Sanat ues JAY Pease HL i) New York State College of Agriculture At Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. Library since Meer ca ya Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu3 1924003381385 \INEYARD ~ CULTURE IMPROVED AND CHEAPENED BY A. DU BREUIL Professor of Viticulture and Arboriculture in the Royal School of Arts and Trades PARIS TRANSLATED BY E. ann C. PARKER st ioe Fa te Mae GBM Of Longworth’s Wine House With Notes and Adaptations to American Culture BY JOHN A. WARDER Author of “American Pomology” Lien ig RU ote day wa mere AOM HC! BE ACK EET 1 CINCINNATI, OHIO Rosertr Crarke & Co. Pusiisuers, 65 Wesr FourtH STREET 1867 SG 3 0° DS 1'74299 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867, by Rogert CLARKE AND ComMPANY, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and for the Southern District of Ohio. EDITOR’S PREFACE. N attempting to adapt this manual to the wants of | American vine planters, the Editor has been actuated by a desire to add something to the usefulness of the work when it is presented to his countrymen, in its new form. Prof. Du Breuil is one who deservedly stands high in the horticultural world, and he has been honored with the post of teacher of vine and tree culture in the Imperial School of Arts and Trades of France, and has traveled in the provinces as a lecturer employed by the Government. His published works are standard. The vastness of the interest arising from the cultivation of the vine in France can only be judged by the immense returns of the products made to the Government. This is also shown by the production of such magnificent works as the large folio of Vicror Renpu, or the Ampelographie Universelle of Count Oparr ‘The former volume, which may be seen in the Agri- cultural Library at Columbus, Ohio, has a map of France, showing the portions devoted to viticulture, and a list of the regions in which the vine is cultivated, from which it appears that only eleven of the eighty-six provinces have no vineyards, Twenty-seven produce common wine, and forty yield a superior article. In the south, between latitude 43 and 44 (iii) iv Editor’s Preface. degrees, are produced the Roussillon, the Languedoc, and the heavy wines of Provence. ‘As we proceed northward, the vineyards produce a lighter wine, but possessed of great delicacy. To give an idea of the extent of this culture and its amounts, the following statement is made on the authority of Vicror Renpvu: In 1857 there were 2,000,000 hectares occupied as vine- yards; nearly 5,000,000 acres. The produce amounted to 30,783,223 hectolitres, over 813,000,000 gallons of wine, and 1,085,802 hectrolitres, nearly 29,000,000 gallons of brandy. The annual value being 478,088, 302 francs, or nearly g1,000- 000 dollars. In this country vine culture is yet in its infancy, but our people have made rapid strides, mow that they have started in the right direction, and there is no calculating the extent which our vineyards may attain within a few years. The character- istic energy and intelligence, with abundant wealth, have been embarked in the business, and the efforts must be crowned with successful results. Still we have much to learn, and for want of proper information and attention to the pointings of experience guided by common sense, many will fail. When I say we have at length started in the right direction I mean to refer to the errors of the early vine planters, who attempted to naturalize and acclimatize the foreign grapes, and who signally failed. Now, we are producing new varieties oy crossing and selecting the species and varieties indigenous to the country, which are better adapted to our soils and climate, aud among the numbers that are annually presented to the Editor’s Preface. public, there will, no doubt, be some that are eminently fitted for our cultivation. ‘The great difficulty will soon be to make. a judicious selection of those we wish to plant. In reference to this subject, Mr. T. S. Kennepy, President of the Kentucky Horticultural Society remarks: «Grape culture in this country is infinitely more profitable than it is in Europe, where from a single species more than two thou- sand good varieties have been produced, and upwards of four hundred of them are now cultivated in France and Spain exclusively for wine.”* He supports his statement by the following statistics, taken from Harasthy’s work. THE AVERAGE WINE PRODUCTION OF EUROPE REDUCED TO AMERICAN ACRES AND GALLONS. Millions | Gallons Acres, S gallons. |per acre Austria, and her provinces . . . « «| 2,685,950 714f 265° Greece, and her islands . 2. 2 1. 41,781 8 195 Tealy . 1 1 ee ew ww ww ef 25887,970 | 1,275 441 France . 2 « 6 6 6 © © © 8 © | 590035774 884 176 Spain. 2 ww 2 ww we ee ft 955,004 144 152 Portugal a: we SR ew 238,751 26 107 Belgium, Switzerland, Ionian Islands . .| 112,212 4 33 German States. . 2. 2 2 2 2 «© « 358,338 52 149 The aggregate number of acres Europe is 12,285,780. under vine culture in The total average yield of wine per year is 3,107,039,000 gallons. The wines, at twenty-five cents per gallon, are worth, total annual value, $776,759,750. * “ Western Ruralist,”” Louisville, Ky., Vol. 1, No. x. April, 1867. t Of these 714,000,000 gallons, Hungary produces some 450,000,000, vi Editor’s Preface. In Germany, the average income per acre, at twenty-five cents per gallon, amounts to $37 18. In the other countries, the average per acre, $63 98. But taking each country separately, their annual average production of wines amounts, at twenty-five cents per gallon, as follows : Total Amount. | Per Acre. Austria, and her provinces. . . . . « | $78,500,000 | $ 66 46 Greece, and Grecian Islands. . . . . 2,040,000 48 82 Ttaly a. ge Ge: ep aw 318,750,000 110 37 Fame gk KR we ee 221,000,000 44 07 Spain - yo ay Se 36,125,000 37 92 Portugal’: 2 + ¢ & @ 2% 2 a 6 6,375,000 26 70 Belgium, Switzerland, Ionian Islands. . 942,500 8 50 German States. 2. 2. 1. es ee 13,026,250 37 18 As yet the high prices of grapes and of wines in this country, and the large yield per acre, have been such that the gross earnings of the land appear to sustain the assertion of Mr. Kennedy, though when our gross product approximates that of older wine countries, it can not be doubted that the returns to the farmer will be greatly diminished; at the same time the cheaper production will be greeted as a boon to the consumer, and this is a consummation which is much to be desired. Two hundred and fifty gallons per acre has been considered a very moderate estimate of the average crops of our vine- yards, four times that amount having been produced, and one dollar a gallon is certainly a very low figure for the product. But the true friends of the vineyard interest look forward to the time of much cheaper production, Editor’s Preface. vii The careful attention of the reader is asked to the teachings of Prof. Du Brevuiz, from whom we may learn much that is useful, though we may not be inclined to adopt literally all of his suggestions. The American workman is not a machine, blindly to follow in the ruts that have been worn for him by his predecessors, nor hastily to adopt suggestions: it is our boast that we have intelligent labor, which ever becomes skilled labor—the thinking laborer has greatly the advantage over the mere routinist, and though he may not be a good subject, the American workman makes a capital sovereign, who always prefers to direct his own efforts, and will often im- prove upon the teachings of his professor. To distinguish the Editorial matter from the text it is set in smaller type, and within brackets. JNO. A. WARDER. North Bend, 0., April, 1867. AUTHOR’S PREFACE. HE culture of the vine, as now practiced, exists under TT circumstances which have necessarily influenced the various processes of which it is composed. In those regions which are at a distance from the great centers of consumption, such as at Languedoc, |’Aunis, Saintonge, the want of a mar- ket and the difficulty of transportation have reduced the price of wine to the minimum. Hence it has become necessary to reduce the expenses of cultivation as much as possible. The vines are not staked, but cover the ground with their shoots ; to diminish the expense of transportation to market, the wines are distilled into brandy. Burgundy, Bordelais, Champaign, Maconnais, Beaujolais, etc., are more favorably situated as to outlets for their products ; they have a denser population, and their climate is more favor- able for the production of wines of high quality, commanding a better price. Here it is justifiable to expend more capital in the culture and management of the vineyard, the vines are set more closely, and are trained upon stakes. However, within a few years, the circumstances that existed at the introduction of vine planting, and which then modified its arrangements, have been materially changed in several respects. The price of labor is not only exorbitant, but in many localities hands can scarcely be obtained. Hence the Vii Author's Preface. ix absolute necessity of substituting the plow for the hoe, wher- ever that implement can be used. Then, again, the constantly increasing price of stakes must require the adoption of some cheaper mode of support. Railroads, which penetrate every portion of the empire, have opened markets to the most re- mote parts, and have thus enhanced the value of the products; this, in the south, will tend greatly to diminish the produc- tion of brandies, because of the greater value of the wine. These increased facilities of transportation have induced great changes in the culture of some vineyards. Thus the cheap wines of Languedoc are now easily carried to Switzer- land, and come into competition with those of the Jura, which are thus almost driven from the market. It will there- fore be necessary to cheapen the production in the vineyards of that region. Elsewhere, as in |’Aunis and Saintonge, one half of the northern wines are mixed with a small proportion of brandy, flooding the market under the name of “Cognac,”* very sensibly lowering the price of brandy wines. In those regions it will be necessary to substitute, to a large extent, vines that will produce good table wines, in place of those choice varieties now grown. The increasing value of choice wines should direct our attention to the inquiry whether it would not be profitable to endeavor to shelter the vines that produce them, and thus to protect them from sudden changes of temperature, which so often diminish the vintage. ‘The various modes of cultivating a vineyard in different places are no doubt the result of long-continued observation *Not Cognac Brandy but Cognac Wines, x Author's Preface. and experience, and should therefore be regarded with con- sideration, but it can not be claimed that the management has reached its highest degree of perfection, nor that it may not be much benefited by the sciences which have made such valuable advances during the last half century. These considerations have induced me to believe that the time has arrived when we should bring to the vineyard all the improvements that are adapted to its management. These are the objects that we have endeavored to attain in the book we now offer to the public; which is, indeed, simply the re- production of the lessons upon this important subject which have been presented at the School of Arts and Trades, and in the several Departments of France where the lectures were repeated. We shall successively examine the various operations of vine culture, and shall endeavor to modify them in the fol- lowing particulars: Ist. The substitution of the plow for manual labor. 2d. The use of wire trellises instead of stakes. 3d. Shelter from inclement weather. The various processes of cultivation being modified as much as possible, we shall make the application to each of our principal vineyards in the different regions into which we have been called during the ten years of our traveling instruction. CONTENTS . ~ I. CHOICE OF SITE FOR A VINEYARD, PAGE Climate, - - = - a - Ss = - 2 Latitude, a z = Z 2 z é 3 Soil, - - - oe - - = = eG Situation, - - - - “ - - = Il Exposure, - - - - - - “i - 17 II. PREPARATORY OPERATIONS. Fences, - - - - - - - -~. 20 Roads, - - - - - - - - - 23 Ill. PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. Drainage, - - - - - - - - 25 Breaking up the Ground, - 7 - - - - 29 Cultivated Lands accessible to the Plow, - - 30 Waste, Uncultivated, or Swamp ra: accessible to the Plow, - - - - - 34 Steep, Hilly Lands, inaccessible to ie Plow, - 35 Breaking up in Strips or Ditches, - - - - 35 Trenching in Squares or Pits, - - oe - 36 Lands Rocky near the Surface, - - - - 36 Hill- Sides covered with Rocks, - - - - 37 Vineyards recently Planted, - - fs - - 39 IV. CHOICE OF VINES. List of Varieties, - - - a - z = 42 American Grapes, - 5 3 = S a HR ge xii Contents. CHOICE OF VINES—Continued. List of American Varieties, - - - Plants Producing the Best Wines, - - V. PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. Seeds, = = - - - - - Cuttings, - - - - - - Nursery for Raising Cuttings, ~ - - Preparing the Crossettes, - - . - Nursery Planting, - - - - Cultivation of the Nursery, - - - Removal of Plants from the Nursery, = Long and Short Cuttings, - - - - Single Eyes, - - - is S Objections to Single-Eye Plants, - - Layering, - 2 = < * = Taking up and dividing, - - - - Grafting, - - - - - - Time, «< = = ww @ = Choice of Plants for Propagation, - - Sports, - - - = - - VI. PLANTING OF A VINEYARD. Arrangement of the Vines, - - - = Mixed Planting, - = 7 a Planting in Close Rows, - a “ Planting in Isolated Rows, a MS - Space to be left between Stocks, - - - Arrangement of Rows of Plants, + + = In what direction to lay out the Rows, - Last Preparation of the Soil, - =~ «= 7 Choice of Plants, - < 7 = S Planting, - - - - 2 is 7 The Proper Time, - - 2 = Distribution of the Different Varieties in the same Vineyard, - - - < Ss Contents. xa PLANTING OF A VINEYARD—Continued. PAGE At what Depth to Plant, - - - - 106 «Laying out the Line for Planting, - - - 106 Mode of Planting, - - - - - - 108 Planting by Layering, - - - - - 113 Operations Supplemental to Planting, - - - - 114 Replanting, - - - - - - 115 VII. PRUNING THE VINE. Object of the Operation, - = F: Ss = - 116 The Proper Time for Pruning the Vine, - - - 17 Method of Cutting the Shoots and Large Stems, - - 119 Pruning Instruments, - - - - - 1g What Forms to give to the Vines, - - - - 122 Use of the Parent Stock, - - - - - 123 Proper Dimensions of the Vine, - - - - 123 Hight of the Plants above Ground, - - - «124 High-trained Vines, - - - o = - 125 Average-sized Vines, - - - - 128 Low Vines, = - - - - 138 Mode of Pruning in order to Form the Stocks, - 141 Cup-shaped Vines of the South, without Stakes, 142 Four-Armed Trellis, for Vigorous Varieties, with Stakes, 145 Trellis with Two Arms, for Plants of Moderate Vigor, 147 Trellis with a Single Arm, for Vines that are not Vig- orous, - - - - - - 147 Restoring Badly-Planted or Badly-Formed Vines, 147 Annual Pruning of Fruit-Stems, - - 149 Principles on which the Operation must be Based, 149 The foregoing Theory put in Practice, 154. VII. VARIOUS MODES OF SUPPORTING GRAPE-VINES. Necessity of the Operation, - - - - - 155 Various Modes of Support, - - - - 156 xiv Contents. VARIOUS MODES OF SUPPORTING GRAPE-VINES—Continued. Self-supported Vines, - - - Vines supported by Trees, - - Vines Trained to Grape-Stakes, - Vines supported by Horizontal Laths, Training on Wire, - - Knox’s Vertical Wooden Trellis, - IX. OPERATIONS OTHER THAN PRUNING, Laying down the Plants, Fastening of the Plant, and Bending of the Fruit-Stems, Rubbing out and Pinching, - - - Buds to be Suppressed, - - - Nipping the Bunches, - - - - Fastening the Shoots, - - Pinching the Shoots, - - - - Clipping the Shoots, - - Summer Pruning of the Grape, - - Thinning the Leaves, - - X. ANNUAL CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL. Plowings, = “i = Implements used in Working the Ground, Comparison between the Cost of Working by Hand and with the Plow, - Second Dressings, Comparative Cost of Light-Dressing, by Hand and by the Plow, - PAGE 156 157 157 166 168 179 180 181 185 ‘186 188 188 189 Igo 1g1 200 203 206 219 221 225 XI. MANURES AND CHEMICAL APPLICATIONS FOR VINE- YARDS. Manures—their Importance, Are Manures Prejudicial to the Quality of the Wine? Nature of the Manures to be Employed, - Highly Nitrogenous Manures, - - 227 228 232 233 Contents. XV MANURES AND CHEMICAL APPLICATIONS FOR VINEYARDS —Continued, PAGE Well-Prepared Farm-Yard Manures, - - - 233 ‘Night-Soil, Garbage, etc., i 233 Broken Bones, Fragments of Horns, Wool-Waste, 234 Sea-Weeds, —- & = - - 234 Composts, - = a S - 234 The Slimy Mud of Rivers i Poudy or the Sea, 235 Herbaceous Plants, = - - - i 235 Manures Rich in Potash, - - - =, - 236 Pomace, - z é = & a 7 236 Wood Ashes, - is a 5 . _ - 236 Woody Plants, = < 2 . 236 ‘Quantity of Manure to be Reseei: - - - 236 How to Apply the Manure, - - - - - 238 Lop- Dressing, = - is = = 2 - 240 Modifying Agents, Z - S = = - 241 Chalks, - - - - - - - 241 Gravelly Sands, = - f - = 243 Clayey Earths, - - - - - = 243 XII. MAINTENANCE AND RENEWAL OF THE PLANTS. Provinage, - = - = - 246 Layering, - - - - - = e 248 Cutting Down, - - - . - < - 249 Plantin, Ly - - - ~ “ Pa 250 ‘XIII. INCLEMENT WEATHER, DISEASES, HURTFUL INSECTS, Inclement Weather, - - - 2 a 254 Cold, = - - - - - - 254 Early Frost, - = = ss - 7 = 254 Winter Frosts, - = 2 = a Z - 254 Spring Frosts—Shelter, - - - - - 257 Summer Colds, - - = - 2 = s - 273 Damp Atmosphere, - - - - - 277 xvi Contents. INCLEMENT WEATHER, DISEASES, ETC.—Continued, PAGE Cost of Matting, = - - : - - 279 Hail, - ee 286 Heat of the Sun, - - - - az - 288 Diseases, Le - - - 5 = % - 290 Jaundice, - = - 7 : 290 Red Leaves, - . _ = S - 291 Blight, - - - - - - - 292 Oidium, or White Leprosy, - - - 2 - 292 Hurtful Insects, Ete. - - - ia 3 3 305 The Vine-Beetle, - - - 2 : - 305 Spider-Shaped Beetle, - - - - - 307 Blue Beetle of Dunal,_ - - = s : = 307 Common May-Beetle, - - - = Fy 308 The Vine-Pyralis, z 2 s e - 309 Destroying Larve-and Eggs on Stakes and Plants, 312 American Insects, - - ne 2 S 313 Slugs, Snails, = % : = je - 324 XIV. VINTAGE Degree of Ripeness of the Grapes, - - 325 Receptacles Employed in Making the Vintage, 327 Vintagers’ Baskets and Buckets, - - 327 Tubs, Dorsers, etc., - - : 7 = - 328 Vintagers, - - S = = 330 Cutters, - - - - - - - - 330 Basket- Carriers, - S . 7 = = 331 Porters, or Tub-Carriers, - a - a 331 Superintendents of Vintage, - - - - 331 Picking and Cleaning the Grapes, - 2 - 331 XV. DIFFERENT MODES OF WORKING A VINEYARD. Renting, - - e 7 Z i 332 Letting out on Shares, - - - 334 Working the Vineyard by the Proprietor, - - - 336 Work done by the Piece or Day, - - - - 336 VINEYARD CULTURE IMPROVED AND CHEAPENED. IKE most of our most useful food plants, the vine, Vitis vinifera of the botanists, appears to have come originally from Asia. From the time of Homer it was found in a wild state in Sicily and Italy; but prior to this the Phoenicians had introduced it into cultivation, first in the Islands of the Archipelago, in Greece, then in Sicily and Italy, and finally in Mar- seilles. As it progressed into more temperate regions the products of the vine became successively meliorated. The mild climate of France is the most favorable for the production of good wines ; and so this branch of culture has extended so greatly that in 1815 it occu- pied a surface of two millions hectares, producing near- ly forty millions of hectolitres of wine, valued at a billion, paying to the State and to the communes, more than two hundred millions, and furnishing occupation to more than eight millions inhabitants. This has, therefore, been placed in the second rank in the scale of the land interest of the country. M. de Gasparin has well remarked that in the center, and especially in the south of France, the vine yields a harvest, the product of which is almost certain, whereas other crops are not always to be depended on; that it 2 (i) 2 Vineyard Culture. was one that needed the least labor relatively to the net profit received, that it banished fallows, and contin- uously occupied the whole extent of country that had a suitable climate; that it is adapted to all kinds of soils, and occupied those which produced nothing but - useless thorns and briers; that it furnishes labor at all seasons, to all ages and to both sexes; that it yields several important products, and valuable merchandise ; finally, that it requires little manure, allowing this to be applied to other crops. I, CHOICE OF SITE FOR A VINEYARD. (CCimate.—The vine grows vigorously in all parts of France, and its berries will ripen at almost any point; still its pulp does not acquire in all parts those qualities which render it fit for the mannufacture of wine. The saccharine properties indispensable to vinous fermentation are not formed in sufficient quanti- ties in the pulp of the grape, except under influence of a bright sun and pretty high temperature. Beyond the 5oth degree of latitude, the vine no longer meets with the necessary degree of heat, and the sugar of its grapes yields nothing by fermentation but an acid liquor. But though an insufficient degree of heat injures the quality of the grape, a too high temperature is not less hurtful. The saccharine principle, in that case, is de- veloped in such abundance that the grapes yield a thick liquid, rich in alcohol, but of very inferior quality.— Choice of a Situation for a Vineyard. 3 This is what occurs in vines cultivated below the 35th degree of latitude. As we approach too near the equator this cultivation often meets with another difficulty, namely: the unin- terrupted growth of the vine, which produces on the same stock blossoms, green fruits, and ripe fruits; each bunch displaying the same phenomenon; wine making is therefore impracticable. It is, then, between the 35th and soth degrees of latitude that the vine can be cultivated to advantage. It is also between these two limits that we find the richest wine countries, such as Spain, Portugal, Italy, Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Hungary, Transylvania, and especially France, which is celebrated for the variety and quality of its vines. Latitude, however, is not the only condition on which success depends; we must also take into account the elevation of the soil above the level of the sea, for that circumstance exercises no small influence on the cli- mate of a country. This explains why certain locali- ties in France, otherwise situated in a latitude favorable to the vine, but too elevated above the level of the sea, do not admit of this cultivation. In Hungary, the cul- tivation of the vine ceases at an elevation of about 980 feet; in the north of Switzerland at 180 feet, while it reaches to 2,130 feet on the southern slope of the Alps, and may reach 3,150 feet in the southern Apennines. Thus we see that this limit of elevation varies as we approach or recede from the equator. The exposure of the land, and its natural shelter, also modify the condition of climate: the southern expo- sure being warmer than the northern, the limit of ele- 4 Vineyard Culture. vation toward the south will be higher than toward the north. Certain deep valleys, sheltered from the cold winds, will admit of the cultivation of the vine, although situated beyond the degree of latitude to which it can usually be grown. Other regions, although sit- uated within this limit, exposed to the cold and damp winds of the north-west and west, will not admit of the production of wine. The deep and sheltered val- leys of the Moselle and Lower Rhine, on the 51st de- gree of latitude, produce excellent wines ; while in the provinces of ancient Normandy, and the largest portion of Brittany, much further south, the culture of the vine had to be abandoned. [In applying these data as a guide to the selection of a site for grape culture, in this country, we must bear in mind the fact that equal latitudes are not blessed with a similar mean temperature. Humboldt long ago observed a very great dif- ference in the climates of countries that were equidistant from the equator. His observations, and those of other students of physical geography, have resulted in the establish- ment of lines of equal temperature. These are called the isothermal lines ; they are very curiously curved, and do not at all coincide with the parallels of latitude. This is very man- ifest in the maps that have been prepared, upon which the lines are laid down. It will be observed that a given line reaches much farther to the north onthe Pacific than on the Atlantic coast of this Continent, while in South América the reverse is the case. In the interior of our Continent the lines are deflected northward on account of the effects of the in- terior basin, in which we reside, which is about one thousand feet above the level of the sea, The line which passes through Savannah, Ga.,—(N. Lat. 32°), dips southward in its westward course, skirting along the coast of Texas, and from the point Choice of a Situation for a Vineyard. 5 of its crossing the Rio Grande at its mouth—Lat. 26°—it is de- flected southward in its passage over the high lands of Mexi- co, to Lat. 20°, turning again to the north as it descends the coast, and meeting the peninsular of Lower California near the tropic of Cancer. Here we have, in crossing the Conti- nent, an extreme variation of 12 degrees of latitude. If we trace these lines upon a map of the world, we shall see that as they leave our Continent eastward they all turn decidedly to the northward, on account of the influence of the gulf-stream, which carries the temperature from the tropical seas toward the arctic region, and striking the west coast of Europe, modi- fies the climate there, even in high latitudes. Let us now follow the line that passes through Cincinnati, in its eastward course; it is but slightly turned to the north until it reaches the Atlantic, when it is deflected northward, and crossing this ocean is projected upon the west coast of France, in lati- tude 49, and reaches the banks of the Rhine, in the wine region, latitude 48 degrees. We are in the habit of consid- ering France a warm country ; and so it is, as shown by these lines, though nearly the whole of its territory lies north of latitude 43, which is near the north line of Iowa, passes through Milwaukie and Madison, Wisconsin, Grand Haven on the west and Fort Gratiot on the east of Michigan, by the mouth of Lake Huron, through Canada, to Niagara Falls, north of Albany, and almost touches Maine as it reaches the ocean. The latitude of the wine region of the Rhine, in France and Germany—4g north—is found in the inhospitable region of British North America, a whole degree beyond Lake Superior. This difference in the temperature of the two Continents ‘is attributed in great part to the different distribution of land and water under the equator in each. Europe feels the influence produced by the broad extent of burning sands ex- posed to a tropical sun in Africa, while in the Western Hemi- 6 Vineyard Culture. sphere the space between the equator and the tropic of Cancer is chiefly water, which reflects the rays and does not heat the air to the same extent as the sands of the desert. Certain data have been reached which are of great import- ance. We can not depend entirely upon a given mean tem- perature of the whole year, for this may be accompanied by great extremes, on the one hand, from which the resultant mean has been derived; or, on the other hand, there are re- gions, like some of the uplands of South America, where the mean temperature is as high as that required by the grape, but the heat is at no time great enough to induce the proper ripening of the fruit—the change to sugar. The summer mean temperature, or that of the season of growth, is considered the safer criterion, and it is stated that 65° is the lowest at which grapes will ripen. Baussingault, the distinguished French Philosopher, who has bestowed much careful study and observation upon the influence of meteorol- ogy upon vine-growing, has left us the following conclusion : ‘‘in addition to a summer and an autumn sufficiently hot, it is indispensable that at a given period—that which follows the appearance of the seeds—there should be a month, the mean temperature of which does not fall below 66.z° Fahrenheit.” Mr. James 8S. Lippincott, of New Jersey, has contributed some very valuable papers upon the philosophical bearing of climate upon the culture of the grape. These appeared in the Reports of the Agricultural Department at Washington, for 1862 and 1863, and they should be carefully studied by all who are intending to plant vineyards. ] So1t.—Clayey, compact, impervious soils are not adapted to vine culture; the superabundance of moist- ure which they contain,causes the root to rot, and the stocks to languish and droop. Silico-argillaceous, and rich, deep soils, do not suit the vine any better. It will Choice of a Situation for a Vineyard. 7 grow in them with great vigor, but that very vigor in- jures the quality of the grapes, which then contain an insufficient proportion of the saccharine principle, and consequently yield but a light wine, without aroma.— Nevertheless, while taking into account all these objec- tions, it may be said that all soils, suitably exposed and in a favorable climate, are adapted to this cultivation, whatever their composition may be in other respects. A glance at the different soils which produce the best wines of France will prove this. Silico-argillaceous soils mixed with a considerable por- tion of gravel and silicious stones: such as the vine- yards on the banks of the Rhine, the hills of Reims, of Romanée-Conti (Burgundy). Sand, more or less pure, mixed with round stones of various sizes, so much so as even at times to give the ground the appearance of the dried-up bed of a torrent : vineyards of Bordeaux and Médoc. Limestone soils: vineyards of Champagne, Pierry, Epernay, Avize and Grammont; vineyards of Xérés in Andalusia. , Clay-slate soils: vineyards of Malaga, Granada, Ar- agon and Anjou. Other celebrated vineyards are located upon granitic lands, such as those of Mas, of Condrieu, of l’Ermit- age, of Saint Peray, as also a few of the vineyards of Burgundy. Although volcanic lands are rarely used as vineyards, they nevertheless deserve to be mentioned. The vine- yard of Roquemaure in Vivarais, some of those on the banks of the Rhine, those of Vesuvius and Etna, are located on soils of this description. 8 Vineyard Culture. [Our experience in this country has led us to similar con- clusions, though the most intelligent grape growers express themselves very much at fault, when asked to describe the best ‘grape lands.” We find the vine cultivated with success and profit in the sands of New Jersey; indeed, some varieties appear to escape the mildew, in such soil, that suffer from the malady elsewhere. On the pebbly drift of the Hudson, some vines have been remarkably successful. On a similar, but more fertile soil, in western New York, and in Pennsylvania, on Lake Erie, the grape-culture has been very successful, and along the same shore we find the vine yielding most satisfactory results on the light, sandy soils, on the rich limestone clays, and even in the close, heavy, whitish clays of the shales, some of which look cold and repulsive enough to the farmer. All of these are respectively called «‘grape-soils,” and are claimed to possess peculiar advantages. In the blue-grass region were planted some of the first vineyards of the West. The French in Kentucky, and the Swiss at Vevay, Indiana, selected the rich, heavy clays of this. limestone region, which occupies a circle around Cincinnati that would be described by a radius of fifty miles. Within this magic ring the first—and the first successful—efforts at grape- culture were made. The soils here are sufficiently heavy, and by some are considered too rich for the profitable culture of the vine. , The limey clays, tempered with the detritus of sandstones, as found in the coal-measures, have also been very successfully planted with the grape, about Pittsburgh and Wheeling, and at some other points. In the prairies of Illinois, the grape has been grown on black soils, but it can hardly be said with success, except upon the borders of the Mississippi, where it is chiefly planted on the loess deposit, which also prevails to Choice of a Situation for a Vineyard, 9 some extent in the lands of Missouri that are devoted to the vine. With all these facts before us, can we say with confidence that this or that is essentially a grape-soi/, to the exclusion of other lands with very different characters and constituents ? This subject has been repeatedly brought before the mem- bers of the Odio Pomological Society, and of the Lake Shore Grape Growers’ Association, and the reader is referred to the papers and discussions printed in their Reports. It would, indeed, appear that any and all soils may prove to be adapted to the culture of some variety af the grape.] Thus we see that the vine can give good results in soils of various composition, but those soils are better adapted to this cultivation if they contain a certain quantity of pebbly stones, which appear to act favor- ably on the fertility of the soil, by rendering it more accessible to air and water, and assisting it to draw the heat from the sun’s rays. ‘Therefore, care must be had not to clear the soil of pebbles, if appropriated to vine- culture, but only to remove such large stones as may impede cultivation. [The radiating power of stones upon the surface of the soil, has been suggested as a valuable means of aiding the ma- turing of the grape, and has been applied to practice in New England, where this material often abounds. The stones were all taken out of the soil in its preparation, the vines were well cultivated until they were established, and then a complete covering of stones was replaced upon the surface. These served the purpose of a mulch, and kept down the weeds, but allowed the vines to grow and spread upon a trellis near their surface. This was found to exercise a beneficial in- fluence in the ripening of the fruit. It is a very common thing with vine-dressers to express 10 Vineyard Culture. their preference for leaving the shelly masses of our lime- stones upon the surface of the ground, instead of gathering and removing them. ‘hey are supposed to retain moisture in the soil as well as to radiate heat at night.] The knowledge we possess of the unfavorable in- fluence which a superabundance of moisture exercises on the vine, points out clearly enough the kind of sub- soil which is adapted to it. The substratum being of an impervious nature, water, by accumulating on its surface, would cause the roots of the vine to rot, or would keep near them an excess of moisture injurious to the quality of their product. Nevertheless, an im- pervious subsoil is more injurious to the vine in a tem- perate climate, and ina naturally moist atmosphere, than in a burning clime, where the vines frequently suffer from excessive drought. In short, it is chiefly owing to this property, which the soil has, of receiving and retaining moisture, that we must attribute the principal differences in wines. This quantity, greater or smaller, quickens or slackens veg- etation, which influences the transformation of the “ must,’ and thus decides the relative proportions of all its component parts. These observations have been confirmed by the ex- amination of the vine regions in their aggregate. The wines from the hills of the West (Portugal, Médoc) are rich in tannin, and not so sweet as those from the East (Granada, Malaga, Xérés, Syracuse). Passing from south to north we also find the proportion of sugar decreasing as the moisture increases and the tem- perature falls. This is demonstrated by the successive examination of the wines of Languedoc, those of the Choice of a Situation for a Vineyard. II banks of the Rhone, of Burgundy, and of the Rhine. We know likewise that wet years produce more acid, and Jess sugary, wines. SiruaTion.—A vineyard may be located in a valley, on an elevated plateau, or on a hill-side: let us exam- ine whether all these positions are equally favorable. Narrow vales are little adapted to vine-culture; the dampness of the atmosphere is too great; it prevents the ripening of the grapes, and the vines are more ex~ posed than elsewhere to the spring frosts. Neither are elevated plateaux, nor the crownsof high ‘hills, more favorable: there, the air being too sharp, and always in motion, hardens the skin of the grapes, and they contain but a very small proportion of saccharine matter. Unsheltered plains produce very good wines ; take, for instance, the vineyards of Médoc, those on the plains of Thassis (Dréme) or of Roussillon, of Crau, near Arles, of St. Nicholas de Bourgeuil, in Touraine etc., etc. Lastly, the hills of Burgundy, and those of a great number of other localities, celebrated for the quality of their wines, also prove how well adapt- ed are inclined plains, or hill-sides, to the culture of the vine. Upon the whole, in the northern portion of the belt which we have described as adapted to the vine, we must choose, frst, large, level, open plains; then hills, and hillocks, or slight declivities, and, as we approach toward the southern portion of that belt, we must ascend toward the summits of high mountains, in or- der to remove the vine from the too scorching heat of the plains. The slopes of Vesuvius, the high hills of Madeira, the cloud-capped rocks of Teneriffe, and of 12 Vineyard Culture. the Cape, produce wines that are much esteemed, while the plains that are situated in their neighborhood, yield a liquor that is little sought after. ‘To the north it is the reverse: the wines of exposed plains, or hillocks, are generally superior to those grown on the mountains, [The subject of drainage and its necessity can not be too strongly urged upon vine-planters, especially those who select heavy lands. The majority of grapes require a porous and well drained soil, through which the superabundant moisture may readily percolate, and to which it will also return by cap- illarity in a period of drought; hence the importance of loams, or even sandy loams, for all cultivated lands, and hence the necessity for drainage in our heavy clays, For further argument in favor of drainage, and for instruction in the de- tails of performing the operations, the reader is referred to the excellent manuals upon that subject which may now be obtained. Surface drainage is very well in its way, but can notat all supply the place of thorough underdraining. The methods of applying surface drainage to the vineyard will be explained in another page.] It will be equally well to avoid declivities that are too abrupt, for in such cases the cost of cultivation will be much greater. The plow can not be used there; the rain floods tear up the ground and wash down a portion of the soil, which has to be carried up again by hand, The transporting of manure, as well as the gathering of the grapes, is much more difficult, [In our own country we have similar illustrations of the different situations that have been appropriated to grape cul- ture. On the banks of the Ohio the first vineyards were all planted upon the abrupt hill sides, where it was necessary to Choice of a Situation for a Vineyard. 