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BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA
COMPANY. ' her

THE CULTURE OF
TOBACCO.

BY

GEORGE M. ODLUM, B.S.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, SOUTHERN RHODESIA.

BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY
2, LONDON WALL BUILDINGS, EC.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
Satispury, Sournern Itnopesia.

a, 1905.
[Copyright ]

Cornell University

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003368978

BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA

COMPANY.

ay CU
TOBACCO.

BY

GEORGE I “Oo DUM (Bossy,

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, SOUTHERN RHODESIA.

BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY,
2, LONDON WALL BUILDINGS, E.C.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
Sauisptry, SourHERN RHopeEsia.

1905.
[¢ ‘opyright. |

Wasaineton, D.C., U.S.A.
Sir,

I have the honour to transmit to you herewith my report on
tobacco culture. This report is mainly based on an investigation of
the tobacco industry of America, which I have had the pleasure of
making under your direction. I trust that the information embodied
in this report may be of value to those who are endeavouring to

develop the vast latent agricultural wealth of Rhodesia.
Respectfully submitted,

GEORGE M. ODLUM.

E. Ross Townsenp, Esq.,

Secretary for Ayriculture, Southern Rhodesia,

INTRODUCTION.

O secure the: information embodied in this report the writer has
travelled some thirty-five thousand miles, has visited all the
leading tobacco districts of America, has questioned the leading
tobaceo experts of the United States, and written nearly one

thousand Jetters to verify facts, as well as studied all of the available
tobacco literature.

The author is especially indebted to the Hon. James Wilson,
Secretary of Agriculture of the United States, for courtesy extended in
granting the freedom of his Department ; and to Professor Milton
Whitney, Chief of the Bureau of Soils and official head of the tobacco
division of the United States Department of Agriculture, for infor-
mation given and for his kindness in reporting on samples of Rhodesian
soils and tobaccos. The other officials of the same Department have
been uniformly obliging in giving information or assistance. The
reports and bulletins of this Department, which contain the most exact
and scientific agricultural information of any publications in the
English language, have been fully utilized, as well as the Experiment
Station reports of Maryland, Connecticut, North Carolina and
Kentucky.

Mr. E. Kk. Vietor, of Richmoud, Virginia, who is regarded as the
leading authority on the export tobaccos, rendered assistance In many
ways, and it was he who selected the leaves appearing in the coloured
plates. Messrs. Patton and James, leaf dealers, of Darlington, South
Carolina, also gave valuable and greatly appreciated assistance, as well
as did Mr. G. M. Underhill, of Quincy, Florida, Taken all together
one could not wish to meet a more agreeable body of men than those
connected with the America tobacco industry.

No attempt has been made in this report to record all the details
of tobacco culture in every section, for that would but lead to confusion
on the reader’s part. Only those features that seem worthy of adoption
in a new country are described, except in those instances where they

vil INTRODUCTION.

are introduced for completeness’ sake. The details of tobacco culture
are capable of endless imodifications, but the underlying principles of
the production of fine tobacco are the same the world over, and
because of this the effort has been to give the reasons for certain steps
more prominence than the steps themselves. Where the nature of the
tobacco plant is understood, and the principles involved in the
production of fine tobacco ave regarded, the inethods may be modified
to suit the changed conditions.

‘s (The coloured plates in this roliane Were lithographed hy
ie ANprew B. Gratam Compan ¥, of Washington, D.C. U8)

CONTENTS.

Tobacco ante

Tobacco soils ...

Influence of chmate on jatar UCCO
The tobacco plant

Varieties

Classification of isreet cos

Characteristics of a good tobacco ...

The tobaccos called for by different countries

The seed bed oer ts
Preparation of the land, and planting
Cultivation

Topping

Priming

Suckering:

Ripening
Harvesting

Transportation from oe field

The growth and selection of tobacco seed

Insect pests of tobacco

Dise:

Cut worms

Horn caterpillars

Bud caterpillars

Leaf miner or “ split worm ”
Tobacco flea beetle

A beetle injurious to stored faba cee

Other tobacco insects
ises of tobacco ...
Mosaic disease ...
Frog eye or leaf spot

Rust or blight a
Diseases of tobacco while curing

Pole burn, ae sweat, or house burn

Stem rot .

White veins

Moulds and rots in aad abate oO
Saltpetre”

9
9
3
D4
0
3
-

‘
‘
‘
i
‘
‘

vill CONTENTS.

Damage by hail and wind ...
Curing : General remarks

Sun curing

Fire curing

Flue curing

Air curing

Cigar leaf curing

Fermentation of cigar leat

Bulk fermentation

Ageing é
Some of the chemistry of curing ae fermentation
Buildings

Curing barns ses ma

Stripping, grading or pic ithe houses

Fermentation houses :
Packing or prizing of all tobaccos exce ae cigar leat
Marketing tobacco in America

Loose sales

The pac

Sales of cigar leat
Leaf dealers or middlemen ...
Re-ordering and stemming tohacco

sand si sancti sist

Stemming or stripping

Some of the chemistry of the tobacco plant and its relation to the

fertilizers used . Ba :
Water in its re dediou 4 to the tobacco crops
Production of tobacco under shade
Tobaceo as an insecticide
Perique tobacco culture
Tobacco culture in Sumatra
Cost of production, profits, wages and y fel Is
A few conchiding words
Appendix and statistical tables

NDEX TO COLOURED PLATES

LEAVES.

Burley

Connectic ut Havana Seed te af

Bright Lemon, for Cigarettes

Mahogany Leaf, for Plug Wrappers

Dark Vuelta Abajo

Cuban Cigar Wrapper

Dark English Stemming Be

Light Sumatra Cigar Wrapper ...

>

0

OF

TOBACCO

face page vill

a 14
28
32
v4
82

130
154

THE CULTURE OF

TOBACCO.

INCE the day when Columbus observed the natives of his
newly-discovered Western Land whitting its fragrant
leaves, tobacco has been making the conquest of the
world, until to-day but few peoples, civilized or savag»,
have not become the devotees of the pipe, or the
consumers of the weed in some form, The peace pipe
of the red man has become the peace pipe of the white

man, and the black man, and the yellow inan.,

While this seductively aromatic and mildly narcotic plant. has
been charming the senses of man, it bas also heen producing the
wealth of its culturists, and increasing the revenues of nations. It
has assisted at the birth of new lands, and aided in the maintenance
of old ones.

The plant thrives in nearly every portion of the world, yet the
nations that consume it most largely have been strangely slow in
adopting its culture, or in learning the intricacies of its production,
America, its natal continent, with its virgin soil, its cheap lands,
and its people trained in its culture, remains the mother of the
industry to-day, and from the shores of this continent sail fleets, to
carry this solace to far-off peoples, and to bring back wealth for
its producers. But the soils of America will soon be no longer
virgin, their fertility will have been carried away to other countries,
the value of the lands will be higher, and the cost of production
will be increased. Then strange will it be if the culture of tobacco
be not wrenched away from its mother land, and the pipes of the
world supplied from fields newly discovered, and now yielding for
the first time to the hand of man.

The primitive methods of culture employed by the red man
and the early colonists have yielded to methods highly complex,
and better adapted to the production of an article suited to the
educated tastes of modern peoples. Coarse leaves dried on the
bushes in the streets of Jamestown would not receive the approval
of a twentieth-century Raleigh.

Science has recently been summoned to the aid of experience,
with the result that this marvellous plant, with its relation to the
soil, climate, culture and palate of its ardent consumers, has at
last divulged many of its long and tenaciously kept secrets.

2 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

To-day, as never before, it invites students of nature, friends
of commerce, and lovers of pleasure to examine its ways, test Its
merits, and attord it an opportunity to prove itself the friend of
man.

TOBACCO SOILS.

The tobaceo plant readily adapts itself to a great variety of
soils. It can, in fact, be produced on any soil where other agri-
eultural crops will thrive; and yet there is no other plant so easily
attected by the chemical and mechanical conditions of the soil, for,
while the tobacco plant will adapt itself to diverse conditions of

soil and of climate, still each distinct type requires certain con-
ditions to give to it those qualities of colour, texture, and aroma
for which it is prized.

The relation of the physical condition of the soil to the texture
and quality of the leaf has been so well established that soil
experts ave now able to go into a non-tobacco producing section of
the country, and, by a mechanical analysis of the soil and a deter-
inination of its moisture-holding capacity, state very nearly the
adaptability of the section to any particular class or type of
tobacco. The chemical condition of the soil has largely to do with
the burning qualities of the leaf as well as with the rapidity of
evrowth of the developing plant.

The colony of a soil is largely indicative of its mechanival and,
to some extent, ifs chemical condition, Light coloured — soils
venerally produce bright coloured tobaccos, and dark soils dark
coloured tobaccos. Soils contaiming a large proportion of clay, o1
which have a large imoisture-holding capacity, produce heavy
tobacco which cures to a dark brown or red: while soils consisting
largely of sand produce tobacco that cures out a yellow or bricht
colour, Often the clay subsoil will he exposed in some portion. of

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 3

a yellow field, and on this exposed portion the tobacco produced
will be of a darker colour. Very rich soils that will produce a
large leaf will usually produce a tobacco of poor quality.

An attempt to produce a tobacco on a sil not suited to the
type of tobacco planted will, in most cases, meet with failure, for
the tobacco produced is unfit to place in the same class as the
parent plant, and at the same time it is not likely to grade with
any other established type, and as a result is unclassed, and sells
as nondescript. It is only the exceptional case where a new type
is thus established worthy to create a market on its own merits.
Seed of the dark export varieties of tobaccos, if planted on the
light soils adapted to the vellow tobaccos, will not be bright enough
to class with those tobaccos, nor dark enough to class with the
exports, and furthermore, the yield will not be as heavy as it would
be if the varieties had been planted on their own heavy soil.

The White Burley tobacco of Kentucky is grown on a well-
drained deep red soil, the surface of which is of a light loamy
character, and not likely to clod when properly worked. These
lands are fairly rich in lime, and produce almost ideal crops of
maize, wheat, hemp and grass. The subsoil contains about 30 per
cent. of clay, and has a moisture content of about 20 per cent.

The Bright tobacco lands of Virginia and North and South
Carolina consist of sand of varying density. This soil contains not
more than 8 to 10 per cent. of clay, and is usually underlaid with
a red or yellow clay subsoil, at a depth of about a foot. The
deeper the sand, the brighter the tobacco produced, and the nearer
the surface that the subsoil comes, the more inclined the tobacco
is to darken and be mahogany in colour, until where the subsoil is
completely exposed, the tobacco produced is altogether dark. How-
ever, where the sand is very deep, there is not the same surety of
a sufficient supply of moisture during the growing season, and for
this reason it is preferred that the subsoil be within 18 inches of
the surface.

The heavy dark export types of tobacco produced in Tennessee
and Kentucky are grown on a rich well-drained soil, containing
about 50 per cent. of silt, 23 per cent. of clay, and have an average
moisture content of 15 per cent. These lands are underlaid with a
red clay subsoil, and are fairly well supplied with lime. They produce
heavy crops, but deteriorate rapidly, unless the land is kept up to its
original condition, by the addition of fertilizers or by methods of
cultivation,

The cigar leaf lands of Connecticut consist of light, alluvial,
sandy soils containing a small percentage of clay, and, as a rule,
the less the percentage of clay the greater the percentage of fine cigar
wrappers. A few years ago, when a darker coloured cigar was the
fashion, this class of land was not used, but a much heavier soil,
with a moisture-holding average of from 25 to 27 per cent., was
cultivated, whereas the soil now used for the production of light
wrappers has a moisture content of but 7 per cent. Where cigar
filler leaf is grown, and the colour, texture, and elasticity are not
points so important as with the wrappers, a rich clay is used, and
a very heavy crop of leaf secured. The Sumatra seed tobacco is
produced in this section on the lighter soils.

In the cigar leaf section of Ohio no attempt is made to pro-
duce anything but a filler tobacco. The soil that produces the

4 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

highest quality of leaf is a thin silty soil resting on a red clay or a
silty subsoil. The tobacco Jands of this section contain, on an
average, 25 per cent. of moisture, which would be too much for
the production of a wrapper leaf. In this region any attempt to
erow tobaeco on the rich black lands results in a coarse, heavy,
badly flavoured leaf. i :

In Pennsylvania there are two types of tobacco soils, the light
alluvial soils’ similar to those in Connecticut, oa which a fair
wrapper leaf is grown, and the heavy clay limestone, on which
heavy crops of cigar filler are produced. The latter soil contains
an averaze of 30 per cent. of clay and 20 per cent. of moisture.

The Wisconsin leaf is grown on a well-drained dark rich loam,
underlaid by a heavy silt or clay. This leaf is chiefly used as cigar
binders.

The cigar leaf soil of Westera Florida is a hght sand loam
underlaid by a red clay subsvil, and closely resembles the yellow
tobacco lands. This soil very successfully produces both the Cuban
and the Sumatra tobacco. Sumatra tobacco is grown for the pro-
duction of high-grade wrappers, and these sous contain from 8 to
10 per cent. of moisture, an amount very similar to that in good
wrapper-producing soil elsewhere. Both the Cuban and the Sumatra
tobaccos are also being grown further south in Florida on a somewhat
coarser sand, which contains about the same percentage of moisture. _

Pevique tobacco is grown in Louisiana on a deep, gray fertile
loam. This soil is well drained, friable, and retentive of a mediun
percentage of moisture. Tt not only forces a vapid growth of the plant,
hut helps to give to it that guimminess necessary to develop the
characteristic Perique aroma.

It will be noticed that the texture of the tobacco grown, and
the purpose for which it is adapted, is dependent on the moisture-
holding average of the soil. A soil with a moisture content of over
12 per cent. is not adapted to the production of wrappe1 How-
ever, the texture of the soil does not account for differences in
combustibility and in aroma; for these we must look for differences
in the chemical constituents of the soil, and variations in climate.

CLIMATE.

Few plants are so susceptible to climate as is tobacco, Clinate
largely influences the quality and aroma in the same way that soil
influences the texture. Ina warm climate the tendeney of the leaf is
to be gummy, resinous and aromatic. In a cooler climate the leaf will
become larger, thinner, and almost without aroma. While the ten-
dency is for the leaf to become thick in warm climates, this tendency
may be overcome by other conditions as excessive rainfall. This is
the condition in Sumatra, where the leaf is famous for its fineness of
texture. Tobacco grown in regions of excessive rainfall is washed out
and devoid of fine aroma. This is understood in Cuba, where the
tobacco is not planted until the cessation of the heavy rains. Cold
rainy weather increases the acidity of the leaf, and this may have a
detrimental effect on the curing and fermentation processes by pre-
venting the action of the oxydizing enzymns. Excessively dry
weather also prevents the formation of enzymns, and tobacco erown
in dry climates is not likely to develop a fine aroma. A moderate

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 5

rainfall with warm weather is perhaps the best condition for the
production of tobacco. Dry weather during the ripening period is
favourable to the preservation of those products that later create the
aroma of cured tobacco. This is particularly true if the dry weather
be accompanied with heavy dews. Tbe dews incite the leaf to the
formation of gums and resins. Hot dry weather causes a greater
thickening of the leaves than does moist weather, and leaves grown in
the shade are thinner than those grown in the direct sunlight.
Proximity to the sea has a great influence on the quality of the
product. Tobacco grown near the sea is poor in combustibility.
This is supposed to be due to the action of chlorine in the salt of the
sea air. At thirty miles from the coast this influence may be said to
have ceased, and in Sumatra good tobacco is grown within ten miles
of the coast. The Italian Government will not permit the cultivation
of tobacco on Jand with an elevation less than one hundred and ten feet.
This is probably due to the fact that the low lands are near salt water.
In dry climates proximity toa body of water, particularly to fresh

water, may be an advantage in that it will increase the humidity of
the air.

In Sumatra better tobacco is produced on low well-drained ‘ands
some distance from the coast, than is produced further back on the

6 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

mountain slopes. In this instance, texture rather than aroma is the
feature sought for, and it may be owing to a difference in the
quality of the soil rather than to difference in elevation, ‘The finest
tobacco in the world from the standpoint of aroma is grown in the
mountain valleys of Western Cuba. The altitude of these valleys is
not at all excessive. The supposition is that high elevations are not
likely to produce fine tobacco, for heat is an essential to the develop-
ment of aroma, and the high altitudes are generally cool.

In general, tropical climates will produce aromatic tobaccos,
which are the best for cigar fillers, and the cooler portions of the
temperate climates will produce thin leaves with but little aroma
which are adapted for cigar wrappers. The bulk of the pipe and
chewing tobaccos of the world are produced in the warmer portions of
the temperate zone. The plant can be grown in any place with two
months of weather without frost, but the aroma will depend
largely on the temperature and humidity conditions of the district.

THE TOBACCO PLANT.

The tobaceo of commerce is produced from several different
species of the Genus Nicotine, of which there are some fifty species.
LV. tebaewm is the species commonly cultivated in North Aierica.

AV rustica oviginally came from South or Central America,
where it Is grown to a certain extent to-day. It is cultivated also
in Germany, Hungary, and Russia, and probably furnishes the
Turkish and Latakia tohaccos.

Nv repanda furnishes the Yana tobacco of Cuba, which is culti-
vated to a very linited extent, the Havana tobacco being a variety
of the VW. tubuemn, The Shiraz tobacco of Persia is a product of
the species WV. Persica, Many different varieties of the more im-
portant species have been developed, and it may be that some
varieties ave the result of a cross of two or even more of the

species.

Tobacco is a member of the family Solauecen, to which also
belongs the tomato, potato, pepper, egg plant, petunia, Cape goose-
hervy, the datura, and many other common plants, a fact it is well
to remember in the cultivation of tobacco or in the combating of its
enemies; for the insect pests, or diseases, of one member of the
funily ave often the enemies of other members.

SELECTION OF VARIETIES.

Before entering into the production of tobacco the planter should
give due thought to the selection of the varieties to be grown.
Questions of soil and climate, as well as of market, should he taken
into consideration, and the variety selected that will produce the
type desired, as well as the largest proportion of the best grades of
that type. By years of careful selection, varieties adapted to the
different conditions of soil and climate have been developed, and
out of these a small list should be chosen for trial of suchas haye
proved to be the best under the same conditions wow confronting
the planter, Experience will determine the ones to be retained is
standard croppers.

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. i

__ Tobacco is very susceptible to changes of locality. If a dozen
different varieties be secured from different portions of the earth,
and all planted under the same conditions, they all will have a
tendency to become alike and to adapt themselves to the new
locality. This does not mean, however, that any seed so long as it
is tobacco will do to plant, for this adaptation requires vears. It is
far better to select varieties that will necessitate but little change
to become established.

FROM “‘TORACCO LEAF, ITS CULTURE, CURE AND MANUFACTURE,”
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, NEW YORK.

In some instances the tobacco will retain most of its finer
characteristics for but a few years. In this case it is advisable to
frequently import fresh seed from the place where it reaches its
highest excellence. Where Cuban tobacco is grown in the United
States fresh seed is regularly imported from the Vuelta Abajo. The
imported seed is not used directly for the planting of the main
erop, but is sown for the production of a seed crop from which the
main crop of the following vear is grown. If produced year after
year from local-grown seed the Cuban plant will tend to lose its
fine aroma and become like the seed-leaf varieties.

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

vz)

BRIGHT TOBACCO IN SOUTIT CAROLINA 5 TWO OR THREE SEED PLANTS
IN THE POREGROUND

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 9

There are perhaps a hundred varieties of tobacco regularly
grown in the United States, many of which are very similar,
Slight changes in soil and climate produce many variations. The
following descriptive list includes the most common varieties :—

-Apock.—Wide space between leaves; ripens uniformly from
top to bottom; used for wrappers and fillers for plug; excellent
fine smokers ; grown in North Carolina.

FROM ‘TOBACCO LEAF, ITS CULTURE, CURE AND MANUFACTURE,”
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, NEW YORK.

BapvENn.—Short leaves, light ; inclined to be chaffy; cures a
fine yellow, but liable to green spots ; used for plug wrappers and
fillers ; smokers ; grown in Maryland.

Batrimore Cosa.—Long leaf; good body; fine, silky texture ;
tough ; yields well; sweats a uniform colour; disseminated by the
U.S. Agricultural Department ; grown in Ohio (Miami Valley).

Bay.—Large heavy leaf ; red spangled and yellow when cured ;
used for manufacturing and shipping ; grown in Maryland.

B

10 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

YIELD OF WHITE BURLEY, CHARTER DISTRICT, SOUTHERN RHODFSIA.

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 11

_, Beat-auy (same as Williams).—Large spreading leaf ; fine fibre
rich, dark and gummy; export to Great Britain and Germany ;
well | cured; makes fine wrappers; grown in Tennessee and
Virginia.

r BeLxnar.—Sub-variety of Connecticut seed-leaf; used same as
Connecticut seed-leaf; grown in Connecticut, Massachusetts and
New York.

Ifs CULTURE, CURE AND M SNUVACTURE,”
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, NEW YORK.

FROM “ TOBACCO LEAF.

Boyayya.—A white Burley cross on yellow Orinoco; said to
possess the qualities of both parents; very hardy; popular for
yellow and mahogany leaf.

Boui-Face.—Sub-variety of the Pryor; large, heavy leaf, oval
shaped ; tough; small stems and fibres ; a luxuriant grower; used
for heavy shipping; makes good wrappers for plug; grown in
Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee.

B2

12 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

Buniion.—A white Burley cross on Hester; a broad-leaved
stately plant, well formed and fine fibred; has fine texture and
great absorptive capacity ; for yellow and inahogany leaf.

Burry. —/ed.—Thin leaf narrowing toward the tip from centre ;
used for cutting tobacco; grown in Kentucky, Virginia and
Ohio.

Burvey.— IW/ite.—Long, narrow leaf ; white in appearance while
growing ; grows flat with points of leaves hanging down ; used for
fancy wrappers and for cutting purposes ; grown in Ohio, Kentucky,
Virginia, Maryland, Missouri and Indiana.

“

PROM TOBACCO LEAF, ITS CULTURE, CURE AND MANUFACTURE,”

E JUDD COMPANY, NEW YORK.

Charpy.—harge, smooth, heavy leaf, extremely Droad 3 stalks
long ; a hybrid ; used for common plug ; exported for Swiss wrappers ;
crown in Kentucky and Tennessee, |

ConyectTicuT Seep-Lear.— Broad leaf ; strong, thin, elastic
silky ; small fibres ; used for cigar wrappers, lower grades for binders
and fillers; grown in Connecticut, New Hampshire, New York
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Wisconsin, Minnesota, also in Indiana, I
and Florida. :

Connecticut Broap Lear. — Modification of above; leaves
broader in proportion to length; fibres more at right angles to

Hinois

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

CUBAN TOBACCO IN SOUTHERN PLORIDA.

14 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

mid-rib; used as above; grown in Connecticut, New York and
Wisconsin. ; ;

Cupa.—Siall leaf, grown from imported seed ; retains much of
the aroma of Cuba-grown tobacco; used for cigar wrappers, fillers
and binders ; grown in Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, Wisconsin,
Florida and Louisiana.

Cunniyenam.—Short, broad leaf; thick and stalky growth :
fillers and smokers ; grown in North Carolina.

Duck Istanp.—Broad leaf; fine appearance ; full grower :
originated from Havana seed ; used for cigar work; grown in New
York and Pennsylvania.

FLANNAGAN.—Similar to little Orinoco, but broader leaf ; finer
fibre; silky and tough; used for fancy wrappers and plug fillers ;
grown in Virginia.

Forma Lear.—Fine texture, silky and elastic ; becomes spotted
with white when ripening; used for cigar wrappers, binders and
fillers ; grown in Florida. :

Freperick.—Akin to White Stem ; rough leaf; heavy and rich ;
stands up well; used mainly for export to Europe ; grown in
Virginia and Tennessee. ;

Gu gr.—Large handsome leaf ; fine texture ; soft and elastic ;
used for cigar wrappers and fillers ; smokers ; grown in Pennsylvania,
New York and Wisconsin.

Goocu.—Broad, round leaf; leaves thick on stalk ; yellow on
hill when vipe; cures easily ; used for fancy wrappers and smokers ;
grown in Virginia and North Carolina.
~ Gourd Lrar.—Broad, short, fine and silky leaf; used for plug
wrappers and fillers, smokers ; grown in Virginia.

3g

Governor Jones.— Long, narrow leaf of good body; used for
plug wrappers and fillers, and for common suckers; grown in
Kentucky.

Havana Seep.-—Very thin, fine leaf; fine texture; delicate
flavour; used for cigar wrappers in Connecticut, Massachusetts,
Pennsylvania and Wisconsin.

Hestrer.—A_ broad-shouldered, heart-shaped leaf, fine fibred.
silky ; cures very bright ; for plug fillers and wrappers, vellow and
mahogany tobacco.

Hickory Lear.—Fine fibre and texture; cures up very bright :
used for plug work, smokers and = shipping; grown in West
Virginia.

Howpvuras. — Vigorous plant, one of the best for mahogany
leaf.

JOHNSON GREEN.—-Naid to be a cross of Orinoco and White Stein :
large, heavy leaf, strong flavour; used for strips and shipping leaf :
grown in Virginia.

Kextvcky Yertrow.—A prolific variety for the production of
yellow tohacco.

Kire Foor.—Rather short, wide leaf, thin; apt to cure a
greenish colour unless fully ripe; used for very common cigars,
culture decreasing ; grown in Indiana. ;

Lirrne = Duren.—Narrow leaf, small and short; in’ flavow
resembling Yara tobaceo; used for binders and fillers for cigars :
grown in Ohio (Miami Valle 7

Lone GREeeyx.—Coarse aid heavy ; vigorous grower; used for
shipping leaf; grown in Virginia. : 2

THE CULTURE

OF TOBACCO.

AT.

SERD-LE

PENNSYLVANIA

16 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

Lancaster Broap ;Lrar.—Upright grower; delicate silky
fibre ; used for cigar wrappers, binders and fillers; smokers; grown
in Pennsylvania and Wisconsin.

PROM “TOBACCO LEAF, ITS CULTURE, CURB AND MANUPACTURD,”
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, NEW YORK. -

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 17

Lovenapy.—Long, dark, narrow leaf; very heavy; used for
export ; grown for African shippers; grown in Virginia, Tennessee
and Indiana.

Mawn.—Leaf of good body ; heavy and gummy ; used for plug
wrappers and fillers ; export; grown in North Carolina.

_. Ortnoco.—Short, broad leaf; upright growth and open habit ;
light coloured; much ruffled ; used for plug wrappers and fillers; for
strips and for export leaf; grown in Virginia and Missouri.

FROM ‘TOBACCO LEAF, ITS CULTURE, CURE AND MANUFACTURE,”
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, NEW YORK.

Ortyoco (Big).—Short, broad leaf; doubtless the same as last
named; used for sweet plug wrappers and fillers; export; grown in
Virginia, Missouri, North Carolina, Tennessee and West Virginia.

Ortnoco (Little).—Long, narrow, tapering leaf; fine texture ;
stands up well; used principally for plug work and smokers ;
sweetest variety grown; grown in Virginia, North Carolina,
Tennessee, West Virginia and Missouri.

PENNSYLVANIA SEED-LEAF.—Same as Connecticut seed-leaf; used
same as Connecticut seed-leaf.

PrErique.—Medium-sized leaf; fine fibre; small stem; tough,
summy and glossy; used for smoking; cigars and cigarettes ; for
mixing with other kinds; grown in Louisiana.

18 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

Pirsytyasia YeELLow.—Medium size ; leaves elongated, good
distance apart; fine texture; small tough stem; used _for fine
wrappers and fillers; good export variety; grown I West
Virginia. ,

Pryor (Blue).—Large, fine leaf, long and well proportioned ;
good colour; slightly ruftied; used for cigar and plug fillers ; grown
in Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri and
Indiana. ;

Pryor (Yellow).—Heavy, wide leaf; fine texture ; bright fine
colour: tough; weighs well ; used for cigar and plug wrappers and

FROM “TOBACCO LEAL, IfS CULTURE, CURE AND MANUFACTURE,”
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, NEW YORK,

fillers; stemmers for export; grown in Virginia, North Carolina,
Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri and Indiana.

Pryor.—White (or Medley Pryor).—Very broad leaf; soft and
silky texture and tough fibre; a beautiful grower used for plug
wrappers and fillers ; grown in Virginia.

Snoestrine.—Heavy leaf; rather narrow; long and large stem ;
used for dark navy plug; good stripping leaf; grown in Tennessee,
Kentucky, Missouri and Virginia.

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 19

ZIMMER SPANISH CIGAR LEAF, OHIO.

20 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

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THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 21

FIELD OF HEAVY SHIPPING TOBACCO ; BARN IN THE DISTANCE ; CLARKSVILLE, TENNESSEE.

bo
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THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

HBAVY SHIPPING TOBACCO,

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 23

Srock-Srem.—Large, long leaf; heavy weigher ; no rutiles ; used
for heavy dark fillers ; shipping leaf; grown in Tennessee. _

Sumatra.—Imported from the Island of Sumatra. Grown in
Florida and Connecticut; leaf thin, of fine texture, veins small ;
popular as cigar wrappers. Plant will grow seven or eight feet high
under favourable conditions.

TuicksEeT.—Leaf long, pointed, narrow; coarse fibre; very short
stalk; coarse and heavy; used for common plug work and shipping ;
grown in Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, West Virginia, Tennessee
and Eastern Ohio.

Twist-Bup.—Heavy, large leaf; screw-shaped terminal stem ;
export mainly, also for plug fillers ; grown in Kentucky, Missouri,
and Maryland.

VALLANDIGHAM.—Large, pointed, smooth leaf; used for cigar
wrappers and fillers, smokers ; grown in Wisconsin.

Vvetta Apaso.—The highest quality of cigar filler in the world ;
home is in the valleys of the western end of Cuba; small plants ;
grown in some portions of the United States, but loses its fine
qualities after a few years.

Warne.—Very popular new variety, for the production of yellow
tobacco.

Wuite Stem.—Leaf long, slender, drooping ; tough and fibrous ;
largest leaf grown ; used for plug wrappers, strips, and shipping leaf ;
grown in Virginia.

WILiiams.—Same as “ Beat-All”; grown in Tennessee for
twenty-five years as “ Williams” ; British and German export ; grown
in Tennessee.

Witson’s Hysrip.—Said to be animproved Havana ; erect habit ;
easy of cultivation ; used for cigar wrappers, binders, and fillers ;
grown in New York.

