Cornell University Library BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henry W. Saaqe 1891 AUDIO WiLLSEE RETURN TO ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY ITHACA, N. Y. DATE DUE GAYLORD PRINTEDINU.S.A, Cornell University Library | SB 221.W26S wii "4 | $ work for r iil | 03 300 80 mann 0 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003300807 SUGAR BEET SEED A Work for FARMERS, SEEDSMEN and CHEMISTS, Containing Histor- ical, Botanical and Theoretical Data, Combined with Practical Directions for the Production of Superior Sugar Beet Seed. By LEWIS.S. WARE, M. E., Editor of “The Sugar Beet,” Author of “The Sugar Beet,” “Various Sources of Sugar, “Production, Requirements and Selection of Sugar Beet Seed;’ Member of the American Philosophical Society, Fellow of L’Ecole Centrale des Arts, Agriculture et Manufactures, Association des Chimistes Paris, etc. Fs Profusely Illustrated ORANGE JUDD COMPANY Chicago New York Springfield Sb 22 wee Aas (Copyright, 1898 ] ORANGE JUDD COMPANY [All rights reserved ] PUBLISHER'S NOTE. This book has long been in preparation, and the manu- ecript was in the publisher’s hands for some months before it was printed. The work embodies not only the results of 20 years’ studies and experience with the subject, but in its preparation the author has visited nearly every beet-seed farm and similar institution in the world. The illustrations are mostly from wood engravings originally made for this work. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CFIA PIE Di cacccsiiar sss oaiisi chases sta supaersneysidea voile sco opcst OER Pages 1 to 6 Historical Considerations and Origin of European Vari- eties of Beets—Concluding Remarks. CHAPTER TI, wcssaiciecas tina ..Pages 7 to 25 Botanical Ponsiderations. Feenenkine Susan -Beet Seed— Historical Facts Relating to the Fertilization of Plants— Description of the Flower—Fertilization—Examination of Beet Seed—Enlarged Microscopical Section of the Entire Seed—Maturity—Physiological Functions of the Embryo and Albumen. CHAPTER Fs scsaxensa ‘ ..Pages 26 to 43 Requirements of Sire age Beet Seed —Bpelinnivacy Remarks —Advantage of One Variety of Beets—Advantage of Early Selection—Annual Beets. CHAPTER IV. .. -Pages 44 to 52 Races, Types and. Varieties. ot ‘Sugar Beets—Preliminary Remarks—Technical Considerations. CHAPTER Vi. wis scinewe a ara ..Pages 52 to 121 Selection of Beets with a “View to: Seed Production. Part I.— Preliminary Observations. Legras’s Physical Selection of Mothers, with Discussion as to Advantage of Small Beets—Exterior Signs as Indication of Quality. Selection by Appearance of Leaves. Part II. Chemical Selection—History of Chemical Selec- tion—Ist. Density of the Entire Root; 2d, Density of a Piece of Beet; 3d, Density of the Juice of the Beet; 4th, Estimation of the Juice by Chem- ical Methods; 5th, Estimation of the Sugar Beet by Means of a Polariscope. (a), Alcohol Method; (b), Hot Water Method; (c), Cold Water Methods, Pellet and Lamot Rasp; (c) 2, Keil and Dolle Rasp with Subsequent Weighing of Pulps; 38, Without Weighing with Special Samples as Adopted by M. lLegras; 4, Sach’s Direct Method—General Remarks on Laboratory Requisites for Selection of Mothers by Cold-Water Method—German Beet-Seed-Selecting Laboratory—Polariscope for Mother Selection. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS. Vv CHAPTER VI. ....... : .. Pages 122 to 152 Agricultural Soils fox: Beet: ‘Seed Production—Fertitizers for Elite Seed and Mothers—Sowing of Seed for Mothers —Preparing the Soil, Planting of Mothers and Care Dur- ing Development—Relation Between Soils and Fertili- zers—Harvesting—Silos for Mothers—Chemical Changes During Second Year’s Growth. CHAPTER VIL. c. scien es Weisees .. Pages 153 to 169 Selection and Sampling “Seed Prelimninaiee Remarks— Influence of the Size of Seed on the Quality of the Root— Actual Weight of Beet Seed—Selection of Seed. CHAPTER VIII. ........ wed a ..Pages 170 to 183 Germination Pant Pain mary Renarks—cermninatand. Methods and Mistakes. CHAPTER IX. ....... ..Pages 184 to 207 Sowing of Secd-Pueperine “Seed “Before Sowing—Beet seed Sowing—Germination in Soil. ARTE Xs anes vedvattansaee nes sear iirnhare eck Pages 208 to 220 Special Methods of Production of Superior Seed—From Leaves, Buds, Small Beets. CHAPTER, Bly weer cexs ‘ ..Pages 221 to 236 Home-Grown Rest- a oD or wo el Oe Teens SeNaaod Soda Lime.--; Magnesia. Chiorine---- Sulphuric acid. Phosphoric acid........-. 2. seers eee eee : Gilicic acid... .-- +++ eee ee i 92 2 Bo 0 09 3 SAMAR is 2 SUGAR BEET SEED. of Vilmorin in 1775, in Russia during 1800, and sub- sequently. Experiments under Conrad Adam were carried on in Vienna in 1799. F. C. Archard, in 1786, at his farm, experimented with not less than twenty- two varieties of beets; and, as a result of these observa- tions, his book on the manufacture of beet sugar was issued. Other authorities declare that it was brought to Germany from Holland. In Austria it was certainly known during the last century. To follow the sugar beet through the various stages of its history is almost an impossibility; but it was not until the 18th century that a standard name was applied to this root; its use at that period was almost entirely for feed- ing purposes. Beet seed sold in 1837 for 25 to 75 cents per pound. The early Vilmorin selection in France assumed a seri- ous aspect in 1830; a few years after this, Ziemann of Quedlinburg, Saxony, followed the example of the French. The Vilmorin method, based upon apparent sugar percentages of pieces of beet in saline solutions, was improved upon by the use of the polariscope for exact sugar determinations. However, the real impe- tus given to the whole question of amelioration of the saccharine quality of sugar beets was largely due to the Prussian fiscal laws. In Germany for many years they did not hesitate to declare that the Vilmorin seed was the best, and Professor Maercker placed it beyond all others. This is made evident, for even as late as 1877 the Vilmorin Original sold for about 35 cents per pound while the Quedlinburg was worth about 64 cents.* The Klein-Wanzleben, however, stood next According to the “Deutsche Zuckerindustrie.” the prices of beet seed on the German market in 1877 were: Vilmorin Original, 50 kgs............ cece ee cee eee eat 140 marks Vilmorin Amelioree, 50 kus...... et 28-36 marks Klein-Wanzleben, 50 kgs.......... 006... eee 90 marks Electoral Knaner............ -. 2... sarNess 48 marks Imperial Knauer. sel POR “eb GaN ew eae edad Gave ae -. 40-42 marks Quedlinburg Original...... ..... a Masecates wen oe 21-27 marks COMMMIENGIAN sawed bckiyd cas Secs d5,04. fimeilas Beg : .. 1820 marks an EUROPEAN VARIETIES OF BEETS. to the Vilmorin, but that variety brought freely only 22 cents per pound. However, beets of those days were so different from the kind now used for sugar-making that they need no more than a passing notice. Knauer, with some authority, maintains that all existing varieties of sugar beets have five important starting points: Ist, Belgian; 2d, Quedlinburg; 3d, Silesian; 4th, Siberian, and 5th, the Imperial beet. Hundreds of varieties differ, not only in shape, but in the size and form of their leaves, which, also, are so many characteristics, to which must be added sub-varieties with varied col- ored skins, necks, etc. At the present time those who have centred their efforts on one variety, like M. Legras, have created a type that would be recognized anywhere; also the German, Klein-\Wanzleben, which has undergone certain changes, but still retains its original characteristics. The type was created bv the old firm Rabbethge and Giesecke in 1859. Vilmo- tin, the well-known French seed producer, created the White Silesian and the Ameliorated, as well as the green and rose neck varieties. The Desprez beets are known as white or rose, with hard skins, white or rose intermediate skins, and the green neck, soft skins, with several early maturing varieties; Simon-Legrand has the white rose, white conical neck, all of which are the so-called ameliorated types of the German seed grow- ers. The most important, besides the ones mentioned in the foregoing, are the Knauer. Old Imperial, Rose and White Ameliorated Imperial and Electoral. The Dippe Brothers have produced a type based upon the Klein-Wanzleben, Imperial Ameliorated, and the Most Rich. The Austrian beet of Jules-Robert is much liked: the varieties are few. It is not necessary to discuss the claims of each seed grower, for the practical results do not agree with 4 SUGAR BEET SEED. their assertions.* In Europe great changes have occurred in types of beets used. From 1850 to 1859 the white skin varieties were the most popular; from 1860 to 1874 the rose necks and skins were in vogue. There were several varieties of these, but for some unknown reason the German sugar manufacturers refused them. The farmers then declined to continue planting them. They were, however, said to possess great maturing qualities; the white varieties have superseded all oth- ers. And, strange as it may seem, there are many authorities who have proved beyond cavil that, when comparisons are made between the best types, let them be of white or rose skins or necks, the sugar percent- age and the coefficient of purity remain about the same. Upon general principles, we may admit that most of the existing varieties are connected in some way with the Vilmorin French seed or with the Klein- Wanzleben with some variation. Among the outcome of the latter may be mentioned Tieder, Nordstemmer, Uffingen, Staessener, Schaustedter, Edderitger, Glau- siger, Einbecker and Sallovitger, followed by hun- dreds of others which are mentioned under the names of various dealers, to which, however, we may add the Koppy and Strander. The olive-shaped beet, such as the Buchner, never met with the success at one time hoped for it. A vari- ety one now hears very little about is the Bestehorn, which is rather rich in sugar. From it were created other varieties. The white Magdeburg beet of Schlieck- ‘mann is very like the Bestehorn variety. From the Vil- morin types many varieties have also been created, and the existing standard is a combination of the origi- nal Vilmorin with a German variety, thus correcting the irregular shape that originally existed, and *In the appendix of the book we give names and addresses of all the leading growers,and in special cases a general outline of their varieties and claims as to sugar percentage and yield. EUROPEAN VARIETIES OF BEETS. 5 the color of the skin. For many years these very rich Vilmorin beets were irregular in color, shape. etc. Mention must also be made of the Brabant beet, which was the starting point of many varieties which were popular for some vears in France and Belgium. Concluding Remarks. Taking the beet-seed question as a whole, great improvements are still being made, for in Germany in 1882, the average sugar in the beet was 13.1; sugar in the juice 14.6; ten years later, in 1892,the average sugar in the beet was 15; sugar in the juice 16.7. True, the kind of soil, etc., have important influences on the vari- ety of beets that may be the most desirable to use, but the question remains, Can many of the seed growers keep their varieties pure under their existing methods of selection and cultivation? The writer thinks not, for reasons which shall be discussed in the following pages. The difference in price per pound between good and bad seed is not sufficient to permit of any hesitancy in the choice—and the results with superior seed will always be more satisfactory in the end. It is to be regretted that some American seed dealers are offering to their customers imported beet seed at ten cents per pound. It is well to call attention to the fact that we doubt if superior beet seed can be pro- duced in Europe and shipped to the United States at that price. More care should be taken in purchasing beet seed than hitherto. Reliable dealers or producers zlone should be applied to. In the pages which follow we enter into consider- able detail respecting the science of selection, showing the importance of its continuance from year to year. If neglected, there is sure to follow a degeneration in the varieties under study, owing to atavismistic forces asserting their presence, for which facts the ordinary seed dealer does not allow. Then both the 6 SUGAR BEET SEED. farmer and manufacturer who have had _ confi- dence, suffer. The mixing of worthless seed with superior seed has become an industry in several European centres. If beet seed is offered at seven or eight cents per pound, it is well to have it tested by some chemist who thoroughly understands the requisites of germination. Samples should be taken only from bags that have been closed by the seedsman, and opened in the pres- ence of witnesses. It is better to have no dealings with agents, but only with the seed producer. Let this question be thoroughly considered by our farming population contemplating beet cultivation. In most agricultural centres of the United States there are experiment stations, and the question is, Whether their laboratories could not render excellent services by test- ing beet seed for farmers and manufacturers,as is done with fertilizers? It often happens that seed is sown and its inferior quality is discovered when it is too late. CHAPTER II. Botanical Considerations Respecting Beet Seed. The Beta Vulgaris, as the sugar beet is called, is the most important of the many hundred varieties of the Chenopodiaceae family to which it belongs. The sugar beet comes under the head of the hermaphrodite series, which originally was annual and through culti- vation has become bi-annual. During the first year of its vegetation its function is to utilize its entire effort in sugar elaboration through the intervention of leaves, etc. During the second vear there is a transformation of many of these organic principles, the result being seed formation; by this process the texture of the root proper becomes very much more fibrous, during which period there is a growth upward of stems or stalks, which are frequently five feet in height; upon these appear elongated leaves (Fig. 1), which are, however, roundish in shape. The stems throw out branches on which are ears of seed. These are frequently located between the leaves and are generally in clusters of three (Fig. 2), as shown in the enlarged engraving; each agglomeration of flowers contains one to six or seven flowers, in most cases only three, and these are attached or stuck together. Historical Facts Relating to the Fertilization of Plants. Before going into details of the manner in which the flower of the beet is fertilized. it is interesting to recall several facts relating to the past. The ancient authorities had very vague views of the whole ques- tion. It was only during the Middle Ages that botanists - ‘ 8 SUGAR BEET SEED. commenced to realize the relative part played by the stamens and pistils, and it was not until the 17th cen- tury that there seemed to be any certainty on the ques- tion. The well-known authority, Tournefort, decline to admit the facts as then presented; after his death, however,Sebastian Vaillant, in his speech at the “Jardin du Roi,” showed the physiological function of stamen; and gave practical demonstrations of the truth of his assertion. This was in 1716, hence this date becomes an important historical one in the whole botanical sc:- ence, and to France is due the main credit of the new departure. Some eight or ten years afterward Linne a ee a ‘ \ i : \\p Zz s ) = wed Vig. 1. Appearance of seed and FIG. 2. Outward appearance of a leaves on stalk or stem. three-seed cluster. popularized the Vaillant truths—it was even then noticed that if the stigmas were withdrawn the ovums of the ovary could not be fertilized. The crossing of plants of the same family was daily practiced in botan- ical laboratories. On the other hand, there exists, then and now, one important exception to these fer- tilizing facts, for we are told that in the Kew Gardens cf London they have a plant which vields seed from year to year, yet there is no indication of its having stamens. Upon general principles, we may admit that the time or period that the fertilization of plants BOTANICAL ' CONSIDERATIONS. 9 occurs is when their odor reaches its height; it is when their color is most brilliant, and in theory, it is when the pollen is most actively absorbed by the organs of the pistil. In the case of beet seed, the special charac- teristic odor just mentioned is, according to Wiesner, due to an organic base known as trimethylamine. Description of the Flower.* The engravings (Figs. 3 and 4) give an excel- lent idea of the flower taken as a whole. and the Fic. 3. Perspective view of the flower as seen from top. section shows its appearance before and after matur- ity. The flower proper, when looked at with a strong glass. is shown to consist of the petals *DEFINITIONS. Carpel—Another name for the leaves of the pistil; it is frequeittly applied to one of the leaves of which the pistil is composed. Corolla—The leaves of the flower within the calyx. Calyx—The outer sac of the floral envelopes or leaves of the flower. Cotyledon—The first leaves of the embryo. Em bryo—The rudimentary undeveloped plantlet in a seed. Endosperm—Another name for the albumen of seed. Micropy]le—Closed orifice of the seed. Ovule—The body, which is destined to become a seed. Ovary—Part of pistil containing the ovules of future seed. Pericarp—The walls of the fruit matured. Pistil—Organ to be fertilized and bear the seed; if we consider from the bottom it consists of the ovary,the style and the stigma. Plumule—The sniall bud or first shoot of a germinating plantlet, above the cotyledons. Receptacle—The axis or support of the flower. Style—Part of the pistil whieh bears the stigma. Stigma—Part of the pistil which receives the pollen. Stamens—The fertilizing organs and consist of two parts; the fila- ment or stalk and the anther. Testa—The outer and usually the harder cuat or shell of seed. 10 SUGAR BEET SEED. (Fig. 8, s) forming the corolla. They are slightly col- ored green and placed behind the five stamens; these petals bend over themselves as the season advances. The beet flower taken together is cup-like in shape, (Fig.3). The stamens are attached at their base around an inverted saucer-like pistil placed in the centre. The ae FIG. 4. Section of Hower showing embryo and stigma. general arrangement is better shown in the diagram of the flower (Fig. 5). The anthers (Fig. 8, m) have two lobes or cells which open vertically, their section is ha Fig. 5. FIG. 6. FIG. 7. Plan or diagram of flower. Pollen. Section of pollen. shown in engraving (Fig. 9); the filament or stalk to which they are attached is kept in constant motion by any air disturbance. The pollen* granule of the sugar beet is spherical *Stiff has recently analyzed the pollen from beet flowers and finds that it contains: Water 9.78, albumen 15.25, nitric elements non-albu- minous 2.5, fatty substance 3.18, starch and dextrine 0.80; pentosane 11.06, other extractive substances but not nitrogenous 23.7, cellulose 25.45, ash 8.28. In 100 parts of the pollen ash there is 5.8 potassa and 6.65 phosphoric acid. BOTANICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 11 in shape (Figs. 6 and 7), and when the proper time arrives is most abundant, more so. than with any other plant of which we know. The pollens have a diameter of 20 micro-millimeters, but in some cases this may be from 13.3. to 25.8 m. m. The exterior surface of these granules is Fic. 8. Flowers at various stages of maturity. smooth, with about thirty-five pores, which havespecial function during the fertilization of the ovum. The pis- til is advantageously placed to receive the pollen on top of the style (Fig 8, 7), called stigma. The pistil consists, as it were, of three small leaves, or carpels; these communicate with the ovary. There is only one Fig. 9. Stamens (detail of anthers). Back view. Front view. Section. ovum in each ovary. The fruit, so-called, when only casually examined seems one. but closer observation’ shows it to be several distinct seeds, which in number Be SUGAR BEET SEED. correspond to the fertilized ovum of each ower. The engraving (Fig. 8), shows several flowers in differen: states of maturity, all adhering to the same stem; at the same time their pericarps are nearly blendec together, and when completely matured they frequently form one. Fertilization. When the proper time approaches and the anthers are in a perfect condition of maturity, a very little air B 2 $s Fig. 10. Section of flower Fic. 11. Section of nucleus. through pistil. is sufficient to carry the pollen from their surface. What seems strange respecting the hermaphrodite plant, such as the beet, is that the male portion of the plant does not, according to Darwin, mature at the same FIG. 12. Seed development. time as the female; the consequence is that seldom, if ever, the beet flower is self-fertilized, but it is the po:- len from some other flower which happens to be blown in contact with the pistil, to be communicated by the style to the embryo. This assertion coming from any ‘CHS LUUd AO NOLS TVOIdO BOM II CavUVING ‘et “Ylt BOTANICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 13 14 SUGAR BEET SEED. botanist other than such an eminent authority would be refuted, for the anatomy of the beet’s flower appears to be particularly favorable for its own fertilization, the abundance of the pollen on the one hand and a single ovary on the other. When the proper condi- tions are reached, the stigmas become moist and sticky, so as to hold the pollen granules that may fall upon. them either from the same flower or another close at hand, or, in many cases, very far off. Unlike many other plants, the anther of the beet flower opens freely. The phenomenon of projection of this pollen is of more than usual interest, as mentioned in the foregoing; the period the plant is most active in its fertilization is when the perfume is the most characteristic: the mois- FiG. 14. Section of pericarp FIG. 15. Seed taken from hard of seed. outer covering. ture then to a large extent leaves the anthers, a con- traction of the cells holding the pollen follows, the cavity of anthers becoming smaller, and the granules are forced out and thrown a considerable distance. The stigmas retain on their surface a large number of the pollen granules; these, being on a thin absorbing surface, soon swell and are absorbed by osmosis; the pollen then extends itself and the style (Fig. 10, /), allows its passage into the ovary through the micropvle. A section of the flower through the pistil and ovary shows just how the communication is made; the petals are visible. The ovum (Fig. 10, s) has a certain slant on its plane which is the same as that of the carpels. The various stages (Fig. 12, 1, 2, y BOTANICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 15 3, 4, 5 and 6) of the ovum development from the period of its first fertilization are shown herewith. © These are taken from Kruger’s observations—the final (Fig. 12,6) drawing shows the ultimate seed in its sac. The ovum considered separately undergoes constant changes even before it is fertilized. The ovule consists of a cen- tral cone or nucleus (Fig. 11, u), around which there are several layers of cells (Fig. 11, c, 0 and m1). The growing is around the nucleus and over it, with the exception of the small opening (Fig. 11, s) or micro- pyle. One cell has expanded very much at the expense of the others and soon occupies the greater part of the nucleus. This becomes the embryo-sac, but its formation depends upon the presence of the pollen Fig. 16. Seetivn,of seed. FG. 17. Appearance of testa magnified. tubes. After they have touched the dark spot on top of the nucleus, a membraneous cell wall forms around the protoplastic contents of the sac; these cells divide and sub-divide, and finally develop the embryo. During this period, in the lower part of the embryo-sac an indefinite number of minute cells are forming; these are the starting points for the albumen. We neglected to mention that the ovules are generally produced on the outer edge of the capillary leaf: the spongy thicken- ing is known as the funicle.* As the partitions or i i re ar TONS Cz f plants *The above is only a conjecture. There are numerons cases of n with one-cell ovary. when the ovule is developed from the floral axis. 16 SUGAR BEET SEED. cells form, they attach themselves to the narrow part of the sac, the larger part forming the cotyledon. Enlarged Microscopical Section of the Entire Seed. The engraving (Fig. 13) is a section of beet seed made by Drs. Westler and Stoklasa. It shows what the conditions are much more satisfactorily than the drawing we have made and described in this writing. C are the two cotyledons: r, radicle; p, peri- sperm;e,endosperm (albumen found inside the embryo- sac); ft, testa. The endosperm in most cases con- sists of only one layer, while the testa has two: Ist, the yellow, which consists of a single layer of cellulose; 2d, the brown, which is possibly made up of two flat layers. The curved germ 1, radicle, and c, its two Fic. 18. Section M. N. FIG. 19. Starch cell. cotyledons, retains the perisperm tissue; the cells are very fatty, and the starch granules appear round or elliptical. The lower portion of radicle (r) is covered with a layer (J) of endosperm, which may be detached, and consists of one layer of elongated cells. The cells of which the radicle and cotyledons consist, hold fatty but not starchy granules. It frequently happens, just as it does in animal physiology, that the oviim is not fertilized; it then withers and disappears, the explanation of which con- BOTANICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 17 tinues to be a mystery. The petals and stamens, once their functions are completed, dry up, and in case of beet seed they frequently persistently remain. Botanical Examination of Beet Seed. If we examine the seed as found on the market, we find a rather hard substance with a very rough sur- face and very irregular in shape. By slicing with a knife this so-called seed in one direction, we obtain a section as shown (Fig. 14); if from these sockets, which we examine, the seed proper is withdrawn, we find it has the appearance shown in Fig. 15 as seen in front; on top and side the shape is somewhat triangular and the surface smooth and brown in color; the side view shows it to be convex and generally measures in length 3m.m.and1.5m.m.in width. This seed has no diffi- culty in penetrating the outer covering through a small opening when the proper conditions of heat and moisture are furnished in the soil. On the outer cov- ering, or pericarp, is frequently found what remains of the carpels, and also, in most cases, the dried petals. A section of the seed, made with a knife, and looked at with a strong glass, reveals its arrangement, the same as shown in section (Fig. 16); at e may be seen the cotyledons and at wv the plumule, or the first bud from which will form the shoot of the germinating plantlet above the cotyledons. The root subsequently develops from r. Droysen declares that at r may be found eight to fifteen layers of cells which contain granules of protein in an oleaginous mass. The brown color of the seed comes from its testa covering; this is in several layers, the principal ones being the exterior and interior. Its botanical structure is rather difficult to get at, but under the microscope its appearance is about as shown (Fig. 17), this being many hundred times magnified. The outer layer mainly has for its principal function that of regulating the germination of 18 SUGAR BEET SEED. the seed, by allowing moisture, etc., from the environ-, ment in which the seed may be, to enter by osmosis in the proper proportions. Drs. Westler and Stoklasa have made a very thor- ough microscopical and chemical examination of the testa, and have discovered that the tissue is largely made up of crystals of oxalate of lime, from which it is concluded that nearly all the calcium of the seed is found in the outer and inner layers of the testa. (The inner cellular layer of the exterior of the testa consists of small cells almost round. The inner yellow ochre layer, on the other hand, consists of a single layer of polygonal elements, which are smaller and not so flat as those of the outer portion of the testa.) It has been possible to extract several grains of the lime oxalate from the testa, and this substance has served for the estimation of pentosanes, by the Tollen-Kruger method. From the quantity of phlaroglucide, that of the furfurol may be calculated. On a basis of dry sub- stance, it was found that there is 10.24 per cent. furfurol for 18.85 per cent. pentosane. These figures show that the testa is very rich in pentosane; it is said that these substances form a chemical combination with the cellu- lose of the testa.* While the exterior coating is dark brown and con- sists of two layers of cells which are very flat, some authorities declare that seed which will not germinate is yellow green; on the other hand, seeds that have great germinating powers have the tip end of their root of a color which approaches violet. The seed, M, N, (Fig. 16) taken as a whole, is blue white. If we *These ligno-celluloses, according to Gross and Bewan, have the following formula: aCe Hio Os Cs Hio Os Cio HigOs ae eee ree | ee ee cellulose Pentosane Keto-hexan groups % . Non-celluloses, BOTANICAL CONSIDERATIONS, 19 make a section through J, \, as the seed was with its outer covering, or pericarp, we have a most excellent example of how the seeds are separated, and their respective positions. The petals (Fig. 18, a) are visi- ble on top, the cotyledons e, the root 1 and testa r are shown in section; j is what remains of the carpels. The endosperm or albumen -p is white in appear- ance and is made up of a series of starch cells. differ- ent, however, from those found in the potato: they are geometrical in shape. One of these starch grains is FiG. 2. Seed with descending root. Fie. 21. Tip end of root showing the plant cells as seen under microscope. shown in Fig. 19; its diameter is 0.068 to 0.140 m. m. They are very fragile and break under a very slight pressure into small particles; they measure only 0.004 m.m. In certain cases they appear to have a molec- ular motion. , Planted Seed (Botanical). The bladder-like cell of which the final embryo consists, multiplies, as before said, into a series of sub- divisions; the process continues after sprouting and 20 SUGAR BEET SEED. FIG. 22. LEGRAS BEET WITH STALKS AND SEED. BOTANICAL CONSIDERATIONS, 21 even when the beet has attained its maturity, the build- ing-up of cell structure continues, the first or last cell being essentially the same. The plantlet before appear- ing above ground is like the engraving (Fig. 20), as seen to the eye, but under a strong microscope the structure of the root is made visible; the tip end shown in Fig. 21 gives some important idea of just what the ces in question look like. Upon general principles, we may admit that vege- table growth consists of two things: Expansion of a cell until it attains its full size, then multiplication of the cells in number. As the outer layers are worn away by theeroot forcing itself through the soil, they are renewed by inner layers, which in turn are replaced. Maturity. This in reality means the changes which occur from the time the embryo is formed until #ie grain may be taken from the stalk. The fruit proper, until that maturity is reached, is living just as live the leaves of plants, viz.: During the day a different respiration from that of the night. When the maturity is completed, the tissue changes and the fibro-vascular detaches itself. The cellulose of the fruit loses its carbon and hydto- gen and becomes starch: bv the addition of water, this is changed to sugar. When the maturity is complete, the seed throws out the carbonic acid formed at the expense of the sugar. Seeds on the lower part of the stalks are said to be the first to mature; those on top are last to ripen and frequently do not ripen. When planted, these often germinate with difficulty. The engraving (Fig. 22) shows the appearance of the entire root, with the stalks, when the beet matures after the second year. The appearance of the seed when matured upon its stalk is also of interest; as shown (Fig. 23), the petals are still adhering and when further dried will hide the seed proper almost from sight. le ty SUGAR BEET SEED. A. F. Jesnez claims that he-has noticed that in yearswhenthematuring period wasexcessively hot, the seed ripened too soon. This fact may be demonstrated by cutting the seed in two and examining with a'strong magnifying glass. It will be noticed that many of the seed cells are empty. The excessive heat is supposed to have closed the plant cells before their maturity, leaving, however, the outer surface very hard, which in many cases frequently misleads, and even when the Fic. 23. Matured seed with dried petals on stalk. germ exists, the sprouts in the germinator do not appear as soon as they do under ordinary conditions of growth. Physiological Functions of the Embryo and Albumen. We are all aware that albumen forms a food supply for the voung plant during its early develop- ment; but this question considered from a physiolog- ical and chemical standpoint is a new departure. A portion of what follows is the conclusion of Drs. West- ler and Stoklasa. These examinations offer great difficulty, owing to the close adherence of the perisperm (albumen) BOTANICAL’ CONSIDERATIONS. 23 ‘andtheembryo. The data relating to the analysis of. the entire seed are not sufficiently accurate for any positive scientific conclusion. Herewith, however, is.the analy- ‘sis of seed without the exterior testa, as all the inner ‘layer of the testa could not be separated or removed: Total nitrogen, 4.32 per cent.; nitrogen in the shape of albumen, 3.85 per cent.; fatty substances (not includ- ing lecithin), 20.02 per cent.; lecithin, 0.46 per cent.; cellulose, 2.31 per cent.; pentosane, 2.26 per cent.; starch, 37.31 per cent.; ash, 3.52 per cent. Composition of ash; potassium monoxide, 20.14 per cent.; sodic monoxide, 8.01 per cent.; magnesia monoxide, 11.2 per cent.; calcic oxide, 3.83 per cent.; ferric oxide, 0.47 per cent.: phosphoric acid, 43.27 per cent.; anhy- drous sulphuric acid, 9.02 per cent.; silicic acid, 2.8 per cent. The localization of the reserve food is as follows: Albuminoids are in the embryo, in quantities that may reach 24 per cent.; these same substances, but in inac- tive form, become soluble during germination, owing to the influence of enzymes. According to Neumeis- ter, this ferment has the same reaction as animal pep- sin, when in a slightly acidulated solution and in the presence of organic acids. The enzymes can.never be found on seed during germination. The fatty matter contained in beet seed is an oily substance. It is found not only in the embryo, but also in the perisperm (albu- men) and has very important physiological functions to fulfill during germination, as it is energetically con- sumed under the influence of the enzymes, and thus helps the formation of new and living molecules. The plantlets, during germination, when reaching the first stage of development, contain only 1.6 per cent. of fatty substances (not including lecithin and cholesterin), while the quantity in the inactive primi- tive seed is 20 percent. It has been determined by the thorough investigation of years previous that the leci- 24 ‘SUGAR BEET SEED. thin is exclusively found in the embryo. Starch, on the other hand, is mainly contained in the perisperm. The percentage, 2.26 of pentosane, calculated on the basis of furfurol, is not absolutely invariable, as from recent investigations it is shown that many substances contained in the organism of plants, such as starch, fructose, etc., also nitrogenous substances, such as nuclein, etc., also supply furfurol. It is possible to admit that the hemi-celluloses are found in the cotyle- dons, which contain pentosane, also galacton. It is claimed that this substance, during germination, underthe influence of diastasic fermentation, ischanged into galactose and arabinose. The mineral matter, as determined by the analysis of beet-seed ashes, is mainly combined with the organic substances in different parts of the seed. Phosphoric acid is found in very small quantities, and the same may be said of sulphur, iron and magnesia. These four elements, phosphorus, sulphur, iron and magnesia, are harmoniously united znd Jocated in the embryo. On the other hand, it is most difficult to determine the exact portion of the seed. where the protoplasm is to be found. Messrs. Westler and Stoklasa say that all leads to the supposition that it is not far from the carbohydrates; that is, in the peri- sperm. The protoplasm of the ¢mbryo, as soon as it commences to show signs of life, secretes enzymes; these have a certain action on the reserve plant food and facilitate their assimilation by the protoplasm. The assimilation and dissimulation go on very rapidly dur- ing the first periods of germination, and reach a maxi- mum on the fifth day, providing all the conditions of heat, moisture and temperature are favorable. The vital energy developed by the embryo during this stage has apparently considerable influence on the formation of certain nourishing substances upon which proto- plasm depends. After this formation, the taking up of organic combinations by the embryo ceases. BOTANICAL CONSIDERATIONS: 25 It is an important biological fact that the embryo of beet seed is very susceptible to any change of tem- perature and moisture. One might conclude that nature had in view the protection of the seed against these variations, when the testa be considered, for under its influence the variations, whatever they be, are necessarily retarded. These pathological influences are excited in proportion to the inclination of the microbes of the seed to nourish themselves upon the radicle of the embryo, when the germination is first starting. The exterior cover of beet seed contains an indefinite number of microbes; for one gram these have been found to number 300,000. Hence, it is proposed to increase the germinative power of beet seed by steeping in a weak 0.1 per cent. solution of chloride of mercury; this should be followed by a washing in ster- ilized water. It is claimed that through this antiseptic treatment the young plant is protected in advance against many diseases to which it is constantly exposed. The preparing of seed before sowing is very thoroughly discussed elsewhere in this writing. CHAPTER III. Requirements of Sugar Beet Seed. Preliminary Remarks —If one were to read all that has been written on the question of sugar-beet seed, only a general idea could be formed of what care and science, combined with experience, are required not only to produce a seed of a given quality, but to retain its high standard of excellence, which competi- tion compels a seed grower to maintain. Some years ago, it was claimed that the soil of France was not suited to the cultivation of superior beets, the Germans having been supposed to have had a monopoly in this respect. Since 1884, circumstances have changed. The new law, now in existence for over fourteen years, has encouraged farmers to devote their energies to’ beets rich in sugar. This, as may be imagined, gave-an impetus to the problem of superior sugar-beet seed production, and at present among the best customers are those who were previously so much dreaded. The selection of beets with the view to their amelioration in sugar percentage, is a branch of agriculture for which France can justly claim priority. While other coun- tries have followed: in the paths shown them, the methods have remained the same. The water proc- ess for sugar determination, so generally adopted both in Germany and France, is also of French origin. It is not claimed here that all French seed is superior to all German varieties, for such is not the case; inferior seed exists in France, while in Germany much remains to be done, there being in both countries numerous seed growers who are thoroughly ignorant of the ele- mentary requirements for success. 