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THE
JOHN - CRAIG

LIBRARY

COLLEGE

OF

AGRICULTURE

_NEW YORK STATE.
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE;
DEPA IT ME TOF HORTICULTURE,

CORNELL UNWERSITY, '

ell Universi

“ia

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FRUIT CULTURE

AND

THE LAYING OUT AND MANAGEMENT
OF A COUNTRY HOME

BY

W. C. STRONG

EX-PRESIDENT OF THE MASSACHUSETTS HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY,
AND VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN
POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

NEW YORE;
THE RURAL PUBLISHING COMPANY

1892

iv PREFACE.

Barry, and others, designed rather for orchard-
ists and nurserymen. Numerous works have
also been written upon special fruits, as for ex-
ample, Pear Culture, Grape Culture, Small
Fruits, ete.

It is not the aim of this small volume to take
the place of any of these. It is hoped, how-
ever, that the directions here given will be found
so condensed and so simple that any cultivator
of ordinary intelligence may find it a guide, and
may work his way to complete success, so far as
it is attainable in our climate. No rigid rules
can be laid down, which will apply to every case.
The cultivator must exercise an intelligent judg-
ment ; stirring the soil, feeding, pruning, water-
ing, showering as he may think will bring his
fruit to the highest standard. It has been my
endeavor to state the fundamental principles for
the culture of each species of fruit, without go-
ing into extended discussion of differing meth-
ods and theories. The intelligent amateur will
find the pleasure of experiments in ‘reserve, as
an unfailing stimulus to his interest.

In the descriptions of the habits of insects,
IT have found great aid in the admirable treatise

PREFACE. Mv

of William Saunders, and I would refer others
to this recent publication on “ Insects injurious
to Fruits” if fuller information upon this point
is desired.

It is evident that a popular handbook cover-
ing so much ground must be condensed almost
to the degree of meagreness, and that everything
like sentiment must be excluded. The book is
submitted in the hope that it may prove helpful
to the inexperienced. W.. C38.

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.

SINCE the first edition of this book was
written, seven years ago, there has been a
remarkable advance in our knowledge of the
various insects and fungi which are so de-
structive to our fruit crops. It follows as
a natural result that our means of controlling
or destroying these enemies have greatly in-
creased. Some advance has been made in the
methods of culture, and also in improved vari-
eties of fruits. In order to take advantage of
these advances, this new edition is prepared
with the purpose to make use of the more
important discoveries of recent years.

The book was never intended as an exhaust-
ive treatise upon the culture of fruits, but
rather as a compact guide to the average
owner of a homestead, who seeks for brief

rules to meet his recurring exigencies. Those

vill PREFACE.

who wish to go more deeply into the subject
will consult Downing, the Catalogue of the
American Pomological Society, and Thomas,
for descriptions of varieties of fruits. The
various scientific treatises will be studied for
information in regard to fertilizers, insects,
fungi, and other branches related to this most
interesting and expanding art. Yet the ma-
jority of men are so pressed with various
duties that they ask for concise and clear
rules which they can read as they run. It is
hoped that this little book will to some degree
meet this want.

W.C.S.
Wasan, In Newron, Mass.
1892.

CONTENTS.

—~—
CHAPTER I.
PAGE

RuraL Homes — Cuorce or LocaLity — TREATMENT
— A Goop Lawn — THE APPROACH mee 1

CHAPTER, II.

Fruits — Location oF THE Froit GarpEen— Suc-
cess IN Fruit Cutture — Prorit 1n Fruit Cut-
TURE feng Ble geo ae Aa 11

CHAPTER III.

How TO procurE TREES — QuaLity — How To PLANT
— TIME TO PLANT — PREPARING THE LAND —- Fer-
TILIZERS — CuTTinc Back — Distances FoR
PLANTING ... * % 2 argh Se ecan ee

CHAPTER IV.

CARE OF THE FrvuIT GARDEN — IRRIGATION — APPLI-
CATION OF FERTILIZERS— THINNING THE FRoIT
—LABELs. . om apes S @& ce ee

CHAPTER V.
Tue APPLE — INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE . ov

CHAPTER VI.

Tue PearR—DwarF Prears—SITUATION AND SOIL
— Pruxine — Ripening THE Fruit—InseEcts In-
JURIOUS TO THE PEAR— Diseases. . ..... #7

x CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VII.

Tne Peacu—Ingurious Insects AND DISEASES OF
THE PEACH — NECTARINES

CHAPTER VIII.

Tur Pum — Insects anp Diseases or THE PLUM —
APRICOTS

CHAPTER IX.

Tue CHERRY — INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE CHERRY

CHAPTER X.
Tue Quince — INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE QUINCE
CHAPTER XI.

Tue GraPpr — GrapPe Houses —VARIETIES — INSECTS
INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE => MILDEW

CHAPTER XII.

THE CuRRANT — INSECTS ATTACKING THE CURRANT —
THE GOOSERERRY .

CHAPTER: XIII.

THE RaspBerry — THE BLACKBERRY

CHAPTER XIV.
THE STRAWBERRY

CHAPTER XV.

Tue Mou.tperry — Tue Fic — Ruupars— ASPARA-
Gus

PAGE

. 100

118

129

138

168

178

139

CONTENTS. xl

CHAPTER XVI
PAGE
PropaGatinG Fruit Trees — From THe Srrp— By
Division — By Currinas — By Layers — By Bup-
DING — By GRAFTING oe , i . 194

CHAPTER XVII.

REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES . . a2 8 217

TINDER eS: 8o aha eR ee ae a 2D)

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS,

FIG. PAGE
1. AprpLe Copiinc Motu : . 66
2. Nest oF Tent Carerrityar F 68
3. Nest or Forest Tent CaterPitiar 69
4. Fatt anp Spring Morit 72
5. Prunine tue Pear 83
G. CUuRCULIO AND PLum 120
7. Wire Grave TRELLIS . 145
8. Vine IN Frvir 144
9 Seer, Tuirp Year 145

10. Spur, Fourru Year 145

11. Tuomery Trevis. . 147

12. HoritzuxraL TRELLIS. . 14s
3. RINGING 152

14. RinGinG — ENLARGED 153

15. Grare CUTTING . 199

16. Gripe CUTTING, SHAVED 199

17. Grape CeTrine, wiTu Tor 200

18. Toneur : ‘ 21

19. TONGUE, IMPROVED .. . d 202

20. Grape LAYER Be. =f ids 203

21. Cutting ABrp . 204
22. Incision OF THE Stock eek ee ep ee BOS

xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG. PAGE
23. Bark Rarisep a ae te & aoe 8 = 205
24. Bup INseRTED . ....... « « = 205
25. Bup Timp S48 8 a «a 6 % «> 205
26. Spiitrine Iron oe ea 8 e « « B09
27. Stock Spit. . : Sy 209
28, Scion INSERTED oes ‘ . 210
29. Wuip GRAFTING «8 « S11
30. ToncuInG ie as ide 1 4 og 212
831. Sipe Grarting . . . 5 aye ae» aur Set aS:
32. SADDLE GRAFTING bay aera i> alse) W214:
33. SADDLE Grarr JOINED . wos bode ae a ADS:

34. GRAFTING UNDERTHE Bup. ....... . 215

FRUIT CULTURE.

CHAPTER I.
RURAL HOMES.

Ir seems natural that every man should to
some extent be a tiller of the soil. In the pur-
suit of any profession or commercial occupation,
it is uniformly found to be a most wholesome
diversion and relief to become interested in the
culture of land. This was the original assigned
work, from which no man can wisely cut him-
self entirely free. There are influences which
spring from this close intimacy with the world
of Nature, unheeded it may be, yet powerful
in counteracting the narrowing tendencies of an
exclusively professional life. Would it not be
the wise course for all men of business to locate
their homes a little outside the limit of their
trade or profession, and in a place where they
would be diverted by an interested observation

of the processes of Nature? It is not wise to
1

2 FRUIT CULTURE.

remove beyond the influences of social life. But
with the modern facilities for rapid transit, it
is surely an easy matter to reach open neighbor-
hoods, where the advantages of good society
may be combined with all the delights of coun-
try life. The influence upon children, who can
have the free roaming of the fields, and, better
yet, who have the care of their little garden,
and who are being educated to habits of obser-
vation at the same time that they are building
up a firm constitution, is a consideration never
to be ignored. It would be unwise to burden
one’s self with an estate which required more
eare than could be given without interference
with other duties. In such case, that which
should be a relief and a tonic becomes a tax
and a burden. It is far better to begin in a
moderate way, extending as we gain experience,
and leaving the finishing and perfecting of the
place to be done in a ripe old age. Though this
volume is especially designed as a guide in fruit
culture, yet a few directions in the selection and
treatment of a locality may not be considered
out of place.

CHOICE OF LOCALITY.

The situation for a rural home is not always
left to our choice, but when this can be had, an

RURAL HOMES. 3

elevated position is, for many reasons, greatly to
be preferred. The advantage of wide extent of
prospect is obvious. Breadth of view is an ef-
fect which is appreciated by every one, and to
most persons it is an essential requisite to the
enjoyment of country life. But in order to ob-
tain this it is not generally necessary to seek the
highest positions, which are often isolated, bleak,
and inaccessible. Vistas and more satisfying
pictures are usually obtained from gentle eleva-
tions, especially if near the margin of a lake, or
river. But of more importance than the advan-
tage of prospect is the essential condition of good
drainage from the house. To this end it is well
if the crown of a rise can be obtained, so that
water shall flow in every direction from the
house. In this way the essential condition of
salubrious air in the cellar and around the build-
ings can be secured. Should it be necessary to
build upon a level plain, the house should be
placed so high that the cellar floor would be
nearly up to the level of the plain.

Treatment. — It is all-important that the
drainage from the house should be free and
rapid, and also that the house be so well above
the general surface that the air will circulate
freely around it. Trees of dense foliage should
never be allowed to interfere with this essential

4 FRUIT CULTURE.

rule of health. Openness and the free play of
air and sunshine are indispensable to the enjoy-
ment of a home in the country. In the con-
struction of the house it will be true economy to
employ an architect, and, if the grounds are ex-
tensive, the advice of a landscape gardener may
be of value, in the adoption of a wise plan, in
developing the estate, and in the avoidance of
errors, at the outset. A few general directions
are here given for those who have but little
land, and who prefer to improve it according to
their own plan. The plan is of first importance.
Let it be drawn upon paper, with a definite pur-
pose to arrange every part in harmony with some
general idea. In all cases, whether the estate be
large or small, the effect of breadth and distance
is desirable, and hence it is well to set the house
as far back from the public street as may be
consistent with other plans for the estate. This
will allow the largest extent of lawn in front of
the house, and in a position conspicuous from
the house as well as from the street.

A Good Lawn. — Professor Beal has well said
that this is the essential element about which the
other graces cluster. A rich, clean turf is the
one feature necessary to every pleasant home, —
so fresh in its quiet repose as never to weary by
its sameness, so harmonious and pleasing in color

RURAL HOMES. 5

as to be the best possible ground for the display
of trees, shrubs, or beds of flowers. The green
sward should extend up to and around the house,
and, stretching down the undulating slopes of the
lawn, would give favorable points for groups of
shrubs and large trees in projecting masses.
The preparation of a permanent lawn is simple,
but somewhat expensive, as it is essential that
the work be thoroughly done at the commence-
ment. A deep, rich, retentive loam is most de-
sirable, in order to preserve the vigor and
color of the grass during periods of protracted
drought. If the soil is originally light or sandy
it will be necessary to cart on a liberal supply of
strong clay loam, or retentive meadow soil, secur-
ing a depth of at least a foot of strong soil. It
is also desirable that the subsoil should be stirred
with the plough, or by trenching, in order to en-
courage the roots of the grass to strike down
deep for moisture, in the dry season. For a soil
of average richness, four cords of good stable
manure, spread and ploughed in, to an acre of
land will give sufficient fertility for the start. It
is not well to encourage too rank and coarse
growth, at the beginning. Surface dressings can
be applied from time to time, as may be required.
It is most important that the surface be made
fine and smooth by frequent harrowings, until

6 FRUIT CULTURE.

all inequalities are removed and the ground is
thoroughly pulverized. August and early Sep-
tember are usually the best months of the year
for sowing the seed, although early spring sow-
ing will give time for the young grass to be-
come established before hot and dry weather
sets in.

The Agrostis species of seeds is the basis for
all good lawns, of which Rhode Island Bent (A.
canina) is best, and may be sown alone at the
rate of three to four bushels per acre. Red Top
(A. vulgaris) is also good, but not so fine. <A
mixture which gives excellent results is also rec-
ommended, as follows: three bushels of R. I. Bent,
or of Red Top, and one bushel of Kentucky Blue
Grass (Poa pratensis). If this is sown in Au-
gust a pound of white clover seed may be sown
and rolled in, early in the spring. The bright
blossoms of the clover enliven the bed of green
and produce a charming effect. But many pre-
fer a uniform carpet of green, and rely upon the
Bent alone. Four bushels would be too heavy
seeding for grass lands for a crop, but it is none
too much for a thick carpet for thelawn. After
sowing, a slight brushing with light birch boughs
and a firm and thorough rolling with a heavy
roller will finish the work. Bear in mind that
the firm pressure of the soil is not only essential

RURAL HOMES. T

to a smooth surface, but also that the even ger-
minating of the seed and the vigor of the young
plants is equally dependent upon this condition.

THE APPROACH.

The construction of the driveway and of walks
will of course precede the finishing of the lawn.
It is a common remark that nothing contributes
more to the beauty of an estate than perfect
roads and walks. This is true, but to multiply
or extend them beyond actual requirement is not
only a useless expense, but, worse than this, it
cuts the place into senseless patches, and tends
greatly to diminish the effect of breadth, which
is so desirable. Confine the expanse of gravel
within the narrowest space consistent with free
approach. Rectangular walks, bordered on either
side by beds of flowers, belong to the geometric
style of gardening of past generations. But this
has given place, for the great majority of cases,
to what is termed the natural style, which con-
sists in curved walks and planting in beds and
in groups, in appropriate places on the lawn.
In many cases it is by no means desirable to
construct walks to flower beds or other objects of
interest. Often they are far more attractive in
the naturalness of their grassy surroundings.
Yet we would by no means disparage the effect

8 FRUIT CULTURE.

of a fine avenue, or the loveliness of a walk
winding around groups of shrubbery until lost
in the deeper shade of larger trees.

As a general rule, the approach to the house
should not be at right angles, but by a gradual
curve, which will avoid the effect of stiffness and
also will afford the most favorable view of the
house. A private drive, not being subject to
the heavy usage of teams, will not require to be
as thoroughly constructed as the public streets.
Still it is best to do all such permanent work
well at the outset. The first step will be to
remove all the loam and soft subsoil, possibly
to the lawn or kitchen garden, for the purpose
of deepening the soil, or else to the compost
heap. The width of this excavation, for estates
of moderate size, should be about ten feet, and
should broaden at the barn into sufficient space
for turning, or else for circling around a group
of shrubbery at least twenty feet in diameter,
which will afford room for carriages to wheel
and at the same time conceal the extent of gravel.
The depth of this trench will vary with different
soils, from fifteen to twenty-four inches. Unless
very soft and inclined to be wet, the first depth
will be sufficient. A small tile drain laid two
feet below the bottom of this trench will be much
less expensive and more effective than a greater

RURAL HOMES. 9

depth of trench. This will insure a dry founda-
tion for the drive, and prevent any soft spots in
the spring, when the frost is coming out. .A cover-
ing of stones to the depth of ten inches or a foot
is a sure and solid bed upon which to place from
five to eight inches of sharp gravel, until the
centre of the road is raised at least three inches
above the original surface. The larger stones in
the gravel will, of course, be raked to the bottom
as the carting proceeds. Should the gravel
prove to be sandy and not sufficiently binding,
it will be necessary to procure a moderate sur-
face dressing of clay-gravel, which will roll down
smooth and hard and leave the road crowning at
the centre about four inches higher than at the
sides. With this nearly water-tight roof at the
surface and the subsoil drain below, the main-
tenance of a perfect driveway will be a trifling
expense from year to year. Walks are con-
structed on the same principle as driveways,
only with less need of deep excavations and
stone foundations. Generally, they should be
four feet wide, in order that two persons abreast
may enjoy the beauties of the place together.
Further directions in regard to ornamenting
the estate would be out of place in a volume de-
signed as a guide in fruit culture. The first
object should be to provide trees which shall be

10 FRUIT CULTURE.

in progress towards a supply of fruits for family
use. The selection and planting of trees and
shrubs for ornament may be an after-considera-
tion.

CHAPTER IL.
FRUITS.

AN important element in the enjoyment of
country life consists in the cultivation of the
various fruits adapted to the climate. The
adornment of the grounds with ornamental trees
and flowers may be considered, by many, to be
more important than products which involve
care and constant watching, and which can be
purchased at less cost, perhaps, than we can
raise them. Yet the advice given by Gerarde,
two hundred and fifty years ago, needs but
slight modification in our day: “ Forward, in the
name of God, graffe, set, plant, and nourish up
trees in every corner of your grounds, the labour
is small, the cost is nothing, the commoditie is
great, yourselves shall have plenty, the poore
shall have somewhat in time of want to relieve
their necessitie, and God shall reward your
good mindes and diligence.” Every one who
engages in this occupation will testify to the
strong and healthy interest awakened by the

12 FRUIT CULTURE.

processes of planting, nursing, and bringing to
successful maturity of the manifold fruits with
which this latitude is favored. There are diffi-
culties and dangers enough in the way to stimu-
late, but not to discourage, — to keep alive an
anxious interest which will add much to the zest
of an abundant harvest. And beyond this, the
aim should be to make the quality of the home
products superior to that which can be obtained
at the markets. Fruits freshly taken from the
trees or vines, with no injury from keeping or
from transportation, are much more appetizing
and health-giving than those which are usually
exposed for sale. It should, therefore, be the
ambition of every owner of land to cultivate
fruits to some extent, without regard to the ques-
tion of pecuniary profit. And if an interest
becomes awakened sufficiently to induce a study
of the best methods, it will speedily become a
matter of surprise what an amount and what
variety of products can be obtained upon a lim-
ited space, when under highest culture. It is
true economy to give this thorough and high
cultivation, as an assurance of a good degree of
success and an unfailing source of enjoyment.
Poor culture is sure to disappoint, while the art
of developing to perfection is, to a degree, enter-
ing into the beneficent work of the Creator.

FRUITS. 138

Such employment is essentially elevating and
purifying, and should be sought as a relief and
an antidote against the selfish influences of com-
mercial pursuits.

LOCATION OF THE FRUIT GARDEN.

This must be determined to a great degree by
the character of the estate. It is desirable that
the front be kept open and free, for ornamental
decoration. Fruits are consigned to the rear,
generally at one side of the barn and out-build-
ings. For convenience in working and for
mutual protection, it is desirable to concentrate
the various fruits in one locality so far as is
practicable. But it may be important to sepa-
rate the peaches and grapes to a high, light,
warm, and dry soil, and the pears, quinces, and
plums to a heavier and retentive loam. Circum-
stances must determine the arrangement, ac-
cording to the amount, the quality, the shape,
and the aspect of the land. As a general rule,
apples should occupy the outer rank, as a de-
fense and wind-break. Cherries are also strong
and vigorous in growth, and being symmetrical
in form may flank the most conspicuous side.
Grapes will want all the sun and air that can be
given. The same is true of the peach, the point
to be obtained in each case being a moderate

14 FRUIT CULTURE.

growth of thoroughly ripened wood, in order to
insure hardiness. Raspberries, gooseberries, and
currants may go between the rows of pears and
other trees, and in partial shade. Dwarf pears
and the quince will require the most retentive soil
in the garden. By this it is not meant that water
should ever stand, or that the ground should re-
main wet and sodden for a length of time after
heavy rains. Such a condition is fatal to all
garden fruits. Artificial drainage must be ap-
plied at the outset, if not provided by the nature
of the soil.

Contrary to the prevailing impression, a com-
paratively elevated site is the safest position for
all fruits which suffer from frosts. In the val-
leys the soil is richer in vegetable matter, the
atmosphere is more humid, and evaporation from
the foliage is less rapid. The result is that vege-
tation is more succulent and tender than that
which is on higher ground. Add to this that
the changes in temperature are much greater in
valleys than upon hills, and the reason becomes
plain why the peach is fruitful on high land,
when it is killed in protected, low places. It is
not only, or mainly, that the thermometer runs
to the lowest extreme in the winter. But in the
summer nights also, the cold air settles down
into the valleys, causing a dank chill, which is in

FRUITS. 15

marked contrast with the confined heat of mid-
day. Such violent changes are not conducive to
the healthy development of any fruits, and are
especially prejudicial to the peach and the grape.
The liability also to late spring and early fall
frosts is another serious objection to low lands.
Every one has noticed the marked line where
frosts have extended so far up a hill-side, leav-
ing the foliage cut and withering below, while
above the line the verdure is as fresh as ever.
This sudden and premature check to the sap when
it is in full flow and before the wood is ripened
is a great injury to tender trees. It is, therefore,
desirable to select a site even beyond the prox-
imity to frosty lands. An elevation tends greatly
towards the thorough ripening and hardening of
the wood of fruit trees. It is, therefore, not sur-
prising that peaches, for example, are hardy and
fruitful on the hills as far north as the lower
counties in New Hampshire, while they seldom
do well in the southern part of New York.

But in advocating elevated localities, it is to
be remembered that they are exposed to bleak
and exhausting winds, which are liable not only
to shake the fruit from the trees, but, worse than
this, to cause excessive evaporation from the foli-
age and seriously to check growth. We well know
how vegetation is dwarfed as we ascend moun-

16 FRUIT CULTURE.

tains. We must avoid extremes. In the mid-
dle course there is safety. Much may be done
in the way of protecting exposed sites by means
of buildings, high fences, or, better still, by living
wind-breaks. Experiments by the late Mr. Tudor
prove that on the bleak promontory of Nahant
the fierce blasts of the Atlantic may be so sifted,
by high lattice, that trees will flourish, though
they would quickly perish under full exposure.
The Norway spruce is perhaps the best sheltering
tree for all kinds of soil. American arbor vite is
more compact and upright in growth, and is ex-
cellent in strong, retentive land. Austrian pine
is most hardy for the bleakest positions. A belt
of such trees planted from four to eight feet
apart would have a sensible effect in modifying
the asperity and also the degree of the cold.

SUCCESS IN FRUIT CULTURE.

Taking into consideration the time and the
labor involved in planting and in nursing, and
adding the uncertainties and the fact of the con-
stantly increasing liability to attacks from in-
sects and diseases, it may seem that to the small
cultivator fruits will cost more than they are
worth. It is well to count the cost at the outset,
because the difficulties are considerable, and eter-
nal vigilance is the price of success. The list of

FRUITS. 17

injurious insects is so long and formidable as to
be discouraging. Undoubtedly, the injury done
by vegetable and animal parasites far exceeds
the general apprehension. And the evil will
constantly increase unless held in check. The
codling moth is rendering many apple orchards
worthless. The curculio destroys all the plums,
if unmolested, and so infests the cherry that the
fruit in the market which is free from the im-
mature larve is rather an exception. Mildew
is the scourge of the vineyard. The peach falls
a victim to “ the yellows,” and the pear to the
“ fire blight.” Manifold are the difficulties, as
every cultivator can testify. But in these days
of inventive genius, when weapons of human
warfare are brought forward which are to mow
down whole armies at one discharge, or shake
cities to their foundations in the twinkling of an
eye, are we to acknowledge our inability to cope
with these minute insect enemies? The truth
is, we are gaining knowledge of the habits of
these enemies, and methods for their destruc-
tion, with great rapidity. There is now scarcely
a case where good culture and a vigorous appli-
cation of remedies will not obtain the mastery.
The list of diseases seems long and formidable,
but, in practice, the surprise will be how readily

they yield to treatment. The difficulty is that
2

18 FRUIT CULTURE.

our gardens and orchards have been neglected,
the culture has been shiftless, and remedies have
not been applied, so that insects have largely in-
creased in numbers. But most of them can
readily be reached by the powerful remedies
now at our command. Tobacco water and strong
soap-suds are effectual against most of the aphi-
dz, the currant worm, and many other larve.
Kerosene, churned with soap or sour milk until
it will dilute with water, is a new remedy which
is likely to prove cheap and powerful. Arsenic
in the form of London-purple or Paris-green is
still more powerful, should it prove necessary to
bring such tremendous ordnance to bear upon
so minute a foe. With anything like a faithful
and persistent use, on the part of cultivators,
of weapons now ac hand, we may hope for a
great reduction of these insect pests. The field
is full of encouragement to keep our trees and
plants in much cleaner condition than has been
prevalent in the past.

PROFIT IN FRUIT CULTURE.

The strawberry yields the most speedy return,
and is generally regarded as the most remunera-
tive. Under generous culture it will yield from
3000 to 5000 quarts peracre. Exceptional crops
of 8000 quarts are reported. There should be a

FROITS. 19

good margin for profit, even with the smallest
number.

With proper care to keep the foliage of rasp-
berries clean, and the canes vigorous, it is be-
lieved they would yield a larger and more per-
manent profit. They are a neglected fruit, but
deserve much better care. The sale of the bet-
ter kinds must depend upon the local markets,
as they cannot be transported in good condition
for long distances. But:they command a better
price than strawberries, and they require less
care in continuing the supply from year to year.
In the vicinity of good markets they hold out
strong inducements to the faithful cultivator.
The demand for currants and gooseberries is
more limited, but in the vicinity of cities they
are regarded as profitable by market gardeners.

The great drawback in the return of pears has
been that too many unsalable varieties have
been cultivated. The Bartlett and the Anjou
have been quite profitable and doubtless will so
continue to be. The danger now is that they
will become too abundant in their season, while
at other seasons there may be a lack. Seckel
and Sheldon may safely be planted for the mar-
ket. The demand for winter pears is surprisingly
limited. But the Lawrence can be raised and
ripened almost as easily as an apple, and can be

20 FRUIT CULTURE.

sold at a good profit. With a soil and climate
adapted to the production of the apple in its
highest excellence, it is surely our own fault if
we do not make it remunerative. The price is
low and so is the cost. It should be our ambition
to attain the minimum cost and maintain the
highest quality. Most of us, however, are not
in quest of so long an investment.

One year of success will cover the cost of two
or three years of failure in the peach crop. North
of New Jersey the risks are great. Where the
soil and situation are right, many will venture
and some will draw a prize. Cherries are diffi-
cult to pick, and are profitable only where pick-
ers are plenty at a low rate. In respect to the
grape, different localities must determine which
varieties to plant for profit. Near some of the
lakes of New York and on the shores of Lake
Erie the Catawba and Isabella ripen well and
are produced in large quantities, but they are
useless in other sections, and varieties of inferior
quality must take their place. The Concord is
earlier and has been the leading market grape
for a score of years past. Moore’s Early and
Worden are coming to the front, being of the
same type, but earlier. The Delaware, Pock-
lington, and Niagara are found in the markets
in more limited quantity.

FRUITS. 21

The money standard is the test of success,
doubtless, in fruit culture, as well as in all else;
and fruits will endure this test as well as any
products of the farm. Indeed, when we consider
the special adaptation of the northern belt of
States, in climate and soil, for the production of
apples of superior quality, the vastly increasing
demand for fruits of all kinds, which outruns
even the rapid increase in population, and also
the better methods of culture which are now
known, we may safely say that the field is most
encouraging, and that skill and patience, com-
bined with enough capital for a fair start, will
be sure of an abundant reward in an average of
years. But beyond this, who can estimate the
educating, refining, and elevating influence which
comes from an intelligent following of this pur-
suit? It is an employment which never satiates,
and which ever opens new doors for experiment
and improvement. It is but fair that a consid-
erable per cent. of credit be given for the whole-
some influence which appertains to this calling.

CHAPTER III.
HOW TO PROCURE TREES.

Ir is more economical to have fruit trees prop-
agated in quantity, by those who make it their
business, and who have facilities for their work.
It is therefore customary for amateurs to supply
their wants by purchasing from nurserymen.
Where it is possible, it is better to select at some
local nursery and transfer them, with no expos-
ure of the roots and little delay in time, to their
future home. Roots that are packed in wet
moss and thus protected may be transported
long distances without injury. It is possible also
to restore roots that have been dried, by soaking
in water for a day or two, and by syringing the
tops for some time after planting. Yet it is far
better to avoid the necessity of such expedients.
For the apple, pear, plum, cherry, and quince,
trees two or three years from the bud are to be
preferred. Older trees can be moved with a
good degree of certainty, and more speedy re-
turns in fruit may thus be obtained. But there
is less risk in the removal of small trees; they

HOW TO PROCURE TREES. 23

can be more easily handled, are not so much
checked, and consequently more speedily recover
from the shock of transplanting. In addition to
these reasons, the best time to commence the
formation of symmetrical heads is when they are
young, about three years from the bud. The
peach is an exception. Being very rapid in
growth and forming fruit buds at once, it is de-
sirable to select trees but one year from the bud.
The subsequent directions given for pruning will
indicate that older trees are objectionable.
Quality. — Clean, straight, and thrifty trees
should be selected, such as have made vigorous
growth the year previous. It is quite useless to
mark the point of compass how the tree stood
in the nursery, as this will not affect the new
position in the slightest degree. It is, of course,
important to obtain good sound roots and plenty
of them. It is a mistake, however, to suppose
that minute, fibrous roots on the apple, standard
pear, and cherry are most desirable. Such as
these are too frail to endure the process of trans-
planting. It is the roots which are of the size of
a pipe-stem and upwards which have substance
enough to bear the change, and vitality to throw
out feeders at once. Good plantsmen often clean
out all the fine, fibrous roots, when they have a
supply of larger size, believing the first to be

24 FRUIT CULTURE.

worse than useless, as likely to decay, and also as
preventing the even packing of the soil among
the roots. Many kinds of roots will endure
hours of exposure to the air, or even to the sun,
and to cold, drying winds, without being killed.
But it is folly to permit results which are sure
to follow such want of care. A feeble life is the
worst that can befall a tree. Better that it
should die outright than continue without mak-
ing a good start the second year. In order to
this it is necessary to keep the roots from the
air, as well as from the sun, except for the brief
time necessary in doing the work. Trees should
not be transported in open wagons without hav-
ing their roots covered and kept moist. They
may stand in a damp cellar over night, if their
roots are sprinkled, but it is better to “heel”
them into the ground even for this short time.
Trees may outlive a great deal of abuse, but it is
wretched economy to create an enfeebled condi-
tion at the outset. The pleasure in orcharding
depends entirely upon securing thrift and vigor.

