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Cornell University Libra

elementary manual of zoology, designe

Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003390857

AN ELEMENTARY

MANUAL OF ZOOLOGY

DESIGNED

FOR THE USE OF FOREST OFFICERS IN INDIA.

PREPARED FOR THE FOREST DEPARTMENT OF INDIA.

BY

B. 0. COTES,

DEPUTY SUPERINTENDENT OF THE INDIAN MUSEUM, CALCUTTA, AND LECTURER ON
ZOOLOGY AT THE IMPERIAL FOREST SCHQOL, DEHRA DUN.

CALCUTTA:
OFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT, GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA.

1 oe ad

N,B.—It is proposed to issue a fully illustrated edition of this work as goon as the
necessary blocks can be prepared.

PREFACH.

—_—_+—-

ieee following work has been drawn up for the Forest
: Department of the Government of India.

It is designed to meet a want which has been felt in the
Imperial Forest School, Dehra Dun, for a short elementary
manual to cover the zoological teaching of that institution.

Slight as it is, the difficulties which have had to be en-
countered in ifs preparation will be readily appreciated by
those who have attempted to find their way through the
fragmentary literature upon which dependence has still to
be placed in studying many of the groups of Indian animals.
The Vertebrata of India, it is true, have been systematically
described ; indeed the series of volumes which are being pre-
pared under the able editorship of Mr. W. T. Blanford will
leave, when completed, little to be desired in this section.
Unfortunately the Vertebrata form numerically but a small
group when compared with the myriad hosts of insects and
other lowly creatures which make up the bulk of the animal
species occurring in India. In this larger field students have
been few and far between, and although much excellent
work of a more or less isolated nature has been done, the
subject is so vast and the observations generally have been
so little systematized that, except in a few stray orders and
families, they have hitherto been almost entirely unavailable
for teaching purposes. None of the general text-books of
the day again deal in sufficient detail with the particular
animals with which the Indian Forest Officer is concerned, to
be anything like complete guides in themselves, though they
are invaluable for purposes of reference. In putting to-
gether his notes therefore, the writer has had to cull inform-
ation from very numérous and widely different sources. Tle
has also been hampered to some extent by the necessity of
not overstepping the bounds of what can be gone through

il Prefure.

in the very limited time which the Dehra Dun students
are able to devote to the subject. Itis hoped, however, that
the result will be sufficient to enable the young Forest Officer
to obtain, without undue labour, a sound elementary know-
ledge of the classification and relative importance of the
commoner and more noticeable animals which come under
his observation, with some general idea of their various
habits.

In the chapters devoted to the Insecta the writer has
been able to draw upon the experience gained during the
nine years he has been in charge of the Entomological
Section of the Indian Museum in Calcutta. With regard to
the remaining groups no claim is put forward to originality
of treatment, though it may be stated that the information
has been brought together in the course of actual teaching
and that the practical work is in each case described afresh
from common Indian species, which occasionally differ in
matters of detail from the forms dealt with in existing text-
books.

Since no reliable knowledge of Zoology can possibly be
imparted by mere theoretical teaching a very considerable
portion of the manual will be found to be devoted to direc-
tions for the dissection and examination of actual specimens.
The dissections described can easily be performed in class
by the students themselves, with the help of the extremely
simple appliances that are available, while the specimens
required are only such as are readily procurable in India.
The classification is chiefly based upon structural characters
which the students are intended, wherever practicable, to
confirm for themselves by actual examination of speci-
mens.

Attention has been especially directed to the classification
of the groups which contain animals that are of practical
importance in Indian forests, the others being merely alluded
to shortly, in cases where it is necessary to mention them at
all, in order to avoid giving an erroneous idea of the nature

Preface. iii

of the series. For instance, the classification of the snakes is
dealt with at some length, as it is important that the students
should be able to distinguish harmless species from poisonous
ones, whereas large groups, like that of the Mollusca, are
passed over in a few words as comparatively unimportant.

Information of a practical nature, connected with what
has been done in various parts of the world to mitigate
damage by insects related to those which are destructive in
Indian forests, has been added in cases where it seemed likely
to be useful; but the subject is one which has as yet been
so little taken up in India that it has been thought safest not
to attempt to go into it at any length.

At the end of the manual a brief note has been inserted
to give the necessary instructions for preparing zoological
specimens for preservation in the School Museum, where a
representative series, illustrative of the chief groups of
Indian forest animals of all kinds, is rapidly accumulating.

In working over the course with the students it will be
necessary for the lecturer to link together the various portions
of the manual by some slight explanation of the meaning of
the system of classification that is indicated. And at least a
few words should be added upon the subject of the funda-
mental theories which form the basis of the science of
modern Biology. Little or no reference has been made to
this extensive theme in the manual itself, for it has been
thought best not to burden a practical work of the kind
which is intended purely for local teaching, with theoretical
matter, which is already set forth in the general zoological
text-books of the day in a manner that would make any
attempt upon the writer’s part to deal with it afresh appear
presumptuous. The school library possesses a copy of Sedg-
wick’s edition of Claus’ Text-book of Zoology, the introduc-
tion to which comprises an admirable treatise upon the sub-
ject, and this work is recommended for the use of students
who desire further guidance. .

iv Prefuce.

In describing the dissections which form part of the
course, the writer has constantly referred to the more detailed
descriptions of allied types as given in Huxley and Martin’s
Practical Biology, Marshall and MHurst’s Practical Zo-
ology, and Parker’s Zootomy, and he has generally followed
the nomenclature adopted in these admirable works. In the
general zoological portion of the manual the more import-
ant works consulted have been, Sedgwick’s edition of Claus’
Text-book of Zoology, Hatchett Jackson’s edition of Rol-
leston’s Forms of Animal Life, Huxley’s Anatomy of
Invertebrated Animals, and the volumes by Day, Bou-
lenger, Oates and Blanford! in the series of the Fauna
of British India, also Jerdon’s Birds of India and Oates’
Birds of British Burma. Information of a practical
nature has also been taken from Clifford’s Notes on Forest
Zoology, and from what has been given verbally to the
writer by Indian Forest Officers. In the chapters on Ento-
mology constant reference has been made to the papers
which have appeared in the periodical Indian Museum
Notes, and to the masterly publications of the United States
Entomological Department. Amongst numerous other
sources of information special mention may be made of
Packard’s Guide to the Study of Insects, Comstock’s Intro-
duction to Entomology, Thompson’s report on Insects de-
structive to Woods and Forests, and papers by numerous
writers which have appeared in the Indian Forester.

Acknowledgment is also due to Messrs. Fernandez,
Bagshawe, and Gamble for the interest they have taken in
the Zoology teaching, and for the cordial help they have
afforded in connection with the arrangements necessary for
the organisation of practical work in class.

CALCUTTA : E. C. C.
The 26th May 1893.

1 The first volame of Hampson’s work in the same scries was received after the
chapter upon the Lepidoptera had been written.

MANUAL OF ZOOLOGY.

—_—_—~+——-

CONTENTS.

SYSTEMATIC COURSE— P

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION . . = . a 5 . |
ProrTozoa . ‘ . « . eB ‘i 4 . a
CQ@LENTERATA . ‘ a . e . : ; <
ECHINODERMATA . * Py ‘ * ‘ FS A z 5
VERMES ‘ . a ‘i - * r f . A .
Motiusoa . ° A ‘ < . . . . . a
ARTHROPODA . é 7 ‘ : = s ‘ : a
InszoTa (CLASSIFICATION) . . . . . . .
ORTHOPTERA ¥ * * fe * . 7 i ‘ .
RHYNCHOTA ¥ . é 4 % . . ° « z
NEUROPTEBRA . i . : ‘ 5

ConLEOPTERA P ‘ . 5 s 5 F a . -
HYMENOPTERA . . . . . . . 4 qi a
DIPTERA . . . . eer : . : :
LEPIDOPTERA = . 7 Z . e . 2 . ‘
CHORDATA (CLASSIFICATION) P . . . . 7
Fisu . . “ 4 A - A 3 ‘ : 7 .
AMPHIBIA . > ‘ a . ‘ * . é . ‘i
REPTILES . ~ . . . . ° . ° ° .
Birps . . . . . . s . 7 F .
Mammals . é . . F . : a é r

PRACTICAL COURSE—

IntRopuctToRY Nore . . . . ° , é s .
- EXAMINATION OF PROTOZOA . . é . . . .
DISsECTION OF THE HaRTHWORM - ‘ ‘ % > °
45 % FRESH-WATER CRAB 5 . . 7 2

35. » CockROACH . . ° . . . ‘

37 ” SILKWORM . ‘ . 5 : : =

35 $5 Sy arb . . ° s ‘ . .

a 6 MAHSEER . . . ‘ . .

3 i Fro@ . 3 a‘ . 3 . 5 ‘i

‘3 ” SPARROW . S . oi A ‘ .
PatM SQUIRREL . . * ‘ e .

NOTE ON THE PRESERVATION OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS

EXPLANATIONS OF TECHNICAL TERMS , : . . .

Elementary Manual of Zoology.

‘sjood quvndegs yo opnopeaniue jooqa ony, “Oy “g]9880A-P00 res] g.
*yynour 44 4e sngeirdde paziplo I a . 4 2 a|\rs] s
\ D[OBIGOI OT4SILOJOVIBYO YILM JNq ‘S[EssoA-poo]q aqlugap 4nogIIA salloA paqyusmdas Ayqoazaod wm] --" 2140} 2} 0 Y (p) mod AM =] = S09 2
Belae] &
2 “SIIOM-WOS SOJEMNT puv ‘yoaal ‘Mom Eg “Saye Y *s[OSSaA Peleg) &
“s[OS89A-Poojq ePUYAP GIIM ‘smIOM pajuamZag—eplauuy (9) y -poolg YIM “lee|l &
mE. i‘
me
‘sjayid pus spemrue vo o1jtseavd stom snoleqdaooqauKoy pue , eS\ Fs
epoyemayy 04} SB YONs ‘stUIOM payuoMBasun 9y][-pyesq} 40 panoy—(suios-peaiyL) SOUJUILUJSYFEWEN (7) } galas AVOHT ? a3 os
ss|o.
*mIOM Zuipys ogy sB Gons ‘sutsoj vas Sutaty sely puv ‘sartom-odvy ‘saqug-raary “Ow aaipe ) g 3 é &
° “MOTIBZUSMNSas ONY JHOTPA SULOM PoUD}}e,q —‘SOYUIWOYAIe]q (7) a cae ers z
2
ic)
—? paotjou oq Avur Sarmorpog 099 Yoram Jo ‘sdnos3 yuesoHtp 5 g
fiaa Jo saquinu ose, 8 epnyjour ‘ploqoojou so ‘y00g [euquea ‘sasupuadds paquto{ qnogyim 4nq as
‘sypavo Laojosoxa pared yy ‘eyeM0[A) [eorjamurds ATyer0qe[1q poywsuoja jo dnoiZ peuyep-[]t TY—‘(suiiomM) souadA (z) =
eo
“sdaqMUNdNd-vas ‘sat[t-vas ‘suiqoin-ves ‘saysy-1e1g “ST = 2
. “ENOWIB sNoateo|vo vq poysoddns pure 4]8 5 s
-uoSupaed paSuvize Sureq sorpoq «9g ‘Juortjomuds Ayjerpeu aie 4[npE MAY YLT speUTUT oyeMo]O) —"eJeUAapOUIYdA (T) ae

*kyravo Lpoq vB yy papraoid speauiue IPN TPEONIAN—"epewuolwmg ‘gq

‘a8uods ‘dfjod wloo ‘auomaus vas “eapApy “Sar
“Sy1avo Lpoq roy specarae aB[NT[AoII[AW—"2] CUB] UIJDD "W

*s[]J90 JO JoquINT B Jo Sury4stsu0o yova sppurry-—*BOZEOIAl "il
seuredg ‘epaors0, ‘cinomeiyg ‘eqomy “oy
*]Jo0 a[Surs B Jo Zurysisuoo yovs sppmiay—"BO Z0jOUNd ‘|

‘KOGONIN IVWINV THL dO SdNOUD AGIHO AHL AO NOILVOIAISSVIO TVEYHNAD

—_—_4—__——

‘TASHUNOO OLLVWALSAS

Systematic Course.

‘semmEyy pus ‘sprig ‘saydey ‘eiqrydmy ‘ysiq epntouy
‘ “quosaid.
q30q avfiomo, pute urerg ‘(au0q-498q) UUINTOD [e1qGa}10A B OFUI payrpom pzoyooqou eyL—epeuqaweaa (p)

“ ‘Aaaduery “hg
‘wef IaMoy JNO yng Urerq qa ‘ogI] MNOYSn0Ig} JUajsiszed proyooqou ey,—"1Wi0}soJIAQ (2)
: ‘snoxiqdary “Ba

“ueiposy “Oa
‘oSuqs [easel oq ur A[ao yuaserd pzoys0j0u aq, —epsoyooun) (2)

*(proyoojou) pos uerpam yeuiezut ue £q pezysoddns Spoq 04} ‘syeutrue jeorqgauods Ayyereyeptg@—eyep 4woug (a)
“syoasUl [Je apnpouy “sdaj paqurof Jo saved earqy yyLM ‘spodorqyaySurqqvosq-rty—"eyoosu] (7)

‘suordioos ‘sqory ‘soqimn ‘sxopidg “hq
*sZaq poyutol Fo sured inoz yim spodoryqiy Surqyeasq-11y—epiuyoe ay (0) > ‘soqyeerq ary

‘opadayim put apediyqueg “har
‘sSay paqutol jo sured anog ueqy elom yy ‘spodoiqyiy Suryquesq-tr1y—‘epodeisAl] (9) .
“donays ‘umead “quia ‘raqsqory “657 “sayyeerq
‘erqouraq Jo suvomt fq roqva Surqyeerg—-eooeysnag (2) } TO} AA

*Suryejd anomae £q peqioddns sepasnut eq} f squniy paqatol q3IM eyemMo[ag pazuomSes je1972[1g —epodouyy (F)

“4sy-2]9909 ‘ayruomME ‘snfyne “Sa } ssuta® ITAL

‘s8n[s pus sireug “Aa
“y]248 Testop @ soqosoas ATyensn yorqa qnoqyt Ad,
‘aU paprarpun qyra ‘sua you ynq sepoR]TE} Avoq Seo BOTA pwey PUNSIP YHM sosnjjojy—"epodoujsey (9) i

“sme

‘dojjvos puv ‘jassnm ‘sayskQ “Fa
TIES
eATBAq B soqaloes Qorqm ‘apUBU paqoliq YIIA yng “peaq FOUTGSIP FO|IIM sosnTlo A—eyeryoursg!|jawey (2)

‘TUS snoareoyeo &
sasea Lue ul pae “4003 yea} aaa anynoed qt ‘spemntue AeTNT[eo1y [NOT ‘payne dosan ‘yeotrjyom fs Ayperaqryig—eosn yoy (g)

“prey
qOUNSTD TIM

“peay qouryst

qncqaeM

Oe ae *pi0y90zou UGTA

petaaoo squny payuiol TILA

*400Z
[etzUeA IetNnoad ITM

emmds ATyvs0q¥]1

eo

4 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

I.—PROTOZOA. .

The chief point to remember about the Protozoa is that they are
animals which each consist of only one cell. Each Protozoon therefore
may be appropriately compared to one of the vast army of cells, of which
the tissues of allthe higher animals are built up. Inits simplest form
a Protozoon consists of a little speck of transparent jelly (protoplasin)
with a nucleus of denser matter. This simple structure is often obscured
by shells of chalk or flint and other matters secreted by the jelly. The
students will be able to examine a few of the common forms of Protozoa
for themselves, through the microscope (see practical work). The fol-
lowing may be noticed :

(1) Ameba.—This is a minute speck of jelly-like protoplasm
which crawls alonz instagnant water. Its movements are
effected by the protrusion and retraction of little finger-

‘like processes of the jelly which are known as pseudopodia.
It feeds by encircling food particles, which it meets with
* on the water, with its finger-like pseudopodia, thus ingulf-
ing them into the jelly. After absorbing the nutriment
out of the particle, the shells and other waste portions are
excreted by simply flowing away and leaving them behind.
The Amoeba reproduces itself by splitting into two parts,
each of which grows to be an animal like the parent.

(2) Paramecium,—This is a minute slipper-shaped animalcule, which
swims rapidly about in stagnant water by means of little
hair-like processes known as cilia. These cilia also serve to
sweep food particles to one particular spot in the body
which serves as a mouth. Reproduction, which is often
preceded by the temporary joining up of two individuals, is
brought about much asin the case of the Amawba. (See
practical work.)

(8) Torticelia.—This is a little transparent bell-shaped animaleule
common in stagnant water. It usually has a contractile
stalk, with which it anchors itself to weeds. Like Parame-
cium, it is provided with numerous hair-like cilia, which it
uses much in the same way. I+ reproduces itself by simply
splitting into two, also by the joining up of a small free
swimming individual with a larger attached individual,
followed by a period of rest and ultimate division into
numerous minute spores, each of which eventually deve-
lopes into an animal like the parent. (See practical work.)

Besides such simple types as dmeba, Paramecium, and Forticella,
we may notice Noctiluca, which has luminous protoplasm and sometimes
yises in such numbers to the surface of the sea as to give a phospho-

Systematic Course. 5

rescent appearance to the water, and Globigerina, which. secretes
minute calcareous shells found in vast numbers at the bottom of some
parts of the ocean, where they constitute a fine mud-like substance
known as Ooze, also Nummulites, whose shells are largely found in
limestione rocks (see specimens), and Radiolaria with minute flint shells,
which are often most wonderfully sculptured. An easily procured and
convenient Protozoon for the students to examine is the Opadina parasitic
on the frog (see practical work),

Il.—METAZOA.

A.—CCSLENTERATA.

The Ccelenterata comprise all the jelly-fish, sea-anemones, coral
polyps and sponges, the commonest fresh-water representative bemg
Hydra, which is sometimes to be found in tanks in India. The Ceelen-
terata differ frém the Protozoa in having the body made upon a number
of cells.* The most important point to notice is that, in its essential feae
tures, the.body is little more.than a bag. Food is taken into the
interior of the bag, which thus becomes the digestive tract. The cells
of which the body is composed each absorbs its nutriment direct, so there
is no need for blood-vessels or for any space between the digestive tract
and the outer layer of the body. The Coelenterata thus differ from al]
the groups of higher animals (Coelomata), which have, at one time or
other of their existence, a well-marked space (body cavity) in which the
digestive tract is suspended.

Coral is the calcareous matter which is secreted by colonies of coral
polyps, each of which is extremely simple im structure. The complicated
structure presented by the coral itself is chiefly dué to the process
of budding, by which the original animals surround themselves with
out-growths, each of which becomes a perfect polyp and secretes coral,
though it remains attached to the original stem. In like manner tle
bath-room sponge is the fibrous skeleton secreted by a colony of
sponge polyps, each of which is of extremely simple structure, though
it differs in some particulars from the coral polyp. The students should
examine and sketch pieces of coral and sponge so as to understand the
process by which these substances have been built up by the polyps.

A typical instance of a Celenterate animal is Hydra. This isa
little jelly-like creature which is to be found in tanks. It has a bag-
shaped body, with a series of hollow tentacles around the mouth. It
is usually to be found attached to water plants by its basal portion,
The body wall is composed of two layers of cells, The inver layer consists
of large cells, many of them furnished with cilia, which serve to propel
the contents of the digestive cavity. These cells also contain chlorophyll
particles. The outer layer consists of small cells, amongst which are a
number of curious explosive eells (thread cells) which assist in seizing

6 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

and paralysing prey. Reproduction takes place in two ways. Oue of
these is by the formation of out-growths or buds, which develop into
animals like the parent and drop off, The other is by the production
of two different kinds of minute cells, known as Ova and Spermatozoa
respectively. These specialised cells are merely out-growths of the cells
of the body wall. The spermatozoan cellis free swimming, It joins up
with an ovum cell, which afterwards drops off and develops into a Hydra
like the parent.

B.—CCELOMATA.

. (1)—EcHINOoDERMATA.

The Echinodermata are a group of animals which are eutirely’ con-
fined to the sea. They are therefore of little importance from an Indian
Forester’s point of view, and the only reason for noticing them is on
account of their being so well known and distinct. Like other
Ceelomata, they are furnished with a body cavity around the digestive
tract, When full grown they are radially symmetrical, their “boilies
being usually arranged pentagonally and supported by calcareous
armour. They have a more or less developed system of nerves around
the mouth, also blood-vessels, and a very characteristic system of vessels
containing water (water vascular system), which subserves locomotion.
The chief groups are the star-fishes (Asteroidea) , the sea-urchins (Echinoi-
dea), sea-lilies (Crinoidea), and the sea-cucumbers (Holothuroidea).
The students should examine the fossil Echinoderms in the School
Museum, and make out such features of external anatomy as the mouth,
anus and radiate arrangement of the body, but no detailed acquaintance
with the group will be required.

(2) —VERMES. (WORMS).

This is an ill-defined group of Celomate animals. It comprises
a Jarge number of very distinct creatures which differ from each other
so widely that some zoologists prefer to class the different groups
altogether separately from each other. The most characteristic features
which tbe various representatives have in common are their elongated
shape, their bilateral symmetry and their paired excretory canals. Even
these very general characteristics, however, are so subject to exception,
that perhaps the best way to characterise the group is to compare it with
the other large sections of the Cclomata and show how the Vermes
differ in each case. Thus from the Echinodermata they differ in bemg
bilaterally symmetrical throughout life; from the Mollusca they differ
in not possessing the characteristic ventral foot of that group; from
the Arthropoda they differ in not possessing jointed armour-clad append-
ages ; while from the Chordata they differ in not possessing a notochord.

Systematic Course. ad

For an account of the structure of.a typical representative of the group,
see the chapter on the dissection of the earthworm, Worms are divided
into a large number of sections, but the following are the only ones s that
the students need notice :—

(2) Platyhelminthes.—These are flattened worms without true

segmentation. They include a large number of very
different animals, of which we may notice :—

(1) The liver-flakes: which in their adult form are para-
sitie in the bodies of sheep and other animals,
while in their immature form they pass through
a series of complicated transformations in the
tissues of snails, etc.

(2) Tape-worms, which in their adult condition are para-
sitic in the digestive organs of mammals, while in
their immature form they inhabit the tissues of
animals of many different kinds which the even-
tual host eats. They usually present a specialised
form of spurious segmentation due to the multipli-
cation of the posterior part of the body in which
the reproductive organs are situated.

(8) Free living sea forms, such as the gliding worms
(Turbellaria), which are interesting as comprising
some of the simplest organisms of the group.

(6) Nemathelminthes.—These are round or thread-like unseg-

mented worms, comprising a large number of forms para-
sitic on animals and plants. The two most important
groups are the Nematoda and the Acanthocephala.

The Nematode worms include the parasitic round and
pin worms common in the digestive tracts of mammals, the
parasite (Dochmius)! which passes through one stage of its
existence in the human digestive tract and another stage
in the earth, minute Filaria, which often infest the blood
of mammals and birds in India, and which have been
supposed to pass through a stage of their existence in the
mosquito, minute Trichinw, which make their way into the
muscles of mammals, producing a disease known as Trichi-
nosis, also thread-worms, which are parasitic on locusts and
other insects, and numerous species which are parasitic on
plants. Nematode worms for the students to examine are
usually to be found in large numbers in the tissues of the
Dehra fresh-water crab—vzde chapter on the dissection of
this creature,

1 Said to produce the so-called kala-azar and beri-beré diseases which have caused an
enormous number of deaths of late years in Assam.

8 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

The Acanthocephala are parasitic worms armed with
a protrusile proboscis furnished with hooks. They chiefly
inbabit the digestive traets of Vertebrate animals, some-
times passing through a stage of their existence in the
grubs of insects (¢.g., eockchafers) upon which their ulti.
mate host feeds. :

(e) Annelida.—These are worms which have their bodies divided
internally into well-marked segments and are provid d
with definite blood-vessels. They comprise a number of
groups of both sea and land worms, but the only ones that
need here be noticed are the earth-worms and leeches
which the students will be able to examine for themselves.
Farth-worms are of great importance as soil-changers, for
they are continually bringing up soil from below and
depositing it above ground. Leeches, some of which are
common forest pests in India, pass their early stages
amongst vegetation or in water, where they are said to feed
upon molluscs and other small animals, It is only in
their later stages of growth that they affix themselves to
mammals and fill themselves with warm bleod.

(¢@) Rotatoria.—These are imperfectly segmented worms without
definite blood-vessels. ‘I'he commonest representative is
the little transparent wheel animalcule to be found in
stagnant pools about Dehra. It may be recognised by
the curious ciliated spparatus in front of the mouth,
which serves to capture food particles in the water.

(8) —Mo..usca.

The Mollusca comprise all such animals as snails, slugs; oysters and
cuttlefish, They are bilaterally symmetrieal, unsegmeuted, ecelomate
avimals, with peculiar ventral foot and in many cases a caleareous shell.
For an account of the structure of a typical representative of the Mollusca,
see the chapter on the dissection of thesnail. The most important groups
are the Lamellibranchiata, the Gastropoda, and the Cephalopoda.

(ay Lamellibranchiata—These- are Molluses which have no
distinct head differentiated from the rest of the body.
They bave a bilobed fold of integument (mantle), which
secretes a bivalve shell, They include a yast number of
water creatures, such as oysters and mussels, but are of no
very great importance from a forester’s point of view.
The students should examine the bivalve shells in the
Museum and sketch one or two typical specimens,

(4) Gastropoda.—These are Molluscs with a distinct head which
sometimes bears tentacles but never arms. They have an

Systematic Course, 9

undivided mantle which usually secretes a dorsal shell.
They include all the land and water snails which have a
shell developed, and the slugs where the shell is rudi-
mentary. For details of structure, see the chapter on the
dissection of the snail. The Museum contains numerous
Gastropoda shells for the students to examine.

(ec) Cephalopoda.—These are sea creatures, with distinct head
and a number of sucker-hearing arms around the mouth.
They inelude all the Cuttle-fishes, Squids, and Belemnites
which are without external shells, and the Nautilus and
Ammonite, where a specialised many-chambered shell igs
developed. The group is of very little importance from a
forester’s point of view, but the students should notice the
Nautilus shells and the Ammonite and Belemnite fossils
in the Museum and sketch a typical representative of each.

(4)—ARTHROPODA.

The Arthropoda are a vast group of bilaterally segmented Ccelomata,
which are characterised by the possession of jointed appendages supported
by external armour. For accounts of the structure of typical represent-
atives, see the chapters on the dissection of the fresh-water crab, the
cockroach and the mulberry silk-worm. The chief groups comprised by
the Arthropoda are the Crustacea, the Myriapoda, the Arachnida, and the
Tnsecta,

(a) Crustacea.—The Crustacea comprise a large assortment of
aquatic Arthropoda, which breathe by means of branchiax.
They include lobsters, crayfish, shrimps, prawns, hermit
crabs, shore crabs, fresh-water crabs, king crabs, barnacles,
- water-fleas, and a number of less well-known forms. From
the forester’s point of view they are of no very great
importance, and the students will learn all that is requisite
about their structure from the dissection of the fresh-water
crab, Attention should also be given to the represent-
atives of the group in the Schoo] Museum, sketches being
made of a few typical forms. 2
(2) Myriapoda.—The Myriapoda are a small group of air-breath-
ing Arthropoda, which are characterised by having a large
_series of legs on either side of the body. They are divided
into the Centipedes (Chilopoda) and the Millipedes (Chilog-
natha). The Centipedes have but one pair of legs attached
to each segment of the body and are carnivorous in their
habits, They are furnished-with a large pair of poison
claws, which are modifications of the second pair of
thoracic appendages. The Millipedes have two pairs of

10

Elementary Manual of Zvology.

legs attached to most of the segments of the body. They

feed chiefly on vegetable matter. They have no poison

claws and are quite harmless. The students should ex-
amine and sketch a Centipede and a Millipede from the

Museum collection and make out the structure of the legs

and mouth parts in each ease.

(c) Arachnida.—The Arachnida are a large group of air-breath-
ing Arthropoda, which are characterised by the possession
of four pairs of jointed legs. The only orders that need
be noticed are the Acarina, the Araneida and the Scor-.
pionidea, but it should be remembered that there are other
orders which are equally distinct from each other (e.y.,
the Book-seorpions, the Pedipalpi and the Solfugez, some
of which are represented in the collections of the School
Museum). ;

The Acarina (Mites) are mostly minute creatures. They have
a thick-set body and unsegmented abdomen fused to
the thorax. Their mouth parts are formed chiefly for
biting and sucking. Many of the mites are parasitic
ov plants and avimals, e.g., the so-called “ ved spider,”
which attacks tea-bushes, and the itch mite of man.
The ticks, which are common forest pests, are merely
large mites. They are characterised by their strong
dorsal shield and large protrusile toothed jaws.
They usually pass their early stages amongst vegeta-
tion, whence they crawl on to mammals and birds to
suck blood. The efficacy of flowers of sulphur, either
dusted on to the plants or sprayed in a mixture of soap
and water, for destroying “ red spider” and other mites
which attack plants, has been established. This form
of treatment, however, is only practicable with valuable
plants occupying restricted areas, as in the case of
orange trees and tea-bushes upon which it has been
successfully employed. A convenient mite for students
to examine and sketch is the large red velvety Trombi-
dium, numbers of which are preserved in the School
Museum,

The Araneida (Spiders) are characterised by their swollen
unsegmented abdomen, which is separated off from the
cephalothorax by a well-marked constriction. Most
spiders have spinning glands situated at the posterior
end of the body. The anterior pair of cephalic appen-
dages (chelicerz) are formidable weapons furnished with
poison glands, which aid in killing the insects on which

Systematic Course, 11

most spiders feed. The second cepbalic appendage has
a large, jointed palp (pedi palpus), which often has the
appearance of a fifth leg. The order comprises a large
number of groups of species which catch their prey in
a variety of different ways. From an Indian forester’s
point of view the Araneida are of no very great im-
portance. The students should examine and sketch a
few typical representatives from the Museum,

The Scorpiontdea (Scorpions) are characterised by a pecu-
liar elongated segmented abdomen, the posterior portion
of which is modified into a long tuil-like appendage
terminating in a large poison spine. The second pair of
cephalic appendages (pedipalpi) are armed with large
and powerful pincers (chelz). Scorpions feed chiefly
on spiders and insects, which they are said to catch with
their chele and sting to death with their caudal poison
spine. The sting of large individuals is said to be
powerful enough to be of serious nature even to man,
The students should examine and sketch a scorpion
making out the features noticed above.

(¢) Insecta.—The Insecta (Insects) are characterised by the pos-
session of three pairs of jointed legs. They generally have
the body divided into the three well-marked regions of head,
thorax and abdomen. For accounts of the structure of
typical insects, see the chapters on the dissection of the
cockroach and the mulberry silk-worm. Insects comprise
some hundreds of thousands of species many of which are
of very great importance in Indian forests. It will there-
fore be necessary to consider the chief ‘sections of the group
in detail,

Elementary Manual of Zoology.

12

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Systematic Course, 13

1._—Orthoptera.

The Orthoptera comprise a large number of very distinct forms.
They may be defined as insects without pupal stage, with mouth parts
formed for biting, the adult in most eases provided with two pairs of
wings, The Orthoptera appeared very much earlier than most of the
other orders of Insects in the Earth’s history, and the structure that they
present is of a generalised type. An account of the main features in
the structure of a typical orthopterous insect is given in the chapter
upon the dissection of the cockroach which the students should work over
carefully.

The following is a classified list of the more important grotfps of
Indian Orthoptera :—

I. —ORTHOPTERA GENUINA.— Front wings narrow and more or less stiff.

a, Cursoria.— With legs formed for running.
E.g., Blattidea (Cockroaches).

b. Gressoria.— With thm weak legs suitable only for slow pro-
gression. «
E.g., _Mantida, front legs modified for catching prey.

Phasmide, front legs not so modified,

ec. Saltatoria.—Hind legs modified for leaping.
E.g., Acridide (Locusts and grass-hoppers), with short
antenna.

Locustide (Tree-crickets), with long filiform
antenne ; front wings set more or less verti-
cally.

Gryllid@ (House and mole crickets), with long
filiform antenne ; front wings set horizontally.

JI.—Orruorrera PsevpoNEUROPTERA.—Front wings as broad as the

hind wings and membranous.