26 REQUIREMENTS OF SUGAR BEET SEED. 2T As the financial returns of a sugar factory depend very largely upon the quality of beets furnished by the farmers, it is in justice to the grower that he have at his disposal those varieties of seed that will give the most encouraging results. It is a disgraceful fact that many beet-seed dealers have furnished on several occa- sions, and continue the practice, seed that either would not germinate or else is a mixture of fresh and old seed, or, again, of a quality other than that ordered, the buver being misled by the label on the bag. It has frequently happened that the demand has been greater than the supply, and without hesitation the difficulty has been met by dishonest methods of pur- chasing from some other seed grower the requisite amount, and mixing this seed, obtained elsewhere, with the kind delivered under the name of the seller. From what has just been said, the first question to be considered when purchasing beet seed is the sci- entific methods of selection adopted by the grower, and the next questions which are of equal importance, is to determine whether all seed sold under a grower’s name is or is not actually produced by him, whether it has the age claimed, or whether it is of the variety represented to be by the contract of sale. In what fol- lows in these pages, an outline is given of what a supe- ior seed consists, with rules regulating the sale, the best methods for moisture, impurities and germination determinations. If these tests are made, the purchaser will have some protection, and not be misled as he has frequently been. Upon general principles, it may be admitted that seed growers who have not a specialty cannot give the same attention to beet-seed production as a specialist, and all arguments to the contrary are simply misleading. During the past twenty years the editor of The Sugar Bect has watched the results obtained from seed furnished by European and Ameri- can dealers. and, strange as it may seem, there are not 28 SUGAR BEET SEED. more than five growers in the world giving entire sat- isfaction to all interested. Just why this has been the case has already been hinted at in the foregoing. It is a great mistake to putchase beet seed through a second or third hand, as the chances of fraud are then always greater, and when they do occur the seed grower is af a disadvantage, as his name is connected with the product sold. The several existing varieties of beets are named after their originators, and as they have not the same external characteristics, they may be distinguished one from the other; consequently, there is evidently some important relation between the methods of selection and the ultimate shape of the root created. Beet seed of superior quality is frequently furnished by seed growers one year, but the second supply is disappoint- ing. Then again it also happens that experiment: are made upon soils to determine their adapta- bility for sugar-beet cultivation, excellent seed being used, The resulting roots show very high sugar pe:- centage, but they are irregular in shape, which is sup- posed to be the result of faulty working of the sot. Laboratory investigation of such beets would be mi:- leading, as they could not be worked at the sugar factory, and their irregular contours are innate chara:- teristics. The problem in seed production ‘consists in obtaining a variety that will give a regular, elongated beet, containing 15 per cent. sugar, with a yield that may ':e depended upon. Of late years very little is said about those early maturing varieties that- were destined to revolutionize all others. In this who e question of many varieties claiming certain yields and adapted to special soils, are issues that have very little practical value, since, with changed environment the promises held out are not realized, and conse- quently the time and energy expended in creating these new and varied types may be considered lost. REQUIREMENTS OF SUGAR BEET SEED. 29 It is only in very exceptional cases that the seed grower with his Nos. 1, 2, etc., good, better and best, can continue to create under like conditions; it may, for example, be admitted that Mr. A’s elongated yel- low top, averaging 14 per cent. sugar and giving a yield of eighteen tons to the acre, has actually existed, and that there is unlimited evidence to prove that A's assertions can be relied upon. Unfortunately, how- ever,the patch devoted this year to mothers of type No. 2 is not the same as previously. The conditions not yeing the same, on account of the variance in composi- tion of the fertilizer between one patch and another, the seed obtained will no longer be the same as in previous years, and therefore cannot be called No. 2. Alas! what- ever might have been the conditions in the beginning, they are no longer true as soon as new elements enter to modify the environment. These difficulties will continue to exist as long as the many-variety system of seed growing continues. Purchasers will receive for their money hybrids of the original types. One need only visit the beet-seed plantations coming under the writer’s notice to appreciate the ignorance and mistakes on the one hand, and the intelligence and exact science on the other. A botanical principle that seems too frequently forgotten is, that when two plants of the same family, one of a superior and the other of an inferior variety, are cultivated side by side, or within reasonable limits of each other, the ultimate effect is that the types are altered; the new creation will be of a lower variety than those previously existing. Hence, How can a seed grower, from a rational standpoint, hope to create a reliable kind of beet seed when his methods of production depend upon so many variable conditions? From what has been said in the foregoing, sticcess for quality means constancy of conditions, within reasonable limits. Those methods of seed production depending 30 ., .. SUGAR BEET SEED. upon the planting of mothers in a new country, satis- factory or not, only suppose that selections are made. every two years, as the seed obtained from the exported mothers is planted again at home and the mothers from these furnish seed to the trade. In theory, this method may have many advantages, since the stimu- lated effects from a change of climate hundreds of miles away may then strengthen the beets and have an important influence on the resulting seed. But where the fallacy comes in, is the use of grandmothers for the production of seed, rather than selected. mothers. It would be impossible to declare that this latter method has ever been carried out on any extensive scale. There are very few seed growers who would be willing to give a guarantee that their entire crop of seed was produced under the same conditions. Is it not natural to con- clude that the simpler the scientific methods of seed production, the greater the chances for success? Con- centration of effort to produce one type instead of many is the true basis, notwithstanding the fact that many argue to the contrary. That will lead to success and will yield results which in the long run may be relied upon. In conclusion, it is well to remember that as all countries are not equally suited to the production of beet seed, the actual facts should be known as a cer- tainty before too much time and labor be expended. The Advantages of One Variety of Beets. Jn theory, it is all very well for growers to declare that they furnish seeds that are adapted to speciai con- ditions of soil, climate, etc ; in practice, howevei, the results obtained are not up to promises. The time given to selecting or creating many varieties, if the interest of the beet-sugar manufacturer be considered, had far better been concentrated on one type. It is claimed that for rich and deep soils a late-maturing beet is needed, while the early-maturing types are adapted to REQUIREMENTS OF SUGAR BEET SEED. 31 cold soils without much depth. How is all this to be accomplished? Will seed produced in one country yield beets having the same characteristics as their grand- mothers in another environment? Will the early and late maturing tendencies remain the same in the United States, with very hot summers and cold winters, as they were in the temperature of France, Germany, or Austro-Hungary? Upon general principles, one can say positively they will not. It must, however, be admitted, in justice to the seed grower, that he is at fre- quent disadvantage. He may furnish diagrams, with circulars giving details for planting, and other data, but the farmers pay little or no attention to such instruc- tions, it being difficult enough to prevail upon them to adhere to rules laid down by the manufacturer by whom they are bound by contract, without attempting a still more complicated issue. If each seed demands a spe- cial method of cultivation, the question from an agri-. cultural standpoint not only becomes confusing, but discouraging for all interested. If special tempera- tures, elevation, soil, etc., are needed for each variety of beets furnished, the question becomes so compli- cated that it seems almost useless to attempt any culti- vation. Furthermore, it is constantly maintained that the period of maturity of a given beet must occur in a certain number of weeks. This, also, is very mislead- ing, as the total degrees of heat are the only basis. That there exist types of beets maturing one month before another variety, is very doubtful. However, this question for many vears was dis-: cussed and investigated by Ch. Violette and Desprez. In France, as a general thing, it mav be admitted that beets attain their maturity during October; as a result, the campaigns are very short and the limited time for harvesting does not allow a preparation of the soil for the crop that is to follow. Evidently, if a race of beets could be created maturing, as a certainty, in Septem- 32 SUGAR BEET SEED. ber, excellent service could be rendered; this has been accomplished with the potato, etc.; appar- ently there is no reason why the results should not be equally promising with beets. The early maturing beets of an inferior quality were introduced in 1866; these beets had smooth skins, small necks, etc., and were very susceptible to the slightest variation of tem- perature or moisture. It is claimed that the persistency of farmers in using that inferior type of beet brought about a great decline in the sugar industry of France. The attempt to solve the problem was by depending upon exterior signs and chemical analysis. The basis of maturity was constancy in weight; experiments showed that there was a variety which in September remained constant and from it was obtained the variety known as early maturing. It is claimed that while this type vields less in weight per acre than the later maturing kind, they pos- sess the advantage of allowing them to be used at the factory a month earlier than would have been other- wise possible. The writer’s observation respecting the question is, that the results not being reliable, the vari- ety is not to be recommended. From what has just been said, it becomes evident that the best results can only be reached by allowing many of the complicated requisites to take care of themselves. If it is impossible to produce one variety of beets suitable to all soils, it is still more difficult to create a special variety that is to be adapted to a soil which is thousands of miles away, and of which a gen- eral analysis has not been made, or any special descrip- tion given by the owner as to what kind it belongs, and hence, subsequent attempts at beet cultivation are frequently complete failures. On the other hand, for a_ beet possessing all-round qualities, such as shape, sugar percentage, etc., created by a seed grower who has only one REQUIREMENTS OF SUGAR BEET SEED. 33 idea, and that is to obtain a regular tapering root rich in sugar, the chances for success are far better than when too many intricate questions are involved, there being no possibility of hybrids, no temptation to cheat. How frequently it happens that one variety is all sold and yet more supposed to be of the same kind is furnished, by a simple change in the label on the bag. How frequently it also happens that seed produ- cers purchase their seed from a competitor, who is less known in the market than themselves, this seed being then sold not under the grower’s, but the seller’s name. As manufacturers are largely in the hands of seed pro- ducers, it is to their interest that they insist upon sim- pler methods of selection and requirements. There are two kinds of seed growers: one is, where the selec- tion is followed according to certain rules, and the other, where efforts are made to produce a special race, to which the grower attaches his name. The latter are more satisfactory; but unfortunately, they have to con- tend with rural growers, who use the best types at their disposal, but not following strictly the technical lines of selection that they should, there is a constant rever- sion to lower forms, as the atavism has its full influence as soon as there is the slightest departure from the methods of selection and regeneration adopted during a period of years. Advantages of Early Selection —The mistake made by most seed producers is, that they take too long to accomplish what they have in view, the consequence being that beets that were destined to become mothers give discouraging results and are rejected; rapidity in selection is the keystone for success. There certainly do not exist many examples in the whole animal or vegetable kingdom where tardy selection produces superior progeny. Beets are not an exception to the rule; when they are harvested they have a latent energy or vitality that remains dormant during a period of 3 3b4 SUGAR BEET SEED. months, to return to life, as it were, with renewed vigor. If, when taken from the soil, they are rich in sugar, the seed that they will ultimately germinate will be possessed of their mother characteristics. As they must be kept in silos during a period of months, cer- tain transformations occur, which are thoroughly inde- pendent of the ultimate results. The innate sugar characteristic, the outcome of man’s creation, will con- tinue, with, however, a constant tendency toward a return to the lower forms, this tendency requiring sev- eral generations to develop, as the interval between the first and second year’s growth has no material influ- ence. Whatever may be the care given to siloing mothers, there is always a sugar loss during their keep- ing, and in December the saccharine percentage may be fourteen, while in March only twelve, and by the prolonged delay in selection this individual beet would be rejected, yet its sugar percentage at the time of examination would be very misleading; for the Decem-- ber characteristic should have been the prevailing issue to be considered. One frequently sees circulars of seed growers who contend that they make several hundred thousand analyses in their beet selections; in most cases this extends over a period of six months, which means, dur- ing this time that the silos have been opened and closed daily, which practice has certainly a very con- siderable influence 6n the nature and quality of the’ roots being analyzed. The mode of analyzing beets for mothers, selecting those which have remained siloed during so long a period, is a practice which should certainly be abandoned. The theory that keeping in silos has the advantage of allowing an ulti- mate selection based upon the keeping qualities, does not compensate for the disadvantage of the practice, and in cases where the silos have been poorly venti- lated and badly constructed, very misleading results REQUIREMENTS OF SUGAR BEET SEED. 35 would be obtained. The rise in temperature means second growth and corresponding loss of sugar; through this and other causes just mentioned very superior beets might be rejected. M. Lemaire, a French seed grower, attaches great importance to a double method of selection, one in December and the other in March; it is possible, then, within reasonable limits to determine just what the keeping powers have been. Experience seems to show that this question of retaining vitality during a period of months is more pronounced with some beets than it is with others; furthermore, this is a hereditary con- dition and is one of those elements too frequently over- looked, but far too costly to put into practice. Ifa variety of beet could be created with special resisting powers, it would render sugar manufacturers great service during those years when the beet crop is abun- dant, as then the beets could be siloed until used, thus giving a very extended period to the sugar campaign. Dippe Brothers, Saxony, keep 100,000 beets in silos during the entire winter; 33,000. are kept for mothers and 67,000 are fed to cattle; great stress is placed on the keeping qualities. The selection by the Knauer method does not take place until March or April, the final classification being into three varieties, good, better and best. The good ones may be irregular in shape, but are not used for seeding purposes. The writer considers that if the entire. selection of mothers could be made the day of harvesting, the science of selection would have reached its zenith; but while this cannot be done with exist- ing facilities, the nearer we approach it, the nearer we will be to the perfection aspired to. These assertions are not theory or passing conclusions, but facts based upon experience. In most mother-selecting laboratories, not more than 2500 analyses can he made per diem, while at the Laon sugar factory 10,000 are within the 36 SUGAR BEET SEED. limits of possibilities of the existing laboratory facili- ties. This could never have been attained had not the most recent innovation, meaning progress, been resorted to. This working of the said laboratory is described in some detail in the present writing. It is interesting to contrast the results obtained in two months with those extending from harvesting to replanting, as is most generally practiced. During the current year there wili be not less than 255,000 analyses made during an interval of sixty days. These will show about as usual that there were 27,000 beets testing between 14 to 16 per cent. sugar; nearly 30,000 polarizing 15 to 16 per cent.; 19,000, 16 to 17 per cent.; over 35,000 between 17 and 18 per cent.; 10,000, 18 to 19 per cent., and 2000, 19 to 20 per cent. Besides which, must be mentioned 4500 analy- ses made outside of the ordinary or regular laboratory work. Those beets known as Elite, testing 20 per cent. and more, are analyzed for the second time to make sure that the first observations were reliable. The most experienced seed producers have now come to the conclusion that it is a waste of time to attempt ameliorating the saccharine quality of beets when 20 to 22 per cent. sugar is attained. Every experiment, made with the greatest care to increase the latter, resulted in comparatively inferior roots, containing about 17 per cent. sugar. This is self-evident, as there exists a physiological law, that when a certain degree of perfection is reached by a well-organized selection, there is a constant tendency to revert to the inferior condition. Special care is always given to these high testing beets. They must be kept separate and watched—as sometimes they are stolen. They may be used for regenerating the race. Determining just which these superior beets are, may be accomplished under far better circumstances by early rather than late selection. The type of these very REQUIREMENTS OF SUGAR BEET SEED. 37 Elite beets, say of even 19 per cent. sugar, has yet to be created by Legras. There are, as we have just said, great difficulties to overcome; but it is possible that success may be attained in the end, but not, however, upon the existing basis of selection, as described in what follows. Conclusions Respecting Selection in General. One fact is certain, that superior seed cannot be obtained as a continuous certainty unless all scientific principles known about the subject be adhered to. The farmer and the manufacturer must work together, since their interests are the same. Theories, however absurd they may seem, however much they may be in Opposition to existing beliefs, should be given a fair trial, unless the same lines of research have already been thoroughly investigated; then it would be a loss of time to go over the same ground. Ifa seed pro- ducer hopes to rival his neighbor by honest means, he must necessarily be familiar with all His competitor’s methods of selection, sale, etc.; respecting the latter, exact information is almost impossible to obtain. It must not be forgotten that ifa seed grower attainsacer- tain degree of excellence in the saccharine qualities of his beets. and is contented with the results obtained, and does not continue his selection from year to year with the view of realizing a still greater amelioration, after an elapse of a reasonable interval, complaints will surely pour in from customers, that there has been a most unsatisfactory crop of beets obtained from seed furnished, that the season, etc., have been favorable and that seed from other sources have given excel- lent results. Consequently, when one centres his efforts upon the continued creation of not many, but of one variety of beet adapted to most soils, he is doing more towards the progress of the beet-sugar industry than another who attempts to mislead the purchaser 38 SUGAR BEET SEED. by a lot of high-sounding names of varieties almost without limit, supposed to give excellent results upon any and every soil in most varied climes. In justice to those who purchase beet seed, the foregoing may be of interest; all other issues respecting variety of seed, what kind existed, who their growers were. etc., have been discussed in previous writings. Let the Ameri- can manufacturer think twice before he experiments with a variety of beet that has not been accepted by the European beet-sugar manufacturing syndicates. Annual Beets. Normal sugar beets, as used for sugar manufac- ture, go to seed only after the second year, and for that reason are known as bi-annuals. Many of their roots, however, produce seed the first year, and these are known as annuals. The exact cause of this abnormal phenomenon has never been entirely accounted for. The reversion to lower or original forms is due to atavism and it,-with faulty methods of selection, may be considered the two main causes. The fact is. that roots having small, conical necks have generally an annual tendency; the age of the seed used is also a factor not to be overlooked. Beets, when scientifically selected, should furnish roots which never give more than 2 per cent. annuals. As a general rule, it has been noticed that annuals are more numerous on fields which have been sown early. The fact is, the same seed, sown upon the same soil, under exactly the same conditions, but at different times, at intervals of a few days, will give a different percentage of annuals. If there are open spaces in fields due to too early planting, or other reasons, it is better to fill in these by late sowing and thus reduce the percentage of annuals which would possibly fol- low; beets from late sowing would be perfectly nor- mal. When we compare the conclusions drawn about REQUIREMENTS OF SUGAR BEET SEED. 39 early sowing just referred to, with practical experi- ments in this direction, we find very contradictory facts. If early planting is followed by annuals, then nearly all beets from seed thus planted should be annu- als; but since they are not, the theory advanced is not borne out by facts. The highest authorities, however, assert that nei- ther the depth nor time of sowing has the slightest effect on the atavism of the root. It is admitted that certain meteorological conditions may have a decided influence, due to the disturbance in the natural devel- opment of the beet; also certain varieties of beets, with close, compact skins, resembling, as it were, the origi- nal wild beet, appear to have certain annual tenden- cies. Beets which have been frozen and left in the ground, suffer in no small degree from the effects of cold; their vitality is somewhat diminished, and the beet then frequently goes to seed; exactly on this prin- ciple may be explained why it is that the higher the saccharine quality of the root, the greater its annual seeding tendency. Those inferior and hardy beets are never annual in their seed formation. Whether the size of the seed has or has not an influence, authorities do not agree; but many experimenters have asserted that the smaller the seed the greater the ten- dency to produce annual beets. In direct contradiction to this are the assertions of an Austrian agronomist, who claims that large seed, maturing very much later than the smaller, tends to give annuals. If this hypoth- esis be true, it may be explained by the fact that small seed produces small and delicate roots, which, as before stated, will go to seed abnormally more readily than the larger and coarser varieties. Some growers say that the occasional occurrence of annual beets in their fields is an almost certain indi- cation that the average saccharine percentage of the crop will be satisfactory. Too much reliance should 40 SUGAR BEET SEED. not be placed on this theory, as the depth at which the seed is planted may have its influence. This will evi- dently have a retarding effect, corresponding to a loss of vitality, which in many cases might result also in the formation of annual beets. When the questions of selection are not properly looked after in the labora- tory, there may be annuals among the mothers chosen, and, as a certainty, these will produce seed which in turn give a whole generation of annuals. No better method exists that renders possible for the observer to learn whether the seed growers are what they pretend to be, than the number of beets going to seed the year of planting. If this is, say, 10 per cent., the advice to those interested is to cease all relation with this so- called seed grower who has been so misleading in his dealings. A certain dealer in seed, who had hitherto an honorable reputation, delivered seed of which 50 per cent. went to seed the first year; he attempted to prove by a long series of experiments that his seed was not the cause, but there were other conditions. He got several sacks which had been left over from the unfor- tunate factory owner to whom he had delivered theseed in question; these he distributed among many well- known farmers and experimental stations in many sec- tions of France, and where the climatic conditions were very different; the outcome of this investigation was, that not more than I per cent. were annuals, and the year previous one-half of the total amount used was shown to be in this abnormal condition. Experiments have been made to determine whether the degree of maturity of seed has not a cer- tain influence. Experiments were made upon seed, large and small; after a third generation of annuals it was found that 60 per cent. of each gave annuals. Conse- quently, it is concluded that the degree of maturity or developmient of seed has very little influence. REQUIREMENTS OF SUGAR BEET SEED. 41 Pagnoul asserts that there is not much differ- ence in the percentage of juice in normal bi-annuals and annuals; in fact, the purity of the beet is much greater in the latter; which is explained by the pass- age of many of the alkaline salts, and even phosphoric acid, to the upper part of the root, or neck, to meet the requirements of seed formation. During the flowering period the entire effort of the plant is centred on the fiower and the resulting fruit. The sugar found in the leaves of normal beets is 0.16 per cent. to 0.53 per cent. and 1.07 to 0.46 per cent. in annuals. In beets in gen- eral, the sugar is formed in the leaves and descends to the root; this descent is evidently not so complete in annuals. Correnwinder’s experiments show that seeds from annuals contain very little albumen, which fact partly explains why annuals, even after the formation of seed, have a normal sugar percentage. The seed from annuals yield very poor beets. The cellulary tissue is transformed into fibrous, which renders the utiliza- tion of such beets almost impossible at the factory, and they should always be rejected. All efforts in the direc- tion of suppression of the stalk as soon as it appears seem to be futile, and such beets for sugar manufac- ture would be inferior to roots where the conditions of seed formation are allowed to continue. A series - of experiments were undertaken by Contamine, which showed that the expense of the suppression was con- siderable; furthermore, the annuals become even more fibrous than they were, with the stalk frequently four feet in height. Some interesting experiments have been made with the view to determine the influence of the weight of mothers upon the number of roots going to seed the first year, and obtained from seed grown under same conditions and having same sugar percentage. Those beets. weighing about one-half pound each, for some unknown reason had the annual tendency to a far 42 SUGAR BEET SEED. greater extent than roots weighing nearly 2} lbs. each. The annual tendency, then, could be explained by the possible want of vitality in very small beets. This is strangely in contradiction with what might be supposed; for the original annuals from which the bi-annuals have been created were evidently large in size. Those theories maintaining that early or late frosts after sowing have an important influence, have not been sufficiently proved to be worthy of any spe- cial consideration. That there is a retarding influence upon the plant’s development when the nights are cold soon after planting, seems plausible, but this question of annuals is not a retarding but a hastening tendency, for in a few months there must be accomplished what under ordinary circumstances demands two years. One fact is beyond cavil, that seed from annuals gives an enormous proportion of annuals, and it is pos- sible from a selection of such seed to create a variety of beet that goes to seed the first year. Among the most interesting experiments to determine if it were not possible to do away with annuals entirely, may be mentioned that of a second planting of bi-annuals which have not flowered after the second year. Such roots actually produced seed the third year, and this seed gave roots perfectly normal in their sugar per- centage, and had far less annual tendencies than have beets grown from regular first-class seed. Rimpau’s experiments showed some years since that such beets contained 13.8 per cent. sugar and 82 p. c. It is further claimed that it would be possible after a period of years, by using the three-year beets, to create a variety which would lose entirely its annual tendency. One fact is never to be overlooked respecting annuals, viz.: If they appear in any great number upon any spe- cial field, avoid the roots for mother selecting, even within distances of a half-mile, for the chances are that the annual tendency will prevail, owing to the possible fertilization with pollen from an annual. REQUIREMENTS OF SUGAR BEET SEED. 43 Some authorities declare that the annual beet issue is easy to contend with in dry and warm countries, such as Italy, Spain, and even in southern France. This is in direct contradiction to the writer’s observa- tion, for it is then of all other times and places that the principle of atavism has the most force, the environ- ment being favorable for it. It is further claimed that this annual tendency was greater in France in 1894 than it was ever known to be before or since. It was also noticed that those annuals showing themselves in July and August were not as rich in sugar as when they appeared later. It is true that, do what one may, the difficulty will always exist and the manufacturer, if he look after his own interest, will accept the situa- tion and meet it by using such beets in the factory the best way he can. Stronger and more powerful cos- sette cutting knives would overcome the difficulty. CHAPTER IV. Races and Types of Sugar Beets. Preliminary Remarks—The races and types of people are so characteristic, that seeing one of them in a foreign clime, it is possible to declare to what part of the world he belongs, and even after a long sojourn in any environment and intermarriage, or whatever com- bination is made, the characteristic of the race is trans- mitted to the progeny through several generations. What is true of man and animals is also true of beets in every particular. Even when taken from the mother country and planted in an entirely different soil, under different conditions, the persistency of the type remains, with slight variations; after a time, however, through neglect, it disappears. It would hardly be possible to give a single exam- ple of any vegetable or organic structure, in which this principle does not prevail. Just how the races and types originated in nature has never been satisfactorily determined; one fact is certain, however: Man has it within his power to create types, or even races, entirely different to those previously existing. An important example to the point is the bi-annual domesticated sugar beet, as compared with the wild annual root. There is an important difference between that which man accomplishes and those processes of evolution worked out by nature's law. The one starts from a form already existing, and the other is the gradual change from a protoplastic condition to a perfect race. Darwin partly declares that there is one and only one method of ameliorating, and that is, not by cross- ing races, but by a constant effort to improve the race 44 RACES AND TYPES OF SUGAR BEETS. 45 already in existence. The sugar-beet specialists, hav- ing this idea in view, commenced their work in France and Germany as early as 1830. At Magdeburg, the efforts were mainly centred on the varieties obtained trom Erfurt and Quedlinburg seed. The early papers read by Vilmorin upon the subject were in 1850, 1851 _ and 1856. While a heet grower is able, within his own sphere, to produce a special type to which he gives his. name, the variety always undergoes certain modifica- tions by a change of conditions; while these variations are not sufficient to materially affect the root after the first year’s planting, the deterioration is sure to follow, unless the blood of the beet is kept constantly replen- ished from its original source; roots showing the first signs of change must be thrown out. In other words, with all the success attained by selection, atavism* is a force impossible to overcome. The variations which occur with plants left to their own devices are neces- sarily very different from those which are the outcome of man’s efforts; hence, the reason why the labors of a conscientious seed grower are incessant and never- ending. When the selection is properly looked after, the reversion to lower forms seldom occurs; onthe con- trary, the characteristic of the type sought after becomes more and more pronounced. Is it not just that a specialist, who furnishes superior beet seed, from beets of his own creation, should claim considerably more money for his produce, than does an ordinary seed grower who gives neither time nor money equiva- lent for what he sells, and in the end becomes a dealer in bastards, due to the fact that he has resorted to variation in the methods of selection, as compared with the specialist? *Showing the infiuence of one beet upon another, the experiment has been tried of planting side by side, a superior white beet with an ordinary red beet. The beets from the seeds of white beet were appar- ently of every possible variety, some of these being red, rose, etc., and their sugar percentages varying from 7 to 17. 46 SUGAR BEET SEED. Technical Considerations. Hereditary and individual characteristics are the two main questions to be considered. Heredity gives the characteristics of the race to which it belongs. The individual question differs from the race in many particulars. The hereditary influence may be divided into three divisions: 1st, the direct power or force, which means that the progeny resemble the nearest parent in a direct line; 2d, the conservative atavism, which tends to force the resemblance to a whole series of individuals, of which the race consists; 3d. the retro- grade atavism, which means an influence which tends to take after the original parent. If the first and sec- ond influences work together, there is a tendency to branch out and form an individual type. If the individual differs very materially from the general characteristics of his race, the direct heredity and the atavism will, in a measure, work in opposition to each other. The direct heredity is the most pow- erful force with which to contend, and while its influ- ence mav not for a while be noticed, it is only a ques- tion of time before it re-establishes itself on regular lines. The atavism, on the other hand, is slow in its influence, but it at once exerts its force when there is any neglect on the part of the seed specialist. That individual types can be created and their characteris- tics transmitted through several generations, is an absolute fact. Upon general principles, it is far easier to transmit a fault than a quality. The individual type permits a physical selection and materially helps in the chemical or laboratory selection. It must never be forgotten that the sugar percent- age of a beet is not alone a sure basis for the creation of a type! The particular root under examination may have had special advantages of soil, plant food, dis- tance in row, etc. The individual selection alone is a. mistake, for the conditions of environment may bring RACES AND TYPES OF SUGAR BEETS. AT about changes in shape, size of leaves, etc., which are overlooked. The hereditary question must not be over- looked. All those beets which have undergone any change from the starting point must be thrown out; under which conditions it is possible, in the end, to obtain a type that will be transmitted through several generations. There is, respecting this question, an issue sometimes to be considered, and that is, the pro- duction of a variety to meet the special legislative vari- ations of the country where there is a demand. The principal races are, however, not interfered with. From this fact we draw the conclusion of the importance of having beets in the preliminary process of selection cultivated under exactly the same conditions; hence, the reason the manufacturer can never hope to rival the specialist. In the Klein-Wanzleben family, for points of departure there are new and pronounced characteris- tics. During several generations they are either from one mother or the outcome of a group of mothers, and must be kept entirely separate. The selected mother is at first planted; the seed obtained is sown, and the resulting roots are selected again and again. The selection among this newly created family must also continue, so as to keep out all varia- tions either in sugar percentage or leaves, etc. It fre- quently happens that after considerable trouble and expense, a family is created and promises well for the future, whenthe sudden appearanceofa bastard necessi- tates abandoning the type. Under these conditions the number of real and reliable varieties must be very restricted. Those beets which retain their character- istics of mothers are kept at the point of departure. Standards.