.

Architecture. Prof. W. R. Lethaby, 18.

Arenicola. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 39.

Aristotelian Society, Proceedings of, 22.

Army Series of French and German Novels, 33.

Ascidia. Johnston, L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 39.

Assyriology, Essay on. George Evans, 8.

Astigmatic Letters. Dr. Pray, 24.

Astronomy. A. R. Hinks, 13.

Athanasius of Alexandria, Canons of, 37.

Atlas Antiquus, Kiepert’s, 17.

Atlas, Topographical, of the Spinal Cord. Alex.
Bruce, 4.

Atonement, Doctrine of the. Auguste Sabatier, 25.

Auf Verlornem Postem. Dewall, 33.

Avesti, Pahlavi. Persian Studies, 1.

Babel and Bible. Friedrich Delitzsch, 6.
Bacon, Roger. ‘‘ Opus Majus” of, 2.

Basis of Religious Belief. C. B. Upton, 31.
Beet-Sugar Making. Nikaido, 21.
Beginnings of Christianity. Paul Wernle, 32.
Belgium, Practical Guide to, 10.

Belgium Watering Places, Guide to, ro.

Bergson’s Philosophy. Balsillie, 2; Le Roy, 18.

Bible. Translated by Samual Sharpe, 3.

Bible, a Short Introduction to, Sadler, 23; Bible
Problems, Prof. T. K. Cheyne, 5; How to Teach
the, Rev. A. F. Mitchell, 20; Remnants of
Later Syriac Versions of, 37.

Bible Reading in the Early Church. Adolf
Harnack, 11.

Biblical Hebrew, Introduction to.
Kennedy, 16.

Biology, Principles of. Herbert Spencer, 28.

Blaise Pascal. Humfrey R. Jordan, r5.

Book of Prayer. Crompton Jones, 15.

Books of the New Testament. Von Soden, 27.

Britain, 8.c. Henry Sharpe, 27.

British Fisheries. J. Johnstone, 14.

Brussels and Antwerp, Guide to, 10.

Buddhism. Mrs. Rhys Davids, 6.

Rev. Jas.

Calculus, Differential and Integral. Axel Har-
nack, 12.

Canada. A. G. Bradley, 3.

Cancer. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 37.

Cancer and other Tumours. Chas. Creighton, 5.

Canonical Books of the Old Testament. Cornill, 5.

Cape Dutch. J. F. Van Oordt, 22.

Cape Dutch, Werner's Elementary Lessons in, 32.

Capri and Naples, Guide to, ro.

Captain Cartwright and his Labrador Journal, 4.

Cardium. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 39.

Catalogue of the London Library, 17.

Celtic Heathendom. Prof. J. Rhys, 25.

Channing’s Complete Works, 4.

Chants and Anthems, 15; Chants, Psalms, and
Canticles. Crompton Jones, 15.

Character and Life, 4.

Chemical Dynamics, Studiesin. J. H.Van’t Hoff,
13-

Chemistry. Prof. Meldola, 20.

Chemistry, Elementary. Emery, 7.

Chemistry for Beginners. Edward Hart, 11.

Chemist’s Pocket Manual, 20.

Child and Religion, The, 5.

China, The Civilisation of. Prof. H. A. Giles, 9.

Chinese. Descriptive Sociology, Werner, 27.

Chondrus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 39.

Christian Life, Ethics of the. Chas. F. Dole, 10.

Christian Life in the Primitive Church. Dob-
schiitz, 7.

Christian Religion, Fundamental Truths of the.
R. Seeberg, 25.

Christianity, Beginnings of. Paul Wernle, 32.

Christianity in Talmud and Midrash. R. Travers
Herford, 12.

Christianity? Whatis. Adolf Harnack, 11.

Chromium, Production of. Max Leblanc, 18.

Church History. Baur, 2; Schubert, 24.

Civilisation of China. H. A. Giles, 9.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS.

45

Climate and Weather. H.N. Dickson, 6.

Closet Prayers. Dr. Sadler, 23.

Codium. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 39.

Collected Writings of Seger, 27.

Colonial Period, The. C. M. Andrews, 1.

Coming Church. Dr. John Hunter, 14.