13 perform every part of the labor by hand. From the prepara- tion of the soil to the culture of the vines, and even manur- ing them, when that was done, nothing but human labor could be applied. Gradually the vineyards were extended upward -to the exposed hill tops, and downward until they expanded over the level terraces of the river valleys. It was soon discovered that where the land was sufficiently level to admit of the use of the plow, the cultivation could be much more easily performed, and vines were much more extensively planted. Next came the observation that those on the tops of the hills, freely exposed to light and air, were more pro- ductive, and in every way preferable and more satisfactory in their results, being much more cheaply managed also. Those on the gravelly and sandy river terraces, though easily tended, did not generally succeed, but planters on ele- vated plateaux of clayey soil were more successful with their vineyards, In the northern portion of Ohio, on Lake Erie, flat lands and gentle slopes have always been selected, and they have been remarkably successful, in some cases, when but a few feet above the level of the lake, except in certain situations where a black, mucky soil was chosen, when the grape dis- eases soon made their appearance, and destroyed the crop. In that part of the country the soils vary, as above stated, but while heavy clay lands, rich in lime, are preferred, those of a more stony character, and gravelly drifts, with good natural drainage, have been found very succéssful, and some soils called sandy have yielded good results. With the high price of labor in this country, it is abso- lutely necessary for us to select our sites with reference to performing the work of the vineyard as much as possible by the use of animals, with plows and cultivators. We must have access to our vineyards with the horse and wagon, to transport material to and from the soil, instead of depending 14 Vineyard Culture. upon human thews and shoulders, for “packing” the manure to the exhausted soil in baskets, or for transporting the abund- ant vintage from the vines to the press; horse-power must be applied, as cheaper than man-power, for which there will be found abundant need in the higher operations of the vine- yard: therefore the abrupt declivities of our hill-sides will be abandoned for the plains and gentle slopes and hill-tops. ] It has been noticed that the neighborhood of rivers exercises a beneficial influence upon the products of the vine ; certain it is that the most celebrated vineyards are almost all situated in the vicinity of large water- courses. okay wine is made from grapes grown on the Theiss ; the celebrated wines of |’Hermitage, Céte- RGtie, and Condrieu, are grown on the hills which bor- der the Rhone. The Garonne flows not far from the best growths of the red and white wine of the grav- elly districts extending from Langon to Bordeaux; the Gironde waters the far-famed vineyards of Margeaux, Latour and Laffite; the Dordogne is separated from those of Saint Emilion only by the alluvial plains stretched along its right bank. The Loire, the Marne and the Seine, see, as it were, nothing but vines spread over the whole extent of their course, and the famous ridge which traverses Burgundy overlooks a plain wa- tered by the Sadne. It is true that the no less cele- brated vineyards of Champagne and the Céte-d’Or might be cited as exceptions. For this reason M. de Gasparin attributes the superior quality of all these growths to their location on hill-sides, and to their good exposure, rather than to the vicinity of water-courses. [The influence exerted by rivers in favoring the products of the vine, as cited by the author, is probably not merely Choice of a Situation for a Vineyard. 15 owing to the mere presence of water, for many of the streams are of moderate size. There are other concomitant circum- stances which must exert a happy influence: near the streams, there are often terraces of warm and gravelly soils; the land is nearer the level of the sea, and may be sheltered by ranges of high mountains; on the sides of the valleys, advantage is often taken of favoring exposure to the more direct rays of the sun, and the surrounding hights may afford both reflected heat and shelter. But beside all this, the general level of the country, in a large portion of the grape region of riorthern Europe, lies at such an elevation as to be too cold for the suc- cessful cultivation of the vine; the mean temperature of the summer months is too low; while, in the favored spots just indicated, the requisite conditions for the vine are found. In this country, we have not generally the same differences of elevation between the rivers and the uplands, so as to make a marked change in the temperature, but, on the other hand, we have an obnoxious element arising from such situations adjacent to the streams. This is the occurrence of fogs, which are oftentimes disastrous to the welfare of the grape, when occurring at midsummer. These fogs, and an excessive rain-fall, alternating with periods when the atmosphere is very dry, are exceedingly injurious to the vine in the vicinity of some of our rivers. The influence of the lakes, however, has proved to be exceedingly valuable, in so modifying the climate, both in winter and summer, as to enable us to cultivate the vine in latitudes which were formerly considered too high for it—as in northern Ohio, and all along the southern shore of Lake Erie, and portions of that of Lake Ontario, as well as in the vicinity of some of the lakes of New York State. The ob- servations made upon Lake Erie will demonstrate this, and explain the phenomenon. In the spring, the waters are chilled by the supplies from the upper lakes, and thus retard vegeta- 16 Vineyard Culture. tion until all danger of spring frosts has passed by. When the sap starts, at last, everything goes on rapidly, and without check, The mean temperature rises to a sufficient hight for the grape, and the accumulated warmth of the lake water modifies the temperature, so as to prevent autumnal frosts, and the season is prolonged in the same ratio that it was shortened in the spring, and the necessary length of time is furnished for the maturation of the fruit. It has been demonstrated, for a series of years, that grapes will ripen in such situations, when favored by these influences, although they fail to reach maturity at inland situations much further south, as in the interior of Ohio. For further details, and illustrations of the happy influence of our lakes, the reader is referred to essays and discussions, to be found in the Reports of the Societies above mentioned, which can be had of the Secretary, M. B. Bateham, Paines- ville, Ohio. The following remarks upon this subject, are from an article on the ** Climatology of American Grapes,”’ by Jas. S. Lippincott, of New Jersey, which may be found in the An- nual Report of the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, D. C., 1862, p. 206: «The meliorating influence of our lakes is too marked to escape our attention. ‘The peninsula of Michigan, northern Ohio, western New York, and western Vermont, show higher temperatures near the lake, and the abrupt curves of the isotherms, from the upper Mississippi valley to Lake Michigan, prove that altitude is not the cause of their me- lioration. The success attending fruit-growing in western New York, may be properly attributed to the influences of Lake Ontario and the minor lakes of that district. The spring frosts do not occur so late as at points further in the interior, and the expanse of melting ice retards vegetation until the season is so far advanced that it escapes injury therefrom. Choice of a Situation for a Vineyard. 17 «Throughout the month of May, the temperature of the water taken from about one foot beneath the surface, is but seven degrees above the freezing point. This is owing to the continued flow of waters from the melting ice of the upper lakes. It gradually rises to that of the atmosphere in the latter part of July, and above it in August. In September, it is nearly three degrees warmer, and in October, it retains the temperature of 53°, which is six degrees above that of the air on its southern shore. Its effect in warding off un- timely frosts, is thus readily comprehended. «© The eastern shores of the lakes are much more safe than those on the west side. Altitudes make a great difference, and the best influence is not felt immediately upon the lake, but some miles distant, often upon higher ground. , «© In the State of Ohio, ten miles inland from the’ shores of Lake Erie, the Catawba is unworthy of cultivation, and rarely ripens. On sandy soils, along the lake-shore, it generally matures, while, on the islands, on clayey limestone, it always ripens, and of a quality not uniformly met with elsewhere.’’] ExposurE.—Writers on grape culture are very far from agreeing about the choice of exposure. Some advise a southern exposure exclusively ; others think the north equally good; and, lastly, there are some who seem to think this a point of little importance, grounding their argument on the fact that if, on the one hand, a large number of celebrated vineyards are ex- posed to the south or east, several, not less renowned for the quality of their products are exposed to the north. Such are, in Champagne, those of the hills of Epernay, Mailly, Chigny and Rilly ; such are the most celebrated on the Rhine; several of those of Saumur and Angers ; and, in the vicinity of Tours, the hills of Joné and St. Avertin, where excellent red wines are 18 Vineyard Culture. grown. A certain portion of the vines of |’Hermitage are also exposed to the west. What other conclusion can we arrive at, from these conflicting opinions, except that the best exposure can not be indicated with absolute certainty; that it must vary according to local circumstances, and be deter- mined by the combined influences of latitude, elevation above the sea-level, as well as the nature of the soil and the frequency of white frosts in the locality? The vine especially dreads a damp atmosphere, for such injures the quality of its grapes. Therefore, as a general rule, exposures open to the influence of cold and damp winds from the north-west, the west and south-west, must be avoided. In the northern portion of the climatic zone adapted to vine-culture, the south- ern, south-eastern and eastern exposures are prefer- able. Inthe southern portion of that belt, the northern exposure may be added to the foregoing, provided the angle of inclination is not over 20 degrees. This last exposure is even necessary in the warmest localities, in order to remove the vine from the action of too intense heat. The elevation of the land above the level of the sea must also be taken into account in choosing an expos- ure; the higher the land, the more southern must be the exposure, especially in the northern portion of the zone adapted to the cultivation of the vine. Where the soil will retain a great deal of moisture, the north- ern and eastern exposure, being generally dryer, must have the preference. Lastly, the west must be chosen in localities where white frosts prevail, in order that the Choice of a Situation for a Vineyard. 19 sun may not strike the shoots until after the frost has disappeared. Thus we see how difficult it is to say what degree of success a vineyard planted on any particular spot will have, so much do certain causes, apparently unimport- ant, influence the result. Chaptal thinks that-all soils in which the fig-tree, the soft-shelled almond and the peach-tree (ungrafted) will grow well and yield fine fruit, are adapted to the vine. [The question of exposure is a new one to planters in this country, and hence the importance of observing the results of observation and experience in older lands. The suggestions in the text appear to be very sensible, and, guided by their home experience in the northern portion of the vine-growing region of Europe, our German vine-dressers selected south- ern slopes for their vineyards. It has seemed, however, that the exposure of the vines to the freely moving currents of air, was a more important element of success, in most cases, where these vineyards were situated on river hills, than the exposure to the sun on the southern slopes. As the vineyards extended, it often happened that other exposures were occupied, and it was soon observed that those which inclined to the north were equally successful. A well-founded prejudice, sustained by observation, exists against a bold eastern and south-eastern exposition, on account of the greater liability to frost, or rather the greater damage which is done by the frosts of spring, and even by the cold of winter, where the vines are exposed, while frozen, to the direct rays of a bright sunshine. It often happens that the shoots are destroyed in the open situation, whereas, if but partially shaded, even by one an- other and by the stakes and trellises, and by a different expos-. ure, they may escape the damage, even where the freezing itself may have been equally severe, Hence, a western, or 20 Vineyard Culture. even a northern slope, is often preferred to one which lies more directly toward the rays of the rising sun.] II. PREPARATORY OPERATIONS. HE location for the vineyard having been chosen, we proceed toa consideration of the preparatory labors for the vineyard. Fences.—It is to be regretted that most of our vine- yards are without fences. They should all be in- closed; otherwise the following inconveniences may be the result : 1st. In countries still under the ban of the ordinances fixing the time for the gathering of the grapes, it is im- possible to introduce in their cultivation certain much- needed improvements. For, what profit would there be, for instance, in introducing into one’s vineyard a vine of more precocious growth, if the gathering of its fruit is to await the raising of the ordinance ban ?— Neither will it be possible to derive benefit from opera- tions having for their object the ventilation of the vines, so as to allow the grapes to remain longer on the stocks, without fear of the rot, and thus reach more perfect maturity. The grapes must be gathered before the proper time. And, lastly, if the vineyard is made up of different varieties of grapes, maturing at different periods, the ban will compel the gathering of the whole at the same time. Vineyards that are fenced in are free from all these inconveniencies. Preparatory Operations. 23 2d. Fences protect the produce of the vineyard from the depredations of marauders and dogs. But all kinds of fences are not equally adapted to vineyards. Evergreen hedges, planted on the level ground, often keep up a moisture which favors white frosts, or retards the ripening of the grapes ; besides, the roots of these hedges injure the grapes, by exhausting the soil to a distance of from twenty to twenty-six feet. Stone fences are too expensive, unless on a small scale, or for the protection of very valuable crops. If suitable rock, or stones, be at hand, walls may be erected to pro- tect the vineyards. Or, the vineyard may be sur- rounded with a ditch about five feet wide at the top, twenty inches at the bottom and three feet three inches in depth. The earth should be thrown on the outer edge, like a levee, or embankment. To prevent the soil from sliding back into the ditch, it will be neces- sary to sod the banks, and to plant the top with such oy Bayo" j KA 22 Vineyard Culture. small shrubs as are best adapted to the climate and locality. These shrubs [Fig. 1] will strengthen the levee, and render the crossing of’ it more difficult. [Americans can not realize that vast tracts of land in Europe are cultivated in common, with only a turning furrow, or a pathway, between the different proprietaries, and that all the country is open, even to the road-sides, in many places. We are so accustomed to see everything fenced in from intrusion, and have so long borne this burden of fencing, that we neither realize that it is more oppressive than all our other taxes, nor can we conceive how it strikes the Europeans, who look upon our fences as a great waste of lumber, and by no means as ornamental fringes to our farms. Where timber or stone is plenty, and while labor is dear, we must have inclosures to restrain our cattle, or cultivated crops will be impossible. But we may feel encouraged at the progress we are making in this respect, and be happy to know, that in many of the States, laws have been made and enforced, which require that all cattle shall be restrained by their owners. The result of this is, or will be, the abolition of many of these burdensome and cumbrous appendages of the farm; the cattle will be confined to their appropriate grazing lands, or kept in stables and yards, and there fed by soiling, as it is called—carrying the feed to them all the year round—and our roads and lanes will no longer be the resort of lean kine and sharp-nosed swine, seeking an entrance into our gardens and cultivated fields, to commit depredations which can never be repaid by their owners; and causing a grievous moral wrong, by provoking the ill temper of the unfortunate proprietor, which no appraised damages can atone for nor alleviate. We rejoice in our cattle law, and hope these asimals may ever be restrained, that the fence burden may, in a great de- gree, be thus averted; but we do not expect to see choice Preparatory Operations. 23 vineyards and fruit gardens exposed to the depredations of wandering thieves, until they become personally interested in such treasures of their own; no common fences will bar their entrance, however, when they are disposed to trespass upon us: the watch-tower, as of old, must accompany the vine- yard in the present state of society. We may rejoice, too, that there is in this country no such thing as an “‘ ordinance ban’? to direct us when to commence our vintage, and to oblige us to gather our grapes at a certain date, whether they be early or late; the culture of the vine is here free as its tendrilled shoots, and every one may exer- cise his own judgment in selecting the period for the various operations he has to perform among his plants. ] Roaps.—It is very important that teams should be able to pass through all parts of a vineyard, especially when it is one of considerable extent. For this pur- pose it would be well, in planting the vines, to have roads conveniently laid out wherever the grades of the ground will allow it. This will render it easier to dis- tribute by wagons, to all points of the vineyard, the manure, the soil etc., which may be needed in it, and it will cost much less than if done by means of pack- horses and mules, or by hand, with baskets. The gathering of the grapes will also cost much less. The principal roads of a large vineyard ought to be not less than fifteen feet wide, so as to allow teams to pass each other freely ; they ought to be not less than fifty yards apart, and should run across, or at right an- gles with the rows of the vines ; other roads, two yards wide, should cross the first at right angles, two hundred yards apart ; .by this means the soil or manure required in the vineyard may be carried in wagons close to the 24 Vineyard Culture. spot where needed, and unloaded in piles, whence it will be easily distributed at short distances, in wheel-barrows or baskets. If the soil be a little clayey, it will then be equally necessary to make these roads by’ excavating ; by this means they will carry off the surplus water al- ways so injurious to vineyards. [These directions, for the laying out of roads and path- ways through the vineyard, are admirable, and something of the kind is practiced in all our large vineyards, though many are planted at such a width that a hand-cart, or a sled, some- thing like a ‘*stone-boat,” and pulled by a horse, may pass easily between the rows, to carry off the vintage; for few vine-dressers have yet done much in the way of hauling on soil or manure, though this may often be practiced with ad- vantage, particularly on hill-sides, where the soil is washed away by the rains. The surface drainage is very important, and should always be provided for; first, by laying out the rows in such a manner that the water may pass between them, toward either end, in a gradual flow; next, by providing proper conduits for its passage. On abrupt slopes, or declivi- ties, these may be across the rows, directly or obliquely, and it will be well to have them protected by masonry. These conduits, or water-ways, are often made by setting long, thin stones on edge, as a curb, or by laying up two walls, at such distance apart as may be necessary to convey the water, and afterward, paving the bottom of the ditch between them. These water-courses are often used as the paths of the vine- yard, and when very abrupt, they are sometimes paved like steps, for the convenience of the workmen. As the reader will have observed, however, such steep declivities are not recommended for vineyard sites. The author advises, in the concluding sentence, that in clayey land, the road-waysshould be cut down:so as to furnish a depressed water-course. This method has been very nicely Preparation of the Soil. 25 practiced by one of our most successful and intelligent vine- planters, and it is improved upon in a way that is worthy to be presented to the reader. Mr. Robert Buchanan,* of Cin- cinnati, O., provides shallow water-courses between all the “«squares,” or subdivisions of his vineyard; these are wide, and serve him also as roads, They are cheaply prepared with the plow, and the loose earth is distributed among the adjoining vines, or used in grading, so that there shall be a reg- ular and easy fall with the road-way. In the first laying out of the vinevard, a proper grade for the roads was secured. The crowning merit of these shallow ditch-roads, however, is, that they are laid down to grass, so as to prevent washing. They receive the surplus water that escapes from between the rows, and quickly convey it out of the vineyard. They give easy access to all parts of the ground; they act as turning rows in cultivating with the horse; they furnish an easy outlet for surplus surface water, without washing into gullies, and they admit the air freely to the vineyard; besides all this, they give a look of finish, at a very cheap rate. The grass should be kept cut. short during the season, and it may be fed to stock or thrown upon the soil as a mulch to the vines.] ITI. PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. RAINAGE.—One of the evils most to be feared for a vineyard is too much moisture in the soil. In such a condition the roots of the vine will rot, its life will be short, its produce limited, of inferior quality, and ripen- ing slowly. If, therefore, it is intended to plant a vine- *Author of a Treatise on Grape Culture. 4 26 Vineyard Culture. yard in a soil of this nature, the first step is to drain the land. On the Lower Rhine district, near Saverne, we have seen a vineyard located on an abrupt hill-side, composed of argilo-silicious soil, resting on quite imper- vious clay. In consequence of the stagnant moisture arising from this bad condition of the soil, the vines languished, produced little fruit, which was of inferior quality and ripened with difficulty. On this land, drains have been made [A, Fig. 2] running with the slope, so that each comes out at the base of the hill at B, on the vertical cut formed at this point by the passage of a vineyard road C. The upper ends of the drains ap- peared on the surface of the land at D, on the hori- zontal plane situated above the slope. This great [Fre. 2.] difference in the level of the two extremities of these drains stiggested the following observations : if, during the heat of summer, a lighted candle is placed at each extremity of one of these drains, the flame of the lower candle will be carried, by the draft, into the Preparation of the Soil. 27 drain, while the flame of the candle at the upper end will frequently be extinguished by the force of the cur- rent escaping at this point. This abundant and rapid circulation of warm air below the surface of the soil, warms it while making it more salubrious. This vine- yard at once became unusually healthy and vigorous, and its maturity was accelerated by two or three weeks. We think it unnecessary, here, to enter into the details of drainage. We refer our readers to special treatises on that subject ;* or, rather, we advise landholders hav- ing such work to do, to apply to the contractors of drainage, who are now to be found in every Department of France, and who, provided with special tools and skilled workmen, will do the drainage better and quicker, and at less cost, than if undertaken by the landholder himself. [Too much importance can not be attributed to this subject of drainage, not merely as a means of escape for the surplus water of the soil, but also as affording access to the air, which will warm the roots by its direct influence, imparting its own temperature to the earth through which it passes. While alleviating the effects of a drought, by depositing its own moisture on the sides of the passages through which it flows, it also gives off the latent heat by which the water was kept in the state of vapor. Our vine-planters are urged to drain their heavy, clayey lands, wherever it is possible, and the suggestion of Mr. Du Breuil is an excellent one, wherever professional drainers can *A very practical work on “Drainage,” by John H. Klippart, Cor. Sec’y of Ohio State Board of Agriculture, is published by Robert Clarke & Co., who have a new edition just ready. The reader is also referred to the very practical work of Mr. George B. Waring, Superintendent of Drainage of Central Park, New York City, 28 Vineyard Culture. be had, though in this country, the versatile genius of our people makes them feel competent to meet any emergency, and where no help can be obtained from without the farm or shop, men generally manage to succeed in whatever they un- dertake. : The inventive genius is also aroused in this direction, and we have already several labor-saving machines to aid in the work of ditching. Among these the mole-plows are found to work admirably, wherever the sub-soil is of a peculiarly adhesive character, so as not to disintegrate readily, and thus silt up the passages. Some lands that have been drained with these implements, for there are several devices of the kind, have continued for many years to reap the benefit of the drainage afforded, and the current of water continued to flow through them. ‘Asa mere outlet for the surplus water, the mole-plows are a success, but it is doubtful whether the other benefits of drainage can ever be so well furnished by any means as by the porous burnt-clay tile commonly used. Messrs. Moon & Doan, of Wilmington, Ohio, have in- vented a machine to aid in opening the ditches, which, it is said, will lessen the expense by one halt. This apparatus was exhibited, in model, before the Lake Shore Grape Growers’ Society, at their recent meeting at Cleveland. It consists of a strong frame-work, in which is suspended a wheel, armed with cutters on its periphery, that penetrate the soil as the wheel revolves, bringing up a portion of the soil, which is thrust out by a set of plungers, as they approach the summit. The dirt falls off to one side of the ditch. The frame is drawn along, and the wheel made to revolve, by a strong rope, that is wound upon a drum at the end of the ditch, by means of horses or oxen working on a lever. ]* *For further description of this excellent machine, and cut, see “Klip- part’s Land Drainage,” p. 230, Preparation of the Soil. 29 BREAKING UP THE GRounD.—The vine, like all ligneous plants, requires for its proper devlopment a soil sufficiently pervious to the roots. The ground must, therefore, be broken up before planting, so as to bring it to that condition. The depth to which the soil must be trenched will necessarily vary according to its looseness, and degree of dryness: a dry and warm soil must be dug deeper than a rich, substantial, and somewhat cold soil, because the root must penetrate deeper in the first than in the last. It will also be evident, that soils of the same kind must be trenched deeper in a southern than in a north- ern latitude, because drought is more to be feared in the former than in the latter. In this respect it will be well to confine ourselves within the following lim- its: the dryest soils of northern regions ought to be trenched to a depth of eighteen inches, at least ; in rich and somewhat cold soils, twelve inches will be enough. In the south, twenty-four inches will not be too much, in the first case, and fifteen inches in the last. The manner of performing this work depends on the nature of the soil. But in all cases the following rules ought to be ob- served: 1st—the breaking up or trenching ought to be done several months before planting, so that the sub- soil brought to the surface may have time to improve under the influence of atmospheric agents ; 2nd—the subsoil must be replaced by surface soil, and wice versa. Some have, it is true, advised, in such cases, the loos- ening only, of the subsoil, without bringing it to the surface. ‘This system, though adapted to herbaceous plants, the roots of which live at the surface of the 30 Vineyard Culture. ground, is little suited to the development of the vine, the absorbing organs of which at once penetrate to a greater depth, where, consequently, they need to find the nutritious elements of soils reversed by the plow. Cultivated Lands accessible to the Plow.—lIf the vine- yard is to be laid out on cultivated lands, it will be well to sow it with a last crop of clover and sainfoin,* for the deep roots of these plants loosen the soil and im- prove it by their decay. If the breaking up is to be eighteen inches deep, two plows must be used in the same furrow; the first, an ordinary plow, which will penetrate about six inches deep; the second, of strong make, must be so constructed as to.cut toa depth of twelve inches from the bottom of the furrow, and to carry this earth over that turned up by the first plow. [Fic. 3.] Bonnet’s plow [Figures 3 and 4] performs this op- eration admirably, but it requires a team of six horses or oxen to reach this result..’. Thus plowed, the land must be left idle until the* time for planting. The same mode of breaking up the ground to the depth of twelve inches is used, with this difference only, that *Hedysarum onobrichis. Preparation of the Soil. 31 the first plow will turn up a layer of only four inches, and the second one of eight inches, When the breaking up is to be two feet, as is often the case with the very dry lands of the south, the two plows will be used to reach a depth of fifteen inches, and the other nine inches will be obtained by men fol- lowing the wake of the plow with spades, and throw- ing up the subsoil over that turned up by the last plow. If a sufficient number of men are employed, so as not to delay the teams, this work can be performed pretty rapidly. [Fic. 4.] [The attention of the reader is directed to the beautiful cuts of these implements, but they are not within our reach. As we have, deservedly, a high reputation for the excellency, and indeed, almost perfection, of our various agricultural im- plements—and as this has been accorded to us by intelligent juries, at the great industrial expositions of Europe—we may, perhaps, be justified in a few words of praise respecting some American plows, with which our lands are very admirably prepared for the planting of grape vines. These implements can only be used, however, upon ground that is level, or but moderately sloping, and which is not encumbered with rocks, loose stones, stumps, or large roots, as when first re- claimed from the forest; nor is such new land to be preferred if that which has been long cleared can be had. If stumps 32 Vineyard Culture. and bowlders exist, they must be removed by extra hands, as they are discovered by the plow. Many farmers will preter to use two plows, with two teams; the first one reverses the sod and surface soil; the sec- ond, made with a long and high mold-board, follows in the furrow, and throws out the next layer of earth, and piles it upon the furrow-lice cast by the first plow. In this man- ner, the two layers will be pretty well reversed and trans- posed; the deeper will be chiefly upon the surface. The second plow will require a strong team, to make it run six inches deep, and the two combined will loosen the earth to a depth of twelve to fourteen inches—seldom more. If de- sired, a subsoil-lifter plow may now be passed along the bottom of the deep furrow, and, with sufficient team, it may be made to loosen the soil or subsoil to the depth of six or eight inches more, completely filling the space with loos- ened material, and admitting the air to meliorate this com- pact layer of crude earth, which is often unfit to be placed upon the surface. In this plan, the same ground is passed over three different times, first with a strong two-horse team, turning six or eight inches, next with a team of four horses or oxen,’and lastly, -with a powerful team of four or six oxen; for it is found that these patient creatures are best adapted to the heavy soil and obstructions that are often met with in the subsoils, particu- larly when they consist of tenacious clays. All the imple- ments should be of the firmest construction, put together in the most substantial manner, made of the best material—steel, iron and wood—and kept duly sharpened, The cost of such a force of men and teams, to say nothing of the wear and tear, will be considerable. The following estimate is based upon the prices paid for teams in this neigh- borhood :. Preparation of the Soil. 33 Say one man and two horses, —- - . $3 25 two men and four horses, - - - 6 50 two men and six oxen, - - - 6 50 Total expense per diem, - 2 = - $16 25 At the clcse of the day, if all things have worked smooth- ly, and there have been no serious interruptions, the proprie- tor will find, perhaps, one half acre thoroughly plowed. But we have an implement by which, with one team, we may perform the work of two plows. This is known as the «Double Michigan,” and is really a trench-plow, though sometimes erroneously called a subsoi/, ‘This may be drawn, in light soils, by a team of three horses, or still better by: four, or by three yoke of oxen. ‘The object of increasing the power, in oxen, is to make up, by greater breadth of furrow, for the usual slowness of the cattle. The « Double Michigan,” or trench-plough, has one share and mold-board attached to the beam, in front of the other or larger one. The first reverses the sod, cutting to the depth of four or six inches, at the will of the workman ; the sec- ond, with its larger and longer mold-board, follows immedi- ately behind the first, and takes the next layer, to the depth of eight or ten inches, and throws it over the first completely, and admirably disintegrates the soil. By this plough, a trench is opened to the depth of fifteen inches or more, according to the strength of the team and nature of the soil. A favorite plan for the preparation of land for a vineyard, is to use the “*Double Michigan” and the subsoil-lifter alter- nately, with the same team. Using oxen, there is no difficulty in making the change, going once around a land with the. plow, and then, casting the chain hook into the ring of the lifter, all is ready to go around again and loosen the subsoil. A tilth is thus made to the depth of eighteen to twenty inches, or more, where the soil is not too heavy; but in stiff clay- and compact or tenacious subsoils, it is often dif- 34 Vineyard Culture. ficult to make an average of eighteen inches, honestly meas- ured, on the land-side, from the natural surface, for the plowed soil will look much higher and measure deeper, at first.— These teams and plows will pulverize one third of an acre per diem. This work will cost, say— For two men and six oxen, per diem, - - $6 50 The same, three days, for one acre, - - Ig 50 It is very important in all these implements, to avoid fric- tion, as much as possible, by having the joints well fitted, the cutting edges sharp, and the mold-boards of the most perfect pattern, and made of the best steel, highly wrought and pol- ished. The share of the lifter should be very slightly convex up- ward, it need not be more than two inches higher at the ceni- ter than at the edges, and there should bea counter-sunk space on the under side for the nuts that keep it attached to the sheath and supporter. ‘This attachment was formerly made by riveting, but should be by tap and screws. Some very good work has been done in this country upon the plan suggested by Mr. Du Breuil, of having a gang of hands with spades, to turn up, or simply to disintegrate the third or lower layer of soil. This may be desirable when there are stones to interrupt the subsoil plow, but the scarcity of hands and the high price of labor, induce most of us to prefer the oxen and a good steel subsoil-lifter.] Waste, Uncultivated or Swamp Lands, accessible to the Plow.—These lands must first be cleared of the un- dergrowth which covers them and would impede the work. The largest of this underwood, the roots of which would stop the plow, must be grubbed up, and may be turned over to the men in part payment of wages. The lighter brush must be cut close to the ground, and laid in lines parallel to the furrows; these lines must Preparation of the Soil. 35 be sufficiently near one another to be thrown into each successive furrow opened by the plow. The plows are then used as described above, to obtain the required depth, according to the nature of the soil and climate of the locality. As the furrows are opened to that depth, the brush placed alongside of each one is thrown into it; thus buried, it will soon be reduced to com- post, and will furnish the vine with rich and lasting nourishment. [In referring to swamp lands, Mr. Du Breuil has given no directions for the drainage which would be essential to them. Indeed, we should not think of planting grapes in such soils as we denominate swamp land, even if sufficiently dried by drainage; the peaty or mucky character of the soil would be a bar to its use for grapes, as we find that vines, so situated, will grow too much to wood, and seldom yield a paying crop of fruit, because they are most subject to attacks of disease. ] Steep, Hilly Lands, inaccessible to the Plow.—For the breaking up, or trenching of the lands just named, we have advised the use of the plow, because it is the cheapest process. But frequently it is advantageous to locate vineyards on hill-sides so abrupt that it. is, un- unfortunately, impossible to use that implement. In such cases recourse must be had to manual labor to prepare the soil. In other respects, operations must be so performed as to produce the foregoing results; that is, the surface earth and brush must be placed at the bottom of the trench, if the lands have been unculti- ° vated. Breaking up in Strips or Ditches.—This mode of pre- paring the soil consists in opening a ditch of sixteen 36 Vineyard Culture. inches in width for each row of vines, and of a depth varying according to the circumstances indicated above. These ditches are separated by a strip of unworked land, broader or narrower, according to the distance of the rows from each other. The first ditch being dug, the plants are placed in it, and the soil taken from the new ditch serves to fill the first, and so on throughout the extent of the field. Trenching in Squares or Pits.—In a straight line, little pits, about twenty-four inches square, are made, in each of which one layer or root is planted. These two systems are much more economical than the immediate trenching of the entire surface, but they can only be used in fertile lands, which have been al- ready cultivated; besides, in due time the untrenched spaces between the plants will have to be successively dug out, or otherwise the development of the vines will be checked, when their roots come in contact with the sides of the trenches or pits. We must add, in con-. clusion, that this partial and successive trenching will not be so well performed on lands already planted, as if performed, in the first instance, over the entire surface ; from which we conclude that uniform trenching is bet- ter, without being expensive. Lands Rocky near the Surface.—We have thus far sup- posed that the land to be prepared contained a layer of free soil, at least equal to the depth of the required trenching. Now, certain lands capable of producing very good wine, have a surface soil of five to six inches’ depth, resting on lamellar or shelly rocks, In that case it will be necessary to loosen this superficial soil, either with the plow or by hand, according to the Preparation of the Soil. 37 slope of the land. At the time of planting, a hole is made between the stones with an iron bar, large enough to admit a cutting to a sufficient depth. Hiill-sides covered with Rocks.