E.g., Termitide (White-ants).— Larve live on land.
Inbetlulide (Dragon-flies).—Larve live in
water,

Blattida (Cockroaches). —These insects are common house and ship pests,
but are of no great importance to the forester, They lay their eggs
in horny purse-shaped capsules. The larve are wingless. The full-
grown insects usually have wings. They pass the whole of their lives
in houses and other sheltered places, where they feed on sugar, starch
and refuse of all kinds. Enough will be learnt abont the structure of
the group in the course of dissecting the species Periplaneta americana,

14. Elementary Manual of Zoology.

Wantidg.—These insects are remarkable on account of the modification
of the femur and tibia of the front legs for the purpose of catching
insects. The egys are laid in masses of frothy matter which hardens
so as to form a protection to the eggs. The young are much like
their parents, but without wings. They feed upon similar food.
Mantide destroy a large number of insects, some of which may be
destructive ones, but they are of no great importance. The students
should sketch a typical mantis from the Museum and examine the
structure of the front pair of legs.

Phasmid@.—Thege are curious weak creatures, which mimic dry’ sticks

+ and leaves in a wonderful manner. They feed upon leaves, but are
ngt usually numerous enough to do any appreciable damage, They are
noticed chiefly as examples of the perfection to which the phenome-
non of mimicry obtains amongst insects. The students should sketch
a stick insect from the Museum.

Acridtda.—This group is a most important one. It comprises not only
the loeusts, which are often most destructive in India, but also a vast
number of grass-hoppers of al! kinds, whivh damage crops to a greater
or less extent. The Acridide can alway’ be easily distinguished
from other groups of leaping Orthoptera, by their short antenna
and thick-set bodies. The Acridide all feed upon growing plants,
and the general features of their habits are somewhat similar, though
they sometimes differ from each other in points that are of import-
ance in dealing with them practically. About the most important
species is the migratory locust (Aeridium peregrinum, Oliv.) of
North-Western India, In its adult stage this insect is between two
and three inches in length, When it first acquires wings it is of a
beautiful salmon pink, but this colour later on changes to yellow and
afterwards toa dull purple. It breeds permanently in the sandy
deserts of Western Rajpntana and the North-west frontier, from
which region flights periodically invade all parts of India. The
eggs are laid in the ground, and hatchin about a month. The young
larve are little wingless grass-hoppers, which feed on green plants
of almost every kind and often do a vast amount of damage to
crops. The larval stage lasts for from one to two months, during
which time the insects moult their skins at intervals, When full
grown they moult their skins for the last time and acquire wings.
They then take flight and fly about the country in swarms, alighting
at intervals to devour the crops. In the Deccan there is another
migratory locust, Aeridium suceinctum, Linn., which can at once be
distinguished from Acridium peregrinum by the sculpture on its
thorax. It breeds permanently in hill ranges and belongs to a zone
of more luxuriant vegetation than <Acridium peregrinum. Its life
history is very similar, but it is not found altogether amenable to the

a .

Systematic Coarse, 15

same methods of treatment. Throughout India there are a large
number of other Acrididw, which partake more or less of the migra-
tory habits of locusts and often do a great deal of damage to crops.
They are too numerous, however, to make it possible to consider
them in detail in this work.

Generally speaking, it is only in seasons of drought that locusts
multiply excessively. This indicates that a dry soil is favourable to
them and that the extension of irrigation and forests is likely to
tend in the long run to diminish their ravages.

Locusts are very subject to parasites, and the number which are
devoured each year by birds is enormous, while unsuitable climatic.
conditions, and specially damp, seem to be peculiarly fatal to them.
Acridium peregrinum is known to suffer from two dipterous parasites,
one of which attacks the egg and the other the mature insect. A
Carabid beetle (Colosma orientale, Hope) devours vast numbers of the
wingless larve, while the Rosy pastor starling (Pastor roseus) works
almogt incredible havoc amongst the flights. The Decean locust
( Acridium suecinctum) is said to suffer from parasitic mites and
Nematode worms, and there seems reason to believe that disease is also
prevalent.

Locusts have been shown to be capable of being dealt with effective-
ly in India by artificial means, but the greatest activity and energy
is necessary. The old locusts can be killed when they are numb
with cold in the early mornings. The eggs can be collected by hand
in vast numbers ; while much can be done in the way of beating the
winged locusts off the crops, thus compelling them to feed on grass
and other vegetation of small value. ‘These means should all be
employed, but the most effectual mode of fighting the pest is by
destroying the young wingless larve. In the case of Aeridium
peregrinum, these can be destroyed in millions by driving them into
lines of trenches or burning straw, long lines of screens three feet
high, made of cloth with a narrow band of slippery waxcloth along
the top, being most useful for guiding the insects into the traps.
In the case of Aeridium suecinctum, which refuses to be driven in this
manner, the best thing has been found to be collecting the insects by
dragging bags, made of stout cloth, over the crops in such a way as
to catch the young locusts.

In the School Museum isa specimen of Acridium peregrinum, also an
illustrated diagram which gives its life history in detail, The students
should examine these carefully. ‘They should also sketch one or two
Acridide in their note-books.

Locustid@" (Tree-crickets).—These insects are much like Acridide, but
‘ T¢ is unfortunate that the name Locustid@ should be applied to a group of insects

other than what are popularly known as “locusts.” The usage, however, is so well estab-
lished that it would be difficult to change it without producing further confusion.

16 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

can easily be distinguished by their long thread-like antenne. hey
are generally much more slender in general build, and have a pair
of easily seen auditory organs, which are situated at the upper ends
of the front tibize, while the corresponding organs in the Acridide
‘are situated on the metathorax. Like other Saltatoria, the Locustide
are able to produce chirping sounds. ‘These are often so loud as to
make the forest resound, especially in the rainy season. The sound
is produced by scraping the bases of the front wings together. Some
of the species are said to prey upon other insects, but, generally
speaking, they are vegetable feeders. They lay their eggs either in
the tissues of plants or in the earth. The Locustide have not been
recorded as doing any special damage in forests, but they should be
noticed on account of the well-known sounds they produce. The
students should sketch one or two representative specimens from the
collection. in their note-books.

Gryllide.—This group includes the house-crickets and the mole
crickets. The Gryllide are closely allied to the Locustide and have
much the same long filiform antenne ; they can be distinguished from
the Locustide, however, by their horizentally set front spre, As in
the case of the Locustide, many of the specics produce loud chirpings.
The mole-crickets have their front legs thickened and broadened for

‘burrowing in the earth. They feed chiefly on vegetation, and have
been reported in some cases as causing a good deal of damage to
crops. The studerts should sketch one or two typical specimens from
the Museurn collection.

Termitida (White-ants).—The winged individuals of these destructive
creatures differ from the corresponding form in the preceding groups
in having the front pair of wings membranous, and almost entirely
similar in structure to the hind wings. White-ants live together in
communities, which consist of —

(1) A female or queen, with enormously distended abdomen ;
she is incapable of locomotion and lays all the eggs.

(2) Small ant-like neuters, which may be compared to the
worker bees: they are of two kinds, ozz., individuals with
large heads and sharp mandibles, to defend the nest, and
individuals with small heads, to build the passages and
nest, collect the food and do all the work of the community.

(8) Wingless larve, which develop into winged males and
females,

(4) Winged males and females. The males and females fly out
of the nest in clouds, generally after rain. Those of
them that escape their numerous enemies are said to drop
their wings and copulate. The female either finds her

Systematic Course. 17

way back to the original nest or starts a fresh nest for
herself. Her abdomen gradually grows’ by distention of
the membrane between the chitinous plates, until she
becomes like a sausage, two or three inches long, with a
minute head and thorax atone end. Queens in several
stages of development may sometimes be found in a single
nest.

White-ants attack dead wood, paper, cloth and other substances.

They never willingly expose themselves to day-light but work in
earthen galleries, wich they build over themselves as they advance.
They sometimes attack young sugarcane, also plants in nurseries,
ut can be removed by copious watering and by opening up the earth
around the stem so as to admit light and air. They also cover trees
with their earthen galleries and feed on the outer portion of the bark.
When the trees are healthy, however, little or no damage is done.
White-ants will not attack good teak or other really hard wood even
when dry. About the most effective insecticide for use against them is
kerosine oil, which is peculiarly distasteful to insect life of all kinds,
but they are susceptible to almost every kind of insect poison, though
the use of these substances is only practicable in some cases, It should
be noticed that white-ants do good service in forests by converting
fallen branches into soil. The students should examine the specimens
in the School Museum.

Libeilulide (Dragon-flies).—These insects are of no special import-
ance, and are only noticed as they are excessively common and con-
spicuous. They are totally different in appearance from the other
Orthoptera, their most characteristic features being their large mem-
branous wings, supported by a fine network of veins, and their short,
slender, pointed antenne. Unlike the groups noticed above, their
larve live in water. Dragon-flies feed on insects both in their larval
and winged stages. The larva has the labium enormously developed
for catching its prey, and breathes water by means of a modification
of the trachee in the posterior of the body. Thee students should
sketch a representative specimen in the Museum. If possible they
should also examine the larva.

H}.—Rhynchota.

The Rhynchota comprise a lJarge number of very distinct forms.
They may be defined as insects furnished with a jointed proboscis, no
pupal stage being present. ‘he Jarve are little creatures much like
their parents, but without wings, They are active throughout their
entire existence. The jointed proboscis has arisen asa modification of

c

18 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

mouth parts like those of the cockroach, but there is some doubt as to
the manner in which the modification came about.! The proboscis is
used for piercing the tissues of plants or animals and sucking up the
juices upon which the Rynchota feed. Many of the species have cuta-
neous glands, which secrete offensive matter. These glands pour out
theic secretion by ducts which open on the meso and meta-thorax
between the hind pair of limbs, Other species have glands which secrete
wax, while others again have glands which secrete sugary matter. In
the case of the wax and sugary secretion, the glands are situated on the
dorsal surface of the abdomen. The following is a classified list of the
more important groups of Indian Rhynchota :—
I—Aprtsra.——Minute parasitic Rhynchota without wings at any
stage of their existence. Include the lice, which are parasitic .
on birds and mammals,
I1.—Howortera,—Rbynchota with front wings of the same thick-
ness throughout.

(a) Coccide (Scale insects).—Tarsi one-jointed. Females usually
scale. like. Male, with not more than one pair of wings.
Mostly minute insects, e.g., Palm scale, coffee scale, tea
scale, orange seale, lac insect and cochineal insect.

(6) Aphida (Plant lice),.—Tarsi two-jointed. Antenne three to
seven jointed. Minute insects, ¢.g., tea aphid, spruce
Chermes, American blight.

(c) Psyllide,—Tarsi two-jointed. Antenne nine or ten jointed.
Hind legs often thickened for jumping, ¢g., Mango
Psylla, and Indigo Psylla,

({d) Cicadide.—Tarsi three-jointed. Three ocelli present. The
males with sound-producing organs. Mostly large in-
sects, ¢.g., the common “ croaker”’ of hill forests.

(e) Fulgoride.—Tarsi three-jointed. Not more than two ocelli
present. Antenne said to be inserted beneath the eyes.
Include all the so-called Jantern flies, many of which are
brilliantly coloured and of considerable size. One of the
species (Phromnia marginella, Oliv.) produces large quan-
tities.of a white sugary secretion, but the family is of little
practical importance,

(f) Cicadellida.—Tarsi three-jointed: Not more than two ocelli

present. Antennz said to be inserted between the eyes,

1 According to Professor J. B. Smith (Science, New York, April 1892), the whole beak
consists of the fused blades of the maxille, the mandibles and Jabium being both rudi-
mentary and the styles, contained within the beak, being merely modification of parts of the
maxille. According to the older theory the mandibles and maxille form the styles, while
the jointed sheath is compesed of parts of the labium (probably the fused labial yalps).

Systematic Course. 19

‘but this feature is difficult to make out. Include
the leaf-hoppers of all kinds, ¢.g., green-fly blight of tea,
the mango Jassid, and the cnrious Centrotus which is
attended by the large black (Camponotus) ant.

III.— Hererorrera,—Front wings have the basal portion thickened.
The sub-order contains a large number of families, of which it will only
be necessary to notice the following’:—

(a) Pentatomide.—These insects can usually be recognised by their
triangular shape, large scutellum and five-jointed antenna,
Include soldier-bugs, which destroy caterpillars.

(4) Coreide.—Can usually be recognised by the shape of the pro-
thorax. The antenne are four-jointed, and there is a long
weak proboscis, Most of the species are yellowish in
colour and have the posterior femora more or less thickened.
Include the’rice-sapper and other plant-feeding forms.

(c) Lygeide.—These are slender weak insects with four-jointed
antenne and thin proboscis. Most of the common Indian
species are reddish in colour, and can be distinguished
from the Coreide by their slender body and indented
prothorax. Include the red cotton bug and other plant-
feeding forms,

(d) Capsida.—These are small insects, which can usually be dis-
tinguished from the preceding families by the smallness
or absence of the terminal (fourth) joint of the antenne.
Include the mosquito blight of tea and other plant-feeding

forms,

(ce) Reduviide.—These insects can usually be recognised by their
freely movable heads, and short curved proboscis, with
which the larger species can inflict a sting of some severity.
They feed on insects, and probably destroy a number of

injurious forms. _

Coccida.—These minute insects do an enormous amourt of damage to
vegetation and are likely to be extremely destructive in Indian
forests, though little has yet been recorded upon the subject. Cocoanut
palms in the Laceadive Islands, also Areca palms on the Bombay Coast,
and coffee bushes in Southern India and Ceylon are known to suffer
toa very serious extent indeed from the attack of Coccide insects,
while mango and orange trees, tea bushes and other plants have been

reported as harbouring various species, Among useful species may
be noticed the lac-insect and the cochineal. The lac-insect (Carteria

Jacca) secretes both wax and dye, the lac being poured out by glands
o2

20

Elementary Manual of Zoology.

situated on the back, The insect feeds on Dhak (Butea frondosa),
Ber (Zzyphus jujuba), Pipal (Micus religiosa), Kusum (Schleichera
trijuga), Babul (Acacia arabica), and numerous other forest trees,
It yields two crops in the year and forms a valuable article of forest
produce, for India supplies the world with lac. The cochineal insect
(Coceus cacti) secretes a valuable dye. An inferior variety flourishes on
prickly pear (Opuntia) in India and is used to a small extent in native
dyeing, but success bas not hitherto attended the attempts that have
been made to introduce into India the Mexican variety, which
produces the best dye.

Amongst the Coccidw the females are wingless creatures, which
attach themselves to plants and gradually lose their power of locomo-
tion, so that they often appear like little scales, The males are usually
active creatures with but one pairof wings. The larve crawl out
from beneath the mother insects, where the eggs are laid, and are
liable to be carried considerable distances by the wind, thus spreading
the species from tree to tree. They injure the plant by sucking up
its sap by means of the delicate proboscis with which they are armed.
Remedies against scale insects,—In America kerosine and soap emul-
sion applied in a very fine spray with a force pump has been found
an efficient remedy. In the case of the scale insects which attack
coffee and tea in India also, experiment has shown that this
treatment is successful, though its cost has hitherto prevented its
adoption generally. It will probably be found applicable in the case
of nurseries and valuable fruit trees that happen to be attacked, butis
out of the question in forests.) Washes made of solutions of resin
soaps have also been recommended, Another system known as the
‘‘ gas” treatment has been adopted upon a considerable scale for rid-
ding orange trees in California of scale insects. It consists in genera-
ting hydrocyanic gas under a kind of movable canvas tent which is
thrown over the bush, This method is said to be extremely effective,
but is only likely to be applicable under very exceptional circum-
stances. The fact that scale insects are largely distributed by the
action of the wind, which blows the young larve from one tree to
another, makes wind breaks consisting of high trees often of value
for the protection of crops which might otherwise be attacked. For
trees, however, to be of any. use for the purpose, it is of
course essential that they should not be subject to attack from the

* Kerosine and soap emulsion is best made by churning with a force pump two

parts of kerosine oil with one part of hot soap solution; the soap solution to be made by
boiling about half o pound of soap to each gullon of water. The strength of the applica-
tion must vary according to the nature of the insect to be dealt with and that of “the
plant attacked, but when applied in the proportion of twelve parts of water to one of the
emulsion, in a very fine spray through an eddy nozzle by means of a force pump, it will
kill most scale insects without appreciably injuring the plant,

Systematic Course. 21

species that affects the particular crop which they are intended
to shelter, Information upon the subject of thejtrees attacked by
the various species is still very imperfect in India, The School
Museum possesses some specimens of lac, and: any insects that can
be procured should also be examined,

Aphide.—These minute insects do an enormous amount of damage to
vegetation and are likely to prove extremely destructive in Indian
forests, though little has as yet been recorded upon the subject. Apple
trees in the Nilgiris and the Himalayas suffer very seriously from the
attack of the species Schizoneura lanigera, Hausm., while tea, coffee,
cinchona, mustard, spruce and bamboos in various parts of India
have been reported as attacked by other species. The irritation set
up byAphidz in feeding on the juices of plants often results in the
formation of galls. This feature is specially remarkable in the case
of the form (Chermes abietis Linn.) which attacks the twigs of the
spruce fir (Ades Smithiana) in the North-Western Himalayas, pro-
ducing a gall which may readily be mistaken for a fir cone, also in
that of Schzzoneura lanigera, Hausm., which produces a knotty
growth upon the twigs and roots of apple trees. In Hurope one of
the best known species is Phyllowera vastatrix which has done an
enormous amount of damage to vineyards. It has not yet been
recorded from India, but is likely to occur in Kashmir.

The life history among Aphidw is extremely complicated. The
following are the main features of what usually goes on in the case
of species inhabiting a temperate climate, and the same will probably
prove to obtain in a more or less modified degree in India.—A_ single
so-ealled “ winter egg” is laid in the autumn by each female on the
bark of the food plant. This hatches in the spring, producing a wingless
female, which gives birth, without the intervention of a male, to other
females, which may be either winged pr wingless. These again repro-
duce themselves in a similar manner, and the process goes on through
an indefinite number of generations until the weather begins to grow
cold. Males and females are then produced. These copulate and the
female produces, either directly or through the intervention of a
further generation, the single winter egg, which, as we have seen,
hatches in the following spring.

Most Aphidaw have a pair of elongated dorsal tubercles on one of
the posterior segments of the abdomen, These are the ducts of simple
glands which secrete the honey dew that is greedily sought after by
ants, The resultis that many species of Aphide are attended and pro-
tected by ants. The rose bushes in the Dehra school compound
usually afford a plentiful supply of Aphide with their attendant ants
for the students to examine.

22 Elementary Manual. of Zoology.

Aphide are usually amenable to the, methods of treatment. noticed
as applicable against Coccide (see page 20). Those species which do
not form galls indeed can often be got rid of by very much weaker
applications, though it is only in special cases that treatment of any
kind is practicable?

Psylliida.—These minute creatures are closely related to the Aphid,
and need not be noticed in detail. Two remarkable Indian species
are Psylia cistellata, Buckton, which causes the abortion of the shoots
of the mango tree, and Psylla zstis, Buckton, which may be. recog-
nised by the characteristic galls it forms upon indigo plants which
were reported in 1890 as suffering to an enormous extent in Bengal.

Cicadide.—These well-known creatures produce the continuous
whirring sound which is so characteristic a feature of hill forests.
The sound is produced by the male by means of specially modified
Jateral stigmata which can readily be seen at the base of the hind legs.
The habits of the group, as observed in the temperate zone, are as
follows :—The female lays her eggs in the branches of trees, where they
are said to be to some extent nourished by the sap, the irritation
which they set up often doing considerable injury to leading shoots,
The young emerge from the eggs and crawl down to the ground, where
they live through several years. They feed upon the roots of plants,
but are not thought to do much injury in this stage of their
existence. When at last they are full grown they emerge from
the ground and transform into the winged males and females which
produce the eggs, The students should examine and sketch some of
the specimens in the School Museum.

Fulgorida.—These creatures usually spend the whole of their existence
upon the food plant, where the eggs are laid and where the young
wingless larve gradually grow into the winged adult. They are often
conspicuous insects, but are of little practical importance.

Cicadellida.—The representatives of this group are much like the
Fulgoride. The little green species Chlorita flavescens, Habr., which
is known in Assam as 6d¢ster blight and in Sikkim as green-fly,
occasionally does 2 good deal of damage by sucking up the juice of
the tea leaf. Closely allied to it is the mango Jassid (Jdiocerus
niveosparsus, Leth.), which attacks the blossoms of the mango in a
similar manner and is said to seriously interfere with the yield of

1 In the case of the Apbia which attacks. tea bushes to a small extent,in Ceylon, Mr.
Green writes—“ A weak wash of kerosine emulsion or pbenyle applied with a brush will in-
stantly kill every Aphis. It should’ be applied either in the evening or on a cloudy day.
Hot sunshine Qpon leaves freshly drenched with kerosine is apt to scorch them. One part
of kerosine emulsion to eighty parts of water will make a mixture strong enough to kill
every Apbis with which it comes in contact; while a still weaker mixture of phenyle,
one part to two hundred and forty of water, is sufficient for the same purpose.”

Systematic Course. 23

frait. Spraying the trees at the time of flowering with a wash made
of the arsenical insecticide known as London purple, has been found
an effective remedy in the Saharunpur botanical gardens, but it is
doubtful to what extent the application is practicable generally.

Heteroptera—In habits there is little to notice about the land
Heteroptera which in this respect are very similar to the Fulgorids
and the Cicadellide. No very satisfactory method of dealing with
them has yet been discovered, though heavy pruning combined with
high cultivation is said in some cases to have proved beneficial against
the mosquito blight of tea gardens. In Ceylon the cultivators are
said to have a way of destroying the destructive rice-sapper by beating
through the paddy with a winonow rubbed with glutinous matter to
which the insects adhere.

lil_—Neuroptera.

The Neuroptera have many points in eommon with the Orthoptera:
They generally possess four membranous wings, with a thickly-set nets
work of veins much like those of the Libellulide. Again they have
biting mouth parts which are essentially similar in structure to the
mouth parts of the cockroach. They differ from the Orthoptera in
passing through a resting pupal stage. When full fed the larva spins
itself up into a cocoon, where it transfgrms into a motionless chrysalis,
from which the winged adult afterwards emerges. Two of the com-
monest Indian groups are the Chrysopine and Myrmeleoninz.

(1) Cérysoptne (Chrysopa or lace-winged flies). The imago is
a slender insect, yellowish or greenish in colour, which
may be recognised by its thread-like antennez and two
similar pairs of delicate transparent wings thickly beset
with net-like nervules. The larve are active little crea-
tures, with sharp mandibles. They feed upon Aphida
and are believed to have a considerable effect in keeping
these destructive insects in check. The eggs are set
upon slender stalks about a quarter of an inch in length,
little groups of them may often be seen standing on twigs
where Aphide are numerous. The appearance they pre-
sent is very much that of a number of little white pins
stuck into the twig.

(2) Myrmeleoning (Ant-lions).—Amongst other places these crea-
tures are common in the bed of the Song river near Dehra,

1 Said to be composed of the “ congulated milk of the jak.”

z4 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

where the larve form little pits in the sand in which
they lie in wait for passing ants and other insects, The
imago is a large-winged insect very much like a dragon-
fly, from which, however, it can at once be distinguished
by its many-jointed, club-shaped, antenne.

1V.--Coleoptera.

This group comprises all the beetles. These insects can be reeog-
nised by the shape of the horny front wings (Elytra), which meet down
the back ina straight line. ‘The mouth parts are essentially similar
in structure to those of the cockroach. The prothorax is freely movable
upon the mesothorax, and there is a well-marked pupal stage. Some
ninety thousand different species of beetles have been described, and
of these a very considerable proportion occur in India. They present
a large number of well-marked groups, in many cases with very
different habits. In this manual it will only be necessary to notice a
few of the more important families. Beetles are classified, aceording
to the structure of their tarsi, into the following groups :—

t.—Pentamera.—All three pairs of legs with five-jointed tarsi.
The most important families are the Cicindelide, Carabidae,
Dermestida, LEucanide, Scarabaeidae, Buprestidae, Ela-
teride, Lampyrida, and Ptinida.

fl.—Heteromera.—First and second pair of legs with five-jointed
tarsi. The hind pair of legs with four-jomted tarsi. The
most important families are the Canthartde and the Tene-
briontde.

Hil.—Tetramera.—All three pairs of legs with four-jointed tarsi
(ie., five-jointed, with penultimate joint rudimentary).
The most important families are the Bruchide, Curcu-
lionide, Scolytide and Cerambycida, and Chrysomelida.

\V.<-Trimera.—All three pairs of legs with three-jointed tarsi (7.e.,
four-jointed, with penultimate joint rudimentary). The
most important family is the Coccinellida.

Note,—The students should sketch the different forms of tarsi from specimens,

Cicindelide (Tiger-beetles),—These are brightly-coloured beetles, with
long straight antennez, large eyes, and powerful mandibles, which
are set more or less vertically. They are fierce, active little creatures,
which devour other insects. The rice sapper (Leptocorisa) is the only
destructive Indian pest which seems to have been recorded as destroy-

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Systematic Course. 25

ed by tiger-beetles to any large extent in India, but other injurious
species are also likely to be kept down by them. The larva is said to
construct holes in the ground, where it lies in wait for passing insects.
To aid it in climbing up the steep sides of its burrow, it has a pair
of large hooks on the dorsal surface of the abdomen, which give it a
curious hump-backed appearance. Some.of .the beetles mimic ants.
The School Museum contains specimens of the beetle for the students
to examine and sketch.

Carabide (Ground-beetles).—These insects are very numerous in India.
They are much like Cicindelide in appearance, but can be readily
distinguished by their smaller heads and horizontally set mandibles.
Like the Cicindelidz, they are predaceous in their habits and devour
other insects. The larve of the migratory locust of North-West
India (Acridium peregrinum, Oliv.) have been noticed as very largely
destroyed by a species of Carabide belonging to the genus Calosoma,
and other destructive insects also are likely to be kept down by them.
The Museum contains a number of specimens for examination.

Dermestid@.—These are small obscure insects with deflexed heads and
weak legs. Most of the common Indian species are covered with

"pubescence. The larve are hairy grubs which attack dried animal
and vegetable matter of all kinds, When full fed, the larve hide
themselves away, sometimes burrowing into hard wood to obtain a
safe retreat, They area great nuisance in museums, and also do a
good deal of damage to leather and other stored goods, including
wheat. Skins that have been thoroughly treated with arsenical soap
are not attacked by them. The Museum contains specimens of the
species Dermestes vulpinus in various stages of development, which
the students should examine and sketch.

Lucanide (Stag-beetles).—These are large insects, the males with enor-
mously developed mandibles. They can be recognised by their
peculiar elbowed antenne with flattened terminal joints. The females
are said to lay their eggs in the bark of trees near the roots. The
larve are curved fleshy grubs with strong mandibles. Most of the
species are believed to live in rotten wood, but the fact that ten per
cent. of the oaks around Naini Tal have been reported as tunnelled by
them shows that they also damage more or less sound wood, The life
of the larva is said to last for from ‘two to six years, but no very
definite observations seem to have ‘been made upon the subject in India.
Wher full grown, the larva is said to construct a cocoon of chips in
the burrow from which the beetle afterwards emerges. The beetles
are said to feed on the sap which exudes from wounds on trees. The
students should sketch a few representative specimens in the Museum,
paying particular attention to the antenna.

26 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

Scarabeida.—These beetles can be recognised by their peculiar antennz,
which have the terminal joints expanded into broad flat leaves, the
basal joint not being enlarged asis the case with the Lucanide, The
larve are soft curved grubs of very characteristic appearance. The
family comprises an enormous assortment of insects including all the
Rosechafers (Cetonini), Cockchafers (Melolonthini), Dung-beetles
(Coprint) and Goliath-beetles (Dynastini). The cockchafers are
mostly dull-coloured beetles of rounded outline. Their larvze, which
are the welleknown white grubs of tea and coffee gardens, do an
immense amount of damage by feeding upon the roots of plants of
all kinds, In France they have been reported as one of the greatest
pests in forest nurseries, and the same is likely to prove to be the
case in India, though little has yet been recorded upon the subject.
The beetles also do some damage by feeding on leaves and
shoots. In Ceylon coffee estates, where cockchafer larvee have been
specially destructive, digging the insects out by hand is the only
measure that seems to have proved at all generally practicable.
With regard to the life history of cockehafers, the female beetle is
believed to lay her eggs in the ground in the early part of the rainy
season. From these eggs emerge the curved white larve which make
their way through the soil and feed upon the roots of plants. In
Europe they are said to require several seasons to arrive at. their full
growth, and the same will probably prove to be the case in India.
When full grown they transform into pupe underground, the beetles
usually emerging at the close of the hot weather.

The students should also note the large Goliath-beetle (Oryctes),
usually known as the “ Rhinoceros-beetle” on account of the pro-
tuberance like the horn of a miniature rhinoceros which it bears on
the upper part of the head. This beetle does a good deal of damage
to palm trees by cutting’ large holes in the developing leaf-shoots.
Tts larve are to be found in heaps of rotting vegetable matter. The
collection of these beetles by hand has been found worth doing in
many cases, while the removal of heaps of rotting vegetable matter
from the neighbourhood of palm trees is often recommended. Ina
both Europe and Madagascar the larve of Oryctes beetles have been
noticed as liable to be parasitised and killed by Hymenoptera of the
genus Scodza, and the same is likely to prove to be the case with the
Indian species. The School Museum contains numerous Scarabaide
in various stages of development for the’ students to examine and
sketch.

Buprestide.—These are mostly bright-coloured conspicuous insects of
considerable size. They may be recognised by’ the straight serrated
antennz and large vertical head, which is sunk in the prothorax

Systematic Course. 27

nearly up to the eyes, The larve: are flattened footless wood-boring
grubs, which can easily be recognised by the curious expanded pro-
thorax. The female is believed to lay her eggs upon the bark, the
larve tunnelling into the wood. Teak (Zectona grandis), Al (Shorea
robusta), khair (Acacia catechu), mango (Mangifera indica), and
chir (Pinus longifolia) have been recorded as attacked by Buprestide
larve in India, and other timber trees also are likely to suffer. But
the insects appear to be far less numerous than the Longicorn larve
which attack timber in a very similar manner. Damaged and
unhealthy trees are the ones chiefly liable to attack, and the removal
therefore of such timber from the forest is likely to reduce injury
from these and similar boring insects. The School Museum contains
a few Buprestide in various stages of development for the students
to examine and sketch.

Elaterid@ (Click-beetles or bow-and-arrow beetles).—These are gene-
rally small dull-coloured insects. They can be at once recognised by
their characteristic shape. They have a peculiar spine on the ventral
portior of the prothorax which is of assistance in leaping. The larve
are known as wire-worms : they are little hard grubs not unlike pieces
of slate pencil or bell wire cut into short Jengths. The larva live in
the ground, where they feed upon the roots of plants. As yet they
have only been reported as injurious to potato plants in India, but
considering how much damage they do to other plants in Europe and
America, the pest is one that should be noticed. With regard to
treatment, dressings of gas-lime, soot, nitrate of soda, salt, and rape-
dust for the ground, have all been found useful in England, and are
likely to be equally effective in India in cases where it is possible to
employ them. The Museum contains specimens both of the beetle
and the larva which should be examined by the students.

Lampyrida. (Fire-flies).—These beetles can generally be recognised by
their enormous eyes and soft cuticle. They comprise all the common
species of Indian glow-worms and fire-flies, so should be noticed
though they are of no practical importance. Thelarve are said to
be carnivorous, but little is known about their habits in India. The
phosphorescent apparatus is situated at the posterior of the abdomen,
anatomically it is said to consist of a fat body thickly beset with
trachee, The light therefore would seem to be produced by some
process of slow oxidization.

Ptinide'.—This family comprises a number of small obscure insects
which do much damage by tunnelling into wood of all kinds. In
the beetle the head is usually overhung in a peculiar manner by the
prothorax, but this character is not always sufficient to determine
them. The only family with which they are likely to be con-

1 As defined by Packard, includes the Bostrychid@ of Gemminger and Harold.

28 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

founded is that of the Scolytide, which differ both in the structure
of the tarsi! and in the possession of moxe produced heads. The
larvee of the Ptinide have legs, while those of the Scolytide are
legless.