How to Plant. — Rules for planting are sim-
ple. All bruised roots are to be eut away, and
also the broken ends of the roots are to have a
clean cut, with such a slant that when the tree
stands in the hole the cut surface shall press on
the surface of the soil and be entirely hidden

HOW TO PROCURE TREES. 25

from sight. The holes should be considerably
larger than to allow of stretching the roots out
straight in all directions. The subsoil should
be spaded to the depth of a foot below the posi-
tion of the tree. If this is very poor, good loam
may be worked in with it, but it is not wise to
put manure in the bottoms of the holes. The
trees should stand at about the same depth that
they grew previously, not burying the roots too
deeply in the subsoil, but allowing them free
course near the surface. If necessary, it is bet-
ter to bring a slight mound around the trunk,
rather than to sink the roots below the surface
soil. The earth should be worked in and among
the roots evenly and with great firmness, so that
no air spaces shall be left, and the roots shall be
all separated and in close contact with the soil.
This is the test work, and it should be done
slowly, with little soil at a time, worked in with
the hands if necessary, and made firm with a
packing mallet, or with the toe of the foot. The
soil should be dry and friable when this work is
done. It is a mistake to select a rainy day for
planting, as it is impossible to do good work
with muddy soil. After the planting is finished,
nothing more will be required, in the fall of the
year, except a surface mulch of litter to protect
from frost. In the spring it is well to give one

26 FRUIT CULTURE.

soaking with water upon finishing the planting,
in order still more effectually to settle the soil
around the roots. Yet judgment is to be used as
tothe amount. <A cold, wet, stagnant condition
of the roots is very injurious, preventing the
formation of new rootlets at the critical time.
Many a newly planted tree has been injured by
continued and excessive watering.

TIME TO PLANT.

The fall is a good time to plant all hardy
trees, provided the work is done thoroughly, so
that the trees will not be shaken by the winds,
and the roots will remain compact in the soil.
If planted early in autumn young rootlets will
often form, even before winter sets in. There
can be no doubt that a tree thus set will make a
better start and more speedy growth than if
transplanted in the spring following.

Doubtless the practice of fall planting has
been prejudiced by careless work, leaving cavi-
ties among the roots, and planting so loosely that
tall shade trees, especially, are swayed by the
winds, and the roots are more or less drawn and
disturbed ; thus not only losing all the advantage
of time, but also causing a friction and exposure
which often prove fatal. Newly set trees are,
of course, less able to endure hardship, and it is

HOW TO PROCURE TREES. 27

true that they are sometimes injured by the cold
of winter. This is certainly true of the peach.
It may therefore be judged best to lessen risks
by delaying planting until spring. Except in
the case of evergreens (which, being always in
leaf, require to be treated on a different princi-
ple), it is well to plant as early in the spring as
we can find the soil dry and friable. It is not
well to put the roots in cold, clammy earth, to
be paralyzed by a long period of inaction. On
the contrary, it is important to keep the soil open
and warm, so as to induce root action as speedily
as possible. Excessive moisture is decidedly
prejudicial. Frequent light stirring of the sur-
face will allow air and warmth to penetrate to
the roots and promote quick action. After
growth has fairly started and as hot and dry
weather sets in, a light mulch of litter will serve
to keep the ground moist and not overheated.
Mulching among fruit trees should be done with
judgment, depending much upon the character
of the soil and the condition of the trees. Often
a heavy and compact mulch is very injurious,
especially upon heavy lands, tending to bring
the roots to the surface and preventing the influ-
ence of air and sunlight upon the soil. The effect
may seem favorable for one or more seasons, but
it will soon be found that the roots are all on

28 FRUIT CULTURE.

the surface and everything is stagnant below.
On the other hand, a light mulch upon a light
soil does undoubted service in modifying the
heat and moisture at the roots. Frequent stir-
ring and keeping the surface light is Nature’s
mulch, which, for the majority of lands, cannot
be improved.

PREPARING THE LAND.

A thorough preparation of the land before-
hand is important. If springy, or in the least
inclined to be wet, it should be underdrained
with tiles, thereby not only relieving from an
excess of moisture, but also changing the char-
acter of the soil to that friable condition which
will induce capillary attraction, and thus secure
uniform humidity.

It will save much after labor if the land is
ploughed two or three times and the subsoil
plough is run in the furrows, thus obtaining a
depth which will prove a great encouragement to
the roots. After this, a light run of the culti-
vator and the hoe will be all that will be required
to keep the land open and clean. Neither weeds
nor grass should be allowed to grow in the fruit
garden, but potatoes and other vegetables may
be planted between the rows, especially when the
trees are small.

HOW TO PROCURE TREES. 29

Many cultivators of the apple hold a different
opinion in regard to allowing grass to grow in
the orchard. It is said that the roots are kept
cooler by the grass, and that winter fruit is more
crisp and does not mature as early as in culti-
vated fields. Professor Maynard advocates plant-
ing rocky and bushy hill-sides with the apple,
without even clearing or breaking up. He sug-
gests making good holes and doing good work at
planting and fertilizing, but clearing away the
brush afterwards. In this way he believes many
waste and rocky slopes may be converted into
healthy and profitable orchards without ever
feeling the plough. Such soils often are admira-
ble for the apple, and there is no doubt this tree
has vigor enough to make its way under this
rough culture. Of course it is not to be neg-
lected in respect to food, pruning, or treatment
for diseases. It is not to be doubted that many
unproductive hills might be turned into orchards
at small expense, and that a good quality of
fruit might thus be obtained. We do not want
too vigorous and succulent growth for the apple,
and do not therefore assign it to our richest
lands, or give it constant culture. There is no
doubt, however, that the largest and the premium
fruit will come from trees that have grown in
cultivated land. And there is encouragement to

80 FRUIT CULTURE.

give clean culture wherever the land is suitable.
But it remains an important question to decide
by trial whether the many waste and rocky
slopes may be profitably utilized by planting
with apple trees, with no attempt at regularity,
or purpose to cultivate with the plough.

FERTILIZERS.

It is true economy to bring the land into good
heart at the time of planting, as the work can
be done at less expense than afterwards, and the
benefits resulting will be immediate and perma-
nent. If the spot has a fair quality of loam, an
addition of stable manure at the rate of ten cords
to the acre may be worked in at the last light
ploughing. It is wasteful to bury it too deeply.

It has been a prevailing custom among mar-
ket gardeners and large cultivators to spread
stable manure broadcast as it is freshly made,
before heating, or “rotting” as it is called.
The theory has been that it is then at its full
strength, and that the earth is such a powerful
absorbent that there is comparatively no loss
of strength, if it is hghtly worked in with a
plough or cultivator. It has been even claimed
that it was better to apply it fresh, though it
involved a full exposure on the surface, as
there would be no loss by fermentation, and

HOW TO PROCURE TREES. 31

the rains would soon carry down the virtues,
while the loss by evaporation would be much
less than is generally supposed. It is upon
this theory that the practice of top-dressing of
lands has been so general. But modern inves-
tigations seem to demonstrate that fermenta-
tion is a decided benefit to stable manures. It
is caused by the amazing development of bac-
teria working with surprising rapidity in a
congenial material, similarly as yeast works
in dough, and thereby not merely raising the
temperature of the mass and reducing the
organic matter to a soluble condition, but also
by the prodigious increase and decay of the
microbes adding materially to the strength of
the fertilizer. However much may be added
by these minute organisms, it is at least cer-
tain that the mass is reduced to a much better
condition as plant food by proper fermenta-
tion. But it is important that this process
should be under careful control. If the heat
becomes excessive, there is great loss of am-
monia, the heap becomes “ fire-fanged ” and
almost worthless. The practice of frequent
turning can hardly be considered economical,
since the exposure to the air at each turn-
ing involves the loss of ammonia. The best
mode of treatment undoubtedly is to draw the

32 FRUIT CULTURE.

manure to a heap in the open field, adding
just enough loam, muck, or other vegetable
matter to allow a gentle fermentation, at the
same time giving a slight covering of loam so
as to exclude an excess of air and to prevent
an escape of gases. Water may be applied if
the heap becomes too dry. The heap may be
turned in about two months, mixing and
breaking it up thoroughly. In from four to
six months, according to the season of the
year, the heap will be ripe, and in the best
possible condition to apply. It will be re-
duced more than half in bulk, but there will
be a decided gain in soluble material suitable
for plant food. Liquid fertilizers, obtained
from the leaching of stable manure, the re-
duction of cow-dung with water, or from
soap-suds and similar liquids, may be applied
as waterings to the roots in considerable
quantities, when the plants are in active
growth, and with surprising results. But
when in a dormant state, such applications
might cause a serious injury.

Stable manure contains all the elements of
plant-food, always and in all soils giving good
results, and hence is called a perfect fertilizer.
It does not follow that it is always a judicious

HOW TO PROCURE TREES. 33

or economical application. As a general rule,
when the plants are young and growth of
wood is desired, it is found that the large per-
centage of nitrogen which is supplied from ani-
mal excreta is advantageous. But the percent-
age of potash and phosphates is altogether too
small when the plants come into fruit, while the
nitrogen is in excess. Hence it is cheaper and
much better to supply the potash and phosphate
in some other form than from the stable.

Wood ashes, if they can be obtained at about
thirty cents per bushel, and if of really good
quality, are the cheapest and the easiest form
to apply potash. But the supply of unleached
hard-wood ashes is limited, and an article of
good quality is difficult to be found. Crude
potash of commerce is reliable and can easily
be obtained, but the difficulty here is in its ap-
plication. It is almost as hard as stone and the
process of breaking and dissolving in, boiling
water is troublesome. The liquid is exceed-
ingly caustic and may be utilized in turn in dis-
solving crushed bones at the rate of four to five
pounds to a pound of potash. A good deal of
heat is evolved and ammonia will escape unless
absorbed by covering with dry peat, or loam.
In this way the potash and phosphate become
available withent paying for the absorbents by

34 FRUIT CULTURE.

the pound, which is an important point when
they constitute a considerable part of the com-
pound. But this kabor in compounding is not
inviting, and those who use but small quantities
will prefer to buy the manufactured article,
weighted with the absorbent. A more avail-
able and probably the cheapest form of potash
is obtained from the German mines, as a high
grade muriate of potash. This may be applied
directly at the rate of 300 to 500 pounds per
acre. The phosphate beds of South Carolina
and other large deposits are the great source of
supply to the manufacturers, but the material
is too difficult to be reduced to an available
condition by the amateur. We must rely upon
animal bones for our phosphates, and this usually
in the easiest form for use and immediate action,
when ground to a fine meal. In avoiding the
labor of preparation we must submit to the un-
pleasant consciousness that the meal may not be
strictly pure, and at all events the bone has been
so thoroughly steamed that it has lost everything
that was soluble before grinding. Yet it is
recommended as the best form in which we can
apply phosphates. It may be spread by itself,
or mixed with the muriate of potash and the
two applied together.

Professor Maynard of the Massachusetts Agri-

HOW TO PROCURE TREES. BYs)

cultural College has used a mixture in the follow-
ing proportions for the past two or three years,
1,000 pounds pure bone meal, 300 pounds high
grade muriate of potash. This amount he con-
siders sufficient for an acre of land. The result
of this application, he thinks, has been entirely
satisfactory upon all kinds of fruits. But if the
growth of wood should seem at any time to be
inadequate to the tendency to fruit, an addition
of ammonia in the form of guano or stable manure
might be added. As the special fertilizers can
be easily spread, this may be done after the
trees are planted. And this supply should be
continued from year to year, varying the amount
of these three elements, potash, phosphoric acid,
and nitrogen, according to the condition of the
orchard.
CUTTING BACK.

However much care may be used in digging,
the roots are much reduced in transplanting
trees. Nor, as has been stated, is it to be re-
gretted that the small fibres at the extremities
should be shortened. But it is important that a
corresponding shortening of the limbs should
preserve a balance in the tree. The mode of
pruning is indicated in subsequent pages, under
the head of the different fruits. In general,
shortening-in the growth of the previous season

36 FRUIT CULTURE.

to the extent of two thirds will balance the root
pruning and prevent the tree from being swayed
by the wind. This shortening should be done
with care to preserve the symmetrical form of the
tree, and with due regard to future development.
It is a barbarous custom to chop off the entire
head, as is sometimes seen. And yet it is advis-
able to cut back heroically as the best means of
inducing a strong and vigorous start. There
will also be much less occasion to use stakes for
the purpose of holding the trees firm while the
roots are taking hold. A little swaying is very
prejudicial to the formation of new roots.

DISTANCES FOR PLANTING.

As a rule, fruit gardens are liable to be
crowded and too much shaded. There should
be sufficient space for the sun and air to pene-
trate and warm the soil. On the other hand,
trees are fond of society; they afford mutual
protection from high winds and scorching suns ;
they preserve a gentle humidity in the ground
underneath, and therefore they should be planted
near enough for mutual support. Many varie-
ties of the same fruit are much more vigorous in
growth than others, and all kinds are affected
by the quality of the soil, and hence allowances
are to be made,

HOW TO PROCURE TREES.

37

The following table will serve as a general

guide ;: —

Standard Apples

Standard Apples, close obatrall
Dwarfs on Doucain stock
Dwarfs on Paradise stock

Standard Pears .
Dwarfs on Quince
Standard Cherries

Dwarfs and Morellos
Peaches and Plums.

Quinces and Grapes

Currants and Gooseberries

33 to 40 feet apart

25

10

8

15 to 25

. 10 to 12
‘ 20
10 to 15
12 to 15
6 to 8

4

it

“

Raspberries in rows four feet apart and three
feet in the rows.

Blackberries three feet in the rows, but a sec-
ond row should be eight feet distant.

As an acre contains 43,560 square feet, it
follows that it will accommodate about the num-
ber of trees shown in the table here given, de-
pending somewhat upon the shape of the land.

At 40 feet
At 33 feet
At 25 feet
At 20 feet
At 15 feet

27 trees

40
69
108
193

cc

“

At 12 feet
At 10 feet 435
At 8 feet 680
At 6feet 1208
At 4feet 2720

302 trees

CHAPTER IV.
CARE OF THE FRUIT GARDEN.

THERE is no exception to the rule that fruit
trees thrive best in soil that is kept loose and
free from all weeds and grasses. Cherries will
do better than most other fruits in grass land,
and they may thereby be kept from too luxu-
riant growth. But even these, when in bearing
condition, will scarcely endure this check. For
all other fruits it is far better to keep the
ground lightly stirred with the cultivator and
hoe. The finely pulverized condition of the
surface is a great help in the aeration of the
soil, giving warmth and vigorous action to the
roots. But it is important to guard against
deep ploughing among the roots, thus disturb-
ing the small fibres which are in quest of food.
It is not wise to draw these fibres too near the
surface by a heavy mulch, lest they perish when
the mulch decays or is removed. On the other
hand, we must guard against driving the roots
into the subsoil by injuring the surface feeders,

CARE OF THE FRUIT GARDEN. 39

Two or three inches in depth of floury earth is
the best mulch we can provide. Beyond the or-
dinary implements of the garden a hand-engine
or forcing-pump will be essential for the purpose
of syringing and applying the various remedies
against insects. Some light pattern which draws
from a pail, like the Johnson patent, is most
convenient. The Waters pruning pole is also
indispensable, doing the work of pruning with
great ease. If this is attended to at the proper
time there will be little occasion to use the saw.

IRRIGATION.

Notwithstanding the boasted power of human
skill and energy, the works of man are so feeble
in comparison with the mighty forces of nature,
that it seems almost useless to attempt watering
during a time of drought. During the season of
active vegetation and evaporation most soils in
our climate would be benefited by an inch of
rain-fall in every five days, or six inches in a
month. This involves 27,000 gallons, or 108
tons, of water to an acre, every five days. As
the amount of rain often falls below one inch
and seldom exceeds three inches per month, it
is an important question whether we can under-
take to supply such an enormous quantity to
make up the deficiency. In the older States

40 FRUIT CULTURE.

there are few streams which can be diverted
and relied upon in a dry time to give a full sup-
ply. If access to streams or ponds of sufficient
size can be had, it would doubtless be a wise
investment for the enterprising fruit-grower to
put in a wind-mill or a steam-pump, and a sys-
tem of pipes. With steam the water may be
forced directly from the pump, but with a wind-
mill, a reservoir of large capacity, elevated from
twenty to thirty feet above the field, would be
necessary. It would thus be practicable to give
an inch of water to an entire acre in a day, by
using a hose one and a half inches in diameter,
with a pressure of thirty feet head. The water
should not be allowed to fall or run in a stream,
thus supersaturating some parts and causing
the ground to cake, but should be distributed in
spray, like rain. To most cultivators it will
seem to involve too much expense and labor to
irrigate so extensively. Yet in many cases it
would doubtless prove remunerative, especially
for strawberries, which constantly cry out for
water, water, water, — and again a little more
water.

Will it be advisable to attempt to supply wa-
ter in more limited quantities? It is said that
it does more harm than good to partially water
plants in a time of drought. It is true that

CARE OF THE FRUIT GARDEN. 41

when the soil is parched it sucks up a small
supply as though it were nothing, so that the
roots are rather tantalized than refreshed. If
the same amount of water had been sprinkled
over the foliage like a dew, at nightfall, the re-
sult would have been different. It is often quite
beyond our power to give a sufficient quantity of
water to reach the roots. But a much smaller
quantity showered upon the leaves at evening
will cool the air and greatly invigorate the wilt-
ing foliage. It is well known what beneficial re-
sults follow from heavy dews, though the amount
of precipitation is very small. Every gardener
understands the surprising benefit to foliage
which is caused by a light showering in the
greenhouse. Of course we cannot expect such
luxuriant growth as comes from the confined
humidity of the house. But it is reasonable to
look for decided benefit to all kinds of fruits,
even from a light sprinkling of the foliage at
night. A force-pump upon wheels, or even a
hand-engine, will do good service where the gar-
den is small. <A light sprinkling upon every
clear night, especially in the early part of the
season, will greatly increase the probability of
obtaining the first prize.

42 FRUIT CULTURE.

APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS.

At what season shall we apply manures? It is
evident that the roots take in nourishment dur-
ing the summer, in the season of active growth.
The application of liquid fertilizers at periods
when fruit is growing has shown immediate and
remarkable results, increasing the size, in marked
contrast with that which received no liquid. It
would seem that stable manures and many other
fertilizers are leached or dissolved by heavy rains
and speedily affect the roots. This is desirable
only during the season of growth. When the
roots are dormant it may prove a positive injury.
A heavy dressing of fresh horse manure applied
on the surface of a rose border in November
seriously injured the roots. A similar experi-
ment with liquid from horse manure, applied be-
fore the roses had commenced growth, proved
equally injurious. But liquid of the same
strength was freely used when the growth was
vigorous, and with marked advantage.

The time of application must depend, to a con-
siderable degree, upon the nature of the fertil-
izer. If easily soluble it can be used from time
to time a little in advance of the requirements of
the plant. If, on the other hand, it is slow in de-
composition it should be applied either in the

CARE OF THE FRUIT GARDEN. 43

fall or early spring. When the roots are
active they seem to be eager to absorb large
quantities of soluble food, which would seri-
ously harm them when in a dormant state.
Cow manure is a cool and safe material, and
may be used in large quantities at any sea-
son. More also will be required, as it has
much less fertilizing value than horse manure.
As stable manure is slow in decomposing,
when not heated, it should be applied early,
but not in such quantity in the fall that its
strong juices shall penetrate to the roots and
burn them. A mulch of an inch or so in
depth will not injure the roots of apples, pears,
and quinces, and will protect them from the
winter frosts.

A common practice has been to cart fresh
manure from the stable in the early spring,
spreading it broadcast over tue garden and
working it in with a plough or cultivator.
This involves the least amount of labor, and it
has been thought with no loss by fermentation.
But a moderate degree of fermentation is now
considered to be important. The heat caused,
by the ferment of bacteria speedily reduces
dhe coarse, strawy material to a condition for
use, and it is now asserted that there is a posi-
tive addition by the vast multiplication and
decay of infusoria. It is a common opinion

44 FRUIT CULTURE.

that frequent turnings will prevent excessive
heating, and will reduce the manure to a fine,
rotten condition. But every turning gives a
fresh opportunity for the air to penetrate and
the ammonia to escape, until so little is left
that fermentation ceases. A much better way
is to compost the stable manure with an equal
or a double amount of loam. This amount of
loam will absorb the gases, and there will be
little loss. The compost can be used freely
without danger of injury, but a great deal of
labor is involved in collecting, manipulating,
and applying the compost. Yet the increased
value of the compost will amply repay all
the cost in preparation. Results have clearly
demonstrated the economy in composting. In
making application of fertilizers it is to be
remembered that the roots are not confined
to a narrow circle around the trunk. Most of
the feeding roots are roaming at a distance in
search of nourishment. The height and size
of the top will indicate in some degree how
far the fertilizers should be spread.
Commercial fertilizers, so-called, embrace all
the various chemical elements and compounds
of the market, including wood ashes, in dis-
tinction from stable manure, and its combina-
tions with organic matter. In theory it would
seem that the specific food of plants can be

CARE OF THE FRUIT GARDEN. 45

furnished in small bulk and at less cost, if
labor is included, than we can apply the coarse
products of the stable. That such food can
be so supplied in concentrated form and with
perfect results is beyond question. The sim-
ple point is, which is most available? This
includes the question of first cost and the
labor of applying.

Take the formula in use for all fruits on
the grounds of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College.

1,000 lbs. of fine ground bone would cost about $20
300 Ibs. of high grade Muriate of Potash (Ger-

man Salts). . . ee Ot
$27
Dr. Goessmann states that this would con-
tain
Phosphoric acid from. + . 200 to 220 Ibs.
Potassium oxide . . . — 150 Ibs.
Nitrogen . ; : . . 40 to 45 Ibs.

This is regarded as a sufficient quantity to
fertilize an acre. Dr. Goessmann suggests a
substitute every third or fourth year of one
ton of unleached ashes. In case the growth
of wood should at any time seem insufficient,
some nitrogenous food like fish guano might
be added. But the testimony of cultivators,
as well as men of science, is that the formula
will be found sufficient in most cases. The

46 FRUIT CULTURE.

amount given about equals, in nutritive value,
eight cords of stable manure of average quality.
The average cost of stable manure, in the vicin-
ity of large cities, is #8 per cord delivered on
the farm. In some sections it is higher, and in
others it cannot be purchased. But in the case
supposed the cost per acre will be $64, in com-
parison with #83 for the bone and potash. That
the latter preparation is better adapted to fruits,
especially to peaches, grapes, and plums, there is
little doubt. In the case of strawberries the
mechanical effect of stable manure in retaining
moisture is to be considered.

It is also to be remembered that the effect of
stable manure is more-lasting than that of chem-
icals, the land being benefited for two or three
years after the application. On the other hand,
chemicals are free from the seeds of weeds ; they
are easily procured and applied as needed, and
the potash has an undoubted tendency to check
the white grub and perhaps other insects. The
various brands of superphosphates are, as a mat-
ter of course, sold at a profit to the dealers, and
it is difficult to make an estimate of their rela-
tive value. The analysis of the state inspector
ought to be a guide, and if one is willing to pay
liberally for the process of manipulating and
mixing, he will buy the manufactured article

CARE OF THE FRUIT GARDEN. 47

from some dealer who has a reputation to sus

tain.
THINNING THE FRUIT.

The design of nature is to produce the largest
number of seeds, irrespective of the fruit. Hence
the abnormal development of pulp is likely to
overtax the ability of the tree to carry. The
enormous crops of the Baldwin apple in one
season so weaken the tree that it is unfruitful
in the season following. It is a great evil to
allow such excessive loads upon our trees. Even
in cases where the amount does not seem to be
more than the tree can support, it will usually
be found that a reduction of one half, or more,
will still result ina larger measure of fruit. by
reason of the increased size of the remainder.
And of course the quality and appearance is
greatly improved. In addition to this all-sut-
ficient reason, a still more weighty reason may
be given. Just after the setting of the fruit
the attacks of the codling moth, the apple mag-
got. the curculio. and other insects commence.
A careful inspection will reveal which fruits
have been punctured. Such fruits are not only
worthless. but they are also the hiding-places of
the parents of a numerous progeny. It is there-
fore the best time to destroy these injurious in-
sects. And let the work be done unsparingly

48 FRUIT CULTURE.

for the apple, the pear, and the peach. When
the fruit is small it will seem that none too many
specimens have set. With that seeming, it is
yet probable that from one half to three quarters
of these should be picked, including, of course,
the diseased and deformed specimens. The
largely increased size of the remainder will keep
the bulk about the same as if no reduction had
been made. Many instances indicate that the
bearing year of the Baldwin may be changed by
systematic picking. There can be no doubt that
more regular crops can be obtained by this
means. The labor involved is by no means as
great as would be anticipated. When the fruit
is so small it can be nipped off with great ra-
pidity, and a surprising space gone over in a day.
In no way can time be more profitably spent in
the garden.
LABELS.

What is ina name? A pear is a pear “ for
a’ that.” True, but its real merit may remain
undiscovered, if its sign or lineage is unknown.
With some fruits it is necessary to know their
time of ripening and their habits, in order to
develop them to perfection. Then we want a
personal acquaintance with each individual, by
its name, if we would appreciate its good
traits to the full, In order to this, it will be

CARE OF THE FRUIT GARDEN. 49

necessary to enter in a book the names of all the
varieties of fruits in the order of their planting.
And, besides this, and that we may promote a
familiar observation of all the characteristics of
each variety, its form, color, vigor, and varying
habits, it will be necessary to supplant the wood
labels of the nurseryman by something more
permanent, which shall be attached to each spec-
imen or at least so accessible that he who runs
may read.

Painted stakes, written upon with a lead
pencil before the paint is hard, or with a lamp-
black brush, are often used for labeling the
small fruits. Strips of sheet zinc about half an
inch wide, and tapering to a slender point at
one end, are easily twisted loosely to a limb, and
are permanent and accessible without being too
conspicuous. The surface of the zine being first
allowed to oxidize in the open air, and then
moistened, may be written upon with a common
lead pencil, and the marking will remain legible
for a score of years. For small fruits these zine
strips might be attached to iron pins. This is
a neat, cheap, permanent, and very satisfactory

mode of marking.
4

CHAPTER V.
THE APPLE.

Bryonp question this is the most important
fruit of our latitude. The abundance, cheap-
ness, and certainty with which the apple can be
raised are important points in its favor. The
price of this fruit is sometimes so low, in years
of abundance, that farmers are inclined to say it
does not pay to raise it. Yet the cost of pro-
ducing is so little that probably no New Eng-
land farm crop pays a better interest, in an av-
erage of years. There are thousands of loamy
hill-sides, with fair natural drainage, where land
is held at farm prices, which invite to a long, it
may be, but certainly to a safe and permanent
investment in apple orcharding. Our climate
and our soil are right for producing the highest
quality. We are near to local markets and to the
seaboard. The fruit is wanted in almost un-
limited quantity ; it can be kept and transported
for long distances, and the labor in cultivating,
harvesting, and marketing is divided over so long

THE APPLE. 51

time that the work is done without hurry or
risk. When we add to these considerations
the intrinsic value of the apple for domestic
purposes, and of its juice for vinegar or for
boiling to a syrup for culinary use, we must
readily admit that it easily takes the front
rank. The greatly increased facilities for
cheap and rapid transportation to European
markets and elsewhere, and the large foreign
demand which has lately been developed, is
an assurance that the market cannot be over-
stocked with high-grade apples. The progress
which has also been made within the past few
years, in the control of diseases and insect
depredations, is an assurance that the intel-
ligent and persevering cultivator can have
strong confidence for profitable returns from
his apple orchard. Yet it does not follow that
it is to be planted freely upon country places
of limited extent. The various insects which
injure the fruit are more readily destroyed in
an orchard by systematic attention, than upon
a few scattering trees. Moreover, the price of
the fruit is usually low, the trees are spreading
and require space. Our land may be too val-
uable and precious to allow them more than
the corners or an odd angle. But the best
early and autumn varieties we must have for

52 FRUIT CULTURE.

our own family supply, and if our space will
not admit the winter kinds, we can rest as-
sured the market will be well supplied with
such at moderate cost.

The apple is cultivated in all sections of
our country, and is everywhere esteemed as a
valuable fruit. But it is certain that it attains
the highest excellence in quality in the north-
ern limits. At the South, and even in the
Middle States, the growth may be fine and
large, but there is a lack of crispness and
juice which is very evident in comparison
with the solid specimens from the colder
sections. This is true of the fruits from Cal-
ifornia and the lower Western States, which
produce apples of largest size, but lacking in
flavor. A marked instance of this effect is
seen in the Fameuse, or Snow apple as it is
called. As produced in Canada or in Maine,
it is of highest excellence, and readily com-
mands two or three times the price of ordi-
nary varieties, it being an early winter apple.
But in warmer latitudes it is an inferior fall
fruit. Different sections will require varieties
adapted to each locality, and this can only be
determined by trial. In general we know
that some rank-growing kinds, like the Bald-
win, are not hardy in Northern Vermont

THE APPLE. 53

and at the Northwest. Most of the Russian
varieties will endure the greatest extremes
of cold.

Apples for export should be selected and
packed with greatest care in order to insure
arrival in good condition. They should also
be carefully graded into three sizes, rejecting
inferior or spotted specimens. Good fruit will
certainly bring good returns, but a lower
grade will scarcely cover expenses. It is im-
possible to estimate the average value of the
apple crop of the country. Some idea may
be formed by stating that the value of exports
of dried apples was not far from one million
dollars in 1890, and nearly double this amount
in green fruit. The bulk of this goes to Eng-
land, nearly an equal amount being shipped
from Boston and New York, with a smaller
percentage from Portland. Most of the Can-
ada fruit goes from Montreal.

Apple trees should be planted at least
thirty-three feet, and better than this, forty
feet apart for permanent orchards, in the lat-
ter case giving forty-nine trees to the acre,
the outside rows being fifteen feet distant
from the outer line. But for family pur-
poses it is generally found best to plant these
near the outer line of the estate, or in cor-

54 FRUIT CULTURE.

ners which will allow single specimens. It is a
prevailing impression that the fruit of branches
which overhang a neighbor’s land belongs to
him. But this is a mistake; he has a right
to remove the limbs, but the fruit is yours,
though it is doubtful if you have a right to enter
his land for the purpose of picking. If the tree
stands upon the line, the rights of course are
mutual, and neither party can injure the tree
without consent. Your neighbor cannot com-
plain of shade, or dampness from trees upon
your land, however near they may be to the line,
but he may cut the roots which penetrate his
land. It is unnecessary to add, that a purpose
to insist upon legal rights among neighbors will
bear only fruits of bitterness.