YeLttow Mamwuoru.—Very large leaf; rapid grower; yields
largely; stemmed for export for Swiss wrappers; grown in
Tennessee.

Zimmer's SpaNisH.—Uniform dark colour ; medium size leaf; high
flavour ; highly prized for cigar fillers; grown in Ohio.

Tt is impossible to state which of these varieties would be the
best for another country, that being a matter that can be settled
only by experiments. But if the soil and moisture conditions be
known, it is easy to select a list in which the variety best adapted to
the new conditions may be found. In the following list the very
best varieties grown in America are grouped with reference to their
uses and to the soils for which they are best adapted.

For the production of yellow and mahogany cutters, plug
wrappers and fillers, by the method of flue-curing, and for growth on
sandy soils—Conqueror, Warne, White Stem Orinoco, Yellow
Orinoco, Long Leaf Gooch, Hester, Yellow Pryor, Eastern Pride,
Bonanza, Gold Finder, Hyco, Granville, County Yellow.

For rich limestone soils and the production of pipe, cigarette, and
chewing tobacco—White Burley.

For heavier soils and the production of sweet chewing tobacco—
Sweet Orinoco and Flannagan. All the bright tobaccos in the first
list will also produce a certain amount of chewing tobacco, and particu-
larly plug wrappers.

For heavy, rich soils, and the production of a red, reddish-brown
or dark tobacco for smoking and chewing, and particularly intended

24 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

for the European and West African Market—Yellow Mammoth,
Tennessee Red, Clardy, Kentucky Yellow, Medley Pryor, Blue
Pryor. All of these produce a great weight of tobacco if grown
on rich soil. joes

For the production of cigars, plant the following varieties :—(If
grown on soils with a low water content they will produce a large
percentage of cigar wrappers, and if grown on soils with a greater
rater content they will largely produce fillers.) Sumatra, for
wrappers only; Vuelta Abajo, for high-class cigars; choice Havana
and Cuban, for good cigars; Havana seed leaf, Connecticut
seed leaf, Zimmer Spanish, Pennsylvania seed _ leaf, Pumpelly,
and Brazilian for ordinary cigars or for blending with better
grades.

This point should always be remembered—the darker and
heavier the soil, the darker and heavier the leaf, no matter what
variety be planted.

CLASSIFICATION OF TOBACCOS.

The classification of tobaccos according to the variety grown 1s
of little value to the trade, because of the endless modifications
produced by differences of soil and climate. The same variety
grown on the same field for two different seasons may produce
leaf that is adapted for entirely different purposes. The first season
may be such that the leaf will be dry and thin, and only adapted
for cigarettes, while the second season may grow a leaf that will
le ideal for plug wrappers. The same plant will also produce
several grades of leaf that will belong to more than one class ;
the lower leaves may be adapted for pipe smoking, the next for
cigarettes, the middle leaves for plug wrappers, and the tips for a
low grade of pipe tobacco, or if well ripened, for plug filler For
this reason a classification quite distinct from the variety classification
is adopted.

By a class is meant the purpose for which the tobacco is to
be used, for cigars, for chewing, for cigarettes, or for export.
A type is based on the combination of certain qualities and pro-
perties in the leaf, as colour, strength, elasticity, flavour, body, etc.,
or on certain characteristics produced by methods of curing, as air
cured, sun cured, or flue cured. One type may often be placed in
more than one class, as is the case with the yellow tobaecos which
fall into both the smoking and chewing class One district may
produce several types, and one or more of these types may be
identical with certain types produced in other distric However,
the various types are usually confined to certain districts where the
conditions ave favourable for the development of qualities that give
the leaf a distinct characteristic.

A grade is a sub-division of a type based on the different
degrees of quality, texture, size, aroma, etc. These sub-divisions are
nearly endless, for a crop may be divided into say five groups on
a division based on quality, then each of these groups may be
divided into say three sub-groups on a second selection based on
colour, and each sub-group may again be divided into a dozen grades
according to length. Sumatra tobacco from the same farm may be
divided into seventy-two grades.

CULTURE OF TOBACCO,

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26 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO,

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THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 27

To become expert in the classification and grading of tobacco
requires lifelong experience. All that the farmer can attempt to
do is to place all leaves of a certain size, colour, and quality
together, and iet the buyer classify them as he wishes. This
proper assortment of the leaf is one of the most important things
in the whole tobacco business. A few leaves placed in the grade
above where they helong will largely destroy the selling value of
the whole grade. In case of doubt, always place the leaf in the
next grade below. Many farmers do not receive more than from
half to three-quarters the value of their crop, for the reason that
they have neglected to properly classify and grade their tobacco.
Hundreds of shrewd leaf dealers have made their fortunes by
buying up this poorly graded tobacco and regrading it. Once the
crop has been grown, the planter should endeavour to secure its
full value by placing it in condition to suit the buyer.

The following is a list of the types of tobacco produced in
America; this list was prepared by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture,

Types oF Topacco Grown IN THe UNirep Srares.
Cryar Ly pes.

Zimmer Spanish ; grown in Ohio.
Fillers, 9-18 inches.
Little Dutch ; grown in Ohio.
Fillers, 12-21 inches.
Ohio seed-leaf; grown in Ohio.
Wrappers and binders, 16-26 inches.
Wisconsin Binders; grown in Wisconsin.
Binders, 14-24 inches.
Pennsylvania Broadleaf: grown in Pennsylvania.
Binders and Fillers, 14-26 inches.
Connecticut Broadleaf; grown in Connecticut.
Wrappers, 14-26 inches.
Connecticut Havana; grown in Connecticut Valley.
Wrappers, 14-26 inches.
York State Havana; grown in New York.
Wrappers, 14-26 inches.
Connecticut-grown Sumatra.
Wrappers, 12-18 inches.

Flovida-grown Sumatra.

Wrappers, 10-14 inches.

Cuban; grown in Florida, Texas, California (southern) ; also being
experimented with in Ohio, Pennsylvania, Alabama, and South
Carolina by U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Wrappers, (very few), 12-16 inches.
Fillers, 8-14 inches.

28 THE CULTURE OF TOLACCO.

( DE

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Bright lemon yellow, orange yellow and mahogany ;

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

Manufacturing and Export Ty pers

ginia, North and South Carolina in various shades.

Cigarette cutters.
Cigarette wrappers.
Plug fillers.

Plug wrappers.
Twist fillers.

Twist.

Lugs (wrapper).

Virginia, Dark.

Snutfters.

Virginia, foreign types.

English dark leaf for stemming.
British olive green.
Austrian, A, B, C
Italian, A, B, C, C
French, A, B, C.
African.

Spanish lug.
Portugal cutting leaf.
Export fillers.
Export snutters.
Black fat.

Clarkesville types; grown in Clarkesville District, Tenn.

Kentucky,

Domestic, various sizes.
Foreign, various sizes.
Italian.
German.
Belgian.
Austrian.
Spanish.
Sw i
African.
British.
Dark.
Domestic.
Brown snutters.
Brown mottled.
Relandling.
Black wrappers.
Foreign.
Italian A, B, C.
French A, B, C.
Spanish A, B, C.
African.

Burley ; grown in Ohio and Kentucky.

Red top fillers.
Export lugs.
Plug wrappers.
Plug fillers.
Twist wrappers.
Twist fillers.

29

grown in Vir-

30 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

CONNECTICUT BROAD LEAP? DARK (Us. DEPP, OF AG.),

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO, 31

Manufacturing and Ev port Py pes—countinued.

Burley ; grown in Ohio and Kentucky.
Colory leaf.
Cigarette leaf.
Common lugs.
Smoking type; grown in Ohio and Maryland.
Spangled.
Fine yellow.
Brown.
Colory.
Firm red.
Seconds.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A Goop Topacco.

At one time any tobacco that would burn was considered fit for
human consumption, but along with the improvement and develop-
ment of the plant, man’s taste has been educated to the point of
demanding certain essential characteristics in the tobacco intended for
his use. There are many shades and variations in these characteristics
depending on the trade catered for, because in their estimate of
tobacco, as well as of wine, the best judges do not agree. However,
certain points of excellence are always demanded.

If tobacco be intended for smoking it must have the ability to
hold tire and to burn evenly, smoothly and thoroughly. It must not
char, that is, there must be no black Jine between the ash and the

unburned portion of the tobacco. If it be in the form of a cigar, the
ash should be white and solid, and not flake and fall over the
clothing.

Tobacco must have flavour. It must be sweet and pleasant, and
not be too mild or too rank and strong. The flavour of the leaf must
be agreeable and pleasant, for if the flavour is agreeable, the aroma of
the burning tobacco is likely to be satisfactory. The aroma of a cigar
is partly due to the volatilization of the products of the sweat, and
partly to the destruction of certain compounds by a process of dry
distillation. This process takes place largely in the interior of the
cigar and in the heated portion near the coal. This distillation and
volatilization create disagreeable odours as well as agreeable aroma,
and a cigar can only be considered as good when the latter hides or
subdues the former. This is true of cigarettes and pipe tobacco as
well as of cigars, although in cigars the characteristics are more
marked.

If a tobacco be intended for a plug wrapper it must have style,
elasticity, toughness and body. Nor must it be too large or too small
for the size of the plug to be manufactured.

If intended for a cigar wrapper the leaf must have style, and be
elastic, thin in texture, finely grained, light and uniform in colour,
and the stem and veins must be small and of the same colour as the
leaf. The leaf should be as free from flavour as possible, as it is the
portion that comes in contact with the mouth. The cigar wrapper can
have much influence on the quality of the smoke for the reason that it
is exposed to the air during combustion. The standard of excellence
for wrappers is the Sumatra leaf, as the standard of quality in fillers
is the Vuelta Abajo leaf.

32 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO,

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29

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. do

If a tobacco be intended for chewing, it must have a certain
toughness so that it will hold together while being masticated, and not
break up into small flakes in the mouth. Chewing tobacco must also
be rich in flavour. A tobacco that has a high absorptive capacity is
eagerly sought after for this purpose, for the reason that large
quantities of flavouring liquids and sauces are added. It is this
ability to hold so large a quantity of flavouring sauces that gives to
the White Burley its popularity.

Tobacco intended for pipe smoking and for cigarettes must be
free from the gumminess so sought for in chewing tobaccos. This
gumminess would interfere with the cutting or granulation of the
leaf by machinery. The bright tobaccos ave at the present time the
fashion for cigarettes. ‘

It is seldom that the desired standard of flavour is found in any
one tobacco, and it becomes necessary to blend or mix different
grades. Often this blending is done from the standpoint of economy,
when a certain proportion of a perfect flavoured, but high-priced, leaf
is used to give quality and character to a cheaper tobacco with all the
requirements except the flavour. In some brands the Perique is
largely used for this purpose. At other times the blending is
conducted on the principle that, if but one tobacco be used, and
at any time this particular tobacco becomes unobtainable, the
substitution of an entirely different tobacco at such a time would ruin
the established reputation of the brand by changing its character.
Four or five, or even more, different grades of leaf are blended
together, and the substitution of a different grade for any one of
them does not radically change the character of the blend.

The colour of the tobacco demanded is largely subject to fashion,
and mav change at any time, but the aroma sought for remains the
same. Smokers are more and more demanding a certain standard of
excellence in this particular. Brain workers, and those living a
sedentary life, prefer a mild tobacco, while those living a rugged out-
of-door life—as sailors—seek a strong, stimulating tobacco. The
colour of a tobacco is not necessarily indicative of its strength. A
mild tobacco may be thorougbly fermented until it is dark in colour,
while a strong tobacco may have the fermentation cut short and be
light in colour, A heavy dark leaf is, however, likely to be rich in
nicotine and other similar products. The colour of the wrapper on a
cigar is not a good feature by which to judge the strength and quality
of the smoke. Cigars are often encased in all colours of wrappers
when made, and assorted according to colour later. A cigar should
be selected by the sense of smell; a tobacco that has a pleasant aroma
will usually be agreeable if the burning qualities are also good.

The palate and olfactories learn to accommodate themselves even
to a poor smoke, and for this reason it 1s often a slow process to
educate a nation to use a new good tobacco in preference to a badly-
flavoured tobacco that has become established. A smoker may,
because of his perverted taste, judge a bad tobacco to excel what is in
truth a better tobacco.

Tue Topaccos CALLED FOR BY DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.

The Germans demand a tobacco from 18 to 26 inches in
length, with fine stems, sweet flavour, and strong and elastic fibre.

3 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

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THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 35

The colour may vary from a cherry red to dark, the dark types being
required for many purposes. Plenty of oil and of body in the leaf is
insisted upon. Leaves that are mottled with yellow are used for
treating with sauces and flavouring liquors before manufacture.
This last type of leaf is called piebald, and in it the fibre must be
yellow and the leaf black after treatment. The German “spinner,”
used for the manufacture of strand, must be of good length, tough,
oily, fat, elastic, clear, and heavy. Germany purchases large
quantities of tobacco for shipment to Russia and Scandinavia, and
imports from the United States about 40 million pounds of Jeaf
tobacco a year, as well as buying the bulk of the Brazilian crop.

Great Britain takes many grades very similar to those of
Germany. Because of the high duty, all tobacco shipped to
England is stemmed, and placed in as dry a form as_ possible
before shipment. The very strongest of all the tobaccos, and the
one with the highest nicotine content, is used for the manufacture
of Navy plug. For the Bird’s Eye cutter, the tobacco must be
imported in the whole leaf, which must be of an even bright colour
on both sides, smooth and clean, with but little oil or body. The
upper and lower sides of the stem vary in colour, and thus give the
bird’s-eye appearance when cut. Great Britain is buying more and
more of the better grades of tobacco, and is rapidly increasing the
consumption of Bright leaf. The standard tobacco, however, is the
heavily-smoked, slightly olive-coloured leaf. The taste for this
creosotic-flavoured tobacco was formed in the earlier days, when it
was necessary to have a smoked tobacco, in order to withstand the
ocean voyage. This olive-coloured tobacco is harvested before fully
ripe. Great Britain has a market for any tobacco that falls within
her standard types, but is somewhat slow to take up with a new
tobacco; however, there is an excellent market awaiting any new
type of cigar leaf that may be produced. America sells to Great
Britain nearly a hundred million pounds of leaf each year,

The Italian leaf should be smooth, silky, of good length, and
of a slightly lighter colour than the German types. The leaf must
also have less fat. The three types required vary in length from
eighteen to twenty-six inches, and are used for cigars, cigarettes,
and snuff. The tobacco is purchased and manufactured by the
Government under what is known as the Regie system.

The Austrian types are firm, tough, elastic, glossy, of uniform
red-brown colour, and of good length, and are chiefly manufactured
into cigars.

The Swiss take but little tobacco, but buy the best leaf, and
pay the highest prices. It is mostly required for cigar wrappers.

Spain will take any tobacco that is cheap enough.

France, as a rule, buys the poorer grades of tobacco, and is
inclined to estimate the value of the leaf rather by the length than
by other qualities, preferring an over-ripe leaf, which must be from
reddish-brown to red in colour, and from eighteen to twenty-five
inches in length. The same leaf may have several shades of colour,
but must be clear and supple, without much elasticity or body.

The tobacco intended for North Africa is of medium length,
and light or mottled in colour. For the Upper West Coast long,
dark and strong; for the Lower West Coast long, medium or
light in colour, with fine fibres. During the year ending June 30,
1902, the United States exported to Africa five and a half million

36 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

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THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 37

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38 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

pounds of leaf tobacco, three million pounds of plug, and three
hundred million cigarettes ; also a quantity of cigars. The most of
the plug and cigarettes went to British South Africa, as did one
hundred and fifty thousand pounds of the leaf. West Africa, and
particularly British West Africa, consumed the major portion of
the unstemmed leaf, ae

The United States annually exports about three hundred millon
pounds of leaf tobacco, at an average export price of fivepence a
pound. This consists of nearly all of the lower grades of tobacco.
Besides this, the United States manufactured about three hundred
million pounds of pipe and chewing tobacco, fifteen million pounds
of snuff, six billion cigars, and five billion cigarettes, as well as
importing about twenty million pounds of foreign leaf, and_quan-
tities of cigars and manufactured tobaccos. As yet the United
States has been an importer of the better grades of cigar tobaccos,
but that portion of the industry is now being pushed in a scien-
tific manner, and it may be only a short time before the United
States will also be an exporter of Cuban fillers and Sumatra
wrappers.

THE SEED BED.

The tobaceo seed is very small, and the reserve material for the
nourishment of the young plant is soon exhausted. As a result the
young plant is forced to prepare its own food much sooner than is the
case with most plants. Because of this the young plant makes a very
slow growth in its initial stages, so that soil and plant food must be
placed in as favourable a condition as possible to aid the young plant
through this critical period.

If all the seeds were fertile and capable of germination, one
ounce of tobacco seed would be sufficient for three hundred thousand
plants. Experience has shown, however, that at least seventy-five
per cent. of the seeds are sterile, and that many of the remainder will
produce small and unthrifty plants, so that for every thirty thousand
plants required it is necessary to allow one ounce of seed. Thirty
thousand plants would be sufficient to set two acres of the cigar
tobaccos and from four to seven acres of the other types of tobacco.

The plant bed for one ounce of seed should cover about fifty
square yards. Tobacco seed is not expensive when the area that a
small amount will plant is considered, and it is far better to have too
many plants than not to have enough or be forced to set weak
plants. Many planters sow several times as many seed beds as would
be necessary under ideal conditions, and allow short intervals of time
to elapse between the sowings of the different beds. This assures them
a sufficient quantity of healthy plants even if there be some losses.
Then the time of planting varies with the different seasons, and it is
an important matter to have plants of just the right size to set out
when they are required.

Before sowing the seed it is a good plan to test the germination.
A hundred seeds are counted out and placed between two pieces of
moist bletting paper. The paper is kept between two plates and at a
temperature of from seventy to eighty degrees for ten days, at the
end of which time the percentage of good seed is determined by
counting the number of seeds germinated. This will enable the
planter to make up for any deficiency in germination by the use of a

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO, 3Y

PLANTATION ,

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Tar

TEXAS

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LENTIL

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40 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

larger quantity of seed. It must be understood that the conditions in
the soil are not so favourable to a high percentage of germination as is
the blotting paper. j é

In choosing the location of the plant bed, there are several points
to be considered. First, a good, rich, friable wellglrained soil must
be chosen. Next, a location that is protected fiom the prevailing
wind and on an exposure where the bed will receive all the sunlight
possible. In America these beds ave usually made on the southern
slope of an open space in the forest.

American growers give the site of the seed bed a thorough burn-
ing. The object of this is to destroy all insects, or their Jarvee, that
may bein the soil. In order to accomplish this burning, the soil 1s
first laid with poles in order to keep the burning wood off the soil and
admit the air. Upon these poles the wood is piled and the fire
started on the leeward side that the progress may not be too rapid.
A slow fire will convert all the moisture in the surface soil to steam,
and thus cook anything that may be in the soil. The fire is continued
long enough to convert all the moisture in the first three or four
inches of soil to steam. The use of steam instead of fire has been tried
for the preparation of the plant bed and has proved very satisfactory.
The steain does not destroy the combustible portions of the soil while
it cooks and destroys all seeds and insects. The steain is applied by
running it through a pipe or hose and confining it under an inverted
wooden or metal case. A packing case that has been made steam
tight will answer for this purpose. The use of steam is to be recom-
mended where the planter has a traction engine at his disposal.

After the bed has been thoroughly burned the soil is broken up
to a depth of two or three inches and all roots and other trash
carefully removed. Care must be taken that the soil be not dug too
deep, for this would bring to the surface weed seeds that have been
buried too deep to be destroyed. Fertilizer is thoroughly worked into
the soil. About three pounds of any good commercial fertilizer to
each ten yards of the bed will answer the purpose. Nitrate of soda
is the best fertilizer with which to give the plant a quick start and
rapid growth, but this chemical should be used more sparingly than
the other fertilizers. Barn yard manure would be excellent were it
not that it usually contains quantities of weed and grass seed that
would neutralize all the good results of the burning.

The seed should be sown about sixty days before planting time.
To sow the seed mix it with ashes or fine meal, at the rate of one-
fourth ounce of the seed to two quarts of the ashes or meal. The
object of the ashes is to give greater bulk, thus enabling the planter
to sow more evenly. The colour of the ashes or meal also informs the
sower whether all portions of the ground bave been sown with «a
sufficient quantity. After being sown the seed is not raked in, but
the surface of the soil is lightly brushed with a broom. The
sprinkling of the bed with water from an ordinary gardenev’s can
will in itself be sufficient covering. Tobacco seed that has been
buried too deep will not germinate.

The plant bed should be covered with a light cloth or muslin.
This is stretched over a framework of boards ov bricks that has been
built around the border of the bed. Small sticks about six inches
high are set up throughout the bed, to keep the canvas from
touching the plants. This canvas will shelter the plants from the
intense heat of the sun, and will at the same time retain during the

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 41

SHOWING THE ROOT SYSTEM OF A TOBACCO PLANT,

42 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

night a portion of the heat of the day. It will also protect the plants
from drying winds, frosts, and insects. Wheve the cloth cannot be
secured a light covering of grass, or even of light brush, will serve
to partially protect the bed from the sun, winds, and frost. This
covering should be raised at least a foot off the bed, by means of a
light framework. ‘

Unusual care must be exercised in handling the plant bed, for it
is a very easy matter to so injure the plants as to dwarf them through-
out their life period. The soil should be kept moist, but not wet.
If too much water be used the plants are not only likely to be
smothered, but conditions are made favourable to the development
of fungus diseases. Within two weeks after sowing the plants will
appear ; for some time it may appear that they are not making any
growth ; this is the period when they, having exhausted the material
stored in the seed, are adapting themselves to the new conditions
of life. In a month after sowing a rapid growth will start, and in
another month the plants should be ready for transplanting. Plants
are better if not allowed to become too large before planting, as an
over large plant is more likely to grow lanky. American growers prefer
to set out the plants when the top covers about the area of a five
shilling piece. During the last month in the plant bed it will pay
to water occasionally with liquid manure. For a week or more
before planting, the canvas covering should be removed, to allow the
plants to become hardened. If the plants appear to be growing tou
thickly they should be thinned out; one good plant to each square
inch is sufficient. This will give about thirteen hundred plants to
the square yard.

In drawing the plants for transplanting care must be taken to
secure as much root as possible. The plant bed should be thoroughly
soaked, so as to allow the roots to be drawn with little breakage.
When the large plants are drawn out of the bed the soil should be
immediately watered, if not already done, in order to pack the earth
around the roots of the remaining plants, which will have been dis-
turbed by the operation. As soon as the plants have been drawn
they should be placed in a basket, with the roots downward. The
top of the basket must be covered with a cloth, and the basket put
in a cool place until the plants are set out.

PREPARATION OF THE LAND, AND PLANTING.

Within sixty days after it is set in the field the tobacco plant has
reached maturity. In order to properly accomplish this result, the
soil must be well tilled, so as to allow the roots to rapidly pursue their
search for nourishment. The soil must be in a condition to admit air
to the rootlets and also to the beneficial nitrifying bacteria in the soil,
and at the same time it must have the ability to hold sufficient
moisture for the needs of the crop. This condition can be reached
only by a thorough preparation of the soil before planting time. The
fibrous rooted tobacco plant seeks its food near the surface, but
because of this fact the subsoil should not be neglected, for on the
condition of the subsoil depends largely the moisture content of the
surface soil. The land should have one, and, if possible, two thorough
ploughings, and then be placed in as fine a tilth as possible by the use
of harrows.

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO, 43

There are two methods of growing the plants: one method is
known as level cultivation and the other as hill cultivation. The
system of level cultivation is perhaps best where there is no
danger of excessive moisture in the soil. In this case the field is

marked off into rows, three to three and a half feet apart, and the plants
set at the distance of three feet in the rows. If it is desired to use
the horse cultivator in both directions, the field is marked both ways,
so that the plants will “check row.” If the soil is inclined to be wet
at any time during the season, the field is thrown up in ridges three and
a half feet apart, and the tobacco set on the tops of these ridges. The
ridges are formed with a small plough or with a horse cultivator using
the wing adjustment.

The distances of three and three and a half feet hold true only for
the ordinary smoking and manufacturing types of tobacco. Most of
the cigar varieties are planted much closer together in the row. The
Cuban and Sumatra tobaccos are but a foot to fourteen inches apart in
the row. Some of the stronger growing varieties are planted from
eighteen inches to two and a half feet apart. The distance depends on
the size of the plants. Ifa cigar tobacco be given too much room, the
leaf will become too large and coarse for cigar purposes. Sumatra
tobacco when first grown in Florida was very nearly a failure, for the
reason that it was set too far apart and became coarse. In Sumatra,
where hand labour alone is used, the plants are placed two feet apart in
each direction ; but Sumatra hasa heavy rainfall and a tropical climate,
so that the plants grow very rapidly and are fine in texture. This
distance might not do for localities where the condition for a rapid
growth was less favourable. In America the rows are always at least
from three feet to three and a half feet apart, for the reason that most
of the work is done by means of horse cultivators. In a new locality
growers must determine the distance by experiments.

If the day be cloudy planting may be done at any time, but if the
day be hot and dry, the planting should be left uatil the last half of
the afternoon, so as to give the plants an opportunity to recover and
establish themselves during the coolness of the night. Where the
planting is done by hand, the pJants are dropped along the row at

regular intervals “by a small boy. Immediately after the plant

D2

TOBACCO.

CULTURE OF

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THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 45

distributer there follows a man or boy, who, with a round stick about
ten inches in length, makes a hole, and then inserts the plant into the
hole, and, while holding it firmly with one hand, presses the earth
firmly around the roots with the stick. The surface of the soil is then
rapidly smoothed over and left in as loose a condition as possible.
When the soil is dry or the weather unfavourable, one person carries a
pail of water, and either goes just before the planter and pours a little
water into the hole or follows close after, and places the water in a
small hole made beside the plant. If this additional hole is made, it
must be covered up as soon as the water soaks in to prevent evapora-
tion. Even if the soil appear to be sufficiently moist the use of water
in planting will give good results, for the reason that it settles the
earth firmly around the roots of the young plant, and thus permits it
to start growth at once. A man and a boy will plant about five
thousand plants a day, and one extra person can do the watering for
that number of plants, while a fourth person with a wagon can haul
the water for a large number of planters.

In some sections transplanting machines alone are used. — These
machines set the plants at the desired distances and waters them at
the one operation. The machine will also, if desired, place a small
quantity of fertilizer with each plant. Three persons are required to
handle such a machine, one to drive the two horses, and the others to
feed the machine with the plants. Five acres of ordinary tobacco may
be thus planted in a day.

In Cuba the plants are not set in holes, but a small furrow is
made with ashovel cultivator or a small plough. The plants are then
rapidly set by being placed in this furrow and a handful of earth drawn
to each. The soil is then levelled up witha hoe. This proves to be a
speedy method. The furrows should not be made much ahead of the
planter and must be filled up at once soas to avoid evaporation.

CULTIVATION.

The soil is supposedly in fine condition and tilth when the
plants are set, and the aim of cultivation should be to keep it in that
condition. The tobacco plant is largely a surface feeder, and its roots
do not penetrate deeply in the soil. For this reason, shallow cultivation
only should be used, so as not to cut off the roots and check the
growth of the plant. Cultivation is not merely for the purpose of
killing the grass and weeds, but also for the admission of the air
necessary to the roots of the plants, as well as to the nitrifying
bacteria. After wet weather, cultivation hastens the drying out of
the soil, and, in dry weather, cultivation by the creation of an earth
mulch prevents excessive evaporation of moisture. No set number of
times can be given for the cultivation of the field, but it should be
done whenever the soil begins to harden or crust over. The best
implement for the purpose is an adjustable horse cultivator, or horse
hoe, as it is sometimes called. ‘This implement is easy to handle and
can be adjusted so as to throw the earth to, or away from the plant as
it may be desired. When the plants are small, a wheeled riding culti-
vator may be used that will cultivate both sides of the row at the same
time ; two horses are required for this implement. As the plant grows
larger the earth near the plant should be stirred with a hoe, and later
when the leaves of the plant have become so large that there is

46 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO,

danger of injury to the plant by the use of the horse, the hoe and, hand
labour can alone be used. No other plant will respond so readily to
cultivation, nor will the value of any plant be so easily affected by neg-

lect as the tobacco plant. A vapid growth from the time of planting
until the ripening period will give that fine even texture so desirable in
high class tobacco. When the plant has commenced to ripen, culti-
vation should cease, for any further stirring of the soil will tend to
induce an injurious second growth.

Topprnea.

The tobacco plant has a tendency to the production of seed,
and for the reason that the seed is formed at the expense of the leaf,
the blossom or terminal bud must be removed, and with the blossom
must be removed all the leaves in excess of those that the plant can
properly develop and ripen. The time at which this operation of top-
ping should be performed depends on the use to which the cured tobacco
is to be put, as well as to conditions of soil and climate and the
individual characteristics of the plant. Strong, vigorous plants are
topped high and given more leaves to develop than the less vigorous
plants. Expert tobacco men do not count the number of leaves to be
left on a plant, but through long practice are able to top the plant to
the right number of leaves for its capacity. The number of leaves
that a crop will average will depend largely on the season ; one year
but ten leaves may he left to a plant, and the following season an
average of sixteen leaves may be left and the product be of equal value
hothseasons. The removal of the terminal bud produces a great change
in the plant by increasing the surface, and thickening the leaf. The
operation also causes an increase of the protein compounds and
nicotine in the leaf as well as hastening the process of ripening. If

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 47

the plant is topped too low there will be a rapid thickening up and
curling of the leaf; if this occurs some of the top suckers should
be allowed to grow and check this tendency. Ifa plant is topped tou

soon there will be a loss of aroma in the cured product. The
majority of the flower buds should be allowed to appear before the
crop is topped, so as to permit topping to be completed in one
operation.

PRIMING,

At the time of topping many growers pull off the lower leaves of
the plant, and this operation is known as priming. These leaves are
usually small, thin and very dirty, and would not produce saleable
tobacco even if left to mature. The exponents of priming maintain
that these leaves being useless should not be allowed to appropriate
the sap that would otherwise go to the other leaves. It is contended
that these “sand lugs” furnish a harbour for insects, and also that the
removal of these leaves will leave more room for the use of the hoe.
Other growers leave these “sand lugs” upon the plant with the
thought that they protect the next higher leaves from being spattered
with soil during rains.

SUCKERING.