Ptinide larve tunnel into dead-wood of all kinds and, like almost
all other boring insects, prefer for their attack wood in which the
flow of sap is not abundant, Bamboos in particular are specially
liable to be attacked and are often reduced to little more than
powder, Tke bamboo insect is a species of Dinoderus which makes
burrows about 1°5 millimetres in diameter. The eggs are believed
to be laid by the mother beetle, soon after the bamboo is cut. The
larve are little white grubs with powerful mandibles, which gnaw
their way through and through the bamboos, the injury often
remaining unnoticed until the larve have transformed into pupe
and the beetles begin to cut their way out. The best way to preserve
bamboos from attack is to soak them in water for some time after
being cut. This is said not only to prevent the deposition of eggs
but to render the bamboos distasteful to the insect. For bamboos
which have been thoroughly soaked in the first imstance appear to
be seldom- attacked afterwards. Sponging bamboos over with
kerosine oil is also an efficient prevention, when done early enough,
but is only practicable in some cases.

The well-known cheroot weevil (Lasioderma) and book-worm (Sitod-
repa), which are such a nuisance in India, also belong to the Ptinide,
while stored grain, opium and numerous other substances are attacked
by members of the same family. In Europe one of the best known
representatives is the “death-watch ” (Anodium), which is found in
old furniture. The students_should sketch one of the largest of the
Ptinidz beetles in the School Museum. They should also be shown
bamboos attacked by the bamboo borer.

Cantharide (Blister beetles).—This family of heteromerous beetles com-
prises a number of brightly-coloured insects, the commonest of which
(Mylabris) have the elytra banded with black and yellow stripes ina
manner which tenders them easily recognisable. The beetles have
been reported as doing a little damage in India as defoliators, but
are not likely to be of much practical importance, The Jarve do not
seem to have been observed in India, but in the case of the common

1 The Scolytida ave said to have tetramerous tarsi while the Ptinide have pentame-
rous tarsi. The basal joint in the Ptinide, however, is often so minute as to be difficult to
make out, while the rudimentary penultimate joint in the Scolytide is sometimes visible.
By remembering, however, that in one case it is the basal joint which is rudimentary and
in the other the penultimate joint, this difficulty disappears. The two groups should be
carefully distinguished, as they have somewhat different habits. They have become a
good deal confused with each other owing to the looseness with which the name Bostry-
chide has been employed by different writers.

Systematic Course. 29

black and yellow species they are likely to be white grubs which
feed underground upon vegetable matter, In the case of one of
the European species of Meloé, a genus which also occurs in India,
the larve are parasitic upon bees and have a most complicated life
history. Cantharide beetles are rematkable for their irritating
secretions, which no doubt serve to protect them from being eaten by
birds. In a dried state the beetles are used medicinally as irritants.
The students should sketch a Mylabris beetle.

Tenebrionida.—This is a large family of heteromerous beetles. All the
common species are blackish in colour and some of them are liable to
be mistaken for Carabidae. They can readily be distinguished from
the Carabide by the structure of their tarsi. Most of the species
are sluggish in their movements and many of them are said to have
the power of emitting offensive secretions when disturbed. The larve
appear to be mostly much like wire-worms (Elateride), only flatter.
They live upon vegetable matter, including grain and flour, One
species is said to tunnel into the stems of sandal-wood trees in
Mysore, while another has been reported as injurious to agricultural
plants, but little has been ascertained upon the subject. Tenebrionide
beetles are excessively common in India, so should be noticed, though
they are not known to be of any very special importance. The
students should sketch one or two tyyical specimens from the
School Museum.

Bruchide (Pea and gram weevils).—These tetramerous beetles are small,
thick-set obscure-coloured creatures, with the front of the head
produced into a short rostrum. The front. wings do not cover the
posterior of the abdomen. The only family with which they are likely
to be confounded is that of the Curculionids, from which they can
be at once distinguished by not having elbowed antennw. Bruchide
attack the seeds of leguminous plants of all kinds in India, and are
often most destructive. The only tree which has been specially
reported as suffering in India is the tamarind (Zamarindus indica) ,
but the seeds of almost all forest representatives of the Leguminose
are likely to be attacked to a greater or less extent. The common
weevil which attacks gram may be taken asa typical representative
of the family. The eggs are said to be laid in the developing
pods. The larve are little soft footless grubs which bore into the
seeds, which they often injure to the extent of preventing germina-
tion. The pupa is usually formed within the seed, a large bole
being formed when the beetle emerges. It is said that seed affected
by Bruchide larve can be disinfected without destroying its ger-
minating power either by dipping it into boiling water, or by keep-
ing it in some close-fitting receptacle with a little carbon bisulphide.
Treatment of this kind, however, should only be attempted under

380 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

careful suervision, and even then it would at first be of the nature
of an experiment, :

Creulionide (Weevils).—This family of tetramerous beetles comprises
an enormous number of species which, one way and another, doa
vast amount of damage in India. The beetles can be easily recog-
nised, as they have the front of the head produced into a proboscis
furnished with a pair of elbowed antennw. The larve are white
legless grubs, which tunnel into vegetable matter of all kinds. The
palm weevil (Rhynchophorus) may be taken asa typical representative
of the family. This insect destroys a large number of palm trees of
all kinds. It is said to lay its eggs at the base of the leaf-stalk, on
some spot where the stem has been injured, or in holes drilled by the
rhinoceros-beetle (Orycfes). The larve tunnel their way through the
heart of the trunk and often kill the tree outright. The pupa is
formed in a cocoon of palm fibre, in the burrow. The beetles fly
at night ; in the day time they are often to be found concealed in the
holes made by the rhinoceros-beetle. As with other wood-boring
insects, unhealthy trees are likely to be more subject to attack than

healthy ones.

The only remedies that seem to have been tried are the obvious
ones of catching the beetles by hand and of burning trees that are
badly infested by the larvae, soas to check the increase of the insect.
Trees that are not very badly affected should be spared, as they are
said in many cases to recover.

Numerous timber trees in Indiahave been reported as tunnelled by
Curculionids larve, much in the way that palm tiees are tunnelled
by the species peculiar io them. We may notice :—the young
mahogany trees destroyed by the larve of an undetermined weevil
which tunnels beneath the bark, also chir (Pinus longifolia) and dhak
(Butea frondvsa) said to be tunnelled by species of Astycus and
Sipalus. The asparagus-like shoots of the hill bamboo (Dendro.
calamus) have also been reported as destroyed by a large species of
the genus Cyrtotrachelus, and these are likely to be mere isolated
instances of what goes on in connection with many other forest
growths,

No less injurious are the weevils which attack seed and fruit
in India. The seed-crop of s4l in the North-West Provinces has
been reported as suffering to a very large extent? while compara-
tively recently, in Darjeeling, ninety per cent, of the seed of Quercus
pachyphylla has been recorded as similarly lost.

1 1n 1867 Mr. R. Thompson wrote—“ I have reported beforein my letter No, 63, dated
1st September 1866, that entire seed-crops of the Vaticg robusta were destroyed in 1863,
and that partial destruction of them was observed since.”

Systematic Course, 31

That these are merely typical examples of what is likely to go on
generally is indicated by the fact that the injury by weevil to stored
wheat and rice in India has been estimated at several millions of
rupees annually. , The fruit of the mango, again, in Bengal is very
largely attacked by a weevil whose larva lives in the pulp and thus
renders the fruit toa great extent wneatable, In the case both of
seed and of fruit attacked by weevil, the hole made by the grub in
cutting its way into the interior isso small that it is very difficult
to detect injury until the beetles begin to emerge.

Wheat which is kept tightly packed in village pits, where the air
is almost completely excluded, is found to escape attack. Seed also
kept in a closed receptacle of any kind with a little bisulphide of
carbon or naphthaline is also said to avoid injury. No satisfactory
method of dealing with the mango-weevil has yet been discovered,
but it may be noticed that in the United States, where plums suffer
to some extent from an insect with very similar habits, spraying the
trees with washes made of an arsenical poison known as London
purple, in the early part of the season, has been found effective,
This treatment would only be practicable under exceptional cir-
cumstances in India, and would always be somewhat dangerous, as
London purple is excessively poisonous to all animals. The students
should examine and sketch a few typical Curculionide from the
Museum collection.

Scolytida (Bark borers).—This family of tetramerous beetles comprises
numerous species which are destructive to forest trees in India.
Conifers in particular are specially liable to attack. The beetles are
small obscure creatures, which often have much superficial resemblance
to the Ptinide. They can, however, be distinguished from Ptinide
beetles both by the structure of the tarsi and also by the fact that
their larvee are without legs.

The female beetle usually bores atunnel in the bark and lays her
eggs at intervals along it. The larve on emerging from the eggs
tunnel in all directions away from the original burrow, often travel-
ling immediately between the bark and the wood, and leaving behind
them apattern of very definite character. When full grown they
transform into pups, in the burrows, the beetles afterwards cutting
their way out through the bark. Several generations are likely to
be gone through in the course of the year.

Like other wood-boring insects the Scolytide are believed to prefer
for their attack trees whose vitality has been impaired by injury or

Forest fires and the attack of leaf-feeding caterpillars are

probably fruitful sources of the increase of bark-borers in Indian

. forests. In cases where Scolytids have become very numerous and
where damaged trees are not available, they are said to attack

disease.

32

Elementary Manual of Zoology.

healthy trees, and although the pioneer insects may perish through
being suffocated in the sap, their burrows lower the vitality of the
tree and fit it to harbour insects bred elsewhere.

In parts of Germany, in order to minimise damage by these pests,
the plan is said to have been followed with some success of felling a
certain number of trees th the sprmg, when the beetles are on
the wing. The felled trees being ina withering condition, attract
the insects and become the receptacles of vast numbers of eggs
which can readily be destroyed by taking off the bark and burning
it before the insects come to maturity.

Scolytide have been reported in India as attacking oak, pine and
sal, the damage in some cases being very considerable. It is one of
this family also which drills the tiny holes so often noticed in beer
barrels in India. In the case of the Conifer forests of the Sutlej val-
ley, which have suffered to a large extent from the attack of a small
Scolitid which is likely to be a variety of Tomicus chaleographus,
Linu., Mr. Mein observed in 1887 that both Pinus excelsa and
Pinus Gerardtana were attacked. The insect was chiefly active
during the rains and disappeared almost completely in October. |
Larve were noticed in the tunnels about July. Both tender terminal
shoots and large branches were attacked, the minute holes pene-
trating as far as the heart-wood. The only remedy attempted was
that of lopping off infested branches and removing trees which had
gone too far to be likely to recover. The students should examine
the specimens illustrative of this‘group in the School Museum. In-
particular they should sketch the curious arrangerment of the tunnels
made in the wood.

Cerambycida (Longicornes).—This large group of tetramerous beetles

contains a great number of insects which are extremely des-
tructive in Indian forests. The beetles may be recognised by their
enormously elongated antennz and characteristic vertically set: heads.
They havea peculiar stridulating apparatus situated between the
dorsal plates of the prothorax and the mesothorax. The larve are
flattened legless grubs, with firm integument and powerful mandibles.
The only wood-boring larve which they at all resemble are those of the
Buprestide, and they can be at once distinzuished from these by not
having the prothorax specially flattened or disproportinately enlarged.

The larva in many cases passes anumber of seasons in the wood
before arriving at its full growth, a fact which is illustrated by the
frequent emergence of the beetles from articles of furniture which have
been made up for years. The mother beetle is said to lay her eggs in
the bark, and after the tiny larva has tunnelled into the wood, there is
often no visible sign by which to detect the presence of the insect ‘until
the beetle cuts its way out, though the larva can frequently be heard

Systematic Course. 83

gnawing away at the wood inside. The pupa is to be found in the
burrow near to the exterior.

The names of the forest trees that have been noticed as attacked
by Cerambycids beetles in India are too numerous to record in this
place. They include teak and sal and many other common species.
Indeed the probabilities are that hardly any timber is exempt. In
the case of insects which were reported as damaging young teak trees
in the ‘Kulsi plantation in Assam, the injury could usually be
detected by a swelling at the spot attacked. The measures adopted
were to coppice young trees that were affected, old trees being left to
themselves, as they often recovered.

A noticeable feature in connection with the species (Xy/otrechus
guadrupes, Chevr.) which at one time did an enormous amount of injury
in Southern India by tunnelling into the stems of coffee-bushes, was
the fact that the eggs required a good deal of sun-light to enable
them to hatch. This was thought to explain the fact that estates
which were well shaded escaped serious damage, while unshaded
areas close by were largely destroyed.

The species Plocederus obesus, Gahan, which is common in various
timber trees in Dehra, is remarkable on account of the calcareus
egg-like cocoon in which the pupal stage is passed,

Striking instances of the preference which the Cerambycidz have
for wood ina withering condition are afforded by the Celosterna
which has been reported as attacking coppice sl saplings in Oudh ;
also by the species of Sthenias which attacks rose bushes and other
shrubs in Southern India. Each of these insects first kills a branch
by cutting a deep. notch around it with its mandibles, It is then
believed to lay its eggs above the place, thus securiag for its larve
the condition most favourable for their development.

The only general preventive measures that can be at all confidently
recommended at present for keeping down Cerambycide beetles ina
forest are the removal of dead and dying wood of all kinds, includ-
ing fallen branches, and the barking of timber as soon as possible
after it is felled. The School Museum contains very numerous speci-
mens of Cerambycide beetles and their larve, also wood of all kinds
tunnelled by them. The students should sketch one or two typical
beetles and larvee.

Chrysomelide.—This family of tetramerous beetles comprises a great
number of little bright-coloured, thick-set, insects. They usually
have the head partly sunk in the prothorax and differ totally io
general appearance from the members of the other groups of
tetramerous beetles which have been noticed in the preceding pages.

* Both the beetles and their larve feed upon leaves, and several of the
D

34

Elementary Manual of Zoology.

species do much damage in India by defoliating agricultural plants.
In Europe and America they occasion some loss also by defoliating
forest trees, and a species of the genus MMelasoma has recently been
reported as attacking willow trees in the North-West Himalayas.
Generally speaking, however, the family has not been noticed as
specially destructive in this connection ia India. The larve are
usually active little creatures, sometimes covered with spines on which
they carry their cast-off skins as a kind of shelter, The pupze may be
formed either on the leaves or in the ground, Several generations
are sometimes gone through in the rainy season. Spraying the
insects with washes made of the arsenical poison known as London
purple will always destroy them, but this treatment is only likely to
be practicable in exceptional cases in India.

The School Museum contains specimens in various stages of
development for examination by the students.

Coccinellide (Lady-bird beetles).—These trimerous beetles have often

a good deal of superficial resemblance to Chrysomelide, but ean be
at once distinguished by the structure of their tarsi. They are small
in size and usually more or less hemispherical in shape, Both in the
larval and the beetle stage they feed upon Aphidw and Coccide, and
are most useful in keeping these destructive insects in check. Mauy
species of Coccide have particular lady-birds which specially feed
upon them, This fact has been taken advantage of with the best
result by the United States Entomological Department, who have
successfully colonised Coccinellide beetles in several parts of the
world amongst destructive scale insects attaeked by them.

In Dehra there is a common species by name Epilachna vigints-
octopunctuta, Fabr., which, contrary to the usual habits of the
Coccinellids, feeds upon the leaves of plants. This case however must
be looked upon as altogether exceptional.

The School Museum contains numerous species of the group for
examination.

V,—Hymenoptera,
These insects pass through a well-marked pupal stage. They have

the mouth parts formed for biting or licking. The wings, when present,
are four in number and membranous, with comparatively few nervules.

On comparing the mouth parts of the bee with those of the cock-

roach we find that there is no very essential difference in the labium and
the mandibles; the maxillex are much produced to aid the tongue,
whicb is composed of an elongation of the central portion of the labium,
the labial palps being elongated and modified to assist. If time allows,
each student should pick out, mount, and sketch the mouth parts of a

Systematic Course. 85

bee, comparing them with his sketches of the corresponding organs in
the cockroach,

The abdomen in the female usually ends with an ovipositor, which is
often modified into a sting. In the latter case it is connected with a
gland secreting a poison in which formic acid is probably the most
prominent ingredient, The sting is a grooved spine enclosed in a sheath,
from which it can be freely extended.

The Hymenoptera arose comparatively late in geological history, and
comprise some of the most highly specialised insects. Some twenty-
five thousand species are said to have already been described from differe
ent parts of the world, and vast numbers of minute forms, especially in
India, are still unclassified.

The following are the more important groups :—

I.—Teresrantias—The female with ovipositor.

a, Phytophaga.—Abdomen sessile, the larvae resemble caterpillars.
Include the Tenthredinide.

b. Gallicola.—Abdomen stalked. The larve inhabit galls.
Include the Cynipide and the Blastopbaga.

e. Entomophaga.—Abdomen stalked. Larvee parasitic on other
insects,
Include the Ichneumonide and Chalcidide.

II,—Acusara.—The female with ovipositor more or less modi-

fied to serve as a sting.
Include the Formicide, Chrysidide, Apide, Vespide
Fossoria, Scoliide, and other groups of less importance,

Tenthredinide (Saw-flies)—These Hymenoptera can easily be recog-
nised by the fact that they have no constriction between the thorax
and the abdomen. The larve resemble caterpillars in appearance, but
can easily be distinguished from caterpillars by their indefinite number
of prolegs and single pair of large ocelli.

Saw-fly larvz feed upon the leaves of plants, and occasionally do a
little damage in gardens as defoliators (¢.g., the species common upon
rose bushes in the Dehra school compound). The eggs are laid in the
bark of the twigs of the food plant, and result in a large wound, which
may be injurious if the shoot attacked happens to be the leading one,
Saw-fly larve can be destroyed by spraying with arsenical insecticides
in cases where this treatment is worth adopting.

The rose bushes in the school compound usually afford a plentiful
supply of saw-fly larve in various stages of development, The
Moseum also contains specimens of the imago and cocoon.

D2

36 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

Cynipida (Gall wasps).—These are mostly minute fly-like
Hymenoptera, which the students need only be able to recognise in
connection with the galls that they make. The female deposits her
eggsin the tissues of plants, where irritation is set up, resulting ina
morbid vegetable growth, or gall, in which the larva lives. The larves
themselves are thick-set fleshy grubs. In some of the European species
the life history is complicated by asexual reproduction’ not unlike
what goes on amongst the Aphide. The Cynipide are of no great
importance to the forester, but should be noticed on account of their
gall-making habits,

The School Museum contains specimens of Cynipid galls and of
the insects which produce them.

Blastophaga (Fig insects).—These minute insecte inhabit figs and
are of considerable importance, as they are believed to be essential to
enable reproduction to take place in many species of the genus frcus.
As observed by Cunningham in the case of Ficus Roxburghii, the
females are winged, the males wingless. They are to be found some-
times in vast numbers in the interior of figs, and the students need
obly be able to recognise them in this connection.

The eggs are laid and the grubs develop in the ovaries of the aborted
female flowers in the interior of the male fig capsule. Copulation takes
place in the interior of the fig capsule, where the insects are bred. The
male insects cuta passage out of the figs through the pollen-bearing
flowers. After this the males die or are eaten up by ants, while the
females escape by the passage. After flying about for a time the females
are said to force their way into a young fig, which may be one con-
taining either male or female flowers. Here the irritation which they
set up by their movements, and possibly also the stimulus caused by
the pollen which they are likely at least in some cases to bring
with them from the male fig capsule where they were bred, cause
the growth of the capsule and the development of seed. The
females are only able to oviposit successfully in the male capsules,
but neither the male nor the female capsules of Freus Rowburghii can
develop unless they are penetrated by the insect. Figs which are not
so penetrated drop off and perish. The case of Ficus Roxburghii is
believed to be typical of the relation between the Blastophaga and
trees of the genus Ficus generally, in which case the part played by
these insects in Indian forests must be very important. A plentiful
supply of fresh figs infested with multitudes of Blastophaga can
usually be picked up in the autumn from trees on the Rajpore Road
in Dehra,

Ichneumonida.—These parasitic insects may be recognised by the long
slender body and many-jointed antenna. The female usually has a
Jong protruding ovipositor. The egg is deposited by the parent insect

Systematic Course. 37

in the tissues of a caterpillar. The larva isa little white legless grub
which feeds upon the fatty tissues of its host, while the latter even-
tually dies of exhaustion, though it may have strength before this
happens to transform into a chrysalis, When full fed, the Ichneumonid
larva spins itself up irito a cocoon, which is often attached to the body
of the dead caterpillar.

Very many caterpillars in India, including numerous wild silk-
worms, are liable to be parasitised by Ichnenumonida, and the
group must be looked upon as of some importance to the forester, as
tending to keep down defoliating caterpillars in the forest. It should
be noticed, however, that the Ichneumonide are very much less
numerous in India, and consequently less effective than such insects as
the Tachinw, which attack caterpillars in a very similar manner,

The School Museum contains numerous specimens for examin-
ation,

Chalcidida.—In size and build these small insects are superficially not
unlike house-flies, which belong to the totally different order of
Diptera. As their name implies, the Chalcidide are generally more or
less metallic incoloration. The wings are usually somewhat deficient
in veins. The antennae have from six to fourteen joints. In some of
the species the posterior femora are very much expanded. The
Chalcidide are mostly parasitie on caterpillars, and in habits they
resemble the Ichneumonidz. They have been reared from more than
one forest-defoliating caterpillar in India, and no doubt have some
effect. in keeping insects of this kind in check, So far as has been
observed, however, they are very much less effective than such insects
as the Tachina,

The Museum contains a few specimens.

Formicide (Ants).—Ants are excessively common in India. They may be
recognised by the basal segment of the abdomen, which is constricted
off so as to form as it were a knot in the stalk by which the posterior
portion of the body is attached to the thorax. Care should be taken
not to confuse the ants with the totally distinct insects which are
known as white-ants (Zermitede), and which belong to the Orthoptera
(vide pages 12 and 16).

Ants live together in communities, which contain winged males
and females and wingless neuters. The neuters are supposed (like
worker bees) to be aborted females. They are usually of two kinds,
which are distinguished as the worker major and worker minor. They
possess poison glands and are said to be either armed with stings or
to inject the poison fluid into wounds made with their mandibles.

Ants form nests, which consist of passages and chambers dug out
in earth or rotten wood, or built in leaves fastened together for the
purpose, The larve are little legless grubs which are carefully looked

88

Elementary Manual of Zoology.

after by the workers and are said to be fed with food elaborated in the
stomachs of the latter. The food usually consists of animal matter,
sugar, honey, or seeds. The seeds are believed in some cases to be
converted toa great extent into sugary matter by fermentation before
being eaten. The pupz are enclosed in lif€le silken cocoons (usually
known as ants’eges). Both larve and pupe are often carried about
by the workers from one nest to another, so as to secure for them the
proper amount of warmth and moisture, The winged males and
females fly out from the nest, generally after rain. When fertilised,
the female drops her wings and returns to the old nest or starts a fresh
one for herself and begius egg-laying. The female may live through
several seasons, but the male dies off rapidly.

The most important sub-families of Indian ants are:—(a) the
Formicides, with but one knot in the peduncle, and abdomen not
furnished with a sting ; and (0) the Myrmicides,' with two well-marked
knots in the peduncle, the abdomen being usually furnished with a
sting. Amongst the Yormicides the students should notice—(1) the
large fierce bamboo ant (@cophylla smaragdina, Fabr.), with yellow
workers and green males and females, It is plentiful in Dehra, so
specimens can usually be found in large numbers for examination. It
builds its nest in trees by joining leaves together, and feeds largely on
caterpillars. The worker is mimicked in the most wonderful manner by
alittle jumping spider. The spider is said to feed on bigger and more
active insects than the ants, and to utilise its resemblance to the ants
to approach within springing distance of its prey. (2) The large black
ant (Camponotus) also common in the school compound. This
insect forms its nest in the earth and frequently attacks other
ants. It isto be found in attendance upon Aphide, Lyexnide
caterpillars, and upon the curious little Homopterous insect (Centrotus),
which are all believed to yield it certain sweet secretions. Its relations
with some of the Lycenide caterpillars are most complicated.

Amongst the Myrmicides the students should notice—(1) the large
fierce insectivorous ant (Sima rufo-nigra, Jerdon), with red thorax and
black head and abdomen. It is to be seen upon almost every tree
trunk in the school compound, but must be handled with care as it
possesses a most virulentsting. It forms its nest in dead-wood. It
is mimicked in the most wonderful manner by a little red and
black spider, specimens of which are preserved in the Museum.
(2) Solenopsis gemminatus, Fabr. This is the common red ant

1 The remaining sub-families are :— (a) Ponerides with one well-marked knot in the

peduncle followed by a second imperfectly marked knot, the abdomen with sting; and
(2) the Dorylides, an altogether anomalous group, which may be easily recognised by the

large yellow-winged males and curious little Hattened yellow workers, the females being
unknown,

Systematic Course. 39

of the plains of India. It forms its nests, which are very populous, in
the ground, usnally under stones or bricks. It constructs partially
covered ways across roads, and is often to be seen carrying off dead
insects. It has been said tio attack potatoes in the ground, and is likely
to do some damage in ovurseries, (3) Holcomyrmex scabriceps, Mayr.
This is a largish ant, with reddish head and darkabdomen. It forms
its nests in the ground, and stores up grass and other seeds. Quite a
large heap of chaff is often to be found outside the nest. The granary
inside is sometimes as big as a walnut. According to Walsh’s observa-
tions, the object in storing is likely to be, not so much to provide food
for future use, for the ant is nearly torpid all through the hot season,
as to allow fermentation to set in, thus converting the starch into
sugar. The seed does not germinate in the granary, though it
germinates freely outside, To prevent germination the ants not only
take great pains to keep the seed dry, but are believed to bite off the
radicle, (4) A species of Cremastogaster—a genus which may always
be recognised by the curious pointed abdomen—has been reported
as a great nuisance in Ceylon, as it builds large nests, sometimes
more than two feetin diameter, in coffee and cinchona bushes, and
bites so sharply that it 1s difficult for coolies to work anywhere in the
immediate neighbourhood. Allied species of the same genus are
common in the school compound. ,

The studen ts should sketch the arrangement of the knots on the
peduncle which characterises the various sub-families. For this
purpose specimens of Camponotus and Sima may conveniently be taken
‘to show the difference between the Formicides and Myrmicides.

Chrysidida (Cuckoo-wasps)).—These are little metallic-green crea-
tures with thick armour. They may be recognised by the basal rings
of the abdomen, which are enlarged so as to enable the posterior
segments to be retracted within them. The abdomen beneath is
concave and the insect can roll itself into a ball when disturbed, a
habit which is often of use as a protection against the Hymenoptera,
in whose nests it is parasitic. The larve are legless grubs, which
feed upon the young of other Hymenoptera.

The Museum contains specimens for examination by the students.

Apida (Bees).—Bees cau be recognised by their hairy bodies and
expanded posterior tibiz, which are modified to serve as pollen recept-
acles, the basal tarsal joint being enlarged to assist. The students
should sketch the hind leg of a bee to remind them of its peculiar
structure. Bees feed upon honey and pollen. Their chief importance
in the forest consists in the fact that they serve very largely to convey
pollen from flower to flower. Some of the social species are also of
some slight importance as producers of honey and wax. The family
may conveniently be divided into (2) social bees, and (5) solitary bees.

40

Elementary Manual of Zoology.

Amongst social bees the community consists of a female or queen,
a number of males or drones, and a host of aborted females, which are
known as workers and which do all the labour of the bive. The honey
is collected by the workers from flowers. It is said to be partially
acted upon in the stomach of the worker and thence regurgitated into
the cells. The young are fed by the workers upon a mixture of honey
and pollen. The wax is excreted in thin plates from glands which are
situated on the ventral surface of the body between the segments.
The comb is built up by the workers in the shape of more or less regu-
lar hexagonal chambers, The cells are used partly for storing honey
and pollen and partly for rearing Jarve. Only one adult queen is to
be found at one time in the nest. When a queen emerges she takes
flight and is fertilised by adrone. She then returns to the nest,
where she lays her eggs, Inthe meantime the old queen leaves the
nest witha number of old workers to found a new colony, thus
constituting what is known as a swarm,

Amongst the social bees the students should notice Apis dorsata,
Apis mellifica, Apis indica, Apis florea, and Trigona sp, Apis
dorsata is the large jungle honey-bee, which builds a single comb in
the open attached to tree branches or rocks, It can be distinguished
by its size and the elongation of its body. Both the honey and wax
produced by it are collected for sale, and in some cases yield a small
return to the Forest Department, though the honey is somewhat poor.
The bee stings badly, and from its habit of attacking en masse is oc-
casionally dangerous to man. Specimens are preserved in the School
Museum, dpis mellifica is the common European hive bee. A
variety of it is cultivated in the hills of the Punjab and Kashmir,
where it yields a Jarge amount of excellent honey. It is somewhat
smaller than Apis dorsata and can readily be distinguished by its
shorter and thicker build. Ap7s zxdica is the common bee of the plains.
It isalmost exactly like Ap7s melizfica in shape and coloration, but
can be distinguished by its smaller size. It builds its combs in cracks
and crannies, and is said to be occasionally kept in a state of partial
domestication in earthen pots or in holes made for the purpose in
house walls, but it yields very little honey. Specimens of it are pre-
served in the School Museum. pis florea is much smaller even
than the Apis indica. It may be recognised by the reddish colour
of the basal segments of the abdomen. It builds a small single comb
in the open upon the branches of trees, and stores very little honey.
It is mimicked in a wonderful manner by a solitary bee of the genus
Sphecodes, which is parasitic in its cells. Besides the various species
above enumerated of the genus Apis, there are in India several species
of the genus Trigona, a group of small stingless bees which build in
old walls. They form their nest chiefly of chewed. resin, The honey

Systematic Course. 41

is said to be stored in large cells in the bottom of the nest. The
species T'rtgona vidua, St. Farg., has been observed by Major Bing-
ham to be mimicked most accurately by an Asilid fly (Diptera),
which, though of almost exactly the same size as the bee, is able to
seize and devour the latter. The students should be able to distinguish
between the various honey- bees in the school collection.

In India honey-bees have many enemies, The caterpillar of the
little wax-moth (Galleria) tunnels through and through the combs,
making silken galleries in all directions and often causing the nest
to be abandoned. Innumerable predaceous animals, including wasps,
Asilid Hies, toads, and numerous birds, devour the bees, while diseases
such as foul brood and parasites like Stylops and Braulina are also
likely to be present, though they do not appear as yet to have
attracted much attention in India.

Amongst solitary bees the commonest forms in India are the mason-
bees (¢.g., Megachile) and the carpenter-bees (e.9., Xylocopa). Mason-
bees are to be seen at work in dry weather in verandahs almost every-
where. They build cells of leaf or mud and store them with honey
and pollen. The female deposits an eggin each cell and carefully
closes it up, leaving the larva to develop by itself, Carpenter-bees bore
into old dead timber, where they form cells much like those made by
the mason-bees. In this way they may occasionally do a little damage.
Mr. Thompson notices that wood which has been painted over with tar
or resin is never attacked, and thatan application of tar toa post
which is already affected will make the bees leave it, The larve of
solitary bees are exceedingly liable to the attack of parasitic insects
of many kinds. The subject is one of very considerable interest, but
is not of sufficient importance to be worth going into at length in
this place. The Museum contains numerous solitary bees for examin-
ation, The insects are also to be seen at work.

Vespida (Wasps).—These are smooth-bodied insects with elbowed
antenne. The front wing can be folded upon itself longitudiually.
(The students should verify these points for themselves.) As in the
case of bees, the Vespidee may conveniently be divided into (a) social
species, and (2) solitary species,

Social wasps live together in communities, which consist of males,
females and workers. They build nests of a paper-like substance
formed of chewed wood. ‘The young hang head downwards in the
cells and are fed as they grow by the wasps, chiefly on chewed
insects. The fullgrown insect itself feeds chiefly upon sugary matter
or fruit. The commonest Indian wasps are Polistes hebraus, which is
the little yellow wasp with long legs common in verandahs, Vespa
affinis and Vespa velutina, which build enormous nests in the jungle,
and Vespa’. *qnifica, a large insect which builds in hollow trees and
has a most virulent sting.

42 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

Solitary wasps build cells much like those made by solitary bees ;
they store these cells with insects or spiders which they paralyse, but
do not kill, by stinging them. When the cell is stocked, and the ege
laid, the parent wasp closes it up and leaves its larva to develop alone.
The parents are said to die off before the young emerge from the cells.
The students can usually see solitary wasps at work building and
stocking their nests in the school compound,

Fossoria (Sand-wasps).—This group comprises several families. The
insects are smooth-bodied, often long-legged creatures, much like
wasps in appearance. They can be distinguished from wasps by thei!
antenne, which are often curled but not elbowed. In habits they are
very much like solitary wasps. They may frequently be seen dragging
along paralysed grass-hoppers and other insects as big or bigger than
themselves, in order to store them in cells for their young to feed
upon. The Museum contains numerous specimens.

