PMT atta a sl 4 Weiss BG WSU aw boxy aye ye in Ni) Pity tt MM vt ak i uh iis i‘ Tawny NNT ahs at SN aC ey SANA ECP SS PEA Ag ne Ca MA Ag AACS AG Ht Mut TAT ee BiquiG ee va? MTA HMA AHAB AGE PARA AKAD AA ALM Asa Hy rvs iy ie pi eta wis/, f } ids AAMAS Mh fe MAAC AK RMA ; i Prenat ST I, EG nore es HAM CME, Me Has ey ( Ms 4 tf Piety Lid Oso é HG Poo ce i , ‘ Mey e a} ie vy (i Ag (4 vey. 7 Me 7 i ry He ro fr yy 7 Ls Me aby eh HANS Wiese MY sot etvey ery iealy PRM AA HY HOG hae re, 7 ny (a Ae Kak ‘ ot yr wy Teer ey a eae chara ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New YorkK STATE COLLEGES OF AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Cornell University Library the renewal of neglected apple orchards. Cornell University The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003408600 THES lS. THE RENEWAL OF NEGLECTED aPPLE ORCHaRDS, J, Le STRAnaL, ~ Aste De aces Su J27914 foo REME4L OF NOCLECTEAD AP Le ORCmAnS. Scattered throughcut the state are many 2 ple orchards of frou three orlfour acres to thirty-five or forty acres in 6xteat, ehaieh, frou, lack of proper care or al least from Careless 2anaseient , are “o1ng LO wrack ang ruin. This state of atrairs is not only wasteful of the material bounties of the earth but results in an actual financial loss to the owner of such orchards. «4 few years or care and scientific treatwent could bring an orchard that was costing its owner aunually the rent of the land it was occurying, uo to a condition where it would not only pay that rent but be a source of revenue considerably over and above it. This has been done by practical srowers ona coaasreial scale so its validity is tested out, “ith these in view, it would seem advisasle to study the matter in soue detail, discoverins, if possible, the most efficient methods of soil saanacement, fertilization, vruning and Spraying (or Gld trees, Tres Lhe Skberisnices or Mien who have been successful in bringing their old orchards into profitable bearing, This paper, being as it is ina way, & compilation of the results of many, cannot be accented as final. Diffeient methods of renewal may be equally efficient in different localities, The present study is therefore designed to be simply suggestive, znd in no sense the last word on the subject. For convenience, the subject has been divided into separate heads, which will be discussed in order, as follows; iL. Gultiyition, including soil management, the use of cover erops, ete. ee 2. Fertilization, including the use of the different material available to the grower as fertilizers and their effects on the trees, o. Pruning, including a discussion of the so called practices of ‘dehorning", scraping down the ba@tk, etc. 4, Spraying, imeluding life history and control of those pests and deseases which appear most likely to infest old trees, with a spray pee pee such, Ss Profits. Data for this is necessarily difficult to eolleen, ad Lnererorée thig head Will how be dist¢usséd as fully as the writer would like; but what is available may be suggestive. CULTIVATION, Most orchards whicn have been neglected for any length of time, have been in sod so long, and such a thick, tough mat has forsed that the trees are starved for lack of the food which has gone to nourish the grass and weeds. besides this the soil itself is in poor physical condition owing to lack of acration and proper draifure. Obviously the first thing to be done is to turn the sod over, It may be found difficult to do this a6 the sod ig lixely to be tough, the ground hard, and the tree roots near the surface. Tt has been found advisable, under such circumstances, to turn hors in and let then root uo the ground during the sumer. The following spring, olowing will be found much easier and the root pruning which the trees will undergo be benefical rather tnan detrinental., The actual feeding roots of a.tree are renewed each yeur anyway, and orunings y Jv?) 2 & a the larger roots will have a tendency to make the feeders develope deeper in the soil during the following season. This is very desirable, as it allows of deeper plowing and en- larges the feeding zone of the roots. Following the plow should come a disk harrow, and the sod be thoroughly disked. This is essential, as it covers up any exposed roots and puts the sod in better condition to be decomposed and changed to humus In slowing, it is well to annually reverse the order of break- ing the ground, throwing soil toward the trees one year, and away the next. This tends to keep the surface from becoming irregular much longer than when the same order of plowing is followéd, year after year. As plowing close up to the bodies of the trees cannot be safely done through danger of injury by the traces bruising or mutilating them, it is almost necessary to have a one-horse breaking plow to finish up the rows. Felipe ine the plowing or disking, the surface should be kept clean and mellow with a spring tooth harrow, fine tooth cultivator or weeder., Cultivation of this kind is kept up until the middle of July or the first or middle of August, when some cover crop should be sown and allowed to take possession of the soil for the balance of the season. There are two classes of suitable cover-crop plants, vis;legumes and non-legumes, which should be used alternately according to the needs of the trees, Legumes, like clover or vetch have the power, through the action of certain nitrogen fixing bacteria which live on their roots, of adding a very considerable amount of nitrogen to the soil which is available for the use of the trees when the plants are turned under. They have therefore a fertilizer value above that of the hws which is a product of their decay. The other class of plants, the non-legumes, simply add humus to the soil together with what plant foods they used in their developement. The condition of the trees should determine which of these plants are to be used. The action of nitrozen is to stimulate the growth of wood at the espense of the fruit. If this is the result desired, then legumes should be used in conjunction with the regular fertilizing system. If,on the other hand, the wood growth is too abundant and should be checked, some one of the non-legumes should be used. A nunber of different plants have been used successfully as cover crops. WManmcoth and crimson clover have proven good for this purpose as have also winter vetch and cowpeas. These latter are usually sown in irills two feet apart and at the rate of = to 1 bu. per acre, The young plants are then cultivated to give them a vigorous start. In order to secure uniform covering for the ground, a mixture of rye and vetch is sometimes broadcasted between tne rows immediately preceding the last cuitication, This combination furnishes a dense carpeting during the winter and makes an early heavy growth the following spring by the time the ground should be plowed again, In changing from cld sod to cultivation the ground is very hard to work. One of the crops which has the best effects in loofening up the soil and getting it in friable condition is buckwheat, The roots of this plant are pene- trating in their