As soon as the plant is topped, or even before, small shoots or
suckers start out from the axils of all the leaves. If these suckers be
allowed to grow they will greatly lessen the amount of tobacco pro-

50 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO,

harvested too green will always have a tendency to retain a greenish
shade, and will be deficient in grain and slightly bitter when smoked.
There is also such a thing as an over ripe leaf. Over ripe leaves
contain more water and less organic material than they did when at
the proper stage for harvesting. This is due to the fact that in the
ripening leaf the chlorophyll grains gradually change to other forms,
and thus cease their function of forming new organic matter, while at
the same time consumption of the already stored material continues.
An over ripe leaf will seldom cure up an even colour and will be
brittle rather than elastic.

‘Lhe ripeness ot shaded tobacco cannot be determined by the same
indications as can the sun-grown crop. A general appearance of
maturity is the only guide that the planter will have.

HARVESTING.

When the proper stage of ripeness has been reached the time has
arrived for the harvest. All portions of the tobacco plant do not
ripen at the same time, and because of this fact two ditferent methods
of harvesting have been developed. In the one system the whole
plant is harvested on the stalk when the middle leaves of the plant
are mature, while in the other system each leaf is primed off as it
becomes ripe. The first system is accomplished with the minimum of
labour, although it will not produce s» large a percentage of properly
ripened tobacco as the second system, for when the middle leaves are
at the proper stage of ripeness, the lower leaves are over ripe, and the
top leaves still green. The advocates of the stalk cutting or whole
plant system maintain that a large percentage of the material in the
stalk is transferred from the stalk to the leaf during the process of
curing, and tbis claim seems to be substantiated by experience. This
system is the one largely used for the bulk of the tobacco in America,
but the finer grades of cigar leaf and a portion of the Bright tobacco.
are harvested by the single leaf method. In some places a combi-
nation of the two methods is adopted, the lower leaves being harvested
singly as they ripen and the upper half of the plant taken off with
the stalk. Where the leaves are primed they are at once placed in
baskets and hanled to the cnring barn. At the barn these leaves are
strung on twine by means of a needle run through the end of the stem,
or else the twine is looped around the end of three or four leaves at
a time and the bunches of leaves left several inches apart. This
twine is then fastened to a four foot stick, and the stick is hung on
the tier poles in the curing barn. The aim is to get about forty
leaves to each stick.

When the stalk system of curing is used, the plants may be cut
off at the surface of the ground with one stroke of a knife, and then
strung on the four foot curing stick by ineans of a detachable iron
spear head that is fitted into the end of the stick. Another method
is to, with one stroke of the knife, split the plant from the top
nearly to the ground, and then to sever it below the end of the
vertical cut with a second stroke. The plant can then be placed
astride the curing stick. The split plants will eure out more
rapidly than the speared plants, but will suffer a slightly greater
loss of weight. With small plants, as the Cuban tobacco, the stalk
is too small to stand much splitting, and is speared into the stick

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Cigar leaf should continue as long as possible in the curing process.
The unsplit stalks being slower in drying will slightly increase the
length of the curing period.

Plants should not be harvested soon after a rain, for the reason
that the water has washed out the gums and oils of the leaf, and
the leaf, if harvested at that time, will cure up thin and papery,
and be devoid of the finer aroma. In fact, the ripening tobacco
plant would be better off if it had no rain during the few weeks
preceding harvesting. In countries where the seasons are well
defined, growers should so arrange the time of planting as to allow
the crop to ripen, and be harvested, before or after the season of
heavy rainfall. In Cuba this point is understood and the crop is
not grown during the heavy rainy season. Heavy dews, however,
are greatly desired during the ripening period, for the reason that the
moisture on the leaf aids in the formation of gums and other
aromatic materials. Plants should never be harvested when the dew
is upon them, for at this time they are very brittle and likely to be
broken, and at the same time the dew covered leaf will develop
black spots when cured.

Bright sunny days should be chosen for the time of cutting.
The acidity of the leaves is less on a warm sunny day than upon
a cool or cloudy day, and is also less in the evening than in the
morning. Ona bright day the processes of metabolism are promoted,
and the respiration stimulated, so that at the end of such a day the
leaf will have more of the desirable products and less of the
undesirable by-products than at other times.

The plant should be slightly wilted before being hauled to the
curing barn, as this will prevent breakage and hasten the com-
mencement of the curing process. Often the curing sticks are stuck
into the soil at an angle approximating 65°, with the slope away
from the sun, and on these sticks the plants are placed with their
butts toward the sun and allowed to wilt for a short time. At
other times the plants are placed with the top side down, or are
laid in rows of three or four plants deep and allowed to remain
until they are wilted. Long wilting is not so popular as it once
was, and the system of placing the cut plants on scaffolds in the
field is obsolete.

Leaves if left long exposed to the sun will become sunburned,
that is the heat of the sun will kill the plant cells and at the
same time destroy the enzymns that bring about fermentation ; this
being the case no further life changes or processes of fermentation
can take place, and, with the exception of the drying of the leaf
by the evaporation of moisture, no improvement will take place.
The greenness of a sunburned leaf will always remain and reduce
its value. Sunburned leaves will carbonize and not burn. satis-
factorily in the pipe or cigar.

TRANSPORTATION.

Several different methods of transferring the tobaceo from the
tield to the curing barn are practised. Sometimes a frame four feet
wide, and high enough so that the tobacco will not touch the wagon
box, is built upon the wagon, and the tobaceo, already on the curing
sticks, is hung on this. This method is to be preferred where it is

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60 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

greatly desired to have no broken leaves, as is the case with tobacco
used for plug or cigar wrappers. The reason for having the frame
but four feet wide is that this is the length of the curing sticks.
Sometimes the frames are built of double height so that two tiers
may be hung. In Africa, where heavy ox teams and large wagons
are in use, there would appear to be no reason why these frames
should not be constructed of double width as well as double height.

Sometimes a low frame is made of not more than a foot in
height, and on this the sticks are hung, and the plant laid out flat
in the wagon. The plants are laid one upon the other after the
manner of shingling or tiling, and the only advantage of the frame
is that it prevents the butts of the stalks from injuring the leaves
underneath.

At other times the sticks of tobacco are merely piled on the
wagon with the butts of the stalks to the outside, and the tips
interlacing. A very low form of a wagon with wide tires and a
large top that extends out over the wheels is now becoming popular.
It is of light draft and also does away with high lifts. If but little
tobacco is grown, and that little in the neighbourhood of the curing
barn, sleds or stone “ boats” may be used for transporting the tobacco.

Where the leaves are primed they are placed in oblong baskets,
and these baskets hauled to the curing barn as soon as_ possible.
The stringing of the leaves is done under shelters built around
the curing barn.

THE GROWTH AND SELECTION OF TOBACCO
SEED.

When it is found by a grower that his district is particularly
adapted to the production of a certain type of tobacco, he should
aim to perpetuate or even improve that type by the growth and
selection of his own seed.

The best plants in the field should he selected at the topping
time, and the flower buds of these plants left to mature seed. It
is advisable to first make a preliminary examination of the field,
marking those plants that more nearly fulfil the conditions sought,
and then to go over the marked plants several times, and by a
process of elimination of the worst specimens, reduce the number
left for seed to the few best plants. In selecting the plants, a
certain ideal must be held in mind, and the grower rigidly judge
all the candidates by the standards of that ideal. If the grower
depart from the standard in one particular, for some plant that
seems unusually fine in some one point, and then modify his
standard in some other particular for another plant, the result will
be that the crop grown from the seed will be irregular in quality,
and without uniformity. The ideal must be developed in the mind,
and the standard established, before the grower goes into the field
to accomplish the work of selection, and the result of the work
when completed must be, that the plants left shall have a common
resemblance. Selection rigidly carried out for one year will accom-
plish more in the improvement of the type than a slightly less
rigid selection will accomplish in- several years. The selection
process carried out year after year will work wonders in the
improvement of the crop. This point must, however, be regarded

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 61

A RHODESIAN FIELD OF TENNESSEE EXPORT TOBACCO LEFT TO MATURE SRED.

62 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

carefully, viz., that the ideals striven for must not be radically
changed with each year. If later it be found that the ideals of
the first years have been incorrect, then, of course, it is necessary
to change them, but changes should not be made according to the
whims and fashions of each year. Characteristics established by a
selection of three years are at least ten times more permanently
fixed than those established by one year’s selection. There is
always a tendency in all highly-developed plants to revert to type,
and this tendency is stimulated by a soil or climate that is in
any way different from the plant’s native home. The object of
selection is, therefore, not only the improvement of the type, but
its preservation.

Seed should not be saved from different varieties of tobacco
grown in the same locality, for the pollen is likely to be carried from
one variety to the other, thus producing a cross, so that the plants
grown from the seed will largely differ in their characteristics. Some
will resemble one parent and some another; some will have the
characteristics of both parents in different degrees, and others
will have none of the varietal characteristics of either. Where
seed is saved from different varieties grown on the same farm,
these varieties should be widely separated from each other. When
several planters in the same locality each grow several different
varieties of tobacco, they may often arrange each to save seed of
but one variety, and to exchange each year.

The tendency to cross fertilization, and its resulting variations,
is valuable where the process is directed by the hand of man, for
it is often necessary to produce a new variety with the character-
istics of two or more other varieties. When this is attempted, the
two plants that are to be used are carefully selected, with the end
sought in view, and the blossom bud covered with a sinall paper
or muslin sack. Before the blossom has matured, this sack is
lifted, and the pollen-bearing portion of one blossom (the anthers
or male organs) is removed with a small tweezer; the sack is
again placed on, and when the blossom is sufficiently developed,
and the pistil receptive, the pollen is taken from the other plant,
and placed on the blossom of this plant by means of a camel-hair
brush, after which the sack is again adjusted, and left on the
plant until the seed pod has formed. The seed from this plant is
sown by itself, and the plants resulting show hundreds of varied
characteristics and ditferences. These plants are gradually selected,
and cut out of the competition, until only the two or three plants
conforming nearest to the ideal are left to develop seed. The
process of selection must be kept up for several years before a new
variety may be considered as established. The results of the cross
may not prove at all satisfactory, and the process may have to he
repeated several times.

The establishment of a seed plot is an excellent scheme. The
seed for the planting of this crop should be saved from the most
perfect plant of the preceding year. Thus the best plant of the seed
plot will be the parent of the seed-hearing plants of the following
year and the remainder of the selected plants of the seed crop will be
the parents of the main crop the following year. In this way a pedi-
greed variety of plants will be established and the plants of the seed
crop will always be the offspring of the same parent and the plants of
the main crop will always be the descendants of the same grandparent.

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 63

Theoretically, this constant inbreeding would in time lessen the
vitality of the variety, but in practice this result will rarely be
reached, for the isolation of the seed plot will seldom be so complete
that there will not be an occasional accidental introduction of new
blood.

When a plant is left for seed the top leaves are stripped off so as
to reduce its top heaviness. If the plant shows too great an inclina-
tion to yield to the wind and be whipped around, it is steadied by
being tied to a pole set in the ground. No suckers or secondary
blossoms are permitted to grow, and as soon as the best seed pods have
commenced to ripen, the remaining pods and blossoms are removed,
the idea being to have a few well-nourished seeds rather than a large
number of poorly nourished ones. When the pod is ripe the seed
head is cut off and hung ina dry room, all imperfect pods being re-
jected in the operation. Later the seed is broken out of the pod and
carefully freed from all dirt and chatf by winnowing. It is then
placed in glass jars or bottles and sealed. If carefully kept in jars,
tobacco seed will retain its vitality for at least ten years. Before
heing placed in the jars the seed must be absolutely dry.

Many tobaccos, like the Cuban, will not produce a large crop if
grown from the carelessly produced imported seed, and, for this reason,
it is the custom in many places to grow the seed of such varieties for
vears before saving seed for the main crop. However, if this process
be kept up for any length of time the product will have a tendency to
vreatly deteriorate from its original qualities even though it has
become acclimatised and increased in hardiness and productiveness.
For this reason about the third or fourth year after the importation
a large quantity of seed is saved and stored in airtight jars to be
used for the production of the crop during the next eight or ten
years.

Tobacco seed may be worth anything from four shillings a pound
for the commoner varieties, to four shillings or even twice as much
per ounce for selected cigar tobaccos. The average price is about
twelve shillings a pound for the ordinary varieties and thirty shillings
a pound for cigar varieties. An ounce may contain anything from
two to four hundred thousand seeds, so that high priced seed is not
necessarily expensive when the area that it will plant is considered.

Tobacco seed as a rule should not be purchased from general
seedsmen, but should be secured from men who make a speciality of
growing tobacco seed alone. From one to two hundred pounds may
be produced to the acre where the selection of seed is not carried out
very thoroughly, but it is much better to purchase seed at ten times
the ordinary price from growers who select until they only produce
one-tenth as much seed. Quality rather than quantity should be the
object.

INSECT PESTS OF TOBACCO.

From the seed bed to the curing barn the grower must wage
one continual war against insect pests. Many of these would entirely
ruin the crop if left to themselves. To-day, through the use of arseni-
cal poisons, it has become a simple matter to hold in check the once
much dreaded enemies of the tobacco field.

Young plants grown under canvas and on burned soil are seldom
subject to the attacks of insects.

64 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

SPRAYING WITH A KNAPSACK SPRAY PUMP (us. DEPT. OF AG.).

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 65

““Cut Worms.”—Usually the first pest from which injury may
be expected is the “cut worms.” These are the Jarve of several ditfer-
ent species of moths and do great injury to all forms of tender plant

life by severing stalks near the surface of the soil. Several species also
climb the plant and feed on the leaves. When a field is known to be
affected with these pests it is the custom in many localities to scatter
over the field little bunches of green grass, or other forms of vegetation,
that have previously been sprayed with Paris green and water. In
the absence of other food the pests will feed on this poisoned
vegetation and be destroyed before the tobacco has been set on the
field. :

Another method is to scatter poisoned meal throughout the
field. This bait is prepared by mixing one pound of Paris green, or
of arsenic, with from fifty to one hundred pounds of mealie meal
(ground maize or Indian corn meal), the meal being moistened with a
little water and molasses. This poisoned meal is then placed in rows
here and there throughout the field and among the growing plants.
The cut-worm prefers the poisoned meal to the green vegetation and
thus comes to an untimely end. The most satisfactory results are,
however, obtained if the meal be placed in the field before the plants
are set.

‘“*Horn Worms” or Caterpillars.—These are the larvie of
Sphinx moths, and the name of “ horn worm” is due to the fact that they
have a small stout horn attached to one of the posterior segments of
the body. These caterpillars have insatiable appetites, and two or three
will ruin a tobacco plant in the course of a day; nor are they fond of
the tobacco plant alone, but feed as well on other forms of the
Solanacez as the tomato and potato.

Two different species destructive to tobacco are common in America,
Protoparce Carolina and Protoparce Celeus. | The Rhodesian tobacco
caterpillar may prove to be a distinct species, but that fact will make no
difference in the treatment to be followed as the habits are the same.

The mother moths may be seen and heard flying around the
Petunia and Datura blossoms just at dusk. It is at this hour that the
eggs are laid. In four to eight days the young caterpillars hatch and
start their destructive career, which may continue fur a month, at the

SLOASNT AOUMESA OL SENWId AHL NO NOSTOd AUC UNIAVUdS

66

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 67

end of which time they have reached their full growth, and are prepared
to burrow into the soil and transform to pup.

Where this pest is not very abundant, the method of sending
children over the field to destroy all the caterpillars that can be found
is a very satisfactory one. But where the pest is abundant, the field
should be sprayed with a preparation of Paris green. One “pound of
Paris green to one hundred and fifty to two hundred gallons of water
is about the right proportion. This preparation should be evenly
distributed over the plant by means of a spray pump with the nozzle
adjusted to throw a very fine misty spray. The Knapsack spray pumps
are well fitted for this work. :

In some localities a hand machine is used, which, by means of a
rapidly moving fan, blows the pure Paris green evenly over the plant.

With this machine, as well as with the spraying preparation, care must
be exercised that not too much of the poison be used, or the plant will
be injured. The poison in no way injures the tobacco for human con-
sumption, as it has been demonstrated by experiments that the poison
practically all disappears before the tobacco is cured.

In many localities a method of destroying the moths themselves
before they lay their eggsis practised. Thisis easily done, because of the
habit that the moth has of feeding on the nectar of the Datura Stramo
(called Jimson or Jamestown weed in America). Quantities of this
weed are allowed to grow around the edge of the tobacco field, or the
plants may be even set here and there throughout the crop. Every
evening the blossoms are poisoned by having afew drops of the follow-
ing mixture placed in them :—cobalt, one ounce ; molasses or honey,
one-fourth pint ; water, one pint. The moths die very shortly after
partaking of this preparation. When this method is used the Datura
should not be permitted to ripen seed, or else it will develop into a
worse pest than the caterpillars.

68 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

\\

\

i

\

lL

Fie. 5.—Southern tobacco worm (Protoparce carolina) : a, adult moth ; b, full-grown larva ;
c, pupa—unatural size (original).

Rig. l—Bpitria paroula: a, adult beetle ;
ut b, larva, lateral view; head of larva;
Fic, §,—False Dud worm or cotton boll worm d, posterior leg of same ;
(Heliothis armiger) : a, adult moth; , dark full- dorsal view; jf, pupa—a, b, f enk
crown larva; ¢, light-coloured full-grown larva ; about fifteen times, ¢, d
d, papa—natural size (original). (after Chittenden).

anal segment,

,e more enlarge:

INSECTS INJURTOUS TO TOBACCO, (FROM REVORT OP U.S. DEPARTMENT OF

AGRICULTURE. }

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. OS

Fre. 16.—Peridromia saucia: a,adult; b, ¢,d, full-grown larve; e, f,eggs—all natural
size except e, which is greatly enlarged (original).

Fig. 14.—Tobacco split worm : adult moth above ; larya below at right ; pupa below at
left, with side view of enlarged anal segment—all enlarged (original).

Ni

yptouitty

\

Fre. 3.—Leaf spots of old tobacco leaf—slightly reduced (original).

(FROM REPORT OF U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.)

70 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

At cutting time, care should be taken that none of these caterpillars
he placed in the curing barn with the tobacco, for they will continue
to eat the drying leaf as well as develop into parent moths for the next
year’s brood,

The Bud Caterpillars.—In America both the Heliothis Armiger
and Heliothis Rhexiwe are known by the name of * bud worms,” because
of their habit of destroying the terminal bud of the plant. The
Heliothis Armiger is very common in Rhodesia, and is the caterpillar
that damages the mealie ears, the cotton, Cape gooseberry, and the
tomato.

The spray of Paris green used for the horn caterpillars will also
assist greatly in destroying this destructive pest, but if it becomes very
common, it will be necessary to use the following special treatment.
A pound of Paris green is mixed with fifty pounds of finely ground
mealie meal, and a sinall quantity of the meal sprinkled on the bud of
each plant. If the weather is at all wet, this treatment will have to
be often repeated. This method is not as slow or expensive as it might
appear to be, and is certainly very effective. In Florida where fine
cigar leaf is grown, this sprinkling of poisoned meal is kept up through-
out the season.

It is also a good plan to keep all the tomatoes and Cape gooseberries
erowing in the vicinity sprayed with Paris green. This will not only
he a good thing for the plants sprayed, but will be of assistance to the
tobacco, by destroying caterpillars that will produce later broods
injurious to the tobacco plant.

The Leaf Miner or ‘‘ Split Worm.’’—The larva of this moth,
Gelechia Nolanella, is already doing great damage to potatoes in
Rhodesia, and will probably become a pest of tobacco. The moth,
which isa very small gray one, lays its eggs upon the leaf, and the
caterpillars as soon as hatched enter the leaf and there mine, between
the two surfaces. Their presence is made known bya grey discoloura-
tion of this portion of the leaf. In potatoes these insects also work in
the haulm and even in the stored tubers.

After working in one place for a time, the caterpillar will
emerge on to the surface of the leaf, and enter at another place.
Because of this fact it may be treated, to a certain extent, with
arsenical poisons. The same spray that is used for the horn
caterpillar is of value with this insect—that is, one pound of Paris
green to one hundred and fifty to two hundred gallons of water.
The potato fields should be as carefully treated as the tobacco,
and it is very likely that this insect will also be found working
on the tomato and Cape gooseberry, so that these plants should
either be treated with poison or destroyed.

The Tobacco Flea Beetle.—This insect (Epitriv parvula is the
common species of America) is a small active beetle that does great
damage to all solanaceous plants—as the potato, tobacco, tomato,
Cape gooseberry, datura, Kc.

It eats the tobacco leaf full of very small holes, and thus
destroys its value, as well as providing an entrance for fungus and
bacterial diseases. A certain amount of damage is also done to
the roots by the larvie. ;

The preventive treatment, which is the destruction of al!
solanaceous weeds growing in the locality, should be adopted, for

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. ial

these weeds serve as breeding places for the earlier broods of this
beetle.

When the beetle once starts its work on the crop, its ravages
may be checked by the same Paris green spray that has been
recommended for the other insects.

Lasioderma Serricorne, Fabr. A Beetle Injurious to Stored
Tobaeco.—This beetle feeds upon all forms of stored tobacco, and
works injury by eating it full of holes. Cigars, cigarettes, and
stored leaf of all kinds are equally enjoyed by this pest. Once it
has taken possession of a curing barn, warehouse, factory or shop,
it is there to stay, unless strenuous measures are adopted. In the
warehouse the passing of the tobacco through the heat of the re-
ordering machine will check the ravages somewhat, and the steaming
of every portion of the room will serve as a temporary measure ;
but a few insects will be hidden in the cracks of the floor and wall,
and serve to again infest the building.

Carbon di-sulphide bas been recommended by Dr. Howard, of
the United States Department of Agriculture, as a treatment for
this beetle. The room is made as air-tight as possible, and the
fumes of this gas are confined in it for at least twenty-four hours.
The gas is explosive when confined, and is also deadly to all life,
and for this reason no fire or persons are allowed in or near the
building during the treatment, and the room is thoroughly aired
before being again entered. In a tobacco shop all of the tobacco may
be placed in a case and treated. One pound of the liquid for every
thousand feet of space is placed in a vessel and permitted to evapo-
rate in the room.

Other Tobacco Insects.—Other insects, as the grasshopper
and the cricket, often do some damage to the tobacco crop. Any
insect that injures the plant by eating can be destroyed by the
use of arsenical poisons, as Paris green. However, if the insect
secures its food by sucking, as do the true bugs (Hemiptera), it will
be impossible to destroy with the arsenical poisons, and some spray
will have to be applied that will kill the insect by contact. For
the sucking insects the use of a concentrated solution of nicotine,
diluted with sixty parts of water, has been found to be fairly
etfective.

All poisons should be labelled, and in their use care should
be taken that they are not placed within the reach of young
children.

DISEASES OF GrowiINnG ToBacco.

Mosaic Disease.—One of the most common diseases of grow-
ing tobacco is called “calico,” or “mosaic” disease, because of the
mosaic-like appearance of the light and green portions of the leaf.
The disease causes the leaf to grow more rapidly near the veins
than elsewhere, and thus become wrinkled and corrugated. A
portion, or all of the plant, may be affected. Slightly diseased
Jeaves are worthless as wrappers, and highly diseased leaves are of
no value for any purpose. For many years the nature of this
disease has been a mystery, and has been variously regarded as due
to a fungus, as the result of an excess or deficiency of minerals in

72 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

the soil, as produced by bacteria or induced by faulty drainage.
Recently Dr. Woods, of the United States Department of Agri-
culture, who has carefully investigated the disease, has arrived at
the conclusion that it is due to none of the generally supposed
causes, but that it is “due to defective nutrition of the young
dividing and rapidly growing cells, due to a lack of elaborated
nitrogeneous reserve food, accompanied by an abnormal increase in
activity of oxidising enzymns in the diseased cells.” These are the
sane enzymns that prove so beneficial in the fermentation process
later. The enzymns are liberated by the decaying plants or roots,
and, if in excess, may enter the roots of young plants set in the
same soil, and induce a diseased condition, from which the plant
will never completely recover. Plants with injured roots are more
than commonly susceptible to attack.

The sowing of seed on fresh or burned plant beds, the avoid-
ance of injury to roots in transplanting or in cultivation, and
the making of conditions favourable to a steady, even growth,
appear at present to be the only things within the reach of the
planter for the prevention or moderation of this condition.

Seed from diseased plants should not be saved, for, while the
disease may not be carried in this manner, still an inherited
tendency to this condition may be transmitted.

“Frog Eye,” or Leaf Spot.—This disease is also called “ white
speck,” because of its appearance in the form of small white specks in
the tissue of the leaf. It appears to a certain extent in nearly all
tobaccos and does not do any large amount of damage. A few yearsago
cigar tobacco with this specking was in demand, but the style changed
as soon as it was found possible to artificially produce this marking on
any leaf. It is supposed by some to be caused by too much water at the
tap root, and by others to be due to the presence of an excess of potash
in the soil. It does not appear, however, that it is due to either of
these causes, and is probably bacterial in its nature. This specking
must be differentiated from the small white specks due to sun
burning where there has been a particle of sand upon the leaf. No
successful treatment is yet known.

Rust, or Blight.—There are two or three forms of what are known
as rusts, or blights, which are physiological conditions caused either
by excessively dry weather, or excessively wet weather, or by the use
of too much of certain fertilizers. The farmers of South Carolina
say that the use of large amounts of phosphates will cause the plants
to prematurely ripen, which is sometimes called blight. The analysis
of the conditions present in the field and the removal of the cause as
far as possible is the only treatment.

There are several minor diseases of growing tobacco, but they can
hardly be considered of interest unless they make their appearance in
Rhodesia.

Diseases of Tobacco while Curing (Pole Burn, Pole Sweat
or House Burn).—Pole burn in the tobacco barn is due to excessive
humidity, and is very likely to be present during prolonged warm wet
weather. The disease is first noticed by the appearance of small dark
spots near the stem and mid-rib. The spots rapidly increase in. size
and numbers, and in a short time become confluent. Within forty-

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO, 73

eight hours the whole leaf, and, in fact, all the leaves in the curing
barn, may be affected and destroyed. The tobacco becomes very dark
in colour and thoroughly decayed.

This decay is due to a-bacterium that gains entrance to the leaf
through any broken place or through openings made by fungus
growths. Temperatures of 110° stop its action, as also does the
reduction of the humidity of the room. For this reason the disease
may be controlled through regulation of the temperature and humidity
of the room by means of fire and ventilation. The maintenance of a
stove in the curing barn is always to be recommended. If there is no
stove, small open charcoal fires may be started. All decaying leaves
should at once be taken out of the barn and destroyed, to prevent
infection of the remaining tobacco.

During wet weather this disease should be watched for. It will
probably first make its appearance in the centre, or in the least
ventilated portion of the room.

Stem Rot.—This is due to a fungus, Botrytis longibranchiata.
It appears in the form of a velvety white mould on the stalks and
stems of the curing tobacco, and is most prevalent during wet
weather. If it has once made its appearance in the curing barn
further trouble should be prevented by thoroughly cleaning and
disinfecting the barn before again using. This may be done by
sweeping the walls and floor of the barn, and then washing with a
mixture of lime and sulphur in water, which, if made sufficiently fine,
may be sprayed on with an ordinary spray pump. The burning of
sulphur in the closed barn will also help to destroy the spores of the
fungus. Heat will serve as a check in unfavourable weather.

White Veins.—These may make their appearance in the barn
after a long spell of dry weather. So far as is known they are dueto
the fact that the outer cells of the leaf are killed too soon by the rapid
drying of the leaf, and allow the admission of air under the epidermis,
thus giving the appearance of an absence of colouring matter in the
leaf. This condition injures the value of the leaf for wrappers, but
seldom for any other purpose. The only way suggested for the
prevention of this condition is to keep the air of the barn slightly
humid in dry weather by sprinkling water on the floor.

Moulds and Rots in Cured Tobaceo.—After tobacco has been
cured, different moulds and rots often do much damage to the stored
tobacco. These will greatly injure or absolutely ruin the leaf. The
development of these troubles is due to the presence of too large a
quantity of moisture in the leaf. The tobacco should be stored in as
dry a condition as possible and examined now and again to see that it
does not absorb moisture from the air. A stove in the room to heat
the air occasionally when the weather is wet will largely prevent the
attacks. A room where the tobacco has once moulded should be
thoroughly cleansed and disinfected before tobacco is again stored
in it.

In the case of the black rot, cigar fillers may be put through
what is known as a forced sweat, to kill the fungi and drive away the
musty odour. The tobacco is allowed a large quantity of water, and
placed in a warm room where it will heat up rapidly, and in four or five
days, in warm weather, will have reached as high a temperature as is

F

74 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

safe. This sweat kills the fungi and if carried out thoroughly will
also destroy the spores. The tobacco is not likely to be of the highest
quality.

““Saltpetre ’—The mould-like appearance that often comes over
tobacco while curing and fermenting is called “saltpetre” and is due
to a saline efflorescence caused by the presence of large quantities of
salts in the leaf, as potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesia. A
light brushing and a spray of a four per cent solution of acetic acid
will remove this for the time.

DAMAGE BY WIND AND HAIL STORMS.

Heavy wind storms often break off the upper leaves of the plant
and whip the lower leaves around on the ground until they are badly
torn. The planting of tobacco in sheltered fields is the only measure
that can be adopted against damage by the wind. Where there are no
natural windbreaks the planting of large numbers of rapid growing
trees is to be recommended. A temporary expedient is to plant
several rows of mealies (Indian maize) on the windward side of the
field. Strips of mealies may also be sown at intervals of six or eight
rods throughout the tobacco field. If leaves are accidentally broken
off the tobacco plant when it is nearly ready to harvest, they may be
gathered up and cured.

Even a very light hailstorm will injure the value of a leaf for
wrapper purposes, and avery heavy hailstorm will entirely destroy
the whole plant. Where a plant has been badly broken it may be
cut off near the ground and a sucker left to develop a new plant.

In some localities in Europe a method of breaking up hailstorms
and preventing damage to the vineyards is practised. It consists in
the simultaneous discharge of many cannon that have previously been
placed at different points in the district. When this practice has heen
fully tested and its merits more fully determined it may be feasible to
undertake it in the more thickly settled tobacco districts.

Throughout America certain companies will, for a premium of
about four per cent, insure the tobacco crop against damage by hail or
wind. The amount of the damage is usually determined by a
committee of non-interested tobacco men, who are appointed for
the special case and are remunerated for their services hy the
insurance company.

CURING.