Scoliida.—These insects are hairy creatures, frequently of considerable
size. They often have much superficial resemblance to bees, but can be
readily distinguished from these insects by their posterior tibie and
tarsi, which are not modified for pollen-carrying. Little has been
observed in connection with their habits in India, but both in Europe
and Madagascar representatives of the family have been observed to
lay their eggs inthe larve of the rhinoceros-beetle (Oryctes). It is
likely therefore that the species of Scoliide whieh occur in India
will be found to havesimilar habits, In this case they must be to

some extent beneficial, as every beetle larva that is parasitised perishes.
The School Musuem contains specimens for examination.

V1.—Diptera.

The Diptera comprise the two-winged flies. They may be defined
as insects which pass through a well-marked pupal stage, have their
mouth parts modified for piercing and sucking, the hind wings rudiment-
ary, and the front wings, when present, membranous, There area
great number of species in India, many of the forms being vastly
numerous in individuals. One of the easiest features for recognising a
dipterous insect is the peculiar little pair of rudimentary hind wings
which are present in the great majority of species and which are said to
serve as organs of sense.

The mouth parts consist of the labium, which usually forms a sheath
for the style-like mandibles, maxille, and hypopharynx. These style-
like piercing organs are much developed in insects like the mosquito and
the flea, which live by blood-sucking, but are rudimentary in the house-
fly, which is therefore only able to suck up fluid with its flexible tubular

labium, 3

Systematic Course. 48

Diptera are usually classified into the groups Pupipara, Brachycera,
Nemocera and Aphaniptera,

(2) Pupipara.—Antennz small or rudimentary. Flattened spider-
like insects, many of them wingless. The young are said
not to be brought forth until they have reached the
pupal stage.
£.g., Hippoboscida.

(2) Brachycera.—Anteune short, usually composed of not more
than about four joints, mostly stout, thick-set winged
insects.

Eg., Asilide, Tabanide, (stride, and Muscide.

(ce) Nemocera,—Antenne long and many jointed. Slender,
winged insects.

E.g., Culicide and Cecidomyide.

(2) Aphaniptera.—Degraded, wingless, laterally compressed in-
sects, with short antenna and distinctly separated thoracic
rings.

E.g., Pulicide,

Hippoboscide.—About the commonest representative of this family
in India is the horse-louse. Thisis the well-known flattened insect
which looks very much like a winged spider and is exceedingly difficult
to kill, It is often most annoying to horses, upon which it settles to
suck blood. Allied species are parasitic upon birds and other animals,

Asilida (Robber-flies)—These flies can be recognised by their elon-
gated hairy bodies and powerful claws. In the winged stage they
are rapacious in their habits and devour great numbers of other
insects. Little is known of the larval stages of the species which
inhabit India, but they are likely to be white legless grubs which feed
upon vegetable matter. The School Musuem contains specimens for
examination by the students.

Tabanide (Gad-flies).—These well-known insects can be recognised by
the characteristic shape of the head, and the structure of the terminal
joint of the antenne, which is annulate and without an appended
bristle. In the female the mouth parts, especially the mandibles, are
much developed, and the insect is able to inflict a formidable bite.
The female sucks blood, while the male takes little or no nourishment
after it reaches the winged stage of its existence. Little is known
about the Jarve of the Indian species, but they are likely to be very
variable in their habits. The School Musuem contains specimens for
examination by the students.

Gistride.—These flies are mostly bright-coloured hairy creatures, with
radimentary méuth parts and minute antenne. The larve of the

44

Elementary Manual of Zoology.

species Pharyngobalus cameli are said to make their way into the
pharynx of the camel, where they feed upon the mucous membrane,
and produce great irritation of the nostrils and pharynx, causing an
offensive discharge tinged with blood, When full fed the larva makes
its escape through the nostril and falls to the ground, where it passes
through the pupal stage. The species Gastrophilus equt, a variety of
which is common in Dehra and probably throughout India, is said to
lay itseggs, four or five hundred innumber, generally on or about
the horse’s front legs. The horse takes the eggs into its mouth
in biting the irritated spots where they have been laid. The
larve thus pass into the stomach, where they attach themselves to the
mucous membrane. Here they are said to remain for nine or ten
months, feeding on the matter produced by the irritation they set up.
When full grown they loosen their hold-and are carried through the
intestines and ejected with the excrement. They theu burrow into the
ground, where they transform into pupe, the imago emerging in
thirty or forty days. When only a few grubs are present in a horse’s
stomach they are said to cause but little injury to the animal, but
when they exist in large numbers they may produce very considerable
inflammation and even death. The Musuem contains a specimen
for examination,

Other species, related to the European bot-fly (Hypoderma bovis,
De Geer), lay their eggs in the backs of cattle, deer, goats and other
animals. The larva penetrates beneath the skin and forms a sore,
which does not heal until the insect is full grown and drops out to
transform into a pupa in the ground. It is said that hides received
from the North-West Provinces of India for shipment to Europe
are often damaged toa large extent in this way. Inthe case of
domestic animals, filling up the sore with a plug of almost any kind
of greasy ointment, which should, when possible, be of an antiseptic
nature, is said to suffocate the grub and cause it to release its hold,
thus enabling the sore to heal.

Muscide.—This family comprises a vast number of species, with very

various habits, The common house-fly may be taken as a typical repre-
sentative. The antenna are three-jointed, the terminal joint flattened
and furnished at the side with a large bristle. The proboscis ends in a
fleshy lobe. Amongst the Muscide the most important group of
species are the Tachine, which have very great resemblance to the
house-fly group, but differ in having the bristle at the end of the
antenna smooth instead of plumose. The eggs of the Tachine are laid
upon caterpillars and other soft-bodied insects. The larva (maggot)
burrows into the caterpillar’s body, but avoids the vital organs, so
that the caterpillar usually lives on until the maggot is full fed and
cutsits way out. On emerging from the caterpillar the maggot

Systematic Course. 45

buties itself in the ground, where it transforms into alittle brown
bean-shaped pupa, from which the fly afterwards issues. Tachinid
flies are of very great importance on account of the wonderful effect
which they have in keeping down defoliating caterpillars of all
kinds, They are excessively numerous in India, and every single
caterpillar which is parasitised by them perishes before it reaches
the stage in which it can reproduce itself. They are also a
serious nuisance to silk-rearers,and special precautions have to be
taken to prevent their destroying silk-worms wholesale.

In the case of the house-fly (Musca domestica) the eggs are laid in
horse-dung and other decaying matter, and asa generation of the
insect, under favourable circumstances, only takes about a fortnight,
multiplication is excessively rapid. House-flies are believed to be
frequent carriers of infectious diseases. We may also notice the mango-
fly (Dacus ferrugineus, Fabr.), the peach-fly (Revellia persica, Bigot),
and the melon-fly (Carpomyia parctalina, Bigot) which lay their eggs
in ripening fruit, and occasionally do a good deal of damage in India.
Another important species is the locust-fly (Authomyta peshawarensis,
Bigot) which is parasitic upon the eggs of the migratory locust
(Acridium peregrinum, Oliv.) of North-West India, and is believed
to have a very considerable effect in keeping this destructive insect in
check. The School Museum contains various specimens illustrative
of the Muscide for examination by the students,

Culicida.—Mosquitoes lay their eggs on the surface of stagnant
water, The larve are active little aquatic creatures, with tracheal
breathing organs at the posterior of the body. They are usually to be
found in great numbers in dirty water that has been allowed to stand
for a few days. ‘They are said to form one of the chief food supplies
of young tank fish in India, and may possibly have some slight effect
in preventing stagnant water from getting foul, as they feed upon the
organic particles it contains. The pupe live in water and, unlike this
stage in typical Diptera, have considerable powers of movement. They
have respiratory tubes connected with their thoracic stigmata, through
which they breathe air at the surface of the water. The female sucks
the blood of mammals and birds and is said by some writers to be the
host of the injurious Nematode blood parasite Filaria sanguinis
hominis. The male has mouth parts unsuited for blood sucking, and
is said to take no food during the imago stage.

Under favourable circumstances mosquitoes can develop in about
three weeks in India from the egg to the winged form, and as each
female is capable of laying’ some hundreds of eggs, multiplication
goes on excessively rapidly. Stocking tanks with fish is likely to
tend to reduce the number of mosquitoes bred in the water. In the
case of stagnant pools close to houses, which are too small to be

46 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

worth stocking with fish, a little kerosine-oil poured upon the gurface,
over which it forms a delicate film, is said to be surprisingly
effectual in preventing the breeding of mosquitoes.

The students should examine some mosquito larve and make out
the breathing organs. They should also notice the structure of the
antenne in the winged form, both male and female.

Cecidomyida.—This family comprises a large number of small slen-
der-bodied species, which lay their eggs in the tissues of plants and
often produce galls, much in the manner that galls are produced by
insects of the Hymenopterous family Cynipide. The destructive

Hessian fly (Cecidomyia destructor, Say.) whose larve are parasitic
upon wheat-stalks both in America and Europe, belongs to this

family, while in India there is an allied species (Cectdomyia oryz@)
which attacks rice in a similar manner. None of the Cecidomyide
have yet been recorded as destructive in Indian forests, so the
students will not be expected to know much about them.

Pulicide.—Fleas lay their eggs in dust and dirt im houses, The
larve are tiny little hairy grubs, which are to be found in floors of
badly-kept rooms, where the pupal stage is also spent. The insect is
said to pass the winter in the larval stage, but in warm weather less
than a month is required for development from the egg to the imago.
Burning the matting, cleaning up the floors, with a free use of Persian
insect powder should be resorted to in houses infested by this pest.

Vil._—Lepidoptera.

This order comprises the butterflies and moths, which are exceed-
ingly numerous in India. They may be defined as insects which pass
through a well-marked pupal stage, and have scale-covered wings and
snetorial proboscis in the form of a coiled tube. The proboscis is the
characteristic feature of the mouth of a typical Lepidopterous insect.
It is composed of the blades of the maxille, which are mach elongated
and appressed together, so as to inclose a canal through which fluid can be
sucked up by the action of the peculiar stomach with which the adult
insect is furnished, On either side of the proboscis is usually a large
hairy labial palp, the rest of the mouth parts being rudimentary.

In the winged stage, Lepidoptera feed largely upon the honey which
they collect from flowers, they thus become ingore agents for distri-
buting pollen from flower to flower.

The larve are worm-like creatures, known as caterpillars, which feed
upon leaves. For an account of the structure cf a typical caterpillar, see
the chapter upon the dissection of the mulberry silk-worm, The only
insects with which caterpillars are liable to be confounded are the
larvee of saw-flies (Tenthredinida), They can be distinguished from

. Systematic Course. 47

these insects by the possession of numerous ocelli situated on the lower
part of the head and by the nature of the fleshy prolegs, which are not
more than ten in number and are never to be found upon either of the
two basal segments of the abdomen.

The caterpillar moults its skin several times in the course of its
growth, and on the last moult emerges as a pupa (chrysalis), from which
the butterfly or moth, as the case may be, afterwards issues. When full
fed the caterpillar usually spins itself up into a silken cocoon, or hides
under ground or in some sheltered corner, where it remains during the
helpless pupal stage. Both butterflies and moths are exceedingly nu-
merous, and it will only be necessary for the students to notice a few of
the more important groups,

The following may be taken asa convenient classification :—

I. Ruorvatocera (Butterflies) —Antenne knobbed. Front wing not
attached to hind wing—

(2) Suspensi,—Chrysalis naked and suspended.
Fi.g., Nymphalidae,

(2) Succincti.—Chrysalis girt with a silken cord.
Eg., Papilionide and Lycenide.

(c) Involuti.—Chrysalis rolled in a Jeaf or other covering.
E.g., Hesperide.

Il. Hurzrocera (Moths).— Antenne not knobbed. Forewing usually
attached to hind wing.?

(2) Bombyces.—Thick-set| moths of considerable size, with pec-
tinated antenne.
£.g., Vasiocampide group, Psychide group, Hepialide

group, and Bombycide group.

(2) Noctues,—Thick-set moths of considerable siez, with filiform
antenne,

(c) Geometres.—Slender moths often of considerable size with
more or less pectinated antenne.

(2) Microlepidoptera,x—Minute moths, very various both in
structure and in habit.

Nymphalide.—This family of butterflies may be recognised by their
feeble forelegs, which are very imperfectly developed in both sexes and
are not used in walking. The students should be able to recognise
the following forms in the School Museum :—(1) The common black
and white Danaids, which are not eaten by birds on account of their
offensive flavour. They are mimicked in the most wonderful manner
' The School Museum possesses a specimen prepared by Mr. Clifford to enable the

students to see the method of attachment of the wings to each other. Sketches should
also be made by the students of the various forms of antennae.

48

Elementary Manual of Zoology.

by butterflies of the genus Papilio (also to be seen in the collection),
which belong to the totally distinct group of Succincti. The mimick-
ing species have no offensive flavour and would be readily eaten by
Lirds if it were not for their wonderful resemblance to the protected
Danaids. (2) The leaf-butterfly (Kadlima), which looks almost precisely
like a leaf when at rest upon a bush, but which exhibits bright colours
when upon the wing. (3) Hypolimnas bolina, Linn., the male of which
exhibits bright metallic colour when flying towards its mate, but
appears dusky and inconspicuous when pursued by birds.

Papilionide.—The butterflies of this family have the fore legs in

both sexes fully developed and capable of being used for walking.
Many of their caterpillars are provided with curious tentacle-like pro-
cesses, which can be protruded with great rapidity from the front of
the body. These appendages ave said to be scent organs and are
believed to be utilised in driving off Ichneumonidae, which are one of
the chief enemies of the caterpillars. ‘The students should be able to
recognise in the School collection—(1) the species Papilio erithonius,
Cramer, whose caterpllars are very destructive to the foliage of young
orange and lemon treesin India; (2) Papilio polytes, which is inter-
esting on account of its three distinct forms of female; (8) the white
butterflies o£ the group Pierinz, whose caterpillars defoliate cabbages
and other garden plants.

Lycanida (Blues and coppers).—The butterflies of this family are

small slender insects, with somewhat weak forelegs, In the male the
tarsi of the forelegs are long and without joints, In the female they
are jointed, as in the two posterior pairs of legs. The students should
notice the species Catochrysops pandava in the School collection, whose
caterpillars, like others of the same family, are attended and protected
by ants; also Virachola isocrates, Fabr., whose caterpillars tuonel into
pomegranates and are said sometimes to fasten the fruit with silken
strands on to its stalk so as to prevent its falling to the ground before
the butterfly emerges.

Hesperide (Skippers).—The butterflies of this family may be recog-

nised by the curious little hook at the end of the clubbed antenna,
The caterpillars of the species (Suastus gremius, Faby.) occasionally
injure the foliage of palm trees, but are of no great importance.

Lasiocampide group.—This group comprises several families! The

moths are mostly fluffy inconspicuous creatures, which lay their eggs
upon the leaves or bark of plants. The caterpillars are covered with
hair and in many casesdo a great amount of damage in forests by
defoliating the trees. The hairs are often sharp and.brittle, with econsi-
derable urticating properties. When full fed the caterpillars spin

: Postscript.—The Lasiocampide, Lymantriide, Eupterotride, etc., as given by

Hampson, Vol. I.

Systematic Course. 49

themselves up into cocoons, which are usually formed of their own hair
fastened together with a little silk. The cocoons are to be found either
attached to the leaves or spun up in the litter beneath the trees. Very
extensive areas of forest in India are sometimes defoliated by these
insects, with the result, not only of aconsiderable loss of growth, but
also of injury to the vitality of the trees, which renders them liable to
the attack of Scolytide and other boring insects.

Sal forests are specially liable to attack, In 1878 the sAl trees
throughout two hundred square miles of forest in the Dooars are said to
have been completely defoliated by caterpillars of the genus Dasychira,
which may be recognised by the four thick tufts of hair set in the mid-
dle of the back of the anterior segments of the abdomen. This instance
may be looked upon as a typical one. The insect mysteriously dis-
appeared almost as suddenly as it came, owing, it is believed, to the
attack of the Tachinid parasites (Diptera) to which it is known to be
very subject. In India Tachine are believed to be about the most im-
portant agents in keeping down the numbers of defoliating caterpillars
of this kind, but Chalcididz and probably also Ichneumonide (Hym-
enoptera) do useful service. In the case of the Nun (Liparis monacha)
caterpillar, whichhas occasioned an enormous amount of damage to
spruce inthe forests of Central Europe, besides attacking beech and
Scotch fir, a disease apparently identical with the fackerze of silk-worras,
is said to have ultimately proved a most effectual natural remedy,
though, in the last attack, it appeared too late to prevent injury on a

vast scale, asthe spruce fir over very large areas died from the des-
truction of the foliage. The fact is an interesting one, as flachericisa
disease which attacks both mulberry and Eri silkworms in India.

The most successful artificial measure adopted in Central Europe
against the Nun caterpillars seems to have been that of localising the
attack by forming protecting belts around infested areas, In the Indian
Forester of July 1891, Sir D. Brandis gives an interesting account both
of the attack and also of the remedies adopted in different localities.
Speaking of what was done in 1890 in the “ Diirrenbucher Forst” on
the banks of the Danube, where the forest was a mixed one, the under-
growth largely consisting of spruce, he writes : —

“On the protection belts, which were made 100—130 feet wide, three operation
were undertaken. First, onall-old stems rings, twelve inches broad, of tar and glue
were applied at a convenient height, about four feet from the ground. This mixture
of tar and glue has for some years past been specially prepared, and has, as pre.
viously mentioned been employed on a large scale against the ravage of the Scotch
pine moth, the well-known Gastropacha pini.' To make the glue stick on the stems,
the rough outer bark is scraped off with a sharp knife, which gives a smooth surface
to the inner reddish tark Hence this operation is commonly designated as rothen,
to redden the stem. These rings or belts of glue, if the mixture is good, remain

1 One of the same group of moths with hair-covered defoliating caterpillars.—E. C, C.
E

50

Elementary Manual of Zoology.

sticky during two or three months, and they effectually prevent the caterpillar
from ascending the tree. Secondly, all underwood was cut and burnt as far as it
could vot be utilised. Poles fit for sale were barked and the bark was burnt with
the rest. For this purpose special fire places were prepared and surrounded by a
circular ditch with steep sides, to prevent the spread of the fire and the escape of
the caterpillars, which, as soon as the underwood was heaped up inside the ditch,
rapidly collected in the ditch and were destroyed. The moths commenced to swarm
in this district, while huge masses of caterpillars were still at work feeding. Hence
the fires lit to burn the underwood were also used to attract and destroy the moths ;
for this purpose the fires were lighted at nightfall and kept up until midnight.
Between nine o’clock and midnight the largest swarms of the moths appeared. A
portion were actually burnt, the others were stupefied by the heat, fell to the
ground, and were easily killed. Pine torches were also used with large screens
behind them, smeared over with glue, on which the moths were caught.
Thirdly, extraordinary efforts were made to destroy as many caterpillars
and moths as possible. Gangs of women with blunt brooms and long handles
were busy in the protection belt and elsewhere in the forest, in killing the cater-
pillars, which were set in motion by the cutting of the underwood and other
operations undertaken. For the destruction of the moths 300 labourers and 80
boys under their masters were employed. This work could, as a rule, only be
done early in the morning from four to half-past eight o’clock. Later in the day
the moths fly about and cannot be caught. Only on cool rainy days do the
moths remain quiet during the day and can be destroyed.

“To return to the protection belts, the great object aimed at was to stop the
spread of the caterpillars by making it impossible for them to ascend large trees,
and by destroying the food which the underwood had furnished them. Here
and there the success was not complete, and in such cases an additional protec-
tion belt was formed outside the one first established. Upon the whole, the
result was most satisfactory, and the destruction was confined to less than a
sixth part of the entire forest. In some cases ditches with steep sides were used
in addition to the protecting belts, and the caterpillars collected in them in large
masses.”

It should also be noticed that all leaf-feeding caterpillars can be
destroyed by spraying the trees with arsenical insecticides, This form
of treatment is being largely adopted for fruit trees in America and
Europe, It is only likely to be of use in tbe case of specially
valuable fruit trees in India.

The School Museum contains numerous specimens in various
stages of development for the students to examine.

Psychide group (Bag-worms).—These insects defoliate plants of many

kinds in India and do some damage in forests. The caterpillars
may be recognised by the curious little cases composed of stick or leaf
which they carry about upon their backs. The male is an obscure
little moth, which is so active in its habits and lives such a short time
that it is seldom noticed. The female is a degraded, wingless creature,
which pever quits the case that is formed by the caterpillar. When
the caterpillar is full fed it attaches the case by asilken strand to a
leaf or twig. It then fastens up the open end with silk and trans-
forms into a chrysalis. The female is fertilised by the male and lays

Systematic Course, 51

all her eggs in the case. In collecting bag-worms by hand, therefore
as is often done upon tea gardens, where they doa good deal of
damage, care should be taken to collect all the apparently dead cases,

as these are always liable to contain eggs.
The School Museum contains some larval cases of these insects.

Hepialide group.—These creatures are to be found boring into live timber
and do a good deal of damage to many forest trees in India, Like
other wood-boring .larve, they have a firm cuticle and powerful
mandible. They can be distinguished from wood-boring larve belong-
ing to other orders of insects by the possession of the fleshy abdominal
pro-legs which are characteristic of caterpillars. The group includes
the families Hepialide, Cosside, and Aigeriide. The moths are very
variable in their appearance, but the caterpillars are so closely related
to each other, both in habits and in appearance, that it will be most
convenient for the students to consider them collectively.

In each case eggs are laid by the female upon the bark and the
caterpillar tunnels into the wood. It usually keeps the tunnel open
and often comes out to feed upon the bark. It frequently builds
for itself a covered gallery of silk and excrement which forms a con-
spicuous feature on tree trunks. The chrysalis is formed at the en-

* trance of the burrow, so that the moth can readily make its exit.

In Travancore, a few years ago, very considerable injury was
done to teak trees by a large red boring caterpillar of this group.
It was found to commence its attack on the wounds caused by
lopping, and its effect was to let the moisture penetrate into the
stem and induce rotting. Sandal-wood, coffee, and tea all suffer in
a somewhat similar manner from the attack of an allied caterpillar
of the species Zeuzera coffee, Nietner, Young poplar trees also in
Baluchistan have been reported as injured to a very large extent by
the species Sphecia ommatiaformis, Moore. The moth of the last
species can be immediately recognised by its striking resemblance
to a large wasp. The caterpillars tunnel into the poplar stems close
to the ground and weaken the trees to such an extent that they
are frequently blown over by the wind, Wood-boring caterpillars
can be readily killed by squirting a little kerosine-oil into the hole
which they make in the trunk, or by running a sharpened wire into
it, but this treatment is only likely to be of use in the case of valuable
fruit trees,

The School Museum contains larve and moths of this group.
The students should notice particularly both the pro-legs and the
comparatively firmness of the body in the larve.

Bombycide group.—The larve of most lepidopterous insects are able
to spina certain amount of silk, but there are in India a number

of species belonging to the families of Bombycide and Saturniid
K2

52

Hlementary Manual of Zoology.

which shelter themselves during their pupal stage in cocoons made of
large quantities of silk, which can be utilised for commercial purposes.
The only forms with which the students need be acquainted are,
the domesticated Mulberry silk-worm, the domesticated Eri silk-worm,
and the semi-domesticated Zusser and Muga silk-worms. They should
notice, however, that there are many wild silk-worms in India which
would be useful if they were forthcoming in larger quantities than is
now the ‘case. :

An account of thestructure of the mulberry silk-worm (Bombyx
mori) is givenin the chapter on the dissection of this insect. The
imago is an insignificant-looking white moth, with rudimentary mouth
parts. Several varieties are cultivated in the plains of Bengal upon
mulberry leaves. Most of them differ fiom the mulkerry silk-worm of
Europe in being smaller in size and in passing through a number of
generations in the year. The large annual variety of Europe, however,
is cultivated in Kashmir and elsewhere in the hills. Mulberry silk-
worms yield a large amcunt of valuable silk in India, butare of little
importance to the forester, The students should notice that they
suffer from the attack of Tachinid flies, and are subject to pebrine
Jlacherte and cther diseases which likewise attack the Europcan
variety.

The Eri silk- worm (4étacus ricint, Boisd.) is somewhat larger than
the mulberry silk-worm. It is reared ina state of domestication
upon castor-oil leaves in Assam, much in the way that the mulberry
silk-worm is reared in Bengal. It passes through a number of gener-
ations in the year, and produces a coarse but useful silk known as
Assam silk. The moth is a large dark-coloured insect, which may be
recognised by its peculiar shape and markings, Eri silk-worms suffer
to some extent from the same diseases and parasites as the mulberry
silk-worm.

©

From a forester’s point of view the most important silk insects are
the Tusser and the Muga, The Tusser silk-worm (Antherea mylitta
ov A. paphia) is a brilliant green caterpillar, adorned with numerous
tubercles. ‘The imago is a large yellow or buff-coloured moth, which
can be recognised by its shape and by the curious transparent ocelli
with which its wings are furnished. The cocoon is a firm structure
which is attached to the food plant by a silken stalk of singular
strength and neatness, The insect is reared in the jungles of the
Central Provinces, Chita Nagpur, and elsewhere throughout the
Central and Southern parts of India. The caterpillars feed on the leaves
of saj (Terminaiza tomentosa), sil (Shorea robusta) and ber (Zizyphus
jujuba), and other furest trees. The inseet hybernates in the cocoon,
The moths of the first generation emerge in the early part of the
rains, and lay eggs which usually produce cocoons about the middle of

Systematic Course. 53

the wet season. The moths emerge, and lay eggs almost immediately,
the cocoons being formed in the beginning of the cold season. Fresh
cocoons for breeding are generally collected each March in the jungle,
when the foliage is thin. They are usually tied onto the branches of
trees, which are pollarded to receive them. he whole life of the
insect is thus spent in the open and the trees have to be carefully
watched, whilerearing is going on, to keep off birds, bats, lizards, and
predaceous and parasitic insects, which would otherwise destroy the
silk-worms. At best the business is a precarious ove. If is still
carried on upon a considerable scale, but seems to be upon the de-
crease.

The Muga silk-worm (Anther@a assama) is reared in Assam much in
the way that the Tusser is reared in Chota Nagpur, though it is some-
what more domesticated. It has much resemblance to the Tusser, but
differs both in the nature of the cocoon, which has no peduncle, and in
the shape and markings of the moth and caterpillar. It also goes
through a series of about five generations in the year, instead of only
two, as in the case of the Tusser. According to Stack it is chiefly
reared on the sum tree (Machilus odoratissima) and on the sualu
tree (Tetranthera monopetala), but will also feed on the leaves of the
mezankuri (Zetranthera polyantha) and the champa (Michelza sp.).
The silk is much like fusser in consistency, but is remarkable for its
beautiful golden sheen. The students should carefully ‘examine the
various specimens illustrative of this group in the School Museum,

Noctues:—This group comprises a great number of moths, which can
usually be recognised by their smooth thick-set bodies and filiform
antenn». The larve are smooth grub-like caterpillars with the full
complement of legs and prolegs. Most of the species are leaf-feeders,
but some have a limited power of boring. The chrysalis is usually,
but not by any means always, formed in an earthen cell in the ground.
The following forms may be noticed :—

(1) The silk cotton-pod caterpillar (M/udaria cornifrons, Moore),
which destroys the pods of the silk-cotton tree (Bombax
sp.). The chrysalis is formed in the ground in the begin-
ning of the hot season, and remains there until the early
spring of the following year, when the silk-cotton tree
puts forth its flowers.

(2) The cut-worms belonging to several different species, which
attack young plants of all kinds, including coffee bushes,
and often do a good deal of damage. The caterpillars are
earth-coloured grubs, which live in burrows in the ground,
They sally out at night and cut off young plants, which
they drag to their holes and feed on.at leisure. Dressing

554 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

the Jand with such substances as soot and gas-lime hag
been recommended for getting rid of them..

(8) Hyblea puera, Cram. (== Tortrix tectona, Nisbet).—This is a
little dusky moth, with reddish markings in the hind
wings. The moth is much like a large Tortrix (Microle-
pidoptera), but has hitherto been included by entomo-
logists amongst the Noctwes. ‘he caterpillar defoliates
teak and has done a large amount of damage in Lower
Burma.' It has also been reported from Assam, Berar
and the North-West Provinces, so is likely to occur in all
parts of India, The caterpillar is said to appear in April
and May, shortly after the flushing of the spring leaves.
About the end of May the caterpillars begin to let them-
selves down to the ground by silken threads. The pupa
is formed ina flimsy cocoon, which is often attached to
dead leaves on the ground. Major Bingbam notices that a
plantation attaeked by this insect is a wonderful scene
of activity, as numbers of jungle-fowl, ground-thrushes
(Pitta) and insectivorous birds of all kinds crowd to the
spot to feed upon the eaterpillars. Mr. Nisbet suggests
cutting out of trees that are badly attacked and driving
pigs into the forest in the first half of June when the
chrysalides are on the ground.

(4) The boll-worm (Heliothis armigera), which attacks agrieul-
tural erops of all kinds and tunnels into the pods of poppy
cotton and leguminose, The caterpillar of this imsect
has little to distinguish it from other Noctues larvae, but
the moth can be recognised by its greyish colour and the
arrangement of the dusky streak on the posterior wing.

The students should examine the specimens of Noctues insects in

the School Museum and sketch a few typical representatives,
Geometres,— These moths can usually be recognised by.their slender build,
large wings, and antenng pectinated in the male. The caterpillars
may be known by their peculiar mode of progression. They have the
anterior pairs of prolegs rudimentary and the remainder set far back,
while the Lody is slender andelongated. Owing to this peculiar

1 Mr. J. Nisbet, Deputy Conservator of Forests, writing to the Indian Forester on the
injury done by this insect in the Pegu Circle, observes :—‘‘ These ravages of the Tortrix
Tectone ?) are really of very considerable importance, From April till July, when the
summer flush of leaves comes, the increment in growth is lost almost entirely, and the later
jnerement of the year must to some, and in all probability to a considerable extent, have
been affected by the denudation of leaves previcusly. The occurrence of these attacks and
details as to their maguitude do not yet find a place in our Annual Reports, although in all
likelibood they do as much (or more ?) harm than a fire, unless the latter passes through a
plantation where the accumulation of débris is great.”

Systematic Course. 55

structure they are able to step along with considerable rapidity by
holding the ground first withthe jointed legs at the anterior end of
the body and then with the prolegs at the posterior end, while they
alternately hump up their bodies and stretch themselves out to their
full extent. Geometres caterpillars are popularly known as Jooper's.
They feed upon leaves and are likely to cause damage as defoliators,
though they do not seem as yet to have been reported in this connec-
tion in Indian forests, The students should notice the group, as the
insects are common and conspicuous. .
The Museum contains both larve and moths for examination.
Microlepidoptera—This group is a somewhat artificial one, as it is
made to include a vastassemblage of minute moths of very different
structure. It may be roughly defined as comprising minute moths:
which do not belong to any of the preceding groups. Amongst the
more injurious species the students should notice—

(1) The toon-borer (Magiria robusta, Moore), which can usually
be seen at work on the young toon trees which line the
roads in Dehra, The caterpillar tunnels into the terminal
shoots of the toon. Each shoot that is attacked dies back,
and as the process goes on, year after year, the trees get
converted into masses of distorted branches with no well-
marked trunk above a few feet from the ground, The
imago is a little greyish moth which emerges in the
autumn from the chrysalis which is formed in the tunnel,

(2) The teak-leaf roller (Paiiga damastesalis, Walker), which
has been reported as doing a good deal of damage in
Lower Burma, also in Berar. The moth is a pearly-white
creature, with numerous tiny spots and cross-bands upon
the wings. The pupa is formed on the leaf, which is
rolled up by the caterpillar for the purpose. Moths
have been obtained in May and the insect is likely to pass
through several generations in the year. Major Bingham
writes—

“My recollection (for I unfortunately have miclaid the notes I took)
of the ravages of these caterpillars when I was in charge of the
Rangoon Division, is that they appeared in the teak plantations
on or about the 20th May, sometimes in almost incredible numbers.
Their ravages were confined. to certain areas where they reappeared
year after year, stripping the young teak of their leaves with
the rapidity almost of locusts, and hanging in thousands by webs
to the branches of the trees.”