action and strixe deep thereby helping to breacku» hard, unyielding soil. This should be used as a cover cro) the first year for this reason, Turning under a few such crops will make the soil spongy and friable, increase its moisture capacity and thereby render it more able to resist drought. The cover crop plan is probably the nearest approach to the clean cultivation method of management which one can safely use and fulfill all the requirements of the trees. It combines a neat appearing orchard, which so many men delight in, with a thoroughly efficient one which, from a commercial standpoint is the desired end. On some soils, where there is a decided tendency to wash, dis not advisable to turn the Wo8 over at all. On steep hillsides this is likely to be the case. The soil froi the top of the hill will gradually be transported through water action to the bottom, leaving the trees up above without any means of support. For such conditions as these, the sod mulch method of management has been devised and has proven quite successful, although it is doubtful whether such good results could be obtained from it as from the cover crop method on level or fairly level ground, It consists essentiallysy;77 of the following. The orchard is seeded down to some such grass as orA4chard grass or timothy and from these a sod is allowed to develope. Each year, instead of cultivating the ground the grass is allowed to grow until late in May or early in June when it is Bown ang left woere it falls. If it grows rapidly it should be cut again in July or August. The grass which is cut forms a mulch and returns to the soil what plant food it utilized in developing. There is a wide deversity of opinion among fruit growers as to which of the two methods is the better. According to an experiment conducted at the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm in England with regard to the effect of grass on apple trees, it was found that the grass roots excreted a substance which was toxic to the tree roots and that the poor results usually obtained from the sod method of management was due to this toxic effect rather than to the fact that the grass robbed the trees of noisture and food when it is most needed. An experiment carried on at the Geneva Station in this state seems to favor the cover-crop method. An orchard was divided into two plats, one being left in sod and the other being cultivated according to the cover crop method. After running for six years, the following suggestive data was recorded. Sod Tillage Fruits per bbl. 434 309 Bols. per tree,- 28 4.2 Net profit per acre,- L492 110,43 Gain in diameter of trunk,- 1.1 inch eel neh. These results are undoubtedly in favor of the tillage method of management. On of the greatest arguments in favor of sod mulch is that it is less expensive and takes less time, thereby leaving the grower more tine to engage in other farm operations, In the above cuoted experiment exact cost accounts were kept and the sod method was less than one half as expensive to operate than the tillage method on an @Verage; but the net gains were nore than proportionatly less; so much so that tillage proved more profitable. The following figures for five years ure suggestive. 5 OD, Cutting Harvesting Total Net grass Crop Expense Income 1904- 19.99 219.25 Ser.ie: 225,76 1905- 7.46 82.89 166,47 360.28 1906- 3.56 104.50 186,29 154,96 1907=- 3.67 138 ¢0F 239.28 487,16 1908- 6,14 173.435 246.88 353.86 Total 40.62 717.94 1166 ,06-1552 .03 , Joi lh GE, - Oulti- Harvesting Total Net vation Crop Expense Income 1904- 33,75 210490 332,55 185,54 1905- 48,71 96.85 2cL40e 555,60 1906- 36.50 251.80 340.73 392,42 1907- 46,63 224,20 St Leoo 800.51 1908= 36,67 OOO «og 447.82 723,41 Total 196.06 Lig? .s4 1714.13 2457 .05 Although the sod method cost@ only *40.62 and the tillage costa “196.06, yet the net gains of the sod were only *1552.03 while those of the tillage were *2457.08 or nearly twice as great. So in this case at least, the cultivation method proved financially to be the more desirable. Tith regard to soil management, out of fifteen men who had been more or less successful in renovating old orchards, eight were decidedly in favor of tillage and seven favored sod in some degree or another. Of those who favored sod one simply delayed cultivation for three or four years until the other necessary operations such as pruning, spraying, etc. were well under way and beginning to show results. Another gave as his reasons for not cultivating that his orchard was small and located near the house where culti- vating would spoil the looks of his grounds. He would un- doubtedly have obtained better results by cultivating. Still another left his orchard in sod for the main and’ dug up around each tree every summer applying stable manure and some form of commercial fertilizer. This in a measure combines both systems, getting some of the benefits of cultivation at small cost. Another found that after two or three years of cultivation his trees made too vigorous wood growth, so seeded his orchard down and left it in sod to check the rapid wood developement. Thus his was also a combined system, receiving practically all the benefits of cultivation. It must be borne in mind, however, that not many old trees which require a system of renovating ar strong and virile enough to allow of such a method of manageient, although there undoubtedly are conditions where, as this man states, “cultivation can be overdone’. Another man got “very satisfactory results from the sod mulch method", It is evident, however, that he never tried the tillase method, and the chances are that, had he done so, his results would have been much more satisfactory. It is interesting to note that of the seven who used the sod mulch method only one was decidedly for it. He tried both systems and his results proved much more satisfactory in the case of the sod than in the case of tillage. &11l eight of the men who favored tillage were emphatically in favor of it. There seemed to be no possible doubt in their minds as to which was the better system. One man writes, 9 "Our trees under cultivation both with and without cover crops have made a fine new growth yearly, have increased greatly in size, have healed over most of the damaged pagk areas, and are to-day in a most healthy and robust condition. Another ,- "The effect as noticed from cultivation is slightly larger fruit but not such good color. Another writes, "Cultivation much better for all trees", meaning both young and old. A firm of landscape forresters and entomologists favors cultivation as evidenced by the following. “Ye generally recommend cultivation except on hillsides and even then in strips.” This is evidently to get the benefits from cultivation and at the same time pre- vent rapid washing. Another grower writes,"Cultivation used, as secured thereby better annual growth and wounds heal more quickly; no injurious effects noted." All men quoted so far as favoring tillage had tried the sod method first as being cheap- er, and had had poor, unsatisfactory results. Others of the eight tried the tillage method first and were