Commentary on the Book of Job. Ewald, 2
Wright and Hirsch, 30; Commentary on the Old
Testament. Ewald, 7; Commentary on the
Psalms. Ewald, 7.

Common-Sense Dietetics. C. Louis Leipoldt, 18.

Communion with God. Wilhelm Herrmann, 12.

Comparative Religion. Princ. J. E. Carpenter, 4.

Conception of God. Allviella, +.

Concrete, Reinforced. Colby, s.

Conductivity of Liquids. Tower, 30.

Confessions of St. Augustine. Adolf Harnack, 11.

Conservatism. Lord Hugh Cecil, 4.

Constitution and Law of the Church, Adolf Har-
nack, 11.

Contes Militaires. A. Daudet, 33.

Copenhagen and Norway, Guide to, x0.

Coptic Texts on St. Theodore. E.O. Winstedt, 32.

Crime and Insanity. Dr. C. A. Mercier, 20.

Crown Theological Library, 34.

Cuneiform Inscriptions, The. Prof.E. Schrader, 26.

Date, The, of the Acts and of the Synoptic Gospels.
Harnack, 11.

Dawn of History, The. Prof. J. L. Myres, 2r.

Delectus Veterum. Theodor Néldeke, 20.

Democracy and Character. Canon Stephen, 29.

Democracy, Socialism and, in Europe. Samuel
P. Orth, 22

De Profundis Clamavi. Dr. John Hunter, 14.

Descriptive Sociology. Herbert Spencer, 26.

Development of the Periodic Law. Venable, 31.

Differential and Integral Calculus, The. Axel
Harnack, 11.

Dipavamsa, The. Edited by Oldenberg, 6.

Doctrine of the Atonement. A. Sabatier, 25.

Dogma, History of. Adolf Harnack, 11.

Dolomites, The, Practical Guide to, 10

Dresden and Environs, Guide to, 10.

Early Hebrew Story. John P. Peters, 23.

Early Christian Conception. Otto Pfleiderer, 23.
Echinus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 36.
Education. Herbert Spencer, 28.

Education and Ethics. Emile Boutroux, 3.
Egyptian Faith, The Old. Edouard Naville, 21.
Egyptian Grammar, Erman'’s, 7.

Eighth Year, The. Philip Gibbs, 9.

Electric Furnace. H. Moisson, 20.

Electricity. Prof. Gisbert Kapp, 15.
Electrolysis of Water. V. Engelhardt, 7.
Electrolytic Laboratories. Nissenson, 22.
Eledone. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 39.
Elementary, Chemistry. Emery, 6.

Elementary Organic Analysis. F. E. Benedict, z.
Elements of English Law. W. M. Geldart, 9.
Engineering Chemistry. T. B. Stillman, 30.
England and Germany, 6.

English Language. L. P. Smith, 27.

English Literature, Medieval. W. P. Ker, 16.

English Literature, Modern. G. H. Mair, x9.

Enoch, Book of. C. Gill, 9.

Ephesian Canonical Writings.
Green, 9.

Epitome of Synthetic Philosophy. F.H. Collins, 4.

Erzéhlungen. Héfer, 33.

Essays on the Social Gospel. Harnack and Herr-
mann, 11.

Essays. Herbert Spencer, 29.

Ethica. Prof. Simon Laurie, 17.

Ethics, Data of. Herbert Spencer, 28.

Ethics, Education and. Emile Boutroux, 3.

Ethics. G. E. Moore, 2t.

Ethics, Principles of. Herbert Spencer, 28.

Ethics of the Christian Life. Prof. T, Haering, 10.

Ethics of Progress, The. Chas. F. Dole, 6.

Ethiopic Grammar. A. Dillmann, 6.

Eucken’s Philosophy, An Interpretation of. W.
Tudor Jones, 15.

Euphemia and the Goth. Prof. F.C. Burkitt, 4,
40.

Europe, Medieval. H.W. C. Davis, 6.

Evolution. Thomson and Geddes, 30.

Evolution of Industry. Prof. D. H. Macgregor, 19.

Evolution of Plants. Dr. D. H. Scott, 26.

Evolution of Religion, The. L. R. Farnell, 7.

Exploration, Polar, Dr. W.S. Bruce, 4.