(8) The numerous clothes-moths, whose caterpillars may be
recognised by the little cases that they construct for them-
selves out of the woollen material upon which they feed.
In 1889 some of these insects destroyed the lining of

56 Elementary Munuat of Zoology.

nearly all the saddles belonging to the Debra Dun
volunteers. A plentiful use of spirits of turpentine upon
woollen material that is put away is about the simplest
way of preserving it from attack, but the insect is a very
difficult one to eradicate.

(4) The students should also notice the fact that microlepi-
dopterous caterpillars belonging to various species bore
into mangoes, pomeloes, and other fruits, also into the
stalks of sugarcane, sorghum, rice, and wheat, besides
injuring agricultural plants in other ways. They should
also examine the specimens of Microlepideptera in the

School Museum and make a sketch of a branch attacked
by the toon-borer,

(5).—CHorDATA.

This group may be defined as comprising bilaterally symmetrical
ccelomate animals, which have the body supported by an internal median
rod (notochord), which separates the main nerve system from the diges-
tive organs. It comprises the Urochorda, the Cephalochorda, the
Cyclostomi, and the Vertebrata,

(2) Urochorda.—This group comprises the Acidians and allied
animals, which have the notochord confined to the tail and
usually present only in larval life, They are degenerate
sea-living animals of small size and are of no practical
importance tothe forester, though they should be noticed,
as they are to some extent intermediate in structure
between the Vertebrata and the lower groups of Celomata.
They breathe water by means of gill-slits, which per-
forate the pharynx, as in the higher water-breathing mem-
bers of the Chordata, while the arrangement of the nervous
system in the larva is essentially similar to that of the
higher forms. The adult animals are degenerate, usually
stationary, barrel-shaped organisms. They have the body
enclosed in a curious case, whence has arisen the name
Tunieata, by which the group is often known.

(2) Cephalochorda.—This group comprises the Amphiovus, which
is a small fish-like animal about a couple of inches long,
found in shallow seas (¢.g., some parts of the Bay of
Bengal). It is of no practical importance to the forester,
but should be carefully noticed, as it very nearly represents
what is believed to be the primitive ancestral form of the
vertebrata. The group may be defined as Chordata with
notochord persistent throughout life, but without skull,
lower jaw, or paired limbs, Both in structure and in

Systematic Course. 57

development the Amphiowus is of the very greatest in-
terest, as it helps us to understand how the Vertebrata.
came to be what they are; but the subject is one which
is too complicated to enter upon in this elementary work.

(ce) Cyclostomi,—This group comprises the hags and lampreys,
some of which are of considerable size. They are mostly
more or less marine, some of the species being parasitic.
They are of no practical importance to the Indian
forester, but should be noticed, as they comprise a very
well-marked section of the Chordata. They may be de-
fined as eel-like Chordata, with persistent notochord and
skull, but without lower jaw or paired fins,

(2) Vertebrata,—This group comprises all the fish, amphibia,
reptiles, birds’ and mammals, and is hence of the utmost
importance. The chief points in which the Vertebrata
differ from the other groups of Chordata are in possessing
a lower jaw and paired limbs, and in the modification of
the notochord into a vertebral column. The various sec-
tions of, the group will be considered under the headings
of Fish, Amphibia, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals.

Fisa.

Fish are cold-blooded aquatic Vertebrates, with paired pectoral and

pelvic fins (corresponding to the fore and hind limbs of the higher
Vertebrata). They breathe by gills throughout life. For an account
of the anatomy of a typical fish, see the chapter on the dissection of the
Mahseer.

Omitting the Ganoids, which are of no immediate importance, the
chief groups of fishes are the Chondropterygii (cartilaginous fishes), the
Teleostei (bony fishes), and the Dipnoi (amphibious fishes).

(2) Chondropterygii.—These fish breathe exclusively by gills
and have the muscles supported by a cartilaginous skeleton.
They comprise the sharks, dogfish, sawfish and skates
and rays, which are very abundant round the coasts of
India. They are largely carnivorous, some species being
dangerous to human life. They are also of some slight
importance economically, as the livers of many of the
sharks are used for making oil, the skins are made into the
shagreen employed for covering knife handles and sword
scabbards, while glue is made out of the fins of many
species, and the flesh of most of the species is used for
food. :

(2) Teleosteii—These fish breathe exclusively by gills, and have
the muscles supported by a bony skeleton, They comprise

58 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

all the common food-fishes of India. The following are
a few of the more important forms :—

I.—Cyprinida@ or carps of all kinds, with narrow mouths
often furnished with barbels, jaws weak and with-
out teeth, teeth, however, being numerously present
on the bones of the throat. The students should
at least examine and sketch some such Carp as the
Mahseer, if they have not time to do the complete
dissection described on pages 89 to 93,

(1) The Mahseer (Barbus tor) of hill-streams.

This fish mounts the streams in the rainy
season and lays its eggs, afew at a time,
in the smal] nullahs. In the hot weather
it descends into the deeper pools. It feeds
on weakly fish, water-snails, fresh-water
crustacea, insects and seeds. There are

also numerous small carps (genus Barbus)

allied to the Mahseer, to be found in rivers
throughout India. The School Museum
contains numerous specimens.

(2) The Indian trout (Bartlius bola), found in

rivers with clear streams and stony beds
throughout India, A beautifully spotted
fish, There are also a number of allied fish
(genus Barzlus), known as the “lesser
Barils,’’? which are found in fresh water
throughout India. The School Museum
contains a representation of Baridius bola
for examination by the students.

(3) Chela ov Chtlwa ( Chela argentea) and numer-

ous allied species of fly-taking fish, very
common in fresh water throughout India.

(4) Labeos, including the Rodita of Bengal,

numerous species of heavy sluggish fish
found in tanks and other still fresh water
throughout India. The School Museum
contains one of these well known tank fish.
The students should notice particularly the
large suctorial lips with which it is fur-
nished.

I1,—Silurida, known as fresh-water sharks, cat-fish, or
butter-fish with broad depressed head and naked

skin.

They are found in fresh water throughout

Systematic Course. 59

India and are very destructive to young fish.
Many of them are excellent eating, The Museum
contains numerous representatives,

I11.—Fresk-water Eels.—Numerous species of smooth elong-
ated fishes found in fresh and brackish water
throughout India. Many of them descend to the
sea to lay their eggs. They are said to be destruc-
tive to fish ova.

IV.—Murrel.—Several species of almost amphibious fishes,
which are found in tanks, wells, rivers and other fresh
water throughout India. They have the head covered
with plate-like scales and are very destructive to
young fish. They often have holes in the bank
where they lie. The Museum contains numerous
representatives.

V.—Mugilide (Mullet).—Found in rivers and estuaries, often
far above tidal influence. They are common in rice-
fields. Some of them swim like tadpoles with
their eyes just above the water and are said to be
good eating.

Vi.—<Spined Eels.—Elongated fish with sharp spines on the
back, found in quiet fresh-water pools throughout
India. ‘They are said to be destructive to fish ova,
The Museum contains representatives.

VII.—The Gar-fish.—With enormously produced beak-like

jaws. The Museum contains a specimen of this
fish.

Besides the above, which are all fresh-water fishes, there are in
India numerous sea and estuary fishes which are largely used as
food, The students will not be expected to know much about them,
but should notice that the following are the most important forms.

Herrings (Clupid@), such as the hilsa, the otl-sardine and the
so-called white muilet, Vhe Adlsa is a searfish, which ascends
the rivers of India, especially the Ganges, in vast numbers in the
rainy season to spawn, and is excellent food until it has done so,
after which it beeomes thin and unwholesome. The o#/-sardine is
a smaller fish, which is often very abundant off the Malabar Coast,
where it is used for making oil. The so-called white mullet is a
very active fish, to be found in salt and brackish water on the
West Coast, where it is much esteemed for food. Scopeléda, such as
the Bombay duck of the sea and estuaries. Perches (Percide), such
as the red perch of Madras and the éehti of Calcutta. Sparida,
such as the lack rock cod of Madras. Polyxemida, such as the

a0 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

mango-fish, which ascends the Ganges and other rivers in the hot
weather. Scienid@, such as the whiting of the Bay of Bengal,
which is excellent eating when freshly cooked, but rapidly
becomes insipid after death. Ladyrinthiet, such as Anibas scandens,
which is almost amphibious.

(c) Dipnoi.—These fish are not found in India, so are of no practical
importance, but itis useful to notice them, as they have the
swimming bladder converted into lung-like organs, which enable
them to breathe air as well as water. They are thus interme-
diate between fish and amphibia. They occur in Australia,
Africa, and South America.

AMPHIBIA,

These are cold-blooded Vertebrata, usually with a naked skin.
They breathe as larve by gill slits, and as adults by lungs. For details
of the structure of a typical Amphibian reference should be made to the
chapter on the dissection of the Frog. The chief Amphibia to be met
with in Indiaare the bull-frogs, little brown frogs, tree-frogs, and toads.
Tu their adult condition these animals feed on insects and probably
destroy a good many destructive species, but they are of no very great
economic importance. The chief point to remember about the Amphibia
is that they connect the fish with the reptiles and birds on one side and
with the mammals on the other.

REPTILES.

The reptiles comprise a number of cold-blooded air-breathing
vertebrates, of which the most important are the Chelonia (turtles
and tortoises), the Lacertilia (lizards), the Ophidia (snakes), and the
Crocodilia (crocodiles), Reptiles resemble birds in having the mandible
articulated to the skull by a pair of quadrate bones, and in having the
skull articulated to the vertebral column by a single occipital condyle.
Students should verify these points by comparing the skull of a reptile
with that of a bird. They should also notice the difference in each
case from the skull of a mammal where there is no quadrate bone
visible but two occipital condyles. Reptiles are cold-blooded ; they
are covered with scales ; the heart consists of two auricles and a ven-
tricle, the latter being more or less completely divided into aright and
left chamber. Two aortic arches are present, but the right arch is in
many cases the larger and more developed, thus indicating an advance
in the direction of the arrangement found in birds, where the right
aortic arch alone persists.

(2) Chelonia (Turtles and Tortoises).—Body compressed, covered
with a bony dermal skeleton, the dorsal portion uniting

Systematic Course. 61

with the spines and ribs of the vertebral column, the
ventral plates uniting to form a covering for the abdo-
men, The head, limbs and tail can usually be retracted
within the dermal armour. The jaws are covered
with horny epidermis, which takes the place of teeth.
The group comprises the TYortotses, which have a hard
shell and ‘feet more or less suitable for walking on shore;
and the Turtles, which have the shell covered with "soft
skin and: the feet modified more or less completely for
swimming. Students should examine the specimens
in the Museum collection of both turtles and tortoises.

(2) Crocodilia.—Body partly covered with bony scutes, a long
‘swimming tail, teeth implanted in sockets, eg., Fish-
eating gavials with long snouts, carrion-eating muggers,
with short snouts both represented in the School collection.

(ce) Lacertilia (Lizards)—Body covered with scales. There are
generally two pairs of limbs, but one pair and sometimes
both pairs may be absent. yelids present. Jaws
firmly united in the middle line. Shoulder-girdle always
present. Include water-lizards, geckos, cheecha, and
chameleon. Lizards are chiefly insevtivorous and destroy
a good many injurious species, especially Acridida.

The students should compare the scales of the lizard with
the bony scutes of the crocodile, also the movable eyelid of
the lizard with the immovable glassy membrane which
covers the eye of the snake. The Museum contains
numerous specimens.

(d) Ophidia (Snakes).—Body covered with scales, generally with
a series of specially modified scales beneath the body, by
means of which the snake glides. Fore-limbs and
shoulder-girdle always absent. Hind limbs occasionally
present in a rudimentary state (Pythons). Bones of the
jaws movable on each other. Eyelids transparent and
permanently closed. Includes all the snakes.

CLASSIFICATION OF SNAKES.!

The most important families of snakes are the Boide (Pythons)
the Colubride (Colubiine snakes), and the Viperide (Viperine snakes),

(a) Botde (Pythons or rock-snakes).—These snakes are often of

immerse size. They have long oval heads, with numerous

small shields (loreals) between the ocular and nasal

() The students should work carefully over this section, comparing the specimens in

the School Museum, a8 it is important for them to be able to recognise a poisonous snake
when they come across one.

62

Elementary Manual of Zoology.

shields. They have rudimentary hind limbs, which ter-
minate in claw-like spurs on either side of the anus.
The family does not contain any poisonous species.
Students should examine the skin in the School Museum
and sketch the arrangement of the shields upon the head,
specially noticing the numerous loreal shields.

(4) Colubride (Colubrine snakes).—This family comprises the

bulk of the snakes to be found in India. Colubrine snakes
have oval heads, but differ from the Pythons in having
no recognisable rudiments of hind limbs, They may
be classified as (1) harmless land colubrines, (2) poisonous
land colubrines, (3) sea colubrines.

(1) Harmless land colubrines—There are a great
number of these snakes, many of them being
extremely common, They possess numerous small
teeth, but the anterior maxillary teeth are neither
enlarged nor grooved. The great majority of
the species have at least one loreal shield. The little
green grass-snake (Dryophis) and the rat-snake
(dhamin) may be taken as examples. Students
should examine the school collection of harmless
colubrine snakes, and sketch the teeth and the
arrangement of the scales on the side of the head,
specially noticing the loreal shield,

(2) Poisonous land colubrines.—These snakes have
the anterior maxillary teeth enlarged and grooved
for injecting the poison fluid. Practically speak-
ing, they never have a loreal shield. They
include a number of deadly snakes, of which the
most important are the cobra, the krait, the
hamadryas, the raj samp or banded krait, and
the Callophis and Adeniophis snakes, The stu-
dents should examine the poisonous land colubrine
snakes in the School Museum and be able to
recognise the cobra, the krait, aud the hama-
dryas. They should make a sketch of the teeth,
also of the side of the head, to show the absence
of the loreal shield,

(3) Sea colubrines.—These snakes can be at once
recoguised by their tail, which is flattened for
swimming. They are said to be extremely
poisonous, but, being exclusively sea creatures, are
of little importance to the forester.

Systematre Course. 68

(c) Viperide (Viperine snakes).—These are poisonous snakes,
with triangular heads. They have the anterior maxillary
teeth enlarged and grooved for injecting the poison
fluid. They can be easily recognised by the peculiar broad
triangular head, narrow neck, short tai] and the numerous
small seales with which the whole body, and especially
the neck and the sides of the head are covered. They
may be classified as (1) Viperine (True Vipers), and (2)
Crotaline (Pit Vipers).

(1) Vipertne (True Vipers).—These vipers have no
loreal pit between the eye and the nostril, and
are excessively poisonous. The only species which
the students are likely to meet with in India are
the Daboia (Chain or Russell’s viper) and the
Echis. The first can be recognised by its chain-
like markings, and the second by its peculiar
serrated scales. The students should sketch
the head of these forms in the School Museum,
noticing particularly the absence of the loreal pit.

(2) Crotaling (Pit Vipers).—These vipers have a well-
marked loreal pit, which isa little hole in the
side of the head between the eye and the nostril.
They comprise a number of species, which are all
poisonous but not so deadly as the true vipers.
The students should .sketch the side of the head
of one of the Crotaline from the school collection,
indicating the position of the loreal pit, which is
the easiest feature for recognising them,

Birps.

Lixe the reptiles, Birds are air-breathing vertebrates in which the skull
articulates to the vertebral column by means of a single occipital condyle.
The mandible articulates to the skull by means ofa pair of quadrate
bones. Birds themselves are warm-blooded; they are clothed with
feathers, which are modifications of the epidermis, They have the fore-
limbs converted into wings. The jaws are covered with a horny epider-
mal sheath. The heart is divided into four chambers, and the aortic
arch is single and curves over to the right side. The lungs are firmly
fixed to the back of the thorax and have air-sacks in connection. For
details of the structure of a typical bird, see the chapter on the dissection
of the sparrow.

Birds are chiefly of importance in Indian forests—(a) as distributors
of the seeds of such trees as the figs, mulberry, sandal and the parasitic

*

64 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

Loranthacew ; (6) as the destroyers of seeds, fruit and insect; (c) as
game; and (d) as sought after for plumage.

Birds are classified as Saurura, Rattte, and Carinate. The Saurure
comprise the fossil species Archeopteryx, which differed from all otber
birds in the great relative length of the tail region of the spine and in the
imperfect specialisation of the fore-limbs. The Ratite comprise such hirds
as the the ostrich of Africa, the rhea of America, the emu of Australia,
and the cassuary of New Guinea. They are incapable of flight, and have
no ridge to the breast-bone for the attachment of the wing muscles. The
Carinate comprise the remaining birds, including all the species that
oceur in India. They are characterised by the possession of a ridge to the
breastbone for the attachment of the wing muscles.

The Carinata comprise an enormous assemblage of species, which are
most difficult to classify on account of the great number of intermediate
forms between the different groups. The chief features that are usually
taken for classificating purposes are the nature and arrangement of the
hones in the roof of the mouth! and the arrangement of the tendons? by
which the toes are flexed. These features, however, are not only some-
what obscure, but the conclusions to be deduced from them are so inde-
finite that hardly any two writers upon the subject have hitherto adopted
precisely the same classification. In his Birds of Burma Mr. Oates, who
is the author of the first half of the work upon the Birds in the Fauna
of British India, classities the Carinate into the groups Passeres,
Maerochires, Pici, Coecyges, Psittaci, Striges Accipitres, Steganopodes,
Herodiones, Anseres, Columba, Gallina, Geranomorphe, Limicole,
Gavie, Turbivares, and Pygopodes. This arrangement is somewhat
artificial, and the characters upon which it is based are too complicated
for the students to attempt to master, but itis about the most convenient
that is at present available, so may be adopted provisionally, The Tur-
binares (diving petrels) and the Pygopodes (grebes) may be passed over
as of no practical importance to the forester.

I.—Passeres (Perching birds),—This group comprises an enormous
gathering of species, of which the house-crow and the
sparrow may be taken as typical examples. The students
should go over the named collection of birds in the School
Museum and learn to recognise at least the house and
jungle crows, tree-pies, bulbuls, mynas, and sparrows,
which feed upon a mixed, diet, and the king-ciows, wag-
tails, babblers and swallows, which are insectivorous. A
sketch of the head and beak, with a note on the size of
the bird and the colours of its feathers, will usually be

°
1 Especially the vcmer and the maxillopallatine bones, also the nasal and frontal bones.
2 ‘the flewor perforans digitorum and the flaeor longus hallucis.

Systematic Course. 65

sufficient to enable the student to remember any particular
species with which he may happen to be unfamiliar.

l.—MacrochiresThis group includes the Swifts and Goat-
suckers, both of which feed on insects. They may be re-
cognised by their wide mouths and weak feet, which gener-
ally have all the toes directed forward. Students should
be able to reecgnise the Swifts and Goat-suckers as such
in the Museum collection,

111.—Pici (Wood-peckers).—These birds have feet with big claws
formed for climbing, One of the toes is often very much
smaller than the others, They havea long pointed tongue
for seizing the insects on which they feed. The students
can easily recognise them by their stiff tail feathers, which
help to support them on the trunks of trees as they peck
the insects out of the dead-wood.

IV.—Coccyges.—This is an ill-defined group, which comprises a
number of very different families, The students should go
over the Museum collection and be able to recognise the
green barbet, the coppersmith, the koel, the hoopce, the
green bee-eater, the Indian roller, and the kingfishers as
such. Of these the koel, the hoopoe, the green bee-eater
and the Indian roller are insectivorous. The green barbet
and the coppersmith feed on a mixed diet, while the king.
fishers are aquatic feeders. The Indian roller and the
kingfishers are often killed for their plumage.

V.-—Psittaci (Parrots).—‘lhese birds can be easily recognised by
their peculiar hooked beaks and weak feet. They have
the upper jaw movably hinged on to the forehead. They
comprise all the green parrots, which are excessively
destructive to grain and fruit in India. They are killed
to some extent for the sake of their plumage. The
Museum contains numerous specimens.

Vi.—Striges (Owls).—These birds can be recognised by their
powerful hooked beak and claws and the circlet of stiff
feathers that surround the eye. They are mostly noctur-
nal in their habits and feed upon small animals of all
kinds. The School Museum contains numerous examples,

Vil.—Accipitres.—These birds have beaks and ciaws very much
like the owls, but can at once be distinguished from the
owls by the absence of the circlet of stiff feathers around
the eye. They includeall the Vultures, Eagles and
Hawks, which feed on flesh and carrion. The Museum
contains numerous examples,

-

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Elementary Manual of Zoology.

Vill._—Steganopodes.—This group comprises the pelicans, cor-
morants, and snake-birds, with webbed feet and compara-
tively short legs. They are all large in size. The peli-
cans may be recognised by the bag-like expansion beneath
the lower jaw, while the peculiar hooked beak of the cor-
morant, and the slender neck and pointed beak of the
snake-bird are very characteristic features of these crea-
tures, The Steganopodes all feed on fish and other aquatic
food and are of no great practical importance. The
pelicans are said sometimes todo a little damage by
destroying fish in jheels, while the snake-bird is killed for
its plumage.

1X.—Herodiones.—These are wading birds, with long legs and
Jong beak. They live about water and feed chiefly on
frogs. They include the ajutant (stork), herons, and
egrets. Egrets, such as the cattle-egret and paddy-hird,
are largely killed in India for their plumage, but the
group is not otherwise of much importance. The Museum
contains a specimen of a paddy bird.

X,—Anseres (Ducks and geese).—The birds of this group can
readily be recognised by their broad beaks covered with soft
richly innervated skin, and their webbed feet for swim-
ming, The students should be able to recognise the
ducks, geese, and teal as such, These birds are all largly
used for food. The Museum contains some of the ducks.

XI.—Columbe (Pigeons and doves).—These birds can be at
onee recognised by the soft weak beak swollen at the base.
The students should be able to recognise the greeu wood-
pigeon, the blue rock-pigeon and the common spotted
ring-doves as such in the collection. The Columbe feed
on grain and seeds and are valuable as food.

XIl.—Gallinze (Game birds).—These are large thick-set land
birds, with powerful beak and feet for scratching up the
soil. They feed ona mixed diet of seeds, insects and
shoots, and are valuable for food. Some of the pheasants
and jungle-fowls are also sought after for their plumage,
The students should be able to recognise the pheasants,
partridges, jungle-fowl, spur-fowl, pea-fowl, sand-grouse
and quail, as such, in the School Museum.

XUL—Geranomorphez.—This group includes the bustards,
florikins, cranes, and rails, which mostly have long legs
and comparatively short beaks (e.., the large sarhs crane
with red head, which is said to be used as food). ‘he

Systematic Course. 67

Geranomorphz feed on a mixed diet of fruit, grain and
insects and are of no great importance,

XIV.—Limicolz.—This group includes the plovers, snipe, curlews
and stints, which have feet modified for walking on soft
mud and often a long beak. The plovers and snipe are
valuable for food, and the students should be able to re.
cognise them in the School Museum. ~

XV.—Gavie.—This group is very closely related to the Limicola ;
it comprises the gulls, river terns and skimmers, which
are none of them of any practical importance.

With regard to the time of the year during which nesting goes on
in India, Mr. W. L. Sclater writes—“ Most small birds, in Upper India
at any rate, breed between April and July. Of course there are many
exceptions ; but the four months—April, May, June, and July—would
practically cover the breeding time of all the birds which require protec-
tion. In Southern India many birds breed in December and January,
and in the hills the breeding season, as, for instance, in the case of the
monaul, is in July and August. In the case, however, of Lower Bengal,
the best months are undoubtedly April, May, and June.” (Extract
fiom Indian Museum Notes, volume II, No, 5.)

Mamma ts.

Air-breathing warm-blooded vertebrates, more or less covered with
hair, They nourish their young for a time after birth with the secretion
of mammary glands. The skull articulates to the vertebral column by
two occipital condyles. The aorta is single and bends over to the left
side. The heart consists of four completely divided chambers, For an
account of the main features in the anatomy of a typical mammal, see the
chapter on the dissection of the palm squirrel. The students should
compare the skull of a bird with that of a mammal to notice the single
condyle in the one and the two condyles in the other, also the apparent
absence of the quadrate bone in the mammal, They should also sketch
the teeth in the skull of some such mammal as the jackal, so as to learn
the arrangement of the incisors, canines, premolars and molars,

Mammals are usually classified into the three groups—Prototheria,
Metatheria and Futheria. The Prototherta comprise the duck-billed
platypus and the spiny Echidna, both of the Australian region, These
creatures are of no practical importance to the Indian forester, but they
are interesting as representing the lowest existing types of mammalia.
They are characterised by the generalised nature of the brain and bones,
the simplicity of the generative and urinary organs, and by the fact that
unlike other mammalia, they lay eggs which contain a nutritive
yolk as in the case of birds. The Metatheria include the kangaroos and
wombats of Australia and the opossums of South America, They

2

68 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

are to a great extent intermediate in structure between the Prototheria
end the Zutherta, The young are born ata very early stage of develop-
ment and are then nourished in a pouch which contains the mammary
glands. Like the Prototheria, the Metatheria are of no practical import-
ance to the Indian forester, but should be noticed as representing a
large and interesting section of the class. The Zutheria comprises all
the mammals that occur in India. They are characterised by a
special arrangement (placenta) by means of which the foetus is nourished
within the uterus of the mother, and by the possession of a distinct
urogenital opening.

The Eutheria are classified into the orders Edentata, Sirenia, Cetacea,
Carnivora, Ungulata, Rodentia, Insectivora, Chiroptera, and Primates.

l.—Edentata.—These are lowly mammals, with imperfectly
developed teeth. The only representative that need be
noticed is the Indian Manis or pangolin, which can at once
be recognised by the large horny scales with which the
upper part of the body is covered. The pangolin bur-
rows into the earth and feeds on ants and Termites ( white-
ants). The students should be able to recognise the pan-
golins’ skins as such in the School Museum.

ll,—Sirenia.—These are aquatic vegetable-feeding mammalia
which are of no practical importance to the forester.
They comprise the dugong, which is to be found on the
coasts of India. The hind limbs are absent and the front
limbs, neck and head are partially modified for aquatic
life. The mamme are pectoral.

I1l.—-Cetacea. —This order comprises the whales of the Indian
ocean, also the dolphins and porpoises, some of which are
found in the tidal rivers of India. They are fish-like
mammalia, without hind limbs, with the front limbs con-
verted into fins, and the whole body far more specialised
for aquatic life than the Sirenia. The mammez are
inguinal,

IV.—Ungulata.—This order comprises all the hoofed mammals,
which are very numerous and important, The Indian
representatives are all included in the sub-orders Pro-
hie Sia, Periss dactyla, and Artiodactyla.

(a) Proboscedia.—With five toes, includes the Indian
elephant. NW, B.—‘he trunk is merely a modifi-
cation of the nose, while the tusks are modifications
of the upper incisors. The grinding teeth
(molars), of which there are six pairs, are pushed
forward successively from behind and shed in front

Systematic Course. 69

as they wear out. The Museum contains a skull
in which the students can examine the teeth.

(2) Perissodactyla.— With less than five toes, the third
(middle) digit being the largest, Includes the
horse, donkey’ and wild ass of Sind, with foot
consisting of but one digit, the secona and fourth
digits being rudimentary and forming splint-
bones on either side of the middle toe; also the
rhinoceros, with three toes, and the tapirs, with
four toes in front and three toes behind.

(c) Artiodactyla.— With two median digits ( third and
fourth) equalin size. This sub-order includes a large
number of Indian species :—(1) Pigs, which have
a simple stomach and are nou-ruminant ; (2) Camels,
which are ruminants, with incisors in both jaws ;
(3) Musk-deer, which are ruminants with enormous
canines, but no incisors in the upper jaw ; (4)
Barking deer (Cervulus mountjac), ruminant, inci-
sors absent above, canines large, horns on long bony
stalks ; (5) Sambar, hog-deer (Cervus porcinus),
Swamp deer, and Chital—all ruminants, canines
small or absent, with solid dermal horns, which are
cast off at intervals, no incisors in the upper jaw ;
(6) Mouse-deer, without horns, raminant—but with
only three compartments to the stomach instead of
four asin the true deer, with canines, but without
incisors in the upper jaw ; (7) Common antelope,
four-horned antelope, gazelle, domestic goat,
nilgai, serow, ibex, tahr, burrhal, oorial, ammon,
Ovis poli, gaur (Indian bison), yak, buffalo, and
Indian cattle,—all ruminants, with neither canines
nor incisors in the upper jaw, the horns hollow and
supported by a bony centre, The students should
go over the representatives of the Artiodactyla in
the School Museum and beable to recognise them.
They should pay particular attention to the teeth
and the horns,

With regard to the relative damage done by various
Ungulates in Indian forests, goats are probably about
the most destructive, as they continually nibble off the
young shoots and thus prevent seedlings from growing
into trees. Cattle and sheep again do an immense
amount of injury of a similar nature, though to a somewhat
lesser extent. Elephants break down young trees, eat the

Elementary Manual of Zvology.

leaves of several species and also strip the branches of their
bark. In the hot weather they are said to’be particularly
partial to sal bark, while bamboo clumps are often com-
pletely uprooted by them. Deer do some damage by brows-
ing on the tops of seedlings and coppice shoots, also by
rubbing their horns against young trees. Pigs are said to
devour great quantities of acorns and other fallen seed.
They also uproot seedlings, and sometimes injure the bark of
trees by rubbing their tusks on the trunk, On the other
hand, their grubbing up of the soil is said to be an excel-
lent preparation for the reception of seed, specially in deodar
forests, where the main obstacle to reproduction is the
thick maSting of fallen needles, on which the seed is liable
to dry up without germinating. In coniferous forests
again pigs are said to destroy the larve and pupe of
injurious species of moths which hybernate beneath the
litter. Upon the whole, Mr. Cliffoid inclines to the
belief that in hill forests pigs are more useful than in-
jurious, while in the plains the reverse is the case.

V.—Redentia.— With two large chisel-shaped incisors in front of
each jaw, which continue to grow throughout the life of
the animal, For details cf structure, see the chapter on _
the dissection of the palm squirrel]. The Rodents include
the squirrels, bandicoot rats, black rats, brown rats, mice,
poreupines and hares. The students should be able to re-
cognise the squirrels, rats, porcupines, and hares as such
in the School Museum. Squirrels and rats do some damage
by devouring seed, while porcupines often injure seedlings
by gnawing the bark.

Vi-=Insectivora.—The representatives of this order may be re-
cognised by the large number of teeth in both jaws, the
molars being furnished with sharp points for crushing in-
sects. Include hedgehogs and musk rats, which destroy
a good many insects, but are of no very great importance
to the Indian forester.

Vil—Chiroptera.—This order comprises the bats of all kinds,
whieh have the fore-limbs specialised for purposes of flight,
Bats are mostly insectivorous and destroy a good many
injurious insects ; a few species, of which the large flying
fox (Pteropus) is the best known, feed upon fruit and are
likely to be of some importance in distributing seeds,

VIIl-—Carnivora.—These mammals have the teeth, and in many
cases the claws specialised for tearing flesh, one of the

Systematic Course. 71

premolars (carnassial) being often modified for entting.
The more important species which occur in India belong
to the families Ursidw, Mustelide, Canidw, Hyznida,
Viverride, and Felidz. The students should go over
the specimens of carnivora (especially skulls) in the School
Museum and be able to recognise the groups given
below :—

(a) The Urside comprise the bears, which have planti-
grade feet, and two molars above and three below,
with broad tubereulated crowns, ;

(6) The Mustelide contain the martens, weasels, bad-
gers and otters. They have but one true molar
behind the carnassial tooth above. The body is
long and the limbs short. Five toes usually
present, both in front and behind,

(c) The Canide contain dogs, wolves, jackals, and
foxes. They are digitigrade carnivora, with non-
retractile claws. The wild sppcies to be found in
India all have four toes behind and five in front,
the pollex (thumb) being much shorter than the
other digits and not reaching the ground. There
are four premolars and two molars above."

(@) The Hyenide contain the common striped hyena,
which is at once recognisable by the prominence of
the bony crest in front of the head and the
relative shortness of the hind legs, It has non-re-
tractile claws, but the teeth approach those of the
cats in the small development of the molars, of
which there is but one in the upper jaw.

(e) The Viverrida contain the civets, paradoxures (tree-
civets), mungooses and their allies. They are
closely related to the Felid, but differ from this
family in their elongated heads and more numer-
ous back teeth. They are distinguished from the
Mustelide in having the auditory bulla of the”
skull rounded in shape.