—Certain lands which ’ are exceedingly well adapted to vine-growing, especially as regards the quality of the product, are of difficult and expensive preparation. Such are abrupt declivities, covered more or less completely with rocks, that pro- trude above the surface. It is impossible to adapt such surfaces to this culti- vation, except by clearing them of rocks to a depth of sixteen or twenty inches. For that purpose crow-bars are used, and even blasting is resorted to. With these stones little walls are built along the side of the hill. This allows the construction of a series of benches, wider or narrower, according to the steepness of the hill. The surface of these benches, well trenched, is made level. Most of the vineyards on the Rhine, and some of those on the Rhéne, are constructed in this manner.. [Most of our hill-side vineyards have been located upon such abrupt declivities as to preclude the use of the plow, and they were prepared for planting by human labor. The trenching was sometimes done with the spade, and sometimes with the grubbing hoe and the pick. In all cases, the object was to reduce the hill-side to a series of narrow levels, or slopes, generally called terraces, or benches. Where stone abounds in the soil, it is used for walls. On the river hills, the earth is chiefly composed of the detritus of the alternating shales and limestones of our silurian formation, known as the blue limestone ; here there is plenty of material for making the walls. In digging the soil, the stones are thrown on top, 38 Vineyard Culture. } or at once laid in regular lines along the side of the hill, and the soil thrown against the wall, so as to make the terrace ap- proach to a level on the surface. The width of the benches, and the hight of thé walls, will depend upon the steepness of the hill, It isa notable fact that the soil on the lower side of the walls is seldom dug so deeply as is desirable. Sometimes these walls and benches are carried horizontally ; sometimes they are made to incline a little toward one end, to give outlet to the water. Generally, the surface drainage is provided for, by making paved gutters at some point of the vineyard, toward which the ends of the benches incline on one or both sides. The cost of digging and walling these hill-sides, varies with the amount of stone and masonry, and will range from two hundred to as much as five hundred dollars per acre. In appropriating a grassy slope to vineyard uses, where there is no stone for the construction of walls, the ground is often thrown into benches, or terraces, and the abrupt slopes are protected by sodding. This is either done by setting masses of earth with the grassy surface placed regularly on the lower line of the terrace, as the work progresses, so as to make a regular sod-bank, at once, or the earth is dug into shape and sodded with blue-grass afterward. These sod-banks have quite a pretty effect in the landscape, and they answer a very good purpose in holding the soil in shape, if they have been properly constructed, but they do not furnish so good a drainage as the dry stone walls, and, being sloped, they occupy more space. There is another objection to sod-banks : they reduce the temperature by radia- tion at night ; and sometimes this reduction amounts to a frost, which would not have occurred, but for the grassy surface. This objection applies with equal force to the sodded road- - ‘ways, recommended on a previous page, as a means of pro- viding for the surface drainage. Choice of Vines. 39 The blue-grass must be cut by hand, and the first mowing should be done in the end of May.] Vineyards recently Planted.—A vineyard, from which the old vines have recently been removed, may be im- mediately replanted, after being sufficiently cultivated, provided, at the same time, it has been well manured, so as to renew, in the lower strata of the soil, the nour- ishment which the deep roots of the old vine had ex- hausted. If this expense of enriching the soil can not be in- curred, it will be well, for some years, to devote this land to ordinary cultivation, by sowing it with forage plants, such as sainfoin and clover. ‘These plants will, by degrees, renew the productiveness which the lower strata of the soil has lost. [In this country, we have had little or no experience in replanting a piece of ground that had been devoted to vine- yard, and which had become exhausted, or which had failed from neglect. But, upon general principles, such a course would not be recommended, until after a course of culture with farm crops, among which, clover should have a prom- inent place. This is only carrying out the idea of rotation of crops, to the vineyard, as to the other departments of agri- culture.] IV. CHOICE OF VINES. HE number of varieties of grapes cultivated - for wine-making has gradually increased, by means of seedlings. Although the nomenclature of these varic- 40 Vineyard Culture. ties is not yet well established, they may be said to number at present, over twelve hundred. hese dif ferent varieties are very far from possessing the same ad- vantages for cultivation; they are not all adapted to the same climate, or the same kind of soil; they are espe- cially far from yielding alike, either as to quality or quantity. From this springs the necessity of choosing from’ among them such as are best adapted to the cli- mate, the soil of the locality where the vineyard is to be laid out, and the description of wine which it is in- tended to produce. ‘This choice constitutes one of the most important operations of vine-culture. The fol- lowing are the chief conditions which ought to influ- ence it: Ist. That the vine ripen its fruit thoroughly in the climate for which it is intended. 2d. That it be adapted to the soil where it is to be cultivated, so as to develop itself with sufficient vigor, and that the quality of its product be not impaired. 3d. That its average product be as large as possible, and of good quality ; that is to say, that its berries con- tain, in suitable proportions, the elements best adapted to the manufacture of fine wines. This double ad- vantage will be the more valuable because it is seldom met with, for frequently the most productive varieties yield but poor grapes. 4th. That its period of leafing be backward in the spring, without delaying the ripening of its fruit, so that it may the more easily escape the injurious effects of spring frosts. 5th That it possess a sufficient degree of vigor to Choice of Vines. 41 resist, toa certain extent, the action of the frost, that its fruit may ripen in spite of the cold of autumn, 6th. That the strength and stiffness of its shoots need no support. [With our limited experience in this country, we think we have learned enough to add another condition, as important as any above named, but which appears to have been strangely overlooked by the author. Reference is made to the well-settled principle among pomologists, to insist upon the perfect hardiness and healthi- ness of the vine or plant, rather than to allow our judgment to. be warped by the excellence of the fruit alone, without inquiring into the qualities of the plant.] As regards the nomenclature, the characteristics, the period of maturity, the quantity and quality of the products of various vines, we still lack a complete work, in spite of the remarkable labors of Count Odart.— And, for this reason, the list which we give here com- prises only the principal varieties cultivated in France. In this list we have preserved the nomenclature adopted by Count Odart, and have classified them on the plan proposed by Count Gasparin, based on the date of ma- turity, and the color of the grapes. [Count André de Gasparin, here referred to, was the father of Count Agenor de Gasparin, whose work, called the « Up- rising of a Great Nation,” has made him dear to our coun- trymen, because it showed his deep sympathy with the Amer- ican people in their recent struggle for the maintenance of the integrity of the nation, The glory of our free institutions was eloquently portrayed by Gasparin to his own country- men, and secured from the masses of the French nation a hearty sympathy with the American people.] 42 Vineyard Culture. FIRST PERIOD—15¢h Fuly in the South; 20th August at Paris, Almost all the grapes of this period are table grapes, yielding very in- ferior wine. SECOND PERIOD—257h dugust in the Souths 7th October a: Paris, COLORED GRAPES, Black “ Pinot.” —Yields little, but most delicate wine ; its wood being very slender it must be staked. (Burgundy.) Reddish “ Pinot.’—Table grape ; light wine; fine aroma. Moorish “ Pinot."—Very dark berry; dark, inferior wine. (Dijon.) S¢ Pulsart.”’"—Pearl color; leaves much indented; large, thin pedicles; bunches thin; fine berries, easily picked when ripe; very productive on level ground; yielding a good wine, which keeps well; requires to be trained high to be productive; steep, clayey lands, (Jura.) Plant of the Déle.”—Of slow growth, but ripening early ; oblong, dark blue berries. (Switzerland.) Little “Négran.”—Yielding little, but of fine aroma. “ Liwerdun,.”—Large leaves, without down ; oblong berries ; yielding much wine, but not very alcoholic. (Lorraine.) ¢ Meunier.’ —Black grape; leaves covered over with a white down ; very: productive; wine flat; will not keep. Black “ Franc.”—Black, oblong berries; light, pleasant wine; adapted to light, calcareous soils, WHITE AND GRAY GRAPES, Gray “Pinot.” —Berries, dead leaf color; very delicate; light wine; fine aroma. (Sillery-Versenay.) White “ Pinot.”—Oblong berries—loose, with brown spot; golden color; fine wine; yield small. (Montrachet.) Aligotuy.—Leaves large, and downy on the under side; red wood; fine skin ; liable to rot, but pretty good yielder. (Pouilly.) Sauvignin.—Round, sweet berries; pretty good yielder. Musquette—Round, sparse berries; amber color; wood fawn-colored ; berries liable to rot; requires long pruning. (Gironde and Dordogne.) Blanquette.—Under side of leaf somewhat downy ; berries rather oblong ; pleasant flavor; large, full bunches, drying quickly on the stock. (Aude and Dordogne.). Choice of Vines. 43 THIRD PERIOD—u1st September in the South; October 20th in latitude of Paris. BLACK OR RED GRAPES. Plant of Pernant.—Leaves entire, of a yellowish green; berries black, of moderate size; hardy and prolific; wine inferior in’ quality and aroma to that of the Black Pinot, but liked, because of its great productiveness. (Burgundy.) Frizzled Pinot.—More productive than the other Pinots, but of inferior quality. Black Muscat of Fura, Merlot.—Leaves deeply indented; rough, downy, under side ; berries round, of a velvety black; skin fine; apt to rot in wet seasons; very productive, and much liked. (Bordelais.) Sirah (little and great).—Leaves large and downy on the under side}. berries black and even, slightly elongated, purple eyes far apart; very good wine. (Hermitage.) Deep-black * Dyer” (Oporto). — Productive; berries close, black and round; produces a reddish juice; wines rich; grown for coloring ‘‘must.” Big Gamais (large-headed Pinot).—Leaves downy on the under side; leaf-stalk purple; bunches numerous; wine flat and acid. (Burgundy.) Little Gamais (black Gamais of Lyons).—¥retty productive; yields a wine of good quality. Maconnais.) Neyraw (big and little Moret),— Yields a dark-red wine, with a good bouquet. (Allier and Puy de Dome.) WHITE GRAPES. Fendant.”—Berries close, and remain green, This kind is of red and pink varieties. (Switzerland.) White Morillon.—Leaves large, little indented; berries not. very close, quite round, not spotted brown; sweet flavor and aroma; good yielder. (Champagne.) Semillon.—Leaves much indented, of a light green;. large bunches; ber- ries round and loose, light yellow; hardy plant, eyes close together. (Bor- delais.) Colomban,—Plant hardy and productive; grapes apt to rot; wine indifferent. “ Pascal” Vine.—Large leaves, downy underneath ; large bunches ;_ ber- ries round, whitish green, with fine skin; eyes close together; good table gtape. (Bouches du Rhéne.). 44 Vineyard Culture. FOURTH PERIOD—27th September in the South; do not mature in the latitude of Paris. COLORED GRAPES, The * Cét.”—Very short jointed ; plant hardy; berries black, sparse, round; apt to rot; wine of a fine color, of good body and flavor. (From the Lot to the Loire.) Black Couché.—Leaves small ; little indented, downy underneath, yellow- ish on the upper side; average bunches; short stem; berries long; wine colored, alcoholic. Simoreau.—Bunches long; stem red; berries sparse, smoky taste; very productive. (Lorraine.) Carmenet.—Leaves thin, with fine pointed, smooth lobes; bunches thin 5 moderate sized berries, round and black; stem and pedicles purple; wood reddish ; wine fine and clear; great bouquets will keep; yield pretty regular, but not large. (Bordelais.) Black Serine.—Leaves slender, smooth and pointed; one of the lobes smaller than the other; bunches long; berries oblong and scattering.— (Cétes du Rhéne.) , Persaigne.—Good producer; dark, rough wine ; improves with age. (Ly- onnais.) Grolot.—Berries round ; table grape. (From the Loire to the Lot.) Big Mérille—Leaves little indented; rough underneath ; fine bunches; berries round, black and close; very productive; wine ordinary. (Garonne and Gironde.) Dyer” of the Fura—The leaves, shoots and wood, are of a reddish tinge; grown for the same purpose as the “ Dyer,”’ already described. Tanat.—Leaves rough on the upper side; downy underneath, with edges turned in; berries black, close and round, of moderate size, apt to rot at times; wine colored, strong and agreeable. (Higher Pyrénées.) Black Olivet.—Berries oblong ; smoke black ; rich pulp, crisp and sweet ; table grape. Manosquin.—Leaves smooth and entire; fine bunches; berries black, large, slightly oblong; thick skin; long wood; table wine; adapted to transportation. Black Ouillade—Great yielder; berries large, oblong and black; stem fine; wine of a beautiful color, and sweet, like cordial. Milgranet.—Very productive. (Tarn.) Savoyant.—Leaves of a fine green; very downy underneath; pretty well indented ; wood heavy; very productive; wine rough. (Switzerland.) Choice of Vines. 45 Black Muscat.—Very productive. (Vaucluse.) Baclan.—Eyes far apart; dark green leaves; berries sparse; dark wine, of good quality; adapted to strong, clayey soil. (Jura.) ' Trousseau.—Large, thick, round leaves, of a yellowish green; slightly downy underneath; berries black; strong wine, and will keep well; plant very hardy, productive, and requiring plenty of space; must be pruned long. The /ittle Trousseau yields fess, but is more certain. (Jura, Avalon.) DL Enfariné.—Leaves longer than broad, sharp-pointed fringe, downy un- derneath, on the veins, bunches short; berries large and round, black, cov- ered with a white bloom; very harsh; very productive; a tart wine, im- proving with age; trims very long. WHITE GRAPES. White Gouais—Acid wine, without vinous flavor; will not keep; is very productive. . Green Savagnin.—Leaves round, dark green, downy underneath; leaf- stalks and veins red; long berries; skin thick, with greenish tinge. (Jura, Céte d’Or, Champagne.) FIFTH PERIOD— October 2d in the South; will not ripen in the latitude of Paris. COLORED GRAPES, Aramon.—vVery productive; wine clear, will keep well; easily affected by spring frosts, and liable to rot. Agudet.—Bunches fine; berries oval; productive. (Tarn and Garonne.) Carignan.—Berries round, black, apt to blight; yields largely in good soils; wine dark, of good quality. (Bouches du Rhéne, Gard, Heérault, Aude.) Tibouren,—Very productive when the blossoms do not blight; very early growth ; berries very sweet ; wine light colored, fine and delicate; light soil. Black Terret.—Berries round, black; seldom blights, and yields little; dark colored wine, and good. Mourastel—Makes a great deal of wood, with short joints; berries large, crisp, sweet ; never blights; strong, clayey soils; wine very dark, but flat. Moulan.—Average leaves, yellowish green, shining, turned in; bunches fine; berries long, black, pretty large; early growth ; often blights; is very productive. Bouteillan.—Large bunches; large and small berries; of a reddish black ; ‘blights sometimes; wine light in color and body; very productive, (Lower Alps.) 46 Vineyard Culture. Maldoux.—Very productive; wine flat and rough. (Jura) Grenache,—Leaves smooth on both sides; bunches fine; berries sparse, not very close, oblong, bluish black; joints short; suffers from spring frosts; wine very sweet; productive; strong ferruginous soils. (Gard, Hérault, Vaucluse.) Mourvédre.—Leaves with purple veins; downy underneath; red wood, with purple eyes; berries round, of medium size, sky-blue, taste not very pleasant; thick skin; strong wine, which will bear transportation, and keep a long time; early bearer; does not blight. (Vaucluse.) Black Spiran.—Berries black; bright red wine, good, and delicate; grown also as a table grape. There are gray and white varieties of this, (Gard, Hérault.) * Marocain.—Secondary leaves very much indented; large bunches, with large, sparse berries, hard, and covered with a white bloom; grown as a table grape. (Provence.), WHITE GRAPES, Picardan,—Light green grape, oval, somewhat firm, without being tough ; very sweet; keeps well; wine smooth, will sparkle easily; not productive. Calitor.— White berries, oval, not very soft; apt to rot; makes a good, dry wine, and yields largely after a few years. Clairette.—Leaves very green on the upper side, and downy on the under side; bunches Jong; berries oblong, not crowded, firm, and sweet; keeps well; white wine, of good quality; very productive’ in virgin and fertile soils; somewhat apt to blight. White Muscat.—Of all these grapes, this is the sweetest, and the one having the most aroma; very good for the table. (Lunel, Frontignan.) SIXTH PERIOD—10¢4 October in the South; do not ripen in the latitude of Paris. Pigue-Poule.—Close-jointed wood; berries oblong, close, reddish black 5 very good grape; fine, delicaté, strong wine; not productive; must be close-trimmed. (La Nerthe.) Terret-Bouret.—Light red, or gray berries, oval; large bunches, weighing as much as eight lbs.; hangs heavy; seldom blights; likes good soil, and will’ bear a good deal of manure; grown principally for brandy. WHITE GRAPES, Furmint.—Leaves nearly entire, slightly three-lobed, dark green ; downy underneath; berries white, sparse, irregular; cylindrical bunches; very sweet 3, yields little; apt to blight ; dries well without spoiling; very good wine, Choice of Vines. 47 SEVENTH PERIOD—31s¢ October in the South; do not mature in the lati- tude of Paris. COLORED GRAPES, od Danugue.—Large berries; reddish black; juicy; bunches very large; needs trellising; yields, in abundance, a weak, light colored wine; light soils. Pocket Grape.—Trellis vine; very hardy, good grapes; berries red and round, the size of a hazel-nut, so hard that they may be carried in the pocket without mashing; not very sweet, and will keep a long time. WHITE GRAPES, Common Paunch.—Large bunches; berries long, firm, and large; good as table grapes, and keep well; white wines of good quality; strong, hardy vine, producing largely in good soils ; needs training and little pruning. Musked. Paunch.—Berries very large, oblong, firm, and pointed at the end; sweeter than the foregoing; apt to blight; needs training and little pruning ; good table grape, fresh or dried. Spanish Paunch.—Large berries ; round seeds; very sweet; fine skin. Currant.—Berries very small, and without pulp; needs training and little pruning. Gherkin.—Berries very large and curved, white ; productive in good soils; needs training and little pruning. White Olivette.—Berries olive shaped, but smaller; taste flat;, keeps better than the others.. LIST OF AMERICAN GRAPES. [The number of varieties of grapes that are now being in- troduced into cultivation, more or less generally, is becoming so extensive, that it is high time some one should undertake to reduce them to order, by adopting a system of classifi- cation. This, however, will be a difficult task. Even the botanists, who observe the peculiar traits of the native vines, are not agreed as to the number of distinct species that exist within our borders. Our American authority, on such matters, is Dr. Asa Gray, who makes four species, the Lazrusca, ZESTIVALIS, Corprrotia, and Vutrrna, all of the genus Vitis proper. Be- 48 Vineyard Culture. sides these, he ranges two species under the section Cissus, as V. indivisa, and V. bi-primata, formerly called Ampelopsis, by Michaux, both beautiful ornamental vines. Those’ grapes which are cultivated for their fruit, in this latitude, may, perhaps, all be referred to the first three of these species, though there are several varieties, the place of which it is very difficult to assign. They may be crosses, or simply variations from the normal type, or even hybrids of two distinct species; if so, they are, at least, fertile mules. Slight variations will constantly occur in our cultivated plants, which, as fruits, may be considered totally distinct, and which yet present no strong botanical characteristics to distinguish them from one or another species, and sometimes the specific characteristics themselves will be blended, so that we can not declare to which they belong. The present status of our knowledge hardly justifies an attempt to classify our cultivated varieties, by the species, and, desirable as some grouping would be, I hesitate attempting it, and shall content myself with an alphabetical list. This has been compiled from various sources beside my own somewhat extended notes; among these I have been largely indebted to the list in the «American Horticultural An- nual,” including the school of vines left by the late N. Long- worth. To avoid occupying too much space, the descrip- tions have been given in a very condensed form, merely to in- dicate the strong characters. — AMERICAN VARIETIES. Adirondac-—New York. Dark, large, good; needs winter protection; not tested for wine. Aiken.—Thought to be only a variety of Isabella, which it much resem- bles; berries round, large. Albaiis—Vine thrifty, hardy; bunch large; berry large, round, black; good, 7 Albino,—Pennsylvania, White; recommended in Missouri. Allen's Hybrid—Massachusetts, In favorable localities does well, Choice of Vines. 49 Alvey.—Southern. Bunch large; berry medium or less, black; fine fla- vor; promising for wine. Anna.—New York. Poor grower; bunch rather small; berry large, am- ber yellow; very sweet. Arkansas.—Vine vigorous, productive; berry small, black, resembling Norton; promises well for wine. August Pioneer —Black, early; not otherwise desirable; foxy. Baldwin Lenoir —Thrifty, hardy and healthy; very rich in sugar. Black Hawk—Pennsylvania, from Concord. Said to be earlier; very promising vine. Black King—Early; bunch small; berry medium; foxy. Blackstone.—Early; black; poor and foxy. Bland.—Virginia. An old variety of excellence, but not profitable; ten- der; bunch large, loose; berry large, purple, sweet. Blood’s Black—Like Mary Ann; early; bunch compact; berry rather large, round, black; a market grape; vine hardy and productive. Brackett’s—Late, large, and resembles the Union Village. Brinklé.—Pennsylvania; Bunch large, compact ; berry large, round, black, sweet. Brown.—One of the Isabella style. California Rosea.—Cincinnati. Thrifty and vigorous, productive ; bunch large; berry large, red; very fine. ‘California White —Originated with the above; bunch full, medium ; berry large, yellow; very fine. Canby’s August, or York Madeira.—Early, black; good size. Cape.—Much planted in the early vineyards; hardy, productive; berry round, black; pulp firm; has made a very good red wine. Carpenter.—New York. Appears to be a foreign variety. Cassaday.—Vigorous, but not free from mildew; bunch medium; berry full medium, white, sweet; foxy; makes a good white wine, says Hussman, Catawha.—N. Carolina. ‘This excellent variety is too well known to need a description; few sorts equal it in flavor and other good qualities. Its failure, from rot, has discouraged planters from increasing it, but no one should destroy a vineyard of this fine grape. Charlotte-—Ohio. Very like Diana. Charter Oak.—Connecticut. An enormous fox-grape, and nothing more. Chillicothe—Ohio. Bunch long, loose; berry medium, oval, dark purple Christina.—Pennsylvania, Large, black, early; a fox-grape. Clara,—Pennsylvania. Has a very foreign air; bunch long, loose; berry 6 50 Vineyard Culture. medium, light yellow; highly commended by Hussman, for amateurs only. Clinton.—New York. Thrifty, hardy, productive; bunch medium, com- pact; berry medium, black, juicy. Makes a fair red wine. Cloantha.—Kentucky. Black, like Isabella; earlier, and more foxy. Concord.—Massachusetts. Well known, and everywhere successful ; hardy and productive; yields a large quantity of wine—1o000 gallons per acre, says Hussman. This has been called the grape for the million. Coriel—New Jersey. Hardy; bunch medium ; berry small, oval, black or blue 5 good. Corsican.—Ohio, Perfectly hardy; bunch large; berry small, round, red 3 very good. Creveling.—Pennsylvania. Healthy; hardy; bunch loose, berry large, black; early; very good. Cunning ham.—Vigorous, healthy; bunch large; berry below medium, black, juicy, sweet ; very good; promising. Cuyahoga.—Ohio. A foreign look and behavior, as it is apt to mildew; when successful, very good, but late; berry greenish. Cuyarano.—Bunch large; berry large; promising. Cynthiana.— Arkansas. Hardy, healthy, productive; a rival of Norton, which it resembles; makes delicious wine. Delaware.—New Jersey. Very famous; this delicious grape is subject to mildew in many places; has made excellent wine. Delaware Seedling —Ohio. Vine healthy; bunch short; berry full mie- dium, dull red, rich, sweet, rather foxy; very early. Desroit. —Michigan. Bunch medium ; berry full medium, red, good ; early. Devereux.—Southern. Subject to mildew in Missouri; bunch very long, loose, shouldered ; berry small, black, juicy, sweet. Diana.—Massachusetts. Well known and highly appreciated; bunch compact ; berry large, dull red, sweet. : Diana Hamburgh.—New York, ‘A hybrid of Black Hamburgh Fag berry large, round, bluish purple. Dorr’s—New York. Medium; early and red; “ Promising for wine.’» Dracut Amber.—Massachusetts. Red, early, foxy; poor. Early Fune—Like Vitis cordifolia, Bunch large; berry large, dark, sweet, very early. Early Lebanon.—Pennsylvania; bunch medium; berry medium, blue, very early; good for market. Early York.—Is Canby’s August, or York Madeira. ? Choice of Vines. 51 Elmira.—New York. “A luscious black grape,”—noticed in Horticul- turist, November, 1866, Elsinburgh.—New Jersey. Vigorous, hardy; bunch large, loose; berry small, black, juicy, sweet ; very good. . Emily—Pennsylvania. Bunch large, loose; berry rather small, pale red, sweet ; not generally satisfactory. Eva.—Pennsylvania. Little known ; a Concord seedling. Ewings.—Like Isabella. Fancher.—Probably Saratoga. Framingham.—Very like Hartford. Franklin.—Like the Clinton. Garrigues.—Like Isabella; early. German Wine.—lIs it York Madeira ? Golden Clinton.—Yellow; highly recommended by some. Graham.—Pennsylvania. Black; sweet. Guignard.—Vigorous, productive, not hardy; bunch compact; berry rather small, juicy, fine; brownish. Hartford.—Connecticut. Exceedingly vigorous, hardy, productive; early; bunch large ; berry large, black, pulpy, musky; for market. Hattie —Michigan. Like Catawba; early; good. Herbemont.—Southern. Vigorous, productive, rather tender; bunch large, compact; berry rather small, brown, juicy, very fine; table and wine. Herbemont Seedling —Ohio. Like its parent; very good; promising for wine. Hyde's Eliza.—Some think it York Madeira; black; early. Jona,—New York. This celebrated grape is far in advance of most American varieties of the Labrusca type. Unfortuately, it has mildewed in many places. Bunch large; berry large, red, sweet and rich. The must weighs very heavy, as reported by M. Masson. Hence it is considered promising for wine. Isabella—An old variety, well known; not satisfactory for wines; not rich for table. Isabella Seedling —Ohio. An improvement on its parent, which it re- sembles. Isabella Seedling —New York. Said to be sweeter and earli¢r than its parent. Israella——New York, Bunch large; berries large, black; early, and hangs well. 52 Vineyard Culture. Kingsessing. —Bunch long, loose; berry medium, round, red, pulpy; mil- dews. Ives.—Ohio. Very thrifty, productive, and hardy; bunch large; berry large, black, pulpy, musky; makes a very superior red wine. Laura—Ohio. Hardy, productive ; berry large, light green to pale red, sweet, foxy, little pulp. Lenoir.—Southern. Vigorous; resembles Herbemont; black; very good. Lincoln——Southern. Tender; resembles Lenoir; unproductive. Little Ozark,—South-western, Bunch long, loose; berry medium, black, juicy; good for wine. Logan.—Hardy; bunch long, loose; berry medium, oval, black; no better than Isabella. Long.—Southern, Berry medium, dark purple, sweet ; recommended for wine, Lorgworth.—Ohio. Vigorous, healthy, productive; shoots red; bunch large, handsome; berry rather small, black, juicy; excellent, Longworth’s Monster —Ohio. Exceedingly vigorous, healthy, productive; bunch medium ; berry large, round, blue. Lorain.—Ohio, Bunch medium; berry large, amber yellow, sweet; good. Louisa—Pennsylvania, Like Isabella, but earlier. Louisiana.—Southern. Seems to be a foreign sort. Approved for wine, in Missouri. Lydia.—Ohio, Vigorous, healthy; bunch medium; berry large; green to yellow; sweet; ripens early. Lyman.—Healthy, vigorous, productive; bunch large, handsome; berry full medium, blue or black; very good; makes a fine red wine. Macedonia.—Pennsylvania, A Concord seedling; said to be early and white. Maguire. —“ Foxy and poor.” Manhattan—New York. ‘An Isabella seedling; bunch small; berry sweet, tough, foxy.” Marion. Ohio. Vigorous, hardy, productive; bunch large, handsome, close; berry large, round, blue; very good. Marion Post—Ohio. Too much like York Madeira. Not desirable. Marique—Ohio. Healthy, vigorous, very productive; bunch full me- dium, compact; berry oval, large, blue, spicy ; very good. Martha,—Pennsylvania. A white Concord; vigorous, healthy, and hardy; bunch medium to large; berry large, round, white, sweet; very promising. Choice of Vines. 53 Mary Ann.—Too foxy to be desirable, except for early market; black. Maxatawny.—Pennsylvania. Healthy, vigorous, hardy; rather late; white. « Mead’s.—Massachusetts. Resembles Catawba, which some think it is. Miles.—Pennsylvania. Hardy and healthy; early; black. Miner’s.—Pennsylvania. Wild, very vigorous, hardy; bunch medium ; berry large, foxy, dull red; useful for wine. Missouri.—Moderate grower; bunch large; berry small, very sweet ; black. Madeira—New York. Seedling of Concord, which it resembles; black. Mottled —Ohio. Hardy, healthy, productive; bunch medium, compact; berry large, round, mottled red; a promising wine grape. Mount Lebanon,—“ Large and showy, but coarse and foxy.” Mustang.—Texas. Vigorous; bunch medium; berry full medium, black; acerb ; not promising. North America.—Healthy ; bunch small; early; black; fair quality. Northern Muscadine.—Vigorous, healthy, sometimes very productive; bunch medium; berry medium to large, round, dark, dull red; early; very foxy; poor; falls badly as it ripens. North Carolina.—Bunch small, loose; berry medium, round, black; thought to be good for wine. Norton.—Virginia. Vigorous, healthy, productive; bunch large, full; berry rather small, black, sweet, rich; very fine for wine. Offer —Bunch large; berry large, dark red, sweet, musky; not approved. Ohio, or Segar Box.—Southern, Juicy; fine. Ontario.—Very like Union Village. Oporto.—New York. Exceedingly vigorous, hardy; bunch medium; berry medium, black, acid; poor; too much acid for good wine. Pauline.—Southern, Resembles Lenoir somewhat; black. Perkins.—Vigorous; bunch medium; berry large, light red, very foxy; approved by some for early market. Peeschell’s Mammoth.—Missouri. Healthy; berry large, red; late; not _ desirable. Post Oak.—Texas. Foliage peculiarly lobed; fruit has not proved satis~ factory. Radbe-—Pennsylvania. Berry full, medium, black, sweet. Rachel—Hardy; bunch medium; berry medium, white; early. Rebecca.—New York. Mildews in some localities; never very robust; bunch medium; berry large, round, yellow; very good. Red Shepherd.—Very vigorous; very foxy. 54 Vineyard Culture. Rentz.——Ohio. Vigorous, healthy, productive; early; bunch rather large; berry full medium to large, round, black, pulpy, sweet, musky; makes very good light red wine. Rocers’ Hyarips.*—No, 1.—Vigorous; bunch large; berry very large, round, pale red, rather late; esteemed by some} said to improve in the west; foxy flavor, as are they all. No. 2.—Late, large, black. No. 3.—* Hardy and vigorous ;” large; amber colored; quite early, No. 4.—The most popular of the lot; may prove profitable for market; said to be healthy and vigorous; bunch handsome, rather large; berry large, black. No. 9.—Foliage scanty; canes long jointed; early as Delaware; reddish, sweet. No. 15.—Vigorous, healthy, productive; bunch large; berry large, am- ber, rich, sweet, aromatic. No. 19.—Resembles No. 4; not considered quite so good. No. 22.—Resembles No. 15 in color and quality; more Diana flavor. Nos. 41, 43, 44.—All black and large; better than No. 4, but not so large bunches. Rulander.—Foreign; berry medium, black; valued as a wine grape in Missouri. Sage.—Massachusetts. Vigorous; berry large; very foxy. Sanbornton.—New Hampshire. One of the Isabella type; said to ripen where the Isabella will not. Saratoga.—New York. Supposed to be the same as Fancher; very like Catawba; red, good. Segar Box.—Same as Ohio; rather tender; vigorous; bunch large, rather loose ; berry small, black, juicy; very good. *These seedlings are reputed to be true hybrids, of the Vitis vinifera, on the Jabrusca, or wild fox-grape of New England. They were introduced at the meeting of the Lake Shore Grape Growers’ Association, at Cleveland, Ohio, in October, 1866, when their merits were set forth by Hon. Marshal P. Wilder, who exhibited them. The above descriptions are condensed from the statements there made. There are said to be still others, some of which have merit. It must be confessed that if hybrids, they are far below the choice varieties of the European grapes that are their reputed parents; but, if only seedlings, from the miserable wild-fox grape, their mother, they evince a most wonderful tendency to improvement in that variety, that that would have transported Van Mons, had they occurred in his experience. Choice of Vines. 55 Shaker.—Is Union Village. Shaker Seedling.—Resembles Union Village, but is earlier; black, large. South Carolina.—Ohio, Vigorous; bunch large; berry small, black, juicy, spicy, very promising. Schuylkill—Same as Cape. Taylor.—Kentucky. Very vigorous, rampant; not generally productive ; bunch rather small; berry small, green, yellow, and rosy, juicy, good. To Kalon Not vigorous; very like Isabella; bunch above medium; berry large, black, round, pretty good; by some highly esteemed. Ulrey—Indiana. Bunch medium; berry large, white, sweet, rich; “per- fectly hardy.” Underhill,—New York. Vigorous, hardy; berry red, sweet; another fox. Union Village-—Ohio. Very vigorous, healthy; not hardy when over- grown; bunch large; berry very large, blue; only an overgrown Isabella, to my taste; very attractive in the market. Urbana.—A Concord seedling. Bunch medium; berry large, white; not very sweet; worthy of trial. Venango.—Pennsylvania. Same as Miner's Wackita, Walter-—New York. “ Hardy, productive; a cross between Delaware and Diana ;” bunch full medium; berry medium, red; very like Diana in many of its characters; early. Warren.—1s Herbemont. Washington,—New York. Early, black. White Catawba—Ohio. Resembles Catawba, but inferior; bunch me- dium ; berry large, greenish, pulpy. White Muscadine. Wilmington Delaware. Vigorous; berry medium, white. Wortkington—Ohio. Vigorous, hardy; bunch small; berry medium, black, very acid, poor. Yeddo.—Japan. Has not succeeded; tender. York Madeira, An improved fox, only ; valued for its earliness. Young America —Pennsylvania. A Concord seedling; late. Zane.—Ohio. Berry full medium, red ; not cultivated. In most vineyards a long experience has pointed out what vines are the best adapted (considering the state of the soil, the location and exposure) to the produc- 56 Vineyard Culture. tion of the kind of wine desired. When, therefore, a vineyard is to be planted, the first thing to be ascertained will be the situation, the exposure, and the nature of the soil, and subsoil, of the land to be used; after which we must choose, in the neighborhood, those vines which, under the same-conditions, have given the best results. There are, however, a few general rules which may serve as guides in that particular. ist. Consider whether quality of product is more profitable than quantity ; for these two conditions can scarcely ever be united. It does not depend upon the cultivator to produce that bouquet—that smoothness which characterizes fine wines. Those qualities cer- tainly depend partly on the climate, the nature of the vine, the character of the soil, and its exposure; but they are especially the results of certain local influences, which it has been impossible, so far, to determine ina very positive manner. Therefore, when a vineyard is to be planted in one of these favored localities, quan- tity must undoubtedly be sacrificed to quality ; for, the high price which the product will command, may com- pensate for its smaller quantity; but, these desirable products excepted, it will be well to sacrifice quality to quantity ; for, do what we may, the price will never be sufficiently high to compensate for the diminished yield. Nevertheless, it has been recently suggested, that the fine varieties should be everywhere substituted for the much more common, but, at the same time, much more productive ones. This is unfortunate, for it is evident that under no circumstances can one acre of Burgundy “* Pinots,” in their highest state of productiveness, yield the same quantity which the ‘“‘ Gamais ” will yield, if Choice of Vines. 57 planted on the same extent of land, and also in its high- est state of productiveness. It is equally certain that the produce of the fine varieties acquires all its excel- lent qualities only under the influence of certain con- ditions of the soil, and its favorable exposure. This being admitted, let us suppose two acres of land, very richly manured, heavy, little subject to drought—one planted with ‘‘ Gamais,”’ the other planted to Burgundy “Pinots.” The ‘*Gamais” will yield 1056 gallons, which, at one dollar per gallon, is $1,056. The “ Pinot,” owing to the unfavorable state of the soil in which it is planted, will yield 264 gallons, of a quality below its proper standard, which, at two dollars fifty cents, will give $660. It is evident, therefore—the expense of cultivation being the same—that the ad- vantage will be in favor of the ‘‘ Gamais.” -If, on the other hand, one acre of well drained land, of good depth, a little gravelly, situated on a hill-side, with a good exposure—in fact, situated in the condi- tions most favorable to the “‘ Pinot”’—is planted with “© Gamais,” that space will perhaps yield 422 gallons, which, at one dollar, will bring $422; whilst the same space, under the same conditions, and devoted to the “ Pinot,” will produce only 211 gallons, it is true, but it will sell at five dollars, and realize $1,055 for the entire crop. In that case, the advantage is in favor of the “ Pinot.” Besides, supposing that fine wines could be produced anywhere, and that their greater value should compen- sate for their small yield, the production of fine wines, almost exclusively, would soon bring about the follow- ing unfortunate result, namely : that two-thirds, at least, 58 Vineyard Culture. of consumers, being unable to buy anything but com- mon wines, producers of fine wines could no longer find a market. Therefore, it would not be advisable to be too positive as to the choice of vines, as regards quantity or quality. Quality, exclusively, must not be thought of, except in those favored localities where the high price of the product will compensate for the small- ness of the yield; everywhere else quantity must have the preference. ad. If wines of medium quality are to be obtained, the finer descriptions, generally very rich in alcohol, must be mixed with the more abundant but much weak- er ones. It is thus that in the second class vineyards of Burgundy, the “ Pinots,” which produce a fine wine, but in small quantity, are mixed with the ‘‘ Gamais,” which is of inferior quality but produces largely. In the Gironde district, the ‘* Verdal,”’ the ‘* Merlot,” the big ** Mérille,” are mixed with the ‘‘Carmenet.” On the banks of the Rhéne the “ Pique-Poule,” yielding little, but excellent wine, is mixed with a small quan- tity of “Grenache,” producing very strong wine, and with the * Terret,” a large yielder of wine, but weak in alcoholic principle. The vine of |’Ermitage is com- posed exclusively of the ‘‘ Big Sirah,” which is very productive, but not so fine as the ‘* Little Sirah,” with which it is sometimes mixed. 