Rt. Rev. A. V.

Facts and Comments. Herbert Spencer, 29.

Faith and Morals. W. Herrmann, 11.

Fertilisers, Soil Fertility and. Halligan, 10.

First Principles. Herbert Spencer, 28.

First Three Gospels in Greek. Rev. Canon Colin
Campbell, 3.

Flower of Gloster, The. E. Temple Thurston, 30.

Four Gospels as Historical Records, 9.

Free Catholic Church. Rev. J. M. Thomas, 30.

Freedom of Thought. Bury, 4.

Freezing Point, The. Jones, 13.

French Composition. Jas. Boielle, 3.

French History, First Stepsin. F. F. Roget, 23.

French Language, Grammar of. Eugene, 7.

Vrench Literature, Landmarksin. G. L. Strachey,
30.

French Reader. Leon Delbos, 6.

French Revolution, The. Hilaire Belloc, 2.

Fundamental Truths of the Christian Religion.
R. Seeberg, 27. p

Gammarus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 37.

Gaul, Wall Map of, 16.

General Language of the Incas of Peru.
Clements Markham, 19.

Genesis, Book of, in Hebrew Text. Rev.C. H. H.
Wright, 28.

Genesis and Evolution of the Soul. J.O. Bevan, z.

Genesis, Hebrew Text, 11.

Geography, Modern. Dr. M. Newbigin, 21.

Geometry, Analytical, Elements of. Hardy, 11.

German History, Noble Pages from. F. J. Gould,

Io,

Sir

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

46 WILLIAMS & NORGATE’S

German Idioms, Short Guideto. T. H. Weisse, 30.

German Literature, A Short Sketch of. V. Phil-
lipps, B.A., 23..

Germany, England and, 6.

Germany of To-day. Tower, 30.

Germany, The Literature of. Prof. J. G. Robert-
son, 25. ;

Glimpses of Tennyson. A. G. Weld, 32.

God and Life. Dr. John Hunter, 14.

Gospel of Rightness. C. E. Woods, 33.

Gospels in Greek, First Three. Rev. Colin
Campbell, 4.

Grammar, Egyptian. Erman, 7.

Grammar, Ethiopic. A. Dillman, 6.

Greek-English Dictionary, Modern, 17.

Greek Ideas, Lectures on. Rev. Dr. Hatch, 11.

Greek, New Testament. Prof. Edouard Nestle, 19.

Greek Religion, Higher Aspects of. L. R. Farnell,

8.

Greeks: Hellenic Era, 27.

Grieben’s English Guides, 9.

Gulistan, The (Rose Garden) of Shaik Sadi of
Shiraz, 23.

Gymnastics, Medical Indoor. Dr. Schreber, 24.

Harnack and his Oxford Critics.
26.

Health and Disease. Dr. W. L. Mackenzie, 19.

Hebrew, New School of Poets, 20.

Hebrew Religion. W. E. Addis, 1.

Hebrew Story. John P. Peters, 23.

Hebrew Synonyms, Studiesin. Rev. J. Kennedy,
16.

Hebrew Texts, 12.

Hellenistic Greeks. Mahaffy and Goligher, 27.

Herbaceous Garden, The. Mrs. A.Martineau, 20.

Heredity in Relation to Eugenics. C. B. Daven-
port, 6.

Hibbert Journal Supplement for 1909, entitled:
Jesus or Christ? 13.

Hibbert Journal, The, 13.

Hibbert Lectures, 35.

Highwaysand Byways in Literature. H. Farrie, 8.

Hindu Chemistry. Prof. P. C. Ray, 24.

Historical Evidence for the Resurrection. Kirsopp
Lake, 17.

History of Dogma. Adolf Harnack, 11.

History of England. A. F. Pollard, 23.

History of Jesus of Nazara. Keim, 14.

History of Our Time. G. P. Gooch, 9.

History of Sacerdotal Celibacy. H. C. Lea, 17.

History of War and Peace. Perris, 22.

History of the Church. Hans von Schubert, 26.

History of the Hebrews. R. Kittel, 17.

History of the Literature of the O.T. E. Kautzsch,
16.

History of the New Test. Times. A. Hausrath, 11.

