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MANURES FOR FRUIT AND
OTHER TREES

MANURES

FOR

FRUIT AND OTHER TREES

A Practical Handbook for the Gardener,
Horticulturist, and Student

BY
A. B. GRIFFITHS, Pw,.D.
Member of the Chemical Societies of Paris, Berlin, St. Petersburg, and

of
Milan ; Gold Medallist and Hon. Member of the Royal Academy of
Sciences of Lisbon; Hon. Member of the National Society of
Agriculture of Brazil; Gold Medallist and Hon. Member of
the Royal Society of Horticulture and Agriculture of
Tournai; Hon. Member of the Societies of Sciences
of Bucharest, Mexico, Biarritz, and Rio Janeiro ;
Hon. Member of the Academy of Sciences of
Montpellier ; Author of “‘ A Treatise on
Manures,”? “Special Manures for
Garden Crops,” ‘‘ Manures and
their Uses,” ‘‘ The Diseases
of Crops,” “A Manual
of Bacteriology,”
etc., etc.

LONDON:
ROBERT SUTTON

43, THe Excuance, Sourdwark Street, S.E.

1908

{All Rights Reserved]

Ricuarp CLay anp Sons, Limirep,
BREAD STREET HILL, E.0., AND
BUNGAY, SUFFOLK.

PROF, MARCELLIN BERTHELOT

gn Memoriam

PREFACE

Tus book is not a “ treatise on manures,” but
gives an account of the manures for fruit and other
trees, the ash-constituent of trees, and the most
suitable soils for the cultivation of trees and
shrubs.

The art of manuring—and truly a great art—is
of the utmost importance, and no gardener or
cultivator, amateur or professional, can dispense
with it—in fact it is a sine qud non to every
cultivator of trees, fruit and flowers. The origin
of this art is of great antiquity, and only sur-
vives in the traditions of the great centres of
civilisation of bygone ages (Chinese, Indian, Per-
sian, Egyptian, Greek and Roman). Its growth
and development have been extremely slow; but

viil PREFACE

it is gratifying to know that great strides have
been made in the art of manuring during the
past few years.

The author has condensed in the present book a
considerable amount of matter on manures,
manuring and soils ; and numerous analyses of the
ashes of plants are given. They represent twenty-
five years’ work on the part of the author, his
assistants and pupils. Some of these analyses
have already appeared in the author's book on
‘“‘Special Manures,” but the majority are now
published for the first time.

It may be stated that the ash and soil analyses
and the different special manures mentioned in
these pages are the results of many years’
investigations and observations in gardens,
orchards and laboratories.

In early days, the author received encourage-
ment in this work from the late Sir Richard Owen,
K.C.B., F.R.S., the late Prof. M. Berthelot, the
late Sir John B. Lawes, Bart., F.R.S., H.H. the
late Prince L. L. Bonaparte, the late Dr. J. E.
Taylor, Dr. A. C. Maybury, Mr. T. W. Sanders,
F.R.H.S., the late Prof. H. A. Nicholson, F.R.S.,

PREFACE 1X

Prof. A. Miintz, the late Prof. J. P. Cooke, LL.D.,
and many other scientific workers.

In conclusion, the author wishes to place on
record the great help he has received from
Mr. J. Scurlock, Mr. R. H. Wilson, the late Mr.
Cecil Massey, Ph.C., and others in the analyses of

plant ashes, soils, etc.
A. B. GRIFFITHS.

“‘Tvanhoe,” Stockwell Park Road,
London, S. W.
October, 1907.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I.

Historical Introduction—Growth of Plants: Van Helmont’s
Theory —Tull’s Theory—Bonnet’s Discovery — Karl
Dundonald’s Theory—Hinhof and Thaér’s Theory—
De Saussure’s Theory—Davy’s ae ei s Dis-
coveries and Theory, etc. . : a ag

CHAPTER II.

Physiology of Plant—Organic Matter—The Function of
Leaves—Chlorophyll — Transpiration — Root-absorption
—Nitrogen-absorption—Circulation . ‘

CHAPTER III.

Agronomy or the Chemistry and Bacteriology of Soils
—Various Soils—Soils for Various Fruit Trees—
Aération of Soils—Nitrogen—Jamieson’s Investigations
—Bacteria of Soils—Mineral Matter of Soils—Humus
—Water

CHAPTER IV.
Sterile Soils— Various Sterile Soils—Soil Exhaustion .

CHAPTER V.

Composition of Fruit Trees—The Botanical Names of Trees
and Natural Orders—Analyses of their Ashes

PAGE

19

45

51

Xl CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI.

Composition of other Trees—Botanical Names and Natural
Orders—Composition of their Ashes—Soils in which
they Grow

CHAPTER VII.

Manures for Fruit Trees—Manures for Heavy, Light, and
Rich Soils—Special Manures—Manures for Shallow
Soils, Sandy Loams, Ordinary ee eee fies and
Calcareous Soils .

CHAPTER VIII.

Special Manures for other Trees—Garden and Plantation
Trees—Liquid and Solid Manures

CHAPTER IX.

Properties of Manures— Natural Manures—Bones—Guanos
—Thomas Phosphate—Nitrate of Soda—Superphos-
phates—Sulphate of Ammonia—Ammonium Chloride—
Nitrate of Potash— Kainit— Muriate of Potash—
Gypsum — Lime — Magnesium Sulphate — Sodium
srr gaa pa ene on Sulphate
—Special Manures. F 08

CHAPTER X.
Trees—Planting for Pictorial Effect—Various Trees and
their Grouping—Soils and Manures—Proper Oulti-
vation . a! Gh! ae De ae aa Oe a

INDEX.

PAGE

9U

178

204

227

250

257

MANURES FOR FRUIT AND
OTHER TREES

CHAPTER I

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION

“There is no part of history so generally useful as that which
relates the progress of the human mind . . . the successive
advances of Science.” —Johnson.

THE art of cultivating the soil is one of the oldest
industries ; and according to Bretschneider and
other authors, China and Japan’ cultivated cereals
and other crops 3,000 years before the Christian era.
The art of cultivating the cereals passed from
China, Egypt and Pheenicia,? and finally into
Europe—being highly cultivated during the Greek
and Roman empires. Homer,® Theophrastus, Cato,

1 Rein’s Industries of Japan. The Japanese have a proverb,
“no wa kuni no moto” (agriculture is the prop of the country).
See also Ménard’s La Vie Privée des Anciens, t. 3, pp. 1—88.

2 Rawlinson’s Phenicia.
3 Gladstone’s Juventus Mundi, p. 97.

2 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Virgil, Pliny, Varro and Columella were authors
who wrote upon manures and the art of manuring
in the early days of the world’s history; and
although the cultivation of the soil occupied the
attention of the ancients, agricultural chemistry
is a science of modern growth. The sources of
plant foods were found to be the atmosphere and
the soil. The composition of the atmosphere was
not discovered until the close of the eighteenth
century, and the chemistry, bacteriology and
physics of the soil are questions which still require
much research and patient investigation, although
great progress has been made during the past
few years in the elucidation of the subjects.
Van Helmont’s Theory.—One of the
earliest theories concerning the growth of trees
was that of the alchemist Van Helmont (1577—
1644). He believed that their food was water.
Digby’s Theory.—Sir Kenelm Digby (1660)
believed that plant growth was due to a balsam
contained in the atmosphere. He laid special
stress upon the virtues of saltpetre as a manure
for rose-trees, barley and hemp, but asserted that

saltpetre acted like a magnet, and attracted from
the air “‘a hidden food of life.”

' Further discoveries were made a few years ago by Rayleigh
and Ramsay.

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION 3

Tull’s Theory.—According to Jethro Tull,
the mineral particles of the soil are the true food
of trees, etc.; and this being the case he insisted’
upon the importance of tillage operations in order
to render the mineral particles in such a state
of division that they may readily be absorbed
by the rootlets. “The more thoroughly a soil
is tilled, the more luxuriant the crops would be.”
He was right as far as his tillage operations went,
but he was wrong in asserting that the rotation
of crops and manures might be dispensed with
altogether."

Bonnet’s Discovery.—Charles Bonnet (1720-
1793) discovered the source of carbon and the
function of the leaves; but it was Percival who
first pointed out that carbon dioxide was a plant-
food ; and Sénébier (1742-1809) proved that leaves
decomposed the carbon dioxide of the air, assimilat-
ing the carbon, and giving out the oxygen.

Dundonald’s Theory.—In 1795, Earl
Dundonald published the first book in the English
language on agricultural chemistry ; and in it he
asserts that “ there is no operation or process not
merely mechanical that does not depend on

1 In the Japanese system of soil-improvement, stable manure
and rotation of crops play only a subordinate réle. The productive
capacity of arable land is maintained by sub-soil working, tillage,
watering, and artificial manuring.

B 2

4 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

chemistry,” but his theory is curious, for he states
that plants “are composed of gases with a small
proportion of calcareous matter.”

Einhof and Thaer’s Theory.—This theory
stated that the humus of the soil was the source
of plant-food, and fertility depended upon humus.’
This was an impeding theory which had to
be got rid of, but it was cut short by the work
of Liebig. According to the humus theory, it was
believed that trees and other plants feed upon
prepared organic matter, or humus,” in the soil,
and this was regarded as a source of both carbon
and nitrogen. Liebig showed, however, that (fungi
apart) plants derive from the soil only water,
ammonia, and inorganic salts, and corroborated the
already established conclusion that all the carbon
supplies are in the carbon dioxide of the air. As
plants die they necessarily enrich the soil with
humus, but this humus as such forms no part of
the food supply.

De Saussure’s Theory.—In 1804, De Saus-
sure published his famous work: Recherches
Chimiques sur la Végétation, and in it he laid
special stress on the ash constituents of plants
being essential for life, and that they were absorbed

1 The cultivators of Homer’s time spoke of yaa‘ (humus).
2 This theory made all plants saprophytes (’).

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION bs

from the soil; the carbon of plants was derived
from the carbon dioxide of the air, and that the
hydrogen and oxygen were derived from water.
But his theory was erroneous, for he believed that
lime and potash, found in the ashes of trees and
other plants, were produced by the action of
nitrogen during their combustion. De Saussure’s
theory was interwoven with the doctrine of
“organic mould”—the humus of older writers;
and that the most perfect plant-food was dung,
and the ash or mineral constituents of plants were
formed by dung (a nitrogenous substance). Later
in life the famous Frenchman modified his theory
concerning plant nutrition—and he fully recognised
the great value the mineral constituents of the soil
played in the growth of plants.

Davy’s Theory.—In 1831, Sir Humphry
Davy published a work on Agricultural Chemistry,
and in it he based a theory for the growth of
plants on the water-and-heat absorbing powers
of a soil. In fact, Davy believed that. fertility
depended entirely upon the mechanical properties
of a soil.

Liebig’s Theory.—In 1840, the great work?
was published, and in it he laid down the all-

1 “Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur
und Physiologie.”

6 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

important facts that “a rational system of agri-
culture cannot be formed without the application
of scientific principles; for such a system must be
based on an exact acquaintance with the means of
nutrition of plants, and with the influence of soils
and action of manures upon them. This know-
ledge we must seek from chemistry, which teaches
the mode of investigating the composition and of
studying the characters of the different substances
from which plants derive their nourishment.”

Liebig gave the death-blow to the humus theory
of plant-nutrition, and he showed experimentally
the value of his mineral theory. He proved that
the ash ingredients of a plant were essential for its
proper growth ; and that a soil’s fertility depended,
largely, upon its mineral constituents.

Liebig fully established the laws which govern a
proper system of husbandry (see chapter iii.); and
these laws form the basis of modern scientific
agriculture and horticulture.

Since the year 1840, modern agricultural
chemistry has been developed by an enormous
number of workers in all parts of the world—
among these may be mentioned: Lawes, Gilbert,
Warington, Ville, Berthelot, Hellriegel, Wilfarth,
Deherain, Wolff, Wagner, Schloesing, Beyerinck,
Miintz, Frankland, Winogradsky, Voelcker, and

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION 7

many others;! all adding solid contributions to
the stock of knowledge; in fact these discoveries
‘are but parts of one stupendous whole” (Pope).

1 “The science of nations is to be accumulative from father to
son: each learning a little more and a little more ; each receiving
all that was known, and adding its own gain; .. the work of
living men is not superseding, but building itself upon the work of
the past” (Ruskin).

CHAPTER II

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

“Tn Nature’s infinite book of secrecy I can a little read.”

Tue learning of the gardener and horticulturist
embodied from ancient times not a little know-
ledge which we now call physiology, but it was
long in acquiring scientific value. It is impossible
to believe that the old practice of caprification
(concerned with the pollination of the fig), or the
equally ancient practice of dusting the female
date-flowers with pollen, were really understood ;
and the same must be said of digging, pruning,
manuring, and other operations. The old learning
was empirical and not scientifically understood.
There are few more striking examples of the slow
progress of science than the history of the
physiology of nutrition in plants.

The constituents of plants may be divided into
two classes—organic and mineral, and these are
composed of a number of elements all of which are

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 9

essential for plant-life. The proportions in which
these elements are chemically combined form the
various substances which together make plant-
tissues—leaves, stems, roots, flowers, fruits, seeds,
ete.

Plants contain moisture, oil, albuminoids, fibre,
carbohydrates, ash, ete.

The ash (after burning a plant) consists of
certain mineral ingredients extracted from the soil
in a state of solution.

Organic Matter.—A certain quantity of organic
matter or humus is essential in a soil, for it causes
the disintegration or breaking up of the soil, and
renders it more friable. It yields nitrogenous
matters to trees, etc.—that is after bacterial oxida-
tion. An excess of organic matter, however,
renders a soil: “ sour,” and produces a harsh
growth, or destroys the trees or plants.

Water and Mineral Matter.—There must
always be present a sufficiency of water and
mineral matterin a soil for the growth of trees.
According to the law of minimum, a soil destitute
of any one of the mineral constituents may
become more or less barren; since it is the
minimum of any one essential ingredient, and not
the maximum of others, which is the measure of
fertility.

10 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Root Absorption.—The roots of plants absorb
by osmosis water and mineral matter—the latter
in solution. Water acts upon the mineral ingredi-
ents of the soil, dissolving and disintegrating
them; and the solvent power of water is greatly
increased by the presence of carbon dioxide origin-
ating in the soil through processes of decay. The
root-hairs are the organs by means of which the
absorption of water and mineral substances are
especially effected—they prepare food solutions
for trees and plants, which at once pass over into
the organism.

The conditions relating to the absorption of
mineral substances by roots from nutritive solu-
tions are of a complex nature. The roots have a
selective action, as originally proved by De
Saussure.’ It is an interesting fact that the roots
of plants absorb solutions placed at their disposal
not necessarily in the form in which they are
supplied, but with a particular quantity of water
they take up, according to circumstances, some-
times smaller, sometimes a larger, quantity of
certain mineral matters. The root-hairs exude acid
excretions which corrode * the minerals of the soil,

1 De Saussure’s book, loc. cit., p. 247.
2 Sachs, Handbuch der Hxperimentalphysiologie der Pflanzen,
1865, p. 188.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY Il

and thereby render them fit for root absorption.
This corroding action of the roots is due to carbon
dioxide, organic acids, and even dilute hydrochloric
acid.

Function of Leaves.—By the agency of the
stomata (small openings) the carbon of atmospheric
carbon dioxide is absorbed and utilised by the
living plant in the preparation of organic substances
which become elaborated into various tissues.
Assimilation is the name given to the decomposi-
tion of the carbon dioxide—the retention of the
carbon and the bulk of the oxygen being given
back again to the air.

The air contains about four volumes of carbon
dioxide in 10,000, and overlying every square inch
of the earth’s surface are 15 lbs. weight of air.
This comes to 2,160 lbs. per square foot, or rather
over 42,000 tons per acre. In 2,160 lbs. of air
there are about 21 ounces of carbon dioxide, equal
to 5¢ ounces of carbon, and this amount is equal
to 7 tons per acre. This is far in excess of actual
total crop requirements, in fact there is constantly
floating over the earth a quantity of carbon in the
form of carbon dioxide more than five times in
excess of any crop’s ultimate total requirements.

This function of assimilation goes on due to the
influence of (1) chlorophyll or the green colouring

i MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

matter in the leaves, (2) light, and especially
certains rays of white light, and (8) iron com-
pounds.

The green pigment known as chlorophyll occurs
in all plants except the fungi, and is frequently
associated with other pigments which may mask
it, or may replace it in special parts of the plants.
The chief pigment associated with chlorophyll is
xanthophyll (a yellow lipochrome), and the mixing
or blending of these two pigments in different
proportions gives most of the various tints or
shades of leaves. There may be many other
pigments (lipochromes and non-lipochromes) asso-
ciated with chlorophyll, but the function of
xanthophyll, and probably of other pigments, is
unknown. It may he that they protect the
protoplasm from the injurious effect of certain
rays of white light (rays known and unknown)
by absorbing them, or that they assist in the
function of assimilation, or that they are instru-
mental in the polymerisation of formaldehyde and
its conversion into starch.

Chlorophyll, according to the investigations of
the older workers, was stated to: be a mixture of
phylloxanthin (yellow) and phylocyanin (blue).
Schunck stated that acids transform “ leaf-green ”
into phyllocyanin and phylloxanthin ; that alkalis

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 13

and strong acids convert phyllocyanin into phyllo-
taonin; that alkalis convert “Jeaf-green” into
alkachlorophyll, which, on treatment with acids
and alcohol, yields an alkylether of phyllotaonin ;
and that on heating phyllotaonin with alcoholic
potash, phylloporphyrin is obtained.

According to the important researches of Gautier,
Etard’ and others there appear to be many
chlorophylls in nature. It is no argument to say
that because chlorophyll is a green pigment, and
that it appears to perform a definite function,
there can be only one which is homogeneous, or
one composed of xanthophyll and cyanophyll; we
might just as well say that because there are
yellow and red chromophylls in the petals of
flowers they are identical in composition (even
their spectra differ considerably). No doubt,
there are many chlorophylls (chloroglobins), as
well as numerous chromophylls, in the vegetable
kingdom.

It has been ascertained that certain chlorophylls
soluble in pentane, are the agents of the chemical

1 Etard, La Biochimie et les Chlorophylles; Gautier, Chimie
Biologique, p. 19; A. B. Griffiths, Respiratory Proteids, and his
paper in the Chemical News, vol. 91, p. 76.

2 A. B. Griffiths, ‘‘Die Pigmente des Geraniums und anderer
Pflanzen,” in the Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft,
vol. 36, p. 3959 ; and in the Chemical News, vol. 88, p. 249.

*

14 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

production of essences and oils; while others,
insoluble in the hydrocarbons, tend on splitting up,
to produce carbohydrates, tannins and extracts.

Reverting again to the function of leaves, it
may be stated, en passant, that although assimila-
tion only goes on during the day-time, root
absorption is independent of light.

According to the théorie de Baéyer, the
chemistry evolved in these two functions are
represented by the following equations :—

(2) CO,+H,0=0, + CH,O

(8) 6CH,O =C,H,,0; + H,0 } assimilation.

In the first equation, the carbon dioxide in the
presence of moisture is transformed into
formaldehyde, and oxygen is returned to the air.
In the second equation, formaldehyde becomes
polymerised into starch, and water is eliminated.
The two actions constitute the function of
assimilation.

As starch is insoluble in cell-sap, it is trans-
formed in the presence of moisture, by enzyme
action, into glucose or a soluble carbohydrate :—

(y) CoHi.0; + H,0 =C,H,.0,,

and this is utilised by the growing and developing
tree or plant ; any reserve material, required for

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 15

future use, is stored within the plant (as starch in
tubers, etc.) :—

(8) CsH,0,—H,0 =C,H,,0;.

Prof. 8. H. Vines has conclusively proved that
there is a starch-changing, or diastatic, ferment
(enzyme) in all green leaves.

Light is essential for assimilation,’ and also iron.
‘Plants grown in solutions devoid of wron produce
at first normal green leaves. Very soon, however,
they begin to appear sickly; in fact when the
iron in the seed has been used up, they become
icteric and chlorotic. The new leaves are no
longer green, but white, and a microscopic
examination of them shows that abnormal chloro-
phyll bodies, or none at all, are present in the
cells. If we add to the food solution a few drops
of ferric chloride solution, the previously white
leaves become green in two or three days, and the
growth of the plant now proceeds normally.” In
the words of Boussingault, “le fer parait tout
aussi indispensable 4 la vie végétale qu’A la vie
animale.”

1 Everyone has noticed how the leaflets of the clover change
their position as the light of day wanes ; they are expanded during
the day, and folded downwards in the evening. There are similar
movements in mimosa, acacia and other plants. Linnzeus called it
the somnus plantarum—the sleep of plants.

16 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

In addition to iron, potassium plays an impor-
tant part in the physiology or nutrition of chloro-
phyll; without potassium, the chlorophyll has less
vitality, and is incapable of forming starch.

Plant Respiration.—Plants require small quan-
tities of oxygen to oxidise carbonaceous and other
matters, and therefore they evolve small quantities
of carbon dioxide. This was first proved by Ingen-
Houss in 1779.

Transpiration.—By means of the leaves and
other parts, plants exude or transpire their excess
of water. The aqueous vapour escaping from the
stomata is formed in the intercellular spaces.

Nitrogen Absorption.—Supplies of nitrogen are
absorbed in the form of nitrates, nitrites and
ammoniacal salts" by the roots of plants; and
Jamieson has recently discovered organs in plants
that absorb atmospheric nitrogen.

Nitrogen is an important element in the growth
and development of trees and other plants (see
chapter iii).

Supplies of nitrogen are essential for all plants,”

1 A. B. Griffiths, Chemical News, vol. 64, p. 147; A Treatise on
Manures (3rd edition), pp. 399 and 438.

2 Sir William Crookes, in his book, The Wheat Problem, states :
‘‘that under present conditions of heedless culture, a scarcity of
wheat is within appreciable distance ; that wheat-growing land all
over the world is becoming exhausted, ard that at some future
time—not far distant--no available wheat land will be left. But

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 17

and experiments have recently been performed in
Norway, Switzerland, and other countries for manu-
facturing nitrate of lime and nitric acid from the
atmosphere by means of electricity. Prof. J. J.
Thomson says that “the extraction of nitric acid
from the atmosphere cannot be done in England
because power is too dear. It is only when you
get very cheap water power that it is possible.
The manufacture is quite feasible if you can get
power cheap enough.”

The artificial production of nitrates will render
an enormous service to horticulture, as well as to
agriculture.

Mineral or Ash Constituents are essential for
the growth and development ofall plants, and trees
are no exception to the rule. These mineral sub-
stances must be supplied to all cultivated soils, in
the form of manures ; if not the tree is incapable of
yielding a full crop of fruit, or produces poor
flowers and foliage—in fact the tree or plant
degenerates.

Plant Circulation.—Major (1639-1693) is gene-
rally regarded as the father of circulation in plants
(a subject by no means beyond dispute still), but

Nature’s resources, properly utilised, are ample. Instead of being
satisfied with an average world-yield of 12'7 bushels an acre, a
moderate dressing of chemical manure would pull up the average to
twenty bushels—thus postponing the day of dearth.”

Cc

18 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

to the famous Malpighi is due the fact that the
leaves elaborate the crude sap, which passes from
the roots to the leaves by the fibrous elements of
the wood. Equally important were the experi-
ments of Mariotte, which proved that different
plants drew the same ingredients from the soil, but
make different materials out of it.

In concluding this short chapter on the functions,
ete., of plant life, it may be remarked that the
elements of the living plant have further the
chemical peculiarity of forming with each other
most numerous combinations, and very large
molecules. How the plant forms the carbon
dioxide (respiration), which it evolves, is unknown,
and yet there is no life without the formation of
carbon dioxide! The reason why this problem
has not been solved, lies doubtless in our in-
sufficient knowledge of the nature of the place
where the formation of carbon dioxide takes place.
That the foci of oxidation lie exclusively in the
protoplasm is certain, but what is their aspect ?

CHAPTER III

AGRONOMY, OR THE CHEMISTRY AND BACTERIOLOGY
OF SOILS.

‘‘ With good reason the soi is called mother, since all things
have been produced out of it.” —Lucretius.

‘The principal part of the food of plants is derived from the
soil.” —Lindley.

.

THE soils upon which fruit and other trees grow
vary considerably in their composition. As a rule,
the soil most suitable for the purpose should be
naturally rich, a good loam, with a fairly porous
subsoil. The soils of Kent, Devonshire, Here-
fordshire, and Somersetshire are invaluable for
the growth of fruit trees. The light clays of
Sussex; the rich alluvial soils of Lincolnshire,
Cambridgeshire, and Middlesex; and the red
sandstone soils of Gloucestershire and Worcester-
shire are all well adapted to the cultivation of fruit

trees.
c 2

20 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The following table gives the acreage of fruit
growing in a few counties in England :—

Apple, pear, plum,
County. cherry, gooseberry
trees, etc. [acres].

Kent 33,497
Devon . é 27,592 °
Hereford: . ; 26,175
Somerset . 24,410
Sussex . : : 3,320
Lincolnshire é 2,955
Cambridge . . . . . 4,097
Middlesex . . ., ; 6,775
Gloucestershire . |. F 17,545
Worcestershire . ‘ ‘ 3 20,891

The “soil” is defined as the. earthy matter
which is found on the surface of the land. It
consists of two distinct layers, the surface soil and
the subsoil, and under the latter is the rock whose
weathering or decay produces the soil—the change
being due to the action of water, air, and other
agencies."

Certain soils are directly produced from the
underlying rock (i.¢., the thin soil [some only three
inches deep] on the chalk of the Wiltshire Downs),
there being no subsoil. When a soil is formed, it

' Bacteria, earthworms, ete.

AGRONOMY 21

is always undergoing chemical and bacteriological
changes—in fact, there is a perpetual change going
on—a soil being Nature’s laboratory.

Frost, rain, snow, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
bacteria, and other fungi are agents in the great
changes going on below the surface of the land.
Other agents, namely, those that are living, “ work
upon the fabric of the soil.” Trees grow, and the
fruits and other parts are removed, whilst their
roots remain in the soil—the dead portions of
which becoming detached help to increase the
humus or organic matter in the soil. Soil, there-
fore, consists of two portions—mineral and organic
matter; the former is derived from the decay of
rocks, and the latter from the decay of vegetable
and animal substances.

Nearly all soils consist of sand, clay, humus,
and a varying amount of limestone.

Soils may be classified as follows :—

(1) Sandy soil. {* se ag 10% of clay.

(2) Sandy loam . 55 10 to 40%,

(3) Loamy soil . 4 40to 70% sy,

(4) Heavy clay . 5 85 to 95%,

(5) Marly soil. i 5 to 20% of calcium carbonate.
(6) Calcareous soil a6 20% or more is ee

(7) Peaty soil. Fe 20 to 70% of organic matter.

A perfect soil for general cultivation would

2) MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

contain approximately :—60 per cent. of sand,
26 per cent. of clay, and 7 per cent. each of
calcium (lime) carbonate and humus. This soil
would contain enough sand to make it warm,
retentive of moisture and sufficiently open to
admit air into its interstices; enough clay to
render it sufficiently moist, without being wet
and cold, and capable of holding manures ; enough
carbonate of lime to aid in the decomposition
of organic matter and to provide the necessary
lime for plant-growth ; and finally, a sufficiency
of humus to assist in providing plant-food and
the production of carbon dioxide in the soil.
Concerning the composition of the soil upon
the growth of trees, it may be stated that whortle-
berries, larches and fir-trees prefer sandy soils,
beeches and yews calcareous soils, poplars and
oaks clayey soils, apples and pears loamy soils,
and plums, gooseberries and raspberries prefer
sandy loams. Not only the physical nature of
a soil, but the individual ingredients, or chemical
composition, of a soil are of the utmost import-
ance for the proper growth of trees. Their roots

' The water-holding power of soils is the following: clay soil
40 per cent. of water, loam 61 per cent., heavy clay 61 per cent.,
and fine carbonate of lime 85 per cent. of water. :

AGRONOMY 24

possess a selective power for certain mineral in-
gredients of soils—hence the varied nature of
their ash constituents (see chapter iv.), and a
proper system of manuring. A soil destitute of
any mineral constituent requisite for the growth
of trees, or the ripening of fruit, or the pro-
duction of flowers, may become more or less
barren, since it is the minimum of any one essential
ingredient, and not the maximum of others, which
is the measure of fertility. The law of mini-
mum should be the basis of all sound husbandry.
It is erroneous to suppose “ that the more humus
(organic matter) a soil contains the more fertile
that soil becomes, for it is possible for a soil to
be overladen with humus. Indeed, by the ex-
cessive application of farmyard manure, or by
the undue accumulation of crop residues within
the soil, it may become disadvantageous to culti-
vate it.”?

The tables on the two following pages give the
composition of various soils (percentages) :—

“The high percentage of tron owide present in
the Californian soil is probably the chief contri-
buting cause of the brightness in colour of the
Californian fruits” (Cheal).

1 Fream’s Soils and their Properties, p. 92.

MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

24

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26 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The art of manuring the land is of great im-
portance to fruit-growers and others, consequently
the cultivator looks to the chemist for useful
suggestions on the subject of manuring, and it is
greatly to be desired that simple rules should be
given as to the uses of manures.

Certain substances are continually extracted from
the soil by trees and other plants, it therefore
follows that unless these substances are restored
in the form of manure such soils must lose their
fertility, and poor sickly trees, liable to disease,
will take the place of healthy ones. If trees are
continually extracting the fertilising constituents
of the soil, common sense dictates that we must
replace them if fertility is to be preserved. As
soils do not contain an inexhaustible supply of
these substances, it becomes a necessity that
different kinds of manures should be used in order
to keep the soil in a fertile condition. Many
apple, pear, plum, and other trees fail to produce
a full yield of fruit, not so much the result of
climatic conditions as owing to the want of proper
manuring. In the words of Sir Humphry Davy :
“No general principles can be laid down respecting
the comparative merits of the different systems of
cultivation, unless the chemical nature of the soil,

AGRONOMY 27

and the physical circumstances to which it is
exposed, are fully known.” These words are as
true to-day as when they were first written—more
than a hundred years ago.

The analysis of the soil is of the utmost value to
the fruit-grower.

The composition of certain soils for the growth
of various fruit trees is presented in the following
tables :—

Soils for

Apple trees.
Plum Cherry |Currant
trees. trees. |bushes.

I. Il.
Organic matter 2°04 1:56 1°46 3°24 4:20
Iron oxide 2°52 2°52 3°64 1:56 0:96
Alumina... 3°26 1°56 2°53 4°62 3°72
Manganese dioxide . 0°56 0°05 0-04 0-06 0:20
Lime... 2°65 1:21 2-00 1:06 1:67
Magnesia . 0-72 0°53 061 0°42 0°82
Potash 1:21 0°82 1:00 0-92 0°73
Soda . : 0-04 0:02 0-03 0:04 0-01
Phosphoric acid 1:20 1:10 1°52 0:96 0:99
Sulphuric acid 0-16 0-11 0:13 0°12 0:09
Chlorine . .. 0:03 0-02 0-01 0:01 0°02
Silica and insolubles| 72°84 | 76°24 | 64:05 | 66°25 | 69°46
Moisture . 12°77 | 14°26 | 22°98 | 20°74 | 17-13
100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00

28 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Soils for
Mul- : Goose- |. p;

Fig Filbert | Walnut

ft trees. Fite trees. | trees.

Organic matter 3°61 3:00 2°06 1°69 2°65
Iron oxide 3°22 3°16 2°00 2°52 3°00
Alumina reer 4°23 5:00 1°62 2°05 2°10
Manganese dioxide. 0°21 0°16 0-10 0-11 0°24
Lime . 10°25 | 12-02 2:06 3°42 3°62
Magnesia . 1:04 1:08 0°56 1:06 1:21
Potash 0°46 0°52 0:91 1:05 1°53
Soda. . . 0:05 0-02 0-01 0-01 0°02
Phosphoric acid 0-16 0:26 1:26 1°50 1:45
Sulphuric acid . 0-08 0-10 0°15 0-14 0:09
Chlorine eee 0:03 0:02 0-01 0-01 0:04
Silica and insolubles | 64°14 | 61°66 | 80°22 | 72°82 | 70°05
Moisture . 12:52 | 13-00 9-04 13°62 | 14:00
100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00

The above ten analyses are typical of fertile soils
for the growth of the trees mentioned, and good
supplies of fruit were obtained from each.

The next table gives the analyses (by the late
Dr. A. Voelcker) of a variety of soils :—

Caleareous| Fertile Heavy | Vegetable
clay. loam. clay. mould.

Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Organic matter 11-08 4:38 4:87 11-70
Clay . 52-06 18-09 75°29 48°39
Sand 24°53 76°16> 9°26 35°95
Lime 11°53 1:37 1:15 1°54

AGRONOMY 29

Concerning these soils and their fertility, Cheal
states that the calcareous clay for fruit growing
requires ‘“‘an occasional dressing of good stable
manure, say, from ten to twenty tons per acre, and
bringing it into play by the application of from
one to two cwts. of nitrate of soda per acre ;
whilst for the purpose of giving colour to the fruit
add one cwt. of sulphate of won every second
year.” The same authority states that the fertility
of the loam would be kept up by an application of
farmyard manure ‘to which might be added a
mixture composed of three cwts. of superphosphate
of lime, two cwts. of nitrate of soda or sulphate of
ammonia, and one cwt. of sulphate of tron.” The
heavy clay “would be greatly benefited for fruit
growing by a liberal application of ‘old mortar
rubbish’ [calcareous matter] and an occasional
dressing of two cwts. of superphosphate, two or
three cwts. of basic slag, one cwt. of muriate of
potash, and one ewt. of nitrate of soda” per acre.
Even clay soils are improved in more ways than
one by the addition of iron sulphate’ and other
minor constituents. The fertility of the vegetable
mould would be maintained by an occasional

1See A. B. Griffiths, ‘‘A Treatise on Manures,” ‘‘ Special
Manures for Garden Crops,” and ‘‘Manures and their
Uses.”

30 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

dressing of one and a half cwts. of superphosphate
of lime per acre.

The above mentioned manures, in addition to
acting directly as plant-foods, possess a most
valuable property, as they have the power of
liberating or rendering available the minor con-
stituents of the soil. In many soils, especially
the better kinds of clay land, the quantity of the
minor fertilising constituents in this inert or
unavailable condition is very great—in fact, almost
inexhaustible—and manures which will render the
minor constituents available are without doubt of
priceless value to the fruit-grower. Frequently
these minor ingredients are the turning point in
the successful growth of trees—or, in other words,
their presence means success and their absence
means failure. Hence the reason of the frequent
failure of fruit-farming in Great Britain. Fruit trees
require manuring as much as ordinary farm crops,
but manures should be used with discretion, and
with a due regard to economy. The balance-sheet
should always be in the hand of the fruit-grower.

It may be stated that a “‘ worn-out” soil may
support fruit-trees from year to year without
manure, but the yield of fruit is meagre and never
pays—and the land on which the trees grow
might as well remain barren.

AGRONOMY 31

If these pages are the means of teaching culti-
vators how to manure fruit-trees with the greatest
success, and with the least cost, our object in
writing them will have been attained.

In addition to the use of the proper manures,
it is necessary in order to obtain good fruit in
abundance (it is not only essential to plant good
trees upon fertile soil) that the soil must be in
a suitable condition for the growth of trees. The
soil should be deeply dug, pulverised and aérated.
For this object, the soil must be worked by plough-
ing, digging or bastard trenching ; and finally be
pulverised by means of the harrow or fork. All these
operations aid the chemical, biological, and physical
changes going on within the interstices of ‘the soil.

The amateur gardener must not hesitate to take
off his coat and dig his garden deeply and thoroughly
if he hopes for success. A deeply dug soil is of
the utmost importance if good crops are desired.

This deep digging or trenching ensures a two-fold
object. In the first place it increases the depth of
the soil, enabling not only flowering-shrubs, but
also young trees, to send their roots straight into
the soil and derive the fullest possible benefit as
regards food and moisture. In the second place
it helps to drain a naturally damp soil, and thus
admit sun and air to warm the soil, effect chemical

32 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

transformation in the stored up food, and in various
ways prepare the soil for ensuring the best results
in due course.

The land should also be properly drained, as a
water-logged soi] is detrimental to the proper
growth of fruit and other trees, causing a reduced
vitality or unhealthy condition—a condition in
which the trees are prone to the attacks of parasitic
fungi and other enemies.

Oxygen.—The aération of soils is of the utmost
importance, without it there cannot be any germi-
nation of seeds, and no proper growth of trees,
shrubs and other plants. The agencies by which
oxidation in soils is brought about are not only
air,—the chemical reactions occurring within the
soil, and earthworms, but as Dr. Darbishire and
Dr. Russell’ have experimentally proved, oxidation
is mainly, although not entirely, due to the activity
of microbes. The rate of oxidation does not
entirely depend on the amount of organic matter
present in the soil. Moisture is essential; as its
amount increases, the rate of oxidation also in-
creases, until near the point at which the soil
becomes water-logged. The addition of calcium
carbonate (limestone or chalk) also increases the
bacterial oxidation; and it is further stated that

1 Report of the British Association, 1906.

AGRONOMY 33

the rate of oxidation is closely parallel to the produc-
tiveness of the soil. It is essential that the soil con-
ditions should be aérobic, asin arable soils ; pasture
(lawn) soils, where the conditions are anaérobic, do
not show the same relationship. It appears that the
rate of oxidation affords a measure of bacterial activ-
ity which is closely connected with productiveness.