3d. It is enough that ordinary wines contain a suf- ficient proportion of alcohol: that is, 0.08 at least; when weaker than that they are difficult of sale.— Therefore, the vines which will most readily give this result ought to be selected. Thus, as the ‘¢ Gamais,” Choice of Vines. 59 in a good soil, will contain 0.0649 of alcohol, the ‘* Pi- not,” which yields 0.1062, is mixed with it. 4th. If the wines are for distillation, preference must be given to the most productive descriptions, and they must be cultivated in rich soils. Weak. wines will be obtained, but their greater abundance will more than compensate for their small yield of alcohol; besides, this poverty will not be an obstacle to the sale of these wines, since, in the process of prolonged distillation, water has to, be added to those wines which contain over 0.10 of alcohol, and the buyer has to pay only for the alcohol contained in the wine. What we have just said is clearly proven by the following figures, which we borrow from M. Bouchardet : One acre of ‘‘ Gamais,” well cultivated, yields 1,689 gallons of wine, containing 0.048 of alcohol, or 216 gallons of alcohol per acre. One acre of “Pinot,” well cultivated, will yield 528 gallons of wine, containing 0.1062 of alcohol, or 56 gallons of alcohol per acre. 5th. Certain grapes produce wine which remains sweet for the want of ferment; this defect may be obviated by mixing with them such as produce dry wines. Thus, a too large proportion of the “Grenache” often pro- duces this result, in the South; if it has too little alco- hol, the defect is corrected by increasing the number of “ Pique-Poule ” plants, in the South, and of ‘ Pinots”’ in the North. If the wine contains much lees, and is liable to sour, or turn to vinegar, those descriptions which contain much tannin are mixed with it; such as the Mourvédre, in rich soils; the brown ‘ Fourca”’ in the dry soils of the South ; the Merlot of the Gironde 60 Vineyard Culture. in the West. Inthe South there are ‘ musts” which ferment badly for want of a sufficient proportion of wa- ter; this inconvenience is remedied by planting a cer- tain proportion of Aramons, or Terrets. This is the way to correct the defects of wine ; it is better than to add to the “‘ musts” substances which assimilate them- selves badly with that liquid, and which it is difficult to mix in the right proportions to all the elements which compose it. 6th. The degree of color to give to wine must also be attended to, in choosing the plants, for this exerts considerable influence on the sale of the wine. When they lack color, it is remedied, in the South, by plant- ing the Tirtot, the Mourastel or the Carignan; in the North the ‘* Dyers” are employed. 7th. From the preceding positions, we conclude that in almost all vineyards several kinds of plants must be united ; but the number ought always to be very lim- ited, and should comprise those only, the admixture of which will produce the results we have here pointed out. In any case, as the “musts” of the different kinds will have to be mixed in the same cask, the plants must be selected in such a way that they will all mature precisely at the same time. If it is sometimes proper to introduce varieties of different dates of maturity, it is when large vineyards are to be planted; in such cases the different grapes are pressed separately. The plant- ing is done in this way to counterbalance the risks which each variety runs from white frosts, rotting, etc. This also permits the harvesting of the crop to be done gradually, and to have always a sufficient number of laborers at hand. It is for this reason that in the large Choice of Vines. 61x vineyards of Lower Languedoc, they plant one-third in ** Aramons,” which belong to the fourth period of ma- turity ; one-third in “ Grenache,” which belongs to the fifth period, and one-third in ‘¢ Terret-bourret,” which only ripens at the sixth period. These are the chief causes which have determined the selections of the various grapes comprising our vine- yards. These selections, sanctioned by long experience, are almost all founded upon common-sense principles, and for this reason, very frequently it is sufficient to im- itate what has already been done in the locality to be planted. It is not that we absolutely condemn the intro- duction of new plants: numerous examples prove the advantage of sometimes introducing new varieties ; but these sorts of naturalizations ought to be attempted with great caution, as a failure might cause heavy loss. As a general rule, the transfer of varieties from one country to another succeeds only where the climate, soil, and cultivation, of the country of which the plant is a native, perfectly resemble those of that into which it is to be introduced. And yet this rule is not with- out exception, for certain vineyards of the Northern and Middle districts have been improved by the intro- duction of vines originating in the South, and vice versa: the Northern varieties have given’very good results in the South. Therefore, no positive rule can be laid down in this respect ; nevertheless, it will be well, when a new plant is to be introduced, to try it on a small scale, so as to observe how far, and in what manner, it has been affected by the new conditions to which it is ex- posed. 62 Vineyard Culture. Prants Propucinc THE Best Wines.—Let us conclude the subject of plants by pointing out those which produce our best wines. ist. Burgundy.—The best products of Burgundy are: For red wines—those of Romanée-Conti, Chambertin, Richbourg, Clos-Saint-Georges, Corton, Clos-de-Vou- geot, Volnay, Pomard, Nuits. These wines are produced chiefly from the black “¢ Pinot.” For white wines—the best are from Montrachet, Meursault, Chablis, where the white *‘ Pinot” is used. 2d. Bordelais.—The chief crops of this country are: For red wines—those of Médoc, Chateau-Margeaux, Chateau-Lafitte, Chateau-Latour, Haut Brion, Saint Julien, Saint Estéphe, and in the gravelly districts of Bordeaux, those of Talence, Saint Emilion, near Li- bourne. These vineyards are composed, almost ex- clusively of the ‘* Carmenet,” “* Malbeck,” “ Merlot,” and ‘‘ Verdot’ plants. For white wines—Chateau-Yquem (Sauterne), Cou- tet (Barsac) Chateau-Carbonnieux (Villeneuve d’Or- non). These wines are the produce of the “ Semil- lion,” the ‘ Rochalin,” and the ‘‘ Blanquette.” 3d. Champagne.—The products of Ay, Sillery, Ep- ernay, of Versenay, Pierry, Avise, Cramont, are the most celebrated of that country. The plants occupy- ing the first rank here are particularly the “Gray Pi- not,” the “* White Muscat,” and “ Black Muscat.” 4th. Banks of the Rhine.—The products of Céte Rétie and Condrieu are extensively composed of ‘Black Serine,” and “‘ White Vionnier.” 5th. Dréme.—The red wine of l’Ermitage is pro- Choice of Vines. 63 duced by the “‘ Big” and “Little Sirah ;” the plants of Marsanne and Roussane yield the white wine of VErmitage. 6th. Hérault.—The wines of Lunel and Frontignan, are produced by the ‘* White Muscat,” the ‘ Picar- dan,” and the plant of Calabria. , yth. Upper Rhine.-—The Rhine wines, and partic- ularly those of Johannisberg, are the products of the big and little “ Riesling.” 8th. Eastern Pyrénées—The wines known as Ali- cante, Grenache, Collioure, are of the ““Red Gren- ache,” the “ Alicante,” andthe ‘Grignane.” The wine of Rivesaltes, is the product of the “* White Mus- cat,” “¢ Alexandrian Muscat,” and “St. Jacques Mus- cat.” gth. Ardéche.—The wine of St. Peray is from the “ Big Roussette,” and ‘ Little Roussette.” roth. Cher.— The wine of Pouilly is from the “White Pinot.” 11th. Aude.—The Blanquette of Limoux is produced from the “ Blanquette.” 12th Lower Pyrénées—The red wines of Jurancgon are from the following plants: ‘ Pinéne,” ‘* Mensec,” “ Menseing,” and ‘Tannat.” The white wines of Jurancon are from the “‘ Réfiat,” the ‘ Menseing,” the Claverie,” the ‘* Aulban” and the ‘* Courtoisie.” 13th. JFura.—The white wines of Chateau-Chilons, the yellow and spirituous wines of Arbois, known also under the name of the straw wines, are produced by the “ Sauvagin,” or wild plant. [The importance of having a variety of grapes in cultiva- tion, is very well argued by our author, Our list of hardy 64 Vineyard Culture. American grapes is yet quite small, compared to the very numerous varieties which are cultivated in Europe; which have probably all been derived from one and the same spe- cies, under cultivation, but have shown a wonderful dispo- sition to sport into distinct varieties. With the different species of grapes in our country, their tendency to variation, and the great attention which has been bestowed upon them, with a view to the production of new varieties, by crossing and hybridizing, we already have quite a respectable assort- ment, and may expect, in a few years, to have very many more presented to the public. Up to this time very little has been done in the way of commingling the products of different vines, by our wine- makers. Certain varieties, with very high aroma, have been suggested as valuable, to add to others that are deficient in character, and some few experiments have been made. Thus, the juice of the Diana, with its ‘peculiar feline flavor, has been mixed with some grapes that were deficient or insipid, to dilute this character, and bring it within reasonable bounds. The highly musky juice of the Anna, has been mixed with the rich, but often rather tame, fluid produced by the Dela- ware, and the result was a most delicious product. ‘These, and similar trials, have shown us that good results may follow from the judicious admixtures of some of our grapes, and no doubt future experiments will be attended with happy re- sults. Up to this time, our wine-makers have, very properly, taken a great deal of pains in attempting to produce pure wines from all of the grapes they were cultivating, keeping each separate and unmixed, so as to ascertain its peculiar character and merits; but as the culture is extended, and the number of varieties is increased, we may very properly begin to experi- ment with this class of mixtures, which are perfectly legiti- Propagation of the Vine. 65 mate, and are justified by the practice of the best wine- countries. The same can not be said of the other class of admixtures: those of foreign ingredients of any kind, which may very properly be called adulterations, which will be considered in another place.] Vv. PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. HE vine may be propagated from the seeds, from cuttings, by layers, and by grafting ; let us consider under what circumstances the one or the other of these modes of reproduction must be preferred. SrEps.—Seeds can not be used, on a large scale, for planting a vineyard. For, although they may have been gathered from varieties of first-rate quality, and per- fectly adapted to the locality, they will generally pro- duce very inferior plants, and the seedling obtained will always be more or less removed from the parent stock, and approximate nearer to the wild state. But, as it has sometimes happened that seedlings have possessed superior qualities to the original stock, this mode of re- production has been employed, to obtain new varieties still more worthy of cultivation. It is thus that our vineyards and trellises have been gradually improved by the excellent varieties which we now cultivate. This operation, practiced in gardens, or nurseries, is a very slow process, for it will sometimes be eight or ten years before the plants will bear, although it may, it is true, be hastened by laying down the young plants successively 5 66 Vineyard Culture. or, better still, by grafting some of their shoots on old plants. [For the reasons presented by the author, propagation by seedlings, will never be practiced merely for the multipli- cation of plants; but the number of good varieties thus pro- duced in this country, would make it appear that the tendency to run back to the wild characters was not so great with our vines as with those of the species Vitis vinifera of Europe. Nor are we obliged to wait so long atime for our vines to fruit, since many of our seedlings have given satisfactory evi- dence of their promising qualities, or otherwise, in the third year. Ina collection of seedlings, a good many may be re- jected the first or second season, if we allow ourselves to be guided by the appearance of the vine and its foliage, and an expert may be safe in depending upon these criteria. The late Mr. N. Longworth, of Cincinnati, was a most in- defatigable seed-planter, and he produced a great number of seedling grape-vines, some of which will yet make their mark. His seeds were taken almost at random, from any good grapes, He annually rejected great numbers of plants, which he thought were showing indications of wildness, that induced him to conclude they were worthless, Mr. John Fiske Allen, and Mr. E. S. Rogers, of the vicin- ity of Boston; and Mr. Peter Raabe, of Philadelphia, and others, have made systematic attempts to improve the native grape, by fertilizing with the pollen of choice foreign varieties. Their trials have been attended with more or less success, and many others have been encouraged to take up the subject of cross-fertilization, and to repeat these experiments. A doubt has existed in the minds of some of our most intelligent pom- ologists, whether all the results were really true hybrids, and this is based upon: the observation that one set of plants was so decidedly foreign in appearance, while another set should show 80 little change in the characters of the native parent. This Propagation of the Vine. 67 ‘ is a matter, however, which it is not proposed to discuss in this place. One.of the most reliable operators in this line of investi- gation, is the careful experimenter, and accurate observer, Geo. W. Campbell, of Delaware, Ohio; who is perfectly satisfied that he has succeeded in effecting veritable crosses between several varieties, and that he has even produced hy- brids between the foreign and American species. Mr..Camp- bell has been so good as to communicate some of the results of his experiments to the public, with most interesting details, in papers to the Obio Pomological Society, and in an elaborate article which may be found in the Report of the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, for the year 1862, p. 209, to which last the reader is particularly referred. In it the sub- ject of hybridizing, cross-breeding, and selection of the seed- lings, is pretty fully discussed. Mr. Campbell does not give a very flattering or encouraging view of the prospects of any one who enters this field of in- vestigation, when he says:—‘that about ten years of further care and culture (after fertilizing the blossoms), will be re- quired before determinate results are reached, and that the chances may be ten, or perhaps a hundred to one, that the product will.be of no value. A good deal of enthusiasm, as well as a sanguine temperament, is necessary to enable the hy- bridizer to find much encouragement in his pursuit. He must be, emphatically, one who is willing 6To labor and to wait. Up to this time the most of our leading kinds in cultiva- tion are either natives, or accidental garden seedlings, which are the result of selection merely, and have not been produced by the application of scientific efforts bestowed upon the sub- ject; so with most of our American seedling fruits, of all kinds. ] Pry Curtincs.—Propagation from cuttings is, as regards 68 Vineyard Culture. the vine, the simplest and most expeditious process ; giving the best results, and is the one most in vogue. The kind of cutting most generally used is that known-under the name of “crossette” or ‘‘ elbow-cut- ting.” In some vineyards it is also known as “‘capon” or “ hook.’” The crossette is composed of one shoot, properly so called, [Fig. 5.] that is of the preceding spring’s growth; it must have, at its base, a small portion of wood, of two years’ growth, and be, altogether, about sixteen inches in length. The por- tion of old wood left at the end of the shoot forms a sort of hook, and from this has received the name of ‘“ crossette.”— : The base, or heel of the shoot, helps [Fie. 5.] greatly to form the roots. In the absence of crossettes, shoots, properly so called, are also used; that is, shoots without heels, but provided with an eye at each end. [Fig. 6.] These shoots take root as easily as the first,: provided the section at the base is made in the middle of the thick part of the joint. The two kinds of cuttings just spoken of, are put in nurseries, to make them také root, previous to permanent transplanting. Some- times they are permanently planted, without [Fic.6.] this preliminary operation. We shall point out the precautions which they require, in this last case, when we treat of the setting out of the vineyard.— Let us now show the process of making a nursery for them. Propagation of the Vine. 69 Nursery ror Raisinc Curtines.—Preparing the “ Crossettes.””—Crossettes are cut from late in the fall until the end of February. In the northern latitudes adapted to the vine, they must be put into the nursery in March and April only, and in January and February in the South. Until then the wood must be kept from drying. It is well, besides, to hasten the development of their roots. To this end the cuttings are treated as follows: by means of a pruning-knife, the portion of old wood which had been left only to prevent the heel of the crossette from drying, especially when they are for distant transportation, is cut away. The dry ten- drils and grape stalks must also be removed. All the cuttings are then made of one length—say about sixteen inches. ‘These crossettes are tied into small bundles, which are then buried in the following manner: one or more trenches are opened, of about fourteen inches wide, and about as deep as the cuttings arelong. The bundles of cuttings are placed in these trenches, in an upright position, but upside down. ‘The earth is so placed over them as to form a slanting or shelving bed over each trench. ‘This process, which we have seen practiced by some vine-dressers on the “‘ Aude,” gives this result: when about to be transplanted into the nursery, these cuttings are taken up, when the heel of each is found provided with a large, round swelling of cellular tissue, which hastens the growth of the cut- tings by. one year. [A similar method, but more carefully and judiciously man- aged, has been very successfully introduced, in this country, and has been used by Mr. Wm. Patrick, of Terre Haute, In- diana. The details are given in the American Annual of Horti- 70 Vineyard Culture. culture, a beautiful booklet, which has just been issued from the press of Orange Judd & Co., New York. The point aimed at is the application of heat to the lower portion of the cuttings, to encourage the formation of the callus, whence the roots are to issue, while the buds that are to form the vine are kept cool and dormant, until the condi- tions are changed, at planting time, by reversing the cuttings. At this time young roots will have made their appearance.— The reader is retgrred to the article. See *“Aznual” and Gardeners’ Monthly. It is a very common plan to bury the cuttings as fast as they are made and tied up. They are generally set, butts down, in the trench opened for the purpose; fine earth is shaken over them, and filled in between the bundles, and the whole is covered from the weather. ‘The bundles are often laid upon their sides, to avoid digging the trenches so deep. Those that go into the market, and these have amounted to millions, some years, are usually stowed in cellars, to keep them from the drying winds, but not covered with soil. They therefore sometimes become quite dry, and when received at the end of their journey, they should be plunged into water, for a short time, before being buried in the fresh soil, which is a necessary preparation for the planting. There is a very common prejudice in favor of what are called heel-cuttings, or those that have a portion of the two- year old wood at their base, like those called by our author *< crossettes,”” but we trim the old wood much shorter than he represents in the cut: these are also called * martelles,” or hammer-cuttings, from the shape of the old wood, It is thought they root more freely, which is very probable because of the great number of eyes always clustered about the base of the annual shoot. Many of the varieties in culti- vation strike so readily from cuttings, that any piece will grow as well as the lower portion; wood that is rather slender and Propagation of the Vine. 71 close-jointed, succeeds better than such as is large, sappy, full of pith, and long-jointed, but, under all circumstances, the shoots used should have been well ripened, and firm. Some sorts are very difficult to grow from cuttings in the cold ground; these are propagated by layering, or the wood is turned over to the careful manipulation of those who propa- gate grape-vines by the aid of artificial heat and glass.] To the same end, it is advisable to peel the cuttings for four inches from their base, so as to lay bare the inner bark. , This operation is easily performed when the cuticle has been softened in water, or by the damp- ness of the ground. This removal of the skin hastens and facilitates the sprouting of the roots in the following proportions: if 200 cuttings of the same vine are planted in a straight line, and in the same conditions as to sail and moisture, and 100 of them are peeled, as we have just explained, and each one planted be- tween two cuttings which have not been operated on, the following result will be obtained: while one-third of the unpeeled cuttings fail, the cuttings operated on will only fail four or five per cent., and will be more vigorous by half. By laying the cuttings horizontally in the earth, or soaking them some time in water, somewhat analagous effects are obtained, by the softening of the cuticle, but these results are far from being as complete as in the two foregoing processes. Nursery Planting.—The growth of cuttings must be hastened as much as possible, and, for this reason, in order to form a nursery, a rich, fertile soil, with a good exposure, must be selected. In the fall preceding the planting, it must be broken up and trenched to the 72 Vineyard Culture. depth of sixteen inches. Just before being planted, it must be lightly plowed, so as to level the surface prop- erly ; a line is then stretched across one end of the vineyard, to mark out a trench twelve inches wide, and twelve inches deep. One of the sides of the trench, against which the cuttings are to lean, must incline about forty-five degrees. If the cuttings were placed vertically, they would have to be buried deeper, and their heels being too far from the surface of the ground, would not take root so well. Cuttings leaning against this inclined plane, have one or two eyes above ground. If they are to remain one year in the nursery, they are planted four inches apart, on the line; if two years, eight inches apart. The crossettes having thus been placed in this first trench, such manure as may be had— that is, old, loose manure, composted—is put into the trench, to the depth of six inches. The line is then moved twelve inches from the first trench, if the plants are to remain one year in the nursery, and sixteen inches,,if they are to remain two years; and another trench is then opened, similar and parallel to the first— the earth which is dug from it, serves to fill the first ; this done, the earth is pressed down, with the foot, against the first lines of cuttings, so that, being in close contact with the earth to the whole extent planted, they may the more easily absorb the moisture from the ground. The second row is then set like the first one, and so on, with all the rest. It must be borne in mind that, if different vines are to be planted in a nursery, they will have to be grown separately, in order to pre- vent confusion at the time of setting out the young plants permanently in the vineyard. Propagation of the Vine. 73 When the nursery is to be of considerable extent, it will be well to divide it into beds four feet six inches, to six feet six inches in width, and separated from each other by alleys one foot six inches wide, running into roads about three feet wide, if the nursery is to be very extensive. The whole operation is finished by a light hoeing of the entire surface of the beds, in order to su- perficially loosen the soil trodden down by the feet. Cultivation of the Nursery.—About the beginning of May, it will be well to hoe the soil a second time, and, if it be of a dry character, to cover the entire surface of the beds with a layer of straw, or dried leaves, or any such substance, to the depth of two inches, so as to prevent it from caking, under the action of the rain, to oppose the growth of hurtful plants, and, especially, to prevent the earth from drying up during the heats of summer. If the soil is a little clayey, a few hoeings during the season, will produce these results. These dressings may be done by hand, if the nursery is small ; if one acre and a half, or more, it will be cheaper to harrow it. In this case, it will be unnecessary to have alleys, and the trenches must be made in the direction of the greatest length of the nursery. If this nursery be located in a southern latitude, it will not be sufficient to hoe and cover up the soil,—it will also be necessary to water it, to some extent, in the very hot weather. The shoots must be allowed to grow freely during the first summer; all the pruning or cutting which could be done would only injure the roots. In the fall, the young plants will appear as in Figure 7. These are called roots. They are sometimes 8 74 Vineyard Culture. permanently planted at this stage of their growth—in the South, for instance— when a vigorous plant is wanted, and a plantation is to be made in a rich and somewhat clayey soil. But it will be best, in most cases, to await until the second year. In that case, about pruning time, all the young plants are cut as at A [Fig. 7], and the small shoot, B, is so cut as to have but one eye at the base. Imme- diately after the trimming, the ground is lightly plowed, and, at the end of April, it [Fic. 7.]—One-year old is again covered with a new Plant. layer of straw, etc. It will be well, during the summer, to concentrate all the vigor of the young plant into one single shoot. For that purpose, as soon as the shoots have attained the length of eight inches, they must all be suppressed, except the finest one, the top of which must be pinched off, as soon as it has reached twenty-four inches in hight. About the beginning of August, the buds are again nipped, if necessary, to prevent confusion, and allow the shoots to be well strengthened by the action of the sun. Figure 8 shows the appearance of these two-year old plants in the fall. Removal of the Plants from the Nursery.—Whatever length of time the cuttings may be left in the nursery, . Propagation of the Vine. 75 they ought to be taken up in such a way that none of ~ their roots be mutilated, for these, being thick and fleshy, will not bear the f least bruising, which af- ) terward will cause them } to rot completely. To If avoid this danger, they y must be taken up in this iw way: at one end of each \ of the beds, and cross- i wise, open a continuous alec: trench, a little deeper 7 IR \ than the roots have gone La down; then undermine RIAN the earth, little by little, io %)\ keeping the trench well Wy INN cleared out all the time. In this way, all the plants may be taken up, without bruising a single root. [Fic. 8.]— Two-year old Plant. [Certain changes have been introduced into the system of growing cuttings and making plants, which should be noticed in this place. While some vine-planters prefer setting the cuttings at once in the vineyard, where they are to remain permanently, and thus avoid the labor of transplanting, and obviate the check to the plants incident to this operation, there are others who prefer to grow their vines in the nur- sery. All those parties at a distance who are to be supplied with plants, must have them grown one or two years in the nursery, and well rooted. Thus the production of grape plants has become a very important part of the business, and 76 Vineyard Culture. enormous quantities of vines are produced by the nurseryman, and sold to the vine-planter. The nursery of long cuttings—such as were formerly used almost exclusively, was often made in this way. A mel- low piece of loamy soil having been selected, either fal- low, or, if in clover, so much the better, a trench was opened along one side, as recommended by Mr. Du Breuil. The garden line was stretched, and the bank of freshly dug earth was dressed to it, with the spade, and sloping to the bottom of the trench, which was made some fifteen to eighteen inches deep. The cuttings were placed along this slope, about three inches apart, and so arranged that the top bud should barely reach the surface. The spade was then taken, and a little earth from the un- dug land was cast upon the bases of the cuttings, and firmly trodden, so as to fix them in their places, without disturbing their upper points, however, which should always remain near the line. The digging then proceeded the whole length of the line, as in common preparation of the garden, and the fine soil thrown upon the cuttings, and pressed to them. When a strip of fifteen to eighteen inches width, was thus dug, the line was moved, and set at that distance from its first position, the earth graded to it, and another row planted. When completed, the nursery was generally left without farther care until the young shoots began to make their ap- pearance, when the crust would require loosening, very care- fully, with a weeding-fork or a rake-hoe. This process is one requiring great delicacy, because the shoots are very ten- der, and brittle, and easily destroyed. In some soils which are apt to bake and form a hard crust, it is better, as the rows are planted, to raise a little ridge of soil over the points of the cuttings. This is done before moving the line, by using a fine garden-rake, or by putting on a small quantity of loose Propagation of the Vine. 77 compost, or woods’ earth, which has been prepared for the purpose, and which will not bake. Such material covers the cuttings, protects them from drying, encourages the starting of the buds, does not form a crust, and shows the cultivator just where to look for his young vines, and it is easily re- moved from the points of the shoots as they commence to push through it to the light and air. Long amd Short Cuittings—The old rule for the length of cuttings was to make them a practical cubit’s length, the measure being taken on the fore-arm and running to the end of the fingers. Where the wood was abundant, and the cut- tings brought a low price, say of from one to, at most, three dollars per thousand, the vine-trimmer could afford to be generous, and it was found that in tying up the bundles of one hundred, this length was very convenient. The objection to these long cuttings, particularly for nur- sery. planting, and the production of vines for sale, was two- fold. The farmer had greater labor in planting, and also in digging them, and the purchaser had fewer roots than he desired; indeed, many of the yearling plants were little bet- ter than cuttings, by the time they reached their destination, as the slender roots were often withered and dried up, so as to be unfit for planting. Some cultivators divided their cut- tings in the middle, making two of one, so that they were from eight to ten inches long, and had but three or four eyes to each. By careful treatment in the nursery, and by having the ground well selected, well cultivated, or well mulched, the success that attended these short-cuttings was remarkable, and highly satisfactory, both to the nurseryman and to the vine-planter, as the roots and tops were much longer and more vigorous. This shortening was pushed still further, until but two eyes were used ; but these shorter cuttings only re- quired a little care to guard against the effects of drouth. Some growers went even so far as to propagate from a single 78 Vineyard Culture. joint of wood, having the eye at the upper portion, and the lower end cut somewhat slanting, so as to remove the bark and a portion of the wood, and thus to encourage the formation of a larger callus, from which the roots are emitted. Beau- tiful and very well rooted plants, from such cuttings, were exhibited at the meeting of the Lake Shore Society, at Cleve- land, O. Single Eyes-—The plan almost universally employed by those who now devote themselves to the multiplication of the vine, is to use but a single eye or bud, depending upon arti- ficial means for regulating the temperature, and other attend- ant circumstances, so as to make these as favorable as possible for the development of roots. For this purpose, bottom heat is used, and this is usually produced by a flow of heated water beneath the sand-bed in which the eyes are started. The idea is to induce the roots to grow in the warm, moist sand, while the cooler air above does not encourage the de- velopment of the buds, nor the expansion of the leaves, until after the formation of the roots. When the little plants are fairly under way, they are potted off into good soil, and put through a process of hardening, preparatory to setting them out in the nursery; or they are pushed, and, from time to time, shifted into larger pots, so as to produce the greatest amount of growth, by keeping the plants in the most favor-. able circumstances for their development. These will push out laterals, that are often removed, and used for the propa- gation of plants during the summer. Such are called soft- wood cuttings. Many plants are produced by setting the eyes in boxes, in which they are allowed to remain during the whole period of growth, and these are generally kept under shelter of the glass all summer, or they are hardened off, and exposed toward its close. Most of the vines grow from single eyes, by starting them thus with bottom heat, and pointing them off, are set out in Propagation of the Vine. 79 the open nursery ground so soon as they are prepared for this exposure by hardening, and when the season has so far advanced that the young plants will not receive a check by by the exposure. The ground should have been well pre- pared by thorough plowing, or by trenching and manuring ; the line is stretched, the pots are carried out, and the planter turns them, ejecting the balls, which he sets with a trowel, in the loose earth, and presses it firmly about them. The line is moved a foot or fifteen inches, and another row is set. The plants are well watered once, and, in a day or two, the surface is loosened with the hoe, to overcome the effects of the tramping of the workmen, and then mulched. In the fall, these plants are taken up much in the way recommended in the text, taking care to preserve the roots as perfect as possible; they are sorted, counted, tied in small bundles, and packed away in sand, moss, or damp saw-dust, and put into a cool cellar, until wanted for shipping or plant- ing; or they may be heeled-in, out of doors, in a dry and sheltered situation, but the risk of loss, with additional labor requisite for the careful performance of this work, renders the cellar storage very preferable. Unfortunately, these little plants are often trimmed very short, for the sake of their wood, and this has been one of the objections to single eye plants, because they can not be set deeply in planting them out in their stations. Objections to Single Eye Plants—From some cause there has arisen a great prejudice against plants produced in the way that has just been alluded to. A great deal of nonsense has been uttered, and the process has been denounced asa steam manufactory of vines ;” the plants are said to have been forced unnaturally, and to have been “ propagated to death,” etc. Now it is not worth while to occupy space in repeating what every intelligent person, engaged in the culti- vation of plants, should know: that it is no matter how the 80 Vineyard Culture. vine is produced, if it be well developed in leaf, shoots and roots. As has been well said by one of the most extensive vine-planters of our country, “give me a good plant, and I don’t care afig how you have produced it—by steam or other- wise.” The good plant is what we should demand. It must be confessed, however, that we do not always re- ceive good plants, even when we have paid enormous prices for some of the new and fancy kinds; and it must be ac- knowledged that when these delicate, slender little things have been set out in the open ground of the vineyard, they have, too often, succumbed to the effects of the exposure. A ques- tion arises whether, in a majority of cases, the disasters we have suffered have not been incidental to the faulty character of the variety itself, rather than to the method of its propa- gation. Some kinds of grapes are much more subject to the attacks of mildew than others, and the little plants have not acquired sufficient force in their new stations to resist the malady. The next question that arises is, whether we can honestly recommend the extensive planting of such varieties; and with these views some of our most reliable planters, and some of our most intelligent societies, have adopted the principle of not recommending any fruits for general cultivation that have not proved themselves oth hardy and healthy, as well as pro- ductive of good fruit.] LayERING.—This operation consists in choosing one or more vigorous shoots, on the same stock, from which to make new plants. In March each one is laid down into the earth, to the length of about sixteen inches, and at a depth of five inches, the earth having first been well loosened and manured. The top of the shoot is cut so as to leave about two eyes out of the ground, and the end is fastened toa grape-stake. [Fig. 9.] 81 Propagation of the Vine. t Sell RA [Fie. 10.] 82 Vineyard Culture. During the following summer the two reserved’ eyes shoot out, and, at the same time, each joint of the layer, covered by the soil, produces a whorl of roots. The year following, at planting time, this layer is weaned: that is, it is cut, as at A [Fig. 9] and then taken up with care, to be transplanted elsewhere.— . These layers then appear as in Figure 10. These roots, from layers, can not be used to make a vineyard ; their production is too costly, and it would, besides, be difficult to obtain a sufficient number of them. A certain number of shoots, from the stocks of a neighboring vineyard might, it is true, be used, but experience has proved that this operation greatly weak- ens the stocks. It will, therefore, be better to have recourse to rooted plants, or cuttings planted perma- nently, unless it is to replace a few missing vines.— Nevertheless, layering is customary in certain vine- yards, either to replace missing stocks, or to renew the whole plantation; but, in the latter case, it is not one shoot only, but the entire stock, which is laid down in the ground, in order to bring out, at convenient points, one or more shoots. Besides, these layers remain per- manently in their place. ‘This constitutes another ope- ration, called vine-layering, and which we will examine when we come to the planting and keeping up of a vineyard. [Here, as in some other practices, Americans think they can improve upon the European methods. Layering is prac- ticed to a considerable extent, in established vineyards, for the sake of filling up gaps that may have been caused by the death of a plant, from any cause, The plan recommended by our author is generally adopted, only that we take care to select Propagation of the Vine. 83 a shoot that is long enough to reach to the next regular sta- tion, and we place it rather deeper than he advises, These layers constitute the renewal of the vineyard by provinage.