Curing is not merely drying, but is a chemical process the exact
changes and reactions of which are not fully understood. The quality
of a tobacco is made in its growth; curing but fixes or further
develops those qualities. A badly grown tobacco cannot be made
into a high-class product by any process of curing, although by skill
in handling it may have latent or slightly developed good qualities
brought out and emphasized, and it may also have its bad points
partially suppressed. A very fine tobacco may be absolutely ruined
by lack of skill in the curing process. ;

The process may be said to commence the moment the plant is
eut and to continue until no further change takes place in the leaf,

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. (5

Commonly this curing process is divided into several stages, the first
one of which is allowed to appropriate the word, “curing,” The
second stage is known as the “fermentation ” or “sweat,” and there
may also be a third stage which is known as “ageing.” This
third stage is but a mild continuation of the process of fermen-
tation.

The theory that bacteria are largely instrumental in producing
the many changes of the different stages of the curing process, has
been advanced by a number of scientists. It was even, for a time,
supposed that bacteria produced on the aromatic Vuelta Abajo
could be transferred to other tobacco, and that the fermentative
processes thereby initiated would develop an aroma equal to that
of the Cuban tobacco. From this it was reasoned that all distinc-
tions of section, soil, and climate would be broken down, and all
that would be necessary for the production of fine tobacco would
be to select a locality where the soil was fertile and labour cheap,
and inoculate the tobacco with the best aroma-producing bacteria.
However, no startling commercial changes based on this theory
have as yet taken place.

Very recently Dr. Loew, of the United States Department of
Agriculture, has shown that not only are bacteria not responsible
for the fermentation of tobacco, but that the fermenting leaves are
destructive of bacterial life. By a series of experiments, he has
demonstrated that the chemical changes that take place in the
curing and fermentation of tobacco are due to the presence of
oxidizing enzymns. Enzymns are closely related to the soluble
ferments. One of these ferments, diastase, takes a prominent part
in the fermentation of malt, and will change two thousand parts
of starch into sugar for each part of itself. The oxidizing ferments
have the power of taking oxygen from the air, and supplying it to
the contents of the plant cells, thus causing the splitting up of
existing chemical forms, and the creation of new products. In
this process the enzymns suffer but little loss of themselves, for
they merely act as agents, and take with one hand what they give
with the other. Platinum black has a somewhat similar power, as
is often shown in the chemical laboratory. An example bas been
given of a somewhat analagous action that takes place when a
weather-exposed board decays more rapidly in the proximity of a
rusty nail. In this case the wood, assisted by the iron oxide, is
enabled to combine with the oxygen more rapidly than it would
if left to itself.

Enzymns are highly complex protein forms, and make up a
part of the protoplasm of the plant. They are easily destroyed or
changed into other protein forms by much heat, or by the too
rapid loss of their moisture. When the plant is slowly starving
to death, as it is when it is cut and allowed slowly to dry, there
is a rapid formation of these enzymns, which separate themselves
from the protoplasm, and push out through the plant in search of
food for the dying plant cells. Having thus distributed themselves,
the enzymns are in position to become again soluble, and take up
the work of fermentation whenever the conditions become favourable,
as they do in the fermentation pile. If the leaf be killed by heat
or by rapid drying, the enzymns will have no opportunity to
escape from the protoplasm, bnt will become entangled with the
insoluble protein, so that later, when the leaf is moistened for the

F2

76 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

fermentation, the process will be a partial or total failure, for
these enzymns are only active when in solution. i

To repeat, the chemical changes in the leaf which develop the
aroma, as well as eliminate undesirable products, are due to certain
enzymns. These changes take place during the second stage of the
curing process, which is commonly called the fermentation or the
sweat. But these enzymns are largely developed in the first stage
of curing, and unless this first stage be properly conducted, the
enzymns will not exist in large quantities, or in available forms,
and the products developed in the fermentation will be largely
disappointing. With this fact clearly in mind, the reasons for
certain steps in the curing will be better understood. _

Fine aroma is considered of greater importance in cigar leaf
than in other forms of tobacco, and for that reason greater
attention is given to its fermentation, and more care is exercised
in its preliminary curing, so as to prepare it for fermentation, All
tobaccos go. through a fermentation, whether such a stage he
regarded as a part of the routine or not. In some tobaccos, where
other characteristics than aroma are chiefly sought, the curing
process may be such as to destroy the enzymns and the leaf’s
power of fermentation. This is largely the case with the Bright
yellow tobaccos, for the intense heat and rapid curing of the
process designed for the colour, destroys most of the enzymns.
sut-_ even in this case, a small amount of the enzymns must sur-
vive, for the cured leaf goes through a slight fermentation known
as the “ May sweat.” It is in this sweat that most of the aroma
that this type of tobacco has is developed. If this tobacco be
placed in a moist condition and bulked, as are the cigar tobaccos,
it will not ferment, but will decay. The tobacco grower will say
that the texture of the leaf has been destroyed by the heat; it
would be more accurate for him to say that the oxidizing enzymns
have been destroyed.

Several different methods of curing are in vogue. The different
methods are based on differences in the nature of the tobacco
grown, as well as on fuel supply, labour conditions, and the
demands of the market. Sometimes the processes do not appear to
be based on any modern conditions, but to be merely survivals of
earlier times. In the past, great carelessness was the rule in all
methods, but now with a better understanding of the processes
involved, and with the requirements of a constantly more exacting
market to cater for, a great change is taking place for the better.
Ditferent types of curing barns are in use for the different methods
of curing, but it is seldom that any of these barns have as yet
reached a state approximating perfection. Many of them have been
built with the idea of utilizing the material at the builder’s disposal,
rather than with any thought of their adaptability to the purpose
for which constructed This matter will be diseussed in the chapter
on buildings.

The terms describing the different methods of curing are based
on the most important feature of the method. Thus we have sun
curing, fire curing, flue curing and air curing.

Sun Curing.—This is a method but little used, and is confined
to a small section of Virginia, where the production of a very sweet
chewing tobacco is the feature sought after. The tobacco is hune

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO, 77

on racks in the sun, care being taken that it is shaded enough,
during the wilting period, to prevent sun-burning. These racks
are placed near a building, so that the tobacco may be carried under
shelter upon the approach of a storm. This additional handling of
the tobacco, whenever the weather conditions are unfavourable, involves
a large amount of labour, so that the acreage grown is necessarily
limited. The presence of much sugar in this tobacco renders it
very hable to the attacks of moulds, so that, unless careful attention
is given to the handling and storing of this sun-cured tobacco,
there will be heavy losses. The room where this tobacco is stored
should be fitted with a stove so that the tobacco may be kept dry in
wet weather. Little money is made out of this class of tobacco in
America, and it is largely grown by poor farmers whose families
assist them in the handling of the crop.

Fire Curing.—This is a system whereby the tobacco is hung in
barns and cured by means of open wood fires, the heat and smoke of
which both have an important part in the process.

The greater portion of the tobacco shipped to Europe and
Africa is cured by this method. In the early times, tobacco that
had been heavily smoked was able to withstand the ocean voyage
far better than tobacco that had been cured in the air. In tine,
however, the European palates and olfactories have become so
accustomed to its creosotic flavour and “ham” odour that it is
chosen in preference to the better tobaccos. At the time of writing
the demand seems to be changing from this “fired” tobacco to the
better types, and it appears probable that in time this tobacco will
largely disappear from the markets.

The tobacco is harvested with the stalk, and after being allowed
to wilt for a short time is hauled to the barn, placed astride
the curing sticks at the rate of from six to eight plants to each
four foot stick, and hung on the rafters or poles. The tobacco is
allowed to hang until it becomes a rich vellow colour; to redch
this stage, will, probably, require four or five days. This yellow
colour is owing to a chenucal change in the chlorophyl of the
plant, due to absence of sunlight. When this stage is reached, sinall
slow fires are started on the floor under the hanging plants. The
heat is not permitted to rise above 90° for at least twelve hours,
and then is gradually increased until it reaches 150° in four or five
days, when the tobacco should be dry and the fire may be allowed
to burn out. Even then the stem will be full of moisture, and,
as soon as the heat is lowered, the water of the stem will spread
out through the fibre of the leaf and make it soft. A new fire is
then built to again dry the leaf, and this is repeated whenever
the leaf shows a tendency to become soft. This second drying is
particularly required if the lighter shades are desired in the leaf.
It should be understood that this curing process must be gradual,
for if the heat is allowed to rise too soon, or rapidly, it will cook
the leaf and give it a bluish tinge. If the fires are started before
the leaf has become sufficiently yellow, the leaf will be stiff, and
have but little flexibility. For the English markets the tobacco is
cut before fully ripe, resulting in an olive green colour. If firing be
delayed too long the tobacco may suffer from “pole burn.” There
will also be losses from this trouble, if the leaf be allowed to
hang in a very moist condition in the barn during or after curing.

78 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

As soon as the tobacco is cured it is stripped from the stalk
and graded. It is then tied into “hands” and piled in bulks, which
are covered with canvas.

In tying into “hands,” anything from six to twenty leaves are
taken in the left hand, the stem ends are placed in the same
direction and evenly together; a small leaf is then selected, smoothed
out at the tail and doubled over so as to make a band an inch
wide, and this leaf is wrapped tightly around the stems of the other
leaves, and has its stem end tucked between and through thein.
Upon the evenness and smoothness of this tying depends somewhat
the selling price of the tobacco. Some operators pass each bundle
through the hand as tied, so as to press the leaves together and give a
better appearance.

No attempt is made to carry on fermentation in these bulks.
Some changes do take place, however, and it is necessary to
occasionally observe the pile and not allow the temperature to become
too high. When the tobacco is in the right condition, and contains
enough moisture to permit of its being handled without breaking,
it is carried to the market and sold in the loose condition, or 1s
packed in hogsheads and sold when markets ave favourable.

Where fuel is searce the item of wood makes a large reduction
in the profits. The wood must be dry and well seasoned, for a fuel
that vives off soot, creates a heavy smoke, or has a disagreeable
odour, will destroy the value of the tobacco. The fires are made
by keeping the ends of several sticks together, as the Kaftirs do.
Cave inust be taken not to let the blaze rise high, for the drying
tobacco will easily catch fire and destroy itself as well as the barn.

Flue Curing.—This also is a process where artificial heat is used
for curing the tobacco, but in this case open fires ave not permitted
and the smoke does not come in contact with the tobacco, The fires
which are of wood Gin Japan coal has been used), are in small
brick furnaces on the outside of the building, and the heat is carried
through the building and under the tobaceo by means of large
sheet ivon pipes or flues.

This is the system used for the curing of the yellow tobacco,
which has become so popular for pipe smoking, cigarettes and
chewing, particularly in the last case for plug wrappers. The
feature sought in the yellow tobacco is the colour, and the aim is
to produce this, and yet damage the texture and elasticity of the
wrapper leaves as little as possible,

No other type of tobacco or other system of curing requires as
much skill in its handling. A little misjudgment in maintaining a
certain temperature for too long or too short a time will largely lessen
the value of the product. Slight shades in colour may mean large
differences in the selling price. A leaf that might become a
wrapper, if injured for that purpose, will have its value reduced
80 per cent. No set rules can be given for the handling of this
process, as much depends on the condition of the leaf when placed
inthe barn and on the weather conditions during the time of curing.

The barns will be deseribed later, but it may he said here
that the barn must not be so large that it cannot be filled in
one day, for the tobacco in any one barn should not be in different.
stages of greenness. The barn must also be in a locality protected
from the winds, for a strong wind will cause the temperature to be

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 79

much lower on the windward side of the barn than elsewhere, and
thus prevent an even curing of the contents. The ventilation of
the barn must also be under perfect control. It is perhaps need-
less to say that, where so much heat is used, a thermometer is a
necessity. This should be hung in the centre of the barn, and in
such a position that it may be easily read from the door.

The tobacco may be cured on the stalk, or may be cured by
the single leaf system. If the single leaf system is used, more
pounds may be placed in the barn, and each barn’s contents will
be largely of the same degree of ripeness and of the same grade.
The stalk system will require more time in the curing, but less
time in the harvesting. The sap of the stalk is also, to a certain
extent, translocated to the leaf, giving the leaf greater weight and
gumiiness,

Whether the leaf or the stalk method be adopted, the same
four foot curing sticks are used.

As soon as the barn is filled the fire is started, and from that
time until the barn is finished, at the end of four or five days, it
is not allowed to die down or go out. The curing process may be
divided into three stages.

The first stage is known as the “ yellowing” or “wilting ”
stage. The heat is kept at 90° for from eighteen to twenty hours, or
until the tobacco has reached the proper colour and lost a portion
of its moisture. Some curers hasten this process by holding the
temperature at 90° for but three hours and then rapidly increasing
to 120°, and as soon as that point is reached dropping back to 90°
for another six or eight hours. During this stage certain life
chemical changes take place in the leaf; there is a destruction of
chlorophyll and starch, and the creation of enzymns.

The second stage is for the purpose of “fixing” the colour,
The yellow colour is already in the leaf, but would, by oxidation.
of the cell contents, change to a brown or red, unless it be fixed
by the application of heat and the exhaustion of moisture. This
loss of moisture and the application of heat destroy the oxidising
enzymns that ave responsible for the change in the cell contents,
and the brown colour. To destroy this enzyimn, and fix the colour,

requires a temperature starting at LOO? and gradually rising to
120° during a period of about twenty hours.

The next stage is what is known as “killing” the leaf by the
final exhausting of the moisture. The temperature is held for
some time at 120°, and then gradually rises to as high as 135° and
even 140°, This process takes about forty-eight hours, at the end
of which time the leaf is so dry that it will crumble to powder in
the hand. If the single leaf method is used, this high temperature
must be maintained, or even increased, until the stem is perfectly
dry and brittle.

If the tobacco is being cured on the stalk, a fourth stage is
necessary, and is known as “killing the stalk.” The temperature
is gradually increased at a regular rate per hour, until it reaches
as high as 160° or 175°, and the stalk is thoroughly cured out. If
the stalk be not thoroughly cured as soon as the temperature is
lowered, its sap will spread into the leaves and form red places in
the region of the veins.

Many different modifications of this flue-curing system ave in
use, differing from each other largely in the degree of temperature

80 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

allowed at different stages. In fact, no set rules can be given, and
the formula may be varied for each barn cured. This is a matter
for the judgment of the man in charge, and to give a ki
number of different methods would only confuse the reader.“
method of curing cannot well be learned from a written description.

The leaf must be forced to sweat, and will do so at a tempera-
ture of from 110° to 120°. Whenever the sweat commences, the
temperature must be maintained until it is completed. This sweat
will carry out of the plant many disagreeable substances that would
be harmful to the quality of the tobacco. As soon as the leaf
indicates that the sweating is at an end, by drying off, the fire
must be lowered, the ventilators opened, and the barn c pled off.
Sometimes the temperature is run up to 120°, and then lowered to
105°, by ventilation, several times in suecession. If the barn be
so dry that the sweat will not commence, assistance may be rendered
by moistening the air by means of pans of water or the placing of
wet grass on the floor.

If the temperature of the barn be forced too rapidly the sap
will be dried into the leaf, and this will be shown by the presence
of ved blotches or spots. If the temperature be not advanced
rapidly enough the leaf will “sponge.” By this is meant the
presence of brown porous places on the surface of the leaf. If the
temperature is advancing too rapidly the fact will be indicated by
the browning and curling of the edges and “tails” of the leaf. A
high temperature too early in the process will cook or scald the
leaf. Often the tails of the lower tier of Jeaves in the barn will
be scalded, and for this reason it is best to place the worst leaves
on the bottom.

No sticks or leaves must be allowed to fall against the flues,
for in the last stages of the curing the tobacco will easily catch
fire.

About three cords of dry wood are required for each thousand
pounds of tobacco cured, and this means a cousiderable item of
expenditure in localities where fuel is expensive. Soft coal may be
substituted, and with it the fire is more easily controlled than
with the wood.

As soon as the tobaceo is cured the fires are extinguished, and
the doors and ventilators opened. The imoisture of the air will
soon bring the leaf in “order” or condition for handling. If the
weather be wet the barn should not he opened, for it would
damage the tobacco, in that it would become too moist. If the
curved leaf does become too moist it must be again dried with a
new fire. If the air be very dry the moisture content of the barn
may be increased, and the “ordering” process hastened by the use
of water on the barn floor, or the placing of moist grass upon the
flues.

As soon as the tobacco is in condition, it is taken down and
bulked without being removed from the sticks. A few days of
bulking will straighten out the leaf and improve its appearance,
Next the tobacco is hung in the packing house. It is hune very
closely so as to be influenced by weather conditions as little as
possible. Later in the season it is taken down, graded, tied into
“hands,” and again ve-hung or bulked until the grower wishes to
market it. Care is always taken that it does not beeome in too
moist condition for this would darken the colour and reduce the

LTURE OF TOBACCO. 81

THE CU

AND

82 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

value, as well as render the leaf liable to mould. Care should be
exercised not to handle the leaf when it is so dry that it will
break, for the most valuable leaves are those intended for plug
wrappers, which must not be injured in any way. Many growers
have a cellar under their packing shed or at the edge of the barn,
where the tobacco is hung to become moist and phable enough to
handle.

This tobacco is sold loose to the re-handlers and manufacturers,
and may be marketed at any time after it has come out of the
barn. However, its quality and value certainly increase with age,
and two-year-old tobacco commands a premium. ;

A greenish tinge that may show in some of the leaves will
largely or totally disappear as the tobacco ages.

Air Curing.—All the different types of cigar leaf as well as
the White Burley tobacco ave air cured. Any tobacco may be aw
cured, and this ‘is the method that should be adopted in most of
the tobacco-growing regions. Of course, where the yellow colour
is the characteristic sought after, heat must be applied, and for
markets desiring a smoky flavour there must be some smoke ; but
the method of using the air for curing, and of using artificial heat
only in times of unfavourable weather, is the one that is likely to
be generally adopted.

The White Burley is cured on the stalk. It is wilted and
hung in the barn in the same manner as other stalk-cured tobacco,
Sometimes the tobacco is first hung on scaffolds in the field, and
left there to wilt for several days before being taken to the barn,
but if this is done the tobacco may suffer from unfavourable
weather conditions. Tf the barn is properly constructed and can
be easily ventilated, the plants may be at once hung in the barn.
The process of curing lasts for about six weeks, and consists in regu-
lating the temperature and humidity of the air by means of the
ventilators. If the leaf is drying too rapidly the ventilators are
opened on moist days and nights and closed on dry ones, or if
the tobacco is slow in the process, and is likely to be attacked by
fungus or bacterial disease, the leaf is dried out by having the
ventilators opened on dry days. If there is a period of continual
wet weather, the barn may be dried somewhat by the use of
charcoal fires, or a stove may be set up in the barn and a fire
started.

When the tobacco has been thoroughly cured, which can be
determined by the condition of the stems and stalks, it may be
taken down and stripped. In stripping tobacco, the butt of the
stalk is held in the left hand and the leaves pulled off one by one.
The leaves, as soon as stripped from the stalk, are graded and tied
into “hands.” The tobacco is then bulked until it is ready to
place in hogsheads. If the tobacco has a large moisture content
when bulked the pile will ferment, and must be broken up and
re-inade.

The White Burley has a large absorptive capacity, and is in
demand by manufacturers of chewing tobacco. The lizhter grades
ave also used for pipes and cigarettes. : :

Cigar Leaf. —Most types of cigar leaf are cured on the stalk ;
bat in certain types, as the Sumatra, when the plant ripens unevenly,

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 83

and where a slight difference in the ripeness of the leaf intended
for wrappers makes a large difference in the value, it is necessary
to harvest the crop by the single leaf method. In this case the
leaves are strung on twine with a needle, and placed back to back,
so that leaves cannot fold round their mates and prevent proper
drying. When the entire plant is harvested, the stalks are speared
on the curing stick.

The after fermentation is of great importance to cigar leaf, and
the curing process must be conducted with the idea of developing
the enzymms as much as possible. As long as the cells of the plant
are alive (and if properly handled they will remain alive for several
weeks), there is a movement of organic matter from the cells of
the tissue to those of the ribs; thus the starch in the form of sugar
is largely transported and consumed by the processes of respiration.

In curing cigar leaf, the attempt is made to have the leaf
become dry and come into condition (moist) once in twenty-four
hours. More of the oxidizing enzymns are formed in the ribs of
the leaf than in the tissue, and this alternate drying and moistening
of the leaf brings about a movement of the contents of the ribs
out into the body of the leaf. The longer the ribs and the stem
of the leaf are permitted to live, the greater will be the amount
of enzymns formed.

Whenever pole-burn or rot is detected, the barn may be dried
out by means of charcoal fires or the use of a stove. If the climate
be an extremely dry one, so that the leaf will not come into a moist
condition at least once a day, the air of the barn must be rendered
humid by the use of water on the floor, Steam may also be turned
into the barn for this purpose. The ideal tobacco barn of the
future will probably be fitted with steam heat, so that the moisture
and temperature conditions will be absolutely under control.

When cured, the tobacco may be allowed to hang in the barn
until a less busy season, ov it may be taken down, stripped, sorted and
bulked for fermentation. In cold weather tobacco leaf may appear
to be thoroughly dry, but as soon as the temperature rises the tobacco
will become soft and moist. For this reason if tobacco be taken down
from the curing barn and bulked on a cold day it will contain
more moisture than is apparent, and will rot or mould when the
weather becomes wariner.

If cigar leaf be cured out too rapidly the leaf will be stiff and
woody, and the colour will be uneven. If the curing be protracted
too long a time, the leaf will lose its elasticity and strength.

In dry weather the barn should be closed in the day-time and
opened at night. This will give the required moisture conditions.

There is this general ditterence between leaf cured by natural
methods and that cured by artificial methods. The air-cured leaf
preserves its flavour and is free from smoky odours. It also has a
large absorptive capacity, because its porous system has been left free
and open. The fire-cured leaf has less absorptive capacity, for the
reason that the heat has contracted the porous system and the smoke
has filled the surface of the leaf. The smoke preserves the leaf and
enables it better to withstand exposure and unfavourable environ-
ment. The same tobacco when cured by fire brings on an average a
penny a pound less than it would have done if cured by air. Very
light charcoal or closed fires, such as are used to dry out a building
in unfavourable weather, will not injure the quality in any way.

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THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 85

Fermentation of Cigar Leaf.—The fermentation, or sweat, is for
the purpose of developing the aroma of the tobacco. On the ability of
the leaf to properly ferment, and on the skill of the man in charge to
regulate that fermentation, depend the quality of the finished product.
This fermentation, as before stated, is due to the action of enzymns,
and these enzymns must be subjected to certain heat and moisture
conditions before they can begin their action. Tobacco should contain
23 per cent. to 24 per cent. of moisture to insure a proper fermenta-
tion ; tobacco with a higher percentage of moisture is more subject
to decay, and tobacco with less moisture will not ferment, or if
fermentation does commence there will not be moisture enough
present for its completion. The proper condition is soon learned by
experience, and no test except the feeling to the hand and the
pliability of the leaf is required.

The fermentation process is not usually conducted by the grower
himself, but is handled by dealers who ferment hundreds _ of
thousands of pounds in a season. The planter is not ordinarily in a
position to give his full attention to this work, nor has he buildings
where the proper heat and moisture conditions can be maintained.
There is no reason, however, why the very large planter should not
combine the functions of a grower and leaf handler. This is done by
the tobacco growing companies in Florida.

Several different methods of fermentation are practised. In the
method that has been most largely used, until recently, the tobacco
is packed in wooden cases holding about three hundred pounds of
tobacco to a case. The butts of the “ hands” are placed to the outside
and the tips to the centre of the case. By means of a screw or lever
the tobacco is pressed down moderately tight and as much air as
possible excluded. The top of the box is then screwed on and the
case placed in a room that is kept at an even temperature. The box
has moderate sized openings between the boards, so as to allow for the
escape of the moisture and other waste products of fermentation.
The tobacco is left in these cases for a summer and is then sampled
and repacked to await sale to the manufacturer. At times the cases
may be placed in heated rooms and the fermentation forced. This
method of fermentation does not give altogether satisfactory results.
The tobacco in the cases cannot be observed and there is no knowledge
as to whether the fermentation is proceeding properly or not. To-day
the tendency among progressive tobacco men is towards the adoption
of what is known as bulk fermentation.

Bulk Fermentation.—The best rooms for this purpose are
heated with steam and kept at a temperature of from 75 degrees to
80 degrees, and the humidity maintained at 80 degrees to 90 degrees,
and even as high at times as 100 degrees.

When the tobacco is received for fermentation it is sorted into
three different grades, according to the colour and texture. This is
done so that the different grades may be fermented separately and
given different treatment according to the nature of the finished pro-
duct desired. Just at present the demand is for light shades in the
wrappers, and if the wrapper leaves be given as heavy a fermentation
as the filler leaves their colour will become dark.

When graded the tobaccos are placed in separate bulks. The
number of pounds of the lighter grades allowed to the bulk is from
three to five thousand; of the medium grades from eight to ten

86 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

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BUILDING BULKS OF CIGAR LEAP FOR FERMENTATION, O10,

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 87

thousand ; and of the ordinary fillers from ten to thirty thousand.
The greater the fermentation desired the greater the percentage of
moisture that the leaf is allowed to retain when bulked. The
wrappers, therefore, are ina somewhat dryer condition than the fillers.
These bulks may be from four to five feet wide, from four to eight
feet high, and of any length. The length and the number of pounds
placed in a bulk is limited somewhat by the labour at the disposal of
the fermenter, for often, when the temperature is rising rapidly, the
bulk must be taken down and rebuilt in a very short time, and it
takes a considerable number of persons to properly handle, say, thirty
thousand pounds of cigar leaf. No pressure beyond the weight of the
tobacco is applied to the bulk, for it is desired that there be some
space for the movement of air and the escape of the products of
fermentation. The bulk is not built directly on the floor, but is
placed on a platform raised a few inches above the floor. This plat-
form is covered with a layer of wrapping paper. The butts of the
tobacco are placed toward the outside of the bulk and thé tips toward
the centre. The first row is laid with the butts even with the edge
of the bulk, the second row is placed so that the butts rest on about
one-third of the tip end of the first row, and so on with the third row.
Three rows in from each side, or six rows in all, is all that the ordinary
bulk will require. The process is repeated until the bulk has reached
the desired height. Where fine wrapper leaf is being bulked, strips
of wrapping paper are often placed under the butts of each row so as
to prevent injury to the leaf under it. When the bulk is completed
it is covered with canvas, blankets, or rubber sheeting.

The temperature will begin to rise in a short time and will con-
tinue to increase at the rate of from five to fifteen degrees per day,
depending on the percentage of moisture present, until the tempera-
ture of the pile reaches 130°, when the bulk must be broken down and
rebuilt.

In building the new bulk the tops and sides of the old bulk
should form the centre of the new. Each “hand” should be given a
shake as passed over to free it from any of the objectional products of
fermentation, and lessen liability to rot and mould. The temperature
of the tobacco will be lowered in handling to about the temperature
of the room. The bulk will again heat up, but not so rapidly perhaps
as the first bulk. In eight to twelve days the thermometer will in-
dicate that the pile has reached a heat of 125° or 130°, or that perhaps
it has ceased to rise in temperature and remains stationary. In either
case the bulk is to be rebuilt.

This process of rebulking may have to be repeated six or eight
times, or until the best aroma possible is obtained. If the process be
carried too far, the desirable products obtained in the earlier fermen-
tation may be destroyed and the tobacco left about as valuable for
smoking purposes as old rags or paper. The lighter coloured wrappers
must not be heated as highly, or fermented as long as they would
stand, or as much as might be desirable from the standpoint of aroma,
for their chief value lies in their colour, and this must be preserved.

If the tobacco be too moist in the bulk, as will be indicated by its
“sogginess” or a very rapid rise ii temperature, it must be rebulked
more often than otherwise and in the rebulking should be handled in
a dry room, which will deprive it of a portion of its moisture.

If the tobacco be found to beso dry in the bulk that fermentation
ceases or is retarded, this defect may be corrected by handling it in a

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCC.

AG.).

or

MAKING CUBAN CARROTTES (U.S. DEPT.

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 89

warm, moist, or steam-charged room. In some districts the use of
steam is objected to, on the ground that it may at times give to
tobacco an objectionable odour. In these places compressed air is made
to create a fine spray of water and thus moisten the air of the room
and serve the same purpose as the steam. For the fillers, if deficient
in moisture, a dipping of the butts in a cask of water will be sufficient
unless they are lacking in gum, in which case it is a common practice
to dip the butts in a preparation made by boiling a quantity of Havana
tobacco stems, and mixing the resulting thick juice with sour wine at
the rate of three to one. After being dipped in this, the tobacco is
placed in cases or small piles and covered up for a day, so that the
moisture may become evenly distributed. The new bulk is then made.
A fine mist of steam or spray of water may be added to the tobacco,
but the direct addition of water may slightly injure the colour of the
leaf.

When low grade fillers cease fermentation before the desired
stage is reached they are treated with the following “ petuning”
solution :—Two gallons rum; one gallon sour wine; one half-pint
tincture of valerian ; one ounce oil of aniseed ; one half-gallon black
coffee ; one ounce pulverized cloves ; one ounce pulverized cinnamon ;
two pounds liquorice paste dissolved in water and sufficient water
added to make five gallons. After being allowed to stand for twenty-
four hours and thoroughly mixed, the preparation is ready for use.
As the bulk of the tobacco is being made a fine spray of this is placed
on each layer. The moisture added aids somewhat in the process of
fermentation, but the main idea of this preparation is to add to the
tobacco an artificial aroma resembling that of Cuban tobacco. This
“ petuning ” is never done to high-grade tobacco.

When a tobacco is slow in heating it is sometimes sprayed with a
solution of ammonia carbonate. The reason for this is that the
contents of the leaf give an acid reaction because of the accumulation
of free acids, and the ammonia carbonate combines with these acids
and gives a neutral condition favourable to the action of oxidizing
enzymns.

A temperature of 130° is probably as high as the tobacco should
ever be allowed to rise. Expert tobacco men will judge the condition
of a pile by the insertion of their arm, but most persons should trust
nothing but an accurate thermometer. This may be read at any time
by keeping it ina perforated tin cylinder inserted into the centre of
the bulk. The United States Department of Agriculture has recently
devised an electrical thermometer which may be left in the centre of
the bulk, and the readings made with no disturbance of the
tobacco. The wires may be extended to a central office and the
readings of any number of bulks in different buildings be observed
there.