Nitrogen.—Nitrogen is an essential element in
the growth of trees, and it is present in the soil as
nitrogen gas, nitrates, nitrites, ammoniacal salts
and organic matter.

The air contains four-fifths of its volume of
nitrogen gas, and this gas enters the pores of the
soil, and by means of bacteria (microbes) present
in the soil the atmospheric nitrogen is introduced
into the roots of leguminous trees, shrubs and other
plants. This power of obtaining free nitrogen is
due to the roots becoming inoculated with the
microbes present in the soil. The microbes, which
give rise to tubercles on the roots, enter into a kind
of partnership (the symbiosis of De Bary) with the
host plant for mutual advantage. The microbes
have the power of bringing the nitrogen of the air
into organic combination within the plant ; and the
sou is also enriched in assimilable nitrogen.’

1 Jamieson (Report of the British Association, 1906) states that
he has discovered an organ specially fitted to absorb nitrogen from

D

34 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

No fewer than seventeen different bacterral soil
fertilisers have already been discovered, and to
these, as a class, Nobbe has given the name of
“nitragin.” The production of nitragin has been
undertaken on a large scale in Germany, and it is
stated that one bottle (2s. 6d.) is sufficient for an
acre of land.

The bacteria present in various soils’ are given
in the following table :—

: Number of bacteria in
Sample of soil from 1 gramme of soil

London (Brixton). Bo Ve 760,000
>» (Stockwell). 2. 2... 820,000

», (Forest Gate). ae 430,000
Paris (Forest of Ville dAvray) ee 780,000
», (near Sévres). . e <4 880,000

», (Pare Monceaux) ‘ 754,000
Dieppe (near Church of St. Jacques) . 1,360,000
Brussels. g 920,000
Antwerp. 1,200,000
New Zealand (after 14 weeks’ desiccation) . 240,000

The process of nitrification, or the conversion of
organic nitrogen into ammoniacal salts and the latter

the air. This organ, which has been found on the leaves of all
plants examined, exists abundantly on highly nitrogenous plants
and sparsely on plants poor in nitrogen. The nitrogen-absorbing
organs are seen under the microscope to be short, blunt, trans-
versely-divided hairs directed upwards into the air. These hairs
are the manufactories of albumen, and were found in holly and
pine trees, among a large number of other plants. This is a most
important discovery, and well worthy of further investigation.
1 A. B, Griffiths, A Manual of Bacteriology, p. 277.

AGRONOMY 35

into nitrates and nitrites, was first shown by Miintz
and Schloesing to be due to the action of bacteria in
the soil, but the isolation of the specific nitrifying
microbes was due to Frankland, Winogradsky, and
Warington. Organic matter and ammoniacal salts
are, as a rule, first converted into nitrites and then
into nitrates. They are ready for root-absorption
and subsequent conversion, within the plant, into
organic matter.

Trees, as well as other plants, obtain their
supplies of nitrogen from the soil chiefly as
nitrogen, nitrates and nitrites; but in some cases
ammoniacal salts and organic matter are absorbed.
The author’ has proved that ammoniacal salts are
absorbed by the roots of plants. Concerning the
author’s experiments on the direct absorption of
ammoniacal salts by plants, Prof. Achille Mintz
says: ‘Votre méthode me semble tout a fait
irréprochable et Vabsorption directe des sels
ammoniacaux, qui n’avait jamais été absolument
démontrée est aujourd’hui appuyée sur des
preuves certaines.”

The author's investigations on the direct absorp-
tion of ammoniacal salts by plants have been con-
firmed by Kossowitsch, Schloesing and others.

1 Chemical News, vol. 64, p. 147. A Treatise on Manures,
pp. 399 and 438.

D2

36 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Schloesing states that the nitrification of am-
moniacal salts is not for all plants a necessary pre-
liminary to the absorption of nitrogen by the plant.

Mineral Matter.—The mineral matter present
in a soil is of the utmost importance to provide
proper nourishment of trees. The roots appear to
possess a selective power. Some trees are richer
in potash than other trees, and others again are
richer in phosphates. The various composition of
the ashes of trees proves the selective power of
their roots. Highly insoluble matter such as
silica, for instance, passes into solution under the
influence of the secretions and vital forces of the
rootlets. It is not improbable, however, in view of
the knowledge we already possess of independent
soil bacteria, that there may be a class of such
organisms especially active in the disintegration of
mineral particles, and the preparation of them for
plant absorption.

It may therefore be assumed that the agencies
at work in the conversion of the insoluble soil
constituents into soluble compounds are (1) the
plant secretions, (2) the vital activity of the rootlet
itself, and (8) the decomposing influence of soil
bacteria. The conversion of the insoluble mineral
particles of a soil into soluble compounds, and
thereby preparing them for plant-absorption, is

AGRONOMY 37

due to the action of the bacteria present in the
soil. Plants will not grow in sterile soil—that is
to say, soil devoid of bacteria. The “infiniment
petits” are potent factors in the growth of fruit
and other trees.

-Humus.—The term humus is applied to those
constituents of the soil which have been derived
chiefly from the decay of vegetable and animal
matter. In the processes of decay the organic
matter is converted largely into acids of the
humic series, and the nitrogenous principles of
the plant become changed from a proteid to a
more inert form, in which it is more readily pre-
served. In this inert form the soil bacteria exercise
their activity in preparing it for the plant. Recent
investigations, however, tend to prove that in some
instances, humus itself may serve as food for
plants without undergoing entire decomposition.

Although, as the immortal Liebig proved, the
vast preponderance of the food of trees, shrubs,
and other plants is of a mineral nature, it
would not be safe, in the face of recent researches,
to deny to the plant the ability to absorb, to a
certain extent, organic compounds.

Humus performs a number of different functions
in the soil which are of the highest importance
in the growth of fruit trees. It influences the

38 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

temperature, tilth, permeability, absorptive power,
weight and colour of soils, and directly or in-
directly controls to a high degree their supply of
water, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash.
Humus, when not present in excessive proportions
to make the land “sour,” increases the fertility
of a soil—and the loss of humus means a decline
of fertility. Humus contains nitrogen with potash
and lime as humates and phosphates—and the
decline of humus means a loss of nitrogen and
other fertilising elements. A virgin soil, of good
quality, contains about 4 per cent. of humus;
and after twenty years of cropping would show
about 2°5 per cent. of humus—therefore, there
has been a loss of 1°5 per cent., equivalent to
about 3°500 lbs. per acre; this is due to the
decomposition of the humus by the bacteria of
nitrification and denitrification. The nitrifying
bacteria feed upon the humus, yielding nitrates,
which may be washed out of the soil in the
drainage, and the denitrifying bacteria complete
the work by feeding upon the nitrates, pro-
ducing nitrogen gas, which escapes into the air.

Nitrification is one of the most important
functions for rendering the inert nitrogenous
compounds available to plants. Under in-
judicious management or cultivation of the soil

AGRONOMY 39

it may work a positive injury by either causing
an unnecessary waste of nitrogen, or, in the case
of rich soils, it may supply too much nitrate,
and thus produce a rank growth of leaves in-
stead of fruit.

In Great Britain, nitrification goes on in the
soil until the late autumn; but the rate depends
upon the nature of the soil. In old soils,
nitrification does not go on rapidly enough to
furnish the necessary nitrogen; but in a new
soil, nitrification is liable to go on too rapidly.
Deep digging and thorough cultivation of orchards
and gardens aid nitrification, and render the humus
available as plant-food. The addition of lime aids
nitrification, and prevents the formation of sour or
acid land. Good drainage is also necessary to
nitrification in the soil. In water-logged soils
humus does not decompose naturally, but peat
is produced on account of the absence of oxygen.

Humus is a means by which water is retained
in a soil—and this property is of great value in
times of drought. In sandy soils, humus also
assists in the rise of sub-soil water to the roots
of trees and other plants.

The humus of the soil is increased by the
use of well-prepared farmyard manures. Humus
also aids in rendering the insoluble mineral

40 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

constituents of the soil available for the use of
trees and plants generally.

Water.—Water is the most abundant substance
found in plants. The average quantity is about
70 per cent. Very succulent plants contain as
much as 80 or 90 per cent. of water, whereas in
the wood of fruit and other trees it is as low as 42
per cent. Trees require a large amount of water
for their growth, and it is necessary that the
supply should be abundant at all times, on account
of the loss through transpiration from the leaves
and the necessity of replacing the loss. If the
transpiration from the leaves greatly exceeds the
amount of water taken in through the roots, the
leaves shrivel and the tree suffers.

It follows from the above-mentioned facts that
one of the most important functions of the soil is
the maintenance of a proper supply of water; and
a soil should possess a certain retentive power for
water. This retentive power varies greatly in
different soils. Sandy soils maintain compara-
tively little moisture—due to their open texture.
They frequently contain only 5 or 10 per cent.
of moisture. Clay soils have very minute inter-
stices for water to pass through ; they offer a great
resistance to the percolation of rain. These soils
maintain from 15 to 20 per cent. of water.

AGRONOMY 41

Different trees require different amounts of
water. There appears to be a selective action of
the roots. Fruit trees require cultivation during
their early growing period—and even when fully
grown cultivation generally pays, by the produc-
tion of a sounder and fuller yield of fruit.

One of the chief objects of digging (cultivation)
is to loosen the soil, so as to enable it to absorb
the rainfall more quickly and more freely than it
would in its undisturbed condition; also to main-
tain more of the rainfall near the roots of trees.
With a large class of soils there is no implement
so effective for loosening and improving the soil
conditions as the spade. All cultivators are
familiar with the difference in the tilth of a
garden or orchard which. has been thoroughly dug
and of a field ploughed in the ordinary way.

The object of cultivation is to destroy weeds,
and thus prevent the great drain which they make
upon the food-supply and moisture of the soil ;
and to loosen and pulverise the surface, leaving it
in a fine state of division, the object of which is
to prevent excessive loss of water by evaporation.

The cultivator can do little during the time of
actual drought. Cultivation is of little benefit
during a prolonged dry season. Its most effective
and valuable work is before the dry weather sets

42 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

in. Irrigation should be practised as an insurance
against loss of fruit, etc. A pond fed by a wind-
mill would often save an orchard from destruction
or great injury, during a period of drought, and a
small engine could be used to drive an irrigating-
pump during such periods.

The chief object of all cultivation is to maintain
an adequate supply of water and air in soils for the
proper growth of trees and other plants. Moisture
increases bacterial oxidation in the soil, and an
increase of oxidation means an increase of produc-
tiveness. This alone explains the value of a
proper supply of moisture. Water is the solvent
by which mineral matter of the soil is absorbed by
the roots and rootlets of trees. It must be borne
in mind that different trees require for their growth
sufficient quantities of different, but quite de-
finite, plant-foods, and that they take these chiefly
from the soil. It is absolutely necessary in a
proper system of cultivation of fruit-trees that the
plant-foods present in the soil must be in abund-
ance, and in an assimilable form—i.e., they must
be soluble in water (or water impregnated with
carbon dioxide) and the juices secreted by the
rootlets.

In concluding the chapter, the fertility of a soil
can only be retained by the cultivator thoroughly

AGRONOMY 43

understanding and applying the following laws of
husbandry :?

(1) “ A soil can be termed fertile only when it
contains all the materials requisite for the nutri-
tion of plants in the required quantity, and in
the proper form.”

(2) “With every crop a portion of these in-
gredients is removed. A part of this again added
from the inexhaustible store of the atmosphere ;
another part, however, is lost for ever if not
replaced by man.”

(3) “ The fertility of the soil remains unchanged
if all the ingredients of a crop are given back to
the land. Such a restitution is effected by manure
and by the atmosphere.”

(4) A soil may contain an abundance of potash,
lime, phosphoric acid, iron, etc., and yet be almost
barren, if these substances exist as insoluble
compounds.

(5) A fertile soil must be of such a texture as to
admit free access of air (for chemical and bacterial
changes to occur), although at the same time it
must not be too porous, but firm enough to afford
proper support to growing trees, shrubs or plants.

(6) The soil must be capable of retaining a cer-

1 A. B. Griffiths, Manures and their Uses, p. 20; A Treatise on
Manures, p. 7.

44 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

tain amount of water, yet porous enough to allow
an excess to drain away.

(7) A certain quantity of organic matter must
be present, for it causes the disintegration of the
soil, and renders it more friable. It yields nitro-
genous matters to the trees, shrubs, etc., and has
the power of retaining certain soluble substances
in light soils. There must not be an excess of
organic matter present, or “sour” land is the
result.

The reason why soils require cultivating and
manuring will now be apparent—for profitable
fruit growing the soil must be kept in an increas-
ing state of fertility. The majority of fruit trees
are badly nourished by cultivators in consequence,
they not only yield a poor crop, etc., but also suffer
more from drought, sudden changes of tempera-
ture, insect and parasitic diseases, than they would
if properly manured. Manures are absolutely
necessary for trees in a state of cultivation, as
fruits and other parts removed extract certain in-
gredients from the soil, which are not replaced
unless the soil is manured. The fertility of a soil
can only be maintained when we add more to it
than we take away. The natural “virtues” of a
soil must be replaced by the art of manuring ; or
in the words of Pope “all nature is but art.”

CHAPTER IV

STERILE SOILS

‘* Agri non omnes frugiferi sunt.’’—Cicero.

“The exhaustion of soil by plants means their having consumed
all the nutritive particles that it contains.” — Lindley.

ALTHOUGH the fertility of a soil is greatly
influenced by its physical properties, as already
stated, but independently of these conditions, the
fertility depends upon the chemical constituents of
which the soil is composed. All cultivated soils
should contain the necessary foods for plant-
nutrition and growth.

It is frequently argued that most soils contain a
plentiful supply of the minor constituents found in
the ashes of plants; therefore, it is unnecessary to
add the minor plant-foods to the soil. We shall
see that this is a great mistake. In most soils the
minor constituents are to be found in the form of
insoluble compounds, which are only partially
rendered soluble during the production of the

46 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

season’s fruit, etc. It pays the cultivator not
only to add such manures as potash, nitrates, and
phosphates, but the minor constituents (such as
salts of iron and manganese) in the form of soluble
compounds.

There is little doubt that many fruit trees are
failures because the soil is incapable of properly
nourishing them, It may be mentioned en
passant, that Prince Salm-Hortsmar in 1849
(after a long series of interesting investigations)
came to the conclusion that oats demand for
complete development all the mineral constituents
found in their ashes.

If the mineral constituents are absent in the
soil—or cannot be utilised by the living roots—
such a soil becomes barren.

On the following page are examples of barren or
sterile soils.?

Nos. 1 and 2 are sterile heath soils contain-
ing only traces of potash, soda, sulphuric acid
and phosphoric acid. No. 3 is a sterile sandy
soil, containing much humus, and No. 4 is
also a barren sandy soil; both contain only traces
of potash, phosphoric and sulphuric acids, and
very little lime and magnesia. Nos. 5 and 6

1 The ‘‘ager infecundus arbore” of Sallust, and the “ sterilitas
agrorum ” of Cicero.

4]

STERILE SOILS

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48 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

are organic soils poor in mineral constituents,
several of which are entirely absent; consequently
they are barren or sterile soils.

Barren soils, however, can be rendered fertile
by the judicious use of manures.

The following analysis, by the late Dr.
A. Voelcker, also illustrates the composition of a
barren sandy soil :—

Organic matter. . . . . 5°36 per cent.
Clay . . 457 ~~,
Sand . . . kw, 89°82 i
Lime . . 7 . A 0°25 <5
Alkalis and magnesia ‘ : 7 0°49 on
Phosphoric acid oe +l) & trace

This soil would be rendered fertile by applying
farmyard manure and 3 cwts. of superphosphate
of lime, 14 cwts. of kainit, 4 cwt. of iron sulphate
and 2 cwts. of sodium nitrate per acre. Nitrogen
is required by all fruit trees. It increases the
chlorophyll in the leaf, and promotes growth
generally. Iron is also required for the proper
growth of fruit trees, and if a soil is deficient in this
ingredient, wood, leaf and fruit are all stunted in
growth. Cheal states that a calcareous clayey
surface soil is improved by adding 1 ewt. of iron
sulphate per acre, as it gives colour to the fruit.
This is in accord with the author’s investiga-
tions.

STERILE SOILS 49

Lime is necessary for successful fruit growing—
especially for stone fruits (plums, etc.). It
strengthens the stem, hastens ripening of the fruit,
and shortens period of growth—a _ valuable
property in a precarious climate, like that of Great
Britain.

Heavy clays are greatly improved by the
addition of lime in any form, by shortening the
period of growth, and thereby preventing the
damaging action of frost.

In addition, it may be stated that the minor
constituents of the soil also play a most important
part in the nutrition and growth of trees; con-
sequently, if a soil is deficient in the minor
constituents, or they are not in such a form that
they can be readily absorbed by the roots, the
trees are bound to suffer from imperfect nutrition.
Many soils are sterile because they are devoid of
certain minor constituents; and a fruit-growing
soil may contain an abundance of lime, potash,
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, iron, etc., and still be
almost barren if these substances exist as insoluble
compounds. To prevent sterility or soil exhaustion
it is necessary to add, year by year, a quantity
of the mineral and other ingredients of plant-food
at least equal to that which has been removed in
the form of fruit, flowers, wood, etc. If more

E

50 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

manure is applied than is actually necessary for
present growth, the cultivator increases the pro-
ductive capacity of the soil. It is a policy that
pays the cultivator to help nature by adding the
various ingredients in the form of soluble com-
pounds. Soluble manures are readily absorbed,
and, as a consequence, produce healthy, vigorous
trees, capable of yielding sound ripe fruit. Soluble
manures feed the trees—especially during the
period of active growth.

It is by such means that the fertility of the soil
is maintained, and thereby a full yield of apples,
pears, plums, and other fruits is obtained.

The soil must be worked for more reasons than
one, it must be manured with artificial, as well as
organic manures; and it must be well drained,
well cultivated, and well planted.

Until manured and cultivated, a barren soil
is absolutely useless for the growth of fruits,
flowers, and ornamental foliage. To conclude in
the words of Arbuthnot: “He that sows his
grain upon marble will have many a hungry belly
before his harvest.”

CHAPTER V

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS FRUIT TREES

“*Tt is indispensable that every plant should find in the soil in
which it grows those inorganic constituents which nature has
rendered necessary to it.”—Lindley.

Ir is not accidental that only coniferous trees
grow on the sandy and calcareous soils of the
Carpathian Mountains and elsewhere, whilst forests
of other trees cannot grow on the same soils
upon which coniferous trees thrive. The com-
position of the soil is chemically different in each
case. Pine leaves yield 2°9 per cent. of alkalies,
whereas oak leaves yield 5°5 per cent.—in other
words, oaks require more alkalies than fir trees.
When we find oak or beech trees growing on
sandy and calcareous soils, it is obvious that these
soils contain alkalies in addition to silica and
lime.

These facts are proved by submitting the ashes
of plants to chemical analysis. The ashes differ

E 2

52 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

considerably in each tree or plant. The roots
appear to have, more or less, a selective action
on the mineral constituents of the soil—and these
mineral or inorganic substances are of the greatest
importance to plant growth. They are necessary
to the formation and the existence of the vegetable
productions in which they are found. It is true
that certain mineral substances are common to
most trees, yet their amount and relative pro-
portion vary with each tree; hence, some are
called potash plants, others lime plants, etc., ac-
cording to the prevailing constituent of their ashes.

Since each tree requires a certain kind and
definite quantity of mineral matter for its growth,
it is a sine qud non that unless the soil is capable
of furnishing these materials in sufficient quantity
and in suitable form, the tree will not flourish
upon it, and if the soil is entirely destitute of
the particular mineral substance or substances
required by it, the tree refuses to grow, or at
least to come to perfection.

If an apple tree does not bear fruit, or the
fruit is meagre, the cultivator should look to
the composition of the soil. The same remark
applies to other trees—every tree contains some
principle peculiar to itself, which gives rise to
the distinguishing characteristics of its produce—

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES 53

e.g., flavour of fruits, variations in the physical
properties of timber, etc.

The chemical composition of the ashes of various
trees, and of fruits, will prove what is abstracted
from the soil by their growth.

The constituents of the ashes of certain fruit
trees are now given in alphabetical order.

Apple (Pyrus malus, Natural Order, Rosacez).
There are about 1,545 varieties in cultivation, and,
as a tule, apple trees prefer a deep rich loam. The
ashes of the wood and fruit contain in 100 parts:—

Wood. Fruit.
Tron oxide (Fe:0s) ee 1:66 1:93
Lime (CaO) . be we 63°60 4:87
Magnesia(MgO) . . ss. 7°46 6°53
Potash (K,0) Be Ok 19°24 56°21
Soda (Na,O) . : 0°45 14-02
Phosphoric acid (P;0;) 5 4°90 10°89
Sulphuric acid (SO,) . . 0°93 3°05
Chlorine (Cl). . .. 0-45 0°68
Silica (Si0,) . . 1:31 2°82

|

The ashes also vary at different periods of
growth—unripe apples contain 0°32 per cent. of
iron oxide and 52 per cent. of potash, whereas ripe
apples contain 1°93 per cent. of iron oxide and 56
per cent. of potash.

One ton of apples extracts 9 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

54 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The percentage composition of the fruit is the
following :—

Sugar... rr 0-1
Malic acid. 5 5 ‘ 2 1:04
Albuminoids ‘ , § . 0°22
Pectin . a we a oe 2°72
Ash Pe ae 4 Rs RE, tg 0°44
Seeds. - : i F 3 0°38
Skins,ete. 2. 2...) 1-42
Pectose . e: -& ‘ : : 1°16
Moisture . 3 . by . 85°04

Apricot (Prunus Armenaca, Natural Order,
Rosacese). There are ten varieties in cultivation,
and they prefer a sandy loam.

The ashes of the wood and fruit contain in 100
parts :—

Wood. Fruit.
Tron oxide . . .. 1-71 1:26
Manganese dioxide... 0°31 0°06
Lime s 2 * 8 4 3°52 4:26
Magnesia a: iu ot> oe 3°85 2°12
Potash . . . . . 54°88 60°20
Soda an es 10°57 9-68
Phosphoric acid . . . 13°86 12-00
Sulphuricacid . .. 2°95 3°06
Chlorine. . . .) . 0°60 0°45
Silica 2. 2. 7°85 691

One ton of apricots extracts 20 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES gs

The percentage composition of the fruit is
represented in the following table :—

Sugars. 2. a 8 ow Oe 1:140
ACG! conve Ca. EE. at, Ou 0:898
Albuminoids. : , ‘ 0-832
Pectin . 5 : ; : 5929
Ash . . . . 0°820
Seeds . ‘ ‘ . : 4:300
Skins,et. . 2. 2...) 0967
Pectose : 3 m a 0-148
Moisture. S % : . 84:966

Bilberry (Vaccinium Myrtillus, Natural Order,
Vacciniaceee) is a deciduous shrub, and prefers a
peaty soil.

The ashes of the wood and fruit contain in 100
parts :—

Wood. Fruit.
Ironoxide . . .. . 5:02 6°21
Manganese dioxide . . 0-16 0-08
Lime mee we ‘ 45°43 40-60
Magnesia os = ow 4% 4°23 5:21
Potash... - 15°26 21-00
Soda e ood os, SA 7:00 6°24
Phosphoricacid . .. 4°64 3°64
Sulphuricacid . .. 1°42 1:89
Chlorine. . . . . 1:60 1:04
Silica e 3 i " 7 15°24 14:09

One ton of bilberries (whortleberries) extracts
13 lbs. of mineral matter from the soil.

56 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The percentage composition of the fruit is the

following :—
Sugar j e oe Oe 5°780
Acid . , F ‘ 1341
Albuminoids 0794
Pectin ‘ : F 5 0°555
Ash . j i 0°858
Seeds -
sea es: ae
Pectose . : : “ : 0°256 i
Moisture . . . . 77-552

Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus, Natural Order,
Rosaceze) grows in ordinary soils. The ashes of
the fruit and wood contain in 100 parts :—

Wood. Fruit.
Iron oxide . . . . 4:26 { 4:92
Manganese dioxide... 0:24 0-16
Tie cose a er ee 40°00 45°35
Magnesia Ee pas oe 6°36 7°20
Potash . . . .) 16°21 20°51
Soda ey oe - 3 6-92 5°24
Phosphoricacid . . 14°33 5-11
Sulphuric acid F : 1:00 | 1:26
Chlorine. . . . 0°59 | 0°62
Silica. F 10-09 9°63

|

One ton of blackberries extracts 10°2 lbs. of
mineral matter from the soil.

The percentage composition of the fruit is the
following :—

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES 57

Sugar... R F 9:192
Acids . i ‘ . ‘: - 1:860
Albuminoids . . . . = 0°394
Pectin. . . . .) 2-031
Ash. . ko, 0°566
Seeds :

Stes } ~ . . 0905
Pectose 2 ‘i : 0°345
Moisture... . 84°707

Cherry (Prunus avium, Natural Order,
Rosaceze). Nearly a hundred varieties are
cultivated. Cherry trees prefer arich sandy soil—
as a stiff or gravelly soil is unsuitable. The
ashes of the wood and fruit contain in 100

parts :—

Wood. Fruit.
Tron oxide. : e os 2°62 3°21
Lime . . . «© « 30°24 7°64
Magnesia : : 8-72 5-28
Potash ne, a 21°63 51°37
Soda : ete Js : : 1°84 1:14
Phosphoricacid . . . 7°56 14°62
Sulphuricacid . .. 2-62 5:03
Chlorine . 3 és d 0-81 2:10
Silica 2. 2... 24°96 9°61

One ton of cherries extracts 15 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The percentage composition of the fruit is the
following :—

58 | MANURES

FOR FRUIT TREES

: ‘“‘Red Heart”
Black cherries. Showice:
Sugar 10-700 13-110
Acid , 0:560 0:351
Albuminoids . 1:010 0°903
Pectin 0:670 2-286
Ash . 0-600 0-600
Seeds 5°730 5-480
Skins, etc. 0°366 0°450
Pectose . : 0-664 1-450
Moisture 3 79-700 75°370

Prunus cerasus produces the Morello cherries.

Chestnut (Castanea vulgaris, Natural Order,
Cupuliferze) prefers a deep rich sandy soil.

The ashes of the wood and fruit contain in

100 parts :—

Wood. Fruit.
Tron oxide... 3°89 1:03
Manganese dioxide 0-80 0:75
Lime 32-00 7°84
Magnesia 16°46 7°84
Potash 27°82 39°36
Soda we, ok 10°61 21:73
Phosphoric acid 2°31 8:25
Sulphuric acid 3°10 3°88
Chlorine . 111 2°50
Silica 12°82 6°82

One ton of chestnuts extracts 39:2 lbs. of

mineral matter from the soil.

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES 59

The percentage composition of the fruit (nut) is
the following :—

Moisture # iA 8-00
Ol. . . . wl. 6560
Albuminoids. . . . . 15°31
Non-nitrogenous matter . . 7:39
Ash So 3h ol, oh chr 78470

The chestnut is not altogether a common tree
in Britain, but is plentiful in Italy, Spain and
France. In many districts of Spain and Italy,
it takes the place of oats, rye, and rice. Chestnut
groves are abundant in all the mountain districts,
and the season of chestnut gathering is the
harvest festival of these countries.

The leaves of the chestnut contain tannin,
and a fluid extract of the leaves is official in the
“ United States Pharmacopaia.”

Currants (Ribes nigrum et rubrum et album,
Natural Order, Grossulariaceze) prefer a deep rich
loam. Red and white currants bear fruit at the
base of the previous year’s shoots, also on old
spurs; black currants bear fruit along the entire
length of the previous year’s shoots.

The ashes of the wood and fruit contain in 100
parts :—

60 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Wood. Fruit.
Iron oxide . . . . 4:22 3°10
Manganese dioxide. 0°21 0:10
hime. 6, & # 4 36°24 37-06
Magnesia a .€. & 10°21 9-11
Potash . . . . 15-50 20°51
Soda Be. dln Jbl ee. Qe 5°61 6:20
Phosphoricacid . . . 16-00 17°26
Sulphuric acid . ‘ 1:00 1:00
Chlorine. . . . . 0°80 0°61
Silica. ¢ yo 10-21 5:05

One ton of currants extracts 10 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The percentage composition of the fruit is the
following :—

Red White Black
currants. currants, currants.

Sugar 6°44 7692 6°52

. Acid : 1°84 2-258 1-96
Albuminoids 0-49 0-230 0°32
Pectin . 0-19 0-070 0:09
Ash a : : 0°57 0-560 0°62
Seeds and skins . 4°48 4144 4:20
Pectose 0-72 0-240 0-42
Moisture 85:27 84806 85:87

The variety known as “ Boskoop Giant” black
currant is a fine cropper of extraordinarily vigorous
growth, and produces long bunches of fruit. It
is also an excellent variety for exposed situations.

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES 61

The “ Victoria” black is the finest and largest
variety in cultivation, and the bush is a prolific
bearer.

The following currants are excellent varieties :
Black—“ Common,” “ Champion,” ‘“ Lee’s Prolific,”
Ogden’s; Red—“<Comet,” “ Fay’s Prolific,” ‘La
Fertile,” “Raby Castle,” “Red Dutch”; and
White—“ Transparent White,” and “Dutch,” and
are well worth cultivating in any garden.

Damson (Prunus domestica, var. damascena,
Natural Order, Rosacez) prefers a moderately rich
loam.

The ashes of the wood and fruit contain in 100
parts :—

Wood. Fruit.
Iron oxide . . . . 3°26 1:19
Manganese dioxide . . 0-51 —
lime . . .. . 20°62 12°65
Magnesia ee. OS gn ae 8:21 8:17
Potash . - ars gus wa 34°17 45-98
Soda e 8 F 6°10 5°66
Phosphoric acid . : 10°36 13°83
Sulphuricacid . . . 1°91 2°37
Chlorine. . . . . 0°86 0:97
Silica. Se kh 14:00 9°22

One ton of damsons extracts 13°5 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

62 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The percentage composition of the fruit is the

following :—
Sugay i. 6 oy = # & 3°56
Acid . 2... ne 0:92
Albuminoids . . ... 0:26
Pectin. . ‘ F ‘ A 5°50
ASW: 3 Gh ok. fee “ay. 04 0°67
Seeds . . . 2...) . 5°72
Skins, etc. . . ‘ 3 F 0-20
Pectose : : 4 : E 1:06
Moisture . ‘ a 2 : 82°11

The following kinds of damsons are excellent :
“Prune Damson,” “ Bradley’s King,” and “ Langley
Bullace.”

Fig (Ficus Carica, Natural Order, Moracez),
grows in rich soils, or in a compost of loam, peat,
and. sand.

The ashes of the wood, leaves and fruit contain
in 100 parts :—

Wood. Leaves. Fruit.
Iron oxide . .. 1°65 3°20 1:21
Manganese dioxide. 0°52 0°61 0-51
Lime . . . 21°50 20-00 19°64
Magnesia . ., 7°24 6°32 10°10
Potash. . .. 25:00 28°00 30°22
Soda . . .) 24°12 22°00 24:00
Phosphoric acid... 3°50 3°26 1:46
Sulphuricacid .. 4°23 4:00 4°86
Chlorine . .. 0°50 1°62 3:00
Silica 2, ‘ 11-74 10°99 5:00

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES

63

One ton of figs extracts 51°5 lbs. of mineral

matter from the soil.

The percentage composition of the syconus or so-
called fruit of the fig is the following :-—

Soluble albuminoids
Insoluble matter .

Sugar
Gummy matter

Fibre and so-called seeds iaahense)i

Ash
Moisture

0°55
1:38
48°90
12°75
9°11
1-77
24°94

Filberts and Cob- Nuts are varieties of the
hazel (q.v.). They grow well in loamy soils.
The ashes of the wood and nuts contain in 100

parts :—

Wood. Nuts
Tron oxide 0°16 0°25
Manganese dioxide 0-04 0-05
Alumina . 0-09 0-06
Lime 29°55 25-02
Magnesia 12°42 13°61
Potash 31°59 39°86
Soda . 9°56 9°51
Phosphoric acid 5°31 5-61
Sulphuric acid 1-05 071
Chlorine . 0°82 0°32
Silica 9°41 5-00

One ton of filberts extracts 33°6 Ibs. of mineral

matter from the soil.

The following varieties are excellent nut bearers :

*“ Cosford,” “‘ Kentish Cob,” ‘‘ Norwich Prolific,” &c.

64. MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Gooseberry (Ribes grossularia, Natural Order,
Grossularaceee) prefers light and porous soils.

The ashes of the wood and fruit contain in 100
parts :—

Wood. Fruit.
Tron oxide se We 4°22 4°56
lime . . . . . 12-00 12°20
Magnesia BL ose 1a) Ge 6:00 5°85
Potash .. wt 30°21 38°65
Soda : : ; “ 8°62 9°92
Phosphoricacid . . . 18°36 19°68
Sulphuricacid . .. 4°22 5°89
Chlorine. . ‘ 0°36 0°67
Silica .. oS 16°01 2°58

One ton of gooseberries extracts 11:2 lbs. of
mineral matter from the soil.

The percentage composition of the fruit is the
following :—

Green. Red. Yellow.
Sugar... 5201 8-063 » 6383
Acids (malic and citric) 1:4386 1:358 1:078
Albuminoids Pee 0°522 0°441 0-578
Pectin. . . 1:000 0-969 2°112
Ash... 0°320 0°317 0:200
Chlorophyll. . . 0-045 0-022 0-030
Seeds and skins... 3°222 2°993 3°822
Pectose. . . . 0°310 0294 0308
Moisture . . . 87°944 85°543 85-489

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES 65

One of the earliest gooseberries in cultivation is
“May Duke.” It is a heavy cropper, and the
fruit is large, of a deep red colour with a thin skin.
Among other varieties may be mentioned : ‘‘ Crown
Bob” (red), “‘Whitesmith” (yellow), “ Early Yel-
low,” “ Warrington” (red), ‘‘ Keepsake” (green),
and ‘“ Lancashire Lad” (red).

Greengage (is a variety of Prunus domestica,
Natural Order, Rosaceze) prefers a shallow moder-
ately moist, sandy loam, with a chalky subsoil.
If the soil is naturally deficient in lime, a liberal
supply must be given to greengage and other
stone-fruit trees. Deep digging about fruit trees
should be avoided, and when trees are bearing
heavy crops of fruit they ought to be well supplied
with manures, in the form of top-dressings.

The ashes of the wood and fruit contain in 100
parts :—

Wood. Fruit.
Tron oxide . . . . 4°26 500
Lime sl : 20°21 9°81
Magnesia S) ge owl «4 6°82 6°28
Potash . . . . . 42:00 58°09
Soda a ee 111 0°12
Phosphoricacid . . . 12-00 13°99
Sulphuricacid . . . 2°52 3°62
Chlorine. . . . . 0-71 0°61
Silica 2. 2. . 10°37 2°48

1 A. B. Griffiths, Special Manures for Garden Crops, p. 103.
F

66 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

One ton of greengages extracts 12°5 lbs. of
mineral matter from the soil.

The percentage composition of the fruit is the
following :

Sugar . . . . . « 4°62
Acid : ; af Nye. 0-91
‘Albuminoids . i 0°63
Pectin 3°42
Ash ; 0°96
Chlorophyll . ‘ 0°05
Seeds, skins, etc. j 5°62
Pectose . ‘ F A 1:06
Moisture 2 ee 88°73

“There is no plum to equal it in the richness of
its favour. The tree is a strong grower of good
habit” (Chea).

Hazel Nut (Corylus avellana, Natural Order,
Corylacez) is a hardy deciduous shrub. It prefers
a rich loam, well manured and deeply trenched.

The ashes of the wood, leaves and nuts contain
in 100 parts :—

‘Wood. Leaves. Nut.
Iron oxide . : 0°12 1:20 0°21
Manganese dioxide . 0-08 0°50 0:02
Alumina . .. 0-10 0:06 0-05
Lime . . . . 26°62 26°81 24°62
Magnesia... 15°20 14:16 14°61
Potash. . . . 36°19 32°16 39°52
Soda. ‘ 10°22 10°11 10°56
Phosphoric acid. 4:20 3°23 5:00
Sulphuricacid .. 1:00 0-78 0°63
Chlorine . . . 0-61 0-54 0°50
Silica 2... 9°66 10°26 11°38

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES 67

One ton of Corylus extracts 34°5 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The nuts yield an abundance of bland oil. The
wood of this species of Corylus is very elastic.

Corylus tubulosa, with red leaves, is cultivated
as an ornamental shrub, and is commonly known
as the ‘“ copper hazel.”

Juglans (Juglans regia, walnut-tree, Natural
Order, Juglandaceze) is a hardy deciduous nut-
bearing and ornamental foliage tree. Its leaves are
dark green. It grows well on sandy and calcareous
soils, or on stiff loams with a gravelly subsoil.