well enough pleased with their results to continue with it and recommend it. From the foregoing evidence it seems to be aparant that for average soil and topographic conditions cultivation and cover crops are the more desirable method and gives financially the better results. Yet there are conditions where , if apples are to be grown at all, the sod mulch method must be used; as for instance in the case where the trees are on a steep hillside and the danger of washing is great, or in the much more unusual case where the soil is so rich that the trees must be checked, rather than stimulated. It is only under such special conditions that, as far as the writer can see, sod mulch for any aged tree is to be recommended, 10 FERTILIZATION, Of late years the question of fertilization has been studied to some extent by scientific men with the result that in their opinion, a great deal, infact most of the fertilizers applied to orchard soils in chemical form are wasted. This view is some what borne out by the United States Department of Agriculture Bureau of Soils, in one of its bulletins concerning the soil solution, vis., that all soils contain sufficient plant food in solution to nourish an average crop every year providing good cultural methods are employed. Because of its extensive spread of roots and the consequent great intake of water from the soil, this theory would be especially applicable to the apple tree. Even if the solution were weak, the enormous amount of water taken in and required because of the extensive transpiring area of the leaves, would provide enough solid food to meet the requirements of the tree, It would seem unnecessary then to add any chemical fertilizer to a soil which is already plenty rich enough. a bulletin from the Geneva Station by Professor Hedrick entitled, "Does the Apple Orchard need Fertilizers", concludes thus (Bull. 339 Pop. edition) ‘The final conclusion must be that the trees in this orchard would be practically as well off in every respect had not an ounce of fertilizers been used about them, If fertilizers are not necessary for young trees in this orchard they have no value in inumerable other orchards in New York , One of the lessons the experiment should teach is that fertilizers are not necessary in the average soils if tillage and good care the rule,- the truth of the old adage ‘tillage is manure’. Although this experiment was run with young trees, there is little reason to believe that it would not apply equally well to old trees. Of course, large trees neéd more food than do small ones, but they are provided with a root system sufficiently large ot meet their requirements. Another experiment carried on at the Geneva Station (Bull.289 U.P.Hedrick) between the years of 18935 and 1904 would seem to bear out this idea. An orchard which Fieger. id had,in sod for forty three years was used for this experiment. It contained trees of the following varieties; Baldwin, Fall Pippin, Rhode Island, Roxbury and Northern Spy. In order to test out the effects of potash and phosphate on the yield and color of fruit, the following amounts of fertilizers were applied to four of the eight plats into which the orchard had been divided, per tree per acre Wood ashes 1c00# 4800# + Acid phosphate Bs 4084 Ee The phosohate was applied only during the last seven years. According to calculations made the actual amounts of potash and aphosphate applied were as follows: ee O05 per acre 72# from ashes 57# from phosphate Ko Oo i ur eh 6 o# 1 Ww Lime 1536# fer acre After ten years of this treatment, the following results were noted. Annual average increase in bu per tree, Fall Pippin Lavo Roxbury 2.65 Greening Minus 0.34 Spy 2,55 12:5 Baldwin mee From a financial standpoint, the results were practically negative. The extimated increase in value of the crop on the treated plats for a hypothetical five acres was “74.50. The net gain was only *24,50 or hardly enough to pay for hauling the fertilizers, It is interesting to note that both treated and un- treated plats increased markedly in yield from 1893 to 1904, The probable explanation is that prior to 1893 the orchard had been in sod and no cultural methods had been employed. Since the beginning of the experiment, however, the orchard was plowed and managed according to the cover crop system each year, It was much more productive under the latter treatment, The results as to color lack uniformity. They were not definite enough in a sufficient number of seasons to warrant the assumption that the color was effected in any way by the fertilizers applied. The influence on the color was most marked in years when the climatic conditions were most unfavorable to the developement of the fruit, Results seem quite conclusive for the Station orchard. Fifty three years of orchard cropyving did not reduce the soil to a condition where a “complete” fertilizer wags necessary. In summing uv his conclusions, Professor Hedrick says, "The results of this experiment should not lead the grower to conclude that his soil does not need the nutrients supplied. They suggest, however, since the soil of the Station orchard is an average piece of soil for western New York, that there may be many other orchards in 13 the state that do not need these fertilizers. The practical application of the results obtained is that fruit growers should not apply manures in quantity until good evidence has been obtained as to what food elements, if any, are wanted in the soil, As long as the trees are making good growth and producing average crops of well colored fruit, it may be taken for granted that they need no additional food from fertilizers, If the contrary be true, the fruit grower should put in operation tests with fertilizers to ascertain what plant foods his soil needs. If the above be true of an orchard that has stood for fifty-three years in sod, then in view of the fact that perhaps few orchards older than that are worth renovating, it would seem that fertilization should be carried on only very cautiously, for although the fertilizers applied would not be detrimental to the trees, yet they would not benefit them materially and their application would only result in financial loss, If, however, after careful observation it is found that the soil is distinctly lacking in some essential element of plant food, it might be well to apply the defie cient element alone, There would perhaps never be a case where a complete commercial fertilizer would be necessary. For the purposes of the above the principal source of the three essentials are here briefly discussed, Nitrogen. The sources of nitrogen in the soil are many and it would seem unnecessary to add nitrogenous fertilizers in the chemical form, when natural agencies are so rapidly 14 at work under good conditions of tillege in keeping up the supply. Through the action of certain nitrogen-fixing organisms which live in conjunction- “symbiotically"- with the leguminous crops such as clover and vetch, nitrogen is added tothe soil in available form in large amounts, The decay of all organic material is another great scourse of available nitrogen. In this connection the trees supply themselves in some measure with organis nitrogen through the decay of ti.e leaves which fall from them each year. There may be occassions when these sources do not supply sufficient nitrogen in which case any of the following manures may be used; Dried ee This is obtained by drying the blood and debris from slaughter-houses and as usually sold contains from 9 to 13% available nitrogen. Tankage.