Upon the completion of the fermentation the tobacco is ready to
be graded and packed for shipment. Tobacco is in a_ proper
condition for baling when a “hand” that has been squeezed may have
all of its leaves separated one from another by ashake. This indicates
that the leaves are without enough moisture to cause them to stick
one to another. The finer grades of cigar leaf are graded very
closely and handled very carefully. The commoner grades of fillers
are placed in three-hundred pound cases. The best grades of Cuban
tobacco are made into “hands” of forty leaves each, and then four
“hands” are bound together by means of Cuban bast into what is known

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THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 91

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THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO, 93

as a “carrotte.” Each carrotte weighs a poundor alittle over. Great
care is taken that the outside, or wrapper leaves, of the carrotte be
smooth and presentable. Eighty carrottes are then made into a bale,
which is pressed into shape in a press and is covered first with canvas
and then with the inside bark of a Cuban tree, Only the best grades
of goods are made into carrottes. The second grade, or damaged leaf,
is given a thorough second sweat and stemmed, smoothed, and
flattened out, and made into what is known as a “ book of fillers.”
In stemming, not all of the mid-rib is removed, but a piece about two
inches long is allowed to remain in the tip of the leaf. These books
are then made into Cuban bales.

kon2The Sumatra tobacco is made into “ hands” of about forty leaves,
each leaf being folded. These hands are packed into bales, being
spread out fan-shaped and carefully flattened as packed. The fillers
are made into Cuban “ carrottes” and the broken leaves into “ books.”
The bales are flat and are covered with matting, as is done in
Sumatra.

Each bale or package of tobacco should be carefully labelled as to
grade, weight, time of packing, and the name of the seller, so that any
errors may be traced out and corrected and the reputation of the
packer established.

The bales of the best wrappers, where no fermentation is desired,
are placed in a cool room. If further fermentation is wished, as in
the case of the fillers, they are placed in a warm room. The wrapper
bales should be stood on end and reversed every other day for several
weeks. They may then be piled one upon another. The filler bales
may be piled at once and their position reversed at least once a week.
The wrappers will be in condition to manufacture in three months
after baling, and the fillers in six months.

Ageing.— After a tobacco has been cured, it must go through a
process of ageing before it is fit for consumption. Fermented
tobaccos require less ageing than the ordinary unfermented tobaccos.
Smoking tobaccos are allowed to age for at least two years before
being manufactured, and often the process is continued for four or
five years. After five years there is hkely to be a slight loss rather
than any improvement in quality. Ageing may be described as
partially a process of slow fermentation and partially an oxidation of
the leaf contents without the agency of enzvymns. Ageing certainly
softens and mellows a tobacco, taking away its rawness and bitterness
as well as disagreeable odours, and improving the aroma as well as
the burning qualities of the leaf. No tobacco, and particularly no
tobacco from a district that is trying to obtain recognition, should be
marketed before it has developed the qualities that come with age.

SoME OF THE CHEMISTRY OF CURING AND FERMENTATION.

During the fermentation of tobacco there is a loss of as high as
fifteen per cent. in weight. Part of this is due to the loss of moisture
and a part to the loss of solid matter through the decomposition
of different products and the development of gases. The presence of
ammonia is easily detected by the odour in the fermentation room.
This is produced as a result of chemical changes in the tobacco.

9+ THE CULTURIL OF TOLACCO.

The starch largely changes to sugar, and the sugar formed is
largely consumed in the curing process; the remainder of both of
these products is usually destroyed in the fermentation.

As soon as the sugar is largely consumed the enzymns attack the
protein contents of the plant cells, and these continue to be destroyed
to a certain extent throughout curing and fermentation. W ith
the decomposition of the protein there is a formation of “amido
compounds. .

During the fermentation there is a loss of nitrates, a decrease in
the nicotine contents, and also in the amount of tannin. A thoroughly
sweated tobacco contains but a trace of tannin and thus the bitterness,
due to its presence in half-sweated tobacco, is removed.

There is also a disappearance of a portion of the fat contents. A
large amount of fat, or of protein, will create products during
combustion that will be destructive of the finer aroma, and one of the
benefits of fermentation is that it largely does away with those
compounds ;

There is also a decrease of the resin and gums in fermentation.
In fact, one of the methods of determining how far the fermentation
has proceeded is to feel the leaf and note the presence or absence of
gum. The resins and gumsseem to bear aclose relation to the aroma,
It is probable that they are split up into other products that are
aromatic. It may also be that the products arising from the
decomposition of nicotine have a large part in the production of
aroma. The aroma of a cigar does not appear to be based on the
presence of a large amount of nicotine in the cigar, in fact, a cigar
rich in nicotine may be poor in aroma; the aroma does, however,
seem to be in some way related to the amount of nicotine that was in
the tobacco and that has disappeared in the process of fermentation.
Nicotianine has been supposed to have something to do with the aroma ;
but this product, which may be formed from nicotine in the sweat,
does not appear in all tobaccos, some of which are rich in aroma.

It has recently been shown that during the process of smoking, an
ethereal oil is formed from certain products of the sweat, and that to
this oil is due a portion of the flavour of tobacco smoke.

Citric, malic and oxalic acids ave present in the cured leaf, but
not in as large quantities as in the green leaf. The citric and malic
acids may he partially transformed in the fermentation to acetic and
butyric acids ; this is particularly true of Perique tobacco which is
cured in its own juice. These acids certainly have something to do
with the aroma. The presence of the malic salts is supposed to make
the leaves more soft and pliable and to give life and elasticity. This
is due to the hygroscopic action of these salts. Stored under similar
conditions, leaves rich in malic salts may contain three per cent. more
water than leaves poor in those salts.

Cured or fermented tobacco is said to have“ grain”; this grain is a
product of the oxidation in the sweat, and some manufacturers consider
the presence of a well-developed grain as an evidence of good tobacco.
It is at least an evidence that the tobacco has been thoroughly curved.
This grain is due to the formation of crystals of calcium oxalate.

During the curing and fermentation processes there often appears
on the leaf an efflorescence called by tobacco men “saltpetre,” or ly
some “light mould.” This is due to the presence of potassium, sodiun,
magnesia, calcium and nicotine salts. These salts may be present in
the leaf in excess and are forced to the surface in the process of curing

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 95

ov fermentation. Their presence greatly injures the saleability of the
tobacco. A spray of a four per cent. solution of acetic acid, or a weak
vinegar, will remove them, although more appear later. Sometimes
these salts are taken off with a light brush. It is supposed by some
that the presence of these salts is due to an excess of their basic
elements in the soil, or to the fertilizers used. This may be true, for

T

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G
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it is known that plants will take up mineral salts in excess of their
requirements if those salts be abundant in the soil.

All tobaccos will not go through an equal degree of fermentation.
In some the fermentation proceeds very slowly, in others rapidly. In
some tobaccos the fermentation may continue a long period, while in
others it may be completed in a short time. This difference is due to
the presence of oxidizing enzymns in greater or less proportion.
Differences in soil, climate and cultural treatment will bring about
great differences in the enzymns present in the leaf and thus naturally
a difference in the fermentation of each tobacco. The methods to be

96 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

pursued in the fermentation of each new tobacco will have to he
worked out for the special case involved.

BUILDINGS; THE CURING BARN.

The present curing barn is the result of an evolutionary process.
At first the tobacco was hung in the sun upon bushes to dry ; the next
step was the curing rack ; after this came the hanging of the tobacco in
any old building that could be used; then came rough log buildings
and sheds for the tobacco crop alone ; and finally came the construction
of buildings where the conditions could be governed by ventilation.
In the use of fire there have been gradual changes from a smoky
smudge to the use of charcoal, and then to the adoption of the flue
system where smokeless dry heat is used. We have no reason to
think that we have reached perfection in the construction of the
curing barn, or in the method of applying the heat. The ideal curing
barn is to be the product of the next generation.

The perfect curing barn is one that is so constructed that the
tobacco may be handled with the least labour, and so ventilated and
heated that the temperature and moisture conditions are absolutely
under control. The heat should be applied in a form that is free from
all odours, and the system used should be such that desired temperatures
can be maintained, with the minimum of labour and with no un-
necessary waste of material. It should be constructed out of the
material most easily and cheaply obtained in the locality, providing
that material has the qualities necessary to a curing barn.

In America, timber is the material most easily obtained and out
of which the barns are constructed. There appears to be no reason
why brick buildings cannot be used. Temperature and moisture
conditions will not change as rapidly in a brick building as in a
wooden building, and this certainly is a desirable feature. Buildings
with thatched roof and even thatched sides can be employed for the
curing of tobacco where fires are not used.

The main objection to the use of grass is that it would harbour
the spores of moulds and rots, once these diseases have obtained a foot-
hold in the curing barn. In Sumatra the curing sheds are thatched
with the leaves of a palm. Galvanized iron is subject to too great and
rapid changes of temperature to be a perfect material for the con-
struction of curing barns, but perhaps this tendency to become too hot
or too cold can be somewhat regulated by a covering of the iron with
grass thatch.
~The width of a curing barn should not be much over thirty feet,
for that is about the width that can be conveniently ventilated. The
height is regulated by the distance that it will pay to raise the tobacco
while banging it; from twenty-five to thirty feet is about the limit in
this regard. The length of the curing barn is governed only by the
amount of tobacco that the grower can place in the barn in a given
length of time. It is not wise to have tobacco in the same barn in
different stages of curing. Perhaps a good length is any distance up
to one hundred feet. It is true that many fine barns are constructed
that vary greatly from the dimensions here given. But these
distances are the ones that the best tobacco men consider as most
nearly correct. Tobacco barns are often several hundred feet long,
and again others are sixty to eighty feet wide and fifty feet high, but

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 97

LOG BARN FOR FLUE CURING, IN PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION.

98 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

CAROLINA,

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CURING

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—

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO, 99

such distances are likely to be more imposing than useful. It is
better to build many sinall barns rather than have a few inordinately
large.

The same style of barn may be used for the air-caring of all
tobaccos, and may also be used for the curing of tobaccos by open wood
ov charcoal fires. In case of the flue-cured tobaccos, these barns would
be too large to properly maintain the heat necessary for the fixing of
the colour in the leaf, so that for this method of curing there must be
a special type of barn erected.

Flue-Curing Barns for Yellow Tobaecco.—As will be remem-
bered the curing of yellow or gold leaf tobacco takes but four or five days,
and during that time requires well regulated, and at times, intense
heats. The barns are not large, being of a size that can be filled
by a few people in a very short length of time, the idea being that all
the tobacco in the barn should be in the same condition, and that the
curing process should be started at once. These barns are usually from
sixteen to twenty feet square, and in height, eighteen feet to the eaves.
Throughout America they are constructed, as a rule, of pine logs dove-
tailed into each other at the corners. Sometimes, however, the frame
is constructed of light timbers and heavily sheathed with boards. The
main feature in the construction of these barns is to prevent the escape
of heat required, or the ingress of cold air when it is not wanted. The
barn has but one door and the tobacco is carried in through this. At
the ground there are several small ventilators that can be opened at
will and used for the entrance of cold air. In the roof, or in the gable
end, there are ventilators for the purpose of allowing the escape of hot
air and moisture. These ventilators are so constructed that they may
be opened and closed at will from the ground. At one end of the
building a small shed-roof is erected, and under this shed are
constructed two brick arches or furnaces. From each of these arches,
which extend about a third of their distance into the barn, runs a
twelve-inch iron flue. These flues extend along the dirt floor to the
opposite end of the barn, and then return at a slightly greater elevation
to near the point where they started, where they pass through an
opening in the barn, and carry the smoke into the open air. These
barns are often burned. Care should be used in the construction, to
avoid the placing of woodwork against the furnaces or the hot flues.
There is no reason why these barns cannot be constructed of brick, and
roofed with galvanized iron. In such a building, the iron should be
covered with thatch to prevent the influence of the outside air upon
the inside temperature. In America the cost of these barns, fully
eyuipped with flues, is only from fifteen to twenty pounds. The
reason for this is the extreme cheapness of material in the districts
where this method of curing is used. Each barn will cure one filling a
week, so that where there has been a succession of plantings, a barn
will do service several times in a season.

Other Barns; a Florida. Barn.—This barn is constructed for
the curing of cigar leaf, but may be used for the curing of any tobacco
with the exception of the yellow. It is ninety-six feet long by thirty-
six feet wide ; is sixteen feet from the sills to the plate, and thirteen
feet from the plate to the ridge pole of the roof. The tier poles are
four feet apart each way, so that there are four tiers with the plate tier
and below, and two tiers above the plate. Where the priming or single

CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

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102 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

leaf system is used, the tiers are but two feet apart vertically. Wher¢
the barn has four-foot tiers, it may be changed to suit occasions by the
stretching of heavy wire, so as to alternate with the original tiers.
The barn has several double doors in the side, and has a series of
windows or openings along both sides, that close with shutters hung
from the top with hinges. These are for the purpose of ventilation.
Along both sides at the base and the top there is another series of
ventilators. They are long and narrow, and are closed with doors
composed of one board, hinged at the upper side.

This barn is constructed entirely of timber, and rests on brick
pillars. For its construction there is required twenty-one thousand
feet of timber, and thirty thousand shingles, also two thousand bricks,
two barrels of lime, seven kegs of nails, and a quantity of hinges,
staples, and wire. The total cost in Florida when erected and before
it is painted is about one hundred and twenty pounds.

Several modifications of this barn are in use. In one, the doors
are at the end of the building, and the central tier poles arranged sv
that they may be removed, and the wagon driven into the barn. As
the barn fills up, the tier poles ave replaced and filled. The ventilators
on both sides are vertical, and are long and narrow, being but eighteen
inches wide, and the height of the side of the barn. They are hinged
at the top and opened at the bottom. The vertical ventilators have
one fault, and that is when open they will allow the entrance of a
drifting rain. Where the nature of the construction will allow it,
horizontal ventilators should be constructed. They should be but «
foot wide, and may be as long as the board out of which they are made.
They should extend in rows along both sides of the barn, and these
rews placed one above another in every three or four feet of the side of
the barn. It is also necessary to have several ventilators in the gable
ends of the building, to provide for the ventilation of the peak of the
barn. The ventilators should be hinged from the top, and so construct-
ed that they may be held open at any point of elevation. They should
also be adjusted so that they may be opened or closed by means of
levers worked from the ground. One ninety-six foot barn will hold
all the tobacco from two or even three acres of cigar leaf, or twice that
acreage of other tobaccos. Where the cutting season extends over i
period of two months or inore, the same barn can be used for two
different curings.

A Pennsylvania Barn.—This bari is a very elaborate one. It
is forty-one feet wide and eighty-four feet long ; twenty-nine feet from
the wooden floor to the plate, and about eighteen feet from the plate
to the ridge pole. The room holds seven tiers of tobacco in the body
and three tiers in the peak. The building is ventilated by horizontal
openings four feet apart, and so arranged as to be ona level with each
tier of tobacco. These ventilators ave a foot wide and are arranved in
vertical series of twelve feet in width, so that each series wav |x
controlled with one lever. Half way up the roof there is a sheltered
slatted ventilator, and at the ridge there are a number of ventilated
cupolas.

Under the entire barn is a basement or cellar, which is nine fect
clear in height. This basement is divided into two rooms, the larvae:
one of which is used for dampening and conditioning the tobacco,
which is lowered into it through trap-doors in the floor. In this room
the tohacco is also bulked. The smaller room is used for the stripping

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 103

AN OHIO TOBACCO BARN, IS OF TOO GREAT LENGTH.

104 THE CULTURE OF TOBAC

FIRST CLASS TOBACCO BARN, KENTUCKY EXPERIMENT STATION,

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 105

TENNESSEE TOBACCO RARN FOR CURING WITH OPEN FIRES,

106 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

and grading of the tobacco. It has tables arranged all around it near
the windows, and on these the stripping is done. The room is heated
by a stove in cold weather, and has two doors, one of which opens into
the larger room and the other to the outside of the building. The
building is constructed of the very best material, is covered with
three coats of paint, and fitted with all the little conveniences possible.
The cost is about eight hundred pounds. This barn could be easily
used for other purposes if the tobacco industry should at any time
fail.

General Facts.—EKach locality, and in fact, nearly every farmer,
has a different form of curing barn, and this ditference is based on the
judgment, or mis-judgment, of the individual as well as on the material
available and the amount of money at command. Each tobacco
grower should be capable of designing his own barn, the points to be
borne in mind being that the building should be so constructed that
it is practically air-tight when closed, and easily ventilated when
necessary. One side of the building should be facing the prevailing
breezes so that they may pass through the ventilators. The exception
to this is in the case of the flue curing barns. These should be so
placed as to be sheltered from all winds as far as possible, fora
heavy wind will greatly lower the temperature on the windward side
of the barn and prevent an even curing.

Each barn, where air-curing is used, should be furnished with a
stove so that the temperature of the room as well as its humidity may
be regulated in cold or wet weather. The best method of applying beat
would be by means of steam contined in pipes. Such a system would
be expensive to install but would give greater satisfaction than any
other. The heat could be evenly distributed to all portions of the build-
ing and the temperature could he regulated to within a degree. Coal
could be used as a fuel in the furnaces and the labour of maintaining
the fire would not be at all exacting. Electric thermometers and
automatic devices could be secured for the shutting off or turning on
of the steam when the temperature of the room went too far in either
direction. One boiler plant could be established a short distance
away from any other building, for the generation of steam for all the
barns. The isolation of the boiler would reduce the risk of fire in
the curing buildings. The steam could be turned into the barn when-
ever the weather was too dry or the air too low in humidity. More
and more it is being found that it is not wise to depend altogether
upon weather conditions for the curing of tobacco ; nor does it produce
the best tobacco to go to the other extreme and cure the leaf rapidly
by means of intense heat or open fires. The method that gives the
highest quality of tobacco is the one where the tobacco is permitted to
slowly cure, as long as the weather is favourable, and where heat. is
used to regulate the conditions when the weather is unfavourable. — It
is not at all improbable that barns with perfect ventilation and heated
by steam will soon be common in the best cigar leaf districts.

The tier poles showd be strong enough to bear the weight of a
man. The usual size in America is two by four inches. The curing
sticks are seldom more than four feet long, which is the most conve
nient length for handling. These sticks ave about an inch in diameter
often they are not square, a cross section being oblong in form; at
other times they are triangular, and again one ede is bevelled. Sivall
bamboo poles or canes could be used for this Purpose

107

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110 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

Stripping, Grading or Packing Houses.—These may be a
portion of the tobacco barn, as was the case in the Pennsylvania barn
described, or they may exist as separate buildings where the tobacco
from all the barns is handled and stored. The packing house should
be so arranged with poles that the tobacco can again be hung up when
necessary. The moisture and temperature conditions should be as
much under control as those of the curing barn ; for this reason, the
building must be plentifully supplied with ventilators and should have
a stove for heating. The best packing houses have a basement where
the tobacco may be hung when the weather is dry, to bring it into
order or condition for handling. That portion of the building where
the grading is done must be well lighted, but not with the direct rays
of the sun. The colour of tobacco cannot be correctly determined in a
bright sun. For this reason the grading rooms in American packing
houses have their windows on the north side. In South Africa the
least direct sunlight would be on the south side of the building during
the greater portion of the year.

Fermentation Houses.—These buildings are not used by small
farmers. The only growers who do their own fermentation are
the large companies. To make this business profitable and to pay
the large salaries demanded by the experts, requires that a large
quantity of tobacco he fermented and packed. The buildings are
usually very large, constructed of brick, and fitted with every
modern convenience. The whole building, and particularly the
fermentation room, is fitted with steam heat, and the steam is so
arranged that jets may be turned into any portion of the building
to increase its humidity. The building has a storage room where
the unfermented tobacco is stored, one or several fermentation
rooms, a well-hghted grading room, a packing room, and a storage
room for the packed tobacco, as well as any other additions the
circumstances suggest.

PACKING OR PRIZING OF ALL TOBACCOS
EXCEPT CIGAR LEAF.

After tobacco has reached the proper condition, it is ready to
be packed for storage or shipment. All tobaccos intended for other
purposes than the manufacture of fine cigars (tobacco for stogies
and Regie cigars is handled as are ordinary tobaccos), are packed in
hogsheads. Some of these may be sixty inches high and from
forty-two to forty-eight inches in diameter; others are fifty-six
inches high and forty-eight inches in diameter. Still others are
forty-eight inches high, thirty-six inches in diameter at the smaller
end, and thirty-eight inches at the larger end; this difference in
width is to allow the package to be easily removed, and replaced
when the tobacco is sampled. There is no bulge in the centre of
a tobacco cask.

The staves of the hogshead are made of white oak or any
tough hard wood, although recently the tendency has been to use
cheaper woods, and pine casks are often seen. The hoops ar
usually of hickory or elm. In order to save freight the materia|
is received in the “flat” by the shipper, and the erection of the
hogshead is done at the same place as the packing. The price ot
a good cask is from five to seven shillings.

THE

CULTURE

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THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 115
In filling a cask the butts of the “hands” are kept to the
outside. Two courses are run across the bottom of the cask, with
the tails of the hands interlapping, the butts being in nearly a
straight line. The spaces left at the sides and ends of the courses
are filled, and two more courses run at right angles with the first,
and this process is continued until the cask is filled. The man in
the cask has a small board to kneel upon as he works, and this he
changes from side to side as necessary. At intervals during the
filling the contents of the packages are compressed. The pressure
applied depends upon the weight of tobacco that it is intended to
place in the cask. Hydraulic pressure is at times used, but
generally a screw worked by steam or man power is the method
employed. In past times a lever made out of a strong piece of
timber was the only thing that the packers had for the purpose.
This lever could be used in emergencies to-day, although it is not
as satisfactory as the screw.

The weight of tobacco placed in a hogshead varies greatly, and
depends upon the class of tobacco, the amount of pre
will endure without injury, and upon the market catere A
greater weight of the low grades and trash is placed in a cask
than of the fine grades. From six hundred to a thousand pounds
of the lighter tobaccos like the Yellow leaf; up to sixteen hundred
or two thousand pounds of the very heavy dark leaf are packed in
one cask. Intense pressure causes tobacco to darken. The dark
tobaccos intended for the West Coast of Africa are packed so
solidly, that when the cask is removed the contents appear almost
solid, rather than as an aggregation of leaves. In some places,
because of convenience in handling, half hogsheads are preferred.
This appears to be the style of package desired by the South
African market.

There is no very good reason why tobacco should not be
packed in square or oblong cases, only that the cask may be rolled,
and is easier to handle than the case. The cask has also been
established upon the markets, and tobacco packed in cases would
at first be under the disadvantage of not conforming with long-
established customs.

MARKETING TOBACCO IN AMERICA,

The various sections of America have different methods of
disposing of the crop. Throughout the tobacco belt of Virginia,
the Carolinas, and a portion of Tennessee, the tobacco is sold
loose, or without being packed.

Each town in the tobacco belt has large warehouses for the
purpose of handling and selling this loose tobacco. These ware-
houses are lighted by means of windows in the roof, so that there
is no difficulty in determining the colour, shade and condition of
the tobacco on the floor. They are also so constructed that wagons
may be drawn in on to the floor, and the tobacco loaded and
unloaded with as little labour as possible. For bringing the
tobacco to town, the farmers often have covered wagons, and
always have some way of covering the tobacco with canvas or
blankets, so that it will be protected in wet weather, and kept
from becoming too dry in hot weather. To be in proper condition

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116 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

for the sale, the tobacco must contain just enough moisture so that
it will not break in handling, and so that it will stretch out
smooth like a kid glove when placed under tension,

As soon as the farmer brings in his tobacco it is unloaded,
and each grade weighed and placed in a pile by itself. The
weights are recorded in a book, and each pile is labelled with a
card bearing the seller’s name and the weight of the pile. At a
fixed hour the tobacco is auctioned off, the auctioneer passing rapidly
from pile to pile, and the buyers crying their bids. As soon as
the bidding lags, or the highest bid appears to have been reached,
the pile is declared sold to the highest bidder. The buyer calls to
the clerk to affix his private grade mark to the label, and_a record
of the transaction is made in the warehouse books; in the mean-
time, the next pile is being sold. Very shortly employees of the
buyers load the tobacco into baskets, place it on wagons, and haul
it away to their packing houses, so that nearly as soon as the last
pile is sold, the warehouse is cleared of tobacco, and ready to be
filled again,

The sales of the different warehouses ave arranged in succession,
so that as soon as one sale is completed the buyers move on to
the next warehouse. Often there will be two sales in the one ware-
house during the day. During the busy season the sales sometimes
continue from early in the morning until late at night, and as much
as fifty or sixty thousand pounds may he sold in one warehouse,
so that in a town like Danville, Virginia, with nine warehouses, a
large quantity of tobacco may be disposed of in one day. The
Danville market sells from forty to fifty millon pounds of loose
tobacco during a season,

The buyers, who are representatives of manufacturers, exporters,
and speculators, must rapidly determine the value of a pile of tobacco,
for the sale is usually only a matter of seconds. To do this they use
all their senses, particularly those of sight, touch, and smell. They
must mentally determine the lengtb, width, and texture of the leaf.
The texture is ascertained by feeling the leaf with the hand, and the
stretching of it is to determineits elasticity. The odour must be taken
note of and attention paid to the matter of moulds. The extent to
which the tobacco smells of smoke must also be noticed and allowance
made for it, as well as for any over-weight due to excessive moisture.
The pile is also rapidly examined to see if it is uniform in grade.
Rival buyers often try to run the bids of each other up very high, and
then let the tobacco go to their competitor to lessen his margin on the
finished product. Several buyers will often clique together and
attempt to control prices. The prices of any one market cannot be
kept lower than those of other markets for any length of time, for the
farmers will soon change their selling point. The buyers must settle
in full with the warehouseman some time during the day of the sale,
or he refused further privileges on the market, -

___The farmer is charged a warehouse fee of 7d. a pile and a weighing
fee of 7d. a hundred, as well as a commission of two anda half per cent.
on all sales. When the tobacco is delivered at the warehouse the
farmer may give to the warehouseman his reserve price, and the sale
is not made unless the bidding reaches the figure named. The farmer
himself inay follow the sale and refuse to let his tobacco eo unless the
price is satisfactory. As soon as the sale has been made the farmer
may go to the warehouseman and receive a cheque for the amount diy

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 117

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tohim. The warehouseman is responsible to the farmer, and the latter
has nothing whatever to do with the buyer.

The buyers take the tobacco to their buildings, where it is
“ye-ordered” and packed in hogsheads for storage or shipment.

The loose-sales system is extending and is very satisfactory to
producers for several reasons :-—The tobacco does not have to be held
by the grower until it is in a condition for packing ; neither is he put
to the labour and expense of packing ;it also permits the sale of small
quantities, and for that reason more grades of the tobacco may be
made. To the buyer also the system is satisfactory, for the reason that
he can at once see the quality of the goods, and because he is better
prepared to handle and pack the leaf than is the grower.

The Package and Sampling System.—In some sections the
tobacco is packed in hogsheads by the grower and sold hy means of
samples taken from these hogsheads. The inspection and sampling is
done by inspectors governed by State laws. In some States these
Inspectors are appointed by the tobacco Board of Trade, and in other
States they are appointed by a State official. The inspector is compelled
to give a large bond before taking up his duties, and if the buyer finds
on opening his hogshead that the tobacco does not grade up with the
sample taken he may come back on the inspector for reclamation. All
differences and claims presented are settled by a board of arbitration,
the arbitrators being three in number and appointed by a committee
of the Board of Trade. One of the arbitrators is a warehouseman, one
a buyer, and the third is selected hy these two. No warehouseman or
inspector is allowed to buy or to participate in the profits of any sale.

When a hogshead of tobacco is placed in a warehouse for sale, it
has its end removed, is then turned on its head and the cask lifted off
the tobacco, which retains the shape given it by the hogshead. A
sample is then made by the inspector, who prizes the tobacco apart
with a lever and takes portions of tobacco from at least four places in
the bulk. This sample is tied and labelled with the name of the seller,
inspector, and warehouse, as well as with the weight, hogshead
number, and date of inspection. The sample is then sealed, so that it
may not be tampered with, and the tobacco is sold on the merits of the
sample. The owner of the tobacco is given, as soon as it is inspected,
a manifest with all the data concerning the package marked upon it;
this mavifest is negotiable. An inspection fee of one shilling and a
sampling fee of three shillings are charged ; this pays for the labour of
opening and recoopering the hogshead, A warehouse storage fee of six
shillings for the first four months and of fivepence a month thereafter
is charged. If a package has been stored until the accmnulated
storage fees have eaten up the value of the tobacco and no settlement
is made by the owner, the tobacco is sold by the warehouseman to
cover his claims. :

Tf a tobacco is found to have heen packed with the intention of
defrauding, the inspector is compelled to give information to the
Grand Jury. False packing of tobacco is called “ nesting ? by tobacco
men. If the cask or hogshead is found to be in bad condition it is
replaced at the expense of the owner.

A large percentage of this hogshead tobacco is sold) by auction
upon the merits of the samples, and for this the auctioneer receives
from sixpence to a shilling a package. Tf placed in the hands of
commission men the commission is usually two and a half per cent

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 121

122 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

Sales of Cigar Leaf.—The better grades of cigar leaf will not
stand the rough handling given tobacco at loose sales, neither will they
endure pressure and treatment of packing in hogsheads. The buyers
who are middle men, known as leaf dealers, visit the farmers and enter
into agreement with them for a portion or all of their crop. These
contracts are usually verbal, and are very likely to be broken if any
changes in the market take place between the time of sale and the time
of delivery. A written contract and a payment of a portion of the
contract price should be insisted upon. :

When this tobacco is purchased by a leaf dealer it is delivered at
his warehouse, where he grades, ferments, and packs it in cases for
shipment. After the tobacco has become of the proper age and
condition, the cases are opened and samples taken, and by these samples
the leaf dealer sells his tobacco to brokers or manufacturers. The
cases in which this leaf is packed hold about three hundred pounds of
tobacco.

A grower could grade, ferment and pack his own tobacco if he
wished, but he is usually without the skill required for conducting the
fermentation, and he is not likely to have sufficient tobacco of any
one grade to make it worth while for the manufacturer to directly
visit him.

The large tobacco-growing companies of Florida combine the
functions of growers, leaf dealers and packers. They ferment and
pack all their own tobacco as wellas that of the smaller growers. This
tobacco is packed in bales, and is sold by a private bargain to buyers
who visit the warehouse and examine the tobacco on the spot.

Lear DEALERS.