The ashes of the wood, leaves and nuts contain
in 100 parts :—

Wood. Leaves. Nuts.
Ironoxide . .. 1-26 3:26 2-00
Manganese dioxide . 0°41 0°30 0-10
Alumina... 0:06 0:04 0-01
Lime. ie ok 40-00 36-02 32°24
Magnesia .. 6°59 5-40 5-12
Potash. . .. 14°68 20°25 25-00
Soda . . ... 4°86 3°59 2°01
Phosphoric acid... 6°44 8:23 10°36
Sulphuricacid .. 8-17 10-01 12°56
Chlorine . .. . 0°82 0°65 0-21
Silica 2. 2... 16°71 12°55 10°39

One ton of walnuts extracts 38°1 Ibs. of mineral
matter from the soil.
F 2

68 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

An oil (oleum juglandis) is expressed from the
ripe kernels of Juglans regia, and the yield is 63
to 65 per cent. Similar oils are contained in the
fruits of Juglans cinerea (the butternut) and
Juglans nigra. The root-bark of Juglans cunerea
is a cathartic and tonic, and is official in the United
States Pharmacopaia. Juglans laciniata affords an
excellent contrast of scenery by means of its light
green foliage.

Lemon (Citrus Limonum, Natural Order,
Rutaces) is a greenhouse evergreen shrub. It
grows in a good turfy loam with a little charcoal
and sand.

The ashes of the wood, leaves, rind and juice
contain in 100 parts :—

Wood. Leaves. Rind. Juice.
Iron oxide... 1:26 2°33 0°43 0:10
Lime... 62°00 61°35 41°59 15°83
Magnesia... 11°43 12°03 10°51 5:04
Potash. . . 10°50 10-96 34°63 55-01
Soda... 0°51 0:93 1°53 1:23
Phosphoric acid . 4:00 4:11 7:93 15°52
Sulphuric acid . 4:24 4°20 2-50 5:20
Chlorine... 0°10 0-09 0:05 0:03
Silica, . wl, 596 4:00 0°83 2°04

One ton of Citrus extracts 16 Ibs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES 69

Lemon juice contains from 6 to 10 per. cent. of
citric acid. The juice of the fruit of Citrus Medica
var. B-Iimonum is used in the preparation of the
B.P. syrupus limonis, and the rind of the same
variety is used in the preparation of infusum
aurantli compositium, infusum gentiane com-
positum, and tinctura limonis.

The rind contains an essential (volatile) oil
(essence of lemon), which is obtained by rasping off
the outer rind or flavedo, and subsequently pressing
it; or the rind is squeezed, and the oil collected on
sponges, which are pressed when saturated ; or the
rind is pricked and the oil allowed to drain off.
There are other methods for obtaining inferior kinds
of lemon oils.

Lemon oil contains dextro- and levo-limonene,
citral and traces of citronellal, phellandrene, geranyl
acetate, linalool acetate, and R. 8. Ladell* found a
body, C,)H,,0, of a specific gravity of 0962 in lemon
oil, Umney and Swinton have confirmed this work.

Medlar (Mespilus germanica, Natural Order,
Rosacese) is a hardy fruit-tree, bearing deciduous
leaves and white flowers. It grows in a rich

1 Chemical News, vol. 69, p. 20; also Idris’ book on Essential
Oils, p. 183. This research was worked out in the author’s
laboratories.

70 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

moist loamy soil. The medlar is usually grown as
a standard tree, and is grafted on the hawthorn,
quince or pear.

The ashes of the medlar contain in 100
parts :—

Wood. Fruit.
Iron oxide . . 1°82 1:83
Manganese dioxide .. trace trace
Alumina. . . . 0:03 —
Lime... . 58°32 4:01
Magnesia ae a 8-10 7:24
Potash . . . 16°31 53°00
Soda Ee, = seins Tits ody 5: 0°56 12°30
Phosphoricacid . . . 4:54 10°25
Sulphuricacid . .. 0°83 2°55
Chlorine. . . . . 0°53 0°50
Silica. eo Be Sx 8:96 8°32

One ton of the medlar tree extracts 35 lbs. of
mineral matter from the soil.

Mulberry (Morus nigra, Natural Order,
Moracez) is a hardy deciduous fruit tree. The
fruit is a purple sorosis (spurious berry). The tree
grows in light deep moist loam, in a sunny position
and sheltered from north winds.

The ashes of the wood and leaves contain in
100 parts :—

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES 71

Wood. Leaves.
Iron oxide. x. 1% 3:20 4°36
Manganese dioxide | 0°52 0°45
Alumina. . . . . 0:23 0°31
Lime . . .. . 29°65 10°53
Magnesia em. i od. Je 12:54 8°63
Potash . . . 17°32 36°54
Soda : el a ots 10-00 12-99
Phosphoric a 8°59 10:03
Sulphuricacid . . 1:20 0°83
Chlorine. . . . . 0°84 0:79
Silica . « 8 «8 « 15°91 14:54

The mulberry tree extracts 35 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The percentage composition of the fruit is the
following :—

Sugar... yo 9°192
Tartaric and anit icicle: " 1-860
Albuminoids. - 3 “ 0-394
Pectin . ‘i ‘ ‘ 2 2°031
Ash. dn ott of 0-566
Seeds and aking , : F : 0:905
Pectose : : r . : 0°345
Moisture . . . . . 84°707

Mulberry trees “should be planted on grass, so
that the ripe fruit may fall without bruising or
becoming dirty.” It is an excellent fruit for
dessert.

The juice of the fruit was formerly included in
The British Pharmacopana.

72 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Nectarine (Persica vulgaris levis, Natural
Order, Rosacez) is a hardy fruit-bearing tree, with
deciduous leaves. It grows in a deep, well-drained
sandy loam.

The ashes of the wood and fruit contain in 100
parts :-—

Wood. Fruit.
Iron oxide . . ... 2°56 3°16
Manganese dioxide. ‘ 0-21 —
Alumina. . . ... 0°25 —
lime... : 14-29 11°32
Magnesia sO 8 6°32 4:00
Potash . .. 45°63 58°36
Soda a er 1:00 0°82
Phosphoricacid . . . 10°56 16°31
Sulphuricacid . .. 2°63 | 3°65
Chlorine. . ee cts 0-16 0-10
Silica. | 15390 2-28

One ton of nectarines extracts 14 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The percentage composition of the fruit is the
following :—

Sugar . S° de> “Bw 1:426
Acid... ‘ 0-718
Albuminoids. ‘ , ¢ 0-480
Pectin : : ‘ 2 6-581
Ash . R. fee Fm of 0°503
Seeds, skins, etc. . 5713
Pectose F : 0-111

Moisture . g : 84°468

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES 73

Olive (Olea europea, Natural Order, Oleaceze)
is a half-hardy greenhouse flowering shrub, with
evergreen leaves. It has been cultivated from
remote periods in southern Europe, for the sake
of the valuable oil expressed from the pulp of its
fruit.

When grown outdoors in the South of England
only, the olive prefers a sandy loam, in a sheltered
sunny position or against a south or west wall.
For pot-culture in greenhouses, the olive grows
in a compost of loam, leaf-mould, and silver sand.

The ashes of the wood contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide . ©. . .) 4:00
Manganese dioxide . 0°36
Alumina eo Se Oe oe 0888
Lime . . . . . . 22°68
Magnesia. » 2. 12°55
Potash .. . . . 17-48
Soda. R eles site 8°63
Phosphoricacid . . . . 6:99
Sulphuric acid . . . . 38°00
Silica 2... we 2298
Chlorine ; say oe 1:05

One ton of Olea extracts 23 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

Orange.—(Citrus aurantium, Natural Order,
Rutacez) is a greenhouse evergreen shrub. It
grows in a compost of turfy loam, dry cowdung,
charcoal and sand.

74. MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The ashes of the stem and leaves contain in 100
parts :—

Stem. Leaves.
Tron oxide. . 1:21 2-00
Lime . . . : 52°16 50°10
Magnesia a ee 6°25 16:03
Potash . . . .. 12-00 15°93
Soda ie ORD ae. ce, Sh 3°10 1:01
Phosphoric acid sO 16°88 3°01
Sulphuric acid ee 4°52 4:23
Chlorine . ‘ 0°20 0°31
Silica a Yes Gee oe 3°63 7:38

One ton of the orange-tree extracts 28 lbs. of
mineral matter from the soil.

The peel of the bitter orange (Citrus aurantium,
var., Bigardia) is used in making the tincture and
wine of orange and other preparations of The
British Pharmacopoeia. <A volatile oil is also
obtained by mechanical means, from the sweet and
bitter orange-peel.

The flowers of Citrus vulgaris, and also those of
the sweet and bitter orange, yield a volatile oil on
distillation—the oil of neroli. The flowers are also
used in the preparation of the orange-flower water
of commerce.

The oil of petit-grain is obtained, by distillation,
from the leaves, young shoots and unripe fruits of
the sweet and bitter orange.

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES = 75

In the month of January (winter) the sweetest
oranges come from Jamaica, but these have the dis-
advantage of being of a somewhat fibrous texture ;
whilst their pale exterior is delusive to the unprac-
tised eye—external pallor being usually supposed
to be indicative of internal acidity,

For the largest and finest supplies of oranges we
are dependent upon the fertile soils of Spain. It is
well known that the districts of Denia and Murcia
send to these shores oranges the flavour and juciness
of which are unsurpassed ; and unfortunately, un-
scrupulous dealers do not hesitate to offer the
commonest of Spanish oranges as the “ finest
Denias.” The soils of the South of France, Italy, and
other countries in South Europe also produce excel-
lent oranges ; and in France the art of cultivating the
orange has been brought to a high state of perfection.

The importation of Jaffa oranges is chiefly in the
hands of the Liverpool brokers, who have made a
speciality of the business. The facilities offered by
the accommodation of the Liverpool docks, the
methods of selecting and distributing the fruit in
Liverpool, are superior to those of London ; con-
sequently, the great Lancashire port has always
received the bulk of thé oranges grown in the
fertile soils of Palestine. The choicest brands,
however, are sent to the London market.

76 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Excellent oranges are imported from the United
States.

Oxycoccus.—( Vaccinium Oxycoccus, Cran-
berry, Natural Order, Vacciniacez) is a hardy ever-
green trailing shrub, bearing fruit. It grows in
peaty or boggy soils.

The ashes of the wood and fruit contain in 100
parts :—

Wood. ‘Fruit.
Ironoxide . . ... 4°52 5:06
Manganese dioxide .. 0-21 0°05
Lime. &. ii! 39 42°96 39°00
Magnesia S cae a. ue 5:23 4°63
Potash > hts se cd 17°84 25°55
Soda ee ee eee ee 5°D5 5°21
Phosphoricacid . . . 4:98 5:30
Sulphuricacid . .. 1:93 1°65
Chlorine. . . .. . 1°52 1°63
Silica 2. 2... 15°26 11:93

One ton of cranberries extracts 14 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

Peach (Prunus persica or Amygdalus persica,
Natural Order, Rosaceze) is a hardy, deciduous
fruit-bearing tree. It grows in ordinary well-
drained soils, against west or south walls.

The ashes of the peach’ contain in 100 parts :—

1 A. B. Griffiths, Special Manures for Garden Crops, p. 99.

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES 77

Tronoxide . 2 wt 1:20
Manganese dioxide . .. 0-16
Lime . . ... . 4:88
Magnesia . . . 4:10
Potash. . . 2... 52°61
Soda . . 2.) ew .) OL89
Phosphoricacid. . . . 13°69
Sulphuricacid . . .. 3°21
Chlorine a ee 0°55
Silica 2... we 771

One ton of peaches extracts 18 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

As a rule, peach trees grow best in good medium
soils, but the sub-soil must not be too rich, and
it is better if it is of a clayey nature. Many
American authorities have proved that diseased
and unproductive conditions of peach trees are
due to an excess of silica and a deficiency of
nearly all the other ash-constituents.

This is a case of soil exhaustion as far as the
mineral constituents are concerned; they should
be replaced by suitable artificial manures.

The percentage composition of the fruit is the
following :—

Sugar. . . . ..). 1°580
Acid 4 g & «# © 4 0°612
Albuminoids . : 3 5 0-463
Pectin ee ety Se a “OH 6°313
ABH! ds, cg GE, <ee cShs 8 0:422
Seeds, skins, ete. . . . 5°620
Pectose . 3 ‘ é : 0-122

Moisture . P ‘ é 2 84°868

78 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Pear (Pyrus communis, Natural Order, Rosacez)
is a hardy fruit-bearing tree with deciduous leaves.
It grows in deep rich loams—clay soils are unsuit-
able for its proper cultivation.

The ashes* of the pear contain in 100 parts :-—

Tronoxide . . . ... 1°20
Lime . . . . . . 99
Magnesia . 2. . . . B42
Potash. . . . . . 55°00
Soda . ... mS 8°69
Phosphoricacid . . . . 13°93
Sulphuricacid 2 2...) B73
Chlorine wo 2: tual, 0°52
Siliea 2. 1. 152

One ton of, pears extracts 6°7 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The percentage composition of the fruit is the
following :—

Moisture ee el 86125
Sugar 2... we 4B
Bibré ge ewes 3°80
Gummy matter... . sly
Malicacid . . : . 0-14
Albumen ‘ : F ak 0:08
Chlorophyl . . . . . 0:08
Ash 3. ‘ : ee 0-03

There are about 650 varieties of pears cultivated,
and the position is south, east, or west walls,
arches or fences for fan, cordons or espalier-trained

1 A. B. Griffiths, ibid., p. 102.

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES 79

trees; sheltered gardens for bushes or pyramids ;
and soils sloping south-west and south-east for
standard-pear trees. A judicious selection of
varieties and aspects, in conjunction with skilful
culture and manuring, will do much towards the
production of fine crops of fruit, whereas careless-
ness and indifference are sure to promote failure.

Dr. Wagner says:—‘‘It is impossible to state
how much more easily, and with what greater
financial advantage, fruit culture and flower
growing could be conducted if a rational system
of plant manuring could be introduced.”

The advice we give as a principal means to
successful cultivation is to manure, but to manure
rationally, an undertaking quite distinct from the
mere indiscriminate use of artificial manures or
fertilisers ; it means, moreover, the application to
the soil of plant foods in a proper form, in a proper
manner, and in proper quantities, for if they are
used in excess, as much harm is possible as if the
plants had been underfed.

Pineapple (Ananassa sativa, Natural Order,
Bromeliacez) is a hot-house (stove) plant in this
country. It grows in a compost of loam, decayed
manure, bones, and calcareous matter.

The ashes of the pineapple contain in 100
parts :—

80 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Iron oxide... e 4 2°54
Lime . . . . . 13°62
Magnesia . . .. 9°00
Potash. . : 50°31
Soda . . . . 10°36
Phosphoric acid. : 511
Sulphuric acid . - . 0°31
Chlorine . . . . . 2°53
Silica . e 8 6:22

One ton of pineapples extracts 10°5 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

During the Christmas week (1906) there were
about 45,000 pineapples in Covent Garden market,
and the following week there was a supply of
over 20,000 of these choice fruits at extremely
reasonable prices.

Plum (Prunus domestica, Natural Order,
Rosacez) is a hardy fruit-bearing tree with decid-
uous leaves. There are about 190 varieties culti-
vated in thiscountry. Plum trees prefer a shallow,
moderately moist, sandy loam, with a gravelly or
chalky subsoil.

The ashes of the plum-tree contain in 100 parts:*

Tron oxide. . . 5:21
Lime . . . . . . 6°39
Magnesia . . . .. 9°25
Potash. . . . . . 56:99
Soda . . . . : 5°24
Phosphoric acid. . 12:09
Sulphuric acid . : 3°33
Chlorine . .. : 0-20
Silica ; a 1:30

1 A. B. Griffiths, ibid., p. 103.

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES 81

One ton of plums extracts 13°7 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.
The ashes of the fruit contain in 100 parts :—

Skin. Pulp. Shell. Kernel.
Iron oxide... 4°82 3°55 3°02 2°52
Lime . .. 8:22 5:00 27°25 8-23
Magnesia... 9-00 4°58 3°52 16°36
Potash. . 58°50 50°93 26°40 26°82
Soda . .. 4:03 8:00 6:20 2-00
Phosphoric acid . 12:06 16°21 25:00 31°13
Sulphuric acid . 2°31 3°21 6°01 7:00
Chlorine .. 0-21 0°52 0710 0°54
Silica. i 0°85 3:00 2°50 2°40

The percentage composition of the fruit is the
following :—

Mirabelle plum. | Mussel plum.

Sugar... . 3584 5°793

Acid Siw eS wae ae 0°582 0:952
Albuminoids. . .. . 0:197 0°785
Pectin . . . . . 5°780 3°646
“ABH oe ak Eck 0°570 0°734
Seeds, skin, ete. . . 5°959 5-530
Pectosee . . . . 4 1:080 0°630
Moisture . ke we 82-256 81:930

There are many excellent varieties of this fruit :
the “Belgian Purple” is a great bearer and
‘“‘Denniston’s Superb” possesses a fine flavour.

G

82 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Punica (Punica granatum, pomegranate,
Natural Order, Lythraceze) is a hardy deciduous
fruit-bearing tree. It grows in a compost of loam
and decayed cow manure. It requires well-drained
borders against south and south-west walls in the
south and south-west of England ; it also grows in
greenhouses.

The ashes of Punica contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide. : : 3°26
Manganese dioxide . i F 0-31
Lime. . . . . s,s 25°26
Magnesia sw. ‘4 . 10°21
Potash . : 22-67
Soda . . . . . 10°10
Phosphoricacid . . . . 12°52
Sulphuricacid . |. 3°26
Chlorine e As. Bi ae Soe SOREL
Silica 2... . 12°00

One ton of Punica extracts 16 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The dried peel of the fruit or balaustra contains
from 24 to 30 per cent. of tannic acid; and the
dried stem and root barks of Punica are used in
medicine.

Punica granatum is the pomegranate tree, and
in favoured spots occasionally produces scarlet
blooms ; although it does not yield fruit in this
country. The dwarf form of the tree blooms much

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES 83

more freely, and grows well in France, and the
countries of Southern Europe.

Quince (Pyrus cydonia or Cydonia vulgaris,
Natural Order, Rosacez) is a hardy, fruit-bearing
tree with deciduous leaves. It grows in good
ordinary soils, preferably of a stiff nature, and it
requires a low moist situation.

In a lecture delivered by Prof. 8. M. Pickering
(Director of Ridgemont Experimental Fruit Farm)
it was stated that, as the result of practical experi-
ments extending over twelve years, it was
absolutely necessary for the successful cultivation
of fruit trees that their roots should be stamped
into the ground.

The ashes of the quince tree contain in 100
parts :—

Wood. Fruit.
Ironoxide . . . . 1°63 1°54
Manganese dioxide . . trace trace
Alumina. . . . 0:06 —
Lime 6. 2: ee BLS 42°24 6°32
Magnesia & <u 8 10:00 10°56
Potash . . . .) 27°71 43°20
Soda a ee ee ee 0°52 1°68
Phosphoric acid. an 5°63 26°33
Sulphuricacid . . . 0-91 0°82
Chlorine. . . . . 0:33 0:41
Silica 2... 10°97 9°64

84 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

One ton of Pyrus cydonia extracts 12 lbs. of
mineral matter from the soil.

Quince seeds yield a strong soluble mucilage,
and were formerly official in the United States
Pharmacopeia.

Raspberry (Rubus ideus, Natural Order,
Rosacee) is a hardy fruit-bearing shrub with
deciduous leaves. It grows in deep, rich moist
loam or light ordinary soils ; clay soils are unsuit-
able.

The ashes of the wood and fruit contain in 100
parts :—

Wood. Fruit.
Tronoxide . . ... 4-56 4°71
Manganese dioxide .. 0-18 0-12
Lime . . . ... 41°21 44°12
Magnesia . 2... 7:00 7-15
Potash . . . . . 16°52 21:00
Soda a en ee 5:23 5°01
Phosphoricacid . .. 14°02 6:21
Sulphuricacid . . . 1-11 1:36
Chlorine. . . . . 0°52 0°54
Silica 2. 2. . 9°65 9-78

One ton of raspberries extracts 11 lbs. of
mineral matter from the soil.

The percentage composition of the fruit is the
following :—

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES = 85

Red. White.
Sugar. . . .. 4°708 3703
Acids ‘ 3 : . : 1:356 1115
Albuminoids . * - 0°544 0°665
Pectin . " ‘i . 1°746 1:397
Ash . . . : : 0-481 0°380
Seedsandskins . .. 4:106 4:520
Pectose . ‘ : ‘i . 0°502 0-040
Moisture 3 : 7 : 86557 88-180

Sloe (Prunus spinosa, Natural Order, Rosacez)
is a deciduous tree, bearing edible fruit. It
grows in ordinary soils. The composition of its
ashes varies little from that of the ordinary
plum.

Vine (Vitis vinifera, the grape-vine, Natural
Order, Ampelidez) is a hardy, deciduous, climbing
shrub, bearing green or purple berries (grapes).
The varieties of the grape-vine are very numerous.
The soil most suitable for indoor culture of vines
is a compost of turfy loam, lime rubbish, charcoal,
wood ashes, and half-inch bones. Vines for out-
door culture require sandy loam, wood ashes, old
mortar, half-inch bones and rotten manure, and
their position should lie against a south, sunny
wall.

The ashes of the vine contain in 100
parts :-—

86 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Iron oxide . ae 1-21
Manganese dioxide . . . 0°63
Alumina a ee ; : 0:02
Lime. - » . . 80°50
Magnesia . . . . . 6°24
Potash... . . . SS 8584
Soda . 2. 2. we 6°55
Phosphoricacid . . . . 15°28
Sulphuricacid . . . . 2°58
Chlorine. So gos 0-42
Siliea 2. 2. 1. we 1°23

One ton of vines extracts 46 Ibs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The percentage composition of the ashes of
grapes is the following :—

Purple. ‘* White ” (green).

Iron oxide . . . . 2-02 1°83
Manganese dioxide . . 0-73 0°50
Alumina . o » + 0:05 —

lime . . . . . 20-00 21-52
Magnesia i i. 13s 5°21 4°88
Potash . . . 42°70 43°93
Soda er ee . 2°03 1°53
Phosphoricacid . .. 20°01 18°21
Sulphuricacid . . 3°62 4:00
Chlorine. . . . 0-41 0-62
Silica 2. 2. . . 3°22 2-98

Raisins are dried grapes. Muscatel raisins
remain on the vine until they are sun-dried.
Valencias are cut from the vines, dipped into
boiling dilute lye and then dried; sultanas are

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES = 87

seedless, and come from Smyrna; and currants
(Uva passe minores) are sun and shade dried, and
are from a small variety of vine which is grown in
the isles of the Grecian Archipelago. The con-
sumption of the Greek currant in Great Britain is
over 63,000 tons per annum.

The history of the currant-vine is most interest-
ing. It is surmised that the people of the western
part of Asia made wine from grapes dried in the
sun in pre-historic times. The ancient Greeks
preferred wine made from dried rather than fresh
grapes, and according to Ariston of Chios, the
nectar on the Olympian dinner-table was made
from dried grape wine and honey.

** Long life to the grape! for when summer is flown
The age of our nectar shall gladden our own.”—Byron.

The proper cultivation of the currant-vine re-
quires great experience and care. When an old
trunk has lived about a hundred years, and shows
signs of decay, a grave is dug around its roots, and
the old tree is buried with one or two of its latest
shoots attached to it. These shoots are left to
project out of the ground some six inches, and are
fed by the buried parent for two or three years,
when they become fully grown plants—hence the
poets sing of the ‘‘ immortal vine.”

Many attempts have been made to transplant

88 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

the currant-vine, but all have failed, and to-day,
exactly as centuries ago, all the civilised world
looks to Greece for currants. Strong sunshine,
tempered with mountain air and sea breezes, a
soil that is light, dry, and loamy—these are the
essentials to currant-vine culture. Give such con-
ditions, and grant, further, that the tract of country
destined for the currant vineyard is on the gently
undulating slopes of the hills that stretch eastward
from the Gulf of Patras to the Gulf of Corinth, and
the currant-vine, after six or seven years’ careful
culture, will be at its best.

Lord Byron, the poet, called the currant “ an
ideal food, which averts the necessity of medicine.”

In this country, after the grapes have been
removed from the vines, and the vines pruned, the
greenhouse should be washed, thoroughly cleansed
and painted. The soil should be dug right down
to the roots, a top-dressing of fresh loamy soil (in
which has been mixed a proper vine manure’)
applied, and the surface should be mulched with
manure or moss-litter. In the words of Cicero,?
“after the vines have undergone this autumnal
dressing they push forth in spring from the joints

1 Such as With’s ‘‘ Vine Manure.”

2 Melmoth’s translation of Cicero’s essay on ‘Cato; or an
Essay on Old Age.”

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT TREES 89

of the remaining branches, little buds, which are
distinguished by the name of gems. From this
gem the future grapes take rise, which gradually
increase in size by the nourishment they draw from
the earth, in conjunction with the genial warmth
of the sun.”

CHAPTER VI

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES.

“« Below the trees unnumber’d rise,
Beautiful, in various dyes ;
The gloomy pine, the poplar blue,
The yellow beech, the sombre yew,
The slender fir, that taper grows,
The sturdy oak, with broad-spread boughs,” —Dyer.

Acacia (see Locust tree)—The tree called
“acacia,” commonly planted in England, does not
belong to the genus Acacia. It is a North
American Robina, which belongs to the sub-Order
Papilionaceze.

Ash (Fraainus eacelsior, Natural Order,
Oleaceze) is a hardy deciduous tree, with orna-
mental foliage. It grows in ordinary soils.

The ashes of the ash contain in 100 parts :—

Tronoxide . . . wl, 3°92
Manganese dioxide e os 0-41
Aluming . 2... 0°63
Lime . e. 4 25°52
Magnesia . . 2... 12-00
Potash. . . . . . 16-02
Soda . ... : 7°65
Phosphoric acid, .. 7:00
Sulphuricacid . ., 2°52
Chlorine . . . . , 1:03

Silica . a er 23°30

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 91

One ton of Fraxinus extracts 26lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The ash is a native of Great Britain, an im-
portant timber tree, and one of the finest objects
in our rural scenery—“ the fairest of the forest”
(Virgil). It grows rapidly, and reaches in fine
examples a height of about eighty feet, with a
trunk four or five feet in diameter. The great
Woburn Ash is ninety feet high, twenty-three and
a half feet in circumference at the ground, with a
clear stem of twenty-eight feet; and there are
numerous other fine specimens of this typical
British tree.

The roots of the ash are remarkable for growing
in a horizontal direction, and being furnished with
rootlets which approach closely to the surface of
the soil; they thus absorb almost all the moisture
and consequently check the growth of other
plants.

The pinnate leaves of the ash differ in form
from those of many trees. This form gives the
tree a gracefulness and elegance that contrasts so
beautifully with the more massive foliage of other
trees.

The wood of the ash is valuable for its elasticity
and toughness; and the Romans employed it in
the making of weapons and implements of hus-

92 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

bandry—and even to this day the agricultural
implement maker finds the wood excellent for his
purpose.

Aucuba (Aucuba japonica, “variegated laurel,”
Natural Order, Cornacee) is a hardy evergreen
shrub. It is a splendid town shrub, and grows
in ordinary soils.

The ashes of the aucuba contain in 100
parts :—

Tronoxide . .. 3 2°68
Manganese dioxide . 0°21
Alumina mn. 4 Boobs 0°25
Lime . . . . 15°96
Magnesia . .. : 7:24
Potash. . . s «8 24°63
Soda .. 4 ‘ 9-00
Phosphoricacid. . . . 8°61
Sulphuricacid . . . 4:02
Chlorine . . . . . 0:40
Silica 2 2... 8700

The aucuba is a native of Japan, and was in-
troduced into this country in 1783. The female
aucubas bear red berries in the winter if a male
tree is in the vicinity.

Beech (Fagus sylvatica, Natural Order, Cupuli-
feree) is a hardy deciduous tree (there is an ever-
green species). The beech prefers a sandy loam,
or chalk and limestone soils.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 93

In the vicinity of London there are many
avenues of beeches—the most celebrated being
the Burnham Beeches, near Windsor.

The timber of the beech is used for flood-gates,
piles, and sluices; also in the manufacture of
chairs, joiners’ tools, etc. It is also used for
smoking fish, in the preparation of creosote, and
as railway sleepers.

The ashes of the bark, wood, and nut contain in
100 parts :—

Bark. Wood. Nut.
Tronoxide . .. 0:96 0°62 2°67
Manganese dioxide . 0-42 4°52 3°11
lime . . .. . 30°26 42°00 24°50
Magnesia . .. 16-93 8:20 11°64
Potash . 5 P : 23°16 24°29 22°82
Soda . . .. 8°42 8°34 9°50
Phosphoric acid ... 6°98 6:20 20°81
Sulphuric acid . . 2-00 2710 2:20
Chlorine . . . 0°81 0°72 0°87
Silica 2... 10-06 3°01 1:88

One ton of this tree extracts 56 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

It may be remarked that fungi have been found,
by Frank and others, on the root-tips of beeches,
birches, and hazels. This is a kind of symbiosis.

94 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The fungus-threads or hyphe act as a kind of
sponge intermediate between the roots and the
soil, and in heaths the hyphe actually penetrate
into the substance of the root. Symbiosis may
occur largely among trees. The subject requires
careful investigation.

The beech was greatly admired by the ancients
—who luxuriated in the lofty canopy afforded by
its dense foliage—and even in Homer’s time the
beech (fagus or ¢yyés) was an object of admiration,
and is really a noble tree. Its majestic size, the
beauty of its foliage, and the smoothness and colour
of its bark are worthy of notice.

The “‘ Copper Beech” has its leaves in their early
stage of a bright rose colour, which, as the season
advances, deepens to a rich purple approaching
black. Itis a native of Germany, and was intro-
duced into this country about the middle of the
eighteenth century.

Birch (Betula alba, Natural Order, Cupuliferz)
is a hardy tree with deciduous leaves. It is a good
seaside and town tree. The birch (‘sweet mistress
of the wood”) grows in ordinary soil.

The ashes of the bark and wood contain in 100
parts :—

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 95

Bark. Wood.
Iron oxide . . . 0°85 1:26
Manganese dioxide .. 0-21 0°34
Lime , a 25°92 29°62
Magnesia ee ee as 16°50 14:28
Potash . a 20°91 22°62
Soda bs, oval: te: Veh oS 9°26 9-00
Phosphoric acid. ‘ 7°24 7-96
Sulphuric acid ze ela 2-54 2°37
Chlorine . a) 1g 1°41 1:08
Silica. a. Jk 12°46 11°52

Birch wood yields on destructive distillation
oleum rusci or birch tar. Birch tar contains
guaiacol, cresol, and pyrocatechin, and it has
a peculiar odour which it imparts to Russian
leather.

Box Tree (Buxus sempervirens, Natural Order,
Euphorbiaceze) is a hardy evergreen shrub, valuable
for hedges. The dwarf box (B. suffruticosa) is
used for box edgings. It grows in ordinary soils.

The ashes of the wood contain in 100 parts :—

Tronoxide . . . .. 1:06
Manganese dioxide . : 0°34
lime . . . .) 880712
Magnesia . . . . 14:00
Potash... : : 19°80
Soda . ... , 8-26
Phosphoricacid. . . . 711
Sulphuric acid . ' 2°46
Chlorine : - 3 1:23

Siliea : © 6 = 4 » 12°62

96 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Castor Oil Tree (Ricinus communis, Natural
Order, Euphorbiacez) prefers a light sandy soil.

The ashes of this ornamental foliage shrub ' con-
tain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide... te 0°84
Lime . . . . .. 40°02
Magnesia. . . te 7°45
Potash . ey ed oR 32°63
Soda .. ‘ . 2-55
Phosphoricacid. —. 8-03
Sulphuric acid . . 3°48
Chlorine Sy ky os 1:93
Silica. 2:90

The seeds of Ricinus yield by pressure (with or
without heat) or hot water the well-known castor
oil.

Clematis (Clematis purpurea elegans, Clematis
montana, Clematis flammula, Natural Order,
Ranunculaceze) is a deciduous flowering shrub. It
grows well in a loamy soil enriched by decayed
manure and sand.

The ashes # contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide . 1:92
Lime 16°24
Magnesia 6°39
Potash . 30°62
Soda . .. 6°91
Phosphoric acid . 26°75
Sulphuric acid 4°65
Chlorine 2°31
Silica 4:21

lA,
2 A. B. Griffiths, cbid., p. 91.

B. Griffiths, Special Manvures for Garden Crops, p. 65.
B.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 97

One ton of this shrub removes 21 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

Clematises are magnificent hardy climbers, and
considering their beauty, freedom of blooming, and
the ease with which they are trained on any kind
of wall, porch, verandah, trellis, etc., and in
almost any aspect, they should be found in every
garden.

There are thirty-one species and many varieties
in cultivation. Clematis indivisa is a beautiful
greenhouse species, with dark olive evergreen
leaves and white flowers of great fragrance.
Clematis purpurea elegans produces beautiful
flowers of a purple colour. It flowers from July
to October.

lt may be stated, en passant, that Prof. J. R.
Green describes a rennet-forming ferment or
enzyme, comparable to that of the calf’s stomach,
in the stem of the Clematis.

Elder (Sambucus nigra, Natural Order, Capri-
foliacese) is a hardy deciduous shrub. It grows in
ordinary soils.

The ashes of the wood contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide . i . ‘ ‘ 0:36
Manganese dioxide . .. 0-09
Alumina. é F ‘ 3 0-25
Lime . . . . . . 35°96

98 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Magnesia... ‘ 15°62
Potash. . . ‘ 15°55
Soda .. o. Se 1:22
Phosphoric acid . b. te> oh 12°11
Sulphuricacid . . .. 5°78
Chlorine . . . =. . 0:26
Silica 2. 0. we 12°80

One ton of elder extracts 16 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The small whitish flowers are arranged in
unbellate cymes, and produce globular berries of a
dark purple colour when ripe. The fruit yields
the home-made wine (elder-berry wine), and the
flowers yield the elder-flower water (aqua sambuci,
eau de sureau) of the B.P. The latter prepara-
tion is made by distilling either the fresh or
preserved flowers with water. The flowers yield
about 0°3 per cent. of a volatile oil (a mixture of a
paraffin and a terpene). ,

Elm (Ulmus campestris, Natural Order,
Ulmacez) is a hardy deciduous tree, It grows in
ordinary soils. It is a picturesque tree with broad
leaves and drooping boughs.

‘¢ Thou drooping elm ! beneath whose boughs I lay,
And frequent mused the tae hours away ;

How do thy branches, moaning to the blast,
Invite the bosom to recall the past.”—Byron.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 99

The elm is a valuable timber tree.
The ashes of the wood and bark contain in
100 parts :—

Wood. Bark.
Iron oxide . . . 1:17 0°82
Lime . . . .. 47°80 72°70
Magnesia e. ole ver ot 771 3:19
Potash . al OR 21°92 2°22
Soda et ee ee ee 13°72 10:09
Phosphoricacid . . . 3°33 1:59
Sulphuric acid a 1:28 0°62
Chlorine . ee eae ans = _
Silica 2 2. 1 3°07 8-77

One ton of elm extracts 25 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The dried inner bark (liber) of the tree is used
in medicine as a decoction. It contains 3 per
cent. of tannic acid, and 20 per cent. of muci-
laginous matter. The inner bark of the slippery
elm (Ulmus fulva) abounds in mucilage. It
makes a nutritious jelly and demulcent poultices.

Euonymus (Euonymus europeus, Natural
Order, Celastrinee) grows in ordinary soils. The
ashes of the wood and root-bark contain in 100
parts :—

H 2

100 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Wood-bark. Root-bark.
Tronoxide . . . 1:26 0°65
Manganese dioxide . . 0-21 0:06
Mime ase 21:23 43°42
Magnesia eT ck. 2 9-62 10°34
Potash . . .. 35°21 12°91
Soda wy isis Ga nee 6 5°94 4:53
Phosphoricacid . . . 12°62 1°62
Sulphuricacid . . . 1-11 0-71
Chlorine. . . . . 0°36 0°22
Silica 2. 2... 12°82 25°54

One ton of this hardy evergreen shrub extracts
20 lbs. of mineral matter from the soil.

The dried root bark of Huonymus atropur-
pureus yields the extractum euonymi siccum of
the B.P., and contains euonymin, euonic acid, resins,
fat, dulcitol and 14 per cent. of ash. It is
used in medicine as a tonic, diuretic and laxative.

Fuchsia (Fuchsia. splendens, Natural Order,
Onagracee) is a hardy flowering shrub with
deciduous leaves. It grows in a deep rich soil in
sheltered positions in the south of England; as a
greenhouse shrub it thrives in a compost of leaf-
mould, loam and silver sand.

The ashes of the wood contain in 100 parts :—

Tronoxide. . . wl, 2°62
Manganese dioxide . . , 0:09
Alumina 2... 0:99

Lime . 2 : 3 . 3 25°62

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 101

Magnesia

Potash .

Soda . ..
Phosphoric acid .
Sulphuric acid
Chlorine

Silica

10°82
26°00
10°55
4°31
2°62
0:56
15°82

One ton of fuchsias extracts 26°2 lbs. of mineral

matter from the soil.