- This is composed of refuse matter such as bones, trimming of hides, hair, horns, hoofs, and some blood. These are usually dried, ground, and mixed vith a little slaked lime to prevent rapid fermentation, It usually contains from 5 to 7% of nitrogen and because of its slower rate of decay it is not quite so rapidly available as dried blood, Flesh meal.- This is the flesh refuse from slaughter houses which is sometimes kept free from the tankage, dried, ground and sold as flesh meal, It contains from 4 to 8% ni- trogen, Fish scrap.- Fish flesh is very rich in nitrogen. The offal parts, as heads, fins, tails, and intestines are dried and prepared as a fertilizer. It readily undergoes fermentation and is therefore a quick-acting fertilizer, The above, together with some seed residues, are the main sources of organic nitrogenous fertilizers that are spread over the ground. There are however, some chenical fertilizers which are very important sources of available nitrogen, They may be enumerated as follows, Sedium nitrate("a.l 0, ) This is commonly known as Chilli Saltpeter. It is found in an extensive natural deposit in Chili, Peru, and in the United States of Colunbia., “hen pure, this salt contains 16.49% of available nitrogen but the ordinary commercial article contains on an average 16% and cost anywhere from “50.00 to “60,00 a ton, making the nitrogen itself worth about. 15 or 18 cents a pound. It is soluble, and does not have to under go the ordinary nitrifying processes. it is therefore one of the most, if not the most active nitrosenous fertilizer being as ne is directly available as plant food. Ammoniun Sulphate (N H.)S 0; This salt is obtained as a bi-product in the manufacture of illuminating gas and is extensivelt sold as a fertilizer, Phosphate Fertilizers, The chief sources of phosphate fertilizers are,- (1) Phosphate rock- This is found in many parts of the United States, particularly in South Carolina, Florida, Virginia and Tennessee, They usually contain from 17 to 30% of phosphoric acid. (2) Phosphate slag- In refining of iron ores by the Bessemer process, the phosphorus in the iron is reioved as a basic slag, This is variable in composition and at present but little is formed in this country that is available as 16 fertilizer. Bones in different forms are very prolific sources of phosphates,- as done ash, it contains avsout 36 %3 as steaned bone it contains from 22 to 29%; as dissolved bone it contains from 15 to 17% phosphoric acid. Bone black, after having been used in sugar a is sold as a fertilizer and contains about 30% P Oo 2.5 Potasn Pertilizers. Yood ashes are an important source of potash for the farm- er, Thé per cent Panges 4211 the way from 2.5 to 10.2, The following table gives the amount of potash in 10 ,000# of woods of different kinds; “hite oak 10,6 Lbs. Red oak 14.0 lbs. Ash 15.0 Los. Pine 0,8 IDs. Georgiapine 5.0 lbs. Dogwood 2.0 1pe. Stassfurt Salts- These combinations of potash, sodium and magnesium salts are a valuable source of potash fertilizer, Kainit, This mineral is mined at Stassfurt and is mixed with gypsum, salt,potassium chloride and other bodies. Tt contains ahout 12% 2.0 and ic one of the most important S of the Stassfurt Salts. Nutriate of potash or (K@1) Contains from 35 to 60% oh of potaks, It is a manufactured product, is readily soluble and is a quick acting fertilizer, Sulphate of potash ar is prepared fro some Le of the crude Stassfurt Salts and contains the equivilent of about 50,5 KO. It is one of the most concentrated forms of votash fertilizers and is particularly valuable because it can be safely applied to some crops which would be injured by the presence of the chlorine in the muriate, Lime. Lime is used more as an amendment than as a direct fer- tilizer. Its action as a floculating agent in the soil is extremely beneficial and it also acts to nutralize any possiole acidity. It is also an essential plant food but not considered as a commercial fertilizer because it is usually present in sufficient quantities to meét the needs of most plants, It may be applied as calcium sulphate (land plaster) quick lime O), hydrate (Ca(OH) ) or carbonate @f lime (Caco ). The 2 3 CaO ahd Ca(OH) are usually used only on very sour land (acid). If line is see at every four or five years it should not be used in excess of 500# per acre, but ttsually in starting uno an old orchard the first application should be greater than this- from 1,000 to 2,000# per acre, Pruning. In perhaps fifty percent of the old orchards which it would pay to renovate, the upiaaiion of the trees is accon- plished as much by their being too close together az by any other one factor. Farmers fail to notice what is happening until the trees become greatly damaged. The decrease in yield does not call attention to the trouble until it is too late, “hen the tops bezin to mest so as to shut out light from the lower limbs then one half of the trees should be cut out, If this is not done, these lower limbs well verin to bear inferior fruit, then no fruit at all, and finally they will die. The Ls Changes take place so gradually that the ower usually fails to realize what is happening until some year he finds that, instead of an orchard of well sounded trees he has a lot of forest trees with a bouquet of leaves at the top. In the end the bearing surface becomes the nearly level surface on the tops of the trees. This is a very small surface when compared to a succession of well rounded tops. If trees are 50X50 and left till they interfere so as to kill the lower limbs the bearing surface approaches the level surface on the tops of the trees. Each tree aporoaches 900 sq.ft. of exposure to sun- light or bearing surface; or 2@ trees approach 1800 sq.ft. The area of the surface of a well rounded tree 32 ft. nigh and having a spread of 40ft. is about 4000 sq. ft. Trees of this size still lack 2.4 ft. of meeting if they are 42.4 ft. apart; and 30% of the surface of the ground is exposed to the sunlight. There can be no doubt in any wedies mind which is the more profilable from a dollars and cents standpoint; the 2 trees with a total bearing surface of 1800 sq. ft.; or the one tree with a bearing surface of 4,000 sq. ft. This calculation assumes the tree to have a regular form and is of course hypothetical; but it clearly indicates that there are two reasons why trees planted too close ae do not bear as well as trees at a normal distance; 1 They are not so healthy. 