—In all experiments of beet selecting it is important to have a standard.row of comparisons. These standards are upon every patch; if variations occur in the patch they should vary with the standard. 48 SUGAR BEET SEED. The roots from these experimental patches allow a basis of comparisons that should be made in October, before the final regular selection. It is most impor- tant in the formation of superior types to keep in a tabulated form the entire history of the beets which promise favorably for the creation of a race, the out- come of the individual type. Photographs should be taken so as to make doubly sure that the shape is retained in the family that follows. The work of plant- ing the resulting seed and repeating the selecting from the beets obtained, demands a series of years and great patience. The seed from each special mother should be planted apart; thus forming numerous fields of experimental research. When the best type is deter- mined upon, the creation of the race can commence upon a solid basis. The race obtained through man’s persistency differs from the natural race; while the latter transmits its characteristics with extraordinary tenacity for a long period of years, the artificial race is very much influenced by any change of conditions. Respecting this question, it is interesting to call attention to the theory of Prof. Nowoczeck, who, in a special work, suggested that the typical Vilmorin be crossed with the typical Knauer, and the result would possibly be advantageous to each. For, while the Electoral is suited to calcareous soil, the Vilmorin has other advantages. Well, the certain result which would follow will not be any typical beet, but a mixture of hybrids, of endless shapes, differing in the color, shape of leaves, etc. Even in the Vilmorin selection, which commenced some forty years ago, the original parent Beta’s characteristics are plainly visible, as shown by its yellow leaves. Proving that, even with endless care, atavism still remains a force with which to contend. Varieties Whatever be the care in selection, there is always the necessity of refreshing the original RACES AND TYPES OF SUGAR BEETS. 49 conditions. It is interesting to call attention to the same evil effect in intermarriage between cousins, as is so much seen or practiced among the royal families of Europe; there have followed various disorders and bodily weaknesses. In beets the regeneration offers no difficulty, owing to the exceptional size of the pollen and its abundance during the long flowering period. This, combined with the fact that there is but a single ovum, its fertilization is always a certainty as com- pared with like botanical conditions of other plants. The pollen has its absolute effect only after it has left the anthers; hence,the reason why thehybridization is most common and becomes one of the greatest diffi- culties to contend with during windy seasons. If these varieties which are of so frequent occurrence be allowed to continue,* the ultimate result will be a very poor seed, possessing very little germinating power. The remedy consists in crossing with better types, which must belong to the same race; otherwise, hybrids would be created and these possessing special atavis- mistic tendencies, the difficulties would be greater than before. Knauer gives an important example in this question by declaring that the Ameliorated White Imperial may be used to regenerate the Klein-Wanzle- ben and vice versa; the latter, to regenerate the former for the simple reason that the Wanzleben race is the same as the Knauer, they having a common parent. In other words, it is the main essential to get a pure ultimate race; if the creation is a bastard the progeny will be bastards. The Knauer Imperial variety, created in 1850, held its own for many years, and was once, without doubt, the best variety in existence. Then came the *An example may be given of Derrombesque’s experience in France. His main object was to create a superior beet; he crossed an ordinary hardy beet with an acclimated Silesian. From the resulting seed, he obtained, apparently, a hardy beet rich in sugar; after the third planting the Silesian characteristics had nearly disappeared and there was an absolute reversion to lower forms. 4 50 SUGAR BEET SEED. Knauer Improved Imperial; this was later on super- seded by the White Ameliorated of Vilmorin. But Knauer, himself, was not satisfied with his results and started with a French beet cultivated in the north; from it, the race known as Electoral was created. This had an advantage which the original types had not, viz.: It would flourish in soils of ordinary depths, while the Imperial demanded special conditions. As the origin of these two beets is different, one cannot be used to refresh the other. Even Vilmorin, during his early methods of selec- tion, made (as some consider) an evident error by using the Mangold beet as a means of giving a new life to the beet that needed to be refreshed. At the present day there are writers who argue that the Mangold was the starting-point for all existing varieties. It would be very difficult to lay down any special period at which the regeneration should be practiced; but it is certainly not desirable to wait until there are indica- tions of the degeneration of the type of beets under observation. Many practical experts claim that two to three years’ limit is a satisfactory basis upon which to work. ; The regeneration, as adopted by some growers, is. effected by importing from a distant clime a beet about the same and of the same race type, as the one hav- ing proved satisfactory. The seed of the latter and former are mixed, planting follows in the regular way, and as they are sufficiently close, their influence will be felt; or better still, plant each seed separately and select mothers from the resulting beets, plant these in the same field, and there will be an interchange of pol- len resulting in the creation of the expected variety. However, this operation, while apparently easy, offers many difficulties in’ practice. Many similar examples from recent practical experience could be given, but the question is, Do they offer all the advantages claim- RACES AND TYPES OF: SUGAR BEETS. 51 ed? Some growers alternate between Germany, France, Belgium and Holland, in which countries the climates differ. The mothers are carried in boxes, keeping them so that they will not be bruised. Under these conditions there are constantly néw varieties cre- ated, and the question becomes so complicated that the original types are lost sight of. However, with certain care, satisfactory results may be obtained; in some of our early writings we suggested what might be accomplished in the United States by importing beets from Germany, after hav- ing selected a suitable soil for their planting. This plan seemed preferable to that of sending seed to a foreign clime and then bringing back the resulting beets to their native soil for their second year’s growth. We can hardly agree with Walkhoff. who proposes to improve the quality of a beet by sending it or the seed from a warm to a colder latitude. In conclusion, we would say that for many years an idea continued to prevail that the best way to obtain superior beets was by a careful system of preparing the soil, by the use of special fertilizers, etc. While all these may be, in their way, very essen- tial, they are of secondary importance when compared with the necessity of sowing superior seed from the start, and without which careful agricultural methods are of little avail. However, upon the same soil and under exactly the same conditions, there is an enor- mous variation in the sugar percentage; this may be 7 per cent. on the one hand and 19 per cent. on the other. The explanation of this is simply, that while every seed has a tendency to resemble its nearest parent, yet, at the same time, as explained in the foregoing, it has a cer- tain affinity for an ancestor, more or less distant, and this retrograde atavism declares itself when least expected, when in the hands of a novice who uses seed obtained from dealers that make claims which mislead 52 SUGAR BEET SEED. the purchaser. The identity and value of a seed can only be determined after its having been put to a prac- tical test upon the field. CHAPTER V.—PART I. Selection of Beets with a View to Seed. Preliminary Observations.—To obtain a beet rich in quality, yet giving a satisfactory yield, is a far more intricate problem than many of the would-be beet-seed growers seem at first to realize. The details of selec- tion, if properly carried out, can never become very remunerative, owing to the expense, and must there- fore be, within reasonable limits, a labor of love. A visit to the laboratories where thirty to forty people are employed, and the details connected with the work, not only from a chemical but a physical standpoint, would discourage many from the start, and even if superior seed should sell for twice the sum that it now does, it would hardly be an operation that one could depend upon for a living. If the details of selection could be made once for all, and if the seed obtained would retain that degree of excellence through gener- ations to come, the question would be a simple one; but, unfortunately, the tendency of the beet being con- stantly to go backward rather than forward, the qual- ity depends upon pains taken in the selection, and, if neglected, the roots would contain very little sugar and be worthless for sugar extraction. Most seed growers, if the yearly selections are neglected, rely more on their past renown than upon their reputation that is to come. There cannot be a shadow of doubt that many of the existing methods for beet selection are fallacious. M. Legras starts in on a new basis, which anyone without SELECTING BEETS FOR SEED. 53 money and property at his disposal could not think of attempting. One need only read Darwin's work on the selection of species to realize the wisdom of M. Legras’s method. A child, for example, resembles his father and mother more than his grandfather and grandmother. In other words, our own characteris- tics are more pronounced in our own children than in our grandchildren, amd the further they are removed from the original parent, the greater will be the differ- ence between the progeny and the ancestor. True, there is a constant tendency toward reversion; but this is only a tendency and not an actuality unless contin- ued through long periods of vears. What rules can be evolved from the animal kingdom must generally apply to the vegetable; hence, the reason why it is maintained, and has been frequently proved, that the true and only method of selection with the view to seed production is, that the seed comes directly from the mothers that have been actually selected in the labo- ratory. It is customary among seed growers to plant the mothers selected the following spring, the seed obtained being not sold, but sown with a view to obtain beets which furnish seed for the trade. Such being the case, it becomes evident that all beets exist- ing grown from seed supplied by dealers, with the exception of M. Legras’s, are grandchildren of selected mothers. The new plan proposed was to sell seed obtained from the beets selected in the laboratory. It was difficult to put into practice, and at first, on the Besny farm, there were only 50 or 60 acres devoted to this special purpose. On the other hand, in 1896 the yield of seed of one variety was 500,000 lbs. Physical Selection of Mothers. Preliminary Remarks—When one attempts to compare the physical attributes of mothers and their 54 SUGAR BEET SEED. influence upon their progeny among the higher classes of the world’s creation with those of the lower forms, we find a resemblance which is simply appalling. A lock of white hair, or an ungrown tooth, may continue through hundreds of generations; that the talents or special characteristics may jump a generation or more, every one knows, but this may be a freak of nature, and is certainly the exception. What applies to man is also applicable to sugar beets. Selection according to exterior signs only may, perchance, lead to excellent results, but it is not desirable to put too much faith in such methods. The real and only road to success is a continued selection through all times, and not for a period of years. An ultimate race or variety of sugar beet is the outcome, not of physical selection alone, but of physical and chemical combined. Nature fre- quently accomplishes this in another manner; for example, in fever districts. On the banks of the Ama- zon, only the stronger live; the weaker disappear, the outcome of which is a race that is not affected by the local environment; and if we examine into the anteced- ents of these special‘ individuals, we would find that a physical foundation has been laid, and the good effects are realized vears later. Legras’s Physical Selection—and Discussion as to Other Methods Based Upon Small Beets, etc. As previously explained, in sugar-beet selection, the object is not so much to obtain a root rich in sugar, but one that is regular in shape, and offers no diffi- culty in cleaning. Hence, the starting-point in phys- ical selection is to have a regular elongated beet, one that presents no difficulty during slicing at the factory, and retains its tip end. How many examples could be given of beets rich in sugar, but irregular in shape,and, therefore, the slicing poorly done! The cossettes in the diffusion battery do not give satisfaction; the juices 55 SELECTING BEETS FOR SEED. A TYPICAL LEGRAS SUGAR BEET. Fic. 24. 56 SUGAR BEET SEED. are impure, owing to the dirt, etc., that have not been eliminated during the process of washing. If the manu- facturer purchases such beets, as the farmer claims he must, owing to a binding contract, he gets more sugar, apparently, in the beet, but this sugar costs more to extract than it is worth, and, consequently, there fol- lows a money loss in the end. It is much to be regret- ted that, as a rule, the manufacturer and seed producer are two separate individuals. Sometimes, however, the seed grower is also a beet-sugar manufacturer; among others we could mention Legras, in France, and Wanzleben, in Germany. The purchaser of such seed derives a benefit from the care given to create and maintain a variety of beet that is destined to give heavy sugar yields at the factory, and satisfactory returns at the farm. The Legras beet has only French antecedents, straight leaves with very pronounced nerves. The selection on the field is done with scrupulous care; the persons having this work in charge have been trained through a series of years, and have strict orders to adhere to regular rules. Some years ago, not more than one beet in twelve was sent to the labora- tory to be analyzed; now the selection is an easy mat- ter, for the roots that do not possess the physical requi- sites are the exception. The salt-bath selection made by many seed growers is on a basis having the sugar percentage only in view, and it is misleading, for a large proportion of such roots are rejected upon chemical examination; hence, it is labor lost. From what has just been said, the field of selec- tion is the starting-point to success, and whatever be the exterior characteristics, the seed is sure to transmit them. However, there are excep- tions, and a beet that promises favorably from exterior signs may be rejected after having been analvzed, weather, soil, etc., having had some mysterious effect. SELECTING BEETS FOR SEED, 5T The type of Legras beet for which general preference at Besny is given, is shown in the engraving (Fig. 24). The shape is regular, with lateral depressions, and it is readily harvested. It is important to note that there are several preliminary selections. When the final roots are determined upon, they are placed in circular piles, with necks and leaves on the outside. As soon as possible, the leaves are removed, and a still further selection follows. The roots selected for mothers weigh between 400 to 900 grams (14 0z. to 2Ibs.) each. Many seed grow- eis never use mothers weighing more than 200 grams each, but this is evidently a mistake, as has been many times proved by the results. However, there is ample authority for asserting that when the chemical selec- ticr. has been properly looked after, it does not mat- ter whether the beets are small or large, provided the shape has been well considered. A German authority wigues that as mothers are only an intermediate between the seed and the soil, there is no advantage in vsing large beets, as the plant food required is taken from the soil. Some growers, as previously men- tioned, are most enthusiastic over the small motl er theory, and roots destined for this purpose are culti- vated at distances of four inches apart, and in rows eight inches from one another, 100,000 beets being thus obtained to the acre—none of which would weigh more than three-quarters of a pound. Prof. Marek’s exper- iments, extending over several vears. showed thatthere was verv little advantage, if any, in using small moth- ers for seed production. The small-beet method offers certain advantages of economy not to be overlooked; the beets may be rapidly harvested, occupy less space in silos, cost less for transportation, and it is possible to replant them on a field which has been used the same year for another crop. Iz is claimed, also, that small beets have stems 58 SUGAR BEET SEED. which mature early and give greater yields of seed.* Without doubt, the type of such roots, owing to their size, is very uncertain, and frequently the object in view, viz., that of creating a race, is not attained; fur- thermore, the conditions not being perfectly normal, the quality is sure to suffer in the long run. The for- mation of numerous stalks of very uncertain height and development is more frequent on large than on small mothers. On the other hand, when the latter are used, there are many central high stalks, and few lat- eral ones; they all hold their own, and do not lean over on the soil for support when the seed is formed, as is the case with large mothers. It seems self-evident that large mothers cannot be desirable. They may occasionally contain considerable sugar, but this is an exception and not the rule. If seed growers are not careful, they will certainly be misled on this question. The two-pound weight, as suggested by some, is, from the writer’s standpoint, a very dangerous limit. At the Klein-Wanzleben seed-growing farm, where they have 6500 acres devoted to beets, preference is given to roots weighing 700 to 800 grams (1.5 to 1.7 lbs.) and four pounds is not uncommon. Beets weighing but one pound are looked upon as being abnormal and worthless for seeding purposes. ] Grams. 600 to 650 Classification according to weight 650 to 700 750 to 800 Each variety of 50 grams demands a different and separate classi- fication. Thesegroups are analyzed separately. As regards this question of weight, it has been suggested that an average be taken of several thousand selected roots, and, once for all, settle the question, and greatly aid in the physical selection. It is evident “See chapter ‘Special Original Methods for the Produetion of Sun Been” where the question of small beets is discussed in ull detail. SELECTING BEETS FOR SEED. 59 from what has been said in the foregoing, that there is much contradiction, and the Besny types, which are certainly not of the small kind, give very superior results. This question of weight of mothers and the yield of beets from the resulting seed is a paradox, practical experiments having proved that they may weigh one-fifth of a pound, or 2} lbs, and yet the vield to the acre of beets from the seed in each case will be about the same. However, it is far better to be within rational limits. as regards the physical selection on the fields, it must be remembered that there are two kinds of selec- tion; the one on an average beet field intended for the factory, and the other from beets which have been cultivated from selected mothers; greater care is neces- sary in the latter than in the former case. I: is a great mistake to adhere to the practice of sowing such beets very near together so as to dwarf their size; better let the development continue under normal conditions. Under general principles, whatever be the physical method selected, under no circumstances is it advis- able to use a beet which, during its early stages, has been attacked by insects. These ravages always pro- duce a retarding effect upon the development of the toot, from which it never recovers. Selection by Appearance of Leaves. The value of physical selection based upon appear- ance of leaves, has more importance than is generally attributed to this mode. In Russia it is maintained that sugar beets in a fine healthy condition, having pale leaves and changing color early in the season, are riper and contain more sugar than those roots with dark green leaves. At Knauer’s, the argument is just the reverse. They prefer a dark, rather than a light green. Furthermore, beets with reddish leaves are of a poorer quality than those with pale green leaves. The sugar 60 ‘SUGAR BEET SEED. percentage of beets seems to increase with the num- ber of leaf-circles. Eight to ten is considered a good indication. The wrinkles of the leaves seem also to be a quality characteristic; the greater the number of wrinkles, the higher the saccharine percentage of the root. In normal beets, when the leaves are of an oblong shape rather than round, so to speak, the roots are richest in sugar. When the leaves are very pointed the beets to which they belong are never very rich in sugar, and in some cases denote a certain malady of the root. Very few of such beets are ever noticed on the field. While a luxuriant vegetation and a fine green surface seem essential for sugar elabora- tion, practical experience shows that the soil and excessive use of a nitric fertilizer have important influ- ences and would, in most cases, be very misleading. Iron, for example, is said to influence the intensity of the green coloring. Beets with outspread leaves, cov- ering considerable area, are generally richer in sugar than those roots with upright leaves, where the sun has great difficulty in penetrating. However, on this question experts very much dif- fer, and the mistake they frequently make is, that the samples they select for comparison are not alike; for care should be given that the beets compared be at the same distance from adjoining beets in rows. Marek’s analyses on thirty beets gave the follow- ing result: Standing Low . Leaves. Leaves. Av. weight of beet.... anenenerasee 0.74 0.55 WOWSUOV sec icccp cise aoc cete ends cicseaaese TEMES 6° 6.5° Dry Substance.... itt 14.6 15.8 POlALIZAUON ac 0ceeeseeder vereeeen’ Tijsicmmicies 13.00 14.4 Non sugar ......++ ie 1.69 1.4 Purity Coeff........ 8 88.47 914 Proportional value. ..........e. see ee ee eee 11.5 13.1 The quality of beets seems to increase with the number of leaf-circles. In this respect Pellet has made s SELECTING BEETS FOR SEED. 61 some important observations, showing that there is a relation between the number of leaves and the saccha- rine quality of the beet. Per Cent. Sugar Number of in Beets Leaves 15.7 42 14.8 39 Vilmorin seed. ............ 13.8 31 12.2 23 11.7 19 This appears to be also true for the weight of leaves; with various kinds of seed the results were as follows: Weight of leaves for Sugar 100 Ibs. beets Per cent. Vilmorin seed............... 56 Ibs. 14.5 i 33 * 13.3 Senior Legrand seed.... 20 “ 118 58 15.4 ti * e Al Various seed............+- 62 « 14.7 31 13.3 26 * 18.8 These results ‘vould tend to show that there is to be found in leaves some excellent and practical means for physical selection. At Madgeburg, beets that are selected for mothers have but few outer leaves, and these are flat and grow near the ground; at their cen- _tres they are in a cluster, and their general tint is bright green; they are not spotted or fringed with red. Knauer gives preference to those roots which have a central cluster of leaves arranged in a sort of horizontal bouquet; the leaves are of an average size, with rather fragile borders, the outer leaves being large and bent over. He places great stress on the physical selection based upon the leaves. Wychinski declares that the best beets have small delicate leaves. The nerves on leaves also appear to play an important role. Large nerves in the centre of the leaf, and with latent nerves which do not intercross, are beets very inferior to those with delicate leaves, three central 62 SUGAR BEET SEED. nerves and partially developed latent nerves; such roots will generally contain 15 to 18 per cent. sugar. The observations in this direction are destined to lead to excellent results. It is generally found desirable to throw out all beets having large or small, deformed or badly shaped leaves. While Kneifel, in his special study on beet leaves, declares that there is no relation between the shape of beet leaves and the sugar percentage of theroot, Doerst- ling asserts that his observations tend to show that the size of a leaf is of very great importance; those beets having leaves of 316.7 sq. c. m. contain 14.2 per cent. sugar, while others with leaves of areas of 170 sq. c. m. polarize only 13.5 per cent. This seems rational to us; furthermore, we are convinced that large leaves help. the beet very considerably to attain its full development. This leaf growth is most rapid during the first month after planting; the leaves that follow are smaller and none of the latest formed appear to remain more than six weeks, and as the size of these decreases, their num- ber seems to increase. All these questions of shape, wrinkles, nerves, fringed, etc., should be noted by sugar-beet seed specialists, and correct notes made, for these items are of great importance in the selec- tion. Sach botanical considerations are of great help, for after many years of constant attention, one can create an individual type through this assistance, com- bined with other requisites, which shall be very thoroughly examined in chapters that follow in this present writing. Exterior Signs as Indications of Quality. Those who have observed the almost certain rela- tions existing between the exterior signs indicating qualities or defects of organism, both in men and in animals, will not hesitate to admit that the entire vege- table kingdom is controlled by similar laws. Vilmorin SELECTING BEETS FOR SEED. 63 says that the shape and general appearance of a beet which has attained its normal development should be considered before any other selection; beets of irregu- lar shape should not be considered worthy of attention. In selecting the shape that is to be the ultimate type, it is important to have it almost as regular as that made in a mold. The uniformity will be to the ulti- mate advantage of the manufacturer, who constantly seeks a raw material of the same condition of texture and composition, thus very much facilitating the proc- ess of manipulation in the factory. What is true of products in general is also true of the beet in particu- lar; its juices, when regular in composition, simplifv the many phases of purification. The farmer has also better returns for his crops. It must be said, however, that even Vilmorin during his early selection entirely neglected the question of shape or variety. The roots could have red or green necks, with regular or irregu- lar leaves; the main and only issue for the selection was the sugar percentage, upon which basis, even with the so-called ameliorated, all kinds, all varieties. were once to be found—no individual type or shape. In other words, the originals of Vilmorin roots were very irregular and the question of forked beets was soon the subject of general discussion. It is evident that in many cases a forked beet is richer in sugar than is a long tapering root, for it may be considered as two. beets joined. These irregular roots are difficult to har- vest and almost impossible to work at the factory. The external appearance of a good or superior beet is long and conical, flattened on the sides growing entirely beneath the surface. There should always be two spiral depressions starting from the neck, filled with a hairy growth; the skin may be white, gray, slightly green or rose, and rather thick and rough sur- face. The texture of the beet should be hard, break- ing easily, and giving no juice unless under pressure. 64 SUGAR BEET SEED. The central pivot should be hard and very pronounced, the fibro-vasculary tissue very well developed and the concentric rings not more than 12 m. m. in width. The beets not forked and with small necks. The juice should taste either salty or sweet. On many previous occasions attention has been directed to the influence of soil, fertilizer, seed, etc., upon the final shape of the beet. We _ know, for example, that if the soil has been thoroughly plowed, roots have greater facility of growth, attain greater length and grow less above ground than when the Fic. 25. upper surface only is at their disposal. If the sub-soil offers too great a resistance, the portion above ground is as great as that beneath the surface, and from a man- ufacturer’s point of view, very inferior roots are the result. A beet in growing, if of superior quality, in its desire to obtain the requisite plant food, will sur- round, as it were, a small stone, which may have been an obstruction to its descending development. The farmer, in delivering his crop at the factory, cannot be expected to select only those advantageous to the manufacturer, regardless of his own interests. SELECTING BEETS FOR SEED. 65 But what he can do is to learn the best shape of a sugar beet, and endeavor to produce such form. Frequently, farmers grow sugar beets from seed’ they purchase,* and the roots prove to be of an inferior quality. The truth, if plainly told, is simply that the supposed sugar beet was a sort of hybrid rutabaga, containing but 3 to 4 per cent. of sugar, instead of 12 to 13 per cent., as would have resulted if there had not been misconception of some kind. The good and bad shapes for beets are shown geometrically herewith. Suppose an axis, A B (Fig. 25), and a line, c d, form- | a | 1 | \ rf \i FIG. 26. ing an acute angle with the same; evidently, if this revolves it will depict a cone, which surface is the type of the tip end of average beets for sugar manufacture. Again, if a curve d B (Fig. 26) is substituted for the line, c d, we shall have a different surface, convex in its character, and the type of the mangel-wurzel, rutabaga, etc., not advantageous for sugar extraction. If the curve, d b, (Fig. 27) is convex, and we suppose *An important example of thisis the experience at the Rome fac- tory, WHEEG WhAny of the beets were red, bad low sugar percentages and were worthless for the purpose intended. 5 66 SUGAR BEET SEED. the same conditions as previously mentioned, we shall have a concave surface, representing the tip end of beets containing 15 or 16 per cent. of: sugar. The necks in the latter case are short and small, but in the previous example, long and thick. It is not well to confound a hairy surface on the outside of sugar beets with small adhering roots, as frequently found. They both, it is true, have the same object in view—extracting from the soil the maximum amount of plant food; but small adhering radicles are frequently an abnormal condition of growth, while the Fic. 27. hairy portions are the necessary and essential means of plant or root absorption. During the processes of harvesting, washing, etc., the hairy portions disappear almost entirely before the roots are sent to the slicer; while adhering radicles are generally sufficiently large to resist any operation to which they may be sub- mitted, and subsequently, as previously explained, lead to inferior results in the slicing process. In regard to the depression and hairy growth, it is interesting to note that it is generally on the side where there is the greatest distance between roots. SELECTING BEETS FOR SEED. 67 YOY Ball. Pear. Heart. Cone. Olive. Large Neck. Small Neck. Short. Pivoting. Slender. Forked SHAPES OF BEETS. 68 SUGAR BEET SEED. If the distance between beets 1s very much the same as between rows, the tendency then is for the hairy growth to form on all sides. Dubrunfaut declared that there is torsional action of the beet during its devel- opment, and the movement follows the sun. Mehay says that the hairy beets contain 3.5 per cent. dry sub- stance; for lateral root tissues this is 4.5 per cent. The shapes of most of the existing varieties come under the heads given by Knauer in the classifica- tion on the preceding page. , Many of these shapes have now become obsolete. The Silesian, or pear type, for a long period of years held its own, but is now no longer in vogue. The olive, also, had its day. The very long, pivoting types have generally a high polarization; however, the juice percentage is not what it should be, and, furthermore, their harvesting is most difficult. Desprez contends that there is a positive relation between the quality of roots and the hardness of their skin. We are inclined_to believe the assertion, as it has been practically demonstrated. Many of our read- ers, who have seen Desprez’s skin classification, may possibly be astonished at this curious theory; but we know that the larger the root, the lower its saccharine quality; hence, large beets are more watery, with tis- sues more open than are those of small roots, with a corresponding hardness of skin. Leplay has fre- quently. argued that the quality of a beet depends largely upon the amount of calcareous substance com- bined in its tissues, tending also to lessen the propor- tional decrease in sugar as the root increases in size. Here we have a kind of explanation of the hardness of skin previously mentioned; and the reason shown why it throws a certain amount of calcareous product on the surface of the clay loam. CHAPTER V—PART II. Chemical Selection of Mothers. History of Chemical Selection—While the phys- ical selection of beets with the view to seed production has its importance, it is always considered secondary to the chemical selection, either in laboratory or on the field. Dubrunfaut was among the first to insist upon some method for the selection of roots rich in sugar; it was he, who, in 1825, declared that, volume for volume, the heaviest beets were the richest in sugar. The roots were weighed in air and water, and the cal- culated density thus obtained was sufficient for the selection of roots that were subsequently to furnish seed to the sugar manufacturers. The fact is, as before stated, France during a period of years was the centre for superior beet seed; Russia, Germany and Austria imported their seed from French growers. In 1850, Vilmorin published his pamphlet on the proposition to increase the sugar percentage of beets. However, some years prior to this, other issues were discussed, with considerable foresight in regard to the possible future. Baths of saline water were used, the classifica- tion being based upon the strength of the bath—the roots were well washed before immersion, and those sinking were kept for mothers. In justice to Vilmorin, it is interesting to note that, in 1852, he real- ized that his method was not exact. Why the salt water baths are objectionable will be subsequently explained. It is now generally admitted that the actual s:-tection of beets with the view to seed production, as now accepted, was in 1856, for then. for the first time, 69 70 SUGAR BEET SEED. the question of creating a new variety was discussed. Numerous methods having the same object in view were subsequently proposed, and. these may be clas- sified as follows: 1st, Density of the entire root; 2d, density of a piece of beet; 3d, density of the juice of the beet; 4th, estimation of sugar in the juice by chem- ical methods; 5th, estimation of sugar in the beet by means of the polariscope, in connection with which have been proposed: (a), the alcoholic method; (b), hot and cold water methods; (c), cold water, using a special rasp, with subsequent weighing of the pulps, (d), cold water, with a special sampler, without weighing. It is important to pass in review these various methods: 1st, Density of the entire root. The discus- sions relating to this subject extended over several years. The baths at first had densities which varied from 10 to 6° Bé. Those beets sinking and of a close txture were kept for seed. The discovery by Vilmorin of a frequent air cavity in tle neck of beets made evident the fallacy of the method he was using, and besides there is another objection not to be over- looked, viz., the densities of the baths are not constant, because after a short time dirt, etc., adhering to the roots, and subsequently remaining in the tanks, will considerably alter the results, notwithstanding the care bestowed in washing the beets. The Knauer method for mechanically dividing the beets into piles, according to their weight, for some time attracted considerable attention. This had cer- tainly a great advantage over the mode previously adopted, as it was hardly possible to determine the weight of all the beets on the field before sending them to the factory. Furthermore, it was evident that if the roots were left on the ground after harvesting, they would have a certain amount of moisture which would undoubtedly alter the results. The difficulty of properly removing the leaves was evidently another source of CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 71 error which had been too frequently overlooked. It was, however, recommended that they be twisted off rather than be submitted to a slicing process, which had led to many irregularities in the results. Instead of a salt water bath, molasses was used as a medium. Beets weighing about 14 Ibs were thrown into it, there being several baths of increasing densities, which allowed a certain classification. While the method has been abandoned for years, there are many experts who still insist upon the weight being a basis of selec- tion, for when the weight of beets increases, the density of juice, total dry substances, the sugar percentage, the purity coefficient and the proportional value decrease.* Small Medium | Large {Very L’rge Weight, kilos. ............ 222 0.410 0.795 1,497 Density of juicet.......... 6.29 5.9° 6° 5.8° Dry substance, per cent. 15.139 14.428 14.666 14,190 Sugar, per cent............ 13.49 12.56 12.14 11.65 Non sugar, per cen ta 1.64 1.86 “2,53 2.54 Purity coefficient... ee 89.1 aT. SE. R21 Proportional value....... 12: 10.8 9.9 9.5 The analyses of 1000 beets in the Desprez labora- tory gave the following results: Beets Weights on Aver., kilos Sugar % kilo contains 27 0.533 11 to 12 23 0.528 12 to 13 84 0.621 13 to 24 226 0.603 14 to 15 252 0.523 15 to 16 270 0.496 16 to 17 106 0.477 17 to 18 12 0.37 18 to 20 1000 From which we conclude that while small beets, as a general rule, contain more sugar than large, this is by no means invariable. For in this list it may be noticed that the average weight of 226 beets was 0.603 kilo and averaged 14 to 15 per cent. sugar; roots *Influence of the weight of beets on their saccharine quality (see Z fiir Zuckerindustrie in Bohmen Jan. 1884). See for more important detail the work of Marek. ; ¢The degrees given here are according to the French—To convert into specific gravity prefix 10 and remove the decimal point two places to the left, e g: 6.2°=1.062 specific gravity. 72 ‘SUGAR BEET SEED. very much lighter, the average weight being 0.533 kilo, cgntained only 11 to12 percent. Vilmorin, during his early efforts at selection, introduced the method of tak- ing from the beet a cylindrical piece with an instru- ment similar to an apple-corer. 