Furze or Gorse (Ulex europeus, Natural
Order, Leguminose) grows in ordinary soils. The
ashes of the wood contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide .
Manganese dioxide
Alumina

Lime

Magnesia

Potash .

Soda . ...
Phosphoric acid .
Sulphuric acid
Chlorine

Silica

2°61
0°52
0°63
30°14
10°62
26°42
11°86
3°66
1°48
1:32
10°74

One ton of furze extracts 25°6 lbs. of mineral

matter from the soil.

Furze is a hardy evergreen, and is useful for

hedges.

Gardenia (Gardenia florida, Natural Order,
Rubiacez) is a stone flowering shrub, and thrives
well in a compost of loam, peat, charcoal and

sand.

102 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The ashes of the wood contain in 100 parts :—

Tronoxide. . . . . 3°16
Manganese dioxide . : 0-09
Lime . . . . 26:00
Magnesia . ‘ ¢ : 12°32
Potash. . . . . 16°36
Soda . . . . 6°32
Phosphoricacid. . . . 10°42
Sulphuricacid . . . 3°33
Chlorine . . . . 1:20
Silica 2. 2. 1. we 20°70

Garrya (Garrya elliptica, Natural Order,
Cornacez) is a hardy evergreen shrub—the flowers
of which are pendulous catkins. The shrubs are
dicecious (that is to say, there are male and female
trees), and grow in ordinary soils, if well drained,
and outdoors against a south or west wall in the
South of England. The male shrub is only cul-
tivated, the female plant is rarely seen in
gardens.

The ashes of Garrya contain in 100 parts :—

Tronoxide. 2. . 1:36
Manganese dioxide .. 0°52
Alumina . 2... 1:24
lime . . . . . . 15°62
Magnesia . ., : 12°46
Potash. . 2...) . 0 B01]
Soda . . ..) : 6°24
Phosphoric acid es 3°26
Sulphuricacid . . |. 111
Chlorine . . . ,, 0-62

Silica. . . kL, 746

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 103

Gaultheria (Gaultheria procumbens, winter-
green, Natural Order, Ericaceze) is a hardy ever-
green shrub. It prefers a peaty soil in moist
rockeries or shady shrubberies.

The ashes of the wintergreen contain in 100
parts :—

Tronoxide. . . . . 2°26
Manganese dioxide . . . 0°41
lime . . . . . . ~~ = 16°88
Magnesia . . . . . 14:21
Potash. . . . .) 29°24
Soda . . . . ) .) . (1282
Phosphoricacid. . . . 4°26
Sulphuricacid . . . ll. 3°66
Chlorine . . . 0°82
Silica. 7 we, 15°94

The wintergreen is indigenous to North America,
but was introduced into this country in 1762. Its
obovate leaves yield on distillation 0°5 per cent.
of a volatile oil which consists chiefly of methyl
salicylate. It is used in medicine. The bark of
the sweet birch (Betula Lenta) also contains a
similar oil.

Genista (Genista pilosa, Natural Order,
Leguminosee) is a hardy deciduous flowering shrub.
It grows in ordinary soils—preferring sandy and
gravelly heaths.

The ashes of Genista contain in 100 parts? :—

1 A. B. Griffiths, ibid., p. 92.

104 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Tron oxide. «lt 1:30
Lime . . . . . «1664
Magnesia . . . . 10°41
Potash. . . . . . 42°84
Soda. 2 6§ © «© « 3°53
Phosphoricacid. . . . 9-07
Sulphuricacid . . . 4°89
Chlorine . . . . . 2°50
Silica. 2... 5°86

Genista contains 9°4 per cent. of albuminoids or
nitrogenous constituents.

Gleditschia (Gleditschia tricanthos, Chinese
Honey Locust, Three-horned Acacia, Natural Order,
Leguminosee) is a hardy deciduous tree, which
grows in ordinary soils.

The ashes of the wood contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide. . ., 1:86
Manganese dioxide . . 0-02
Alumina 2... 0-21
Lime .. ue 27°61
Magnesia. |, : 12°55
Potash. . 2. . 21°53
Soda . » . 11:00
Phosphoricacid,. . . , 9°21
Chlorine . . . , 0°55
Sulphuricacid . 2... 1:23
Silica 2. Fk, 1498

One ton of Gleditschia extracts 21 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The Gleditschia was the late Sir Richard Owen’s
favourite tree in his garden at Sheen Lodge,
Richmond Park.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 105

Allied trees are Cercis siliquastrum or the
Judas-tree with rounded leaves, and Caesalpinia
brasiliensis—which produces the well-known
Brazil-wood.

Grevillea (Grevillea” robusta, Natural Order,
Proteacez) is a greenhouse foliage shrub. It grows
in any good soil of a light nature, or in a compost
of fibrous peat, turfy loam and silver sand.

The ashes of the shrub contain in 100 parts? :—

Ironoxide. «wt 4:00
Magnesia . . . . 8°93
Lime . . ..... . 16°23
Potash. . . . .) 761
Soda . . ... : 9-40
Phosphoric acid. . : 4°19
Sulphuricacid . . . . 11°10
Chlorine . . . .). 2:12
Silica 2 2. we, BBD

Guelder Rose (Viburnum opulus, Natural
Order, Caprifoliaceze) is a hardy deciduous flowering
tree. It grows in good ordinary soil, and flourishes
in open sunny shrubberies.

The ashes of the wood contain in 100 parts :-—

Tron oxide. . . 1:26
Manganese dioxide . . . 0°52
Alumina . . . ... 0°63
Lime «© « « «© * 4% 19°66
Magnesia . 2. . 12°22
Potash. . . . . . 22°00

1 A.B. Griffiths, ibid., p. 31.

1066 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Soda 2. 2. 1. em 13°23
Phosphoric acid. . ; 4°62
Sulphuricacid . . . 0°31
Chlorine... ne 0°40
Silica . 2. . 25°15

One ton of Viburnums extracts 20°6 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The white flowers of this tree are barren. The
guelder rose is a useful, curious, and ornamental
tree.

Hamamelis (Hamamelis virginiana, witch
hazel, Natural Order, Hamamelidaceze) was intro-
duced into this country from North America in
1736. It is a hardy flowering shrub—preferring a
deep rich loam. It thrives best in damp shrub-
berries, and on the margins of lakes.

The ashes of the wood and leaves contain in 100
parts :—

Wood. Leaves.
Iron oxide . . . 2°45 3°62
Manganese dioxide . . 0-32 O11
Alumina. . . . 0-51 0°32
Lime. a 24°31 25°21
Magnesia Sila Sof 12°14 13°64
Potash . . . 22°22 23°62
Soda a ee 13°61 12°61
Phosphoric acid . . 4:12 3°61
Sulphuricacid . .. 0-42 0:24
Chlorine. . . : 0-16 0-15
Silica 2... : 19°74 16:97

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 107

One ton of Hamamelis extracts 25 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The dried bark of Hamamelis virginiana
contains from 8 to 10 per cent. of tannic acid, and
a trace of volatile oil. It is used in the preparation
of the tinctura hamamelidis. The leaves are used
in the preparation of the extractum hamamelidis
liquidum, liquor hamamelidis, and unguentum
hamamelidis of the British Pharmacopeia.

Hawthorn (Crategus oxyacantha, Natural
Order, Rosaceze), deciduous flowering tree. It grows
in ordinary and rich soils, and is useful for hedges.

The ashes of the wood contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide . ©. wet, 1°52
Manganese dioxide . . . 0°33
Alumina eo. 4 0°50
Lime . . . . . «~~ 38110
Magnesia... ue 9°24
Potash. . . . . 20°55
Soda . . . 1. 3°61
Phosphoricacid. . . . 8°52
Sulphuricacid . . . 2°60
Chlorine . . . . . 0°53
Silica . 2. 2... 2150

One ton of Crategus extracts 24 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

Heath (Lrica cinera, Natural Order, Ericacez)
is a hardy evergreen flowering shrub, and prefers a

peaty soil.

108 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Dr. E. Wolff, in his “ Aschen Analysen,” gives
the following percentage composition of the ashes

of Hrica ciliaris -—

Iron oxide . 4:00
Lime 16°23
Magnesia 8°93
Potash . 7°61
Soda . .. 9°40
Phosphoric acid . 4:19
Sulphuric acid 11:10
Chlorine a a 2°12
Silich ¢ we 35°22

One ton of Erica extracts 23°5 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

Heliotropium (Heliotropium peruvianum,
Natural Order, Boraginacez) is a greenhouse
flowering shrub, and flourishes in a compost of
equal parts of loam, leaf-mould, and silver sand.

The ashes of the entire plant contain in 100
parts :—

Iron oxide . . wt 3°66
Manganese dioxide . . 0:82
Alumina... ee 0°60
lime . ©. 2... 29°68
Magnesia . 2 ww.
Potash. . . . .), 25:04
Soda . . . . 7:23
Phosphoricacid. . ., 8:26
Sulphuricacid 2. 2, 111
Chlorine . . . . , 0°53

Silica . BAL

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 109

One ton of Heliotropium extracts 15:5 lbs. of
mineral matter from the soil.

Honeysuckle (Lonicera periclymenum,
Natural Order, Caprifoliacee) is a beautiful
flowering shrub, and it is benefited by mulching
the soil for several feet round the base with well-
rotted dung.

The ashes of the wood contain in 100 parts :—

JIronoxide. . . . . 2°51
Manganese dioxide . . 0°34
Alumina. . . .) 0-52
Lime . . . . . 8116
Magnesia . . . . 7°24
Potash. . . . . . 16°32
OGM ge ok Rc oS 5°55
Phosphoricacid. . . 2-04
Sulphuricacid . . .. 0°81
Chlorine . . . : 0°35
Silica . 2. 1... 88 5B

One ton of Lonicera extracts 22°4 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

Lonicera tartarica has whitish bark, and
forms an excellent contrast in a picturesque
garden.

Hornbeam (Carpinus betula, Natural Order,
Corylacee) is a hardy deciduous tree, bearing
ornamental foliage. It grows in ordinary soils, and

makes a good hedge.

110 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The ashes of this tree contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide. 2. we 2°16
Manganese dioxide . . 0-12
Alumina... 2% 0°14
Lime . . . . «~~ 82°04
Magnesia . .~ . . 10°21
Potash. . . . . 15-02
Sodas . = » @ « 8°63
Phosphoricacid. . . . 12°96
Sulphuricacid . . . . 3:00
Chlorine . . . .) . 1:21
Silica 2 2... C451

One ton of the hornbeam extracts 30 lbs. of
mineral matter from the soil.

Horse chestnut (sculus Hippocastanum,
Natural Order, Sapindaces) is a hardy deciduous
flowering tree. It prefers ordinary and light
soils.

The ashes of the wood contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide. . . tt 1°53
Manganese dioxide . .. 0-21
Alumina . 2... 0°56
Lime . 6 ke 20-00
Magnesia . . . ... 16-01
Potash. . . . 23°00
Soda. . 2. .) . C1461
Phosphoricacid. . . . 8°65
Sulphuricacid . 2... 1:20
Chlorine . . . . 0°81
Silica . 2. ww. 842

One ton of A’sculus extracts 25 Ibs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 111

Hovea (Hovea, Natural Order, Leguminosz) is
a greenhouse flowering shrub with evergreen leaves.
It bears blue flowers, and thrives well in a compost
of peat, loam and sand. It requires well-drained
pots in light airy greenhouse.

The ashes of the entire plant contain in 100
parts :—

Tron oxide. . . 4°62
Manganese dioxide . : 0°81
Alumina . . . 0°56
Hime . « = « % 31:00
Magnesia . ©. «tt. 8:24
Potash. . . . . . 10°53
Soda . a ee ee 4°52
Phosphoricacid. . . . 12°63
Sulphuricacid . . .. 2°48
Chlorine . . . . . 1-03
Silica . 2... 88°58

One ton of Hovea extracts 16°5 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

Hypericum (Hypericum. androsemum, St.
John’s-Wort, Rose of Sharon, Natural Order,
Hypericacee) is a hardy tree. It grows in
ordinary and sandy soils.

The ashes of the wood contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide. . . . 4°36
Manganese dioxide . . . 0°10
Alumina . . . 0°23
Lime . . . . . ~~) 27°09
Magnesia . . . 10-02

Potash. . . . . . 15°54

112 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

SOda Go ode. OS 5°63
Phosphoric acid . - 711
Sulphuric acid i 2°50
Chlorine .. s 1:06
Silica . 2. . . 25°96

One ton of Hypericum extracts 19°8 Ibs. of
mineral matter from the soil.

Idesia (Idesia, Natural Order, Bixinaceze) is
a hardy ornamental foliage and flowering tree,
the leaves of which are deciduous, and the tree is
dicecious (7.e., there are trees bearing male flowers,
and trees with female flowers—the flowers of the
former are orange and those of the latter are
green). The flowers in panicles produce purple-
black berries. Idesia prefers a sandy soil.

The ashes of the wood contain in 100 parts :—

Ironoxide. 2. . . 1:65
Manganese dioxide : 0°53
Aluming . . . 0°62
Lime . . . . . 8261
Magnesia . .. ‘ 5°39
Potash. . . . 21°26
Soda . ... : 4:96
Phosphoric acid. . 10°24
Sulphuricacid . 2... 2-01
Chlorine . . . .. 1:65
Silica 2... 19°08

One ton of Idesia extracts 18°5 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.
Ilex (Ilex aquifolium, Holly, Natural Order,

Ilicinaceze) is a hardy evergreen tree. It grows in

a

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 113

ordinary soils, and is suitable for hedge culture.
The berries are bright red, which give the garden
or landscape a gay appearance at a time when
there is little of brilliancy left in the vegetable
world. In the words of the poet Southey :—

‘¢ Summer trees are pretty—very,
And I love them all;
But this Horty’s glistening berry
None of them excel.
While the fir can warm the landscape,
And the ivy clothes the wall,
There are sunny days in winter

After all!”
The ashes of the wood and leaves contain in

100 parts :— :

Wood. Leaves.
Tron oxide . . .. . 2°59 3°86
Manganese dioxide. . 0°36 0-21
Alumina. . . ... 0-41 0:25
Lime, . . . . . 15°61 12°32
Magnesia B Age oe. OB 15°42 10°55
Potash . . . . . 16°39 25-00
Soda a ee re 12°13 10°99
Phosphoricacid . . . 11°41 14:50
Sulphuricacid . . . 2°00 2°21
Chlorine. . . . . 1:99 0°65
Silica 2. 2. . 21°69 19°96

One ton of holly extracts 23°5 Ibs.
matter from the soil.

of mineral

114 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The holly is an extremely popular Christmas
evergreen, and commands a ready market through-
out the year, being used for making hedges to
surround gardens and estates. At Christmas-time
the holly springs into special prominence, and
thousands of pounds’ worth of this red-berried
and silky-leafed tree are sent to the market to
decorate British homes, and altogether ove
£20,000 is spent by Britons on evergreens for
Yuletide, of which nearly two-thirds is paid for
holly.

Holly comes from all parts of England and from
Holland and Germany; and in addition to the
green holly, there are the gold and silver coloured
varieties which are much used for decorations in
churches and for artistic designs for the house.

It may be mentioned, en passant, that the
Ilex paraguayensis is the Paraguay tea shrub
(Maté) ; its leaves contain from 10 to 16 per cent.
of tannic acid, and from } to 14 per cent. of
caffeine (theine): and Ilex verticillata is the
winter-berry or fever-bush of the United States of
America.

Mlicium (Illicium Anisatum, star anise tree,
Natural Order, Magnoliacee) is a greenhouse
flowering shrub, with evergreen leaves. Its habitat
is Japan and China, and was introduced into this

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 115

country in 1854.

It thrives well in a compost of

eyual parts of peat and sandy loam.
The ashes of the wood contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide . 2°56
Manganese dioxide. 0-48
Alumina 0-73
Lime 45°11
Magnesia 8°63
Potash . 14:20
Soda 3 6-70
Phosphoric acid . 5°55
Sulphuric acid . 1:50
Chlorine 0°68
Silica. 13°86

One ton of Illicium extracts 19°5 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The star anise fruit contains 2 to 3 per cent. of
volatile oil, 3 per cent. of fat, and 10 per cent. of
resin ; and the seeds contain 1°75 per cent. of volatile
oil, 20 per cent. of fixed oil and some resin. The
fruit, on distillation, yields the oil of aniseed—the
chief constituent of which is anethol. The leaves
of Illicium also contain a volatile oil to the extent
of 0°75 per cent.

India-Rubber Tree (Ficus elastica, Natural
Order, Urticaceze) is a greenhouse and dwelling-
room evergreen shrub, cultivated for its ornamental
foliage. It requires for proper growth 3 parts of
loam, 1 part of peat and 1 part of silver sand, and
pays well when properly attended to—e.g., sponging

1 2

116 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

the leaves once a week, watering once or twice a
week, and growing the shrub in a position free
from draughts.

The ashes of the wood and leaves of Ficus
contain in 100 parts :—

Wood. Leaves.!
Iron oxide kee 1:99 5°12
Manganese dioxide ‘ 0°62 0°54
Alumina. . . .) 0-01 0-02
Lime . . . . . 22°04 21°11
Magnesia a Wh eke 3 8°63 7°39
Potash . . . 24°05 29°55
Soda a 22°61 20°14
Phosphoric acid. 5°24 501
Sulphuricacid . . . 4°36 2°60
Chlorine. . . .. 0°45 0°61
Silica 2... 10:00 791

One ton of Ficus extracts 46 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The Malayan india-rubber is derived from the
“milk” or latex of Ficus elastica and other
species; the American, African and Australian
rubbers are derived from various species of Hevea,
etc.—trees chiefly belonging to the natural order
Euphorbiacez.

Itea (Itea, Natural Order, Saxifragaces) is a
hardy deciduous flowering shrub with ornamental
foliage leaves. It prefers a peaty soil, and grows

1 A.B. Griffiths, Journal of the Chemical Society, 1887, p. 221.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 117

well in moist sheltered shrubberies.

flowers from July to October.
The ashes of the wood of the Virginian Willow

contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide .

Manganese dioxide

Alumina

Lime

Magnesia
Potash .

Soda .
Phosphoric nina
Sulphuric acid
Chlorine

Silica

It bears white

2°65
0°83
0-42
10°50
6°55

Ivy (Hedera helix, Natural Order, Araliaceze) is
a hardy evergreen climbing shrub with ornamental

foliage leaves.

It grows in ordinary soils, but pays

for proper cultivation—pruning, manuring, etc.
The ashes of the ivy contain in 100 parts :—

Wood. Leaves.
Tron oxide. 2°46 4°65
Manganese dioxide 0°54 0°62
Alumina . 0°12 0-10
Lime 24°61 22°35
Magnesia 8-00 751
Potash 25°53 28°24
Soda 20-08 16°23
Phosphoric acid 5°61 7°05
Sulphuric acid 1-03 0°92
Chlorine . 0°64 0-58
Silica 11°38 11°75

118 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

One ton of ivy extracts 25 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The ivy is looked upon as the emblem of friend-
ship, because of the closeness of its adherence to
the tree or wall on which it has once fixed itself;
and the priests of ancient Greece presented a
wreath of ivy to newly-married persons, as a
symbol of the closeness of the marriage tie.

Ixora (Ixora coccinea, West Indian Jasmine,
Natural Order, Rubiacez) is a stove flowering
shrub with evergreen leaves. It was introduced
into England in 1690, and grows well in a com-
post’ of 2 parts of fibrous peat, 1 part of fibrous
loam and 1 part of silver sand. It is the king of
stove plants.

The ashes of Ixora contain in 100 parts :—

Ironoxide. . . . . 1:96
Manganese dioxide . . 0°21
Alumina... ce ds 0°36
Lime . . . . 26-00
Magnesia a! «am Je! Je 6°52
Potash. . . . 82°41
Soda . . «te 15°33
Phosphoricacid. . . 6°24
Sulphuricacid . 2... 1:98
Chlorine . . . .) 0°55
Silica 2 2... 8°34

1 Homer in that part of ‘‘ Odyssey” where he represents Laértes
as diverting his melancholy for the absence of Ulysses by cultivat-
ing his little farm, particularly mentions the circumstance of his
manuring it with compost.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES

119

Jacaranda.—(Jacaranda folia, ebony-tree,
Natural Order, Bignoniacez) is a stove evergreen
tree bearing panicles of blue and purple flowers,

and ornamental foliage leaves.

The ashes of Jacaranda contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide .
Manganese dioxide
Alumina

Lime

Magnesia

Potash .

Soda ‘
Phosphoric acid .
Sulphuric acid
Chlorine

Silica

Jessamine.—(Jasminum

nudiflorum,

1°46
0°52
0°41
40°23
10°14
25°09
2°62
8:00
1°68
1°21
8°64

and

other species, Natural Order, Oleacez) is a hardy

climbing tree. It grows in rich ordinary soils, and

is greatly improved by cultivation and manuring.
The ashes of Jasminum contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide. . ll.
Manganese dioxide .
Alumina

Lime

Magnesia

Potash .

Soda 2.6
Phosphoric acid .
Sulphuric acid
Chlorine :
Silica . .

2°14
0°36
0°51
24°49
9°61
30°52
4°64
6°55
2°10
0-92
18-16

120 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Various species of jessamines are flowering trees,
and greatly add to the beauty of a garden—not
only by means of their flowers but by their leaves
and green twigs. They require manuring, pruning,
syringing and cultivation. On this subject Mr.
Ruskin goes so far as to say that “flowers only
flourish rightly in the garden of someone who loves
them,” by cultivating them, manuring them, and
attending to them in a rational manner.

Juniperus.—(Juniperus communis, Natural
Order, Coniferse) is an evergreen coniferous tree.

It prefers calcareous soils, and forms an excellent
screen tree.
The ashes of juniper and sabine contain in 100

parts :—

Juniper. Sabine.
Iron oxide . . . . 2°01 1:23
Manganese dioxide... 0°05 0:04
Alumina. . . . 0°46 0°32
Lime... am 6s 48-00 76°52
Magnesia ey 8 : 12°36 3°00
Potash t % we OF 4°52 3°42
Soda Wayetee o- uo 1:25 3:00
Phosphoricacid . . 8-99 3°52
Sulphuricacid . . 1:39 2-01
Chlorine. . . .). 1:22 1:02
Silica 2. 2... 19°75 592

One ton of juniper extracts 23°41bs. of mineral
matter from the soil,

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 121

The composition of the juniper “ berries” ' is the
following :—

Moisture. 4 3 , 32°58
Volatile oil . ‘ 4 i 1°65
Formic acid : . 1°84
Malic acid . ; : . 0°36
Acetic acid . Z : : 1:00
Wax . 4 0°53
Resin. .. ok 9°85
Pectin . . : 0:92
Sugar : - 28°54
Cellulose. : ‘ 15:99
Juniperin oe wg 0°42
Albuminoids . . : 4:50
Ash 3 : oe) iG 2°42

A volatile (essential) oil is distilled from the
full-grown unripe green “ fruit” of Juniperus com-
munis. Itis used in the preparation of spiritus
juniperi and mistura creosoti of The British
Pharmacopaia, and also as a constituent of gin
and gin essences. Another essential oil is distilled
from the leaves of Juniperus sabine ; the leaves
(“tops”) of Juniperus virginiana (red cedar) also
yield an essential oil on distillation.

The oil of cade or juniper tar oil is an empyreu-
matic oily liquid obtained by the destructive distil-
lation of the wood of Juniperus oxycedrus.

The junipers are dicecious trees.

1 The pseudo-fruit of the juniper is not a berry but a galbulus—
a modification of-the strobilus (cone) with enlarged fleshy scales.

122 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Kadsura.—(Kadsura, Natural Order, Magno-
liaceze) is a half-hardy trailing flowering shrub with
evergreen leaves. The flowers are white, which
are succeeded by red berries, and the leaves are
variegated. It grows in peaty soils.

The ashes of this shrub contain in 100 parts :-—

Tron oxide . F F : 2°96
Manganese dioxide . 0-10
Alumina . x , - 0°15
Lime . ae i i 6°82
Magnesia . . . ., 4°56
Potash . : ‘ , ‘ ‘ 25°36
Soda . be. ae GD ok 12°35
Lithium 3 * ; ‘ trace
Phosphoricacid, . . 12°64
Sulphuricacid . . ; 8°25
Chlorine... é . 1-68
Silica. ; : - ‘ . 26°13

Kadsura is a native of Japan, and was introduced
into this country in 1846.

Kalmia.—(Kalmia latifolia, and other species,
Natural Order, Ericaces) is a hardy evergreen
flowering shrub. It grows in sandy peat and
leaf-mould.

The ashes of Kalmia contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide . 5 5 : a 4°62
Manganese dioxide . . 0°31
Alumina... : 0°64
Lime. . . . 10°52

Magnesia . . . li, 8:21

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES

123
Potash . 26°37
Soda . . 752
Phosphoric acid . 8°96
Sulphuric acid 4°32
Chlorine 1:05
Silica 27°48

Kalmia is a pretty free-flowering shrub.

Kentia (Kentia Belmorsana, Natural Order,
Palmacez) is a greenhouse palm, the leaves of
which are feather-shaped and graceful. It grows
well in a compost of loam, peat and silver sand;
and is useful for dwelling-rooms during the
summer.

The ashes of Kentia contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide. . . . 3°52
Manganese dioxide . .. 0:26
Alumina 2 : . 5 0°54
Lime . : . : Z 16°55
Magnesia ~ 2. + . 10°36
Potash. . . . . . 31:96
Soda. . © «#® & « 9°24
Phosphoricacid. . . . 9°89
Sulphuricacid . . . 5°36
Chlorine . . . . . 2°04
Silica a ee ee 10°28

Kentiopsis (Kentiopsis, Natural Order, Pal-
maces) is a stove palm, and was introduced into
this country from New Caledonia in 1876. The
leaves are feather-shaped. It grows in a compost
of loam, peat and silver sand.

124 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The ashes of this palm contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide... : : 4:00
Manganese dioxide . .. 0°10
Alumina... : 0°42
Lime . . . ee: 15°56
Magnesia . .. : 11°61
Potash. . . . 28°96
Soda . . . . & <u 8°42
Phosphoric acid. . ‘ 10°00
Sulphuricacid . . . 511
Chlorine . . . . . 1:86
Silica 2. 2. wee, 13-96

Kerria (Kerria japonica, Kerria aureus
vittata, Natural Order, Rosacese) is a hardy
deciduous flowering shrub. It grows in ordinary
soils. The flowers are orange yellow and single
and double: the leaves are green or variegated
with creamy white.

The ashes of this shrub contain in 100 parts :—

Tronoxide . . we 2°59
Manganese dioxide . . 0°62
Alumina . . 0-48
Lime . . . . 21:00
Magnesia . «wet 6°52
Potash. . 2... 20°23
Soda . . .) : 8°87
Phosphoric acid. : 6°31
Sulphuricacid . 2... 4°62
Chlorine. Ss Ge: oa 1:04
Silica 2. 2. 1 wa

The green twigs of Kerria japonica and the
yellow bark of Kerria aureus vittata contrast well
with other trees in a garden.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 125
Labichea (Labichea, Natural Order, Legumin-

ose) is a greenhouse flowering shrub. It grows in
a compost of equal parts of loam, peat and silver
sand.

The ashes of this shrub contain in 100 parts :—

Tronoxide . 2. ww 3°21
Manganese dioxide . , 0°65
Alumina. . . 0°68
lime . . . . .) . 28°78
Magnesia . «wt, 3°64
Potash. .. - . 25°00
Doda se. ey. ee 9°65
Phosphoricacid. . . . 10°51
Sulphuricacid . . . . 8-03
Chlorine . . . . 1-46
Silica . 2... 1889

Laburnum (Laburnum vulgare, or Cytisus
Laburnum, Natural Order, Leguminosz) is a hardy
deciduous flowering tree. It grows in ordinary
soils.

The ashes of the laburnum contain in 100
parts :—

Iron oxide . . ll. ‘i 2°96
Manganese dioxide . é 0°54
Alumina... ‘ ‘ 0-42
Lime . . . . . ~~ 29°63
Magnesia . . . . 2°21
Potash. . . . . . 15°96
Sod@. g.- ae eO 4°56
Phosphoricacid. . . . 123
Sulphuricacid . . ... 3°86
Chlorine... : 1:04

Silica ; 26°09

126 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

One ton of the laburnum extracts 26 lbs. of
mineral matter from the soil.

Laburnums grow rapidly in very rich and moist
soils.

Cytisine (C,,H,,N,0) is a poisonous alkaloid, pre-
sent in the laburnum and other leguminous plants.

Larch (Larix ewropea, Natural Order, Coni-
feree) is a hardy deciduous tree, with ornamental
foliage. It prefers sandy soils, is largely grown in
Britain, and extensive forests of larch trees occur in
Austria.

The ashes of the larch contain in 100 parts :

Iron oxide... ! 4:21
Manganese dioxide . . 10°32
Alumina... Be aes 0:59
Lime . . . . . 25°63
Magnesia . | lt : 8:23
Potash . : 20°16
Soda .. ‘ : 9:05
Phosphoric acid . : 7°76
Sulphuricacid . .. 3°24
Chlorine : 0-26
Silica rn ae ne 10°55

One ton of larch extracts 31 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

Larch bark is used in medicine; the outer
surface is of a characteristic rosy colour, and an
oleo-resin, known as Venice turpentine, is obtained
from the stem of the living tree. The stem is

COMPOSITICN OF VARIOUS TREES 127

bored in the spring, and the oleo-resin exudes from
the interior or heartwood.

Larch wood is largely used for railway sleepers.

Laurel (Laurus nobilis, bay laurel, Natural
Order, Lauraceee) is a hardy evergreen tree.
The male and female flowers are on separate trees.
It grows in ordinary soils.

The ashes of the laurel tree contain in 100
parts :—

Tron oxide . . 3°65
Manganese dioxide . . . 0-24
Alumino . . . 0°36
lime . . . . 1496
Magnesia . . . . 6°53
Potash. . 2...) . (25°77
Soda... ee 8:99
Phosphoricacid. . . . 8-02
Sulphuricacid . . .. 4°61
Chlorine. bo 2 0°35
Silica 2... ww 2672

One ton of laurel extracts 25 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The leaves of Laurus nobilis yield a yellow
volatile oil on distillation, and the so-called bay
berries (drupes) contain a volatile oil, a fixed oil,
and resin. The fixed oil or “laurel butter” is
present in the berries to the extent of 20 to 26
per cent., and is obtained by steeping the berries
in hot water, and then applying pressure.

The camphor tree belongs to the same order.

128 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The cherry-laurel (Prunus Laurocerasus, Natural
Order, Rosacez) is a hardy evergreen tree, which
grows in ordinary soils. The leaves contain lauro-
cerasin, and on distillation with water yield a
volatile oil (benzoic aldehyde) and prussic acid.’
The official preparation of the leaves is the cherry-
laurel water of the B.P.

Laurustinus (Viburnum Tinus, Natural
Order, Caprifoliacese) is a hardy evergreen flower-
ing tree. It prefers a deep sandy loam, and grows
well in warm sheltered shrubberies, borders, etc.

The ashes of Laurustinus contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide . .. : 1°45
Manganese dioxide . .. 0°42
Alumina eo 0°59
Lime . o #8 S 20-00
Magnesia . . ll. ‘ 11°21
Potash. . . . . . 23°52
Soda . . .) ay 0h 12°55
Phosphoricacid. . ©. 3°82
Sulphuricacid . . ... 0°52
Chlorine . .. , 0°36
Silica 2. a 25°26

One ton of Laurustinus extracts 29 lbs. of
mineral matter from the soil.

Lebanon Cedar (Cedrus Libani, Natural
Order, Coniferae) is a hardy evergreen tree, the

' For those interested in the microscopical structure of this and
other medicinal leaves, etc., mentioned, see Atlas de Photomicro-
graphie des Plantes Médicinules, par Breemer et Suis.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 129

wood of which was used in ancient times as
incense. The oldest cedar in England is at
Brethby Park, Derbyshire, and was planted in
1676. Cedrus does not produce cones until the
tree is from 40 to 100 years old. The tree prefers
a rich, deep sandy soil.

The ashes of Cedrus contain in 100 parts :—

Ironoxide . . . . . 1:00
Manganese dioxide .. 0-26
Alumina . .- . ... 0°52
lime . . . . . . 44°21
Magnesia. a. ¥ 6:00
Potash. . . . 4°24
Soda . Soe Ga 3°61
Phosphoric acid . th. 68 10°62
Sulphuricacid . . . 4-06
Chlorine . . . .) , 1:20
Silica ne ts-)

One ton of Cedrus extracts 26 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The seed of the cedars takes two years to ripen.
Cedar wood is used for pencils, cigar boxes,
boat-building, cabinet-making, etc. Cedar wood is
peculiarly adapted for the packing of cigars, as it
preserves their flavour without imparting to them
any of its own.

Ledum (Ledum palustre, Natural Order,
Ericacez) is a hardy flowering shrub. It prefers
a soil of peat, mould, and sand.

K

130 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The ashes of Ledum contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide. . eee 3°65
Manganesedioxide . . . 0:03
Alumina . . . . . 0°10
Gime. «6 wwe 20°03
Magnesia . . . . 7°55
Potash. . . . . 8°64
Soda . . - « . | 8:93
Phosphoricacid. . . 4:00
Sulphuricacid . . .. 12°05
Chlorine . . . . . 1°65
Silica 2... 8842

The leaves of Ledum contain tannic acid, a
volatile oil, ledum camphor (C,;H,,O), resin, ete.
The leaves have been used in dysentery and the
treatment of certain skin diseases.

Leonotis (Leonotis, Natural Order, Labiatee)
is a greenhouse shrub with evergreen leaves and
scarlet flowers. It grows well in a compost of rich
loam, mould, charcoal, and silver sand.

The ashes of Leonotis contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide . . . 2°56
Manganese dioxide . . 0°36
Alumina. . wt 0°52
Lime . . . . .. 20°56
Magnesia . . . . . = =10°36
Potash, . 2...) 25°27
Soda . . . . 8-43
Phosphoricacid. . . . 5°59
Sulphuricacid . 2... 1:25
Chlorine . . . 0°86

Silica 2. fw gg 484

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 131

Leucothoé (Leucothoé, Natural Order, Ericacez)
is a hardy evergreen shrub with white flowers. It
grows well in equal parts of leaf-mould, peat, and
silver sand.

The ashes of this shrub contain in 100 parts :—

Tronoxide. . . . . 2°06
Manganese dioxide . . . 0°41
Alumina . . . . . 0°53
Time . 2. . «224
Magnesia . . . . . 12°52
Potash. . . . . . 20°96
Soda . . . . . 8-77
Phosphoricacid. . . . 7°52
Sulphuricacid .. ; 3°26
Chlorine . . . . 1:00
Silica ee Oe oe oe TS

Leycesteria (Leycesteria formosa, Himalayan
honeysuckle, flowering nutmeg, Natural Order,
Caprifoliacee) is a hardy shrub with deciduous
leaves, and white or purple flowers—succeeded by
purple berries. It grows in ordinary soils.

The ashes of this shrub contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide. . 2... 4°14
Manganese dioxide . .. 0°62
Alumingd . . . . . 0°53
Lime . . . . «28°84
Magnesia . . . . . 10°25
Potash. . . . . . 15°55
DOGG: jn: gp te SE 6°54
Phosphoricacid. . . . 8°32
Sulphuricacid . . .. 4°06
Chlorine . . . . . 1°25
Silica . 2. 2. se ) 20°40

K 2

132, MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Libocedrus (Libocedrus, Natural Order, Coni-
feree) is a hardy evergreen tree, with ornamental
foliage. It prefers a rich loam with a gravelly
subsoil.

The ashes of this tree contain in 100 parts :-—

Iron oxide. . . . . 3°62
Manganese dioxide . . . 0°33
Alumina . . 1. 0°46
Lime . . . . . . =©30°52
Magnesia . . . .) .) 12°81
Potash. . . . «. . 16°42
Soda . 2» 8% # * « 7°83
Phosphoricacid. . . . 12°41
Sulphuricacid . ©... 3°22
Chlorine . . . . . 1:00
Silica . 2... 188

Ligustrum (lngustrum vulgare, Privet,
Natural Order, Oleacee) is a hardy evergreen
shrub employed in gardens for making hedges,
and as an undergrowth in shrubberies. It grows
in ordinary soil.

The ashes of the Privet contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide. 2. 2... 4°26
Manganese dioxide . . , 0°42
Aluming . 2... 0°56
lime . ©. . . 2363
Magnesia rae ©2013)
Potash. . 2. 2. . . = 15°62
Soda. . . . 8°36
Phosphoricacid. . . , 6°31
Sulphuricacid . 2... 3°22
Chlorine es 1:54

Silica ; ; 23°53

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 133

One ton of Ligustrum extracts 25°53 lbs. of
mineral matter from the soil.

Lilac (Syringa vulgaris, Natural Order,
Oleaceze) is a hardy deciduous tree with white or
violet flowers. It grows in good ordinary soils,
and prefers sunny borders or shrubberies.