Holland, Practical Guide to, 10.

Home University Library of Modern Knowledge,

T. B. Saunders,

37-
Horse, Life-Size Modelsof. J.T. Share-Jones, 13;
the, Surgical Anatomy of, 13.

House of Commons, The, from Within. Rt.
Hon. R. Farquharson, 8.

How to Teach the Bible. Rev. A. F. Mitchell, 20,

Human Body, The. Prof. Arthur Keith, 16.

Hygiene, Handbook of. D.G. Bergey, 2.

Hymns of Duty and Faith. R.Crompton Jones, 15.

Idolmakers, Among the. Prof. L. P. Jacks, 14.

Immortality, Some Intimations of. Rt. Hon. Sir
E. Fry, 9.

Incarnate Purpose, The. G. H. Percival, 21.

India, Peoples and Problems of. Sir T, W.
Holderness, 13.

Indian Buddhism. Rhys Davids, 6.

Individual Soul, Genesis and Evolution of. J. O.
Bevan, 2.

Individualism and Collectivism. Dr. C. W. Saleeby,
26.

Indoor Gymnastics, Medical. Dr. Schreber, 26:

Industrial Remuneration, Methods of. David F.
Schloss, 26.

Infinitesimals and Limits. Hardy, 11.

Influence of Greek Ideas upon the Christian
Church. Rev. Dr. Hatch, 12.

Influence of Rome on Christianity. E. Renan, 24.

Initiation into Philosophy. Emile Faguet, 6.

Inorganic Chemistry. J. L. Howe, 14.

Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Leaven-
worth, 18.

Interpretation of Rudolf Eucken's Philosophy.
W. Tudor Jones, 15.

Introduction to Biblical Hebrew. Rev. J.
Kennedy, 16.

Introduction to the Greek New Test. Prof. E.
Nestle, 21.

Introduction to the Old Test. Prof. Carl Cornill,
Sy 39°

Introduction to the Preparation of Organic Com-
pounds. Emil Fischer, 8.

Introduction to Science. Prof. J. A. Thomson, 30.

Irish Nationality. Mrs. J. R. Green, ro.

Isaiah, Hebrew Text, 11.

Jesus. Wilhelm Bousset, 3.

Jesus of Nazara. Keim, 16.

Jesus or Christ? The Hibbert Journal Supplement
for 1909, 11.

Jesus, Sayings of. Adolf Harnack, 11.

Job. Hebrew Text, x1.

Job, Book of. G. H. Bateson Wright, 30.

Job, Book of. Rabbinic Commentary on, 30.

Johnson, Dr., and His Circle. John Bailey, 13.

Journal of the Federated Malay States, 4o.

Journal of the Linnean Society. Botany and
Zoology, 15.

Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club, x5.

Journal of the Royal Microscopical Seciety, 15.

Justice. Herbert Spencer, 29.

Kantian Ethics. J. G. Schurman, 26.
Kea, The. George R. Marriner, 19.
Kiepert's New Atlas Antiquus, 15.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 47

Kiepert’s Wall-Maps of the Ancient World, 15.
Kindergarten, The. H. Goldammer, 9.

King, The, to His People, 17.

Kingdom, The, Mineral. Dr. Reinhard Brauns, 3.

Laboratory Experiments. Noyes and Mulliken, 20.
Lakes of Northern Italy, Guide to, ro.
Landmarks in French Literature. G. L. Strachey,

30.

Latter Day Saints, The. Ruth and R. W. Kauff-
man, 15.

Law, English, Elements of. W. M. Geldart, 9.

Lays of Ancient Rome. Macaulay, 19.

Leabhar Na H-Uidhri, 41.

Le Coup de Pistolet. Merimée, 33.

Lepeophtheirus and Lernea. Vide L.M.B.C.
Memoirs, 39.

Letter to the ‘‘Preussische Jahrbiicher.” Adolf
Harnack, 11.

Les Misérables. Victor Hugo, 14.

Liberal Christianity. Jean Réville, 24.

Liberalism. Prof. L. T. Hobhouse, 13.

Life and Matter. Sir O. Lodge, 18.

Life of the Spirit, The. Rudolf Eucken, 7.

Ligia. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 39.

Lineus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 39.