2d. Density of a Piece of Beet—That the sample could be taken from the beet without changing its keep- ing qualities, providing that the hole made be at once filled with sand, was an important progress compared with the old methods. The cylinders of Blount were placed in a series of vases and filled with sugar and water; these solutions contained 7, 8, 9, 10 to 15 per cent. of sugar. The selection of roots based on the density of the core taken from the beet continued to be in vogue for many years, the baths subsequently used having densi- ties of 105.0, 106.0, 107.0 and 108.0;* the small cylinders were frequently cut into four pieces. Dervaux-Ibled devised a method of selection, using saline baths in tanks of much smaller dimensions than those previ- ously described. It had been noticed that if a sample of root be taken perpendicular to the axis, at about one-third the height from the neck, its density would be one degree to 1.2 degrees less than the juice. If the samples were floated in a saline bath of 106, the con- clusion then was that the beet had a density of 107 to 107.2. The roots were first selected on the fields by exterior signs alone. The small vases, containing only 200 to 300 grams of salt water, were placed in numer- ous. hands, which allowed 3000 to 4000 beets to be selected per diem. The evident advantage over the whole-beet method was, that the roots were not neces- sarily cleansed or the leaves removed, while the econ- omy of time and labor was considerable. The baths *The above manner of writing the densities instead of placing the decimal after the first figure,was that adopted by those who were working by that special method of selection. tod CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 73 could be kept at almost constant density. The Dervaux method of classification was, that beet samples floating in the bath of 105 density were rejected and those which sank in that of 105.5 were subsequently sent to the laboratory for further examination. On the other hand, those which were of a density of more than 105, and yet less than 105.5 were siloed and planted the fol- lowing year and gave seed for the trade. The roots to which preference was given weighed from 700 to goo grams. Respecting the Dervaux method, we would say that the results obtained by it are more reliable than by the Vilmorin system, where several errors exist, the most important being the effect of endosmosis of the solution, and the atmospheric effect produced upon the small cylinder in passing from one vase to another, a series of solutions of different strength being used. The other errors were noticed by Champonnois, and were due to a certain volume of gas contained in the tissues of the piece of beet, or in the entire root. The volume of these gases varies from 9 to 50 c. c.* per kilo of beets. Its composition is, nitrogen, 63; car- bonic acid, 37. The following table shows that the vol- ume of these gases varies considerably. Density of beet Volume of gas in salt water. | Density of juice. per kilo. 1016 1035 26 ¢. c. 1012 1048 36 ¢. © 1005 1040 35 ¢. ¢ 1012 1050 Re.e Vibran made a new departure, and instead of taking the cylinder from the beet, he took the density of the tip end as a basis of estimation. Rimpau showed bv a series of well-conducted experiments that the method was not reliable. Several beets which were examined sank in a saline solution of 104.8; their sugar *Dubrunfaut admits that it may reach 113¢.c. per kilo of beets. Opinions very much differ respecting the composition of the gas; M. A. Heintz declares that it consists of nitrogen, 66.8; carbonic acid, 32.8; oxygen, 0.35; and the voJume varies from 130 to 150 c. c. per kilo of beets. 74 SUGAR BEET SEED. percentage varying from 11.98 to 14.3; average 13.4; beets with tips of lower density also gave 13 per cent. sugar. The fallacy of the method was also demon- strated by Marek, who tested tips from beets contain- ing 9 to 15 per cent. sugar and they all floated. Not- withstanding this fact, Dippe Brothers, the well-known seed producers of Germany, adopted the tip-end method as a basis of their selection. The end was broken off and immersed in a saline bath of 63° Bé. If it floated, the beet would be thrown out; if it sank, it would be placed in a second bath, 74° Bé; if sinking again, a third bath would be used, etc. A fact appar- ently overlooked by them, is, that during the period that beets remain siloed, the tip end is frequently the first to undergo organic changes. Consequently, if the end is not examined, either by polariscope or in the series of baths just mentioned, at once after harvesting, it will be found that its sugar percentage will be very much too low to be a safe guide. In conclusion to what has been said in the fore- going, there appears to exist a relation between the juice of the beets sinking and those which floated, the former being the heavier. Or, more clearly speaking, just as Mehay and Scheibler say, there must be a pro- portion between roots and their juices, and investiga- tions in this direction showed that it is desirable to take the density of the juice rather than that of the beet, the latter method, however, being more rapid. From 1872 to 1874, the selection of mothers attracted special attention and many factories all over Europe had special laboratories for seed production. How- ever, twenty years before this, Vilmorin had already used the juice as a basis of selection. 3d. Density of the Juice in the Beet——The core was reduced to a pulp and gave about 7 to Io c. c. juice. A complete apparatus was used. This method was in vogue for some time and is now interesting from an historical standpoint. CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. re) The sample was rasped and its juice extracted by twisting the pulp, held in a piece of cloth, between the fingers. The density of the juice obtained was deter- mined by a hydrometer (or by: the displacement method, which consisted in weighing a silver lingot in the juice, density being then calculated), the tempera- ture of the liquid being kept at 15 degrees C.;herecom- mended that beets having a density of 1.050 should not be used for mothers; special tables were arranged with corrections, etc. These underwent several changes, until, finally, it was suggested to submit the sample of beet to a strong pressure and polarize the juice obtained. But to this many objections could be found, for the pressed beet does not give juice of the same composition as when rasped. By all these methods it was necessary to make certain calculations, in order to compare the juice examined with 100 grams of beet. It was soon pointed out that the percentage of foreign substances contained in beet juice decreases as the specific gravity increases. While the methods of selection based upon the density of juice were not gen- erally adopted at the time, they have many advocates, even at the present day. Herles, for example, has a special apparatus for mother selection; it consists in using a very small-portion of the beet, and only 5 c. c. of the juice, its density being at once deter- mined. It is maintained that this density gives a far better idea of the sugar percentage of the beet than the polarization of juice from a very small sample. By this apparatus, 1200 analyses may be made in 24 hours, and it has met with some success. The first hints as to the possibility of ameliorating the quality of beets were given by the increase in specific gravity of juice from generation to generation. From the third gen- eration of selected beets, the juice had a specific gravity of 1.807, which corresponded to 21 per cent. sugar. 76 ‘SUGAR BEET SEED. The hereditary tendency was then no longer in doubt. The selection based upon the hardness of the skin of beets has certain original characteristics, for experi- ence has long since shown that the richer the beet, the tougher the skin. An instrument consisting of a rod with a dial indicator at the other end has been employed. This, pressed against the root, gives in one reading the resistance to penetration; the greater this is, the richer the beet! “General Remarks Respecting Juice of the Beet. The question of the percentage of juice in the beet is also very important in selecting roots with the view to seed production. This percentage varies very con- siderably with the condition of the weather at the time of harvesting; if very rainy, the beets evidently weigh more and contain more juice than after a drouth. Fur- thermore, there is an element of variety; hence, the per- centage of juice of one should be compared with another; after such comparison, the sugar percentage should be determined. There are, accordingly, several very misleading factors with which to contend. What is true for moisture is reversely true for excessive dryness. Then the percentage of juice would be less and the sugar percentage apparently greater. Hence, the admitted average of 95 per cent. juice is open to discussion. In most cases there may be cer- tain advantages in estimating the percentage of juice by indirect methods, admitting that the total sugar of juice is the same as the total sugar of the beet; which, in other words, means that it is possible to calculate in the laboratory all the sugar in the beet solely from the juice by pressure. Consequently, the weight of the beet multiplied by the per cent. of sugar is equal to the weight of the juice multiplied by its per cent. of sugar. If these calcula- - tions are made, it will be found that there is a frequent CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 77 variation of 5 per cent. in percentage of juice under observation, not only with different beets, but with the same varieties. Mothers should not only be rich in sugar, but rich in juice. As a basis of comparison, it 1s proposed to determine the sugar percentage by the water method, then to repeat the experiments by the Violette copper mode, and divide these results one by the other. It is claimed that this calculation would give an excellent idea of the juice percentage of the beet examined. Furthermore, it is recommended to give preference to those beets which give the highest product when the per cent. of sugar is multiplied by the per cent. of juice. Respecting this mode, it seems to the writer that it would be too long and expensive for root selecting, in seed growers’ laboratories. 4th. Estimation of Sugar in the Juice by Chemical Methods.* All these methods require the sugar to be transformed into glucose and the proportion of glucose then determined by the use of a standard alkaline cop- per solution. When all the copper has been reduced by the glucose, the solution is no longer blue. Special stress is placed on the weight of the oxide of copper found, or even on the weight of cop- per which has undergone a proper reduction. While these methods were in vogue for the estimation of sugar in the beet, they demanded too much care and time for general use. Furthermore, they have proved to be inaccurate in the hands of the average chemist. In the selection of beets with the view to *The process of manufacture would be very simple if juice con- tained only sugar, but there are many salts in dissolution, all of which exert considerable influence on the ultimate crystallization. Hence, it is very important to know the proportion between sugar and total solid substances; this relation is known as the purity coefficient. The per cent. of solid substances is determined with a hydrometer. If a juice contains 16 per cent. solid substances, of which 14 per cent. is sugar, then mans purity coefficient—87.5. This should never be lower than 80, otherwise the working of such roots into sugar could not be made profitable. 78 SUGAR BEET SEED. seed production, the Violette method had a very extended application in many laboratories, and a description of this mode is of special interest. Violette Method. This mode of analysis, like the Filing, is based on the amount of copper reduced by glucose; the sample taken from the beet is rather larger than is actually required. The early sampler consisted of a simple steel apple-corer; the direction given to the appliance should be such as to meet the axis of the beet at a point one-quarter* of its total length from the crown of the root; it may be perpendicular or slanting, providing it passes through the centre corresponding to h (Fig. 28). The sample should be sliced into small pieces, precaution being taken to remove the outer skin. These should be weighed. Exactly five grams of these slices are carefully placed in a flask of 100 c. c. (this weight and flask selection has many advocates); to it are added 10 c. c. of normal sulphuric acid, then 40 to 50 c. c. of distilled water. The flask and con- tents are gradually heated for 15 to 20 minutes, under which circumstances, all the sugar of the sample is converted into glucose; the liquid is allowed to cool *For mathematical reasoning of same, see ‘‘ Ware on Sugar Beet,” Pages 181-182, which is as follows: Mr. Violette supposes tlhe beet an exact surface of revolution engendered by the triangle A B C (Fig 29), and that the sugar contained increases in an arithmetical progression from DtoC. If LM be an infinitesimal cylinder parallel to the axis, CD, aceording to the theory just mentioned the point S, middle of LM, will have an average amount of sugar for the small element under consideration. The same argument will apply to O, when the cylinder having the axis DC is considered. If O be pores to A and B, evidently the lines OA and OB will be the line of all the averages of small cylinders possible to imagine as existing in the interior of the beet, and the centres of OA and OB, or X and X’, will represent the exact position of the average of all the averages, and if each horizontal slice contains the same amount of sugar, we could write, OY OX cD —-=-—-=1. Then OY =YD=—— YD XA Some German chemists recommend that the sample be taken as shown in the engraving. CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 79 until it reaches 15 degrees C. It is then desirable to add 10 c. c. of a normal soda solution, in order to neutralize the free acid; distilled water is added to complete the Slassy’s Method for Taking Sample, Showing also Distribution of Sugar in Superior Beets. Fic. 29. Diagram ot FIG. 28. Sampling. Violette’s theory. 100 c. c.; thorough agitation is necessary in order to have the solution homogeneous. Filtration follows; to c. c. of the filtrate is emptied into a graduated burette (graduation of one-tenth c.c); 10 c. c. of the Violette copper solution* are accurately meas- *This liquor consists of 36.46 grams crystallized sulphate of copper dissolved in 100c.c. of distilled water, 200 grams seignette salt, 90 grams caustic soda. This formula varies slightly. Great care is required in its preparation; it must be kept in the dark, etc.; as itis very sensitive to light it is best to prepare it as needed. 80 SUGAR BEET SEED. ured with a pipette and emptied into the test tube, and then heated over a gas jet. This volume of the blue liquor requires 0.05 grams of glucose before becoming completely decolorized. Several cubic centi- meters of the sugar solution are dropped into the test liquor; repeated heating brings about changes in color, passing from yellow to red, etc. After boiling for a few seconds, there will be noticed a red deposit at the bottom of the test-tube. This is the sub-oxide of copper which has been thrown down; a few more cubic centimeters of the sugar solu- tion are again added and the liquid is boiled; the addi- tion of the sugar solution and the boiling are repeated from time to time, until the liquor becomes colorless. If the sugar solution is used in excess, there remains a yellow tinge, the intensity of which depends upon the quantity above what was needed. Note is taken of the number of cubic centimeters used to complete the copper reduction. If this, for example, had been 7.3,c. c., it would correspond to 0.05 gram of glucose, equivalent to the glucose obtained in the inversion of 0.0475 gram of sugar. In one cubic centimeter there would be 0.05~7.3, and in 100 c. c., in which have been dissolved the sugar from five grams of beet, there is 0.05 X 1007.3, or 5+7.3, which equals 0.685 gram glucose, corresponding to 0.651 gram sugar. Conse- quently, in 100 grams of beet there is 200.651, equal to 13.02 per cent. of sugar. Practical Application of the Violette Method. Some years ago, one of the leading beet-seed growers introduced the Violette method into his lab- oratory. the beet have not necessarily the same composition; hence, for accurate results it is very desirable to turn the beet over and take two or three samples from it, until the weight is above 16.20 grams, for French polariscopes; if only the large diameter—the beet having always a depression on one side—is sampled, the result obtained will be in excess. Practical experiments show that with the large diameter the average sugar per cent. is 13.43, while with the small diameter the per cent. is 13.23. The amount of pulp obtained in the case of the large diameter is nearly double that of the smaller section. While a rasp of this kind would not be suitable for the selection of beets which are to be subsequently used for seed production, it is des- tined to render excellent services 1n experimental work, where it is desired to determine the value of various experimental patches of families, having cer- tain characteristics, before commencing the final selec- tion of the root proper. It must be noted, however, that if the fractional vertical slices for seed production become popular, the rasp would possibly find some application in beet-selecting laboratories. The Poliakowsky method, if it had been more thoroughly studied, would have led to the water proc- ess that Pellet subsequently discovered. An impor- tant essential for success by this method is, that the pulps be excessively fine and cream-like. It is not desirable to weigh more than 26.048 grams for the Ger- man polariscope, for a volumd of 201.35 c. c., or 25.87 grams for a volume of 200 c.c. The pulp is washed in a special flask of 200 c. c. capacity; 5 to 7 c. c. sub- acetate at 30 degrees Bé are added, then a few drops of ether. Considerable agitation of the flask and con tents is necessary to avoid frothing. The 200 c. c. are completed with water; filtration and polarization as usual. It is recommended before polarizing that CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. OL a few drops of acetic acid be added. By using a tube of 400 m. m. in length the saccharine percentage is obtained at one reading. This cold-water process gives most excellent results, excepting during very cold weather; then it is found desirable to slightly heat the water. (c)2. Special Rasp (Keil and Dolle) with Subsequent Weighing of Pulps. It is interesting to examine in some detail the cold-water method for selection, as combined with the Keil and Dolle rasp. The general arrangement for laboratories is shown in Fig. 36. The motion of the rasp is given either by hand in turning a wheel, or by a gas on other engine, under which circumstances the upper arrangement of pulleys is not changed, as by suitable belting the desired velocity is reached direct from the motor on the floor, replacing the hand appli- ance; the rasp proper is very simple in its appearance; it may be single or double and has well-arranged brakes and pulleys, allowing almost instantaneous stoppage. The fly-wheel on the shaft regulates the movement. The point of the rasp is a cone with teeth very like those used on wood files. In this point there are three openings, Q (see detail of point, Fig. 34) into which the cream-like pulp enters. In the original type of these machines it was necessary to unscrew the cylinder on which the conical rasp is fastened; the cylinder had to be emptied and then thoroughly washed before taking a sample from another beet. Under these circumstances it was not possible to make more than 1000 analyses per diem. Movable cylinders inside the rasp for a time were used, these being replaced by others during washing. This change in the method increased, in a measure, the working capacity of the apparatus, but did not entirely meet the requirements for rapid analysis. At last a 92 SUGAR BEET SEED. very simple method, which is most practical and does away with the movable cylinder, washing, etc., was mtroduced. It consists in having a rod F fastened to the rasping point; at end of the rod is a circular disk D of the same diameter as the cone of revolving shaft. When the cone is unscrewed it carries with it the rod and disk, the pulp cylinder falling into a special cap- sule, care being taken to leave behind the portion of pulp near the disk, as it is the remains of a previous operation and has been pushed back by the new pulp from the last beet from which a sample is taken. Expe- rience shows that only four-fifths of the contents of cylinder should be allowed to fall into the capsule; by this means 3000 analyses may be made in twenty- four hours. Certain practical precautionary measures are essential. One must be careful to bring the mother JOCEe FIG. 34. Detail of rasp point. FIG. 35. Wide neck flask. in contact with the revolving rasp very slowly; fur- thermore, when the penetration through the beet is nearly complete, the revolution of the rasp should be lessened, otherwise there would be danger of bruising the beet on the other side. Suitable brakes must be used so as to stop the apparatus at once, as soon as the belt is thrown on the loose pulley. When the mothers are arranged on a table near at hand, the sampling can commence. The rasp is put in motion by moving the lever commanding the belting; as soon as completed, that 1s, as soon as the sample is taken, the reverse movement is given to the lever so as to stop the general motion, while a special brake with spring attachment stops the rasp instantly. If there are two rasps on the same shaft, they must revolve CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 93 in the same direction, otherwise there would result considerable complication. Pellet makes some important observations respect- ing the use of the Keil rasp. It should penetrate the beet one-fourth of its length without neck. When the cutting portions of the rasp are sharp and in good condition, the pulp obtained is sufficiently fine to give accurate results by the cold-water process of analysis, but if the pointed rasp works badly the conditions are changed. If the velocity of the rasp is too slow, or if the motion is reversed, the pulp obtained is not suffi- ciently fine for the purpose intended. It is important to note that the hole made in the beet by the Keil and Dolle rasp is 14 m. m. in diameter, that it in no way destrovs the keeping qualities of the mother root; also that at least 300 perforations may be made per hour, or 3000 a day; this cannot be reached at first and requires considerable experience. To make sure of conditions, a comparative test by cold and hot water should be made. Place beside the rasp the tray hold- ing ten capsules, or small receptacles for the reception of the pulp. Each of them has’a number and the mix- ing is done in them, or in a larger receiver. Weighing the Pulp. It is then emptied into a nickel capsule of a known weight. It is desirable to have several on hand, so as to avoid errors. The pulp, after being thoroughly mixed, is weighed in capsules. One-quarter of the normal weight required for the polariscope is sufficient for the test; at least 1000 of such weighings can be done in ten hours on ordinary scales, and for special seed laboratories five or more scales are in active use. Filling of Flasks with Pulp. The flasks used have a capacity of 50 c. c. (Fig. 35), with a very large opening. The pulp is washed 94 SUGAR BEET SEED. into them with 25 to 30 c. c. of water, from a reservoir three to five feet above the table; its capacity depends upon the requirements. The water is mixed with 30 to 40 c. c. of sub-acetate of lead, 28 to 30 Bé.* fA), per liter capacity, and is well stirred. A tube, either of glass or tubber, connects the reservoir within easy reach of the table, on which are the empty flasks waiting to be filled. A special funnel is placed in the flask. The funnel has an upper opening of 6c. m., and is 7 c. m. in length, its smaller dimensions being considerably less than the neck of the flask; it is held in position bv suitable wire attachments. The capacity of the funnel being at least 100 c. c., there need then be no danger from splashing when being filled with the entire contents of capsule; under these circumstances the air from the flasks escapes without difficulty during filling. A very important precaution is to thoroughly moisten the pulp in the capsule before washing it into the funnel over the flask. Great care should be taken to have the flasks filled, exactly to: the 50 c. c. mark of the flask; if necessary, by reason of excessive frothing, bet- ter add a few drops of acetic acid, so as to make sure that the desired volume is obtained, or allow for excess i subsequent calculations. The flask, with pulp and water, is thoroughly shaken. The filtering can be conducted on a very large scale, the arrangement of the apparatus varying with circumstances.t The glass funnels should be of a suitable size. The clear filtrate is collected in a conical-shaped tumbler; to it are added 2 few drops of acetic acid; when it is filled, it is taken on a tray with twenty others to the table of the polari- *A satisfactory formula for the preparation of lead acetate is as follows—325 to 350 grams neutral acetate of lead, 100 grams powdered litharge, to which is added 900 grams water. It is necessary to boil for one-half honr to completely dissolve the litharge, ada water until the volume is one liter. Another formula given by a well-known chemist is—350 grams neutral lead acetate, 55 ¢.c. ammonia, 800 grams water; dissolve the acetate in water and then add the ammonia; the specific gravity should be 25 degrees Bé, tSee deseription of M. Legras’s laboratory. CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 95 scope. Great care is needed to have each numbered, the number in question corresponding to that of the beet from which the juice was obtained. Practical Working by the Keil and Dolle Rasping Method. The general plan (Fig. 36) gives an excellent idea of a well-organized laboratory, working by the Keil FIG. 36. Pian ot ee Bleeds Jaboratory. and Dolle rasping method. The beets are brought to Table B, where they are weighed. Those roots within 96 SUGAR BEET SEED. the prescribed limit of weight are taken to Table A, consisting of a series of shelvings about six feet in height. On each shelf there are compartments for twenty beets; each has a number, to which is also appended the number of the shelf. The rasping is done by the two double rasps at Table C. The motor for the rasps is shown at D. There are four small scales, E, on which the cream-like pulp is weighed;’ the flasks are filled on the other side of the same table, f, f, {; the necessary distilled water and subacetate of lead are obtained from reservoirs suspended from the ceiling. The filtering tables are shown at F; the funnels are all held in a fixed frame, while the glasses receiving the filtrate are on tables with wheels, which may run on tracks, tttt; these each hold twenty glasses, ten on each side. When the filtering is com- plete, they in turn are run over to R, which con- sists of two rooms with polariscopes, having a common light, p. It is interesting to note, that as soon as the sample is taken from the beet at Table C, it is returned to its respective compartment at Table A. Consider- able system is essential for satisfactory working. The 50 c. c. flasks, when filled, are carried in wire baskets, in series of ten, to the filtering tables. As the variations of sugar percentage need be only between the limits of 14 to 16 per cent. of sugar, no very great accuracy is required for weighing pulp or filling flasks; it can, consequently, be done with considerable rapidity. After the analyses tables have left the chem- ists’ hands,.the beets which are not kept are taken from the compartment of A. For 5000 analvses per diem, 28 persons are needed; this includes the overseer and the boy to keep the laboratory clean. (c) 3. Analysis with a Special Sampler, Without Weighing, as Adopted by M. Legras. This method depends upon the use of the Hantiot machine, and also upon a sampler worked CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 97 Fic. 87. VERTICAL SAMPLER. 98 SUGAR BEET SEED. by steam. The doing away with the tedious details of weighing expedites matters. And the rapid analyses of beets, before siloing for the win- ter, demands that the daily analyses reach a maxi- mum. After the physical selection on the field, the roots are gradually brought to the laboratory and each placed in a special compartment. The Laon laboratory is divided into two parts, parallel to each other, there being less confusion with this arrangement. There are two series of shelving, each with 300 compartments, 15 rows vertically, and 20 horizontally; the sizes of these, taken as a whole, are: Length, ten feet; width, nine inches; height, six feet; distance between com- partments, five inches vertically, and six inches horizontally. For each series there are two Hanriot appliances, and one vertical sampler worked by steam, which is sufficient for the entire laboratory. The arrangement of the sampler is shown in Fig. 37. It is capable of giving 70 vertical strokes per minute, but this would be entirely too rapid for the laboratory work, not more than 15 to 20 strokes per minute being necessary. Great precaution is required in order to give the beet the proper slant during sampling. It should be so arranged, as previously explained, that the perforations be made at one-fourth the length of the beet, without the neck. It is desirable to keep a rub- ber band beneath the beet on the table during sam- pling. This precaution obviates mutilating the beet by the passage of theknife. The cut sampleremains in place and is removed by hand. The cylinder obtained from the beet has a diameter of about 12 m. m. (4 inch), and a length which varies from 60 to 80 m. m. (2 I-3 to 3+ inches). The cylinders are placed in special frames, as shown in the engraving, these frames having 20 divisions each. There are five of these frames in con- stant use for each series of the laboratory; as 100 beets CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 99 are being examined at a time, it is better to have at least seven for each series of 100 beets. For each series of the laboratory in turn, the small cylinders obtained are placed in regular order, one alongside of the other, and cut at equal length by a parallel blade- slicer of special construction, capable of cutting 1200 per hour. The samples are then replaced in their respective numbered compartments of the frame. It is an aston- ishing fact that these small cylinders have nearly the same weight, and the error committed is so slight that its influence upon the whole series of experiments need not be considered. The exact weight for the demands of these analyses should be 6.512 grams or 26.048~4 grams.* With the view of determining what their exact weight is, I00 were weighed in five series of 20; the average for each series was 6.506 grams, 6.512 grams, 6.503 grams, 6.527 grams, 6.518 grams, or a variation of 0.01 to 0.02 grams; an approx- imation quite sufficient for all practical purposes. It is interesting to note that several preliminary weighings are necessary; the slicing blade is adjusted accordingly, and, when once arranged, can be relied upon. The Hanriot machine (Fig. 38) in which these small cylinders are placed and reduced to a fine pulp, consists of a conical box, H, made of hard bronze, with lateral tube, the appliance itself being mounted on a tripod, which may be screwed upon a table, z, 2’ and 2.” Inside the bronze box are a series of grooves, made in the direction of the generatrix of the cone. Against this surface revolves, at a velocity of 2200 to 2500 revolutions per minute, a solid cone, which has a series of teeth all at an angle of 45 degrees to the axis of rev- olution, thus facilitating the exit of the pulverized beet, and also of the water during washing. The cylinder *This weight varies with the polariscope used. For the French apparatus it would 16.29>4=4.07 grams. 100 SUGAR BEET SEED. from the sampler is placed in the apparatus through a lateral orifice. As soon as the solid cone revolves, it is, by a well-combined lever, P, worked by hand, forced against the outer cone, the lower part of which is a funnel-shaped hopper, H, connecting with the flask, F, having the same number and serial divisions as the sample being crushed. In connection with the inte- rior of the machine is a rubber appliance, R, its capac- ity being 80 c. c., filled with water; by pressing it the water is forced between the inner and outer cones and empties itself into the flask, F, of 105 c.c. capacity. It is of interest to notice that on top of the rubber appli- Fic. 38. Hanriot crusher for beet sample. ance, FR, there is a projection, E, which may be con- nected with a reservoir of water. There are special frames or baskets to hold twenty flasks, each compartment of which is numbered. The flasks are carried to a table where 1.5 c. c. of subacetate of lead are added, the quantity being accurately obtained by the use of a special hand measure. The flasks are then filled with water up to the 100 c. c. mark, a few drops of ether on the surface removing the froth that generally exists. The flasks must be thoroughly agitated prior to filtration, which opera- CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS 101 TTT, ae? nu} : YY il i 25 filters Tf Side View. FiG 39. FILTERING TABLE. 102 SUGAR BEET SEED. tion takes place on a special table. The filtering-room in the Legras laboratory is most important and well combined, the benches for the double series of shelving, arranged back to back, as shown in the engraving (Fig. 39). Each double series holds too filtering tunnels and 100 conical glasses holding the filtrate; consequently, there are 200 filtrations going on at the same time. Experience shows that rather more than this number are necessary, and it is better to have 240 working, or 120 on each side of the table, so as to be able to reach 800 analyses per diem. Not less than 320 flasks and 320 glasses are needed; this makes allowance for breakage. Some of these are used to receive the filtrate, and others wait their turn on the chemist’s table. The filtering paper used is a kind which has been mechan- ically folded in advance. Strange as it may seem, practical experience has shown that the glasses do not need washing, and the error committed by having them cleaned for each analysis would be greater than if left untouched for the whole series of operations for which they are used. This fact may be explained by the reason that there is a very slight difference in the composition of the juices being filtered, and which follow one another in regular order. Classification. ‘All observations made in regard to the sugar per- centage are noted on special sheets of five double col- umns of twenty polarizations each, or 100 per sheet: CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 103 WGAT 1898 iiecicacidevinnioncemse wsisrstsie sielalgaraiattenambiste Ataatogs Serial No. 822. Polar- Polar- Polar- Polar- Polar- | ization ||No.| ization,]|No./ization.||No.| ization,|No.| ization. (i i eee Bh Mineseden 40 scents ee ‘60. ‘80 |. The arrangement is shown herewith: First donble column, with number of observation and polarization; the second, ete., series follow: as each sheet contains 100 observations for 10,000 polarizations per diem, 100 sheets would be required; these are separate and complete. From these tables is combined another, giving a synopsis for the 100 analyses made, and the number of mothers having a special polarization, and the num- ber rejected: Series | Aggregate Synopsis. of theljof Previous Total. Day. Days. No. of roots rejected................ No. of mothers testing 13 per cent.. No. of mothers testing 14 per cert.. No. of mothers testing 15 per cent.. No. of mothers testing, etc.......... No. of mothers testing, etc. Total! scien di atanannensdacsawaineess 100 30,600 | 30,700 If 10,000 polarizations are made, 100 sheets like this are necessary. One sheet being continuous of the other, the final sheet would give the exact condition of the day’s work. : It must not be forgotten that the Legras mother- selecting laboratory is the most important in France, if not in the world. With proper assistants, 10,000 analyses may be made in twenty-four hours. By the present arrangement, however, 34 personsareemployed: To carry beets, 2; sampling, 2; filling trays with sam- 104 SUGAR BEET SEED. ples, 1; working sampler, 1; Hanriot appliance, with assistants, 6; acetate of lead, ether, etc., manipulations, 2; juice measurers, 2; juice filtration, 4; carrying glass jars, etc., 2; for the two polariscope observations, 6; for classification of results, 2; arranging beets and general cleaning, etc., 4. M. Legras says that under the con- dition of the Laon environment with the laboratory at the sugar factory, he can make an analysis of mothers for three-fifths of a cent, which, however, does not include cost of plant, etc., but is for labor and chem- icals only. One fact is certain, that the cost of the cold- water method of analysis is just one-half the cost of the Fihling or other oxide of copper modes. The jaboratory where all these observations are made is 43x20 feet, a special space 9xg feet being needed for sample trays and for the three-horse-power engine which works the sampler. These are very crowded quarters, and would have to be very considerably increased for 15,000 analyses per diem, as contem- plated. To accomplish such extraordinary results in so limited a time demands almost a military system of working, since the goings and comings of so many hands would mean great confusion and failure unless all were well disciplined. (c) 4. Sachs’ Direct Method. During the writer’s visit to Brussels he was shown in the Sachs laboratory a very much simplified cold- water digestion mode for rapid beet analysis, arranged by Sachs. It does away with flasks and many manip- ulations which in reality demand far greater care and precautions than was at first thought necessary. The production of a very fine pulp with the Keil and Dolle rasp introduced considerable volume of air into the pulp, which is most difficult to get rid of, even withalco- hol or ether. The errors may vary from 0.3 to I per cent. of sugar, an item of considerable importance to 1 CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 105 farmers when beets are purchased by the manufactur- ers on the basis of a sliding scale depending upon sugar percentage. By this new method the beet sample must be a very fine pulp, obtained as usual with the rasp just mentioned; 26.048 grams aré weighed in a capsule of a known weight, 5 c. c. of sub-acetate of lead and 172 c. c. of water are then added, giving a total of 177 c. c.