ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY NEw York STATE COLLEGES OF AGRICULTURE AND HoME ECONOMICS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Ww 5 QO Ww = t } PRINTEDINU.S.A. GAYLORD A5ob The Natural History of Animals Cornell University The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003696592 HUMMING-BIRDS (7rochilide) These brilliantly-coloured little forms, of which between 4oo and 500 species have been described, are perhaps the most attractive members of their class, and some of them are the smallest known birds. Excluding the tail, which is often long out of all proportion, they vary in length from 8% to rather less than 214 inches. They are wholly American (and West Indian), ranging from Tierra del Fuego to Canada, and from sea-level to a vertical height of 16,000 feet. The mountains and hills of the northern parts of South America are inhabited by the largest number of beautiful species. Unfortunately, like many other birds of attractive plumage, they are ruthlessly hunted down to minister to the vanity of womankind. The species represented in the plate are: 1. Lamprolema rham/, 2. Thalurania furcata, 3. Lesbia sparganura, 4. Calypte Helene, 5. Diphlogena hesperus. The Natural History of Animals The Animal Life of the World in its various Aspects and Relations BY J. R. AINSWORTH DAVIS, m.a. TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF WALES, AND PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY AND GEOLOGY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, ABERYSTWYTH HALF-VOL. VIII LONDON THE GRESHAM PUBLISHING COMPANY 34 SOUTHAMPTON STREET, STRAND 1904 se CONTENTS HALF-VOL. VIII UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY (Continued) CHAPTER LXVIII—ANIMAL FRIENDS—FISHES, MOLLUSCS. AND CRUSTACEANS AS FOOD—FISHERIES Sources of information - 5 * < = : . E z ‘ a a FISHES (Pisces) AS FOOD Line-Fishing, Net-Fishing, and Trawling - - - 2 2 : Z zi THE HERRING FAMILY (CLUPEID#) — Herring (Clupea harengus); Sprat (C. Sprattus), “whitebait”; Pilchard (C. pzlchardus), Sardines; Anchovy (£2- graulis encrasicholus) - - - - - - - - - - - THE CoD FAMILY (GADID#)—Cod (Gadus morrhua), Coal-Fish (G. vivens), Had- dock (G. eglefinus), Whiting ee. ae ae ade Hake (Merluccius vulgaris) - - - THE FLAT-FISH FAMILY (PLEURONECTID£)—Turbot (Rhombus maximus), Brill (R. levis), Halibut (Aippoglossus vulgaris), Sole (Solea vulgaris), Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa), Flounder (P. flesus), Dab (P. démanda), Lemon Dab (P. microcephalus) - - - - - - - - - - - - - THE MACKEREL FAMILY (SCOMBRID£)—Mackerel (Scomber vernalis), Common Tunny (Orcynus thynnus) - - - - - = = S 3 = : THE RED MULLET FAMILY (MULLIDA)—Striped Red Mullet (A@zllus surimut- letus), Plain Red Mullet (AZ. barbatus) - - - - - - - - THE JoHN Dory FAMILY (CyTTID#)—John Dory (Zeus faber) - - - - THE GURNARD FAMILY (COTTID£)—Bull-Heads (Cot¢tus), a Gurnard ee gurnardus), Red Gurnard (7. cuculus) — - - - - - THE GREY MULLET FAMILY (MUGILID£)—Thin-lipped and Thick- ieee ae Mullets (Mugzl capito and M. chelo) - - - - THE EEL FAMILY (MURENIDZ)—Conger (Conger ii Common Eel (4z- guilla vulgaris) - - - - e = : “ 2 THE SALMON FAMILY (SALMONID#)—Salmon (Salmo salar), River Trout (Salmo fario), Smelt or Sparling (Osmerus eperlanus) - - - - - - - es Page 261 261 vi CONTENTS Page THE STURGEON FAMILY (ACIPENSERID£)—Common Sturgeon (Aczsenser sturio), Sterlet (A. ruthenus), Giant Sturgeon or Hausen (A. uso), Gildenstadt’s Stur- geon (A. Giildenstadtz) ; Caviare and Isinglass - - - - - - 277 SKATES AND Rays (BATOIDEI)—Skate (Raza batts), Thornback (2. clavata) - - 278 ROUND MouTHS (CYCLOSTOMATA)—Sea Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), River Lamprey or Lampern (P. fluviadzlis) - - - - - - - - 278 FISHERIES “Wet” Fish and “Shell”-Fish. Statistics of British Fisheries. Scientific investi- gations, and their great importance. Chief lines of work: (1) Statistics, (2) Habits and Life- Histories, (3) Food of Fishes—Planktor. Hensen’s quanti- tative determinations - = = 2 5 = = - 279 FISH-CULTURE (PISCICULTURE)—Antiquity of the Art. Italian Eel-culture. Carp- culture in Germany, &c. Artificial Fecundation, Hatching, and Hatcheries. Necessity for Endowment of Scientific Research - - - - - - 284 MOLLUSCS (MoLLusca) AS FOOD THE OYSTER (Ostrea)—“ Flat”, Portuguese, and American Oysters (Ostrea edulis, O. angulata, and O. Virginiana). Oyster-Culture— History and Methods of the Industry as practised in France. English Oyster-Industry—Whitstable Fishery 288 THE EDIBLE MUSSEL (J/ytdlus edulis)—Mussel-culture in Scotland, Germany, and France (douchot system) - - - - - - - - - - - 204 THE COCKLE (Cardium edule) - - - - - - - = 2 - 2096 THE PERIWINKLE (Littorina littorea) - - - - - . - é - 2097 CRUSTACEANS (Crustacea) AS FOOD THE LopsTER (Homarus vulgaris) and American Lobster (4. Americanus). Lobster-hatching in Norway, Scotland, and North America - - - - 207 SHRIMPS AND PRAWNS—Common ae (Crangon vulgaris), Prawns (Palemon serratus, &C.) - - - - - = e - = : o - 299 THE FRESHWATER CRAYFISH (Astacus fluviatilis) and Noble Crayfish (4. nobzlts) 300 CHAPTER LXIX.—ANIMAL FRIENDS—WILD ANIMALS CAPTURED FOR VARIOUS ECONOMIC PURPOSES—BENEFICIALS Nature of the Economic Products, other than Food, obtained from Wild Animals - 301 FUR-BEARING MAMMALS (MamMatia) Use of Skins and Furs as Garments. Clothing of the Ostiaks - - . - 301 FUR-YIELDING FLESH-EATERS (CARNIVORA)— Weasel and Marten Family (Mus- telide): Russian Sable (AZustela ztbellina); American Sable (A7. Americana); Stoat (Putorius erminea), the Source of “Ermine”; American Mink (P. vzson); Russian Mink (P. /utreola); Sea-Otter (Latax lutris) - - = = - 303 Seal-Lions or Eared Seals (Otaridz): Northern Fur-Seal (Ofarza ursina), Sealing Industry of the Behring Sea and Pribyloff Islands - - : - 304 FUR-YIELDING GNAWERS (RCDENTIA)—American Beaver (Castor Canadensis), European Beaver (C. fiber), Musquash (Fiber zbethicus), Chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera), Common Squirrel (Scéurus vulgaris), Rabbit (Lepus cuniculus) - 307 CONTENTS SKINS AND DOWN OF WILD BIRDS (AvEs) Grebes (Podzczfes) and Eider-Ducks (Somateria) - = s . = = E WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, FAT, &c. Importance of Leather and Horn - - 2 = « 2 a = = u THE WALRUS (Tvichechus rosmarus) - - - - - - s - SEALS (PHOCID#)—Uses of Blubber and Skins. Harp or Greenland Seal (Phoca Grenlandica), Hooded or Bladder-Nosed Seal (Cystophora ee Baikal Seal (Phoca Sibirica), Caspian Seal (P. Caspica) - - - - - - THE DUGONG (Halicore dugong) - - - - - = = ae fy ie WHALES, &c. (CETACEA)—Toothless Whales (Mystacocett): Greenland or “ Right” Whale (Balena mysticetus), Blubber and Whalebone; Southern “Right” Whale (B. australis). Toothed Whales (Odontocetz): Cachalot or Sperm Whale (Phy- seter macrocephalus), Spermaceti; White Whale or Beluga a ahaa leucas), Blubber and “ Porpoise Leather” - - - - : REPTILES (REPTILIA)—Skins of Crocodiles and Lizards - - - - - - FISHES (PISCES)—Skins of Sharks and Dog-Fishes as “Shagreen”, Skins of ordi- nary Bony Fishes (7e/eostet) for clarifying Beer and Manufacture of Fish-glue, Oil of the Menhaden or Pogy (Clupea menhaden); Sharks and Dog-Fishes — - INSECTS (INSECTA)—Locust-Oil - - - - - - + = = = MEDICINAL AND MISCELLANEOUS ANIMAL PRODUCTS ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS AS MEDICINAL AGENTS—The practice of medicine in ancient times; animal extracts; animal fats used in pharmacy ; gelatine and isinglass ; experiments on animals- - - - - - - Medicinal Value of Fish-Oil—Cod-liver Oil - - - - - - Medicinal Uses of Insects—Oil-Beetles ((eloid@ or Cantharid@), Spanish Flies (Cantharides), Hungarian species (Lytta vestcatorta): Cochineal - - Medicinal Use of Leeches (Déscophora)—Medicinal Leech (Azrudo medt- cinalis), Green Leech (4. officinaltzs) - - - - - - - MISCELLANEOUS ANIMAL PrRopuctTs—Molluscs (Mollusca), Cuttle-Fish (Sepa officinalis), cuttle-bone, “ pounce”; Money Cowry (Cyfr@a moneta) and other shells used as currency, Indian wampum; other uses of shells - - - Sponges (Porifera)—Bath Sponge (EZuspongia officinalis), Zimocca Sponge (Euspongia zimocca), Horse Sponge (Aippospongia eguina); Sponge Fisheries WILD ANIMALS BENEFICIAL TO MAN ON ACCOUNT OF THEIR HABITS Action of “ Beneficials” - = : : a S 3 é 2 2 Zs Z BENEFICIAL MAMMALS (MAMMALIA)—Foxes, Weasels, Stoats, &c.: Moles, Hedge- hogs, and Shrews: Bats: Scavenging Mammals—Hyenas, Rats’ - - - BENEFICIAL BIRDS (AVES)—Diurnal Birds of Prey: Owls—Barn Owl (Strix flammea): Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus): Swifts, Swallows, Martins, and Titmice: Secretary Bird (Serpentarius secretarius): Scavenging Birds—Vultures - - vii Page 308 309 311 312 313 314 317 317 318 318 321 321 321 322 324 327 vill CONTENTS BENEFICIAL REPTILES (REPTILIA)—Lizards: Snakes—Corn Snake (Coluber gut- tatus), Rat Snake (Zaments mucosus) - = - = S = . : BENEFICIAL AMPHIBIANS (AMPHIBIA)—Frogs and Toads_~ - - - - - BENEFICIAL FISHES (PISCES)—Scavenging Work: Carp in Reservoirs - - - BENEFICIAL INSECTS (INSECTA)—-Enemies of Insect-pests: Destroyers of Carrion —Burying Beetles, Flies: Fertilization of Plants by Insects = - - - - BENEFICIAL SPIDER-LIKE ANIMALS (ARACHNIDA)—Spiders - - - - BENEFICIAL MyRIAPODS (MYRIAPODA)—Centipedes — - - - - - - BENEFICIAL CRUSTACEANS (CRUSTACEA)—Scavenging Work: Crabs - - - BENEFICIAL ANNELIDS (ANNELIDA)—Earth-Worms — - - - - - - BENEFICIAL PARASITIC WORMS - - - - 2 < = = 7 CHAPTER LXX.—ANIMAL FOES—THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN ENEMIES AMONG MAMMALS (MAMMALIA)—Lion (fe//s leo), Tiger (F. tigris), other Felines. Bears—Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus), Brown Bear (U. arctos) and “Grizzly”, Sloth-Bear (UV. /aézatus). Wolves. Large Herbivorous Forms— Hippopotamus, Rhinoceros, Buffalo, Elephant. Wild Boar (Sws scrofa), &c., Peccaries (Dicotyles). Blood-sucking Bats - - - - - - = PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG REPTILES (REPTILIA)—Crocodiles and Alligators. Poisonous Lizards (He/oderma). Non-Poisonous Snakes: Anaconda or Water- Boa (Zuneces murinus). Poisonous Snakes: Indian Cobra (Waza tripudians), Krait (Bungarus ceruleus), Australian Death-Adder (Acanthophis antarcticus), Coral Snake (Elaps corallinus), Sea-Snakes (Aydrophine), African Puff-Adder (Vipera artetans), Russell’s Viper (V. Russel), Rattle-Snakes (Crotalus) - - PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG FISHES (PISCES)—Sharks—Rondeletian Shark (Ca7- charodon Rondeletit). Fishes with Poison-spines. Fishes Poisonous as Food, Globe-Fishes (Déodon and Tetrodon), Coffer-Fishes (Os¢racion) - - : PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG MOLLUuscs (MOLLUSCA)—Giant Squids and Octopi. Cone-Shells - - - - - é z = : > = e i PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG INSECTS (INSECTA)— Mosquitoes and Malarial Diseases - - - - 2 z : a 2 P : : a ¥ PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG SPIDER-LIKE ANIMALS (ARACHNIDA) — Scorpions, Spiders, Itch-Mites - - - = = = is = ‘ 2 a - PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG MyRIAPODS (MYRIAPODA)—Centipedes - = = PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ANNELIDS (ANNELIDA)—Leeches - - 2 PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG FLAT-WORMS (PLATYHELMIA)—Flukes (Trematoda): Liver-Fluke (Fas.tola hepatica), Bilharzia. Tape- Worms (Cestoda): Com- mon Tape-Worm (Tena soltum), Beef Tape-Worm (7. saginata), Broad Tape- Worm (Bothriocephalus latus), Echinococcus Tape-Worm (7. echinococcus) — - PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ROUND-WORMS (NEMATHELMIA) — Round-Worm (Ascarts lumbricoides), Thread-Worm (Oxyuris vermicularis), Palisade-Worm (Dochmius duodenalis) of miners’ anzemia, Guinea-Worm (fv/arva medinensis), Trichina (77ichina spiralis) — - 2 - 3 : s - : i ns PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG HEDGEHOG-SKINNED ANIMALS (ECHINODERMATA)— Sea-Urchins with Poison-Spines - - - - = : = 2 Z Page 328 328 329 329 329 329 329 329 330 331 336 340 342 343 344 CONTENTS PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ZOOPHYTES (CCELENTERATA)—Jelly-Fishes, &c. — - PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ANIMALCULES (PROTOZOA)—Malaria Parasites, &c. CHAPTER LXXIL_ANIMAL FOES—FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES Enormous Number of Animal Pests. Necessity for Scientific Research - - : INJURIOUS MAMMALS (MAMMALIA)—Carnivores that attack Domesticated Ani- mals. Browsing and Gnawing Mammals destructive to Plants: Deer, Goats, Rats, Mice, Voles, Hares, Rabbits. Destruction of Grain, &c., and Dissemina- tion of Disease-Germs by Rats, Mice, &c.- - - - - - - - INJURIOUS BIRDS (AVES)—Birds of Prey. Raven (Corvus corax), Kea Parrot (Nestor notabilis), Woodpeckers, Crows, Rooks, Sparrows - - - - INJURIOUS REPTILES (REPTILIA)—Crocodiles, Alligators, Poisonous Snakes - INJURIOUS FISHES (PISCES)—Pike (Z sox /ucius), Skates and Rays - - - INJURIOUS MOLLUSCS (MOLLUSCA)—Octopus. Common Whelk (Buccinum un- datum), Dog-Whelk (Massa reticosa), Purple-Shell (Purpura lapillus), Land- Snails, Land-Slugs. Ship-Worm (TZeredo navalis), Edible Mussel (ALyéilius edults) - - - - - S . = - - - - - - InNJURIOUS INSECTS (INSECTA)—Forms injurious to Stock: Aes (Diptera), Ox- Warble Flies (Aypodermis bovis and A. lineatus), Tsetse Fly (Glossina morsitans) - - - - - - - - - - - - - Forms injurious to cultivated Plants, Food, Clothing, &c.—Bugs (Aemz- plera): Aphides or Green Flies (Apizd@), Corn Aphis (Aphzs cerealis), Oat Aphis (A. avene), Bean Aphis (4. fab@), Cabbage Aphis (A. érassice), Turnip Aphis (A. rape), Hop Aphis (A. Aumulz), Cherry Aphis (A. cerasz), Plum Aphis (A. prunz), Vine Aphis (Phylloxvera devastatrix). Scale Insects or Mealy Bugs (Coccide), Apple Scale (A7ytzlaspis pomorui), Woolly Currant Scale (Pulvin- aria ribesi@), Gooseberry and Currant Scale (Lecanium ribis) - - - - Fringe- Winged Insects (Thysanoptera).—Flies (Diptera): Crane- Flies (Tipula), Hessian Fly (Cecddomyta destructor), Wheat-Midge (C. ¢rzticz), Frit- Fly (Oscints frit), Blow-Fly (Afusca vomitoria), Cheese-Fly (Piophilus caset) Moths and Butterflies (Lepidoptera)—Whites (Piertd@), Cabbage Butterfly (Pieris brassice), Small White (P. rage), Green-veined White (P. afz): Owiet- Moths (octudd@) and “Surface Caterpillars”, Turnip Moth (Agvodts segetiz), Heart-and-Dart Moth (A. exclamatfonis), Great Yellow Underwing (77iphana pronuba): Silver-Y Moth (Plusza gamma), Cabbage Moth Zamestra brassica), Pea Moth (Grapholitha nebritana), Grass Moth (Chareas graminis), Diamond- Back Moth (Plufella cructferarum): Codlin Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella), Goat Moth (Cossus ligniperda), Nun (Pstlura monacha), Gipsy Moth (Ocnerta dispar): Corn Moth or Corn Wolf (Zinea granella): Wax Moth (Galleria mellonella) - Beetles (Coleoptera): Click-Beetles (EVatertde) and ‘Wire-Worms”: Turnip Flea-Beetles (Haltica nemorum and H. undulata) or Turnip-“ Flies”: Cockchafer (Melolontha vulgaris): Colorado Beetle (Chrysomela decemlineata): Seed- Beetles (Bruchide), Pea-Beetle (Bruchus pist), Bean-Beetle (2. faba): Weevils (Cur- culionide), Pea-Weevil (Sztones lineatus), Apple-blossom Weevil (A xthonomus pomorum), Corn-Weevil (Calandria granaria): Bacon-Beetles (Dermestida), Anthrenus fasciatus, Bacon-Beetle (Dermestes lardartus): Greater Death- Watches, &c. (Pénide), Biscuit-“ Weevil” (Anobium pantceum), Greater Death-Watches (A. striatum and A. fessellatum) - - - - - - 345 345 347 348 348 348 348 350 351 354 x CONTENTS Membrane-winged Insects (Hymenoptera): Corn Saw-Fly (Cephus pyg- meus), Turnip Saw-Fly (Athalia spinarum), Apple Saw-Fly (Hoplocampa testudinea), Gooseberry and Currant Saw-Fly (NMematus ribestz), Cherry and Pear Saw-Fly (Eriocampa limacina), Plum Saw-Fly (Hoplocampa fulvicornis), Pine Saw-Fly (Lophyrus pint): Wasps, Ants, and Carpenter-Bees (Xylocopa) - Net-winged Insects (Neuroptera): Termites or “White Ants” - - : Straight-winged Insects (Orthoptera): Migratory Locust (Schistocerca pere- grina), Earwig (Forficula auricularia), Cockroaches (Pertplaneta), Mole-Cricket (Gryllotalpa vulgaris) - - - - a 7 7 S - 3 2 Principles Regulating the Methods Employed in Combating Injurious In- sects: (1) Preventive Measures, (2) Curative Measures, (3) Measures both Pre- ventive and Curative - - = = z ‘ = 2 = = : INJURIOUS SPIDER-LIKE ANIMALS (ARACHNIDA)—WMites (Acarina): Mange- and Itch-Mites, Red Fowl-Mite (Dervmanyssus galling), Currant Gall-Mite (Phy- toptus ribs), Red Hop-“Spider” (Zetranychus telartus), Red Plum-‘Spider” (TZ. rubescens), Harvest or Gooseberry “Bug” (7: autumnalis): Ticks Ea Ixodes reduvius and “Louping Il” - - - - - - - INJURIOUS MyYRIAPODS (MyYRIAPODA)—Millipedes or “ False Wire-Worms” - INJURIOUS FLAT-WORMS (PLATYTHELMIA)—Flukes (Trematoda): Liver- Fluke (Fasciola hepatica) - - - : : E : c - : - Tape-Worms (Cestoda): Staggers Tape-Worm (Tenia cenurus), Dog Tape-Worm (7. serrata) - - - - - : - rs 3 = ¥ INJURIOUS THREAD-WORMS (NEMATHELMIA)—Horse-Worm (Ascaris megalo- cephala): Trichina (Trichina spiralis): Palisade-Worms or Strongyles (Stron- gylide)—Giant-Strongyle (Eustrongylus gigas), Armed Strongyle (Strongylus armatus), Stomach-Strongyle (S. contortus), Lung-Worm (5S. filarza), Red- or Forked-Worm (Syngamus trachealis) of “Gapes”: Eel-Worms (Anguillulide)— Wheat Eel-Worm (7 ylenchus scandens), Stem Eel-Worm (7. devastatrix), Beet Eel-Worm (feterodera Schachtiz), Root-knot Eel-Worm (4. radicicola) - - INJURIOUS ANIMALCULES (PROTOZOA)—Nagana or “Fly-Sickness”, Anbury or Finger-and-Toe caused by Plasmodiophora - - - . : : CHAPTER LXXII.