— The plants, thus produced, will succeed much better than. strangers introduced into the soil that is already fully occu- pied by the roots of the old vines, among which the new comer will stand a poor chance for its life. A good strong layer, made from a fruitful branch, will often produce a mod- erate crop the first year, and make strong canes for the next year’s fruitage, besides establishing itself firmly on its own roots, so as to bear a separation trom the mother plant, which should not be neglected. An enthusiastic grape-grower in Illinois,* having observed that young vineyards often escaped the rot, to which older vines were very subject, proposed a plan of renewing the vineyard by layering one-fourth part of it every year, and re- moving the oldest vines at the same time. ‘The theory was very plausible, but unfortunately we have observed this mal- ady too often upon our newly layered plants, to have any confidence in the proposed remedy. As already observed, when speaking of propagation by cut- tings, there are some varieties in cultivation that do not emit roots readily, and therefore are not easily increased by that method. ‘These kinds are generalty multiplied by layering, and we have adopted a method which proves very successful. The long canes of the previous year’s growth are trimmed of their laterals, and the tendrils are removed; they are left as long as the wood is well developed—sometimes ten or fifteen feet. At the same time other canes are trimmed in the usual way for the fruiting on stake or trellis, After the ground is well prepared and put into fine tilth, in the spring, a shallow trench, about three inches deep, is opened with the spade, and into this the cane to be layered is introduced, and fastened *Dr. Shreder, of Bloomington, Illinois. 84 Vineyard Culture. down with hooked pegs, which keep it firmly in its .place.— This is done just before the buds burst, but after the sap has begun to flow freely into the canes. By this means the buds all along the vine will have been excited, and in due time they will break, and it is desirable to have them break evenly, The soil near the layer is kept nicely cultivated, and as the shoots grow, they are to be tied up to small stakes provided for the purpose. The cultivation will bring some earth in contact with the layer, and soon cover it; but this is not enough. Some good soil, or compost, is to be filled in against the shoots, until the old cane is buried about six inches deep. This furnishes a bed of fine soil for the young roots, which will be very abundantly produced, not only from the parent cane, but also from the lower joints of the young upright shoots of the current year’s growth. Taking up and dividing, is to be done in the fall, so soon as vegetation is entirely arrested. The soil is then in better condition than in the spring, and the roots can be more per- fectly removed than when the ground is wet and heavy, par- ticularly in clayey lands. Great care is needed in taking up the layers: a trench should be opened with the spade on one side, then the earth is to be loosened with a fork, and the fibers carefully preserved, and the whole branch, with its roots undermined, until all be free. The cane is then cut off from the parent vine, and divided, so that each shoot shall make a separate plant. If all has been well, there may be almost as many well rooted layer-plants as there were buds on the cane; but this is seldom, or never, the case. These new plants are to be assorted and put away for the winter, either in the cel- lar, in sand or moss, or they may be heeled-in upon some warm, dry spot out of doors, These layer-plants are in great request among planters, and they command an extra price, for though made up of young wood, they are well furnished with roots, and are sure to Propagation of the Vine. 85 grow; while the shoots are often so well developed, and so long, that they admit of deeper planting than most of those grown from single eyes, and they will often bear fruit the first year of setting them out; this, however, is not desirable. Some of the vine-planters of the lake shore will give double price for layer-plants, and will reject all others if these can be had at that rate. The effects upon the old vines are found to be very injurious, and good cultivators object to the prac- tice on this score.] , Grartinc.—This operation is sometimes performed in vineyards. It is generally practiced at certain points in the Departments of !’Hérault, Maine and Loire.— In the following cases, for instance: there are certain vines which, owing to their extreme vigor, do not bear a full crop before they are ten or twelve years old; such are the ** Muscats,”’ cultivated at Lunel and Frontignan., To hasten the maximum yield of these vines, any other descriptions are planted, provided they are very vigor- ous, and, when two or three years old, they are grafted. The result of this operation will be to reduce their vigor and increase their fruitfulness. Elsewhere, as in cer- tain vineyards of Anjou, the plant adopted, owing to the nature of the soil, possesses insufficient vigor. A hardy variety is then planted, which adapts itself to that soil, and when the vines have attained sufficient size, they are grafted. In short, grafting will always prove an excellent operation when used to replace an inferior plant by a better one ; provided, however, that the plants to be grafted are sufficiently hardy. Grafting as practiced in l’Hérault, is simply the cleft graft placed upon the stock, below the surface of the soil. We prefer the way we have seen it performed by 86 Vineyard Culture. the vine-dressers of Anjou. It is as follows: in the beginning of January choose the scions that are to be grafted ; they ought to have a heel. Bury them in the same way we have indicated for the cuttings, and pro- ceed to graft as soon as the vine begins to bleed. The stocks are then laid bare to the depth of twelve inches, and about twelve inches in width ; cut them on a long bevel, about six inches below the surface of the soil; then make a vertical slit about one third the length of the upper part of this bevel. The slit may be kept open [Fic. r1.] with a small wooden wedge. [Fig. 11.] The shoot to be grafted is cut so as to have a length of about twelve inches. Notch or slit the plant between two joints, to about the same extent as the slit in the bevel, and so as to cut one-fourth of its diameter. Cut away the bark between the two joints as long as the slit in the stock, and then make a slanting cut upward of about two inches in length. Hook the graft on the stock by forc- ing the splinter, or tongue, into the slit Propagation of the Vine. 87 of the stock, in such a way that on one of the sides the bark may be in the same vertical plane. Bind the parts together with willow bark soaked in water, and cover them up with grafting wax. Lastly, fill up the cavity with the soil which has been dug out, so that the graft may have but one eye above ground. [Fig. 13.] [Fic. 13. }—Grafting. The top of the plant is fastened to a small stake. The union of the cutting with the stock soon takes place ; the bud of the graft shoots out, and a number of roots show themselves on the heel of it, so that it is both a graft anda cutting. From this comes the name of slit- grafted shoot, which we have given to that operation. [Fig. 13.] The development of this early shoot is often so rapid, under the influence of this two-fold principle of vegetation, that it may bear fruit the first summer after the operation. If the parent stock is somewhat large, two, instead of one graft, may be made—one on each side of the slit—provided the poorer one is cut away two years later, when the parent stock shall have been perfectly healed up. [Grafting the vine has been practiced to a considerable ex- 88 Vineyard Culture. : tent in our country, but not for the object cited in the text. We graft simply to change an unprofitable vine to a good one, or for the sake of multiplying a new sort, and putting our. selves at once in possession of strong bearing wood of a new or desired variety. In this manner a worthless wild vine may be at once transformed into one that will be profitable with its heavy produce of desirable fruit; for such a stock will force out strong bearing canes for the next year; and, indeed, there will often be some fruit the first summer of grafting, if the scion have been selected from fruitful wood. When the object is simply to multiply vines of any given variety, for home planting, or for sale, small, well rooted plants are often selected—yearlings or two-year olds. These may be grafted in the house, by the cleft or splice method, tied or waxed, and the vines can be planted in a nursery, or set at once in their permanent stations. I have had excellent success by using pieces of roots, taken from the wild vines that are to be found in an old, neglected fence-row. The underground stems, and the roots, were cut into lengths of ten to twelve inches, and cleft-grafted, tied, and planted at once. The experience of the practice of this operation upon the vine has been exceedingly varied. Some have been perfectly successful, while others have been almost always unfortunate; and those who may have had all their grafts do well one year, have lost them all the next. Some advise grafting very early, and others prefer waiting until the development of the young leaves on the vine, keeping the scions back by preserving them in the ice-house. Mr. Fuller, who claims to have been very successful in grafting the vine, recommends doing it in the autumn, or early winter. He excavates the earth, exposing the stock below the surface, and after grafting in the usual cleft method, he protects the graft from the action of the frost, by filling the earth about it, and then covering with an inverted flower-pot, Propagation of the Vine. 89 and throwing a mulch of straw, or leaves, over the whole.— Under these circumstances, a moderate action among the cell tissues results in the formation of a callus, andin a union with the stock, so that at the opening of spring, when the cover- ings are removed, the vine is prepared to grow at once. A writer in the Gardener’s Monthly* has discovered the mystery—or rather that there is no mystery at all about it.— He says: cut your scions in the fall, after they are fully ripe, but before they are exposed to any hard freezing. Let the wood be firm, not pithy, well matured, small and short-jointed. These are packed in moss, or saw-dust, and kept in the cellar, free from frost. They are cut in lengths of a foot, and tied in small bundles.” «¢ Have a short shoe-maker’s knife to split the stocks, and a sharp pen-knife to cut the graft; a small iron wedge to hold open the stock when needed; a wooden mallet and a ‘saw, and you are equipped.” *© Time.—He is most successful from the moment the frost has left the ground until the vines bleed—February to April, according to the season and locality. The stocks should be strong—at least two years old; as soon as the frost has gone, and the ground has settled, remove the earth from around the vine, four inches deep ; cut off the stock at a smooth place, suitable for grafting, two or three inches below the surface.— Graft as fast as cut, to avoid exposure to the air. The top of the stock is cut smooth, and the bark is removed from the side, as low as the graft is inserted, and split, or rather cut, by placing the knife on the side and striking it gently with the mallet, until you split the stock deep enough to insert the graft; but do not split it through to the other side. Insert the wedge to keep it open. Select the scion in proportion to the stock, so that it shall be firm enough to withstand the pres- sure. Cut it long enough for the upper bud to be just above *T. Stayman, Leavenworth, Kansas. 90 Vineyard Culture. the surface; make it wedge-shaped ; avoid wounding the pith; remove the bark from the part to be inserted; see that it fits the split correctly, and matches the stock exactly on either side; then withdraw the wedge, and if the work is properly done the graft will be held firmly in its place without tying; use no wax. Press the moist earth closely to the stock and graft, and fill up so as to have one bud above the surface.” If there be danger of frost, he recommends covering with straw, to prevent its heaving and litting the graft. After- ward remove the covering, cultivate well; remove suckers, and tie up the young shoot as it grows. Mr. Stayman concludes by saying that the conditions of success are good materials, grafting below the surface, within the period mentioned, and doing the work well.] Cuoick oF PLants For PRopacaTion.—The choice of plants, of which to make cuttings, layers, or grafts, is a very important point. If taken at random, plants may be selected which have a tendency to degenerate. We have seen, on the stock of the black Pinot, a shoot, all the bunches of which were accidentally white. This shoot, if cut for propagation, would have continued to yield white grapes, and thus constituted a new variety, perhaps better, but more frequently worse, than the one it originated from. In order to avoid degeneracy, which is more common than is usually supposed, it would be well, when propagation is intended, to go over the vine- yard during harvest time. Those plants which bear the earliest and most perfect bunches—which, in fact, possess in the highest degree those qualities which dis- tinguish the varieties to be cultivated—are then marked, so as to be known again. ‘Those are the plants of which to make cuttings, layers or grafts. By selecting ‘ Propagation of the Vine. 91 in this manner, the variety chosen will soon be im- proved, by the gradual development of those qualities sought after. [Sporrs.—A certain amount of variation is frequently ob- served among our plants of culture. These diversities are sometimes so remarkable as to attract attention, particularly when they relate to color, as in the instance above cited, where black was changed to white—a remarkable change, truly, and yet similar sports are not unfrequently observed in plants. Sometimes these sports, as they are called, occur in the foliage, in the habit of the plant, or in the fruit alone, and it is found that from the affected branches we may often propagate plants that may have similar qualities, and thus per- petuate the sub-variety. Our author calls it degeneration; it may also be improvement; it is simply eariation from the original, normal type, and if we observe carefully and select judiciously, we may improve our fruits by taking advantage of these tendencies to variation in the product of the buds, just as well as by selecting superior seedlings, though, in the latter, variation is the rule and not the exception, as here; at least, such is the case in seedlings of most of our improved fruits of cultivation. In the case of seeds, too, there is a con- stant liability for them to have had a mixed parentage; and at our will, we may control the pedigree of the seeds pro- duced, which is not the case with the product-of buds. Here the close analogy which has been shown to exist between the seeds and the buds ceases. The whole subject of sports is one of deep interest to the physiologist and scientific gardener, but practically, we may safely propagate any distinct variety, and expect to find all our plants like the parent. ] 92 Vineyard Culture. VI. PLANTING OF A VINEYARD. RRANGEMENT OF THE ViINES.—The three follow- ing plans are adopted, in the planting of a vineyard : 1st. Mixed Planting.—In all vineyards, the vines are, at first, planted in parallel lines, and the stocks at equal distances from one another. But in certain lo- calities, the primitive plants are laid down without or- der, in all directions, so as to multiply them more, and to bring them nearer the required distance from each other ; a confused planting is the result. This is the process adopted in the neighborhood of Paris, in Cham- pagne, in Burgundy, the. Jura, etc. The following are the motives which have led to the adoption of this method: the expense of planting is smaller than if the number of vines required to plant the whole surface were at once procured. When the stocks are to be replaced, the places of missing plants can be filled up with the layers, without recourse to outside plants. This method of replacing is more prompt in its re- sults than a new planting. Lastly and especially, this layering, practiced each year on a considerable portion of the vineyard, renews the vigor of the plants, and in- creases the yield. But, apart from the advantages we have just pointed out, irregular planting presents the following serious in- conveniences: the tillage is performed with less rap- idity, and is consequently more expensive than planting Planting of a Vineyard, 93 in rows. Cultivation frequently bruises the under- ground stems resulting from this mode of propagating. The transportation and distribution of the manure, and the getting out of the trimmings, and of the crop, are also much more expensive than in vineyards planted in rows. In irregularly planted vineyards, the soil is not so well warmed by the sun, the air circulates less freely, and the plants shade one another more than in regularly laid out lines. 2d. Planting in Close Rows.—By this method, the vine- yard planted in rows preserves its shape, whatever may be its age. These rows, being pretty close to one another, occupy the entire extent of the ground in a regular manner. We have just pointed out the advan- tages of these rows over the irregular planting. Thus, all the labor of keeping the vineyard is less expensive, even, than harvesting. The plants have more light, more air, and the soil is better warmed by the sun. Let us add, that for the same extent of ground, and the same number of plants, these last will be less crowded, when in rows, than when irregularly laid out. Lastly, and not least, planting in rows allows the use of wires, instead of stakes, thereby reducing, very materially, the expense of keeping up a vineyard. For this reason, we decidedly prefer that method. 3d. Planting in Isolated Rows.—In certain vine re- gions the vines are planted in isolated rows, separated by spaces, varying from twenty to one hundred feet apart, according to the localities—those spaces being de- voted to other agricultural purposes. In the Bordelais, these isolated rows are called ‘‘Joualles.” It is hoped, by that means, to draw from the soil as much produce 94 Vineyard Culture. from the vegetables, as if the rows of vines did not ex- ist, and, from these last to obtain a crop which costs almost nothing; but it is quite certain that the ground occupied by the vine can not profit other crops, and that the quantity of these last decreases in proportion to the number of rows of vines planted on the same surface. These solitary lines are also known to occupy proportionately more room than if just sufficient space for their proper growth were left between them. The tillage of these vines is less expeditious when they are isolated, than when they occupy the entire ground. Lastly, this tillage is often thwarted or delayed by the other crops planted in the vineyard. For this reason, we think this mode of cultivation offers but little ad- vantage. Space To BE Lert BETWEEN THE STOcCKs.—This important question depends upon the following consid- erations : ist. All varieties of vines do not develop themselves with the same vigor ; therefore, the more vigorous the variety, the larger must be the space between them. 2d. All other things being equal, the vine grows more vigorously in the South than in the North; there- fore, the warmer the climate, the larger must be the space between the vines. ’ 3d. The vine is subject to greater evaporation in the South than in the North, from which, it follows that it requires a larger space in the South than in the North, from which to draw the moisture. 4th. The earlier the growth, the less vigorous the plant. An isolated plant blooms, and its fruits ripen, later than plants that are crowded together, and are less Planting of a Vineyard. 95 vigorous ; the first ripe grapes are never gathered on the edges of the vineyard. The old, worn-out vines, and those planted in poor soils, mature earlier than those “that are young and well manured. Now, in northern latitudes, the ripening of the grapes being im- perfect, it will be well to reduce their vigor by crowding them more than in the South. sth. Nevertheless, this crowding must not be over- done, otherwise the vigor of the plants would not suf- fice properly to nourish the grapes, which would then yield but an inferior wine. It must not, besides, be forgotten that light and air must circulate freely round all the plants, and that the soil must be warmed by the sun. 6th. Ina word, while taking into account all the pre- ceding conditions, such a space must be left between the plants that the tillage of the ground may be done by the plow, whenever the inclination of the surface will permit its use. We have now only to point out the limits to be adopted under the preceding circumstances. Unfor- tunately no direct experiment has been made, to solve that important problem. Nevertheless, if we examine all that transpires on the subject, in the general practice of the different vine regions, it will be seen (by the fol- lowing table) that this problem has everywhere been solved conformably to the circumstances just enumer- ated : 96 Vineyard Culture. Amount of Space allowed between the Plants in the Prin- cipal Vine Regions. LOCALITIES. SPACES BETWEEN | NO. OF PLANTS THE VINES, TO THE ACRE, Ft. Inch, Chateauneuf-Colurier (Vaucluse).. 6 6 1,000 Saint-Cécile (Vaucluse)........ zeus 5 9 1,299 Vauvert and Saint Gilles (Gard)... 5 1 1,606 Department of the Gers... e 5 0 1,742 Department of l’Hérault... 5 0 1,742 Palus of Bordeaux....... wea 5 0 1,742 Médoc. seseeeeseesers 3.11 2,756 Haute-Garonne. 2 10 5,107 Beaujolais. .... 2 79 6,250 Touraine. 2 4 75398 Céte d’Or 2 1 9,120 Paris...... 2 0 9,983 Orléanais.... Ir 11,102 Ain, Vosges.. I7 16,010 pernaye. ... I 3 25,000 Moselle... ....++ se eveee ceees I 2 30,692 The above table shows that the mean distance be- tween the plants in the South being eight feet, it de- creases gradually as we advance North, where as many as 30,692 vines are planted to the acre, as is common in certain vineyards of Moselle. Are we to consider these distances, especially those adopted in the north- ern regions, as the best ? We do not think so; we think that the excessive crowding of the plants has been car- ried too far, and that this system of planting now pre- sents the following objections. These plants shade one another mutually, and ren- der insufficient the action of the air, and especially of the sun—influences so necessary to an abundant yield Planting of a Vineyard. 97 and fine quality of the product. ‘This shade also pre~ vents the soil from being warmed, and delays the ripening of the grapes. Moreover, the plants thus crowded, mutually starve one another, and they have frequently to be renewed by layering, which increases the expense and injures the quality of the product.— The tillage of the ground is more difficult and conse- quently more expensive. The staking also increases the expense considerably. Lastly, we must add, that owing to the continual rise in the rate of wages, the plow must be substituted for manual labor wherever the lay of the land will permit its use; but the system of crowding the vines, adopted in the North, is an obstacle to this improvement. On the other hand, too much space must not be left between the plants; for if, when planted much further apart, they each yield more and more abundantly, it may nevertheless so happen that the product will not be equal, in quantity, to that obtained from a larger num- ber of plants. Besides, too large a space being left be- tween the vines will so increase their growth, that the grapes will ripen badly in the North, and the wines will be of very inferior quality. Let us, then, see how nearly we can reconcile these two extremes. The smallest space which will allow the easy working of the plow between the rows of plants is three and a half feet. We have, therefore, no change to suggest on that point, as to the vineyards of the South. But this is not the case with the northern and middle latitudes adapted to the vine. Nevertheless, by laying out the rows of plants, and the plants in the rows in a certain manner, which we shall point out fur- I 98 Vineyard Culture. ther on, an average space of at least twenty-six inches between the plants, would be enough to permit the working of the ground by the plow, thus making 10,000 plants to the acre. The change which we propose, as to space, would, therefore, only affect the vineyards of northern latitudes, Now, it is precisely in those lati- tudes that the crowding of the plants has been so over- done that the inconveniences arising therefrom begin to cause a reaction in the opposite direction. In the Céte- d’Or, and in Champagne, they have already tried plant- ing further apart, and have obtained a yield as abundant, and of as good quality, as that of more crowded vineyards. Upon the whole, therefore, we advise that an average space of at least twenty-six inches be left between the plants. [We may compare ourselves to the South, rather than to the North, in respect to the distance between our vines. Our early plantations were made by Europeans from the northern grape regions, who set their vines very close together, some even three by three feet, on terraced vineyards worked by hand. ‘The spaces were soon increased to four feet each way, and this was gradually widened to five and six, and even greater intervals. ‘The vigor of many of our vines, and their enormous growth, as well as the comparative cheapness of land, and the absolute necessity of using the plow instead of the hoe; all these circumstances combined, have rendered it necessary for us to plant wider, and a very common distance now is six by eight feet, the wider space being between the rows. Some planters have even gone so far as to set their vines eight feet apart each way. ARRANGEMENT OF Rows oF PLants.—We have just advised planting in rows, and that an average space of Planting of a Vineyard. 99 at least twenty-six inches be left between the plants ; but we must also point out the best way to lay them out relatively to each other. Indeed, several different plans might be adopted, in order to obtain that result. In the South, where the plants are set far apart, they may be laid out in quincunxes, as in Figure 14, or in squares, of four only, as in Figure 15. In the quin- cunx, each plant occupies one of the angles of an equi- [Fic. 14.]—Vines planted _[Fic. 15.]—Vines planted in quincunxes. in squares. lateral triangle [A, Fig. 14]; they are equally distant on all sides. The plow may be used in three different directions. In square planting, each plant occupies the angle of a right-angled triangle [B, Fig. 15]; they are not equi-distant on all sides, and the plow can only be-used in two different directions. Lastly, the most 100 Vineyard Culture. important difference to be noticed between the two modes of planting is, that on two surfaces of one acre each—the one planted in quincunx, and the other in squares, and the plants the same distance apart in both cases—say, for instance, five feet—it will take 2,080 plants to the acre, planted in quincunx, while the same surface, planted in squares, will only take 1,742. For these reasons, we prefer the quincunx for wide planting. As to the vineyards of the middle and northern re- gions, where the plants are much more crowded to- gether, the quality and probably the quantity of the produce would suffer if the space necessary for the working of the plow were left between the plants. Our advice, therefore, is that the vineyards of the northern and middle regions be divided into two classes: those that are located on hill-sides that are too steep for the working of the plow, and those which can be so culti- vated. — ‘ For the first, the lines must be F p laid out so as to leave - between , ‘ them the space generally allotted between the plants in that sec- tion of country, provided that this amounts to at least twenty-six q finches. The same space must be left between them, setting out the am.70. Ts : KG > ‘ plants of one line opposite the empty i ¢ spaces on the next line. [Fig. 16.] : ‘ In vineyards thus laid out, the work [Fic. 16.]—Péanr-_ is done by hand. ing in Rows, on This figure represents a regular steep bill-sides. quincunx, Planting of a Vineyard. IOI For vineyards planted on lands which may be culti- vated with the plow, we advise the following combina- tion, which will allow of close planting, while, at the same time, it makes it possible to use the plow over the entire surface of the ground. All the lines must be three and a quarter feet apart, and the spaces between the vines varied according to the requirements of the plants, the climate, and the soil. Thus, for 5,200 plants to the acre, a space of 30 inches must be left between the plants on the lines. For 6,000, - - - - - - 26 inches. “7,200, - - - - - 22 « “ 8,000, - - - - - - 20 * If 10,000 plants are to be set, the following arrange-. ment must be made: lay out the lines by twos and twos, with a space of three and a quarter feet between them [A, Fig. 17], and then reserve a space of twenty-four inches be- Ls A B tween the close lines, B, with a | space of twenty inches between the [sual sm ‘ plants on the lines. But in this case, the large alleys, only, can be plowed, that is about two-thirds of the sur- ; face. A greater number of plants can not be cultivated with the plow. [Fic. 17.}—P/ant- b “asco o--—2——-0-—- In what direction to lay out the ation of lands Rows.—We know that the direct ac- which can be cul- tion of the sun on the entire vine and tivated with the plow. the soil which gives it nourishment, affects, in an important degree, the quality and quantity of its produce. It will be well, therefore, when the 102 Vineyard Culture. spaces between the plants are greater than the spaces between the lines, to lay them out, north and south, so that they will not shade each other at mid-day. Un- fortunately, it is not always possible so to Jay them out. The shape of the ground is frequently an obstacle. Suppose it to measure twenty to twenty-five feet wide, by six hundred and fifty or nine hundred and eighty feet long, as is often the case, and that this strip lies east and west, the lines can not then be laid out across so narrow a belt; the inclination of the soil and.its ex- posure, also frequently prevent the execution of this plan. If an abrupt hill-side has a-southern exposure, the vines can not be laid out in rows parallel to the de- clivity, except at the risk of soon having the soil torn up and washed down to the base of the hill by the heavy rains, in which case we should be compelled to carry it back. Therefore, the preceding directions must be followed as nearly as possible, at the same time taking into account such obstacles as may present themselves. Last PREPARATION OF THE Sort.—We have ad- vised the uniform breaking up of the entire surface of the ground destined for a vineyard. This work being done before winter, the soil will remain fallow until planting time. It is then lightly plowed to the depth of four or six inches, across the first plowing, and har- rowed so as to level the surface soil and facilitate the planting. Cuorce oF PLanrs.—Under the head of propagation we have seen that either crossette-cuttings, or roots, may be used for planting a vineyard. We will now show how to choose between the two. Planting of a Vineyard. 103 Planting roots is more expensive, especially if, as we have advised, two-year old plants are used. These plants must have been raised in the nursery, and the planting of them out permanently is more expensive than setting the crossettes, but their growth is more certain. The crossettes cost less, as does also the permanent planting of them; but many of them, especially in dry soil, fail, necessitating the substitution of others, and thereby increase the expense, and injure the grand result. [Many of our largest vineyards have been made by using cuttings instead of plants, and this practice would still prevail were it not for the extremely high price of cuttings of many of the varieties which are now being introduced into the vine- yard. The cutting of four eyes can -be made into four good plants, by the methods employed in their propagation; hence we can no longer afford to compete with the nurserymen, but can do better to purchase our vines than to set our own cut- tings. This will not always continue to be the case, and when there is less demand for the wood we shall revert to the old plan, and the cheaper one, of placing the cutting at once into its permanent station in the vineyard, except in the case of those sorts which do not grow readily under this out-door treatment. - The advantage of planting the vineyard with cuttings con- sists in the greater cheapness of the stock, and the greater uniformity of the result, as well as in avoiding the check of the plants, incident to transplanting the vines, and disturbing the roots, ‘ The cuttings should have been prepared by burying them in the soil, so that they may have formed a callus. The ground having been properly prepared and laid out, with a little stake at each point where it is designed to have a vine, 104 Vineyard Culture. a workman proceeds to make the necessary excavation. He opens a hole the width of the spade, and the length of the cutting, making it one spit deep. Fine, mellow soil is thrown slanting toward the top, at the stake-end. The planter then follows with his cuttings, in a bucket of puddle-water, to keep them from drying. At each station he takes two cuttings, and lays them so that their bases shall be separated the width of the excavation, but their tops approximate at the stick. Soft earth is thrown upon them, and tramped firmly with the foot, beginning at the base of the cutting. As he approaches the stick, the upper portion is bent into a vertical position at the stake, and pressed firmly into its place. This end of the hole is filled with mellow soil, and the head of the cutting is barely covered, but the further portion is only half filled up, the ob- ject being to secure the warming influence of the sun, to en- courage the starting of the roots. If both cuttings grow, one of them may be removed the next spring to fill a gap somewhere else, or the extra vine may be destroyed, by cutting it off below the surface with the pruning-knife, at any time.] The conclusion arrived at from. the preceding, there- fore, is: that in rich and somewhat moist soils, where the crossettes easily take root, they are preferable, but for dry soils the roots are the best. In some localities vine-dressers prefer, in all cases, cuttings to the rooted plants, maintaining that they are always more certain. This is owing, in most cases, to ‘the roots of the plants being very much injured, either by being taken up from the nursery in an improper man- ner, or by their too long exposure to the air ; now, these roots, thus injured, soon rot in the ground, and the plants are then nothing but the fragments of old shoots, from which the new roots grow with much more diffi- Planting of a Vineyard. 105 culty than on the new wood of the cutting. We, therefore, maintain that the two-year old plants, care- fully taken up-from the nursery, and sheltered until planting time, will give better results than the crossettes or cuttings, in dry soil. PrantTiInG.—The proper Time.—The best time for planting cuttings, or roots, differs in different climates. In the northern and central parts of France the op- eration must be performed in the beginning of spring ; if done before the winter there would be danger, on the one hand, of the terminal buds of the cuttings or roots which had not yet commenced growing, being killed by the frost ; and, on the other, of the plants being injured by the excess of moisture contained in the ground dur- ing that season. In the South it is the reverse: the planting must be done before the winter, otherwise, if done in the spring, the hot weather of that season would suffice to kill the young plants before they had time to take root. Besides, it is known that vegetation, in that climate, is not entirely suspended during winter, so that when the spring comes, the young plants have already struck a few roots, which enable them more successful- ly to withstand the dry weather. [The question of fall and spring planting is one which each must decide for himself. As above suggested, much will de- pend upon the climate—the soil has also much to do with our decision. Newly planted vines or trees, if set in light, dry soils, would do a good deal toward preparing themselves for growth, during mild weather in autumn and winter; but the same plants, set in wet, heavy, clayey soil, in the autumn, would be very apt to suffer from the effects of water freezing and thawing during the winter, and many would be killed.] 106 Vineyard Culture. Distribution of the Different Varieties in the same Vine- yard.—lIf anything is to be gained by planting several varieties in the same vineyard, it will always be well to keep them separate. It will be easier to give them the particular attention which each one requires, and the most hardy will not injure the weaker varieties. The gathering will also be easier, if the different varieties do not ripen at the same time. If the ground to be planted is uneven, and the slopes have different exposures, the latest bearers must, if pos- sible, be placed in the warmest exposure, in order that they may ripen better. At what Depth to Plant.—The depth to which the cuttings or plants must be set ought to be such as will allow the air to act upon their roots, and, at the same time, such that they will get the proper quantity of moisture. It is evident, therefore, that this must de- pend chiefly on the climate and nature of the soil. In the burning clime of the South, or in light and dry soils, the vine must be planted deeply, to escape the excessive heat of summer. In the North, or in rich, damp soils, it must, on the contrary, be planted more shallow, so as to escape the great moisture, which, by causing it to grow too rapidly, would injure the ripening of its fruit, and diminish the quantity of its produce. For which reason, in the dry soils of the South, plant to the depth of twenty inches; in the rich soils of the same lati- tudes, twelve inches will be sufficient. In the northern and middle regions, plant at twelve inches if the land is dry, and at eight inches if it is rich and deep. Laying out the Lines for Planting.—The various ques- tions which precede having been answered, and the soil Planting of a Vineyard. 107 prepared in the manner indicated, the rows for planting must be marked out, and, for this purpose, any regular method of laying out may be selected. The following may be adopted—it is very easily executed, and gives good results : We will suppose that the surface of the ground has been divided into a certain _ _B - number of parallelograms, : + 4 by roads previously cut, as directed above. Let us now suppose that Figure 18 is bG Po a . one of these parallelograms, and that the vineyard is to be laid out in rows parallel P Le eo ec to its length, forty inches in width, and with a space of’ twenty inches between the plants on the lines. By ‘44,4 = means of a surveyor’s chain [Fic. 18.] of sufficient length, the links of which are forty inches long, the end of each line A, is marked out with a stake on the two lines B, of the parallelogram. These stakes being fixed, two or three more in C, are marked out, according to the length of the lines. By means of these stakes and another chain, the place of each plant is then marked out. The links of this second chain must be twenty inches in length. If the plan had to be laid out ona surface with an irregular boundary, the largest possible “parallelogram would have to be drawn, and the lines then laid out as just described 3 it will only be necessary to extend the lines to the boundary. 