* The capsule is covered and is then thoroughly agitated; polarization follows after having added a few drops of acetic acid. The complete apparatus, shown in engraving (Fig. 40), consists of a reservoir, L, of distilled, or rain water, connected. by a rubber pipe with pinch cock, V, to the tube, C, of the pipette (see Fig. 41). The flask, M, contains subacetate of lead in communication with pipette, B, by means of a rubber pipe, on which is the pinch cock, V. When the pipette is too full, the over- flow can run through 4 into flask, S.on the lower level. The flask, O, contains acetic acid, which is used to clean the pipette, which latter is held in a vertical posi- tion by a suitable support. T is the capsule in which the rasped pulp is weighed, and into which the con- tents of the pipette are emptied. This arrangement can be made to suit the special demands of any labor- atory. One precaution is very important, viz., that the flask, M, be not higher than six inches above B, so that the flow be not too rapid, and so that the 5 c. c. mark may be under mathematical observation. The water reservoir should be at least three feet higher than the pipette, so as to allow for its rapid filling. The pipette is filled in the following manner: One- fourth of a turn of K opens communication with M; *Experiments show that beets contain 4.75 per cent. marc, or for 26.048 grams, 1.240f mare and 24.81 grams of juice. If juice has an ay- erage density of 1.07, there will be 23.18 ¢. c. or 23 c. c., making allow- ance for the lead deposits. If 177 ¢. c. water is added, this makes up exactly 200¢. c. and no allowance need be made for froth. 106 SUGAR BEET SEED. when the subacetate reaches J, the cock is turned another one-fourth of a revolution, which allows the water from L to enter the apparatus. As soon as the water commences to run over at H, K is again turned, PL ocr ous | Gag Fia. 40. Complete apparatus. and by completing the revolution the contents of the pipette fall into T, containing the pulp. This is covered with a rubber disk and is held in position between the hands; after a few minutes, shaking and filtration fol- CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 107 low. By smearing a little vaseline over the surface of the rubber, one obtains a perfect joint; furthermore, it prevents adherence of the liquid to its surface. It is desirable to leave the capsule with its contents in Fia. 41. Detail of pipette. repose for a few minutes, to make sure that the diffu- sion is complete. eects The method may be still further simplified by doing away with flask J/, and having the subacetate 108 SUGAR BEET SEED. solution in reservoir L. This mixture is prepared by adding to 1000 c. c. of water, 29 c. c. of subacetate at 30° Bé., followed by careful agitation; under these cir- cumstances the cock, K, is turned a half-revolution for each filling of the pipette. One of the objections to this mixing in advance is that as considerable volume must be prepared, and if not done under the direct care of the chemist, there would be no certainty as to results, while by the mode described in the foregoing, the pro- portions would be accurate for each experiment; hence, the desirability of having a separate subacetate flask. We take pleasure in calling attention to the fact that this apparatus is also constructed for the Laurent polariscope, in which case the pipette has a capacity of 171.4 c. c., and double the normal weight (16.29 grams), or 32.58 grams is weighed in the capsule. The simplicity of the analysis places it within reach of the rural population, who, without any special tech- nical education, could soon learn to use the polariscope and estimate for themselves just what percentage of sugar their beets contain. General Remarks on Laboratory Requisites for the Selection of Mothers by the Cold-Water Method. A general idea of a selecting laboratory was shown in a plan on page 95. The arrangement, however, varies very much with the facilities one has at his dis- posal; however, there are certain essentials from which no great departure must ever be made. Under all circumstances, there should be plenty of room around a central table containing 100 samples of juice being filtered. The going and coming being very considerable, the distribution of light is important, not only during the day, but at night. For it frequently happens in laboratories visited by the writer, that the capacity is doubled by working night and day, under which circumstances, it is possible, CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 109 with an installation for 5000 analyses per diem, to work 10,000, but with different chemists and general help. It is always desirable to have several rooms, and these of a size to permit doubling, if necessary, the work to be done during twelve hours. It is best to have the polariscopic examination in a separate place from where the filtering or sampling is done; not so much on account of being obliged to use an artificial light, as to be away from the noise, which always has a distracting effect upon the observer, who, after an interval of time, becomes more or less fatigued. An ample supply of water in all cases is necessary in order to keep the laboratory thoroughly clean. As stated in previous pages, it is desirable to make the first selection of beets upon the fields, depending entirely upon exte- rior characteristics. It is, however, important to make another selection as soon as the silo is opened, for cer- tain roots always undergo alterations during their keeping. Then, again, other roots are thrown out, owing to their size, shape, etc. This final sorting reduces by nearly one-half the beets which had been selected for analysis after harvesting. The beets remaining are carried by hand or cart, depending upon the country, to the reception-room, which should be very spacious, as frequently 1000 beets are spread out, covering considerable area. It is important to have the reception-room divided into several rooms, thus keeping very superior beets entirely separate. It is not necessary to have on hand the whole num- ber of beets for one day’s analyses; if for a laboratory suited for 4000 analyses per diem, about 800 beets only need be waiting their turn. This requires eight series of shelving and compartments of 100 roots. These may be arranged in sub-divisions, A, B, C and D, each of which is sub-divided in two series. sts Sb Souisey hs 2. Bicde BOG a. cinceae sonodiama wearer usecase 100 Division afa SOries 1:27 Bp 4s OyiGeq emocaaaesaveeaoe ets aianesads nme 100 bgca TStSETIOSs. 1; 2::354) 526 ia sy dorignaw norma en acnigaar sy x soted 100 Division B {ba BERLGSe An Dad A OAH cules poe onceiaacncl ay ahouenerea onto: cee 100 110 SUGAR BEET SEED. The reception-room during a day’s working in the present case is filled and emptied five times. Each beet of any division or series has a number, which it retains during the entire manipulation of the sample in the laboratory. Before being taken to the sample- room, it is weighed on an ordinary spring scale, no great accuracy being necessary; it is then placed in the pigeonhole, waiting its turn, as not more than, one-fifth of the roots are retained during the early periods of selection; for one day there would remain but 800 individual beets of the 4000 analyses made. It is important, after the sample is taken from the root, to fill up the hole made with clay or wood charcoal. The mothers are thus in a measure protected against rot, etc., even after several months in the silos. After the chemical selection has been completed, the beets are placed in special silos until the planting season. The help needed for 2500 to 3000 analyses per diem with one polariscope having a continuous tube attachment, using the Keil and Dolle rasp, accord- ing to Pellet, is as follows: To classify beets... .......... vey Rasping..... To work the rasp... ae 2 el fore es satan tei aye ad bade aay a To carry capsules to scales.. oe Weighing... wae 4 Flask filters.... a Filtration... }Gaugers........ a A To look after filters .. dines pare ae ee PUM Sistah cor ee Two women should be kept constantly at work, washing cap- eules, giving’ a lotal Of: .ccsiss cisitemsea sg dsinee ty un sesaied s Semeaw pees ia Tee 21 If it is intended to analyze ‘4000 to 5000 beets per diem, an extra rasp would be needed. There would be required about seven or eight additional hands: Rasping, 1; weighing, 2; filtering, 3; to accom- plish nearly double the work. These analyses may be made for about one cent per beet examined. By the Hanriot method, the weighing being done away with, CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 111 the help needed is considerably reduced. For 4000 to 5000 analyses: To operate the sampler...... To serve the sampler..... Cutting samples.. Hanriot Machine. {To operate the apparatus nso uoseho (alien ftw -nctaran ae To carry juice in pexsnuie to 0 filtering tables Sampling......... { 1 1 1 sod 12 2 2 2 2 Filtration........ 4 Cate Sereea Polarization.. ... { foe polaiicaje : bis Including two women to wash capsules, etc., we must estimate at least 20 persons. In the analyses of 10,000 beets per diem, by the Keil rasping method, there are needed 56 persons instead of 20 for 3000. By the Hanriot machine, 30 individuals are necessary to do the work. It would be a great mistake to take any of the figures as being exact to the letter, for experience is a great factor; the climatic influence of the environment is also a question not to be overlooked; and there are great doubts if any mother-selecting laboratories of the United States could at first reduce the number of hands to within the limits given in the foregoing. The persons employed in the Legras laboratory, being in many cases boys and girls under the charge of competent persons, are more numerous than if the training of the individuals had been going on during a period of seasons, which would be difficult to realize; the Jaboratory should not be in full activity more than a few months of the year. ‘Apparatus Necessary for a Laboratory Capable of Analyzing 2500 to 3000 Mothers Per Diem by the Keil Rasp Method One rasp, I motor (gas, petroleum or hand motor), 1 polariscope, 200 numbered capsules, 4 chem- ical balances, 8 nickel capsules, 4 weights (one-fourth normal weight), 4 nickel funnels, 4 water reservoirs, sco flasks of 50 to 55 c. c. capacity, 500 funnels, 500 tumblers, 200 numbers with pinches, 2 continuous 112 SUGAR BEET SEED. tubes of 400 m. m. in length, 3 baskets to hold 20 flasks each, 6 ether dropping flasks, 6 acetic acid dropping flasks; a certain quantity of subacetate of lead, acetic acid, nitric acid, filtering paper, etc, depending upon the size of laboratory. For 10,000 analyses per diem, the above would have to be doubled. M. Pellet recommends that a certain number of flasks of 100 to 110 c. c. and 200 to 205 c. c. capacity be kept on hand, so as to make comparative experiments by the hot and cold methods; a certain number of sand baths are always necessary. By the Hanriot method the apparatus necessary is: 2 Hanriot apparatus, 1 sampler, 1 knife, 4 nickel funnels, 2 water reservoirs, I balance, 2 small nickel capsules (one-fourth normal weight), 500 flasks of 50 to 55 c. c. capacity, 500 funnels, 500 tumblers, 200 numbers with pinching attachments, I polariscope, 2 continuous tubes 400 m. m. in length, 3 baskets for 20 flasks, 6 ether dropping flasks and 6 acetic acid drop- ping flasks. It is interesting to compare these with the prac- tical working of the Legras laboratory mentioned in previous pages. Under all circumstances, a good sup- ply of chemicals, mentioned in foregoing, viz., ether, acetic acid and subacetate of lead, are needed. For 10,000 analyses per diem these appliances must, in nearly every case, be doubled. It is hardly necessary to go into details of the numerous motors that are in use or that have been suggested for laboratory work. The principal point to be kept in mind, is, that 2000 revolutions of the Keil rasp, or the Hanriot apparatus, must be maintained; otherwise, the work accomplished would be very poor in beet selecting; the root would be so mutilated that its keeping would be almost impossible. Most of the glass funnels, flasks and tumblers could be furnished by most any dealer of chemical appliances; it is, however, very essential CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 113 that the flasks should have the capacity mentioned in the description of the cold-water method of analysis. The Hanriot apparatus, as described and _ illus- trated elsewhere in this writing, is a very unique design, and it should be obtained from the maker. The same may be said of the Keil and Dolle rasp and the continuous tube for polariscopes. In Germany, many modifications have been made, but to the writer’s knowledge none have given the satisfaction of the original Pellet combination. German Selecting Laboratory. By way of comparison with the Legras laboratory, just described, one may take the Braune (Biendon, Germany). laboratory, which, up to 1889, worked as we shall describe herewith, but has since introduced the cold-water method. However, there are certain conditions which have not changed. The beets are analyzed in February, and by the end of April the work is finished; the physical selection having been carefully done the year previous. The beets at the time of harvesting are selected by the 16 degrees Brix salt-water selection; all beets sinking and weighing at least 500 grams are subsequently polar- ized, as it is supposed that they contain at least 16 per cent. sugar. The work is done by men of long experience. The February laboratory work is better explained by following the engraving herewith (Fig. 42). The rasp used gives a fine pulp. This is submitted to a pressure in the powerful press (1); two-thirds of the resulting juice is used for polarization, the remaining third being used later. Four c. c. juice (2) is poured into a flask of 10 c. c. capacity; then the flask is filled up to the mark with diluted subacetate of lead. Filtration follows; the roo m. m. tubes of the polariscope (3) are filled with the filtrate. All beets polarizing more than 8 1i4 SUGAR BEET SEID. Fic. 42. INTERIOR VIEW OF BRAUNE BEET SELECTING LABORATORY. CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 115 14 per cent. sugar are taken to a second laboratory, where other chemists continue the work. The 2c. ¢. of juice remaining from the sample above referred to (the total volume being 6 c. c.), are thoroughly defe- cated in a Stammer oven (4), heated by steam. The weight of dry substance and the sugar percentage give the purity coefficient. If this purity coefficient is higher than 85, the beet is perforated for the second time, and with the new sample of pulp obtained, the Soxhlet-Sickel (5) extractor allows one to determine very accurately the sugar percentage. In 1890, instead of obtaining the juice under pres- sure and extracting by alcohol (6), the cold-water proc- ess demanded the use of the Keil rasping method (7, 8 and 9g). Fifteen grams of pulp are thus obtained; one- half of normal weight are weighed, and the sugar per- centage is determined as previously described. It is admitted that this French method has made the work much simpler, ang the results are more satisfactory. It is not necessary to enter into other details regarding this laboratory, as there are several of the same importance in many beet-seed producing centres of the country. Polariscopes for Mother Selection. The type of polariscope for selection of mothers should not be the same as that used for sugar polari- zations, where the right-hand polarizations reach 100 degrees. As the tubes used in the beet-seed selecting laboratories are 400 m. m. in length, and as only 16.294 grams of pulp are used at a time, it is prefer- able to have the vernier graduated only to 25 degrees, for example, and at the other end starting from 12 degrees. The plan of having a special electrical attachment to the vernier of a polariscope is very simple, and has rendered considerable service. The adjustment in 116 SUGAR BEET SEED. question is arranged for polariscopes with dials; the first stop is not far from the zero point, the other is near the division, 30 degrees; the distance between stops is regulated by suitable screws. When once arranged, they are in electric communication with two bells. As each has a different pitch or sound, it is pos- sible under these circumstances to make several classi- fications; for example, below 15 to 16 per cent., or from 17 to 18 per cent., etc. If the right or left bell rings, the chemist knows that the juice being examined has a certain sugar per- centage, without it being necessary to do any actual reading. However, careful work demands a certain observation. If, when either bell rings, the disks are neutral, or of some tint depending upon polariscope used, it would show that the stop on the vernier corre- sponded exactly to that percentage; if, on the other hand, the black disc is to the right when the left bell rings, it would show that the juice under observation was of a lower percentage than the limit required for the selection; if to the left when the right bell sounds, this would convey that the sugar percentage was higher than the limit for which it was adjusted. Over 1000 observations may be thus made in a very short time and with very little fatigue. In the zero, as compared with an ordinary instru- ment, these differences may frequently be 0.2 to 0.3. It is generally desirable to make several observations on the same juice before commencing regular work. After having polarized, the results are noted; during the interval the assistant fills the funnel, etc. The work has twice the rapidity it had with an ordinary tube. In mother-selecting, it is possible to reach ten a minute. Certain difficulties may arise and many precautions are necessary, among which, mention may be made of the following: The liquid being examined must be very clear and ample light must be used; if the CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. liv tube does not fill rapidly, or the funnel does not empty itself, the difficulty may be overcome by slightly increasing the slant of the tube, by raising the funnel. If the flask is too low, there is danger of siphoning the tube; the funnel is then lowered. Precaution must be taken to have the curved glass tube, at the empty- ing extremity, of a suitable length. When the day’s observations are finished, the tube should be washed with distilled water and kept full until again used; then the washing should be done ‘with acidulated water and a saccharine liquor of about the same strength as the sugar solution to be analyzed. M. Pellet recommends that the washing be done in another room from where the polarizations are to be carried on. The reason being that the difference of temperature of the water used and the room would be sufficient to leave traces along the inner surface of the tube, which might alone be sufficient to influence the results. For washing the tube before using, it is proposed to use the liquid irom the flask, A (Fig 43), which may be considered as an average for the day's observations. This funnel continuous-tube attachment may be applied to any polariscope, but should be made to exactly suit the requirements. The space necessary is about 25 to 30 m. m. greater than would be needed for an ordinary tube. Continuous Polarization. In beet-seed selecting laboratories, the Pellet con- tinuous tube for polariscope has been a most important innovation. By the use of a polariscope and an ordi- nary observation tube, in the hands of an expert, 1000 readings have been made in twelve hours. Several assistants are frequently needed to accomplish these results, since about 50 such tubes are necessary. These have to be carefully filled, screwed together, emptied and washed; frequent accidents occur and the item of 118 SUGAR BEET SEED. expense is considerable. There are two kinds of con- tinuous tubes, viz., with funnel, or with siphon. For each of these models may be used two tubes; one with an interior diameter of 7 to 8 m. m. and containing 13 to 18 c. c. of liquid suitable for beets as they are received at the factory; or the other type, which is much smaller, containing only 6 to 7 c. c. of liquid and having a diameter of 5 m. m., while with the latter the weight of pulp under observation need be only 16.29+4 grams. A few words of explanation respecting the funnel continuous-tube attachment is most important. The general arrangement is shown in engraving (Fig. 43). Fic. 43. Continuous tube for polariscope. The funnel (f) is attached to the slanting tube of the polariscope by a suitable rubber joint; at the other extremity is a slightly curved glass tube. When the tube is placed in position, it should be filled with water slightly alkaline, which removes all traces of grease. Through the tube is then run 200 c. c. of distilled water, containing a few drops of acetic acid; the excess of water runs into flask A, and subsequently into bucket E. Either the tube contains air bubbles, or it does not; if not, it is then ready for active work. Considerable care is needed in adjusting the tube, so that the reading of the polariscope will be zero. There is always danger of leaks, consequently the pressure necessary on the ends may, in a measure, be changed. CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 119 Analysis of Beet Juices in the Legras Laboratory. The polarization is unique, rapid, and most inter- esting, two instruments being in constant use, and in connection with them the Pellet continuous tube* is employed. Jt, however, differs from the one just described, and is known as the siphon method; it is shown in engraving (Fig. 44). The arrangement is most simple, a rubber emptying tube at one end, and at the other a covered glass tube with rubber attach- ment. To the filtrates in glasses are added a few drops of pure acetic acid: the glasses are carried to the sac- charimeters in six baskets of twenty compartments each. The number assigned to the beet at the com- mencement when it entered the laboratory is carefully continued through the entire series of manipulations to which the samples, juices, etc., are submitted. The assistant places the rubber tube in one of these conical glasses, precaution being taken to slightly slant the glass. so as to give a greater depth of penetra- tion to the juice. Cn the emptying tube is a Mohr pinch-cock; this is opened when the chemist is ready to make a new observation and the sugar solution is siphoned into the continuous tube. The assistant changes the glass for another with a fresh sample before it is entirely empty; otherwise, there would be a loss of time, due to the siphoning of all the juice in the circuit. About eight observations may be made per minute. Precautionary measures must be taken to screen the observer's eves from the brilliant light of a lamp placed in front of the instrument; this excellent arrangement is shown in the engraving. Under these *It must never be lost sight of, that the continuous method requires great care for its first working, that is to say, that the tubes with their attachments must be made by a person thoroughly familiar with the requirements. Many mistakes have been made by depending upon some contrivance furnished by a novice; furthermore, the results may vary with the chemist. in charge, who had best make a preliminary ractice on sugar solutions of known strength. The method is most excellent for mother selection, and is recommended by Pellet for all elasses of polariscope work. Ht 0 SUGAR BELT SEED, ET CONTAINING K ALSO BASI & nn 2 S Zz a 4 ° co = S Ee - Ba 2) oO n ne at < =) j=) ny 44, Fic. = a NS a a 4 a a A a = fa =] v = p = cof a! = = aq a 2 & n 3 & = a n =) RD a < = Ss CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS, 121 conditions the fatigue from this constant work is very much lessened; many chemists use a large black obstructor. The reading of the vernier depends upon the light thrown upon it from an upper reflecting mir- ror. It is most desirable that the chemist doing the work be absolutely in the dark, and, as he is under great pressure, he should be relieved every few hours. Whenever the observer is changed the zero point of the instrument should be verified. CHAPTER VI. Soils for Seed Production. There are two questions to be considered which are important in beet-seed production: Ist, Soil that is to receive the so-called “Elite” seed, and that which is intended for the reception of mothers; we might add a third variety, that which is intended for close plant- ing, with a view to growing beets which are to have only a physical selection. From these there would follow the production of seed for the trade. There are certain special conditions for each case, but for the present we must consider them only from a general standpoint. It is desirable to have a rich,deep homogeneous soil; some agronomists go so far as to recommend one that is rich in organic matter, which, from our point of view, is a mistake. When possible, a typical soil should be rather dark in color and of an argillo-sandy texture. The subsoil should as nearly as possible have the same composition as the surface soil, and be possessed of a certain porosity, permitting easy drainage, which allows its working during all kinds of weather. If beets be cultivated on soils too highly manured or fertilized, or even of a gravelly texture, without depth, the shape of the resulting root will, necessarily, be irregular, and consequently, worthless for seed pro- duction, and would be thrown out during physical selection. We have heard it freely argued that when the question of soils for mothers is discussed, that the plant foods play only a very secondary role during seed development, that is, during the second year, so that most any soil answers the purpose for mother-planting. 122 SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 123 This is evidently very misleading, for if such were the case, the leading seed producers would in Germany, France, etc., be found in many sections of the country, when, in reality, they centre around certain districts of Saxony, at Quedlinburg, or in the northern part of France, at Laon, for example. Furthermore, in Sax- ony the principal seed farms are on hills and never on bottom lands; so that it is only in very exceptional cases where ordinary beet lands should be devoted to seed production. Those soils which have yielded beets which were attacked by insects are most objectionable, either for sowing of Elite seed or transplanting selected mothers, etc.; the same attacks or ravages would necessarily continue, thus destroying all -prospects of success. There are many other conditions in question of location of beet farms; for example, it must be miles away from anyone cultivating beets of any kind, or any plant that is likely to give a pollen which might form a hybrid with beets. It should be well protected against the winds. However, in this issue we differ with Knauer, who claims that winds in some cases are desirable, as they carry off the loose seed, leaving spaces for the remaining seed, which results in a stronger grain for those still adhering to the stalk. (There is in some centres a special money system of insurance against such losses through winds, etc). The location should be such as to receive directly the solar rays, meaning a southern exposure. It has been frequently noticed that soils shaded by trees do not permit mothers to grow in a satisfac- tory manner; hence, their inferior yield in seed under such conditions. The soil should not be too damp, as this latter state would make the growth too hardy. Under no circumstances should the location be near a town or village. With a proper soil, the mothers develop without much care when once started. They Te SUGAR BEET SEED. require land well and deeply worked in the fall, as the successful seed development, the second year, depends largely upon the looseness of the soil which is in close proximity to the roots. Autumn plowing to assure action of the winter ice, snow, etc., should never be neglected. It must not be forgotten that from supe- rior seed on a poor soil, very inferior results are obtained to those given by average seed upon superior soils. Recent experiments show that seed obtained from mothers testing 19.8 per cent. sugar on a poor, gravelly soil as a sub-stratum, yielded beets weighing only 160 grams and testing 14.6 per cent. sugar. Qn the other hand, on a rich, swampy soil the beets weighed 8.76 grams and polarized 13.6. The general characteristics of these two beets were so dif- ferent, no one would have supposed for one instant that they had the same origin, or common parent. Advantage of Uniformity in Composition of Soils. It does not necessarily follow that because the environments are not favorable now, that they cannot be made so by patience and the scientific use of ferti- lizers. No better example could be given of the possi- ble transformation of soils by scientific treatment than at Besny (Aisne), France. The writer has followed, since 1889, these methods as applied on the Legras beet-seed plantation, and the evolution during the past 25 years would hardly have been thought possible, unless actually seen. Before the period when artificial or mineral fertilizers were known it could not have been done. The management of this farm, with a few patches here and there demanding special attention, was once far more difficult and complicated than at present, when the conditions are almost of a complete uniform- ‘ity, the fertilizers having been so combined that one field or another offers about the same fertility and com- ym SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION, 125 position—and may be considered as a uniform whole. The entire area is only 750 acres, which seems small as compared with a western ranch in the United States, but it is not desirable that this seed growing be con- ducted on too extensive a scale, as the details could not then be thoroughly watched. The advantages of ‘this uniformity in soil composition are manifest when analyzing beets cultivated upon it, as the sugar per- centage of the resulting roots is nearly the same in one spot as in another. A mother when planted, will give seed of a variety that may be said to be standard or typical. If it were possible to introduce upon a large scale what has been accomplished at Besny, it would do away with all discussions between the manufacturer and farmer, as the roots furnished by one grower would be almost exactly the same as those furnished by another. However, this 1s not possible under existing American conditions, where each cultivator has his own views, and, in his own estimation, knows more than science can teach him. The difference in the sugar qualities of beets from the same seed may be 2 or 6 per cent., and the price paid for the roots varies proportionally. The problem M. Legras set out to accomplish was not an easy one; for portions of his land were poor, and, furthermore, covered with weeds, which had to be eradicated before intensive cultivation could be thought of, as fertilizers would only still fur- ther increase or stimulate their growth. Herein was the wisdom of the owner, whose argument was: ‘What money I spend on the one hand I shall reap on the other,” and this has been accomplished, for there was hardly a weed visible between the rows of beets or mothers during the writer’s last visit. The money saved now more than compensates for the first outlay for land cleaning. 126 SUGAR BEET SEED. Fertilizers for Elite Seed and Mothers. When considering fertilizers for Elite seed, great care must be taken when using barnyard manure the fall before sowing,in order that there benounfermented particles of straw, for these might be the cause of con- siderable difficulty, resulting in very irregular beets. At certain French farms visited by the writer, oil cakes of various origins appear to be very popular; these are distributed in the spring, just before sowing, in quan- tities of 1000 pounds to the acre, and should, under all circumstances, be thoroughly pulverized. The use of lime has rendered great service, for it destroys the bad. effects of certain clays, about five tons to the acre being used, on an average. In October there should follow a thorough plowing. It is evident that the plant foods needed for beets to develop are not the same, as regards quantity, as required for mothers with the view to seed formation. It is to be regretted that this question has hitherto been neglected by seed growers. From what has been said in previous pages, the main effort always is to obtain a special fertilizer, suited to each section of the farm, so as to bring the whole up to a uniform standard. This can be accomplished only by strict watching of what has been taken away in potassa, phosphoric acid, nitrogen, etc. The question of fertilizers for beets has been discussed by many writers, but few agronomists have touched upon mothers in seed production during their several months in soil after planting. If the ques- tion of fertilizer has been neglected by seed growers, it it partly because information has been wanting. The decline in the fertility of a soil is always followed by deterioration in the quality of seed obtained; hence, success largely depends upon this plant food issue. The question has been thoroughly examined by M. Legras. SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 127 It is by the analysis of seed and stalk that one can learn exactly what the conditions are: Full Complete Flower. | Maturity. Weipiit of stalk and seed... ..cicses 14, -seesens oie 2.16 tbs. 2.48 ths. uae Weight of stalk and seed when analyzed. . 1:80 2.05 “* . Composition of 100 lbs. dry matter. Nitrogen 1.551 1.675 Phosphoric |acid . 0.550 0.435 Potassa,...... «| 1.868 1.636 Lime... si 0.820 0.860 Magnesia ..| 0.806 | 0.806 Ie eee ee 10.050 9.750 From this analysis it may be noticed that consid- erable transformation occurs between flowering and complete maturity of the seed; nitrogen and lime increase while all other elements decrease. The excess of nitrogen is evidently found in the germs of the seed. The most marked change may be noticed in the potassa. As these elements are extracted from the soil, they must be returned. No account need be taken of the mothers, which, after the stalks and seed have been cut off, may be considered as the corpses of their pre- vious state, they having completed their functions in acting as an intermediary between the soil and the growing stalk, and retain nearly all their original salts, etc., nitrogen alone having diminished. If these are plowed under, they take away nothing; if not, other facts must be considered. [An ordinary crop of 16 tons of beets averaging 11 per cent. sugar will extract (no allowance being made for leaves) per acre about: -Potassa 105 Ibs., phosphoric acid 21 Ibs., soda 30 Ibs., lime 16 Ibs., magnesia 6 Ibs., chlorine 27 Ibs., sulphuric acid 9 Ibs., silica 44 lbs., nitrogen 97 lbs., organic sub- stances 1590 lbs., water 29,000 Ibs. ] By the Legras method of cultivation each mother can draw its plant food from about nine square feet. Along the edge of the field must not be counted; con- sequently, it is not desirable to allow for more than 4ooo plants per acre. Such being the case, the seeds and stalks will extract from the soil: Nitrogen, 123 Ibs.; 128 SUGAR BEET SEED. potassa, 120 lbs.; phosphoric acid, 32 Ibs.; lime, 63 lbs.; magnesia, 59 lbs. It would be a great mistake to adhere strictly to these figures, and it is evident that the fertilizer for mothers must be very intensive. The mixtures used on the soil at Besny are the outcome of considerable experience. To retain the general uni- formity in their composition, after the crops of seeds are harvested, there is added per acre 130 to 180 lbs. sodic nitrate (containing 15.5 to 16 per cent, nitrogen), 220 to 180 lbs. potassic chloride (containing 56 to 57 per cent. potassa), 180 to 260 lbs. double sulphate of potassa and magnesia (containing 27 per cent. potassa, 25 per cent. magnesia), 70 to 75 lbs. nitrogenous substances (blood, oil cake, etc.), 540 to 600 Ibs. furnace slag (18 per cent. phosphoric acid), which is several times in excess of what is needed. It is interesting to note that M. Legras insists that 90 lbs. nitrogen per acre is an excess, the differ- ence between it and what has been or what will be absorbed may be subsequently added. This precau- tion is necessary to make sure that the seed will mature in the regular number of months, excess of nitrogen seeming to retard maturity; the same cannot be said of phosphoric acid, for the plant absorbs what it requires for its complete development, and no more. On the fertilizer question for mothers there is cer- tainly a great difference of opinion; for example, Dippe Brothers give preference to one containing 176 lbs. sodic nitrate, 350 lbs. guano (4 per cent. nitrogen, 13 per cent. phosphoric acid). At Wanzleben and at Grébers (Knauer), they favor green manuring, vetch, peas, etc., which are planted and plowed under, so that the land remains fallow during a considerable period. It is claimed that the weeds contained in the soil are smothered, and there is a very large quantity of nitro- gen absorbed. In combination with the green manur- ing, potassa and phosphates are used in the spring SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 129 before planting. In certain French districts visited by the writer, the fertilizers for mothers which dre most popular are used in the following quantities, calculated to areas of one acre: Barnyard Manuresecseas x2 ase sewade ted cece ses 16 tons 1 SOGIG MICVA LS evsnreree as tds cess sin dua sansceiaveinia wiatneminnee 350 Ibs. eo Superphosphate of lime.. ound Theale OOO: COIZS OL) CANA ca ietie: ics scceresaia Seneriiacieensian aaamenerte 432 4* 9 Barnyard MANULE .: eeeseaiia ds sedi alse neice aiecad 20 tons. Sc a oe ree sulphate......... eee ee ee 246 Ibs. 3 Barny ara: Manure vasa csage esac eas vest ce gonwae 20 tons. adidtuatr ss (eodie Gitraia aks gens O80 15S Barmy ara. MANuyr Crs sic sscscancasnaandan 70s aes 16 tons. Py Sodic nitrate...... .. 