—THE ZOOLOGY OF SPORT Origin of Field-Sports: Ethical Considerations - - - : a = Z MAMMALS (MammatiA) AS AIDS TO SPORT THE Horse (£guus caballus) - - = 2 a é i if 2 5 THE INDIAN ELEPHANT (Elephas Indicus) - - - - = z : = THE DoG (Canis famdliaris)—Egyptian and Assyrian Dogs, Reming Dogs of the Reece Romans, Pointers - - - - - 2 S . : THE CHEETAH OR HUNTING LEOPARD (Cynatlurus jubatus) - : es = THE FERRET - - - = - - - - - - - - Z S BIRDS (Aves) AS AIDS TO SPORT Falconry and Hawking: Use of the Golden Eagle by the Kirghiz - 2 7 “ Page 355 356 356 358 360 360 360 361 364 366 366 367 368 369 369 CONTENTS MAMMALS (Mammatia) HUNTED FOR SPORT FLESH-EATING MAMMALS (CARNIVORA)—Lion (Felzs Jeo), Tiger (F. digris), Brown Bear (Ursus arctos), Wolf (Cans lupus), Fox (C. vulpes) - - - - - ELEPHANTS (PROBOSCIDEA) - - - - - - - - - - - HOOFED MAMMALS (UNGULATA)—Rhinoceros (Rhznoceros and Atelodus), Hippo- potamus (Aippopotamus amphibius), Wild Boars of Europe (Sus scrofa) and India (S. cristata), African Wart-Hog ca aliad Peccaries ees) Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) - - - - - - - - GNAWING MAMMALS (RODENTIA)—Hare (Lepus timidus), Rabbit (L. cuniculus), Rat (us decumanus) - - - - - - e 2 E : BIRDS (AvEs) HUNTED FOR SPORT Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea), Rook-hawking, &c. - - - - - - - GAME BIRDS (GALLIN&)— Pheasant (Phastanus Colchicus), Red Grouse (Lagopus Scoticus), Partridge (Perdix cinerea), Capercailzie (Zetrao urogallus), Black Grouse (Lyrurus ¢etrix), Ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus), Quail (Coturnix com- munis) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - PERCHING BIRDS (PASSERES)—Rook (Corvus frugilegus), Skylark (Alauda ar- vensis) = - - 2 - 5 3 e = é = x s e PLoveRS (LIMICOLZ)—Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola), Snipe (Gallinago celestis) - BUSTARDS (ALECTORIDES)—Great Bustard (O¢¢s ¢arda), Little Bustard (O. ¢efrax) - Ducks, GEESE, SWANS, AND FLAMINGOES (ANSERES)—Wild-Fowling, Flamingo (Phenticopterus roseus) - - - - E . 2 = ; : 2 REPTILES (Reptitia) HUNTED IN SPORT American Alligator (Alligator Mississippiens?s) - - - - - 7 5 FISHES (Pisces) HUNTED IN SPORT Freshwater Fishing—Salmon (Salmo salar), Trout’ (S. fario, &c.), Grayling (Thy- mallus vulgaris), Pike (Esox luctus), Barbel (Barbus vulgaris), Perch (Perca fluviatilis) - - - - - - < - - e = - z Sea-Fishing—Tarpon (Megalops thrissotdes), es eee eager oe Mullet (Mugil), Bass (Labrax lupus) - - - = = CHAPTER LXXIII.—UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY—ANIMAL PETS Reasons for keeping Pets - - - - - ae ts 2 2 : . MAMMALS (Mamma.ia) AS PETS MONKEYS AND MARMOSETS (PRIMATES) - - - - é e z : FLESH-EATING MAMMALS (CARNIVORA)—The Dog (Canis familiarts): Italian Greyhound, Pug, King Charles Spaniel, ne and “Toy” Terriers, uae Dalmatian, Hairless Dog of Japan - - - - - - - The Cat (Fels domesticus): Albinos, Black Cats, Persian or Angora Cat, Tailless Manx and Crimean Cats, Malay Cat - - - - - - - Mangoustis or Mungooses: Egyptian Mungoose (Herpestes tchneumon), Indian Mungoose (4. griseus) - - - - - - - - - Xi Page 369 373 373 374 375 379 xil CONTENTS Page GNAWING MAMMALS (RODENTIA)—Rabbit (Lepus cuniculus), Rat (Mus rattus), Mouse (AZus musculus), Alpine Marmot (Arctomys marmotta), Dormouse (Muscardinus avellanarius), Squirrel (Scturus vulgaris), Guinea-Pig - - 386 BIRDS (Aves) AS PETS PERCHING BIRDS (PASSERES)—Canary (Serius canarius), Java Sparrow (Munia orystvora), Raven, Jackdaw, Magpie, Starling - - - - - - - 387 PARROTS (PSITTACI)—Grey Parrot (Pszttacus erithacus), Grass-Parakeet or Budgeri- gar (JLelopsittacus undulatus), Love-Birds (Agapornis), Parrotlets (Psztéacula), Cockatoos (Cacatuzde), Macaws (Ara) - - - - - - - - 389 REPTILES (Reptitia) AS PETS Sacred Reptiles— Nile Crocodile (Crocodtlus Niloticus). Grass-Snake (Zvofz- donolus natrix). Snake-Charmers—Indian Cobra (Wada ¢ripudians). Lizards —Green Lizard (Lacerta viridis), Common Gecko (Zarentola Maurttanica). Grecian Tortoise (Zestudo Greca), Gigantic Land-Tortoises of the Seychelles (1. Sumetret) - - - - 2 = : 2 z zs : P - 391 AMPHIBIANS (Ampuipia) AS PETS Grass Frog (Rana temporaia), Common Toad (Bufo vulgaris), European Tree-Frog (Ayla arborea), Horned Toad (Phrynosoma) - - - - - - - 392 FISHES (Pisces) AS PETS Gold Fish (Carass¢us auratus) and ‘Telescope Fish”; Paradise-Fish (Polyacanthus viridt-auralius) - - - - : = - 2 < - a z - 392 INSECTS (INsEcTA) AS PETS Insects kept in Captivity by Chinese and Itahans. Performing Fleas — - - - 393 CHAPTER LXXIV.—UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY—ANIMAL PRODUCTS USED FOR DECORATIVE PURPOSES—ANIMAL ASTHETICS ANIMAL PRODUCTS USED FOR DECORATIVE PURPOSES Decorative Value, Secondary or Primary - - - fs a = = - 304 DECORATIVE PRODUCTS OF MAMMALS (MAMMALIA)—Ivory: Elephants (E£/e- phas), Mammoth (£. primigentus) and “fossil ivory”, Walrus (Zréchechus rosmarus), Narwhal (Monodon monoceros). Trophies of Sport. Ornaments of Savages = : : : 5 : - E - - - - 394 DECORATIVE PRODUCTS OF BIRDS (AVES) — The Plume-Industry: Ostrich (Struthio camelus), Peacock, Birds of Paradise, Sun-Birds, Humming-Birds, Egrets, &c. - = > > = - 7 - - - - 395 DECORATIVE PRODUCTS OF REPTILES (REPTILIA) —Skins of Crocodiles and Lizards, Hawksbill Turtle (Che/one zmbricata) and “ Tortoise-shell ” - - 395 DECORATIVE PRODUCT OF FISHES (PISCES)—-Skins of Dog-Fishes and Sharks as Shagreen, Scales of Dace (Leuwcescus vulgaris) and Bleak (L. alburnw) for manufacture of artificial Pearls = . = " eS s 7 . - 396 CONTENTS DECORATIVE PRODUCTS OF MOLLUSCS (MOLLUSCA) —Shell-ornaments. Sea- Snails (Gastropoda): Shell-cameos (from Cassis, &c.); Pink Pearls of Conch- Shell (Stvombus gigas); Tyrian Purple from Purpura and Murex, dye obtained from a Sea-Slug (Aglysta camelus). Bivalve Molluscs (Lamellibranchia): The Pearl-Oyster (Margaritifera vulgaris), Pearl-Fisheries of Ceylon, British Pearls from Freshwater Mussels, Purple Pearls from Ark-Shells (A47vca)- - - DECORATIVE PRODUCTS OF INSECTS (INSECTA)—Wing-Covers of Beetles, Orna- mental Butterflies, &c., Cochineal Insect (Coccus cactz), Pupze of Scale- Insects (Cocctde) as “ ground pearls” - - - - - - - - - - ANIMAL ASTHETICS Biological Foundations of Aésthetics - - - - - - - - - THE SENSE OF SIGHT AND ITS BEARING ON A‘STHETICS—The Relation of the Animal World to Human Criteria of Beauty - - - - - 7 7 THE SENSE OF HEARING AND ITS BEARING ON ALSTHETICS—The Song of Birds, &c. - - - = i = = z L a 2 - 3 2 THE SENSE OF SMELL AND ITS BEARING ON /AESTHETICS—Perfumes: Civet from Civet-Cats (Viverra), Musk from Musk-Deer (Moschus moschiferus), Ambergris from Sperm-Whale (Physeter macrocephalus) = - : - THE SENSE OF TASTE AND ITS BEARING ON ASSTHETICS—Tastes and Flavours THE EVOLUTION OF ART AND CERTAIN FORMS OF LITERATURE—Views of Groos on the Relation between ‘“‘ Play” and Art: (1) SedfAExhibition—Court- ships of Birds and Spiders; (2) /mzz¢ation—Concerted Dances of Birds, the Spur-Winged Lapwing (foplopterus cayanus) of South America; (3) Decora- zzon—Nests of Birds, Bower-Birds (Chlamydera, Amblyornis, and Prionodura)- ANIMALS AS MATERIAL FOR ART AND LITERATURE—Pictures and Sculpture. Decorative Art. Origin of certain Letters of the Alphabet from Animal Forms. Animals in Prose and Verse - - - - - - - - - - DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME CHAPTER LXXV.—GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION General Nature of the Problems to be Considered - - - - - - - AREAS OF DISTRIBUTION — Continental and Oceanic Islands; Land-Bridges; Discontinuous Distribution, Pouched Mammals (Marsupialia), Lung-Fishes (Dipnot) - - - - - = - z = a - - - - DISPERSAL OF ANIMALS—Increase in Size of Areas of Distribution, Checks to Migration - - - - = = . = 2 2 = . : ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF THE LAND—and their Chief Subdivisions - FAUNA OF THE PALAARCTIC REGION - - é = = = 2 3 2 FAUNA OF THE NEARCTIC REGION - - E 3 : 2 = 2 2 FAUNA OF THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. - - S = = 2 : s - FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR - - - - e 2 2 : . 4 FAUNA OF ST. HELENA- - - - Z 2 = = - = = = xill Page 397 399 400 401 402 402 403 407 409 409 423 xiv CONTENTS FAUNA OF THE ORIENTAL REGION - - - 2 = = é = z FAUNA OF THE AUSTRALIAN REGION - = = 2 e 2 3 4 a FAUNA OF THE NEOTROPICAL REGION - - - s a s © z CHAPTER LXXVI.— LIFE IN DIFFERENT SURROUNDINGS— SHALLOW WATER, DEEP WATER, AND SURFACE FAUNAS OF THE SEAS Neritic, Abysmal, and Pelagic Zones—Benthos, Nekton, and Plankton - - - THE NERITIC ZONE—LIFE IN SHALLOW WATER - eS 3 = 2 Ss THE ABYSMAL ZONE—LIFE IN DEEP WATER - - 2 . = es > PELAGIC ZONE—SURFACE LIFE - - - S 7 5 = = a 2 CHAPTER LXXVII.—DISTRIBUTION IN TIME—THE GEOLOGI- CAL RECORD Nature and Aims of the Subject - - - - - E E B 2 = THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD—Stratified Rocks, Fossils, Geological Time - - GEOLOGICAL PERIODS—Eozoic, Palzozoic, Mesozoic, and Kainozoic Epochs - - LIFE IN THE PALOZOIC EPOCH - - = - : = : 2 2 LIFE IN THE MESOZOIC EPOCH - - - - - Bs = 3 = LiFE IN THE KAINOZOIC EPOCH - - - - - = = = # = PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY CHAPTER LXXVIII.—PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY—THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION—EVOLUTION AS A FACT Doctrines of Special Creation and Evolution; History of the Evolutionary Idea; Lamarck, Darwin, and Wallace; Distinction between the Fact of Evolution and the 7heory of Evolution - - - - - 2 : 3 : : THE ARGUMENT FROM CLASSIFICATION - - - 7 2 : 3 2 THE ARGUMENT FROM FORM AND STRUCTURE (MORPHOLOGY) - - - THE ARGUMENT FROM DEVELOPMENT - - - - - = S 3 2 THE ARGUMENT FROM THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD - - - - = 2 THE ARGUMENT FROM GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION - - - = = CHAPTER LXXIX.— THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION — THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES The Imperfect State of our Knowledge; Necessity for Experiment - - - NATURAL SELECTION (DARWINISM) Line of Argument Adopted - - - - : 2 : 2 RAPID INCREASE IN NUMBERS OF ANIMALS - 3 = B VARIATION AND HEREDITY—Domesticated Animals - 2 : 2 OBJECTIONS TO THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION—Swamping Effects of Intercross- ing; Reversion or Atavism; Importance of Isolation; Physiological Section - 435 436 442 448 456 456 457 458 464 472 CONTENTS SUPPLEMENTARY FACTORS OF EVOLUTION COURTSHIP SELECTION - - - - LAMARCKISM—Acquired Characters; Use and Disuse; Influence of the Environ- ment - - - - - 2 - NEO-LAMARCKISM - - - - - VARIATION Kinds of Variation — Discontinuous Variation. of Acquired Characters. Organic Selection Adaptation to the Environment. Somatic and Germinal Variation. Weismann’s Views on the Non-Inheritance HEREDITY Weismann’s Views on Germ-Plasma. Influence of Environment on Germ-Cells, Experiments of Yung on Tadpoles, and Schmankewitsch on Crustaceans. Galton, Karl Pearson, and Mendel - XV Page 489 489 491 491 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS HALF-VOLUME VIII COLOURED PLATES HUMMING-BIRDS (Jrochilidz) OF AMERI From a Drawing by Wilhelm Kihnert CA. A TIDAL POOL, WITH FAMILIAR MARINE ANIMALS. From a Drawing by A. Fairfax Muckley THE RUSSIAN SABLE (Mustela Zibellina), THE KING OF THE MARTENS. From a Drawing by Friedrich Specht VARIETIES OF THE FIELD-SNAIL (Helix Hortensis). From a Drawing by A. Fairfax Muckley CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS OF THE ISLAND OF MADAGASCAR. From a Drawing by Wilhelm Kithnert STRUCTURE OF THE PIGEON—Models BLACK-AND-WHITE ILLUSTRATIONS N.B.—The figs. followed by ‘‘from Alcock” are from Alcock’s A Naturalist in Indian Seas, by the courtesy of Mr. John Murray. Page Traw]-Net attached to Fishing-Boat - - 263 Part of a Shoal of pa (Clupea harengus) - - - - - 264 Anchovy (Zxgraules en ee - - 265 Cod-Fish (Gadus morrhia) - - 266 Haddock (Gadus eglefinus) - 267 Soles (Solea vulgaris) 3 269 Mackerel (Scomber vernalis) - - 270 Striped Red Mullet (AZzedlzs sur ‘inditebase 271 John Dory (Zezs faber) - - 2-272 Thin-lipped Grey Mullet (AZugi7 capito) 273 Conger Eels (Conger viulgaris) - - 274 River Trout (Salmo farzo) - 275 Smelt (Osmerus eperlanis) 27 Common Sturgeon (Acipenser sturto) 277 Thornback (Raza clavata) (after Couch) 278 xvii Herring - Boats leaving Aberdeen Harbour DEEP-SEA FISHES - 2 A Division of Comacchio (from Bertram’s Harvest of the Sea) Staby’s Californian Trough MacDonald’s Hatching Bottle - The Gabarét Collector (Ruche) in position (at Arcachon) (after Dean) A Norwegian Oyster-Park : Shell of a Whitstable Native, with young Oysters attached (photo. by W. H. Reeves) Wheeler’s Beehive Collector (photo. PE in- ventor) Whitstable Oyster- Dretinet at w ilk (phot by W. H. Reeves) Edible Mussel (AZyézlus Edulis) PAGE xvill Part of a Baltic Musselry - - - - Prawn (Palemon serratus), Shrimp (Cran- gon vulgaris), Edible Crab (Cancer pagurus), and Lobster (Homarus vil- garts) - - - - - - - Crab-Pots - - - - - - Shrimper working a Push-Net - - : Heathen Ostiaks — - - - - - Northern Fur-Seals (O/arta ursina) on the Pribyloffs (photos. by Prof. D'Arcy W. Thompson) - - - - - 304, Musquash (ber 22hethicus) — - - - Eider-Drake (Somateria mollissima) - - Harp or Greenland Seal (Phoca Gran- landica) - - - - - Baleen - - - - - - Cachalot or Sperm Whale (Paieler macro- cephalus) — - - - - - - Spanish Fly or Blister Beetle i vestca- torta) - - - - - A Cuttle-bone - - Money Cowry (Cyprea jane. - - Indian Wampum - Weasels (Putorius vulgaris) - - - Barn Owl (S¢ a Hee and Nest - Tiger (Felis tégris) - - Nile Crocodile (Cx nebeus Niloticus) Mexican Poisonous Lizard ( Heloderma hor- ridun) - - Indian Cobra (Wasa tr ipuatians - - A Gnat (Czlex) - = Malaria Parasite eee ites Gras Golgi, and Labbé) Echinococcus Cyst from the Liver of a Cow Trichine encysted in Muscle (from Ritzema Bos) - - - - - - Common House-Mouse (Aus muscilits) Tree “ringed” by a Woodpecker - Field-Slug (Zzmax agrestis), &c. (from Curtis) - - - - - Ox-Warble Fly (Fpode ma), enlarged - Vine Aphis (Phylloxera vastatrix) (from Selenka) - - - - Apple Scale-Insect (Mytilaspis jomorum) (after Howard) - - - Crane-Fly (Zzpula olerace) (from Curtis) - Cabbage Moth (Aamestra brassice) (from Curtis) - - - - - - Codlin Moth (Carpocapsa fomonala) (from Ritzema Bos) - - - - Corn Moth (Tinea grant (from Ritzema Bos) - - - - Stages of Turnip nee ‘Beetle (Haltica nemorum) (from Curtis) - - - Weevils (from Curtis) - - - - Pine Saw-Fly eae fe) (from Rit- zema Bos) - - - - Page 296 298 299 300 302 305 307 309 313 314 WWW WwWw WwW WwW ow WwWN NN NHN DN _ NNN OW HHH N to Ww Ww Go Oo wo 340 341 343 343 346 347 348 349 350 350 351 352 352 353 354 355 356 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Migratory Locust (Sch7stocerca pee (from Ritzema Bos) - - - Winter-Moth (Che?matobia unite - Life-History of Liver-Fluke (Fascéola hepa- tica) (after Leuckart) - - - * “Staggers” Tape-Worm ( Zenza cenurus) (from Ritzema Bos) - - - Beet Fel- Worm ( Heter era Schacht (from Ritzema Bos) - - - - Pointer - - - - - - Cheetah (Cyzazlerus x fois pieenls an Indian Antelope - - - - Kirghiz hunting the Wolf with the Golden Eagle - : - - - Lion (Fe/?s leo) = - - = z Fox (Canzs vulpes) - - - - - Red Deer Trophy - - - - - Hares coursed by Assyrian Greyhounds - RED GROUSE (Lagopus Scoticus) GLIDING UP TO THE GUNS - - - - Flamingoes (Phanicopterus roseus) - - Grayling (Zhymallus vulgaris) - - - Pike (Zso.x luctus) - - - . Young Chimpanzee peas oppithecs niger f Pug Dog - - - Persian Cat - - - - - Indian Mungoose (Rerpeseees eviseus) - Canaries (Sereus canarius) - - Macaw (4a) - - - 2 5 Goldfishes and Paradise Fish - - Tusks of African Elephant - - - Hawksbill Turtle (Chelone imbricata) Chinese Shell-Ornament - - - - Shell-Cameos - - - - - Murex Branderi - - - - Pearl-Oyster (A/argaritifera vulear =) ond pearl - - - 7 : Dance of Spur- eases Lapwings (Hepp terus cayanus) (from Hudson) - Gardener - Birds (Amblyornis issues (after Beccari) - - : Evolution of V - - - Zoogeographical Regions of he: Land baller Wallace) - # # : 2 + Raccoon Dog (WWycterezttes) - - : Star-nosed Mole (Condylura) - - - Wart-Hog (Phacocherus) - - - - Tree-Shrew ( Zifaza) : 2 Babirussa (Badsrussa) — - £ 2 2 THE GREAT ANT-EATER (ALyrmecophaga JSubata) - - = S Coral-Fish (Zpznephelus Be xagonatus) ffs Alcock) - - - 3 Section through part of a rl Reef An encircling Coral Reef in Plan and Section An Atoll - : - - : g : Blind Deep-Sea Fishes - - - - 413 420. 