Apple trees are supposed to need little care
after planting, and therefore are frequently left
to receive only an annual scraping and pruning
in March. This is the reason why so large a pro-
portion of our orchards are in such a stunted con-
dition. No tree better repays generous culture.
It will better endure a grass sward than the pear,
but this should not be allowed to be thick or ex-
hausting. An annual surface dressing of stable
manure, in November, say half of a one horse-
load to each tree of full size, will keep it in per-
manent vigor. Pruning of all suckers and of

THE APPLE. 55

crowding limbs should be done in June and
July, but a heavy removal of foliage at this sea-
son will cause stunted growth. Should it be
necessary to remove heavy limbs (an evil to be
avoided by summer pinching and pruning, as
far as possible), this may be done in March,
care being taken to smooth the cut even with
the trunk, and painting it with shellac dissolved
in alcohol or with grafting wax. The wound
thus covered will not heal as rapidly as if made
in June, but, on the other hand, the check to the
tree is much less if the pruning is done while
the buds are dormant. The usual practice of
severe scraping in the spring is unnatural and is
often injurious. Obviously it is well, after the
severity of winter is past, to give the trees a good
rubbing, and thus remove the rough bark and
moss which serve as a harbor for insects. But
scraping down to the quick and exposing to the
cold and evaporation of March winds must re-
sult in injury. The practice of giving a heavy
wash of caustic lime, after scraping, is also to
be condemned. A moderately strong wash of
potash water will assist in cleansing the trunk
and large branches and in giving a bright green
and healthy appearance to the bark; but under
generous culture this will seldom be found neces-

sary.

56 FRUIT CULTURE.

The fruit for winter use should remain on the
trees until danger of sharp frosts, and then be
hand-picked and placed in clean barrels, with
greatest care not to bruise. Every imperfect
specimen should be rejected. The picking should
be done in a dry day, and the barrels should re-
main open a few days to allow for “sweating.”
Afterwards the barrels should be headed and
placed on their sides in a cold store-room, or on
the north side of a building, until in danger of
freezing, which is usually in the latter part of
November in New England: The barrels should
then go to a cold and moist cellar. In a warm
and dry cellar the fruit shrivels and matures pre-
maturely. Ata moist temperature of 32°, Rox-
bury Russets keep an infinite time.

Cider made from sound fruit, and allowed to
work only to the point of clarifying, is a health-
ful and a temperance beverage. It is not to be
made after the manner of the farmers of old
from all sorts of fruit, rotten and wormy, or
otherwise, and then encouraged to ferment until
it becomes “hard,” but with a family mill, cost-
ing from twelve to twenty dollars, a grinding
of a bushel, or a barrel, of fruit from time to
time will give a fresh supply of a mild, agree-
able, and innocent drink.

Apple juice boiled down to one quarter of its

THE APPLE. 57

bulk becomes a thick syrup, which will keep in-
definitely, and is useful for flavoring and moisten-
ing mince pies, for sauces, and various cooking
purposes.

Dwarf Apple trees are obtained by grafting
upon the Paradise and the Doucain stock. The
former is the most dwarfed, being little more
than a bush, and throwing the tree into fruit in
two or three years from the graft. The Doucain
is intermediate, and will produce small trees
which will last many years. It is well adapted
for garden culture, giving the advantage of early
fruitfulness, an increase in the number of small
trees, and consequently in the number of varie-
ties, when this is desired. But it is obvious that
strong growing roots will sustain large tops and
yield the best results, in extensive culture. Para-
dise Dwarfs may be planted eight feet apart, Dou-
cain ten feet apart. Constant watchfulness will
be required in the culture of dwarfs to give an-
nual supplies of food, to preserve the form by
pruning, and also to prevent rooting above the
dwarf stock and thus destroying its character.

The question is now in order, what varieties
shall we plant? And it is a somewhat invidi-
ous task to select from so many hundred can-
didates, rejecting a vast number that are fairly
good and may have a good local reputation.

58 FRUIT CULTURE.

There are many seedlings which have some
particular merit of flavor, or hardiness, or
special fitness for a peculiar soil or locality.
And hence the lst is long of kinds which
have strenuous advocates. But it is still true
that it is a great evil to continue so many
varieties. Aside from the disadvantages aris-
ing from the various treatment in cultivating
and marketing such different kinds, it is also
certain that the number which stands in the
front rank is quite limited. Experienced
orchardists would limit the list within very
narrow limits. For the sake of covering the
entire season and including the differing quali-
ties, we must name a larger number than
would be desirable in any one orchard.

SUMMER VARIETIES.

Early Harvest.— One of the earliest; rather
slender growth, oblate, bright straw color,
mild acid; flesh nearly white, quality fine, if
kept clean from the codling moth.

Sweet Bough. — Large, oblong-ovate, green-
ish-yellow; flesh tender, sprightly, rich, sweet;
productive, excellent. Ripens in August.

Red Astrachan.— A Russian variety. Large,
roundish, nearly covered with deep crimson

THE APPLE. 59

and a beautiful bloom; flesh tender, juicy, rich,
acid. July and August.

Williams’ Favorite. — Large, oblong-ovate,
smooth, mostly fine dark crimson; flesh yel-
lowish-white, moderately juicy, pleasant. Its
fine appearance adds to its reputation.

From these four summer kinds, perhaps the
first choice for family use would be Sweet
Bough, the second would be Astrachan, and
the third, Williams. Either one of these will
do, and a single tree, if vigorous, will give an
ample supply of this transient early fruit for
one family. American Summer Pearmain,
Benoni, Early Joe, Early Strawberry, High
Top Sweet, Primate, and Summer Rose are
all good early kinds, if variety is desired.
Tetofsky and Yellow Transparent are early
Russian apples, very hardy, and valuable for
cold climates. The amateur may graft them
on different limbs of the same tree for the
purpose of experiment, and thus avoid the
burden of an excessive supply.

AUTUMN APPLES.

Gravenstein. — This is, par excellence, the
variety for the autumn months. Fruit large,
roundish, slightly ribbed; yellow, striped and
splashed with bright red; flesh tender, juicy,

60 FRUIT CULTURE.

sub-acid, very rich and high flavored; very
productive, handsome, and excellent. Still
another merit may be added, that its period of
ripening extends over the entire fall months.
With so many good qualities combined in one,
the marketman will not: add other kinds, and
the amateur may well be content with this.

Fameuse (or Snow). — Medium size; deep
crimson; flesh snowy white, tender, juicy, and
delicious. Succeeds best at the North.

Porter. — An old favorite; fruit large, ob-
long-conical, bright yellow; flesh tender, rich,
rather acid; fair and productive.

Red Beitigheimer.— A German variety of
the largest size; roundish-conical; skin pale
cream and crimson, brisk sub-acid. Very
handsome.

Duchess of Oldenburgh.— A hardy Russian
early autumn kind, of medium size; yellow,
streaked red; juicy, sharp sub-acid. Esteemed
at the Northwest.

Other fall varieties may be named in the
order of their merit as follows: Fall Pippin,
Garden Royal, Jewett’s Red (or Nodhead),
Jersey Sweet, Lyscom, Maiden’s Blush, and
Pumpkin Sweet.

THE APPLE. 61

WINTER VARIETIES.

It may be bewildering to make a selection
from the long list of winter kinds, but the
prevailing rule for a hundred trees for the
orchardist (99 of Baldwin and 1 of — Bald-
win) may assist in the decision. This uni-
versally known variety has unquestionably
more points of merit than any other, and is
so far in advance that the foregoing rule will
apply to many sections, for market purposes.
Yet other kinds are superior to it in quality,
and its tendency to overbear and exhaust it-
self to barrenness in the odd year creates
such a fluctuation in the quantity of the crop
and in the price, that it is specially desirable
to have more uniformly productive kinds, and
of higher quality.

Esopus Spiteenberg. —This variety is scarcely
equaled in rich and high flavor; fruit round,
slightly conical; color high, rich red, faintly
striped ; flesh yellow, firm, crisp, spicy, brisk
acid, superior; moderately productive. In
some sections it is shy in fruiting, but where
it flourishes it will rank as best.

Northern Spy.— Large, roundish-conical ;
pale yellow, slightly striped with dark red;
flesh white, tender, fine, sprightly sub-acid,

62 FRUIT CULTURE.

aromatic; beautiful and of best quality. Does
not bear when young, and requires good cul-
ture, which it will well repay.

Hubbardston Nonesuch. — Large, round-
ovate; color rich yellow, striped and dotted
deep red; flesh yellowish, very rich, sub-acid,
excellent flavor: early winter.

Rhode Island Greening. — Large, roundish-
oblate; green or greenish-yellow; flesh yellow,
tender, juicy, rather acid; very productive,
single trees sometimes producing forty bush-
els of uniform fruit.

Roxbury, Russet. — Medium; rough russet
or greenish color; flesh crisp, good, sub-acid
flavor. Keeps until spring.

Ben Davis (New York Pippin).— Large,
conical; yellow, shaded with red ; juicy, sub-
acid, quality fair. It is more hardy than the
Baldwin, and owing to its productiveness and
fine appearance it is the most popular market
variety for the West and Southwest.

Cogswell. — Large, roundish; red on yel-
low ground; juicy, sub-acid, vigorous, pro-
ductive.

Lady.— Small in size; lemon-yellow with
bright red cheek; flesh white, crisp, tender,
juicy. Excellent for dessert or market.

THE APPLE. 63

Murphy. — An old variety, recently attract-
ing notice on account of its superlative beauty,
its color being rich crimson. In quality it is
said to be better than the Baldwin.

Sutton Beauty. — Large, roundish; waxen
yellow, striped with deep carmine; flesh white,
sub-acid, tender, juicy, good. Productive,
keeps well, and is one of the best.

Jacob's Sweet.— A large, showy fruit, clear
yellow deeply shaded, brilliant carmine; flesh
crisp and excellent.

Talman’s Sweeting. — Flesh firm, rich, very
sweet. Excellent for baking.

Other excellent winter kinds are Canada
Renette, Jonathan, Lady’s Sweet, Mother,
King, Golden Russet, Grimes’ Golden, McIn-
tosh Red, and Peck’s Pleasant. Numerous
other kinds exist which may have slight shades
in flavor, or qualities, which entitle them to
enter the ranks in large collections, and pos-
sibly by good behavior to advance to the front.
Occasionally a seedling attains a permanent
reputation. But it is rather surprising how
few of our best apples are of recent origin.
We may safely plant the standard kinds, in
confidence that they will not be speedily
superseded,

64 FRUIT CULTURE.

CRAB APPLES.

The Siberian Crab belongs to a distinct
species (Pyrus baccata and not Pyrus malus).
There are several varieties, most of them ripen-
ing in the autumn, though some will keep into
the winter. They are smaller and more sym-
metrical in growth than the common apple,
and many of them are very ornamental as
trees for the lawn. In May the trees are very
gay in the profusion of their showy blossoms,
but when well loaded with their deep crimson
fruit in the autumn, no other tree can exceed
them in brilliancy of effect. For family use
a single tree will give a sufficient supply for
jellies and marmalades. Among the best vari-
eties are the Transcendent and Hyslop.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE.

The Codling Moth, or apple worm (Carpo-
capsa pomonella). It is a universal complaint,
wherever the apple has been cultivated for
any considerable length of time, that the fruit
becomes wormy, large quantities falling pre-
maturely, and the affected ripe fruit being of
little value. The coddling moth is the sole
cause of the injury. This insect was imported
from Europe early in the present century, and

THE APPLE. 65

because of its rapid spread over the entire con-
tinent, the difficulty of exterminating, and the
extent of damage which it does, it has become
the most serious evil which the orchardist has to
meet. The moth appears at the time of flower-
ing, depositing its eggs singly in the calyx end
of the young fruit, as it is forming. The egg
hatches in a few days, and the worm bores to the
heart of the fruit, and from thence works its
way out at one side, a full-grown flesh or pink-
ish-colored worm, in three or four weeks from
the egg. It then enters into the cocoon state,
finding shelter about the trunk of the tree, and
in two or three weeks more is transformed into
a moth for the second generation. The second
crop of larvee, if they escape from the fruit be-
fore it is gathered, spin their cocoons under the
loose bark of the tree, or some similar shelter.
But if carried with the fruit to the cellar, they
will be found around the crevices and hoops of
the barrels.

Figure 1 is copied from Saunders’s work upon
insects, as best illustrating the habits of this
most destructive pest. The puncture by the
moth is represented at 6, the borings of the
larva at a, the mature worm at e, the moth with
wings closed at jf, the moth with wings ex-
panded at g, and the cocoon at /.

66 FRUIT CULTURE.

Remedies. — The castings of the worm in
June usually adhere to the young apple at the
calyx. If all the diseased fruit could be picked
and destroyed before the worm leaves the fruit,
the remedy would be effectual. Gathering this
fruit after its premature fall is useless vigilance,

after the rogue has left. Cloth bandages tied
around the trees early in June will serve as traps
where the cocoons will collect. These should
be examined two or three times in July and
August and the cocoons destroyed. Cleaning
the limbs and trunks of the trees and also the
fruit barrels and the fruit cellar, in early spring,
may also destroy many cocoons. Fruit which

THE APPLE. 67

has been attacked falls prematurely, but usu-
ally not until the worm has left. This is not
always so, and therefore this fallen fruit should
always be gathered. The moth is not attracted
by light, and hence cannot be caught to any
extent in this way. Spraying the trees with
the arsenites just after the blossoms have
fallen, and again ten days or a fortnight later,
has been found to be a most effectual remedy.
The liquid should be kept stirred and applied
in a fine spray as described on page 219. If
the work is thoroughly done, a third spray will
be unnecessary.

The Apple Maggot is a footless, greenish-
white grub, one fifth of an inch long, with
a pointed head, but cut squarely off behind.
It frequently attacks apples that have been
previously perforated by the codling moth.
It is also frequently very injurious to the fall
varieties and those having thin skins; and it
is sometimes found working in the winter
fruit, doing serious damage. The remedy is
to destroy the infested fruit.

The Tent Caterpillar (CUisiocampa Ameri-
cana) is a prevalent and conspicuous enemy,
but one easily destroyed. The moth deposits
its nest of 200 to 300 eggs in July, near the
ends of small branches, encircling them as
seen in Fig. 2, The eggs, being covered with

68 FRUIT CULTURE.

a gummy water-proof varnish, remain until the
opening of leaf-buds in the following spring.
After hatching, the young caterpillars rapidly
increase in size, attaining to nearly two inches in
length in the course of five or six weeks,
when they are very voracious, often
stripping large limbs of every vestige
of foliage. The best time to destroy
this insect is in March, before the nest-
eggs are hatched. A careful inspection
of the ends of the limbs will reveal most
of them. If any should escape notice,
the young colony can easily be detected
and destroyed soon after hatching. It
is sheer neglect, for which there is no
excuse, to allow the worms to increase
to full size. The tenting habit of the
worm makes it a trifling task to de-
stroy it, when it is small. As it in- Fig. 2.

creases in size, the tents become very unsighty,

and the labor in crushing such a mass of vitality
is*much more troublesome. The wild-cherry is
especially liable to be infested with this cater-
pillar.

The Forest Tent Caterpillar (Clisiocampa
sylvatica). This is a common pest at the West
and South, being not only very destructive to
the apple, but also feeding upon the oak, ash,

THE APPLE. 69

and various other forest trees. In habit and
form it closely resembles the common caterpil-
lar, being, however, more active and migratory,
marching rapidly in single column in search of
food. Their egg nests may be easily dis-
tinguished by being cut squarely off at
each end, as in Fig. 3. These egg clusters
are to be sought and destroyed before the
starting of buds. The young worms are
not as easily detected as the common tent
worm, but are to be sought early in the
morning and in their early stages, before

2 their migrations commence. They may
Fig.3- then be easily destroyed.

The Round-Headed Borer (Saperda candida).
This is a widespread enemy, preferring the ap-
ple, but common to the quince, mountain ash,
and many other trees. The brown-colored beetle,
with two broad, creamy white stripes running
the length of his body, is about three fourths of
an inch long; flying at night, and depositing its
eggs singly in June and July under the loose
scales of bark, near the surface of the ground.
The worm soon hatches and penetrates to the
sap-wood, excavating flat cavities of the size of
a silver dollar in the inner bark, which are filled
with sawdust-like castings. It is now supposed
that the grub remains in these cavities for two

70 FRUIT CULTURE.

seasons, often doing great and perhaps fatal in-
jury to the tree, by completely girdling it under
the bark. With the third summer the grub
attains its maturity, and towards its close its jaws
have become strong enough to cut a cylindrical
passage three or more inches into the solid wood,
thence curving upward and outward to the bark,
but without cutting it. This cavity is the home
of the pupa the following winter, from which the
beetle cuts a smooth round hole, and emerges
nearly three years after the eggs were first laid.
The deposit of eggs may be prevented by keep-
ing the bark perfectly clean around the trunk,
and by applying a coat of soft soap and wash-
ing-soda early in June and again in July. A
mound of ashes, or air-slacked lime, placed
around the tree in May will also deter the bee-
tle from depositing her egg. An examination
in August will detect the work of the worm in
the dark and dry color of the bark, and later in
the castings which have been pushed out in lit-
tle heaps. During the first and second seasons
the grub may easily be reached and destroyed.
It is more difficult to reach him after entering
the body of the tree, though a wire may follow
his course and dislodge him. With proper care
there is little difficulty in keeping this borer un-
der control.

THE APPLE. 71

The Flat-Headed Borer ( Chrysobothris femo-
rata). This is a pest common to all parts of
the country, attacking also the pear, plum, and
other trees. Unfortunately, it does not confine
its attacks to the base of the tree, but deposits its
eggs within crevices or scales of the bark over
the entire length of the trunk. The larva is a
pale yellow grub from half to three fourths of an
inch long, with a large flat head. Its habits are
much like the round-headed borer, except that
it is believed to mature in a single season and
bore into the wood the first autumn. This is
the grub which is hunted and destroyed by the
woodpeckers. Sickly trees are much more
likely to be attacked by this borer than those in
vigorous growth. Keeping the bark clean and
smooth, and painting, as in the previous case,
will be a safeguard.

The Canker- Worm (Anisopteryx vernata
and A. pometaria). There are two species of
the canker-worm, well defined to the entomolo-
gist, and yet so similar in most respects that
they have been confounded under one name.
As the worms closely resemble each other in
habit, size, and appearance, it is only necessary
to bear in mind this difference, that the moth
of the A. pometaria rises and deposits its eggs
chiefly in the fall, while the A. vernata is more

72 FRUIT CULTURE.

prolific in the spring. The fall moth, as shown
at a, Fig. 4, and the spring moth at 6, are both
wingless females, the male moth in each case be-
ing provided with four wings.
After frosts, late in the fall or
early in the spring, the female
moth wearily ascends the trunk
of a tree and awaits the arrival Fig. 4.

the male. The eggs are laid side by side in
exposed clusters on the surface of the twigs,
often a hundred, or more, in a cluster. The

worm hatches nearly with the opening of the
buds in the spring, and matures in from four to
six weeks, when it isa dark olive-green cater-
pillar about one inch in length. From its
method of moving it is often called the measuring
worm or looper. When matured, they descend
by the trunks or by silken threads, and enter-
ing the ground from two to six inches, they form
a buff-colored cocoon, in which the chrysalids
remain until late fall or spring. As the female
moth is wingless and slow of motion, this pest is
local, and is slow in distribution. But wher-
ever it is prevalent, as in many parts of New
England, if unchecked it is the utter ruin of the
apple, the elm, and other vegetation upon which
it feeds. Often not a vestige of foliage is left
remaining upon the trees, and as this occurs in

THE APPLE. 73

June, during the most active stage of growth,
the injury is most destructive.

The effectual remedy has been to catch the
female moth at the time of her ascent. Various
devices are in use, the most simple of which is
the band of tarred paper, about a foot in width,
tied around the trunk of the tree and kept
freshly painted with tar and printer’s ink, in
which the moths will stick and perish. Care
must be taken that the bands are tight around
the trunk, also that the paint be applied in the
fall, and constantly renewed, as often as it be-
comes glazed, whenever the ground is open, and
until the worm hatches. This is a cheap and
effectual method for large orchards, but it re-
quires persistent watchfulness, and would involve
too much care for a few trees. Often the moths
appear in such numbers as to bridge over the
band and allow their comrades to pass over their
dead bodies dry shod. Increasing the width of
the bands and frequent renewal of the paint
would meet this difficulty. Leaden and wooden
troughs, packed around the trunks of the trees
and filled with kerosene oil, require much less
watching and have proved effectual. These
troughs are furnished by experts, and placed and
warranted at the usual price of #1 per foot in
diameter of the tree. To those who have but

T4 FRUIT CULTURE.

few trees this would be the safest method.
Home-made troughs are liable to prove defec-
tive. Spraying the foliage with one of the
arsenites is an effectual remedy. The appli-
cation should be made when the worms are
young, and if done thoroughly it will not be
necessary to repeat it. So successful has this
application proved during the past season, that
a gentleman who has had experience in its use
has offered to clear orchards from the pest at
ten cents per tree, and thinks it can be done
at half that cost. As this evil is still local
and is comparatively slow in spreading, owing
to the disability of the female moth, and as it
is possible, by combined effort, utterly to ex-
terminate the insect, it is a question whether
legislative penalties should not be imposed
upon those who neglect their trees.
Fall-Web Worm (Hyphantria textor). At
the South are two generations of this worm,
but at the North the moth deposits its eggs in
broad patches on the under side of the leaves in
early June. The larvee soon hatch and feed in
clusters, covering their feeding-ground with a
silken web. When full grown they are about
an inch in length, and are covered with long
straight hairs. At this stage they suddenly
scatter and feed in all direction, descending to
the ground, and form their cocoons in Septem-

THE APPLE. 75

ber and October. It is easy to detect and de-
stroy them when working in clusters.

Aphides. There are many forms of plant
lice, the one which infests the young growth of
the apple (Aphis mali) hatching from eggs into
tiny white lice, with the swelling of the buds.
Under favoring circumstances these multiply
with almost incredible rapidity ; a single indi-
vidual becoming the mother of many millions in
one summer. But happily their destruction is
comparatively easy. If prematurely hatched a
subsequent frost is fatal to them. The many
forms of spotted Lady Bird, or Lady Bug, de-
stroy myriads of these aphis, and are of great ser-
vice to the fruit-grower. Heavy drifting rains
or showers will often clear the foliage. A de-
coction from the stems of tobacco, either boiled
or left to soak for some days, may be used as a
dip, or it may be syringed over the trees. The
kerosene solution is probably the best pre-
scription for destroying the young broods.
As these lice do not eat the foliage, but punc-
ture and suck the juices of the twigs and
leaves, the arsenic preparations and other
poiscns are not as effectual as caustics or
remecies which give off an offensive odor.

The Root Aphis (Schizoneura lanigera).
This louse works upon the roots of the tree,

76 FRUIT CULTURE.

sucking the juices and causing wart-like excres-
cences. Often, as the lice mature, they crawl
up the trunk and are known as the woolly aphis.
Should a tree appear sickly without cause, its
roots should be examined, and if found warty,
sealding-hot water may be applied without in-
jury. Professor Riley suggests also the use of
the kerosene emulsion applied to the roots.

The Oyster-Shell Bark Louse is a very com-
mon and troublesome insect, often completely
covering the trunks and branches and greatly di-
minishing the vigor of the trees. These minute
scales, about one sixth of an inch long, cover
sometimes a hundred eggs, which hatch in May
and June; remaining for several days under
the shelter of the scales, but scattering over the
tree as the weather becomes warmer. They are
scarcely visible, being only one hundredth of an
inch long; but being so numerous and subsist-
ing upon the sap of the tree by inserting their
sharp beaks, they cause serious injury.

Rubbing the trunks and limbs with potash
water, washing-soda, or the kerosene emulsion,
at the time the larve are hatching and before
they disperse, will easily destroy them.

To clear the scales at other seasons, when they
are hard and dry, will require firmer rubbing,
with a stiff brush and potash water. Syringing
with kerosene may also prove serviceable.

THE APPLE. rad

The scurfy bark louse is distinct from the
preceding and a smaller scale. Its habits are so
similar that the same remedies may be applied.

Twig borers and pruners, leaf rooters, crum-
plers, and other caterpillars, are to be watched,
if they become troublesome. The palmer worm
is of rare occurrence, and would doubtless suc-
cumb to arsenic in the form of Paris-green.

The Gipsy Moth (Oceneria dispar). Intro-
duced into Eastern Massachusetts a few years
since, and where increased in a few townships,
the caterpillar has devoured every leaf of fruit
and forest tree. So destructive has been the
insect that the State has already expended
$100,000 in the effort to exterminate it. Prob-
ably $75,000 will be expended in the year
1892. It is expensive work to spray forests
as well as orchards, and to hunt every tree,
shrub, wall, fence, and:shed for eggs in the
fall and spring, but is worth doing well if the
country can be rid of them. The caterpillar
can readily be destroyed by spraying with
arsenites as soon as discovered. When full
grown it is found to be from two to two and
one half inches long, its back being regularly
marked with two lines of ten round dots. The
clusters of eggs are oval, yellowish brown
patches about an inch or more in diameter.
These are to be searched for and destroyed.

78 FRUIT CULTURE.

FUNGI.

Apple Scab (Fusicladium dendriticum).
This is almost the only fungous growth that
seriously affects the fruit and foliage of the
apple. It is less prevalent in the Southern
States, and is more severe in the cooler re-
gions. But it is the cause of severe loss in
the best sections of apple culture. It is the
cause of the “scab,” or “ black spot,” so often
seen on the fruit, and also the irregular smoky
blotches on the leaves. In some States the
loss from this disease is placed as high as one
fourth of the crop. Professor Scribner recom-
mends as an effectual remedy the thorough
washing or spraying of the trees before the
leaves start with a solution of sulphate of cop-
per—one pound to ten gallons of water —
and after this, spraying with the ammoniacal
solution of the carbonate of copper, once just
before blossoming, once when the fruit is set,
and once when it is half grown.

Powdery Mildew (Podosphera oxycauttie).
A fungus which sometimes covers the leaves
with a grayish mildew, especially upon young
trees in the nursery. Spraying four or five
times with the fungicides will destroy the
fungus.

CHAPTER VI.
THE PEAR.

THouGH the pear is closely allied to the apple
and may be grafted upon it (with only poor
results), yet it is a very distinct and superior
fruit. No one will question that the Comice
and the Seckel are of more refined texture and
higher flavor than any variety of the apple. It
is essentially a dessert fruit, though some varie-
ties, like the Vicar, are valuable for coddling and
others make excellent preserves. It is not as
healthful, or as valuable for culinary purposes,
as the apple. Yet there are reasons why it will
receive more general cultivation and be regarded
as an indispensable fruit on every estate. There
are a few good winter kinds, but it is especially
a summer and autumn fruit. This early fruit
is comparatively transient and is liable to suffer
from transportation. Much of it perishes in the
hands of the dealer. For these reasons the cost
of good specimens is greatly increased. It is
cheaper and less troublesome to raise our own

80 FRUIT CULTURE.

supply. Moreover, the trees bear when young,
are of moderate size, and when vigorous are
ornamental in appearance. Hence every land-
owner requires pear trees. He also requires
caution, more than he realizes, lest he plant too
many trees and too many varieties. It is a
great burden to have numerous kinds which re-
quire gathering at an exact time and varying
treatment in ripening ; which produce quantities
in excess of private want and yet too little for
profitable marketing ; which are not wanted by
our neighbors and are not good for the sick, nor
even for the cow and the pig. Many a suburban
owner has no other use for them but to let them
rot. The remedy for this evil is simple. Plant
only such kinds as are of known excellence ;
plant very few varieties and such as ripen in
succession, according to your definite wants.

The marketing of the pear involves much
more care and risk than the apple, as it is
more perishable and cannot so easily be shipped
to foreign ports in large quantities. Yet it is
probable that the late fall and winter kinds,
like the Anjou and Lawrence, could be raised
for export, if the supply should exceed the
home demand. Well grown fruit will un-
doubtedly command a ready sale at prices
which will pay for extra care.

THE PEAR. 81

SITUATION AND SOIL.

A slightly descending slope is most favorable,
in order to facilitate drainage and the discharge
of surplus surface water. But it is not essential
that any particular point of the compass should
be secured. Shelter from the rake of the wind
is important. The pear is a companionable tree
and. will luxuriate when supported by other trees
around it. In close garden culture a degree of
humidity is preserved, and there being much
less evaporation from the foliage where the strong
winds are broken, the growth will be much more
vigorous and healthy. There must, however,
be sufficient air and sunlight to mature the wood
and the fruit. If the site is high it will be an
advantage to plant an evergreen belt to the wind-
ward, both for the health of the trees and also to
prevent the falling of the fruit during high winds.
On the other hand, a low, cold, and peaty posi-
tion, subject to fogs and frosty nights, is objec-
tionable.

A strong, retentive loam, inclining to clay, is
the preferable soil. Even a stiff soil is a good
basis, which can easily be lightened and warmed
by the addition of stable manure. But it is es-
sential that such retentive land be systematically

underlaid with tile drains. Uniform but not ex-
6

82 FRUIT CULTURE.

cessive moisture will thereby be secured. A light
soil is less promising, and will require constant
enriching in order to maintain vigor. Dwarfs
should not be used in such a soil, except with
the free addition of heavy loam, or clay and
stable manure.

Previous to planting it is very desirable that
the soil should be thoroughly and deeply
ploughed, so as to be in fine condition to sift in
among the roots. It is a great gain also if it
has been made rich by previous culture. If not,
an equivalent of well-rotted manure should be
worked in, but kept from immediate contact with
the roots. The pear is a gross feeder and should
have annual surface dressings of stable manure,
wood ashes, or their equivalents. Clean culture is
preferable, though some light vegetable crops
may be allowed between the trees. Grains and
grasses under the trees are decidedly injurious.

PRUNING.