Linnean Society of London, Journals of, 15.

Literature, English Medieval. Prof. W. P. Ker, 16.

Literature, Highways and Byways in. Hugh
Farrie, 8.

Literature of Germany. Prof. J. G. Robertson, 25.

Literature of the Old Testament. Kautzsch, 16.

Literature, The Victorian Age in. G. K. Chester-
ton, 4.

Liverpool Marine Biology Committee Memoirs, 39.

Liverpool Marine Biology Committee Memoirs,
I,—XVIIL., 36, 37.

Logarithmic Tables. Schroen, 26.

London Library, Catalogue of, 18.

London Library Subject Index, 18.

Luke the Physician. Adolf Harnack, 11.

Mad Shepherds, and other Studies. Prof. L. P.
Jacks, 14.

Mahabharata, Index to. S. Sorensen, 28.

Making a Newspaper. John L. Given, 9.

Making of the Earth. Prof. J. W. Gregory, 10.

Making ofthe New Testament. Prof.B.W. Bacon, 1.

Man and the Bible. J. A. Picton, 23.

Man versus the State. Herbert Spencer, 29.

Man’s Origin, Destiny,and Duty. Hugh M‘Coll, 19.

Maori, Lessons in. Right Rev. W. L. Williams, 30.

Maori, New and Complete Manual of. Williams,
30.

Marine Zoology of Okhamandal. Hornell, 14.

Massoretic Text. Rev. Dr. J. Taylor, 30.

Master Mariners. J. R. Spears, 28.

Mathematics, Introductionto. A. N. Whitehead, 32,

Matter and Energy. F. Soddy, 27.

Medieval Europe. H. W. C. Davis, 6.

Metallic Objects, Production of. Dr. W. Pfan-
hauser, 23.

Metallurgy. Wysor, 31.

Metaphysica Nova et Vetusta. Prof. Simon
Laurie, 17.

Midrash, Christianity in. Travers Herford, 12.

Milando Panho, The. Edited by V. Trenckner, 20.

Mineral Kingdom, The. Dr. R. Brauns, 3.

Mission and Expansion of Christianity. Adolf
Harnack, 11.

Missions. Mrs. Creighton, 5.

Modern Greek-English Dictionary. A. Kyriakides,
16.

Modern Materialism. Rev. Dr. James Martineau,
18,

Modernity and the Churches. Percy Gardner, 9.

Mohammedanism. Prof. D. S. Margoliouth, 19.

Molecular Weights, Methods of Determining.
Henry Biltz, 3.

Monasticism. Adolf Harnack, 11.

Moorhouse Lectures, Vide Mercer's Soul of Pro-
gress, 18; Stephen, Democracy and Character,
27.

Mormons, The. R. W. and Ruth Kauffman, 15.

Munich and Environs, Guide to, 10.

My Life, Some Pages of. Bishop Boyd Carpenter,

4.
My Struggle for Light. R. Wimmer, 32.
Mystery of Newman. Henri Bremond, 3.

Naples and Capri, Guide to, 10.

Napoleon. H. A. L. Fisher, 9.

National Idealism and State Church, 5; and the
Book of Common Prayer, 5. Dr. Stanton Coit.

National Religions and Universal Religion. Dr
A. Kuenen, 33.

Native Religions of Mexico and Peru.
Réville, 24.

Naturalism and Religion. Dr. Rudolf Otto, 22.

Nautical Terms. L. Delbos, 6.

Navy, The, and Sea Power. David Hannay, 11.

Nervation of Plants. Francis Heath, 32.

New Hebrew School of Poets. Edited by H.
Brody and K. Albrecht, 20.

New Testament, Making of. Prof. B. W. Bacon, x.

New Zealand Language, Dictionary of. Rt. Rev.
W. L. Williams, 32.

Newman, Mystery of. Henri Bremond, 3.

Newspaper, Making a. John L. Given, 9.

Newspaper, The. G. Binney Dibblee, 6.

Nibelungenlied. Trans. W. L. Lettsom, 20.

Noble Pages from German History. F. J. Gould, 9.

Nonconformity. Its Origin, etc. Principal W. B.
Selbie, 27.

North Sea Watering-Places, Guide to, 10.