425 427 431 438 440: 441 44l 443 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Deep-Sea Cuttle-Fish ( Zaonizs ieee (from Alcock) - - - Deep-Sea Prawn iGapiomineen eae nota) (from Alcock) - - - Large Eyes of a Deep-Sea Prawn ee pandalus spinipes) (from Alcock) - - A Blind Deep-Sea Shrimp (Prionocrangon ommatosteres) (from Alcock) - - Group of Deep-Sea Animals - - Deep-Sea Pycnogonid (Colossendeis) - Sun-Fish (Orthagoréscus mola) - - - A Ray-Animalcule ahs weENe) (after Haeckel) - - Velella - - - - Wing-Footed Snails (Peerapode Ghee Sou- leyet) - : - Fork-Footed Biceete (Copepoda) (atice Giesbrecht) - - - - - Pelagic Nemertine Worm i Pilagienartas (after ‘‘ Challenger” Reports) Night-Light Animalcules (octiluca) - Shells of Ray-Animalcules ee) (after Haeckel) - - - - Group of Foraminifera (after ‘‘ Challenger” Reports) —- - - - Strata in Vertical Section - Forked Graptolites eee ae ater Bailey) - - : A fossil Tongue-Shell (Zinguletta\ - - Page 444 444 445 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 453 453 454 457 459 460 Trilobites - - - - - A_ Trilobite eas) restored athe Beecher) - - - - - A Eurypterid eee - - - An extinct Arachnid (Zophrynus) - An Ostracoderm (Cephalasfis) - Foraminifera from the Chalk - : - Shell of an Ammonite — - - - - Hamites and Eee - - - Belemnites - - - - - Labyrinthodon - - - - Pareiasaurus (after Seeley) - - - Restoration of Fish-Lizard (/ch¢hyosaurus) Skeletons of Fish-Lizard (/chthyosaurus) and Sea-Lizard (Plestosaurus) — - - Stegosaurus (after Marsh) - - Iguanodon - : - - Pterodactyle (Prerodactylus) retiree: Restoration of Phenacodus - - - Skeleton of Phenacodus (after Marsh) : Extinct SouTH AMERICAN GROUND- SLOTH (Afegatheriumn) - - 2 Trish Elk (Cervus Aibernicus) - - - Mammoth (Ziephas primigenius) — - - Skeleton of Moa eee m8 GE opus) - - - - Grinding-teeth of young Dick: Bill on thorhynchus) (from Haacke) - - - Breeds of Pigeon” - : - - - xix Page 460 461 462 462 463 464 465 466 466 467 468 468 469 470 470 471 472 473 473 474 475 475 481 487 CHAPTER LXVIII ANIMAL FRIENDS—FISHES, MOLLUSCS, AND CRUSTA- CEANS AS FOOD—FISHERIES , To do anything like justice to the ‘harvest of the sea”, not to mention the “freshwater harvest”, would require a very con- siderable space, but the importance of the subject may be sufficiently illustrated for the purposes of this book by a few salient facts and figures. It will be convenient to successively consider Fishes, Molluscs, and Crustaceans, beginning in each case with a brief account of the more valuable species, and adding a few remarks on fisheries, culture-methods, &c. In the pre- paration of this chapter the writer has been greatly helped by Mr. J. T. Cunningham's Marketable Marine Fishes, as well as by papers and MS. notes by Professor J. Travis Jenkins. Much kind assistance has also been given by the Secretaries to the French, German, Italian, Russian, and U.S. Embassies, the Legations of Holland and Scandinavia, the Italian Chamber of Commerce, the Imperial Russian Financial Agency, our own Department for Agriculture and Fisheries, and the Whitstable Oyster Fishery Company; also by the U.S.A. and Newfoundland Fisheries Departments, the High Commissioner for Canada, and the British Consuls-General in Christiania, Paris, and St. Peters- burg. FISHES (Pisces) AS FOOD Without entering into minute technical details, it will be desiravle in the first place to say a little about the three chief methods by which fishes are captured on a commercial scale, z.é. line-fishing, net-fishing, and trawling. Line- Fishing. — Before the prehistoric races of Western Europe had learnt the use of metals there is evidence to show that large fishes, such as salmon, were secured by means of a, Vou. Iv. 261 112 262 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY bone harpoons, and the earliest fish-hooks were made of bone or shell. The remains from the Age of Bronze include a number of fish-hooks of that metal, and of these our modern devices of the same nature are doubtless lineal descendants. The most ex- tensive development of line-fishing in this country is exemplified on the Scottish coasts, where such fishes as cod, haddock, and ling are thus caught. A series of cod-lines may reach the great length of eight miles, and carry 4680 hooks on attached ‘snoods”, the favourite bait being whelks. The somewhat shorter haddock- lines are mostly baited with mussels or lug-worms. Net-Fishing.—This more wholesale method of capture has the advantage of obviating the trouble and expense of bait. Drift-nets afford the chief means of catching fishes which, like herrings, pilchards, and mackerel, swim in large shoals at or near the surface, and they are nearly always worked at night. Such a net is practically a curtain, of which the upper edge is floated by corks, while the lower edge is sunk by weights. If by skilful manceuvring a shoal can be induced to dash against the meshwork, their heads easily pass through (the size of mesh being adapted to the particular species), and the projecting gill- covers prevent withdrawal. For herrings a series or “train” of drift-nets may extend a distance of 14% mile, while for mackerel the length may be twice as great. Sezzes, which may be as much as 1200 feet in length, are hanging nets which are drawn round shoals of fishes so as to enclose and secure them as in a bag. After the catch is made it may be hauled on to fishing-boats or drawn to shore according to circumstances. Certain other smaller nets will be mentioned as occasion arises. Trawling.—This is, of course, a variety of net-fishing, and specially adapted for the wholesale capture of fishes that live on or near the bottom. The “trawl” or ‘“ beam-trawl” (fig. 1191) is essentially a large, flat, tapering net, which is dragged over the sea-floor, and may be as much as 100 feet long, with a mouth 50 feet wide. The ‘ beam” is a horizontal spar by which the mouth is kept open, and which does not scrape along the bottom as sometimes supposed. It would be out of place here to describe all the elaborate details of construction. For most purposes trawling, especially as practised by steam-vessels, is rapidly superseding some of the older methods of fishing. And as it not only means the capture of vast quantities of FISHES AS FOOD 263 adult fishes, but also destruction of great numbers of immature individuals, trawling cannot but tend to deplete the natural supply. It is to be hoped that our knowledge will ultimately be sufficiently extensive and accurate to grapple with the ques- tion as to how best to regulate this kind of fishing, with a view to maintaining the more important species in sufficient numbers. At present our ignorance on many points is considerable, not to say profound, and there is no lack of exaggeration on a slender basis of fact. Tue Herrinc Famity (CLuperp#).—The members of this family are widely distributed in the coastal waters of both tropical and temperate seas, but are not found in the deeper parts of the ocean. From the economic stand- point they are the most valuable of all food-fishes, which is partly due to the fact that they live in large surface - feed Fig. rr9r.—Trawl-Net attached to Fishing-Boat ing shoals. The chief method of capture is by means of ‘“‘drift-nets”. The most important British fishes belonging to the family are Herring, Sprat, Pilchard, and Anchovy. The Herring (Clupea harengus, fig. 1192).—Of all European marine fishes this contributes most largely to the human food- supply, especially when converted by curing methods into the familiar “red herring”, “ kipper ” ”. It was long , and “bloater ”. supposed that herrings migrated periodically from northern waters to the south, on both sides of the North Atlantic, but their move- ments are now believed to be of much more local character. It may, in fact, be stated that the direction of these movements is alternately towards and from the land, the former being under- taken for the purpose of spawning in shallow water, where the heavy, sticky eggs sink to the bottom and adhere to various 264 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY objects. In British seas a distinction may, somewhat doubt- fully, be drawn between ‘‘summer” and ‘‘winter” herrings, which appear to be two distinct varieties or races that spawn respectively at the seasons indicated. Winter herrings favour estuaries, and it is they which are fished, for example, in the Firth of Forth, Firth of Clyde, and Plymouth Sound. Summer herrings, on the other hand, avoid estuaries, and their spawning- grounds may be at some distance from the coast. They are the Fig. 1192.—Part of a Shoal of Herrings (Clu pea harengus) more important race, and are caught in vast numbers on the north-east coasts of Scotland and the east coast of England. The Sprat, Pilchard, and Anchovy, which next fall to be con- sidered, lay floating eggs, like the large majority of marine fishes. The Sprat (C. sprattus).—This small species ranges from the north of Europe to the Mediterranean, and is largely fished from the coast of Kent round our south-east and south shores to Devonshire. It appears that what is popularly known as ‘“ whitebait” is not a distinct kind of fish, but is chiefly made up of very young herrings and sprats, both of which are fond of making their way into sheltered estuaries. FISHES AS FOOD 265 The Pilchard (C. prlchardus).—This fish is pretty much like a herring in appearance, but its body is of rounder shape, the scales are very large, and there are several other points of differ- ence. It ranges from the south of Ireland and England to Madeira, and into the Mediterranean. As is well known, the pilchard fishery of Cornwall is one of the most important indus- tries of that county. Sardines are simply young pilchards, and not a distinct species as sometimes supposed. They are fished on a large scale on the west of France, and also off the coast of North-west Spain (Galicia). Sardines are caught by the French to the value of some £400,000 per annum. Our own import of preserved fish (largely sardines) from France in 1902 was worth £373,960. Fig. 1193.—Anchovy (Exgraulis encrasicholus) The Anchovy (Engraulis encrasicholus, fig. 1193).—This slender little fish, which is best known to us as the source of various flavourings, is easily distinguished from its congeners by the way in which its snout projects in front of the mouth, so that this opens on the under side of the head, much as in a shark. The anchovy ranges from the coast of Norway down the sea-board of Western Europe, and through the Mediter- ranean. Although native to our seas it is not the object of a British fishery, but the Dutch capture it in large numbers, in the Zuyder Zee and the estuary of the Scheldt, by means of small drift-nets fixed at either end, netted gaps between willow- and poplar-fences (near Bergen-op-Zoom), and by large sweep- nets. The importance of the anchovy-fishery to Holland will be realized from the fact that in 1902 the catch amounted to 100,000 ankers (an anker = about 88 lbs.). At Bergen-op-Zoom in that year 127 cwts. of these fishes were cured, over 77 cwts. of salt being used in the process. In the anchovy-fisheries along the Mediterranean littoral of Spain, France, and Italy drift-nets and seines are employed. Tue Cop Famiry (Gapip#).—From the economic stand-point 266 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY this family ranks second only to the one just considered. The fishes it includes are voracious ground-feeders characteristic of polar and temperate regions. With few exceptions they are marine, and their favourite habitat is in water under 200 fathoms in depth. Trawling and line-fishing are the chief methods by which they are captured. The most notable British species are Cod, Coal-Fish, Haddock, Whiting, Ling, and Hake. All of these lay floating eggs. The Cod (Gadus morrhua, fig. 1194).—This large and im- portant fish is the most valuable member of its family so far as its range extends, ze. from Arctic seas to the Bay of Biscay on one side of the North Atlantic, and as far as Fig. 1194.—Cod-Fish ‘Gadus morrhua) New York on the other side. Giinther thus summarizes some of the chief points regarding it (in Zhe Study of Fishes):— “The Cod-Fish occurs between 50° and 75° lat. N. in great profusion, but is not found nearer the equator than 4o° lat. Close to the coast it is met with singly all the year round, but towards the spawning-time it approaches the shore in numbers, which happens in January in England and not before May on the American coasts. The English resorted to the cod-fisheries of Iceland before the year 1415, but since the sixteenth century most vessels go to the banks of Newfound- land, and almost all the preserved cod consumed during Lent in the various Continental countries is imported from across the Atlantic. At one time the Newfoundland cod-fishery rivalled in importance the whale-fishery and the fur trade of North America.” The Newfoundland catch for 1902 weighed about 140,000 tons. The Coal-Fish (Gadus virens).—This fish, locally known as “oreen cod” and “saith”, is somewhat smaller than the ordinary FISHES AS FOOD 267 cod, and ranges from the Arctic Ocean into the Mediterranean. It is largely fished in northern British waters, and is cured to a considerable extent. The Haddock (Gadus eglefinus, fig. 1195).— Though of superior quality in the fresh condition, this fish is perhaps more familiar in the cured state, under the names of “yellow fish ”, ‘“Finnan haddie”, and so forth. In British seas average speci- mens are decidedly smaller than cod, and are easily recognizable by the blackness of the lateral line, and by the presence of a black blotch above the pectoral fin, attributed by tradition to Fig. 1195.—Haddock (Gadus wglefinus) the finger and thumb of the apostle Peter, though the John Dory is another candidate for the honour of the association. The range of the haddock is much the same as that of the cod, but it is only of marked importance in regard to the northern half of the British fishery area. The Whiting (G. merlangus).—This comparatively small species is noted for delicacy of flavour, but to fully appreciate this it must be eaten immediately after capture, for it rapidly deteriorates, and stands carriage badly. Though ranging from Norway to the Mediterranean, and found all round our coasts, it is of more importance to the fisheries of the English Channel than to those farther north. The Ling (Molva vulgaris).—This is a large and rapacious fish, which is largely cured, but is decidedly inferior to the 268 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY haddock. It ranges from the Arctic Ocean as far as Gibraltar on the east of the North Atlantic, but only to Newfoundland on the west. It is mostly fished in the northern parts of the North Sea, and around the shores of the Orkneys, Shetlands, and Faroe Islands. The Hake (Merlucctus vulgaris).—Like the last-named species this is a rapacious fish of large size. Its range is similar to that of the cod, except that it is found throughout the Mediterranean, and is most abundant on the southern shores of Britain. Like most large forms it is somewhat coarse, and not greatly esteemed as food, though hake steaks are not to be despised. Tue Frat-Fisn Famity (PLEURONECTID. £).—These are car- nivorous ground-fishes of great economic importance, especially in the north temperate region, and for delicacy of flavour some of the species are unrivalled. The valuable British forms which deserve notice are Turbot and Brill, with eyes on the left side; and Sole, Plaice, Flounder, Dab, and Lemon Dab, in which the eyes are on the right side. All these species lay buoyant eggs. Trawling is by far the most important method of capture, after which comes line-fishing. The Turbot (Rhombus maxtmus).—This is the most esteemed of the larger flat-fishes, and may attain a weight of over 20 lbs. It is a shallow-water form, and ranges from the Black Sea, through the Mediterranean, up the eastern coast of the North Atlantic as far as Denmark and South Scotland. Bony tubercles are imbedded in the skin of the left side. In accordance with the fact that the turbot is highly predaceous, feeding upon other fishes, its mouth is larger than in most members of the family. The Brill (Rk. levis)—Except in its smaller size, and the absence of tubercles on the skin, this species resembles the turbot in appearance, mode of feeding, and distribution. The other flat-fishes to be noticed here all have the eyes on the right side of the body and (except the Halibut) have small mouths, adapted to feeding on worms and other small creatures. The Halibut (Zippoglossus vulearis).—This is the largest of all flat-fishes, and is said to sometimes reach the length af 20 feet, while individuals of 6 or 7 feet long are 6fen caught in British seas. A 7-foot halibut weighs semewnere about 300 pounds or rather more. It is a decidedly northern species, and appears to range right round the southern shores of the Arctic FISHES AS FOOD 269 Ocean. In the Atlantic its area of distribution extends as far south as the English Channel. The halibut feeds on fishes and crustaceans. The Sole (Solea vulgaris, fig. 1196).—This valuable and delicately-flavoured food-fish, adult specimens of which average from 12 to 18 inches in length, is distinguished from many other forms by its shape, which is a narrow oval with continuous outline, free from sharp curves or projections. It ranges from the Medi- terranean to the south of Scotland, and is captured for the most part in water under 30 fathoms deep. The Plaice (Pleu- ronectes platessa).— This common British species is of con- siderable economic importance, though its flesh is rather flavourless. Average specimens vary from 15 to 18 inches in length, but a larger size is often reached, especially in northern waters. The plaice may easily be recog- nized by the large orange - coloured or rust-red blotches on the dark side of the body. It ranges from the north coast of Europe as far south as the Bay of Biscay. The Flounder (P. flesus).—This is a rather small species, the pigmented side of which is dark-brown or black. It ranges along the entire west coast of Europe, and is also found in the Baltic and Mediterranean. Flounders are estuarine fishes, and are able to live in fresh water. The Dab (P. limanda).—This is about the same size as the flounder, but its pigmented side is of light-brown colour, with darker spots, and the skin is rough. It ranges from the north of Europe to the Bay of Biscay, and is found both in estuaries and the open sea. Fig. 1196. —Soles (Solea vulgaris) 270 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY The Lemon Dab (P. microcephalus).