2 They do not have so much bearing surface, Trees that are too close together furnish favorable condi- tions for fungous diseases and insect pests; they are hard to spray; the apples are more difficult to pick and, because they do not get the sunlight, are of poor color and quality. Perhaps the 19 the most serious result is an indirect effect of the death of the lower limbs, Trees are left until the large lower limbs die for want of light. They are then removed and the wounds are too large to heal. In time they cause the trunk to decay. The evident remedy for this state of affairs is to thin out the trees, If the trees are nlanted in squares, the best way to thin is to cut out every other tree in each row. This is done by cutting out every other row diagonally. It leaves the trees in squares corner wise of the field. (See accompanying figure) It is interesting to note what removing $ of the trees would mean. Some persons think that in doing so in an orchard that is planted 25X25 it would leave the trees in scuares 50X50, As a matter of fact they would be in squares 35.3X35,3 when viewed from the corners of the field. If they were 30X30 and + were removed, the remainder would stand 42.4 K% 42.4, ath 33X33 and $ were removed, they would be 46.7 X46.7. None of these distances are too large for large, mature trees, If 35X35 and 4 removed the remainder would stand 49.5x49.5 or approximately 50x50, Large Baldwin trees can make good use of this much space, One of the problems to be met in thining is that, if every other tree is removed regularly there will be some places where the tree to be cut out is better than the one to be left; or it may occur that the one to be left may be missing. YT ill it pay to leave a tree that would other wise be removed, if it comes next to a vacant place? This question must be answered as each case arises, but it is well to reuember that if the tree is left, it will damage one side of three other trees, Before cut- tine out the trees, it will pay to make a map of the orchard and 29 locate the vacant spaces and poor trees, and so detsrmine which way of cutting will include the greatest number of these KO a > Dp fF Ww we FF moO oO Oo 8 92 J8 £0 HO GO oS OO OS 8" 2 FO EO DO co BO a A® = el K 21 E & In the figure, the rows 4A, CC, @@ etc, or the rows BB, bi, FF etc. may be cut out. Suppose the black circles to represent poor trees or vacant spaces. According to the figure there are 21 of these. By cutting out rows “24, CC, EE, etc. fourteen of these spaces are included, where as by cutting out the other rows only 7 are included. B3y making such a plan as this seven trees were saved in this case, enough to much more than pay for the trouble of the map, It require courage to ¢o0 into an orchard and arditrarily cut down large virile trees, But in many orchards the time has come when a choice must be made between two poor trees and one good one. If one has definitely made up his mind tnat his trees are crowding, perhaps the best vay to thin them is to do as the owner of a fine Baldwin orchard once did. He decided which rows wgould be removed. Then, to be sure he would not repent, and have some of the trees saved, he went away for a two weeks visit while the boys did the work, After half the trees are out, providing such a course is necessary, tnen attention must be turned to the remaining trees, The probabilities are, that if the trees have had to be thinned out, those that are left will be too high for convenient handling. The cost of picking, spraying and in fact all the orchard operations which involve the tree directly, is nearly if not quite doubled in the case of the tree forty feet high over that of the tree from ZO to 50 feet high, Therefore it is essential, to get the head down, Before beginning this operation, however, every stick of dead wood, large or small should be taken out of the trees. After his tree is cleared of useless lumber, the pruner knows just what he has to work with. After taking all the dead wood out his top may not be symmetrical, but it is quite evident that an unsymmetrical live tree is better than a symmetrical dead one. Therefore clean the trees out thoroughly. He now has a tree, ev2ry part of which is alive and with a head anywhere from 10 to 20 feet toshigh,. How to get it down is the question, It is a well known physiological fact that very severe pruning will induce the growth of suckers. It is the result of an effort on the part of the tree to reéstablish the proper balance between the root system and the top. Accord ing to this fact, a severe pruning of the top branches should induce a growth of suckers from so-called adventitious btkds lower down @n the trunk, This is precisely what happens. And from this new growth of suckers may eventually be formed an entirely new head. There is another important factor in this cutting down process which it would be fatal to disregard, It is the action of the sunlight on the green leaves that furnishes the tree with its entire supoly of carbo-hydrate foods,i.e., sugars and starch etc. if therefore, the eritire top should be cut off a tres, its source of this kind of food would be totally destroyed and the chances are one hundred to one that the tree would die, MThere-~- fore do not “dehorn"” the tree all tne same season. Rather cut say 1/3 of the top out the first year, leaving the remainder to nurish the tree till the new sucker growth has developed some- what. The second year cut out another third of the old top, By this time the first years sucker growth will have attained suf- ficient developement to play its part in the nourishment of the tree. By following out this plan, the beginning of the fourth year will see an entirely new head on the old trees, and the trees themselves none the worse for wear. By selecting the 25 lowest suckers a head may be developed as low as is desired, and though perhaps at times the suckers will not come where they are wanted, yet in the large majority of cases they will. “Dehorning" may be practiced in the above manner with very little risk of loss. It is only when a man soes into an orchard and olindly and thoughtlessly slashes aroun with an ax that the dehorning fails; and then strictly sneaking, it is not dehorning; it is simply choping down the trees and in that case no one expects them to live. In making cuts, the limbs should be sawed off as close as possible to the parent branch so as not to leave a stub. “ith- in a day or two the wound should be painted over with some material to keep out rot fungous spores. A good material to use for this purpose is white lead paint to which has been added a little lamp black to give it as nearly as possible the same color as thetree, If very large wounds are necessary to be made it is advisable to repaint them at least once a year until they have entirely healed over. Otherwise rot may get in and destroy the tree. It is essential not to leave a stub because there is no life in it and therefore the wound on the end will never heal over. If stubs are left there are just three alter- natives. One is to keep them painted all the time which is a great bother; another is to cut them off, which doubles the work of pruning; and the third is to lose the tree, in which case it would have been better never to have begun renovating, The opinion of practical growers seeis to be almost un- aminously in favor