These middle men play an important part in the tobacco industry.
By purchasing the farmers’ tobacco they give them a ready market
and relieve them of the necessity of holding their stock. Through
devoting their attention to the business, the leaf dealers are able to
develop new markets and handle the tobacco in a manner to suit their
requirements. By handling large quantities of leaf, they are also in a
better position to secure favourable consideration from manufacturers
and foreign buyers, than would farmers themselves. It is doubtful if
a thrifty tobacco industry could be developed in any locality without
the aid of the middleman. Where the tobacco industry has become
thoroughly established and the manufacturing branch has been
consolidated (as has been done by the Tobacco Trust in America) the
independent middleman is superfluous. But in all newly developing
localities the presence of the middleman, even though he make
enormous returns for his labours, is to be encouraged i

There is apparently no reason why an association of planters
could not be incorporated for the purpose of conducting the business
usually carried on by leaf dealers, tobacco brokers and packers, Such
an association would be the way out of the difficulty in localities
where the business is not being conducted by private enterprise,

RE-ORDERING AND StemMina Toracco.

Tobacco, as it comes from the curing barn or the warehouse floor,
is not ordinarily in condition for shipment in hogsheads. The bod)

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of the leaf may be so dry that it will easily crumble, and at the same
time the stem, while apparently dry, will contain enough moisture to
furnish food for the growth of mould. ;

In every tobacco market there are certain men who make a
business of “re-ordering” tobacco and packing it for shipment. The
manager of a re-ordering plant may also be a leaf dealer, or he may
only handle tobacco for leaf dealers. Several methods of bringing
the tobacco leaf into the proper condition are practised. The first
and oldest method is where the tobacco is hung on racks in large
rooms and brought into condition by protracted hanging and a
proper regulation of the ventilation. The tobacco is first allowed to
hecome so dry that the stem will snap between the fingers, then the
windows are opened on some moist day, and the leaf permitted to
absorb just enough moisture to keep it from breaking when handled,
or until the fibre of the leaf becomes pliable while the stem is still
dry enough to break. It is then in condition to pack. Jf it is desired
to pack the tobacco when the weather is very dry, it may be con-
ditioned by being hung for a few minutes in a box filled with hot
steam. This system of “air ordering” the tobacco calls for the use of
a large building, as well as the tying up for a long time of the capital
invested in the tobacco. This, inaddition to the insurance, will in the
end make this method more expensive and less satisfactory than any
other method.

In the second method the racks are built on trucks, and these
trucks run into a steam-heated room and the tobacco kept there at a
temperature of from 150° to 160° until it will crumble in the hand.
It is then conditioned by jets of steam turned into the room, and is
packed in hogsheads while still hot. These rooms are fitted with
steam fans, so that the hot air and the steam are evenly distributed.
This method is perhaps the best one to adopt where quantities
less than two or three hundred thousand pounds are racked
annually,

The third method, which is called “machine ordering,” is the one
generally used where large quantities of tobacco are handled. At cne
end of the machine the tobacco is placed on an endless wire belt that
carries it through the different compartments and finally delivers it
to the packers.

The tobacco is first carried through two very hot steam-heated
chambers to place it in a thoroughly dry condition. The first chamber
is not heated as hot as the second, for the reason that it might
cook the tobacco which contains some moisture. The second chamber
is heated to 160°. From the second chamber the tobaceo passes into
a third where it is partially cooled by a current of air, and then into
a fourth where it is by the use of steam made pliable enough to
handle. As soon as the tobacco comes out of the end of the machine
it is packed in hogsheads while still soft. When the tobacco is
packed it must be moist enough to handle without breaking, and yet
contain so little moisture that it will appear perfectly dry when cold.
A machine has a capacity of from fifteen to twenty thousand pounds
of tobaceo a day and has this merit, that within an hour after a
tobacco has been brought into the building it may be packed and
shipped. The use of a machine makes it possible to do the work in a
building but very little larger than the machine. An equipment. of
this kind, exclusive of the building and engine, costs about foi
hundred pounds in America.

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130 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

Tobacco intended for the English market is packed as dry as
possible, because of the high duty in that country. In the case of
most tobaccos for this market the weight is reduced by the removal of
the stems.

STEMMING OR STRIPPING.

The tobacco is placed in a very moist condition, and the stem, or
all of it with the exception of a few inches at the tail end, is removed
by one motion of the hand. The leaf, or strip as it is then called, is
then run through the ordering machine and is packed in hogsheads in
as dry a condition as possible. Most of this stemming is done by
women and children, whoare paid by the quantity of work completed.
An expert stemmer can remove the stems from two hundred and fifty
to three hundred pounds of tobacco in a day. The stems average
from twenty to twenty-five per cent. of the total weight of the leaf.
There is also a wastage resulting from broken leaves of about five per
cent. of the total weight. This broken tobacco, or scrap as it is called,
is sold to tobacco factories for the purpose of manufacturing
granulated smoking tobacco, The stems are used for making sheep
dip and fertilizers. Stems are also crushed and cut up for mixing
with the cheaper grades of pipe tobaccos, and they may also be used
for the purpose of making cheap snuff.

Machines have been invented for the stemming or stripping of
tobacco, None of these machines have as yet reached perfection or
come into general use. It is very probable that a machine that
will do the work in a satisfactory manner will be the product of
the next few years.

SOME OF THE CHEMISTRY OF THE
TOBACCO PLANT AND ITS RELATION TO THE
FERTILIZERS USED.

Tobacco is fertilized for the production of quantity and for
the development of quality. Fertilization of the soil for the pro-
duction of quantity is a simple matter, and no more difficult than
the fertilization of the land for large crops of wheat, hay, or
maize. But tbe quality of the tobacco produced, lying deep in
the shadow of nature’s secrets, and being of vastly more importance
than the quantity, is a far more difficult thing to control. Tobacco
that does not meet with approval for human constunption is unfor-
tunately of little value for other purposes. The quality of the
potato can be largely decided by a determination of its starch
content ; the quality of maize may be estimated by chemical tests
to determine its starch, protein, and fat percentage ; but the
quality of tobaceo cannot be determined by a chemical analysis,
but only by the senses of man. Colour, “texture, size, aroma,
flavour and combustibility ave the points by which the quality of
tobacco is estimated. d ¢

The different salts and compounds in the leaf, both organic and
inorganic, are known to have a great effect. on all of these different
qualities, but the action of each one of them is as yet not completely
understood. Some facts regarding the action’ of the ditferent

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THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 131

elements have, however, been obtained, and until these are under-
stood by the tobacco planter, he will not be able to exercise his
best judgment in the matter of the fertilization of the soil. The
organic compounds seem to bear the closest relation to the aroma
of the tobacco, while on the inorganic salts depends largely its

combustibility. It has been determined by experiments in Europe,
America, and Japan—

1. That cblorine is injurious to the burning qualities of the
leaf, and that the excess of sulphuric acid is also injurious in the
same way.

2. That the presence of a large amount of potash in the tobacco
greatly improves the burn, but that the combustibility is not pro-
portional to the percentage of potash present, but is dependent
on the amount of potash in excess of the amount required to
combine with the mineral acids such as chloric and sulphuric acids,
and that the potash, when in the form of a carbonate, gives the best
results.

3. That the alkalinity of the ash has a marked effect for good
on the combustibility.

4, That a certain amount of lime, where potash is deficient,
may combine with the free acids, and improve combustibility, but
that an excess of lime may be harmful.

5. That the small percentage of iron and aluminium oxides that
may be present in the leaf have no apparent effect on the com-
bustibility.

Tobacco plants require certain quantities of several different
elements, as lime, potash, sodium, iron, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine,
nitrogen, &e., to complete their development, but it will be seen
that the presence of an excess of some of the elements, as sulphuric
and chloric acids, is harmful to the commercial product, and that
the presence of other elements, as potash, in excess of the real
needs of the plant is beneficial to the cured article. Therefore, the

132 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

conclusion must be that in the use of fertilizers for the stocking of
the soil with those elements it usually lacks (as potash, phosphoric
acid, and nitrogen), materials should not be used that have as
impurities elements likely to be injurious, such as chlorine, which is
ordinarily present in the form of common salt (sodium chloride).

A large percentage of nitrogen in the soil increases the pro-
duction of albuminoids, and a large percentage of albuminoids in
the leaf is considered objectionable, for they cause the leaf to burn
badly, and to have a disagreeable odour. An excess of nitrogen
also tends to the production of a thick, coarse leaf, and such a leaf
will burn less readily than a leaf of finer texture. The heavier
and coarser the leaf the greater is the tendency to the formation
of nicotine. The accumulation of nicotine and of an excess of
albuminoids is more injurious to the quality of ordinary smoking
tobaccos than it is to cigar leaf, for those compounds are largely
reduced and transformed during the process of fermentation that
the latter leaf goes through.

Phosphoric acid is usually deficient in tobacco soils, and must
be supplied, but an excess of phosphoric acid in the leaf has a
tendency to hasten the ripening process, and may injure the burn-
ing qualities of the leaf.

No fixed formule can be given for the fertilization of tobacco,
for the reason that the elements, and the amounts required, will
ditfer with each change of soil and climate. The grower himself
must determine, from his knowledge of the soil and its require-
ments; of the tobacco plant and its nature; and of the action of
different fertilizers and their relative cost, as to the extent and
composition of the manuring that he will give his land.

Stable manure is one of the best fertilizers where a large, coarse
leaf is desired, but where the finer types are to be produced, it must
be used in lesser quantities and be supplemented with commercial
fertilizers. Stable manure is nitrogenous, and if used in excess will
make the leaf produced thick and strong. However, stable manure
has a value beyond that of its apparent fertilizing value. By its
decay in the soil it warms it and stimulates plant growth. The
decaying of manure also assists in the dissolution of different
fertilizing elements and in placing them in a condition to be of
value to the plant. It also encourages the action of the beneficial
nitrifying bacteria and improves both the drainage and the water-
holding capacity of the soil by the addition of humus. Humnus is
decayed animal or vegetable matter. The greater the amount of
humus in the soil, the greater the tendency to the thickening of the
texture and the darkening of the colour of the leaf, so that there
is a point in the production of fine tobacco where the addition of
further humus is not desirable. Swamp or vlei lands are, as a rule,
rich in hunmas, and the humus may, or may not, be rich in nitrogen,
that being a matter dependent on the nature of the vegetation that
formed the humus, and upon the drainage conditions that the hunus
has been subjected to:

Hunus and nitrogen may be added to the soil by the ploughing
under, or the decay upon it, of nitrogen gathering crops, as peas,
beans, clover, beggar weed, and other leguminous plants. The
action of these upon the soil is somewhat similar to the action of
stable manure. Leguminous crops have this further virtue, that
they draw their mitrogen largely from the atmosphere, and that

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 133

their roots attack stores of plant food beyond the reach of the
tobacco plant, and bring these materials near the surface of the
soil, where they are left in an easily digestible condition for the roots
of the tobacco plant. But as these crops have the same action in
thickening and strengthening the tobacco leaf as has stable manure,
they should be used sparingly for the finer types of leaf. The
growers of Bright tobacco, the chief merit of which lies in its
colour, find that the tobacco grown on the land immediately after
the ploughing under of a leguminous crop is deficient in texture and
colour, However, the soil must be kept stocked with a certain amount
of nitrogen and humus, and the method of these growers is to
plant some other crop like cotton or maize upon the land the first
season after the addition of the leguminous crop, and to partially
exhaust the nitrogen by means of it. A hamus that is not so rich
in nitrogen may be added by ploughing under a crop of weeds, or rye,
or buckwheat. The Bright tobacco planters find that if they allow
their land to grow up to grass and weeds for a year, and plough
this under, that they have the land in the best condition for a fine
crop of tobacco. The allowance of this length of time would hardly
appear necessary, for the same results might be obtained by the
sowing of a rapid growing, non-leguminous, catch crop like buck-
wheat and the loss of the land for a year be avoided.

Nitrogen may be added to the soil in other forms, as nitrate
of soda, sulphate of ammonia, or nitrate of potash. This latter salt
has the additional advantage of supplying the potash as well as the
nitrogen for the crop. Where cotton is produced the use of cotton
seed meal (the product left after the extraction of the oil) is to be
highly recommended. Any decaying vegetable or animal matter
contains a certain amount of nitrogen. The free use of animal
products, as dried blood, or “tankage,” is not to be advised, for
these fertilizers may contain large amounts of chlorine, to which
element, we have before seen, the tobacco plant is extremely sensitive.
The use of available stable manure and cotton seed meal should
furnish the basis for the nitrogen supply and the deficiency be made
up by the use of nitrogen salts.

Potash may be added to the land in the form of ashes from
wood fires. These ashes will have their value largely impaired if
exposed to rains and allowed to leach before being placed on the
field. In cotton oil mills the hull of the seed is used as fuel for the
boilers, and the ash left is of considerable value as a fertilizer for
the supplying of potash and phosphoric acid to the soil. The potash
fertilizers employed usually come from the mines of Germany.
They consist of a number of different salts, several of which, as
“kainite,” contain large amounts of chlorine in the form of common
salt which would be injurious to the quality of the tobacco. High
grade sulphate, sold under a guarantee to contain no chlorine at all,
is one of the best forms to be used for the tobacco crop. The very
best fertilizer is the carbonate of potash, for this salt contains no
elements injurious to the crop. It will neutralize the evil effects of
the injurious elements already in the soil,and its presence will be
greatly beneficial to the burning qualities of the tobacco.

Ground ‘bone and ground phosphate rock are two of the forms
in which phosphoric acid may be applied. When these have been
treated with sulphuric acid they are known as dissolved bone and
superphosphate. The use of the acid makes the phosphate more

134 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

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DARKIB ? AVPLYING FERTILIZER TO COTTON » SAME METHO!
OFTEN USED WITH TOBACCO,

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 135

soluble and more available for the plant, but, at the same time, the
percentage of actual phosphoric acid to the ton of fertilizer is
reduced. The sulphuric acid in the superphosphate may prove
injurious to the combustibility of the leaf, and surely will if there be
any great excess of it present. The better form, after all, may be to
apply the rock or bone in as finely ground form as possible, and let it
become available through the action of the soil, the weather, and the
plant juices.

Lime is an essential to the growth of the plant, but most. soils
contain sufficient for the actual needs of the tobacco plant. Lime’s
chief value to the crop lies in a secondary action. Where the soil is
acid it corrects the acidity, and promotes nitrification by encouraging
the action of the nitrifying bacteria. In the heavy close clay soils
it promotes floculation, or the combination of the small particles
of the clay into larger bodies, thus making the soil more friable, easy
of cultivation, more rapidly drained, aerated, and better adapted to
the production of roots and the development of plant life. It has
also the power of making certain food materials in the soil, that have
become insoluble and non-available, of use to the plant by displacing
them from their present combinations. This is particularly true of
lime’s action on potash, and not unfrequently lime is given the credit
of being of great value to the plant in the matter of plant food when
its action has really been simpiy to make other materials available.

A crop of a thousand pounds of leaf, if the stalks be returned to
the field, may be said to remove from the soil about forty pounds of
nitrogen, five pounds of phosphoric acid and fifty pounds of potash.
This does not mean, however, that only this amount of these elements
must be available, or be added to the soil each year, to produce a good
tobacco crop. The tobacco plant makes its growth in about sixty days,
and fertilizers to be available to the growing crop must be in an easily
soluble form. Where the fertilizers are added in forms that are not
easily soluble larger amounts must be used. The tobacco roots do not
reach and secure all the materials present in the soil and available ;
therefore allowance must be made in the fertilization for this, and
also for the fact that some of the more soluble forms will be washed
out by the rains and lost. The soil already contains amounts of the
elements needed, and, if it be well balanced, it may not be necessary to
fertilize heavily for several years. However, if the process of deple-
tion without restoration be continued, the soil will become exhausted
and of little value. It is a much easier process to maintain the
fertility of the soil than it is to restore it.

Several methods of applying the fertilizers to the soil are in use.
It may be broadcasted or drilled into the field so as to be evenly
distributed, or it may be placed in furrows made along the rows where
the plants are to be set, or again, it may be placed around the plant.
No one method can be recommended for all occasions. Barnyard
manure is applied evenly over the field and ploughed in. This should
be done some time before the planting season, if possible, so as to allow
the decay to get well started, and to permit the heat of the first
fermentation to subside. Where commercial fertilizers have to be
purchased, the best results for the money may be obtained by placing
them where the plant can utilize them as far as possible during the
growing season. This may be done by distributing them in the
furrow when the ridge is being thrown up in the ridge system of
planting, or by distributing them along the marked row with a

136 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

fertilizer drill, or by hand, where the level system of planting is used.
Quick acting fertilizers, as nitrate of soda, or nitrate of potash, are
often scattered around the plant while it is growing. This is done
where the crop has received some check from which it must recover,
or where excessive rainfall has washed the nitrogenous salts from the
soil,

Nitrogenous salts should not be applied in any great excess of the
present needs of the plant, for they will largely wash out of the
soil before the next growing season and be lost. Potash is not so
available, and perhaps should be applied in excess of the apparent
requirements of the plant, but not in any great excess, for, while it is
not so likely to leach out of the soil as is nitrogen, it will form
insoluble compounds and be unavailable for the following crops.
Where it has become insoluble it may be released by the use of lime.
Phosphate fertilizers when in only partially soluble forms, as the
ground bone and phosphate rock, should be applied greatly in excess
of the present needs of the plant, for they will become slowly soluble
during a period of years and be available to several crops. Where the
dissolved bone and the superphosphate rock are used, a large excess
must be avoided. Lime is better if added in moderate quantities each
year, than if all placed on at one time, for lime leaches easily and is
carried down to lower levels by the drainage water. Lime also gets
in a form where it is of less use as a neutralizer of acids and a dissolver
of potash combinations.

A rotation of crops is of great advantage in keeping up the
fertility and condition of the land, but, in the establishment of the
rotation, great judgment must be used where tobacco forms one of the
links. Fertilizers containing impurities, as chlorine salts, may not be
harinful to the other crops and may be even of advantage from the
standpoint of cheapness, but these impurities will remain in the soil
and injure the quality of the tobacco grown on the soil. The fertiliza-
tion of the other crops must always be done with the effect on the
tobacco crop borne in mind. Leguminous crops should have a place in
the rotation and should be followed, if the conditions will allow it, with
maize (mealies). A proper cultivation of the maize crop will place the
soil in fine condition for tobacco. The heavy applications of manure
should be used on the maize crop instead of on the leguminous crop.
A leguminous crop’s chief merit lies in its ability to remove
nitrogen from the air and fix it in the soil, which function
will not be thoroughly exercised if the plant be well fed with
prepared nitrogen, as is the case where much manure is applied.
The bone and rock phosphates may also be applied to the corn
crop.

The value of a fertilizer must not be estimated by the number of
tons applied, but by the percentage of actual fertilizing materials in
each ton. Fertilizers containing large percentages of fertilizing
elements, command a much higher price than fertilizers containing
lower percentages, but the higher priced fertilizers are in reality much
less expensive to buy than the lower priced ones. There is much legs
number of pounds of freight to be paid for in comparison with the
actual fertilizing material received, and much less labour required in
their application, Then again, where the percentage of fertilizing
elements ts low, something must be used as a filling and to give weight,
and the material used may be injurious to the quality of the crop,
Rags, woollen waste, animal matter and certain animal manures tend

137

TOBACCO,

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138 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO,

70 i sobacco
to the production of disagreeable odours and flavours in the to
when they are used as fertilizers.

In the production of tobacco there may be localities where it will
pay better to give attention to the production of quantity rather than
quality, and in such places large quantities of stable manure and
nitrogenous manures may be used and no attention given to im-
purities.

WATER IN ITS RELATION TO THE TOBACCO
CROPS.

Upon the percentage of water in the soils depend largely the
colour and texture of the leaf. The value of many tobacco soils 1s not
based so largely on their fertility as it is on the soil’s ability to hold
greater or less proportions of moisture, to drain off rapidly the surplus
water in times of plenty, and, by capillary action, to draw up water
from below in times of drought. The Bright tobacco lands and the
cigar leaf lands of Florida have but little fertility, and are only used
because of their moisture content and the warmth that is due to that
moisture content. It has been determined that soils holding about
ten per cent. of moisture are adapted to the production of wrapper
leaves, while soils with a higher water content, as 20 per cent., are
only adapted to the production of heavy tobacco and fillers.

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 139

SHADED SUMATRA TOBACCO, SHOWING SYSTEM OF FLUME IRRIGATION.

144

THE

CULTURE

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TOBACCO,

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TOBACCO NICELY STARTED,

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THE CULTURL

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ABOUT A THIRD GROWN, AND TIED UP TO THE SHADE TO KEEP Tt FROM BEING WHIPPED BY THE WINDS,

SUMATRA TOBACCO IN FLORIDA {

146 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

cable wires, and between them, are run wires of lighter weight. These
wires are placed at a distance of five and a half feet from each other
and from the cable wires, so that there are two of these light wires
between each two cable wires. These wires are stapled wherever pos-
sible and the ends are securely fastened to stakes set from six to ten
feet out from the edge of the outer posts. The whole field is then
covered with an open mesh cloth that is much heavier than cheese
cloth. This cloth has a closely woven selvage and also has strongly
woven strips running through it every few feet to give it strength.
The width of the cloth is five and a half yards, or just the width he-
tween the posts. The cloth is tacked on to the stringers and is
supported between them by the wire. It is run the length of the
field and down to the ground at both ends, where it is attached to
base boards. The remaining two sides of the field are then closed in.
A large gate is left for the passage of wagons, and roads are left here
and there throughout the field. The framework will last from five to
ten years, but it is safer to renew the canvas each season. The old
canvas may be used for the covering of plant beds. In Florida the
cost of the framework is about £40 an acre, and of the renewal of the
canvas each year £20. In countries where cigar wrappers bring a
large price and where timber is expensive and not durable, the frame-
work for the shade could be constructed of ght iron. Iron piping
would do nicely for the posts.

The covering changes the climate of the field and makes the inside
air more humid, as well as about fifteen degrees warmer than the
outside air. The covering retains the heat during the night and per-
mits of more rapid chemical changes in the plant. It also protects the
plants from winds, frosts and hail, as well as prevents the delicate
leaves from being scorched by the sun, and also very largely prevents
the ravages of insects by closing them out of the field. If the insects
are once allowed to enter, through carelessness in leaving openings,
they will breed and multiply under the shade as rapidly as elsewhere.

With a tobacco that is valuable enough to grow by this method
great care is taken in the other steps of the culture. The fertilization
is reduced to a science, the soil is kept in perfect tilth, weeds and
grass are not seen, and every field in some localities is irrigated. If
any caterpillars are known to be in the field the plants are inspected
every day and the pests destroyed. The tobacco grows very tall and
would easily break down, so that it is tied to the top of the framework
with twine when half grown. The plants are allowed to mature a
large number of leaves, for the larger the number of leaves the thinner
and finer the texture of the individual leaf. From sixteen to forty
leaves ave left to a plant, and where the plant is very thrifty it is not
topped at all, but allowed to go to seed so as to prevent the leaves
from becoming too heavy.

It is difficult to tell when this shade-grown tobacco is ready for
the harvest, because it does not colour up and give the same signs of
ripeness as tobacco grown in the open. A light brownish colour around
the edges and the tips, and the appearance of small spots, indicate
when the leaf is ready for harvesting. The Sumatra tobaceo is more
elastic and better for wrappers if not left to become too ripe. All the
leaves on the plant do not ripen at one time, so they are pulled off
when ready, and the plant is not cut. Four or tive leaves are usually
ready at once, and the time of harvesting a field may extend over
several weeks. The leaves are taken to the barn in baskets and cured

THE

CULTURE

OF TOBACCO,

HALF GROWN.

GROWING SUMATRA TOBACCO UNDER SHADE IN FLORIDA;

148 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

SUMATRA TOKACCO UNDER SHADE IN FLORIDA) NEARLY FULI HEIGHT,

149

CULTURE OF TOBACCO,

THK

TMENT OF AG.).

DEPAR

S.

TOBACCO WITH HALF ‘THE LEAVES HARVESTED (U

A

SUMATR

150 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

by the air-curing process, in the same manner as other cigar leaf.
When all the leaves are harvested, the stalks are cut down and
ploughed under or hauled to a pile to decay.

About a thousand pounds of this shaded tobacco are produced to
an acre, and it sells for from two shillings to sixteen shillings a pound.
The value of an acre crop may be estimated at from one to two hun-
dred pounds. In Florida this shaded tobacco is largely grown and
handled by companies that produce several hundred acres a year.
They are highly capitalized and can afford to pay their managers and
experts high salaries. The profits are immense. The high price of
this leaf is partially owing to its real value, and partially to the fact
that the United States does not produce all of this type of leaf required,
and the domestic article is protected by a high duty.

It is an interesting sight to walk through a large field of shaded,
irrigated Sumatra, and see the magnificent plants eight or nine feet
high, the large delicate leaves interlacing in every direction.

TOBACCO AS AN _ INSECTICIDE.

Stems, stalks, and worthless tobacco can be made to serve a
useful purpose in the destruction of insect pests. The stems, thickly
scattered around on the earth in the greenhouse or the plant bed, will
largely prevent the attacks of plant lice. A decoction of tobacco
sprayed on plants, will destroy the majority of tender skinned insects.
To secure a decoction of the proper strength, boil the stems or leaf
in water fora length of time, and then dilute it with enough cold
water to make two gallons of the preparation for every pound of
tobacco used. This can be used in stronger or weaker forms as the
conditions seem to require. The fumes of tobacco if confined ina
room fora sufficient length of time will largely check the ravages of
many insects,

Tobacco makes an excellent dip to use for all animals for the
destruction of ticks, lice and other parasites. A pound of tobacco
stems to each two gallons of the dip is the proper strength.

The woolly aphis, or American blight, does great damage to the
apple tree, and, while it is easy to destroy all the aphides on the body
of the tree, the difficult matter has been to find something that will
destroy them on the roots, where they will survive and breed new
multitudes for the destruction of the tree. Tobacco stems buried in
the soil around the base of the tree are the best remedy to be used in
this case. If the season be dry, the tobacco applied in the form of a
decoction will give the best results. Tobacco stems around the base
of trees do much to prevent the attacks of the different climbing
insects, and at the same time are useful as a fertilizer.

PERIQUE TOBACCO CULTURE.

Produced by Longfellow’s historic Arcadians on a soil created
by the muddy Mississippi, cured by unique and laborious methods,
the fragrant aromatic Perique is shipped to all portions of the
globe, to charm the senses of lovers of the “weed.” Grand Points,
in St. James’s Parish, Louisiana, is the centre of the industry, and
it was here that a hundred years ago, Pierre Chenet, from whom

THE CULTURE OF - TOBACCO. 151

PERIQUE TORACCO. HALF GROWN.

CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

TH 1

LOTTES.

ATU

4

PERIQUE

MARKING

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 153

the product derives its name, first started its culture. This locality,
described in George W. Cable’s ‘“ Bona Ventura,” lies but a few
feet above the swamps of the east bank of the Mississippi river,
and were it not for the levees along that stream, the whole country
would be under water for a portion of the year.

Considering its reputation and its widespread popularity, the
total amount of this tobacco produced is very small. In fact,
during the past two years, because of the unsatisfactory price
offered, the production has dwindled to nearly nothing, but through
the securing of several contracts, the industry has received new
life, and this year the finished product will amount to about eighty
thousand pounds, with the prospect of a large increase during the
next few years. :

The soil is a dark gray, well drained, fertile, friable one,
containing a large proportion of very fine sand.

But one variety is grown and this, as well as the finished
tobacco, is known as Perique. The plant is a rapid grower, pro-
ducing leaves from medium to large in size, with a large stem or
midrib. The leaf is tough, gummy and elastic, and when first
dried is dark brown in colour.

The seed beds are made either in an open space in the forest,
or on the sheltered side of a building. Several months before
sowing time the bed is thoroughly fertilized with stable manure,
and well worked up; after this several re-workings are made before
sowing season. The bed is never burned.

When the land has been well prepared, the plants are set out
on ridges about three feet apart, and are placed two to three feet
apart in the rows. The cultivation, worming, and suckering are
about the same as for other pipe tobaccos. An average of from
twelve to fifteen leaves are left on the plant.

When the plant has assumed the speckled appearance indicative
of ripeness, it is harvested by being cut off near the ground
with a hatchet, the sand lugs being left on the field. Heavy dews
are greatly desired during the ripening period, the moisture of the
leaf causing the production of a large amount of gum and rich
juice. The cutting is done during the hottest portion of the
day, and the plant at once carried to the barn. A sharpened
piece of cane is then pushed into the stalk so as to form a hook,
by means of which the plant is hung on ropes stretched throughout
the curing barn.

As rapidly as the leaves dry they are stripped from the stalk.
The first leaves are ready to strip in about eight days, and the last
in another eight. The midrib is removed from the leaf as soon as
possible, and the stripped leaf made up into small rolls. These
rolls are placed in boxes holding about fifty pounds, and, by means
of weights on a fifteen foot lever, a pressure of about seven thousand
pounds is applied. This force expresses a portion of the juice.
Every day for a week or two the pressure is removed, and the
leaves allowed to absorb the oxidized juice. After the first week
the pressure is left on for longer and longer intervals, and at the
end of three months the tobacco has become oily black in colour,
and developed a rich spirituous aroma.

After being removed from the press the tobacco is made up
into cylindrical rolls called “ carrottes”. After the leaves have been
aired, a cloth twenty-four by fifteen inches is laid on a table, and

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THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 155

on this a layer of the best wrapper leaves is laid, with their best
side down, and so arranged as to have their fibres point to a
longitudinal median line. A half inch of leaves is then placed on
this, and after being covered with another cloth is tramped.
The ends of the cloth are then doubled over for about three inches,
and the whole tramped again. The tobacco is then rolled into a
cylinder, and the loose ends tucked down into the hollow centre.
The ends of the cloth are then tied, and the carrotte, which now
weighs four pounds, and is fifteen inches long by three in diameter,
is wound tightly with a one-third inch rope; the winding is done
by means of a special windlass. The following day the rope is
re-wound, and left on for three months, or until it is ready for
the market. To market the carrottes they are packed in five
hundred pound whiskey barrels. The average yield is about five
hundred pounds of finished tobacco per acre. The average selling
price is one shilling and ninepence per pound. Because of their
peculiar system of fermentation, which the United States authorities
have decided to be a process of manufacture, the Perique growers
are obliged to have a manufacturer’s licence, and place revenue
stamps on all their tobacco.