As a rule, the pear is symmetrical in growth
and requires less pruning than other fruits. At
the planting the young tree usually has six to
eight shoots, the growth of the previous season,
with a clean trunk of four feet, if a standard.
These shoots should be shortened back to within
three or four buds from the base, in order to

THE PEAR. 83

equalize the loss of roots in transplanting, and
also to insure a vigorous start and a symmetrical
head. This should be done before the buds
start in the spring. The central shoot must be
cut just above a bud, which will preserve a
straight leader and give a pyramidal form to the
tree. The dotted lines in Fig. 5 show the man-
ner of pruning in the spring
after planting. No other prun-
ing will be necessary until the
, following spring, when a sim-
f ilar process will be repeated,
with a less severe reduction of
the shoots, as a general rule.
If any of the side branches as-
sume a too upright habit, a
bud on the lower side of the
limb is selected for the termi-
nal shoot, which will cause a

—======= more horizontal growth. On

Fig, the other hand an upper bud
will induce an upright form. After this an an-
nual shortening of the young shoots may be neces-
sary, so long as the growth is vigorous. “Less
of this work will be required as the tree comes
into bearing. Ordinary judgment will determine
if the growth becomes too dense, or if the thin-
ning out of crowding shoots and ill-shapen

84 FRUIT CULTURE.

branches becomes desirable. Many directions
have been given to guide in forming into differ-
ing shapes, as the wine-glass form, for example.
But nature is usually the best indicator, and we
can hardly expect to improve upon the pyramidal
shape, which is the ordinary growth of the tree.
For dwarfs it is obvious that the head will be
formed near the ground, the pruning will be
closer, and the ultimate height of the tree will
not exceed ten or twelve feet.

RIPENING THE FRUIT.

There is scarcely an exception to the rule that
pears should be picked from ten days to a fort-
night before they are ripe, in order to bring them
to their highest quality. Some varieties, it is true,
are passably good when ripened on the tree, yet
none are at their best, and many which are excel-
lent under proper treatment are comparatively
worthless if allowed to hang too long. The Clapp
has suffered in this respect, and has been unjustly
condemned as rotting at the core. All pears
should be picked as soon as signs of maturity
begin to appear, or when the fruit can be readily
parted without breaking the stem, generally about
a fortnight before it may be said to be ripe. The
Bartlett will ripen, if picked, even earlier than
this, and before it has attained its full size.

THE PEAR. 85

It is often well to relieve an overladen tree by
an early, partial picking of the most mature fruit,
to the decided advantage of the last picking.
The fruit should be handled with special care,
and, when practicable, placed in single layers in
close drawers in a cool, not too dry cellar. Ex-
clusion of light seems to be an important point,
and the highest excellence is obtained, if the
fruit is brought into a warmer temperature a

_day or two before the texture of the flesh melts

under the saccharine fermentation. The merit
of many kinds depends to a great degree upon
this judicious treatment in ripening. Some of
the later varieties, the Lawrence for example,
may be barreled and kept in a cold cellar to
ripen, like winter apples. They will be improved,
however, if repacked in drawers, in a warm
room, a week or two before required for use.

DWARF PEARS.

Under proper conditions and for certain
varieties, this is a most interesting and valu-
able mode of cultivation.

The pear is dwarfed by budding it upon
quince stocks, upon which it takes readily, and
thrives when in suitable soil. This should bea
rich, retentive loam, better if inclining to clay,

86 FRUIT CULTURE.

when well drained. In a light, sandy, or grav-
elly soil the quince root is sure to disappoint.
The character of the root is to be considered, it
being fine and fibrous, not striking down and off
like the pear, and hence requiring a constant
supply of food and moisture near the surface.
By giving these requisites there can be no doubt
that some varieties will give the best results
upon the quince root, and will continue in vigor
for many years.

The prevailing impression is that dwarf pears
have disappointed expectations and are not per-
manent. The reasons for this opinion grow
out of the fact that they have been planted in
unsuitable soil; that they have been thrown into
premature fruitfulness and have been allowed
to overbear; and chiefly that they have been
starved to death. Yet it remains true that where
the conditions can be secured, they are emi-
nently suited to the amateur’s wants and also
are of real value to the marketman. The ad-
vantages claimed are important. The tree is
dwarfed to oceupy but a fifth part of the room,
thus giving the amateur the privilege of a large
increase of varieties. Low trees are more easily
pruned and kept in form, the fruit is more easily
thinned and picked, it is much less liable to be
blown off; the roots of the quince are more

THE PEAR. 87

quickly fed by surface dressing ; some varieties,
like the Duchesse d’Angouléme, seem to prefer
the quince root, and, chief of all, the trees are
thrown into early fruiting, and speedy returns
are realized. Unremitting attention is requisite
in order to keep a dwarf orchard in health and
vigorous productiveness, but this is a condition
which every fruit culturist should expect to give.

It is also important to make sure that the
quince roots are planted so deep as to be entirely
below the surface of the earth, not only to secure
them against the attacks of the borer, but also in
order to protect this more tender stock from the
effects of the winter. With the earth drawn up
around the collar the stock is much safer, and it
is often the case that the pear will form its own
roots. But in such instances the growth is un-
equal, the tree has lost its character, and the
change is a doubtful advantage.

When the soil is right, perhaps the wisest plan
would be to plant 108 standards to an_acre, a dis-
tance of twenty feet apart each way. Then plant
between each tree in each row a dwarf; also be-
tween each row a full row of dwarfs ten feet apart.
This will give 485 trees to an acre, one quarter
standards and three quarters dwarfs, with a uni-
form distance of ten feet between each tree. In
this way the land will speedily be covered with

88 FRUIT CULTURE.

productive trees, affording mutual protection and
giving encouragement to generous cultivation.
By the time the dwarfs begin to fail the stand-
ards will have become large trees, sufficient to
require the entire field. If, however, there is
any doubt about the fitness of the soil, or if we
are inclined to shrink from constant care, it is
by all means best to rely upon standards, as bet-
ter able to take care of themselves. We are
also to bear in mind that some varieties are in
any case ill adapted to the quince stock, and
only such are to be selected as are known to do
well. The Angouléme, Anjou, and Louise Bonne
seem to be specially suited to the quince. To
these may be added Urbaniste, Brandywine, Ty-
son, Rostiezer, Vicar, Superfine, Hardy, Howell,
Comice. The Bartlett, Seckel, Belle Lucrative,
Sheldon, Bosc, and Nelis are less suited to this
stock.

When the plantation is entirely of dwarfs the
distance apart should seldom be less than ten feet,
although by close pinching the required distance
can be reduced. Standards require from fifteen
to twenty feet, depending upon the system of
training and the vigor of the variety. Strong
growing kinds like Bartlett will want twenty-five
feet for their full natural development.

THE PEAR. 89

VARIETIES OF PEARS.

We shall be troubled by the multiplicity of
kinds of real merit, and of quality varying
to suit various tastes. Many market garden-
ers will say that the Bartlett and Anjou are
enough for profit. But these do not cover
the seasons, and besides they do not give the
differing and the highest flavors. The follow-
ing list includes the principal kinds of merit;
quite too many for home use, or for market-
ing, but from which a selection may be made
to give a constant supply and suit every taste.

Doyenne d été. —The earliest good kind;
small, skin thin; melting, juicy, sweet; prized
as the first of the season. Last of July.

Giffard. — Medium size, pyriform; skin
greenish-yellow, marbled on the sunny side ;
stalk long; flesh juicy, melting, slightly vinous,
and very good. Middle of August.

Rostiezer.— Small, pyriform; green, with
brownish cheek; juicy, sweet, high flavored.

Clapp. — Large, pyriform; green, marbled
red; rich, juicy, vinous, excellent ; better and
earlier than the Bartlett. Too transient for
the market.

Bartlett.— Very productive, thrifty, and un-
rivalled as an early market fruit. It is not

90 FRUIT CULTURE.

of highest flavor, and to some tastes the musky
aroma is disagreeable. Its intrinsic value is un-
equaled. Early September.

Belle Lucrative. — Medium size, roundish, pyr-
iform ; pale yellowish-green, slightly russeted ;
very juicy, melting, rich, and excellent. Not
uniform, but when well grown it is unsurpassed.
Hardy and productive. September.

Louise Bonne. — Large, pyriform; smooth,
pale yellowish-green, with brownish red cheek in
the sun; flesh melting, very juicy, sub-acid,
vinous; often astringent, but excellent when
well grown. Very productive and a valuable
market fruit. October.

Bosc. — Large, long, pyriform; neck long
and narrow; dull cinnamon russet; flesh white,
very buttery, rich, and deliciously perfumed.
October. Bears evenly and moderately ; frnit
is liable to drop. One of the best.

Seckel. — Small, ovate ; dull yellowish-brown,
with a russet red cheek ; very fine grained, sweet,
very juicy ; the standard of excellence. October.
Rather tardy in bearing, but becomes very pro-
ductive and requires severe thinning and high
culture to insure fruit of fair size. Keeps but a
short time.

Sheldon. — Large, broad, roundish ; grcenish
russet or cinnamon brown; flesh slightly coarse,

THE PEAR. 91

but melting, very juicy, vinous, sweet, and ex-
cellent. October, November. When picked in
season it does not rot at the core.

Comice. — Large, obtuse, pyriform ; greenish-
yellow, ripening to clear yellow; flesh white,
melting, juicy, sweet, rich, and aromatic. No-
vember. One of the most promising of recent
introduction.

Anjou. — Large, short, pyriform; greenish-
yellow, with a dull red cheek to the sun; stem
very short; flesh yellowish-white, buttery, melt-
ing, rich, vinous, high flavor. November to
January. A vigorous, healthy, hardy, produc-
tive, uniform variety, which is regarded in all
sections of the country as unsurpassed in all
good qualities.

Dana's Hovey. — Small, or medium, obovate ;
pale yellow with some russet; melting, rich,
juicy, high aromatic flavor, ranking with the
Seckel; quality best. Early winter.

Lawrence. — Above medium in size; obtuse,
pyriform; clear light yellow; juicy, melting,
sweet, aromatic. Early winter. Productive,
ripens easily, uniformly, and is one of the most
reliable.

Josephine de Malines.— Above medium,
roundish, stalk very long; color pale yellow,
with some russet; flesh rose tinted, melting,

92 FRUIT GULTURE.

sweet, juicy, with a peculiar and agreeable aroma.
An excellent late winter kind.

In addition, the foregoing list may be ex-
tended with Bloodgood, Dearborn, Osband,
Elizabeth, Souvenir du Congress, Brandywine,
and Tyson for summer; Howell, Hardy, Buf-
fum, Flemish, Paradise, Boussock, Superfine,
Urbaniste, Mount Vernon, Clairgeau, Diel, and
Duchesse d’Angouléme, for autumn and for suc-
cession in ripening ; Vicar, Nelis, Aremberg, and
Easter, for winter.

Dearborn is small, but of fine quality ; Osband
is small, productive, soon loses its quality;
Elizabeth is quite small, beautiful, and excellent.
Souvenir du Congress, very large, beautiful
yellow, with red cheek, pyriform; buttery, melt-
ing, quality moderate; ripens with the Bartlett.
Brandywine is above medium, juicy, excellent,
not productive. Tyson, melting, juicy, sweet,
very productive when the tree gets age. Howell
and Hardy are large, excellent, and productive.
Buffum is as hardy and productive as an apple;
very vigorous, medium in size and quality.
Flemish is very hardy at the Northern limits,
where it does well, and is excellent in quality.
Its liability to crack makes it worthless in many
localities. Paradise is a long, pyriform russet
fruit of vinous flavor ; tree of straggling growth.

THE PEAR. 93

Boussock, a large, roundish fruit, full of juice if
picked early. Superfine, medium size, very
juicy, sub-acid and excellent in quality. Ur-
baniste, not an early but an abundant bearer;
fruit of good size, pale yellow, juicy, melting,
excellent. Mount Vernon, a good-sized russet-
brown fruit, with a peculiar cinnamon flavor ;
may not prove productive. Clairgeau, one of
the largest and most attractive ; pyriform, yellow,
shaded with orange and crimson; flesh granu-
lar, often coarse and poor. Diel, large, obtuse,
slightly coarse, but melting and excellent; of
late the fruit has been liable to crack and the
tree is subject to blight. Duchesse d’ Angouléme:
this very large fruit is well known, and when
well grown it ranks as very good, and is a profit-
able market variety. When small it is worth-
less. It is best on the quince stock. Vicar is a
large, long pyriform fruit of moderate quality,
but excellent for cooking. Its uniform produc-
tiveness and long continuance render it valuable
for this purpose. Nelis: the tree is slender
and straggling in growth, and liable to overbear,
when it produces very small and inferior fruit.
When at its best the fruit is medium in size,
fine-grained, vinous, aromatic, and excellent ;
skin yellowish-green, much russeted. Aremberg :
A most delicious winter pear, but the tree is of

94 FRUIT CULTURE.

slow, unhealthy growth, and the fruit variable
and imperfect. Laster, one of the latest and
best in quality; large, yellowish, fine grained,
very buttery, juicy, sweet, and rich. It re-
quires a warm soil, high culture, and careful
thinning. In cool, not too dry cellars, it may
be kept until April. The season is rather short
for its full maturity in the Northern States.

Keiffer.— A seedling of the Chinese Sand
Pear, crossed with some cultivated variety.
Fruit large, greenish-yellow; juicy, moderate
in quality. It is said to be excellent for can-
ning. It has been greatly overpraised by
dealers. October to January.

Idaho. — This is a new variety, said to be
remarkably hardy, vigorous, and very fruitful.
Fruit of largest size, golden russet, juicy,
vinous, and of first quality. It has marked
characteristics in growth, and its merits will
be watched with interest. September.

Wilder. — This is also a new and very early
variety, of beautiful appearance, and is said to
be the best of its season, by good judges who
have tested it.

Besides the*varieties here named there are
numerous kinds which have some peculiar ex-
cellence or local reputation. Yet no one would
wish to extend the list, or to plant half the
number, except for the purpose of testing, or for

THE PEAR. 95

exhibition. The marketman would select Bart-
lett and Anjou, adding Seckel and Sheldon
as his next step, and resolutely stopping with
Louise Bonne, Duchesse, and Lawrence. The
amateur requires variety and a continuous supply.
To secure this, the following eight will be the
least number, viz.: Doyenne d’été, Clapp, Bart-
lett, Louise Bonne, Seckel, Sheldon, Anjou,
Dana’s Hovey. If his grounds will admit, he
will also want the Early Giffard, and will cast
longing eyes towards Rostiezer. Belle Lucrative
he must have, and he would like Hardy and
Howell. Bosc, Superfine, Comice, and Urba-
niste are too good to pass. Vicar is wanted by
the cook, and we would like to add Lawrence
and Josephine to our winter kinds. The rejec-
tion of other varieties seems arbitrary, and thus
we see how hard it. is to keep within reasonable
limits. Of course this number of trees will give
more fruit than one family can consume, how-
ever large it may be. From the list you must
then make your choice and cut down as you see
fit.
INJURIOUS INSECTS.

Although the number is numerous, yet they
are comparatively easy to detect, and are not
difficult to control.

96 FRUIT CULTURE.

The Pear Tree Borer (Aigeria pyri). — This
is a white grub, much smaller than the apple-
borer, which feeds upon the inner bark near the
base of the tree. Its presence may be detected
by the fine sawdust castings, and the larve be
destroyed by puncturing with a wire. A mound
of ashes or lime around the trunk, or a coat of
caustic paste in early summer, would prevent
the deposit of eggs.

The Pear Blight Beetle (Xyleborus pyri). —
Though the effect of this insect upon the small
branches of the pear is similar to the fire blight,
the cause is quite distinct. Upon examination
the twigs will be found perforated, at the base of
the buds, with pin-holes caused by a small brown
beetle, about one tenth of an inch long. The
remedy is to cut off the blighted limbs as soon
as noticed, before the beetle has escaped, and
burn them.

The Pear Tree Psylia is a small, yellow, jump-
ing insect, about one tenth of an inch long, which,
with its sharp beak, punctures the young growth
about the middle of May, causing the sap to
exude, and attracting numerous flies and ants to
gather on the drooping branches. Syringe with
caustic suds or with kerosene emulsion.

The Pear Slug is a slimy, blackish creature
about half an inch long, with a small head and

THE PEAR. QT

large, swollen anterior, —a disgusting, ill-smelling
insect, which, when numerous, about the middle
of June and again in August, will consume all
the tissues of the leaves, stripping the trees en-
tirely bare of foliage. Hellebore, mixed in the
proportion of one ounce to two gallons of water,
and syringed upon the foliage, quickly destroys
the slug. Paris-green and kerosene solution
would doubtless be equally effectual.

Grasshoppers sometimes eat the foliage of the
pear and are quite troublesome. Paris-green
will destroy them.

Twig Borer and Twig Primers are sometimes
found, but seldom cause much injury. The
remedy is to burn the twigs as soon as noticed,
the egg being laid in the twig.

The round-headed borer, the flat-headed
borer, the oyster-shell louse, the scurvy louse,
the fall-veb worm, and the codling moth,
which have already been described as injuri-
ous to the apple, also make their attacks upon
the pear. The same remedies may be used as
for the apple. The plum curculio also stings
the fruit of the pear to some extent. The
remedy will be given under the head of the

plum.
T

98 FRUIT CULTURE.

DISEASES.

Fire Blight is au obscure disease which has
proved very destructive, especially in some
sections of the West, destroying whole or-
chards, without the hope of remedy. In New
England it has not proved so fatal; and yet in
some years it is so destructive that it has
caused more discouragement than all other
evils combined. The prevailing opinion is that
it is caused by microbes, commencing at the
extremities of the tree, and working down-
wards with their poisonous influence, until the
tree is killed. Recent experiments have dem-
onstrated the fact that bacteria penetrate
either the blossoms or the succulent growth
of the branches. Certain it is that the disease
seems to extend from the top downwards, dur-
ing the season of growth, the leaves withering
and turning black on certain limbs, the bark
turning dark as the disease descends. It is
also certain that amputation below the affected
part will in most cases arrest the disease. But
heroic surgery is often necessary to make sure
of being below the virus. No definite theories
can be given in regard to soil, climate, or treat-
ment to prevent this disease. It is supposed
that too rank or immature growth, in rich,
damp bottom lands, favors the disease.

THE PEAR. 99

Favorable conditions of the atmosphere un-
doubtedly increase the development of bac-
teria, and it may be possible to check their
development by the use of the Bordeaux mix-
ture, eau celeste, or sulphur. Some experi-
ments in the spraying of trees have indicated
that the microbes can be held in check. Some
varieties, like Anjou, are comparatively ex-
empt. Keiffer is claimed to be blight-proof,
but the claim has been disputed. At present
the quick use of the amputating knife is the
most effectual remedy.

Cracking of the Fruit.— Many varieties, like
the Old St. Michael and Flemish Beauty, are
so liable to crack that they are considered
worthless in most sections. If this is caused
by fungous growth, spraying with the Bor-
deaux mixture may check the evil.

Pear Leaf-blight is caused by a fungus which
spreads over young seed beds in July and Au-
gust, causing the leaves to dry up and growth
to stop. Older trees suffer less. Spraying
the foliage frequently with the fungicides will
prove effectual.

Notwithstanding the formidable list of in-
sects and diseases, it is comparatively easy to
maintain healthy trees and raise sound fruit
of the pear, especially in New England.

CHAPTER VIL.
THE PEACH.

THOUGH indigenous to a warm climate, the
peach is cultivated in nearly every State of our
Union. Itis found, however, that a temperature
of —16° is pretty certain to kill the fruit buds.
The same results follow a much less extreme,
under some conditions, especially if the buds
have been excited by a warm winter sun. A
warm, protected sunny corner, or hill-side, is
therefore objectionable, as likely to induce a
premature excitement of the sap. Low grounds
are subject to the extreme of cold. Hence it
follows that high land, not to the degree of
bleakness, is best. In many instances, northern
slopes, which preserve a uniformly cold tempera-
ture, have been favorable, when warmer sites
have failed. It has been found that a mulch of
some non-conductor of heat, like shavings, ap-
plied in the latter part of winter, will retain the
frost in the ground, and thus retard the sap and
secure a crop.

THE PEACH. 101

A moderate degree of vigor of growth and a
thorough ripening of the wood are essential con-
ditions to hardiness in cold latitudes. A warm,
floury loam, upon a subsoil which gives good nat-
ural drainage, is most suitable for the peach. If
the soil is too rich in vegetable matter or nitro-
genous manures, rank and immature wood is the
result. In England, where the soil and especially
the climate are usually moist, the peach is worked
almost always upon the plum stock, which prefers
a cooler and stronger soil. The tendency is also
to dwarf the tree and to promote longevity.

In this country the results of grafting upon the
plum have not been as satisfactory as would seem
to be warranted in theory. Experiments in this
direction have been limited, and, so far, the im-
pression prevails that the trees are not as vigor-
ous and healthy as those upon the natural stock.
There is great difference, however, in the various
plum stocks, the horse plum, the Canada, St.
Julien, Damson, Myrobolan, etc., offering an im-
portant field for experiment, with the view to
obtain exemption from the root disease known
as the ‘‘ yellows,” as well as to extend the cul-
ture to moist localities.

In the great peach region centring in Mary-
land, it is customary to take but two or three
crops from an orchard and then root up the trees.

102 FRUIT CULTURE.

The reasons given for this practice are that it is
more profitable to tax the trees to their utmost
while they are young and vigorous, and then
speedily to abandon them before they become en-
feebled by the “yellows.” By proper culture and
judicious pruning the trees may be continued for
twenty, or even for forty years, and doubtless
even this period might be doubled, as it is in
France, with proper care to nourish and keep in
health. It is, however, a tree so easily produced
and so quick to come into bearing, that it is gen-
erally best to get the vigor of youth with every
decade. The law of rotation would also indicate
that a new location would yield advantages.
Wood ashes are considered to be the best fer-
tilizer for the peach. They furnish the principal
elements of food required, and it is believed they
impart a vigor which enables the tree to resist the
disease known as “yellows.” Professor Goess-
man mentions two forms of fertilizer in use at the
Massachusetts Agricultural College. No. 1 con-
sists of rectified Peruvian guano, thirty pounds ;
dissolved bone-black, twenty-five pounds; sul-
phate of potassa (Stassfurt salt, having twenty-
five to twenty-eight per cent. of potassium oxide),
thirty pounds; crude sulphate of magnesia
Ckieserite), twenty pounds. This amount for
one tenth of an acre. No. 2 contains the same

THE PEACH. 103

amounts of guano and bone-black, and muriate
of potash twenty pounds. Equally satisfactory
results are obtained from both applications, in
vigor and fruitfulness and apparent recovery
from the “yellows.” (See Transactions of the
Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 1882, part
I, pages 120 and 180.) The simpler form of
1,000 pounds of bone meal and 3800 pounds of
high grade muriate of potash, per acre, will
probably be found equally efficacious and more
readily obtained.

Trees one year from the bud are most suitable
for transplanting, and this should be done only
in the spring, in the Northern States. The wise
course is to cut the trees back to a single stem
not over three feet in height. As soon as the
buds have made a start of two or three inches,
rub off all but the one selected as likely to be
the straightest, for a new trunk. The nearer
this is to the ground the better, provided it is
above the point where it was budded. The old
stem remains for a few weeks, to which the
young shoot is tied for support, until sufficiently
strong to sustain itself. Early in July this old
trunk is cut away close down to the new shoot,
leaving no stub to prevent a speedy healing over
of the cut. No further pruning will be required
this season. The new shoot will attain an aver-

104 FRUIT CULTURE.

age height of about six feet, under good culture.
Early in March of the season following, the
lower branches are to be removed to the desired
height for forming a head, giving a clear trunk
of three or four feet. The top shoots are then to
be shortened back nearly to the stem, leaving one
top bud for a leader and four side buds for per-
manent side limbs. Beginning thus aright in
the formation of a symmetrical head, the after
process will be very simple. It is only important
to remember that the tendency of the peach is
to push its vitality to the extremity of the new
growth, on which alone the fruit buds are formed.
If left to its natural growth, it would soon
become straggling, with a long, naked, and bar-
ren trunk and branches. To prevent this it is
only necessary to cut back the growth of the
previous season one half to two thirds of its
length in March of each year. In this way the
tree is kept compact and symmetrical, and a
sufficient amount of new wood will remain to
give all the fruit the tree can carry to perfection.
Little other pruning will be found necessary,
unless perchance the head becomes crowded,
when a moderate summer thinning out of the
weaker shoots will remedy the evil.

In the moist and foggy climate of England
peaches and other fruits are largely trained upon

THE PEACH. 105

walls, in order to obtain more heat and sunlight.
For this purpose minute directions are given in
pruning, in order to maintain new growth within
the limited space and develop a sufficient num-
ber of fruit buds. This mode of training will
also afford facility for protecting the buds from
the cold of winter, by a covering of mats hung
in front. Yet it is found, in the clear, hot sum-
mer climate of this country, that the natural
form of growth is most conducive to health and
productiveness. Undoubtedly this mode of train-
ing may be practiced with success, where it is
desirable to keep the tree within limits by the side
of a walk, or where winter protection is essential.
But under ordinary circumstances the great
amount of care involved by this mode is worse
than wasted; the results are meagre, and a year
of neglect is ruinous.

Peaches may be cultivated in pots or tubs
with great success, even in our most northern
latitudes, and with certainty of an annual crop.
And this plan is to be recommended in sections
where the crop is uncertain, on account of the
moderate amount of labor involved, the pleasure
in watching the thrifty process, and the cer-
tainty of speedy and satisfactory results.

In selecting trees for this purpose choose a
medium size, one year from the bud, and cut

106 FRUIT CULTURE.

back to within six inches of the ground. Earthen
pots at least a foot in diameter, outside measure,
at the top, or better yet, a foot inside, as involv-
ing less care and larger results, and having three
good sized drainage holes at the bottom, can be
procured at any pottery. The holes are not to
be covered with large crocks, as is usual, but
rather with a small piece of inverted sod or
sphagnum, which will allow the roots to pene-
trate to the soil beneath. The soil, which it will
be well to have prepared in the fall previous,
will be a mellow pasture sod, or moderately
retentive loam, having but a small percentage of
vegetable matter. Fresh hard wood ashes are
the most suitable fertilizer to add and work in,
six months previous to use, at the rate of half
a bushel of ashes toa barrel of soil. Double or
treble this amount of leached ashes would be re-
quired, according to its strength. Where it is
difficult to obtain wood ashes a relative amount
of the fertilizer, as recommended by Professor
Maynard, may be used.

This compost being in fine tilth in April, and
comparatively dry, it will readily work in among
the roots, and pack firmly without hardening.
Be careful not to plant the roots too deep, keep-
ing them as near to the surface as they stood in
the nursery. With a pestle pound the soil care-

THE PEACH. 107

fully, but very firmly, among the roots and around
the pot. This work cannot be too thoroughly
done, for upon this the future vigor of the tree
will largely depend. A spot is now selected,
convenient to water and having the full sun,
where the pots are to be plunged, in rows four feet
apart each way, as deeply as possible without
allowing surface water to flow into them. A
thorough saturating of the soil will now be in
order. After this, occasional waterings will be
necessary throughout the season, sufficient to
maintain a fair but not excessive degree of moist-
ure at all times. The firm potting will make
this comparatively easy. A slight mulch outside
of the pots will also contribute to the same end.
A strong jet of water applied to the foliage will
aid to a vigorous growth and also prevent red
spider. Four or five shoots may be allowed to
grow, giving the tree a bush form, as being low,
and therefore more easily housed in winter. Just
before the ground freezes permanently, the pots
are to be raised and replunged in a cold frame,
built for the purpose. This may be simply a
pit, the sides of which are supported by a stone
wall, or by planks, with a tight roof of matched
boards. Drainage for the pit should be pro-
vided, and also ducts at each end, in order to
carry off the damp air. These may be closed in

108 FRUIT CULTURE.

extremely cold weather. Moderate freezing and
uniform cold is desirable, but this must not ex-
tend to the degree of injuring the pots. These
trees may be brought into a forcing house at any
time after a short rest, and with a gradual start-
ing may be brought to maturity of fruit by the
latter part of May, and afterwards. Or they
may remain in the pit until April, and then be
brought out for open culture as soon as the
danger from severe frosts is past. The holes at
the bottom of the pots are to be cleaned, to
facilitate the protrusion of new roots. Under-
neath where each pot is to stand two shovelfuls
of cow or well-rotted horse manure are to be
worked into the soil. The pots are then to be
plunged as in the previous year, standing upon
the manure. The young growth is to be short-
ened-in, usually about one half, and as an aver-
age, each shoot should develop half a dozen
fruits, or from twenty-five to thirty to a tree.
By careful culture these trees may be continued
for several seasons, the roots being renewed at
the bottom each season, and also a shift into a
larger pot being made, as the size of the tree
increases. A new tree would be found best after
the third or fourth crop. The great danger at-
tending this plan is in the wintering, sharp
watching being necessary to guard against moist-

THE PEACH. 109

ure, too severe freezing, and, on the other hand,
too early a start. A cold cellar is a safer place,
provided it can have some frost and be kept nei-
ther too wet nor too dry. Such culture cannot
be called profitable, in the usual sense of the
word, but in its influence, and in the satisfac-
tion which it gives in yielding complete success
against odds, it is fully rewarding.

In answer to the frequent question whether
the peach may ever again be expected to be as
certain as in former years, we have to consider

-that the soil is not virgin; that the climate is
more arid and fluctuating, by reason of the re-
moval of the forests, and that the “ yellows” and
other diseases are more prevalent than formerly.
We can renew the exhausted qualities of the
soil. We can surround our trees with sheltering
belts. We are gradually becoming better ac-
quainted with the nature of diseases, and are
better able to apply remedies. There is there-
fore encouragement to plant, with a good degree
of assurance of fair returns. Still, the added
liability to winter-killing of the fruit buds, not-
withstanding every precaution, will compel us to
regard this crop as uncertain. But the conditions
vary so much in the different sections of our vast
country that any deficiency in one section will
be likely to be fully supplied from the super-

110 FRUIT CULTURE.

abundance of some other more favored locality.
The fruit is so luscious, aud is so speedily and
cheaply obtained, when obtained at all, that we
must not relax efforts to secure it. Unlike the
pear, this fruit never reaches its quality except
as ripened on the tree. Hence it is the more
important to raise our own supply.