of scraping down the bark when it is very loose and scaly and when the trees are more or less affected with scale, either oyster shell or San Jose. Under the above con- 24 ditions it is perhaps advisable to scrape the bark the first year, but any repetition the second year would be useless as the lime sulphur spray seems to have a tendency to keep the bark clean. Spraying. It is in the old neglected orchards of the country, which have been left to themselves, that all manner of fungous diseases and insect pests run riot, not only ruining the trees theuselves, but also endangering the health and possibly the very life of neighboring orchards. And so, in the work of renovating, a stiff fight must be put up against all such con- ditions, which is not only one of prevention as would be the case in ao well, cared for orchard, but also one of cure, involving in many cases very radical methods of proceedure, Those fungous diseases and insect pests which are more likely to be in evidence in neglected orchards are here set forth, together with the most efficient methods of control as determined by experiment and successful practice. New York Apple Tree Canker. The cause of this disease was worked out in 1898 by “endell Paddock of the Geneva Exp. Station and found to be due to a fungous called Aphaeropsis Pk, It is widely destributed in orchards in New York State especially in old ones which had become infected before preventive measures had been worked out. The cankers foru enlarged and darkened areas on the larger limbs of the infected tree, The bark is roughened and in the center of the canker it may be missing. It is very adhesive to the surface of the decaying wood, and itlis this feature which distinguishes it from sun scald where the bark peels off 25 readily. The scars are formed by the spores of the fungous en- tering through a a in the bark. They seem unable to pene- trate through living bark|to the cambium, but as above stated must have a passage made for them, This fact is suggestive of preventive measures. In regions where canker is prevelent the utmost care must be exercised to avoid wounding the bark. Often wounds are wade by the pickers in scraping their ladders against the limbs, or by the cultivators or plows barking the trunk during the cultivating operations. All such accidents are to be strictly avoided if this disease is to be successfully prevented. Often cankers can be cured (if they have not completely girdled the limbs, in which case the limb should be removed) by cutting off the diseased area until clean wood and bark % reached, and painting the wound with white lead to which a little lamp-black has been added just as in pruning. Paddock recommends painting Phe the wougd with the following wash. “hale oil soap----1 part, Slaked lime------- 2 parte, MALS P sare eee Se 4 gallons, “wood ashes to thicken as desired. Dissolve the soap in hot water, then stir in the lime. Then the ingredients have been reduced to a smooth state by stirring, dilute with water to 4 gallons, then stir in the wood ashes until the wash is of the desired consistancy. Pire Blight. This is a bacterial disease caused by Bacillus amylovarens . Tt ais 2, 2: awe to which young trees between the ages of eight yo fifteen years of age cre especially susceptible. It occurs, however, on older trees and is often the cause of their death, Many parts of the tree are affected by it, and its extensive 26 distribution over the tree has led to its receiving different names according to the manner in which it shows itself. Accordingly, there is the blossom blight, which causes the blossoms to wither prematurely and often times preventing the fruit from setting; or if the fruit should set, caus ing it to remain small and unsightly; the twig blight which causes the death of many of the fruit spurs and is usually a direct infection by the blossom blight; then there is the blight which manifests itself on the larger limbs and trunk,properly known as fire blight or just plain “blight". The cankers appear as discolored and somewhat sunken areas of smooth bark, the margin along the advancing border being raised in a sort lala The tissue in actively spreading canker is of a darker than that of healthy bark and is very watery or sappy. On damp sianay days drops of a milky sticky fluid exhude from the cankered tissues through the lenticels or pores of the pak. A large proportion of the cankers are active during only one season but there are always some which are perrenial and live over to the next season. The diseased bark is usually killed to the wood to which is sticks tenaceously the first season. It gradually decays, however, and falls out, leaving the wood bare and exposed, The bacillus can gain entrance into the bark in any of the following ways: lst. Through infected water sprouts or suckers. end. Through infected pruning instruments. 3rd. Through wounds made in the bark by careless workmen im cultivating. 4th, Through the agency of insects which puncture the leaves and small fruits. The dissemination of the disease is furthered by damp a weather, Abundant water is necessary for the developement and multiplication of the organism. From these causes preventive and curative measures may be suggested as follows: If the cankers are very extensive,cut the tree out of the orchard and burn it up. If not so large they may be cut back to healty wood and bark as in the case of the apple tree canker and the wound|swabed with a weak solution of corrosive sublimate or a 3% solution of CuSO (copper sulphate or bluestone) as a disinfectant, and when ee painted with some heavy lead paint. Repeat the painting until the would is completely healed. Preventive measures,- remove all dead wood from orchard and burn it. Cut out all cases of twig blight from both pear and apple tree as soon as it becomes apparent and expecially watch any pear tree that may be in the neighborhood as that tree is very susceptible to the blight. ‘hen pruning paint all cut surfaces with the disinfectant mentioned above, also paint and disinfect all accidental wounds. Carefuily watch all water- sprouts which are toa become new heads and remove all not needed for that purpose. Keep the trees well opened up. These two diseases are perhaps the two which cause the greatest damage to old apple trees, The insects wnich are par- ticulerly bad in the apple tree are as follows: San ea scale and Oyster Shell Scale. It would be well to give the life history in brief of these pests so that they may be more intelligently combated. In this climate the male San Jose Scale insect matures in April and about one month later the females be;in to give birth to their young. Unlike most insects, these young are brought forth alive, the average number from each female being about 400. They continue 28 producing for 6 or 7 weeks. The newly born scales are micro- scopic in size and remain under the parent scale for a short time, finally coming out to wander about for a while until they find a suitable place on the bark to locate. As soon as they settle down, the waxy thread like secretions begin to appear on their backs. These secretions form the scales. Owing to the compartively long period during which young are produced it is difficult to ascertain how many generations occur in a year. Judging from the scales as they appear in winter, however, it is probable that the young are produced until the latter part of the summer or early in the fall. After all their young have been produced, the old females die, the young surviving to continue the species. The Oyster Shell scale or Oyster-shell Bark Louse as it is usually called is very similar in life history to the San Jose scale. The main difference are that whereas the San Jose young are born alive, the oyster shell young are hatched from egss, and again, whereas the San Jose female gives birth to 400 or more, the oyster shell female gives birth to but fron. 40 to 60, The latter is not so destructive or so rapidly disseminated as the San Jose but in many districts- noticeably in the neighborhood of Elmira, N, ¥.