Except by the producers themselves, Perique is seldom used
in the pure form, but it is highly prized for blending with other
tobaccos. A small amount is made into cigars, but the major
portion is used in the best grades of pipe tobaccos in England and
America. The production could be enormously increased, and no
doubt would be, if others than the quiet Arcadians should take
the matter up.

The aroma, like the aroma of all tobaccos, improves with age,
and the memory of some nine year old Perique still haunts me.

To us Perique is important, not that we may hope to
transfer its culture to Africa, but from the principle involved in
its curing and fermentation. The use of pressure, and the oxidiza-
tion of the juice by direct exposure to the air, may be applicable
to other tobaccos, and while a Perique may not be produced,
something else with a distinct pleasing odour of its own may be
the result. In fact, it is known tbat the principle can be used
with good results, for, in one of the large tobacco centres of
America, there is a leaf handler who makes a business of buying
up a certain grade of cheap leaf and, by the application of heat
and pressure, producing an imitation Perique that is proving very
acceptable to those independent manufacturers who are short of
the real article.

The constant expression and absorption and the resultant
oxidization of the juices appear to change a large portion of the citric
and malic acids into acetic and butyric acids. The finished Perique
contains only one-fourth of the citric acid, one-half or less of the nitric,
and six times the acetic acid contained by the air-cured leaf. Certain
volatile oils are also produced.

TOBACCO CULTURE IN SUMATRA.

Because of the unique system used, and the high quality of the
leaf produced, a short description of the culture of tobacco in Sumatra
may be of interest and value.

L2

156 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

The Sumatra leaf is wonderfully thin in texture, and because of
this fact, it is prized very highly for cigar wrappers. Its value is
based partly on the appearance of the leaf, partly on the skill involved
in the grading and packing, and partly on the economy in its use. It
requires two hundred leaves to weigh a pound, and two pounds will
wrap a thousand cigars. ;

The portion of Sumatra where this tobacco is produced is
practically on the equator, and borders on the Straits of Malacca. The
climate is truly a tropical one, and the temperature remains uniform
throughout the year ; the mean maximum for each month being about
90 degrees, the mean minimum 74 degrees, and the mean about 81
degrees. The daily temperature ranges from about 70 degrees at sun-
rise to 94 degrees at noonday.

The average yearly rainfall is about one hundred inches. Some
rain falls every month, but the heaviest downfall is between October
and December. The lowest average for any month is about three
inches and the highest average eighteen inches, although months have
been recorded with but a quarter of an inch, and others with thirty-
five inches.

Beginning at a distance of five or ten miles back from the Straits,
the tobacco belt extends for a distance of forty-five miles, and up on
to the slopes of the mountains.

The soil is mostly volcanic in its origin. That on which the
finest, silkiest, brown tobacco is produced is inclined to be somewhat
clayey or silty. Lighter coloured tohaccos are produced on sand
loams resting on a clay subsoil.

The land is leased from the Sultan for a term of seventy-five
years. At least seven thousand acres are thought necessary to ensure
success, for the reason that a portion of the land is permitted to lie
idle each year and thus restore its fertility.

An estate is laid out by the building of a main road through it.
On each side of the main road at the distance of nine hundred and sixty
feet from it and from each other, smaller roads are constructed. All
the land between these roads is divided into fields sixty feet wide.
Each field contains about one anda third acres, and is allotted to a
coolie for cultivation.

The labour is mostly done by Chinese coolies, who are secured
directly from China by the planters, who club together and pay some
of their number for securing them. Without the coolie, tobacco
culture could not be carried on in Sumatra at all. They stand the
chinate well, are industrious, learn rapidly what is required of them,
and are regarded as generally very satisfactory by the planters. They
know absolutely nothing of tobacco culture when first secured, but
must learn from those that have been at the work. Each Chinaman
is given a small advance of money to live upon until the crop is
harvested, and he is given another small advance at the beginning of
each month. Each coolie is allotted a field by himself, and is paid hy
the thousand plants produced. Later he is employed at piece work in
the fermentation shed and packing house.

The coohes are grouped into companies of forty, over whom is
placed a foreman coolie who has been some time on the estate and
understands the work. He receives a percentage based on the amount
that the coolies earn. Over all the coolies and foremen is a head
coolie who has been promoted to that position because of his ability.
He is necessary to adjust matters between the Europeans and the

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 157

CURING BARNS IN PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION
FERMENTATION HOUSE, SUMATRA

} (FROM A DUTCH BOOK),

158 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

coolies. He gets compensation proportionate to position and
services.

A coolie is given a letter of discharge when he is honourably
discharged, and no planter will engage any coolie on the island who
does not have such a letter. No coolie is allowed to go off the estate
without a pass, and if he be found without one, he is lodged in jail
until his employer is located. A reward is paid to the person who
returns the coolie, and this amount is charged to the coolie’s wages.

The expense of clearing the field is charged to the coolie unless he
does the work himself. No more than sixteen shillings, however, is
charged for any one field. After the field has been burned, and
thoroughly cleaned, it is dug up to the depth of twelve inches by hand.
No ploughs are used in the new fields because of the large number of
roots and stumps. Ditches are dug between each two fields and empty
into the main ditches at the side of the road.

Each coolie makes his own plant beds. Sometimes a large
number of these beds are made so as to insure a stand of plants. The
bed is protected by a shading of grass. The seed is furnished the
coolie, and just enough seed for one bed is delivered at a time.

The plants are set in the field two feet apart in three foot rows,
although sometimes the distances are reduced to two feet each way.
Each plant is shaded by having a piece of thin light wood placed
slantingly on the sunny side. These cost from thirty shillings to two
pounds per ten thousand, and they are charged to the coolie’s account,
but he may return them and get credit when he has finished using
them. Thorough cultivation by hand implements is demanded.
With each cultivation the earth is banked up more and more to the
plants. At the time of the second cultivation the lower leaves are
broken off and buried at the base of the plant. All diseased or
injured plants are destroyed, and if the plants are not too large they
are replaced. The plants are topped at from fifteen to twenty-five
leaves. The suckers are taken off as they appear and the worms are
gathered by hand and destroyed.

When ripe, the leaves are picked off and placed in baskets, which
are delivered to the curing shed. The coolie gets about twenty-six
shillings per thousand for the best plants produced and as low as
three shillings for the worst. If he grows a second crop from the
suckers, he gets about half as much per thousand for it as for the
first.

When the tobacco has been received at the curing barn from the
coolie itis hung on sticks. The barns are usually kept closed at
night and open in the day time. During wet weather a fire is built
that does not give any smoke or odour. A watchman remains in the
barn every night and regulates the ventilation according to
instructions given him. From four to five weeks complete the
curing.

The drying sheds are placed at the road, so that one can do
for each eight fields. They are usually seventy-two feet wide, one
hundred and eighty feet long, and thirty-six feet from the ground to
the ridge pole. The frame is formed of material taken from the
jungle. The sides are covered with rough planks, and the roof is
thatched with a covering made from the leaves of a palin. The
building is cheaply put up, for it is not intended to last more than
two years, as the fields will then be abandoned and new ones laid out,
In deserting a building the thatch is removed, rolled up, and used on

159

CO.

C

TOBA

Or

7
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THE CULTURE

(FROM A DUTCH BOOK),

)

SUMATRA }

<
P|
=

+ TOBACCO IN

FERMENTATION PILES,
COOLIES GRADING

160 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

the new building. The doors and windows are made so as to be used
as ventilators.

When the tobacco is thoroughly cured it is roughly graded, tied
into bundles or hands of about fifty leaves each, and taken in baskets
to the fermentation house.

The fermentation house is substantially built of brick, and roofed
with the same palm thatch as that used for the curing barns. The
building is usually two hundred and forty feet long and sixty-six feet
wide. In the centre of the building is a wooden platform raised
three feet off the floor, and all around the platform is a free space
fifteen feet wide on the floor where the cools sit on mats and assort
the tobacco. Both sides of the building are well lighted with glass
windows. There is usually a small receiving room at one side of the
building where the tobacco is received from the curing sheds.

The fermentation is conducted very much as is the fermentation
of the better grades of cigar leaf in America. When the tobacco
has been thoroughly fermented, it is carefully graded according to
colour, size, texture and condition, and made into bundles of from
thirty to forty leaves. These bundles are tied with a portion of the
inner bark of a tree. One of the merits of Sumatra tobacco that has
helped to give it a reputation is the thoroughness of the grading. A
cigar maker knows when he purchases a bale of Sumatra just what
there is in it, and what he can get out of it, so that he is willing to
give a higher price than for a bale where the contents are unknown or
doubtful.

The tobacco is placed in bales holding one hundred and _ seventy-
six English pounds, and covered with matting. A bale is about two
and-a-half feet square and a foot thick. Each bale is then dis-
tinctly marked with a description of the contents and the name of the
estate, and is then ready for shipment. Nearly all of it first goes to the
Amsterdam market,whence it is re-shipped to all portions of the world.

Some of the companies employ as many as sixteen thousand
coolies and a large staff of experts. One company has paid an average
dividend of seventy-five per cent. for many years.

COST OF PRODUCTION, PROFITS, WAGES AND
YIELDS.

In round figures the American tobacco growers produce
annually six hundred million pounds of tobacco, worth twelve
million pounds sterling, or an average of fivepence a pound at first
hand. A nice percentage of the twelve million pounds is clear
profit. Whether the individual tobacco grower is making a profit or
not depends largely on his own ability. Where men are employing
their heads in the production of tobacco they are making money ;
and in many instances of exceptionally favoured location they are
making money without any great use of brain power. When a
locality is found where people say that they are not making money in
the cultivation of tobacco and yet continue in its cultivation,
something is wrong—either their methods are faulty or the conditions
are not favourable. In either case, they show lack of ability, for if
the methods are wrong they should discover the fact and change
them, and if the locality and conditions are not favourable thee
should be producing some other crop than tobacco.

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 161

In a certain portion of Virginia where the farms are small, and
the acreage grown ona farm is limited owing to lack of capital and
executive ability on the part of the people, who are but little
educated, you will be told that “ther aint no money in ’bacca round
yhere.” These people destroy half the value of their crop through
carelessness in handling and grading. Their tobacco is often nearly
ruined by mould. If due care were exercised a good living could be
made out of the tobacco now lost through neglect. In this section
the planter and his family do all the work, and the cost of production
is unknown, as no accounts are kept. The careless methods blindly
followed by them would make bankruptcy certain in any line of
business.

The neighbourhood of Darlington, 8. C., gives a good example
of what can be done with tobacco. Up to within ten years
ago, cotton was the staple crop of all the farmers. In this locality
the profits of cotton raising were not very great, the soil being
without much fertility, so that but little more than a mere living
was made by the planters. By experiment the soil was found to be
adapted to the culture of Bright tobacco. The industry was at once
entered upon, and, from the beginning, the most up-to-date methods
were adopted. Any features of the culture that were retained
in the older tobacco districts, through stupid inertia or ancestor-
worship, were discarded. During the winter of 1902-3, more than
seven million pounds of Bright tobacco were sold on the Darlington
market for an average price of fivepence a pound. A portion of this
tobacco was produced by ignorant negro planters who placed a low
grade of tobacco upon the market, so that the average received by
the better planters was more than the figure named. Some received
as high as £50 an acre for their crop. Careful planters say that it
costs from £8 to £10 an acre to produce and market tobacco, and that
they receive during a period of years at least £15 return an acre.
It is easy to see in riding about this district that the farmers
are prosperous. The old buildings of cotton-planting days are
giving way to new ones, and the farms are being rapidly improved
and developed. Land that was worth but £2 an acre several years ago
is now valued at £10.

The yield of tobacco per acre is from eight to twelve hundred
pounds. Where the cost of production is estimated at £8, the cost per
pound of tobacco on a low yield of eight hundred pounds is two
and a half pence. Low grades of leaf may sell for twopence a pound,
medium at from four to sixpence, and the best grades at fifteen pence.
Of the expenditure of £8, from two to three pounds is for commercial
fertilizer, which is an absolute necessity on the light soil. All the.
work is done by negroes, who are superior as labourers to the raw
African negro, although they all possess the same general traits and
characteristics. A negro is paid from £1. 10s. to £2 a month in
money and merchandize, and is allowed a small cabin and garden
on the farm. The negro’s family also works during the busy season.
It is estimated that two good negroes and a mule, with extra help at
planting and harvesting times, is sufficient labour for the culture
of ten acres of ordinary tobacco in this section.

The White Burley tobacco of Kentucky is grown on lands that
will produce splendid crops of cereals and grass, but the tobacco is
regarded as the best money-making crop. The lands are valued
at from £20 to £30 an acre. The wages and cost of feeding a white

162 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

labourer may be put at £6 a month; the cost of production per
pound at from two to three pence; and the selling price at from four
to fivepence. These are averages, and there will be great variations
in the different crops. An average crop may be estimated at a
thousand pounds an acre of marketable tobacco, although at times
two thousand are grown. ;

Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, is considered the wealthiest
farming county in America. Tobacco is the staple crop grown and
the source of most of the wealth. In this county land is valued
at from £30 to £50 an acre. The yield of tobacco averages fourteen
hundred pounds per acre, although two thousand pounds is not an
unusual crop. The average cost of production is about four pence
a pound, and the selling price about sixpence a pound. The cost of
production is somewhat high when the large yields are considered,
but this is owing to the great value of the land and the expensive
barns used. The cost of labour may be placed at £6 a month. The
tobacco produced is all cigar leaf.

In the cigar leaf section of Ohio, lands are valued at about £20 an
acre. Labour costs about £6 a month. The yield of Zimmer Spanish
is one thousand or twelve hundred pounds weight an acre. The
average cost of production is about £10 an acre, and the selling value
is from £15 to £20 an acre.

In the cigar leaf region of Connecticut, and is valued at from £40
to £60 an acre; the cost of production at £30; and the selling price
at from £40 to £60 an acre. The yield is from twelve hundred to two
thousand pounds anacre. This section is very wealthy and prosperous.

In Florida the lands are exceedingly cheap, where unimproved,
because they are very abundant, £2 an acre being a high price for the
ordinary lands. Where they have been improved, covered with canvas,
and irrigated, they are valued at £200 an acre. The yield per acre of
cigar tobacco may be estimated at one thousand pounds. The total cost
of production up to the point where it is ready for manufacture is about
twenty pence a pound, and the selling price an average of four shillings.
Cuban tobacco grown in open field costs about fivepence a pound to
produce, and sells at from ten to twelve pence, or even much higher.

Throughout America, the wages for a negro labourer in the
tobacco field may be estimated at £2 a month, of a white labourer at
£6 a month, of an expert curer on the farm £12 to £15 amonth; ofa
cigar leaf warehouseman from £20 to £30 a month; of the manager of
a tobaecco-growing company from £1,000 to £2,000 a year, and of a sub-
manager from £200 to £400 a year.

It is in the production of the best grades of tohacco that the most
money is made. Tobacco can hardly be called a necessity of life, and
men who purchase luxuries are looking for those qualities that will
give them the most enjoyment. The man who will object to
an extra twopence per hundredweight for flour will pay without a
murmur an additional shilling for a tobacco that meets with his
approval. Quality is the feature that counts.

Besides the profit that may be in tobaceo culture, there is this
advantage, that cured tobacco is not a very perishable article, and may
be held, if necessary, for several years until the market is favourable,
or may be shipped long distances with but little risk.

Tobacco is a crop that is peculiarly adapted toa new country, with
cheap virgin lands and a plentiful supply of ordinary labour. The
last is all important and absolutely indispensable. A constant supply

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 163

of labour is necessary to the success of the industry, for if the labour
supply fail during any of the critical stages of the tobacco crop, as at
the topping, suckering, or harvesting times, the crop will be a failure,
and the money invested be lost. The labour conditions should also be
such, that the same labourers will be secured year after year, for they
will greatly increase in efficiency where they continue at the same
work, and learn its routine and details.

Tobacco is well adapted to culture by large companies, for there
is no limit to the acreage that may be controlled by one corporation.
The production of a high-grade tobacco requires the services of a high-
salaried expert, as well as a corps of lesser experts. They can be
secured only by a company with money and influence. The tobacco-
growing companies of Florida pay most enormous returns, and one of
the largest Sumatra companies pays an average dividend of seventy-
five per cent., and has, out of its profits, increased its capital to about
twenty times the amount paid in. This Company employs sixteen
thousand workmen, as well as a corps of one hundred and sixty experts
and managers.

A FEW CONCLUDING WORDS.

The development of the tobacco industry has been the work of
four centuries, during which time many facts have been ascertained
by experience, some learned by accident, and others by careful scien-
tific investigation.

The planters of a country in newly taking up the culture of
tobacco need not go through all the varied steps, and themselves
experience all that the older countries have done, for they have at
their command the accumulated knowledge of the rest of the world for
four centuries. At the same time, the new country cannot start out /
full-fledged in the industry, for there are local, climatic and_ soil |
influences to be determined, and labour conditions to be adjusted, as
well as markets to be found. —— A

The first step in the culture is the experimental stage, and before
starting this work the experimenter should be thoroughly informed as
to the nature of the tobacco plant and its requirements, for if he is not,
the causes of the good or bad results obtained will not be understood,
and the conclusions drawn will be faulty and of little value. One
year’s carefully planned, intelligently observed, and accurately recorded
experiments will be of more value than twenty years of experiments
carelessly conducted. ; ; ;

Next, after favourable results have been obtained in the experi-
mental stage, comes the period of commercial expansion. Labour must_
be_secured, retained, and trained, because a large tobacco industry is
not likely to be established with an irregular, untrained labour supply.

~ Then comes the question of the development of the markets.
Two things will produce a market for a tobacco—merit and energy,
and these should not be divorced. A superior tobacco may have
difficulty in establishing itself for the reason that tobacco dealers are

conservative, and look askance at an unknown product. Energy, tact
and determination, however, will push an unknown leaf until its
merits are familiar to all. The world really wants new superior
tobaccos, but is somewhat slow in discovering them when they are
yroduced. To secure a market for a new inferior tobacco at the

present time requires “ cheek” added to energy, and as soon as the

164 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO,

element of “cheek” is removed the market is lost. A bad tobacco is
not wanted unless the consumer through long usage has become
accustomed to the bad tobacco and perverted his taste. The produc-
tion of a bad tobacco seldom pays, and rarely merits consideration. On
the other hand, the production of an unusually high-grade tobacco
with an established reputation will pay under most adverse conditions
of transportation and expensive labour.

Only thoroughly aged tobacco, and the best grades of the type,
should be sent to the market that is being developed. Extreme care
must be exercised in the packing, and the style of the package should
conform with the standards and customs of the market shipped to.
Honest packing should be supplemented by careful labelling of the
package with the shipper’s name and the description of the contents,
so that credit may be given to whom it is due. Once a demand. has
been created, never, no inatter how great the inducement may be,
lower the standard of quality. The prospects of more than one
tobacco have been ruined by laxity in this regard. To recover a
reputation is more difficult than to create one.

Rhodesia appears to have a climate and soil in certain sections
favourable to the production of high-grade tobacco It may be that
certain localities are adapted to a superior leaf ; if this be so, settlers
in those localities are to be congratulated, for the production of high-
grade cigar leaf insures prosperity. Nothing can be fully determined
without experiments, which, properly conducted, will give us our
answer, and point our way to the future.

TH CULTURKNH OF TOBACCO, 16h

emt

AUER ZN I DOT

HEATON (HOW AG@OO) ON TIEN CCEN GL WIPTOWM,

ae ie eT

HPTOEN GEN GE TSPOEMEE DD Ba AV doe

166 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 167

APPENDIX.

METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS IN THE GREAT TOBACCO
REGIONS.

The following tables taken from Prof. Whitney’s Bulletin on Soils
(U. 8. Department of Agriculture) are of interest, although their study does
not, in any large way, explain the difference in the quality of the tobacco
produced in the different districts. The records given are for the months
during which tobacco is growing, and for this reason those for Habana are
for different months than those for the other districts.

Mean monthly temperatures.

District. Apr. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. Sept.

ia || Se ee =

Connecticut Valley Z 3h .| 44°80 66°50 | 65°90 70°20 61°11
Pennsylvania + . en ...| 49°90 | 62°00 71°80 75°90 65°63
Kentucky 000-0 ee], 57°80 | 65°00 | 75°30 | 77°20 69°63
Tennessee ... | 60°60 | 68°10 | 77°00 | 79°50 70°53
Virginia es 3 ‘ 56°00 | 65°80 | 74°00 77°80 69°00
North Carolina ... 43 oe ...| 68°20 | 67°00 | 78°70 70°10
Sumatra A aA | 83°05 82°90 2°45 81°45

|
District. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar.
Habana 78°60 75°40 72°50 72°00 73°60 75°20

Mean maximum temperatures.

|
District. Apr. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept.
7 - op | on | om | om | om | on

Valley 56°70 | 69:00 | 73°00 | 82°10 | 78°90 | 71°23

Conneotiont | ae ...| 60°90 | 71:20 | 81°60 | 84°50 | 82°30 | 74°98
Pennsyls _ {70°40 | 79°80 | 84°80 | 84°50 | 81:30 | 78-90
Kentucky _..., 70°60 | 78°80 | 86°10 | 89°60 | 87°20 | 80°75
whose e ...| 66°60 | 76°20 | 83°60 | 87:20 | 8420 | 78-20
Vv a sor ; ..| 69°30 | 78°30 | 86°10 | 87:00 | 84°00 | 78°30
nar ae .. «.{ 89°35 | 83°80 | 87°50 | 87°80 | 86°90 | 87°15

T

District. Oct. Nov. | Dec. Jan. | Feb. | Mar.

er 82°40 | 79°90 | 77°00 | 77-40 | 79°00 | 80°80

ee

168

THE

CULTURE OF

Mean miniinan temperatures,

TOBACCO.

District. Apr. May. | June. | July. Aug. Sept.
eae pet oe Sai ik oF.
Connecticut Valley 46°50 10 58°80 50°87
Pennsylvania . 0 64-00, 61°00 54°68
Kentucky . 66°20 67°60 65°60 57°35
Tennessee 67°80 71°30 68°50 62°25
Virginia 64°50 | 68°50 | 66°50 | 59°90
North Carolina 57°60 i 68°20 66°90 61°10
Sumatra 74°00 7415 73°60 73°70
District. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar.
Habana 74°10 70°70 68°00 66°90 68°00 68°40
Mean daily ranges of temperature,
District. Apr. May. June.| July. Aug Sept.
OSB ee
Connecticut Valley 21°3 20°]
Pennsylvania 214 21°38
Kentucky 15°7
Tennessee 18°7
Virginia . W7
North Carolina Bia
Sumatra 13°38
District. Oct. Dec Jan. Feb. Mar.
Habana | 8°3 9°2 90 10°5 11-0 12°4
Records of rainfall.
Averages for months. Totals.
District.
Apr. | May. | June. ly. Se 6 4
p ay une. | July Aug. | Sept. months,| ©&@?-
Inches. | Inches, | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches.| Inches.
Connecticut Valley 3°33; 3°79 4°90, 4°86 2424
Pennsylvania 3°91 d 3°96
Kentucky 1°25
‘Tennessee eed 3°89
Virginia ats 3°60 £10
North Carolina 3°80 564
Sumatra 6°59 10°99 =
. . | 6 rs
District. Oc Nov Dec Jun, Feb. Mar, Year
| | months.
|——— a ae
Habana O57 1°94 2°27 2°95, 2°06 1°21 17°00 49°83

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 169

Mean relative humidity.

District. | Apr. May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept.
| |
|
. r Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct.
Connecticut Valley 63°00 70°00 | 70°00 | 74°00
Pennsylvania r 70°00 76°00 76°00 73°00
Kentucky ... ors aes tix 64°00 | 71°00 68°00 70°00 ‘00
Tennessee .., Ses Bs ee ..-| 61°00 69°00 | 70°00 | 70°00 | 70°00
Virginia 7 a aa ase ..-| 59°00 68°00 68°00 72°00 72°00
North Carolina ... ae 2 --| 67°00 75°00 | 78°00 | 82°00 0
Sumatra ..00 0. 0. eee] 76°50 79°50 | 75°50 | 79°00
| | |
A | |
District. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. | Mar.
| |
Habana... 08 arr ahs --| 76°90 76°10 74°60 74:40 | 73°60 | 69°30
i

Average nunber of rainy days.

District. Apr. | May. | June. , July. | Aug. | Sept.
- = |
Connecticut Valley oe a as Be ol) BR |) 20: 9 8
Pennsylvania : ee by eealle 20) 13 10 9 9 8
10 12 12 8 | 8 7
11 Li lL 10 8 vf
Virginia 11 12 12 11 12 | 9
North Carolina 9 3 I lf | 13 10
Sumatra aS 14 12 Til 14 15
District. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar.
: | | |
_ |
15 10 9 8 6 6
Habana

For a determination of the adaptability of a soil for any particular crop,

schanival analysis of a soil is of more value than a chemical analysis.

the mu ; ; : :
B mechanical analysis is meant a determination of the percentages of soil-
sy a mech ¢ D
«ys of different sizes, and of their relation one to another ; with this is
gralls or rs

jso included the determination of the water-holding capacity of the soil.
als oo 2 ate
The following tables from Bulletin 11, United States Department of

M

170

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

Agriculture, are the results of the mechanical analysis of a large number of

tobaceo sub-soils :—

NortrHern Si

Ates CrigaAr-LEar SuB-Solzs.

Mechanical analyses of sub-soils.

z Z|
Fa | | 8 Z a\34 ilies
g ‘ ag! 3 : eal ad Al aa
cs Principal a=} (a an 4 E25 28/8 Z
A | grade of leaf | 22) g a tae BA)» a an A
a District. produced at | E%| 5 q EI oot] ais]! s|c8
oat the present |.2F) ou =5|4 Z| <— S| eS
s | time. | a 5p 2 Sa} $ Fes eae = oS
A | «| © Ee a Ss
i | eeccremeeetaris ed Paredes eee ea pee ceoeer
| | i ee
| Ps ct P. et P. ct\P. et|P. et) P. et|P. ct! P. et|P .et|P. et
9 | Connecticut .../ Wrapper and Be 1:03} 3:26] 9°92'22°62/45-47|10-44) 1°36] 2°32
| _ binder, | | |
5 | Massachusetts Do. 61) 220! -00) 71
10 | New York... | Do. 1:06) 2°82) 1° 3°09) 7
5 | Pennsylvaniaa Do. 2°03 3 5°21)1
10 | Wisconsin... | Binder 470} 3 6-012
4|Obio .. an,| AMOI 3°05 37 6°41)27°52
6 | Pennsylvania 6) Do. 3°61) 447 9°79|29°27
| | | | | |
a River land and shaly hmestone. + Trenton limestone.
SouTHEeRN States, Cupa AND SumMATRA Cicar-LBAF SUB-SOILS.
Mechanical analyses of sub-soits.
uy ,
| | statat hee | jos
a ‘ad 8 28 =
° , | |aal 3 als ed
54 ; AB) a 3 Ss
2 All Locality. | Grade of Leaf.| 2 3] 5 as aa
= Be) en aS =
Bg Z| 3 ae .
A | ‘os i 3S z
a A ie,
| i | |
Ip. c\P, cP. ot |P, et |P. ct], of P. of P. ot P. ot P. ot
29 | Florida, penin- | Main - crop | 0°62) 1°73) 0°26) 2°60 18°9451°53/18"95} 1°33) 0°59) 3°21
snla. wrapper,
| hinder filler, | ies | |
| Sucker -crop | |
filler. | lope |
| Florida, Gads- | Same grades @ | *58/ 2°68) 68 3)14°93, 4°15) °80) 5°15
den County. | | | |
bh | Do. , Same grades, | U1s| é DA) 1°94) 8°S1)35°15 13°39) 3°37) 1°07)29°30
sn-soil. seal |
3 | Texas | Same grades | 23) 46 14°16, 8°90) 1°59) 4070
1 | California | Wrapper and | 1°28) 3°91) 2°94) 5°49/19°44 9°85) 13°37] 2°18)}10°77
| filler. |
8 | Sumatra Wrapper TAS|15 41 Vth) 4°39) 9795/1615 17°17 19°11 5:00
6 |) Cuba (Vnelta | Wrapper and | *74l 380! 406) de62) 82812167 43-09. 6°53) 5°69
Abajo). | filler. | |
4 | Cuba (Reme- | Same, heavier | 5°17/10°01! 1°31] °36) °52} 4°51 14°97 21°24) 9°37)/32°32
} dios). | | | |

|

aA light lowm, avernging 12 to 18 inches deep, overlying the red clay.

THE

CULTURE OF

TOBACCO,

Mawnvracturinec AND Export Topacco Sup-soirs.

Mechanical analyses of sub-sorls.

[ 2 is = 2c
aes 25 2 gio aq
°.. Si se et alent meet nA
» 8| ae) 2] | ed] 5) -
os) . pale pce = Wie =a be =| om cere PTE)
2 Ey Locality. Description. | Sz] o _ | 2 N| 4 q fa ae
q as | Bos d | BS] 5 ~| aA 1,
oma Bes | = 8] 27) 4! coal se
A 26] & | ed) da] Sel as] eS

Clog |e iS SB o
| ee (cn eam (oa = Bo
or eee | Eatin rebel
| P.ct\P. cP. ot|P. ot|P. of P. of |P. of
44 | Virginia and | Bright Yellow | 1°10) 2°24) 2°57) 6°39,13°67|22°02|23°45
North Caro-
lina.
55 | Kentucky and | Export 2°23) 3°00} °39) °56) *73] 1°93] 9°50
Tennessee,
30 | Kentucky and | White Burley | 3°45) 4:42, *64) 1°63) 1-44) 1°22) 7-04
Ohio, |
21 | Virginia ... | Manufacturing) 5°55 ne 1°22) 2°05) 3°47] 6°94) 9°45)

Coal 1
—) foal
pas Oo.
ai ae
2 |>_
2 leg
2 | 4
“| Dip
d| _s
=| 05
Sal Bo
n &

|

P.ct\P. ct
14:08! 5°43
52°50! 6°28)
| 9°36
1129) 7°67

22°59
31°62

44035

While the chemical analysis of

soils is not always of the same value as

the mechanical analysis, still it furnishes an excellent guide for the proper

fertilization of the

crops grown on it.