(f) The Felide contain all the cats, including the
tiger, lion, leopard, cheeta, lynx, and snow leopard.
They are distinguished from other carnivora by

1 Jackals are omnivorous and do a good deal of damage by feeding on sugarcane stalks,
They also eat coffee berries and aid very largely in thedistribution of this plant, for the
seed passes through their digestive orgaus without injury. The fact is said to be so well
known that in parts of Madras the right to collect what is known as “Jackal coffee” in
the forest is let out on lease.

72

Elementary Manual of Zoology.

their short rounded heads and highly specialised
canine and carnassial teeth. They never have
more than three premolars followed by one molar
above. The claws are completely retractile and
“the muscular system is extraordinarily developed.

1X.—Primates.—These mammals may most easily be distinguished

by the fact that they have the eyes enclosed in distinct
sockets. They are divided into the Lemurotdea, with eye-
sockets open behind, and the Anthropoidea, with eye-sockets
closed behind. The JLemurozdea include the lemurs,
which are of no practical importance to the forester. The
Anthropoidea include all the monkeys and man. The
chief families of monkeys to be found in India are—

(1) the Cercopithecida, in which a tail is almost always
present and which include the common Jangurs
and macacus monkeys ;

(2) the Scmede, in which no tail is developed, and
which include the howling hoolock (gibbon) mon-
keys of the jungles of Assam and Burma.

PRACTICAL COURSE.

INTRODUCTORY.

Each student should bring with him to class a pair of
pointed scissors, a pointed pen-knife or scalpel, a pair of
forceps and a magnifying lens. He will be lent a piece of
weighted bark, a dissecting dish and pins from the School
stores. These appliances are all that are necessary for the
dissections that are described in the following pages, but any
men who happen to have additional dissecting instruments
should bring them, A couple of mounted needles can be
very easily made by fixing big darning needles into little
pieces of wood for handles. They are a specially useful ad-
dition. So also is a thin steel knitting needle with rounded
end, to use as a probe. The knitting needle should be heated
in the fire and then allowed to cool slowly, as this enables it
to be bent to the shape required. The scissors and knife
should both be as sharp as possible. In the case of the
scissors it is important that the blades should meet up to the
ends when closed. Sharp-pointed nail scissors will do very
well if regular dissecting scissors are not available.

74 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

EXAMINATION OF PROTOZOA.

In Dehra the Protozoa, or one-celled animals, which are most easily
procured belong to the genera (1) Paramecium, (2) Opalina and (3)
Vorticella.

Paramecia are to be found swimming freely in stagnant pools every-
where. Vorticelle can usually be found by keeping a bottle of stag-
nant water from one of the rice-fields for a few days, until it becomes
somewhat foul. Ogadine occur in large numbers in the large intestine
of the common Debra frog. To obtain living specimens of Opaline for
examivation, chloroform a frog and as soon as it is dead, open up the
abdominal cavity and snip out the large intestine with a pair of scissors,
Then slit up the side of the piece of intestine and wash out the contents
with a little salt solution in a watch glass. The mixture thus obtained
will usually be found to be swarming with Opaling)

In the case of each form, a drop of water containing the animals
should be put upon a slide, covered with a slip of thin glass, and examined
with an inch objective to find a satisfactory specimen. After a speci-
men has been found, a quarter-inch objective may be used with ad-
vantage.

The students not being individually provided with microscopes, the
examination of these Protozoa must be confined for the present to what
can be made out in the few minutes during which each member of the
class can have one of the available microscopes to himself. After look-
ing down the microscope, each man should make a sketch of what he
has been able to make out.

Paramecium appears as a flattened semi-transparent slipper-shaped
animalcule, covered with vibratile hairs (cilia), by means of which it
swims rapidly through the water. On its lower surface is a large groove
which leads to the mouth, Its movements are so rapid that the
students will have some difficulty in making out its structure, which
is that of a one-celled animal with nucleus and contractile vacuoles.
Waste products are cast off through an aperture (anus) which is situated
between the mouth and the hinder end of the body. Reproduction is
effected by fission, which is sometimes preceded by the temporary join-
ing up (conjugation) of two individuals.

Opalina is very much larger and less active, so it is far easier to make
out. It appears as a white oval creature covered with large cilia, by
means of which it swims. It has neither mouth nor anus, as it feeds
entirely by absorbing fluid from the digestive tract of the frog. It has

* Postscript—In 1893 no Opaline could be found to show to the students though in

the preceding year the parasite siwply swarmed in the digestive tract of every frog that
was examined,

Practical Course. 75

numerous nuclei, but no contractile vacuoles. It reproduces itself by
simple fission.
Vorticella is a transparent bell-shaped animacule. It is attached to
a long stalk, by which it anchors itself. From time to time the students
will see it draw itself down by coiling up the stalk like a corkscrew and
then suddenly shooting itself out so as to stretch the stalk straight,
Round the margin of the bell the students will be able to see a fringe
of large cilia, which vibrate rapidly. Both the mouth and the anus
lie in a ciliated groove, which occupies very much the same place as
the end of the clapper would occupy in a bell. There is a nucleus
and contractile vacuole, but the students will probably not have time
to make these out satisfactorily. Vorticel/a reproduces itself both by
fission, and also by spore-formation preceded by the permanent conju-
gation of a small free swimming individual with a larger stalked
one.
The white blood corpuscle,
A good example of an ameeboid cell is the white blood corpuscle.

. Chloroform a frog, extract a drop of its blood and spread it on a slide
under a cover slip. Examine with the highest power available of
the microscope. Amongst masses of flat oval yellowish discs, which
are the red blood corpuscles, the students will be able to muke outa
few colourless granular cells, which, when carefully watched, can be
seen to extrude finger-like processes or pseudopodia,

DISSECTION OF THE EARTH-WORM. !

Earth-worms (Lumbricus sp.) are common in damp places about
Dehra, where they are known as senchwa, The largest available
specimens should be procured for dissection. They can be readily
killed either by dropping them into aleohol, or with chloroform. Ex-
amine a specimen with a lens and make out the following features :—

(1) The numerous little transverse grooves which divide the
body into rings or segments.

(2) The thickened reddish section of the body (cingulum), which
occupies several segments in the anterior third of the
length.

(8) The delicate chitinous membrane (or cuticle) with which the
whole body is invested.

(4) The four pairs of short spiues (sete) borne on the ventral
surface of most of the segments, They can be felt
on drawing the worm through the fingers.

1 The common species of earth-worms in India differ markedly from each other in the
arrangement of their reproductive organs. The following account therefore, which has
been drawn up from some specimens found near Calcutta in December, will not always
apply completely in this particular, This is of little importance, however, as the essential
features of the worm’s structure are thesame in each case.

76 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

(5) The mouth, which js the anterior opening of the digestive
tract. It is situated at the front end of the body.

(6) The anus, or posterior opening of the digestive tract,
which is situated at the end of the last segment.

(7) The genital openings, which lie on the ventral surface.
The students will best be able to make them out when
they have dissected the organs with which they are
connected.

(8) The mid-dorsal pores, which are minute holes that serve to
place the body cavity in communication with the ex-
terior, They lie between the seements in the mid-dorsal
line. 3

Stretch the anterior segments of the worm a little, by gently pull-
ing the animal through the fingers.

Pin the animal, ventral surface downwards, on to the weighted
bark. Two pins will be sufficient. One of them should be inserted
through the lip and the other as far back as possible. Now with
scissors make a longitudinal slit in the dorsal wall of the integument. ”
Work from behind forwards, and take great care not to cut through
more than the outer layer. Dissect back the flap on either side, cutting
through the numerous little membranous partitions by which the
digestive tract is attached to the outer wall. Pin back the flap on
either side. The students will now have exposed the following or-
gans :— ‘

(1) In the centre line a longitudinal vessel (dorsal vessel) which lies
immediately above the digestive tract, and can at once be.
recognised by the red colour of the blood it contains.

(2) The digestive tract, which is a thick, soft, dark-coloured tube
throughout the greater part of its length.

(8) The blood-vessels, which pass round the ‘digestive tract and
connect the dorsal vessel with the ventral vessel which
lies below.

(4) The reproductive organs, which lie on either side of the
digestive tract.

Now examine the digestive tract in detail and observe that it is a
straight tube which extends from the mouth in front to the anus behind.
Make out the following parts in it, examining from in front back-
wards :—

(1) The mouth,
(2) The pharynx, with expanded muscular walls,

(3) The esophagus, which connects the pharynx with the
gizzard,

Practical Course. 77

(4) The gizzard. This is an expanded whitish organ, with thick
muscular walls,in which the food is crushed before
passing into the soft intestine.

(5) The long straight intestine, with dark-coloured bulging walls.
It extends throughout the rest of the body and connects
the gizzard with the anus,

Now examine with a lens the blood-vessels which pass round the
digestive tract from the dorsal vessel. Notice that five of the vessels
which encircle the intestine, inimediately behind the stomach, are much
expanded. These have contractile walls and are sometimes called
hearts. They serve to keep up the circulation of the blood, which
courses up the dorsal vessel and down the ventral vessel.

Now examine the reproductive organs. These vary a good deal in
different species and at different times of the year, but the students
will usually be able to make out the following parts :-—

(1) A large pair of white globular sacs (receptacula seminis), in
which the spermatozoa, received from another individual,
are stored. hese sacs lie on either side of the esophagus
and open by slits to the exterior below. :

(In one common Calcutta species there are three of these sac-like
recepticula, one behind another.)

(2) A pair of large yellowish glandular organs (vesicule
seminales), which contain the testes. These lie on either
side of the intestine behind the stomach and close to the
three hindmost pairs of hearts.

(3) A pair of white tubes (vasa deferentia) which are sometimes
much coiled ; the greater part of them lies some distance
behind the vesicule seminales. They serve to convey
the spermatozoa to the male genital openings, which lie
on the ventral surface of the cingulum.

The ovaries are smaller and more difficult to make out, and it is
only exceptionally that the students will be ableto see them. They lie
posteriorily to the vesiculz seminales, the eggs passing out by a pair
of short tubes, which lie one opposite each ovary.

The students should now make asketch of the dissection and mark
in the names of the organs they have been able to recognise.

Carefully dissect out the digestive tract, so as to expose the ventral
blood-vessel, which runs down the body immediately below the digest-
ive tract. Trace where the connecting vessels from the dorsal vessel
join it, and notice the branches that run along the sides of the
esophagus. Below the central vessel see the large white nerve
(ventral nerve chain), swollen slightly in each segment, Trace it
throughout the whole length of the animal, noticing the little nerves

78 Elementury Mannal of Zoology.

which are given off from each swollen place (ganglion). Immediately
behind the mouth the students will be able to make out that a pair
of large nerves are given off. These pass round the digestive just in
front of the pharynx and connect the ventral chain with a pair or
nerve masses (supra-zsophageal ganglia), which lie above and in front
of the esophagus.

The exeretary organs of the earth-worms consist of a number of
little tubes (nephridia), which open to the exterior,a pair to each
segment, They are very difficult to make out, however, in the Dehra
species and the students will not be able to recognise them.

DISSECTION OF THE FRESH-WATER CRAB.

Fresh water-crabs (Zelphusa sp.) are common under stones in the
beds of the Song and other rivers of Dehra Dun. They are known
locally as gegra or kenkra. The largest available specimens should
be procured. They can be killed almost instantaneously by dropping
them into boiling water. If boiling water is not available, chloroform
may be used.

Examine a specimen closely and observe that it is covered with
a hard armour (exoskeleton) which serves in all Arthropoda to support
the muscles. Make out in it the following parts :—

(1) The body, which consists of —

(2) The broad anterior unsegmented portion (cephalo-
thorax) with a curved groove across the dorsal
portion of it.

(2) The little posterior segmented portion (abdomen),
which consists of six divisions folded up under
the cephalothorax.

(2) Five pairs of large jointed appendages attached to the
ventral surface of the cephalothorax.

(8) The jaws and other small jointed appendages which surround
the mouth.

(4) The mouth, which is to be seen by separating the appendages
which surround it.

(5) The pair of movable eye-stalks, and the two pairs of minute
jointed antenne, which are situated in front of the
cephalothorax.

(6) The anus, or posterior opening of the digestive tract, situated
on the lower surface of the last segment of the abdomen.

(7) The little jointed appendages attached to the abdomen,

Notice that the crabs are of two kinds, vzz. :-—

(1) Males, with narrow abdomens, to which are attached two
pairs of little white appendages close to the cephalo-
thorax.

Roy. 8vo. Cloth. pp. vii, 242. 10s. 6d.

UMMAGGA YATAKA

(The Story of the Tunnel).

TRANSLATED FROM THE SINHALESE

BY

T. B. YATAWARA, M.C.B.R.A.S., Ratemahatmaya.

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a novel kind for English and American readers who have plenty of time at their
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and take down volumes that do not get into everybody’s hands.” — Literary World.

Lonpon: LUZAC & CO,,
Publishers to the Endia Office,

46, GrEAT RuSSELL STREET, OPPOSITE THE BritisH. MusEuM.

Practical Course. 79

(2) Females with broad abdomens, to which are attached four pairs
of bifurcated swimming appendages.

In the female make out the paired genital openings, which are easy
to see on the ventral portion of the cephalothorax, opposite the inser-
tions of the last pair but two of large ambulatory legs.

In the male look for the genital openings, which are situated at
the base of the last pair of legs. They are much more difficult to make
out than the genital openings of the female.

Lift up the jointed appendages which surround the mouth and
notice on either side the anterior opening into the branchial chamber,
Also lift up the whole cephalothoracie shield as far as it will go with-
out tearing the membranes underneath it, and see the posterior openings
above the last pair of ambulatory legs, through which the water enters
the branchial chamber.

Now make a sketch of the crab, both from above and from below
and mark in the names of what has been seen.

With a pointed pair of scissors cut away one side of the shield of
the cephalothorax very carefully, above the bases of the ambulatory
legs, beginning at the anterior opening of the branchial chamber.
This will expose the large branchial chamber. Notice the numerous
branchie which occupy the chamber ; they are attached just above the
bases of the legs.

Examine one of the branchiz with a lens and see how it consists
of a central portion to which are attached a number of delicate pro-
cesses arranged like the leaves of a book.

With a pair of scissors cut away the edges of the shield which
covers the cephalothorax. Dissect off the whole shield, a little piece
at a time, so as not to damage the organs which lie below it. In doing
this be very careful not to tear any of the tissues, for the heart lies
immediately below and is liable to be torn away with the muscles by
which the stomach is attached to the centre of the shield.

If small pin the animal, dorsal surface upwards, on to the weigh-
ted piece of bark, inserting the pins into the bases of the legs, If large
it will be better not to pin it down, Now immerse the crab in water
deep enough just to cover it.

Notice that the whole space which has been exposed by dissecting
off the cephalothoracic shield is covered with a delicate dark-coloured
membrane. Dissect off the whole of this membrane very carefully
under water, removing any thread-like parasites (Nematodes) which you
come across.

The following organs will now be visible :—

(1) On either side the large branchial chamber, which we have
already examined from below.

80 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

(2) The large muscular stomach, which lies in the middle line of
the body immediately above the mouth. It is attached
to the shield by powerful muscles, a pair of which are
visible in front. ‘

(3) The pericardial chamber. This is a transparent thin-walled sack
lying in the middle line immediately behind the stomach.
Its function is to receive the blood from the gills and to
pour it into the heart. It contains the heart, from which
proceed the thin-walled arteries which convey the blood
to all parts of the body.

(4), The straight intestine, which can be seen underneath the heart,

‘ passing from the stomach towards the abdomen.

(5) The liver, this is a soft mass of little yellowish lobes lying
on either side of the stomach and ramifying between the
other organs throughout the greater part of the cephalo-
thorax. It pours its secretions into the digestive tract
by ducts which lie behind the stomach,

In the female see the ovaries, which in November appear as bright
yellow masses filled with eggs and protruding on each side above the
liver, Attached to the ovaries area pair of wide thin-walled ducts
(oviducts), which you can trace on either side passing down towards the
genital openings on the ventral surface.

In the male, in place of the ovaries, see a pair of soft white elong-
ated glands (testes), which pass up on either side between the heart
and the stomach. Endeavour to trace the ducts which pass downwards
on either side of the heart to connect the testes with the genital open-
ings at the base of the legs.

Carefully remove the whole of the stomach by cutting through the
intestine behind, the muscles in front and the gullet below. Cut it
open, wash out the contents, and see the three powerful teeth it con-
tains. Observe how these teeth work against each other for crushing
the food.

Wash out the cavity in the cephalothorax from which the stomach
has been taken, and cut out as much of the intestine as is visible,

-so as to see how the liver is connected with it. Cut away the repro-
ductive organs and any lobes of the liver that remain,
cut away the tissues which underlie these organs.

Immediately in front of where the stomach lay, and close to the
outer wall of the cephalothorax, the students will now be able to make
out two soft curved white glands which open immediately in front of
the mouth. These probably correspond with the green glands of the
cray-fish, in which case they are excretory organs.

Look for the small white supra-cesophageal nerve ganglion, which
lies in front of the gullet, and trace the nerves which pass back from it

taking care not to

Practical Course. 81
around the gullet to join the ganglia, which lie on the ventral floor of
the body.

Now unpin the animal], turn it over and examine the appendages,
pulling them off one by one with forceps, beginning from behind, and
sketch them in order in a note-book. The appendages are as follows,
working from behind forwards :—

(1) Attached to the abdomen :—

(2) In the female, four pairs of bifureated swimming
appendages,
(2), In the male, two pairs of small pointed appendages.

(2) Attached to the cephalothorax :—

(a) Four pairs of large jointed legs on which the
animal walks, .

(2) One pair of large jointed pincers (chele). The
pincers are formed by the last joint, which works
against a prominence on the last joint but one,

(ec) Three pairs of jointed appendages (maxillipedes),
the most posterior of which forms 4 pair of broad
plates which cover up the mouth.

(d) Two pairs of little white appendages (mazille), the
posterior pair of which are modified into oval
plates (seaphognathites), which serve to pump the
water out of the branchial chamber.

(e) One pair of hard jaws (mandibles), each with a little
jointed appendage (palp).

(f) One pair of movable stalked eyes.

(9) Two pairs of minute jointed antenne.

Notice that the little swimming appendages, attached to the abdo-
men of the female present the same essential structure as all other
appendages.

Notice the little auditory organs at the base of the front pair of
antenne.

DISSECTION OF THE COCK ROACH.

“The best cockroaches for dissection belong to the species Perzplaneta
americana, Deg. This is a large form which is scarce in Debra Dun, but
easily procurable in Calcutta. A large number should be procured.
They should be preserved in alcohol until wanted for dissection, The
fresher they are the better. In Calcutta they are known as tilchatta.

Amongst the specimens ‘procured for dissection there are pretty
> certain to be some immature ones (larve), Notice that they are
wingless, but otherwise very much like the full-grown individuals.

a

82 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

Examine a full-grown specimen carefully with the help of a hand lens.
Notice that the whole animal is covered with plates of a firm, hard sub-
stance (chitin), which encases the body and limbs like armour. Notice
the joints, where the plates are replaced by soft skin, so that the animal
is able to bend its body and limbs freely. This armour is found in all
arthropods; it serves at once to protect the body and to support the
muscles,

Make out the three regions of head, thorax, and abdomen. The
head is the small box-like portion in front which bears the mouth, eyes,
and long jointed feelers (antenne). The thorax is the middle portion
of the body. Itis covered by three rings of plates, which divide it into
three well-marked portions (segments), which can easily be made out.
The front segmevt (prothorax) is covered above hy a broad plate with
yellow markings on it. Below it bears a pair of long jointed legs. The
second segment (mesothorax) is smaller ; to its upper (dorsal) surface
are attached the front pair of wings, while to its lower (ventral) surface
are attached the middle pair of legs. The third segment (metathorax)
is very similar to the mesothorax ; to its dorsal surface are attached the
hind pair of wings, while to its ventral surface are attached the third
(last) pair of jointed legs.

The abdomen consists of a number of segments (the students will
be able to count about nine of them), telescoped into each other. The
last segment bears a pair of jointed appendages (anal cerci) attached
to its sides.

Notice that the specimens are of two kinds :——

(i) Males, with a little pair of styles attached to the ventral
surface of what looks like the eighth, but what is really
the ninth, seement of the abdumen.-

(2) Females, without anal styles, but with a large genital pouch,
with slit-like orifice, on the ventral surface of the hinder
sepments of the abdomen.

Examine the legs and notice that they are very similar to each
other in structure, each consisting of the following joints :—

(1) A large basal joint (coxa).

(2) A minute second joint (trochanter),

(3) A third joint (femur), to which are attached a few short
bristles.

(4) A fourth joint (tibia), with numerous large bristles.

(5) A series of small joints (tarsus), with a pair of terminal claws,
The last tarsal joint (pulvillus), which bears the claws,
is minute.

Examine the wings and notice that they consist of thin membrane,
supported by numerous nervules.

Practical Course. : 83
Examine the appendages which surround the mouth 7 si¢u with a lens,
so as to see how they lie with regard to each other. Then pull them out
carefully one by one with forceps, beginning from behind, and notice
that they consist of the following :—
(1) A jointed bilobed flap (labium), with a three-jointed appendage
(palp) attached to each side of it.
(2) A pair of broad bilobed appendages (mazxillz), each with a five-
jointed appendage (palp) attached to its side.
(3) A pair of hard-toothed jaws (mandibles.)
(4) A movable flap (labrum), which closes the mouth in front.
(5) A fleshy tongue (lingua) which is an out-growth of the front
portion of the digestive tract.

Examine the spiracles, or openings of the breathing organs, on either
side of the body. There are two large ones on each side between the
bases of the legs, which the students may be able to make out with the
help of a lens, if the specimen is fresh, There are also eight pairs of
stigmata situated on the sides of the abdomen between the margins of
the plates; these are more difficult to make out.

Carefully cut off the wings close to the base, and notice the dark
longitudinal streak which extends up the centre of the back of the thorax
and abdomen. The streak indicates the position of the dorsal vessel, or
heart, which lies immediately underneath the armour plates.

Now pin the specimen, ventral surface downwards, to the weighted
bark, inserting the pins into the bases of the legs, so as not to interfere
with the dissection of the body. Immerse in water deep enough just to
cover the specimen. Dissect off the whole of the dorsal plates, taking
great care not to cut into the organs lying below.

On cutting off the plates a layer of whitish fat will be exposed, with
a, dark longitudinal space running up the middle line. The dark longi-
tudinal space contains the dorsal vessel, but as the walls of this organ
are thin and transparent, and the blood is colourless, it is somewhat
difficult to make it out.

The dorsal vessel is a straight many-chambered tube which receives
the blood from the cavity of the body through openings on either side,
and by its rythmical contractions drives it forward towards the head.

Now dissect off the fat carefully so as to expose the digestive tract,
which should be uncciled and separated from the fat and net-work of
tracheal tubes that surround it. Trace it up to the throat in front,
taking care not to cut away the soft white salivary glands. Then clear
it down to the posterior end of the abdomen. Notice that the digestive
tract is a tube, extending from the mouth in front to the anus behind,
and that it consists of the following parts: —

(1) The mouth, into which the two pairs of diffuse white salivary
glands pour their secretion.

a2

84 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

(2) A narrow gullet.

(3) A large crop, whieh occupies the greater part of the body
cavity.

(4) A little muscular gizzard which is armed inside with six little
brown teeth something like what we found in the fresh-
water crab, only on a smaller scale.

(5) A narrow thin-walled portion (mesenteron), into the front part
of which a series of large glandular tubes (hepatic ceca)
open.

(6) A narrow convoluted portion (proctodeum), which connects
the mesenteron in front with the anus behind, Notice
the numerous thread-like seeretory organs (malpighian
tubes) which pour their secretion into the digestive tract,
just when the mesenteron joins the proctodeum.

Notice the little silvery tubes (trachez) which ramify throughout the
whole body, carrying air from the spiracles at the sides. In some lights
the students will be able to make out with a lens the spiral filament by
which the walls of the trachew are supported, but usually a microscope
is required for this purpose.

-Now carefully brush away the fat at the posterior end of the abdo.
men. If the specimen is a female, make out the two sets of slender
tubes (ovaries), in which can be seen a number of white thickenings,
which are the eggs. If the specimen isa male, make out the large white
tults of glandular tubes (mushroom gland), which receive the spermato-
zoa derived from the pair of minute testes, which the students will not
be able to make out.

In the centre line of the abdomen, close to the ventral armour, the
students will now be able to make out the ventral nerve system. This
consists of a series of little white nerve masses (ganglia), each connected
with the next by two nerves, so as to form a chain which extends
throughout the whole length of the body. ‘Trace this chain as far as
possible in both directions. Notice the little nerves given off from each
ganglion, and in dissecting the portion about the neck, try to make out
the nerves which pass round the gullet, and connect the nerve mass
which lies in the.bead (supra-cesophageal ganglion) with the front
ganglion of the ventral chain, Now make a careful drawing of the
dissection and inark in the names of the organs that have been successfully
made out.

DISSECTION OF THE MULBERRY SILK CATER:
PILLAR.

Mulberry silk caterpillars (Bombyx) were for a long time culti-
vated in Majra in the Eastern Dun. They can now be procured either
from Cashmere, where the large species Bombyx mori is to be had, or

Practical Course, 85

from Lower Bengal, where only smaller varieties are obtainable. The
largest available full-grown specimens should be procured. They can
be killed by dropping them in spirit, where they can be preserved until
required for dissection, but the fresher they are the better. If it is neces-
sary to preserve them for any length of time in alcohol before dissections
each specimen should be pricked in several places with a needle to help
the spirit to make its way into the tissues. ;

Examine a specimen carefully with a lens and notice that it consists
of the following parts :—

(1) A round head, which bears the minute antennwy, eyes and
mouth parts.

(2) A thorax, consisting of three segments (prothorax, mesothorax,
and metathorax), each of which bears a pair of jointed
legs. These are the true legs, corresponding to the legs
of the cockroach.

(3) An abdomen, in which the students will be able to make out
about nine segments. The two anterior segments are
without limbs. The four following segments (Nos. 3 to
6 inclusive, counting from before backwards) each have a
pair of fleshy prolegs attached to them. Behind these are
two segments: (Nos. 7 and 8) without limbs. No. 8 has
a small mid-dorsal spine. Last of all is a collection of
somewhat indistinct segments bearing the last pair of

fleshy prolegs.

Notice the nine pairs of button-like openings (spiracles) which are
connected with the breathing tubes (trachew) that ramify through the
body. They are situated on each side of the body, The anterior pair
lies on the prothorax, while each of the anterior eight segments of the
abdomen bears one pair.

Notice a faint longitudinal streak along the middle of the back.
This is due to the dorsal vessel (heart), which lies immediately below the
integument. It is liable to be missed in rough dissection, In a living
specimen its rythmical pulsation can easily be seen through the interven-
ing tissues. Its function is to pump the blood towards the head.

Now make a sketch in a note-book indicating what has been seey
and marking each part with its name.

Pin the caterpillar, ventral surface downwards, on to the weighted
bark, inserting the pins into the anal prolegs and the sides of the thorax,
so as not to interfere with the internal organs. Immerse tke bark in
water deep enough just to cover the specimen. Carefully open up the
body cavity by cutting down the mid-dorsal line with a pair of pointed
scissors, Dissect back the flap on either side, taking great care not to
injure the organs which lie below. Pin back the flaps, dissect off the

86 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

eee

loose yellowish fat which is usually present in large quantities, and the
following organs will be exposed :—

(1) A thick straight digestive tract extending down the middle of
the body, from the mouth in front to the anus, which lies
in the last segment of the abdomen between the anal
prolegs.

(2) A delicate dorsal vessel or heart, which lies in the middle line
above the digestive tract. This will very probably have
been destroyed in opening up the cavity.

(3) The silk glands, These are two long, firm, much convoluted
organs which lie on either side of the digestive tract.
They contain a fluid which hardens into silk when exposed
to the air.

(4) The numerous silvery trachea connected with the stigmata on
either side of the body.

Notice that the digestive tract is a tube opening at each end of the
bedy, and that it consists of the following parts :—

(1) The cavity of the mouth.

{2) A narrow gullet.

(8) A large dilated portion (stomach), which extends throughout
the greater part of the body.

(4) A narrow intestine into which open three pairs of slender
thread-like excretory glands (malpighian tubes).

(5) An expanded chamber (rectum) terminating in a posterior
opening (anus),

Dissect out the silk glands and trace the duct on either side which
passes up into the mouth.

Make a rough sketch in a note-book showing the organs exposed, cut
off a small piece of one of the largest tracheal tubes that can be found and
endeavour with a lens to make out the spiral filament by which it is kept
in shape.

Cut away the digestive tract at the gullet, pin it back out of the
way. Pin the silk glands also out of the way on either side, and search
for the chain of brilliantly white nerve ganglia which lie along the ven-
tral surface of the body beneath the digestive tract. When this has
been found, dissect away the tissues around it so as to expose it through-
out its whole length, Notice the numerous nerves given off from each
ganglion, and endeavour to make out the branches which pass round the
gullet to connect the supraewesophageal ganglion, which lies in the head,

with the sub-cesophageal ganglion, which lies below the gullet, and is the
first of the ventral chain.

Practical Course. 87

DISSECTION OF THE SNAIL. ?

Large snails are not easily obtainable in Dehra, though small ones are
common enough, There is a large land species (Achatina fulica, Ferussac)
which is common in Caleutta and which does very well for dissection. It is
known locally as ghonga. The snails should be killed by drowniug them,
as -by this means they are obtained in an expanded condition. They should
be allowed to remain in the water for about two days, after which they
can be preservéd in alcohol until wanted for dissection.

Examine a specimen and notice—

(1) The coiled shell set on the animal’s back, with-its apex point-
ing to the right side.

(2) The expanded fleshy foot upon which the snail progresses.

(8) The head in front, which bears two pairs of tentacles. The large
upper tentacles each terminate in an eye, which can only
be seen when the tentacle is fully expanded.

(4) The mouth, which is a large median opening in front of the
head, closed by large fleshy lips.

(5) The pédal gland, which opens in a large median hole beneath
the mouth. Stick a match into the opening of the pedal
gland and feel how far it goes back into the substance of
the foot.

{6) The genital opening. This is a small round hole which lies on
the right side, a little behind and below the upper tentacle.
From it the ova and spermatozoa are extruded at different
times of the year.

(7) The large oyening of the pulmonary.chamber. It lies on the
right side, just where the shell meets the back, Stick
a match into it and feel the extent of the large pul-

" monary chamber which lies inside the shell,

Cut and break away the shell carefully so as not to injure the animal.
Begin from just above the pulmonary opening, and extract the animal
completely. Notice the transparent membrane which forms the upper
wall of the large pulmonary chamber. Stick a thin match into the open-
ing of the pulmonary chamber, and by feeling about in the right hand
upper comer of if you will be able to make out the anus and Bono
portion of the digestive tube, which opens in this spot.

Immerse the specimen in water and arrange the coil as it was when
inside the shell, Just above where the pUlonaty chamber terminates,
on the left of the body, is a rounded chamber with transparent walls
(pericardium) which contains the heart. To the right of it lies the large
yellowish kidney, which occupies the space between the heart and the

2 It may be necessary to curtail or omit this dissection for want of time.

as Elementary Manual of Zoology.

posterior end of the digestive tract. Above this is the greenish mass of
the liver, which exteuds up to the top of the shell. Below notice the large
(columella) muscle by the contraction of which the animal draws itself
back into its shell.

Pin the specimen, ventral surface downwards, on to the weighted bark.
Open up the pulmonary chamber with scissors and dissect off the mem-
brane with which it is covered. Notice the numerous vessels containing
colourless blood, which ramify through the walls of the breathing
chamber. See the large pulmonary vein with which the branching veins
unite. The pulmonary vein conveys the blood back to the heart after
it has been oxidized in the pulmonary chamber.

Slit open the pericardial chamber and observe the heart which it
contains. The heart consists of a thin-walled auricle, which receives the
blood from the pulmonary chamber, and a thick-walled ventricle, which
pumps the blood to all parts of the body, whence it finds its way back to
the pulmonary chamber. The kidney is in communication with the peri-
cardial chamber ; its duct (the ureter) passes down to open close to the
anus.