- it causes much damage, It is expecially pre- valent in localities where its developement has never been checked, i.e., where the trees have been allowed to deteriorate ana £o to ruin, it would be well to ieok for this insect, therefore, along with San Jose Scale where the work of renovation is comtemplated. For both these pests it has veen recommended to spray with lime sulphur wash, using the commercial article at a concentra- eo tion of from (1 to 8) to (1 to 10), apelying either in the fall after the leaves have droped, in tiie spring before the buds open or in very extreme cases at both times. For usual,average cases however, one spraying is sufficient, Codling Moth, Perhaps the most injurious biting insect pest known to New York apple growers is the codling moth. It is a small brown moth, seldom seen in the day time, which lays its ezgs on the young fruit or leaves. As soon as the caterpillars hatch out, they migrate to the “blow” or calyz end of the apple where they take their first meal preparatory to entering the fruit. They eat their way into the core of the apple through the calyx end and stay there until they become full grown in July or August}, when they bore a hole out through the side and leave for the loose bark, where they spin a coocoon and hibernate over the winter. In most parts of the country tnere are two broods annually, the second one being the one to hibernate over the winter and thus perpetuate the species, It is of course impracticable not to say impossible, to attmept to exterminate the pest by reaching the mature moth, The most vulnerable period of its life history is right after it hatches and before it enters the fruit. If its first meal contains a small dose of poison, it is very likely to be its last and it cannot hope to get very far on Lis way inte the core of the fruit. Therefore have the poison ready for it by spray- ing with arsenate of lead 2# to 50 gallons just as soon as the fruit sets and the petals have fallen. At this time the calyx is open and the poison can reach the calyx tube, It will be useless to spray after the calyx has closed up, as the cater- 50 pillar will not get any of the poison, but will pass into the apple unharmed, Some nozzle that drives the spray rather forcably is prefered for this spray as a misty spray will not reach the desired point. beat Slister Mite. The leaf blister mite cuases serious damage to the foliage by mining in the leaves between the upper and lower epidermis, causing dead areas or blisters to apoear Wherever they have worked. During the winter-i.e., from the time the leaves begin to fall till the buds besin to open in the spring the mites live underneath the bud scales. It is during the period of their migration from the leaves to the stems, or when they emerge in the spring to infest the young foliage that they can be reached b x a spray. The time to spray, therefore, is in the fall just after the leaves have fallen, or in the spring just before the buds open. It is useless to spray for them later than this, for once they get inside the leaf, they are protected and cannot be reached. Any contact spray such as lime sulphug-or the miscible oils, is efficient in controlling this pest, Usually the spray applied in the spring for the scale will usually get the mite if applied late enough. If sprayed for at the proper time, there io Littie Gi tflealty i) ControLling® it, Apple Scab. This is a disease known as ‘Scab", " theFungous" or “Black Spot", It is very distructive and attacks both the fruit and foliage. It is caused by a minute fungous which grows just under the cuticle of the apple and when ready to form spores or “seeds" pushes the cuticle up and shoves it to one side causing a dark snot or scab to appear. The spores are disséminated through the 31 air by wind and insects and infects more fruit. The process continues all summer and if not checked will prove very injurious. In the fall a new (asexual) kind of a spore is formed which infects the leaves and lives in them all winter in the ground. In the spring they have matured and formed many other spores in small dark sacs or perithecia on the upper surface of the leaf. By a peculiar device they are discharged into the air with considera- ble force in much the same manner as a pea comes from a pea-shooter and, being very small and light, are carried by the wind to the young fruits. This is about the time when the petals have just fallen. Some fungicide, like lime-sulphur is very efficient in controlling the disease at this time, and usually the spray applied for codling moth will also get the scab. It sometimes happens that there is a later infection by scab so it of Held to protect the young fruit by another application of the fungicide about two weeks after the first. The first spray, however, is the more important one, as it gets the spores before they have a chanwe to infect the fruit. The above mentioned diseases and insects are not the only one that will trouble the fruit grower, of course, but a spray calen- dar which will cover them, the most imoortant ones, will also take care of the other and lesser pests, It will be unnecessary, there- fore, to discuss any other life histories at this time, It might be well though to say something about the application of the spray. Up will very recently it has been advocated to spray with the wind. This is a good practice in the early spring before the foliage has started out, when spraying for scale or blister mite. The spray will be carried to all the little crevices in the bark and will reach every part of the tree. But in the case of the spray for ““aditions are very different. It is necessaby 32 to be most efficient, to have the spray enter the calyx, and it is evident that this is impossible if sprayed from the wind- ward side, because all the petals of the blossoms will be turned away from the sprayer. It will therefore be necessary to spray against the wind directly into the calyx, driving the liquid under comparatively ve pressure from a coarse spray nozzle. Of course it would not, spray thus against a heavy wind,for most of the liquid would not reach its destination any way, but would be blown back and