The season of the peach is short. The list
of varieties should consequently be short. Many
varieties reproduce themselves from the seed, or
are so near the parent as scarcely to deserve
distinction. A few old favorites still retain their
reputation, in the face of all the novelties which
are continually brought forward. These may in
time depreciate in merit and improved seedlings
may take their place. Orchardists will confine
themselves to such large, productive, and vigor-
ous kinds as Early Crawford, Old Mixon, per-
haps adding Mountain Rose and Late Craw-
ford, but in order to obtain a continued supply
and the rich variety of flavors, we must draw
freely from the list. Other kinds of local merit
are constantly presented, with which the ama-
teur will gladly experiment.

In the colder sections, where the thermom-
eter is hable to run sixteen degrees below
zero, such varieties as the Crawfords are very
uncertain, and it is well to plant more hardy

e
THE PEACH, 111

kinds. The buds of Old Mixon are much
less likely to be winter-killed. Elberta is a
new variety, supposed to be a seedling of the
Chinese Cling, though itself a free stone. It
is described as large, yellow with red cheek,
juicy and high flavored, and very hardy. It is
believed that other seedlings may be found,
perhaps not of the highest blood, but more
hardy, and well worthy of culture in the more
northern sections. Two or three of these
seedlings are now in the market, which are
said to endure the severest cold of Massachu-
setts without injury to the buds. As a rule
the earlier varieties are least likely to have
their fruit buds injured by the winter.

Wonderful is a new variety which is attract-
ing attention in New Jersey as a large golden
yellow and carmine fruit of excellent qual-
ity, ripening very late, and keeping after all
others are gone. It is doubtful if it be reli-
able in northern sections.

VARIETIES OF THE PEACH.

The following brief list embraces the most
popular kinds at the present date, which cover
the entire season of ripening.

Amsden, Alexander, and Waterloo are ear-

112 FRUIT CULTURE.

liest, ripening about August 1st in the vicinity
of Boston ; all of medium or small size, adhering
considerably to the stone, but sweet and juicy.
Perhaps preference may be given to the first,
though Waterloo is new and may prove larger.

Early Beatrice follows, about August 10th;
is rather small, very juicy, melting, and good ;
red cheek ; needs thinning.

Early Rivers. — A large fruit, ripening the
middle of August; of a creamy white color, with
a delicate pink cheek, flesh melting, rich, deli-
cious in flavor.

Early York. — Large, nearly white, with
dark red cheek ; very juicy, with rich, excellent
flavor. Middle of August.

Mountain Rose. — Large, roundish, nearly
covered with dark red; juicy and good; free
stone. Tree hardy, vigorous, and productive.
Middle of August.

Cooledge’s. — Large, roundish, clear white,
with red dots, deep scarlet cheek in the sun;
very melting, juicy, rich, sub-acid ; liable to rot.
End of August.

George the Fourth. — Large, nearly white,
dotted red, with a deep red cheek; flesh slightly
red, melting, juicy, excellent.

Vellow Rareripe. — Large, deep yellow, juicy,
vinous, one of the best, Last of August,

THE PREACH. 113

Crawford's Early. — Very large ; oval with
a prominent point; skin yellow, with red cheek ;
very juicy, sub-acid, quality excellent, but not
best. Early September. Tree vigorous, pro-
ductive, and the most popular variety either for
the garden or orchard.

Snow. — Medium size; clear, creamy white
skin and flesh; juicy, beautiful, and excellent
for preserving. Early September.

Old Mixon Frec. — Large; pale yellowish
white, marbled red, with a deep red cheek in
the sun ; melting, rich, and excellent; succeeds
in all sections at the North, and disputes the
palm with the Early Crawford, as most valu-
able. Middle of September.

Late Crawford.— Very large ; yellow with a
broad red cheek; rich, juicy, vinous, and good.
Deservedly the most popular late kind. Last of
September.

Foster is a seedling from Early Crawford,
which it much resembles, but has been thought
to be an improvement. It is worthy of trial.

Stump the World. — Resembles Old Mixon
and is a little later in ripening.

INJURIOUS INSECTS AND DISEASES OF THE
PEACH.

The flat-headed apple borer attacks the trunk,
8

114 FRUIT CULTURE.

and the codling moth and plum cureulio affect
the fruit, remedies for which will be found in
their appropriate place.

The Peach Borer (dgeria exitiosa). — This
is a widespread and most destructive pest. The
steel blue female moth, which is about an inch
in length, deposits her eggs singly, on the bark
of the tree at the surface of the ground. The
larva soon hatches and works downward in the
bark of the root, causing a copious exuding of
gum mingled with worm castings. The grub
is of a whitish yellow color, and over a half inch
in length when mature. The winter is spent in
the longitudinal grooves which have been cut in
the roots, the moth issuing in the spring follow-
ing. To prevent the deposit of the egg a mound
of ashes or lime may be drawn up, or, still better,
a band of tarred paper or similar protection may
be tied around the trunk. In the fall or early
spring the trees should be examined, and if the
gummy exudations are found, the base should be
laid bare of earth, and scalding hot water should
be freely applied. This is found to be effectual,
but prevention is better than cure.

A *eaterpillar, a leaf roller, and a few minor
insects sometimes inflict injury, but not to a
serious extent.

The Peach Yellows. — This is by far the most

THE PEACH. 115

serious disease to which this tree is subject.
Careful microscopic observations have shown
that in all cases of diseased trees different forms
of fungous growth enter first on the surface of
the trunk or branches, and penetrate throughout
the woody tissues. The tree becomes of a sickly
yellow color, the foliage is much reduced in
size, the fruit ripens prematurely, and is insipid
in flavor. The debatable question is, whether
these fungi are the cause of disease, or only a
consequence of the enfeebled condition of the
tree. Working upon the last supposition, ex-
periments have been tried at the Massachusetts
Agricultural College to impart vigor to the tree,
by a liberal supply of the deficient element of
potash. It is stated by Professor Goessmann
that chronic cases of yellows” have been re-
covered, after a treatment of three or four
years, by the use of muriate of potash applied
to the roots. It certainly appears to be prob-
able that in this case, as is generally supposed
to be true in cases of white mildews upon the
grape and gooseberry, the parasitic fungous
growth is invited by some enfeebled condition
of the plant. Instances of recovery, under
treatment, plainly point in this direction.

If, instead of either of the formulas given
above as complete fertilizers, muriate of potash

116 FRUIT CULTURE.

is alone applied as a remedy for the ‘ yellows,”
Professor Goessman recommends three or four
pounds to a tree six or eight years old, spread
upon a circle of eight feet radins, but not ap-
proaching within one foot of the trunk. <A thin
mulch of litter spread over the ground would in-
sure a more uniform and a safer distribution of
the potash, which should be afterwards applied.
In this connection it should be stated that the
disease appears to be contagious, and that cases
are cited of inoculating young and vigorous
trees by contact with diseased trees. On the
other hand, repeated experiments in the free use
of potash have indicated that a vigor of consti-
tution may be given which enables the tree to
resist the attacks of parasitic fungi. Should
this prove to be true on general trial, it would
indeed give a new phase to peach culture, and
prove an inestimable boon to the country.

The Peach or Plum Rot (Monilia fructi-
yena).— This is caused by a fungus which is
the cause of great loss to some varieties in
some seasons. See a full description of the
disease and the remedies, under the head of
Plum Rot, page 124.

NECTARINES. 117

As these are only smooth-skinned varieties
of the peach; no special directions in regard
to their treatment are required. None of the
varieties reach the highest standard, in qual-
ity, of the peach, and owing to the smooth
surface of the skin they are greatly subject
to the attacks of the curculio. For these rea-
sons they are not to be recommended for open
culture. The Downton, Early Violet, Elruge,
Hardwicke, Hunt’s Tawny, Newington, and
Red Roman are desirable varieties, and the
Boston is one of the most beautiful of fruits.
A glass house will be found to be the most
practicable mode for bringing this fruit to
perfection. The remedy for the curculio may
be found under the head of the Plum.

CHAPTER VIII.
THE PLUM.

THis tree is so hardy in all parts of the coun-
try, and the fruit is so desirable for the table
and for preserving, that we might expect its
general cultivation. Yet it has been so seri-
ously affected, in recent years, by the black knot,
and by the curculio, that its culture has been to a
great degree neglected. But by a persistent use
of remedies it is believed these evils may be met
and conquered. Provided a sufficient amount of
care be given, it is safe to say that many varieties
will produce regular and rewarding crops. The
most suitable soil is a rich, moist loam, inclining
to clay. In this respect it is in marked contrast
with its near relative, the peach, which prefers a
warm and light soil. Hence the practice of in-
terchanging the stocks of these two fruits, in
order to adapt the roots to the peculiarities of
the soil. The plum, however, does not make as
large and permanent growth when budded on
the peach root, as when on the plum root. A

THE PLUM. 119

fairly retentive loam will do very well, with
proper enriching; but it is necessary to give
generous culture, and keep down any growth
of grass, especially when the trees are young,
in order to give vigor to resist disease. In all
cases of neglect, black knot is sure to put in
an appearance. The proper distance for plant-
ing is from fifteen to twenty feet, according to
the growth of the variety ; the Green Gage, ¢.g.,
being small, while the Lombard and Imperial
Gage are quite in contrast in vigorous growth.

As there are many varieties of the plum
which are of the highest excellence as a des-
sert fruit, and others are valuable for culinary
purposes, and as the tree flourishes in soils
and sections where the peach is uncertain, it
is greatly to be hoped that the recently dis-
covered remedies for the rot, the black knot,
and the curculio, will prove so effectual as to
encourage more general culture of this val-
uable fruit.

INSECTS AND DISEASES OF THE PLUM.

The Plum Curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphe).
This is the most serious difficulty in plum cul-
ture, and the evil is widespread. The perfect
insect is a dark-brown beetle, not more than a
fourth ofan inch long. Alighting upon a young

120 FRUIT CULTURE.

plum she makes a crescent-like incision under
the skin of the fruit, into which she pushes a sin-
gle egg; then passing to another fruit, deposit-
ing from five to ten daily, until her stock of fifty
to a hundred is exhausted. The egg hatches in
a few days, and the larva feeds upon the fruit,
gradually boring to the stone. The grub ma-
tures in from three to five weeks, and is then
about two fifths of an inch long, and of a glossy
yellowish color. Usually the working of the
grub causes the plum to drop prematurely, and
before the larva is full grown. It is therefore
important to collect and destroy this fruit at
once. If this is neglected the larva descends
from four to six inches into the earth, and in
from three to six weeks the chrysalis is trans-
formed to the beetle, which hibernates under the
loose bark of trees. As soon as the plum is in
blossom the moths begin
to fly, and their work com-
mences as soon as the fruit
begins to form. Fig. 6
shows the size of the bee-
tle, and the puncture of
the fruit. Jf alarmed, it
drops to the ground, feign- Fig. 6

ing death. This peculiarity affords an effectual
method of destroying it. <A large cotton sheet

THE PLUM. 121

(open half way up, to allow the tree to enter
and stand in the centre) is spread under the
tree, extending out as far as the branches.
Upon a sudden jar of the tree the curculio
instantly drops upon the sheet, with folded
limbs, as if in the repose of death. Such de-
ceit should be quickly made a reality. Small
trees may be jarred by hand. For larger trees
the stump of a limb, or an iron spike driven
into the tree, may serve as a place to give the
blow with the mallet, thus avoiding bruising
of the bark. It is essential to commence in
season, and to follow up the process as long
as there are any beetles to catch. With this
care success is certain. Probably an easier
and more effectual mode of destroying the
beetle will be found in spraying the trees with
the arsenites as soon as the fruit is set, and
again ten days after. The mode of applying
is described on page 219.

The Plum-Gouger (Coceotorus scutellaris).
This is an insect much resembling the curculio
in habits, but instead of the crescent-shaped
puncture, it makes a round hole in the fruit.
The larva also penetrates the stone, instead of
working around it. The beetle drops in the
same manner as the curculio, but is more alert,
and therefore is not so readily caught. It is

122 FRUIT CULTURE.

common at the West, but less so in New Eng-
land. Remedy the same as for curculio.

The Plum Sphinx and several other cater-
pillars feed upon the leaves of the plum to
some extent, but have not proved numerous
enough to cause serious injury. Hand pick-
ing is, thus far, a simple remedy.

The peach borer, the flat-headed apple-borer,
the pear blight beetle, the apple tent caterpil-
lar, the forest tent caterpillar, the canker-
worm, the fall-web worm, and the pear slug
do more or less injury to the plum, and are to
be treated as suggested for the apple and pear.
The codling moth sometimes injures the fruit.

Plum Knot (Plowrightia morbosa). Until
recently the cause of this disease has been un-
discovered. Superficial observers have jumped
to the conclusion that because insects are often
found harboring in the large excrescences they
are therefore the cause. It is now, however,
well established that they are only a conse-
quence, the cause being a minute fungus which
fastens upon the limbs and trunk of the plum,
and also of the cherry. In 1876 Professor
Farlow, of Harvard College, published a his-
tory of this fungus and of its mode of repro-
duction. It appears from his observations and
the more recent studies of Professor Scribner

THE PLUM. 123

and others, that the slightly elevated projec-
tions, which give to the surface of the knot a
pimply appearance, are spores, which ripen in
May and are thrown off to find a lodgment on
other branches. Here the growth is slight
until the spring following, when the develop-
ment becomes very rapid. During the month
of June following, the diseased growth pre-
sents a dark olive green color. This is due to
a vast number of reproductive spores which
are thrown off, after which the fungus con-
tinues active in the knot to mature the crop
of spores for the following May. After this
May crop the fungus dies, and the knot be-
comes a mass of dead tissue and a harbor for
various injurious insects. Thus it appears that
the fungus has a life of two seasons, throwing
off its first crop of spores a year after lodg-
ment, and afterwards developing the mature
knot and ripening a final crop in May. It
will be seen that the removal of the knots
after this stage will have no effect in checking
the disease. The removals should be in the
previous stages of growth. Spraying the trees
with the sulphate of copper or the Bordeaux
mixture about the first of May, and again in
three or four weeks, will destroy the spores
which are just ripening. But this will not

124 FRUIT CULTURE.

reach the mycelium which penetrates beneath
the surface. The knots should be cut out and
the wounds painted over with a solution of
sulphate of iron, or pasted with a putty made
with whiting and kerosene oil. With a vigi-
lant use of these preventives and remedies, we
may expect comparative exemption. But a
. thoroughly affected tree should be rooted out
at once. There ought also to be a statute
penalty for the neglect of diseased trees.
Plum Rot (Monilia fructigena). This is a
fungus which is widely distributed, and is espe-
cially destructive to plums, peaches, cherries,
and other stone fruits, causing great loss by
rotting, especially in hot and sultry weather,
when the conditions are most favorable for its
rapid development. It is said that a single
grayish white patch upon a fruit or twig may
produce many thousands, perhaps millions, of
spores, each one being capable of being car-
ried by the wind to a new lodgment. As the
mycelium penetrates below the surface, it is not
affected hy spraying, but the spores would un-
doubtedly be destroyed by this process. The
fungus lives over winter in the dried fruit and
twigs which it has destroyed. Hence the im-
portance of collecting all infected fruit as soon
as it is discovered, and of burning the twigs

THE PLUM. 125

and decaying leaves in the fall. Spray the
trees with the ammoniacal solution of the car-
bonate of copper in early spring, before the
buds are open. Continue to spray at intervals
of about ten days, substituting sulphide of
potassium as the fruit advances towards matu-
rity. It is probable that a faithful observance
of these rules will secure exemption from this
serious evil of plum rot.

Leaf Spot Fungus (Septoria cerasina). This
is often called the “shot hole” disease, as de-
scribing the appearance of the leaves when the
dead tissue drops out, leaving a round hole.
Although the disease is very generally distrib-
uted, and is found upon the cherry as well as
the plum, yet the injury has not been serious.
As the fungus buries itself in the leaf tissues,
spraying with the copper compounds must be
used as a preventive before the lodgment.

Leaf Rust (Puccinia pruni-spinose). This
fungus causes yellowish brown spots on the
under surface, becoming reddish on the upper
surface of the leaves. Spray with the fungi-
cides in the early part of the season.

Plum Bladders are the inflated fruit of
the Chickasaw and other American varieties,
caused also by fungous growth. The bladders
should be picked and destroyed.

126 FRUIT CULTURE.

VARIETIES OF THE PLUM.

Abundance (Botan).— Of recent introduc-
tion from the Orient. A promising very early
variety. Fruit large, lemon-yellow, turning
to cherry; rich and juicy; excellent, very
productive.

Bradshaw. — Large, oval, reddish-purple ;
brisk, juicy; rather coarse, but valuable as
being vigorous and productive.

Green Gage. — This is one of the earliest to
ripen, and has no superior in quality. It is
slow in growth, and in some seasons and locali-
ties the fruit is liable to crack. Fruit small,
yellowish-green; flesh melting, juicy, very
sweet, and unequalled in flavor.

Lawrence's Favorite. — Large, yellowish-
green; juicy, sprightly, vinous, melting; ex-
cellent, productive.

These two ripen about the middle of August,
and are the best early kinds.

The three following are recommended as
ripening about the end of August.

Jefferson. — Large, oval, yellow; very juicy,
luscious.

Smith's Orleans. — Large, oval, reddish-pur-
ple, deep blue bloom; flesh slightly firm, juicy,
brisk, vinous; vigorous and productive.

THE PLUM. 127

Washington. — Large, roundish-oval; yellow-
ish-green, marked with red; sweet and rich;
tree very vigorous and productive.

Lombard also ripens at this season, and be-
cause of its hardiness, productiveness, adapta-
tion to light soils, and its vigor, it is much
esteemed, especially for market purposes; size
medium; violet red color; juicy, fair quality,
but not rich; reliable.

For September, the following succeed in
their order in ripening.

McLaughlin. — Large, roundish, russety yel-
low ; juicy, sweet, luscious.

Imperial Gage. — Large, oval, green, tinged
yellow; juicy, melting, rich; very productive.

Reine Claude De Bavay.— Roundish, oval,
greenish-yellow; firm, juicy, sugary; very pro-
ductive; one of the best.

Coe’s Golden. — Large, oval, light yellow ;
very firm; rich, sweet, not fine-grained, but
valuable for its lateness, wherever it ripens
before frosts.

Other varieties may be named, like the Ger-
man Prune for drying; Moore’s Arctic, for
northern sections; Simoni, a hardy Oriental
novelty resembling an apricot; Niagara, a
popular large red New York variety; and
many others might be added, though the list
is already quite to long for practical use.

128 FRUIT CULTURE.

APRICOTS.

The apricot is intermediate between the
plum and the peach, and may be worked on
either stock, but better on the former, to which
it is more nearly allied. As a rule, it is earlier
than the plum and the peach, and for this rea-
son is especially desirable. But it is quite as
liable to injury from the cold as the peach,
and also, the fruit being smooth-skinned, the
crop is usually destroyed by the curculio.
Consequently it is a fruit rarely seen, and it
is rightly regarded as one of the most unre-
liable. By a persistent destruction of the cur-
culio this evil can be met. And by selecting
a deep, high, and dry soil, not exposed to
warm winter sun, we may hope to escape the
winter-killing of the buds, and thus obtain an
occasional crop. The Early Golden and Red
Masculine ripen early in July; the Peach,
Breda, Moorpark, and Yellow Alburge, in the
middle and latter part of July. Varieties of
Russian Apricots have been recently intro-
duced into this country, but it is doubtful if
any have yet been found to be of much value
except for cold sections,

CHAPTER IX.
THE CHERRY.

THE early season of ripening and the refresh-
ing acid of this fruit are points of great value.
The drawbacks are that the crop is uncertain, is
liable to rot, is subject to the depredation of birds,
and is difficult to gather, especially when the
trees are large. The intrinsic excellence of the
fruit is, however, so great, the tree is so vigor-
ous and ornamental, and requires so little care
and pruning, that, if we have room, we can well
afford to plant enough to give a liberal supply
of fruit for ourselves and also for the birds.
The cherry will thrive in nearly all good soils,
preferring a rather dry, gravelly loam. Budded
upon the Mazzard stock, the trees make the
most vigorous growth, and attain the largest
size. They should stand twenty feet apart, ex-
cepting the Dukes and Morellos, which are of
smaller growth and require fifteen feet space.
As an exception to all other fruits, and in order

to check excessive and immature growth, a
: :

130 FRUIT CULTURE.

thin, green sward of grass under the tree is
recommended.

The varieties of this fruit are usually divided
into four classes, indicating the habit of growth
and character of the fruit.

First Class. — Hearts. These are vigorous
and upright in growth ; fruit heart-shaped, sweet,
and tender-fleshed. Black Tartarean is one of
the largest, most productive and best in this best
class. Black Eagle is similar, a little later, and
not solarge. Early Purple Guigne ripens two to
three weeks earlier, about the 10th of June; is
juicy, rich, and sweet, productive, and specially
valuable for its earliness. Coe’s Transparent is
pale amber colored, very tender, sweet, juicy,
and excellent; middle to last of June. Downer’s
Late Red is juicy, sprightly, sub-acid, and con-
tinues until the middle of July, or later.

Second Class.— Biggareaus. Shaped like the
Hearts, but instead of the tender flesh they are
firm, crisp, and breaking. The growth is usually
more spreading. Yellow Spanish, Cleveland,
Napoleon, and Rockport are good examples of
this type.

Third Class.— Dukes. Growth smaller, with
stout, erect branches; thick and deeper green
leaves ; fruit round, usually tender, juicy, sweet,
or sub-acid ; color light red to dark brown ; very

THE CHERRY. 131

hardy and productive. May Duke ripens about
the middle of June. Late Duke and Louis
Philippe from the middle to the last of July,
and are valuable for dessert and for preserving.

Fourth Class. —Morellos. Like the Dukes,
the trees are small, but more slender, wiry, and
spreading in growth; fruit round, red, or dark
red, always acid. The English Morello is the
best of the type.

The cherry may be dwarfed to a considerable
degree by budding upon the Mahaleb stock, and
by pinching and shortening the growth, to give
a compact form. In this way the Dukes and
Morellos may be kept as shrubs, planted at a
distance of eight feet apart, or even less. The
Hearts as dwarfs would require at least ten feet
distance. The advantages resulting from this
low growth, in the comparative ease in protect-
ing and in gathering the fruit, are very apparent.
For garden culture, and especially if the soil in-
clines to be heavy and retentive, the Mahaleb
stock is recommended.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE CHERRY.

A copper-colored beetle, from seven to nine
tenths of an inch long, may sometimes be found
during the summer months running up and down

the trunks of the cherry and peach, The fe-

132 FRUIT CULTURE.

male deposits her eggs on the bark, and when
hatched the young larva bores through the bark
and lives upon the wood sap underneath. It
closely resembles the flat-headed apple borer
and may be destroyed in the same way.

The Cherry Bark Louse ( Lecanium cerasifex).
The scales of this insect may be found in the
spring adhering to the under side of the limbs
of cherry trees. These cover a mass of minute
eggs. As soon as hatched the young larve
spread over the bark of the young growth and
subsist upon the juices of the twig. The scales
may be removed by scrubbing with alkaline wash,
and the larve be destroyed by tobacco water.

The Cherry Plant Louse (J/ysus cerasi).
This black louse is hatched early in the spring,
from eggs deposited in the fissures and at the
base of buds in the previous autumn. They
come in such numbers as to cover and crowd the
young foliage and stunt the growth by sucking
the juices. In a few days they multiply so
enormously as to make the twigs black with the
mass, and to attract other insects to prey upon
and destroy vast multitudes of them. Later in
the season a second crop appears upon the ten-
der leaves at the ends of the shoots. When the
trees are small the twigs may be dipped in a pan
of strong tobacco water or soap-suds, On large

THE CHERRY. 133

trees a drenching with kerosene emulsion, or
tobacco, with a pump, will be effectual. The
Lady Bird and its larve destroy great numbers
of this louse, and it is a most useful ally.

The May Beetle, or May Bug, sometimes called
dor-bug, is the well known dark brown or black
beetle, nearly an inch in length, which comes
thumping into lighted rooms in May and June.
It feeds during the night upon the leaves of the
cherry and plum, and when numerous dees ex-
tensive injury. Its larve are the white grubs
which burrow under grass plats, feeding upon the
roots, and are often very destructive to lawns
and strawberry beds. They remain in the ground
for several years before reaching maturity, when
the larve attain nearly the size of a man’s little
finger. Trees which have been eaten by the
beetle should be shaken early in the morning,
when the bugs are sluggish, and will fall and
may be killed. As they are attracted by light
small bonfires at night would destroy multitudes
of them. They may also be entrapped by lan-
terns placed over tubs of soap-suds.

To some extent the tent and the fall caterpil-
lars, the canker-worm and the pear slug, injure
the foliage of the cherry.

The rose beetle, which is described in connec-
tion with the grape, often does serious injury to

134 FRUIT CULTURE.

the foliage of the cherry. Syringing with
strong tobacco water or kerosene emulsion is
the most effectual remedy.

The plum curculio does serious injury to
the cherry. As the fruit does not drop after
being punctured, the larvae mature in the
ripening fruit, and a large proportion of that
which is brought to market will be found to
be inhabited by the worm. The sale of the
fruit of course checks the increase of the in-
sect, but it is an uncanny method, and not to
be recommended. Jarring the trees, as in the
case of the plum, should be persistently tried.

The Brown Rot (Monilia).— This is: the
same fungus that is so destructive to the plum
and the peach. For a description of this and
the remedies, see under the Plum, page 124.

For the Leaf Rust and Powdery Mildew,
spray the trees with one of the fungicides.

CHAPTER X.
THE QUINCE.

No variety of the quince has yet been pro-
duced sufficiently tender for use as a dessert
fruit. Its flesh is also so firm that it will’
probably never come into use except for cook-
ing. But its excellence is so great, for this pur-
pose alone, as a preserve, and for flavoring other
sauces, that it is always in demand, and usually
at a high price. It should therefore find a place
in every garden. It requires a rich, deep, rather
moist and retentive soil, clean culture, and yearly
enriching, with stable manure spread over the
surface in the autumn. Under such generous
treatment the growth will be vigorous and the
danger will be that the trees will be injured by
the winter, in low ground. They should in such
case be protected by litter or earth mounds
around the roots, and by boughs stuck in the
ground around the bushes, to serve as wind and
sun breaks. As the quince is inclined to irregu-
lar growth and to throw numerous suckers from

136 FRUIT CULTURE.

the trunk, a little care is required in pruning to
a symmetrical form. The bushes, or low trees,
may be planted ten or twelve feet apart, and
under good care will continue healthy and pro-
ductive for thirty or forty years. But they will
speedily suffer from neglect. From one to four
bushes will yield a full supply for an ordinary
fainily.

Orange or Apple quince is the most common ;
is quite large, roundish, of a fine golden color,
excellent in flavor, and cooks tender; ripens in
mid autumn.

Rea’s Mammoth resembles the previous, but
is larger and perhaps less productive.

Champion. A late variety; fruit larger and
more oval than the orange; quality good,
bears early, and said to be very productive.

Meech’s Prolific resembles the orange; very
productive.

Portugal. Large, pyriform, very juicy and
tender. The best in quality. Growth very
vigorous, and on this account liable to winter-
kill. It is also unproductive, which is a great
drawback to its value.

Pear quince is pyriform in shape, later, and
less valuable than the orange.

The Angers and Fontenay are only used as
stocks for grafting.

THE QUINCE. 137

Japan and Chinese quinces are only for orna-
ment.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE QUINCE.

The Quince Curculio (Conotrachelus crategi).
This is a broad-shouldered, snout beetle, of an
ash gray color, larger than the plum curculio,
which appears in June, and deposits an egg in a
round hole, punctured in the fruit. The larva
burrows in the fruit near the surface, but does
not go to the core. The beetle also feeds upon
the quince, burying itself completely in the fruit.
Should it be found numerous it may be de-
stroyed by jarring the tree as described for the
plum curculio.

The Round-headed Apple Borer, before de-
scribed, is the borer which is so injurious to the
quince. The remedies are the same, and since
the quince is so much smaller and more sensitive
than the apple, it is the more important that the
trees should not be neglected.

The Pear Slug, a leaf crumpler, and a bag or
basket worm are sometimes found upon the
foliage, but are not seriously injurious.

For Rust, spraying with one of the fungi-
cides is recommended.

CHAPTER XI.
THE GRAPE.

Tuis is one of our most important and most
reliable fruits, and being very hardy is specially
adapted to garden culture. For the production
of grapes of the highest flavor, from which the
most costly wines may be obtained, it has been
considered necessary to seek the light calcareous
or limestone soils of high hills. Tokay wine is
the product of the poor, stony, granitic land of
the volcanic mountain of the same name. As
the descent is to richer soils, the growth of the
vine becomes more luxuriant, the fruit is larger
and fairer, but the quality is more watery. The
sharp slopes on either side of the river Rhine
have been famous for their vine products. This
soil is loose and gravelly, but has a considerable
percentage of clay to give it strength. Sharp
bluffs, bordering upon lakes, or flanking rivers,
where a uniform humidity is obtained, and the
sun pours in its warmth, are found to be favored
localities. Vines trained over high rocks are

THE GRAPE. 189

often more healthy and ripen earlier than else-
where. We may say, in general, that a high,
dry, warm, calcareous, or silicious soil is best.
But any soil which will produce a good crop of
Indian corn will also give good grapes. Full
exposure to the sun is desirable for the roots
and also for the tops. Training upon trellises on
the warm side of buildings will favor early ma-
turity. Protection from exhausting winds, by
means of evergreen belts, or high fences, will
also prove advantageous.

In the early stages of the vine a good growth
of wood is desired. Hence the soil may be en-
riched with stable manure, as for corn, but not
sufficient to make excessive growth. After the
second year the object will be to supply such food
as will induce and sustain fruitfulness. As is
plainly indicated by a chemical analysis of the
wood and of the fruit, and also as has been
confirmed by practical tests, potash, bones, and
superphosphate of lime are the specific food for
the grape. Unleached wood ashes, if they can be
obtained, may be applied at the rate of four to
eight quarts to a vine, according to its size. An
annual dressing of fifty bushels of unleached
hard wood ashes per acre would probably be
sufficient for most lands. In lieu of this, three
hundred pounds of potash, dissolved and poured

140 FRUIT CULTURE.

upon fifty to one hundred bushels of dry muck,
would give similar results. Professor Goessman,
of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, rec-
ommends, as a fertilizer, supplying all the wants
of the grape, for an acre, —

Soluble phosphoric acid. . . . 50 Ibs.
Muriate of potash. ; - 100 “
Nitrate of soda. : 25 «
Crude sulphate of magnesia . . 20 “

The phosphoric acid represents an equivalent
of from 400 to 600 pounds of the superphos-
phates of commerce. Continued experiments
by Professor 8. T. Maynard incline him to in-
crease the nitrate of soda to 75 or 100 pounds,
according as wood growth is desired. He would
also increase the muriate of potash (high grade)
to 150 pounds.