—This is often sold under the name of Lemon “Sole”, but it is a poor substitute for the true Sole, which it resembles in shape though not in colour. The dark side of the body is of a yellowish-brown, marked with numerous spots. The range is practically the same as that of the Dab, but it is most abundant in fairly deep water. Tue Mackeret Famity (ScoMBERID£).—The members of this family are highly predaceous tropical and temperate fishes which swim in shoals in the open sea, but approach the land in pursuit of prey. Their form admirably adapts them to swift progression (see vol. iii, p. 41). It will be necessary here to consider two 4 foekboek Fig. 1197.—Mackerel (Scomber vernalis) species, the Mackerel and Common Tunny, both of which lay floating eggs. The Mackerel (Scomber vernatis, fig. 1197).—This is one of the most beautiful of our native marine fishes, and adults vary in length from about 1 foot to 17 inches. The range is from the Mediterranean to the Canaries, and north along the shores of Europe to the south of Norway. So far as British fisheries are concerned mackerel are of importance from the coast of Norfolk round the Straits of Dover to Devon and Cornwall. Drift-nets and seines are the chief means of capture, but lines are also employed, especially in the south-west of England. The Common Tunny (Orcynus thynnus).—This can be de- scribed as a gigantic mackerel, which may reach a length of 10 feet, and a weight of about half a ton. Although sometimes taken in the North Sea and Baltic it is essentially a native of the Mediterranean, where it has been the object of an important FISHES AS FOOD 271 fishery from very early times. Its flesh is eaten both when fresh and in the preserved condition. Pickled Tunny (Saltamentum Sardicum) was considered a delicacy by the ancient Romans. The Italian tunny-fishery, of which Sardinia and Sicily are the chief centres, is a considerable industry, which yielded over &111,000 in 1902. It commences in spring, when the fish ap- proach the shore to spawn, and the shoals are either driven into shallow water and surrounded by a series of strong nets, or else chased into a sort of net-labyrinth, in the innermost compartment of which they are slaughtered with clubs, boat-hooks, and the like. RATA ARTY ‘4 A: Koekke e& Fig. 1198.—Striped Red Mullet (AZullus surmulletus) THe Rep Mutiet Famity (Mutiip#).—The members of this family are mostly tropical fishes, but one species, the Striped Red Mullet (W/udlus surmulletus, fig. 1198), is common in the Mediterranean, from which it ranges to the Canaries and Norway. It is taken in some numbers off the south and south- west shores of England by means of small drift-nets known as trammels. Average specimens weigh about half a pound. It is a particularly handsome fish, of bright-red colour (except below), with several narrow yellow bands along its sides. There is also a Plain Red Mullet (JZ barbatus), without the stripes, which is common in the Mediterranean, and is occasionally taken in British waters. Most probably it is a distinct species. The Red Mullet is universally regarded as a delicacy, and its flavour has suggested the popular name of ‘‘sea woodcock”. The epicures of ancient Rome were extravagantly fond of it. On this 272 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY point Giinther remarks (in Zhe Study of Fishes): “The Romans prized it above any other fish; they sought for large specimens far and wide, and paid ruinous prices for them. . . . Then, as nowadays, it was considered essential for the enjoyment of this delicacy that the fish should exhibit the red colour of its integu- ments. The Romans brought it, for that purpose, living into the banqueting-room, and allowed it to die in the hands of the guests, the red colour appearing in all its brilliancy during the death struggle of the fish. The fishermen of our times attain the same object by scaling the fish immediately after its capture, thus causing a permanent contrac- ibe plate ee! SS | tion of the chromato- game phores containing the red pigment.” Tue Joun Dory Famiy (CytTrT1p.£).— The members of this family inhabit tem- perate seas, and, so far as known, lay _ floating eggs. The | body is greatly flat- tened from side to ; side. Other fishes --=1 constitute the food. Only one species re- quires notice, ze. the /ohn Dory (Zeus faber, fig. 1199), which may be of considerable size (up to 18 lbs. in weight). Its narrow body is very deep, while the elongated first dorsal fin and large staring eye give it an extraordinary appearance. The colour is greenish-brown, banded with yellow, and on either side of the body there is a large round black patch with a yellow border. Giinther says (in Zhe Study of Fishes)—“The fishermen of Roman Catholic countries hold this fish in special respect, as they recognize in a black round spot on its side the mark left by the thumb of St. Peter when he took the piece of money from its mouth”. (See also p. 267.) The John Dory ranges from the Mediterranean to Madeira and Norway. It is trawled in considerable numbers in the English and Bristol Channels. Tue Gurnarp Famizy (Cottip#).—Here are included widely Fig. 1199.—John Dory (Zeus fader) FISHES AS FOOD 273 distributed ground-fishes, living in shallow water. Among them are the little Bull-Heads (Cot¢us), some of which are common on our coasts, while one, the Miller’s Thumb, is a familiar inhabitant of our brooks. They are of no economic importance, though the Germans make soup of the last-named form. The larger Gur- nards, however, are valuable food-fishes, of which several are British, They lay floating eggs. The head is large and covered with strong plates, while some of the rays of the pectoral fins are free and serve as feelers. The commonest native species are the Grey Gurnard (Trigla gurnardus) and the Red Gurnard Fig. 1200.—Thin-lipped Grey Mullet (AZagi? cafito) (Z. cuculus), both of which range from the Mediterranean to Norway. The latter is most abundant in the English Channel, and the former in the North Sea. Tue Grey Mutiet Famity (Muciiip#£).—Grey Mullets are handsome forms common on temperate and tropical coasts. They frequent inlets and estuaries, where they feed on vegetable food. There appear to be two species, the Thzn-lipped and Thick-lipped Grey Mullets (Mugil capito, fig. 1200, and M. chelo), which range from the Mediterranean into British seas. Both are silver-grey in colour with longitudinal black streaks, and distinguishable from each other by the nature of the lips as indicated in their names. They are taken in large numbers by seines and other nets on the south coast of England, but the thick-lipped species seems to be more common off the western part of this area. So far we have considered marine food-fishes, and it will be 274 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY now appropriate to make some reference to the members of the Eel and Salmon families, which, in a sense, link together the forms of sea and fresh water. Tue Eev Famity (Muranip#).—Eels are more or less cylindrical fishes, which may either be scaleless or possess minute scales sunk in the skin. They are widely distributed through the fresh waters and seas of the tropical and temperate regions, some of the most specialized kinds inhabiting the abysmal parts of the ocean. They are captured either by hook and line or by means of wicker-work (or metal) traps, provided with funnel - shaped openings. Trident-shaped eel- spears, with numerous tines, are also used in some localities. Creatures of the kind have been esteemed as a savoury food from very remote times, the ancient Greeks and Romans, for ex- ample, being extremely partial to them. There are two British species, the Conger and the Common Eel. The Conger (Conger vulgarts, fig. 1201).—This is a large, scaleless marine eel, which not sears @ =uncommonly attains the length a Wn ee tere er of 6 or 7 feet and a weight of 60 Ibs. It is a shallow-water form, and has a very wide distribution, occurring all round the shores of Europe, and also inhabiting the coastal waters of St. Helena, Japan, and Tasmania. The Common Eel (Anguilla vulgarts).—This is a good deal smaller than the Conger, but full-grown specimens attain a length of 3 feet. When adult it inhabits fresh water, but repairs to the deep sea to spawn, the young eels or elvers making their way up rivers after undergoing a rather startling kind of transformation (see vol. iii, p. 433). This species has a wide distribution in the river-systems that discharge their waters into the North Atlantic (west as well as east coast) and Mediterranean. FISHES AS FOOD 275 Tue Satmon Famity (Satmonm#).—Salmonoid fishes are both commercially important and also of interest from the sporting point of view. About the middle of the back there is a dorsal fin of the usual character, and some distance behind this a small fatty or adipose second dorsal, unsupported by fin-rays. The nature of this second fin is a distinctive character. The family includes various species of Salmon, Trout, Charr, Grayling, and Smelt. All are natives to the non-tropical parts of the Northern Hemi- sphere, with the exception of a kind of Smelt (Retropinna Richardsont) found in New Zealand and the Chatham Islands. Fig. 1202.—River Trout (Salo fario) Some of the salmonoids are purely marine, others never leave fresh water, and others again may be described as marine forms which ascend rivers to spawn. The eggs are heavy and adhesive. Only a few important species require mention here. The Salmon (Salmo salar).—This universally esteemed fish spawns in the rivers of temperate Europe as far south as 43° N. lat., and those of temperate North America down to 41° N. lat. In Britain it reaches commonly a weight of 20 to 4o lbs., and much larger specimens have been recorded. Salmon are eaten not only when fresh, but also, especially in North Europe, in the smoked condition. The chief method of capture is by netting at the time when the fish are ascending rivers, but large numbers are also taken with the rod. The Rwer Trout (Salmo fario, fig. 1202).—Average adult specimens of this well-known angler’s fish attain the weight of 276 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY about 1% lb., but this may be greatly exceeded, especially in the case of local races. It is a purely freshwater species, and more delicate in flavour than is usual with such forms. The Smelt or Sparling (Osmerus eperlanus, fig. 1203).—This rather small fish is generally considered a dainty. It abounds in the tidal parts of many of the rivers of Europe and North America, ascending these for some distance for the purpose of spawning. Giinther says of it (in Zhe Study of Frshes):—‘ In the sea it grows to a length of 8 inches, but, singularly, it frequently A.A.keekksss Fig. 1203.—Smelt (Osmerus eperlanus) migrates from the sea into rivers and lakes, where its growth is very much retarded. That this habit is one of very old date is evident from the fact that this small freshwater form occurs and is fully acclimatized in lakes which have now no open com- munication with the sea.” Smelts are taken in large numbers by seines in some of the English estuaries which open into the southern part of the North Sea. There are several other families of ordinary bony fishes (Teleostei) of which the freshwater species are used as food, such as the Carp Family, Pike Family, &c. As, in this country at any rate, they are of no particular economic importance, it is scarcely necessary to deal with them here. A few words, however, about a few of the families of lower fishes will not be out of place. FISHES AS FOOD 277 Those of most note include Sturgeons, Skates and Rays, and Lampreys. Tue Sturcron Famity (AcCIPENSERIDE).—This belongs to an ancient group of Fishes (Ganoidei), closely related to the ordinary bony type. There are about twenty species of Sturgeon, all in- habiting the temperate part of the Northern Hemisphere. Like Salmon, they ascend rivers to spawn, and also in some cases for wintering, and some of them are altogether confined to the waters of the land. The Common Sturgeon (Acipenser sturto, fig. 1204) belongs to the British fauna, for it enters some of our rivers, as Fig. 1204.—Common Sturgeon (Acipenser sturio) the Severn and Thames, and, being the property of the Crown, is known asa “royal” fish, Though perhaps 6 feet may be taken as the length of an average adult, a much larger size—up to about 12 feet—may be attained. The species is found on both sides of the Atlantic, on the one side entering the rivers of the Eastern United States, and on the other those of West Europe and the Mediterranean. It is absent from the Black Sea. The much smaller but more esteemed Sterlet (4. ruthenus) is native to the rivers that debouch into the Black and Caspian Seas, and also inhabits the Siberian rivers. It does not, as a rule, descend into salt water. The Giant Sturgeon or Hausen (A. 4uso), on the other hand, is much larger than the common species, but some- what coarse. It lives in the Black Sea, Sea of Azov, Caspian, and the corresponding river basins. Giildenstadt’s Sturgeon (A. Giildenstadt?) ascends the rivers of the Black Sea. So far as Europe is concerned, the sturgeon-fishery is of most VOL.IV. 113 278 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY importance to Russia. The flesh of all the species is used as food, the hard roes (ovaries) are cleaned and salted to figure as caviare, to the extent of some 10,000 tons annually, and isinglass is prepared from the swim-bladders. For all these purposes the smaller sorts of Sturgeon, especially the Sterlet, are most esteemed. The Volga fishery is on the largest scale, and goes on at two seasons, autumn and winter. During the former, ground-lines with numerous hooks are used, and operations cease when the river begins to freeze. With increasing cold the fishes congregate at certain spots for hibernation, and such places are carefully marked by the fishermen. Later on, in Janu- ary, when the cold is at its maximum, the winter - fishing is ushered in with great fes- y”recroratrin tivities. | Good-sized holes ) \ WW i ai \\ are broken through the ice Os at the spots previously noted; sey Paes the fishes, disturbed by the oy noise, come to the surface, and ae are promptly secured by means of harpoons and iron hooks. SKATES AND Rays (Bat- OIDEI).—These flattened, nar- row - tailed, rhomboidal forms iis ites: “Thaker te eeabie) constitute, with Sharks, Dog- fishes, &c., the great group of cartilaginous fishes (Elasmobranchii). The two most important British species are the comparatively smooth- skinned Skate (Raza batis) and the Thornback (2. clavata, fig. 1205), of which latter the characters are sufficiently indicated by the name. The Skate may attain a length of 6 feet or more, and the Thorn- back about half as much. Both are common in British waters, where they are captured by trawling and by line-fishing. Though not among the choicer food-fishes, they are largely eaten, the enormous pectoral fins, cut into strips and rolled, constituting what is commonly known as “crimped skate”. Round Mourns (Cyctostomata).—The eel-shaped scaleless CAUDAL FIN FISHERIES 279 Lampreys, which can be only called fishes by courtesy (see vol. i, p. 291), are considered great delicacies in some Continental coun- tries, but are not abundant enough in Britain to be of economic importance. The best-known of our three native species are the Sea Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), which may grow to the length of 3 feet, and the much smaller River Lamprey or Lam- pern (P. fluviatilis), less than half that size, both of which are marine forms that ascend some of our rivers to spawn, the Severn being especially notable in this respect. In Cassedl’s Doctionary of Cookery the following remarks are made about the lamprey, apparently the large species:—‘ This not very wholesome, but rare and rich fish, was a great favourite in ancient times, and is well known to the student of English history, as it was an attack of indigestion, brought on by eating of it too freely, which caused the death of Henry I. . . . Probable cost uncertain, lampreys being seldom offered for sale.” FISHERIES In practical fishery matters a distinction is drawn between “wet” fish, ze. fishes proper, and “shell’-fish, among which both molluscs and crustaceans are included. We are here for the present concerned with the former only (except as regards some of 280 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY the statistics). The importance of the matter to this country may be realized by giving a few figures. In rgo1 the number of fishing-boats registered in the United Kingdom (including the Isle of Man and Channel Islands) was as follows :—First class (15 tons or more), 7083; second class, 14,067; third class, 4647; total tonnage, 302,188. And to this must be added a large number of unregistered boats, chiefly of the third class. During the same year 68,878 persons were regularly employed in fishing, and 37,599 more found occasional employ- ment. The amount and value of the British catch for 1902 were as follows :-— WET FIsuH. | SHELL-FISH. | | ee Value. Number. | Value. ae | | £ & Soles ... feel 76,624 512,596 Crabs... 8,680,645 | 79,968 Turbot ve 64,094 245,215 Lobsters 1,632,110 | 735317 Other prime fish | 33,184 81,550 | Oysters ... | 43,482,711 | 119,086 Codi i | 1,584,528 865,934 || Other \ cee . Haddock ...| 2,941,264 | 1,787,942 | shell-fish f[ °T343® | 138,544 Herrings in|) 8543°7;,500:.| “2:53 1,912 | ae Ling ... = 252,627 115,925 || | 410,915 Mackerel 3 599,983 390,321 | Spee qe;e08 16,636 | Tora VaLue or British CaTcH Whiting oe 403,247 161,392 | eam hoe Other fish ...] 