Find the anus and push a piece of match or grass up into the diges-
tive tract, which is thin walled and sometimes rather difficult to see
through the investing membranes. Then with scissors carefully dissect
away the membrane around so as to clear the digestive tract. Trace it
through its convolutions in the mass of the liver and dissect it out
throughout its entire Jength until it terminates in the mouth in front.
In doing this take care not to cut through the fibrous collar by which
the digestive traet is encircled just behind the mouth, Notice that the
digestive tract consists of the following parts :—

(1) A large mouth: in front, which contains the toothed tongue
(odontophore) by means of which the snail gnaws the
leaves on which it feeds.

(2) A narrow gullet (cesophagus), which connects the mouth with
the expanded crop behind. It passes through the thick
fibrous collar, which contains the chief nerve centres.

(3) A thin-walled, expanded crop, to which a quantity of white
glandular matter (salivary gland) is closely attached. The
salivary gland pours its secretion through slender ducts
which open into the mouth.

(4) A thick-walled, expanded loop or stomach, which receives the
ducts from the liver.

(5) A narrow, thin-walled, winding intestine, which traverses the
liver, and ultimately passes into the rectum, by which it
is connected with the anus,

On the right-hand side of the digestive tract the complicated repro-
ductive organs will now be exposed, Dissect them out by snipping away

Practical Course. 89

the connecting membranes, and make out tbe following parts. They
are very complicated, and the students will not be expected to have more
than a general idea of their structure :—

(1) The small irregular glandular body (hermaphrodite gland) which
is embedded in the upper coils of the liver. In this
the ova and the spermatozoa are alike said to. be developed.

(2) A slender, much convoluted duct (hermaphrodite duct),
which connects the hermaphrodite gland with the expand-
ed portion below.

(3) The large, firm, white albumen gland, which lies at the side
where the hermaphrodite duct terminates.

(4) The large common duct, which is imperfectly divided longi-
tudinally into two passages, one for the ova and the other
for the spermatozoa. Sometimes one side of the common
duct will be found to be crammed with yellowish-white eggs.

(5) Beyond the common duct, the yassages for tle exit of the
ova and spermatozoa separate into an oviduct and vas de-
ferens respectively. Follow these down to the common open-
ing, noticing the long sac-like branch of the oviduct (recep-
taculum seminis) in which the spermatozoa received from
another individual are stored.

Notice the large columella (retractor) muscle, which sends branches to
the tentacles, mouth, reproductive organs, etc. It is attached, as we
have seen, to the shell, and serves to retract the various organs.

Dissect away the fibrous tissue which composes the outer pait of the
broad collar which surrounds the cesophagus, and make out the pair of
yellowish-white nerve masses (supra-cesophageal ganglia) which it con-
tains. Trace the two nerves which pass down on either side from the
supra-cesophageal ganglia, to join the large nerve mass (sub-cesophageal
ganglia) which lies below, thus constituting a complete ring round the
gullet. The large nerve masses above and below the gullet give off
nerves which supply the sense organs and other parts of the body. In the
substance of the sub-cesophageal nerve mass is imbedded a pair of small
auditory orgaus which are connected by slender nerves with the supra-
cesophageal ganglia.

Slit open the mouth and extract the toothed tongue-like organ
(odontophore) which occupies a large sac in the lower part of the mouth,
Examine it with your lens and make out the teeth.

DISSECTION OF THE MAHSEER. ?

The Mahseer (Barbus tor), which is exceedingly common in the
streams about Dehra, may conveniently be taken to illustrate the more

1 It may be necessary to curtail or omit this dissection for want of time.

90 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

essential features of structure to be found in fishes. Specimens six or
eight inches long are large enough for the students to dissect.

Notice the characteristic flattened spindle-shaped body without neck
and with the trunk passing imperceptibly into the tail, also the scales,

which cover the body and lie upon each other like roof tiles. Make out
the following..—

(1) The large toothless extensile mouth, with enormous fleshy lips
and two pairs of barbels, (W.B,—Teeth are present in
the throat.)

(2) The large eyes, which are without eyelids.

(3) The nose pits, which consist of two little holes on either side
situated in front of the eyes. Notice that the nose pits

~ do not communicate with the mouth, and are not used in
respiration. ;

(4) The lateral line. This is a well-marked line running down
either side of the body from the head to the tail. It is
formed by the openings of a series of little tubes which
are believed to be sense organs.

(5) The large gill chamber on either side of the head, covered with
a bony plate (Operculum). :

(8) The anal and urinary openings, which are situated close to each
other in the middle line below, in the posterior third of
the body. The anterior opening is the anus.

Locomotion in the water is chiefly effected by the action of the tail,

which is supported by powerful muscles, but the fins also assist. The
fins of the Mahseer are as follows :—

(1) The dorsal fin. This is the large unpaired fin in the middle
of the back, Notice how the front ray is converted into
a large stiff spine.

(2) The anal fin, This is the unpaired fin below, just behind the
anus.

(3) The paired pectoral fins, which are situated just below the
gill opening on either side, They correspond to the front
limbs in other vertebrates.

(4) The paired pelvic fins. These are situated on either side of
the ventral surface about the middle of the length. They
correspond to the bind limbs in other vertebrates.

Make a sketch of the fish from the side, and mark in the names of
the structures noticed above.

Lift’up the operculum and examine the gills. Observe that they
consist of four leaf-like organs, each with a hole (gill slit) on either
side of it communicating with the mouth, Notice the little horny pro-
cesses (gill rakers) between the bony supports of the gills.

Practicad Course. aaAg. 91

(N.B.—The following description of the internal anatomy is taken from
immature specimens of the Rohita fish of Bengal. It will be found to
apply in all important points to the Mahseer.)

Pin the fish on to its side on the weighted bark, Slit the skin up
the middle of the side, from the tail to the operculum, with scissors,
dissect it away and pin it back. The powerful longitudinal muscles will
now be exposed. Notice how they are split up into segments by trans-
verse partitions. Notice also the large white cutaneous nerve which
issues from beneath the operculum.

Immerse the specimen in water and cut away the muscle on the
ventral surface until the abdominal cavity is found, taking care not to
cut into the organs which lie below. Then dissect off the whole of the
muscles so as to expose the abdominal cavity completely throughout its
entire length. Notice the dark-coloured membrane (peritoneum) with
which the abdominal eavity is lined. A fold of this membrane supports
the viscera. By moving the viscera about, without further dissection,
the following organs can be made out :—

(1) The exceedingly long and slender intestine, the coils of which
occupy the greater portion of the ventral portion of the
abdominal cavity In front the intestine passes into 4
thicker tube (stomach), which is connected with the mouth
by means of the gullet. Behind, it communicates with
the anus, thus constituting a winding tube from one end
of the body to the other.

(2) In the front portion of the abdominal cavity the reddish
glandular organ (liver), with large greenish gall bladder,
communicating with the digestive tract below the
stomach.

(8) Dorsal to the’ digestive organs, the large transparent swim-
bladder, which contains air. In full-grown carps, like the
Rohita and Mahseer, the communication between the
swim-bladder and the digestive tract is completely closed.

(4) Dorsal to the swim-bladder, the large reddish kidney into
which the dark-coloured distended caudal vein passes from
behind.

(5) The slender transparent duct (ureter) through which the secre~
tion of the kidney passes out behind the anus. This is a
little difficult to see.

Unravel the intestine with the help of fingers and scissors, Sketch
the whole dissection. Then cut away the digestive tract and the lower
part of the swim-bladder so as to clear the abdominal cavity and enable
the kidney to be seen plainly. Dissect away the muscular wall between

1 In the Mahseer the intestine is shorter and less slender.

92 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

the gills on the ventral surface below the mouth, taking care not to
injure the blood-vessels which lie in the closed pericardial chamber
below. Cut off the operculum on the side which is uppermost and the
pericardial chamber will be easily explored. Notice the thin membrane
(pericardium) which envelopes the heart, very much in the way that the
peritoneum envelopes the viscera,

Make out the following parts of the heart from behind forwards :—

(1) The large thin-walled sack (sinus venosus) into which the blood
passes from the liver, kidney and other parts of the body.

(2) The thin-walled vessel (auricle) which lies in front of the
sinus venosus.

(3) The thick-walled pinkish organ (ventricle) which lies in front
of the auricle and almost completely conceals it.

(4) The little pink thick-walled organ (bulbus arteriosus) which lies
in front of the ventricle. It is the commencement of the
vessel through which the blood is driven into the branchial
arteries.

By pulling back the bulbus arteriosus with forceps and dissecting
away the tissues carefully in front, the continuation of this vessel can
easily be made out to where it gives off the paired branchial arteries to
the gills. From the gills the blood is gathered up by arteries, which
unite to form the dorsal aorta. The dorsal aorta is a straight pinkish tube
which runs down the back immediately beneath the vertebral column,
It can readily be traced by dissecting away the kidney. After oxidisa-
tion in the gills the blood passes down the dorsal aorta, which supplies
the tail and all the posterior of the body. The blood from the tail
returns vid the kidney, where it is partially purified. That from the
digestive organs returns v7d the liver, where the nutriment absorbed from
the digestive tract is elaborated. From both ktdney and liver the blood
passes into the sinus venosus, whence it is driven by the heart.to the gills.

Cut away all the ventral portion of the specimen, leaving only the
head and the first inch or two of the back. Pin this portion, dorsal
surface upwards, on to the weighted bark, and cut away the back of the
head with scissors, so as to expose the brain. This dissection is best
performed upon a specimen which has been hardened in alcohol, but most
of the points can be made out without much difficulty in the fresh state.
The brain is small and lies deep in the skull. After eutting away the
bone, pick off with forceps the tissue which surrounds the white nerve-
masses of the brain, and make out the following from behind for-
wards :—

(1) The cerebellum, This is the large median lobe at the posterior
of the brain. Behind it can be seen the medulla oblongata,
which is little more than a slight expansion of the spinal
cord.

Practical Course. 93

(2) In front of the cerebellum a pair of large rounded nerve-masses
(optic lobes), which supply the eyes.

(3) In front of the optic lobes a pair of smaller closely appressed
nerve-masses (cerebral hemispheres). From the cerebral
hemispheres a pair of nerves are given off which com-
municate with the smal] olfactory lobes in front. These,
however, are very liable to be obliterated in rough dis-
secting.

Dissect off the muscles down the back and cut away the dorsal spines
and arches with scissors, so as to expose the spinal cord. Trace it back-
wards as far as the specimen admits. Then sketch the dissection,

Lift up the spinal cord carefully with forceps and turn the whole
brain forwards, so as to be able to examine its ventral surface. Make
out i— $

(1) The numerous nerves which leave the ventral surface of the
medulla oblongata on either side,

(2) The pair of large optic nerves, which place the eyes in com-
munication with the optic lobes.

(3) The paired bean-shaped nerve masses (lobi inferiores) situated
immediately underneath the optic lobes. They enclose
between them a small dark-coloured nerve-mass known
as the pituitary body.

DISSECTION OF THE FROG.

Frogs are excessively common in Dehra in every pool of water.
They can be easily caught with a small hand-net. The largest available
specimens should be procured for dissection. If possible, some tadpoles
(immature frogs) also should be obtained, to sbow the gill-breathing
stage through. which the Amphibia pass. The largest species of frog in
Dehra is the Bull-frog (Rana digrina), and the following description
therefore is taken from this species, Any of the other forms, however,
will do almost equally well, though they are somewhat more difficult to
dissect on account of their smaller size. Frogs are kuown locally as
maindak,

Any number of frogs can be killed in a few minutes by putting
them into an earthen pot (gumla), closing up the top witha dissecting
dish and pouring in a little chloroform.

Examine a specimen and notice the blunt head in front, the thick-
set body behind, and the two pairs of jointed limbs, the whole being
clothed with smooth moist skin,

Notice that the specimens are of two kinds :—

(1) Males, with bag-like infoldings of the skin (vocal sacs) on
either side of the lower jaw.

94 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

(2) Females, without these vocal sacs.

In the head make out the following parts :—

(1) The large wide mouth in front.

(2) The two large eyes situated above the head. Notice the
semi-transparent lower eyelid with whieh the eye can be
covered up.

(3) The twocnostrils situated between the eyes and the end of thé
mouth.

(4) The circular smooth tympanic membrane on either side of
the head behind the eye.

Open the mouth as wide as you can, and cut down on either side a
short way with your scissors, to still further increase the gape. Make
out the following :—

(1) The large soft bifid ‘tongue, which occupies the floor of the
mouth. It is attached in front and free behind. ,

(2) The wide esophagus, into which the mouth passes behind.

(3) The slit of the glottis, through which air passes down into
the lungs. It lies in the middle line behind the tongue.

(4) The two posterior nasal openings in the roof of the mouth.
They are connected with the nostrils in front,

(5) The openings of the large eustachian recesses, which lie on
either side at the back of the roof of the mouth. Each
communicates with the cavity behind the tympanic
membrane.

(6) The minute teeth with which the upper jaw and roof of the
mouth are armed.

Examine the fore-limb and make out—the basal joint or branchium,
which is supported by the humerus bone; the second joint or forearm,
supported by the fused radius and ulna; and the hand, consisting of four
digits, corresponding to the four fingers in man, the thumb being
rudimentary.

Examine the hind limb and make out ; the basal joint (femur), which
is supported by the femoral bone; the leg, which is supported by the
fused tibia and fibula ; the tarsal joint, supported by two elongated tarsal
bones ; and the five digits, which are connected together by webbed
membrane.

Lay the animal on its back on the weighted bark and pinit down
firmly, inserting the pins in the muscles of the fore and hind limbs,

Slit open the skin down the middle line from the lower jaw to the
hind legs, noticing the large ‘spaces which lie between the skin and the
muscles. Jin back the flap of skin on either side, so as to expose the
muscular wall of the abdomen. Notice the large (muscular cutaneous)
vein which is usually visible on either side ; this is a branch of the sub-
elavian vein, which we shall come to later.

Practical Course, . 95

Open up the muscular wall, a little on one side of the middle line,
taking great care not to cut into the organs which lie below. Cut
through the coracoid bone behind and the clavicle in front, which connect
the breast-bone (sternum) with the shoulder joint. By clearing away
the muscular wall on either side you will be sble to make out ;— in the
middle line, the sternum, which terminates above and below in wide
cartilaginous flaps ; and on the side the shoulder joint, where the humerus
bone terminates in the glenoidal fossa formed by the junction of the
clavicle and the coracoid bones in front and the scapula behind.

Cut out the sternum altogether, taking care not to injure the heart
which lies below. Now pia back the flaps of muscular tissue on either
side, taking care not to damage the large central vein (anterior abdo-
minal), which lies in the middle line. Notice also the large vein
(muscular cutaneous) which leaves the myscle and joivs the sub-clavian
vein on either side. You will now have exposed— ,

(1) In the middle line in front, the large heart, invested ina
transparent membrane (pericardium).

(2) On either side bebind the heart, the large reddish flaps of
the liver.

(3) Below the liver, you will see the stomach and part of the
intestine coiled up in the lower part of the body cavity.

Move the intestine carefully to one side, without cutting anything,
and see the delicate urinary bladder, which lies in the hinder part of
the body cavity. Also notice the two dark-reddish elongated kidneys
that lie behind, and the yellow finger-like processes of the fat body.

Now dissect off the pericardial membrane, so as to expose the vessels
of the heart and make out —

(1) The thick muscular chamber (ventricle), which occupies the
apex of the heart.

(2) he distended thin-walled auricles which lie at the base of the
ventricle and from the outside appear to consist of but
one chamber.

(3) The thick-walled tube (truncus arteriosus) which arises from
the right of the base of the ventricle in front of the
auricles, and almost immediately divides into a right and
left aortic arch.

(4) On lifting up the ventricle and carefully bending the heart

- forward towards the mouth, you wiil be able to make out
the large thin-walled blood chamber (sinus venosus),
where the blood collects before passing into the auricle.
The sinus venosus consists of two chambers, The right
chamber receives the venous blood from the two vene
cave superiores and the vena cava inferior, while the left,

96 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

which is much smaller, receives the blood from the pulmo-
nary veins.

Follow down the anterior abdominal vein to the base of the legs, and
make out where it branches to each thigh. Then follow it upwards
towards the heart and endeavour to make out where it divides into
branches, which enter different lobes of the liver, The anterior abdo-
minal vein is one of the two channels by which the blood from the legs
can return to the heart. The other being vzd the renal portal system.

Cut away the anterior abdominal vein, and bend the liver over for-
wards with your forceps, noticing the greenish gall bladder. Notice
also the vene porte, which collect the blood which comes from the
stomach and intestine, and pour it into the liver. i

Cut away the liver and notice the large vena cava inferior below it,
by which the blood returns frqm the liver and lower part of the body to
the sinus venosus. Endeavour to make out the external jugular vein
which passes dcwn in front of each aortic arch. Follow this vein to-
wards the heart and endeavour to make out where it is joined by the
sub-claviau vein from the front limb and the innominate vein from the
back of the head and shoulder. The three together form the superior vena
eava, through which the blood returns to the sinus venosus, whence it
passes into the right auricle.

Now trace up the aortic branches as far as you can, and endeavour to
make out how they divide on either side into three great trunks. The
anterior of these (carotid) supplies the head and throat; the middle
(systemic aortic arch) runs round the gullet to join the corresponding
arch on the other side, on its way giving off the sub-clavian artery to the
fore limb ; while the posterior (pulmo-cutancous artery) supplies the
lung and gives off a branch near the shoulder to the skin,

Push aside the intestine and trace the inferior vena cava downwards
to where it originates in branches from the pair of dark-coloured kid-
neys, which lie in the posterior part of the body cavity. Push aside the
kidneys also and notice the large vein (renal portal) which passes into
the kidney from the hind limb. ‘This is the second channel
through which the blood from the hind limb is able to return to the
heart. ;

Now cut through the membrane by which the intestine is held
together. Push it aside, clear away the vena cava inferior between the
kidneys, and below you will find the straight dorsal aorta lying above
the vertebra. This vessel supplies blood to all the lower part of the
bedy. Trace it both forwards and backwards as far as youcan. Ante.
riorily it is formed by the junction of the two systemic aortic arches,
while posteriorily it divides into the two iliac arteries, which supply the
hind limbs. Between these two points it gives off numerous branches
to the digestive tract, reproductive organs, kidneys and spleen.

Practical Course. 97

1

Clear the digestive tract throughout its entire length, by cutting
through the mesentery, noticing the small red spleen, which is attached
to the mesentery near the back of the abdominal cavity.

Observe that the digestive tract is a winding tube which extends
from the mouth in front to the cloacal aperture behind. Make out the
following parts in it:—

(1) The mouth in front,

(2) The soft thin-walled gullet (cesophagus), which connects the
mouth with the stomach.

(3) The elongated stomach, with thick glandular walls.

(4) The narrow coiled tube (small intestine) which lies behind
the stomach, The anterior end being the duodenum, into
which the bile and pancreatic ducts open. °

(5) The large intestine, which connects the small intestine with
the cloaca.

Endeavour to make out the pale-coloured gland (pancreas) which
lies near the commencement of the small intestine.

On either side of the stomach above, observe the large pulmonary
air-sacs or lungs, -Endeavour to make out the short air-passage
(laryngo-tracheal chamber) by which the lungs are connected with the
slit-like glottis in the floor of the mouth.

Fixamine the dark-red elongated kidneys and endeavour to make out
the ducts by which their secretion passes to the cloaca.

In the male male out the pair of yellowish rounded testes, which lie
in front of the kidneys. Their ducts enter the kidneys and com-
municate with the ducts of these organs,

In the female notice the broad convoluted ovaries, in which you will
usually be able to see numerous little dark-coloured eggs. The eggs
pass out by a pair of much convoluted ducts (oviducts) which enter
the cloaca.

Cut away the digestive, reproductive, excretory and pulmonary
organs, so as to clear the body cavity and expose the spinal nerves,
Also cut away the lower jaw. Observe the slender white spinal nerves
whick issue from the spinal column on either side. In the posterior
part of the abdominal cavity these nerves are large and numerous, where
they constitute what is kwown as the sciatic plexus. Follow down these
nerves on one side where they enter the leg, cutting away the muscles
and bone, and see how they unite to form the large sciatic nerve of the
leo. Notice the large brachial nerve which supplies the fore-limb and
follow it back to where it issues from the spinal column, .

Look for the delicate nerve cords, with swellings (ganglia) at inter.
vals, which connect the roots of the spinal nerves with each other

H

98 Elementury Manual of Zoology.

on the same side, These constitute what is known as the sympathetic
nerve system.

The more complete dissection of the nervous system can best be per-
formed on a frog which has lain some time in alcohol, as this hardens the
nerve tissue.. Most of the important features, however, can be made
out without this preliminary.

Turn the frog over and dissect off the skin from the back and head.

Cut away the muscles along the vertebral column on either side,
and dissect out the flat scapular bones above the shoulders. Find the big
opening (foramen magnum) at tbe base of the skull, where the spinal
cord passes into the head. Stick the point of your scissors into it and
carefully cut away the top of the head, so as to expose tbe brain.
Great care is necessary in doing this not to injure nerve tissue. When
the brain 4s fairly exposed cnt away the vertebral arches in the same
manner down tle back, so as to expose the spinal cord. Pick away the
darkish membrane (pia mater) which covers the white nerve matter, and
make out the following parts, beginning from in front :—

(1) Two elongated lobes, each with a constriction in the middle.
They lie side by side and occupy the greater part of the
length of the brain case. The slender portions in front
of the constrictions are the olfactory lobes, while the
swollen portions bebind the constrictions are the cerebral
hemispheres.

(2) Behind the cerebral hemispheres a broad flat portion (thala-
mencephalon) ; upon the front part gf this, between the
ends of the cerebral hemispheres, lies the small pineal
body, which you may have some difficulty in making out.

(3) Behind the thalamencephalon two large rounded masses
situated side by side. ‘Ihese are the optie lobes.

(4) Behind the optic lobes a narrow transverse band of nerve-
matter. This is the cerebellum.

(5) Behind the cerebellum is the expanded anterior portion of the
spinal cord. “It is known as the medulla oblongata,

(6) Behind, the medulla oblongata is continued into the spinal
cord. ‘lrace this backwards as far as you can, noticing
the roots of the nerves that are given off from it on either
side.

Lift up the olfactory lobes in front, bi@aking through the nerves
(olfactory) which they give off to the nasal cavities'in front. Notice
the large optic nerves which are given off below to the eyes, and behind
these, in the middle line, the small prominence which is known as the
pituitary body. Pull out the spinal cord as far down as possible,
noticing the roots of the nerves which it gives off on either side, and the
groove which extends down its ventral surface,

Practical Course, 99

- DISSECTION OF THE SPARROW %

“To make out the essential features of bird structure a sparrow (Passer
domesticus) may conveniently be taken. Sparrows are excessively com-
mon in Dehra. They are best caught alive with nets, Any number
can be killed in a few minutes by putting them into a closed earthen
gumila and pouring in some chloroform. . The ordinary native name for
the sparrow is gauriya. Notice that the body is almost completely
covered with feathers. The specimens will be found to be of two
kinds :—

(1) Males, with a black patch on the throat and in front of the
mouth. .

(2) Females, where these markings are replaced by grey, which is
far less conspicuous.

In the head examine—

(1) The large laterally-placed eye with its upper and lower movable
eye-lids, and the third eye-lid (nictitating membrane),
which lies in the anterior angle of the eye-and can be
yapidly drawn over the eye itself. Pull the nictitating
membrane over the eye with your forceps and notice how
it works,

(2) The beak, formed by horny sheaths covering the upper and the
lower jaw, which are both toothless.

(3) The nostrils, which are a pair of slit-like holes situated on
either side at the base of the beak communicating with
the mouth behind.

(4) The ears, which appear as circular holes in the sides of the
head behind and below the eyes, They are covered with
a cirelet of small feathers.

Cut down the sides of the mouth with your scissors, so as to increase
the extent to which it can be opened, and make out:—

(1) The pointed tongue, which lies in the floor of the mouth.

(2) The large median slit-like opening in the roof of the mouth
communicating with the nostrils.

(3) The small median opening immediately behind the large one.
This opening is the termination of the eustachian tubes,
which place the mouth in communication with the inter-
nal cavity of the ear on either side.

(4) The continuation of the mouth behind into the csophagus,

_ down which the food passes into the crop.

(5) The median slit-like opening which lies behind the tongue
and communicates with the windpipe (trachea), through
which the air passes into the lungs and air-sacs.

1 It may be necessary to curtail or omit this dissection for want of time.

H

100 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

Open the wing and feel the various bones by which it is suppantets
These comprise—

(1) A basal joint (humerus).

(2) A-second joint, composed of two bones (radius and ulna)
placed side by side.

(8) A series of bones (carpals and metacarpals) which support the
large wing feathers, Notice the first digit or thumb, which
supports a small panel of feathers known as, the bastard
wing.

In the leg make out—

(1) The basal joint, supported by the femur.

(2) The second joint, supported by a bone known as the tibio-
tarsus. This bone is formed by the fusion of the tibia
with some of the tarsal bones. It has, closely attached to *
its outer side, the slender fibula bone.

(3) The third joint, supported by a straight bone known as the
tarso-metatarsus or more loosely the tarsus. It is formed
by the fusion of the remaining tarsal bones and some
of the metatarsals,

(4) The four toes of the foot, the first toe (hallux) being directed
backwards.

(5) The claws, in which each toe terminates.

Pull out one of the large feathers from the wing or tail and examine
it witb your lens to make out the following parts :—

(1) The tubular semi-transparent portion or quill. Notice the
two apertures into the tube of the quill, one of consider-
able size at the end, where the quill penetrates the skin,
and the other a minute one, which lies on the veutral
surface of the feather just where the quill joins the solid
portion (rachis).

(2) The solid shaft (rachis) which is the continuation of the quilt.

(3) The flattened lateral expansion (vane) attached to either side
of the rachis. Notice that the vane is made up of a num-
ber of elastic slender laminz on barbs, ‘hese are held
together by means of the minute processes (barbules) which
form a fringe on each side of the barb.

(4) The minute supplementary feather (after-shaft) which is at-
tached to the ventral surface of the ceutral axis just where
the rachis joins the quill.

Make a sketch of one of the quill feathers, showing the various struc-
tares described above.

Now pluck all the small feathers off the bird and observe the com.
parative length of the neck; the prominence of the central ridge of the

Practical Course. 101

breast-bone (sternum), to which the chief muscles of flight are attached,
the situation of the transverse slit-like cloacal aperture below the tail,
where the digestive, excretory and reproductive organs all terminate, and
the aperture of the uropygial gland, which lies in the middle line above
the tail. ‘

Dissect off theskin from one side of the breast, so as to expose the
first or great pectoral muscle, which is the chief agent in depressing the
wing in flight. It is attached at one end along the sternum and collar-
bone (clavicle), whence its fibres converge to a tendon which is attached
to the humerus. Cut through the muscle carefully about the middle of
its length, taking care not to cut into the second pectoral muscle, which
lies below. Turn back the two flaps so as to see bow the muscle is
attached, and clean the tendon by which it is connected with the humerus.
Now dissect away all the basal portion of the muscle, so as to expose the
collar-bone (clavicle) on one side, Continue the dissection on the other
side, so as to see how the clavicles are united together in the middle line
to form what is popularly known as the merry-thought.

On the side from which the great pectoral muscle has been com-
pletely removed, you will now have exposed the second pectoral muscle,
The second pectoral is very similar both in its method of attachment and
in its shape to the great pectoral, but its tendon is very much longer.
It passes through a pulley-like arrangement to its place of attachment at
the back of the shoulder-joint. It thus serves to elevate the wing in
flight, as can be readily seen on pulling the muscle with your forceps.
You will now be able, without much difficulty, to recognise the chief
bones of the pectoral girdle, which is a very characteristic feature in the
anatomy of birds. It ecnsists of the following :—

(1) The scapula, which is a long flattened bone lying behind the
shoulder above the ribs.

(2) The eoracord, which is a stout straight bone running from the
shoulder to the front end of the sternum.

(3) Theclavicle, which is ossified to the corresponding bone on the
other side of the body, the two together making up the
merry-thought, which we have already examined.

You will also be able to make out the nature of the ventral aspect: of
the sternum and ribs, ;

Now dissect off the whole of the sternum, cutting through the ribs
on either side and thé coracoids and clavicles in front with a pair of
scissors, taking great care not to injure any of the organs which lie
below. You will now have exposed the following organs :—

(1) The ends of the posterior abdominal air-sacs. These are sacs
of transparent membrane to be found on either side imme-
diately under the posterior ribs ; they should be looked for

102

Elementary Manual of Zoology.

before any of the other organs are interfered with, as they
collapse when cut into and are then difficult to recognise.
The air-sacs are numerous and lie in different parts of the
body cavity and neck ; they are difficult, however, to disseet
out completely. Fill a, as they are, with warm air, they
serve to increase the buoyancy of the body in the atmos-
phere. When uninjured, they can be inflated by means of
a, blow-pipe inserted in the trachea.

(2) In the middle line in front you will be able to see the base of

the trachea where it divides into two branches (bronchi}
which communicate with the lungs. You can at once re-
cognise the trachea by the close-set cartilaginous rings by
which it is supported. Just above the insertion of the
bronchi is the organ of voice (syrinx). This is clothed
with muscles which appear like a swelling in the - trachea
and should be examined carefully, as the manner of their
insertion into the’ ends of the bronchial semi-rings is a
character used in classifying the group (Passeres) to
which the sparrow belongs.

(8) Immediately below the syrinx, in the middle line, is the large

heart with its numerous vessels, The heart in birds is
divided into four chambers, »7z.,a right and left auricle
and corresponding ventricles. The ventricles occupy the
thick muscular apex of the heart and the partition be-
tween them cannot be recognised without further dissee-
tion. The right and left auricles can be easily dis-
tinguished as thin-walled vessels filled with blood, situat-
ed on either side in front of the thick-walled ventricles.
Opening into the right auricle you will be alle to see the
base of the large thin-walled vein (right anterior vena
cava) which returns the blood from the jugular, pectoral
and brachial veins. Inthe middle line, arising between
the auricles, you will see the two white thick-walled
innominate arteries, which the aorta gives off almost
immediately after leaving the right ventricle. By mov-
ing the tissues a little, but without further dissection,
you will be able to trace where the innominate artery on
either sides breaks up into the carotid artery, which sup-
plies the side of the head, and ‘the sub-clavian artery,
which supplies the wing and breast.

(4) Behind the heart lie the large, dark-coloured lobes of the

liver.

At this stage in the dissection the bird should be pinned out

under water, so as to float the organs that are exposed. Dissect off the

Practecal Course. 108

soft wall of the abdomen, which lies between the sternum and the cloacal
aperture and clear away the membranes by whicb the various organs
are attached to each other.

The vessels of the heart ean now be examined more in detail.
After clearing the membrane (pericardial membrane) from the heart, it
can be turned up from behind so as to expose the posterior vena cava,
which returns the blood from all the posterior parts of the body into the
right auricle, This vessel passes through the large right lobe of the liver,
where it receives the hepatic veins. Behind the liver it divides into the
right and left iliac veins. These again split into femoral, hypogastric
and renal veins, which return the blood from the leg, the lower part of
the intestine and the kidneys respectively. After making out the pos-
terior vena cava and tracing it into the lobe of the liver, examine the
posterior part of the left auricle for the pulmonary vein, which returns
the blood from the lungs. Then clean the bases of the vessels in front
of the heart, and trace back the two innominate arteries to where these
arise in the form of the aorta from the left ventricle. This vessel, after
giving off the innominate arteries, continues its course downwards
round the right bronebial tube as the dorsal aorta, which supplies blood
to the digestive tract and all the posterior part of the body. Search
also for the pulmonary artery, which arises from the base of the right
ventricle close to, but below, the aorta and supplies blood to the lungs.
Then cut across the ventricles and see the partition which separates the
two chambers, Trace the trachea up to the glottis and then cut it
away altogether. Cut away the heart. Unravel the digestive tract,
noticing the veins in the mesentery, which collect the blood from the
digestive tract and converge to form the portal vein, which carries the
blood into the liver, Make out the following parts in the digestive
tract :—

(1) The wide crop formed by the dilation of the posterior part of
the esophagus. Cut across the crop to see its thin
walls.

(2) The slightly expanded stomach. Cut it across to see its
walls, which are thick and glandular as compared with
the thin walls of the crop. Notice the small red gland-
ular organ (spleen) attached to the side of the stomach.

(8) The thick hard muscular gizzard, in which the food is crushed,
after being acted upon by the gastric juices secreted in
the stomazh. Notice how the stomach and duodenum
enter and leave the gizzard close to each other. Cut the
gizzard across to see its thick muscular walls.