As a simpler and economical form and at the
same time a complete fertilizer for most kinds
of fruit, he recommends fine ground bone and
muriate of potash in the proportions given in
the chapter upon manures. ‘To this a surface
dressing of 300 pounds of guano might be added,
in case the wood growth proved insufficient.
Bone meal is deservedly held in high esteem,
and this, added to the muriate, is probably the
simplest and best specific that can be given.
Where vines are planted at an average distance

THE GRAPE. 141

of eight feet apart, this quantity would give about
two pounds of the mixture to each vine. Culti-
vators aiming for heavy crops and fruit of supe-
rior quality will doubtless increase this amount,
with advantage. Bone-black from the refineries
may be used as a substitute for bone meal, pro-
vided it can be found at a moderate price. It is
usually bought up by dealers, who know its value
as an absorbent. A clean and floury condition
of the soil should be preserved in order that the
roots may have summer warmth and air.

Vines not over two years old are best for —
planting. Early fall is undoubtedly the best
time to plant, provided a little coarse manure is
thrown over the surface to keep out the frost. A
more vigorous growth will thus be secured in the
following season. After November Ist it would
be better to delay planting until April. This
work should be done when the soil is dry,
spreading the roots evenly in all directions,
stretching them out their full length, and at the
depth of four to six inches below the surface.
The earth is to be pressed very firmly about
every root, leaving the vine established as nearly
as possible as if it had not been moved. In the
spring the vine is invariably to be cut back to
three eyes, however long the top may previously
have been. As the eyes start, the two weakest

142 FRUIT CULTURE.

are rubbed off, leaving but one strong shoot to
make the future cane. This shoot is tied to a
stake and allowed to run up perpendicularly,
making a growth of six to eight feet the first
year. In the spring following, this cane is again
cut back to three eyes in order to give a strong
cane, with abundant root force. But at this
point the treatment will depend upon the train-
ing to be adopted.

No other fruit requires so much pruning as the
grape. The tendency of the vine is to make
wood, to climb to the tops of trees, or whatever
else it may find for support, showing its greatest
vigor at its extremities, at the top. Vines thus
allowed to run, as upon arbors and buildings,
are vigorous, and as they attain age are often
fruitful. But the fruit is shaded and choked
with too much wood, and is always inferior in
quality. To remedy this tendency to growth and
throw the strength into the fruit, various methods
of training, of pruning, and of fertilizing have
been adopted. It is well understood that sap
flows with most force in a perpendicular upward
course. Hence the leading shoot will easily
keep the lead and never cease to make growth.
In countries where the rain-fall is small and the
soil is loose and thin, all that is required to
check growth and produce fruitfulness is to bend

THE GRAPE. 143

the canes in a hoop form, and support with a
short stake. The branches are allowed to swing
free, and to arch over by their own weight and
the weight of fruit. Where there is more vigor,
more systematic artificial training is necessary.
The method commonly recommended is the per-
pendicular trellis system. This consists in a
supporting trellis of four No. 14 annealed, gal-

fa

\

wy
Iie, x Bhp RE fo Wiad sill .
wN\ esreyncgetah a

Fig. 7.

vanized iron wires stretched upon posts as in
Fig. 7. The lower wire, which is the support
for the arm of the vine, should be at least a
foot and a half above the ground. The second
wire, which supports the fruit, should be from
eight to ten inches above this, and the two
upper wires may be a foot apart. This trellis
is not constructed until the third season after
planting, when the first crop is taken. Dur-
ing the second year the training is precisely like
the first, excepting, in case two arms are to be
trained, that two shoots are allowed to grow

144 FRUIT CULTURE.

perpendicularly instead of one. Any inequality
of growth may be counteracted by pinching
laterals which are too vigorous. The object is
to obtain a well-ripened arm at the end of the
second season, or two arms, if so preferred.
These are to be cut back in November to about
six feet in length, and with plump fruit-buds
evenly distributed about a foot apart on the cane.
During the winter the vines will lie upon the
ground, and if protected by evergreen boughs
they are safer. Early in April the canes are
tied to the lower wire, and each bud is expected
to produce a shoot, with one or more clusters of
fruit.

Fig. 8 shows the appearance of a vine with
two arms at the end of the third season. All the
new growth is carefully tied to the upper wires
as the leaders and laterals are closely pinched
and the space is filled. In November this new
growth is to be pruned back, leaving bare arms

THE GRAPE. 145

as in the previous year. The only difference is
in the selection of the
fruiting- bud for the
following year.

Fig. 9 represents
the spur as pruned at
the end of the third
year. The two base §
eyes, b and c, may be
too small to be trusted for fruit, and are to be
removed when they start. The eye d will make
the fruiting shoot of
the fourth year, and
will be pruned back
again in November, as
in Fig. 10. The eye
6 is to bear the fruit
the following year
and the small eyes,
a, a, are to be rubbed
out. Thus the spur
increases about one Fig. 10.
inch annually. This is objectionable, but it can
often be obviated by finding a base eye suffi-
ciently strong to make a fruiting shoot, or by
a gradual renewal from a base eye, if the spurs
become too long. It is undoubtedly true that
as canes advance in age they become stiff and

Fig. 9.

146 FRUIT CULTURE.

break unevenly. And, in addition, the fruit
clusters gradually diminish in size. Many good
cultivators have felt that large clusters were of
so much importance to their sales that they
have adopted the annual renewal system, as it
is called. This consists in selecting a vigorous
shoot near the base of the vine, and training
it up perpendicularly until it reaches the re-
quired length of the vine, when it is stopped.
In the mean time, the old cane is bearing its
fruit. After stopping the new shoot it will
throw out laterals, which are in turn to be
stopped when about a foot long. Plump lat-
eral eyes will thus be developed, and it is from
the one nearest the base of each that the largest
fruit is expected. Splendid results have fol-
lowed this method, and first prizes are usually
obtained in some such way. But manifestly a
large amount of wood growth is involved in the
plan, and it is questionable whether the young
shoot does not draw too much vigor from the
bearing cane, especially if the practice is per-
sisted in year after year. Beyond doubt an in-
creased quantity of nitrogenous matter would be
desirable, if such annual growth is required.
Experiments are wanting to show how long such
a system can be practiced with success. An oc-
casional renewal is the better way for home use,

THE GRAPE. 147

giving sufficiently large clusters and of better
quality, because less succulent and ripening bet-
ter. When it is desirable to cover high trellises
or buildings, a modified form called the Tho-
mery, from the French village where it was in
use a century ago, may be adopted.

Fig. 11 illustrates the method with two arms.
It will be seen that while the upright flow of sap
is checked by the horizontal position of the arms,
yet the young shoots retain the upright position,
and those nearest the centre trunk do practically
receive a perpendicular flow. However simple
and beautiful this system may appear in theory,
in practice it does not fully overcome the evil
it was designed to meet, and it involves more
labor and attention in tying and pruning than is
likely to be given, in general culture. Instead of

148 FRUIT CULTURE.

the upright trellis, a more simple mode of training
is to tie the cane horizontally to a wire stretched
three feet from the ground. Two other wires
stretched on either side and eight inches distant
from the cane, which are supported by cross-
pieces at each post, will be for the support of
the fruiting branches. Most of these will fall
over naturally, or may easily be bent into posi-
tion, with an occasional tying. The weight of
the fruit will soon hold the branches to the
side wires for support. In this natural and
drooping position it will be seen in Fig. 12 that

Fig 12.

the flow of the sap will be equally distrib-
uted and to the greatest advantage of the fruit.
When the branches have made four or five leaves
beyond the fruit branches, the shoots are nipped,
to stop the growth of wood. Laterals will soon
start, which are in turn to be nipped at one leaf
or more, according to the density of foliage.

THE GRAPE. 149

No more wood growth is to be permitted, the
strength of the vine being now concentrated in
developing the fruit. This mode of training is
well adapted to vineyard culture, the rows being
eight to ten feet apart in order to obtain a free
play of air and sunlight. A more common
method among vineyardists is to twist or bend
the cane to posts and compel the branches to
support themselves as they may, in a more or
less pendent position. The usual distance for
these posts is about eight feet each way, for
strong growing kinds. Six feet would be suffi-
cient for the Delaware.

The advantages of the post system are that
the air and sunlight have free play on all sides,
and the wood becomes thoroughly mature; the
twisting and bending of the cane checks the
upward flow of sap, and the fruiting shoots as-
sume a pendent position, which also tends to
develop the fruit. Two posts, three feet apart,
with cross-pieces, to give firmness, and also con-
venient places for tying, are also recommended.
The object is a firm support, and a form which
shall check too strong an upward flow of sap.
Any system which shall secure these two ends
with least labor is best. It is all important,
whatever system is adopted, to secure a thorough
ripening and hardening of the wood. When

150 FRUIT CULTURE.

this is obtained there is little danger that the
vines will be injured by the winter.

In covering arbors and buildings, the practice
has been to allow altogether too much growth of
wood, and to neglect almost entirely to check
the young shoots. If good fruit is desired, it
will be necessary to establish permanent canes
about four feet apart, on the sides and top of
the arbor, or upon frames six inches in front of
buildings, which canes are to be evenly supplied
with eyes, or spurs, about a foot apart. Fruit-
ing branches will start from these spurs, as
described for the horizontal arm, which are to
be nipped in midsummer and pruned in Novem-
ber in the same manner. By such systematic
training and pruning alone can we hope to
secure good fruit in addition to the shade.

GRAPE HOUSES.

No other fruit is raised so easily, or retains
its quality so well under glass, as the grape.
With simply a roof of glass, the back being
always open in summer, not only our best na-
tive varieties can be matured with certainty,
but also the European kinds can be safely
brought to perfection. The slight increase of
heat and also the protection from excess of rain
and from the cold dews of night are advantages

THE GRAPE. 161

sufficient to insure complete success. Very little
modification of the out-door culture is required.
The vines are planted more closely together, in
order to economize space to the utmost, the single
canes running up about a foot below the glass
roof, and four feet distant from each other.
The mode of training is precisely like the three
horizontal wire trellis system, as seen in Fig. 12,
page 136. The trellis will of course follow the
angle of the roof. The same directions in regard
to checking and pruning are to be followed as
have been given for open culture.

By making the house more permanent, open-
ing and closing in order to have complete con-
trol of the air, still greater advantages are ob-
tained. larly closing of the ventilators and
free showering a few hours before sunset and
early in the morning will cause luxuriant growth
in the early part of the season. In a close house
it is easy to secure complete exemption from all
diseases. As the season advances water is with-
held, and a free circulation of air is given in
dry weather. The latest and most delicate
kinds, like the Muscats, can be cultivated with
perfect success in a cold grapery, and with a
certainty which does not pertain to any out-of-
door fruit. With the aid of heat, and by suc-
cession and retarding houses, it is practicable to

152 FRUIT CULTURE.

have grapes throughout the entire year. With
this artificial protection of glass, and with a dry
air during the period of inflorescence, most of
the European varieties will set fruit too thickly,
and not only clusters must be removed, but also
one half, or even more of the berries must be
cut out from the remaining bunches, soon after
setting, and before they begin to crowd. This
is the only tedious item in the whole process.
It is wise to prepare a border about two feet
in depth, and well supplied with potash,
bones, and horse manure, for vines running into
houses. By furnish-
ing this excess of food,
and by close pruning,
enormous crops can
be concentrated with-
in a limited space.
The ringing proc-
ess is a curious mode
of developing and
hastening the matu-
rity of the fruit. It
Fig. 13. consists in the entire
removal of the bark just below a fruit cluster,
about a month before its time of ripening. Fig.
18 shows the position of the eut, which may be
half an inch in width. The sap, ascending

THE GRAPE. 153

through the pores of the wood, sustains growth.
But the descending, elaborated sap, which passes
down between the wood and bark, is arrested by
the cut, and concentrated in the
shoot and fruit. Fig. 14 shows the
enlargement above the cut, caused
by this arrest. Fruit is invariably
found to be not only increased in
size, but also hastened a week or
two in maturity. To a limited ex-
tent, and on scattering branches,
this experiment may be tried. But
it is evident that the eyes below the
cut will suffer for the following
year, and the vine itself would be
injured if the practice were general.

In addition to the directions pre-
viously given, which guard against

fruiting during the second season,

Fig. 14.

a word of caution is necessary, lest
the vines are overtaxed with fruit when they are
young. Thin out the bunches as soon as they
are set, and aim for a moderate crop of superior
quality.
VARIETIES.

In 1820, Ma. John Adlum introduced the
Catawba, and the Isabella followed soon after.
These were the only well-known kinds at the

154 FRUIT CULTURE.

North, until the Diana was added in. the year
1843. The Concord followed ten years after;
and since this the number of seedlings has been
legion. It will be useless to even name a mullti-
tude of varieties which are crowded upon the
market. A short list of those which are well
tried and reliable is here given, and also a few
notes respecting some of the novelties.

Brighton. — A fine variety with large, rather
loose bunches ; large, rose-colored berries of ex-
cellent quality, ripening about with, or after the
Concord. Rather late, and somewhat subject to
mildew, but worthy of a place.

Concord. —On account of its vigor, hardi-
ness, productiveness, and fine appearance, it has
been cultivated at the North more than all
others combined. It is not best in quality, but
has been ranked as most valuable. Seedlings
from the Concord are earlier, and may yet
supersede it.

Delaware. — This little grape heads the list
for family use. It is small in cluster and berry,
not strong in growth, and somewhat liable to
mildew. Yet with good culture, generous feed-
ing beyond the requirements of coarser kinds,
and a free use of fungicides, it is pretty sure to
give a good annual supply of delicious fruit.
Presumably it is a seedling from the European

THE GRAPE, 155

red Traminer. Though succeeding in field cul-
ture in some sections, it does not weigh suffi-
ciently to sell with the Concord. Ripens early
in September. The vine improves with age.

Lady. — A hardy iron-clad, which resists mil-
dew; ripens very early, bunches small; berries
medium, greenish-white, sweet, and of fair qual-
ity.

Moores Early. — A seedling from the Con-
cord, and from ten days to a fortnight earlier,
larger berries, and in other respects similar. It
appears to be very productive, and most promis-
ing. On account of its earliness it may take
precedence of the Concord.

Worden is another Concord seedling, ripening
ten days earlier, and is of better quality than its
parent, and therefore held in high esteem.

To this list may be added Catawba and Jona,
two dark red varieties of highest flavor, but too
late except for favored localities; Isabella, an
excellent black, but also late and uncertain;
Hartford and Champion, two very early and
productive black grapes of inferior quality ;
Creveling, black, ripening with the Concord,
of an agreeable plum-like flavor, but unpro-
ductive, bunches loose; Diana, compact bunches,
berries pale grayish red, very high flavor, juicy,
sweet, little pulp; keeps long. Its value is

156 FRUIT CULTURE.

greatly lessened by ripening unequally in the
same bunch, and varying in different localities.

Rogers Hybrids. — These numerous seed-
lings vary entirely in characteristics, but it is
doubtful if any of them will be permanently
valuable in northern latitudes. Lindley and
Salem, of a rose color, and Wilder, a large
black grape, are among the best of these.

Miagara. — A white grape of remarkable
vigor and productiveness. The bunches are
of good size, rather long, quality good. It
has been largely planted as a market variety.
Ripens about with the Concord.

Pocklington is larger and of better quality;
golden yellow, very showy ; rather later than
Concord.

Empire State, Duchess, and F. B. Hayes are
other light-colored varieties which may be
tried by the amateur.

Jefferson is a bright red grape, crisp, vinous,
and superior in quality, but is late, and re-
quires a warm position.

Eaton is extra large in bunch and berry;
black, very juicy, brisk sub-acid. Vine vigoi-
ous, of fair quality, and as showy as the Ham-
burgh.

Moyer is a seedling from the Delaware,
which it resembles. The berries are larger,

THE GRAPE. 157

and the vine seems to be more vigorous and
the fruit earlier.

Green Mountain. — From Vermont; is said
to be very early, vigorous, and a good white
variety.

Vergennes is another Vermont seedling, light
red, of good quality, and ripens early, but is
rather tender.

Poughkeepsie Red. — Somewhat resembles
the Delaware. Bunches long, shouldered,
quality very good.

Ulster Prolific. — Bunch and berry of me-
dium size; red, quality excellent. Later than
Concord.

For culture under glass, Black Hamburgh
is the leading kind, to which may be added,
for black, St. Peter's, Black Prince, Black
Muscat; and for late keeping, Lady Downe’s
and Trentham Black. For light color, White
Frontignan and Grizzly Frontignan are hardy,
uniformly productive, and have a high musky
flavor. Buckland’s Sweet Water, Syrian, and
White Nice are also adapted to a cold house.
Bowood Muscat and Muscat of Alexandria
have a rich Muscat flavor, are very large and
superb, but require a higher temperature and
a separate house for perfect development.

158 FRUIT CULTURE.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE.
The Grape Phylloxera (P. vustatrix). This

is a native American louse, which has been ex-
ported to Europe, and has become immensely
destructive to the foreign varieties of grapes,
which are much more liable to its attacks than
our American kinds. The louse develops in two
forms, one of which infests the leaves, punctur-
ing and producing galls on the under side, which
they inhabit, rapidly multiplying and extending
their operations. The other and more hurtful
form subsist upon the young rootlets, causing
little swellings which gradually extend, to the
utter ruin of whole vineyards in France and
other countries. Recently it has appeared upon
the European varieties cultivated in California,
and it is feared will prove very destructive. It
is also to a considerable degree injurious to our
native kinds, and to some varieties more than
to others. The Concord and Clinton types are
comparatively free. The gall-producing type
may easily be controlled by gathering the in-
fested leaves. In planting young vines, the
roots should be carefully examined to see if
knotty swellings are upon the roots; if so, the
lice may readily be destroyed by dipping in hot
soap-suds or tobacco water. It is difficult to

THE GRAPE. 159

reach the lice upon established vines, although
various modes are suggested. Professor C. V.

Riley thinks kerosene emulsion poured freely
upon the roots will prove efficacious. Carbolic
acid, in the proportion of one part to fifty or one
hundred parts of water, poured into holes around
the vine has proved advantageous. Bisulphide
of carbon, if introduced into the soil, two to three
ounces to a hole, and several holes to each vine,
is said to permeate the soil and kill the lice,
without injury to the vine. It is very volatile,
inflammable, and explosive, and should be care-
fully handled. Potash fertilizers and also salt
are found to be useful. Sandy soils are said to
be less liable to have the insect. As our native
vines are comparatively exempt, they are recom-
mended as stocks upon which to graft the Euro-
pean varieties and the Delaware types, should
they become liable to attack.

The Green Grape Sphinx. This is a large,
pale green caterpillar, about two inches long
when the larva is full grown, which is very vora-
cious : a few of them being sufficient to strip a
vine of foliage. It is easy to see their work and
to destroy them. Other varieties of Sphinx and
large caterpillars are also found to some extent,
which are to be hand-picked and destroyed.

The Beautiful Wood Nymph (Zudryas

160 FRUIT CULTURE.

grata). The larva of this beautiful moth is often
quite destructive to grape foliage. When mature
the worm is about an inch and a half long, pale
bluish black, crossed by orange bands, and with
orange head dotted black. It feeds upon the
woodbine as well as the grape. The Pearl Wood
Nymph and the Eight-Spotted Forester produce
larve much resembling the Beautiful Wood
Nymph.

The American Procris. This is a much
smaller caterpillar, about six tenths of an inch
long at maturity, in August; slightly hairy, and
of a yellow color. The larve feed in line on the
under side of the leaves, upon the soft tissue,
when young, but devour all except the large
veins, as they grow. They are more destructive
at the West than in New England. The last
four, and also several other forms of caterpil-
lar, if numerous, may be destroyed by syringing
with Paris-green, or, considering the ripening
of the fruit, with hellebore, one ounce to two
gallons.

The Grape-Vine Flea Beetle is a destructive
beetle, varying in color from steel blue to blue,
about three twentieths of an inch in length, which
commences its work by eating into the substance
of the buds as soon as they swell. It deposits
its eggs on the under side of the young leaves,

THE GRAPE. 161

and in a few days the larve hatch and feed
upon the leaves for three or four weeks, attain-
ing to a little more than three tenths of an inch
in length. In the fall the beetle finds shelter
under leaves, pieces of bark, or in the earth im-
mediately around the vine. Removing the rub-
bish and strewing air-slacked lime or unleached
ashes would destroy them. In the spring
jarring the vines, in early morning, will bring
them to the ground, when they may be killed.
Syringing the foliage with Paris-green and other
solutions will destroy the larve.

The Rose Beetle or Rose Bug (Macrodacty-
lus subspinosa). This is a dull yellowish bee-
tle, about one third of an inch long, with long
sprawling legs, which often appears in swarms at
the time the grape and the rose are in blossom.
They do great damage to the cherry and the rose,
and are specially attracted by the fragrance of
the grape blossoms, which they quickly destroy.
They remain until about the middle of July,
when the female deposits about thirty eggs in
the earth, and the larve feed upon such roots as
are within reach. Hand-picking is a tedious
process when the bugs are numerous, but it has
been practiced as the only effectual remedy. In
the morning the bugs are sluggish, and may be

jarred into sheets and thrown into a dish of
: it

162 FRUIT CULTURE.

kerosene. Covering the vines with mosquito
netting has been resorted to in many places.
Whale-oil suds have no appreciable effect upon
the bug. Kerosene will kill it, but whether it
can be used with sufficient strength to be ef-
fectual, without injury to the vine, is yet to be
proved. Paris-green should also be tried.

The Leaf-Hopper or Thrip is often a trouble-
some little insect about one eighth of an inch
long, wingless in its early stage, but acquiring
wings as it matures and becomes able to fly from
vine to vine. It feeds upon the under side of
the leaves, especially those of delicate foliage
like the Delaware, and often increases to such
numbers as to do serious injury. In glass houses
it is easy to destroy them by fumigating with
tobacco when they are young. As they mature
they are much tougher. Syringing with tobacco
water, hellebore, and other decoctions, in early
summer, is serviceable. Carrying lighted torches
through the vineyard and at the same time
rustling the foliage will attract and burn the
mature winged hopper. It is much easier to
destroy them when they are young and delicate.

Root borers are troublesome in some sections,
especially the Grape Root Borer (Zgeria polisti-
formis), in North Carolina and in the Middle
and Western States, A mound of earth or a

THE GRAPE. 163

band of tarred paper would prevent the deposit
of eggs.

The Grape-Berry moth is imported from Eu-
rope, where it has long been destructive to the
fruit. Early in July the young larva enters a
berry and feeds upon the pulp, entering two,
three, or more berries, if not satisfied with one.
When full grown and about one fourth of an
inch long, it forms its cocoons upon the leaves of
the vine, cutting out a flap which it turns back
on the leaf and then lines the inclosure with
silk. These cocoons, and also all infested fruit,
should be gathered and destroyed.

Red spider seldom does serious injury to the
grape in open culture, unless the season is ex-
ceptionally hot and dry, when the more delicate
varieties suffer. Syringing the under surface of
the leaves with sulphur or kerosene solution and
whale-oil soap-suds will destroy these minute
insects.

MILDEW.

There are several forms of fungous growth
which affect the foliage and the fruit of the
grape, in some seasons and upon some varieties,
with most destructive results. It has been
asked whether the attack of this parasitic
growth depends upon an enfeebled condition of
the vine, and some disruption of the tissues, a

164 FRUIT CULTURE.

certain preparation of the surface for the seed,
so to speak, or is, on the other hand, the inde-
pendent cause of all the evil. Certain it is that
the more delicate varieties are much the most
subject to the disease, and these especially so in
some soils, and when in weak condition. It is
noticeable with what rapidity many kinds of
mildew spread upon decaying vegetation. It is
also certain that a warm, humid state of the at-
mosphere greatly facilitates the rapid growth of
fungi. Sections subject to heavy dews at night
are much troubled with mildew. A projecting
coping which covers the vine from night dews is
said to protect from fungus. We may avoid the
evil by selecting varieties which have tough
foliage and are least subject to attack. But we
shall thus exclude our best kinds. We can give
special care to furnish specific food, like phos-
phates and potash, and thus give vigor to resist.
Thorough drainage and protection from rains
and dews are preventives. Last of all we can
kill the fungus. It is a low form of vegetable
growth, and consequently sensitive to any in-
fluence that is destructive to vegetable life. Any
drying powder, simple wheat flour for example,
will, in some conditions, seem to absorb the
moisture, or smother the delicate mildew growth
and hold it in check, This, however, is not

THE GRAPE. 165

mentioned as a remedy, but only as indicating
the sensitiveness of the microscopic plant. As
has been said, there are several forms of mil-
dew which attack the grape, and it is neces-
sary to give heed to this in applying remedies.

The Powdery Mildew (Uncinula ampelopsi-
dis), which is of the same species as the vari-
eties found upon the gooseberry, the rose, the
pea, and the lilac, shows itself early in the sea-
son as delicate, dust-like patches on the leaves
of the grape, mostly on the upper surface, and
to some extent on the fruit and tender shoots.
It is widely distributed, but is less destructive
than other forms, and as it is easily destroyed,
the evil is not serious. All of the powdery
varieties grow entirely upon the surface of the
plants which they infest, and hence yield at
once to treatment. Simply dusting the vines
with flowers of sulphur three times; once when
the shoots are four inches long; again when
the vines are in bloom, and again before the
coloring of the fruit, is sufficient in most in-
stances. In grape-houses the fumes of sulphur
melted in a basin over a lamp are effectual.
But great care must be taken to prevent burn-
ing of the sulphur, the gas of which is fatal to
all vegetation.

Downy Mildew (Peronospora viticola).—This
is also known as Brown Rot, and is a more

166 FRUIT CULTURE.

serious form of fungus, both in its effect and
in the difficulty of destroying it. It is not
a surface feeder, but penetrates between the
cells of the vine tissues, sending up slender
mycelium threads on which the spores are
borne. These, by their multitude, form the
downy, frost-like patches on the under side of
the leaves and on the fruit, quite visible to
the naked eye. The injury to the foliage and
fruit is very apparent in the sultry season,
when the spores are thrown off and develop
with amazing rapidity. The fumes of sul-
phur, and also the copper solutions, will de-
stroy these summer spores and check the
spread of the fungus; but they do not reach
beneath the surface to affect the parent plant.
Hence the importance of early spring spray-
ing, in order to intercept the second form of
spores which have been preserved through the
winter. It has been demonstrated both in
France and in this country that the Bordeaux
mixture is an effectual remedy, if applied early
in the spring, to intercept the winter spores,
and continuously thereafter every week or
ten days until about the first of August. The
objection to this mixture is that it is difficult
to strain the lime so as to prevent its clogging
the cyclone nozzle which gives the fine spray.
The lime is liable to stain the fruit. Many ex-

THE GRAPE. 167

periments are made with various forms of cop-
per solutions, omitting the lime, in the hope
that an equally effective remedy may be found
without the objections in the use of lime.

Sulphate of Copper (blue vitriol) alone is
sufficient to destroy the fungus, if the solution
is strong enough. But in this case there is
liability to injure the foliage. A modified
form of eau celeste, which consists of sulphate
of copper, carbonate of soda, and aqua ammo-
nia with water, has been found to be very
effectual. Still another form is the ammoni-
acal solution of the carbonate of copper, for
which there is a growing preference. The for-
mulas for these remedies will be found on
page 224. For an early washing or spraying
of trees or the vine, there can be no objection
to the use of the sulphate of copper alone, one
pound of the sulphate dissolved in ten gallons
of water. This strength would injure foliage.

Anthracnose or Scab is a fungus which forms
hard and sunken brown or black patches on
the leaves. Spray as for the downy mildew.

Black Rot is quite distinct from Brown Rot.
The fungus attacks the foliage and the berries,
and is very prevalent and destructive in warm
grape sections. In northern sections it is quite
limited. The same remedies as for the downy
mildew are a certain relief.

CHAPTER XII.
THE CURRANT.

In ease of culture, certainty, and productive-
ness, this fruit excels all others. It is also one
of the most healthful acids during the heat of
summer. Its compact form of growth adapts it
to garden culture, between rows and under the
partial shade of trees. Clean culture and a rich
soil will give by far the best results. The fruit
is produced upon shoots two or more years old,
and it is important that a succession of vigorous
branches should be maintained. Owing to the
dryness of our climate it is not desirable to
prune to a tree form, with a single clean stem
for a foot or more above the ground, as is fre-
quent in England. It is better to prune to bush
form, allowing new shoots to start from near the
ground to take the place of old branches as they
become stunted. In this way of renewal, and
by a fall surface dressing of stable manure, the
bushes may be kept in health for a score or two
of years. The proper distance for planting is

THE CURRANT. 169

four feet each way. Three feet has been a com-
mon distance, but under generous culture the
bushes become crowded. The white varieties
are less acid, and therefore are preferred by
some for the table. White Grape is the best of
this class. Dana’s White is larger, but more
acid, a more showy market variety. The ‘red
class has several varieties of merit.

Cherry is of largest size, cluster rather short,
quite acid; moderately productive. profitable for
market.

Versailles closely resembles the Cherry, but is
supposed to have longer bunches. and to be less
acid. The difference, if any, is so slight that
competent judges refuse to recognize it.

Fay’s Prolific also resembles the Cherry, but
appears to be more productive, and to set longer
clusters. Promises well and deserves trial.

Victoria. Fruit larger than Red Dutch, clus-
ters very long, rather late. and hang a long time.
Quality good, not acid ; valuable for its lateness,
and other merits.

Red Dutch. Long clusters, medium size. qual-
ity good ; productive.

Black Naples is the best of the blacks, and is
prized by many for jams and jellies.

North Star is a new variety, which shows
marked vigor.

170 FRUIT CULTURE.

INSECTS ATTACKING THE CURRANT.

The Currant Worm. There are two species
of this worm, the one imported from Europe
(Nematus ventricosus) being larger and much
more destructive than the native, saw-fly larva.
When first hatched the European larva is of a
whitish color, and about one twelfth of an inch
long. It changes in color to plain green, and
increases to three quarters of an inch in length,
while the native is but half an inch long and al-
ways green. Two broods of larve are hatched
in a season, and as they multiply in great num-
bers and are enormously voracious, they would
ruin a plantation in a single season, unless
checked. Fortunately, they are easily destroyed
by sprinkling the bushes with hellebore mixed
in water, in the proportion of one ounce to a
pailful. Strong soap-suds and the kerosene solu-
tion are also effectual. Air-slacked lime dusted
upon the bushes is a check. Strong tobacco
water is an excellent remedy.