Norway and Copenhagen, Practical Guide to, ro.

Norwegian Sagas translated into English, 23.

Notre Dame de Paris. Victor Hugo, 14.

Nuremberg and Rothenburg, Guide to, 10.

Dr. A.

Old French, Introduction to.
Ostend, Guide to, 10.

Old Syriac Gospels. Mrs. A. Smith Lewis, 18.
Old Testament in the Light of the East. Jeremias, 14.
Old Testament, Canonical Books of. Cornill, 5.
Old Testament, Prophets of. Ewald, 8.

F. F, Roget, 23.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

48

WILLIAMS & NORGATE’S

Old World, The, Wall Map of, x6.
Ophthalmic Test Types. Snellen’s, 25.
Optical Rotating Power. Hans Landolt, 17.
“Opus Majus” of Roger Bacon, 2:

Organic Analysis. Benedict, 2,

Organic Chemistry. A. A. Noyes, 20.
Organic Compounds. Emil Fischer, 8.

Origin and Growth of Religion. C.G. Montefiore,
2I.

Origin and Nature of Life. Prof. Benjamin
Moore, 21.

Outlines of Church History. Von Schubert, 24.
Outlines of Psychology. Wilhelm Wundt, 31.

Pages of my Life,Some. Bishop Boyd Carpenter, 4.

Pacific, The, Problems of. Frank Fox, 9.

Painters and Painting. Sir Fredk. Wedmore, 31.

Pali, Handbook of. Dr. O. Frankfiirter, 35.

Pali Miscellany. V. Trenckner, 31.

Papacy and Modern Times. Rev. Dr.Wm. Barry, 2.

Parliament, In and Outof. Rt. Hon. R. Farquhar-
son, 8.

Parliament, Its History, Constitution, and Practice.
Olbert, 4. :

Pascal, Blaise. H.R. Jordan, 14.

Patella. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 1, 39.

Paul. Baur, 2; Weinel, 32.

Paulinism. Otto Pfleiderer, 23.

Pecton. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 37.

Persian Empire, Wall Map of, 16.

Persian Language, A Grammar of. J.T. Platts, 23.

Personal and Family Prayers, 23.

Pharisaism. R. Travers Herford, 12.

Philo Judzus. Dr. Drummond, 7.

Philosophy, a New. Edouard Le Roy, 18.

Philosophy, Initiation into. Emile Faguet, 6.

Philosophy and Experience. Hodgson, 29.

Philosophy of Religion. Otto Pfleiderer, 23.

Plant Life. Farmer, 8.

Plants, Nervation of. Francis Heath, 12.

Pleuronectes. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 39.

Pocket Flora of Edinburgh. C. O. Sonntag, 28.

Polar Exploration. Dr. W. S, Bruce, 4.

Political Economy, Elements of. Prof. S. J.
Chapman, 4.

Polychaet Larvae. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 39.

Protestantism and Progress.
3r.

Psalms, Commentary on.

Psalms, Hebrew Text, 12.

Psychical Research. Sir W. F. Barrett, 2.

Psychology. Prof. W. MacDougall, 19.

Psychology, Principles of, Spencer, 28; Outlines
of, Wundt, 33.

Public Schools and the Empire. Rev. Dr. H. B.
Gray, ro.

Ernest Troeltsch,

Ewald, 8.

Qualitative Analysis, Notes on.
Mason, 20.

Quest, The. Dorothea Hollins, 13.

Prof. W. P.

Reasons for Dissenting from the Philosophy of M.
Comte. Herbert Spencer, 29.

Recollections of a Scottish Novelist.
Walford, 31.

Reconstruction and Union. Paul Leland Haworth,
I2,

Reformation of the Sixteenth Century. Rev. Dr.
C. Beard, z.

Refutations of Mani, Marcion, and Bardaisan.
Rev. C. W. Mitchell, 20, 40.

Reinforced Concrete in Europe.

Rejoinder to Prof. Weismann, 28.

Relation between Ethics and Religion. Rev. Dr.
James Martineau, 20.

Religion and Modern Culture. Auguste Sabatier,
25.

Religion, Comparative. Princ. J. E. Carpenter, 4.

Religion, Evolution of. L.R. Farnell, 8.