In the case of the tobacco crop it

may also indicate the presence of materials injurious to the combustibility of

the tobacco.

j i | i
OPTO.0 6LE0.0 GO SFOS LFESO.0, cere

9110.0 TE8z.0. ATU

TRIOG

GF.G GL69.0

STET.0 SPOR UL I[QU[OSM]

SPLL.O) §FS0.0
CFET.O
ST1G.0
GLLT

A puR dL
I $B ALU4sloyy

TPSTO.T

2 UL a[Nposuy

GLLE.0

LEC GLC
i)
STGLO | 0243.0

6

= = pe R ILLOLL
SOOTRIS LL

9EL0.0 | [866-0 | GO9G.T GGS8G-L |] Tess. | EL00.0 | STS8.FT] CELF.F Goce.
0000.0 | GFLO.0 | GEFES.T GOET.0 | SOE. L | 0000.0 | FOOF-L | OFES.0 GE9G.6¢ = a Splow UT o[quposuy
0000.0 0000.0 | T6T9.2 | 980.0 - TINYATUS WI a[qupos
Rab 0000.0 | 6666.1 | €E8E.0 = TpAT yoy Ut etqujos
SLE 6697.6 | SEFLE a = plye Lory;
ae — Ser anew = pas pee noe = os —s SOOUBISCUS
| “DAQILOTNNO,) ‘aAMOITIPY MAN
es —_= se, | Seer an eee to. ees ——— ee see em od
|
_& J) w z z st 2 |b | Cleo le
ata) ee = = = a oe = eg cpeua reab)“das | ao’
Bel ee | F |e | 8 $s |ER| 2 | d |B ke/2es/ 268) Se
ene || cgay || a o : a E. eo [io ise o@e/EPB! SF |
aye tae m z UB d lt Mee Poin Sees reve esy Ge: |
Ea eS oo Biops o |B2wn Py ene (Gime | eas
ei) a, = Shelly Dea Be BSoE Brie ® sere
aaa call & B |SEHE) oe| gel
as : : | | ; BBS 4] Fe |
ee Bor

= STIOG OOIVHEOT, JO SASKIVNYW TVOINAH;)

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. 173

TROL

100°00
100-00

*peutut

PIV oneyy

= -1ajapug E R =
2 - , a a 7
= “ploy ormoqae9 = me
= PUR PUR jo | x ce
BR PATISUPOXG ‘TS y — -
BS “purg
|
a ‘(anqy apna) |
asol[uy[a,) |
= 7 I
= : “RMOTIUy z 4
S | ‘(epupaque) e 4. es
= = PIV oy = = =e
Ss Eee c oS 6
S = | ‘(apmpsque)
= ~ | prey oneoy
= = | ‘(apups«qur)
=) A PP OBXO
a r ==
S mR at eae tie Be ay
= o *‘(aplipAyuer)
3

RICAN ToBAccos,

= | -(epupsqan)
¢ ms PPV OL)
- es
ap ) 5 | |
as ‘(epLIpaquer) |
ss a ply olde |
iS. es [a
Ue sas ¢ S S a
eS « © | sproummay om x i
4 ew (lea =
Dp 2 sasooupy) c =
2. 2
= Yeh en
ca) Oar es ‘yourig |
=) a @

og ‘saoueysqug
5 ABY
= pur uIsey

‘aMNOJIN

Tan

4

THE

‘onLtoyy,)

apuipaquy,
OPTS

capiipsquy
oLuouqd pug

CULTURE

OF

TOBACCO.

on StS is)
eS) 19 x
= i~ ma
oD a a
o aq oD
ag 1D
~ &

‘aplpaquy
oLwoydsoud

nm 2
nN

“OPIXO
SUOURSTIRIT

RUA

“APIXGY OLLI

“RISOTLS RIT

“OMT

“apo |

TSR

a

c OUTOMLN, )
PUR PUR jo
DAISN[ONS SES

“USV TRIOL |

-

“oul
Ww sLOcpOuune Ny

‘apupattuy |

SF.0 | OORLY L1.0 16.¢ | FBOTT-po9ag SIOUTTT] PUBUISMOOSTAL | CG
| | x 0 90.0. EL.g | *FRIT-PIIG 9}BIG YLOR MIN Ga
9ORI] F0.0 CLF JRaT pag o1gQ OL
| | AQUNOD 1aysRd
) 61.0 | 00.0 90.0 “UBT ‘4yRayT-paeg vIUBATASTUAg FE
| ‘Tos Apaes | ploy
00.0 CL.0 OF.0 OF-T &h.E £0.0 -WUR]L ‘fRAT-paag =yoyoouuo,) | OF
“WIROL TOLL + [IOS § paojL
| 1-0 ST.0 I1.0 tL. O19 “IORUY 0.4 MAN ‘JRaT-paeg = uoToauTTIO,-) GE
| (qetprut
fo paaudap yRef) patud-a1e
08-0 96-0 IL-0 €6.1 Z.€ IL. sOooRGo} anbitag,, BAVISTNOT LE
purrs ABIF YS, LO 9p TO
| UMOLS ACA BLA PSL, SAGAN
GF.S | 26-0 0 £8.0 68.6 FO0.0 OTTTAMBIL) “RUPO.LR,) TION OL
| ODIRGOT
| anid 10 Suyquo az0z | paano
CZ.8 | GLO 86.0 £6.0 98.0 FLO FEO “UR § AjunoOD UOsR ‘AyouTAy GL
| UIBO[ AARAT ‘YOTL : TOS
| SsjayIRVU YS Supp pur wear
| -1a+) aly} IoF | AuITIMG | paano
SLF DL OF-O FO.0 TL.O L Tt FEE 0.0 LL “YF AT[LASYAR) «= ‘aa sua, 4
| | aPBIS MOT
| | | | PapBy [BGIUTY MOY PUB WRUIIEL)
“L 16.6 | | FO | gro Te. | S } 9} LOF + patno-o1y + BIUTsITA | ¢
| | oooRqoy Supd AaLNoRy,
IS. P-& | BRO! fL.0 | 86.0 T6.8 | Tot Spam TUs | WUTLAIT |, &
| | eee = aay | 7 i Ka | Ae ie yy % wal U as] | ~
On 42 | pe | 2 | Pe |] ba bY Of = o = iS Bol | Seek | aA
es | & |ag |] & | BE | Be | BB Be | & é E Biol ess 9 este
ee h Aeh a¢ 5 a5 oS BS BS 4 a = Ez EE
Se) es | 3] | & 145 (4b | a3 | oR E. e 5 ° ; ani “Syaun |= e
gz | ® ere | ets {eS lt one ao | ° 2 =] ° iS | 5 | JOTI A ae
BE € |} @2 | o ee 28. a5 B = S o | ) 25
Se Pp home |) as | es ied BS ) : a. = | | Es
a8 Ze | ee igor Pe | 2 | \) ox
ey | | : u _!
9,001 £¥ anrad
AVUT NI VNOWWVO WOISSVLOd ANY ‘NSTOOULIN TVLOG SSINATCURIONT TWHANT AO NOTLMOCOWA—— |] Pity,

176 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

PERCENTAGE oF NICOTINE IN THE PRINCIPAL VARIETIES OF
AMERICAN ToBAcco.

Tn the following table are given the results of determinations of nicotine
on samples of the principal varieties of American tobaccos. In each case the
air-dried leaves (including the midrib) were finely ground, and a careful
average sample taken. The nicotine was determined on the air-dried sample
by the method of Schloesing, and the percentage of moisture in a separate
portion by drying at 100°C. The results are stated in percentages on the
sample dried at 100° C. :—

Percentage

of Nicotine.
Virginia (heavily mannred lots) . 581
Mexican Baler (heavily manured lots) 5°60

Clarksville, Tennessee (heavily manured lots)
Virginia (French Régie)

Virginia (heavy Nnglish shipping)

North Carolina Yellow (350)

German Saucer (Kentucky) 3 z
Periqne, cured in its juices (stripped from midrih)
German low grade (Virginia)

Perique, air cured (stripped from midrib)
West Tennessee Stemmer

German (dark)

New York (Wilson’s hybrid)

Connecticut Seed Leaf (New Milford)
French Régie, A

Penusylv ania Seed Leaf

Wisconsin Havana Seed

Connecticut Seed-Leut (Hartford)
Pennsylvania Seed-Leaf (Lancaster county)
Virginia sun cured, for plug

Periqne air-cured (whole leat)

North Carolina Yellow (365)

Mason county, cutting or plug

Ballard county, Kentucky, bright wrapper
Owen comity, Kentucky, plug fillers

North Carolina, bright wrapper

Hart county, Kentucky. bright wrapper
New York domestic Havana

Florida Seed-Leat

New York State Seed-Leaf

Connecticnt Havana Seed

Owen county, Kentucky, cutting leaf .
Ohio Seed Leaf 2

Sweet-scented Wisconsin wud Mlinois
Connecticut Seed-Lenf

Pennsylvania Seed-Leat

Wisconsin und Mlinois Seed-Leat

Little Dutch (Minmi valley)

Missing Page

178 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

ABSORPTIVE CAPACITIES OF CERTAIN VARIBTIES OF AMERICAN
ToBAcco.
From the “ Tenth Census,’ U.S.A.

The capacity of leaf tobacco to absorb and retain different favouring
substances added in the form of “sauces” is a matter of great importance
to the manufacturer, and especially to the foreign importer of American
tobaccos. In the following table are given the coeflicients of absorption of
some of the principal varicties used for the manufacture of chewing tobacco
These coefticients give the amount of water which each type will absorb and
etain without dripping, expressed in multiples of the weight of the air-dried
leaf ; they do not, of course, represent the actual amount of water that a
given sample will absorb and retain when subjected to the usual operations
of manufacture. It may be safely assumed, however, that the results obtained
in practice will stand to each other ina relation that will not vary zreatly
froin that indicated by the theoretical cocflicients of absorption, and the latter
may, therefore, serve as a suthcient basis for classification and comparison.

The coefficients of absorption were determined as follows: The air-dried
leaf was carcfully weighed, moistened with water until it had become pliable,
then loosely coiled on the bottom of a beaker and water enough added to
completely cover it. The whole was then left at rest for 48 hours. The leat
was then taken out, suspended over the beaker until it had ceased to drip,
and weighed. The liquid in the beaker was then evaporated to dryness on
the water-bath, the residual extract dried at 100 ©°., and weighed. The
cocfhicient of absorption was determined from these data by the equation

a+b—e
=t

c

wherein @ is the weight of the wet leaf, } the weight of the dry extract, ¢ the
weight of the dry leaf, and » the coefficient of absorption. The results were
as follows, viz.:

Coefficient of

absorption.
German, low grade (Virginia)... wa it ae 2°88
North Carolina bright wrapper ... aes ae 2 277
North Carolina Yellow ($65)... es a re 2°65
Owen county, Kentucky, cutting leaf... st oh 2°60
Owen county, Kentucky, plug fillers... ots re 2°55
Hart county, Kentucky, bright wrapper 2°54
North Carolina Yellow ($50) 3 Ay 2°39
Ballard county, Kentucky, bright wrapper 2°27
Mason county, Kentucky, cutting or plug PA |
Régie Virginia Shipper ig ae 2°14
German Saucer 2°07
Mexican Baler ae 2-04
Virginia sun-cured for plug 2°02
English Shipper (Virginia) 1°95
West Tennessee Stemmer 1-92
Virginia (heavily manured) 192:
Florida Seed-Leaf... 179
Periqne, air-cured... 1-74
Ohio Seed-Leaf a3 as Se 1°73
Sweet-scented Wisconsin and [linois 1°67
Clarksville, Tennessee, German .. 148
Virginia French Réeie, A 1-41
Virginia German Shipper 12

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO. Lg

DESCRIPTION OF TOBACCO GROWN IN
DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE
UNITED STATES.

These Tables, compiled from data secured by the North Carolina Experiment
Station and published in Bulletin 122, are of great interest. The variety
planted, the nature and value of the soil, the fertilizers applied, the purpose
for which the tobacco is to be used, and the selling price are all given. The
value in English pence may be approximately obtained by dividing the
values in cents by two, and the values in pounds may be reached by
dividing the dollars by five. The nature of the soil is described in general
and in exact terms, and this fact should be remembered in drawing

conclusions from the tables.

THE

CULTURE

OF

TOBACCO.

DESCRIPTION OF

Topacco GROWN IN

Where Grown.

Connecticut, Hart-
ford Co,

Connecticut, Hart-
ford Co,

Connecticut, Hart-
ford Co.

Connecticut, Ban-
crott Co.

Florida, Columbia.

Co,

Kentucky, Davess
Co.

Kentucky, Davess
Co.

Kentucky, Bracken
Co,

Kentucky, Graves
Co.

Massachusetts,
Hampshire Co.

Massachusetts,
Hampshire Co.
New York, Onon-
daga Co.

New York,
daga Co.

Onon-

North Carolina,
Alamance Co,

North Carolina,
Wake Co,

North Carolina,
Wake Co.

North Carolina,
Wake Co.

North Carolina,

Wake Co.
Ohio, Miami Co.

Ohio, Miami Co.
Ohio, Miami Co.

Ohio, Highland Co.

Ohio, Highland Co.

Ohio Highland Co,

Variety.

Havana seed
leaf.

Havana seed
leaf.

Havana seed
leaf.

Havana seed
leat.

Cigar leaf wrap-
per.

London strips...
English leaf

Kentucky white
Burley.

German shipping
tobacco.

Wilson’s Hybrid
Havana.

Havana seed
leaf.

Wilson’s Hybrid
Havana.

Domestic Ha-

vana Enreka.

Fancy
strips.

Nnglish

Lemon wrapper
Mahogany wrap-
per.

Cutter

Fine Smoker
Ohio seed leaf ..
Little Dutch
Zimmer Spanish

Large white

Burley.

(rood red lent of
white Burley.

Good bright leat

For what trade.

Domestic

Cigar

Cigar

Domestic

Sold in Cincinnati,
New York and
New England.

English
English

Domestic and

foreign.
Bremen

Cigar

Cigar

Cigar

English manufac-
ture.

American ..
American ...
American .

American ...
Cigar

Cigar

Cigar

Cincinnati and

Louisville.
Cinemnati aud

Louisyille,
Cincinnati and
Louisville.

In what form
manntactured.

igar wrappers

Cigar wrappers

Exclusively for

cigars.

Cigar wrappers

Wrappers aud
fillers.

“Shag ’”’

Cut into form

similar to fine cut.
Plug, fine cut and
smoking.
Spinning and cigar
wrappers.
Cigar wrappers

Wrappers, binders
ancl fillers.

Wrappers, binders
and fillers.

Plng

Wrapping fine
grades of plug.

Wrapping fine
grades of plug.

Cigarettes

Granulated smok-
ing.

Binders’ fillers and
wrappers.

Cigar fillers

Fillers and binders

Fine cut chewing

Plug

Plug and fine cut

Average value
per pound,

50 cents

50 cents

25 cents

50 cents

Wrappers 82 to x4
fillers less.

9 pence in London

8 pence in London

10 cents

85 cents

15 to 25 cents

20 cents

Wrappers 30 cents
binders 12 cents
fillers 7 cents.

Wrappers 30 cents
binders 12 cents
fillers 7 cents.

45 cents, raw values .

50 to 75 cents
50 to 75 cents
27 to 30 cents
15 cents

8 cents

13 cents

11 cents

18 to 20 cents

18 to 20 cents

20 to 25 cents

THE

CULTURE

Dirrerent Parrs or vue Unirep Starnes.

OF TOBACCO.

181]

Average yield
per acre.

1,800 Ibs. ...

1,800 Ibs. ...
1,800 Lbs. ...

1,800 Lbs. ...

500 to 1,000 Ibs...

1,000 NPS. -.-

1,000 Ib:

1,000 lbs,
800 Ip
é
1, yx00 to 1,800 Ibs,

1,600 Ibs. ...
1,000 to 1,200 Ibs.

Average 1,1001bs.

100 lbs. of this
grade with 400
lbs. poorer grade

500 to 600 lbs.

600 to 700 Ibs.

500 pounds ...

1,200 pounds
About 800 Ibs. ...
900 pounds

1,800 to 2,090 Ibs.,

in'‘Inding all
grades

1,800 to 2,000 Ibs.,
including all
grades

1,800 to 2,000 Ibs.,
including all

grades

Character of
soil,

Sandy loam

Light loam

Sandy loam

Sandy loam

Light sandy loam

Cluy loam sand

andy loam

vy loum and
sanly loam.
Limestone

Clayey loam

Light
loam.

sandy

Sandy loam
Sandy, gravelly

loam.

Sandy and
gravelly loam.

Sandy subsoil ...

Light sandy

Light gray with
yellow subsoil.

Sugar tree sou,
clay.
Sugar tree lands

Bottom lands

Rica limestone
soil.
Rich limestone |
soil.
Rich limestone
soil.

Kind and amount of fertilizers
applied per acre.

Cotton seed meal 2,000 Ibs, waned
cotton Lull ashes 1,200 Lbs,

600 lbs. sul. potash, 1 ton cotton
see meal, 400 lbs. vround
boue and 300 Ibs. lime broad-
Gast.

1,500 lbs. cotton seed meal,
500 Ibs. castor pomiuce, 1,000
Ibs. cotton hull ashes, 800 Lbs.
bone phos.

Cotton seed meal 2,000 lbs. and
cotton hull ashes 1,200 Ibs.

On new hammock none, on old
land 200 to 2,000 Ibs, mixed
fertilizer.

None
None
None
None

Sul. potash 600 Ibs., dry fish
1,000 lbs., cotton seed meal
1,000 Ibs., and barnyard man-
ure 6 cords.

Cotton seed meal 2,000 Ibs. and
sul. potash 500 lbs.
arnyard manure, ashes,
cotton seed meal, plaster, etc.,

say 500 Ibs. comusercial
fertilizer.
Barnyard manure, ushes,

cotton seed meal, plaster, etc.,
500 lbs., commercial
Cis

. ammoniated fertilizer

400 to 500 lbs. ammoniated
fertilizer for tobacco

Manure

Manure

Manure

This was grown in old house
lot.

This was grown in old house
lot.

This was grown in old house
lot.

Does Land
depreciate
with continued
cropping ?

No

No, it improves

No, with proper fer-
tilizution.

N

a)

No, if rotation of
crops is practised.

Yes, after three years
from cleari

Yes, alter three years
from clearing.

Yes

Yes

No, it improves

No
No, with proper fer-

tilization.

No, with proper fer-
tilization.

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes, not over two
crops in succession.
Yes same *

No, if well manured
yearly.

No, if well manured
yearly.

No, if well manured
yearly.

Average
value of
Tobueco
Lands
per ucre.

S150 to S200,
S200,

S100.

S150 to’S200,
33 to S30.

$25 to S100.
325 to S100,
350.
S15.

$200,

$200,

$50 to S250.
$50 to S250,

310.

$15 to S40.

850 to’ S75.
$50 to $75.

$50 to $75.

182 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

Descriprion or Toracco Grown IN DIFFERENT

Tn what form Average value

Where Grown. Variety. | Por what trade. minttaeturert: per pound.
|
2 es —— - =|
Ohio, Montgomery | Little Dutch | Cigar ‘ Cigar fillers |S to 9 cents
Co: filler
Ohio, Montgomery | Ohio seed leaf | Cigar Cigars ., About 6 cents to raiser
Ca, wrapper,
Ohio, Montgomery | Zimmer Spanish | Cigar Z Cigar fillers About 9 cents to raiser
Co, filler.

Ohio, Belmont Co. | White Burley | Home consumption | Chewimg . 7 cents
air-curel.

Ohio, Belmont Co. | White Burley | European . ; 10 cents
fire-cured.
Tennessee, Mont-| French B France Cigars and smok- | 64 to 7 cents :
gomery Co, ine tobacco, Ki
Tennessee, Mont- | Italian B Ttaly Cigars aes 7 to 7% cents

gomery Co,

Tennessee, Mont-} Austrian B Austria Cigars 9 to 11 cents
gomery Co.

Tennessee, Mont-| Stemming leaf | Great Britain 3 Twist for chewing | 5} to 7 cents
gomery Co, for English and cut for pipe

strips.

Tennessee, Mout-|} Kuropean cigar | Germany, Switzer- | Cigars “i .. | 10 to 13 cents
gomery Co, wrapper. land and Austria.

Tennessee, Mont-| German filler . Germany, Norway | Twist for chewing | 6 to 6} cents
gomery Co. and Sweden.

Tennessee, Mont- | German spinning} Germany, Norway | Twist for chewing | 7} to 11 cents
gomery Co, leaf. and Sweden.

Tennessee, Mont-| Austrian wrap- | Austria .. | Cigar wrapper... | 11 cents
gomery Co, per.

Tennessee, Mont-| Dark wrapper ... | United States Plug .. | 12 cents
gomery Co,

Tennessee, Mont- | Italian style Itulian 5 .. | Cigars and snuff... | 74 cents
gomery Co,

Tennessee, Mont- | German spinner. | German 4 Twist for chewing | 9 cents
gomery Co,

Tennessee, Mont- | French style France 3 : Cigars and cigar- | 6} cents
somery Co, ettes

Virginia, Henrico | French Régie | French Régie Suult a4 7 cents
Co. snuff leaf

Virginia, Henrico | Italian Régie | Italian Régie Cigars 2 14 cents
Co. cigar wrapper

Virginia, Henrico] Austrian Régie} Austrian Régie Cigars 14 to 16 cents
Co. cigar wrapper |

Virginia, Henrico | Itilian Régie | Italian Régie Cigars 10 cents
Co. cigar filler |

Virginia, Henrico} Austrian Régie} Austrian Régie Cigurs 133 cents
Co. cigar filler

Virginia, Henrico | Bremen Saucers | Chiefly Norway Twist and smoking | 12 cents
Co.

Virginia, Din- | Large dark | Domestic and | Plig. et 18 cents

widdie Co, wrapper export |

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

Parts or tHE United STares—continued,

Average
Average yield Kind and amount of fertilizers 1 Does Lou walue.oF
per acre, applied per acre. See ee ee ae
continued cropping ? Lands.
per Acre.
900 pounds Red clay is best | Clover sod and stable manure |Yes, unless liberally $100,
adapted and] preferred. ranured with
produces best stuble manure each
quality and year.
flavour
1,200 Ibs. .. Black sandy | Clover sod, with 4 to 8 tons | Yes, unless liberally | $100.
loam preferred stable manure preferred. manured with
stable manure each
year.
800 lbs. Red clay is best | Stable manure and other ferti-| Yes, without the use | 5100.
suited, and| lizers are used in a very] of fertilizers.
produces st limited way.
quality.
1,000 Ibs. .. Dark sandy Yes 540.
loam,
od ot Sie Sandy loam, new | None on new land Yes 340.

\o0 Ibs.
*
’
500 Ibs... 0 Ibs...
300 to 7

¢ to 1,100 Ibs....

if

1,000 to 1,300 Ibs.
1,000 to 1,200 Ibs.
1,000 to 1,200 Ibs.
1,000 to 1,200 Ibs.

1,000 Ibs. ...

1,000 lbs,

800 lbs.

900 Ibs.

700 Ibs.

550 lbs.

800 to 1,000 Ibs...
800 to 1,000 lbs.
800 to 1,000 Ibs. ...
800 to 1,000 lbs. ..
#500 to 600 Ibs.

1,200 to 1,500 Ihs.,
whole cro}.

ground.
Thinned clay

limestone

foundation.

Red clay, with
limestone
foundation.

Red clay, with
limestone
foundation.

Red clay, with
limestone
foundation.

Deep red clay,
with limestone
foundation.
Red clay, with

limestone
foundation.
Red clay, with

limestone

foundation.
Limestone
Limestone
Limestone

Limestone

Limestone

Clay

Clay

Clay

Clay

Clay

Sandy and
heavy. ;

Red or gray, with
clay subsoil.

Stable manure according to
supply and need.

Stable manure and commercial
fertilizer.

Stable manure according to
supply and need.
Stable manure, with about

200 bs. commercial fertilizer.

Stable manure, with about
200 lbs. commercial fertilizer.

Stable manure according to
supply und need.

Stable manure according te
supply and need.

Tohacco grower, about 75 lbs,
per acre.

Tobacco grower, ubout 50 to 75
lbs.

Tobueco grower, 50 to 75 lbs.
per acre.

Tobacco grower, 50 to 75 lbs.
per acre.

Tobacco grower.
per acre.

G00 lbs. sundries

50 to 76 lbs.

600 Ibs. sundries ...
600 lbs. sundries ...
600 lbs, sundries ...
600 Ibs. sundries ...
G00 Ibs. sundries

Stable manure, with
commercial fertilizer.

some

Yes, except by rota-
tion of crops.

Yes, except by rota-
tion of crops.

Yes, except by rota-

tion of crops.
Yes, except by rotu-

tion of crops.
Yes, except by roteu-
tion of crops.

Yes, except by rota-
tion of crops.

Yes, except by rota-

tion of crops.

Yes

Not with intelligent
farming,

$10 to $20.
$20 to S30,
320 to

S30,

$15 to $3

),

520 to S40,

325 to S40,

330 to S40.

330 to Sde,
$30 to $40.
$30 to S40,

330 to S40.

38 to SLO.

184 THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO.

Description or Topacco Grown IN DIFFERENT

| :
Pane saz 8 5 ‘ . Tn what form Average value
Where grown. | Variety. Kor what trade. mene ware. per pound.
Virenua, Din- | Small dark | Principally export | Plug and twist 11 to 124 cents
widdie Co, wrapper
Virgiuia, Din- |; Austrian Austria, ltaly aud | Plug and cigars 15 to 18 cents
widie Co. | wrapper other — countries
| where dark to-
baccos are used
Virginia, Dinwid-| Fine Anstralian | Australia and] Plug 5 8 to 10 cents
die Co. filler, other countries.
Virginia, Pittsyl-| Fine dark Vir- is Fillers for plug and cents
vania Co. ginia filler, twist.
Virginia, Pittsyl-| Fine bright Vir- E Plug, twist, fine | About 12 cents
vania Co, einin filler. cut and plug cnt.
Virginia, Pittsyl- | Fine bright Vir- Wrapping fine | 45 to 65 cents
vania Co, sinin wrapper. bright plug and
twist.
Virginia. Pittsyl-| Fine bright ma- : : Wrapping fine | 25 to 40 cents
vania Co, hogany wrap- bright plug and
per. twist.
Virginia, — Pittsyl- | Bnght export. English Cigarette and] 15 cents
vania Co. smoking.
Virginia, Pittsyl-| Export bright | English ... . |Chewing and] 1s cents
vata Co, strips. smoking,

Virginia, Pittsyl- | Export bright Nngland and other }Cigarette and} 16 cents

vania Co, cutters, countries. simohine.
Virginia, Charlotte | Cuttine lug Canadian |. Smoking 7 cents
Co.
Virginia, Pittsyl-| Bright wrapping | English. . | Smoking | 25 cents
vania Co, lent. |
Virginia, Charlotte | Common filler ... | Domestic . | Chewing 6 cents
Co, |
Virginia, Pittsyl- | Canadian filler Canadian Smoking plug | 10 cents
vania Co. : |
Virginia, Pittsyl-| Fine cigarette | English .. | Cigurettes 24 cents in strips; 16
vania Co. cutter, cents in leaf.
Virginia, Pittsyl- | Wrapper strips . English ... Smoking 30 cents in strips; 20
vania Co, cents in leat.
Virginia, Pittsyl-] Medium bright} Domestic .. Plug 20 cents
vania Co. wrapper.
Virginia, Pittsyl-] English strip ... | Knelish Cigarettes 16 nts in strips; 113
vauia Co, cents in leat.
Virginia, Pittsyl- | Fine bright | Domestic Plug 30 cents
vania Co, wrapper.
Virginia, Pittsyl- | Cutting Inge Domestic ... .. | Cigarettes 12 cents

vania Co,
‘ md 7 E ‘ |
Vireinia, Pittsyl- | Hnglish strip Knglish « | Smoking |

, |9 cents in strips; 6
vauin Co, cents in leat,
Virginia, — Pittsyl-) Buglish stripy Hnelish Cigurettes 1G3 cents in strips; 11

viania Co, cents in leaf.

|

|
Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Cigar . | Cigur fillers und | Wrappers 20 cents;

|

sced-leat, writppers, Hllers, 7 cents.

PARTS OF THE

THE CULTURE OF

Unirep Sratres—continued.

TOBACCO,

Average yield
per acre.

Kind and amount of fertilizers
applied per acre.

Character of
soil.

1,000 lbs., whole
crop.

1,200 to 1,500 lbs.,
whole crop.

1,000 lbs. whole
crop.

500 lbs,

600 to 7a 00 Ibs.

io lbs.

100 Ibs.
500 Ibs.
500 Ibs.
500 Ibs.
400 Ibs.
500 lbs.
500 bs.
400 Ibs,
500 lbs,
400 lbs.
500 Ibs.
500 Ibs.

About 1,300 lbs,

Red or gray, with
clay subsoil.

Stable manure, with
commercial fertilizer.

some

Stable manure with some com-
mercial fertiliser.

Red or gray with
cluy subsoil.

Stable manure, with some com-
mercial fertilizer,

Red or gray with
clay subsoil.

Light gray 200 Ibs. ammoniated fertilizer

Gray 200 to 400 lbs.
Light gray or | 200 to 400 lbs,
sandy

Light gray Ammoniated fertilizer .

Light gray Ammoniated fertilizer
Light gray Ammoniated fertilizer ..

Light gray Ammoniated fertilizer .

Light gray Ammoniated fertilizer ..

Light gray Ammoniated fertilizer ..

Light gray Ammoniated fertilizer

Light gray Ammoniated fertilizer

Light gray Ammoniated fertilizer

Light gray Ammoniated fertilizer ..

Light gray Ammoniated fertilizer .

Light gray Ammoniated fertilizer .

Principally barnyard manure
and sometimes commercial
fertilizers.

Generally lime-
stone ; also some
red sandstone
and gravel,

Average

Does Land depreciute| value of
with continued Tobacco
cropping ? Lands per
acre.

Not with intelligent Ss to S10.
farming.
Not with intelligent | 88 to S10,
farming.
|

Not with intelligent | 8 to S10,
farming.

Yes SS to S10
Yes, but may be re- | $12.
claimed by sowing
in grass.
Not when properly | $12
cared for.
Yes SLO,
Yes S10.
Yes S10
Yes S10
Yes S10.
|
Yes | s10
Yes S10
Yes S10
Yes S10,
Yes sl
Yes S10
Yes S10
No depreciation
known.

LONDON
WATERLOW AND SONS LIMITED, PRINTERS,

LONDON WALL.

Se ee ee
SSS ea ee ee