3,432,862 | 2,586,675 |) baie | £9,707,013. | 17,902,045 | 9,296,098 | We do not entirely rely upon the British fishing industry for supplies, for in 1902 our imports of fresh and cured fish amounted to 2,587,370 cwts., valued at 44,105,800. Of this amount, how- ever, 439,773 cwts. (worth £809,322) were re-exported, while we exported a part of our own catch to the value of £3,706,002, which included 2,249,976 barrels of herrings, worth £2,933,864. Of the exported herrings no less than 1,364,613 barrels were cured in Scotland, and the greater part of these were for Russian consumption, some of them finding their way as far east as Vladi- vostock. During the last few decades it has gradually been realized by maritime nations that the supply of fish is not inexhaustible, and DEEP-SEA FISHES (drawn to various scales) The fishes of the deep sea are highly carnivorous forms, often provided with formidable teeth. The eyes are either very large or else greatly reduced. Luminous organs are often present. Many ot these fishes are of bizarre appearance, as may be gathered from the plate, which represents eight species, as follows :— 1. Sternoptyx diaphana: small and translucent, with rounded luminous organs on the sides of head, body, and tail. 2. Cyema atrum: a small deep-sea eel, with reduced eyes. 3. Malacosteus Indicus: very large eyes, two luminous organs on the side of the head, and enormous mouth. 4. Idiacanthus ferox: a greatly attenuated form, with numer- ous small rounded luminous organs on the side of the body. 5. Memichthys ingens: a greatly elongated deep-sea eel, with large eyes, and jaws drawn out into a slender beak. 6. Saccopharynx ampullaceus:, a large deep-sea conger-eel, which has succeeded in swallowing a fish much bigger than itself. 7. Bathypterots longicauda: a deep-sea fish with reduced eyes, and much elongated fin-rays serving as feelers. 8. Macrurus crassiceps: a species of a widely distributed deep- sea family related to that including the cod, &c. Eyes extremely large, and mouth on the under side of the head. DEEP-SEA FISHES DRAWN TO VARIOUS SCALES FISHERIES 281 this is partly due to the steady increase of steam-trawling, which means capture on a wholesale scale. Practical men are recogniz- ing more and more that expert scientific advice must be requisi- tioned if the supply of fish is to be maintained, and still more so if it is to be increased. As Cunningham very justly remarks (in Marketable Marine Fishes):—‘ It can scarcely be expected that the fisherman or fish merchant will spend his short and hard-earned leisure moments in the study of the blue-books and technical memoirs in which the results of research are described; and when certain newly-established facts are brought before them in other ways it frequently happens that they either deny these facts, as contrary to their own experience, or turn a deaf ear, from the conviction that such matters are of no practical importance. With reference to the contradiction of the naturalist’s conclusions, it may be urged that, although he may not be able to climb the rigging of a smack, and is generally sick while at sea, although also he may be as ignorant as a baby of the mysterious and com- plicated practice of the fish-trade, still he has two advantages over the professional fish-man in attempting to get at the truth con- cerning the life and habits of fish. Firstly, he has been trained to appreciate the value of scientific evidence, and is on his guard against jumping at conclusions; secondly, he can use instruments of precision, which are as essential to the investigation of some of the matters in question as the compass and the lead to the handling of a fishing-vessel. With regard to the practical import- ance of the naturalist’s researches and results to the fishing industry, it can only be said that there is no doubt about it. It is an undeniable fact that parliamentary legislation and local by-laws are at the present time constantly being demanded or proposed for the benefit of the fisheries, and the reasons by which these pro- posals and demands are supported consist largely of statements concerning the natural history of the fishes and other marine creatures concerned. It is necessary, therefore, that we should be able to test the correctness of these statements, and should be able to judge correctly of the most probable effect of the measures proposed on the productiveness of the fisheries.” A few epoch-making dates in fishery work may here be appended with advantage, and the reader may draw his own con- clusions as to the relative enterprise displayed by the nations concerned. 1862, Professor Allman of Edinburgh investigated 282 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY the spawning of herrings at the request of the Scottish Fishery Board. 1864, Professor Sars of Christiania commissioned by the Norwegian Government to investigate the natural history of the cod and the cod-fisheries of the Lofot Islands. 1870, the Prus- sian Minister of Agriculture instituted a Commission for the Investigation of the German Seas. 1871, institution of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries. 1882, estab- lishment of the new Fishery Board for Scotland; this marked the first commencement, on a large scale, of the application of scientific methods to British fishery problems. 1884, inauguration of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom (active work at the Plymouth Marine Station commenced in 1887) on the initiative of Professor Ray Lankester. The late Professor Huxley was the first president. In the same year the marine laboratories at St. Andrews and Granton (near Edinburgh) were completed. 1886, a Fishery Department of the Board of Trade was organized, but without power to make scientific investigations. 1899, an annual sum of £10,000 was devoted to Irish Sea- Fisheries. More recently the countries interested in the fisheries of the North Sea have agreed to jointly investigate that area with regard to fishery problems on scientific lines. In 1901 the Board of Trade appointed a Committee on Ichthyological Research, with the view of ascertaining the best methods of carrying out scientific investigations of problems affecting British fisheries. The com- mittee presented their report in the following year, suggesting greatly increased expenditure, with a view to solving certain pressing problems, and recommending, among other things, the establishment of a Fishery Council for England. Some varieties of fishery work which are of special importance may now be very briefly indicated. Statistics.—Until we know with some approach to definiteness the amount of each kind of fish captured yearly, together with the time, place, and method of capture, it will be impossible to form a sound opinion as to whether the natural supply is actually diminishing generally or locally. flabits and Life-Histories of Food-Fishes.—It is clear that full knowledge on these points is absolutely necessary from the prac- tical stand-point, for upon such knowledge must ultimately depend the various means adopted for regulating the fishing industry. Full information of the sort regarding any particular form, joined FISHERIES 283 to that derived from statistics, would enable us to determine with a reasonable approach to accuracy the best methods, times, and places for capturing such fish, securing on the one hand a profit- able result, and on the other hand obviating wasteful depletion of the natural supply. Food of Fishes.—Directly or indirectly the most important source of fish food is found in “plankton”, ze. the various floating organisms which are found in vast numbers at or near the surface of the sea (and of lakes). Minute plants, animalcules, small crus- taceans (especially Copepods), various larve, and floating eggs (including those of fishes themselves) are among the more import- ant constituents. Some valuable food-fishes, such as the herring, feed solely on plankton. The amount of this food available bears a direct relation to the fish-supply, and Professor Hensen of Kiel has devised ingenious and elaborate methods of estimating it in a quantitative manner. Details cannot be given here, but the following extracts from a paper by J. Travis Jenkins (Zhe Methods and Results of German Plankton Investigations) will serve to give some idea of the import- ance of the matter:—‘‘ The plankton estimation methods of the Germans, the credit for initiation of which is due to Hensen, differ from and mark an advance upon the methods hitherto employed in England, inasmuch as no attempt is made in the latter country to arrive at a quantitative as distinguished from a qualitative result. The questions that Hensen attempts to answer are— (1) What does the sea contain at a given time in the shape of living organisms in the plankton? and (2) How does this material vary from season to season and from year to year? It may be pointed out that the results obtained by the German investigators are largely due to the liberal attitude taken by their Government with regard to subsidizing scientific investigation of problems connected with the sea-fisheries. It is to be hoped that the Irish Sea may be subsequently investigated in like manner. A com- parison with the results already obtained for the North and Baltic Seas could not fail to be of interest and to yield important results.” Some of the most striking estimations were made on the number of Fork-footed Crustaceans (Copepoda) in plankton, since it is these which constitute the chief food of herrings, sprats, and their allies. The following results were yielded by the method:—“ For a square mile of surface-water the annual consumption of Cope- 284 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY poda can be regarded as approximately 975 billion, or for the 16 square miles of the Eckenférde fishery district [in the West Baltic] a grand total of 15,600 billion. A billion Copepoda yield not less than 1500 kilograms of dry organic substance, so that the 15,600 billion weigh not less than 23,400,000 kilograms [z.e. more than 22,982 tons]. Taking the average weight of an adult West Baltic herring as being 60 grams, and allowing that every herring uses in fifty days its own weight of organic substance, we find that every herring consumes annually 438 grams. In the 16 square miles of the Eckenférde fishery district there exists food in the shape of Copepoda for 534,000,000 herring of an average body weight of 60 grams. This result may, of course, be largely problematical, but it is at any rate extremely interesting. The North Sea, in a similar manner to the Baltic, contains an abundant wealth of Copepoda. The open ocean, on the other hand, contains much less.” The number of floating fish-eggs of a particular kind contained in plankton may be used as a basis for determining the number of fish of the sort present in a given area at a given time. Applying this method to the cod and plaice of the Eckenférde, Hensen estimates that ‘‘man captures for his own use every year about one-fourth of the total number of adult fish in this particular area of the West Baltic. This result is surprising to those who consider the resources of the sea as inexhaustible, and believe that the number of fish caught by man bears only a small proportion to the number actually present in the sea.” It is also interesting to learn that the northern seas are richer in plankton than those in warmer latitudes. The possibilities of the Hensen methods are thus seen to be very considerable, but it is unsafe to generalize from a small number of determinations, for the distribution of plankton in a given area is by no means uni- form. In this, and many other matters involving accurate scien- tific research, large government subsidies are urgently needed in this country. We are co-operating, it is true, with other nations in a scientific survey of the North Sea for the space of three years, but during that period the annual grant of £2000 per annum to the Scottish Fishery Board is suspended, thus seriously crippling an organization that has long been engaged in work of the most valuable kind. FisH-Cutture (PiscicuLTuRE).—The rearing of fishes in ponds is a very ancient art, which was practised by the Egyptians, FISHERIES 285 Greeks, and Romans, of antiquity. The young of various species were made to enter lagoons, prevented from again escaping, and kept till large enough for the table. Culture in freshwater ponds has been an important Chinese industry from time immemorial, and was well understood in England during the Middle Ages, especially by the monks, who did not care to rely on chance for the periodic fish repasts prescribed by the Church. Remains of old “fish- stews”, in which carp, eels, &c., were reared, abound in this country. A very interesting outcome of the fish-culture of the old Romans still exists in the lagoon of Comacchio, at the mouth of Fig. 1207.—A Division of Comacchio A, Canal Palotta. B, Entrance from canal. c, Canal for boats. c’, Sluices. pb, First compartment of labyrinth. :, Outer basin. F, Antechamber of first compartment. G, Chamber of ditto. H, Second compartment. 1, Chamber of ditto. Kk, Third compartment. L, L, L, Chambers of ditto. m, Wicker- work baskets for keeping fish alive. N, Boat and tackle. 0, Dwelling-house. p, Storehouse. the Po, where eels are grown on a large scale, and distributed throughout Italy both fresh and in a preserved condition. The definite records of the industry date from 1229, and so long ago as the end of the sixteenth century the annual revenue derived from the culture amounted to £16,000 annually, a sum which, of course, represented much more at that time than it does now. ‘The eels sold in 1903 fetched over £28,000. The whole lagoon, which is bounded at the sides by the Reno and Volano mouth of the Po, is a perfect labyrinth of ponds and canals, of which a faint idea may be gained by examining fig. 1207. The conduct of this industry is a very elaborate matter. The ascending swarms of elvers have to be guided to their destination, the supply of fish- food maintained, full-grown eels captured (from August to December), and the catch prepared for the market. 286 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY The pond-culture of Carp is carried on in a very systematic manner in some parts of Germany, and it need only be said that the fish are transferred from one pond to another according to age. The discovery of the possibility of artificial fecundation, by mixing eggs and milt together, constituted an epoch in fish-cul- ture which opened up far-reaching possibilities the importance of which has only been fully realized of late years. It appears to have been first practised, for salmon and trout, by S. L. Jacobi of Hohenhausen, in Westphalia, so long ago as 1748, and was continued by him and his sons, with profitable results, till 1825. George III (of England) gave a pension to Jacobi in 1771. Fig. 1208.—Staby’s Californian Trough A, Hatching tank, into the outer part of which (4) water flows from a tap (a); cand d@ are hatching trays with floors of fine wire-gauze; ¢, outflow. B, Tank to catch fry which escape from 4 when d is removed; they pass into the space /, but are prevented by the gauze partition g from getting washed away in the outflow to the right. Scotland, as usual, was one of the first of other countries to profit by an improvement on old methods, for we find that in 1837 John Shaw, a gamekeeper at Drumlanrig of the Duke of Buccleuch, introduced Jacobi’s system. But the beginning of fish-culture on a national scale only dates from 1850, when the French Govern- ment instituted a large fish-hatching establishment at Huningue, in Alsace. At the present time America has profited most by the pursuit of fish-culture, which is largely practised with reference to their rivers and lakes. One type of hatching apparatus suitable for trout and salmon is represented in fig. 1208 as constructed by Dr. Ludwig Staby, and named by him ‘the deep Californian trough ”. The fact that most marine fishes lay floating eggs renders fish- culture in their case comparatively easy, for any quantity of fer- tilized eggs can be collected from the surface of spawning-ponds FISHERIES 287 in which adult fishes are confined. In a hatchery for such fishes the eggs are placed in various receptacles, where they are kept aerated by suitable devices. MacDonald’s hatching-bottle (fig. 1209) is largely employed in the United States for the small eggs of shad and other fishes, of which one bottle will accommodate about 70,000. An important hatchery for cod has for some years been in operation at Flédevig, near Arendal, in Norway, under the superintendence of Captain Dannevig. In Scotland there is an important hatchery, chiefly used for plaice, connected with the marine station at Nigg, near Aberdeen, and there is also one at Piel, on the coast of Lancashire. There are, of course, important hatcheries for marine fishes in America. Regarding the value of hatcheries for freshwater forms, and fishes which, like the salmon, spawn in rivers, there can be no doubt. As to marine fish-hatcheries, which aim at maintaining Or even increasing Dee Ae eaten Gimme awry or niemrioeraaaal numbers of fry in the sea, the data are at present too incomplete to estimate their utility. It appears to be certain in some cases that good has been done by them, one instance of the sort being afforded by the Norwegian hatchery near Flédevig, but the expense involved is considerable, and for some species and some localities may well turn out to be so great as not to be justifiable. The large majority of the just- hatched fry which are now from time to time placed in the sea are destined to perish before growing to a marketable size, and it may in the end turn out to be necessary to carry the culture to a stage which will give a greatly increased chance of survival. But this is notoriously difficult, and a large amount of experiment is necessary before success is likely to be attained. And even in the event of the various obstacles being surmounted, the greatly increased expense of such a method may prevent its adoption. 