850 ths eerie a Superphosphate.. «---608 * POUCASSIE CHLOTIOS erin, scsi ds Rete a Mopacien 132 ** Whatever be the system of the fertilization of the soil, it is desirable not to use the plant food in excess, since this would result in a second growth of stalks and a corresponding decrease in the quality of seed. Relations Between Soils and Fertilizers. The formula of a fertilizer should vary with the composition of the soil upon which it is to be used. Without going into extensive arguments respecting soils and fertilizers in general, it will be far more interesting to give an example taken from practice. The beet plantation of 'M. Legras, as previously explained, was made up of small areas having very different textures and compo- sitions, the variation being far greater than a general survey of the land would lead one to believe. The maximum and minimum of the five essential ele- ments requisite for fertility, as determined by chemical analysis of these soils, are here given: Maximum. | Minimum. INGLTO LOI iss os. sass :asiaie siete sitibvy ecgna ewe #8 Sete 0.13 0.08 Phosphoric acid. stele 0.25 0.06 0.40 0.22 13.40 | 0.90 0.51 0.15 There were to contend with: ist, argillo-calcare- ous; 2d, sandy; 3d, very calcareous soils. The fertil- 9 130 SUGAR BEET SEED. izer used had to increase or diminish these elements so as to create uniformity. Consider, for example, the case where there was only 0.06 phosphoric acid as compared with 0.25 per cent. contained in another patch. On the farm at Besny it was found desirable trom the start to use 2500 lbs. of furnace slag per acre, which was well plowed under. The results obtained were up to expectations, showing that science and practice do pull together. To follow, in its intri- cate details how the typical fertilizer was determined in each case by numerous experiments and observations, would carry the reader too far away from the general subject now under discussion. The con- clusions, upon general principles, were that for argillo- calcareous and very calcareous soils, nitrogen and potassa must predominate, while for sandy soils phos- phoric acid plays a most active part. A system of rotation has been adopted; hence, the use oi fertilizers, such as blood, waste from woolen factories, etc., may be advantageously applied a year or more previous to mother planting or beet cultivation. On most American farms fertilizers receive but a secondary consideration. Compare this condition with the annual use of 1760 tons of barnyard manure, 220 tons of leaves and necks from a crop of beets, 950 tons defecation scums from beet-sugar factories, 52 tons sodic nitrate, 15 tons sulphate of ammonia, 30 tons fish guano, 60 tons oil cake, 161 tons woolen waste, 1o tons dried blood, 24 tons potassic chloride, 21 tons double phosphate of potassa and magnesia, 108 tons furnace slag, 60 tons phosphate and g tons super- phosphate. All this for 750 acres of land. As regards rotation of crops, no definite method has been adopted at Besny; the beet, however, appears most frequently, and by the scientific use of fertilizers, 250 acres culti- vated in beets average 12 tons to the acre and 16 per cent. sugar. SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 131 Sowing of Seed for Mothers. This question of sowing seed for mothers should in reality be discussed from many points of view, for there are numerous kinds of mothers to be consid- eied, If the question of beet-seed production is taken up from the start, then the seed must be purchased elsewhere; thus the sowing would be of one variety. After mothers are selected and the first crop of seed has been obtained from them, there are many dif- ferent systems of sowing. We refer not only to spac- ing, but to the distance between the lines; the Elite are kept much closer together than those roots which have been analyzed, but vield, say 15 per cent. sugar, and which are to furnish seed for the beets only after the third year. On the other hand, the Elite, on which the seed producer centres his attention, demands spe- cial care, not only in the manner in which the hand sowing is done, but during every stage of the plants’ development; open spaces, etc., are most care- fully avoided. Upon general principles, better results are obtained by hand sowing than is possible through the careful use of a seed drill; the spacing can be made almost mathematical. Those roots that are raised in the general field from purchased seed, or from seed of all kinds that has been produced on the farm, which are separated from the rest, should never be included in the observations for physical or chemical selection. Their conditions of development being different, would lead to poor results as the work pro- gressed in the creation of a special type. The square method of sowing, consequently, has greater advan- tages over beets cultivated in rows, where their spac- ing is. not the same as the distance between rows; the misses then (by square methods) have not the same importance, for the roots are all absorbing from the soil about the same amount of plant food. In France, 132 SUSAR BEET SEED. it is recommenced that the sowing be done as soon as possible. If the icinperature is lower than 8 degrees C (46. 4° F.), germination is not satisfactory; in the Elite sowing, they constantly use 44 Ibs. to the acre, and keep the lines about eight inches apart. There is a great difference of opinion in regard to the spacing of Elite seed. With the view of keeping down the size of the roots, some growers attempt a distance of four to five inches; then again eight inches in every direction, or eight inches between lines and four inches between beets in the rows. The number of roots is estimated to be 174,000 per acre, but such numbers are in reality never realized. After sowing, the seed is covered by three-fourths inches of earth, followed by rolling. In Germany, there seem to be many advocates of sowing seed for mothers directly after wheat in the rotation. There also are many advo- cates of successive rollings of the ground after sowing; at Grobers, they plant their rows from twelve to four- teen inches apart. Successive and frequent hoeing is everywhere very popular; this, on many European farms, is done by women. The hoes used are about 4} inches wide; later, they frequently use a hand-pushing cultivator, increasing the depth each time the operation is done. The spacing demands some experi- ence, and cannot be conducted by novices, such as. used in ordinary sugar-beet cultivation. When the roots have a certain size, and show certain indications of degeneracy, they are, in some cases, removed from the field, and replaced by others cultivated under the same conditions on special patches. A fact which must never be overlooked, is the great care to be given at every stage, up to the time of harvesting, which is done as under ordinary circum- stances of beet cultivation. SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 1383 Preparing Soil, Planting of Mothers, and Care During Their Development. When the cultivation for the reception of mothers is considered, it is generally found that the best results are obtained when these beets follow wheat in the rotation. We shall now take as an excellent practice, _ that which we found at the Besny farm. It must not be forgotten that sugar-beet cultivation for an adjoining factory at Laon has attained a degree of perfection quite equal to that of the separate agricultural question of seed growing. For, if mothers , Pe i fle , 3 ay 3 13 — »% a FIG. 45. Plan of field, showing position of mothers. are not of a high saccharine quality, the resulting seed will not be, and, as by Legras’s method of selection, all roots under 14 per cent. sugar are not used, the average obtained is considerably above fourteen. ' To attempt the creation of a variety of beet that demands great depth of soil, would certainly never have become popular, and would have been a mistake, but to centre all efforts on an average type suitable to a soil not too deep, nor too shallow, fulfilling the requirements of most cases, is what has been sought 134 SUGAR BEET SEED. after, and what has been attained, on the farm visited by the writer. The method of cultivation adopted ts, as before mentioned, to give a thorough plowing during the winter prior to planting, after the fertilizers have béen well plowed under. As regards plowing, it is interesting to note that this should not be done during wet weather, and the upper surface should be thoroughly harrowed, the vegetable strata, so to speak, thus becoming greater every year. The operation of marking the position for each mother is then com- menced. A special cultivator is used, the distance between colters being three feet during first horizontat direction, then, when tracing the vertical lines, 14 feet. This operation is made clear by referring to the diagram (Fig. 45). The lines meet at a, b, c, d and e, a’, b’, c,d’ and e’. Mothers that have been waiting for several months in the silo are brought with great care to be planted (the nearer the silo is, the better the result) at a,c, and e, on line 4 B, and at b’ d’ on line A’ B,’ thus alternating for all other rows. The mothers are con- sequently placed at the angles of a lozenge, cb’ c"d’, the distance c’ c” being three feet, while c’ d’ is 14 feet. The beet can draw its plant food from an area of nine square feet.* The respective position of the beets permits the frequent use of the cultivator in the direc- tion shown by the arrows in the diagram (Fig. 45). The position of the roots is such, that even after'a pro- longed drouth they remain in a flourishing. condition; this is, in part, due to the careful selection of mothers, since, under all circumstances, the roots weigh from one to two pounds each, very small roots not being ' *This distance between beets is a very variable question. On Knauer’s farm he gives Dre lerence to distances of 63 to 78 e. m. (24.6 to 30.4 inches). Squares of two feet are said also to give satisfactory results. The roots are planted on the angles of suid squares. Fiihling, however, contends that the rectangle, 24 x 34 inches, gives the best results. The marking of the field is done with a harrow in ‘two directions, and at the intersection of lines the mothers are placed. For digging holes to place the mothers a special spade is used. : SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 135 used. Very small roots are never to be relied upon, because they mean a stunted growth, and will yield seeds that would give mothers possessing the same characteristics. We have always insisted upon the fact that, in many cases, there were great advantages in the culti- vation in hills. Herr Marek, in very extended experiments, has shown that beets selected for mothers which have been obtained in hills, are richer in sugar, and transmit their qualities with greater ease than beets obtained by flat cultivation. The planting is done in March, this varying somewhat according to years, but under all circum- stances it should be as early as possible, and the roots used for mothers must be thoroughly matured. During the first stage of the plant development, a hand hoeing between the rows 14 feet apart is very important, as later on the cultivator cannot reach these points; after four or five days, this hoeing is followed by a second hoeing. As soon as the stalks commence to appear, a powertul cultivator, drawn by oxen, is run between the rows as frequently as possible, this operation being discontinued only when the passage is obstructed by the luxuriant vegetation; the stalks should not, in any way, be disturbed after the flower forms. The natural result of this working is to open up the soil, and thus place it in an excellent condition for the mothers to draw all the plant food they require. This planting of mothers is also a very delicate operation. The mothers which have been selected must be free from bruises of any kind; they are carried to the fields in baskets, in gangs; a special spade is used for making the hole to receive each mother. It is generally found desirable to plant the mothers in a slanting direction; in this manner they are better able to resist the action of variable winds. The tip end of the mothers may, when too long, be cut off, but it is, in all SUGAR BEET SEED. 136 ‘ONIINVId JO AWIL NONd SHINOW ATNAL WALAV SNOILVOIMI “NYY GNV HLMOUD AMIVH AHL YNIMOHS aHAOWEY ANG GNV dOL HLIA YAHLOW ‘oF ‘DIG SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 137 cases, desirable not to turn them under. Before press- ing with the foot, it is thought advisable to throw a certain amount of earth near the neck. This earth should cover the necks to a depth of 1, 2} to 3c. m. (0.39 to 1.18 inches), with the view of protecting the mothers against the frequent late frosts after planting season. Instead of earth around the necks, it is fre- quently customary to mix the earth with pulverized bone. Hilling up, from time to time, is also advisable. This planting of mothers may be done in France for $2.00 an acre. To many it may be a surprise that such a large area, L, M, N, O*, (Fig. 45) of nine square feet, is necessary, but an inspection of the engraving (Fig. 46) shows the ramifications of mothers during their effort to secure from their environment all the essential elements for the development of stalks, flowers, and seed. These lateral radicles run from the root proper a distance of three feet, so that even allowing the enor- mous volume of earth of a surface area of 14 feet, in all directions, the plant food is drawn from the soil far beyond the prescribed limits previously mentioned, and, such being the case, all the roots of the field are apparently in communication one with the other. It is interesting to note a custom which has led to excellent results, which consists of twisting or break- ing off the lateral and central stalks, it being maintained that this custom favors flowering. As these mothers have considerable money value, endless means are frequently resorted to for their protection during seed development; nematode inva- sions might, in some cases, be a serious issue. Hence, the reason why chicory is planted on the outer *The Chinese have for hundreds of years understood the Impor- tance of these small roots for many plants which they cultivate. When planting bi-annuals, small slices are made in the root proper, ¢bus increasing the number of radicles which soon develop. 138 SUGAR BEET SEED. limits of a seed farm; this acts as a trap for the enemy and answers the purpose. At Klein-Wanzleben and in other centres, excellent precautions are taken for pro- tection against climatic conditions, which consist of a wire roof covering over the entire field of Elites. This should be sufficiently high to allow a free passage under; outer wire fences are also used to keep off rabbits, etc. Harvesting —The harvesting of mothers cultt- vated for special laboratory purposes, does not, on general principles, very much differ from the harvest- ing of beets for an ordinary sugar factory. Special harvesters, or plows, may be used for the purpose, the beets collected with great care and placed in baskets; the slightest bruise may have a very important influ- ence. The cost of this harvesting in France is about $13 per acre. The harvesting of seed is a more com- plicated question. It must not be put off too long and should be done during dry weather, for if the seeds and stalks are wet when taken indoors, the ultimate value will be decreased, owing to a decrease in the germinating power. The first sign of maturity is when the fruit com- mences to turn brown, and if, weather permitting, this changes to yellow, the ripening process may even con- tinue later. The determination of percentage of dry substances is an indication of maturity; 60 per cent. is the standard. Knauer says that beet seed are ripe when they have a flour-like taste when bitten into. If the complete maturity is awaited, a considerable number of seed will necessarily be lost, owing to their very slight adherence to their stems; hence, the reason why many recommend that the stalks be harvested green. The cutting of stalks, or stems, on the field is shown in engraving (Fig. 47). An ordinary sickle and not a spade is used; the principal objection to the latter is the excessive shaking of the stalk. It is advisable to. LEOOIR “ANSU LY GHaS HLLM BYTVLIS 4O DNILDO) HIM SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 139 140 SUGAR BEET SEED. put off as long as possible the cutting of green stalks, as they mature better on the beet proper. The cutting gang is followed by another, who collect the stems, or stalks, on the ground and tie them into bundles. They are stacked vertically upon the field and left to dry. Practical experience shows that this drying is more complete when the bundles face the north, thus taking advantage of northerly winds. When the drying is sufficiently complete, several weeks being often necessary, they are taken to special sheds. The appear- ance of stacks is shown in engraving (Fig. 48). The writer thought it of interest to be on the Legras farm prior to harvesting. The sight of the fields is never to be forgotten, it being very unique, and differing from any other crop known to the farmer; it is unlike wheat, corn, or cereals in general, leaving, as it were, open spaces, through which light penetrates, so that the ground can be seen between many plants or stalks at the same time. The field seems to form a uniform whole, consisting of a mass of green, soft, and velvety substance, the centres at reg- ular intervals being clearly defined. The clusters of seed upon the stalks were like gems distributed in myriads, reflecting the rays of the sun. The stalks appeared to be so loaded with seed that they were bent over toward the ground, those of one mother having joined hands with its neighbor, apparently asking for support. M. Sagnier, in the Journal de l Agriculture, says that during his visit to Besny he counted eighteen to twenty-three stalks per mother. As an example of the amount of seed that roots may yield, five clusters were counted, the average seed being one pound per root. In regard to the mother planting, it is interesting to note that it always follows a crop of beets. Upon general principles, if it is simply desired to produce beet seed by ordinary process, the question of economy in space upon the fields is of sec- 141 TION: C ED PRODU .FOR SE SOILS dot $e ep ae - 2 a! a. Fic, 48. STACKING BUNDLES OF STALKS WITH SEED AT BESNY. 142 SUGAR BEET SEED. ondary importance, but when each beet is selected with special care, and destined to furnish seed for the trade, all conditions favoring its development during seed formation should be thoroughly examined and attended to. Under these conditions, from 2000 to 2600 Ibs. of well-cleaned beet seed may be obtained per acre. Above 2000 lbs.,the yield is considered very good; below 1600 Ibs., poor. (This vield of 2000 Ibs. costs, in France, under best conditions, 34 cents per lb.* Besides this, some allowance must be made for interest of money during the keeping, and on the capital which remains idle during the several years the selection is being made. By Legras’s method, results are obtained much more rapidly, but the cost of laboratory analyses is greater, etc., hence, the reason why such seed com- mands a high price on the market.) Such yields, through the exceptional care given, have been obtained even in exceedingly dry weather, as the soil, having been so thoroughly worked, remains moist, even during long periods of drouth. The crop that follows the mothers is wheat. It is necessary to remove the corpses of mothers, also the stems; then use the extirpator, followed by the cultivator and harrow. The economy of time and work are important facts to be considered, and the cost of land preparation for mothers should be borne by the crop that follows. It is important to note that if mothers follow beets in the rotation, they will be attacked by some insects, and the seed will subsequently suffer. Jf the insects attack the flower of the beet, no remedy is better than solutions of two degrees Bé. of tobacco juice, spread by a pul- verizer, emulsion of petroleum, benzine, charcoal pow- der, saturated in tobacco juice. * But on most seed-producing farms not more than four cents. In the case of A. J. Legras, the product is frequently all sold in advance and very difficult to procure even in quantities sufficient for experi- mental purposes. ’ SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 143 It is interesting to note that the time when the flowers appear depends upon the country and the total heat the mothers have had at their disposal during their second year’s growth. It may be said, however, that those appearing during the first of August should be pinched off, as they will, in general, yield inferior seed. Fuhling recommends the harvesting of all matured stalks. The ends of the remaining semi-green stems are also pinched off; this practice tends to hasten maturity. Some agronomists recommend the cutting of stems from the roots and leaving the latter in the ground as a manure; but this practice is a mistake. The mothers, having been separated from the stems, form but a poor fertilizer. Insects are attracted by them, and frequently deposit their eggs therein; and resulting larvae are likely to do much harm to the sub- sequent crop. On some beet farms roots and stems are harvested together; it is advisable to shake them over a linen receptacle, and in this manner the loose seed is separated from the stem. The roots and stems are then hung up to dry, the vegetation continues for some little time, and the non-matured seed is soon entirely ripe. It is generally desirable to do the shelling during very dry, cold weather. The operation required some skill in former times. Archard advised rubbing the stems between the hands, and to subse- quently pass the whole through a sieve, in order to eliminate the dried leaves and other impurities. The operation of shelling, as is now practiced; is carried on by women and children. The stalks with seed are drawn through two jaws with saw-like teeth; the upper jaw is held with the left hand, and a slight pressure is given. It is customary to give the stalks before this oper- ation a preliminary threshing on the floor; a practice about which there is much to be said. The objection 144 SUGAR BEET SEED. to the hand shelling is, that it takes so long, and in countries where labor is high this is evidently a very _objectionable feature. Mechanical shelling is used by some and much condemned by others. The main objection is, the very broken or mutilated condition in which the seeds are left; a thorough fanning is most important. Seed may be partly separated from their stems by the use of an endless oscillating moving apron; this is fed from a hopper. The seeds roll off, while the impurities adhering to the apron are thrown upon the ground at the other end of the machine; a system of sorting may be combined with this. The idea is to have a double slanting apron, the heavy seeds traveling the farthest. The shelling and cleaning may be done at one- half cent per pound. The cleaned seed is now kept in some dry, well-ventilated room, beyond the reach of rats and mice. On many farms it is hung up in bags to the ceiling, and when dried, is kept in bags or bar- rels, as the case may be. When in piles, it should be constantly turned over, so as to bring it as much as possible in contact with the air. Of late years it is found desirable to submit seed to a hot-air drying proc- ess, so that it may, within the least possible interval, have the standard per cent. of moisture. There remain in the way of stalks about 3000 Ibs. to the acre; this residuum is rich in potassa and _ contains, also, phosphoric acid. It may be used as bedding for animals at the farm. On the other hand, the waste from beet seed cleaning may render excellent service in cattle feeding.* In conclusion, we would say that we recommend that all beet-seed producers submit their seed to a germinating test before allowing them to leave their premises. Furthermore, we insist that the purchaser make his test on the same lines as the seed * See Chapter on ‘Old Seed Utilization.” SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 115 _grower, thus avoiding numerous subsequent dis- cussions. Approximate Cost and Yield of Seed in Germany and Austria. Between 135 and 140 days are required for the seed to develop and to be harvested, from the time the mother is planted. The yield in Austria and Ger- many is 2000 to 3500 lbs. of seed per acre. A single beet is known to have given 43,000 individual seeds, but this is an exception. According to Briem, the yield of beet seed in Silesia averages 1832 kilos per hectare (1612 Ibs. per acre); in Bohemia, 1945 kilos (1711 Ibs. per acre). The success depends upon many causes, among which are fertilization, soil, etc. The cost of cultivation is approximately as follows: 1st year, 27,000 mothers—cost of planting 0.6 acres..... $ 36.00 Value of the 1008.0... seeeines sees essen 35.00 Harvesting, selecting, siloing, etc............. 125.00 $ 196.00 2d ‘year, SClEChING ci ssmie 935 giwsesiesisesees oe beereR ees 337.00 Planting 24% acres, grandmothers............. 120.00 457.00 3d year, 20 acres SCCM... 0... e eee e cede eeee en en eae seen 800.00 4th year, 200 acres, mothers—general expense......... 10,000.00 Other expenses, chemists, etc., etc.......... 1,977.00 $13,430.00 With no allowance for interest and packing. The yield of seed would be 200x2000 lbs., equal to 400,000 Ibs., which means that the cost per pound is about 34 cents, or more correctly, allowing for other expenses, four cents per pound. This supposes, as these calculations show, that we start out with a small area devoted to mothers; the production of these is not considered in the calculation. The sowing of seed the third year is on an area many times that began with, and the fourth year only the seed is obtained. Silos for Mothers. The requisites for the proper construction of silos for mothers, are very much the same as for beets to be 10 146 SUGAR BEET SEED. worked at the factory; there are several essential con- ditions, however, which must not be overlooked. The cost of keeping beets that have been selected for seed- ing purposes is very slight, once the silos are made; but the care in placing them in piles being greater than ordinary conditions, the item of additional labor is not to be overlooked. There are really three silos in con- nection with beet-seed growing. One made up with beets which have undergone the physical selection on the fields, and the others after final physical and chem- ical selection combined. As such beets frequently contain 18 to 19 per cent. of sugar, special care should be given to their keeping and to the silos containing beets which are to furnish seed for the trade. Under ordinary conditions of seed production, the beets which are to be used for this special purpose are simply beets which have been obtained from the seed of selected mothers; in other words, the second generation of those roots which underwent laboratory chemical selection. Silos in this case are made on the level of the ground, in the direction of the beet rows. Spaces of about 90 to 120 feet should be left between each silo. Beets on most beet-seed farms are siloed with their leaves; the piles are 43 feet at the bottom, 24 feet at the top, and about three feet in height, which means that the sides are slanting. The whole is covered with 2$ feet of earth; suitable vertical ventilators are neces- sary, and under no circumstances should these be over- looked. From one acre the beets can be placed in silos of a total length of about 300 feet; the cost of the operation in several European centres is about $10 per acre. We consider that it is certainly a great mistake to let the leaves stay on the beets. The best results are certainly obtained by cutting them off with a knife about an inch above the neck, care being taken not to mutilate the heart. On most German farms visited by the writer, the silos for mothers are much smaller than SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 147 the French types just mentioned. In most cases they have a capacity of only a few tons, the laboratory selec- tion taking place in the spring. These silos are sunk 14 feet in the earth and are four feet wide, the necks slanting upward; about 18 inches of earth are piled on top; the covering should be flat, so that some moisture from rains, etc., may readily penetrate. Knauer claims that if the root be moistened it will keep better in silos; precaution alone being necessary to prevent stagnant water. Dur- ing very dry seasons, the piles of mothers may be watered; the water carries the earth down to surround each beet. When the total covering of silos with 24 feet of earth is finished, during very cold winters, it may be found desirable to still further cover with barn- yard manure. The opening of the silos depends upon the method of selection. Knauer says that selected beets in well conducted silos should be placed one against the other, and not one on top of the other. This covering, upon general principles, would seem to be a bad practice; for the weight of earth has a tendency to crush the beets and thus bring about considerable changes in the entire pile; this is the reason why many advocate straw and a thin covering of earth. Considerable experience is needed to know just when to place the beets in silos. Better select a very dry day; if rainy, the beets siloed in their wet condition would in most cases undergo fermentation. On the other hand, if exposed to the sun too long, the roots wilt and the chemical selection that follows would be very misleading, as the sugar percentage would appear to be higher than the reality. Under all circumstances, loss of sugar percentage occurs during the months the roots are kept; hence the reason why the chemical selection should take place early. Arguments in favor of late selection, showing which roots have keeping qualities, are not as reliable as one would wish. Expe- SUGAR BEET SEED. 148 ‘AQVUL INL WOT TAAS HSINUAT OL FHV HOIHM INV AUOLVUOAVY DHL NI GuLow1dy NAGY BAVH LVHL SLYAG YOU OTIS V AO NOMOIAULSNOD ‘6h OT SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION, 149 rience has shown that it is not to the seed producer’s advantage to attempt the creation of the very elon- gated varieties. They are difficult to properly arrange in silos and their tip ends are most always broken dur- ing harvesting, and if not then, they would be broken when placed in silos, At the Laon beet-selecting laboratory, the main object in view is to commence analysis as soon as pos- sible and to have the roots well siloed before the very cold weather. Herewith (Fig. 49) is shown how the piles are made, and the necessary care given to their construction. The beets are brought in baskets direct from the laboratory and then piled with necks pointing outward. It is not desirable to make these piles more than three feet high; their section is that of a triangle, and when of the desired height and shape thev are covered with earth, and remain during the several months of cold weather until March or April, when planted. The slow method adopted in most selecting laboratories neces- sitates the opening and closing of the silo made upon the field during the entire winter; this practice, as may be imagined, is followed by many complications and poor results; all of which, by Legras’s method, is avoided, as the analyses commence in January and finish in February, after the sugar campaign has termi- nated. It must never be forgotten that there are certain precautions to be taken in the laboratory in order to assure the keeping of beets in silos, viz., the hole made by the rasp or sampler should be most carefully filled with clay or charcoal, and the roots handled with care, so as to prevent bruises. The slightest mutilation means organic changes during the several months theyremain covered awaiting planting season. Chemical Changes During Second Year’s Growth. ‘Do mothers, after seed is harvested, still retain sugar? This question is frequently asked and many 150 SUGAR EEET SEED. discussions have followed respecting it. The weight of authority appears to be that the sugar has entirely disappeared. If this issue be examined on a rational basis, it will be found that the life of the beet terminates with the seed; the functions being complete, the root soon rots—no.sugar can then be found. However, cases have been cited when one to one-half per cent. appears to remain. A simple experiment to show that the sugar disappears as the stems, etc., continue their development, is to cut off the stems as fast as they appear; it will not require many months before all the sugar will have left the root. M.H. Leplay has given the subject considerable attention, and it is interesting to follow what is said upon the subject and the con- clusions drawn. The beets upon which the observations were made were in an excellent condition, and had been cultivated ona calcareous soil. When harvested, the leaves were twisted off and then remained untouched; the roots were planted in May and examined during various periods of their vegetation. The density of the juice constantly decreased in the root; when the mothers were planted it was 1050.7; June 7, 1042; June 30, 1037; July 17, 1033; August 22, 1021. During the same period there was an increase of the density of juice from the stalks and then in the leaves. Analyses of different parts of the plant just at the period when the leaves were forming, gave the following: Portions Analyzed. A Density of Sugar Weight. Juice. | Per Cent. ROO: jscanotint seeieneiua een 610 gx ams. | 1.020 0.85 Neck isis «»| 210 1.02 0.75 Stems.... 1.090 ikiton. 1.027 Ree Leaves .. 0.500 1.084 As mentioned above, when the period of develop- ment advances, the sugar percentage diminishes as soon as the leaves appear, then remains constant. Then comes a time after the seeds are formed that moresugar is formed in the stems and leaves; little remains in SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 151 the root proper. (Even during the early history of the beet-sugar industry Peligot insisted that sugar dis- appears as soon as seeds are matured.) Respecting seed formation through the intervention of the stems, very little is known. One might conclude from the fact just mentioned that the seed had absorbed the sugar, but such is not the case, it having been proven that most of the sugar passes into small side roots, which always show themselves. Salts and vegetable acids, with a basis of potassa, exist in the juice of different portions of the plant. The quantity contained in the beet, after completing its second year’s growth, is about double what it was after the first year. Lime, salts and soluble vegetable acids, and lime of an insoluble organic combination, are to be found in all portions of the plant. The tissues of the leaves and their stems appear to contain more of the lime combinations the second than during the first year’s vegetation. Green seeds also contain a large amount of lime in an insoluble combination. During this second year, there is, without doubt, an upward movement of potassic and lime salts contained in the soil, and this in passing through the leaves and stems has the seed ultimately in view. During this period, carbonic acid and bicarbonates contained in the soil enter the root by the adhering radicles; the transformations which occur appear to be very like those of the first year. As the mothers can supply only one-tenth of the potassic and lime salts needed for seed formation, the remaining nine-tenths must be drawn from the soil. The potassa has for its principal function the formation of the seed, while lime helps in the forma- tion of tissue. A question we hear constantly asked is, Have not these salts some direct and constant rela- tion or important influence upon the quality of seed obtained, considered from a basis of sugar percentage hey? SUGAR BEET SEED. in the mothers? In the recent writings of Strohmer and Stift, they declare that the mothers during the second year’s growth produce large quantities of new organic substances; the root has not within itself suf- ficient resources; these must be furnished. Phos- phoric acid is utilized in the production of the stems and leaves, and nitrogen for the seed. CHAPTER VII. The Selection and Sampling of Beet Seed. Preliminary Remarks.—It may be an excellent pre- cautionary measure, when intending to purchase beet seed from the dealer or grower, to learn just what the conditions of cultivation have been. The great trouble with most seed dealers is that they attempt too much and the customer suffers. Our advice is to give pref- erence to those producers of beet seed who cultivate nothing else and who make a specialty of selecting, etc.; furthermore, to those who realize the importance of not having patches of fodder beets in the vicinity. It is well not to be misled on this subject; a distance of over a mile between one farm and another may be a reasonable limit. Yet cases are known where the pollen has been carried by the wind or insects, which thus completed the fertilization of the plant, and there follows a hybrid, the existence of which the farmer and manufacturer soon realize. The very best seed must be planted under the best possible conditions, and the care that follows during plant development and sugar elaboration should con- tinue until the beets are delivered as raw material at the factory. The sugar is made on the field and the manufacturer is simply an extractor; hence, the rea- son why we have always recommended that when con- scientious farmers carry out instructions to the letter they should be furnished from the start with the very best procurable seed. The extra cost of same is a mere trifle as compared with the satisfactory money returns for all interested. The fire test for determining the vitality of beet seed appears to offer some advantages. The seeds are 153 154 SUGAR BEET SEED. placed on a red-hot shovel; if they burn slowly, one may conclude that they are old and almost worthless. The operation should be repeated upon several sam- ples taken from the same sack; if the same results are obtained, the bag should be refused. On the other hand, if the seeds jump and produce a cracking sound or noise, they may be considered worthy of undergoing the germinating test. A series of exper- iments of this kind would soon show just what the pro- portion was of new and old seed in the sample. Influence of the Size of the Seed on the Quality of the Beet and Yield Per Acre. For many years past, there has been considerable discussion to determine whether or not the size of the seed has an influence on the resulting roots. Whether, in other words, large seeds yield beets of a higher saccharine percentage than small ones; whether the farmer has any advantage in using one size rather than another. For it must never be forgotten that seed which is known as beet seed, as previously explained, is, in reality, a cluster of several seeds, and the germs from some are extremely varied. Hence, the reason why there is such a variety of opinion upon this subject. The early experiments of Simon Le Grand were apparently very conclusive in favor of small seed—ioo large seeds weighed 3.2 grams, I00 small seeds weighed 0.425 grams. Weight. Sugar | averegeior | pOVEth ies eae ofbca ss icdanaterdipi vias ea ial n grams. v4 Large Seed.... “é 195 ee ois. September 16 325 ts 11.8 August 11.... 30 o) 356% Small Seedaad = | 20 September “16 233 ef 125 Other experiments of the same kind were made by Marek. During the early stages, the results SELEUTION AND SAMPLING OF SEED. 155 appeared to be in favor of large seed, but toward the end of the season, certain changes occurred and no difference could be noticed. The area of experiment was small, Small seed- = Seed. Number of beets obtained. 00.0... ..ce eee eee Specific Sravity Of [UICC vsssiss cies cxsessseanus 1.044 1.050 Dry substances .............. wat 10.857 12.285 OVAVIZACLOMG sie ices Sa seseeies sistas’ meigle mares Hass 7.24T 8.732 PULUCY COGMGI ON: yisij.a:00'0 Lorcisetoutd wrarrivarineres cit. exp 66.74 71,16 These results appear to be in direct contradiction to his early experiments. Walkhoff is decidedly in favor of large seed, as he declares that the resulting beets are more hardy. It seems to us that the strong argument in favor of large seed is, that the young plants, the outcome from them, can better resist the variations of the weather than the small. This is explained in various ways: Hollrung argues that small seeds mature early, owing to their greater facility to germinate. The average yield per acre is evidently greater with large than with small seed, owing, as we have just said, to there being a larger number of sprouts or germs per individual seed used. The pericarp is necessarily very much greater for large than for small seed. From this fact, Knauer concludes that the actual weight of seed proper is very much greater in small than in large seed. This outer covering for large seed represents 75 per cent. of its total weight, while for the small seed only 72 per cent. If the large and small seed be put to a germinating test, the argument appears to be in favor of small seed. With five grams of large seeds may be obtained 283 sprouts, while with the same weight of small seeds 469 sprouts are obtained. Briem has also given this subject more than usual attention and his conclusions are worth recording. He admits that seed may be divided into three classes, large, medium and small. These all gave very great 156 SUGAR BEET SEED. variations in results; a synopsis of the same is as follows: a Te or ee Sugar Per Cent. Aver. fo" ; _, {Aver. for _ hs . Maxi- Mini- Maxi- Mini- Exper y Exper- iment, | mun. mun. iment; ™um. mum. Large seed ....} 0.390 0.850 0.120 13.18 16.4 10.3 Medium “ ....