The ashes of the Lilac contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide . . . . 3°92
Manganese dioxide . . . 0°41
Aluming . . . 0°63
Lime . 2. . . 25 5B
Magnesia . . . wl 12-00
Potash. . . . . . 16°02
Soda . . . we 7°65
Phosphoricacid. . . . 7°00
Sulphuricacid . . . 2°52
Chlorine . 3 , F i 1:03
Silica . . . . eS 2880

One ton of the lilac extracts 28 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

Lime (Tilia europea, Natural Order, Tiliacez)
is a hardy deciduous tree. It grows in good
ordinary or loamy soils. The linden, or limetree,
found in most parts of Europe, bears greenish
flowers, which are sweet-scented.

The ashes of Tilia contain in 100 parts :—

Tronoxide. . . .) 2°56
Manganese dioxide . .. 0-10
Alumina . . . ..). 0°26

Lime . . . . Ss 26°11

134 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Magnesia . . . . 11°24
Potash. . 2% i. 4 12°52
Soda . . .. . ‘ 8°31
Phosphoric acid. . : 7°52
Sulphuric acid $) 1:24
Chlorine . . . . . 0°65
Silica ¢ 8» «© © «© % 29°44

One ton of Tilia extracts 38 Ibs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The light-green leaves of the Linden are a
pleasing contrast to the darker foliage of other
trees.

Tilia argentea has silvery leaves, and Tilia
rubra has a red bark.

Lindera (Iindera, Natural Order, Lauracez)
is a hardy deciduous tree, bearing yellow flowers,
which appear before the leaves. It grows in
ordinary soils, and prefers sunny shrubberies or
borders.

The ashes of this tree contain in 100 parts :—

Tronoxide . . . 3°86
Manganese dioxide . .. 0°20
Aluming . . . 0:24
Lime. 5: ge we 15:00
Magnesia . 2... 6°52
Potash. . . . .) 26-03
Soda . . . . 9°21
Phosphoricacid. . . . 8°45
Sulphuricacid . et 4°24
Chlorine . .. e. oS 0°41

Silica. 2. 1. 584

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 135

Liquidambar (Inquidambar _ styraciflua,
Natural Order, Altingiaceze) is a hardy deciduous
tree with ornamental foliage. It was introduced
into this country from Americain 1681. It prefers
a deep moist loamy soil.

The ashes of this tree contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide. 2... 2°48
Manganese dioxide . .. 0:05
Alumina . 2... 0°21
Lime . 2. . wl) 8246
Magnesia... . . 10°21
Potash. . . . . 0 11°45
10 rc a 3:06
Phosphoricacid. . . . 777
Sulphuricacid . . : 1°24
Chlorine . . . ... 0°63
Silica 2. www 8044

Sweet gum is produced from Liquidambar, and
resembles storax.

Liriodendron (Liriodendrontulipifera, Natural
Order, Magnoliacesze) is a hardy deciduous tree.
with large yellowish-green flowers and bright green
leaves. It prefers a sandy loam.

’ The ashes of the “tulip tree,” or “saddle tree,”
contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide. . . .) 3°65
Manganese dioxide . .. 0°62
Alumina . . ...) 0°64
Lime . . . . . . 25°53
Magnesia . . . . 10°44

Potash . . ‘ g ‘ 12°63

136 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Soda. 3 4 8 4 8-21
Phosphoricacid. . . . 8°88
Sulphuricacid . . . 1°24
Chlorine . . . . . 0°31
Silica 2... B85

The bark of the “tulip tree” contains a sub-
stance called liriodendrin.

Locust Tree (Robinia pseudacacia), false
acacia, Natural Order, Leguminose) is a hardy
deciduous flowering tree with light green leaves.
It grows in ordinary soils. The ashes of Robinia
contain in 100 parts :—

Tronoxide. . 2... 2:10
Manganese dioxide . ... 0-02
Aluming . 2... 0°31
Lime. . . . . 26°24
Magnesia . . . 12°55
Potash. . . . .). 20°32
Soda . . . . . 10°18
Phosphoric acid. . ; 8°63
Sulphuric acid .. 3 1°42
Chlorine. a So ue: 0-77
Silica 2... ke . 9B

The tree was introduced into this country from
North America in 1640.

Robinia pseudacacia umbraculifera, or globe
acacia tree, grows in Germany, England, and other
countries. This variety has the habit of producing
only short shoots which hang down, and in the
mass form a round head.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 137

Maclura (Maclura, Natural Order, Urticacez)
is a hardy deciduous tree with ornamental foliage

and yellowish-green flowers. It grows in ordinary
soils.

The ashes of this tree contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide... #) 4 2°46
Manganese dioxide . traces
Alumina... : 0-21
Lime... . 21°63
Magnesia .. . . 12°54
Potash. .. j 32°55
Soda... 3 . 10°21
Phosphoricacid. . . . 8-29
Sulphuric acid . ; 1:44
Chlorine , x 0°36
Silica 2. 2... 0°81

Magnolia (Magnoliaacuminata, Natural Order,
Magnoliacez) is an evergreen tree. It grows in a
rich loamy soil, and its position should be sheltered
(e.g., south and south-west walls, and south or
west walls for Magnolia glauca).

The ashes of the Magnolia contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide... fn & 3°42
Manganese dioxide 0°46
Alumina... 5 ‘ 0°53
Lime... . . 26°00
Magnesia : re 11°32
Potash . ; 5 5 14°56
Soda. S. fe. ey 3 6°22
Phosphoricacid. . . . 8°35
Sulphuricacid .. : 1:03
Chlorine. : ‘1 0°25

Silica . 2... 2786

138 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The bark of the Magnolia is used in medicine.
Magnolia tripetala disseminates such a powerful
perfume that, in spite of its sweetness, it produces
nausea and sickness.

Maple (Acer campestre, Natural Order, Sapin-
daceze) is a hardy tree, which prefers a well-drained
loamy soil. The maples have ornamental foliage
—Acer negundo has light green leaves, Acer
pseudoplantanus (sycamore) has purple leaves,
Acer japonicum atropurpureum has reddish-purple
leaves, and Acer negundo variegatum has beautiful
whitish or silver-edged leaves.

The ashes of the Maple contain in 100 parts :—

Ironoxide. . . . 2°39
Manganese dioxide . . 0°43
Aluming . 2... 0°68
Lime . ., ; 28°36
Magnesia . ., 12°55
Potash. 4 «6 = % 4 26°32
Soda. . . . 6-44
Phosphoric acid. 7:07
Sulphuricacid . .. 1:24
Chlorine . . . ... 0-73
Siliea iz, Jal “yo Bo 13-79

One ton of Maple extracts 36 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

Metrosideros (Metrosideros scandens, Natural
Order, Myrtacez) is a greenhouse evergreen climb-
ing shrub bearing flowers. It grows in a compost
of equal parts of peat, loam and silver sand.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 139

The ashes of this climbing shrub contain in 100
parts :—

Iron oxide. . . . 4:21
Manganese dioxide . . 0°86
Alumina. 40 2 a 4 0°52
Hime ga seg . 30°67
Magnesia . m oe Oe 10°55
Potash. . . . . . 20°16
Soda. . . . 10°22
Phosphoricacid. . . . 9-71
Sulphuricacid . . . . 1°24
Chlorine . . . . . 0°31
Silica. e048 . 11°55

Mezereon (Daphne mezereum, Natural Order,
Thymelaceze) is a hardy deciduous shrub with
rose-coloured flowers followed by red or yellow
berries. The flowers appear before the leaves.
Daphne laureola (spurge laurel) is an ever-
green shrub with green flowers followed by bluish-
black berries. Mezereon grows in a compost of
loam, peat and sand, or in a sandy-peat soil.

The ashes of this shrub contain in 100 parts :—

Ironoxide . . . . . 2°99
Manganese dioxide . . 0°93
Aluming . . . 0°46
Lime . . «1, 2822
Magnesia . . . .. 9°63
Potash. . . . . «24°73
Soda -s- @ s: @ ox 11:56
Phosphoricacid. . . . 8°31
Sulphuricacid . . . 1:15
Chlorine . . . . . 0-42

Silica) i od. Ge. 17°60

140 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The dried bark of mezereon contains mezerein
(a resin), daphnin (a glucoside), and sugar. It is
used in medicine and enters into the composition
of the B.P. liquor sarsee compositus concentratus.

Mistletoe (Viscum album, Natural Order,
Loranthacese) is a hardy evergreen parasite with
green flowers followed by whitish berries. It lives
on the apple, hawthorn, lime, poplar, maple, cedar,
mountain ash, larch and oak, and derives its
nourishment from the host on which it lives. It is
now rarely seen on the oak. It may be remarked
that the ancient Druids held it in veneration
when growing on the oak.

‘* Past is the time when, bending low,
Druids revered thee, Mistletoe !”

The ashes of the mistletoe contain in 100
parts :—

Wood. Fruit.
Iron oxide a+ cin eid 1:06 0-12
Manganese dioxide ‘ traces traces
Alumina... NS) ce traces traces
Lime. Rb. os 20°04 8-21
Magnesia i Be 4 10°16 16°33
Potash . . . 42°03 10°56
Soda er ee eee 5:06 11°35
Phosphoricacid . . 18°13 52°33
Sulphuricacid . . 151 0°63
Chlorine. . . . . 0°40 0:10
Silica 2. 1°61 0°37

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 141

These mineral constituents of the ashes are
derived from the sap and tissues of the host-
plant.

The time for inserting the seed into the host-
plant is the month of March.

Perhaps the most popular of all Christmas
decorations is mistletoe, which, to the younger
generation, is the very emblem of gaiety and
innocent mischief.

Very little mistletoe is found in England, and is
propagated chiefly through the agency of birds
wiping their beaks, to which the seeds adhere, on
the barks of trees on which they alight.

Normandy and Brittany are the chief sources of
supply, not only to London, but to all the large
market towns in the British Isles. There is also
an export trade in mistletoe from England to
America, which makes the English dealers by far
the largest customers of France.

The French Agricultural Department does not
look upon the mistletoe’s growth with favour, but
orders its wholesale destruction in any particular
“county,” once every three years, ‘“ counties”
being taken in rotation.

The quantity that is imported into England every
Christmas runs into several thousands of tons, and
Normandy is by far the largest producer.

142 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Monkey Puzzle (Araucaria «imbricata,
Natural Order, Conifer) is a hardy, evergreen
tree. It grows in a deep, rich loam, and is a great
contrast to other trees on account of its curious

shape.
The ashes of the Monkey Puzzle contain in

100 parts :-—
Iron oxide . 4°52
Manganese dioxide 0°63
Alumina 0°50
Lime 16°39
Magnesia 9°32
Potash . 20°00
Soda ; 8°53
Phosphoric acid . 6°51
Sulphuric acid 3°22
Chlorine 7 “ = 0-15
Silica... a) cH 30°23

Monochetum (Monochetum, Natural Order,
Melastomaceze) is a greenhouse, evergreen flower-
ing shrub. It grows in a compost of fibrous peat,
light loam, leaf-mould, and silver-sand.

The ashes of this shrub contain in 100 parts :-—

Tronoxide. . . . 3°10
Manganese dioxide . . 0-05
Alumina . . . 0-09
Lime. ©. 1... 26°88
Magnesia . . . 12°46
Potash. . . . . . 24°60
Soda . . . . 10°51
Phosphoricacid. . . . 8°55
Sulphuricacid . 2... 1:50
Chlorine . . . . . 0°54

Silica... : : i F 12°37

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 143

Mountain Ash (Pyrus aucuparia, Natural
Order, Rosacez) is a hardy, deciduous tree, bearing
white flowers followed by scarlet berries. It grows
in ordinary soils.

The ashes of this tree contain in 100 parts :—

Tronoxide. . . . 1:92
Manganese dioxide . . . _ traces
Aluming .... z 0°65
Lime . . «©... 49°84
Magnesia . «|. 10°55
Potash. . . . . . 18°96
Soda . . . .). 1:21
Phosphoricacid. . . 5°72.
Sulphuric acid a. Oe. 8 1:00
Chlorme . . . . . 0°31
Siliea 2 « » + 10°34

Myrica (Myrica acris, Natural Order,
Myricaceze) is a hardy, evergreen shrub with
highly fragrant leaves. It grows in moist, sandy
peat in open sheltered borders.

The ashes of this shrub contain in 100 parts :—

‘Tronoxide. . . .) 3°42
Manganese dioxide . .. 0:09
Aluming . . . . 0°13
Timé 2 2 = «© = « 21293
Magnesia . . CSCO
Potash. . . . «. . 82°04
Soda . . . . «. . 10°53
Phosphoricacid. . . . 9-66
Sulphuric acid . . . 1:04
Chlorine . ‘ : P a 0°88

Silica. «a ‘¢. # tx Js 9°87

144 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The shrub was introduced into this country in
1699 ; it grows in the West Indies, and its leaves
yield on distillation a volatile oil containing
eugenol, The oil is an ingredient in bay rum.

Myrica cerifera (wax-myrtle) gives rise to the
barberry bark of the Materia Medica, and the fruit
produces the myrtle-wax used in candle-making.

Myrtle (Myrtus communis lusitanica, Natural
Order, Myrtacez) is a greenhouse evergreen shrub,
with beautiful waxy leaves and black berries. It
grows in a compost of sandy loam, leaf-mould and
silver-sand, and is'a suitable window plant.

The ashes of the Myrtle contain in 100
parts :—*

Iron oxide . Be + 2°31
Lime . .. . . 12:37
Magnesia . 2... 8-69
Potash... e tg 36°14
Soda . . .) : 6°23
Phosphoricacid. . . . 21°72
Sulphuricacid . 2... 599
Chlorine a ie ch 2°34
Silica... me we 4:21

Noble Silver Fir (Picea nobilis, Natural
Order, Coniferee) is a hardy evergreen tree, with
ornamental foliage. It grows in a deep rich sandy
loam.

1 A. B. Griffiths, Special Manures for Garden Crops, p. 35.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 145
The ashes of Picea

parts :—

Iron oxide . ‘
Manganese dioxide
Alumina x

_ Lime

Magnesia

Potash .

Soda . ...
Phosphoric acid .
Sulphuric acid
Chlorine

Silica

nobilis contain in 100

202
9:09
3°56
30:09
12°56
12-48
6°31
588
0-99
0°53
15°49

One ton of Picea nobilis extracts 29 \bs. of
mineral matter from the soil.
Norway Spruce (Abies excelsa, Natural

Order, Conifers) is a hardy evergreen tree.

Ai

yields the white deal of commerce, while the Scotch

fir (Pinus sylvestris) yields yellow deal.

a sandy loam.
The ashes of Abies contain in 100 parts :-—

Iron oxide .
Manganese dioxide
Alumina

Lime

Magnesia

Potash .

Soda . ..
Phosphoric acid .
Sulphuric acid
Chlorine

Silica

It prefers

2°46
8°65
2°19
30°83
8°56
10°99
6°53
8-99
1:23
0°56
19°01

146 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

One ton of Abies extracts 27 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

A resinous exudation from the stem of this
tree yields the so-called Burgundy pitch (Pox
Burgundica of the B.P.).

Qak (Quercus Robur, Natural Order, Cupuli-
fere) is a hardy, deciduous tree the wood of
which is more tenacious, durable and elastic than
any other indigenous tree. The oak is the monarch
of our forests, parks and plantations; with its
stately trunk, massive branches and far-spreading
foliage, it universally forms a commanding feature
of the landscape.

“Sing to the Oak, the brave old Oak, who stands in his pride
alone—

And still flourish he, a hale green Tree, when a hundred years
are gone!”

The oak attains a height of from 50 to 150
feet, with a thickness of trunk of from 4 to 8
feet. These are the ordinary dimensions; but
many noble specimens of the oak-tree, some of
them historically celebrated, are found throughout
Great Britain. As already stated the wood of the
oak-tree is most durable, and for more than a
thousand years British ships were built of it.

“King Arthur's Round Table,” in the county-
hall at Winchester, is of oak, and is more than
twelve hundred years old. The Shrine of Edward

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 147

the Confessor in Westminster Abbey is of oak,
and must be eight hundred years old. The oak
roof in Westminster Hall was built in the
reign of Richard IJ.; and numerous other ex-
amples might be cited of the durability of the
timber of Quercus Robur.

The most suitable soils for the oak are clayey,
gravelly, sandy and ironstone or reclaimed boggy
ground.

The ashes of the oak contain in 100 parts :—

Wood. Leaves.

Tronoxide . . . . 2°40 1:03
Manganese dioxide . . 0°10 0°20
Copperoxide. . . . 0-05 —

Alumina. . . . . 0°13 —

Lime 2 8 ® OS 30°02 18-02
Magnesia e Se 1% 12°01 2-00
Potash . a cg dg 14-00 54°63
Soda Ba Be aS Ca Oe 9°12 12-00
Phosphoric acid . . . 13°08 4:07
Sulphuricacid . . . 2°61 3°20
Chlorine. . . . . 1:18 0°81
Silica . . . . 15-30 4:00

One ton of oak extracts 41 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The bark contains tannin, which is used in the
preparation of leather, and the acorn-cups of
Quercus Afgilops also contain tannin. Cork is a

product of Quercus Suber.
L 2

148 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The wood of Quercus contains 0°05 per cent. of
copper,’ which, according to MacDougal,’ was
visible as reddish-brown particles in the tracheides,
vessels and medullary parenchyma. Demargay *
found, by means of the spectroscope, traces of
vanadium, molybdenum, chromium, and zinc in the
ashes of oaks, pines, poplars and vines; and the
author has confirmed this investigation.

Oleander (Nerium oleander, Natural Order,
Apocynaceze) is a greenhouse flowering shrub with
evergreen leaves. It prefers a soil composed of one
‘part each of well-rotted dung, silver-sand and leaf-
mould, and two parts of sandy loam.

The ashes of the oleander contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide . 3°85
Manganese dioxide 1:53
Alumina 4°96
Lime 48°04
Magnesia 8°55
Potash . 15°20
Soda... 762
Phosphoric acid . 3°46
Sulphuric acid 1:95
Chlorine 0°84
Silica 3°00

The leaves of the oleander contain neriin, which

is allied to digitalin.

The flowers are red, crimson,

' A. B. Griffiths, Comptes Rendus de V Académie des Sciences de

Puris, tome 131, p. 422.

? MacDougal, Botanical Gazette, vol. 27, p. 68.
* Demargay, Comptes Rendus, tome 130, p. 91.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 149

rose, pink, purple, yellow, and white, and are either
single or double.

Palm (Chamerops humilis, dwarf fan palm,
Natural Order, Palmaceze) is a greenhouse and
half-hardy tree with fan-shaped leaves. It grows
in a compost of rich loam, leaf-mould and sand.

The ashes of this palm contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide ! ‘cer a 4°68
Manganese dioxide . .. 0:06
Alumina . 2... 0°22
Lime . . ©...) OP
Potash. . . . . . 80°00
Soda . . . . . . 9°14
Phosphoric acid. . : 10°21
Sulphuricacid . . |. 6:00
Chlorine . . . . . 1:55
Magnesia . . . . . 10°16
Silica . 2. 2. . «(10°87

Palms are cultivated for their elegant and
majestic aspect, and they add considerably to the
appearance of a well-kept drawing-room, or garden,
in the warm months of the year.

Passion-Flower (Passiflora cerulea, Natural
Order, Passifloraceze) is a hardy climber. It grows
in good ordinary soil against south or south-west
walls. Passiflora princeps is a lovely stove
climber, with scarlet flowers,

1 A. B, Griffiths. Journal Chemical Society, 1887, p. 222.

150 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The ashes of Passiflora contain in 100 parts :—

Ironoxide . . . . . 3°61
Manganese dioxide . . . 0°83
Alumina MO le. oe og a

Dime wee Oe 8S 36°00
Magnesia . . . .) 10°32
Potash. . . . . 21°98
Oda 6 ee 6°85
Phosphoricacid. . . . 5°20
Sulphuricacid . . .. 1:88
Chlorine . . . .. 1:05
Silica 2. 2. 1. 1228

Pavia (Pavia rubra, Natural Order, Sapin-
dace) is a hardy flowering tree with deciduous
leaves. It grows in ordinary soils, and prefers
shrubberies, woods, lawns, or parks.

The ashes of Pavia contain in 100 parts :—

Tronoxide . . . 2-98
Manganese dioxide . . . 0°63
Alumina . . _
lime . . . . . 82°68
Magnesia . . . . . 1001
Potash. . . . . . 80:00
Soda . . . wl, 5°63
Phosphoricacid. . . . 5°55
Sulphuricacid . . 2, 1:12
Chlorine . . . . . +063
Silica 2. wk, 10°97

Phillyrea (Phillyrea angustifolia, Natural
Order, Oleaceze) is a hardy evergreen shrub, bear-

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 151

ing small, white flowers. Its dark green leaves
are lance-shaped. The shrub grows in ordinary
soils in sunny borders and sheltered corners in the
north of England.

The ashes of Phillyrea contain in 100 parts :—

Tronoxide . 2... 4°61
Manganese dioxide ‘ 0-99
Alumina. . . =

Lime . . .. ‘ 14°66
Magnesia . . . . 9°86
Potash. . . . . . = 29°27
Soda . . . 5 10°52
Phosphoric acid . . . 13°61
Sulphuricacid . . .. 2°50
Chlorine F wy 0:98
Silica . : : 15-00

Pine (Pinus austriaca, Pinus excelsa, Pinus
sylvestris, etc., Natural Order, Conifers) is a hardy
evergreen tree. It grows well in limestone and
sandstone soils.

Abies canadensis (the hemlock spruce) is a
graceful conifer. It and other pines remind us of
Longfellow’s lines :—

‘‘This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the
hemlocks,
Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the
twilight,
Stand like Druids of old, with voices sad and prophetic.”

Pines are picturesque trees and add considerably
to the beauty of a garden. They are valuable

152 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

timber trees—mast-spars are made of the wood
of various species of Pinus; and the gates of
Constantinople were made of the wood of the
cypress, which lasted 1,100 years.

The ashes of Pinus contain in 100 parts :—

Wood. Leaves. Cones.
Iron oxide . . . 4:00 3°24 2-00
Manganese dioxide . 5:06 1:06 0°56
Alumina . . 0°43 0°16 0-12
lime . . . . 25°00 32°60 30°28
Magnesia . .. 6:32 7°82 9°63
Potash... : 26°51 30°59 32-00
Soda . . .) 8°65 7:77 8:00
Phosphoricacid .. 8°88 10°32 12-00
Sulphuricacid . . 4°63 3°65 2°54
Chlorine . . . 0°52 0°43 0°31
Siliea 2. « = «+ 10-00 2°36 2°56

One ton of Pinus extracts 32 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

Pinus sylvestris and other species produce an
oleo-resin (turpentine), which on distillation,
usually by the aid of steam, yields an oil (oil
of turpentine), and resin (colophony) is the residue
left after distillation.

Fir-wool oil is the oil distilled from the leaves of
Pinus sylvestris, or the Scotch fir.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 153

By the mania for tree-planting, which sprang
up in Scotland in the middle of the eighteenth
century, much was done to remedy the arboreal
destruction of more stirring times; and many
species of Pinus were introduced into Scotland
from Russia.

Pistacia (Pistacia Lentiscus or mastich-tree ;
Pistacia vera or Pistachio-nut tree, Natural Order,
Anacardiacez) is a hardy flowering tree with
ornamental foliage. It grows in a deep rich sandy
loam, in sheltered positions in the south and south-
west of England.

The ashes of Pistacia contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide . . .lg 2°56
Manganese dioxide . . 0°54
Timéeg gs ee et Sw RIL
Magnesia. - 10°82
Potash . s 3 é : 23°42
Soda .. - . . 10°55
Phosphoricacid. . . . 10°36
Sulphuric acid . 6 4°45
Chlorine. 0°63
Silica... ol 1s 15°46

The resin (mastich) is obtained by making in-
cisions in the bark of Pistacia Lentiscus, and is
used in dentistry, and for preparing varnishes and
cements.

154 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The cultivation of the pistachio-nut is practised
in the Hast as well as in Sicily and Tunis.

Platanus (Platanus occidentalis, American
plane-tree, Natural Order, Platanacez) is a hardy
tree with deciduous leaves. It prefers a deep rich
moist loam.

The ashes of the plane-tree contain in 100
parts :-—

Iron oxide . 2... 1:99
Manganese dioxide . .. 0°32
Alumina... =
Lime . ©. . «80°78
Magnesia . . . . . 391054
Potash. . . . . . 20°56
Soda . . . . .) 10°55
Phosphoric acid. . . 7°62
Sulphuricacid . ©... 2-00
Chlorine . ... : 0°64
Silica . 2... 1500

One ton of Platanus extracts 27 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The leaves of this tree are light green and form
a beautiful contrast to pines and other evergreens,
and the smooth bark, which is shed in flakes, is
very remarkable.

Poplar (Populus alba and Populus nigra
[the tall pintas” of the poet], Natural Order,
Salicaceze) is a hardy deciduous tree. It grows
in ordinary mozst soils—dry soils are unsuitable.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 155

The ashes of this tree contain in 100 parts :—

Wood Leaves.
Tron oxide. 1:20 2-50
Manganese dioxide 0°23 0°25
Alumina . 0-16 0°10
Lime 16°53 13-20
Magnesia 10°21 8°65
Potash 54°23 58°10
Soda 2°34 2°52
Phosphoric acid 10°21 8°63
Sulphuric acid 1:31 1:28
Chlorine 0-12 0°15
Silica 3°46 4°62

One ton of Populus extracts 26 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

These trees are useful for forming screens in
town or suburban gardens. They grow well in
the suburbs of Manchester, where the soil is a
moist clay.

The wood is used for carving, charcoal, &., and
the bark is used for tanning. The bark of Populus
tremula and other species contains salicin and
populin (benzoyl-salicin).

Red-Flowering Currant (Rzbes sanguineum,
Natural Order, Saxifragaceze) is a hardy flowering
shrub with deciduous leaves. It grows in ordinary
soils, in a sunny position.

156 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The ashes of this species of Ribes contain in
100 parts :—

Tron oxide . : « % 4°52
Lime . . . . ‘ 13°90
Magnesia .. 2 : : 5°52
Potash . Mo Gy che 27°60
Soda . Ya da ay 7:96
Phosphoric acid. . . 19°21
Sulphuricacid . .. 5-06
Chlorine . . . . : 0°41
Silica . 2. 2. eee 15°82

Red Maple (Acer rubrum, Natural Order,
Sapindacez) is a hardy deciduous tree. It prefers
a well-drained loam.

The ashes of the red maple contain in 100
parts :-—

Iron oxide... : 2°56
Manganese dioxide . 0°24
Alumina . . : 0°21
Hime: yok Sy 20°63
Magnesia . . . wt 12:00
Potash. So ke aw. 28°83
Soda . . - ey 8:24
Phosphoricacid. . . . 10°55
Sulphuricacid . 2... 1:36
Chlorine . . . 0°82
Silica . 2. . . 14°56

One ton of the red maple extracts 39 lbs. of
mineral matter from the soil.

The common maple (Acer campestre) has dark
green deciduous leaves; Acer negundo elegan-
tussema aurea has dark green leaves with broad

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 157

margins of deep yellow; Acer negundo variegata
has beautiful silver-edged leaves; and Acer
Californica aurea, perhaps one of the most
beautiful trees of recent introduction, has brilliant
golden foliage, and is a striking feature in any
landscape.

The juice of Acer saccharinum of North
America yields when evaporated maple-sugar.
The juice is obtained by tapping the trees in the
spring, and a well-grown tree yields about four
pounds of sugar every season.

Rhamnus (Rhamnus catharticus, buckthorn,
Natural Order, Rhamnacez) is a hardy deciduous
shrub. It grows in ordinary soils in sunny or
shady shrubberies.

The ashes of the buckthorn contain in 100
parts :—

Tron oxide. . : 2°56
Manganese dioxide . 0°51
Alumina. a As : 0-10
Lime 3 = /@) Gi sw /% 40°56
Magnesia . eB we. -& 10°22
Potash. eS 14°18
Doda a: ve tes ae Se SG 9°86
Phosphoric acid. . . 10°24
Sulphuric acid. a ea 1:00
Chlorine . . . ‘ 0°65
Silica « «© « + ‘ 10°12

One ton of Rhamnus extracts 23 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

158 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The unripe fruits of the buckthorn produce a
yellow dye, and when ripe they yield, with
alum, the pigment—sap-green.

The juice of the fruit has a purgative action,
and is given to dogs, cats and other animals.
Rhamnus Frangula (alder buckthorn) is a
deciduous shrub, the bark of which is used in
medicine as a tonic and laxative.

Rhaphiolepis (Rhaphiolepis indica or
Crategus indica, Natural Order, Rosacez) is a
half-hardy evergreen flowering shrub. It grows in
equal parts of peat, loam and silver sand in well-
drained borders, and in sunny rockeries, or
sheltered borders for the hardy species, ZR.
japonica.

The ashes of this shrub contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide... 1:15
Manganese dioxide . 0-12
Alumina. a O11
Lime . . 39°43
Magnesia... io ia 8°63
Potash. .. : 15°55
OUR ss geo gs: 48h oe a 9°92
Phosphoric acid. . . 10°23
Sulphuric acid . : 1°58
Chlorine . . . 0°83
Siliea . 2. |, ‘ 12°45

Rhododendron (Rhododendron ferrugineum,
Natural Order, Ericacez) is a hardy evergreen

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 159

flowering shrub. It grows in ordinary soils
mixed with peat. Calcareous soils, or those
containing much lime, are detrimental to the
growth of rhododendrons. Sandy peat free from
stagnant moisture suit them best, but they will do
well in sandy loam or even clayey loam, if free
from calcareous matter.

The ashes of this shrub contain in 100
parts > :—

Iron oxide... : 4°69
Lime . r . 4 3°62
Magnesia . . .. 5°10
Potash . ee 4% 29°98
Soda . ee Oe ae. 6:07
Phosphoricacid. . . . 17:98
Sulphuricacid . . .. 8°36
Chlorine. 4 ae % 3°10
Silica 2... . 21°10

The colours of the flowers range from the most
intense crimson to the most delicate shades of rose
and white, the masses of beautiful bloom having
a charming appearance with the dark green
foliage.

Rhus (Rhus coriaria, sumach, Natural Order,
Anacardiacee) is a hardy deciduous tree, with
plumes of ornamental foliage and slender panicles
of flowers. It grows in ordinary soils.

1 A, B. Griffiths, Special Manures for Garden Crops, p. 94.

160 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The ashes of the sumach contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide . . g ‘ 2°06
Manganese dioxide . . . 0-14
Alumina. - : z 0:08
Lime . ... . . 85°56
Magnesia . .. 12°52
Potash . ag os : 19°21
Soda . . . .. 8°86
Phosphoricacid. . . 10-00
Sulphuricacid . .. 1°24
Chlorine . ... : 0°36
Silica . 2... 9:97

One ton of the sumach extracts 29 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The sumach grows extremely well on the boule-
vards of Paris, and in August its panicles of golden
yellow flowers hang like bunches of grapes. The
French attend to their “ street” trees by watering
them daily.

The bark of the sumach, which contains from
8 to 15 per cent. of tannic acid, is used by
tanners.

Rose (Rosa, species many, and many varieties,
Natural Order, Rosacez) is a hardy or half-hardy
deciduous tree. Rose-trees prefer a rich stiff loam,
which should be top-dressed from time to time
with cow-dung.

The ashes of rose-trees contain in 100 parts :—

Tronoxide. . . 3°68
Manganese dioxide ; 0°52

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 161

Alumina 0°16
Lime . 25°00
Magnesia 12-22
Potash . 20°54
Soda. . 10°62
Phosphoric acid. 12-99
Sulphuric acid... 3:06
Chlorine. 3, ne 0-66
Silica. . . 10°55

One ton of roses extracts 22 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The petals of Rosa damascena yield the oil or otto
of rose. Since the earliest periods of the world’s
history the charm and fragrance of the rose has led
to its appreciation and use. In Chinese and Sanskrit
writings the perfume of the rose is much praised,
and fats and oils saturated with it have been used
since the earliest antiquity ; but the perfumes of the
rose and of other flowers were not by any means
provided for the sole enjoyment of mankind.
There were flowers, and very beautiful flowers, too,
in the world long before there were any men;
and the fact was that scent and colour were simply
held out by flowers as an attraction to insects, to
induce a visit from them, and thus make them
unwittingly the carriers of pollen to neighbouring
flowers (cross-fertilisation).’ Flowers, it may be

stated, came into the world long after non-flowering

1 See Darwin’s The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilisation in the
Vegetable Kingdom.

M

162 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

plants, and were really an evolution from the
leaves of the latter, brought about by what the
immortal Darwin laid down in his theory of
“ variation.”

Ruscus (fuscus aculeatus, butcher’s broom,
Natural Order, Liliacee) is a hardy evergreen
shrub. It grows in ordinary soils, in shady or
sunny shrubberies or borders. It is the only
monocotyledonous shrub.

The ashes of Ruscus contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide... 3°24
Manganese dioxide 0°52
Alumina... 0-12
Lime... 24°86
Magnesia 12°56
Potash . ; 20°92
Soda. 8-63
Phosphoric acid . 9°99
Sulphuric acid. 3°62
Chlorine ? hi 1:01
Silica. : 14°53

Ruscus bears flat spinose branches (phyllo-
clades), which would be taken for leaves were they
not axillary productions springing from the axils
of minute scaly leaves. The diclinous flowers of
the shrub are also borne in the axils of the leaves,

Salix (Sala alba, willow, Natural Order,
Salicineze) is a hardy deciduous tree. It grows in
ordinary heavy or moderately heavy soils—light
soils are unsuitable.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 163

The ashes of Salix contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide... 1:25
Manganese dioxide : 0-18
Alumina 0-05
Lime . mows 20°21
Magnesia... 8°26
Potash . 49°81
Soda. . ... 2°50
Phosphoricacid. . . 10°00
Sulphuric acid 1:22
Chlorine. 0:08
Silica . 4:44

One ton of Salix extracts 32 lbs. of mineral
matter from the soil.

The white, purple, and yellow barks of certain
species of willow form an effective contrast to the
sombre coloured barks of other trees (e.g., Salia
aurea has a yellow bark, and Salix purpurea has
a red bark).

The twigs of several species of willow are used
in basket making, and the wood of Salix caprea
is chiefly converted into charcoal.

The bark of Salix alba and other species contain
salicin, tannic acid, and colouring matter.

Sciadopitys (Sciadopitys verticillata, um-
brella pine, Natural Order, Coniferae) is a hardy
évergreen tree bearing long tapering leaves.
It grows in rich moist loamy soils in sheltered

positions.
M 2

164 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

The ashes of the umbrella pine contain in 100
parts :—

Iron oxide. .. 2°55
Manganese dioxide F 5°63
Alumina... : 1-11
Lime . i . 44°51
Magnesia . 9°61
Potash . ‘ 20-00
Soda .. 5°59
Phosphoric acid . ; 9-00
Sulphuric acid 1°55
Chlorine. 0-44
Silica... 20°01

Sequoia (Sequoia gigantea, Wellingtoma
gigantea or mammoth tree, Natural Order, Coniferze)
is a hardy evergreen tree. It grows in sandy loam
or reclaimed bog, and is remarkable for its
enormous size, and for the great age which it
attains.

The ashes of this tree contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide . me Ai 6S 2°65
Copper oxide. traces
Manganese dioxide 6°32
Alumina : : 1°52
Lime . F 18°69
Magnesia . ; 10-04
Potash . : : 15°42
Soda . .. : 8:32
Phosphoric acid. . 8°54
Sulphuric acid : 1:96
Chlorine . ... : 0°88
Silica. . 25°66

Shepherdia (Shepherdia argenta, beef-suet
‘tree, Natural Order, Eleagnacese) is a hardy

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 165

deciduous shrub, bearing silvery leaves and scarlet

berries. It grows in ordinary soils.
The ashes of this shrub contain in 100
parts :—
Tron oxide . 1-77
Manganese dioxide 0°25
Alumina 0-11
Lime 25°49
Magnesia 8°72
Potash . 14°63
Soda . ‘ 10:02
Phosphoric acid . 11:26
Sulphuric acid 2°05
Chlorine 0°86
Silica 24°84
Southernwood (Artemisia' absynthium,
wormwood, “old man,” Natural Order, Composite)
‘ \isa hardy shrub with fragrant foliage. It grows
in ordinary soils.
The ashes of this shrub contain in 100
parts ?:—
Iron oxide 2°61
Lime 6°51
Magnesia 10°77
Potash . 4:06
Soda . ... 10°82
Phosphoric acid . 6°32
Sulphuric acid 7:90
Chlorine 1-01
Silica 50°00

1 Named after Artemis—the Diana of the Greeks.

2 A, B. Griffiths, Special Manures for Garden Crops, p. 95.

166 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Spirea (Spiraea ulmaria, meadow-sweet,
Natural Order, Rosacew) is a hardy deciduous
shrub. It grows in ordinary rich soils.