The Currant Span Worm is a larger caterpil-
lar, about an inch long, whitish, with yellow
stripes and numerous black dots, and readily dis-
tinguished by its arching loop at every step. It
is not so easily destroyed as the worm previously
named, and hence the decoctions should be of

THE GOOSEBERRY. 171

double strength. Fortunately, it is by no
means so numerous.

Currant Borers. Two species of borers, a
native and an imported, burrow up and down
the stem, feeding upon the pith, indicating
their presence by the sickly look of the leaves.
The moth escapes from the stem early in June.
All hollow stems should be cut out and burned
in the fall or early spring. Vigorous plants
are seldom injured.

When a plantation becomes infested with
bark lice and scales, it is time to root it out.

Leaf Rust GSeptoria) is a fungus which
causes the foliage to fall. The copper solu-
tions should be tried.

THE GOOSEBERRY.

In the moist climate of England the goose-
berry is cultivated with great success, and it
is highly prized as a dessert fruit. All these
European varieties are subject to parasitic
growth, commonly known as mildew, when
cultivated in this country. In the main we
are limited to a few native varieties, which
are comparatively exempt from this disease.
These are much below the English varieties in
quality, and are used mainly for pies, sauces,
and jams. Some cultivators have good suc-

172 FRUIT CULTURE.

cess with the English kinds by planting under
the shelter of fences, buildings, or trees, and
by mulching with salt hay, or salted marsh-
hay, for the purpose of securing uniform damp-
ness. Recent results in the application of fun-
gicides give good reason to expect that we can
control this powdery mildew. Besides dusting
with sulphur, spraying frequently with the cop-
per solutions is recommended.

Crown Bob, Roaring Lion, Whitesmith, and
Green Ocean are standard English varieties.
Windham’s Industry is a new kind, of unusual
vigor, which may prove to be adapted to our
climate, and therefore desirable. Of native
kinds Smith’s Improved and Downing are the
largest and best. Mountain and Houghton’s
Seedling are smaller, very productive, and free
from mildew. The gooseberry is subject to
the attacks of the currant worm and the span
worm, for which the same remedies should be
applied. A larva also burrows into the fruit,
attaining a full size of nearly three quarters of
an inch. <A very small midge also deposits its
minute eggs upon the fruit, and the tiny larve
burrow within. The presence of these insects
is shown by the withering or the premature
ripening of the fruit, which should be picked
before the moth escapes.

CHAPTER XIII.
THE RASPBERRY.

EminenTLy this isa home fruit. The best
varieties are so soft as to suffer by transporta-
tion and by keeping. The plants are specially
adapted to garden culture, and when properly
treated are certain, productive, and permanent.
It requires less care than the strawberry, is more
easily picked, and by most persons is preferred,
for its high flavor. It deserves a place in every
garden, and also more extensive and careful cul-
ture for local markets. In most of our large
cities the supply of a good quality of this fruit
has been less than the demand, and hence the
price has been very remunerative. A rich and
deep, rather moist loam, not inclining either to
gravel or clay, but what would be called a mel-
low, retentive garden soil, is best. The planting
of the red varieties should be in rows four feet
apart, and three feet apart in the rows. It is
better to cut the plants down within six inches
of the ground, in planting ; thus obtaining three

174 FRUIT CULTURE.

to five strong shoots from the root, for next
season’s fruiting. No care is necessary, except
clean culture and the removal of any extra
shoots with the hoe.

All of this class which are worthy of culture
are too tender to be subjected to winter exposure.
It is a simple, inexpensive, and effectual plan to
bend the canes to the ground, along the rows, in
a mild day of November, being careful not to
break the canes. After this, a slight covering
of earth from between the rows will hold the
canes in place and be a perfect protection from
frost. With the aid of the foot to hold the canes
down, one man can do the work, but two men
will make short work of a large plantation, and
the results from this trifling labor are so much
more satisfactory, that it should never be neg-
lected. It is not a recommendation that a vari-
ety of raspberry is specially hardy, since all are
hardy with this slight care, and none are at their
best without it. In the spring the earth should
be removed from the canes just before the buds
start. The canes should then be raised and cut
back to three or four feet in height. Thus short-
ened, many varieties will be sufficiently stocky
to be self-supporting. Yet a neater and safer
way is to drive stakes in the rows ten feet apart,
and then pass two strings of rope yarn, one on

THE RASPBERRY. 175

either side of the canes and crossing at the stakes,
thus giving a loose support on both sides, and
confining the branches in the rows. A more
careful method is in practice in Europe, to spread
and tie the canes in exact position to wires.
Except for small lots, this would not be practi-
cable in this country.

The raspberry produces fruit only upon the
wood of the previous year. Hence it is neces-
sary, while the old canes are maturing their
fruit, to select four or five young shoots in the
line of the row for fruiting canes in the following
year. All other suckers are to be removed with
the hoe, or weeder, as fast as they appear. Early
in September the canes which have borne fruit
should also be removed, thus giving the entire
space to the new canes to gather strength and
ripen for the next crop. These canes are to be
laid down and covered as before, and cut back
in the spring to three or four feet.

The class of raspberries known as Black Caps
is generally of stronger growth, and so hardy as
not to require winter covering. It will be well
for these to increase the distance between the
rows to six feet, otherwise the treatment is the
same as for the red class.

Summer pinching is recommended by some
cultivators and is largely practiced in England.

176 FRUIT CULTURE.

It consists in nipping the tips of the new shoots
when they have attained about three feet in
height. The effect is to cause laterals to be
thrown out in the form of a little tree. These
become the fruiting branches of the following
year. In this way the shoot is made stocky and
often self-supporting. This is a good way to
treat the Black Cap family, since they are hardy
and do not require winter covering. But such
bushes are manifestly more difficult to lay down
and cover, and, more than this, the laterals make
a late growth and are very liable to be immature
when the frosts overtake them. In the Northern
States at least it is better to let the canes grow,
and to cut back heroically in the spring. The
shoots which start low down on the cane will be
most vigorous and the fruit will require less
support.

An annual dressing of stable manure will keep
a plantation in good heart for a score of years.
With this simple, yet systematic care, perhaps
more certain, abundant, and satisfactory results
are obtained than with any other family fruit.
Many new varieties are offered for sale, with
high praise. It is best, however, to rely upon
those which have been tested, while cautiously
trying the novelties in a limited way.

Franconia, Fastolff, Knevett, and Fillbasket

THE RASPBERRY. 177

are good old kinds, but seem to be surpassed
by Cuthbert and Herstine, which are now de-
servedly the two favorites. Cuthbert is very
productive, large, good, and firm enough to
carry to market. Herstine is too melting for
the market, but is excellent for fanfily use.
Golden Queen is said to be a sport from the
Cuthbert, but more likely it is a seedling hay-
ing all the good qualities of the Cuthbert,
differing only in its bright golden fruit. It
supersedes Caroline and Brincklé’s Orange,
though the quality of the last is superior.
Of the Black Cap class, Souhegan is early,
medium in size, shining black, very produc-
tive. Gregg is later, larger, more juicy, and
the best of the Caps. Shaffer seems to be a
cross between the two classes; is remarkably
vigorous, productive; large, juicy fruit, of
a dull red color, rather tart, but of rich wild
flavor, excellent for preserving.

THE BLACKBERRY.

The growth of this fruit is more gross and
thorny than others, and it does not find a wel-
come in most gardens. It is liable to injury
in winter, and is not easily protected. Very
constant and systematic culture will, however,

12

178 FRUIT CULTURE.

keep the plants within bounds and make them
productive. The mode of planting and the
treatment is similar to the raspberry, excepting
that the distances should be increased to eight
feet between the rows. The young shoots should
also be summer pruned when about four feet
high, which will encourage the throwing out of
laterals, which are in turn to be stopped at
about eighteen inches in length. Thus a stocky
new fruiting bush will be obtained. A strong
wire on both sides of the row, fastened to stakes
at proper intervals in the row, will keep the
plants in place and give sufficient support.
Manifestly, it is a difficult process to bend these
stiff, thorny plants to the ground and cover
them for the winter. Hence it is best to select
the kinds which are hardy for each section.
Wilson’s Early is a noble, large, but rather acid
variety, which will endure the winters of the
Middle States. Kittatinny is better in quality,
but equally tender and more subject to the
Anthracnose. For New England and the West,
more hardy kinds, like Snyder, Taylor, Wachu-
sett, and Dorchester, are preferred. Early
Harvest is a new kind, said to be hardy, pro-
lific, and very early. Wilson Junior is a new
seedling from the old Wilson, which appears to
be an improvement in earliness, size, and pro-

THE BLACKBERRY 179

ductiveness. It promises well for the Middle
States, but like its parent is probably too ten-
der for higher latitudes.

Root and stem borers affect both the rasp-
berry and blackberry, though not to a serious
extent. When the tips of the canes are observed
suddenly to droop in June, they should be cut at
a little distance below the withered part, to in-
sure the destruction of the egg or larva. Canes
that appear to be infested should be cut out in
the fall, or spring.

The Bramble Flea-louse (Psylla rubi) often
infests the foliage of the blackberry, causing
great injury in many locations and to some vari-
eties, especially the Kittatinny. Strong tobacco
water would probably destroy it, when young.
Caterpillars and slugs which feed upon the foli-
age may be held in check by syringing with helle-
bore or the other solutions, as may be found
necessary.

Raspberries and blackberries are affected by
the fungus Cane Rust or Anthracnose, which
is very destructive in some sections, spreading
over the canes and leaves. Spray early in the
season with sulphate of iron, and later with
sulphide of potassium. Burn the canes if
much infested.

CHAPTER XIV.
THE STRAWBERRY.

Tauris delicious fruit, the earliest of the season,
is so highly appreciated that it is only necessary
to dwell upon its mode of culture and the most
desirable varieties. The strawberry will grow
in a great variety of soils, from warm and light
sandy plains, on through rich loams, up to stiff,
retentive clay, provided the last has proper
drainage. Of course the light soils require most
enriching. Some varieties, however, will not
thrive in light soils. Richness and depth are
most desirable, and the best condition is a rather
retentive loam, not subject to drought. The
ground should be thoroughly cultivated before-
hand, and made fine and friable by frequent
harrowing. ‘

As to the amount of fertilizing material there
is almost no limit, market gardeners often
ploughing in from forty to fifty cords to the
acre, before planting. A third part of that
amount will, however, give excellent and proba-
bly better results.

THE STRAWBERRY. 181

The beds may be made either in April or in
August. There is no doubt that young runners
planted as early as August 15th and carefully
nursed, not allowing any new runners, will make
such strong and fat crowns as will give even
larger berries the following June, than can be
obtained by any other plan. The yield of the
field will not be so great as if planted in the
previous spring. But the young plants have the
advantage of freshly ploughed ground and fresh
fertilizing, at the season of most active growth;
they are not weakened by making offsets, but
develop to the utmost, as individual plants. It
is, therefore, no surprise that our prize fruit
comes from August planting. All this is possi-
ble. Yet it remains true that spring is generally
regarded as the best time for making new plan-
tations. With less care, the plants are more
certain to live; the beds become well filled, and
a full crop is obtained in the following season.
There are advantages in both plans, and circum-
stances must determine which shall be followed.

For small garden beds a common practice is
to lay out beds four feet wide and plant three
rows a foot apart, the two outer rows being six
inches from the edge of the bed. The plants
may be a foot apart in the rows. Thus a bed
100 feet long would require 300 plants. To

182 FRUIT CULTURE.

facilitate good planting, open a furrow on each
line with a hand plough, or hoe, in order that
the roots of the plant may be spread out evenly
and then pressed down firmly, as in natural
growth. It is a wretched practice to dibble the
roots into a hole and crowd them together in a
bunch, as is common. In such beds, the plants
being equi-distant, it will be easy to keep down
all weeds and also all runners with the hoe.

Better results will be obtained by not allowing
any new plants to form, thus throwing all the
strength into the one crown which is to give the
fruit. By careful and persistent culture and
annual fall surface dressing, beds may be kept
under this single crown or stool system for sev-
eral years. It should be borne in mind, how-
ever, that a few kinds do not stool well and are
better adapted to the matted bed system, which
is the plan most in favor in field culture.

In matted culture the field is divided by the
hand plough into rows four feet apart, and the
plants inserted in the furrows one foot apart.
This work is done in April, and the plants are
expected to make runners and cover the field,
with the exception of a foot space for paths be-
tween the rows. When the ground is suffi-
ciently rich it is completely filled, and enormous
crops are obtained the second season. The ob-

THE STRAWBERRY. 183

jection is that the ground is choked with too
many plants, not allowing room for future devel-
opment. A common practice is to abandon this
matted mass and plough it under as soon as
the first crop is taken. If a permanent bed is
desired, it will be necessary to direct the run-
ners as they form, removing any superfluity, and
allowing plants to form only at intervals of
about a foot.

In sections where snow does not lie continu-
ously during winter, it is essential to give a light
covering of evergreen boughs, leaves, sedge, or
light manure, being careful not to rot the plants
by too heavy dressing. This will be removed
after severe frosts are past. After the spring
cleaning of weeds and a very light stirring of
the surface, a mulch of straw or clean litter will
serve to keep down the weeds, to keep the ground
moist, and also to protect the fruit from dirt.
In order to keep a bed in good heart, special
fertilizers may be applied in the spring, before
a second or a third crop; such as wood
ashes, superphosphate, or bone. But a matted
or weedy bed should be abandoned at once.

The strawberry requires a great amount of
water in order to carry heavy crops to perfec-
tion. So important is this that the pump is said
to be the best fertilizer it can have. If means

184 FRUIT CULTURE.

of irrigation are at command, it will be a great
advantage to give the beds frequent soakings
during the period of developing the fruit.
Nature seems to have designed that the straw-
berry should to a considerable extent be cross
fertilized. Hence the flowers are generally im-
perfect. The flowers of some varieties have no
stamens, or only those which are feebly devel-
oped. These are called pistillates. Others again
have both stamens and pistils and are called
staminate, or hermaphrodite. But it is usual,
when both organs are found in the same flower,
that the pistils are less in number, or are in an
enfeebled state. Nature seems to have discour-
aged the close fertilization and favored a cross.
Formerly pistillate varieties, when planted in
proximity to a staminate were regarded as most
productive. But by continued selection, herma-

phrodites, with sufficient vigor of both organs, __.

are obtained, and the result is that the majority
of sorts now planted are of this type.

It is asserted that a pistillate, like the Man-
chester, e. g., is greatly modified by the charac-
ter of the male variety by which it is fructified,
and that the quantity and quality is much im-
proved by judicious mating. Doubtless the
seed would be thus affected, but it is improb-
able that the fruit of the current year is
changed.

THE STRAWBERRY. 185

In no other fruit has the change in varieties
been so great as in the strawberry. Of old
kinds, Hovey is the only one remaining, and its
appearance is now a rare sight. Most varieties
seem to deteriorate, or become subject to dis-
ease. As difference in soil and climate makes
such material differences in results, and as new
varieties are constantly coming to the front, it is
not possible to give a list that will be perma-
nent.

Sharpless is the most popular variety in all
sections, at the present time. It is of largest
size, of good quality, productive, hermaphrodite,
and has more points of merit than any other
kind.

Charles Downing has been popular, as of fair
quality, uniform good size, and very productive.
Of late it has shown a tendency to leaf blight,
and it will probably give place to Miner’s Pro-
lific, which resembles it, but is thought to sur-
pass it.

Crescent and Wilson are the two most popu-
lar market kinds, very productive, but acid and
too poor for home use. Manchester is a pistil-
late which yields large crops and large berries
when fructified by Sharpless. Bidwell has not
sustained its reputation. James Vick sets an
enormous number of berries, beyond its power

186 FRUIT CULTURE.

to mature. Whether any mode of treatment
can make it yield a crop of average size is yet
to be proved. Jersey Queen is a pistillate of
great beauty and excellence, and very late;
moderately productive. Jucunda and Tri-
omphe de Gand are two older European kinds,
which under generous cultivation, in strong
soils and with hill culture, give good results.
Wilder is a superb fruit, but has many barren
plants and is unproductive. Hervey Davis is
excellent in quality, but small. Belmont is a
seedling raised by Warren Heustis, which has
proved to be very late, large, productive, and
valuable. Bubach, No. 5, is a large and pro-
ductive kind that is popular everywhere. For
the rest, we must depend upon the catalogues,
making trial of novelties in very limited quan-
tities.

The white grub of the May Beetle, or dor-
bug, as also Root and Crown Borers, often
work upon old beds and are very destructive.
Dusting with air-slacked lime or watering with
Paris-green or hellebore will check them. In
such cases it is generally better to destroy the
beds and the insects together. Leaf rollers,
cut worms, and other insects which feed upon
the foliage, may be destroyed by watering with
hellebore, or, after the fruit is matured, with

THE STRAWBERRY. 187

Paris-green. Leaf rust and mildew are best
destroyed by an early spraying with sulphide
of potassium. Other fungicides can be used
after the fruit is gathered. Affected leaves
should be burned.

The plan of mowing off all the foliage imme-
diately after fruiting, though seemingly so un-
natural, is practiced by many of our best cul-
tivators with excellent results. It is claimed
that a new, more healthy, and vigorous plant
is thus developed. After the fruit has matured
the plant is at comparative rest for a time;
both the foliage and the roots dry off, to a
considerable extent, and trial proves that the
removal of most of the foliage causes a new
and more vigorous start, and is a positive
benefit.

CHAPTER XV.
THE MULBERRY.

Tue Red Mulberry (Morus rubra) is native to
this country, being more abundant in the Middle
and Western States, and there attaining a height
of 60 or 70 feet. More sparingly it is found as
far North as the northern extremity of Lake
Champlain. It is an ornamental tree, with dark
green leaves. The European variety (Jforus
nigra) much resembles the American, but its
black fruit is larger and of better quality, being
an inch and a half in length, and of rich, sugary
flavor. Downing’s Everbearing is a seedling
from the Chinese silk variety (Af. multicaulis),
not so large, but juicy, sprightly, vinous, and
more agreeable. It suffers from the winters in
northern sections. Russian varieties, probably
seedlings from M. nigra, have been brought to
this country by the Mennonites and are largely
planted in the Western States. As might be
expected among seedlings, the fruit varies some-
what in quality, but is generally small and
inferior.

THE MULBERRY. 189

Eleagnus Longipes. — This is a small tree or
shrub from Japan, which bears bright red fruit
in great abundance, ripening in July. It is
juicy, sharp, rather pungent, but agreeable to
some tastes; half an inch or more in diameter.
The shrub is quite ornamental when in fruit,
and retains its leaves well into winter. The
fruit may improve by selection from seedlings.

Blueberry and Huckleberry (Vaceinium).—
These well-known varieties may be greatly
improved by selection and cultivation, and
well deserve a place in the garden.

Juneberry (Amelanchier canadensis).— The
improved dwarf variety is a bush about the
size of the currant, and is very productive of
fruit about the size and quality of the huckle-
berry.

Lueretia Dewberry.— A trailing blackberry
producing long, sweet, luscious berries of the
largest size, often one and a half inches long.
It is very difficult to train so as to give good
culture.

High Bush Cranberry (Viburnum).— The
fruit is sometimes used for culinary purposes,
but is mainly in use as an ornamental shrub.

Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon).— This
useful fruit delights in a light, sandy bog,
which can be flowed in frosty weather.

190 FRUIT CULTURE.

THE FIG.

In all the Southern States this is a hardy and
profitable fruit. At the North, it can easily
be raised, to a limited extent, by removing
the plants, with a ball of earth attached, and
plunging them in a cold cellar for the winter.
They are also easily cultivated in tubs. The
Angelica, Brown Ischia, Brown Turkey, Bruns-
wick, and Early Violet are all prolific and good,
and will ripen a crop in August.

RHUBARB.

In no sense can this be called a fruit, yet be-
ing a hardy perennial, differing so widely from
common vegetables, and more resembling fruits
in its uses, it may with propriety be here de-
scribed. It succeeds best in a deep, rich, reten-
tive soil. As its quality depends upon rapidity
of growth and consequent tenderness of fibre, it
is important to trench deeply before planting,
and work in a liberal supply of stable manure.
Afterwards the plants should receive an annual
fall dressing. It is scarcely possible to manure
too highly.

The first season after planting, the stalks
should not be cut; and only the largest, and to
a limit, should be cut the second year. After-

ASPARAGUS. 191

_wards, with little care, they will yield a full sup-
ply, so long as they are freely enriched. Should
it be desirable to make the stalks specially ten-
der and blanched, this may be done by placing
a headless barrel over the crowns in April, and
allowing the stalks to grow up within the inclos-
ure. New plantations may be made by division
of the roots. Myatt’s Linnzus is the best vari-
ety for family use, being early, tender, and less
acid than other kinds. Victoria is larger and
more marketable, but coarser and later.

ASPARAGUS,

This also is a perennial vegetable, but so dis-
tinct, hardy, permanent, and valuable as to claim
a place with fruits. It delights in a deep, rich,
and warm soil. Before planting, the ground
should be trenched or ploughed to the depth of
eighteen inches or two feet. Plants one or two
years from the seed are to be preferred. These
should be planted in a bed of three rows, a foot
apart, and the plants at the same distance in the
rows. Thus a bed one hundred feet long would
require three hundred plants.

It is well to throw out the surface of the bed
with a plough or shovel, in order to facilitate an
even planting of the roots, bringing the crown
down four inches below the surface when fin-

192 FRUIT CULTURE.

ished. An annual top dressing of composted
manure will add an inch or two to the depth
each year. The crowns will thus be about half
a foot below the surface, and will allow the hoe
or a light cultivator to run over and clean the
ground early in the spring. As the asparagus is
a maritime plant, and delights in the marshes,
common salt is recommended as an early spring
dressing. A new bed should be cut very spar-
ingly the second year after planting, and only
moderately the third year. With good care and
liberal enriching a bed may be continued indefi-
nitely, and prove as rewarding to the family as
any plant in cultivation.

Asparagus is propagated from seed almost
exclusively, and consequently we have as many
varieties as there are seedlings. But it is true
that seed selected from strong plants and of good
quality will produce characteristic seedlings. It
is important that raisers of the plants should
select the best quality of seed. A strain known
as Connover’s Colossal has been favorably re-
ceived for a few years past. Mr. J. B. Moore,
of Concord, Massachusetts, has exhibited fine
bunches of what he names Moore’s Cross-bred.
Whether cross-bred or not, the seed was undoubt-
edly carefully selected. Mr. Moore has had re-
markable success in cultivating asparagus upon

ASPARAGUS. 193

light, gravelly soil, by the free use of bone and
muriate of potash. His experience may compel
us to modify all our received opinions in regard
to the requirements of this plant.

Certain it is that with these fertilizers alone,
if used in liberal quantity, asparagus of superior
size and quality can be produced upon the light-
est soil.

CHAPTER XVI.
PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES.

Ir is true that trees can be propagated on a
large scale, and by nurserymen, more cheaply
than in small lots. The processes are simple
and the cost is trifling. But a good deal of care
is involved in securing all the conditions, simple
though they may be. And in the stage of young
and tender growth it is essential to success that
all the requirements are uniformly secured. Yet
they are all natural and involve but little labor,
and the various processes are full of interest and
satisfaction when the results are successful. And
besides, it often happens that particular kinds
are desired to be perpetuated or changed. Every
amateur should therefore understand ti. princi-
ples, and be able to practice the art of propaga-
ting with success.

From the Seed. — Apple and pear stocks are
raised from seed sown in drills, in rich land,
which will give strong growth, fit to be dug at
the end of the first season, The seed should be

PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES. 195

sown thin, so that each plant will have room
enough to grow, and should receive a covering
of quarter of an inch of earth, which should be
pressed firmly upon the seed. Mazzard and
Mahaleb, cherry and plum stones, should be
kept in moist sand through the fall and winter,
in boxes which should be allowed to freeze and
be kept in this state, or as cold as possible, until
spring. After this they should be planted as
apple and pear seeds.

Peach stones are wintered in wet sand, in
boxes in the open air, allowing them to freeze
and thaw frequently. By this process the stones
either will open of themselves or may be easily
cracked with a nut cracker. The seed should
then be planted in furrows, made with a plough,
three feet apart, and the stones or meat four
inches apart in the row. Wood ashes strewed
in the furrow and mixed with a hoe will prove
an excellent fertilizer for the peach. If the
stones have been well preserved and cracked
with care the growth will be uniform, and the
stocks in good condition to bud in August fol-
lowing.

All other fruit seedlings should be dug from
their beds in late autumn, and heeled in thickly
and to a good depth in cold frames, receiving a
moderate degree of frost, If the apple stocks

196 FRUIT CULTURE.

are wanted for winter grafting (a process which
will be hereafter described), they should be so
covered as to be accessible.

In early spring, the stocks which are intended
for budding should have their tap roots short-
ened by a clean cut of the knife. If free from
small fibrous roots, which are worse than useless,
it will be well to dip the roots in a thin wash of
clay and cow dung, thus insuring them against
drying. It is well to dip all trees in such a
wash, when removed, provided the fibres are not
left wadded together to cause decay. It is the
approved practice to plant fruit stocks in rows
three and a half feet apart, and one foot in
the row. After thorough ploughing, a line is
stretched, and a trench is cut with a spade, deep
enough to receive the stocks on the same level
as the growth of the previous year. One boy
holds the stock at the right distance, and a man
standing off on the opened side of the line, with
a hoe bottom-side up, presses a little fine earth
very firmly against the stock, bringing it to a
plump upright position. The trench is then to
be filled, and if the stocks are not so firm in the
ground that they will not yield to a slight pull,
a gentle pressure of the foot on both sides of the
row is advisable. Loose planting is the cause
of many failures, If rightly planted, in rich

PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES. 197

soil, they will make vigorous growth, and be in
good condition for budding in midsummer.

There are five methods of perpetuating desira-
ble varieties of fruits and other plants, which
will here be described.

By Division. — Many plants, like the Japan
Quince, throw offsets which may be separated
from the parent and form new plants. Others,
like the raspberry and blackberry, send up nu-
merous suckers from the root. The strawberry,
on the contrary, sends out runners on the surface
which take root. This is Nature’s work, with
little for the cultivator to do, but to avail him-
self of the results.

By Cuttings.— Next to division, this is the
simplest and cheapest process, when it can readily
be applied. The currant, gooseberry, grape, and
quince, as well as many trees and shrubs, like the
Willow, Poplar, Spireas, and Weigelias, will root
with facility from hard wood cuttings. Indeed,
nearly all kinds of wood may be induced to emit
roots by a slow process of softening the wood,
under favorable conditions of heat and moisture.
Partially ripened wood, usually called soft wood
cuttings, will root quicker than harder wood, pro-
vided a little foliage is left, which is sustained
in a cool, moist atmosphere until the roots form.
This is the ordinary way of striking roses and

198 FRUIT CULTURE.

shrubs in shaded frames, in the months of July
and August, the surface soil being pure fine
sand, as a guard against damping. Such cold
frames require to be opened and closed, in order
to maintain an even temperature, and also a
careful supply of water, as needed. But for
fruits, ripened wood is preferable. Still it is
better to take this wood before it becomes too
hard, and especially before it is dried by the
frosts. Cuttings taken in early September and
buried in a horizontal position in a warm and
moderately moist soil will be rooted at the end
of autumn. But the objection is that the tops
will also start and perish upon exposure. The
safest course is to take the cuttings about the
time of the first sharp frosts and heel them in,
very thickly, in beds of light, sandy loam, using
only enough soil to separate the cuttings. The
beds may be three feet wide and as long as is
needed. A bed six feet long would hold many
thousand cuttings. The tops should remain ex-
posed to the frosts, and as the earth is warmer
than the air during the fall months, considera-
ble progress in callousing will be obtained, and
at the same time the tops will be kept dormant.
Just before the ground closes the bed should be
rounded up with earth, covering the tops en-
tirely. Shutters may then be placed over the

PROPAGATING FRU T TREES. 199

bed to protect from rain. Early in the spring
the bed should be uncovered and the earth re-
moved from the tops, and as soon as the ground
is dry the cuttings should be lifted and planted as
directed for stocks, but in rows eighteen inches
apart, if cultivated by hand. Currants and
quinces may be from four to six inches in the
rows, but grapes will require more distance.
The usual length of cuttings is about nine inches,
and they should be selected from strong, mature
growth of the same season. As the tissues just
under a bud are favorable for granulation and
the formation of roots, it is best to make the
lower cut near the base of an eye. The upper
eyes should not project more than two or three
inches above the surface. Grape vines and
many other hard wood plants may be raised
from cuttings with a single eye, but since there
is little wood
left to sustain
the eye, in such
a case, the aid
of bottom heat
will be required.
Ina propagating
bed of sand over
waterpipes, these Fig, 16.

eyes root with facility. Before the roots inter-

200 FRUIT CULTURE.

lace, they should be potted, and early in June,
when well established, they may be planted in
rich, mellow, open ground. The different forms
of sa coe eye cuttings of the grape may be seen
in Figs. 15, 16, and
7 17. As the deposit
of cambium is known

Fig. 17. to be greater near the
base of an eye, the theory for Fig. 17 was that
roots would form more readily at the eye, while
the wood projecting above would retain some
sap to sustain the eye. In practice probably it
does more harm than good, by increasing the
liability of displacement. Fig. 16 shows the
lower and under part of the cutting shaved off,
in order to expose more surface for the forma-
tion of roots. Practically, the surface is in dan-
ger of absorbing too much moisture. Fig. 15
shows the best form, the least amount of surface
to be calloused, while the roots will freely form
from under the bark as well as at the cut.
The cost of raising cuttings in quantity is very
trifling.