Religion, Truth of. Rudolf Eucken, 7.

Religion of Ancient Egypt. Renouf, 24.

Religion of the Ancient Hebrews. C. G. Monte-
fiore, 21.

Religion of Israel. Kuenen, 17.

Religion of the Old Testament. Marti, 19.

Religions of Ancient Babylonia and Assyria,
Prof. A. H. Sayce, 26,

Religions of Authority and the Spirit. Auguste
Sabatier, 25.

Religious Experience of St. Paul.
Gardner, 9.

Religious Liberty. Professor Ruffini, 25.

Mrs. L. B.

Colby, 5s.

Prof. P.

Portland Cement. Richard K. Meade, 20.

Prayers for Christian Worship. Sadler, 25.

Prehistoric Times. Lord Avebury, 1.

Primitive Christianity. Otto Pfleiderer, 23.

Princess, The. Alfred, Lord Tennyson, 30.

Principles of Physiology. Prof. J. G. MacKen-
drick, 19.

Printing at Brescia. R. A. Peddie, 22.

Prison, The. H. B. Brewster, 3.

Problems of Philosophy. Hon. Bertrand Russell, 25.

Problems of the Pacific. Frank Fox, 9.

Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 24.

Proceedings of the Optical Convention, 24.

Prolegomena. Dr. A. Réville, 24.

Protestant Commentary on the New Testament,

8, 23.

Resurrection of Jesus Christ. Lake, 17; R. W.
Macan, 19.

Revolution, The French. Hilaire Belloc, 2.

Rhine, The, Guide to, ro.

Ring of Pope Xystus, s.

Riviera, The, Practical Guide to, 10.

Rock Gardens. L. B. Meredith, 20.

Roman Empire, Wall Map of, 16.

Rome. W. Warde Fowler, 9.

Rothenberg and Nuremberg, Guide to, 10.

Royal Dublin Society. Transactions and Pro-
ceedings, 30, 43.

Royal Irish Academy. Transactions
ceeding, 31, 43.

Royal Society of Edinb
3Ty 43+

and Pro-

‘ion:

gh. Ti of,

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 49

Sacerdotal Celibacy. Henry Chas. Lea, 17.

Sadi. The Gulistan (Rose Garden) of Shaik Sadi
of Shiraz, 25.

Sagas of Olaf Tryggvason and Harold the Tyrant, 25,

Sailors’ Horn Book. H. Piddington, 23.

Sayings of Jesus, The. Adolf Harnack, rr.

School Teaching and School Reform, Sir O.
‘Lodge, 18.

School, The. Prof. J. J. Findlay, 8.

Shakespeare. John Masefield, 20.

Science of Wealth. J. A. Hobson, 13.

Science, Matter, and Immortality. R.C. Macfie, 19.

Scientific Study of the Old Testament. R. Kittel, 17.

Seasons, The; An Anthology. H. and L. Melville, 20.

Second Year Chemistry. Edward Hart, 12.

Seeds and Fruits, Studies in. H.B. Guppy, 10.

Seger. Collected Writings, 27.

Sentimental Journey. Laurence Sterne, 29.

Seven-Figure Logarithms. L. Schroen, 26.

Severus, Patriarch of Antioch, Letters of, 27.

Short History of the Hebrew Text. T. H. Weir, 32.

Silva Gadelica. Standish H. O’Grady, 22.

Social Gospel, Essays on the, 11.

Social Idealism. R. Dimsdale Stocker, 30.

Social Statics. Herbert Spencer, 29.

Socialism and Democracy in Europe. Samuel P.
Orth, 22.

Socialist Movement, The. J. R. MacDonald, 19.

Sociology, Descriptive. Herbert Spencer, 29.

Sociology, Principles of. Herbert Spencer, 28.

Sociology, Study of. Herbert Spencer, 29.

Soil, Fertility, and Fertilisers. Halligan, 10.

Soils. Vide Wiley's Agricultural Analysis, 32.

Soils and Fertilisers. Snyder, 27.

Soliloquies of St. Augustine. Cleveland, 27.

Soul of Progress, Bishop Mercer, 20.

Spencer, Herbert, Life and Lettersof. D, Duncan, 7.