The ashes of Spireea contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide . ; 2°51
Lime .. ‘ 25°02
Magnesia 10°59
Potash . é 12°27
Soda . 4°45
Phosphoric acid . 10-10
Sulphuric acid . 6°54
Chlorine 0°98
Silica. . 27°54

Spirea opulifolia lutea has yellow foliage which
is a contrast to darker leaves. Spirea ariefolia
has large panicles of white flowers, and is an
excellent shrub ; S. opulus aurea is a magnificent
gold-leaved variety, S. Bumalda is a lovely rose-
coloured variety, and S. callosa bears beautiful
pink flowers.

Concerning the evolution of the colours of
flowers, it appears that yellow was the colour of
the first flowers, and then they developed the tints
of orange, red, blue, and purple, in the order
named. Being in their earlier stages very simple
in construction, their need of pollen carriers was
filled by ordinary insects; but as they grew in
complexity of form and richness of colour, the bee
and the butterfly were called into being in order

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 167

that they might, with their long tongues, success-
fully cope with the increased difficulty of getting
at the honey which was in close proximity to the
store of pollen it was necessary to distribute.

Strawberry Tree (Arbutus unedo, Natural
Order, Ericaceze) is a hardy evergreen tree, bearing
large scarlet berries. The berries are edible when
ripe, and a Corsican wine is produced from them.
The tree grows in a sandy peat in a sunny and
sheltered position.

The ashes of this tree contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide . i. & 3°99
Lime . . ... « A721
Magnesia 2 os 9-00
Potash : 701
Soda ... 9°22
Phosphoric acid . : 5:00
Sulphuric acid 12°11
Chlorine : 2°54
Silica . ' . 33°92

Stephanotis (Stephanotis floribunda, Natural
Order, Asclepiadacez) is a stove evergreen twining
shrub, bearing white flowers. It grows in a com-
post of light fibrous loam, leaf-mould, decayed
manure and silver sand.

The ashes of this shrub contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide ss 2 : 4°26

Lime . . , 25°82
Magnesia . . 10°58

168 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Potash .
Soda. ;
Phosphoric acid
Sulphuric acid
Chlorine

Silica

12°56
8°46
10°59
8-67
1°22
17°89

Symphoricarpus (Symphoricarpus racemosus,
Natural Order, Caprifoliacese) is a hardy deciduous
shrub, bearing flowers followed by white berries.

It grows in ordinary soils.

The ashes of the snowberry contain in 100

parts :—
Iron oxide .
Manganese dioxide
Alumina
Lime
Magnesia
Potash .
Soda. :
Phosphoric acid .
Sulphuric acid
Chlorine
Silica

Syringa (Philadelphus

1°22
0-48
0°53
20°54
14:00
23°00
12°59
5°66
1:20
0°56
20°30

coronarius,

mock-

orange, Natural Order, Saxifragaceze) is a hardy
deciduous shrub, bearing white flowers. It grows

in ordinary soils.

The ashes of Syringa contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide .
Manganese dioxide
Alumina

Lime

4:13
0°51
0°55
28-00

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 169

Magnesia : 14°61
Potash... ' 18°21
Soda. ool tt Ah 4:44
Phosphoric acid. 6:99
Sulphuric acid. : 211
Chlorine . . .. 1:00
Silica. 2. ee «19°45

Tamarix (Jamarix gallica, Natural Order,
Tamaricacee) is a hardy evergreen shrub, bearing
flowers and scaly leaves. .It grows in ordinary or
sandy soils.

The ashes of this shrub contain in 100
parts :—

Iron oxide... : 1°68
Manganese dioxide . 0-04
Alumina : 0-08
Lime . . 20°00
Magnesia : 6°82
Potash . . 10°05
Soda. 4:60
Phosphoric acid. 10°41
Sulphuricacid .. 6°30
Chlorine. ‘ 3°21
Silica... . . . 86°81

Tamarix japonica and Tamarix narbonensis
have ornamental foliage. The hardy species,
Tamarix parviflora and Tamarix tetrandra,
grow well in shrubberies or hedges in seaside
gardens.

Taxodium (Taxodiwm distichum, deciduous
cypress, Natural Order, Coniferae) is a hardy coni-
ferous tree, bearing feather-shaped deciduous

170

leaves of a light green colour.

loam on the margins of ponds and rivers.

MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

It grows in a moist

A dry

soil is unsuitable for its proper growth. It is the
swamp cypress of the United States of America.
The ashes of this tree contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide .
Manganese dioxide
Alumina

Lime

Magnesia
Potash .

Soda be
Phosphoric acid .
Sulphuric acid
Chlorine

Silica

2°51
3°61
2°00
38°03
6°55
11°40
5°59
8°25
1:00
0°54
20°52

Taxus (Taxus baccata, yew, Natural Order,
Coniferee) is a hardy evergreen tree with flat

feathery leaves.
soils.

It grows in good deep moist

The ashes of the yew contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide .
Manganese dioxide
Alumina

Lime

Magnesia
Potash .

Soda .
Phosphoric acid .
Sulphuric acid
Chlorine

Silica

3°04
4°62
1:05
25°82

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 171

Taxus baccata elegantissima is beautifully
variegated. Taxus baccata fastigata is the Irish
yew, which is an upright variety.

Yews grow extremely well at Hampton Court,
and other parts of the country, and are useful for
hedges.

The yew-tree attains a great age, some English
yews are about 2,000 years old. The wood of the
yew was used for making bows, and by an Act of
Edward IV., every Englishman was obliged to
possess a bow of his own height.

Thuja (Thuja occidentalis, arlor vite, Natural
Order, Coniferee) is a hardy evergreen tree with
scaly leaves. It grows in a deep moist loam.

The ashes of the arbor vite contain in 100 parts:—

Iron oxide... 3-21
Manganese dioxide 2°06
Alumina. 1-42
Lime . 23°40
Magnesia . 10°05
Potash . 15°06
Soda .. 7-21
Phosphoric acid. 11°05
Sulphuric acid 2°24
Chlorine... : 0°68
Silica... ; 23°62

The arbor vite is valuable for many purposes,
such as hedges, shrubbery planting, for screens to
unsightly objects, and shelter to more tender

172, MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

subjects. The foliage assumes a brown colour in
winter, thereby adding to the varied appearance of
the landscape.

Thuja Lobbu is very ornamental, and Thwa
Lobbu aurea is a beautiful golden leaved conifer.

Thuyopsis (Thuyopsis gigantea, Natural Order,
Coniferze) is a hardy evergreen tree with scale-like
leaves. It grows in ordinary soils.

The ashes of this tree contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide... 2°66
Manganese dioxide . 3°00
Alumina... 1:67
Lime... x 26°05
Magnesia . ar 7°82
Potash. .. : 14:21
Soda .. i 6°24
Phosphoric acid . 12-04
Sulphuric acid a 1-11
Chlorine . . ... 0:24
Silica 2... wl, 24°96

Thuyopsis borealis has dark green foliage ;
Thuyopsis borealis lutea is a beautiful golden
variety, and T. dolabrata variegata has silvery
leaves.

Tree of the Gods (Ailantus glandulosus,
Natural Order, Xanthozylacez) is a hardy deciduous
tree, bearing white flowers. It grows in light rich
soils, in sheltered and moist positions. It is a
handsome tree with long pinnate leaves.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 173

The ashes of this tree contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide fo hy ae 2°68
Lime .. - » . 20°00
Magnesia . 10°82
Potash. .. . 26°87
Soda . 12-01
Phosphoric acid. .. 14°62
Sulphuric acid. 1:14
Chlorine ‘ 0°68
Silica ; : 11°18

This tree is a native of China, and was introduced
into this country in 1751.

Tree of the Sun (Retinospora obtusa, Natural
Order, Coniféree) is a hardy evergreen tree bearing
scaly leaves. It grows in a deep rich loam, or in
chalk and limestone soils.

Its ashes contain in 100 parts :

Tron oxide... 3°66
Manganese dioxide .. 3°21
Alumina 4 ‘ 1°52
Lime . . .. 24:27
Magnesia io <e 11°64
Potash . 12°00
Soda ga es ce 653
Phosphoric acid . 4 10°44
Sulphuric acid : : 2°22
Chlorine. ; 0°50
Silica. ef 24-01

Retinospora plumosa has dense plumy branches,
and is excellent for ornamental purposes; and
R. plumosa aurea and R. plumosa argentea are

174. MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

extremely handsome conifers, and no other coni-
ferous plant assumes a brighter yellow, uniformly
over the whole plant, than the former variety.
R. plumosa squarrosa has fine glaucous foliage.

Upright Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens
stricta, Natural Order, Coniferse) is a hardy coni-
ferous tree, bearing evergreen leaves. It grows in
a deep rich loam.

The ashes of this cypress contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide... ‘ 2°46
Manganese dioxide : 3°88
Alumina i 1:69
Lime . 24:97
Magnesia ets 7-00
Potash . 12°51
Soda . . 6-04
Phosphoric acid . 9°24
Sulphuric acid. 4 2°10
Chlorine. 0:46
Silica . .. . 19°65

Cupressus Lawsoniana is a handsome cypress
with slender branches and twigs of rich green colour.
C. Lawsoniana allumu is a beautiful bluish-tinted
variety.

Virginian Creeper (Ampelopsis hederacea,
Natural Order, Ampelidez) is a hardy climbing
shrub with deciduous leaves which change to a
deep crimson (autumnal tints). It grows in ordinary
soils.

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES

175

Its ashes contain in 100 parts *:—

Tron oxide . 1°92
Lime .. 8:23
Magnesia 6°55
Potash 36°22
Soda ‘ 3°64
Phosphoric acid 32°73
Sulphuric acid 4°69
Chlorine 2°35
Silica 3°67

The Virginian Creeper is a native of North America
and Japan, and was introduced into this country
in 1629.

Wistaria (Wistaria chinensis, Natural Order,
Leguminose) is a hardy climbing shrub, bearing
deciduous leaves and violet coloured flowers. It
grows in deep rich sandy loams against south and
south-west walls.

Its ashes contain in 100 parts :—

Tron oxide . 2°00
Lime 18°65
Magnesia 10°66
Potash . 40°41
Soda . ; ‘ 4°56
Phosphoric acid . 10°01
Sulphuric acid 5°00
Chlorine 2°46
Silica 6°21

It is a native of China and Japan, and was
introduced into England in 1816. Wistaria is a

1 A. B. Griffiths, ibid., p. 96.

176 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

beautiful shrub with large clusters of papilionaceous
flowers.

Yucca (Yucca acuminata, Natural Order,
Liliacese) is a hardy evergreen shrub. It grows in
light well-drained. soils.

The ashes contain in 100 parts :—

Iron oxide . 4°21
Manganese dioxide 0-82
Alumina. . 0-12
Lime . , 30°41
Magnesia. 8°24
Potash . 18°97
Soda .. 5°62
Phosphoric acid . 20°01
Sulphuric acid 6°24
Chlorine ; 0°16
Silica > ct 5°20

The Yucca is a native of North America and
Mexico, and was introduced into this country in
1596.

Zanthoxylum (Zanthoxylon fraxinifolium,
prickly ash, Natural Order, Rutacez) is a hardy
deciduous flowering tree. It grows in ordinary
soils.

Its ashes contain in 100 parts :—

Ironoxide. . . . . 1°68
Manganese dioxide S. 4 0°32
Alumina . . . 0°21
Lime . 2. 2... 21°68
Magnesia otk ; 10:03

Potash . F 20°10

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS TREES 177

Soda i ; 8°64
Phosphoricacid. . . 12°45
Sulphuric acid ne 3°21
Chlorine . .. ‘ 0°68
Silica, =. wl 21-00

The prickly ash is a native of East and West
Indies, North America, and Japan, and was
introduced into England in 1773.

* * * * * *

To conclude in the words of Dr. Munro, “ the
ashes of all plants contain very nearly the same
substances, though by no means the same quantities,
or in the same proportions to the weight of the
entire plant. And in the same way the ashes of
different parts differ amongst themselves not in
the substances they contain, so much as in the
quantities and proportions of these substances.”

CHAPTER VII

MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

‘¢ The weakest kind of fruit
Drops earliest to the ground.” —Shakespeare.

“ As sickly plants betray a niggard earth,
Whose barren bosom starves her generous birth,
Nor genial warmth, nor genial juice retains
Their roots to feed, and fill their verdant veins.”
—Thomas Gray.

A THOROUGH knowledge of the art of manuring
is a powerful auxiliary in the hands of the fruit
grower. Fruit trees require manures as well as
pruning, and each tree or shrub requires its own
particular manures. One manure will not suit all
soils and trees—both vary considerably, as the last
two chapters have undoubtedly demonstrated, and
the wise cultivator will act accordingly.

Apples. There are 1,545 varieties in cultiva-
tion; and although the apple thrives best in deep
rich loam, certain varieties prefer heavy soils,’

1 Keklinville seedling.

MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES 179

others’ require fairly light and porous soils, and
others’ do well on almost all soils, provided the
latter are not too wet or too dry.

The soil must not be too richly manured with
farmyard manure. Old and worn-out trees are
much improved in vigour and fruitfulness by
annually applying mulchings of farmyard manure,
and doses of liquid manure in summer or winter.
Apple-trees are greatly benefited by using the
following special manures (parts by weight) :—

For heavy For light For rich
soils. soils. loams.

Superphosphate of lime 2 parts 3 parts 1 part
Kainit . . . . 1 part 5% Log
Soda sulphate. x a 1 part L 3,
Tron sulphate : 4» # s ee

Apply from 3 to 6 lbs. of the mixture to each
tree, according to its size, and to very young trees
(from two to four years old) 4 to 1 1b. should be
applied. The soil should be removed to a depth of
about 5 inches all round the trees; the manure then
sprinkled in, and afterwards covered with the re-
moved soil, and well watered. During the season,

1 Duchess of Oldenburg ; Lord Suffield.
2 Stirling Castle.

N 2

180 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

the trees should be watered with a solution of the
same manure—two ounces to one gallon of water.

Apple-trees become diseased, or do not bear a
full yield of fruit, or the fruit may be poor in
quality, if they are not properly manured and
pruned. Canker is caused by a fungus, Nectria
Ditissima, that lives beneath the bark and destroys
it. The invasion of this fungus is due to a
“niggard” soil and the want of proper manures.
Ill-nourished trees are prone to disease, and are
readily attacked by fungi and other enemies.

Concerning canker in apple-trees, Mr. Douglas
states that the cause is due to “ want of preparation
of the soil, and subsequent neglect of the special
requirements of each class of trees”; and Mr.
Tonks states that “the cause is mal-nutrition,
the consequence of an imperfect provision in
the soil of the food required by the plant; the
remedy, the supply of the food (manures) which
is deficient.”

Many orchardg produce, nothing like their full
yield of fruit through the want of proper and
economic manurihg of the\soil. The soil should
always be judiciously manured to obtain both
quantity and quality of epee as well as of other
fruits. Fruit trees require manuring and attention
as much as ordinary farm crops.

MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES 181

uthor’s investigations,

s have conclusively
proved that jthe addition of a small quantity of
wron largely increases the development of foliage,
and consequently of the plant. In dealing with a
mysterious disease, such as\canker, I should not
leave out either iron or magnesia. The following
formula, which may be viewed as circumstances
require, is suitable for the apple-tree :—

Superphosphate of lime ... 12 parts by weight.
Nitrate of soda @,. can ewe 10 ‘5 $5
Chloride of soda . . ... 4 43 a
Sulphate of magnesia . . 2 ne sr
Sulphate of lime . 5 : P 8 35 $4
Sulphate of iron. 3 lpartby ,,

so Lf

This may. be used at the rate of a quarter of a
pound to tha\square yard.” \

consequence,” says Mx, J. Udale,’ “ we shall have

182 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

healthier plants and better crops in proportion as
we wisely follow the most valuable information Dr.
Griffiths has given.”

Apricots were introduced into England in 1548,
and it is impossible to obtain a good crop of fruit
“unless the wood is well ripened and the fruit
buds fully matured.” This means the application
of the proper manures in suitable quantities.
Over-manuring causes “gumming” and rank
growth, and under-manuring a deficiency in the pro-
duction of fruit, and weak trees which are liable
to the attacks of the red spider, aphis, and
mildew.

With a suitable climate and position, unpro-
ductive apricot trees indicate soil exhaustion,
which is remedied by the application of suitable
manures. One of the largest growers of apricots
in America recommends the following special
manure :—

Superphosphate of lime : 18 parts by weight.
Muriate of potash... 6 Pa a
Crude magnesium sulphate . lpartby ,,

This mixture is applied at the rate of 625 lbs.
per acre after pruning, or from 3 to 7 lbs. to each
tree according to its size.

Bilberries grow well in peaty soils and require

MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES 183

no pruning. The following special manure is
recommended for their growth :—

Superphosphate of lime 1 part by weight.
Nitrate of soda 5 : 4 ” ”
Iron sulphate. . .. t ” ”

One pound of the mixture is applied to three
square yards.

Blackberries grow in ordinary soils in shady
or sunny borders or shrubberies. The following
special manure greatly improves the fruit :—

Superphosphate of lime . . 1 part by weight.
Kainit .. . & 1 8 45
Tron sulphate... « z oe 5
Sodium nitrate : 2 parts by ,,

The manure should be applied at the rate of
three ounces per square yard in October or
November.*

Blackberries are well worth cultivation for
preserving, and also for desert.

Cherry-Trees are improved by using the
following special manure :—

Superphosphate of lime . . 2 parts by weight.
Kainit 2. . . . 3 i 4
Nitrate of soda. wtiY 1 is sy
Tron sulphate . Box $ +6 ‘5

1 A fairly accurate method of measuring small quantities of dry
manures is :—
A teaspoonful = } ounce.
A tablespoonful = 1 ounce,

184. MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Three pounds of the mixture should be applied
to each fruit-bearing tree just before active growth
begins. If the soil is deficient in lime, some
should be added for the proper growth of these
excellent and profitable fruit trees.

Chestnuts.—The following manure is useful for
the successful growth of these trees :—

Superphosphate of lime ‘ 2 parts by weight.
Kainit 2... lpart by ,,
Magnesium sulphate 1s, »
Iron sulphate. . . . t ” ”
Nitrate ofsoda . . . 1 ”

One pound of the mixture should be placed
round each tree.

Currant Bushes prefer a deep rich loam,
and they should be dressed from time to time
with well-rotted dung. The following manure
is suitable for the proper growth of these trees :—

Nitrate ofsoda . . . . 2 parts by weight.
Superphosphate of lime .. lpart by ,,
Iron sulphate. . . . 1 sii «9

One pound of the special manure should be
applied to three square yards, or say 10 lbs. per
square rod.’

The black currant is such a useful fruit that
it is a wonder it is not cultivated more ex-

' A square rod = 30} square yards,

MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES 185

tensively. The bush is not liable to the attacks
of the “bud mite” if the above-mentioned manure
is used.

As the black currant bears its fruit chiefly on
the young shoots of the preceding summer’s
growth rather than on the spurs (as with red
currants), so in the pruning care must be taken
that only old and straggling branches are cut out.
The bush which throws up a number of growths
from its base is the most profitable to grow and
cultivate.

Currant bushes of all kinds are benefited by
watering them with a liquid manure containing
1 ounce of nitrate of soda, 4 an ounce of iron
sulphate, and 3 an ounce of superphosphate of
lime to a gallon of water.

The growing of small fruit trees requires a com-
paratively large investment of capital per acre, and
also a better soil than is necessary for the produc-
tion of most of the large fruit trees.

The soil requirements of the different bushes
(currant, gooseberry, blackberry, raspberry, &c.)
vary considerably, but all thrive in a moderately
deep loamy soil that holds moisture well at all
times without becoming water-logged during
protracted rainfall.

The soil should be cultivated before planting

186 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

small fruit trees, in order to destroy weeds of all
kinds and to prepare a good tilth. It should also
be well drained. Attention to these details will
insure good healthy bushes.

These trees are greatly benefited by previously
manuring the soil with well-rotted dung, say 20
tons to the acre; if dung is not obtainable,
bone-meal, muriate of potash and nitrate of soda
should be applied, and fertilisers rich in phosphoric
acid and potash may be profitably used. The
selection of the special manure that can be most
profitably used on any particular soil must be
determined by analysis.

In the United States of America, large fruit
growers state that commercial fertilisers render the
fruit firmer and of better quality than when it has
been grown with dung; dung produces a watery
fruit, which is prone to become mildewed. A con-
siderable gain results, also, from the absence of
weed-seeds from artificial fertilisers or special
manures, these often proving very troublesome in
gardens or orchards enriched with dung.

Currant and gooseberry bushes require much the
same soil and treatment ; both fail in dry or poor
soils, and both thrive in moist clayey or sandy
loams. The cultivation must be shallow, as these
are surface-rooting bushes.

MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES 187

In some soils they are grown profitably by
substituting a heavy mulch for cultivation, but
they are improved by using special manures, either
as top-dressings or liquid manures.

Damson Trees should be treated from time
to time with cow-dung and a special manure
containing :—

Superphosphate of lime en ids 2 parts by weight.
Kainit Be ae ‘O 55
Magnesium of sulphate : lpartby ,,
Tron sulphate . ; > <5

From 3 to 7 pounds of the mixture should be
applied to each tree after pruning, and an
additional 2 lbs. in the spring.

Fig Trees should be watered freely during
active growth, and the following liquid manure
should be applied twice weekly to the trees
bearing fruit :—1 ounce of superphosphate of lime,
2 ounces of kainit, 2 ounces of nitrate of soda,
and 4 of an ounce of iron sulphate to a gallon of
water.

It may be mentioned that at Keele Hall,
Staffordshire, the residence of the Grand Duke
Michael of Russia, there is a famous fig tree upon
which seven different kinds of figs grow ; and it is
the largest tree of its kind in England.

188 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Gooseberry Bushes should be dressed with
well-rotted dung in the autumn, and treated
with a special manure containing 2 parts of
nitrate of soda, 1 part of superphosphate of
lime and 1 part of iron \sulphate—1 Jb. of
the mixture to 3 square yards. The bushes
should be watered from time to time with
the same manure dissolved in water (2 ozs. to
1 gallon).

Gooseberry bushes are spoilt by ruthless
pruning, as the berries are generally produced
on the previous season’s growths, and when these
shoots are shortened to within an inch or so of the
older wood a heavy crop of fruit is an im-
possibility.

The gooseberry pays for proper cultivation and
manuring. A grower says ‘‘in 1866, though prices
were low, I cleared £120 per acre from Berry's
Kent alone.”

With’s manures are also suitable for gooseberry
bushes and other fruit-bearing trees. They act
directly, as they are soluble, and greatly increase
the yield. In fact, the firm are manufacturing
special manures in a manner that the author has
recommended in his books and papers for many
years,

MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES _ 189

Greengage Trees are strong growers. These

trees are benefited by using the following
manure :—

Kainit . . . . 5 parts by weight.
Superphosphate of lime sis 5
Magnesium sulphate. 1partby ,,
Iron sulphate :

2» ”

From 8 to7 lbs. of the mixture should be applied
to each tree, according to its size, after pruning,
and an additional 2 lbs. during growth. When
properly treated these plums bear well, sell well,
and are reliable varieties.

Ichthemic Guano is also a valuable manure for
the growth of plum trees—especially for the
amateur who may be ignorant of the manner in
which plants, soils and manures play their part in
the evolution of plant-life.

Juglans or Walnut Trees do not require
pruning. Liquid manure should be applied to
established trees from June to October, or the soil
should be treated with 1 lb. of superphosphate of
lime, 1 1b. of kainit, and 4 lb. of iron sulphate
to the square rod in June.

Lemon Trees should be treated with liquid
manure once a week from May to October; and
the best liquid manure for the purpose contains :

190 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

2 ozs. of nitrate of soda, 1 oz. of superphosphate
of lime, } oz. of magnesium sulphate, and } oz.
of iron sulphate to 1 gallon of water.

Medlar Trees are benefited by applying a

manure containing :—

Superphosphate of lime 2 ok 2 parts by weight.
Kainit .. , lpartby ,,
Nitrate of soda F . t ” ”
Tron sulphate ; 4 os ”

which should be applied at the rate of 3 Ibs. to
each tree.

Mulberry Trees are benefited by using a
manure containing 2 parts of nitrate of soda,
1 part of superphosphate of lime and 1 part
of kainit. The mixture is applied at the rate of
4 ozs. per square yard in March; and the soil
should be top-dressed with well-decayed manure
in October or November. Bone meal is also useful
for mulberries.

Nectarine Trees require the same manures as
apricots.

Nuts. Hazel, filbert and cob-nuts are benefited
by dressing the soil with equal parts of super-
phosphates of lime and kainit. One pound of the
special manure or mixture should be placed round
each tree.

MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES 191

Large quantities of English nuts are exported
to America, and some few years ago £80,000
worth of nuts left these shores.

Orange Trees require the same manures as
the lemon.

Peach Trees require the same manures as
apricots and nectarines.

Pear Trees. There are about 650 varieties in
cultivation ; and they are benefited by the following
manures :—

For light soils. For rich loam.

Superphosphate of lime .| 2 parts by weight | 1 part by weight
Kanit . . . .|/6 ,, ” 4parts,,
Tron sulphate . .| Epartby ,, & part Pe

They should be applied at the rate of 4 lbs. per
tree in February or March. Pear trees should be
liberally watered with a solution (liquid ammonia)
containing 1 oz. of nitrate of soda per gallon of
water.

As a rule, manures should be applied to pear, as
well as other fruit, trees in the liquid form during
the period of active growth.

The above-mentioned special manures greatly
assist in the setting and development of the fruit,

192 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

and they not only increase the yield, but enhance
the quality of the fruit.

Nitrogenous manures are also requisite for back-
ward trees as they help in the growth of the tree,
while phosphates and potash are essential for
forward trees as they develop the bloom, the sugar
in the fruit, and the ripening of the wood.
Manuring, then, is one of the first principles of
horticulture, and it follows that the special require-
ments of the tree or plant must have the first
consideration; and if we supply, by outside
means, properly constituted manures containing
all the necessary plant-foods, then the soil may
be looked upon as the vehicle through which the
plants can absorb their nourishment, and so far
as the soil is concerned, regard should be had to
its physical characteristics, its texture and power
of retaining moisture. Of course, the tree will
obtain some nourishment from the soil in which
it is grown, but the fact remains that, given proper
manures, the soil itself may be quite inert as
regards the supply of nutriment. Manures—
proper manures—are essential for the growth of
foliage, wood, flowers, and fruit.

The industry of the French peasant and his
superiority in fruit culture is proverbial. He is

MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES 193

generally the proprietaire of his own terrain or
land, and therefore tills and turns every inch of
it to good account, knowing that his existence
depends upon its products. Every stretch of wall
or shedding that is available is covered with a
trained tree—usually a pear tree (Bon Chrétien).
These trees are tended with the utmost care and
attention, with the result that the finest products
are gathered, all of which goes to market. High
prices are asked by the fruiterers for the best
French pears. Their method of training is the
cordon system which ensures the largest amount
of fruit within the smallest space. The slender
growth shades nothing, the fruit is handy to
protect from the weather and pests, and handy for
gathering, and in every way the return is more
remunerative than from large and heavy orchard
trees. The French have certainly learnt how to
follow out the saying of Voltaire: “ Cultivate your
gardens.”

Pruning is also a matter of prolonged study
and correct knowledge. The methods of culture
followed by the industrious proprietaires is in-
teresting and most instructive, especially to a
people who take so much pleasure and spend so
much money in their gardens as the British.

)

194 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Pineapples are benefited by being treated with
a special manure containing :—

Guano. . ... 4 part.

Nitrate of potash ‘ 3 parts.
Iron sulphate. & part.

Magnesium sulphate... Ll. »

This manure is best applied in the liquid form—
1 oz. of the mixture to a gallon of water.
It should be applied moderately in the winter and
freely in the summer.

Planters in the United States of America state
that the most suitable soil for the growth of pine-
apples is a rich humus, with a clayey subsoil, and
in the Philippine Islands, where pineapples suceeed
well, the soil is disintegrated lava covered with a
layer of humus.

The pineapple requires a considerable amount of
moisture for its successful growth. In Florida,
some of the plants are cultivated under sheds, to
prevent excessive evaporation from the soil and
plants, and to protect the plants from frosts, winds,
and sunburning, although most pineapples in Florida
are grown in the open as in Jamaica and other parts
of the world.

The pineapple is propagated principally by off-
shoots from the parent plant; and the most suit-
able manures are bone-meal, kainit, nitrate of soda,
and sulphate of ammonia. Some growers claim that

MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES 195

acid phosphates (superphosphates) are injurious.
When a complete fertiliser is used, about 2,000 lbs.
per acre are applied within a year, and this quan-
tity is applied in two or three dressings and worked
in by hoeing.

In this country, pineapples are stove plants, and
the previously-mentioned liquid manure has proved
of value for the growth of these excellent fruits.
No man who claims to be a cultivator can afford to
ignore the teachings of science, and there is abun-
dant evidence accumulating day by day, month by
month, and year by year, to substantiate fully our
contention on this point.

Plum Trees are a profitable crop in suitable
positions, and are worth from £50 to £80 or £90
per acre. These trees should be treated from time
to time with cow-dung, and the following special
manures should be applied, at the rate of 7 lbs. of
the mixture to each tree after pruning, and an
additional 2 Ibs. in the spring :—

For shallow | For sandy | For ordinary '
soils. loams. soils.
By weight. | By weight. | By weight.
Superphosphate of lime 4 parts 4 parts 2 parts
Kainit . 3 ” ”. 33
Magnesium sulphate . ‘i 1 part 1 part 1 part
Iron sulphate 55 9S 6

o 2

196 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

Plum trees so treated will frequently pay even in
a bad season. The proper nourishment of fruit
trees pays in the long run. The application of
special manure for different soils is essential and
cannot be overrated : to use the proper manures and
in the right proportions saves time, money, and
trouble. You must provide in an easily assimilable
form to Nature’s workers phosphates, potash, lime,
magnesia, iron, etc., that they may build molecule
upon molecule, cell upon cell, tissue upon tissue, and
thereby produce perfect stems, leaves, flowers and
fruit.

When plum trees are bearing heavy crops of
fruit they ought to be well supplied with manure,
and this is best given as top-dressings and by
means of liquid manure. The above-mentioned
special manures (1 oz. to a gallon of water) make
an excellent liquid manure for the purpose.

If the soil is deficient in lime, a liberal supply
must be given for the proper growth and cultiva-
tion of all kinds of stone-fruits. Many trees
languish and fail to bear fruit because of the want
of lime.

Raspberries are very profitable when well and
properly grown. The soil should be well drained
and heavily manured in the first instance. It
should also receive an annual dressing of manure.

MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES 197

The best special manures for the cultivation of
raspberries are :—

For light ordinary

For rich loams. tla.

Superphosphate of lime . | 1 part by weight | 2 parts by weight.

Nitrate of soda ‘ 1 ” ” 2 ” ”
Kainit . . . .| 1 ,, oe 1 part by ,,
Tron sulphate é e z Pr ” 4 »” ”

Two pounds of the manure should be used for
dressing a hundred canes.

Strawberry Tree (Arbutus) bears edible fruit,
and is benefited by using a manure containing :—

Superphosphate of lime 2 parts by weight.
Magnesium sulphate .. lpartby ,,
Nitrate of soda 1 3 59
Kainit . bol. os 4 5, 35
Tron eulphate . ae Pe

Four pounds of the mixture should be applied
round the tree. Although this tree grows in
England, its fruit is not used in the kitchen or on
the table; but in certain parts of Europe it is
used, and a wine is made from it in the island of
Bonaparte.

Vine. In the author's paper published in The
Chemical News, vol. 56, p. 84, it was suggested’
that iron sulphate, for various reasons, might

198 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

prove a useful manure, etc., for vines. This
suggestion was investigated by Delacharlonny*
and others in France, who have proved that iron
sulphate is a good manure for vines, if the soil
does not already contain 6 per cent. or more of
iron oxide.

Not only is iron sulphate a useful manure for
vines, greatly increasing the yield of grapes, but
it also protects the vines against such diseases
as chlorosis, anthracnosis, etc. Concerning this
subject, Petit? gives the following results of his
experiments :—

Number of baskets of grapes
obtained per 1,000 vine
stocks, Capacity of each
basket=4 bushel.

Materials used to treat vines.

Iron sulphate . . 2... 46°3
Sulphuric acid He fio ent 42°2
Calcium sulphate . . . . 34°3
Copper sulphate . . . 28°6

From these experiments it is seen that iron
sulphate takes the first rank. Petit recommends
30 litres (64 gallons) of a 50 per cent. solution of

iron sulphate for treating 1,000 vine stocks—a °
1 Journal d’ Agriculture Pratique, 1888, p. 905; 1890, pp. 605,

711, etc.
2 Tbid., 1890, p. 386,

MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES _ 199

treatment costing only 4s. Iron sulphate, due to
its manurial value as a direct plant food, aids
considerably in strengthening the vines; con-
sequently they are better able to resist the attacks
of animal and vegetable foes.

For the proper cultivation of vines, the following
manures are strongly recommended :—

For peaty | For sandy | For light eee
soils. soils. loams. careOUs
soils.
Superphosphate of

lime... _— —_— 2 lbs. 2 Ibs.
Guano é _ 2 Ibs. — —_
Kainit . . . 2 Ibs. 3 3 3 Ibs. 1 |b.
Basic slag oy. 5 3 5, — _— _
Nitrate of soda . 1 Ib. ~ 1 |b. —
Dried blood . : — —_— — 1 Ib.
Tron sulphate .| lb. $ Ib. $ lb. $b.

The manures should be applied at the rate of
14 oz. to a square yard once a fortnight.

Vines should be watered with a solution con-
taining 4 oz. of iron sulphate to a gallon of
water—the solution to be applied near the roots,
and not over the leaves.

A good general manure for vines contains
7 parts of superphosphate of lime, 6 parts of
kainit, 2 parts of magnesium sulphate, 1 part of
nitrate of soda, and a 4 part of iron sulphate.

200 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

This manure should be applied in doses of
% lb. to each vine. It is also of importance to
top-dress the surface of the border with horse- or
cow-manure when the vines commence to grow.
This mode of manuring assists largely in setting
the blooms, and promotes early maturity of the
fruit.

In Germany, and on the Continent generally,
the branches and leaves pruned from the vines
themselves are immediately mixed with the soil,
which help to preserve its fertility.

Concerning the general manure, it may be
mentioned that when it is applied to old vines, it
puts new life into them, producing strong, clean,

healthy foliage and good plump grapes.

* * x * *

The application of small quantities of special
manures must not be viewed as a trivial matter
for the cultivation of fruit and other trees.
Many growers fail in the art, because they do not
realise what an important part manures or “ arti-
ficial” fertilisers play in the growth of trees, and
in the production of fruit, leaves and flowers.
Nothing is too trivial ; perfect-shaped flowers and
fruits can only be obtained when the soil has been
judiciously and properly manured,

MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES 201

In the days gone by, the horticulturist and
gardener were content to rely on practical know-
ledge only, but the march of scientific progress
soon taught them that if they wished to make
their land more productive and capable of yielding
crops of higher quality, they must perforce adopt
improved methods of cultivation, study the re-
quirements of their various crops more intelligently
and closely, and generally take advantage of
up-to-date scientific discoveries, especially those
dealing with the treatment of the soil and the
application of manures.

In the cultivation of fruit trees the composition
of the soil in which they grow is an all-important
factor as regards their proper growth.

Fruit trees require manuring, as the soil has to
receive back that which has been taken from it in
the fruits, etc., and this restitution is made by
using the proper manures. We say by using the
proper manures, for it is well known that many
substances which are foods for certain trees are not
foods for others. Consequently the cultivator who
is ignorant of the proper use of manures under-
goes double the labour and expense through
using any kind of manure to suit any sort of tree,
irrespective of the fact that different trees vary in
their constituents, as we have already seen, and

202 MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES

therefore require providing with tnose plant foods
essential to their proper growth.

Mr. T. W. Sanders, in an excellent paper, says :
“We are daily seeing evidence of the fact that if
we wish to make the land of this country more
productive in the future, we, as gardeners, or
farmers, must go in more largely for direct plant
food-manures that will supply just what the crop
needs to enable it to attain its highest develop-
ment in the shortest period of time. We cannot
afford to wait, as of yore, several seasons for the
soil to be enriched by the aid of successive ap-
plications of farmyard manure before we get
decent crops. We want something that will act
quickly and produce immediate results. Moreover,
we want to be able to get first-class crops (fruit,
etc.) year after year from the same plot of land,
and thus dispense with the old practice of fallow-
ing, which had for its main object the accumula-
tion and storage of food for future crops. Slowly,
but surely, we shall see intensive cultivation taking
the place of extensive cultivation in our market
gardens and in our farms. And the principle of
getting the most out of the land will compel
cultivators more than ever to study the principles
of plant life and its cognate subject, plant foods”
(manures).

MANURES FOR FRUIT TREES 203

Mr. J. Udale states, in his Gardening for All
(pp. 19-20), that the special manures recom-
mended by the author, have been “tested by him-
self several years, and produce better results than
other combinations of the same manures tried by
himself and applied to similar crops growing

under similar conditions.”

CHAPTER VIII

SPECIAL MANURES FOR OTHER TREES

“The perfect development of a plant is dependent on the
presence of suitable mineral matters.” —Lindley.