} 0.392 1.090 | 0.150 13. | 15.5 10.9 Small Se en a 0.339 0.810 0.140 12.70 15.6 10.2 So it becomes evident that very little stress can be attached to the question of size of seed. It is far more important to give special attention to the condition of development of the seed proper than to whether they are large or small. Furthermore, it has beén conclu- sively demonstrated that germs, even from the same seed, may give beets of a very different composition and yield. In the experiments in question, the weight varied from 55 to 835 grams, yet they were planted under exactly the same conditions. Briem declares that these variations are due to the physiological condition of the flower, the various por- tions of which have not been fertilized at the same time, or under exactly the same conditions. It is inter- esting to add that during these intervals of time, cli- matic influences have exerted their effects; further- more, the beet itself, during this period, undergoes great variations, which bring about changes in the flowering of what becomes an ultimate seed with several germs. The same variations have been noticed with numerous other plants in the whole botanical realm. Actual Weight of Beet Seed. Notwithstanding that this question has been under discussion for many years, there yet remains much to be done, on account of a great want of uniformity in the methods of investigation. The ballast, or outer covering (pericarp) of the seed varies so much with the size of the seed, and the difficulties in certain cases of SELECTION AND SAMPLING OF SEED. 157 determining, if observations are being made, on what might be considered a single seed with about five germs, or whether it is composed of two seeds -held together, which, collectively, have five germs. The Nobbe experiments would tend to show that the seed, or germ proper, represents 31 per cent. of the seed, while the ballast, or pericarp, is 68.8 per cent. The data furnished by other agronomists upon this subject differ somewhat from these figures. None are more reliable than those of Knauer, and he declares that, notwithstanding all the precautionary measures taken to determine the weight, the data obtained are certainly not mathematical. In the experiments 200 seeds weighed 6.099 grams, of which the ballast weighed 4.487 grams, or 73.6 per cent., and the seed proper 26.4 per cent. There can be no doubt but that the weight of the germ increases with the weight of the seed. The experiments at Grébers were upon 50 seeds, but to make these results more readily under- stood, we have based our calculations upon 100. Weight of Number of | One Germ Size of Seed. | 100 Seeds. Germs. Weighs. TGA EG aih.die' said antisera Susamenion. Novaentiers 4.622 grams, 346 3.3 M.G BMA cc cian eataietiadokes vemeece 3.702“ 26 3:0 ~ -e Small ets icccsic saaysaaiesaneanpingrass ox cine 2.496 260 27 SIMA OSE: sive cs iacacagaamy de ae caine 15318 176 20 Knauer declares that it is a mistake to suppose for one instant that the large seed is simply a com- bination of two of the smaller seeds; a close examina- tion reveals that such is not the case. For in these large seeds may be found, side by side, much smaller, yet too large to fall through the holes of a 7 m. m. mesh. The same argument applies to the smallest seed of the table. Upon general principles, it may be admitted that one hectoliter of beet seed weighs 27 kilos (about twenty pounds per bushel). There is a great variation in the weight of seeds, considerd as a whole. Dr. Bret- feld has declared that there may be 14 to 103 seeds per 158 SUGAR BEET SEED. gram, which means that their weight may vary from 0.0097 grams to 0.0714 grams. It is to be noted that such variations in weight do not exist with any seed in the whole field of botany. Pagnoul says that the average number of seeds per two grams is 105, which means that the average weight of individual seeds is about 0.018 grams. One bushel of beet seed weighs only sixteen to twenty-one pounds. Without doubt, the varieties of beets and the methods of cultivation have certain influences on the size of the beet seed. The period of duration of flowering must also not be forgotten. Another fact not to be overlooked is, that the size of the seed depends upon the number of germs it con- tains; the average may be considered as five. These vary, being one, two, three, and even ten. Briem declares that he has in his collection a single seed which weighs 0.249 grams. While Pagnoul admits that 105 seeds weigh two grams, Bretfeld, an equally high authority allows only 90. However, the differ- ence is very slight between these two authorities, as by the latter it is admitted that 100 seeds weigh 2.22 grams. With small seeds during certain years it requires 103 to weigh one gram, while, on the other hand, 24, or even 22, of the largest may also weigh one gram. Hence, the reason why, some years ago, there was a thorough understanding that large seed should be those in which forty-five were equivalent in weight to one gram; small seed those where this num- ber is greater. This leads to entirely different results, from the purchaser’s standpoint, to those which would be obtained by the Knauer size of seven m. m. to five m. m. method mentioned in previous pages. This authority declares that the weight of beet seed is largely influenced by its condition, or degree of its maturity. One liter of Imperial Knauer (eleven per cent. moisture) weighs 185.34 grams (seven ounces per quart). SELECTION AND SAMPLING OF SEED, 159 Numerous authorities have taken upon them- selves to determine the number of sprouts given by one gram. Sempolowski declares that the following is about an average, and may be an excellent basis of classification: Those seeds which give 81 to 112 sprouts, pergram............. Excellent. “ vi “ “55 to 80 a ...Good. “ “ “ “40 to 54 +e UN op 4u8 zr Ecos | £5 |aset|] §O | BSext]| Ee fogs ind eed no o oC a) ae n = n o H so Ee Boy Breslau........} 37 tons. 10.96 47 tons 11.30 46to1s. 11.60 Rose Neck. . al. $ 10.00 47 11.00 45 10.80 Vilmorin se a. 30 13.64 32 13.88 32. 8s 14.93 with Vilmorin seed showed that at 7.9 inches between tows the beets weighed 12.4 ounces and contained 14.2 per cent. sugar, while at 23.6 inches they weighed 2.6 Ibs. and contained 3.6. From which it may be con- cluded that the best results are at 15.7 x 9.8 inches; less than this is not desirable. Schultz (Germany) claims that the best results are at distances of 14.4 inches between rows and 12 inches spacing of roots in rows. One fact is certain, that if only 13.7 inches are between 196 SUGAR BEET SEED. rows and seven inches between beets, most of the agri- cultural implements now in existence could not be used. Consequently, upon general principles, it is desirable to adapt one’s self to local conditions, arrang- ing so that an average cart can have free circulation between rows. If beets are in any way bruised there is sure to follow a loss of sugar. It is claimed that beets cultivated near together have greater maturing powers than those far apart, and that they are better able to resist the prolonged drouth. It is very essential under such conditions that the soil be worked at a considerable depth. It is self-evident that when fertilizers are used their assimilation by the plant during its development must necessarily be greater at short than at long distances. During the latter condition, the drainage soils carry off a large portion of the plant food, producing material effects upon the root. Realizing the importance of cultivating beets close together, the manufacturer frequently offers prizes,* the value of which varies with the number of. plants obtained to the acre. In theory, it would be possible to calculate the amount of seed required, but the results obtained would be very misleading. Some German experiments show that the coeffi- cient of purity increases by planting near together. The experiments were: 18x16 Inches. | 12x12 Inches Ge PR, Cc. P. No. 89.1 90.4 86.9 90.3 85.4 88.6 86.1 87.2 85.9 88.6 82.9 88.2 The fertilizers were made to vary on each patch; for example, in No. 1 Record there were 12.8 lbs. nitrogen in the form of sodic nitrate, and 51 Ibs. phosphoric acid, *For example : For 30,000 beets to the acre..........eeeee eee $0.25 per ton ~# 40,000 & A Oe iacete, celle ee Speen edeias: see 040 50,000 ie Cet: Uendandpans oteataates nates, sales 0.60“) *e PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 197 while No. 6 had 76.8 Ibs. nitrogen and 115 Ibs. phos- phoric acid. An interesting conclusion respecting these results is, that by planting near together the bad effects of sodic nitrate, when used in excess, may in a meas- ure be overcome. The sixteen to eighteen inches between rows and ten-inch spacing in rows appears to be the most favor- ed among Continental beet farmers of Germany, Austria and France. This arrangement allows about nine beets per square yard, or one beet per square foot, corresponding to nineteen to twenty tons to the acre, supposing each beet weighs one pound. When efforts are made to obtain ten to twelve beets upon the same area, the results are not, as a general rule, very satis- factory. The idea of 16x 16 inches, so as to allow a thorough working between rows by use of the culti- vator, would result in large roots, but of a doubtful quality. When it is desired to have only five to six beets per square yard, under almost the conditions just mentioned, the best results appear to be obtained with 15.7 x 16.4 inches. Germination in the Soil. In previous pages we have mentioned the fact that from the time the seeds are placed in the storerooms to dry, etc., until they are planted, they remain in a condition of torpor, froma which they awaken as soon as they are placed in the proper environment for excit- ing a return to their former vitality. The germ and its requisite food are made visible under the microscope. When the three requisites, air, moisture and heat, are furnished, the white point, showing the first signs of life, soon finds its way through the pericarp. The age of seed has a very important influence upon the vital- ity; a few words respecting this question are of interest. Mr. Fred Knauer has made some interesting experiments in this direction. Eight beet seeds of 198 SUGAR BEET SEED. average size, from a factory in Poland, collected in 1846; after an elapse of 37 days, one plant appeared above ground, after five months there were ten. From these experiments, it is concluded that seeds retain their germinating power during a very long period, but they require considerable time to waken from their long torpor; even after two years, this tardy germi- nating tendency is evident. On the other hand, Marek has made a series of very important observations. Number of o % Number of FValue of Seed, Agerol Seed, eee eee Sprouts per Kilo.) Normal is 100. 158 66,700 100 174 63,600 100 150 56,400 100 131 51,685 97.7 146 68,731 100 135 63,800 100 Lt 54,846 97.5 112 47,466 94.9 10L 43,773 75.5 as 27,200 D4.2. 95 33,600 61.0 3+ 15,250 34.5 From this table we realize how important it is not to use seed over five years old, for after that age their deterioration is rapid, notwithstanding several asser- tions to the contrary mentioned elsewhere. Moisture. Without moisture, germination is impossible, and with an excess there are other difficulties to be dreaded; opinions very much differ as to the advantage or disadvantage of having the moisture on the surface or at some inches below. If the soil is per- fectly dry, the seed remains dormant. On the other hand, if there is a natural moisture, germination will commence, and if there be a sudden change in weather, there are dangers of a complete destruction of the young plant during this embryonic development. These difficulties may, in a measure, be overcome by a preliminary preparation of the seed, in which case the soil with natural moisture gives the best results. Even PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 199 in cases of prolonged drouth, in the several inches of soil through which the ascending sprout has passed, there will be found sufficient moisture for the requirement. Many of these difficulties are overcome by a thorough working of soils intended for beets. The ambient temperature has a great influence on the amount of moisture a soil retains; while the actual tem- perature beneath the surface is lower than in the air, the difference is not as great as might be imagined. However, experiments have been made in this direc- tion and we can conclude that during. twenty-four hours at 73.5 degrees F., the surface will have lost one- fourth of its total moisture; after the second day, the drying process will have extended to a depth of one- tenth of an inch. Consequently, if seed be placed in the ground at a depth of one to two inches, depending upon the texture of the soil, during an unusual dry spell, it would not penetrate to the strata where is lodged the seed during the first ten days after sowing. Briem'’s experiments on moisture of soils are important. He used two kinds of seed, one dried in the air and the other steeped in water; his results were as follows: Days Before Appearance Above Ground. Moisture Ob Boil, Normal Seed. Prepared Seed. 22.3 per cent. 0 19.7 i. 17.1 ee + 15.0 ee 5 1 12.8 ee 4 6 11.8 st 5 4 9.9 Me 5 4 qa ts . 8 4 6.2 ss 15 6 From these experiments it is concluded that if the soil contains 22 per cent. of water, germination is not possible; from 19 to 20 per cent., very slowly; from 7 to 17 per cent. of moisture, the soil appears to be in the. best condition. Below 5 per cent., germination is impossible, unless the seed has been previously pre- 200 SUGAR BEET SEED, pared, which again shows the practical advantage of steeping seed. The experiments of Schultze-Fleeth, as regards the power of absorption of soil,* are as follows: Lose in 4 Days at 100 ths. | Absorb ibs. Water. 65.5° F. % of Water. San Qvisnsnniaesa xe tumor 25 88.4 Clay. 40 52. Pure clay...... a 70 31.3 Fine caleareous......... 85 28 We cannot conclude from these data that the time and manner of sowing must depend upon the soil being used and the country where this special cultivation is practiced. If there is danger of abnormal heat during the first few weeks after sowing on sandy soil, the operations should be conducted as rapidly as possible. Herein is one of the important reasons why fall plow- ing is preferable to spring plowing, for the rains just before winter saturate the soil with moisture, and this surface is turned under. The ice and snow form a cov- ering and the moisture is retained until the sowing period comes around, leaving at the same time, air passages, a condition essential for healthy germination. Heat. Which, in other words, means life. Just as the luxuriant vegetation of a tropical clime differs from the northern regions of our planet, so does the change of season affect plants. The sap that had gone into the roots now returns to give the new life to that portion which had remained dormant during several months. The hand of man in this question can help nature. By many authorities it is admitted that 130 degrees C. (266 degrees F.) are needed for seed to germinate in the soil. However, this must not be taken to the let- *The soils of Chino, California, have considerable moisture at a great depth; the roots in that dry climate, in search of the moisture, need to penetrate several strata and are very elongated and rich in sugar, On the other hand, soils near Lehi, Utah, are irrigated during the early stage of the beets’ development, and very satisfac- tory results are thus obtuined. PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 201 ter, for practical experiments show that when the ambient temperature remains at 48 degrees F., about twenty days are needed for seed to appear above ground. While, on the other hand, at 63 degrees F., the rows are distinctly visible in about three days. Consequently, on general principles, it may be admit- ted that the rapidity of germination is in direct ratio to the ambient temperature. It is claimed that in preparing beet seed, it is pos- sible to give a certain number of degrees of heat in advance, and in connection with this matter, there would be a gain in the number of days for sprouting.* For soils in general, the requisite time for germination may be considered inversely proportional to its tem- perature. The cold has an important effect, and an early frost will kill the germs of a large number of seeds planted; hence, the desirability of being very lib- eral with the quantity of seed used. It is admitted that germination ceases at about 3 degrees C., or at a max- imum, 30 degrees C. The heating and cooling of soils during the spring of the year has an important influ- ence not to be overlooked. The warmth during the day and the cooling at night are said to have an accel- erating effect on germination. It must be thoroughly understood that the action of low temperature on beet seed is very slight, providing germination has not com- menced, and is very destructive after the first signs of life have manifested themselves. The best authorities admit that seeds germinate under the best conditions “If seeds, for example, remain two days in aliquid at 22.5°C., the total heat thus given would be 45°C.; the remaining number of de- grees to be furnished then becomes 130° C.—(minnus) 45° C,=85° C. If during draining of seed the ambient temperature is 15° C. the heat left to be fur- nished would be 70°C. If the temperature of the soil is 10° C. and remain constant, then germination would take place 70 10 orseven days. If there had been no preparation, the number of days for germination would have been 130 : Yo —13 days. The preparing of seed has thus been a gain of six days. 202 SUGAR BEET SEED. ] when the average temperature of the soil remains about 7 degrees C. (37.6 degrees F). Air. When we consider that nearly one-fourth of ‘the total vegetable earth is air, it becomes evident what an important role air plays. Therefore, certain precau- tions must be taken to sufficiently work the soil, so that the air circulation is not too free, as it would soon evap- orate all the moisture, and thus do more harm than good. Evidently, without oxygen, seed cannot ger- minate. During the action of heat and moisture, life cannot exist unless there is oxygen to help the plant; during its feeding process the albumen at the disposal of the germ cannot undergo the requisite transforma- tion. That certain microscopic organisms help this transformation, there is not the slightest doubt. Mois- ture carries these ferments into the centre of the embryo and the action of the diastase completes the first stages of plant development. Experiments have been made with the view to substituting other gases for air, but they led to very secondary results. Light. As soon as the young leaves appear above ground, light has an important part to play. The chlorophyll then brings about the interchange of cer- tain gases, and, furthermore, helps to decompose or to transform those elements of which the vegetable organ- ism is made up. These chlorophyll granules, which consist of green-colored protoplasm, bring about these changes which result in starch formation, which will be subsequently distributed through the root. The chlorophyll, separating the carbon from the car- bonic acid taken from the air, liberates the oxygen absorbed and supplies the carbon to form a carbo- hydrate, such as starch, by combining with the hydro- gen and oxygen of the water of the soil taken up by PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWINK. 203 the rootlet. It must never be overlooked that these transformations cannot occur unless the plant be sup- plied with iron. We all know, also, that with the absence of light the chlorophyll pigment is not formed. It is interesting to follow the plantlet from its very first appearance above ground. Growth of the Planted Seed. The seed of the sugar beet, if placed in the ground under favorable conditions (heat, air and moisture), Fic. 60. FIG. 61. germinates; the outer or harder portion becomes soft- ened, and thus permits the penetrating of the descend- ing root, which shoots in a given direction until it reaches O (see Fig. 60), from which point the ascend- ing root becomes apparent. The latter diverges at an angle of about 15 degrees, while the former continues in its downward course, the growth upward corre- sponding to it. If the depth, H (Fig. 61), at which 204 ° SUGAR BEET SEED. the seed has been planted, be not sufficient, or if the soil be too loose (which is the case when proper rolling has been neglected), there will be a considerable change when O is reached. Instead of the seed, S, remaining underground and the ascending root gradually finding its way upward, as in Fig. 60, the seed will be carried upward and occupy the various positions, one, two, three, four, 2 FIG. 62. Diagram shows two germs on the same seed which have sprouted on different days. etc. When gravity does not separate the hard cover- ing from the plantlet, it will still adhere, as shown in G; under these circumstances, the plant generally per- ishes. If we examined even more closely, we could follow the development of the seed leaves. Nos. 1 to 5 (Fig. 61)- show five positions of the growth of the ascending and descending root; the seed leaves remain wrapped around the albumen, so-called, PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 205 which furnishes the nutritive matter the plant requires during these first stages of growth. The root absorbs water and the dissolved mineral substances of the soil. This water reaches to the cell of the leaves; in its pas- sage it passes from cell to cell and along some of the ~ FIG, 63. tubes of the vascular tissue. During this upward motion, it meets starch, which is traveling downward. Under the influence of protoplasm, in some way or another, nitrogen is formed, from which, with sulphur and the starch constituents, albuminoids are produced. 206 SUGAR BEET SEED. These are essential for protoplasm development, of which the plant cells are made up. The seed leaves, as shown in Fig. 61, penetrate the surface soil doubled, and have a natural tendency, in consequence thereof, to rotate with some force,—to assume an upright position. This seems to be assisted by the inclined position of the ascending root. The seed leaves then have not yet opened. This takes place in two ways: Either directly. as shown in Fig. 65, or as in Fig. 66, where they are at first convex, and assume their natural position after some days. Interesting experiments to determine the most desirable depth at which to plant beet seed have FIG. 64. FIG. 65, FIG. 66. resulted in some practical facts; among these we may mention, that seeds were planted to a depth of three inches, and uncovered after 200 days. As soon as exposed to the air they gave evidence of full vigor. In most cases, however, when the soil was damp, germi- nation took place at this depth; but these germs being unable to come to the surface, died, never having gone beyond the first stage of their existence. It is evident that if the seed be at too great a depth it cannot reach the upper surface. After an interval — of time, if the resistance to the ascending shoot is over- PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING, 207 come, as it has been retarded in its development, it will frequently perish. And yet, when too near the surface it will be exposed to the variations of the weather. Hence, the importance of some approximate idea of just what the most desirable depth for planting should be. No definite rule can be given, as it varies with the climate and soil, and in many cases should be determined by practical experience. Groven’s experi- ments give some idea of the variations in the number of plantlets appearing above ground after a period of days and at various depths. Depth of Plant- |First Plants Made Number After ing. Their Appearance 8 Days. 16 Days. 0.39 inch, 5 days. 19 24 0.78 “ 5y 14 21 1.18 inches. 5A 15 23 157 «© 61, 15 17 107 38 634 8 18 2.76 ‘ 82, 4 14 3.54 ‘ 10“ al 7 He, therefore, concluded that about one-half to one inch was the best depth. On the other hand, Walkhoff took up the subject and concluded that if we admit that the soil has a temperature of 15 degrees C. (59 degrees F.), the number of days for seeds to appear above ground at various depths was as follows: Forseed at a depth of 6 m.m. (0.24 inch)... a ‘s “ « 13m.m. (0.51 inch). sf ss ae “19m. m. (0.74 inch) m a as “ 26m. m. (1.02 inches)..........- When the surface of the soil is caked for one rea- son or another, the seeds are unable to penetrate it, even when one-tenth inch in thickness. Hence, the importance of keeping the soil in a thoroughly open condition. If the seed is not sufficiently covered it will rot; if too much covered, it does not show itself. Consequently, it is a question of texture of soils; if very light, the sowing should be at a certain depth; if heavy, near the surface. CHAPTER NX. Production of Superior Seed. One of the original methods for improving the quality of selected mothers, consists in furnishing such roots with increased amounts of nutrients required for the amelioration of the seed to be formed. A perfora- tion is made in the root and this is filled with sugar, starch, etc., or any nitric element needful for plant development, with a view to seed production. In the case of sugar beets the cavity may be filled with sand and 50 per cent. pure sugar. [Experiments show that it does not matter how the sugar is supplied; this sub- stance leads to seeds possessing hereditary principles, from which may be grown beets rich in sugar. According to another rather strange method to obtain beets very rich in sugar, the roots are to be grown from selected seed raised in conservatories heated artificially, and in which large quantities of car- bonic acid gas are introduced. At night such green- houses are to be lighted by gas or electricity. The mothers, when selected, are to be planted and tended in the usual manner. We may also mention the Braune steam method. The steam is circulated through pipes that are buried in the ground. Between the rows are other pipes, which distribute carbonic acid. During the night, electric lights are kept burning. With the view to preventing a second growth due to late rains, the beets may be covered by special glass frames, such as are used in patch gardening; these do not prevent a free circulation of air. 208 PRODUCTION OF SUPERIOR SEED. 209 The results obtained by this method have never been brought to our notice. However, this is a hint ina direction that might possibly lead to some very impor- tant results. In the patented method of circulating carbonic acid through pipes, the gas escapes through special holes; the quantity of gas used increases as the beets become larger. It is essential also to have artificial light during the night; such roots are said to be very superior and may be sent to a mother-selecting laboratory. Production cf Beet Seed: by Use of Very Small Mothers. As we have previously pointed out the general opinion prevailing that very small beets are not desir- able for beet-seed production, it is of interest to con- sider, in some detail, the small-beet method as used in Austria, and which, in many cases, has led to most sat- isfactory results. Beet seed, as it is found on the mar- ket, is either the direct outcome of selected mothers, or is from mothers obtained from the descendants of a selected beet after several generations. The expense and difficulties of seed production by direct methods have led most dealers to use the latter system, which, unless extreme care is used,is open to many objections. The more atavism gains in strength, the further the seed is from the original parent; however, numerous cases may be cited where even after the fourth gen- eration, the results continue to be satisfactory. In Germany, the so-called patch method continues to be used with success, without any special complaint from manufacturers. In the best cases, seeds are sown from selected mothers, and the resulting roots furnish seed for the trade. In Bohemia, some variations have been made from the German method, and the craze for very small mothers has been pushed to an excess, and it frequently happens that the seed furnished is worthless. 14 210 SUGAR BEET SEED. The best results, however, appear to’ be obtained on soils that have been properly prepared. Small roots must be of regular shape. The supposed objection to small beets is, that they mature badly and bring about great irregularity in the crop of seed. But, by having the patches arranged in several categories, large, aver- age and small, it is possible, even with small beets, to obtain a maturity of considerable regularity; those of the large are followed by the middle size, and last of all, the very small mothers. In fact, from Schaaf’s experiment, it is shown that small mothers obtained by close planting of seed from selected beets have the following advantage: They very much increase in size when they are planted in the spring, and they penetrate to a considerable depth in the soil, which is followed by many strong lateral roots before the portions above ground show much sign of life. During very windy weather, they remain in posi- tion, and owing to their excessive soil penetration can struggle very considerably against excessive drouth. The roots of mothers which are planted the second year, and which have obtained their full development during their first vear’s growth, will undergo very few comparative changes, while above the surface the vege- tation is excessive. With certain varieties of beets these mothers are forced out of their position by a very slight cause, and in most cases the vibration is constant and continued, leaving a funnel-like space between the root and soil, and as a result their points of contact with the ground are very few in number. Some of the practical experiments with seed from very small roots and from normal beets have led to the following results: Normal Beets 600 to 700 grams aia osm) (1.3 to 1.5 tbs). Density (BrIX).6.65:35 cen nem raeeee aways 23.0 23.7 POlTI ZAM ON iacaiiscs casita aes: 20.2 20.3 PULityiics sk omaagmicesa wana esas: Goseg 87.0 85.4 PRODUCTION OF SUPERIOR SEED. 211 From which it is difficult to see just in what the advantage consists. Another table of special interest shows that with small roots the weight of seed obtained is greater than with large roots. Large Mothers. Medium. Very Sinall. Gras. Grams, Grams. Weight when planted 2 to 337 12 lo 66 29to 10 Weight afterseed has been harvested..... 972 to 710 417 to 400 690 to 160 Increase of weight during seed forma- VONS 2 aaceecdacess 530 to 271 351 to 328 676 to 143 Weight of seed ob- tained per beet..... 375 to 177 470 to 120 475 to 96 Total increase’ of weight of the root, seed, stalk, etc...... 1,425 to 398 1,200 to 351 1,171 to 374 From which it is concluded that small beets weighing 29 grams (one ounce) to Io grams (0.35 ounce), when planted in patches, increased in weight 1171 grams to 374 grams (41 ounces to 13 ounces), and furnished 475 to 96 grams (16.6 ounces to 3.3 ounces) seed per beet. Very small beets, when planted, demand that the soil be well prepared and that a proper fertilizer be used. It is claimed that small beets give fewer small stems and small seed than do large beets. The stalks of these have rapid and excessive development, thus absorbing the plant food in reserve in the neck of the mother. If excessive heat and dry weather follow, the root in the soil has no longer the strength to meet the demand of the stalk, nor can it withdraw the requisite plant. food from the surrounding soil; the stalks are consequently in a condition to yield poor seed. Just the reverse of these conditions is found with the small mothers, which, as before explained, the development of the root and stalks being in harmony with each other, are in a better condition to meet the climatic variations with which we frequently have to contend. 212 SUGAR BEET SEED. Reproduction of Beets and Seed from Buds, Leaves with Skin, and Also from Fractional Slices. The beet has undergone endless changes through generations, and the many existing types and varieties show just what man can accomplish in helping nature in her evolutionary methods, when superior seed pro- duction is aimed at. ist. The essential is to use beets having as nearly as possible the same exterior characteristics and the same physiological tendencies. 2d. To prevent formation of hybrids during flowering. 3d. To give special care to agricultural methods, thus allowing the plant to complete its normal evolution. The usual German and French methods of supe- rior seed production consist in planting the best type of superior beets separately, and the seeds from these form the basis of special patches; constant observations are made during their development. If only a few roots in each patch promising the most favorable results were alone kept, the method of selection would be very costly and the results obtained would be doubt- fu. While this method, under proper care, keeps out all roots showing signs of atavism, it is not desirable, in most cases, to push the selection beyond the third generation. The systematic bud method is not only feasible, but promises considerable success. It is also possible to graft pieces of skin on other beets. It fre- quently happens that necks of beets after harvesting are sliced off and left on the field; these are exposed to the frosts, etc., of the winter and still retain their vital- ity and in the spring will actually take root and yield seed. Beet Seed from Buds. We were among the first to call attention to the new departure in the production of beet seed from PRODUCTION OF SUPERIOR SEED. wlio buds, introduced in 1890 by Professor Novoczek, which had been applied to many other plants, but not to beets. While several years have now elapsed since then, and numerous experiments have been made, the question still remains to be satisfactorily understood. We called attention to the fact that the saccharine quality of beets increases with the number of its con- centric rings; to each of these correspond leaves which are subsequently followed by buds. “It consequently follows that the richer the beet, the more numerous are the buds and the better suited are such roots for the multiplication of their species.” Later, we said, “ It is shown that after the buds have been planted in a suit- able soil, after about two weeks leaves develop; and a hairy growth corresponding to lateral roots soon appears.” To which we may add, that while these roots, as planted by some investigators, have a very different shape from the original mother, they are said to be possessed of exactly the same characteristics. How- ever, it is claimed that there may be obtained seed, which, in time, will yield roots which tend more and more to be the shape of the original parent. On some farms visited by us, the mother, after being selected and found to contain about 16 per cent. sugar, is planted, with its upward leaf development kept under control by suitable horizontal frames; this has a tendency to increase the bud formation, under which circumstances it is possible to obtain 280 buds from a single root. It is not desirable, however, in most cases, to use more than forty of these, which some agrarians recommend should be planted as soon as they appear, while others declare that they should be taken off at night and planted the next day. The pre- caution of not watering the soil for two days must not be overlooked, and great care is necessary to remove all particles of skin adhering to the parent beet, as from these other roots would soon grow. 214 SUGAR BEET SEED. The scar made on the mother by the bud removal should be cauterized with charcoal. It is also urged that when buds have attained sufficient size, which means two months’ growth under glass, the air ven- tilation should be gradual. Transplanting is the next operation, pinching off the larger leaves, also part of their hairy growth. The hole made to receive these bud plants should be sufficiently watered; better select a cloudy day for the transplanting. Recent exper- iments appear to demonstrate beyond cavil that it is possible to plant a series of buds side by side, under exactly the same conditions, and obtain roots very irregular in shape, but yet having a greater resem- blance to each other than is now obtained by most improved methods of physical and chemical selection in ordinary beet-seed production. This production of beets from buds and without seed was patented in Germany and introduced on a very extended scale by Knauer at Grébers. It was claimed that the force of the beet was strengthened, and there was less danger of atavism, and little or no danger of the creation of bastards orhybrids. Just where the bud was to be taken was, for a certain time, a ques- tion of experimentation; the bud from the neck is found to be the best. Doerstling, a chemist in charge of the Knauer farms, says that at Grdbers there is, first, a physical selection, according to the shape, size, etc., of the beet. These are numbered and put aside in silos until the following spring, when a slight topping is necessary. The temperature of the mothers in silos should not be higher than 15 degrees C. At the end of February and in March, the planting is continued; after four or five days the buds appear. At intervals of ten days the buds are detached; however, the first taken should be two weeks after their appearance. The skin taken off with the bud should be just sufficient to hold the leaves together. Experience shows that it is PRODUCTION OF SUPERIOR SEED. 215 far better to break than to cut off the bud, and allow it to wilt during the night before planting. A mother beet can furnish buds during several months, but those of July do not appear sufficiently vigorous. These sprouts are placed under glass; those having, after five or six weeks, developed roots are placed in a medium consisting of a mixture of earth, sand and wood charcoal. As soon as they have suffi- cient strength, the transplanting follows; the cultiva- tion during their growth does not differ from that necessary for ordinary sugar beets. During the period of the past four years at Grébers, 1242 mother beets have been used for this operation; out of this number only nine did not give buds; the 1233 remaining gave 56,155 buds, or forty-five from each mother. Not- withstanding the care bestowed upon these plants, - every year a certain number perish before the roots are formed. One may rely on Io per cent. of buds. It has been noticed that beets that come from buds have absolutely the characteristics of their mothers, in shape, leaf formation, color, etc. About 92 per cent. of these beets obtained by, Knauer are rose color, the others slightly yellow. The main fact to be noticed in this method of selec- tion, is the care and time needed to achieve the results looked for. And while it allows one to reproduce beets like a very high standard or Elite, each beet of itself can give birth to a whole family which will retain their superior qualities for a considerable number of years. Hence, the reasons why each beet from which the bud is taken must be considered separately, num- bered, cataloged, tabulated, etc. It is claimed that it is not the richest beet that gives the greatest number of buds, but the heaviest. When considered from a leaf standpoint, it has been noticed that those leaves with long stems, those high or low, those fringed or even with dark green borders, all give good results. 