288 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY There is a second possibility of exactly opposite kind, suggested by Cunningham, z.e. to give up hatching, and largely increase the extent of spawning-ponds, contenting ourselves with setting adrift vast numbers of fertilized eggs. Both the possibilities mentioned require testing on a large scale, and afford suitable objects for large Government expenditure. The money spent on a single battle-ship, or even on a cruiser, if devoted to this pur- pose, would quite conceivably settle the whole vexed question of British marine fish-hatcheries so far as some of the more im- portant food-fishes are concerned. And unless scientific research, both pure and as applied to our important industries, fisheries of course included, is not far more largely endowed in future than it has been in the past, it may come about in the course of time that the country will be unable to afford a sufficient number of battle-ships, cruisers, and similar expensive necessaries. MOLLUSCS (Mo.L.tusca) AS FOOD Brief mention has already been made (see p. 214) of various molluscs used for food in different parts of the world. A few of these are of such importance that they require somewhat more detailed treatment. They are Oysters, Mussels, Cockles, and Periwinkles. The Oyster (Ostrea).—The most important European species is the “ Flat” Oyster (O. edulis), to which our “ natives” belong. There is also the large, somewhat triangular, Portuguese Oyster (O. angulata), which is of considerable economic importance, though of coarser kind. The American Oyster (O. Virgintana), commonly known in this country as “blue point”, is the object of valuable and extensive fisheries on the Atlantic coast of the United States. In spite of typhoid scares it is probable that oysters will continue to be popular delicacies in this country, those from Whitstable and other fisheries in the Thames estuary being most esteemed. Oyster Culture.—Some nations engage on a large scale in oyster culture as well as oyster fishing. Italy, Holland, France, and the United States may be particularly mentioned in this connection. This kind of culture mainly depends on the fact that the larve, fry, or “spat” readily attach themselves to various foreign objects, and can then be reared to “seed” MOLLUSCS AS FOOD 289 oysters, which may be further grown where produced, or else despatched elsewhere. The practice varies largely in different countries, and perhaps the most interesting case is afforded by France. It may be remarked in passing that the Italian oyster- industry has existed continuously from the times of the ancient Romans, and that the oysters are commonly grown upon bundles of twigs (fascines). The Dutch largely employ earthenware tiles, and the numerous estuaries of Holland afford suitable localities. The large development of oyster-culture in France during the last few decades is very remarkable, and is the outcome of some experiments made in 1853 by M. de Bon, commissaire of marine at St. Servan. At that time the natural oyster-beds of France had been so much depleted by over-dredging that not only was strict legislation regarding them necessary, but the question of future supply naturally demanded attention. The observer men- tioned found that the oyster-fry readily attached themselves to pieces of stone or stick, and this was the first step in the evolu- tion of “collectors” to serve this end. The earliest attempts to revive the industry by artificial culture were unfortunately not successful, but many natural obstacles were gradually overcome, the final result being a flourishing and highly-specialized trade, in which there is much division of labour. The total annual value of the industry considerably exceeds half a million pounds sterling. In 1902 the fresh oysters imported into this country from France were worth £ 30,000. Public dredging of the natural oyster-banks of France is so stringently limited by Government that they are of little im- portance as regards the direct supply of the market. They are, in fact, regarded as a reserve of spawning individuals, by which vast quantities of spat are produced. One important branch of the industry is to catch the spat on collectors in- geniously adapted to the conditions of particular localities. Some of these devices are made of boards, fixed together in successive tiers; but most of them consist of curved earthenware tiles, ar- ranged in wooden crates, wired together, or otherwise associated (fig. 1210). Whatever their precise nature, they are mostly to be found fixed in their appointed places near low tide-mark or in shallow water, by the beginning of July, ze. at the time when the fry are liberated from between the shells of the parent oysters. The tiles (or boards) have previously been covered 290 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY with a thin layer of a mixture of lime and sand (or mud), and it is the under surfaces which, under ordinary circumstances, serve for the attachment of the larval oysters when these give up a free-swimming existence for a sedentary life. It may be added that in some localities it has been found possible to construct large spawning-ponds instead of relying on the supply of spat from the oyster-banks off the shore. —— oa Fig. 12%0.—The Gabarét Collector (Ruche) in position (at Arcachon). Young oysters are seen attached to the tile which is being lifted, and to another that is up-ended on the right. The collectors are covered with sea-weed, so that when left by the tide they are kept moist, and protected from heat and light. A “set” of spat having been secured on the collectors, the tender molluscs are left till about October, by which time they have grown to the size of a finger-nail, and are known as “seed- oysters”. They are then flaked off the tiles (or boards), which the thin layer of lime renders possible with trifling loss, and carefully packed. This ends the stage of production ( produc- tion), and the little oysters are now committed to the care of another set of specialists, who rear them to a marketable size. This process of &evage is much more difficult. The éeveur places the seed in rectangular rearing-cases, the upper and lower sides of which are chiefly made of wire-gauze. As MOLLUSCS AS FOOD 291 growth proceeds, sorting from time to time becomes necessary, so as to give increased room. The cases are placed in oyster “parks”, which are simply enclosed areas of shallow water, with boundaries of the most various character, from lines of waving saplings to solid masonry pierced by flood-gates (fig. 1211). When the oysters have attained a fair size they may be trans- Fig. 12tr.—A Norwegian Oyster-Park ferred from the cases to the floor of the park, which sometimes has to be specially prepared for their reception. There are still two more stages which some French oysters have to go through before they reach the market. One is the process of “greening”, as at Marennes, the products of which are greatly esteemed. The oysters are here kept for a long time in small and muddy salt ponds (c/azves), where they gradually acquire a green colour owing to the nature of the food avail- able, which consists of minute alge. At the same time a pecu- liarly delicate flavour is imparted. Healthy British oysters from the estuaries of the Roach and Crouch, in Essex, may also be 292 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY green, and for the same reason. Certain green oysters, however, should be looked upon with suspicion, as, for example, some of those from Cornwall, in which the colour is due to the presence of copper. The last process to which some of the French oysters are subjected is that of education for transport. They are gradually accustomed to be out of water, and to close their valves closely, which clearly enables them to be sent in a good condition for long distances. English Oyster-Industry.—That this industry is of considerable importance will already have been gathered from the statistics on page 280. We may take as an example the Whit- stable Oyster Fishery Company, which is one of the most notable. As to its yield of oysters, the Secretary of the Com- pany, Mr. W. H. Reeves, writes in a private letter: “With regard to statis- tics I can only say that our own sales of oysters Fig. 1212.—Shell of a Whitstable Native, with young Oysters attached. feds ce about Ie million Reduced. to 12 million yearly, and of this number about two- thirds are English Natives and the rest imported from France, with a small percentage of East River oysters from America”. As most persons are aware, Whitstable is on the north coast of Kent, east of the Isle of Sheppey, and has been an important seat of the oyster-trade from very remote times. The details here given are derived from a book by A. O. Collard (Zhe Oyster and Dredgers of Whitstable), to which readers are referred for further information. The following quotation from this book will give an idea of the length of time for which “natives” have been popular:—‘‘ Among some valuable notes attached to the evidence taken on oath in the Committee of the House of Lords in 1866, on certain bills promoted by the Herne Bay Fishery Company, I find the following observations: ‘The Whitstable Company are a most ancient body of ‘free fishers MOLLUSCS AS FOOD 293 and dredgers’, who, from father to son, have carried on the business of an oyster fishery during, it is probable, a period of Fig. 1213.—Wheeler’s Beehive Collector. Much reduced. at least two thousand years. It was about a.p. 80 that Julius Agricola first exported oysters from the neighbourhood of the Fig. 1214.—Whitstable Oyster-Dredger at Work. Dredges on the rail. Reculvers to Rome, and for the ancestors of the Whitstable free dredgers Rome was, during about three centuries, their Vou. IV. 114 294 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY Billingsgate.’ . . . When we remember what is known of the early state of Great Britain, we can scarcely be surprised that Sallust, who lived and wrote about fifty years before Christ, had a better opinion of our oysters than our ancestors, for he said, ‘The poor Britons—there is some good in them after all— they produce an oyster’. Whitstable may certainly claim some share in creating that good impression.” The superior quality of the Whitstable Natives is mainly due to the character of the in- shore beds where the oysters live, for not only is the soil favourable, but there is the necessary admixture of fresh water of suitable nature from the land. Upon these beds are planted the seed oysters dredged further out in the estuary, while some of these are imported from France. The ‘“cultch” to which the bivalves attach themselves is largely made up of empty oyster-shells (fig. 1212). One ingenious method that has been tried for catching the ‘ spat is by means of Wheeler’s Foot . ~ Beehive Collector (fig. 1213), ,» made of perforated earthen- ware, and partly filled with empty shells. Space forbids reference to the way in which the mature natives are treated after they have been dredged (fig. 1214) and before they are finally packed in barrels for the market. The Edible Mussel (Mytelus edulrs, fig. 1215).—This mollusc is used to a considerable extent as human food, though there is rather a prejudice against it on account of the fact that occasional batches turn out to be poisonous, causing serious illness or even death. That mussels are nevertheless eaten largely in England may be deduced from the fact that in 1902 no less a quantity BYSSUS Fig. 1215.—Edible Mussel (A/ytilus edutis) INTERTIDAL AND SHALLOW WATER ANIMALS The plate represents a tide-pool on the British coast, and intro- duces a number of familiar marine animals. Beginning with those lowest in the scale they are: . Sea-Anemones (Acéznz@). . Common Star-fish (Uraster rubens). . Acorn-Barnacles (Balanus). . Shore-Crab (Carcinus manas). . Cockles (Cardium). The one on the left belongs to the edible species (C. edule). . Sea-Mussels (ALytilus edulis). 7. Scallop (Pectez). 9. . Gulls (Larus). . Periwinkles (Lz¢¢oriza). Those on the right are of the edible sort (Z. Ztforea), while the small yellow ones on the left belong to another species (L. obtusata). Purple-Shells (Purpura lapillus). “sl[Ng “or 3 L “sjassnyy-vas “9 ssopyooy “Ss 13g I lous “F q-wooy *e "YSY-ALIS 7% “SOUOLLOUYW SIVWINY SNIYVAN YVITIAYS HLIM 100d Wdll Vv I 6 I S *so[oeul MOLLUSCS AS FOOD 295 than 43 tons 10 cwts. of them was seized and condemned at and near Billingsgate Market. On the Continent the consump- tion is much greater than with us. The mussel is greatly valued as a bait in British line-fishing, particularly on the coast of Scotland. The yield in that country for 1902 amounted to 95,663 cwts., valued at 45445, which con- trasts strongly with the 247,186 cwts., worth £14,506, collected in 1892. The meaning of the steady diminution which has been going on for some years has reference to the displacement of line-fishing by trawling. The same thing has been happening with regard to “clams” (species of Pecten and various other bivalves), another valuable bait in Scottish line-fishing. The quantity of clams taken in 1892 was 20,769 cwts. (42736), but in 1902 only 4320 cwts. (£586). Mussel-Culture.—As in the case of the oyster, the eggs hatch out into free-swimming “fry”, which after a time attach them- selves to various objects, not, however, by the substance of one valve, but by silky byssus threads. Nor is the mussel obliged to spend the whole of its fixed life in one spot, for it can cast off the threads, and crawl away to some distance, if adverse circumstances render a change of residence desirable. Import- ant musselries were established some years ago at Montrose, and previously barren ground was made very valuable. The principle involved essentially consists in reserving certain beds for the production of “seed”, as in the case of the strictly- preserved natural oyster-banks on the French coast (see p. 289). From these beds the young mussels are collected and planted out on other areas. On the Baltic coast of Germany tree-branches are thrust into the sea-floor in shallow water (fig. 1216), serving as collectors for the fry, which grow upon them to a marketable size. After from three to five years they are pulled up, weighed, and sold with their living crop still adhering. At some points of the French sea-board, especially at Es- naudes on the west coast, elaborate mussel-farming is practised, on what is known as the “bouchot” system. Each bouchot is a V-shaped or W-shaped collection of stakes driven into the mud, with the opening directed seawards. Adjacent stakes are connected by interwoven branches, and the 500 bouchots of the Esnaude musselry have a collective length of not far short of 2096 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 130 miles. During the first two months of the year the mussel- fry attach themselves to the bouchots next the sea, and by May have grown sufficiently large to be scraped off without diffi- culty. They are then placed in small bags made of old canvas and the like, which are fixed to stakes further from the sea. Ultimately the bags rot away, leaving the mussels hanging in bunches by their byssal threads. As time goes on they are transferred further and further landwards, till by the time the Fig. 1216.—Part of a Baltic Musselry innermost stakes are reached they are large enough to gather for sale. The annual yield of Esnaudes is valued at not less than £52,000. The Cockle (Cardium edule).—As a cheap, if indigestible, sub- stitute for the oyster this bivalve is largely eaten by the populace in this and other countries. It burrows in the sand or mud of bays and estuaries, and is captured by raking at low tide. More- cambe Bay, Caermarthen Bay, and the estuary of the Teign are notable localities. Statistics for this country are not available, for even in the Reports of the Scottish Fishery Board the CRUSTACEANS AS FOOD 297 cockle is an “unclassified” shell-fish. But most of us have seen small detachments of this mollusc displayed for sale on stalls, with vinegar and pepper as accompaniments, and have specu- lated as to what kind of customer might be expected. And we have the significant fact that, in 1902, 7 tons 18 cwts. 2 qrs. of cockles were seized and condemned at or near Billingsgate Market. The Pertwinkle (Littorina fttorea).—The popular ’winkle is gathered between tide-marks on many parts of our coasts, the greater part of the London supply being derived from Scotland. The large quantity of 54 tons 5 cwts. was seized and condemned at or near Billingsgate Market in 1902. CRUSTACEANS (Crustacea) AS FOOD We are here chiefly concerned with Lobsters, Prawns, Shrimps, and Crabs (fig. 1217), though these are far from being the only edible species. The Lobster (Homarus vulgaris).