Tue best manure for forest trees is the branches,
leaves, and twigs that have fallen to the earth
which once more is enriched; and branches, etc.,
pruned from trees make excellent manures.

Acacias (see locust trees).

Aucubas are excellent town trees, and are im-
proved by occasionally applying a special manure
containing: 2 parts of bone-meal, 23 parts of
nitrate of potash, $ part of magnesium sulphate,
and 4 part of iron sulphate. Two pounds of the
special manure or mixture should be applied to
each tree.

When these and other trees appear to be flagging
or drooping, special manures frequently prevent

SPECIAL MANURES 205

the decay or loss of the tree; and a change of soil
is also advantageous.

Azaleas are benefited by being watered from
time to time with a liquid manure containing
4 oz. of nitrate of potash, and 4 oz. of iron
sulphate to 2 gallons of water. This special
manure increases the strength of the tree, and
enhances the colour and shape of the blooms.

Barberry is a shrub bearing yellow flowers
and red berries. It is improved by being watered
with a liquid manure containing 4 oz. each of
sulphate of ammonia, iron sulphate, and kainit to
"2 gallons of water.

Beech Trees are improved by occasionally
applying a special manure containing 2 parts
of superphosphate of lime, 3 parts of nitrate
of potash, and 4th part of iron sulphate—
7 lbs. of the mixture to be applied to each
tree.

Birch Trees are improved by using a special
manure containing 4 parts of nitrate of soda,
1 part of kainit, 2 parts of superphosphate of
lime, and 4th part of iron sulphate—7 lbs. of the
mixture to be applied to each tree. If the trees
are drooping, the manure will frequently produce
active growth.

Box Trees require sometimes a special manure

206 MANURES FOR OTHER TREES

containing 4 parts of magnesium sulphate, 1 part
of kainit, 1 part of superphosphate of lime, and
4th part of iron sulphate—3 Ibs. of the manure
to be applied to each tree.

Castor Oil Trees should be watered with a
solution containing + oz. nitrate of potash, $ oz.
of superphosphate of lime, and 4 oz. of iron
sulphate to 2 gallons of water. During active
growth this liquid manure should be applied
once or twice a week.

Clematises’ are benefited by being watered
with a solution containing } oz. each of nitrate
of soda, superphosphate of lime and kainit, and
4+ oz. of iron sulphate to 2 gallons of water.
This manure should be used once a week during
active growth. Ichthemic Guano is also a
valuable manure for these beautiful shrubs, and
it should be applied to the soil in quantities of
1 oz, per square yard; it must then be dug in
about 3 inches. This is best done in the
spring.

_Elder Trees are improved by being treated
with a special manure containing 2 parts of nitrate
of potash, 1 part of magnesium sulphate, 2 parts
of superphosphate of lime and 4 part of iron
sulphate to 2 gallons, or 1 lb. of the mixture to

1 A. B. Griffiths, Special Manures for Garden Crops, p. 91.

SPECIAL MANURES 207

be applied to each tree. This manure improves
the blooms and fruit.

Elms should occasionally be treated with a
special manure containing 4 parts of lime, 2 parts
of nitrate of soda, 4th part of kainit and 4th part
iron sulphate—3 lbs. of mixture to be applied
to each tree.

Euonymus ‘Trees are _ benefited by
occasionally treating them with a special manure
containing 4 parts of kainit, 2 parts of ammonium
sulphate, 1 part of superphosphate of lime and
4th part of iron sulphate. The manure should be
applied at the rate of 2 or 4 Ibs. according to
the size of the tree.

Fuchsias should be frequently watered
with a manure containing 4 oz. each of kainit
and sulphate of ammonia to 2 gallons of water ;
and when the inactive period of growth arrives,
the liquid manure should be gradually withdrawn.
Fuchsias are also improved by using a small
quantity of iron sulphate—l oz. to a square
yard.

Furze Bushes require sometimes a special
manure containing 1 part each of magnesium
sulphate, nitrate of soda and superphosphate of
lime, and 4th part of iron sulphate.

“Tt is told of the celebrated botanist Linnzus

208 MANURES FOR OTHER TREES

that when he first saw a common near London,
covered with furze bushes in full bloom, he fell on
his knees, and, with tears, uttered his thankfulness
for so glorious a sight. When he returned to
Sweden he took with him some plants of fyrze,
but they could not live through the northern
winter.”

Gardenias should be treated with a mixture
of 2 parts of superphosphate of lime, 1 part of
kainit, 1 part of silicate of soda and {th part of iron
sulphate. Bone manures are also useful for the
growth of gardenias.

Garryas are improved by using a manure
containing 4 parts of potassium nitrate, 1 part of
superphosphate of lime, 4 part of magnesium
sulphate and 3th part of iron sulphate.

Gaultherias should be treated with a manure
containing 3 parts of kainit, 2 parts of super-
phosphate of lime, 1 part of silicate of soda and
4th part of iron sulphate.

Genistas are benefited by using With’s Plant
Food—1 oz. to a gallon of water. It produces
vigorous growth and luxuriant blooms. One or
two applications per week is sufficient.

These papilionaceous shrubs are also benefited
by being watered with a solution containing } oz.

SPECIAL MANURES 209

each of nitrate of soda and kainit, 4 oz.
each of superphosphate of lime and magnesium
sulphate, and {th oz. of iron sulphate to 2 gallons
of water. A more concentrated form of this liquid
manure will only be injurious—over-manuring is
an error, and a serious one, too. ... . Concerning
our special manures it may be stated, en passant,
that all the ingredients are not completely soluble
in water, therefore it is necessary to stir them
in water; and the following rules should be
practised :—

(1) Stir well at time of using.

(2) Liquid manures should be applied to the
roots.

(3) Liquid manures should not be applied over
the foliage and blooms.

(4) Liquid manures must not be used stronger
than indicated.

(5) A golden rule is “‘a little and often.”

Grevilleas are improved by being watered
with a liquid manure containing 1 oz. each of
nitrate of soda, kainit and superphosphate of lime,
and + oz. of iron sulphate to 2 gallons of water.
One application per week is sufficient.

G. robusta is a fine table plant.

Guelder Rose Trees, when flagging, should

P

210 MANURES FOR OTHER TREES

be watered with a liquid manure containing 1 oz.
each of kainit, magnesium sulphate, and nitrate
of soda, 2 ozs. of superphosphate of lime, and
4 oz. of iron sulphate to 2 gallons of water.
They should be freely watered during the season
of active growth.

Hamamelis Shrubs are benefited by apply-
ing bone manures and With’s Universal Manure.

Hawthorn Trees are improved by proper
cultivation, and by applying a manure containing
3 parts of superphosphate of lime, 2 parts of
kainit, and 3th part of iron sulphate. Four pounds
of the mixture should be applied to each tree. It
enhances the beauty of foliage and flowers.

Heaths are benefited by being occasionally
watered with a liquid manure containing 3 oz.
each of iron sulphate, nitrate of potash and
superphosphate of lime, and } oz. of sodium silicate
to 2 gallons of water.

Heliotropes are benefited by being watered
with a liquid manure containing } oz. of lime
superphosphate, and } oz. of nitrate of potash to 2
gallons of water.

The manure should be applied once a week
during active growth.

Honeysuckles are greatly benefited by mulch-
ing the soil for several feet round their bases with

SPECIAL MANURES 211

well-rotted dung, or, if this is not available,
Peruvian Guano is useful for the same purpose.
Honeysuckles should be occasionally watered with
a liquid manure containing ¢ oz. of iron sul-
phate, and + oz. each of sulphate of ammonia,
lime superphosphate and kainit to 2 gallons of
water.

An excellent substitute for iron sulphate (green
vitriol) is the more expensive iron ammonium sul-
phate (ferrous ammonium sulphate), a salt of a
paler colour. It is soluble in water, and is a first-
class manure.

Hornbeams are benefited by occasional
dressings of dung, bone-meal, and iron sulphate.

Horse Chestnut Trees are improved by
occasionally manuring them with bone manures
and silicate of soda.

The author’s friend, the late Dr. J. E. Taylor,
said that “it is now a generally recognised fact
that the time exists when, at least the elementary
scientific principles, including applied chemistry,
which govern horticulture should be made a
feature in the education of every gardener; and to
those who take a personal interest in the welfare
or cultivation of their plants and in their gardens,”
the details given in these pages will not be without
utility.

PZ

212 MANURES FOR OTHER TREES

Hoveas are best treated with silver sand, bone
manures, and kainit; and on the surface of the soil
a few crystals of iron sulphate greatly increase
the blooms by engendering a more vigorous and
healthier growth.

Hypericums are improved by being watered
with a manure containing 3 ozs. of lime super-
phosphate, 1 oz. each of kainit and magnesium
sulphate, 4 oz. of silicate of soda, and 4 oz. of
iron sulphate to 2 gallons of water.

Idesias are benefited by using a manure con-
taining bones, kainit, and iron sulphate.

Ilex is benefited by watering it occasionally
with a liquid manure containing 1 oz. each of
lime superphosphate, magnesium sulphate, kainit,
silicate of soda, and nitrate of soda, and 4 oz. of
iron sulphate to 2 gallons of water.

Illiciums are improved by applying bone
phosphate or guano, kainit, or iron sulphate.

India-rubber Trees are benefited by being
watered with a solution containing } oz. each of
lime superphosphate, iron sulphate, and nitrate of
potash to 2 gallons of water. Iron sulphate is
a most valuable manure for the growth of india-
rubber trees.’

1 A. B. Griffiths, Journal of the Chemical Society, 1887, p. 221.

SPECIAL MANURES 213

Iteas are benefited by occasionally treating
them with bone manures, kainit, and iron sul-
phate.

Ivies are improved by occasionally treating
with kainit, nitrate of soda, silicate of soda, and
iron sulphate.

Ixoras are benefited by using a manure con-
taining kainit, lime, and iron sulphate.

Jessamines should be occasionally watered
with a liquid manure containing + oz. of nitrate
of soda, and 4 oz. each of lime superphosphate, iron
sulphate, and magnesium sulphate to 2 gallons of
water,

Juniper Trees are benefited by occasionally
treating them with lime and sodium silicate.

Kadsuras are benefited by being watered with
a solution containing 1 oz. of kainit, $ oz. of iron
sulphate, and 4 oz. each of lime superphosphate
and nitrate of soda to 2 gallons. of water.

Kentias are improved by allowing some crystals
of iron sulphate and nitrate of potash to remain on
the surface of the soil. All palms and india-rubber
plants should be treated in the same way.

Kerrias are benefited by using lime, iron
sulphate, and kainit.

Kentiopsis (see Kentias).

214 MANURES FOR OTHER TREES

Labicheas are improved by using Clay’s
Fertiliser, and by occasionally watering them with
a liquid manure containing 1 oz. of nitrate of
soda, + oz. each of lime superphosphate and
kainit, and + oz. of iron sulphate to 2 gallons
of water.

Laburnums.—These well-known _papiliona-
ceous' trees are improved by being treated period-
ically with loamy peat and silver sand, and with a
liquid manure containing nitrate of soda, kainit,
superphosphate of lime and iron sulphate.

Larch Trees are improved by treating them
from time to time with a mixture of 2 parts of
lime superphosphate, 1 part of kainit, +th part of
manganese sulphate, and 4th part of iron sulphate :
from 4 to 8 lbs. of the mixture should be applied to
each tree.

Laurels.—The special manure for these ever-
green trees consists of 2 parts of kainit, 2
parts of silver sand, 1 part of bone super-
phosphate, and 3th part of iron sulphate: from
2 to 4 lbs. of mixture should be applied to
each tree.

Laurustinus.—The special manure for this
flowering tree consists of 2 parts of silver sand,

1 From papillon (butterfly), and refers to the corolla of the
flower.

SPECIAL MANURES 215,

1 part each of lime superphosphate and kainit,
and $ part each of magnesium sulphate and
sodium nitrate, and 3th part of iron sulphate;
which should be applied at the rate of 2 or 4 lbs.
to each tree.

Lebanon Cedars are benefited by occasionally
using a special manure consisting of 2 parts of
lime superphosphate, 1 part of silver sand, 4
part each of magnesium sulphate, kainit and
nitrate of soda, and 3th part of iron sulphate.
About 7 lbs. of the mixture should be applied
to each tree. The authorities at Kew Gardens
state that the fine old Lebanon cedars are
gradually diminishing. One in particular was 75
feet high, and its trunk at the base was 14 feet
2 inches in circumference, and 11 feet 7 inches at
10 feet from the ground ; it contained nearly 300
cubic feet of timber. Its age was nearly 150 years.
The loss of these picturesque trees is attributed to
the adverse influences of a sterile soil, London
smoke, and the repeated dry summers experienced
in the Thames Valley since 1893.

Ledums are improved by special manures con-
taining lime superphosphate, magnesium sulphate,
kainit, nitrate of soda and iron sulphate.

Leonotis.—This greenhouse shrub should be
occasionally treated with a special manure contain-

216 MANURES FOR OTHER TREES

ing bones (4 inch), kainit, silver sand, and iron
sulphate.

Leucothoés are improved by being watered
from time to time with a solution containing
2 ozs. each of lime superphosphate and sodium
silicate, 1 part each of kainit and magnesium
sulphate, and {th part of iron sulphate to 2
gallons of water.

Leycesterias.—A special manure for these
shrubs contains 2 ozs. of lime superphosphate,
1 oz. each of magnesium sulphate and sodium
silicate, and 4 oz. of iron sulphate to 2 gallons
of water. The liquid manure should be occasion-
ally used.

Ligustrums are benefited by using from time
to time a special manure containing 3 parts of
bone phosphates, 1 part each of magnesium
sulphate, kainit and nitrate of soda, and 4th part
of iron sulphate. From 1 to 2 lbs. of the mixture
should be applied to each tree.

Lilacs.—A special manure for these beautiful
trees consists of 2 parts each of sodium silicate,
lime superphosphate and kainit, and 4th part
of iron sulphate. One pound of the mixture
should be applied to each tree. Lilacs are also
greatly improved by using bone-meal and silver
sand.

SPECIAL MANURES 217

The climate of a country is all important. It is
well known how much sooner cherries, plums, etc.,
ripen in the south of Europe than in this country ;
however, sometimes the climates of countries are
such that places farther north will grow trees better
than others more to the south. This, owing to the
warmth diffused by the Gulf Stream, so alters the
climate of Sweden that the lilac shows its leaves
earlier at Upsala than in Paris; the laurustinus
grows better in London than at Lyons, owing to
the severe cold which characterises the winter in
the latter place, whilst that of the former is more
equable.

Limes. Although devoid of brilliantly coloured
flowers, these trees emit a delicious perfume, and
modern biologists attach great importance to cross-
fertilisation by insects, the latter being attracted
by the odours of the flowers, etc.’ Insects appear
to possess “a language of smell,” and the late Dr.
Piesse showed that perfumes can be chorded like
musical notes, so that entirely new odours may be
the result, as in eau-de-Cologne. Lime-trees
would be practically helpless without the powerfully
fragrant flowers which they possess. The perfume
is sufficiently attractive to bees to enable them to
do without gay or bright-coloured flowers.

1 See A. B. Griffiths’ The Physiology of the Invertebrata.

218 MANURES FOR OTHER TREES

A special manure for lime-trees is composed of
3 parts of bone meal, 2 parts of silver sand,
1 part each of ammonium sulphate, kainit and
magnesium sulphate and an 4th of iron sulphate.
The manure should be applied at the rate of 2
to 7 lbs. to each tree.

Linderas are benefited by being occasionally
treated with superphosphate of lime, kainit, silver
sand and iron sulphate.

Liquidambars. A special manure contains
bone meal, magnesium sulphate, iron sulphate and
silver sand.

Liriodendrons are improved by occasional
applications of bone meal, silver sand, and small
quantities of kainit, nitrate of soda and iron
sulphate.

Locust Trees (“acacias”) are benefited by
occasionally using bone meal, silver sand, and a
small quantity of iron sulphate.

Magnolias’ are benefited by being watered
with a solution containing + oz. of sulphate of
ammonia, and oz. each of kainit, iron — sul-
phate, and lime superphosphate to 2 gallons of
water.

The Magnolias are among the first true-flowering
plants to appear in geological times. They are

1 A. B, Griffiths, Special Manures for Garden Crops, p. 93.

SPECIAL MANURES 219

found in European Cretaceous beds; they were
abundant and cosmopolitan during the Miocene
period, but the cold of the Glacial epoch drove
them from their ancient localities, and they are
now found in China, Japan, India, and the southern
states of North America.

Maples are benefited by being occasionally
treated with a special manure containing bone
meal, kainit, and small quantities of magnesium
sulphate and iron sulphate.

Mezereons are improved by using a special
manure containing bone meal, charcoal, silver
sand, and small quantities of magnesium sulphate
and iron sulphate.

Monkey Puzzles are improved by using
a special manure containing kainit, bone meal,
silver sand, and a small quantity of iron
sulphate.

Mountain Ashes are benefited by being
treated with lime, and small quantities of kainit,
bone meal, magnesium sulphate and iron sulphate.

Myricas are improved by using for them bone
meal, kainit, sulphate of magnesia, and iron
sulphate.

Myrtles are benefited by being watered from
time to time with a liquid manure containing

4+ oz. each of kainit, lime superphosphate, and

220 MANURES FOR OTHER TREES

nitrate of soda, and 4 oz. of iron sulphate to
2 gallons of water."

Norway Spruces are useful timber trees, and
as such require attentive cultivation. They are
benefited by being treated with a special manure
containing 2 parts of bone meal, 1 part each of
kainit, ammonium sulphate, magnesium sulphate, |
silver sand, and manganese sulphate, and 4th
part of iron sulphate. From 3 to 6 lbs. of the
manure should be applied to each tree.

Oaks are dicecious trees, and of great value for
their timber. A special manure for these trees
contains nitrate of potash, bone meal, and iron
sulphate.

Oleanders? should be watered twice a week,
from May to September, with a liquid manure
containing + oz. of nitrate of soda and } oz. each
of lime superphosphate, kainit, and iron sulphate
to 2 gallons of water. This manure enhances the
colours of the blooms.

Palms.*® These handsome plants are benefited
by being treated with a liquid manure containing
y oz. each of nitrate of soda, iron sulphate and

1 A. B. Griffiths, ibid., p. 35.

2 Toid., p. 36.

3 A. B. Griffiths, ibid., p. 42, and Journal Chemical Society, 1887,
pp. 215—224.

SPECIAL MANURES 221

lime superphosphate to 2 gallons of water. In
addition, the author always keeps a few crystals
of iron sulphate on the surface of the soil
in which palms are growing. Watering the
plants gradually dissolves the iron sulphate, which
is most beneficial for the foliage of most plants and
trees, as it stimulates or increases the activity of
the chlorophyll—and without chlorophyll, and
therefore without soluble iron, the shrub or tree
would die. Our readers will understand why
small quantities of iron sulphate benefit most
plants.

Passion Flowers. The liquid manure to use
contains 4 oz. of lime superphosphate, + oz. each
of nitrate of soda and kainit, and 4 oz. of iron
sulphate to 2 gallons of water. This liquid manure,
or its ingredients applied in the solid form to
the soil, improves the colours and shapes of the
blooms, and greatly increases the strength of the
plants.

Clay’s Fertiliser is also an excellent manure for
these flowers.

Pavias are benefited by using kainit, bone
meal, ammonium sulphate, and a small quantity of
iron sulphate.

Phillyreas are improved by using guano, kainit
and iron sulphate.

222 MANURES FOR OTHER TREES

Pines are valuable timber trees, and a special
manure for their proper cultivation is mentioned
under the head of Norway Spruces.

Pistacias are benefited by using kainit, iron
sulphate and guano.

Platanus is improved by using a special
manure containing guano, magnesium sulphate,
kainit, and a small quantity of iron sulphate.

Poplars are improved by using a special manure
‘containing potassium nitrate, lime superphosphate, '
and iron sulphate. Young trees are greatly bene-
fited by this manure.

Punicas. The special manure of these trees
contains guano or bone meal, magnesium sulphate,
kainit and iron sulphate.

Ribes is improved by using a special manure
containing guano, silver sand, kainit and iron
sulphate.

Rhamunus is improved by using guano, kainit
and iron sulphate.

Rhododendrons should be watered from time
to time with a liquid manure containing 4 oz. of
nitrate of soda, 4 oz. of kainit, and 4 oz. of iron sul-
phate to 2 gallons of water. Manures containing
much calcareous matter should be avoided, as they
are detrimental to the proper growth of rhododen-
drons. The liquid manure may be applied over the

SPECIAL MANURES 223

leaves, but not over the blooms.’ If the soil is defi-
cientin phosphoric acid, sodium or potassium phos-
phate should be included in the liquid manure ({oz. ).

Rhus or Sumach is improved by using a
manure containing guano, magnesium sulphate,
kainit, and iron sulphate.

Rose Trees’ are greatly benefited by means
of a liquid manure containing 4 oz. of lime
superphosphate, and 4 oz. each of iron sulphate and
ammonium sulphate to 2 gallons of water. This
manure should be applied once a fortnight from
April to August to outdoor roses, and once a week
to pot and climbing roses indoors. Liquid manures
should be applied at the roots and not over the
foliage and blooms. With’s Carbon Manure and
With’s Rose Manure are also valuable for the
growth of rose trees.

It is an advantage to place farmyard manure
round rose trees in the winter. It protects them
against cold, as there is little sunshine in England,
and rose trees love the sun. In the words of the
late R. L. Stevenson :

‘* Late lies the wintry sun a-bed,
A frosty fiery sleepy-head

Blinks but an hour or two ; and then,
A blood-red orange, sets again.”

1 Tbid., p. 94. 2 Ibid., p. 95.

224 MANURES FOR OTHER TREES

Rosa centifolia grows in ordinary soils liberally
enriched with cow manure; and the same manure
should be used for the moss rose (Rosa centifolia
muscosa).

The most suitable manures for the culture of
climbers in greenhouses are (a) cow or pig manure
for light, and horse manure for heavy soils, which
should be applied as a mulch in the autumn, and
dug in the spring; (b) Guano is also a valuable
‘solid manure for roses, at the rate of 1 oz. per
square yard, which should be forked in during the
month of April.

Concerning manures, the Latin proverb, “ quod
cibus est aliis, aliis est atre venenum,” is applicable
to trees and other plants, and this the cultivator
should always bear in mind.

Salix is benefited by applying from time to
time a manure containing guano, iron sulphate,
and kainit.

Southernwood’ is benefited by being occa-
sionally watered with a liquid manure containing
% oz. each of sodium silicate and magnesium
sulphate to 2 gallons of water.

Spirzeas’ should be watered with a liquid manure
containing + oz. each of nitrate of soda, lime super-
phosphate and iron sulphate to 2 gallons of water.

1 Ibid., pp. 95 and 87 respectively.

SPECIAL MANURES gag

Stephanotis’ is treated with a liquid manure
containing 4+ oz. each of potassium nitrate and
lime superphosphate to 2 gallons of water.

Symphoricarpus is benefited by applying
guano, kainit, and iron sulphate.

Syringas are improved by using bones (half-
inch), kainit, and iron sulphate.

Tamarix is improved by using a special manure
containing 3 parts of guano, 2 parts of silver sand,
4 part of kainit, and 4th part of iron sulphate. One
pound of the mixture should be applied to each
tree.

The cultivator frequently makes a great mistake
by applying an excess of manures, and thereby
condemning the manures if any damage is done.
Over-manuring and under-manuring are detrimental
to a proper growth of trees and shrubs—excess
and deficiencies are alike injurious.

Taxus is benefited by a special manure con-
taining guano, silver sand, magnesium sulphate,
and iron sulphate.

Thujas are benefited by a similar manure to
yews (Taxus).

Variegated Laurels are benefited by using a
special manure containing bone meal, kainit, silver
sand, and iron sulphate. See also p. 204 (aucubas).

1 Ibid. p. 48.

226 MANURES FOR OTHER TREES

Virginian Creepers are benefited by being
watered with a liquid manure containing 4 oz.
each of kainit, lime superphosphate, and nitrate
of soda, and 4 oz. of iron sulphate to 2 gallons of
water.

Wistarias are benefited by using a manure
containing kainit, bone meal, and iron sulphate.

Yuccas are excellent plants, giving a tropical
appearance to the garden landscape. They should
be treated with a special manure containing 1
part each of sulphate of ammonia, iron sulphate
and kainit, and 2 parts of lime superphosphate.
“To use this manure excavations should be made
extending about a yard-and-a-half around the
trunk of each tree, and the manure should then
be strewn in the excavations. Small yuccas
require from 4 to 6 ozs. each, whilst larger ones
require from 8 to 10 ozs. each of the manure.”
The manure is best applied in the spring.

* * * * * *

To conclude in the words of Mrs. Hemans:

‘Trees, gracious trees !—how rich a gift ye are,”

CHAPTER IX
PROPERTIES OF MANURES

‘*Manures are the food of plants, or the fertilisers of soils.”

Natural Manures. It is essential to replace
all the constituents in a soil that have been ex-
tracted from it by growing trees and shrubs.
This is one of the necessary conditions of a
proper system of cultivation. Trees and other
plants die from starvation—many a noble tree is
sacrificed for the want of proper manures; look
at the cedars at Kew, and many other instances
might be enumerated. The soil does not contain
an inexhaustible supply of organic and mineral
substances in a suitable state for root-absorption.
It therefore becomes a necessity to apply the
proper manures for each tree, shrub or plant culti-
vated.

Natural manures contain the solid and liquid
excreta of animals, which evolve heat and therefore
warm the land; they also evolve carbon dioxide

Q 2

228 MANURES FOR TREES

which renders available as plant-food the insoluble
mineral matters of the soil. Natura] manures also
retain moisture in the land, and render it more
friable. Further, the amount of farmyard manure
produced under ordinary conditions of farming is
insufficient to maintain the land in an increasing
state of fertility which is a necessary condition
for profitable fruit-growing and the production of
timber.

If farmyard manure contains all the fertilising
constituents essential to the growth of trees, why
do we use guano, nitrates, etc.? Surely these
manures are far too costly if dung is capable of
producing a full yield of fruit and flowers. In
the words of a great authority, M. Ville, the
cultivator ‘‘ who uses nothing but farmyard manure
exhausts his land.”

The chief fertilising ingredients in a ton of
each natural manure is contained in the following
table :—

Nitrogen. | Potash. Lime. Phosphoric
acid.
Poultry manure .| 43 lbs. 19 lbs. 58 Ibs. 39 Ibs.
Sheep 39 20 ,, 14 ,, 63, 13° 35
Horse ” 17 ” 13 »” 10 ” 9 ”
Pig 5 wl AD 10 ,, 10 ,; 1%
Cow ” . 9 855 10 ,, 3,

PROPERTIES OF MANURES 229

The kind of food given to the animals influences
the quality of the manure considerably; and
manure from covered yards is generally much
better than that from open yards.

Liquid manure that drains from manure heaps,
ete., is of value for the garden, orchard and farm.
Thousands of fruit trees of all description would be
healthier, more vigorous, more fruitful, and longer
lived if, during winter, they were only given the
valuable food that is allowed to run to waste, and
for which the trees are languishing, and probably
dying. During winter, the liquid may be applied
to orchard and other trees in its natural state ;
and for gooseberries, currants, and raspberries
it should be diluted with water (from 4 to ?
water).

Rose trees and vines are also benefited by the
same liquid manure, especially when growing,
flowering and fruiting. In spring and summer,
the liquid manure should be diluted with twice its
bulk of water. It is of value on light and porous
soils—especially sandy soils; but it is a failure on
heavy soils. For further information on natural
manures, see the author’s “Treatise on Manures”
(8rd. edn.), or his “ Manures and their Uses ’
(2nd edn.)

The sewage manures, “ native guano,” poudrette

2.30 MANURES FOR TREES

of France and Belgium, are all the products of
human excrements, and are used upon the land.
Under the author’s direction, “ native guano” has
been used with good results for a variety of crops.

Bones are phosphatic manures containing a
small percentage of nitrogen, and are useful for
sandy as well as other soils. They gradually
decompose in the soil—yielding their fertilising
constituents. The decomposition is quicker when
bones are in the form of bone meal—either raw or
steamed. Bones are sold as half-inch, quarter-
inch, or as bone meal. Bones contain in 100
parts :-—

Moisture. .. : 9°90
Organic matter ; 33°70=3'76% N=4'57% NH,.
Lime phosphate. . 49°17
Alkaline salts, magnesia, etc. 6:18
Silica, etc. F : 1:10

Bone meal can been used as a top-dressing.

Bones are also fermented, boiled and steamed ;
but by boiling and steaming they partly lose
their nitrogen—and consequently are not so
valuable as manures as raw and fermented bones—
although the phosphates are increased.

Bone black is a valuable manure obtained from
sugar refineries. It contains carbon in addition to
lime phosphate and nitrogen. It is useful for

PROPERTIES OF MANURES 231

stove and greenhouse shrubs, climbers, etc. In
many cases it ensures healthy growth of fruit trees,
vines, bushes and flowering shrubs.

Guanos are phosphatic manures, and are
divided into two classes—nitrogenous and non-
nitrogenous guanos. They are valuable manures
for fruit and other trees, and they enter into the
composition of special manures. A good guano
contains in 100 parts :—

Water .. : 17°79
Organic matter and ammonial salts 42°62=10-04% N.
Calcium and earthy Pa . . 25°45
Alkaline salts : eo gy db92
Sand *. 6 5 ® # 4 . 2°22

Guanos are excellent for various soils, but
Peruvian guanos are not suitable for supplying
nitrogen to calcareous soils—better to use a
manure containing nitrate of soda and phosphates.
Chrevreul found that frequently guano contains
ammonium subcarbonate.

Peruvian guanos are better suited for heavy
lands than light soils—if used on the latter, they
are best applied in the form of composts. It
must be remembered that if the soil is deficient
in potash, iron, etc., no amount of guano will
produce a full yield of fruit or perfect blooms.
The intellectual cultivator must know the ash

232 MANURES FOR TREES

constituents of the plants he desires to grow, and
the composition of the soil. He is then in a
position to manure correctly and with economy.

Phosphates.—In addition to bones and
guanos, there are coprolites and mineral manures.
The phosphates in these manures are generally in
an insoluble form, and—like bones—they require
time to decompose. They cannot be utilised at
once by the roots of trees and shrubs. If mineral
phosphates are used in special manures they must
be employed in large quantities.

‘Thomas Phosphate, or basic slag, is a phos-
phatic manure produced as a bye-product in the
manufacture of steel by the basic process. Thomas
phosphate contains in 100 parts :—

Lime . . ... . 45°05
Magnesia . . . wl, 6-20
Ferrousoxide . .. 11°64
Ferric oxide .. 592
Manganous oxide oe oh 3°51
Alumina. j ‘ 1°72
Phosphoric acid . « «» 81
Sulphuricacid .. ‘ 0°41
Sulphur «ww, 0°30
Vanadium oxide a 0:24
Silica 2... 6:90

“Thomas slag is a very heavy, dark-coloured
powder, containing much oxide of iron, but that is
not at all injurious to crops” (Munro).

PROPERTIES OF MANURES 299

It is a valuable manure in more ways than one;
but it must not be mixed with sulphate of
ammonia. It is of great value on moor and
peaty soils—especially in the fen districts of this
country.

Superphosphates.—Bones, guanos and mine-
ral phosphates when treated with sulphuric acid
form the superphosphates of lime. It was in the
year 1840 that Liebig produced excellent results by
rendering the phosphate of bones soluble in water
by treatment with schwefelsiure or suiphuric acid ;
and the same process was applied by Sir John B.
Lawes (in 1842) to mineral phosphates with
enormous success. This is really the birth of the
superphosphate industry—an industry producing
millions of tons every year.

Bone and guano superphosphates are of greater
value than those derived from mineral phosphates.
The object gained in using superphosphates is that
the tree is supplied with phosphoric acid in a
soluble (available) form for root-absorption—that
is, for the immediate use of the tree, shrub or plant,
whereas in the case of bones and other phosphates
that have not been vitriolised, time is required for
their decomposition in the soil.

The following analyses represent good super-
phosphates :

234. MANURES FOR TREES

Mineralsuper-| Bone super- | Guano super-
phosphate. | phosphate. | phosphate.
Moisture . .. 20°53 17°37 17-06
TOrganic matter. 14°76 12°59 51°50
Monocalcium _ phos-
phate (soluble). 10°31 19-20 14°52
Tricalcium phosphate
(insoluble) . . 17°72 10°93 3°40
Alkaline salts . . 1°56, 37-62 4-60
Calcium sulphate. 28°39 7°82
Insoluble matter. 6°73 2°29 1:10
100-00 100-00 100-00
t Containing nitrogen . — 0°86 % 9°93 %

Superphosphates enter into the composition of
a large number of special manures, the supply of
phosphoric acid being ready for root-absorption
and the growth of the tree.

Nitrate of Soda, cubic nitre, or Chili salt-
petre is essentially a nitrogenous manure, and a
good sample contains in 100 parts :—

Nitrate ofsoda . . ; 97°45
Chloride of soda fe. os 0°37
Sulphate of soda fe va 8 0°30
Water and insolubles : : 1°88

Nitrate of soda is a valuable ingredient in a
large number of special manures. It is readily

PROPERTIES OF MANURES 236

absorbed by the roots—it is nitrogen in an as-
similable form.

The author has shown that nitrate of soda is
best applied as the crops require it by fractional
top-dressing,’ or in the case of trees and shrubs by
watering them from time to time with a liquid
manure containing nitrate of soda as already
directed in this book.

Mr. E. W. Bell, in his book on Manures, p. 53,
says: “Dr. A. B. Griffiths has most conclusively
proved that the most economical way of using
nitrate is by top-dressing with several successive
quantities of the salt at short intervals.” As
Shakespeare remarks: “’Tis not enough to help
the feeble up, but to support him after.” ”

Nitrate of soda must always be used in pre-
ference to sulphate of ammonia on calcareous soils.

It has been stated that nitrate of soda ‘“ exhausts
the soil”! No substance, when applied to the
soil, can possibly of itself exhaust the land. It is
only by taking out and not replacing that a soil
becomes exhausted.

As a rule, a dry light soil requires more nitrogen
than a damp heavy soil. Soils rich in organic
matter require less nitrogen than soils poor in

1 A. B. Griffiths, A Treatise on Manures, p. 204.
2 Timon of Athens, Act I, sc. i.

236 MANURES FOR TREES

humus. Nitrogen is essential for the growth and
development of all trees. Without nitrogen no
growth ; it is as necessary as sunshine and rain ;
but the application of nitrogen, in the form of
nitrates, etc., must not be overdone or underdone.
Economy in fruit and flower growing is essential.
To apply the right manures in their proper
quantities is the correct way of working. ‘‘Usus
uni rei deditus et naturam et artem saepe
vincit,” wrote Cicero nearly two thousand years
ago, and the remark is applicable even in these
days.

Sulphate of Ammonia is an indirect bye-
product in the manufacture of gas, oven-coke,
shale oils and other industries. It is a salt of
ammonium and sulphuric acid, and the following
is an analysis of a good sample of sulphate of

ammonia :—
Moisture . . . 6°59
Sulphate of ammonia. 91°94=19°5% Nitrogen.
Impurities . |. 1:47

Sulphate of ammonia is suitable for all soils
except calcareous or chalky lands. It is suitable
for clayey and loamy soils, and it increases the
sugar in fruits. Sulphate of ammonia is readily
absorbed by the roots, and consequently it is
quicker in its action than the various organo-nitro-

PROPERTIES OF MANURES 237

genous manures: farmyard manure and other
organo-nitrogenous manures have to undergo the
process of nitrification before they become plant-
foods.

Sulphate of ammonia becomes more located in
the soil than nitrate of soda—in other words, it
is fixed by the soil, and consequently does not
distribute itself like nitrate of soda. For this
reason it is useful for pot-plants in stoves or
greenhouses.

Sulphate of ammonia is directly absorbed by
some plants (see chapter iii.), and is of value
in the early ripening of fruits, and in enhancing
the colour of flowers. It is also of the greatest
use as a dressing after a severe winter; and a
solution of it restores and revivifies faded
flowers.

Ammonium Chloride and weak ammonia are
also useful for supplying nitrogen.

Nitrate of Potash, saltpetre or potassium
nitrate contains in a 100 parts :—

Nitricacid . . . 53°41=13°8% Nitrogen.
Potash. . . . 46°59

and supplies both nitrogen and potash. It is
a useful manure for the growth of many
trees.

238 MANURES FOR TREES

Kainit occurs as a deposit in certain parts of
Germany. It contains about 24°5 per cent. of
potassium sulphate (= 13°20 per cent. of potash) ; it
also contains about 13°22 per cent. of magnesium
sulphate, 14°33 per cent. of magnesium chloride, and
about 30°35 per cent. of sodium chloride. It
supplies potash to a soil, and helps in the ripening
of fruits. It should be applied to all soils deficient
in potash; and it enters into the composition of
most special manures.

Chloride of Potash or carnallite, a double
chloride of potash (muriate of potash) and
magnesia, is also used as a manure, but it cannot
be recommended in lieu of kainit.

Lime or calcium oxide has been used for
manuring fruit trees since the time of the Romans.
It is a constituent of all plants, and helps in the
formation of tissues. It is a valuable manure in
more ways than one.