Spinal Cord, Topographical Atlas of. Alex. Bruce,
M.A., etc., 4.

Spirit, The, Life of, Rudolf Eucken, 7.

St. Paul, The Religious Experience of. Prof. P.
Gardner, 9.

Statuette, The, and the Background. H. B. Brew-
ster, 3.

Statutes, The, of the Apostles. G. Horner, 29.

Stereochemistry, Elements of. Hantzsch, 11.

Stock Exchange, The. F. W. Hirst, 13.

Storms. H. Piddington, 23.

Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory.
Edward W. Scripture, Ph.D., 31.

Studies in Seeds and Fruits. H.B. Guppy, ro.

Studieson Northern Mythology. Geo. Stephens, 56.

Study of the Atom, Venable, 31.

Study of the Saviour. Alex. Robinson, 24.

Subject-Index to London Library Catalogue, 54.

Super-Organic Evolution. Dr. Enrique Lluria, 18.

Surgical Anatomy of the Horse. J. T. Share
Jones, 46.

Switzerland, Practical Guide to, 10; Winter Sports
in, 10.

Symbolic Logic. A. T, Shearman, 27.

Symbolism, Lost Language of. Harold Bayley, 2.

Synoptic Gospels, The Date of the.
nack, rz.

Synthetic Philosophy, Epitomeof. F.H. Collins, 5.

Syriac Grammar. Theodor Néldeke, 22. [32-

System of Synthetic Philosophy. Herbert Spencer,

Talmud and Midrash, Christianity in. R. Travers
Herford, 12.

Taylor, General Sir Alexander.
Daughter, 30.

Ten Services and Psalms and Canticles, 27.

Ten Services of Public Prayer, 27.

Tent and Testament. Herbert Rix, 25.

Testament, Old. Canonical Books of, 5; Religions
of, 19; Cuneiform Inscriptions, 26; Hebrew
Text, Weir, 32; Literature, 16.

Testament, The New, Critical Notes on. C.
Tischendorf, 30.

Testament Times, New, 12; Acts of the Apostles,
11; Apologetic of, 26; Books of the, 27 ; Commen-
tary, Protestant, 8; Luke the Physician, 11;
Textual Criticism, 21.

Test Types. Pray, 24; Snellen, 27.

Text and Translation Society, Works by, 40.

Theological Translation Library, 40.4

Theories of Anarchy and of Law. H. B. Brewster, 3.

Thermometer, History of the. Bolton, 3.

Tourist Guides. Griebens, 10.

Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society, 30.

Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, 31.

Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 31.

Truth, The, of Religion. Eucken, 7.

Unionist Policy. Rt. Hon. F. E. Smith, 27.
Universal Christ. Rev. Dr. C. Beard, 2.

Universalism Asserted. Rev. Thos. Allin, 1.
Urine Analysis, A Text-Book of. Long, 18.

Adolf Har-

A Memoir by his

Vaillante, Vincent, 33.

Various Fragments. Herbert Spencer, 29.

Veiled Figure, The, 31.

Via, Veritas, Vita. Dr. Drummond, 7.

Victorian Agein Literature. G. K. Chesterton, 11.

Virgin Birth of Christ. Paul Lobstein, 18.

Vocabularies of the General Language of the Incas
of Peru. Sir Clements Markham, 19.

Vulgate, The. Rev. G. Henslow, 12.

Wall Maps of the Ancient World. Kiepert, 16.

Warfare in England. Hilaire Belloc, 2.

Was Israel ever in Egypt? G.H. B. Wright, 33.

Water, Electrolysis of. Engelhardt, 7.

Weather, Climate and. Prof. H. N. Dickson, 6.

What is Christianity? Adolf Harnack, 11.

Winter Sports in Switzerland, Guide to, 10.

Wife, The, In Ancient and Modern Times.
Schuster, 26.

Within, Thoughts during Convalescence. Sir
Francis Younghusband, 33.

Women’s Suffrage. Helen Blackburn, 3.

World, The Old, Wall Map of, 16.

Writers, Great, of America. Profs. Trent and
Erskine, 7, 31.

Writing of English. Brewster, 3.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C.

PRINTED BY
NEILL AND CO., LTD.
EDINBURGH