By Layers. — A layer is but a modified form
of a cutting, with this advantage, that the cutting
is not separated from the parent plant, but still
draws its support from it until new roots are
formed. In the case of many vines, like the

PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES. 201

honeysuckles, roots are formed in abundance
when the branches are left simply to trail upon
the surface of the ground. In other cases it is
only necessary to bend the branches into trenches
and throw a little covering of soil upon them in
order to get well rooted plants. But with the
majority of plants, includ- ry,

ing the quince and the
grape, a little assistance
with the knife is required.
An incision of any kind
will tend to arrest the de-
scending flow of sap and Fig. 18.

induce the formation of roots. A simple tongue
passing under an eye, as in Fig. 18, is all that is
required, where the branches are sufficiently flexi-
ble. But it often happens that, when the cut is
thus made, the shoot is greatly weakened, if not
broken entirely off, in bringing it to an upright
position. A safer mode and one which brings
the tongue into a better position for throwing out
roots is to make the incision on the top of the
bending branch, and then to turn the tongue to
one side of the branch, as seen in Fig. 19. The
liability to break is much lessened, and roots will
strike out ina more natural direction. Layers are
more generally made from half-ripened wood,
in July and early August, and there is no doubt

202 FRUIT CULTURE.

that roots will form more rapidly at this season
than in the spring. But the young roots do not
always become sufficiently strong in the brief time
before frosts, and the layers may require another
season before the new plant is fit to be separated

Fig 19.

from its parent. This often happens when a
drought occurs in the latter part of the season.
For this and other reasons, layering may be done
before growth starts in the spring. In the case
of grapes, the form of growth may be regulated
in the preceding season by leading out several
horizontal shoots and stopping the tips when six
or eight feet long, thus causing a great number
of laterals to develop, all of which will make ex-
cellent plants by fall. Fig. 20 illustrates the
rapidity with which vines may be thus increased.
Strong pegs will be required to hold stiff branches
firmly in position. A handful of fine leaf mould
and sand at the tongue will greatly assist in
developing roots. Sufficient covering of soil and

PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES. 203

a light mulch should be given to prevent drying.
Layers will usually winter best as attached to
the stools, being well banked up or mulched
with leaves and evergreen boughs to protect

Fig. 20.

from “heaving.” In early spring all well-rooted
plants should be separated and planted in rows;
thus making room for a subsequent crop.

By Budding. — At periods of active flow of
sap the bark of trees will readily separate from
the wood. When this can be done buds may be
inserted under the bark and upon the sap wood,
which will unite with the tree and yet preserve
their identity and characteristics. Thus a tiny
bud of a sweet apple, though inserted on the
stock of the sourest crab, and drawing all its
nourishment from it, will yet be true to its origin
and yield fruit after its kind. This operation
may be performed at any time when the bark
lifts freely, provided buds sufficiently mature

204 FRUIT CULTURE.

can be obtained. But the time of most cer-
tain success is when the summer growth is about
to cease and the flow of sap will be less abun-
dant. Both the buds and the sap will then be
in best condition for a speedy union. Upon cut-
ting the scion from which the buds are to be
taken, the leaves should at once be cut, leaving
about a quarter of an inch of the foot stalk of
the leaf, which will be long enough to hold the
bud. After the foliage is removed these scions
may be kept several days without injury, if
wrapped in damp cloth, or in moss.

The different steps in the process of budding
may be seen in the figures. With a keen, thin
blade the bud
is cut from the
scion, as seen in
Fig. 21. The
length of the cut
varies, but in
general is about
half an inch
above the bud,
and slightly
longer _ below.

Fig 2l. As little wood
as is possible should be cut with the bud, and
when it does not adhere firmly it may be re-

PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES. 205

moved. But there is danger of injury to the
bud, if this is done unskillfully. Fig. 22 shows
the perpendicular and horizontal slits through
the bark of the stock, and Fig. 23 shows

Hl
Fig. 22. Fig. 23.
the lips of the bark slightly raised by the thin
hilt of the budding knife. In Fig. 24 the bud
is seen slipped into its place, the bark lapping
smoothly over it. It is now necessary to bind
the bud so firmly that the air and rain will be
excluded, as may be seen in Fig. 25. The soft
and moistened strings selected from bass mats
have been used for this purpose. <A grass called
Roffea is coming into use as an excellent material
for tying. It is very soft, pliable, and strong,
and is a decided improvement on bass bark, or

206 FRUIT CULTURE.

mat strings. It may be obtained at trifling cost
at the seed stores. If prepared with a very
slight coating of wax, the work will be more
easily and better done. Some varieties of trees
have an excessive How of sap, and the buds are
liable to be “drowned out,” as it is termed. In
such cases it is recommended by some to make
the horizontal slit at the bottom of the perpen-
dicular incision, and then to insert the bud up-
wards instead of slipping it down as before.
This latter method, namely, of inverting the
cross (thus, |), is that which is practiced with
maples and other ornamental trees, but is not
required for fruits. Other forms have also been
suggested, but they are rather ingenious than
useful. The common cross, T, will be found suf-
ficient for all ordinary cases.

The conditions of success are: vigorous stocks
which peel freely; sufficiently mature buds; a
smooth, thin cut of the bud, with but little wood
adhering; no roughing of the cambium under the
bark; a good fit of the bud; without delay; and
an even binding of the bark so as to exclude all
air. In about ten days or a fortnight after this
work is done, if the stocks are vigorous, the
strings will begin to bind, when they will require
to be loosened, or, if the union appears to be
secure, a drawn cut with a sharp knife, on the

PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES. 207

opposite side of the stock from the bud, will give
permanent relief. In the early spring the stock
is cut away a few inches above the bud, and this
projecting stem may serve as a support to which
the young shoot may be tied, if necessary. In
July the shoot will be strong enough for self-
support, and the stub should be cut away close
down to the bud, so that the wound may close
over. Budding is the method by which the
great majority of fruit trees are propagated in
the nurseries. The union of the bud with the
young stock is smooth; the work is done at a
season of the year when work is not pressing;
and the labor involved is less than that of graft-
ing. More careful after watching is necessary,
in relieving the ties and in training the buds,
and cutting away the stubs. The work is rapidly
performed, from five hundred to one thousand
buds being an easy day’s work for a man and a
boy. Pear stocks are liable to leaf-blight early
in August, and therefore require to be budded
before growth stops. Peaches, on the other
hand, are in active growth into September, and
work upon them may be delayed well into
August.

By Grafting. — This may be considered but
a modification of the method by budding, the
scion being of greater length than the bud, and

a

208 FRUIT CULTURE.

inserted upon the stock at another period of
growth, and in different ways. It may also be
regarded as but a modified form of a cutting,
inserted upon a stock already provided with
roots, instead of inserting into the soil, for the
formation of its own roots. Having strong and
vigorous stocks it is obvious that speedy results
would follow the engrafting of scions. The usual
time for the operation is early spring, when
both stock and scion are dormant, but about
ready to start. Plums and cherries require to
be grafted very early, before there are signs of
any flow of sap, or swelling of the bud. But
provided the scions be kept dormant, apples,
pears, and grapes may be grafted much later,
even until in full leaf. In a close house, or
frame, with moist heat, grafting may be success.
fully performed at any season and with partially
ripened wood, but in the open air it is necessary
that the scion, at least, should be in a dormant
condition. There are three conditions essential
to successful union, viz.: First, that the inner
bark and cambium of the stock and scion come
in contact and coincide with each other to some
extent ; second, that this union be secured by a
firm pressure ; third, that a permanent covering
be applied which shall exclude air and moisture.
Numerous modes of accomplishing these ends

PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES. 209

have been devised, all of which may be resolved
into modifications of three forms, namely, cleft,
whip, and saddle grafting.

Cleft grafting is the method
usually applied to large trees, and
wherever the stocks are much lar-
ger than the scions. The trunk or
limbs of the stock are usually sawed
and smoothed off with a square
cut. With a splitting-iron, as seen
in Fig. 26, a split is made, usually
down the centre of the limb, as
shown in Fig. 27. The split is to
be opened by the wedges at either end of the
splitting iron. The scion is then
to be cut in a wedge form. corre-
sponding to the split in the stock.
The side of the scion which is to
be within the stock should be
shaved slightly thinner than the
outer edge, in order that the pres-
sure of the stock may be firm at
the bark. As the bark of the
stock is usually thicker than the
new bark of the scion, it is neces-
sary in such a case to place the
scion slightly within the outer
bark, making sure, by careful inspection, that the

as

Fig. 26.

210 FRUIT CULTURE.

inner bark and cambium of stock and scion
shall coincide. Fig. 28 shows the scion inserted.
A bud is usually selected to be at the level
of the stock, which will be protected by the
covering, and may prove to be the best eye for
the future shoot. Generally but one bud above
this is left on the scion. If
the stock is an inch or more
in diameter, the scion will usu-
ally be held sufficiently firm,
after the withdrawal of the
wedge. Should this prove not
to be the case, a ligature will
be necessary to draw the two
sides firmly to the scion. But
this involves the removal of
the ligature soon after growth
commences, and as this is objectionable, it is
better to adopt another mode of grafting small
stocks.

The exposed parts and the upper end of the
scion, if cut, should immediately be covered with

Fig. 28.

some material impervious to air and rain. Clay
worked up with cow dung and hair has been
used as a natural and healing plaster. But the
application is not easy or agreeable, and worst
of all, there is liability to cracking and crum-
bling. Grafting wax is more permanent and is

PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES. 211

applied with more rapidity. The common for-
mula for making this is to melt together four
parts rosin, two parts pure beeswax, one part
beef tallow. After melting and when partially
cooled, pull ad libitum, to toughen. Linseed
oil is a vegetable product, and perhaps prefer-
able to tallow. A cheaper, harder, and better
composition may be made of four parts rosin,
one part beeswax, and one part linseed oil.
Should this prove too hard in cold weather,
more oil may be added. A very hard wax is
used in the French
nurseries, with best
results. The wax
may be heated in a
skillet and applied
with a brush, or
when warmed in
water may be spread
by hand. It is im-
portant that every
exposed part, as well
as the cut at the end
of the scion, should
be covered with the
wax. Thus protected
there is little more care, except to watch and

protect the future shoot and remove suckers.

Fig 29.

212, FRUIT CULTURE.

Whip grafting is the method more commonly
applied when the stock and the scion are about
of the same size, although it is not limited
to this condition. Fig. 29 indicates how per-
fectly the stock and scion may be made to cor-
respond. This is the simplest form. But in the
ease of wood that is not brittle, it is safer to slit
a tongue in the stock and a corresponding one in
the scion, as seen in Fig. 30. A little practice will
soon enable a good knifesman to make a close
adjustment of the parts. But it is not to be ex-
pected that the scion will exactly cover the entire
cut surface of the stock.
It is only necessary that
the union of cambium
should be perfect at some
point, though the more en-
tire this union is, the more
certain will be the success.
The scions are secured to
| the stock by a bandage of
| waxed cloth, drawn suffi-
| ciently tight to hold the
scion firmly, and to exclude
the air. The cloth is made
by dipping strips of thin
cotton cloth about four inches wide into hot wax,
and then drawing them under the edge of a pane

Fig. 30.

PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES. 213

of glass used as a scraper. This gives a smooth,
thin waxed-cloth with just enough wax to adhere
when slightly warmed, strong enough to bind to
a close union, and yet weak enough to yield to
increased growth. These strips are again cut
into narrow strips about three eighths of an inch
wide, and into lengths sufficient to wind smoothly
and completely cover the work.

Whip grafting is the method by which nursery-
men propagate apples and many other plants,
in cellars, in the winter time. The stocks are
stored where accessible, and the work progresses
throughout the winter. Instead of cloth a pre-
pared waxed paper is found to be sufficiently
strong, and more ready to yield to growth. The
Roffea grass may also prove to be a good tying
material. Apple grafts are
packed in boxes, in sawdust, or
some other retentive non-con-
ductor, and stored away in cold
cellars, until planting time.
Various modifications of whip
grafting are practiced, the
most common being a side inser-

tion, as seen in Fig. 31. This

Fig. 31.

is a good form for grafting the
rose, which being brittle in its wood does not
readily take a tongue. The scion is, however,

214 FRUIT CULTURE.

held securely in its place by the notch in the
stock, and a good eye and hand will make the
cuts so that the bark will coincide over most of
the surface. When this work is done in a green-
house, a little sphagnum moss is tied around the
scion and stock to preserve a moist condition,
In this way evergreen trees and a great variety
of stocks, which are comparatively difficult to
graft, are treated very successfully. In the
close, even temperature and hu-
midity of a glass case within
the greenhouse, a careful gar-
dener will succeed in grafting
almost every plant with its al-
lied stock. In all cases he en-
deavors to have the sap of the
stock in motion and slightly in
advance of the scion.

Saddle grafting can scarcely
be called more than a modified
form of whip grafting.

Here the stock is sloped off
on each side, as seen in Fig. 32
6, while the scion a is slit so as
to cover the stock. In Fig. 33
the work is seen before the
bandage is applied, and shows
how smooth will be the after growth, if success-

Fig. 32.

PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES. 215

ful. Scions may be kept dormant until late in
the spring, by packing in a refrigerator or ice-
house. They then may be shaved to a
point on one side and inserted under the
bark of the stock, which will separate
from the wood after growth has com-
menced. Fig. 34 illustrates this form,
which is a modification of whip and of
saddle grafting, and also of budding.
Scions should be cut in the fall or early
winter, before the wood is any way in-
jured or pinched by frosts. They
“ should be kept in a cold place, in
slightly moist earth, where the wood
will be preserved in a plumb dormant condition.
After grafting little care is required,
save to remove any sprouts or suckers
which may start, and to loosen any
ligatures which may cut into the
wood.

Fig. 33.

There is a prevalent opinion that
grafting is a difficult art, and that
only knifesmen of exceptional skill
and experience can succeed. But this
is a mistaken notion; the conditions
are simple and the process is simple.
Witha careful observance of the rules, and after
a little practice, any amateur should become an

216 FRUIT CULTURE.

expert, and take great delight in experiments in
this direction.

It is no small part of the reward in fruit cul-
ture that ways for experiment and study are
opened in all directions, and that Nature seems
kindly to encourage every attempt to understand
her laws.

CHAPTER XVII.

REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES.

ConsIDERING the prevalence of diseases and
of imperfect fruit, and the long list of insects
and fungi which cause the injury, it seems dis-
couraging to enter upon this culture. Yet we
are to bear in mind that our knowledge of the
habits of these parasites has been greatly in-
creased by research during the past few years,
and our means of destroying them have cor-
respondingly increased. Indeed we may say
that the field for fruit culture was never more
inviting for an enterprising young man to en-
ter than at present. The difference between
thrifty culture and neglect was never so ap-
parent as now. Our markets demand the
highest excellence in all our fruits, and are
ready to take all such at a full price. The
faithful application of recent remedies will rid
us of the great majority of our enemies. To
all who are willing to be content with slow,
moderate, but steady average returns for per-

218 FRUIT CULTURE.

severing care, there is increasing encourage-
ment. Let no one be deceived, however, into
thinking this is work which will need little
thought or attention. The destruction now
caused by insects and fungi is so serious that
only by systematic use of the various rem-
edies as required can we expect satisfactory
returns. .
Spraying with poisons for insects which
feed upon the foliage, or with caustics and
offensive solutions for those which suck the
juices, and with chemicals which will destroy
low forms of vegetable life without injury to
the higher forms, is the simple rule for the
treatment of the great majority of cases. In
order that the material may be economized
and extend and be diffused as far as possible,
it is important to use a cyclone nozzle, which
will divide the stream into a fine mist. There
are several patents offered which are so made
that they can be quickly cleaned when ob-
structed by lime or other particles. The im-
proved Vermorel is used by the United States
Department of Agriculture. This can be at-
tached to a Eureka sprayer which is carried
on the back of the operator, who can pump
and also direct the spray at the same time.
There may be other devices equally as good.

REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES. 219

For an orchard the apparatus must of course
be more powerful. It is usual to mount a bar-
-rel containing the fluid upon wheels, with one
man to pump, another to direct the spray, and
a third to lead the horse. In order to reach the
tops of high trees, the spraying hose may be
attached to a bamboo pole of suitable length.
With such apparatus a large orchard can be
quickly done. Recommendations for the treat-
ment of diseases of the various fruits have
already been given. The following formulas
are here given.

INSECTICIDES.

Paris-green.—The commercial article con-
tains from thirty to fifty per cent. of arsenic.
It is practically insoluble in water, and there-
fore it is necessary to keep the mixture con-
stantly stirred to prevent settling. Serious
injury may result to foliage if the liquid be-
comes too strong at the bottom. For apples,
pears, potatoes, and most shade trees, one
pound should be diluted with 250 gallons of
water. For cherries and peaches, from 300 to
400 gallons should be the proportion. Kero-
sene emulsion (one gallon of sour milk, two
gallons of oil) may be added to the arsenite
in the proportion of one per cent. to increase

220 FRUIT CULTURE.

adhesiveness. The Bordeaux mixture, and
other fungicides, are also added to apply in
one operation, where a saving of labor is de-
sired. A stronger mixture, to apply around
the trunk of trees to destroy borers, is made
with one ounce of Paris-green to two gallons
of water, and one pound of glue dissolved in
half a gallon of hot water to secure adhesive-
ness.

London Purple is a by-product in the manu-
facture of aniline dyes, usually containing from
thirty to fifty per cent. of arsenic. It mixes
more readily with water than Paris-green, but
is often more injurious to foliage. It is used
in the same proportions.

Kerosene Emulsion. —This is made by atom-
izing the oil so that it will mix permanently
with water, as follows: one quarter of a pound
of whale-oil soap, soft soap, or hard soap, two
quarts of hot water, one pint of kerosene;
beat rapidly until permanently mixed, then
add six to eight quarts of water; pump this
back three or more times to secure a perma-
nent mixture. This proves to be valuable for
destroying plant lice and scales, to be used by
dipping, or washing, or spraying. Another
formula is sour milk one gallon, kerosene two
gallons; warm and beat thoroughly, then add

REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES. 221

ten gallons of water. These emulsions are
offensive to all forms of insect life, and should
be used freely. Kerosene at its full strength
does not seem to injure grape foliage, and
therefore stronger emulsions should be tried
to prevent the ravages of the rose beetle.

Whale Oil Soap in the proportion of one
pound to five gallons of water is used as a
spray, or dip, or wash, to kill mealy bugs and
lice. When used as a wash, sulphur may be
added freely.

Tobacco is used as smoke in houses, or any
confined place, to kill lice and similar insects.
The fumes should not be too strong, but re-
peated three or four times daily. A decoction
of one pound of tobacco stems to two gallons
of water may be used as a spray or dip.

Sulphur and Scotch snuff, mixed with the
soap or tobacco liquors, is used as a paint
upon the trunks of trees to destroy lice; ap-
plied with a paint brush.

White Hellebore.— This is a mild poison, but
is quite sufficient to destroy the currant-worm ;
and as it soon loses its strength it is much
safer to use than the arsenites when the fruit
is near ripening. The powder may be placed
in a thin muslin bag, and then tied to the end
of a cane three or four feet long. A slight

922 FRUIT CULTURE.

jar of the cane will cause a little cloud of the
powder to escape from the bag as it is held
under the currant bushes. This work is best
done when the dew is on. The powder may
also be mixed with water, a teaspoonful to
three gallons, and then applied lightly to the
bushes with a whisk broom. Watch for the
first appearance of the worm, and also for
succeeding broods. They are easily destroyed,
and with care may be exterminated from the
garden.

Pyrethrum, or Insect Powder, is effectual
against thrip and leaf hopper, but it soon loses
its strength in the open air. It may be applied
as hellebore.

Potash Wash.— A lye made from a bushel of
hard wood ashes to twelve gallons of water,
with an addition of sulphur, makes a good
wash with which to paint the trunks and
branches of trees to remove scale and other
insects.

Blue Vitriol (copperas) is recommended to
pour on the roots of trees infested with insects.

Bisulphide of Carbon is a very inflammable
chemical, the vapor of which is very destruc-
tive to animal life. As it volatilizes readily,
it is used to destroy phylloxera of the grape
and other root insects. It is applied by pour-

REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES. 223

ing the liquid into a hole near the roots, and
closing immediately, so that the vapor shall
permeate the soil. It must be kept corked
and away from fire. Carbolic acid diluted
with water is much safer, but not as effectual.

FUNGICIDES.

Bordeaux Mixture. —No longer ago than the
year 1888 this preparation was first applied in
this country as a remedy for the mildews.
Since that date this and various modifications
of copper solutions have wrought a revolution
in grape culture. It is not saying too much
to affirm that mildews are now fairly under
control. The formula for the Bordeaux is as
follows: eight pounds of sulphate of copper
dissolved in five gallons of hot water, ten
pounds of best quicklime slaked with eight
gallons of hot water in another vessel. When
cool strain the lime carefully with a flour
sieve, and afterwards thoroughly mix the two
solutions by constant stirring. When ready
for use, an addition of twenty gallons of water
is made, and the mixture is again stirred and
strained. With all care, the lime will cause
fine nozzles to clog more or less. The Ver-
morel, Japy, and Vigoroux nozzles are con-
structed so as to be easily cleaned. The lime

224. FRUIT CULTURE.

causes the mixture to adhere, and also acts
chemically upon the copper. Hence the value
of the mixture. But the lime is objectionable
on account of the stain to the foliage, and also
because of the clogging. Another formula is
recommended by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, increasing the propor-
tion of sulphate of copper, and also the amount
of water, but diminishing the proportion of
lime, as follows: Dissolve twelve pounds of
sulphate of copper in fifteen or twenty gallons
of water. In another vessel make a milk of
lime with eight pounds of lime in ten or twelve
gallons of water. Strain and mix in a barrel,
adding at least fifteen gallons of water.
There is a growing tendency to increase the
copper and diminish the proportion of lime.
Sulphate of Copper (blue vitriol). — This is
undoubtedly the efficient element in destroy-
ing mildew. When used without the lime it
is more liable to injure foliage. It does not
adhere as well, and it may be doubted whether
itis as efficient. Still it isso much more easily
applied, and without staining the foliage, that
it may be used with care. One pound of the
sulphate is sufficient for twenty-five gallons of
water. As a wash or a spray for trees and
vines in early spring, it may be used much

REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES. 225

stronger— one pound to ten gallons of water.
Seeds and grains may be soaked in a solution
of one pound to two gallons of water, to de-
stroy spores of smut.

Eau celeste—A modified form of this French
remedy is recommended for the apple scab,
the downy mildew, and the more easily de-
stroyed powdery mildew. The formula for
this is as follows:

Sulphate of copper . ‘ 1 Ib.
Carbonate of soda 2 lbs.
Aqua ammonia. . . 1} pints.
Water... 30 gals.

Dissolve the copper sulphate and the car-
bonate of soda in separate vessels. Mix the
two, then add the ammonia, and after this
the water. This preparation is easily made
and easily applied.

Ammoniacal Solution of Carbonate of Cop-
per.— A still more simple remedy, and one for
which there is a growing preference, is as fol-
lows: Carbonate of copper (precipitate), three
ounces; aqua ammonia, one quart. Dissolve
the carbonate in the ammonia and keep in a
well-corked bottle until wanted for use. Then
add thirty gallons of water. For spraying
during the growing season, it is believed this
will prove to be effectual, and the best prepa-

15

226 FRUIT CULTURE.

ration to destroy the mildews, apple scab, fun-
gus, and leaf blight of the pear, quince, and
currant. To insure success six applications
during the season are recommended.

Sulphur, in its dry state known as flowers
of sulphur, is used as a dust for surface mil-
dews. In graperies it is also effectual, when
evaporated in a basin over a lamp, using care
that it does not become overheated and give
off a deadly gas.

RECEIPTS FOR GRAFTING WAX.

A good wax is made with four pounds rosin,
two pounds pure beeswax, one pound beef tal-
low. Melt slowly together, and then pour into
cold water and pull the wax until it is nearly
white. A harder wax for warm weather is
made with half the amount of beeswax, 7. e.
four pounds rosin, one pound wax, one pound
tallow. Many operators prefer raw linseed
oil instead of tallow, one pint for a pound.

Liquid Wax. — Lefort’s is thus made: one
pound rosin, one ounce beef tallow; when
cool, after melting, add eight ounces alcohol,
and keep in a bottle. Another form: six
pounds rosin, one pound beeswax ; when par-
tially cool stir in enough alcohol to make any
desired thickness. Keep in wide mouth bot-

REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES. 227

tles. These liquid waxes will be found useful
not only in grafting, but also in protecting
buds, and in covering exposed surfaces. It
can be applied with a small paint brush.

Waxed Cloth. — Melt either the first or the
second form of wax according to the work to
be done, and while it is hot dip strips of old
calico or thin sheeting about three feet long
and three to four inches wide into the fluid,
holding on to one end of the strip with one
hand. Then draw the strip out and over the
edge of a thin board fastened across the top
of the kettle, at the same time with the other
hand holding a small pane of glass to the edge
so as to press back into the kettle nearly all
the wax that is in the cloth. This will give
a very thin oiled cloth, which may be cut into
narrow strips for whip-grafting. Clay and
cow dung beat and tempered together are
somewhat in use in moist climates for graft-
ing, but the form is not to be recommended
in America,

Roffea is superior to bass string as a liga-
ture in budding aud grafting.

INDEX.

ADVANCE in remedies, 17.
Age to plant trees, 22.
Aphides, 75.
Apples, distances to plant, 53.
dwarfs, 57.
gathering, 56.
insects injurious to, 64.
keeping, 56.
profit of 50.
pruning, 55.
scraping 55.
varieties, 58.
where to plant, 13.
whitewashing 55.
Apricots, 128.
Asparagus, 191.
August planting of the straw-
berry, 181

Bark louse, 76.
Blackberries, 177.
Blight of pear, 98.
Bone meal, 35 45.
Borers, apple, 69-71.
cherry, 133.
currant, 171.
peach, 114,
pear, 96.
quince, 137.
Budding, 203.

Canker-worms, 71.
Caterpillars, 67, 68.
Cherries, classes of, 130.
dwarfs, 131,
insects injurious to, 131.
profit in, 20.
varieties of, 130.
where to plant, 13.
Cider, 56.
Clean culture, 28, 38.
Cleft grafting, 209.
Codling moth, 64.
Commercial fertilizers, 33, 44.

Condition of soil, 25.

Crab apples, 64.

Cracking of fruit, 99.

Curculio, 119.

Currant, cultivation of, 168.
where to plant, 14.

Cuttings, propagating by, 197.

Difficulties in fruit culture, 16.
Diseases of the apple, 64,
grape, 163.
peach, 114.
pear, 98.
plum, 119.
Distances to plant, 36.
for dwarf apples, 57.
cherries, 131.
pears, 88,
Doucain stock, 67.
Drainage, 3, 28.
Dwarf apples, 57.
cherries, 131.
pears, 88.

Elevated sites, 15, 100.
Exposure of roots, 24.

Fall planting, 26.

Fall-web worm, 74.

Fertilizers, 3', 42.

Fibrous roots, 23.

Fig, cultivation of, 190.

Fire blight, 98.

Flat-headed borer, 71.

Forest tent caterpillar, 68.

Frosty sites. 15.

Fruit culture, advantage of, 11.
profit in, 18.

Fungi, 78.

Fungicides, 223.

German salts, 34,
Gipsy moth, 77.

230

Gooseberry, cultivation of, 171.
varieties of, 172.

Grafting, 207.

Grafting wax, 226.

Grape arbors, 150.
borders, 152.
cuttings, 197.
distances, 149.
fertilizers, 139,
horizontal tr lii-, (47.
insects injurious to, 158.
layering, 200.
mildew, 163.
phylloxera, 158.
pruning, 145.
renewal system, 146.
ringing, 142.
soil for, 138.
time to plant, 141.
thinning, 152.
training 143-148.
trellises, 147.
under glass, 150.
varieties, 153.

Hedges for protection, 16.

Hermaphrodite strawberries,
184.

High culture, 12.

Hill-sides, 29.

Horizontal trellis, 148.

How to plant, 24.

Influence of rural pursuits, 2.
Insects injurious to the apple, 64.
cherry, 131.
currant, 170,
grape, 158.
peach, 113.
pear, 95.
plum, 119.
quince, 137.
raspberry, 179.
strawberry, 186.
Insecticides, 219.
Irrigation, 39.

Kerosene emulsion, 22!.

Labels, 48. .
Lawn, 4.
seed for, 6.
when to sow, 6.
Layering, 200,
Leaf blight of pear, 99.
plum, 125.

INDEX.

Location of garden, 13.
Low grounds, 14.

Maggot of the apple, 67
Mahaleb stocks, 131.
Manures, 30.
cost of, 46.
from the cow, 43
when to apply, 42.
May bug, 133.
Mazzard stocks, 129.
Mildew ot’ the grape, 163.
gooseberry, 171.
Mulching, 27.
Muriate of potash, 34. 45.
for the peach, 103.

Nectarines, 117.

Overhanging fruit. 54.
Oyster-shell louse, 76

Pastures for the apple, 29.

Peach, age of the, 103.
borer, 114.
diseases of, 114.
fertilizer for, 102
insects injurious to, 113.
on plum stocks, 101,
pot culture of, 105.
profit in, 20.
pruning of, 103.
soil for 100.
varieties, 110.

Pear, diseases of, 98.
dwarfs, 85.
dwarfs, soil for. 86
insects injurious to, 95.
pickin the fruit, St.
profit in, 19.
pruning of, 82.
ripening, 84.
varieties, 89.
soil for, $1.

Planting, 26.

Plum curculio, 119.

Plum, diseases of, 122.
insects injurious to, 119.
soil for, 118.
stocks for, 118.
varieties 126.

Potash, 53.

Pot culture of the peach, 105.

Preparing the land, 28.

Procuring trees, 22.

Protit of fruit culture, 18.

INDEX. 231

Propagation by budding, 203.
cuttings, 197
division, 197.
grafting, 207.
layering, 200.
seeds, 194.
Pruning, 35, 82, 103.
Pump, 39.

Quince, cultivation of, 135.

Raspberry, cultivation of, 173.

diseases and insects, 179.

profit in, 19.
pruning, 176.
Rhubarb, 190.
Roadways, 7.
Rocky hill-sides, 29,
Root aphis, 75.
Root pruning, 24
Roots, 22.
Rose beetle, 161.
Saddle grafting, 214.
Spraying, 218.
Stravberry, At 26.
Strawberry, August planting,

Strawberry, in beds, 181,
insects injurious to, 186,
hermaphrodite, 184.
mowing, 187,
varieties, 185.

Syringing apple trees, 75.
Toliage, 41.

Tar paper, 73.

Tent caterpillar, 67.
Thinning fruit, 4.
Thrip, 162.

Time to plant, 26.
Twig borer, 77.

Walks, 8.
Watering, 39.
Waters’ punely 39.
Waxes, 226.

Whip gr atting, 212.
Wind breaks, 16.
Wood ashes, 33.

Yellows in the peach, 114.

AC