That able writer, Mr. Donald McDonald, says
that “the absence of lime in the soil is the cause
of the infertility of many gardens; and I would
strongly recommend those who have found their
fruit crops unsatisfactory from some unaccountable
reason to try what a dressing will do. It is
particularly valuable upon the heavier classes of
soils, and when slaked it may be scattered over

PROPERTIES OF MANURES 239

the surface of uncropped ground, at the rate of
half a bushel to a rod, a space of ground measuring
5+ yards each, if in a square. It is a splendid
sweetener to soil that has been overfed with
stable manure, and is also good for all stone
fruit.”

Lime acts as a direct plant-food ; it renders the
inert constituents of the soil readily available ; it
neutralises the acidity of boggy, peaty and or-
ganic soils; it hastens nitrification ; it liberates
soluble potash from the insoluble minerals present
in soils; it renders heavy lands more friable, and
therefore facilitates digging ; it renders sandy soils
less porous (a property of great value in dry
summers), and it. destroys many vegetable and
animal foes in the soil.

Lime should never be used with sulphate of
ammonia or similar compounds of, or bodies con-
taining, ammonia.

Gypsum or sulphate of lime is used in certain
special manures ; and is present (as a drier) in
superphosphate of lime. It aids in the formation
of albuminoids in plants; it fixes ammonia in the
soil, and it liberates potash from insoluble minerals
of the soil.

Magnesium Sulphate (sulphate of magnesia)
is a valuable manure, and it enters into the com-

24.0 MANURES FOR TREES

position of many special manures. It contains in
100 parts :—

Magnesia... 16°26
Sulphuricacid . boo 32°52
Water. . .. ong 51°22

Sulphate of magnesia assists in the formation of
starch, in the development of chlorophyll, and it
enhances the colour and vitality of leaves. Sir
John B. Lawes used it in his mixed manures
for oats, and Ville states that it is an essential
for plant-life. It is present in kainit and other
manures.

It is largely used in the special manures for
French vines; and the American vine flourishes
best in those soils containing a high percentage of
magnesia. The immortal chemist, Liebig, recom-
mended magnesium sulphate for the growth of
plants generally.

Sodium Sulphate is a valuable manure of
certain plants—leguminous plants and trees in
particular. It answers best on light soils.

Silica is a constituent of the ashes of all plants,
and is present in all soils. Ville proved that “the
omission of soluble silica is very prejudicial to
vegetable activity.” He recommended soluble
silicates for the growth of plants; and Dr. E.
Wolff proved that the absorption of soluble silicic

PROPERTIES OF MANURES 241

acid greatly assists the assimilation of other plant-
foods.

Many plants require soluble sodium silicate,
silver-sand, etc., hence, these ingredients are some-
times included in our special manures.

Manganese Sulphate.—Manganese oxide is
present in most plants. The ashes of coniferous
trees contain from 2 to 10 per cent. of manganese
dioxide, rose-trees contain 0°'5, vines 0°6, oleanders
1°5, laburnums 0°5, sequoias 6, syringas 0°5, beech
and chestnut trees 4°5 per cent. of the same
oxide.

Many years ago Prince Salm-Horstmar stated
that manganese, in small quantities, was indis-
pensable for the growth of plants; and it is
used as a manure for the Austrian vines.

Manganese appears to be widely diffused in the
organic world. The ashes of the fruit and seeds of
cardamoms contain 4°2 per cent. of manganese
dioxide.’ It is also present in the ashes of
sarsaparilla, hydrastis, rhatany, belladonna and the
oak ;* and Guérin has proved that manganese is
universally present, as an organic compound, in
the ligneous tissues of trees. The accumulation of

1H. Bridges, Chemical News, 1899, vol. 72, p. 154; W. W. Wills,
Chemical News, vol. 72; Guérin, Comptes Rendus, t. 125, p. 311.

2 A. B. Griffiths, Comptes Rendus de VAcadémie des Sciences,
t. 181, p. 422.

R

40 MANURES FOR TREES

manganese in the seeds and actively vital
parts of plants is confirmatory of its importance
in the vegetable economy. Among other functions
it appears to develop the odours of fruits, flowers,
leaves, etc. Lecomte discovered, in the various
parts of the vanilla plant, the presence of an
oxidising ferment, similar to the oxydases studied
by G. Bertrand. Manganese, which is regarded as
the vehicle of the oxygen, is present in all parts of
Vanilla planifolia; and it is highly probable
that it plays an important part in the preparation
of vanillin and the odoriferous principles in the
conifers and other plants.

Bertrand’ states that the activity ie the
oxydases is proportional to the amount of man-
ganese present, since the absorption of oxygen in
the presence of manganese was found to be con-
siderably greater than when no manganese was
present; and that manganese cannot be replaced
by other metals. Bertrand has suggested that the
oxydases may be special combinations of proteids
with manganese—the manganese being the
oxygen-carrier.

Manganese is also present in the animal kingdom.
It was discovered, by the author, in the blood of

1 Bertrand, Comptes Rendus, t. 120, p. 266; t. 124, p. 1032; and
Bulletin de la Société Chimique de Paris, 3s., t. 15, p. 793.

PROPERTIES OF MANURES 243

Pinna, and its action of oxidation and deoxida-
tion is roughly represented by the following equa-
tions :—

(a) (Globulin—2Mn0O,) = (Globulin —2Mn0O) + O,.
(8) (Globulin —2Mn0O) + O0,= (Globulin —2Mn0,).

Concerning the author’s investigations on re-
spiratory proteids, two letters may be quoted :—
(1) The late Lord Playfair said :—

‘‘T have read your book through with the greatest interest, and
it is quite a revelation to me that so much good chemical work has
been done on the subject. I congratulate you on the large part
you have taken in the researches which I hope you will continue.
I do not at all feel inclined to differ with the large number of atoms
in a molecule of these bodies. They are bound to be very complex
in their constitution.”

The remarks are of interest as Lord Playfair
was, in his youth, the translator of Liebig’s famous

work already mentioned in these pages.
(2) Prof. J. G. McKendrick, LL.D.,
F.R.S., said :—

‘*T have read your book with much interest. It contains a large
amount of information quite new to me, and it indicates on your
part much labour. The good size of the molecules of many of the
substances has always interested me. There is much to learn.
Why should bodies having these respiratory properties be so ex-
tremely complicated ? Why should the molecule be so large? We
may be sure there is a reason for this, and that it is the most

1 A. B. Griffiths, Comptes Rendus, t. 114, p. 840 ; and Respiratory
Proteids, p. 58.

R 2

244 MANURES FOR TREES

economical method for attaining what to us seems a simple
problem, the conveying of oxygen to the tissues. I hope you will
be able to pursue the interesting field of work which you have
made your own.”

Manganese is also found in molluscs, crustaceans,
and other animals; and in acting as a carrier of
oxygen, is undoubtedly of importance in the living
organism. It appears that manganese is almost
universally distributed as combinations with albu-
minoids or globulins, forming special ferments or
oxydases, which probably owe their oxidising pro-
perties to the metal they contain.

There is also much to learn concerning the
physiology of manganese in the vegetable kingdom.
It is present in numberless trees and other plants ;
and it has been proved to be beneficial to plant-
life.

* * * * *

Manganese sulphate is soluble in water, and has
proved of value as a manure for vines in this
country. It should be applied at the rate of an
ounce to the square yard, as it greatly improves
the vitality of the vine and also the quality of the
grapes.

Manganese sulphate stimulates and improves
young yews as well as other cone-bearing trees.

The author grew oleanders with and without

PROPERTIES OF MANURES 245

the aid of manganese sulphate; and by using a
liquid manure, containing a quarter of an ounce of
manganese sulphate to two gallons of water, the
flowers were greatly improved in shape and vitality
—and when cut they lasted longer than flowers
grown without this manure. The liquid manure
was applied twice a week, from May to September.
The composition of the soil was the same in each
case, and the same amount of moisture, heat, light,
etc., were received by each shrub.

Iron Sulphate is largely used as an ingredient
in special manures for fruit trees and flowers. It
produces healthy growth, and is indispensable to
the development of green leaves.

Iron sulphate has the following properties: (1)
It is a direct and an indirect plant-food. (2) It
retains ammonia and phosphoric acid in soils, and
it aids nitrification. (3) Under certain conditions
iron sulphate (green vitriol) decomposes water in
the soil, liberating nascent hydrogen. This hydro-
gen combines with the nitrogen of the air (present
in the interstices of the soil), forming ammonia.
(4) Nitric acid is retained in soils by iron. (5) In
the .case of those plants which develop a large
amount of chlorophyll, iron sulphate is most
beneficial. (6) It has been proved that when an
“iron sulphate solution is injected into the sap of

246 MANURES FOR TREES

unhealthy trees, it acts with beneficial effects.”
(7) A 10 per cent. solution of iron sulphate
destroys certain fungi that attack vines. (8) Iron
sulphate prevents chlorosis in trees, shrubs, etc.
(9) Iron sulphate destroys the spores of fungi (the
foes of vegetation) present in dung; and it also
fixes the ammonia, preventing its evaporation or
loss. (10) Iron sulphate, as a top-dressing, destroys
moss in orchards.

The author's investigations on iron sulphate as a
manure have been confirmed by a large number of
workers in various parts of the world."

Special Manures for various trees and shrubs
have already been given in the last two chapters
of this book, and the results are based on experi-
ments and determinations made in the orchard,
garden and laboratory. We have not described
the modes of culture of each fruit or other tree,
as it would have been entirely outside the subject—
‘‘ Manures for Fruit and Other Trees.”

_ In concluding this chapter on manures, it may
be stated that it is a policy which pays for fruit
growers and gardeners to help nature by adding

1 For further information concerning the use of iron sulphate
as a manure, see the author’s books: A Treatise on Manures,

Special Manures for Garden Crops, Manures and their Uses, and
The Diseases of Crops.

PROPERTIES OF MANURES 247

not only such manures as phosphates, nitrates, and
potash, but the minor constituents in the form of
soluble compounds. Many fruit trees are miserable
failures because the soil is incapable of properly
nourishing them. It is the law of minimum which
regulates the fertility of soils; therefore, most soils
are improved by the addition of iron sulphate, magne-
sium sulphate, etc. Prof. A. Miintz (of the
Ministére de l’Agriculture de France) wrote the
author as follows :—‘ Je partage entitrement votre
maniére de voir au sujet de la présence dans le sol
d’éléments autres que ceux qu’on est convenu
d’appeler exclusivement principes fertilisants. On
néglige beaucoup trop Ja recherche des formes
solubles de matiéres qui, quoique absorbées en petite
quantité par les plantes, sont cependant utiles et
méme indispensables. Le fer, le manganese, le
soufre, la magnésie doivent, & mon avis, étre
regardés comme des éléments fertilisants et lorsque
la terre ne les renferme pas en quantité suffisante
ou sous une forme accessible aux racines, la fertilité
ne peut pas acquérir son maximum.” ,

The subject of manuring is one which can never
be exhausted, as there is always a vast field for
research, and there is much ground yet undis-
covered; but we can only work on “unresting,”

248 MANURES FOR TREES

“unhasting,” trusting that in the end our work
will throw a new light upon this interesting and
all-important department of chemistry. It appears
that the advance which we have already accom-
plished in the art of manuring, instead of narrowing,
actually expands the fields which remain for us to
occupy. We are now in a position to supply the
gardener with a rational system of manuring
suitable for various trees and soils.

The application of small quantities of special
manures must not be viewed as a trivial matter in
the cultivation of fruit and other trees. Many gar-
deners fail in fruit growing because they do not
realise what an important part manures play in the
nourishment of trees. Nothing should be con-
sidered to be too trivial ; brilliant colours, delicious
perfumes, perfect-shaped blooms, leaves and fruits
can only be obtained when the soil contains all the
necessary plant food in an assimilable form.

It is of the utmost value to know the special
manure and the quantity to apply for any partic-
ular tree and soil. It is indispensable that every
tree or shrub should find in the soil in which it grows
those mineral or inorganic constituents which nature
has rendered necessary to it. As soon as mineral
food is absorbed, it begins to ascend into the stem,

PROPERTIES OF MANURES 249

or to diffuse itself through the system, and receives
the name sap. “Lac niveum potes purpureamque
sapam” (Ovid). Hence, the growth of stem,
leaves, flowers and fruits, and the importance of
manuring.

CHAPTER X

TREE-PLANTING FOR PICTORIAL EFFECT

“There is beauty produced by a number of differently formed
trees—each showing its separate mould and features.” —M‘Cosh.

This ig an important subject in all well-kept
gardens and plantations, and is well worthy the
attention of gardeners.

Some fine effects may be produced in the garden,
or the shrubbery border, by the careful and judicious
planting of ornamental trees and shrubs. Graceful
plants like the weeping willows and mop-headed
acacias (Robinia inermis) are well suited for plant-
ing amongst dwarf-growing shrubs ; whilst a back-
ground of such trees as the double scarlet thorn, the
Japanese plum (Prunus Pissardit), with its crimson
purple foliage, Acer negundo variegata, with its
silver-edged leaves, the copper-coloured or purple
beech, and the laburnum?* with its golden flowers

1 “The great lilacs and laburnums . . . showed their golden
and purple wealth above the lichen-tinted walls.”—George Eliot.

TREE-PLANTING 2E1

and graceful leaves, planted alternately, produce
beautiful and artistic effects when in full bloom and
leaf in May and June. These points the landscape
gardener should study.

Among other trees and shrubs may be mentioned :
Acer Californica aurea (with its golden foliage
Robina hispida (rose acacia), Rhus cotinus (with its
beautiful plum-like leaves), lilacs, catalja, elm, elder,
guelder rose, syringa, etc., which are all deciduous
and ornamental trees. These form a beautiful con-
trast to the evergreen trees, such as the golden and
silver hollies, golden yews, variegated aucubas, dark-
green leaved and early flowering laurustinus, dark-
green leaved euonymus, privets, yuccas and pines.

In addition to ornamental foliage and flowers,
the artistic gardener will have an eye to the
beautiful barks on various trees. The white barks
of Betula alba, Populus alba, Cornus candid-
issima, ete.; the red barks of Betula mgra, Rosa
lucida, Salia purpurea, Tilia rubra, ete.; and
the yellow barks of Fraainus excelsior aurea,
Salix aurea, Forsythea suspensa, Kerria aures
vittata, etc., are valuable for pictorial effect—even
for the critical eye of a Ruskin; also the same
remarks apply to the yellow and black berries of
the privet.

The various colours of the leaves should also be

252 MANURES FOR TREES

studied so as to produce a contrast. There are
the light green leaves of Lamia europea, Robima
pseudacacia, Taxodium distichum, Tilia europea,
ete.; the dark green leaves of Ulmus, Fraaxinus
crispa, Betula nigra, Fagus sylvatica, Euonymus
europeus, etc.; the reddish-purple leaves of
Corylus Avellana purpurea, Acer japonicum
atropurpureum, Quercus pedunculata purpurea,
Fagus sylvatica purpurea (“the copper beech”),
etc.; the yellow or golden leaves of Sambucus
nigra-aurcovarie-gata, Castanea vesca variegata,
Spirea opulifolia lutea, etc., and white or silvery
foliage of Salix argyrea, Shepherdia argentea,
Tilea argentea, Populus argentea, Pyrus vestita,
etc; all these are of value in a picturesque
garden, and form a striking feature in any land-
scape.

There are also a variety of shrubs for fencing,
among these are the Myrobella (cherry plum),
which is quick-growing and makes an impenetrable
hedge in three or four years. The yew (Zazus)
forms one of the densest, warmest, and most useful
of all fences, and it is of great value where shelter
is required for delicate trees, flowers, etc. The
beech, box, holly, laurel, privet, tamarix and
whitethorn are also useful for fencing.

The following trees may be recommended for

TREE-PLANTING 25%

plantations and gardens: the alder, ash, beech,
birch, horse chestnut, elm, larch, hazel, hornbeam,
lime, maple, oak, poplar, pines, sycamore (‘the
thronged boughs of the shady sycamore tree”
[D. G. Rossetti,]), willow, etc.

Shrubs and trees suitable for training on walls
are the following among many others :—Ampelopsis
(Virginian creeper), Garrya elliptica, hops, ivies,
jasmine, honeysuckle, Magnolia soulangeana
(which bears purplish-tinted flowers with white
centre), Passiflora caerulea, Pyrus japonica,
Wistaria sinensis (bearing mauve coloured flowers),
clematises, and roses (climbing, such as Banksias,
crimson rambler, Gloire de Dijon, etc.).

All these trees and shrubs for the various
purposes mentioned require cultivation and atten-
tion, and many trees are failures through want of
the proper treatment. The manures and soils
most suitable for the growth of trees have already
been mentioned in this book, therefore the
gardener must determine which species or varieties
are suitable to the locality, and the mixing of two
or more kinds of trees depends (1) on their relative
capacity for preserving or increasing favourable
soil conditions ; and (2) on their relative depend-
ence on light and shade for development. The
varieties to be mixed should be well chosen, not

254 MANURES FOR TREES

only with reference to their light requirement, but
also to the period of their development or rapidity
of growth.

Trees afford shelter from winds and are of great
value in a garden. It is well known that many
shrubs, fruit trees, etc., will grow in gardens
sheltered from winds, but not otherwise.

In the formation of plantations, orchards, etc.,
the preparation of the soil is of the utmost import-
ance, and deep digging is essential, so that rain
may be readily absorbed (the action of water on
soil and plant has already been described). Not
only is the absorbing power of the soil increased
by deep digging, but the ability of such soil to re-
tain moisture under proper cultivation is marked.

The soil should now be pulverised, so that its
particles may be brought into contact with the
roots of the trees, and thus supply them with
mineral matter and moisture.

Deep digging and pulverising are as important
in preparing the land for trees as ploughing and
harrowing are in the preparation of a field for a
crop of wheat, barley, or oats. Not only will trees
start more quickly when set in well-prepared and
manured soil, but the growth will be more uniform
and strong. It is also of equal importance to keep
the surface soil in fine tilth until the trees have

TREE-PLANTING 255

grown sufficiently to shade the ground. Deep
digging gives a large absorptive area, and surface
cultivation places over the moist soil a dust blanket
that acts as an effective mulch, checking evapora-
tion and thus retaining the moisture of the soil for
the use of the trees.

After heavy rains, stirring the soil will prevent
the formation of a crust, and will greatly benefit
young trees and shrubs.

Weeds and long-rooted grasses should be
destroyed, because they use the nourishment from
the soil that is needed for tree growth and develop-
ment.

Many trees, both young and old, would be saved
from disease and decay by a proper system of
cultivation. Let the cultivator remember that
even trees require attention and care, and many fine
old timbered trees are ruined for want of cultiva-
tion and manuring. We are apt to think that
trees require little or no attention—the soil, air and
moisture provide all that is necessary. This is a
mistake—and a serious mistake—in any well-kept
orchard, plantation or garden. In the words of Sir
William Ramsay, let us remember “ the advantages
of investigating the unlikely.” All trees pay for
proper cultivation and manuring at the right time
and season ; by so doing we help nature, and are

256 MANURES FOR TREES

rewarded by healthy trees, perfect-shaped leaves,
and a beautiful landscape. As Mr. Ruskin says:
“the leaves take all kinds of strange shapes, as if
to invite us to examine them. Star-shaped, heart-
shaped, spear-shaped, arrow-shaped, fretted, fringed,
deft, furrowed, serrated, sinuated, in whorls, in
tufts, in spires, in wreaths, endlessly expressive,
deceptive, fantastic, never the same from foot of
stalk to blossom, they seem perpetually to tempt
our watchfulness and take delight in outstripping
our wonder.”

Such are the delights to be obtained from the
proper and judicious planting of trees, and the
esthetic eye delights in the harmony of colours and
the picturesqueness generally.

To conclude in the words of Meredith :

‘+ For him the woods were a home and gave him the key
Of knowledge, thirst for their treasures in herbs and flowers.
The secrets held by the creatures nearer than we
To earth he sought, and the link of their life with ours:
And where alike we are, unlike where, and the veined
Division, veined parallel, of a blood that flows
In them, in us, from the source by man unattained,
Save mark he well what the mystical woods disclose.”

There is much food for thought and research in
every garden, orchard, plantation, wood or forest ;
and what a rich harvest there is for the earnest
and diligent student of nature !

INDEX

INDEX

ABSORPTION, nitrogen, 16
Absorption of ammoniacal salts,
35

Absorption, root, 10
Acacia (see Locust tree), 90
Acacias, manures for, 218
Agronomy, 19—44
Ammonia, chloride of, 237
Ammonia, sulphate of, 236
Apple, ashes of, 53, 54
Apple trees, soils for, 27
Apples, manures for, 179
Apricot, ashes of, 54
Apricots, manures for, 182
Arbutus, ashes of, 167
Ash, ashes of, 90
Ash constituents, 17
Ashes of each plant, see under the
name of the plant
Aucuba, ashes of, 92
Aucubas, manures for, 204
Azaleas, manures for, 205

BAcTERIOLOGY OF SOIL, 19—44,
34

Barberry, manures for, 205
Barren soils, 47

Beech, ashes of, 93

Beech trees, manures for, 205
Bilberry, ashes of, 55

Birch, ashes of, 95

Birch trees, manures for, 205
Blackberries, manures for, 183
Blackberry, ashes of, 56
Bonnett’s discovery, 3

Box tree, ashes of, 95

Box trees, manures for, 205

CASTOR OIL TREE, ashes of, 96

Castor oil trees, manures for, 206

Chemistry of soils, 19—44

Cherry, ashes of, 57

Cherry trees, manures for, 183

Cherry trees, soils for, 27

Chestnut, ashes of, 58

Chestnut, horse, ashes of, 110

Chestnuts, manures for, 184

Chlorophyll, 12—15

Circulation, plant, 17

Classification of soils, 21

Clematis, ashes of, 96

Clematises, manures for, 206

Composition of fruit trees, 51—89

Composition of various trees, 90—
177

Cranberry, ashes of, 76

Cross-fertilisation, 161

Currant bushes, soils for, 27

Currant (Greek), 87—89

Currants, ashes of, 60

Currants, manures for, 184

Damson, ashes of, 61

Damson trees, manures for, 187
Davy’s theory, 5

De Saussure’s theory, 5
Digby’s theory, 2

Discovery, Bounel’s, 3
Dundonald’s theory, 3

E1nuor and Thaér’s theory, 5
Elder, ashes of, 97

Elder trees, manures for, 206
Elm, ashes of, 99

Elms, manures for, 207

260

Euonymus, ashes of, 99
Euonymus trees, manures for,

Fia-TREE, ashes of, 62
Fig-trees, manures for, 187
Fig-trees, soils for, 28
Filbert trees, 63

Filbert trees, soils for, 28
Fruit-trees, soils for, 30
Fuchsia, ashes of, 100
Fuchsias, manures for, 207
Function of leaves, 11
Furze, ashes of, 101

Furze bushes, manures for, 207

GaRDENIA, ashes of, 102

Gardenias, manures for, 208

Garrya, ashes of, 102

Garrya, manures for, 208

Gaultheria, ashes of, 103

Gaultheria, manures for, 208

Genista, ashes of, 104

Genistas, manures for, 29

Gleditschia, ashes of, 104

Gooseberry bushes, ashes of, 64

Gooseberry bushes, manures for,
188

Gooseberry bushes, soils for, 28

Gorse, ashes of, 101

Grapes, ashes of, 86

Greengage, ashes of, 65

Greengage trees, manures for,
189

Grevillea, ashes of, 105

Grevilleas, manures for, 209

Guanos, 231

Guelder rose, ashes of, 105

a rose trees, manures for,

Gypsum, 239

HamMaAmuE Lis, ashes of, 106

a ee shrubs, manures for,
1

Hawthorn, ashes of, 107

Hawthorns, manures for, 210

Hazel, ashes of, 66

Heath, ashes of, 108

Heaths, manures for, 210

Heliotropium, ashes of, 108

Heliotropiums, manures for, 210

INDEX

Historical Introduction, 1-7
Holly, ashes of, 113
Honeysuckle, ashes of, 109
Honeysuckles, manures for, 210
Hornbeam, ashes of, 109
Hornbeams, manures for, 211
Horse chestnut, ashes of, 110
Horse chestnut, manures for, 211
Hovea, ashes of, 111

Hoveas, manures for, 212
Humus of a soil, 37

Husbandry, laws of, 43
Hypericum, ashes of, 111
Hypericums, manures for, 212

Ipzsta, ashes of, 112

Idesia, manures for, 212

Tlex, ashes of, 113

Tlex, manures for, 212

Illicum, ashes of, 115

Mllicum, manures for, 212

India-rubber tree, ashes of, 116

India-rubber trees, manures for,
212

Introduction, historical, 1-7

Tron sulphate, 245

Tron sulphate for soils, 29

Itea, gshes of, 116

Iteas, manures for, 213

Ivies, manures for, 213

Ivy, ashes of, 117

Ixora, ashes of, 118

Ixoras, manures for, 213

JACARANDA, ashes of, 119
Jessamine, ashes of, 119
Jessamines, manures for, 213
Juglans, ashes of, 67

Juniper trees, manures for, 213
Juniperus, ashes of, 120

Kapsva, ashes of, 122
Kadsusa, manures for, 213
Kainit, 238

Kalmia, ashes of, 122
Kantia, ashes of, 123
Kantias, manures for, 213
Kentiopsis, ashes of, 123
Kentiopsis, manures for, 213
Kerria, ashes of, 124
Kerrias, manures for, 124

INDEX 261

Lasicuaa, ashes of, 125
Labicheas, manures for, 214
Laburnum, ashes of, 126
Laburnums, manures for, 214
Larch, ash of, 126

Larch trees, manures for, 214
Laurel, ashes of, 119
Laurels, manures for, 214
Laurustinus, ashes of, 128
Laurustinus, manures for, 214
Law of minimum, 9, 23

Laws of Husbandry, 43
Leaves, function of leaves, 11
Lebanon Cedar, ashes of, 129

Lebanon Cedars, manures for,

215
Ledum, ashes of, 130
Ledums, manures for, 215
Lemon, ashes of, 68
Lemon-tree, manures for, 189
Leontis, ashes of, 130
Leontis, manures for, 215
Leucothoé, ashes of, 131
Leucothoés, manures for, 216
Leycesteria, ashes of, 131
Leycesterias, manures for, 216
Libocedrum, ashes of, 132
Liebig’s theory, 5
Ligustrum, ashes of, 132
Ligustrums, manures for, 216
Lilac, ashes of, 133
Lilacs, manures for, 216
Lime, 238
Lime, ashes of, 133
Limes, manures for, 217
Lindera, ashes of, 134
Linderas, manures for, 218
Liquidambar, ashes of, 135
Liquidambars, manures for, 218
Liriodendron, ashes of, 135
Liriodendrons, manures for, 218
Locust-tree, ashes of, 136
Locust-trees, manures for, 218

Mac tora, ashes of, 137
Magnesium Sulphate, 239
Magnolia, ashes of, 137
Manganese Sulphate, 241
Manures for apples, 179

apricots, 182

aucubas, 204

azaleas, 205

Manures for barberry, 205

beech trees, 205
birch trees, 205
blackberries, 183
box trees, 205
castor-oil trees, 206
cedars, 215
cherry trees, 183
chestnuts, 184
clematises, 206
currant bushes, 188
damson trees, 189
elder trees, 206
euonymus trees, 207
fig trees, 187
fuchsias, 207
furze bushes, 207
gardenias, 208
garryas, 208
gaultherias, 208
genistas, 208
gooseberry bushes, 188
greengages, 189
grevilleas, 209
guelder roses, 209
hamamelis, 210
hawthorns, 210
heaths, 210
heliotropes, 210
honeysuckles, 210
hypericums, 212
idesias, 212
illicums, 212
india-rubber trees, 212
iteas, 213

ivies, 213°

ixoras, 213
jassamines, 213
juniper trees, 213
kadsuras, 213
kentias, 213
kentiopsis, 213
kerrias, 213
labicheas, 214
laburnums, 214
larch trees, 214
laurels, 214
laurustinus, 214
ledums, 215
lemon trees, 187
leonotis, 215
leucothess, 216

262

Manures for leycesterias, 216
lilacs, 216
limes, 217
linderas, 218
liquidambar, 218
locust tree, 218
magnolias, 218
maples, 219
mezereons, 219
monkey-puzzles, 219
mountain ashés, 219
mulberry tree, 190
myricas, 219
myrtles, 219
nectarine trees, 190
Norway spruces, 220
nuts, 190
oaks, 220
oleander, 220
other trees, 204—226
palms, 220
passion flowers, 221
pavias, 221
phillyreas, 221
pineapple, 194
pines, 222
pisticias, 222
platanus, 222
plum tree, 195
poplars, 222
punicas, 222
raspberries, 196
rhamnus, 222
rhododendrons, 222
ribes, 222
stephanotis, 225
strawberry tree, 197
symphoricarpus, 225
syringa, 225
tamarix, 225
taxus, 225
thujas, 225
vines, 197—200
virginian creepers, 226
walnut, 189
wistaria, 226
yuccas, 226
Manures, properties of, 227219
Maple, ashes of, 138
Matter, organic, 9
Medlar, ashes of, 70
Metrosideros, ashes of, 138

INDEX

Mezereon, ashes of, 139
Mineral constituents of plants, 17,

Mineral matter of soils, 36
Minimum, law of, 9, 23
Mistletoe, ashes of, 140
Monkey Puzzle, ashes of, 142
Mountain ash, ashes of, 143
Mulberry tree, soil for, 28
Myrica, ashes of, 143
Myrtle, ashes of, 144

NatuRAL Manurzs, 227

Nectarine trees, manures for,
190

Nectarine, ashes of, 72

“ Nitragin,” 34

Nitrification, 35

Nitrogin, 33

Nitrogen absorption, 16

Noble silver fir, ashes of, 145

Norway spruce, 145

Oak, ashes of, 148

Oaks, manures for, 220

Oil of rose, 161

Oleander, ashes of, 184
Oleander, manures for, 220
Olive, ashes of, 73

Orange, ashes of, 74
Orange trees, manures for, 191
Organic matter, 9
Oxidation of soils, 32
Oxyococcus, ashes of, 76

Pawm, ashes of, 149

Palms, manures for, 220
Passion-flower, ashes of, 149
Passion-flowers, manures for, 221
Pavia, ashes of, 150

Peach, ashes of, 77

Peach, soils for, 77

Peach trees, manures for, 191
Pear, ashes of, 78

Pear-trees, manuring, 79
Pear-trees, manures for, 191
Phillyrea, ashes of, 150
Phosphates, Thomas, 232
Phosphates, 232

Pine-apple, ashes of, 80
Pine-apples, manures for, 194

INDEX

Pine, ashes of, 151

Pines, manures for, 222
Pisticia, ashes of, 153
Pisticia, manures for, 222
Plane tree, ashes of, 154
Plant circulation, 17

Plant physiology, 8—18
Plant respiration, 16, 18
Platanus, ashes of, 154
Platanus, manures for, 222
Plum trees, ashes of, 80, 81
Plum trees, soils for, 27
Plum trees, manures for, 195
Poplar, ashes of, 155
Poplars, manures for, 222
Potash, chloride of, 238
Properties of manures, 227—249
Punica, ashes of, 82
Punicas, manures for, 222

QUINCE TREES, ashes of, 83

RAPHIOLEPSIS, ashes of, 158

Raspberries, manures for, 196

Raspberry-bushes, ashes of, 84

Red-flowering currant, ashes of,
156

Red maple, ashes of, 156

Respiration, plant, 16, 18

BRhamuus, ashes of, 157

Rhamnus, manures for, 222

Rhododendron, ashes of, 159

Bhododendrons, manures for, 222

Rhus, ashes of, 160

Rhus, manures for, 223

Ribes, manures for, 222

Root-absorption, 10

Rose, ashes of, 160

Rose oil, 161

Rosetrees, manures for, 223

Ruscus, ashes of, 162

Saix, ashes of, 163
Salix, manures for, 224
Sciadopitys, ashes of, 163
Sequoia, ashes of, 164
Shepherdia, ashes of, 165
Silica, 240
Sloe, ashes of, 85
Sodium sulphate, 240
Soils, 20, 21

for apple trees, 27

263

Soils for cherry trees, 23

currant bushes, 23

fig trees, 28

filbert trees, 28

gooseberry bushes, 28

humus, matter of, 37

mineral matter of, 36

mulberry trees, 28

oxidation of, 32

perfect, 21

the bacteria of, 34

the chemistry and bacteriology

of, 19—44

various, 24, 25

various barren, 47

walnut, 28
Southernwood, ashes of, 165
Southernwood, manures for, 224
Special manures, 246
Spirza, ashes of, 166
Spirzas, manures for, 224
Stephanotis, ashes of, 167
Stephanotis, manures for, 225
Sterile soils, 45—50
St. John’s Wort, ashes of, 111
Strawberry tree, ashes of, 167
Symbiosis, 33
Symphoricarpus, ashes of, 168
Symphoricarpus, manures for,

225

Syringa, ashes of, 168
Syringas, manures for, 225

Tamarix, ashes of, 169
Tamarix, manures for, 225
Taxodium, ashes of, 170
Taxus, ashes of, 171
Taxus, manures for, 225
Theory, Davy’s, 3

De Saussure’s, 3

Digby’s,2 -

Dundonald’s, 3

Einhof and Thaéf’s, 4

Liebig’s, 5

Tull’s, 3

Van Helmont’s, 2
Thomas phosphate, 232
Thuja, ashes of, 171
Thuja, manures for, 225
Thuyopis, ashes of, 172
Transpiration, 16
Tree of the Gods, ashes of, 172

264 INDEX

Tree of the Sun, ashes of, 172 WALNUT TREES, ashes of, 67
Tree-planting for pictorical effect, Walnut trees, soils for, 28
250—256 Water in a soil, 40
Water in plants, 9
Upricut cypress, ashes of, 174 Wistaria, ashes of, 175

Wistaria, manures for, 226
Van HELMONT’S THEORY, 2

Various soils, 24, 25, 28 Yew, ashes of, 170

Vine, ashes of, 86 Yew-trees, ages of, 170
Vines, manures for, 197 Yucca, ashes of, 176
Virginian creeper, ashes of, 174 Yuceas, manures for, 226

Virginian creeper, manures for,
226 ZANTHOXYLUM, ashes of, 176

THE END

«. OLAY AND SONS, LTD., BREAD STREET HILL, E.C., AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK.

ONE & ALL FERTILISERS

THE BRAND GUARANTEES
— ONE & ALL QUALITY. —

ONE & ALL FERTILISERS are complete Manures.
Each one is scientifically proportioned for its special plants.

All are concentrated, effective, pleasant to handle, free from
offensive smell.

ESTABLISHED 1867 All are supplied in small quantities at reasonable prices.

ONE & ALL FERTILISERS FOR GARDEN CROPS.

No. 22 For Vines, Fruit Trees, &c.
» 28 ,, Potatoes,

>», 24 ,, General Garden Pur-
poses.

» 25 ,, Strawberries.

» 26 ,, Flowers.

» 27 4, Grass Lawns.

» 29 ,, Chrysanthemums.
» 30 ,, Peas and Beans.
» 31 ,, Tomatoes.

Half-Rod Packets, 6d. each.

Bags, 7lbs., 2/8; 14lbs., 3/6;
28lbs, 5/9; 56lbs. 10/6;
112 Ibs., 20/- each.

ONE & ALL COReeNIRATED MANURES.

Half-Ro

Packet. 7 Ibs. 14 Ibs. 28 Ibs. 56lbs. lewt.

8. d. 8 ad. 8. d. 8. d, 8. da 8. d.
Sulphate of Ammonia one ose _ 2 3 3 6 5 9 10 6 20 0
Bone and Mineral Superphosphate _ 19 283 3 3 5 6 10 0
Mineral Superphosphate wx 10-6 16 ad 39 2 6 4 0 7 0
Pure Dissolved Bones ans ese = 19 26 3 9 6 6 12 0
Ground Bones, 4 and }-inch aa _ 1 6 20 3 0 5 0 9 0
Bone Meal a one PE mee *0-.6) 16 20 3.0 5 6 10 0
Guano, Equalized... = -_ _ 20 3 0 5 0 9 0 17 0
Gypsum ... on ae a == _- 16 20 3 0 5 0
Concentrated Kainite wa » 0 6 1 6 20 26 40 7 0
Nitrate of Potash 352 on o = 2 6 4 6 79 14 6 28 0
Salt es = ass see te = _ 16 20 3 0 5 0
Nitrate of Soda se sie es 10° 6 20 26 4 3 7 6 14 0
Sulphate of Iron... moh Ma 1 6 2 0 2 6 40 7 0
Basic Slag. aks aos = 1 6 20 2 6 3 6 6 0

All prices include cost of carriage, and the One & All Fertilisers and Manures may be had,
at the prices here quoted, from any of the One & All agencies in all parts of the United
Kingdom, :

Large cultivators will find particulars of special fertilisers for all garden and farm crops in
One & All Fertilisers, published annually by the Agricultural and Horticultural Association,
post free on application to

EDWARD OWEN GREENING,

One & All Fertiliser Works: Managing Director,
DEPTFORD CREEK, Central Offices: 92, LONG ACRE,
LONDON, S.E. LONDON, W.C.

ONE & ALL FERTILISERS

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