108 Vineyard Culture. [The Yankee is again ahead in his calculations. This is the more readily accomplished in the wider planting he has adopted. With good sight-stakes, and a steady plow-team, he lays off the rows and digs the holes simultaneously, by plow- ing a deep furrow from end to end of the piece to be planted. Then, with a garden-line stretched across these furrows, and a measuring-rod of the proper length, he proceeds to set his pegs in the furrows, at the points where the line crosses them. Some will even do this by the measuring-rod and the eye alone, without the line, and make the stakes range both ways, with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes. ] Planting. —The mode of planting depends upon whether cuttings or roots are to be planted. Cuttings are most generally planted by means of the dibble, as follows: A man is provided with a dibble, having a cross-piece, or stirrup, on which the foot is [Fic. 19.]—Dibble, for [Fic. 20.]—Rammer, to ram Planting Vines, down the earth and manure around the Cuttings. Planting of a Vineyard. 109 placed to drive the instrument into the ground, or to stop it at the required depth. Provided with this in- strument, or any other like it, the workman drives it into the ground at each spot to be occupied by a plant, and to the required depth. As to the size of these holes, the poorer the soil the larger they must be. Another workman, following the first, introduces into each hole a cutting, prepared in the manner described under the head of ‘‘Propagation.” Whatever may be the natural richness of the soil to be planted, it is always well to supply the cuttings or plants with a certain quantity of manure, when about to be planted permanently, in order to start them. This quantity may vary, according to the poverty or richness of the soil, from one to three quarts. For cuttings, the manure to be introduced into the hole made by the dibble ought to be composed of pulverizable and easily decomposed matter, such as old compost, horse-dung, poudrette, natural guano, ground oil-cakes, etc. These various substances must be mixed with a certain quan- tity of earth, and wood-ashes. This manure being prepared, and distributed at dif- ferent places along the roads where the rows terminate, a third workman follows and fills the holes with the manure which he carries, keeping each cutting in the center of the hole. By means of a sort of rammer, like the one represented by Figure 20, a fourth work- man rams the manure well down. It is very important for the cutting to be in close contact with the soil, so that it may absorb its moisture. If there should still be an empty space, after this ramming, the same work- man must fill it with the surrounding earth. 110 Vineyard Culture. When the pulverizable manure of which we have just spoken can not be procured, liquid manures must be snbstituted, and poured into each, hole after it has been filled with rich soil, but not rammed. These liquids (one quart to each cutting) may be composed of manure- water, excrements diluted with water, or of any or- ganic matter that is rich in nitrogen, arid easily dissolved in water, Planting cuttings by means of the dibble, is, however, objectionable in clayey soils. The earth, solidly pressed by the dibble, at the sides of the holes, becomes an ob- stacle to the spreading of the young roots. In sucha case it will be better to adopt the mode of planting out roots. [I do not think the dibble is used in planting cuttings in any part of this country, and, indeed, it is to be hoped that it may not be, as it isan unphilosophical implement for the purpose, Nor would it be at all suitable in any of our so-called grape- lands, which are generally of stiff clay.] In dry and warm soils, where cuttings do not succeed well, rooted plants are used in the following manner : The manures required for the planting must first be distributed, here and there, along the roads bordering the rows of vineyards to be planted. | These manures must be composed, as much as pos- sible, of equal parts of earth and dung. If the soil to be planted is clayey, then silicious, and especially cal- careous earth must be used; but clayey soils must be employed, if the land to be planted is silicious or cal- careous. The mixture must be made some months in advance, by placing the layers of earth and dung in Planting of a Vineyard. III strata, in the form of compost. When about to be used, it must be thoroughly mixed, Two-year old roots [Fig. 8 ] must be taken up from the nursery, with all the care indicated under the head of ‘“* Nursery,”’ and then, to prevent them from being injured by the drying action of the air, proceed as fol- lows: A thick mush of water, clay, and a considerable quantity of well compounded manure, such as horse and cow-dung, guano, excrement, oil-cakes, and other sim- ilar substances, is placed in a tub, by the side of the workman taking up the plants. Another tub is filled with dry wood-ashes.. As the vines are dug, the work- man dips four or five at a time, into the liquid manure, and sprinkles them with ashes. This sort of coating of the roots serves to protect them from the action of the air and sun, which are particularly injurious. It also stimulates their growth, and advances their devel- opment one year. Thus prepared, they are immediately taken to the planting-ground, Jaid in small piles, and covered with straw. No more should be prepared than can be planted in one day. A workman opens a little trench, about sixteen inches long, in the line of the row, twelve inches wide, and of the required depth, taking into account the nature of the soil and climate. The bottom of the trench must be an inclined plane, one extremity of which should reach the surface of the ground. As the trenches are opened, a workman lays by the side of each from three to five quarts of the compost spoken of, and a child, following him, places a rooted 112 Vineyard Culture. plant in each hole. Another workman lifts the plant, spreads over the entire bottom of the trench one-half of the compost, lays down the plant, taking care to spread the roots well; covers it with the balance of the compost, fills up the hole with the earth laid near it, and finishes by ramming the earth well, especially on the two sides of the trench. It is important, in this op- eration, that the greatest portion of the young shoot from the plant should be buried. It ison this young wood that the new roots are formed which are to hasten the development of the vines. This work ended, each trench will appear as in Figure 21. Mey wiser dy i COs e iy , HUY , LAY) Mj WHEE y MID =e Whig VU: Hh Bee “li Ye Wy iN He Ly an yr ai [Fic. 21.]—Planting the Vine. In some localities the planting is done with the plow. The rows having been staked out, as above described, a furrow, sixteen inches wide, and of the required depth, is opened by two cuts of the plow. It is in these furrows that the cuttings are placed at the proper Planting of "a Vineyard. 113 distances, and with the same care as we have just de- scribed. Whatever may have been said to the contrary, pretty straight lines may be made with the plow, and the work may be done more speedily than by opening a separate hole for each plant. Planting by Layering.—In those localities where the vines are very crowded, as in Champagne, Burgundy, and the neighborhood of Paris, only one-half or one- third of the necessary vines are planted as cuttings, or as roots, and then, when these have acquired sufficient strength to put forth two fine shoots, they proceed as follows : Suppose the points A, in Figure 22, to represent the places to be permanently occupied by the plants, only the < oe < Va points B, are first planted, and when each of the vines has two 2 > a ys fine shoots, a trench is opened “Slow! soso} during the winter, occupying the fs > entire triangular space, C, and < *Y of the depth of twelve to six- ; a teen inches, according to the <| > ~ Abe moisture of the ground; a layer “ A i: of earth, mixed with manure, is spread on the bottom of this trench, and the two shoots are then laid down into it, giving them the direction of the dotted lines, so that they may come out at the points A. A small quantity of compost is placed over them, and the trench is filled up with ordinary earth. This trench, however, must not be entirely filled; a space 19 > [Fic. 22.]—Planting by Layering. 114 Vineyard Culture. of four to six inches ought to be left, so that the shoots, not being planted too deep, may take root more easily. The balance of the earth remains on the sides of the trench, It is only in the following year, when the ground is tilled, that it is leveled. If this first layering does not yield the required number of plants, a second one is made. ‘This mode of operating reduces the number of roots to be planted, by one-half to two-thirds, but we do not think the saving arising from it compensates for the inconveniences, for, undoubtedly, by this process, a larger quantity of wood is buried, and the numerous roots which shoot from this wood, being very close to- gether, are much more liable to injure one another. By .thus multiplying these underground stems, the chances of injuring them by the plow are also increased. Besides, the first saving soon disappears under the necessity of propagation—which is always an expensive operation. Lastly, if, on the one hand, there is a sav- ing of plants, on the other there is a greater loss by postponing the maximum yield of the vines for two or three years. Therefore, our advice is, at once to plant as many cuttings or roots as are required for the whole vineyard. OPERATIONS SUPPLEMENTAL “TO PLanTING.—Im- mediately after planting the cuttings or roots, the ex- tremity of the plant protruding from the earth, as at A, Figure 21, is cut with the pruning-knife, so as to leave but one or two eyes above ground. In some countries, the cuttings, as soon as planted, are carefully covered up with the earth, and thus left until the beginning of July. While the wood is get- Planting of a Vineyard. 115 ting ready in the earth, and throwing out a few rootlets, the upper portion of it does not dry up, and the buds, when at last exposed to the air, soon develop them- selves. This practice might be used with advantage in the dry soils of the south and middle of France. All these operations once completed, a light dressing should be given to the entire surface of the soil, so as to loosen it wherever it has been trodden down by the workmen, and especially to level it well. This young plantation requires no other care during the following summer than to be protected from drouth, and from being overrun with weeds. ‘To this end, the ground is plowed or hoed a few times, to the depth of about two or three inches. The lighter the soil and the more southern the locality, the more fre- quent must be the plowings. We explain, further on, under the head of “Annual Cultivation of the Soil of Vineyards,”’ the way to do this plowing. Replanting.—No matter what may be the care be- stowed on the planting of either cuttings or roots, there will, invariably, be some failures—say one per cent. on the roots, and two per cent. on the cuttings. There- fore, substitutes, consisting of roots only, must be pro- vided as soon as possible,—that is to say, the following winter. For this purpose, a nursery must be made at the proper time, in order to have the roots ready at the time we have just named. As for the planting of the substitutes, it is done as we have already explained. [In planting a vineyard, whether with cuttings or with rooted vines, it is always desirable to set all the plants on a 116 Vineyard Culture. given side of the stakes; whether this be north or south, east _or west, it is immaterial; but they should all be the same. This systematic order saves time, as it enables us always to look at once to the right place for the young vine, in all our operations among them in the vineyard, and thus we may often avoid injuring them with the hoe, or other implement, we may be using. So, also, in plowing across the rows, as we sometimes wish to do, while vines are young, we may know where to hold the plow or cultivator shallow, so as to avoid disturbing the main roots of the vine, which might otherwise be ruined by the plowshare cutting them off, or tearing them away, as has often occurred with careless work- men. |] VIL. PRUNING THE VINE. Oct OF THE OperaTion.—lIf, after being plant- ed, the development of the vine were left to itself, the long, spreading shoots would creep over the surface of the ground, which it would soon cover, in tangled confusion. ‘The tillage of the soil would be- come impossible, and the branches, deprived of the sun, and in contact with the ground, would rot, and yield very poor fruit. Besides, the fruit-bearing shoots, springing all the time from the young wood, and thus becoming more and more removed from the parent stock, would be- come less and less vigorous, and would soon end by producing nothing but poor and mean bunches. The pruning of the vineyard must have, for its ob- ject, the giving of such a shape to the vines as will Pruning the Vine. 117 subject them completely to the action of the sun, facil- itate the tillage of the ground, at all times and over all its surface, and prevent the fruit-bearing wood from being too far removed from the parent stock. Let us first consider the best time of year for this work, and the best tools with which to perform it: THE PROPER TIME FOR PRUNING THE VINE.—The rule to be followed in this respect, and which is as ap- plicable to the grape-vine as to all other kinds of trees and shrubs subject to pruning, is this: prune as soon as possible before the rising of the sap, so that none may have escaped into the extremities of the stems which are to be removed, and thus be wasted. For, if this operation is delayed until the young shoots have grown three or four inches, those of them which are cut will have absorbed the sap, to the injury of those which are reserved, and if this mode of operating is repeated sev- eral years in succession, the plants will be gradually exhausted, whatever may have been said to the con- trary. The pruning being done in the autumn, will allow more time in the spring for the numerous opera- tions to be performed at that season. Besides, early pruning hastens the development of the buds, and, all other things being otherwise,equal, this early pruning is favorable to the early ripening of the crop. Unfortunately, this very simple rule has to be modi- fied more or less by the following circumstances : ist. In the northern-vine regions, the winters are, at at times, so severe that the effects of the heavy frosts are felt by the plants pruned in the autumn, and frequently all the reserved portions of the plants are killed. 118 Vineyard Culture. ad. The result of early pruning, before winter, for instance, is, as we have just said, to develop the growth of the reserved shoots ten or fifteen days earlier than if pruned in the middle of March. The consequence of this is, that in localities exposed to late frosts, this early budding subjects the plants to their injurious influence. From this, we conclude that pruning in January and February will be advantageous: 1st—in those localities where the winters are mild, and the late frosts are not of frequent occurrence ; 2d—for old vines, or for the less hardy varieties, whose strength will be preserved by forcing the sap to feed the reserved shoots exclu- sively. For certain varieties whose overgrowth is in- jurious to the quality and quantity of the product, for those localities where late frosts are to be feared, and the winters are severe, the pruning must be done in March, and to the 15th of April. We must say, in addition, that, whatever may be the time chosen, the wood must never be cut when frozen. At such times, pruning tears the wood, instead of cutting it, and the eye below each cut suffers very much. [A very extended experience with the vine has induced some of our best cultivators to adopt fall pruning, which they pursue with very good effect. The cuttings are of greater value, and may either be planted at once, or at least they can be stored in suitable cellars and kept in better condition than if left upon the vine, exposed to the inclemency of the winter. Those who bury their vines to protect them from frost, will find it a great advantage to have them trimmed first. To avoid injury to the last eye on the canes, care should be taken to leave an inch or more of the internode beyond the Pruning the Vine. 119 outer bud; this isa good rule in all winter pruning. The author’s remark with regard to cutting when the wood is froz- en, deserves attention. Most of our vine-dressers practice trimming in any mild weather during the winter, whether in February or March ; but after the sap has started, or is about to start, the vine will bleed profusely. This will sometimes occur in mild weather, after fall pruning, also.] MetHop or CutTtinc THE SHooTs AND LarcE Stems.—The wood of the vine being spongy, and the sap very abundant, the shoots must be cut four or six inches above the last of the re- served eyes [Fig. 23]; for, as the wood dries up to the distance of a few lines be- low the cut, the last eye would frequently [Fic. 23] be destroyed, or would, at least, suffer very = __ Mode of much, if the cut were made immediately Pruning. above that eye. The cut must be niade sloping, and on the side opposite to the eye, so that if the plant is ina vertical, or upright position, and the vine begins to bleed, the flow of the sap may not injure the eye. The large stems must also be cut in the same man- ner, so that the wounds may heal up more easily. All stems that need removal, should be cut close to the stock, and all such as need to be shortened, must be cut close to the new shoots. Whenever any considerable scars are made on the vine, it will be well to cover them over with grafting wax. If this is not done, they heal up slowly—the wood is injured by the action of the air, and the life of the plant is shortened in consequence. Pruninc InsrRUMENTS.—In the southern and south- western regions, where the wood of the vine is strong and vigorous, a sort of bill is used, the shape of which 120 Vineyard Culture. varies in different localities. Figure 24 represents the pruning bill of Médoc. It is about six inches long; its back is sufficiently blunt at B, to allow of its being touched without wounding, while the portion A, is sharp. In other places the bill is of the shape repre- sented by Figure 25. It is about eight inches long, and is cutting at Cand D. In the northern portions of the [Fic. 24.]—Médoc Bill [Fic. 25.]—VinePrun+ for Pruning Vines. ing- Bill. vine regions, where the plants are smaller, the pruning- knife, Figure 26, is used. Nevertheless, for some years past, the substitution of the pruning-shears [Fig. 27], invented about a century ago, by the Marquis Bertrand de Molleville, has been attempted. The pruning-shears [Fig. 27] is composed of two limbs crossing each other near the forward part, one of which terminates ina rounded blade, while the extremity of the other forms a hook, with a thick projection, under which the blade slides. The two limbs are kept open by a spring.— Pruning the Vine. 121 The size of this instrument must depend on the size of the plants to be cut. [Fic. 26.]—Vine Prun- [Fic. 27.]—Vine Prun- ing-Knife. ing-Shears. The numerous trials which have been made, for the past thirty years, no longer leave any doubt as to the advantage of the pruning-shears over the bill or knife, for vine-pruning. It can be used much more rapidly, and with less fatigue to the Jaborer. It is ob- jected, it is true, that this instrument bruises the plants somewhat, and that it does not make so neat a cut as the bill or knife ; but if it is very sharp, and the blade sufficiently curved—if, in a word, care is taken always to have the dull blade, or hook, above,* this defect will be scarcely perceptible, and will be largely compensated by the rapidity with which the work is done. Besides, the bruising is of little consequence, since it is neces- sary, in all cases, to cut the stems from four-tenths to *The hook is held above in pruning, that it may not crush the portions left on the vine; in making our cuttings with the shears, the implement is held so that the hook shall press upon the portion that is rejected. I! 122 Vineyard Culture. eight-tenths of an inch above the eye to be reserved, and the new pruning is done each year below the point operated on the year previous. [The pruning-shears have come into almost universal use in this country, where any and all labor-saving implements are at a premium in public estimation. We use the grape- shears for making cuttings, and they are brought into play in all sorts of pruning, for all kinds of shrubbery, where the limbs to be severed are not too large—then the saw is needed, and it should always be at hand in trimming an old vineyard, where large, stumpy branches frequently need removing from the vine-stocks; often the whole stem must be taken away even to the ground, in order to make room for a new shoot from below. This is particularly the case in old vines trained to stakes in the bow system. Nor should the pruning-knife be neglected; the cut is certainly smoother and neater than ‘that made by the shears.] We have already seen that the object of pruning is either to give shape to the plant, or to insure a proper degree of fruitfulness. Let us examine these two ope- rations separately, first ascertaining what is the best form to give to the plants : Wuart Forms To GIVE To THE VinEs.—The forms given to vines, in vineyards, are very various. They are often justified by local causes, or by the peculiar growth of the varieties cultivated ; but frequently this operation has been purely empirical. Let us, therefore, investi- gate the principles which ought to guide us in this mat- ter. Three things require our attention: the use of the parent stock, or frame-work of the plant; the dimen- sions of this frame; and its hight above the ground. Pruning the Vine. 123 Use of the Parent Stock or Frame of the Plants.—The vine could easily be cultivated in the vineyard. so as to obtain an abundant yield from it, without annually re- newing the fruit-stems from the same stock. The only thing required for that purpose will be to layer, every year, the wood which produced the fruit-stems, so that the stock would be annually renewed. This is the or- dinary method in most of the Champagne vineyards.— But experience has long since shown that this method, while it increases the vigor of the fruit-stems, has a very unfavorable influence on the quality of the grapes, and consequently, on the wine also. The sap must circulate slowly, and gradually, from the roots to the branches, so that it may the better ripen the fruit. The parent stock,-being more or less knotty and crooked, intervening between the roots and fruit-stems, produces this result. The sap can circulate through it only at a certain speed, thereby assisting in the perfection, within the tissues of the fruit, of those elements which make good wines. It is for this reason that the older, the longer, and more crooked, the parent stock, the less vig- orous are the shoots, and the better is the product.— The younger vines, on the contrary, yield inferior wine. This is easily seen in the first bunches of the young Jayers. What I have just said is enough to show the use of the parent stock, but it must be added, however, that from this parent stock the shoot acquires a degree of development proportionate to its vigor, so as to assist its maturity. Proper Dimensions of the Vine.—Al\l\ varieties of grapes do not grow with the same vigor. The most vigorous 124 Vineyard Culture. require a pretty large frame in order to bear largely— such are the ‘‘ Panses,” and most of the varieties of the South. If too much confined they produce a very large number of shoots, and leaves of prodigious size, but scarcely any fruit. Other varieties must be much more reduced in size, as they will soon be exhausted; such are the ‘ Pinots,” and many of the varieties of north- ern regions. The size of the frame, therefore, must be in proportion to the vigor of the plant. [These postulates of our author should be gladly received by the American reader, who will find great advantage from their application, as fundamental principles, in the treatment of some of our vigorous growers that are also unproductive in fruit, as is often the case with the Diana, Union Village, and some others, but especially with the Taylor; by a proper mode of pruning, adapted to the extreme vigor of these va- rieties, there is no doubt their productiveness might be won- derfully increased. Thus I have seen a combination of long training, and vigorous summer pruning, attended with an enormous crop of grapes, upon some vines of the Taylor and Oporto, and the bunches were unusually large.] Hight of the Plants above Ground.—Experience has shown, in all vine regions, that the nearer the grapes are to the ground, without touching it, the earlier and more perfectly do they ripen their fruit. This is owing to the reflection of the sun’s rays, which, striking the soil, are thrown back upon the surrounding objects ; moreover, the soil having been warmed during the day, throws off this heat during the night, radiating caloric for the benefit of the nearest objects. From this, we must conclude that the further we are removed from the South, the nearer the ground should our plants be. Pruning the Vine. 125 ' This is, in fact, the general practice, as may be seen by comparing the vineyards of the southern, middle, and northern regions. These principles being admitted, let us see what are the principal forms which have been adopted, and as- certain which are best adapted to the vine. The various forms now used in the vineyards are all comprised in the three following : -_ Ic. 28. 1_High-trained Vines.| 1st. High-trained Vines.—This shape is a common one in Italy and Spain, in the southern portion of Dauphiny, in the Bigorre, and in Béarn, and can succeed in warm latitudes only. This mode consists in planting trees fourteen to sixteen feet in hight, in rows eighty to ninety feet apart, and the trees twenty-five feet from each other, on level land, and fifteen feet apart on the hills. For this purpose, the maple is used, the wild mulberry, the wild cherry, the plum-tree, and those of the hardier descriptions generally, and having few leaves. When these trees have taken root, two or three vine- 126 Vineyard Culture. plants, chosen from the most vigorous varieties, are placed at the foot of each tree. They are trained, from year to year, round the tree to where it has been headed off. The principal limbs of these trees, reduced to five or six, and cut parallel to the rows, serve to support the vines, which form gar- lands from one tree to another. [Fig. 28.] Sometimes, also, these vines are allowed to develop branches, which, shooting six or ten feet from the ground, are trained at right-angles with the row of trees, and supported on each side with stakes, so as to form continuous arbors. [Fig. 29.] At other times, [Fic. 29.]}—High-trained Vines. Pruning the Vine. 127 the crown of the tree is cut in the shape of a round dish, on a stem of six to ten feet high, and supports the vines on its outward surface. The yearly pruning tends to renew the young shoots which are to succeed each other in the bearing of the fruit; to suppress those which deviate from the proper direction, or cause confusion ; and, lastly, to lop off those branches of the support-tree, which, by shad- ing the vine, might retard its growth. The objects of this mode of cultivation are the fol- lowing: the necessity of allowing certain varieties to acquire a large growth, which otherwise would be small bearers; and especially the hope of drawing from the soil a double crop, by raising the vine-branches suf- ficiently high above ground. Of all modes of cultivating the vine, there is none so picturesque or pleasing to the eye, but we must confess, wherever we have studied high-trained vines, in Béarn, in Dauphiny, we have invariably noticed the following facts: the grapes, being shaded by the leaves, ripen badly, and this defective ripening is retarded still more by the too great hight of the branches above the ground. It is for this reason that the wine produced by these vines is always very inferior, even in Italy. Besides this, the exhaustion of the soil by the roots of the trees, and the vines, as well as by the shade thrown over its sur- face, is-such that other crops which are raised to- gether with them, yield but poor results. Lastly, we have also observed that these high-trained vines are more liableto the Oidium than low vines, and this is the more to be regretted, because it is more difficult to ap- ply the sulphur to them, owing to their great hight, and 128 Vineyard Culture. the confusion of their branches. And it is owing to these facts, that high-trained vines have proved almost entirely barren for several years past. In short, we think that if the strips of land occupied by these high-trained vines, were reduced to one single patch, and planted with an equal number of average- sized or low vines, a crop might be obtained which, by its quantity and quality, would yield a larger net cash profit than the one obtained from the high vines, and other crops raised with them. We, therefore, can not recommend this mode of cultivation. : [In this country, perhaps we have erred in attempting to dwarf and cramp our vigorous native grapes, by forcing them to keep within the narrow limits of our crowded vineyards. This has been obviated in the later plantings of grapes, which have greater space allowed to each vine; but we still trim se- verely, and think we find our advantage in this practice. The opposite plan of long pruning has been pertinaciously preached to us by certain theorists, who claim, among other advantages, that they would escape the rot and mildew, by avoid- ing the system of severe pruning, which they assume to be the leading cause of these disasters in our vineyards, overlooking the fact that some of the wild grapes, which reached the tops of our forest-trees, were affected with the same trouble. Our author informs us that the oidium has destroyed the fruit of these high-trained vines in Italy.] ad. Average-sized Vines.—In this group, the frame- work of the plants is of such a size that the fruit-bear- ing stems, each year, shoot out at a hight of from fifteen to forty inches from the ground. The frame of the plant must be developed proportionately to the vigor of the variety. This being the proper hight for vigor- Pruning the Vine. 129 ous vines and vines of moderate growth, is adapted to the southern regions and intermediate climates. In the North, if the grapes were too far removed from the ground, they would ripen badly. Vines of moderate growth are trained in various shapes. Let us examine the principal ones, and try to improve those which. are inconvenient. F In Languedoc, Roussillon, Provence, where very vigorous varieties are generally grown, the plants have an upright stock, six to twelve inches high, which, at that hight, divides into three or five horns, or arms, six or twelve inches long, spreading like a cup, and meas- uring, at the top, about twenty inches in diameter. It is at the extremity of these horns that the fruit-bear- ing stems shoot each year, at a hight of from sixteen to twenty inches above ground. ‘These vines are not pro- vided with any support, but they are of such varieties as generally have pretty stiff stems. Nevertheless, if the plants are somewhat vigorous, the long shoots which they develop soon overspread the general surface of the ground. igure 30 represents one of these stocks, fully grown, before pruning. By giving this shape to the vines, we save the ex- pense of staking, which is always great; we also do away, to a considerable extent, with plowing, as the ground is soon overspread with the branches. There- fore, this mode of cultivation has the advantage of not being very expensive; but, on the other hand, the bunches, being entirely covered up by the leaves, re- ceive the influence of the sun in an insufficient degree, and the soil can not have the requisite tillage—both of which circumstances injure the quality of the wine. 130 Vineyard Culture. Lastly, the plow, which it has been attempted to sub- stitute for manual labor, in that region, can not easily BE RSTHON Se [Fic. 30.]—Vine of middle hight, in Languedoc, rt g y Y Xx \ f | 7 a be used, owing to the projection of the arms, or horns, Pruning the Vine. 131 of these plants. But, in order to avoid these incon- veniences, it would be necessary to substitute the form of trellis, which we will point out further on. But it is a question whether the increased value of the produce arising from this modification, would com- pensate for the additional expense which would be in- [Fric. 31.]—Moederate-sized Vine, of the Marshes of Bordeaux. curred. We therefore see nothing to change in this shape, at least, for the varieties producing wines of low price. But for those whose product is of more value, such as the vineyards of Lunel, of Frontignan, of St. 132 Vineyard Culture. George, of |’ Ermitage, of Condrieux, of St. Péray, etc., it will be profitable to substitute the form which we shall describe further on, under the name of “ Four- armed Trellis.” The fruit, being more exposed to the sun, will be of better quality, and the tillage of the soil will, at all times, be more easy. In the marshy dis- tricts of Bordelais, and on the hills on the right bank of the Garonne, from Bordeaux to Blaye, where the vine grows rapidly, a similar shape is given to the vines, the stock, nevertheless, being a trifle higher and the arms a little longer, the shoots springing out at thirty or thirty-two inches above the ground. Lastly, and es- pecially, these stocks are each supported by two or three stakes, as shown in Figure 31, illustrating one of these stalks before pruning. The much greater value of the product of these vineyards will compensate for the staking and the extra cultivation given to them. Nevertheless, the following objections may be made to this mode of planting: the bunches, being wrapped up in the shoots fastened to the stakes, do not receive the influence of the sun sufficiently ; the space occupied by each stock is unfavorable to the use of the plow where the form of the ground would otherwise permit its use, Last, and not least, is the extra cost and care of the grape-stakes, which it involves. We therefore recommend the substitution of the shape represented in Figure 32, which is a full-grown stock before pruning. By this arrangement, the fruit-stems feel the action of the sun on all sides, and the following year’s shoots are better formed. Another advantage is that the frame Pruning the Vine. 133 of the plant thus trellised is narrow, allowing the use of of the plow at all times. Lastly, this shape permits the substitution of wire for grape-stakes, which is much less expensive, as will be shown elsewhere. Besides, each plant thus trellised, will bear, at least as many fruit-stems as the old shape; the same number of vines may be planted on a given surface, and, consequently, the produce will at least be equal in quantity, and certainly of better quality, than on the former plan. Se SS [Fic. 32.|—Four-armed Trellis. In the rich vineyards of Médoc, the vines are shaped as in Figure 33. The trunk, rising perpendicularly to a hight of four to six inches, divides into two branches, depressed at an angle of 45 degrees, sixteen inches in length, and producing the fruit-stems of each year on their 134 Vineyard Culture. extremities. ‘These two stems, arched upward, are fastened to a cross-stake, sixteen inches above ground, [Fie.. 33. |-Middle-sized Vine of Médoc. This form seems to us to be a very advantageous one, at least for vines of vigorous growth. We would, nevertheless, advise the use of the cross-stake sixteen inches above the the first [Fig. 34], on which to fasten the shoots; instead of laying them down upon the lower rail, by which many of the bunches are deprived of the action of the sun, by being enveloped in the leaves. pha y tay [Fic. 34.]—Two-armed Trellis. The two branches dividing each plant ought always to be of the same size, otherwise the stronger one will soon exhaust the weaker. Now, if the relative care Pruning the Vine. 135 bestowed to maintain an equal growth of these two branches, in vines somewhat vigorous, is compensated by the possibility of extending the. fruit-stems, it is not so with weak vines, whose yield must not be forced. We would, therefore, advise the suppression of one of the branches inthe last named. By this means the vigor of the fruit-stems will be increased, to the benefit of the produce, and it may then be burdened, more or less, according to the vigor of the stock. Figure 35 represents one of these plants before pruning. [Fic. 35.]---Oxe-armed Trellis. In certain localities, on the banks of the Rhéne, may be seen a vine shaped like Figure 36, which also be- longs to the medium-sized descriptions, and makes available those small patches of ground, here and there to be found between the bare rocks, on the steep hill- sides of burning climes. Vines thus shaped are termed cones. For this mode of cultivation, circular holes, six and one-half feet in diameter, and twenty-eight inches in depth, are opened ; young vines are planted, sixteen inches apart, and three inches inside the cavity. About 136 Vineyard Culture. the third year, a stake of some ten feet in length, is driven firmly into the ground, at the foot of eaeh plant, inclined toward the center. The stem of each plant as it grows, is fastened to these stakes. The fruit~ stems shoot at sufficient distances on the entire length of these stocks. [Fic. 36.]---Cone-shaped Vine on the Banks of the Rhine. Although the varieties cultivated in Burgundy are less hardy than most of those of Bordelais, the shape given to their vines places them in the medium-sized class.— In fact, the stock which supports the fruit-stem, rises Pruning the Vine. 137 toa hight of twelve to twenty-four inches, in a more or less inclined direction [Fig. 37]. ported by a grape-stake. It may be objected to this mode of training, for the less vigorous varieties, such as the “ Pinots,” that it keeps the grapes too far from the ground, thereby preventing them from prop- erly ripening ; also that by keeping this long stock in too upright a position, the sap, flowing all the time to- ward the top, prevents the shooting of the new stems on the old wood, and the shortening of the stock from time to time. The consequence is, that these stocks, by overgrowing, soon exhaust themselves, and have to be frequently Each vine is sup- ern @ 9 a 4 q a q q 7 om 60. Imbo om.60, I" Bo. >4 S ct , : PS ‘ A ‘ b 4 , b > b J J . [Fic. 103.]— Plantation [Fic. 104.]— Plantation adapted for Matting, at adapted for Matting, at the rate of 5,200 Vines the rate of 6,000 Vines to the Acre. to the Acre. different from those giving rise to white frosts, the means employed to obviate them should be different. For this purpose, we must have recourse to more ef- fective, and, unfortunately, more expensive shelters. Doctor Jules Guyot is the first who has thought of adapting to vineyards, the mats employed in gardens for Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 267 the protection of fruit-trees. He has described his method in a book full of useful instructions on vine- culture and wine-making. The method of matting which he recommends leaving, as we think, something to be desired, in the way of solidity and application to our different wine-growing regions, we have. thought better to modify it in the following manner. b 4q > o.m.60, Amgo. r e > 1 r j [Fic. 105.] — Plantation [Fic. 106.]