lost. Itwould be better to wait for the wind to subside, In summing up the matter of spraying, th might be well to append a calendar for spring spraying which would be universally applicable for the above-mentioned pests, and only subject to slight modifications in time of apylication according to varia- tions in season and weather. SPRAY CALENDAR, Material Time Pest Gommercial lime- Sulphus 1-10 Arsenate of lead 2# to 50 galls. Just before buds open in the spring San Jose Oyster-shell Blister mite Bud Moth Commercial lime- Sulphur 1-40 Arsenate of lead 2# to 50 galls. BO, 2 Just before blossoms open Scab(early stages) Bud Moth. Same as 2 Just after petals fall Seab,. Codling loth Same as 2 minus the arsenate, 2 weeks later Seab bo Prolits. Does it pay to renovate the old orchard? That is a question to be considered carefully before any attempt at renewal is made, for 1f it does net it tere béebiter to pas= ture the old orchard and feed the wormy drops to the pigs than to spend money siaply for the satisfaction of having a nice looking, picturesque bit of landscape near the house for the aesthetic edification of your city friends. On the face of it, it would seem to be a profitable undertaking, because so uany fruit growers, who are not in the business for love, are taking it up and making money out of it I t will taxe, in the worst case of deterioration, not more than four years to get a good paying commercial crop of apples whereas if a new orchard were set out there would be no apples Cates even in the,earliest bearing varieties before six years, If, therefore, a man has an old orchard and wants to grow fruit, by all means get the old one in snape while waiting for the new one to come into bearing, and realize some revenue from the business. “Some may be pessimistic as regards the real value of this work. For them a few concrete examples might be Helorul « A Vermont orchardist reports the followins results from renovating a twenty acre orchard. 1908 nothing, 1909 gross sales,- $13, 000 1910 . " y- 20,000 1911 nowt sold yet, fruit in storage, These figures seem large but are by no means impossible. A man in Connecticut reports the following results from two orchards, one 40 years old and the other 90 years. He 3 nes worked with then 18 years so that now the one is 50 years old and the other 100 years. “Have no accurate figures as to cost and returns but have sold from $200 to $300 per acre from winter fruits for several years,- and there is certainly a handsome profit in the operation, ” Another reports,- "Formerly one to two barrels, !o.2 and No. 5, now 5 to 8 barrels, No. i, per tree, An orchardist in Floradale, Pa. reports an increase in his prorits of “over 200%". The Frost and Bartlett Co., Landscape foresters and entomologists, when cuestioned concerning the value of reno- vation state;- “It is impossible to quote you exant figures from a commercial standpoint as to the value of orchard treatment, I can state positively, however, that many of the orchards that have not borne fruit for many years, have produced enough fruit to pay for the treatment of the trees, both pruning and spraying, cavity work, etc., and to give a handsome profit besides. Each year after such treatiient, they have improved and it is almost all profit after this done. Another man from New Hampshirs writes as follows: In regard to profits, will sav that I have established a retail trade for all my best apples; for the past two years have sold all of my fency grade as follows: bbl, box Baldwins 5.00 2.00 MeIntosh 1500 2400 And sell good No. 1's at °4,00 per bbl. Ly cheaper grades go through the commission iasrchants, where I think I can do the best. Have put in lots of work, but think it is paying 35 a good return, The following very suggestive report is had from a New Hampshire grower, From 1902 to 1908 his trees were neglected with the following results. Year No. bbls. Receipts, 1902 408 750 1903 305 737 1904 299 408 1905 186 400 1906 L172 Zou 1907 245 551 1908 102 300 In 1908 he began to look after his trees again in a scientific manner with the following gratifying results, Year NO, bDdiS. Receipts. 1909 473 $1,000 L910 475 1625 L311 508 1487 Most of these were exported to Liverpool. The figures - quoted are net profits, not cross receipts. Even the most pessimistic will have to acknowledge that there is money to be had if the old orchard is renovated properly, in the light of the foregoing array of facts. Men in New Yor’: State owning old orchards should profit by the experience of those outside the state and put into their pocket books what is now droping on the fround or going to the codling moth. If they don't want to do it themselves let them sell their places to men who are anxious to, and t -dog in the manger", bris 36 Summary. In the first place, decide whether or not you are going to renovate. If you are, do it well; if not,do not start. Half way methods will accomplish no results other than perhaps a more fluent vocabulary and a general aversion to all things horticultural. Then, if the trees crowe, follow the suggested plan and cut half of them out, cutting all dead wood from the remain- ing trees. Burn all the brush. Pruning should be approached with due consideration to the carbohydrate needs of the tree, and the tall ones should be brought down by degrses and not in one year. Form the new heads low from the induced water sprouts. Turn the sod over as soonp as the ground breaks up sufficiently in the spring and follow immediately with a cuLaway and spring tooth harrow. Keep the orchard cultivated until the middle of July en first of August, and then sow a cover crop, oreferably buckwheat, the first year. This cover crop should be turned under tne following spring. It might be well to appnly lime at the rate of from 1,000# to 2,000# per acre, the first year the amount to vary with the apparent needs of the soil, Do not apply fertilizer tne first year, anyway. It is quite imnossible to know what is wanted at that time, if indeed anything is, and the chances are that turning over the sod and loogening up the soil will make sufficient plant food available for the needs of the trees. Follow the spray calendar as closely as possible and there will be little trouble in controlling any of the diseases and pests comnon to old apple trees, Spray against the wind for codling moth; not with it, IO. 37 By following the above sugzestions there is little doubt that many a man can change the condition of his old orchard from one where it is now costing him the rent of the land it is occupying to one where it will not ony pay that rent itself but be a source of revenue considerably over and above it, OUTLINE, I Introduction, II Cultivation, III Fertilization. le Minds: of TeriLilizer, 2. Use of using fertilizer. 5. Effects on trees and fruit. IV Pruning. Opening up orchard. : “ trees. “Dehorning” Scraping bark. V Spraying. Insect and fungous pests. Commercial sprays. Spray Calandar for N. Y. VI Profits. Discussion Concrete examples, General summary and conclusion, cay tule 4 Tr eid el ae ne SAPS. 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