216 SUGAR BEET SEED, On the other hand, those roots with very high or long necks are not desirable. At Grdbers it is concluded that the question is still in its experimental stage, and that at least ten years will be required before practical results from a commercial standpoint can be obtained. Numerous experiments in France, in planting buds, show that roots of the same line are almost identical in shape and in the formation of their leaves, while the roots obtained keep well in a properly con- structed silo during a period of many months. It must never be lost sight of, however, that nitric fertilizers should never be used alone; that under all circum- stances superphosphates should be added. The objec- tion to nitrogen in excess is, that it maintains the vege- tative action for too long a period and retards very considerably the maturity of the beet; under which cir- cumstances, there is danger of a second growth, with a corresponding loss of sugar. In America, in 1891, the Nebraska Experiment Station took up the question of production of beets from buds. “ High-grade beets were selected and buds started in a greenhouse. After rooting, they were removed from the greenhouse and planted in the gar- den.” The beet obtained was not very satisfactory in appearance, nor sufficiently long to yield much sugar. These experiments were continued again later; the roots obtained from buds were planted as mothers; most of them failed to produce seed, certain diseases and insects being contended with. Other experiments from buds were most satisfactory. Grafting Method. It is claimed that by the Wohanka method of selection, by which beet buds are grafted on beets, there need never be the slightest danger of atavism, as all descendants come from a common parent. The advantage of the grafting method is, that PRODUCTION OF SUPERIOR SEED. Q1G seeds may be obtained in one year instead of two, as by the early bud methods; furthermore, it is maintained that there is a sort of refreshing influence of the beet sap. Two varieties of beets have been created; these are known as, first, rich in sugar (W. Z. R.); second, rich in yield and sugar (W. E. R.). Experiments upon 10,000 beets, during 1896, were to determine just what this Briem grafting meant. Some of the beets were from seed obtained in the ordi- nary way; others were the bud-grafted seed. Those beets from the regular seed gave 53 per cent. as rich in sugar and general characteristics as the parent beet; 15 per cent. of a superior quality, and 32 per cent. of an inferior quality. On the other hand, the grafted beet seeds gave 77 per cent. equal in quality to the parent; 17 per cent.of a superior quality, and only 6 per cent. of an inferior quality. It is remarked that these results are not only superior, but that they are much more rapid. It is evident that great experience and observation are necessary to carry this out; the Wohanka work has now been going on for six years. It is to be noted that the main difference between the new and old method is, that by customary selections, the individual characteristics are the first arrived at, and beyond which there is no control, no way of preventing analyt- ical errors or action of atavism. On the other hand, the bud method is the starting point, after which ata- vism has no influence upon the descendants, as they all come from the same mother and must necessarily have the same characteristics. The advantage of grafting is, that seeds are obtained the same year, while by the bud method, when used alone, the seeds can be obtained only the second year. There is a “renewing of the blood” by grafting. Such is a general outline of what is claimed by:this well-known seed producer. Beets from Leaves and Adhering Skin. The efforts to produce beet seed without going through the regular methods has led H. Briem to make 218 SUGAR BEET SEED. a series of experiments, by planting beet leaves with a small piece of adhering skin from the mother beet. The first question to be looked into, is that of planting, as early as possible, very superior seed on a selected and well prepared soil. When the leaves of the result- FIG. 67. FIG. 68. Leaves with adhering skin. Final appearance of root. ing beets have attained three to four inches in length, they are cut off with a very short knife; the separation should be made in such a way that there will be adher- ing a small piece of skin, as shown in Fig. 67. The planting is not done until next day; after a reasonable PRODUCTION OF SUPERIOR SEED, 219 number of weeks (two and a half months), the appear- ance will be as shown in Fig. 69. It is important to note that the leaves used should have a certain stiffness, and be entirely grown and no longer possessing their youthful vigor. While a certain amount of water is necessary, this should not be pushed to excess. During very sunny or hot weather it is FIG. 69. Root formed from leaf with skin aftertwo and a half months. generally found desirable to cover the growing leaf with other leaves. After two and a half months the transplanting should be done to the regular field; after the growing has continued for a few months longer, the appearance of the root is shown in Fig. 68. Though we consider it very doubtful if any special results could possibly be obtained by this method, it is interesting 220 SUGAR BEET SEED. as being or forming an important departure from reg- ular methods. Beets from Sectional Vertical Slices. A new departure has recently been made, which is, that instead of using the bud root for seed, the beet is sliced vertically, and each slice planted separately. These will yield seed, as do so many separate mothers, as many as twenty new seed-forming centres being thus obtained from one beet root. It must not be for- gotten that these slices must undergo considerable special attention in a greenhouse before being planted in the open field. It is important to dress the wound with an antiseptic of some kind, or with wood charcoal powder, or even chloride of mercury may give satis- factory results. This precaution does not appear nec- essary when the vertical sections are limited to four; then the planting should be just as is customary for mothers in seed production, the distance between rows being rather closer. These slices must, in some way, be held up in a vertical position, otherwise the wind would blow them over. CHAPTER NI. Home-Grown Beet Seed. Of late, special sugar journals have recommended that we produce all the beet seed needed for home consumption. In theory it is a capital idea, but in practice most difficult to carry out. No one writer more than this author has urged and maintained the theory that special seed should be grown for special environments. It was, furthermore, argued, that if it were possible to devote special money to the practical working of the suggestion, it would, in time, be found very remunerative; and the complicated mother selec- tion might be worked on a scale which would be to the advantage of all interested. Many instances could be given of special beet seed retaining the names of fac- tories where this local seed cultivation has met with success, and without borrowing instances from Ger- many or France; the Alvarado achievement in this direction is an important example to the point. Just whether the best results that could beobtained have as yet been reached, either in California by private parties, or under Government supervision at experi- ment stations, remains to be proven. Every one who has looked into the subject of beet cultivation, knows that by proper selection excellent seed may be obtained. It would certainly be possible to produce in the United States all the beet seed needed for exist- ing factories. If such a course be followed, it would at present be ruinous to the American beet-sugar industry, unless undertaken by or under control of the factory. Those who discuss the problem have fre- quently only a very limited knowledge of it. A visit 221 222 SUGAR BEET SEED. to a European beet farm would make the question very much clearer in their minds. The scientific selection of mothers demands, as has been shown in previous pages, a very complete laboratory installation, a chemist and several assist- ants. It means this one question and very little else: To use a soil that happens to be within easy reach, and cultivate beets upon it; then to make selections of these beets, with the view to seed production, regardless of fertilizer and numerous other requisites. This would, after'a term of years, end in obtaining a tace of beets very inferior to the mothers representing the original parent. The money outlay for a beet-seed farm under these conditions would be a losing opera- tion, in view of the limited number of factories in the country. Later on, when the industry is more advanced than at present, when at least fifty factories shall exist, some enterprising seed specialist should take the matter in hand; but not until then. It has been argued by some writers, that if the beet-manufacturing countries of Europe should refuse to furnish us with beet seed, our factories must cease working. This would require a joint action on the part of Austria, France, Germany and Russia; and for what purpose? To prevent enterprising Americans making their few pounds of beet sugar, which, up to the present, has absolutely no effect upon the world’s sugar market! Every country of Europe is interested in developing the beet-sugar industry in the United States, with the hope that it may create a demand for their sugar machinery; and no better method can be adopted to attain this end than by sending us all the beet seed we may need for years to come. Hence, there need be no apprehensions on that point. American Experiments in Beet-Seed Production. Of the interesting American experiments in the production of beet seed, mention must be made of those HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 223 at Schuyler, Neb., which station was established with ' the view of improving the quality of beets, etc. The physical selection from roots was obtained from a standard variety of seed; the beets were divided into three classes: st, those of not less than 12 per cent. and not more than 15 per cent.; 2d, those from 15 to 18 per cent., and 3rd, the Elite class, those containing over 18 per cent. As a result of the analysis, 5091 beets were accepted for the production of seed and 1179 were rejected. (Certain changes occurred during siloing with Vilmorin’s Improved, there being apparently an increase of 0.1 in sugar percentage! With Desprez and Klein-Wanzleben, there had been no change.) The roots selected. were put in the ground, which had been properly prepared. Great care was taken to keep the higher grades at a considerable distance from the oth- ers, So as to prevent contamination by the distribution of pollen from one plant to another. The weather being very dry and the temperature high, the seed matured rather earlier than was. expected, the quantity and yield being thus reduced. In 1892, also,-experiments were made; the calcu- lated yield of seed to the acre was 968 Ibs. On the other hand, the yield of 1893 was smaller, it being 863 Ibs. On account of the high quality of the seed, it was sold to the Oxnard Beet Sugar Company at a price far in excess of that paid for the best imported seed. The sum received for the seed was at the rate of $172.60 an acre; this was only for the low grade, the high grade being kept for the experimental work of the future. Owing to the limited area devoted to the experiments, no exact data could possibly be obtained as to its cost of production. Seeds worth $150 an acre can be pro- duced in America. This is the issue upon which the Department of Agriculture places special stress. Dr. Wiley, in a recent Bulletin, No. 52, discussing 20 SUGAR BEET SEED. the experiments we have just referred to, says: “Tn the experiments conducted at the station at Schuyler during the season of 1893, a comparison of the beets grown from domestic and imported seeds was made. The plants from the native-grown seed seemed to have a higher vitality and to be better suited to the climatic conditions of the locality than those grown from imported seeds. They showed during the growing season a more abundant foliage and a better develop- ment of roots. This higher vitality and quality of the beets grown from domestic seed illustrate in a forcible degree the advisability of the production of our beet seed at home. Even granting that seeds produced in foreign countries have the same high qualities, it must be admitted that their vitality is in danger of being very much diminished during shipment to this country. The moist air of the holds of the ships in which they are transported often produces moldiness and incipient germination, which tend to greatly diminish their value. Not only did the beets produced from the home-grown seed have.a higher percentage of sugar, but they also afforded a higher yield per acre, as determined in the experiments at Schuyler. The mean tonnage per acre from the home-grown seed was 21.1 and from the imported seed 17.9. The mean pounds of sugar produced per acre from the home- grown seed was 5891 and from the imported seed 5185. This shows an increase of about 12 per cent. in the actual quantity of sugar per acre when domestic seed was used. These data should be carefully studied by all those who are interested in the production of the beet sugar in this country.” A fact apparently overlooked is, that scientific experiments have proven that the germinating quality of seed is hastened by change of climate. We refer not so much to the seed itself, but to the seed outcome of mothers from the imported product. So what appar- HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 225 ently is a higher vitality is the natural outcome of an established principle; the rule, in all probability, would work both ways. Several establishments in France change about in growing their seed; for example, Carl- ier regenerates his seed in Masloffka, Russia, and, as a result, he claims that the germinating power is so much increased that the seed sown upon the same soil, and under the same conditions, will appear above ground five days before the indigenous production. That the yield per acre was higher, that the sugar percentage was higher, may also be explained by a longer vegeta- tion and stimulation, produced by the new environ- ment. The Schuyler experiment station was abolished and all remained in statu quo. The Elite roots could not, after the many vears’ interval, be further watched and developed. By a new decision of the Secretary of Agriculture, it is decided to continue the work abandoned five years ago. This means that all must be commenced over again. Whatever progress is made, whatever work is accomplished, there remains ahead the possible sup- pression of the work, by a change of administration. The researches at the Nebraska station, if they had continued, would possibly apply to Dakota, Iowa and Minnesota. On the other hand, the elevated plateaus of the arid regions of Utah, Colorado, Nevada, Montana, New Mexico and Arizona offer condi- tions entirely different, and a second station should exist for those regions. Furthermore, a third station is needed on the southern coast valley of California; a fourth station, to study the climatic and other conditions of northern New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and southern Wis- consin, including Michigan. These stations should not have annual appropriations. but a fixed sum, deter- mined in advance, as this capital would then be beyond the possibility of political intrigues at Washington. 15 226 SUGAR BEET SEED. The only solution would be for those states most inter- ested to come forward and appropriate the required amount. A fact also that must be thoroughly looked into, if one or more of these stations be established, and from them serious work is to be expected, is: That the chemist in charge of each particular station be not a novice, as is often the case, in the special work he has to do. Let him spend a year or more at Halle sur Salle, Germany; then another year at one of the French stations; let him bring over with him one or two prac- tical hands for the physical selection of mothers, men who have been employed in this special work for twenty years or more; otherwise, great injustice will be done to the head chemist at Washington, who is responsible for the whole work. It must be understood that nothing of any great importance in the way of sugar-beet types ean be accomplished under seven or eight years. It took over twenty years to put the standards as now used in Europe on the solid basis they now are. The extended correspondence we have had with numerous experiment stations reveals very little. At Cornell University, many experiments are under way; nothing yet is decided. Iowa Agricultural College has some experiments in the production of beet seed in progress, “ but the investigations are not yetfarenough advanced to enable us to make a report.’ At the fac- tories in Alameda, they declare that they produced seed for many years (in 1893, 10 tons; 1894, 20; and 1895, 15 tons; about half of which they used), but one fact remains, namely: It is far cheaper to purchase the product in Europe than to attempt one’s own selection. At Watsonville, they declare that their experiments are too recent to be worth publishing. The Pecos valley sugar factory argues very much in the same way. From Mr. Oxnard, we learn that they carried on sugar-beet-seed production in Nebraska for a period of HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 295 years; the yield per acre did not prove profitable; they obtained about 15 tons, which cost about twice as much as the same seed could have been imported for. The climate around Grand Island appears to be too windy for beet seed. We have great doubts that the difficulty can be overcome by planting rows of corn between the beet rows, as suggested; for the mothers in growing need all the plant food the soil can furnish, and even at distances of three feet the roots are all in communication, one with the other. To introduce corn would complicate matters, and certainly not for the better. Utah Beet Seed Selection. In reply to our letter, Mr. C. A. Grager, Superin- tendent of the Utah Sugar Company, sends us the fol- lowing satisfactory account of their methods of selec- tion. There are certain original features about the way the work is conducted, which are well worth recording. Here, again, too much importance must not be placed as yet upon the early germinating char- acteristics, for reasons which we explained when reviewing, in the foregoing, the Schuyler, Neb., experiments. “We consider that good seed is the first essential toward the success of a beet-sugar plant. Good seed or poor seed may mean the difference between success and failure. It has not been our effort to produce a cheaper article than the imported, but to grow as good a seed in all respects, and better in some, than the best imported seed; and in this we feel that we have been thoroughly successful. The sugar content and purity of thé beets grown from our own seed have never fallen below that of the beets from our very best imported seed; and in germination, which we consider a very important point, our seed is the quicker by from two to four days, produces a stronger germ, gives from 228 SUGAR BEET SEED. 5 to 6 per cent. more plants, and about fifty more germs per 100 seeds. ‘Our mothers, or seed beets, are carefully selected from special fields of beets, grown for the purpose from the best imported seed. At harvest time, each beet is first carefully inspected by hand with a view to having all of uniform size, symmetrical in form or shape, and free from disease or injury. Of the beets thus exam- ined, only about 5 to 8 per cent. will pass the test and are taken to the laboratories, where a small cylindrical sample is taken from each one and its specific gravity tested; this gives an approximate idea of its sugar con- tent. All those not reaching a certain standard are discarded, or thrown away, while the few chosen ones are very carefully packed away by hand in dry sand. They are kept from heating or freezing during the winter by a system of ventilation, and are taken out of the sand in the spring, apparently as firm, fresh and crisp as when laid away in the fall. ‘As planting time approaches, in the spring of the year, the piles of mother beets are opened and the actual and definite test of their sugar qualities is made by taking out a second sample diagonally through the centre of the beet and a direct polarization made of it. All beets showing less than 16} per cent. of sugar are rejected; those going above are planted for seed. Out of all that are thus polarized, about 25 per cent. go below the requirement of 164 per cent. sugar; the average of those retained for seed reaching for the past season 18.7 per cent. sugar and 86 purity. “The preparation of the soil for the mother beets is commenced in the fall, when it is plowed very deep; in the spring it is replowed, but shallow this time, and the surface made smooth and firm. The beets are then planted by hand in rows three feet apart and at a distance of three feet from beet to beet in the row, thus allowing cultivation in every direction. The several HOME-GROWN BEET SEED, O29 seed branches or stalks from one beet do not all ripen at the same time, consequently cannot all be harvested at once. This necessitates going through the field and cutting by hand all ripe seed stalks, which are care- fully laid away and allowed to ‘season’ in the shade and are afterward threshed. It requires a second and third cutting before all the seed is gathered. After threshing, the seed is passed through a special machine, which removes all bits of dirt, sticks and blighted seeds, leaving only the full plump seed to be sacked for use. “The germination is carefully tested early in the spring, before any seeding is done, by planting in a hothouse several lots of 100 seeds that are taken with- out any selection whatever and represent an average of the whole. A careful watch is kept of the process of germination and a full record made of the date or the appearance of the first plant or plants, the number appearing each succeeding day up to and including the twelfth day from date of planting, and finally, the total number of germs resulting from each 100 seeds. The average germination of Lehi seeds for the past season was 96 per cent. with 218 germs, over two germs or plants for each seed. Such seeds can be safely guar- anteed on going into the hands of beet growers. Any haphazard or unscientific methods in the production of seed would immediately be followed by disastrous results, for high-bred plant life, like ‘high-bred’ animal life, will degenerate very rapidly unless preserved with intelligence and skill.” This last assertion is very true, and the future suc- cess of the Utah beet selection will depend upon these very facts, as previously mentioned. The whole issue may appear very promising for a few years, but when once atavism asserts itself, the first warning that some thing must be done is reached. Sugar-beet-seed selec- tion depends upon many very difficult problems, and 230 SUGAR BEET SEED. some of these are fully explained in previous pages of this writing. We were recommended to write to Mr. Deering- hoff regarding his experience in sugar-beet-seed pro- duction. In reply, we learn that in his district, Union- town, Washington, the soil is too dry, at certain sea- sons, for the satisfactory development of beet seed. The quality of seed obtained was, in a measure, satis- factory, but the yields were far below what they should have been. It is claimed, furthermore, that it is far more difficult to keep the beets over winter than it is in Continental Europe. He has no faith in California as a state that has a great future for superior seed cul- tivation. He declares that in a few years, they would possibly produce annuals; this, from our standpoint, 1s good reasoning. The intention, however, of C. C. Morse & Co., in California, is to give the subject of special seed production their careful attention. They have been urged to take up the question by several of the leading agronomists of the state. The very low price at which foreign seeds may be brought to America is an issue difficult to overcome. The success of Russian seeds in France and Germany, the importance of producing seed in a colder climate, and bringing it finally to a milder one, have been for years most successful. It remains to be proven what the future will be in creating a type of beet in an environ- ment such as California. The experiments of the past, either at Alvarado, or in other centres of the state, are not sufficiently conclusive, owing to their limited dura- tion, to predict as a certainty what the outcome will be. However, we do not hesitate to make the assertion that there will be an enormous tendency to create an- nuals. No district of Europe has given more atten- tion to beet-seed production than Saxony, so we conclude that a general outline of what is done there, as a starting point, is most important as a guide for HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 234. those who have the beet-seed cultivation specialty in view. Saxony Methods for Field Testing of Beet Seed. The main object is to study the different varieties of seeds from local and foreign sources, and to deter- mine the most desirable soil and fertilizer for each case, allowance being made for any climatic influence that might be contended with during the progress of the experiment. It must be understood that such experi- ments are not necessarily conducted at the experiment station; but on various farms at considerable distances from one another. The selection of seed is made by an official, sent to the seed grower’s farm; that the sample may be an average one in each case, it is taken from a volume of seeds weighing 14 tons. The sam- ples are sealed in sacks by the expert and forwarded to the agronomic laboratory, where germinating tests are made, after which they are distributed among farm- ers, who offer their services for such experiments. Under all circumstances, the tiller must have no spe- cial seed of his own, nor in any way be informed of the origin of the seed he is to plant. The area of land devoted in each case to such experiments is about one-half an acre. When the har- vesting season comes, the beets to be tested are marked, counting the hundredth beet from the first row, then the second hundredth, etc. As in the parcel there are about 23,000 individual roots, this gives 230 roots for laboratory observation. These are classified according to size, shape, etc., and then arranged in series; every other one is taken, so that there remain 115 roots leaving the farm, to be shipped in special bags to the agricultural station, where the number is again reduced by one-half. The laboratory experiments give the percentage of sugar in the beet and juice, the dry extract of the juice, purity coefficient and sub- 28 SUGAR BEET SEED. stances other than sugar. The Keil and Dolle rasp is used to obtain an average pulp from the sixty beets. This pulp is collected in a special receptacle and thor- oughly mixed; one-half of it is taken and submitted to a pressure of 300 atmospheres, so as to extract the juice. From one quarter of the half of the remaining pulp 500 to 700 grams are taken, which are used as final samples. The alcohol-digestion method is used to determine the sugar percentage. For this purpose, the alcohol used tests about go to 92 per cent; at least half an hour is needed before it has penetrated the pulp. The polariscope observations follow. A Brix hydrometer gives the solids, and the apparent purity coefficient is obtained by dividing the sugar percentage by the total solids; the non-sugar is the result of a subtraction of the sugar percentage from the Brix indicator. A series of tables is filled out for germination, the arrangement being as follows: Number of Sprouts per 100 Seeds After Varieties of Seed. Moisture of Soils Number of Seed in One Gram. Nitrogen in 100 Grams of Dry Substance. Number of Sprouts After ys from One Gram Clean Seed, 14 Da 7 Days. | 14 Days. The general classification of varieties, according to their saccha- rine quality, is done in a table about as follows: e. ~ = BS a 4 6 z=? 2 = zc we 2 FA = ze ES oe 5 e = Era Be 3 s 2am gan Sa cs <5 2 b =D So = Zima @ Ay = Ka uw mo 7 = ! tal < HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 233 When the factory is to determine what variety of seed is best suited for the environment, the method is a little different. Great precautions are necessary, that the experiments be conducted under exactly the same conditions as regards soil, fertilizer, etc. The spacing of roots must be identical in all cases; the soil should have been well plowed the season before; sow- ing of all varieties of seed under observation, and the analyses of the resulting roots must be done on the same day. During the plant development the various patches of beets should be carefully examined, so as to make sure that their appearance above ground is about the same in each case; it is also urgent to keep the soil free from weeds. Each beet must be weighed and analyzed separately, and it is important not to have one sample of each, but an entire row taken from the same exposure from each patch. When undertaking the production of seed, it is not generally realized what a long, tedious affair the method is, and if not conducted on a scientific basis, it will be a money loss to all concerned. After the selec- tions are made there are three principal classifications. The first on the list should be planted to produce seed which would yield beets for selection the following year; the second classification could also be used for the same purpose in an emergency; those remaining could furnish at once a limited amount of seed for gen- eral farmers’ usage, while the main\supply would be obtained a year later from beets which had undergone only an ultimate physical classification. For example, the mothers selected in 1894 would be from seed which had been produced in 1893. The planting of mothers, in Europe, is done the following March, 1895; in Octo- ber of 1895 the seeds from the planted mothers would be harvested; in April, 1896, the seeds are sown, and in October of the same year the resulting roots are har- vested and siloed. In February, 1897, a second selec- 234 SUGAR BEET SEED. tion and classification of mothers, March planting, October harvesting of seed; April, 1898, sowing of seed, and in October, beets are harvested and sent to the factory. So nearly four years elapse before the manufacturer gets the full benefit of his efforts. Under these circumstances, satisfactory results would evi- dently be obtained, but the expense is an important point to be considered. In our pamphlet published some time ago, we made the following calculation: If 20 lbs. of seed are used per acre, there would be needed, on an average, 35 mothers to produce this seed. A factory working 30,000 tons of beets must have under control not less than 3000 acres, and the seed needed would be 60,000 lbs. To obtain this, 105,000 mothers would be required. If the method of selection is that adopted by M. Legras, at first not more than one beet in three could be used, so that the number of analyses would be 315,000. If we admit that each analysis costs one cent, the total cost for this work in the laboratory, without considering wear and tear on plant, would be $3150 per annum. To obtain seed from the 105,000 mothers, at least 30 acres, at 4000 roots per acre, planted at three feet in all directions, would be required, and such beets could not be properly looked after under $60.00 an acre, or $1800. The allowance of one cent for actual cost is entirely too low; it would in reality be double that amount, bringing the cost of such analyses up to $6300, and a total cost of the experi- ments at $12,450, which might be a slight saving on the market price of seed. However, we are convinced that there would be considerable money loss to the manufacturer if conducted on the lines that the actual conditions of science demand. On the other hand, if the question of seed production be gradually developed by factories that have the patience, success would, in time, follow. If the ordinary method of selection be HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 23) adopted, then the chemical analysis is made only every two years, and seed could be obtained at about eight cents per pound, or less. Any enterprising chemist attempting this work, however, would find, after a few years of enormous expenditure of energy, that there would be certain dis- appointments. Complete laboratories with this idea in view require considerable capital. We must in time create an American variety of beet seed, but has that time yet arrived? If it has, let the work be done by a person who has in view only the specialty of seed production, and not by general seed dealers, who com- bine the question with other branches of their trade.* One who, furthermore, has the technical knowl- edge for the work to be done, which demands a thorough grounding, not only in the principles of botany, but also in the use of the microscope. Much remains to be discovered from a botanical stand- point; and laboratories where botany is a basis of their selection, will, in time, take the lead. As matters now stand, most of the ten or more leading beet-seed pro- ducers of Europe have vegetable organic development and changes under constant notice; so much so, that in connection with their laboratories are works of Dar- win and other leading investigators of plant life and requirements. For creating a special type of beet, a certain number of vears is necessary, as before explained, but the thoroughness of the subject is a lifelong study. From what we have just said, it stands to rea- son that many of the newly created varieties from *Since the above was written, a well organized beet-seed selecting laboratory has come under our notice, where last year there were made 337,389 analyses in forty-one days, or an average of 8227 analyses perdiem. By the use of two polariscopes, the cost for actual labor was $576, appliances, ete., $503, or a total of $1079, to which must be added the interest, wear and tear, etc., of $700 cost of plant. There were 263,567 beets kept for mothers, and the cost of the selection is about one-half cent per beet kept. This means more than half the help are women, at fifteen cents a'day. 236 SUGAR BEET SEED. growers who have been in the business but a few years are not to the advantage of the manufacturer, and sim- ply mislead the public in general. For such beets, when planted, will show great variations, not only in their sugar percentage, but also in size, even upon the same soil, under the same climatic conditions and the same care for their cultivation. Such conditions would not exist with the Vilmorin, Legras, Wanzleben and Knauer, for example. Vilmorin, on the one hand, and Klein-Wanzleben, on the other, have more reasons to complain of the infringement on their prerogative than az:y other beet- seed creators. They have added originals to their types, which make an important mark of distinction. There are possibly thirty very serious specialists who have taken the beets of these two promoters as a start- ing point in their selection, and have created not only what are excellent varieties, but very HEINOn/ Ht depar- tures from the old routine. CHAPTER XII. Beet Seed Production in France. . A very strange fact relating to the statistical data of such an important question as beet seed in Europe, is that there has been little or nothing published. It is estimated, however, that the consumption of beet seed reaches 35,000 tons, produced in France, Germany, Russia and Austria. There is considerable export of German seed to France, and France sends to Germany, and elsewhere. Russia of late years has brought about some changes in the German export, which once was 3500 tons. In France, there are 200,000 to 230,000 hectares (500,000 to 600,000 acres) devoted to sugar- beet cultivation; there is needed for this at least 6000 tons of beet seed (13,440,000 Ibs.), to produce which demands an area of 2200 hectares (5500 acres), which would represent I per cent. of lands devoted to beets cultivated for the sugar factories. The exports and imports of beet seed to and from France during several years, are as follows: Imported from Germany, Years P Hsia, ws Exported. ie 1887 1,401 tons. 971 tons. 1888 1,685 1, ae 1889 1,523“ 1,453“ 1890 1,847 1,716 891 2 1892 1,373“ 2,203 *# 1893 2,647 “ 2,631 “ 1894 2,053‘ 2,355 § 1895, 2,896 * 1,202 « The French growers were thus protected by a duty Seca ~of a fraction less than three cents per pound, but this has been found to be too small, and the low duty has since been changed. Before 1884 there were no seeds 237 238 SUGAR BEE SEED. imported, as there was no encouragement to cultivate superior beets. The roots then contained 7 to 9 per cent. sugar, but in 1885-86, the percentage was 9.2 to 11.2 and is now 13.3 to 15. Up to 1884 the French producers had, in a large measure, been neglecting their methods of selection. When it was necessary to resume their position held in the past, whole districts were abandoned, owing to the influence of hybrids that were freely cultivated. The growers have now regained the ground lost in the production of superior seed, but one fact still remains, the importation continues. The districts near Lille and Valenciennes, as early as 1846 (the fertile plains of Cysoing and Pont a Marcq), were devoted to beets; now about 5000 acres are employed for special sugar-beet-seed production. Old Beet Seed and Wastes Utilization. As the demand for seed some years was not equal io the supply, the European grower had in stock a quantity of seed that he could not dispose of unless it was by mixing, and thus cheat his customers. This would not be of so frequent occurrence if some means could be proposed for the utilization of old seed. The most practical suggestion is to feed it to cattle, which has been done on many farms, and has met with con- siderable success. Pagnoul gives the comparative analyses of hay and beet seed as follows: Hay. Old Beet Seed. Water 19.24 12.60 17.56 Amylaceous substances 26.95, 21.54 22.04 Nitrogenous ee 5.83 9.19 8.53 Non-nitrogenous “ 1.36 2.19 1.54. Fatty ee 2.44 5.88 5.10 Extractive es 16.72 11.54 11.83 Raw cellulose............ elate 22.64 28.70 28.30 ASD) se cscccisieisicws saiaainwnise a dere aciens savaraiers 4.93 8.36 5.10 100.00 100.00 100.00 Phosphorie. Acid... ..vsecs san ena sirens 0.438 0.84 0.64 BEET SEED PRODUCTION IN FRANCE, 239 By the way of comparison, it is interesting to give sa ieee of old beet seed: USEC, isin Bes dthamarscorcionsanyaevedavidhaen Cellulose.. Albuminoids...........-. ose... Mineral substances Cortical substances Mr. Petermann, who has also given the question of seed utilization some thought, says that it makes very little difference if the seed be of a superior or inferior grade. Variety. Klein-Wanzeben. ;Yellow Mangolds. WAGERS ¢. i nsaesiind crainnaainus naar aoe 5.69 9.70 Fatty substances. ......4 ....... 5.96 5.72 Raw albuminoids. an 10.19 9.86 Carbohydrates .. 30.64 33.58 Cellulose .22+e8+<. nis 38.75 33.12 Mineral substances............. 8.77 8.02 100.00 100.00 Containing pure albuminoids.. 9.95 9.44 potassa.............. 1.65 1,43 ay phospnorie acid.... 0.67 0.72 It must be noted that the fatty substances in hay are only 2.44, and in beet seed they vary between 4.26 and 5.96, or 5.88 in old seed. The same difference exists for nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous substances. In France, excellent results have been obtained by feeding seven pounds old seed flour combined with 100 to 170 Ibs. beet pulp, and two pounds hay per diem; beeves thus fed increased in weight about go lbs. a month. Very encouraging results have also been obtained by forming with old seed a ration for hogs. It must, however, be noted that certain precau- tionary measures are necessary; the animals must become gradually accustomed to the stuff; hence, the ration should at first be only one-fourth of what it is to be finally. In the same line of argument, the wastes or residuum, after cleaning beet seed, have 240 SUGAR BEET SEED. | an important utilization in cattle feeding. Accord- ing to Besler, the average composition of these wastes Is: Cellulose ASID virco aars..