— Plantation adapted for Matting, at adapted for Matting, at the rate of 7,200 Vines the rate of 8,000 Vines to the Acre. to the Acre. For this purpose, it will be necessary to make a change in the mode of planting we formerly recom- mended. Thus, instead of placing all the rows of plants at an equal distance from each other, it will be requisite to leave a space, first, of twenty-four inches between the rows, and then another varying from three feet four inches to four feet six inches, according to the number of vines to be planted on each acre. The space between the plants themselves, along the rows, will have to vary from twenty to thirty inches, according to the number , 268 Vineyard Culture. per acre. To exemplify this, we give the following table: WIDTH OF THE WIDTH OF THE 1| NO. PLANTS DISTANCES BETWEEN SMALL ALLEYS | LARGER ALLEYS TO THE ACRE. VINES ALONG THE ROWS, [8, Fic. 103.] | [a, Fic. 103.] 5,200 24 inches. 4ft.6in. | 2 ft. 6 in. [Fig. 103] 6,000 24 inches. 4 ft. 6 in. 2ft. 2 in. [Fig. 104] _ 7200 24 inches. 4 ft. o in. 2ft. oin. [Fig. 105] 8,000 24 inches, 4 ft. o in, 1 ft. 10 in. [Fig. 106 ] 10,000 24 inches. 3 ft. qin. 1 ft. 8 in. [Fig. 107] The consequence of this change in the manner of planting, will be a slight increase in the annual expense for the cultivation of the ground, since the plow can, in that case, be used only along the larger alleys—that is to say, over two-thirds of the surface of the ground, at least. The plants submitted to the mode of pruning shown in Figures 32, 34, and 35, are fastened on two or three horizontal wires, according to the hight to be given to the plants. These wires will be fastened and supported by the contrivance shown in Figure 71. When the matting is to be applied to the vines, it will be requisite to place one of the two upper wires four inches lower than the other. That one should be made the lower one, which is nearest the quarter whence blow the prevailing winds of the particular region. Thus, Figure 107, showing a cross-section of a double row of plants, and the prevailing winds blowing as in- dicated at by the arrow at A, the wire, B, and its sup- ports, are placed four inches lower than the wire, C. The effect of this will be that the mats, stretched upon the two wires, will offer less resistance’to the wind, and ff Inclement Weatier, Diseases, Ete. 269 that the rain falling on them will run off without pene- trating them. The wires being thus placed, it is neces- ats, sary, in order to make the supports firmer, to connect them by means of a cross-piece of sulphated wood, D, laid obliquely from one support to the other. This cross-piece, which must be removed at the same time as the mats, to allow the plow free working-room, is fixed thus: the two ends cut on a bevel [Fig. 107, ¢], are fastened by the two screws, F, These cross-pieces rest alternately on the top of the longer and shorter supports. Thus, in Figure 107, the cross- piece rests on the top of the higher support, while for the two adjoining supports, the cross-piece will rest on the top of the smaller ones, and so on, all along the line, alternating. [Fic. 107, a.]—Cross-Pieces, for Supports. 270 Vineyard Culture. The supports being thus set, a mat, E, is placed above them. These mats [Fig. 108], being thirty-two inches wide, overlap each of the two lines of wire by four inches, as they are twenty-four inches apart. The mats are made of rye-straw, kept together by means of four strands of twine. The straw and twine are pre- served from rot by being immersed ina bath of sulphate of copper [Page 158]. The length of these mats is sixty-five feet, and they last about ten years. Tl Ma ae at alternate distances of Nas ki twenty-four and forty a i wl inches apart, we shall have, over a surface of one acre, the side of which is two hundred [Fic. 108.]—Mat for Vine- and eight feet, seventy- yards. eight rows of plants, two hundred and eight feet in length. As the mats shelter two rows at once, there will be required eight thousand one hundred and twelve feet of matting to the acre. For the manufacture of these mats Dr. Jules Guyot has contrived a machine [Fig. 109], which, as may be seen, is but a weaver’s loom, adapted to that purpose. M. Guyot has yielded the right of working this ma- chine to M. Dorléans, who follows this business at a manufactory, situated 37, Rue du Landy, Clichy (Seine). The mats manufactured there are too expensive to be used in vineyards, but if manufactured on the spot, by the vine-growers, they are much cheaper. M. Dor- léans rents out machines for making mats, and gives all the instructions necessary for that purpose, but he re- Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 271 serves to himself the right of two centimes per lineal metre (forty inches)—that is to say, about eight dollars per.acre of vines thus sheltered—less than a cent a rod. . [Fic. 109.}—Dr. Guyot’s Loom. The placing of these mats must be done as follows: In fine weather, and as soon as late frosts begin to be 272 Vineyard Culture. feared, say in April, the rolled mats [Fig. 110], are placed in the roads where the rows of plants terminate; two workmen then unroll one of these mats, along the wide alley separating the double line of plants, and, lifting it up, spread it out. Two other workmen, pro- ceeding along each line, fasten this mat to the wires, by means of wil- [Fic. 110.] low-slips placed at distances of six Mat Rolled up. and one-half feet. They proceed thus until the mats are spread and fastened. These mats should remain until such time as the ber- ries begin to be formed. They are not at all in the way of the needful operations, such as nipping, clipping, and fastening the shoots, applying sulphur, etc. When they are to be removed, cloudy weather is chosen, so that the plants may not suffer too much by the change, taking care, also, that the mats are quite dry. First, the ties fastening them to the wires are cut, then two work- men take hold of the ends of a mat, place it on the ground, and roll it up; the mats are then put under shel- ter. This process of matting, including the removal and storing, requires about six days’ work per acre. During cold and wet years, in which the continued rains of the fall prevent the ripening of the grapes, as we shall explain further on, it will be very beneficial to mat the vines again, at the beginning of September, to protect the grapes from the influence of the rains. These shelters should then be teft until harvest. Of course, this second operation must be performed in the same manner as the first. Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 273 The necessity of storing up these mats during the time they are not in use, requires that light sheds should be set up, here and there through the vineyards, to serve that purpose. A mat sixty-five feet long, and thirty- two inches wide, has a diameter of twenty-four inches. There must be about one hundred and fifty feet of this matting to fill up a cubic yard. Therefore, the eight thousand one hundred and twelve feet of matting re- quired to cover an acre, being divided by one hundred and fifty, we see that to shelter the mats of a single acre, requires a shed of the capacity of about fifty-four cubic yards—that is to say, having a surface of twenty square yards, and a hight of eight feet. Further on we give the yearly cost of matting per acre, and point out the circumstances under which its use will be profitable. Summer Colds.—It is not necessary that the thermom- eter should fall below the freezing point, for the grow- ing vine to suffer from cold. A marked fall of tem- perature, though insufficient to produce frost, often brings about results quite as bad as frost itself. If the temperature falls fora few days at the mo- ment of the first development of the bunches, there will be a suspension in the circulation of the sap, and in the growth of the vine. The elementary buds which the bunches bear will miscarry for want of nourishing juices ; the pedicles bearing these young buds stretch out, and the bunch is transformed into a tendril. Vine- dressers, in such cases, say that the bunches have “run” (blighted). [We have become convinced, by long observation, that these sudden depressions of temperature are often disastrous in their 274 Vineyard Culture. effects upon our vines, by favoring the dreaded mildew, which destroys the fruit and foliage of some of our favorite varieties. For the purpose of avoiding this disaster, Mr. W. Saunders, the intelligent manager of the propagating gardens at Wash- ington, D. C., long ago suggested a plan for sheltering the vine trellis.* It had often been noticed that vines which were trained against buildings, and sheltered by the wide pro- jecting eaves of the roof, escaped the mildew and rot, when all others suffered from this casualty. Mr. Saunders improved upon this hint by capping his vine trellises with a couple of boards, making a narrow roof above the vines. This shelter has been found abundantly satisfactory. Such a covering must act favorably, by arresting, to a considerable extent, the cooling by radiation, and may thus prevent the ef- fects of a spring frost also; but it is considered a certain pre- ventive of the mildew. The observations and experiments of Mr. Saunders have been verified by many others, in dif ferent parts of the country. The expense of this mode of protecting a vineyard is con- siderable. At the usual distance between the rows, eight feet, there will be five thousand eight hundred and thirty-two feet of trellis per acre; this will require two boards, of a foot width, to make the roof, or eleven thousand six hundred and sixty-four feet of lumber, which, in its thinnest, cheapest, and least finished condition, at twenty dollars per thousand, must cost two hundred and thirty-three dollars. Besides this, the supports, nails, and labor of setting them up. An ingenious patent has been taken out by a man in IIli- nois, for a movable protector, arranged with jointed posts in the trellis, so that the whole apparatus can be let down in the winter—posts, wires, vines, roof, and all—as a winter protec- tion. Common use precludes any one from patenting Saun- ders’ plan, which he has given freely to the world, and its *See Patent Office Report for 1861; page 495. Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 275 combination with hinged posts, though making a very pretty plaything in the model, would probably be anything else in its practical application in the vineyard, and would be attended with an expense which the inventor wisely keeps in the back- ground ; besides, its liability to get out of order would ren- der it impracticable. Otherwise, its efficiency, both summer and winter, as a protection against mildew, and frost can not be gainsayed. Will it pay ?] A little later, when the branches are in bloom, the same fall in temperature may destroy the crop. Vege- tation being suspended at the very moment when the plant has most need of all its vital energy to carry it through fructification, the young ovaries receive that influence but imperfectly, and the berries prove abortive. This is also called “‘ running ” (blighting). Many means have been tried, to prevent running. The annular incision [Fig. 111] recommended by Colonel Bouchote, of Metz, diminishes this hurtful in- fluence to a certain extent. It is performed by remov- ing a ring of bark at the time of blooming, at A, im- mediately below the joint bearing the bunch. This incision, which should not be wider than two-tenths of an inch, is very easily performed, by means of the sap- checker [Fig. 112]. Unfortunately, this is too minute an operation to be performed economically over large surfaces, and has, moreover, been observed to have a deleterious influence on the quality of the wine. [It is a common practice among those who attempt to pre- pare choice show fruits for the exhibitions, to pursue a some- what similar course. They ring the bark below certain specimens, knowing that they will thereby be greatly en- larged, and rendered very attractive. It is one of the tricks 276 Vineyard Culture. of exhibitors. Sometimes it is effected by strangulating the circulation, by twisting a piece of wire around the twig, and was, no doubt, discovered by the accidental strangulation produced naturally by the clasping of a tendril. Like all other tricks, however, it brings its own punishment ; for, it is found that, though very attractive, from their unusual develop- ment, the grapes are deficient in flavor and richness, and their value depreciates as soon as the interdict, «Hands off,” is removed. ] [Fic. 111.]—Annular Incision [Fie. 112. |}—Sap- of the Vine. Checker. M. Troubat, of Bordeaux, has recently taken out a patent for a process having the same object, and which consists in cutting the shoots immediately above the highest bunch, and doing so as soon as the bunches ap- pear. This process, which yields good results, has already been tried long ago, and at different times. It Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 277 has been given up, on account of the delay it occasions to the ripening, and also on account of the abundance of false shoots that are developed at the foot of the principal shoots, and which endanger the crop of the following year. [This matter has been very fully discussed, under the head of «Summer Pruning,” in ‘the editorial notes of a previous page. It is essentially the plan proposed and practiced by Mr. George Husman, of Missouri, and verified by many others. But, as already stated, it is done for a very different purpose—the development of enlarged leaves, and the suc- cessive crops of these valuable organs, and, through them, for the improvement of the fruit. No delay in the ripening of the berries has been observed to follow the practice ; nor, am I aware that any difficulty has arisen from the development of the false shoots mentioned by our author, to interfere with the crop of the next season. Laterals will often be forced out, on the bearing branches, and so much the better, as we thus obtain new foliage to support the economy of the vine, through the season. ] Since the employment of sulphur to prevent oidium (of which we shall speak, presently), it has been proved that the application of this substance to the vine, and to most other plants, has the effect of stimulating vegeta- tion in a very high degree, and also that the sulphur, applied at the moment the bunches begin to be formed, prevents the running (blighting). But the most efficacious means of preventing the effect of these colds, is the matting we have described, or the cloths we shall mention further on, and which are left standing until the grapes begin to be formed. 2d. Damp Atmosphere.—When the dampness of the 278 Vineyard Culture. atmosphere exceeds the limits of its: beneficial action, it may become very prejudicial to vineyards. Abundant and continuous rains, falling while the vines are in bloom, are injurious to fructification, by cooling the atmosphere and suspending the vegetation of the plants. {Another result of continued rains, during the period of inflorescence, appears to have escaped the attention of the careful observer who has prepared this manual. I refer to the injurious effect produced when they occur too profusely at this critical period—the washing away of the pollen-grains. This has been observed repeatedly, with different kinds of fruit, and has sometimes resulted most unfortunately. Only. last year, many of the vineyards in Northern Ohio were se- riously injured by this cause.] If these rains, which are frequent in summer, be- come almost continuous in September and October, the damage is quite as great. The vegetation of the vine then lasts too long, and the ripening begins too late. The grapes being watery, ripen very imperfectly, and rot before they are completely matured. The result of these circumstances is the production of very inferior wines, as was the case in 1860, in all the vineyards of the northern and middle regions. {In our delightful climate of bright sunshine, we do not often have reason to complain of injuries from such a cause, and yet they do sometimes occur, and the excess of rain-fall during the summer months is known to have as serious an effect upon the fruit as a diminution of the mean temperature of the same season. ‘This matter has been very fully set forth by Mr. James S. Lippincott, to whose essays on this subject, the Inclemen: Weather, Diseases, Ete. 279 reader is referred.* The sad influence of unusual rains upon the crop of 1865, in the grape region of Lake Erie, is well remembered by dealers in table-grapes, for which that section of country has become famous. The fruit would not keep as usual, but very quickly became moldy in the boxes, and was unsalable. ; After a dry season, and as the vintage approaches, an occa- sional shower will appear to swell the grapes, and does, no doubt, cause their enlargement, but it is generally conceded that while the bulk of wine may thus be considerably in- creased, its quality will be impoverished in the same ratio. Dry weather is much more desirable, even at an expense of a’ few gallons per acre, which is more than compensated by the greater richness of the product.] The thinning of the leaves, of which we have already spoken, and, more especially, the mats and cloths, are again the only means of preventing the injurious effects of too abundant rains at the beginning of summer and in the fall. For the last, it will be advisable to replace the shelters toward the end of August, and to leave them until harvest, as we have explained above. Cost of Matting.—As we have shown, the use of matting may exert great influence on the vineyard, since it allows us to protect the latter from late frosts. Un- fortunately it is a very expensive process, and applicable with advantage only to those vines whose produce has a certain value. The following is our estimate of the cost of this process for each acre, per year. One hundred yards of matting, thirty-two inches wide, with straw and twine, cost: * Report Agricultural Department, Washington, D. C., for 1862; p. 194. 280 Vineyard Culture. Four hundred and five pounds rye-straw, at six dollars and thirty cents per one thousand pounds....secersserscesersrcescecseaeere one $2 55 Four and one-half pounds of twine, at eight cents per pound...... 0 36 A man’s and child’s day’s Work. ..ssseeesensscscsseneenes wee ° 80 Preserving with sulphate of copper.....sesseeee sso 00 Rent of Machine for this length of mat......cccsscsccsrescscsseceseses 0 37 $6 08 Interest of capital, at five per CeNt...ccerseseccesverseesesssce 0 30 Tétthicacnnreraniiesmawwes Grand ‘totalls.ccissecsoesseiveisscucusesers eae daapeceteusensan secseee $6 38 We have already seen that it requires about eight thousand one hundred feet of matting to shelter one acre, which, at six dollars and thirty-eight cents the one hundred yards, would give a preliminary expense of one hundred and seventy-two dollars. As these mats will last ten years, the annual expense, per acre, will be seventeen dollars and twenty cents for the mats alone. But we must also take into account the building of sheds, in which to store these mats; and, lastly, the manual labor for placing and removing them. We have already said that the mats necessary for each acre require a shed of fifty-four cubic yards’ capacity. This shed will cost about twenty-six dollars, with interest at five per cent. Its duration will be about twenty years, and this gives an annual expenditure of one dollar and thirty cents per acre, each year, for the sheds. Supposing these mats to be laid down and remove twice each year, as we have already advised, this will necessitate twenty-four days’ labor, at fifty cents, or twelve dollars and sixty cents per acre, including inter- est on capital, at five per cent. We must also reckon, in this expenditure, the in- Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 281 crease of cost for yearly cultivation, arising from the particular mode of laying-out the vineyard. This in- crease will be about forty-eight cents for the two winter plowings, and one dollar and sixty cents for the sum- mer plowings. The yearly cost of matting, per acre, will then be: Mats. ....cesseeeeee beasts egiacicboetschesatazecdtes Jasenseoneses sevecaccesee BIT 20 Sheds for storing the mats.........s00+ avecdesendesesisneesena Sdepesneaes « 1 30 Manual labor........... aaaaee aisvaavsaeasas 12 60 Increase of cost for cultivation of sOil.......s.sccececcsccessececeeceees 2 08 Total vesccsacasevsesdacsseesecectsascisvaiuacacscevacsesdessssvesse: #93. 18 This is certainly a heavy expenditure, but capital so invested will often give very handsome profits. Nev- ertheless, let us inquire what are the descriptions of vineyards in which the use of matting will be really useful. In the Céte-d’Or region, good vineyards of ‘Pinots” yield an average crop of one hundred and fifty-eight gallons per acre, which, at one dollar and twenty cents the gallon, gives one hundred and eighty-nine dollars and sixty cents. Losses arising from frost and blight are set down at the value of two crops and a half in ten years, or four hundred and seventy-two dollars—that is to say, forty-seven dollars and twenty cents a year. The matting only costing about thirty-three dollars, there would be, in using it, a saving of fourteen dollars and twenty cents per acre, yearly. In the same region, the Gamais, when well culti- vated, will yield, on an average, six hundred and thirty- three gallons to the acre, which, at twenty-three cents, would make one hundred and forty-five dollars and sixty cents. Failures of two and a half crops in ten years, 24 282 Vineyard Culture. make a loss of thirty-six dollars and forty cents a year. The matting would, in that case, give a yearly saving of only three dollars and forty cents per acre, for Gam- ais grapes, yielding the gross cash product we have mentioned. In Champagne (Epernay, Ay) the crop amounts to about one hundred and fifty-eight gallons per acre, and the average selling price is sixty cents per gallon, or about ninety-four dollars and eighty cents for the whole product, In that region, the losses through frosts and blight are set down at the value of three crops in ten years, which makes a yearly loss of twenty-eight dollars and forty cents per acre. In that case, unfortunately, the use of mats would not be profitable. The vineyards of Médoc give about two hundred and thirty-three gallons to the acre, and the selling price varies, according to the quality, from seventy cents to two dollars per gallon, or an average of one dollar and thirty-five cents, which makes three hundred and four- teen dollars for the gross product, per acre. The loss arising from frosts and blight is estimated at the value of one and a half crops in ten years, making a yearly loss of forty-seven dollars and ten cents peracre. Mat- ting would therefore give, in this case, a saving of four- teen dollars and ten cents per acre. Lastly, in the less celebrated vineyards of the moor- lands, and on the hills of Bordelais, on the right bank of the Garonne, between Bordeaux and Blaye, the av- erage crop is five hundred and and twenty-eight gallons to the acre, having a value of about one hundred and sixty dollars. The losses arising from frosts and blight are equivalent to three crops in ten years, or to forty- Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 283 eight dollars yearly, per acre. Matting, in that region, would therefore give a yearly saving of sixteen dol- lars. The foregoing examples will be sufficient to point out the importance of matting, and show under what circumstances that operation may be made profitable. The use of mats to shelter the vineyard from in- clement weather, presents one drawback, however—the weight of these shelters when wet, or covered with snow. ‘This weight strains heavily on the wires sup- porting it. We think the objection might be avoided by substituting for the mats cloths, such as described below, in which case there would be no occasion to modify the system of planting, as is required when mats are used. The cloths should be such as are manufac- tured in Picardy, from the stalk of the thistle, and which are similar to those employed in the papering of apartments. Their texture, however, should be closer, and they should have a width of forty-eight inches. The wires which are to support them ought to be ar- ranged in the same way as for mats. In order that they may be easily stretched on the wires, they should have [Fic. 113.]—Cloths for Sheltering the Vine. a length of about one hundred and sixty feet, and 284 Vineyard Culture. should be provided with wooden cross-pieces. The latter, made of pine wood, and cut by steam, will be eight-tenths of an inch wide, four-tenths of an inch thick, and four feet two inches long. They must be fastened across the cloths at each end, in a seam made for the purpose, and placed along the whole length, at the distance of six feet apart [A, Fig. 113]. After these cloths have been manufactured, it will be as well to steep them in a bath of sulphate of copper, so as to make them more durable. These cloths, with a close texture, may now be had at five and one-half cents the lineal yard. Their cost may be ascertained in the following manner, for a length of one hundred yards. For a length of one hundred yards there will really be required one hundred and two yards, on account of the fold to receive the cross-pieces, which, at five and one-half cents per yard is...... $5 60 Fifty cross-pieces, at one-fifth of a cent each.......cscsecssossesceeee: - O10 Fastening the cross-pieces on the cloth......ceessessssecssenecccesse ees © 20 Steeping in sulphate of copper....... oeitientioeke Saves eansecaseneseecerene - 0 40 Total...ccsssssonpecsssserecenscesssonssenssccnacsensevenevenses soe $6 30 Interest of capital, at five per cent....... SaVeeeeeesesess tee ses ~ © 30 Grand total......ssccesees idisiatonsbatneda since seuseeceOusteeseteces: “BONGO! All the rows of plants being forty inches apart, there will be required 2,200 yards of cloth, which, at $6.60 the 100 yards, would give rise to a preliminary expense of $145.20. The duration of these sulphated cloths will be about fifteen years, which gives a yearly cost of $9.70 per acre, for the cloths alone. The sheds intended for the storage of these cloths may be diminished by three-fourths, for the same sur- a Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 285 face of ground—that is, may contain thirteen and a half cubic yards, instead of fifty-four. They will consequently cost only about $6.50, with interest at five per cent. As they last about twenty years, this will be $0.32 yearly, per acre. The process of laying down and removing these cloths will be the same as for the mats, and they are to be fastened on the wires in the same way. They should also be laid down and removed twice every year, but as these cloths are more easily transported than the mats, there will be needed only twenty days’ labor, in- stead of twenty-four, which, at $o.50 per day, will give an expenditure of $10.50 per acre, including interest at five per cent. The use of these cloths will therefore give rise to the following yearly expenditure per acre: Cloths.....ccccscsscsess cscccsccssaseascansecsansessereessescencesssscceaccoos Sheds, for storing the cloths.. Manual labor sccisccsscccscescsesswssiecevose seacceens seecesceseseevenswienes From what precedes, we see that the use of cloths as shelters, instead of mats, would be a saving of $13.50 per acre, yearly, at the same time giving results quite as satisfactory. Moreover, the drawback arising from the weight of the mats when they are wet, or covered with snow, would be avoided. Lastly, the much more moderate cost of this system of shelter would make its use practicable in vineyards where the use of mats would yield no profit—the vineyards of Champagne, for instance. For these reasons, we think that cloths might be profitably substituted for mats. 286 Vineyard Culture, 3d. Hail.—This scourge is all the more to be dreaded, as it can neither be prevented, nor its effect remedied. A few moments suffice for a locality to be completely ravaged, so great is the violence and rap- idity of its action. Fortunately, it acts, generally, within quite narrow limits. But there are certain lo- calities, which, owing to the situation of mountains in their neighborhood, are much oftener ravaged than others. When hail strikes a vineyard, not only is the actual crop lost, but even that of the following year is endangered, for the buds are so mangled that they can only produce weak and barren wood for the following year’s crop. Nevertheless, if this misfortune happens to a vineyard in the beginning of June, we may still hope for a tolerable crop the following year, provided effec- tual means are at once employed. In this connection we can not do better than quote here the answer we addressed, in 1861, to the Departmental Administration of the Aude, by whom we had been requested to state what was best to be done for the vineyards of that re- gion which had just been smitten with hail : “Tf I have properly understood your letter, the vines of the districts ravaged by hail, now consist of stocks bearing the year’s shoots, but the latter completely de- prived of leaves and berries, and mangled on one side by hail-stones. “This year’s crop is lost: the point now is to save that of next year. This can only be done, provided healthy and vigorous wood is obtained for next winter. “Tf the vines be left in their present state, the little sap that will be drawn into the leafless and mangled vines will cause a few weak and sickly shoots to be de- Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 287 veloped anew, and the stocks, becoming languid, will be a long time ailing, if they do not die altogether. “The health of these vines can only be restored by the immediate development of new and vigorous shoots. If, to this end, the mangled shoots be pruned so as to keep on them five or six buds, the sap will cause them all to develop, but that sap being insufficient for all of them, they will only produce shoots too weak to be productive, and this want of vigor will cause the stocks to languish. “It is, therefore, advisable to concentrate all the ac- tion of the sap on a smaller number of eyes, and, to that end, to prune immediately, as is done at the winter pruning, with this difference: that we must now prune down only to one eye, instead of two. In fact, only one single shoot is requisite at the winter pruning. “* Proceeding thus, all the sap will be concentrated on a small number of eyes, which will give rise to vig- orous shoots. The latter will renew the organs requi- site for the maintenance of the annual growth of the plants, which organs had suffered from the destruction of the leaves. The season is not yet so far advanced, but that these new shoots will have time to mature, and we may hope for a tolerable crop next year. “Tn addition to this operation, it will be as well, im- mediately after the pruning, to give the soil a slight dressing, to assist vegetation by preventing drought. It will also be necessary, to prevent oidium from attacking these young sprouts, by applying sulphur as soon as they shall have reached a length of about eight inches. This latter operation, being indispensable for keeping off that disease which acts more violently at the end of 288 Vineyard Culture. summer than at the beginning, will also have the effect of greatly increasing the vigor of these new shoots. “Such is the process which appears most rational to me, and which I should not hesitate to employ if I had vines mangled by hail, like those of which you speak. It is, no doubt, a pity that the means I indicate involve fresh expenditures, but I think the loss would be still greater if nothing were done, for the stocks would at least be condemned to barrenness for several years.” If hail struck a vineyard at too advanced a period for us to entertain a hope of seeing the new shoots mature themselves sufficiently before winter, we should have to give upthe idea of this short pruning. In that case it would be proper to reduce the length of the shoots only one half. Some new shoots will be obtained, in- tended to keep up vegetation in the stocks until the end of the season. At the winter pruning, the original shoots being better organized than in the former case, since they have been struck later, will be pruned as usual. It will, however, be requisite to prune a little shorter, for the plants will necessarily be less vigorous. 4th. Heat of the Sun.—The heat of the sun may prove hurtful to the products of the vine under the fol- lowing circumstances: In the burning summers of the southern, and even the middle region, when the grapes are laid bare by a premature fall of leaves, the bunches thus suddenly exposed, and struck directly by a burning sun, are often scorched, and they dry up more or less completely. Bunches struck directly by the sun, at a very early stage, recover more readily from this acci- dent, the cuticle of the berries having gradually become used to that influence. Nevertheless, when the ground Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 289 is much parched by drought, and the vine no longer finds, in the soil, the moisture necessary to repair the losses it experiences, through evaporation, the bunches we have just spoken of may also be scorched. [Sunscald is a trouble we do not dread, notwithstanding the great heat of the solar ray in our climate. By judicious sum- mer pruning, and the avoidance of the defoliation practiced in Europe, and with healthy, vigorous vines, that do not mil- dew, and cast their leaves, we rarely sustain any loss from sun- scald. This trouble will follow bad summer pruning, by which the foliage is too freely removed, and will follow the terrible defoliation of the vines caused by mildew, when this occurs early in the season, and it may happen when the vines have been broken down by a storm, or by the parting of the ties with which they were fastened to the stake or trellis. ‘The first and the last are within our control ; we may learn to do our summer pruning more judiciously, and we may be on the alert, promptly to restore the fallen vines, and be care- ful, when raising it, and securing it to its place, so to arrange the foliage as to cover every bunch from the sun. We can not so well manage to prevent the defoliations produced by the mildew, though judicious and persistent sulphuration prom- ises to be effective. In this treatment our author appears to have great confidence, as will appear in those pages where he discusses the subject. Some cultivators have arrived at the conclusion that it is useless to plant such varieties as are sub- ject to the malady, and they confine their attentions exclusive- ly to the culture of those that appear perfectly healthy and hardy. This is a good practice, certainly ; but, unfortunately, some of our very best table-grapes are those most subject to the malady; we have them, and are unwilling to give them ap.| 25 290 Vineyard Culture. To prevent this accident, the thinning of leaves, in the first place, must be practiced with moderation only during very hot years, and when the season is already well advanced, so that the sun has lost part of its pow- er. Besides this, lighter plowings must be executed, to prevent the ground from drying up too much. [The closing remark of this section, in which the author advises “lighter plowings—to prevent the ground from dry- ing up,” is so opposed to the established axioms of our agri- culture, that it should not be allowed to pass without a word of explanation. Had he insisted upon more plowing than usual, under the circumstances indicated, he might have been pardoned for recommending lightly stirring the surface; and this would be sound advice, to plow frequently, even shallow, rather than not to plow, as all experience will show that such treatment will tend to retain the moisture of the soil. Late in the season, however, it is not desirable to stimulate growth, nor to retain moisture in the soil, and most vine-dressers would then lay aside the use of the plow, unless it became necessary for subduing the weeds. One of our most successful and intelligent cultivators of the vine, M. Werk, Esq., was so impressed with the importance of keeping his vineyards dry, that he took pains in cultivating the ground, during the early part of the season, to make the spaces between the rows into shallow gutters, to carry off all the rain that might fall upon them, and for the rest of the season he used shallow scraping with the hoe, simply to keep down the weeds, and to make the surface as hard and smooth as possible.] DiszasEs.—The vine is subject to various diseases, of which the following are the principal. Faundice.—This disease is characterized by the change of color in the leaves, which pass from green to yellow. Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 291 This yellow color is owing to a want of tone inthe cel- lular tissue of the leaves, which want of tone suspends their functions, and prevents the formation of chloro- phyle, a green matter which imparts its color to the tissues, under the influence of light. The cause of this want of tone in the cellular tissue always proceeds from a diseased state of the roots. It is for this reason that jaundice makes its appearance when the roots are in contact with stagnant dampness, which causes them to rot, and when they are attacked by the larvz of cer- tain insects. To combat this evil, then, we must re- move its causes. Red Leaves.—This second malady bears a certain analogy to the preceding one. Nevertheless, it differs from it, in the color of the leaves, which assume a more or less deep red tint, as early as the month of July, and [Fre. 114.]—Leaves Attacked hy Leprosy. finally drop off. This change, which is almost always 292 Vineyard Culture. fatal to the plant, is also due to the bad state of the roots. Blight.—This affection presents the following char- acteristics: the leaves, the young shoots, and even the berries, assume a greyish tint, owing to the cuticle of these parts splitting, and drying up. The growth is completely arrested, and the berries split instead of rip- ening. Vine-dressers refer this alteration either to the cold rains of summer, following warm weather, or to a too abundant crop the year preceding. This disease is made to disappear by fully manuring the plants affected, and making them barren for one year. Oidium, or White Leprosy.—Of all the diseases at- tacking the vine this is certainly the most to be feared. [Fic. 115.]—Vine At- — [Fic. 116.]