(4) The U-shaped loop of the intestine (duodenum) which lies
immediately behind the gizzard, The centre of the U-

104 Hlementary Manual of Zoology.

shaped loop is taken up by an elongated pinkish gland
(pancreas), which pours its secretion into the digestive
tract. The duodenum also receives the biie secreted by
the liver.

(5) Behind the duodenum the intestine continues its course as a
long narrow much convoluted tube to the cloacal aperture.

(6) About balf an inch above the cloacal aperture you will see a
little white ear-like appendage on either side of the tube.
‘hese are ceca, which in some birds are very largely
developed. They correspond to the vermiform appen-
dage which marks the commencement of the large intes-
tine in mammals,

Cut away the whole of the digestive tract, including the liver, and
wash out the body cavity. You will now be able to see —

(1) The yellowish spongy lungs which fill the front portion on
either side of the back of the cavity. A few cuts with
the knife on either side will enable the lungs to be re-
moved bodily without injury to the nerves bebind.
Notice how closely the lungs are appressed into the
spaces between the ribs.

(2) Posterior to the lungs lie the dark-coloured excretory glands
(kidneys), Their ducts pass down on either side to the
urogenital pouch, where the digestive tract, the excretory
and the reproductive organs, all unite before passing out
at the cloacal aperture.

(8) At the front end of the kidneys are a pair of somewhat indis-
tinct small yellowish bodies known as the supra-renal
bodies. They must not be confounded with the testicles.

(+) Above the kidneys in the male are a pair of round whitish
testicles which vary a good deal in size at different times
of the year. In the cold weather in Calcutta they are
conspicuous organs as big as peas. In the female the left
ovary alone is developed ; itis athin membranous sac
lying in front of the left kidney. It is usually dotted
with eggs, which are often very minute,

Cut away the reproductive organs and kidneys, You will now have
the ribs and vertebral column exposed. Notice the white (thoracic
spinal) nerves which pass out from the spinal column between each rib,
Notice also the delicate longitudinal nerve cords on either side of the

spinal column, with swellings at intervals. These connect the roots of
the spinal nerves and are known as the sympathetic nerve system. By
clearing away the tissues at the base of the neck you will be able to see the
net-work of large nerves known as the brachial plexus, which supply the

Practical Course. 105

shoulder and wings. The brachial plexus is formed by the junction of -
the posterior cervical and the anterior thoracic spinal nerves. By clear-
ing away the tissues in the repion of the kidneys you will be able to
see the lumbar plexus and the sciatic plexus, which arise from the lumbar
and sacral vertebra respectively and supply nerves to the leg.

Separate the head and neck from the rest of the body by cutting
through the base of the neck. Skin and then cut away the back of the
head carefully with a knife, so as not to injure the brain, which lies
immediately beneath the bone. Pick away the sides of the skull so as
to expose the whole of the brain, and cut away-the dorsal arches of the
vertebral column with scissors. Lift up the brain from behind with
as much of the spinal cord attached as possible. Cut through the
bumerous nerves which pass out through the skull below, so as to
remove it completely, Examine it under water with a lens and make
out the following parts :—

(1) The spinal cord, which fills the canal above the back-bone and
passes up into the skull by the large hole (foramen mag-
num) behind.

(2) The medulla oblongata or expanded part of the spinal cord
after it enters the skull.

(8) The median striated lobe (cerebellum), which overhangs the
medulla oblongata above.

(4) The large smooth cerebral hemispheres, which occupy almost all
the upper part of the cavity of the skull and meet each
other down the middle in a straight suture.

(5) The olfactory lobes, which are two little protuberances in which
the cerebral hemispheres terminate in front. From these the
olfactory or first nerves are given off to the nasal sacs.

(6) Between the cerebral hemispheres and the cerebellum lies a small
lobe known as the pineal body ; this, however, is so mych
overhung by the cerebral hemispheres that you will pro-
bably be unable to make it out.

Now turn the brain over in the water and on its ventral surface
observe—

(1) The lower surface of the cerebral hemispheres in front.

(2) The large rounded optic lobes which lie one on either side below
and behind the cerebral hemispheres. They are connected
with each other by the large optic tracts which pass in-
wards from each optic lobe and crossin the middle line
before giving origin to the enormous optic, or second
nerves which supply the eyes.

(8) The infundibulum, which lies in the middle line immediately
behind the junction of the optic tracts. It is connected
with the pituitary body, which lies below.

106 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

(4) Immediately behind the infundibulum, on either side, yoa will
be able to make out the pair of third nerves, which have
their origin close to the middle line.

(5) The fourth pair of nerves pass down on either side from their
origin on the dorsal surface and can be recognised lying
between the optic lobe and the medulla oblongata,

(6) Behind the nerves above noticed, there can be made out, under
favourable circumstances, the pairs Nos. 5 to 12, which all
have their origin in connection withthe ventral portion of
the medulla oblongata. You are not likely, however, to be
able to make them out satisfactorily without more ela-
borate dissection than is here intended.

Cut off one of the legs with scissors across the middle of the tibio-
tarsus. Dissect off the skin down to the toes and notice the tendons
which lie at the back of tie metatarsus. By pulling various parts of the
muscles that have been cut through with the tibio-tarsus, the students

- will be able, without difficulty, to separate out two tendons which serve
to flex the hallux and the three opposed toes respectively. On stripping
off the sheaths of these tendons they will be able to see that the tendons
pass down together behind the tarso-metatarsus, but are quite distinct
from each other, so that the flexing ofthe hallux is independent of the
flexing of the toes, The tendon which flexes the hallux is known as the
flexor longus hallucis, while the tendon which flexes the three opposed
toes is the flexor perforans digitorum. Their arrangement is an important
characteristic of the group of birds to which the sparrow belongs.

Take the remains of the skull, from which the brain has been ex-
tracted. Cut off the lower jaw, strip off the horny beak from the
upper jaw, and pick away the flesh and membrane from the roof of the
mouth with forceps, so as to expose the bones of the palate. Notice that
the central bone (vomer) which lies in the roof of the mouth, just below
the anterior end of the partition which separates the eyes, and which
bounds the cavity of the nostrils behind, is broad and blunt and discon-
nected from the little bones (maxillo-palatines) which lie on either side
of it. This arrangement is one of the characteristics of the order of
birds to which the sparrow belongs. It is difficult however to make

out satisfactorily in the sparrow.

DISSECTION OF THE PALM SQUIRREL. *

To make out the essential features of Mammalian structure a palm
squirrel (Sciurus palmarum) may conveniently be taken. Palm squirrels
are excessively common in Dehra, where they are known as gilehrt
They are best trapped or netted. They can be readily killed by putting
them into any closed receptacle and pouring in chloroform,

? It may be necessary to curtail or omit thia dissection for want of time,

Practical Course. « 107

Examine a specimen, noticing that the whole body is covered with
hair (as opposed to the feathers of the bird and the scales of the reptiles),
In the head make out the mouth, nostrils,eyes and ears. Notice that
the body consists of an interior portion, or thorax, protected by ribs and
a posterior portion, or abdomen, which is not so protected.

In the fore-limb make out—(1) the basal joint (arm), which is sup-
ported by the humerus bone ; (2) the second joint (forearm), which is
supported by the radius and ulna bones; (8) the wrist, supported by a
number of small bones (carpals); and (4) the hand, which consists of
four digits, each terminating in a claw, the thumb being rudimentary.

In the hind limb make out—(1) the basal joint (thigh), supported
by the femur, which is articulated to the pelvic girdle of bones that can
be felt through the skin in the lower portion of the back; (2) the
second joint (crus), supported by the tibia and fibula bones ; (3) the foot,
which comprises a basal portion supported by a number of tarsal bones
followed by five digits, each armed with a claw.

Feel the skull and vertebral column (back-bone) through the skin,
noticing how the latter is produced into the tail. In the female notice
the teats, which communicate with the mammary glands. In the male
notice the large scrotal pouch, which in the breeding season contains the
testes, which are of large size. In the case of both males and females
notice that the anal and urogenital openings are quite distinct from
each other.

Pin the animal on its back to the weighted bark, the pins being in-
serted into the bases of the legs. Immerse it in water, Slit open the
skin down the entire ventral surface in the middle line. Dissect away
and pin back the flap of skin on either side. In the female notice the
extensive mammary glands which lie immediately beneath the skin on
the ventral surface of the abdomen.

In connection with the neck, the large jugular vein, which will be
found on either side, usually gorged with blood, should be made out
(it conveys blood to the anterior vena cava, which will be noticed in con-
nection with the heart) ; also three pairs of pale-pink salivary glands.
These salivary glands are—

(1) The parotid gland, which is situated on the side of the head
below the ear ; it pours its secretion into the mouth by a
duct which opens in the cheek of the upper jaw.

(2) The sub-maxillary gland, situated in the neck near the middle
line, at the posterior angle of the mandible. It pours its
secretion into the mouth by a duct which opens below the
tongue.

(3) The sublingual gland, which is much smaller and lies just
above the sub-maxillary gland, its secretion being poured
into the mouth by a duct which opens below the tongue.

108 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

The students need not attempt to make out the ducts of these
salivary glands,

Dissect away the pectoral muscles, so as to expose the ribs. Make
out—

(1) The sternum or breast-bone, to which the ribs are attached in
the middle line in front.

(2) The slender collar-bone (clavicle), which is attached at one end
to the anterior end of the sternum and at the other end to
a process of the flat shoulder. blade (scapula), the humerus
bone being articulated between them. Dissect away the
muscles of the shoulder, so as to make out the relative
positions of these three bones,

(3) The ribs, which pass round the thorax from the vertebral
column.

Slit open the soft abdominal cavity behind the ribs, taking care not
to injure the viscera, which lie below. Pin back the muscular wall and
make out the following organs:—

(1) The liver, which is a large dark-reddish gland lying beneath
the posterior end of the ribs. Notice the little green
gall bladder in a notch of the outer lobe on the right side.

(2) The stomach, which is a large sac-like expansion of the
digestive tract, lying immediately behind the liver.

(3) The winding intestine, which takes up the greater part of the
rest of the abdominal cavity and terminates in the anus
behind.

(4) The thin-walled urinary bladder, which lies at the posterior end
of the abdominal cavity and communicates with the
urogenital opening in front.

Turn the viscera over without cutting anything. Notice the
partition in front (diaphragm) which separates the abdominal cavity
from the thoracic cavity, and make out the following organs :—

(1) The ‘spleen, which is an elongated glandular organ lying in
the left of the body behind the stomach.

(2) The kidneys, which are a pair of lean-shaped bodies lying in
the back of the abdominal cavity. Trace the pair of
slender yellowish tubes (ureters) by which the secretion
of the kidneys passes into the bladder. Notice the little
rounded organ (adrenal body) at the anterior end of each
kidney.

(3) The fold of transparent membrane (mesentery) which supports
the digestive tract and contains numerous blood-vessels.
Endeavour to make out the omentum, which is a fold
behind the stomach sometimes loaded with fat.

Practical Course. 109

(4) If the specimen isa female notice the thick-walled organs
(uteri) which bifurcate behind the bladder and vary very
much at different times of the year. If the specimen is
a male, notice the paired testes, which can sometimes be
pulled back into the abdominal cavity from the scrotal sacs.
Notice also the bilobed uterus masculinus behind the
bladder, which receives the vasa deferentia from the
testes and itself communicates with the urogenital canal.

Cut through the ribs on either side carefully with scissors and dissect
off the breast-bone (sternum), together with the whole of the frout wall
of the thoracic cavity, so as to expose the organs which lie below.
Observe that the thoracic cavity is completely shut off from the abdo-
minal cavity, and is lined with glistening membrane. In the middle lies
the large rounded heart enclosed in transparent membrane (pericardium),
while on either side are the spongy lungs,

Clear away the muscles in front, soas to make out the wind-pipe
(trachea), through which air passes into the lungs. It lies in the middle
line of the neck and can be immediately recognised by the thickened
cartilaginous rings by which it is supported,

Clear away the glandular matter (thymus) from in front of the thora-
cie cavity, dissect off the membrane in which the heart is enveloped, and
clean the vessels at the base of the heart. By pressing the heart and the
lungs apart a white nerve chord (phrenic nerve) can be seen on either side.
‘These nerves are branches of the fourth cervical nerves and supply the
muscular partition (diaphragm) which separates the thoracic and abdo-
minal cavities.

Examine the heart aud make out—

(1) The thick muscular ventricles which occupy all the posterior
portion of the organ, the partition between the right
and left halves not being very plainly visible externally.

(2) The right and left auricles, which are two thin-walled chambers
lying in front of the right and left ventricles. To see the
auricles plainly the heart should be turned over a little
first to one side and then to the other. The right auricle
receives the blood from all parts of the body except the
lungs, and passes it on into the right ventricle, The right
ventricle drives the blood to the lungs, whence it returns to
the left auricle, which passes it on into the left ventricle.
‘lhe left ventricle drives the blood to all parts of the body,
whence it finds its way back to the right auricle, thus com-
pleting the circle,

The chief vessels in connection with the heart are—

(1) The right and left vessels (anterior vena cava) by which the
blood returns to the right auricle from the anterior portion

110

Elementary Manual of Zoology.

of the body. These large veins can be made out without
much difficulty, passing down along the inner side of each
lung. The right anterior vena cava passes directly into
the right auricle in front, while the left anterior vena cava
has to cross the heart behind and enters the right auricle
on the left side.

(2) The posterior vena cava. This large vein returns the blood

from all the posterior parts of the body. It can readily
be seen, on turning up the base of the heart, where it en-
ters the posterior end of the right auricle. It traverses
the liver and is again visible in the posterior part of the
abdominal cavity on the right side. Its chief branches are
the hepatic veins, which return the blood from the liver,
the renal veins, which return the blood from the kidneys
and the iliac and lumbar veins, which return the blood from
the posterior extremities,

(3) The pulmonary artery. This isa somewhat smaller thick-wall-

ed vessel. It arises from the anterior end of the right
ventricle and is the channel through which the blood is
driven into the lungs. On pulling back the heart with
the finger and thumb it can easily be seen where it leaves
the right ventricle, between the two auricles, and arches
over behind the left auricle before branching to the lungs.

(4) The pulmonary veins. These veins return the blood from the

lungs to the left auricle. Turn up the heart from behind
and make out the two branches from the lungs, which -
unite before passing with the dorsal portion of the left
auricle,

(5) The aorta. This thick-walled vessel arises from the left ven-

tricle just behind the origin of the pulmonary artery. It
is the channel through which the blood is pumped by the
left ventricle. Trace it forwards as far as possible and see
where it arches over to the left, after giving off the large
vessels (innominate and left sub-clavian arteries) which
supply the head and fore-limb. By pulling the heart back
with the finger and thumb the three branches (left carotid,
right sub-clavian and right carotid) into which the innomi-
nate artery breaks up can easily be made out. Notice the’
ligamentous band (ductus arteriosus) which connects the
arch of the aorta with the pulmonary artery, and which
represents a channel of communication between these two
vessels through which blood passes during: embryonic life,
On pulling back the left lung the continuation of the
aorta can be seen where it passes down the dorsal portion

Practical Course. ll

of the chamber to supply blood to the posterior organs of
the body.

Now turn to the abdominal cavity and endeavour to make out the
vessels which unite to form the portal vein, which returns the blood from
the digestive tract and spleen to tlie liver, where it passes through a
series of capillaries before joining the posterior vena cava, The chief of
these vessels are—(1) the lineogastric vein, which returns the blood
from the stomach and spleen; (2) the duodenal vein, which returns the
blood from the duodenum ; and (8) the anterior and posterior mesenteric
veins, which return the blood from the whole of the intestine and rectum.
These veins are best seen in a fresh specimen; the important point to
remember about them is that the blood from the whole length of the di-
gestive tract returns to the liver.

Free the coils of the digestive tract by cutting through the membran-
ous mesentery by which it is supported. Straighten out the intestine.
Trace up the narrow tube (csophagus) which passes through the dia-
phragm and serves to convey the food from the mouth into the stomach. —
Observe that the whole digestive tract is merely a winding tube which
connects the mouth in front with the anus bebind, and notice the fol-
lowing portions of it :— E

(1) The narrow cesophagus.

(2) The expanded stomach.

(3) The narrow portion (duodenum) which leaves the right side of
the stomach and receives in front the bile duct from the
liver, and behind the duct from the pancreas, which is a
gland situated in the loop formed by the duodenum and is
very small in the palm squirrel.

(4) The small intestine, which is the narrow winding portion of the
tube between the duodenum and a large blind sack-like
outgrowth known as the cecum.

(5) The remainder of the tract consist of the colon and rectum,
where the tube is somewhat wider. The rectum opens at
the anus behind.

Cut away the whole of the digestive tract, also the liver, diaphragm,
heart, and Jungs, with scissors. The dorsal aorta can now be readily
traced down the back, immediately above the vertebral column on the
left side. Dissect it out as far as possible, noticing the branches that it
gives off in its course.

Dissect away the muscles of the shoulder and hip, so as to see the
large nerves (brachial plexus) which supply the fore-limb, also the large
nerves (lumbo sacral plexus) which supply the hind-limb. These nerve
plexi are formed in each case by the union of several nerves which issue
from the spinal cord, but it will not be necessary to trace them to
their origins.

112 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

Force open the mouth and examine the pair of large chisel-shaped
teeth (incisors) both in the upper and lower jaw. These teeth continue
to grow throughout life, and are characteristic of the order ( Rodentia)
to which the palm squirrel belongs.

Cut away the soft skin of the roof of the mouth, and make out
where the cavity of the nostrils passes out behind just opposite to where
the trachea begins, so that the air is able to pass in breathing directly
into the lungs without entering the mouth, Eustachian tubes connect
the cavities of the ears with the posterior nasal chamber, but the
students will probably be unable to make them out.

Turn the specimen over and pin it out into the weighted bark with
the back uppermost. Take off the skin, and dissect away the
muscles from the back of the neck. Insert the point of the scissors into
the large opening (foramen magnum) of the skull behind, and carefully
dissect off the back and sides of the skull, taking care not to injure the
soft brain that it contains. Continue the dissection down the back,
cutting through the spinal arches so as to expose the spinal cord.
Hardening the brain by placing the specimen in strong aleohol for a few
days after the roof of the skull has been removed facilitates subsequent
dissection, but the more important features can be made out in the
fresh state.

Notice that the skull is lined with tough membrane (dura mater),
which will probably Le torn offin removing the bone. Beneath this is
a much thinner membrane (pia mater), which closely invests the brain
and contains the superficial blood-vessels. Pick the brain as clean as
possible with forceps and make out the following parts, begioning from.
behind :—

(1) The medulla oblongata, which is the expanded end of the
spinal cord where it passes into the skull.

(2) The cerebellum, which is a much foliated mass lying above
the medulla oblongata.

(3) The cerebral hemispheres which are two smooth elongated
masses in front of the cerebellum, They take up the
greater part of the upper portion of the cavity of the
skull, ;

(4) Lying in the angle between the cerebral hemispheres and
the cerebetlum is the small pineal body, which is very
liable to get torn away in removing the roof of the skull.
It represents the rudiment of what was once a median
eye.

(5) The olfactory lobes, which are two small rounded masses lying
in front of the cerebral hemispheres. They give origin
to the olfactory nerves.

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WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS, PLATES,
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VOL. I.

From the Origin of the Bahmanee Kings till the beginning of
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46, GREAT RusSELL SIREET, OPPOSITE ‘THE BritisH Museum.

113

Preservation of specimens. 113

(6) By turning up the cerebral hemispheres behind, the posterior
portion of the rounded optic lobes, which lie below, can
be made out.

Cut through the spinal cord about half an inch behind the cerebel-
lum, Take hold of it with forceps and gently lift it up so as to raise
the posterior portion of the brain from the floor of the skull. Notice
the nerves which arise from the sides and ventral surface of the medulla
oblongata. These nerves are eight in number, being the fifth to the
twelfth craninal nerves. Most of them have numerous roots, The
chief of them are the hypoglossal, which supplies branches to the tongue,
the pneumogastic, which supply branches to the stomach, lungs,
throat, and heart, the auditory nerve, which supplies‘the ear, and the
trigeminal nerve, which supplies the front of the head. The ‘student
will not be able to distinguish between these nerves without more ela-
borate dissection than is here intended, but he should notice the roots
he is able to make out.

Now lift the brain completely out of the skull, cutting through the
nerves with the point of a knife. Examine the lower surface under
water, and make out :—

(1) The two large temporal lobes of the cerebral hemispheres,
which stand out as rounded protuberances on either side,
about the middle of the length of the brain,

(2) Immediately between the large temporal lobes is a median
rounded elevation (infundibulum) to which the small
rounded pituitary body is attached. The pituitary body
is usually torn off in extracting the brain.

(3) In front of the infundibulum may be seen the optic chiasma,
where the large optic tracts cross each other before passe
ing into the eyes. Trace back the optic tracis, by
pushing aside the temporal lobes, to thg large optic
lobes above.

The sympathetic nerve system in the palm squirrel is difficult to
recognise. It consists of a series of delicate nerve-cords and ganglia
lying on either side of the dorsal aorta, but the students are not likely to
be able to make them out.

NOTE ON THE PRESERVATION OF ZOOLOGICAL
SPECIMENS.

If the animal is a small one, the simplest plan is to cut one or
two slits in it, so as to enable the alcohol to penetrate thoroughly, and
then to drop it into a bottle of spirits of wine. The spirit should be
changed two or three times, as it gets weak by absorbing moisture out of

J

114 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

the specimen. AJ] animals, including insects, can be preserved in spirit im
this way. The method, however, is only practicable with small animals,
and even in their case the alcohol damages the colours and renders butter-
flies and moths almost unrecognisable. It is, however, the best way te
preserve all caterpillars, grubs and other soft-bodied insects, also small
snakes, lizards, fishes and other small vertebrates, To prevent the shrivel-
ling which is liable to take place when the specimen is dropped at once
into strong alcohol, it is agood thing to begin by putting it for a few
hours into weak spirit, which should afterwards be changed for the very
strongest available.

All hard-bodied insects, including moths, are best killed in a killing
bottle and then wrapped up in thin paper to dry, after which they can be
preserved for any length of time, provided they are kept in a tight-fitting
box with a little camphor, or naphthaline, to prevent their being attacked
by mites and beetles. In the case of insects with large thick bodies,
before wrapping them up in paper, soma of the viscera should be removed
through a slit made with a pair of scissors on the lower surface of the
abdomen. The abdomen should then be stuffed with a little cotton wool
on which a few drops of carbolic acid have heen poured. For most
butterflies no killing bottle is required, as they can easily be killed hy
pinching the thorax between the finger and thumb.

A killing bottle is made by putting a few lumps, each as big as the
top of one’s thumb, of Cyanide of Potassium (which should be handled
carefully, as it is extremely poisonous) at the bottom of alottle and then
pouring in sufficient plaster of Paris to cover the lumps. The plaster .of
Paris is first mixed with enough water to make it of the consistency of
cream. The plaster of Paris soon sets into a firm mass at the bottom of
the bottle. When it is dry, the bottle should be tightly corked up to
prevent the escape of the vapour of the cyanide. Any insect can be
killed in a few minutes by dropping it into such a bottle and closing up
the eork.

For vertebrata, which are too large to preserve entire in alcohol, the
best thing is to preserve the skins. The skin should be removed by slit-
ting it open down the ventral surface of the body (or, in the case of fishes,
down one side), and then gradually dissecting it away from the body and
limbs, using plenty of wood-ashes to prevent soiling. The skull should
generally be left in the skin,. but it should be cleaned as much as possi-
ble and the brain should he picked out through the large opening (fora-
men magnum) behind. To do this the skin should be turned inside out
over the head. The eyes also should be carefully extracted. In the case
of small vertebrates the leg bones (in birds also the wing bones) should be
left in the skin, but they should be cleaned as much as possible. In the
case of fish it is a good thing to paste the whole animal up in thin paper

Technical Terms. 115

before skinning it, as this prevents the scales coming off in the opera-
tion. The paper can easily be washed off afterwards, ‘The eyes in birds
are very large, and the best way to remove them is by opening the mouth
and cutting them out with a pair of scissors through the palate. After
the skin has been cleaned as much as possible of fat and flesh, it should
be well rubbed on the inside with arsenical soap to poison it. After this
has been done, the skin can be preserved indefinitely, provided it is
thoroughly dried. In the case of fishes, the skin shrinks so much in
drying that it is best to stuff it tightly with cotton wool and then to
sew up the slit in the side before drying, In the case of birds all that
is necessary is to stuff the eye-sockets and throat and puta little cotton
wool into the neck and body to preserve the lie of the feathers. A
small piece of stick cut a little longer than the combined length of the
body and neck and inserted, one end into the back of the skull and the
other into the base of the tail, helps'to keep the skin in a natural position
in drying.
The proportions. of the various ingredients for making arsenical soap

are given in Hume’s Vade Mecum as fullows:—

One part of camphor.

One part of spirits of turpentine.

Eight parts of soap.

Eight parts of white salient arsenic.

The soap should be first melted over the fire with a little water to
prevent burning. The arsenic should be mixed in and well stirred
while the soap is hot. (N.B.—The arsenic must be handled. carefully,
as it is very poiscnous.) The camphor and turpentine, which sbou!d
previously have been mixed together, are to be woked in as soon as the
soap is cool enough for the hand to rest in it. It is most important
that the ingredients should be thoroughly mixed together.

In preparing skeletons or skulls the bones should be picked as clean
as possible by cutting the flesh and skin off them, cave bein& taken not
to lose any of the small bones (especially the tongue bones, the knee-cap
and the small bones of the wrist), The bones should then be dried in
the sun, and packed up in saw-dust. Bones should never be boiled to
remove the flesh, but when wanted for setting up, the sun-dried skele-
ton should be macerated in cold water until the flesh falls off, when the
skeleton can easily be cleaned.

EXPLANATIONS OF TECHNICAL TERMS.

Ameboid.— Having movements like the Amcba,
Annulate,—Marked with rings.
Antenna.—A jointed appendage attached to the head in Arthropoda.

116 Elementary Manual of Zoology.

Aortic arck.—A large artery which conveys the blood from the heart
towards the back in Vertebrata.

Asexual.— Without the intervention of the male.

Auditory.—Connected with hearing.

Auricle.—A thin walled chamber of the heart in Vertebrata.

Barbels.—Slender feeler like organs situated about the mouth in many
fishes.

Bilaterally symmetrical.—With body arranged in such a manner around
a central axis that the two sides are similar to each other, but the
back (dorsal surface) is different from the front (ventral surface).

Branchia.—Leaf-like respiratory organs adapted for breathing oxygen
dissolved in water.

Canines.—A pair of teeth situated one on each side of the mouth in

~ Mammalia.

Carabid,—Belonging to the group Carabide.

Caudal.—Relatiug to the tail,

Celit.—The ultimate living unit of which the body is built up. In
its simplest form it consists of a little speck of protoplasm con-
taining a nucleus.

Cephalice.—Connected with the head.

Cephalothoraz.—A division of the body composed of the head and
thorax combined. It occurs in spiders and many crustacea.

Chitin.—The substance of which the armour plates in insects are
composed.

Chitinous.—Formed of chitin.

Chrysalis—The ‘name popularly given to the pupa in the group
Lepidoptera on account of the golden coloration noticeable in
certain species. :

Ciltia.— Little vibratile hair-like processes attached to cells,

Ciliated.— Furnished with cilia.

Celomate.—Provided with a body cavity in which the digestive tract
is suspended.

Coleopterous,—Belonging to the group Coleoptera.

Dermal.—Connected with the skin.

Digestive tract.—The organs of the body which serve to take up
nutriment direct from the food.

Digitigrade.— Walking upon the tips of the toes,

Dipterous.—Belonging to the group Diptera.

Dorsal.—Relating to the back or upper surface of the body.

Liytra.—tThe stiff horny front wings in beetles,

Epidermis.—One of the layers of the skin in Vertebrata.

Eacretory.—Connected with the casting off of waste products.

Femur.—One of the joints of the leg.

Technical Terms. 117

Filéform,—Resembling a thread. :

fetus.—The young animal before it quits the body of its mother,

Heteromerous.—Belonging to the group Heteromera—with tarsi four
jointed on the hind legs and five jointed on the first and second
pairs of legs.

Hymenopterous.—Belonging to the group Hymenoptera.

Imago,—The mature stage in the life history of an animal.

Incisors.—A group of front teeth in Mammalia.

Inguinal.—Connected with the groin.

Integument.—The outer layer of the body,

Labial.—Connected with the labium.

Labium.—The lower lip in insects.

Labrum.—The front or upper lip in insects.

Larva.—The imperfectly developed stage through which many animals
pass after leaving the egg.

Mammary glands.—Glands_ characteristic of the Mammalia which
secrete the milk with which the offspring is nourished for a time
after birth.

Mandible-—One of the front pair of jaws in Arthropoda; also the
chief bone of the lower jaw in Vertebrata.

Mantle.—In the Mollusca, a fold of the integument which generally
secretes a shell.

Maxilla,—One of the second pair of jaws in insects; also a bone in
the upper part of the mouth in Vertebrata.

Maatllary.—Connected with the maxilla.

Mesothorax.—The middle segment of the thorax in insects.

Metathorax.—The posterior segment of the thorax in insects.

Aligratory.— Prone to wander long distances,

Molars.—Certain back teeth in the Mammalia.

Mucous membrane.—The slimy membrane which lines the digestive
tract in the higher animals.

Multicellular, —Formed of many cells.

Nucleus.—A dense structure which is to be found in every cell.

Occipital condyle-A bony process situated at the base of the skull:
in Vertebrata.

Ocelli.—Minute eyes of very simple structure possessed by many
insects.

Organ.—A portion of the body differentiated for the performance of
a particular function.

Organism,—That which is made up of organs—an animal.

Orthopterous.—Belonging to the group Orthoptera.

Palp.—A jointed organ attached to some of the appendages of the
mouth in Arthopoda.

Pectoral.—Relating to the breast.

118 Fitementary Manual of Zoology.

Pectinated.— With processes resembling the teeth of a comb.

Peduncle.—A stalk sach as that by which the abdomen is connected
with the thorax in many Hymenoptera.

Pelvic.— Relating to the Pelvis.

Pentamerous.—Belonging to the group Pentamera, with five-jointed
tarsi.

Plantigrade.— Walking upon the sole of the foot.

Plumose.—Furnished with feathery hairs.

Premolars.—Certain teeth in the Mammalia situated between the
molars and the canines,

Prolegs.—Fleshy protuberances which serve as additional legs in the
larvee of some insects.

Prothorax.—The anterior segment of the thorax in insects.

Protoplasm.—A_ jelly-like substance which is an essential compenent
of every cell.

Pupa.—The resting stage which intervenes in the life history of
many insects between the larval and imago stages.

Pupal,—Relating to the pupa.

Quadrate bone.—A bone situated in the side of the bead in Vertebrata. —

Radially symmetrical,—With body arranged symmetrically around a
central axis, the ventral surface not being differentiated from the
dorsal.

RKuminant.—That chews the cud.

Scutellum.—A triangular plate situated in the middle of the back at
the base of the front wings in Coleoptera and many Rhynchota,

Segments.—The joints of which the body in Arthopoda is made up.

Segmentation, —Di vision into sezments,

Segmented.—Composed of segments.

Sessile.—Attached direct without the intervention of a stalk.

Stigmata.—The external openings of the breathing tubes in insects.

Stridulation—Sound made by many Arthropoda. It is usually pro-
duced by the rubbing of one rough surface against auother.

Tarsus.—A joint, or series of joints, in the leg.

Zetramerous.— Belonging to the group Tetramera, with four-jointed
tarsi.

Thoracie.— Belonging to the thorax.

Thoraz.—One of the divisions of the body in Arthropoda and Verte-
brata.

Tibia.—TIn insects, one of the joints of the leg: in Vertebrata, one of
the leg bones,

Tissues.—The living materials of which the body is made up.

Trachea.—The breathing tubes in insects.

Trimerous.—Belonging to the group Trimera with three-jointed tarsi.

Technical Terma, 119

Unsegmented.— Not composed of segments,

Urogenital.—Connected with the urinary and reproductive organs.

Urticating.—Capable of inflicting a sting.

Uterus.—That portion of the reproductive organs in the female where
the young animal is elaborated before quitting the body of its
mother,

Fentral.—Relating to the front or lower surface of the body.

Ventricle.—A thick walled chamber of the heart in Vertebrata, which
receives the blood from one or both of the auricles,

Government of India Central Printing Offise. —No. 147 R. & A.—7-6-94.—500.—E, N.

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