—Fruit At- tacked by Leprosy. tacked by Leprosy. This affection presents itself under the form of an ef- florescence of a greyish white, first on the leaves Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 293 [Fig. 114], and the young shoots [Fig. 115], whose de- velopment it suspends, then on the berries themselves, whose growth it arrests. The cuticle of the berries hard- ens and assumes a tawny color; these berries split [Fig. 116], acquire a bitter taste, and rot before ripening. The leaves and shoots attacked are covered with brown spots, the leaves drop off, and, if the disease be severe, the shoots themselves are disorganized to their very base, so that not only is the crop of that season lost, but also that of the following year, and if the plants be subjected to this scourge for two or three years in suc- cession, they soon perish. It was in 1845 that oidium was first observed on the vine in England, by Mr. Tucker, a gardener at Margate. Since 1849, this disease has shown itself at several points in the neighborhood of Paris; first on vines in hot-houses, then on garden trellises, and finally on vineyard plants. It has now, unfortunately, invaded all parts of our terri- tory, acting more intensely in proportion as the vines are situated in a hotter climate, or have a warmer ex- posure. It seems to attack all varieties alike, but it acts with greater force on the most vigorous. [!] ‘Opinions are very much divided as to the cause of this serious affection of the vine. Some attribute it entirely to that white efflorescence which has been re- cognized as a little parasitical mushroom of the genus oidium of the numerous family of the mucedine, and to which the specific name “ Tuckeri” has been given. Others look upon the presence of this mushroom (which is not called in question) as the result of the disease, and they think it brought about by certain microscopic insects, Finally, others again attribute it to atmos- 294 Vineyard Culture. pheric influences analagous to those causing the potato rot. Thus, the cause of the disease remaining still un- determined, it has been difficult to find its remedy. Numerous means have been employed to combat it since its invasion of France in 1849. We shall only speak of the three following processes, which, alone, have yielded satisfactory results. The first consists in the employment of flower of sulphur, sprinkled over all the green parts when they are wet. This process, orig inally employed by Mr. Kile, an English horticultu- rist of Leyton, was first tried in France in 1849, by M. Marie, a physician of Ecouen. All. the vine-growers of Thomery employed it ona large scale in 1851. ‘They obtained very good results therefrom, but objected that it caused the sulphur to adhere to the grapes, so as to damage the sale. More- over the necessity of employing water, rendered this process somewhat unadapted to vineyards. The second means is that recommended in 1852, by M. Grison, head gardener of the kitchen-garden hot~ houses at Versailles. It consists in the employment of hydrosulphate of lime, prepared as follows: One pound of flower of sulphur, and an equal volume of newly- slaked lime, are well mixed together. This mixture, placed ina cast-iron vessel containing five and three- quarter pints of water, is boiled for ten minutes. The liquid is first allowed to clear itself, and is then de- canted. This liquid is a solution of the hyrosulphate of lime, and is kept in a closed vessel, to use as occa- sion requires ; it is then diluted with one hundred times its volume of water, and all the green parts of the vine are wetted with it. This mode of operating, employed Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 295 in 1852 by a great number of wine-growers at Thomery, yielded results much less satisfactory than flower of sulphur. During the winter of 1852-53, M. Rose-Charmeux, a vine-growing land-owner of Thomery (Seine-et- Marne) was warming vines under glass, by means of a hot-water apparatus. The idea occurred to him of spreading a trail of flower of sulphur along the cop- per pipes of his apparatus. The heat of boiling water was sufficient to create a sulphurous emanation, which completely prevented the appearance of oidium. Made sanguine by this discovery, he determined during the summer of 1863 to submit all his open-air trellises to the action of dry sulphur, and he advised the growers in the vicinity to do the same. That year, almost all the trellises of Thomery were subjected to dry sulphu- ration, and the crop was unaffected. The excellent effects of this process have been ad- mitted by an official commission, appointed, on our representations, by the Minister of Agriculture, and the report of that commission, inserted in the Moxiteur, confirms the claim which M. Rose-Charmeux has to the gratitude of all vine-growers, as the inventor of ‘ the only truly practicable and efficacious means of com- bating this terrible scourge. The indications furnished in that report have served as a starting point for all sul- phur operations now applied to our vineyards and trel- lises. M. Laforgue, a vine-proprietor of Béziers, was the first to apply it on a large scale. Messrs. Marés, of Montpellier, and Vial, of Béziers, by their writings, 296 Vineyard Culture. have powerfully contributed to the adoption of this method in all the regions of the South. We now give the main precautions which sulphura- tion requires to produce its beneficial effects. The sul- phur must be uniformly sprinkled, and well distributed, on all the green parts—shoots, leaves, and bunches. M. Charmeux perceived, and it has since been proved, that the action of sulphur is all the greater, as it is ap- plied at the first appearance of the disease, and even be- fore, for it is especially a preventive measure. For this reason, it is as well to make a first application of sulphur when the shoots have barely a length of six inches, a second one on the unfolding of the flowers, and a third when the grapes have attained to a third of their size. If an abundant rain should occur shortly after one of these applications, it would have to be im- mediately repeated. For this purpose, fine still weather should be chosen, so that the sulphur may not be blown off by the wind. ‘The two first applications of sulphur are made over the whole plant; the third may he di- rected to the bunches only. Certain plants in a vineyard—and always the same, be it observed—are first attacked by this disease, and may serve as a sort of index to point out the proper time for each application of sulphur. ‘These plants are generally such as are most shaded. Since the application of sulphur has become almost an universal operation, the consequence has been an enormous consumption of this material, then a marked increase in its price, and finally its adulteration. It is therefore important that consumers should beware of being cheated on making their purchases. It was at Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 297 first supposed that sublimated sulphur, or flower of sul- phur, ought to be exclusively used for this opera- tion, but M. Laforgue has discovered that common sulphur, well ground, produced the same effects with the same volume; of course, as the latter is much cheaper, it should be preferred. It has also recently been recommended that certain foreign matters be mixed with the sulphur, such as plaster of Paris and other substances, and this with a view of lessening the expense. But the results ob- tained by these means are not sufficiently conclusive for us to recommend them. {Mr. John E. Mottier, a distinguished and successful vine- dresser, for many years resident of the neighborhood of Cin- cinnati, used air-slaked lime in combination with sulphur. To a portion of his vines he applied the lime alone, and, as he thought, with equally good effect. Some persons have claimed that even the fine dust from the roads would be productive of the same results in checking the mildew ; but, unfortunately, the disease has been observed in some situations where the grape-vines are constantly covered with this material.] When sulphur began to be employed, means were sought for sprinkling it as quickly and as economically as possible. With this object, two kinds of instru- ments have been employed. First—bellows, whereof M. Gontier, a grower of early produce at Montrouge, near Paris, was the first to contrive one for that pur- pose. This bellows was afterward improved by M. Gaffé, of Fontainebleau, following the suggestions of the growers of Thomery. We subjoina description of this instrument. It consists 298 Vineyard Culture. first, of an ordinary bellows [A, Fig. 117], to which is adapted the apparatus meant to hold the sulphur. This is made of tin; consists of an oval box, B, fixed to the end of the nozzle of the bellows, and having three openings. The first [C, Fig. 118] admits the air [Fic. 117.]}—Gaffe’s Bellows, for Sulphurating Vines at- tacked by Oidium. expelled by the bellows ; the second, D, allows the sul- phur to be introduced into the box, and is closed with a cork stopper, E; the third, I, allows the air which has entered the box to escape, taking a certain quantity of sulphur, F, with it. The box is divided inside by two [Fic. 118.]—Vertical Section of the Preceding Figure. horizontal open partitions. The first one, G, is com- posed of seven iron wires, stretched at distances of four-tenths of an inch from each other, lengthwise in the box. The second, H, is a copper cloth, stretched at four-tenths of an inch below the first partition, and the Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 299 meshes of which have a width of about four one-hun- dredths of an inch. It will now be seen that if sulphur is introduced into the box D [Fig. 118], and the bellows be made to act, the current of air driven through the nozzle, C, will fol- low the direction, H I, and meeting the sulphur running Fic. 119.}—La Vergne’s Bellows. ‘through the two partitions, will carry it along, and make it appear at F, in the form of a little cloud, the impal- pable particles of which will deposit themselves in a thin but sufficient layer, on surrounding surfaces. [Frc. 120.]—Section of La Vergne’s Bellows. It has been objected to this instrument that it does not work quickly enough, and furthermore, that the weight of sulphur being placed at the front part soon fatigues the operator. For which reason it is now nearly superseded by M. Vergne’s bellows, constructed at Bordeaux. 300 Vineyard Culture. The dimension of this bellows [Figs. 119 and 120], are those of ordinary ones. ‘The top and bottom are made of poplar wood, and terminate in a nozzle, two and three-fourths inches long, the interior of which spreads from the inside outwardly. ‘There is no iron work of any kind, either inside or out. The side- leather is fastened to the top and bottom by small com- mon iron nails. A hole, one and one-half inch in diameter, is made in the top, and is kept closed with a cork stopper, B. There is no valve, the air coming in and going out at the opening of the nozzle. [Fic. 121.]—La Vergne’s Sulphur Bag. The nozzle, A, is regularly curved, and has a diam- eter of one and one-fourth inch; it is fastened to the end of the bellows by means of two hooks, placed at the side. A copper cloth, with meshes eight one-hun- dredths of an inch apart, is placed in front. The sulphur is introduced into the bellows through the hole B, near the top. The weight of sulphur being near the oper- Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 301 ator’s hands, the instrument is not so fatiguing. The workmen who are entrusted with this operation carry with them a small stock of sulphur—from five to six pounds—in a linen bag, fastened in front of them. This bag [Fig. 121] is thirteen inches wide at the bot- tom, only eight at the top, and eleven inches high. It is provided at one of its lower angles with a conical tin nozzle, C, closed by a cork stopper, and intended to introduce the sulphur into the bellows. The peculiar construction of the nozzle of this bellows allows the jet of sulphur to be sprinkled with ease in all directions —up and down, and from side to side. The cost of this instrument, at Bordeaux, is fifty or seventy cents, with the bag. Other apparatus have been constructed on the same principles. But it is objected to them, as well as to M. de la Vergne’s bellows, that the sulphur comes in con- tact with the leather of the bellows, which very soon destroys it. A manufacturer of Béziers has succeeded in overcoming this objection, while retaining the ad- vantages of M. de la Vergne’s bellows. [The distinguished vine-grower, G. W. Campbell, of Del- aware, Ohio, has produced an implement for the purpose of dusting his vines, that has some advantages, and may easily be made by any one who desires to use the sulphur, or other dry pulverulent substances, as a remedy against mildew. Mr. Campbell writes that he can not give the expense of this bellows, because he made it himself, and kept no account of the cost of materials, nor of the time spent in its construc- tion. He says he finds it very convenient and effective, and that he can throw a cloud of sulphur and quicklime through 302 Vineyard Culture. a trellis nearly as fast as he can naturally walk. He sends some drawings, which will make the matter clear. [Fic. 122.]}—G. W. Campbell’s Bellows. A, reservoir for sulphur, made of tin, soldered upon the pipe 4, which is also of tin, and made somewhat like the nose of a watering-pot, but left open, and flattened at the end, leaving a wide space for the escape of sulphur; 4, a small [Fic. 123.]—Section of the Preceding Figure. leathern valve, opening into the pipe from the hole c, which closes when air is drawn into the bellows, preventing the ad- mission of sulphur into the air-chamber; a, small] holes in the bottom of the reservoir—by closing a part with pegs the quantity of sulphur can be regulated.] The two following contrivances have also been made for the application of sulphur. The first is a sort of dredging-box [Fig. 124], invented by M. Laforgue, of Béziers. It consists of a tin cylinder, of a rather con- ical shape, and eight inches in hight. The base, B, Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 303 which is three and one half inches wide, is slightly con- vex, and pierced with a great number of small holes. A lid, A, two inches in diameter, allows the sulphur to be introduced at the upper part. Inside, a little above the bottom, some crossed wires, C [Fig. 125], serve to pulverize the lumps of sulphur. The objection to this dredging-box is that it does not reduce the sulphur suf- [Fic. 124.]—Laforgue’s Dredging-Box. ficiently fine when scattering it, thus necessitating more material for the same surface, and it does not send out the sulphur with so much force as the bellows, so as to sprinkle the plants all over. M. Laforgue has improved his instrument by diminishing the size of the holes, and it has since worked well. [Fic. 125.]—Section of Preceding Figure. Messrs. Ouin and Franc have tried to improve M. Laforgue’s dredging-box, by adding a woolen tuft, A [Fig. 124], attached to the bottom, B [Fig. 125], also pierced with a number of holes. The sulphur is thus ite 304 Vineyard Culture. more finely sprinkled, but the instrument can only be used after the evaporation of the dew, which, other- wise, would soon saturate the tuft and render it unser- viceable. We do not think that either of these instruments should be preferred to the other, in all cases. Thus, [Fic. 126.]—Adessrs. Ouin and Franc’s Dredging-Box, with Tuft. for the first two applications of sulphur, which are made over the entire plant, bellows should be preferred. But, for the third operation, which is only applied to the bunches, M. Laforgue’s dredging-box seems to be bet- [Fic.127.]—Section of Preceding Figure. ter adapted. This instrument is held in the right hand, while, with the left, those bunches are laid bare to which sulphur is to be applied. One more question remains to be considered, with regard to this important operation—and that is the ex- pense it gives rise to, per acre of vineyard. Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 305 The quantity of flower of sulphur to be employed to the acre is, on an average, twenty-seven pounds for the first application, and fifty-four pounds for each of the other two—in all, one hundred and thirty-five pounds, which, at two and a quarter cents a pound, make three dollars. To distribute the sulphur, requires twelve women’s working days, at twenty-two cents, or, altogether, $5.64 per acre. Of course the cost of this operation varies according to the price of sulphur and manual labor, and also de- pends upon what kind of weather follows the applica- tion—a rain-storm compelling the work to be begur. anew. Lastly, that cost will depend upon the mode of pruning the vines—the creeping vines of Languedoc requiring more time, and calling for more sulphur than those of Médoc. Hurtrut Insecrs. —The Vine-Beetle (Fig. 128].— This little beetle, known to vine-growers under the name of “devil,” ‘scribbler,” etc., has its elytra of a brownish-red, and the remainder of its body black ; it is to be found on vines from the month of July. This insect, in gnawing the leaves, makes on them those linear impressions that have been compared to written charac- ters [Fig. 127]. When it is present in large numbers, it also attacks the grapes, and dries them up. It is when in the larval stage that [Fic. 128.] this beetle is especially injurious. Vine-Beetle. It presents itself in the shape of a little elongated worm, 26 306 Vineyard Culture. first whitish, and afterward assuming a brown color. This larva spends the winter in the ground, and gnaws the roots of the vine; in the spring it devours the shoots and young leaves. M. Paul has lately conceived the following plan to destroy this beetle. Grind oil-cakes in an oil-mill ; spread them over the ground in the proportion of 1,080 [Fic. 129.]—Leaf attacked hy the Vine-Beetle ana , its Larve. pounds to the acre, and plow them in immediately. These oil-cakes must not have been heated beyond eighty degrees, and are made as dry as possible, other- wise the essential oil of mustard, which has the prop- erty of destroying the insects, will have disappeared. The operation, repeated every three years, completely destroys the larve of this beetle, which live in the ground, Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 307 Spider-Shaped Beetle [Fig. 130].—The elytra of this beetle are green or blue. It attacks, indifferently, the leaves and young shoots, and, like the insect first de- scribed, it lets itself drop to the ground, as if dead, at the approach of a hand about to seize it. The female lays her eggs in the leaves, which she rolls up [Fig. 131], and which may thus be easily recognized, and taken off to burn. [Fic. 130. ]—Spider-Shaped Beetle. [Fic. 131.] —Vine-Leaf rolled up by the Spider~ Shaped Beetle. [Fic. 132. ]—Blue-Beetle of Dunal. Blue Beetle of Dunal [Fig. 132].—This small beetle appears about the end of April, and fastens on the young shoots and the bunches, the stalks of which it eats. It pairs about the end of May; a fortnight later, ‘lays its eggs on the underside of the leaves, and in the last days of June, the larva is hatched—a small worm, that eats the leaves. 308 Vineyard Culture. No means of destroying these last two insects have, as yet, been found, except hunting them continually. When they are fully developed, a kind of very wide- mouthed tin funnel, ending ina bag, is made use of. The funnel is fitted to the foot of the plant; the stems are then shaken, and all the insects fall into the bag. This work should be performed early in the morning. As for the larve, they are disposed of by removing all the leaves that are rolled up, and burning them. [Fic. 133.]— Common [Fic. 134.]—Larva of May-Beetle. the Common May-Beetle. Common May-Beetle | Fig.133].—This insect is very de- structive. The larve [Fig. 134] are especially feared, as they destroy the roots. They are known to wine-growers by the name of White Worm, Turk, etc. There is no other means of preventing the multiplication of this in- sect, than by destroying it, either in its larval stage, or when fully developed.. The larva should therefore be destroyed, when brought to the surface by the plow. As these remain in the ground for three years, a periodical killing is all that will be required. The beetles, also, should be collected and destroyed. They may be shaken ' from the trees early in the morning in the early spring. Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 309 Some animals wage unremitting war against May- beetles: such are the bat, the rook, the owl, and the screeth-owl,* all of which devour the fully developed insect, and the mole, which feeds on the larve. It will, therefore, be advisable not to destroy these ani- mals in localities infested by May-beetles, The Vine-Pyralis, also known to vine-dressers by the name of vine-worm. This is, beyond doubt, the insect causing most ravages in vineyards; it appears twice a year in the shape of a larva, or worm, and is first seen at blos- soming time. At this period, its larva [Fig. 135] devours the leaves and young bunches, which it wraps up in numerous silky threads. It is next seen in the fall, between the berries, which it also covers with silky threads. The larvz pass the winter in silky cocoons, placed under old [Fre. 135.]— ragged bark, or in the slits of old stakes. “4774 of In April or May, they are transformed the Vine- Pyralis. into little butterflies, of a yellowish white [Fig. 136]. These butterflies lay their eggs in July, on the silky tissue enveloping the grapes. The three following plans have been proposed for the destruction of this mischievous insect: Ist, the [Fic. 136.]—But- careful removal and burning of all ter fy of the Py- the bunches inclosed in silky ygjfjs, threads, as well as of the rolled-up * In this country the skunk eats the beetle, and the crow and blackbird consume the larva of our May-beetles. 310 Vineyard Culture. leaves; passing the grape-stakes through an oven, during the winter, so as to destroy the eggs or larvae that might be adhering to them, and the removal of old bark and of the moss covering the stem of the plant. These operations will certainly have a very good effect, but they are incomplete, and always leave on the stem some eggs, or larva, which, owing to the two generations they produce annually, soon infest the vineyard anew. ad. The plan of scalding the plants with boiling water, has been tried with success. This operation, suggested by M. Raclet, of Romanéche, is employed in some vineyards, and particularly in Beaujolais, where, by its means, the pyralis, that had made great ravages during several years has been got rid of. The process is as follows : Immediately after the pruning, and before vegetation has set in, when there is neither frost, wind, nor rain, a workman, provided with a tin pot, holding one quart, and having a long, tapering spout [Fig. 137], pours boiling water over the old wood of the plant, so so as to wet all the surface of each stem. Care must be taken to avoid wetting the young shoots with this water, as it would destroy them. This scalding suffices to kill the larve and eggs deposited in the cavities of the bark. We borrow from the Yournal of Practica Agriculture, the cut of the boiler intended to heat the water [Fig. 138]. This apparatus consists of. a chim- ney, or heating cylinder, F F, rising from the fire- place E, and forming the interior walls of the boiler. The exterior walls of the vessel, A, B, C, are twelve and three-quarter inches in diameter at C, and ten inches in diameter at A. The fire-place curved, and Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. gir spreading out fourteen and a half inches at C, rises thirty-two inches, to B. D is the funnel for filling the vessel; G, the steam-valve; II, two stop-cocks, for boil- ing water; HH, two hooks, through which two stakes are slipped, to carry the ap- paratus; Jis the fire-grate. The grate and hooks are of [Fic. 137.]— Can, for Scalding the Grape- Stocks, iron; all the rest is made of copper. This apparatus is heated with coke. Every quart of boil- ing water taken out is replaced by its equivalent of cold water. The water does not cease boil- ing, and keeps four men at work. Two thousand vines can be scalded ina day. This mode of op- erating gives very good results, but, in order that the suc- cess may be entire, the stakes must also be scalded, or passed through an oven. 3d. M. George AN ne [Fic. 138.]—Furnace, for Boiling Water in the Vineyard. Perrier, a wine-grower at Ay (Marne), has employed 312 Vineyard Culture. sulphurous acid with great success, for the destruction of the pyralis. This is his process : For Stakes.—These being stacked up here and there in the vineyard, during winter, as shown in Figure 68, he covers each with a kind of wooden bell [Fig. 139], having two iron handles. Before placing this bell over the stakes, a vessel full of sulphur is placed close beside them, on the ground; fire is applied to it, and the bell is put over all, care being taken to keep a little earth round the base of the bell, to prevent the admission of external air. The fire continues to burn until the air is exhausted of its oxy- gen, and this produces sul- phurous acid gas, which kills off the larvz and eggs lodged in the seams of the stakes. In the space of about two hours, the de- sired effect is produced, and the bell may be re- moved and placed on an- for Sulphurating the Stakes. other stack. For the Plants.—M. Perrier begins immediately after the pruning, before the stakes are placed, and before there is any sign that vegetation has commenced. It is also proper to begin before laying down the plants— an operation usual in Champagne—as described on page 180. Were this not done, the eggs and larve of the pyralis might be buried, which would not hinder them from being developed. When the time for op- erating has arrived, a piece of tile, on which is laid a sulphurated wick, is placed at the foot of each vine ; the Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 313 match is lighted, and each plant is covered with an iron bell [Fig. 140], which must be perfectly air-tight, and of sufficient dimensions to inclose the plants, without crowding them. These bells are slightly pressed into the ground, to prevent the entrance of air at the bot- tom. The effect is then the same as that produced on the stakes. In or- der that the operation may go on rap- idly enough, it would be advisable to have about one hundred of these smail bells, so that when the last has been laid down, sufficient time may have elapsed—say two hours—since the placing of the first, which should then be transferred to another plant, and so on with the rest, throughout the extent of the vineyard. Of course, the dimensions of these bells must necessarily vary with that of the plants, and the length of sulphurated wick to be used should proportioned to the size of the bells. It will always be better to put too much than too little. M. George Perrier estimates the cost of this process, both for stakes and plants, at $14.40 per acre. But it must not be for- gotten that in that part of Champagne there are 24,000 plants to the acre. It is true that these plants are re- duced to very small dimensions, as we have shown, fur- ther back. [We have an insect in the United States, which is very similar to the May-beetle of Europe, and called by the same popular names, but by the entomologists it is named the Lach- nosterna fusca. t appears, in the winged state, early in May and is often quite injurious to many of our cultivated fruits, 27 [Fic. 140. a] — Iron Bell, for Sulphurating the Plants. 314 Vineyard Culture. but I do not know that it has been found to damage the vine. The larva is the common white grub, and as it remains a long while in the ground in this form, and is quite a voracious feeder, it is often very destructive ; though J am not aware of its ever having been detected eating the roots of the grape- vine, its appetite for similar vegetation renders it an unwel- come visitant. "The remedies and the natural enemies are similar. to those given by the author. Pelidnota punctata, is the name of a much larger beetle, which feeds upon the grape-leaves in midsummer, and con- sumes considerable quantities of the foliage. I have not learned its history in the larval condition, but suppose the grub may also prefer to feed upon the vine, and if so, it will destroy the roots. The perfect insect is to be found in the day-time, among the leaves, where it may easily be caught, and should be destroyed. It may be known by its large size; the wing-covers are shining, of a dull yellow, marked by three black dots on the outer side of each, and one on each side of the thorax. The Rose-Beetle (Macrodactylus subspinosa) is often very in- jurious to the grape-vine, sometimes destroying the crop by cutting off the bunches, as well as eating the foliage in May and June. In its perfect state, this insect is exceedingly voracious to many of our cultivated plants. ‘Though each individual be quite small—about half an inch long—their immense numbers cause serious destruction of vegetation, and they continue to feed for about a month. The rose-beetle is .33 of an inch long, is of a dull, rather pale buff yellow. The claws are large and black. Their eggs are deposited in the ground, where they hatch in about twenty days, and the grubs feed upon roots, until fall, when they descend into the ground to hyber- nate, and emerge the next season as beetles. The Rose-Chaffer has many natural enemies among preda- Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 315 ceous insects, but we must depend upon human agencies for their destruction; hopeless as the task may appear, they must be gathered and destroyed by hand if we would save our crops where they abound. They are sluggish, and easily caught, when they may be destroyed by throwing into hot water. The appearance of this insect is often quite local, being abun- dant in one neighborhood, and rarely seen in others. The Haltica chalybea, or Grape-vine Flea-Beetle, is a very annoying insect in some vineyards. ‘Though quite small, be- ing only 0.16 of an inch in length, it is voracious, and eats into the buds and young shoots as they swell and begin to push, This beetle is oval, shiny, deep greenish-blue, or deep green, or purple. The name “chalybea,” is intended to describe this varying, steel-blue color. The insect spends the winter in the ground near the foot of the vine, feeding upon the roots. This beetle is referred to in vol. II, page 60, of the Practical Entomologist, which every vine-dresser should read; and in vol. I, page 4o, is a description by-J. Kirkpatrick, of Cleveland, Ohio, in which neighborhood the haltica is quite troublesome. With regard to the larval condition of these insects, he says, that “the eggs are laid upon the leaves in May; when hatched, they feed upon the upper surface. ‘They soon arrive at their full growth, when they are about three-eighths of an inch long, light-brown, with eight rows of black spots above, those of the two dorsal being confluent; head and feet black; antennz very short; on each of the spots on the back there is a single hair, and from the breathing apertures, two. * * * When in motion, it brings its body up with a jerk. About the first of June, it enters the ground, and changes to a pupa, emerging from it in about fourteen days, as a perfect insect. There are several broods in the season. * * * * * It is difficult to capture the perfect insects, although much may be done during cool weather, by careful hand-picking. 316 Vineyard Culture. The larve are rather tenacious of life. When not numerous, the most certain method of shortening their days, is to pick off the infested leaves, and to burn them ; but this can not be done when they are very numerous. I would recommend syringing with lime, or very strong soap-suds—whale-oil soap is the best. Dusting newly air-slaked lime on the leaves, when dry, will probably have a good effect.” In the lake-shore vine-region, of Ohio, a curculio—species unknown—has been found, affecting the shoots of the current year’s growth. The egg is deposited at some time during the summer. A mark similar to that found upon the plum is seen on the bark of an internode; on cutting open the wood, a small worm is found, unless it has changed to the beetle, when it escapes through a small, round hole. My attention was directed to this insect by Charles Carpenter, of Kelley’s Isl- and, who may be called the pioneer grape-grower of that favored region. The grub being yet a study for entomologists, and com- paratively little known, I have not been able to identify this species. It will probably be spread, by transporting cuttings and vines, The common curculio, Conotrachelus nenupbar (Herbert), is accused of depositing its eggs in the grape, as in other smooth-skinned fruits. This is doubted by many observers ; and, forsooth, the little Turk has sins enough to answer for without having this laid to his charge. In the next order—the Orthoptera—we find the tree crickets, some of which deposit their eggs in the vine shoots that are marked with a roughish raised line between the joints; if cut or broken, the fibers will be found pierced and torn to the pith, and a double row of yellowish eggs may be seen. These insects were formerly supposed to be vegetable feeders, but from an article in the Practical Entomologist for February, 1867, it appears that one species, at least, may prove to be a valu- Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 317 able friend to the grape-grower, as it is stated that the fa- vorite food of the tree-cricket, Eicanthus niveus, was aphides, particularly those from the pear and the grape. This, the Editor well observes, is an important fact. The observer, by the by, is a lady, living in Port Byron, IN. Her first observations of this insect eating the aphides, are recorded in Vol. I, p. 126, of the same periodical. The order Hemiptera, the true bugs, furnishes us a vast number of injurious insects. Here we find the scale insects, or bark-lice, and the aphides, or plant-lice. Of the former subdivision, Dr. Fitch mentions a bark-louse found on grape-vines, in June; believed to be the Lecanium vitis, of Linneus. It is hemispherical and brown. A cot- tony substance was extruded from beneath the shell until July, when minute insects crept out, and scattered over the bark, upon which they fixed themselves. It is believed that this insect is not very common; I have not seen it myself, but it should be watched for and destroyed before it can increase. The history of the Aphides, and their wonderful procrea- tive powers should be familiar to every one who has to do with vegetation, since almost every kind of leafy plant has one or more species, peculiar to itself. The insects, individually, are very small, but their numbers are almost beyond calcula- tion. They live by suction only, and draw the vital fluids from the plants, which suffer exceedingly from their attacks, Fortunately, these creatures have insect enemies that keep them in check. Among these are the Aphis-Lions, or larve of the Golden-eyed and Lace-wing flies, belonging to the order Neuroptera, and the Coccinelide, or Lady-birds, belong- ing to the Beetles, Coleoptera. The grape has its peculiar Aphis, called Aphis vitis (?) which is described by Mr. Glover, in the Patent Office Report for 1854, p.79- It is found on the ends of young shoots, during 318 Vineyard Culture. the summer. The insects are black. Another vine-leaf aphis—called Pemphigus viti folia, by Dr. Fitch—causes an excrescence to appear on the upper sides of the leaves of some kinds of grape. In the same order, we find one of the most numerous and troublesome enemies of the grape-vine. It is that which is commonly but erroneously called the Thrips—which belongs to another group. This insect, which is familiar to every vine-dresser, is the Yettigonia (Erythroneura) vitis, of Harris, described and exemplified before the Cincinnati Horticultural Society, as such, in 1865, by the appropriate committee, who begged that it should no longer be called ** Thrips,” nor Thrip, The instructive and amusing, as well as learned editor of the Practical Entomologist, has given a thorough exposition of these insects, in'the February number of this year (1867), to which the reader is referred. His illustrations are distinct, and enable any one to identify the insect. The editor, Mr. B. D. Walsh, mentions seven distinct species, that feed upon the grape-vine, in North America. These creatures are so numerous by September, that when the leaves are disturbed, and they fly and leap out into the air, it seems filled with little specks, for they are quite small, They appear to affect certain varieties of grape more than others. Some of those with thin foliage have their leaves almost entirely destroyed by them, while those with thick, substantial leaves, somewhat pubescent on the underside, will entirely escape their ravages, though growing close beside them in the same vineyard. Concord and Hartford will escape, while the Delaware and Clinton suffer. , The next order of insects is a very large one, embracing a great many that are destructive to the vine. The single spe- cies mentioned by M. Du Breuil, as the Pyralis, I have not been able to identify, from the limited number of books at my command, It may be introduced into our own country one Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 319 of these days, and require the expensive and tedious treatment recommended in the text; but, in the meantime, we have in- sect foes enough of our own, among the Lepidoptera alone, to occupy us in their study and destruction—for, with all insects, it is highly important that we study their habits and become familiar with their ways, in order that we may successfully combat them. Nor should we ever forget that we have hosts of friends among these creatures, in the cannibal tribes that preserve the balance of power in the great scheme of creation of this world. This order—the Lepidoptera—embraces the butterflies, sphinges, and moths, with their caterpillars; some of each of these divisions are injurious. ‘The moths are most destruc- tive and numerous. A few of the most troublesome, only, will be mentioned. The Fall Web-Worm (Ayphantria textor), is nearly om- niverous, and is often found enveloping a branch of the vine with its ugly silken web, while the gregarious worms are feed- ing upon the leaves. The remedy is to break these off, and destroy them, and it is satisfactory to know that we may kill from two to three hundred of these caterpillars at one opera- tion. The eggs are deposited on the underside of a leaf, but do not attract attention. Soon afterward, the watchful eye of the vine-dresser may observe two leaves, attached together by silken webs. Within this shelter, the young worms are feeding, and may easily be destroyed by the thumb and finger, if taken in time. ‘They grow to about an inch in Jength, when they are clothed with whitish hairs; the head and feet are black, and they have a blackish stripe along the back, and an- other beneath. ‘The perfect moth is white, 1.25 to 1.35 inch in width. (Vide Harris Report, p. 358.) The Tortrices, or Leaf-Rollers, are a family of moths, the pupz of some of which are quite troublesome in the vineyard. The moths are generally small, prettily marked, and fly only in the evening. Prominent among these, in our Western 320 Vineyard Culture. vineyards is the Desmia maculalis, or Spotted-Winged Sable, better known to the vine-dresser as the Leaf-Folder. This beautiful little moth scatters her eggs—which hatch upon the leayes—into a very active, slender, green worm. This caterpillar secretes itself, by rolling a leaf upon itself, so as to make a tube of about half an inch diameter, in which it feeds. This fold of the leaf is retained securely by strong bands of beautiful white silk. These insects begin to appear in June, and continue, through- out the season, to disfigure our vines. They form the pupz within these rolled leaves. They can best be attacked while in the larval condition, but great dexteriy is required to secure these .active little caterpillars, which will quickly escape at either end of the pipe in which they live. They are smooth and shiny, of a pale-green, and move by wriggling to the open end of their shelter, when they drop to the ground and es- cape, so that many of the rolled leaves will appear empty. Some of the warblers are very fond of these caterpillars. Pterophorus perisceidactylus, ox the Gartered Grape-Vine Plume, is described by Dr. Fitch, in the «‘ New York Agricul- tural Transactions,” and in his ** Report,” p.139. He says it is a pale-green worm, half an inch long, which feeds upon the foliage of the grape-vine, after fastening several together with silken threads, so as to form a hollow ball. The Osis Myron, described as the Charocampa Pampinatrix by Harris, and often called the Vine-Dresser, is quite trouble- some in some vineyards. It eats the leaves, and cuts off the bunches of grapes. . The moth emerges from the ground in June, and lays her eggs upon the leaves. ‘The caterpillar is a pale-green, freck- led with pale-yellow dots; it becomes a pale, dusky olive when fully grown, and is z.25 inches in length. The Procris Americana, or the American Forester, is found to be quite troublesome on some vines. The worm is small, and feeds in groups of twenty or more, keeping closely side Inclement Weather, Diseases, Ete. 321 by side. At first they leave a skeleton of the leaf, but as they grow larger, they consume all but the largest veins, They are yellowish, semi-transparent, and at full size are .60 inch long. The perfect insect isa small moth blue-black, with a bright orange neck, The