—Of all large crustaceans this is the most esteemed in this country, and vast numbers are annually consumed. Along the rocky parts of the coast of the British Isles, Norway, Canada, and many other countries, lobster- fishing is a very important industry. A large part of the English supply is derived from Scotland, for which the yield in 1902 was 786,400, valued at £37,114. The home-supply is by no means equal to the demand, and our imports of lobsters, fresh and canned, are very considerable. Of the former we relied upon Norway for 38,538 (worth about £1850) in 1902, and upon France for many more. Lobster-canning is an important in- dustry for Newfoundland, Canada, and the United States. It should be added that the American Lobster (A. Americanus) is not of the same species as our native form, though closely allied. Lobsters are caught in “ pots” or “creels”, contrivances of the nature of traps, constructed of a wooden framework covered with netting (fig. 1218). Fish-entrails or other garbage is used as bait, the creel being sunk in a suitable spot by means of stones, a cord with a cork at the end serving to mark the spot. Lobster-fishing has to be regulated with considerable strin- gency, as it is only too easy to deplete the supply. Hatching has 298 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY been carried on to a considerable extent in several countries with a view to maintain or, if possible, increase the numbers available. The difficulties to be overcome are far less formidable than in the case of fishes, for the female or “hen” lobster carries about her Fig. 1217.—1, Common Prawn (Palemon serratus). 2, Common Shrimp (Crangon vulgaris), 3, The Edible Crab (Cancer pagurus). 4, The Lobster (Homarus vulgaris) eggs attached to the under side of the tail, at which time she is said to be in ‘‘berry”. So long ago as 1887 Captain Dannevig, at the Norwegian fish-hatchery near Arendal, found it possible to rear lobster-fry from the eggs, and such rearing is now resorted to by Scotland, Canada, and the United States, among other countries. The Aberdeen hatchery, for example, liberated some CRUSTACEANS AS FOOD 299 3000 minute lobsters during 1902. The value of these hatcheries is doubtful. The Edible Crab (Cancer pagurus).—This savoury crustacean is also of considerable economic importance (see p. 280). The chief method of capture is the same as for the lobster. Hatching methods are here also being made the subject of experiment. The Aberdeen hatchery cast adrift in the open sea no less than 4,500,000 of juvenile crabs in the year 1902. Shrimps and Prawns.—A Common Shrimp (Crangon vulgaris) is distinguished from a Prawn (Patemon serratus, &c.) not only Fig. 1218.—Crab-Pots by its smaller size, but also by several structural features, of which the most obvious is the absence of the sharp saw-edged spine which projects from the head of the latter. Prawns are often known as “red shrimps”. The annual consumption in this country must be very large, judging from observation, and the fact that in 1902 shrimps (presumably including prawns as well) to the amount of over 54 tons were seized and condemned at or near Billingsgate Market. We also know that in the year men- tioned over 900 fishing-boats (mostly second class) were engaged in capturing shrimps and prawns, chiefly by trawls, round the coasts of England and Wales. The catch of three small third- class Scottish trawlers working for that period in the Solway Firth was worth £3571, and if the earnings of the English boats were 300 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY proportionate the total value of their catch must have been very considerable. And we have further to consider the great army of shrimpers working by means of various kinds of hand-net (fig. 1219), or dragging similar contrivances along by means of carts. Fig. 1219.—Shrimper working a Push-Net The Fresh-Water Crayfish (Astacus fluviatils).—This inhabi- tant of many of our rivers and canals, which resembles a small lobster in appearance, is of no great economic importance to this country, although of decidedly delicate favour. On the Continent, however, an allied but larger species (4. zodz/7s) is much eaten. CHAPTER LXIX ANIMAL FRIENDS—WILD ANIMALS CAPTURED FOR VARIOUS ECONOMIC PURPOSES—BENEFICIALS The present section has mainly been concerned with the animal kingdom as a source of food, although in dealing with domesticated forms it has been found convenient to mention com- modities of other kinds, such as wool. We now have to deal with economic products other than food, for the sake of which wild animals of various kinds are captured. Prominent among these desiderata are furs, skins, fats, and oils, besides which there are a great number of less important articles of commerce, such as sponges and medicinal substances, that call for passing notice. Animal products employed entirely or mainly for decorative purposes will be reserved for treatment under Animal A¢sthetics. FUR-BEARING MAMMALS (MamMaALtlia) Although in temperate regions, as we have seen (p. 228), woven clothes have replaced for ordinary purposes the garments of skin and fur devised by prehistoric races, this by no means applies to the colder parts of the world, where ordinary clothing does not afford sufficient protection from the rigorous climate. The nomad tribes of the Russian steppes, for example, make large use of such garments, and the heathen Ostiaks of North Siberia do so toa still greater extent (fig. 1220). Of the latter Brehm says (in North Pole to Equator) that“. . . they use nothing but the skin of the reindeer for clothing, and only employ the furs of other animals for the occasional decoration of the reindeer, or, as the Russians call them, stag skins. Their dress consists of a close- fitting skin coat reaching to the knee; in the men it is slit down the breast, in the women it is open down the whole front, but held together with leather thongs; a hood of the same material is 301 302 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY usually attached to or forms part of the dress; mittens also are sewn on; leather breeches reach below the knee; and leather stockings, which fasten over the knee, complete the attire. The fur garment worn by the women is edged down the sides of the Fig. 1220.—Heathen Ostiaks opening with a carefully-pieced border of variously-coloured little squares of short-haired fur, and always has a broad band of dog- skin round the foot; that worn by the men has at most a border of dog-skin round the foot; the leather stockings, if they are deco- rated at all, are composed of many prettily-combined, diversely- coloured stripes of skin from the leg of a reindeer, with a stout FUR-BEARING MAMMALS 303 shoe partly sewn on, partly laced over the foot.” The Esquimaux dress is spoken of elsewhere (see p. 227). That we ourselves have not altogether abandoned the dress- materials of our remote prehistoric ancestors is sufficiently attested by the fact that in 1902 over 97,000,000 skins and furs, worth 45,578,452, were imported into this country, though of course only a part of these were destined for personal wear. The list of fur-bearing Mammals is a very long one, but the most important orders in this connection are the Flesh-Eaters (Carnivora) and the Gnawers (Rodentia), and the purpose of the present section will be sufficiently attained by dealing with a few species belonging to these. It may be noted that we look to the colder parts of the world, especially Canada and Russia, for our chief supply, for the growth of a dense under-coat of fur is an adaptation to rigorous climatal conditions. And it is the pelts obtained in winter that are valuable. In 1902 Canada exported furs to the value of £98,000. Fur-Y1eLpinc FiesH-Eaters (Carnivora). —Some of the most important furs of commerce are derived from the members of the Weasel and Marten Family (Mustelide). Pre-eminent among these is the Russian Sable (JJ/ustela zibellina), which formerly abounded throughout the forest regions of Siberia, but is now mostly to be found in the eastern part of that country, includ- ing Kamschatka, where the seaport of Petropavlosk is an impor- tant depét for the pelts. A single skin may be worth as much as 430 in this country. The chief method of hunting is by means of dogs, which force the sables to take refuge in trees, from which they are shaken or knocked down into suitably disposed nets. The closely allied American Sable (4. Americana), largely trapped in Canada, is also of considerable importance. The white skins (with black tails) known as “ermine”, which custom leads us to associate with the “great ones of the earth”, are no other than the winter coats of the Stoat (Putorius erminea), one of our native “vermin”. It is widely distributed through the arctic and temperate regions of both Old and New Worlds, but only assumes full winter livery in the colder parts of its area of distribution. The Minks or Visons are comparatively large aquatic animals of the weasel kind, with brown fur. The pelts of the American Mink (Putorius vison) are most esteemed, and are of importance 304 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY in the Canadian fur-trade. Those of the Russian Mink (P. lutreola) are less valuable. Passing over Bears, Foxes, Leopards, &c., mention must be made of Sea-Otters and Fur-Seals, of which the latter in par- ticular are of great economic importance. The Sea-Otter (Latax lutris), native to the coastal waters of the North Pacific, has been so persistently hunted down that its numbers have rapidly diminished during the last twenty years, and it is probably doomed to speedy extinction. Spearing, clubbing, Fig. 1221.—Northern Fur-Seals (O¢avia ursina) on the Pribyloffs and netting are the chief modes of capture. The fur of the adult is very dense, and of a beautiful dark colour. Owing to their rarity skins are now of great value, a single one being worth at least £100, or, in exceptional cases, double that amount or even still more. Certain species of Sea-Lzons or Eared Seals (Otaridz) are the “fur seals” of commerce, which furnish the valuable skins with which most of us are familiar. Some of them are native to the Southern seas, but the most notable kind is the NWorthern Fur- Seal (Otaria ursina, figs. 1221 and 1222), or Sea-Bear of the Pacific. The Pribyloff Islands of the Behring Sea have long been famous as one of the most important centres of the industry to which this THE SABLE (Mustela ztbellina) This small carnivore, a near relative of our native Pine-Marten, is one of the most valuable of fur-yielding animals. It formerly ranged across the northern parts of Asia, from the Urals to the Behring Sea, but has been so persistently hunted down that it is now chiefly found in the forests of eastern Siberia and Kams- chatka, Petropavlovsk on the coast of the latter being the chief depot for sable-skins. It is only the thick winter-fur that is valuable, and a good pelt may be worth as much as £30. Savles were formerly caught for the most part by trapping, and sometimes guns were resorted to, though with great risk of injury to the skins. At the present time they are usually hunted down with dogs, and forced to take refuge in trees, from which they are shaken or knocked down into suitably disposed nets. iS) = aA uJ ally E ELLINA), (MUSTELA ZIB ie ) E RUSSIAN SAE TH OF THE MARTENS FUR-BEARING MAMMALS 305 species gives rise. As elsewhere briefly described (vol. iii, p. 492), large numbers of the fur-seals repair to these islands during the summer for the purpose of bringing up their young. It is the young “bachelor” males, or “holluschickie”, that are not strong enough to secure establishments, which are slaughtered for the sake of their skins. These are carefully driven to inland ‘killing grounds ”, knocked on the head, and flayed as quickly as possible. Very full details of the industry are given by H. W. Elliot in his well-known book Ax Arctic Province, from which the following extract is taken:—‘‘ The common or popular notion in regard to seal-skins is, that they are worn by those animals just as they appear when offered for sale; that the fur-seal swims about, exposing the same soft coat with which our ladies of fashion so delight to cover their tender forms during inclement winter. This is a very great mistake; few skins are less attractive than a seal-skin is when it is taken from the creature. a - The fur is not visible; it — fig, ose Nodtiaen Biv Seale is concealed entirely by a coat of stiff over-hair, dull, gray-brown, and grizzled. It takes three of them to make a lady’s sack and boa; and in order that a reason for their costliness may be apparent, I take great pleasure in submitting a description of the tedious and _ skilful labour necessary to their dressing by the furriers ere they are fit for use. A leading manufacturer writing to me says: ‘When the skins are received by us in the salt, we wash off the salt, placing them upon a beam somewhat like a tanner's beam, removing the fat from the flesh side with a beaming-knife, care being required that no cuts or uneven places are made in the pelt. The skins are next washed in water and placed upon the beam with the fur up, and the grease and water removed by the knife. The skins are then dried by moderate heat, being tacked out on frames to keep them smooth. After being fully dried, they are soaked in water and thoroughly cleansed with soap and water. In some cases they can be unhaired without this drying process and cleansed before drying. After the cleansing process they pass 306 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY to the picker, who dries the fur by stove-heat, the pelt being kept moist. When the fur is dry he places the skin on a beam, and while it is warm he removes the main coat of hair with a dull shoe-knife, grasping the hair with his thumb and knife, the thumb being protected by a rubber cob. The hair must be pulled out, not broken. After a portion is removed the skin must be again warmed at the stove, the pelt being kept moist. When the outer hairs have been mostly removed, he uses a beaming-knife to work out the fine hairs (which are shorter), and the remaining coarser hairs. It will be seen that great care must be used, as the skin is in that soft state that too much pressure of the knife would take the fur also; indeed, bare spots are made. Carelessly-cured skins are sometimes worthless on this account. The skins are next dried, afterwards dampened on the pelt side, and shaved to a fine, even surface. They are then stretched, worked, and dried, after- wards softened in a fulling-mill, or by treading them with the bare feet in a hogshead, one head being removed and the cask placed nearly upright, into which the workman gets with a few skins and some fine hardwood saw-dust, to absorb the grease while he dances upon them to break them into leather. If the skins have been shaved thin, as required when finished, any defective spots or holes must now be mended, the skin smoothed and pasted with paper on the pelt side, or two pasted together to protect the pelt in drying. The usual process in the United States is to leave the pelt sufficiently thick to protect them without pasting. In dyeing, the liquid dye is put on with a brush, carefully covering the points of the standing fur. After lying folded, with the points touching each other, for some time, the skins are hung up and dried. The dry dye is then removed, and so on, until the required shade is obtained. One or two of these coats of dye are put on much heavier and pressed down to the roots of the fur, making what is called the ground. From eight to twelve coats are required to produce a good colour. The skins are then washed clean, the fur dried, the pelt moist. They are shaved down to the required thickness, dried, working them some time while drying, then softened in a hogshead, and sometimes run in a revolving cylinder with fine saw-dust to clean them. The English process does not have the washing after dyeing.’” Fur-Seals are also hunted in the open sea, at times when the herds are migrating. The United States endeavoured to put an FUR-BEARING MAMMALS 307 end to this “pelagic” sealing in the Behring Sea on the part of other nations, but the matter being submitted to arbitration, it was decided that, subject to certain restrictions, the practice should be allowed to continue. The yield of the fur-seal industry of British Columbia in 1900 was 35,523 skins (value $562,845), and in 1901 24,422 skins (value $366, 330). Fur-Yietpine Gnawers (Ropentia).—Beaver, Chinchilla, Musquash, Squirrel, and Rabbit are here of greatest importance, Fig. 1223.—Musquash (Fiber zibethicus) Lhe Beaver (Castor).—The American Beaver (Castor Cana- densts) is largely trapped in Canada for the sake of its fur, which is greatly esteemed, though no longer used in the manufacture of top-hats, silk having proved both cheaper and better for the pur- pose. The animal has been slaughtered in so wholesale a manner that beaver-fur is becoming increasingly rare and expensive. The European Beaver (C. fider), once abundant, is now too scarce to be of economic value. Regarding the value attached to the skins of those which existed in Wales down to 1188, Beddard (in The Cambridge Natural History), after stating that the species was extinct in England before the historic period, remarks: “ . they were rare in the Principality for a hundred years or so before 308 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY the Norman Conquest. The king Hywel Dda, who died in 948 A.D., fixed the price of a Beaver skin at 120 pence, the skins of Stag, Wolf, and Fox being worth only 8 pence apiece.” The Musquash (Fiber zibethicus, fig. 1223).—This is a large North American vole, which is of considerable importance to the Canadian fur-trade, chiefly, it would seem, because it is made into imitation seal-skin. The Chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera).—The cold climate to which the soft gray fur of this pretty little rodent is an adaptation, is here a result not of latitude but of altitude. Chinchillas live in the high Andes of Peru and Bolivia, and are something like squirrels in appearance, except that the tail is far less bushy (see vol. i, p. 134). The Common Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris).—This species has a remarkably wide distribution, ranging from Ireland to Japan, and also being native to North Africa. It is the chief source of ‘“squirrel” fur, which is of grey or drab colour, quite unlike the reddish-brown of our ordinary native specimens. The skins of commerce are, in fact, taken from individuals inhabiting the colder parts of Russia, the grey hue being, as in many other cases, an adaptation to the severe climate of winter. The Rabbit (Lepus cuntculus)—Among the cheaper kinds of fur that of the rabbit is best known, and by means of dyeing and other processes it is worked up into passable imitations of more costly pelts. SKINS AND DOWN OF WILD BIRDS (AvEs) Deferring for the present the question of the wild birds which are subjected to wholesale butchery on account of their beautiful plumage, mention may here be made of Grebes and Eider- Ducks. Grebes (species of Podicypes).— These widely - distributed aquatic birds are distinguished by the density and_ beautiful silver-white colour of the plumage on the under side of the body. Muffs and other articles made of ‘grebe” are manu- factured from the skin of this region, with the feathers attached as in nature. Exder-Ducks (Somateria, fig. 1224).—Two species of these essentially Arctic birds are of commercial importance on account WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, ETC. 309 ot the valuable down developed on the nest as a climatal adap- tation. The Common Eider (Somateria mollissima), which has a wide range, and is included in the British avifauna, is carefully preserved in Iceland and Norway. In Labrador and Greenland it is replaced by an allied species (S. Dresser). The Scandinavian eider-industry is based on the fact that the female bird lines and covers her nest with down plucked from her own breast (see p. 60). The breeding-places are on low ground near the coast, or upon rocky islets, and each “ eder- fold” (ze. eider-fold) is worked for profit by a special proprietor. Both eggs and down are collected at regular intervals during the nesting-season, but the amount. obtainable from a particular nest Fig. 1224.—Eider-Drake (Somateria mollissima) is, of course, limited, and care is taken to allow the despoiled mother-birds to hatch out some at least of the final batch of eggs. The last lot of down is collected when the nests have been deserted for the season. About three-quarters of the Danish supply is derived from Greenland. Newton (in A Dictionary of Lirds) thus disposes of two popular errors regarding these birds:—‘‘ The story of the drakes furnishing down after the duck’s supply is exhausted is a fiction. He never goes near the nest. . . . Equally fictitious is the often-repeated statement that eider-down is white. Mouse-colour would perhaps best describe its hue.” WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, FAT, ETC. It has been considered desirable in this book to deal with domesticated animals in a special section, but the plan (like any other) has certain disadvantages, especially when treating of VoL. IV. 115 310 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY economic products. Leather, horn, fat, &c. &c., are, of course, derived from both tame and wild animals, and this must be kept in mind here. The importance of leather and horn will be realized by reading the following extracts from Simmonds (in Axzmal Products):—‘* The leather manufacture is one of our most an- cient and important industries. . . . The old adage that there is nothing like leather is certainly verified in the multifarious uses to which leather has been or is now put. We make coverings of it in articles of personal use, for a man may be clothed in leather garments from the head to the foot. In saddlery and harness its use is universal, and nothing can sup- plant it for durability. In articles for household or domestic use, we have leather hangings and coverings for furniture, buckets and bottles, cups and hose. . . . For travelling we have portmanteaus, valises, and hand-bags, pocket-books, purses, and cigar-cases. . . . We write on leather, and we cover our books with it, and it has even been used by photographers to take likenesses on. It is the packing and baling material in many countries from its cheapness and durability. Hammocks, boats, and even cannon have been made of it, whilst the leather apron is the most durable and serviceable protection for many an artisan. Leather shields were and are still in use in many countries. It serves for the grip-handle of swords, and for the sheaths of knives. We use leather in balls for cricket and football, and we cover musical instruments with it, as well as telescopes and many philosophical instruments, for protection. It is the most ancient, useful, and generally applied animal substance for an infinite variety of purposes. And, moreover, leather can be made of the skin or hide of almost every quadruped, and of many fishes, serpents, and reptiles. Human skin has even been tanned, but it is too thin for any serviceable use.” In the following remarks about horn it will be remembered that the antlers of deer are of bony nature:—‘ The rights and privileges of the ‘horn- workers’ and ‘horn-pressers’ in former times occupied the pro- minent attention of the Legislature. But there is no fear in the present day ‘of the trade being ruined, and the business lost to the nation’, as was the cry when the statutes 6 Edward IV, c. 1, and 7 James IJ, c. 14 were passed, forbidding the sale of horns to foreigners, and prohibiting the export of our wrought horns. The invention of horn lanterns has been by some ascribed WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, ETC. 311 to King Alfred, who is said to have first used them to preserve his candle time-measurers from the wind. ... A lantern [was formerly] an indispensable family article; there was no going into the yard or out of the door on dark nights without one. A piece of horn was sometimes placed over the title of medieval MSS. to preserve the letters from injury, while the transparent material allowed them to be read. The child’s horn-book of later times had its leaves of alphabet and spelling covered en- tirely with thin sheets of this material. Although the principal manufacturing applications of horn are for combs, umbrella-tops, and knife-handles, yet there are other uses as extensive and varied as the descriptions of horn which come into the market, or bristle on the head of the animals characterized by these frontal appendages. Ox, buffalo, and deer horns are those mostly worked up, but the horns of the rhinoceros, ram, goat, and some other animals are also employed to a limited extent for different purposes. .. . While many of the former uses of horns for glazing purposes, for drinking-cups, for horn-books, and for the bugle of the bold forester have passed away, other and more elegant and varied applications have been found for this plastic and durable substance. Extensive as is the present use of horns, we believe that many further manufacturing purposes may be found for them, and that they will become even still more important in a commercial point of view. They receive a great variety of applications at the present day, owing to . their toughness and elasticity, as well as their remarkable pro- perty of softening under heat, of welding, and of being moulded into various forms under pressure.” It may be added that for many purposes both leather and horn are now replaced by cheap substitutes. As most of the horns used on a large scale for manufacturing purposes are those of oxen, it will suffice to devote the rest of this sub-section to the consideration of certain wild animals captured chiefly for the sake of the leather and fat which they yield. Tue Watrus (TRICHECHUS ROSMARUS).—This huge aquatic carnivore, which may attain the weight of 3300 lbs., is a purely Arctic form, and once abounded in the Behring Sea, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and on the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador. Like so many other wild animals, however, it has been so much 312 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY hunted down that the walrus industry is a declining one. Rifle, lance, and harpoon are all employed in its destruction. The economic products are skin, fat, and ivory. The skin is very thick and tough, but tanning reduces its value. It is employed for some of the coarser purposes to which leather is put, and in former times was largely used in North Europe for making ropes and cables, to which end strips of it were plaited together. The fat or blubber, though of good quality, is yielded in relatively small quantities. The ivory making up the large tusks is inferior to that of the elephant. Seats (PHocip#).—These are often confounded with the Fur- Seals (Otaride) and their allies, from which, however, they are distinguished by their more complete adaptation to an aquatic life, as seen more particularly in the complete absence of an external ear, and the backwardly-directed hind-flippers, which are bound together by a fold of skin (see vol. iii, p. 78). Seals are hunted for the sake of their blubber, which makes excellent oil for lighting and lubricating purposes; and also on account of the value of their skins, which are dressed as one of the coarser furs; while they yield leather that, especially when enamelled, finds increasing favour. The animals are killed by clubs, harpoons, or rifles, according to circumstances. By far the most important species for the sealing industry is the Harp or Greenland Seal (Phoca Grenlandica, fig. 1225), the former name of which has reference to the presence of a curved black mark on the back of the male. Next to this species in importance, and like it native to the Arctic Ocean, is the curious Hooded or Bladder-Nosed Seal (Cystophora cristata), so named from a dilat- able swelling on the nose of the male. The most noted sealing centres are the coasts of, and the parts of the sea adjacent to West Greenland, Newfoundland, Jan Mayen Island, and North Russia (including the White Sea and the vicinity of Nova Zembla). From the British stand-point it is most interesting to notice that sealing is one of the chief industries of Newfound- land, its products in 1902 reaching the value of £166,747. The young are born on ice-floes, the ‘“‘whelping ice”, off the coast of Labrador, during January and February, and do not take to the water for about three months. The cold Labrador current, which sets southward along the American coast, brings the ‘“ whelping ” ice” to the latitude of Newfoundland by about mid-March, WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, ETC. 313 and the well-equipped steam-sealers of St. John’s begin their annual sealing-trip at the commencement of that month, timing their journey to reach the floes before the ‘“whelps” are old enough to leave the ice. Lake Baikal and the Caspian Sea were once connected with the Arctic Ocean, one proof of which is found in the fact that each is inhabited by a special kind of seal (Phoca Sibirica and P. Caspica), both of which are largely captured by means of Fig. 1225.—Harp or Greenland Seal (Phoca Grenlandica) strong wide-meshed nets, worked on the same principle as the “‘drift-nets” used for catching herring and mackerel. The Cas- pian sealers let down their nets from boats, those of Lake Baikal take advantage of the holes in the ice, to which the seals come up in order to breathe. Tue Ducone (Haticore puconc).—This member of the order of Sea-Cows (Sirenia), which ranges from Ceylon to East Australia, is, when adult, about the size of an ox, and is captured for the sake of its flesh, fat, and hide. Its pursuit is one of the Queensland industries, and harpooning is the method adopted. Semon (in /u the Australian Bush) says of it:— 314 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY “The whites capture dugong principally for their fat, which is said to possess therapeutic qualities. It is considered an ex- cellent remedy for consumption, but, happily for the dugongs, this seems to be a mere superstition. I have not tasted their meat myself, though some whites are very fond of it, and com- pare it to veal. Others, however, describe its taste as disagree- able and insipid. The aborigines of Torres Straits consider it a great delicacy.” The hide is thick and tough, rendering it suitable for machine-straps. Wuates, &c. (Ceracea).—Whales and their kind have been systematically hunted down from very remote times, chiefly for the sake of their fat or blubber, but some species also for their baleen or ‘“whale-bone”, and others on account of the value of their skins. As else- where stated (p. 209), the flesh of ceta- ceans is regarded as a great luxury by the Esquimaux and many other primi- tive peoples. A distinction is drawn between the Toothed Whales and the Toothless Whales, in which transverse plates of baleen, with fringed edges, _ Fig. 1226.—Baleen. a, Three plates hang down from the roof of the mouth in section; 4, a pair of plates. Greatly . * reduced. (fig. 1226), serving as a sort of strainer by which water is removed from the plankton used as food. Toothless Whales (Mystacocett).—The most important member of this group is the Greenland or Northern ‘“ Right” Whale (Balena mysticetus), a purely Arctic species. The British whaling industry, of which the chief ports engaged are Peter- head and Dundee, is chiefly concerned with the capture of this animal, but unfortunately has greatly declined of late years. To Newfoundland the pursuit of whales is a matter of much greater relative importance. The old method of capture was from open boats, by means of harpoons thrown by hand, lances being afterwards used to despatch the wounded animals. The harpoon-gun afforded an improvement upon this, while a modern steam-whaler can dis- pense with the use of open boats, and discharge harpoons (some- times loaded with explosives) from a platform in the bows. WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, ETC. 315 Adult Greenland whales now attain a length of 50 or 60 feet, but much larger specimens were often captured in the palmy days of the whaling industry. The average product from a single animal is said to be about 15 tons of oil and 15 cwts. of whalebone. The former, like that of seals, is valuable as a lubri- cant and for other technical purposes, but the discovery of petroleum has greatly lessened the value of this and other animal fats as a source of artificial heat and light. Whalebone is be- coming increasingly expensive in proportion to the diminishing supplies, and is still in great demand for a number of purposes, owing to its toughness, durability, and elasticity. It is now largely replaced by steel, as, e.g., for umbrella-frames and corsets. The Southern “Right” Whale (2. australis), which closely resembles the Greenland form, though its baleen is not of such good quality, has a very wide area of distribution, but is absent from the Arctic Ocean. The chief interest attaching to it is that at one time it was common in the Bay of Biscay, where it formed the object of an important industry, especially to the Basques of North Spain. Some points relating to this are thus summarized by Beddard (in The Cambridge Natural History) :— ‘Among the small towns which fringe the bay it is very common to find the whale incorporated in the armorial bearings. ‘ Over the portal of the first old house in the steep street of Guetaria’, writes Sir Clements Markham (P. Z. S., 1881), ‘there is a shield of arms consisting of whales amid waves of the sea. At Motrico the town arms consist of a whale in the sea harpooned, and with a boat with men holding the line.’ Plenty of other such ex- amples testify to the prevalence of the whaling industry on these adjoining coasts of Spain and France. It appears that though the fishery began much earlier—even in the ninth century—the first actual document relating to it dates from the year 1150. It is in the shape of privileges granted by Sancho the Wise to the city of San Sebastian. The trade was still very flourishing in the sixteenth century. Rondeletius the naturalist described Bayonne as the centre of the trade, and tells us that the flesh, especially of the tongue, was exposed for sale as food in the markets. M. Fischer (Actes Linn. Soc. Bordeaux, 1881), who, as well as Sir Clements Markham, has given an important account of the whaling industry on the Basque shores, quotes an account of the methods pursued in the sixteenth century. It was at Biarritz 316 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY —or as Ambroise Pare, from whom Fischer quotes, spelt it, Biaris—that the main fisheries were undertaken. . . . The in- habitants set upon a hill a tower from which they could see ‘the balaines which pass, and perceiving them coming partly by the loud noise they make, and partly by the water which they throw out by a conduit which they possess in the middle of the fore- head.’ Several boats then set out in pursuit, some of which were reserved for men whose sole duty it was to pick out of the water their comrades who had overbalanced themselves in their ex- citement. The harpoons bore a mark by which their respective owners could recognize them, and the carcass of the animal was shared in accordance with the numbers and owners of the har- poons found sticking in the dead body of the whale. At this period the fishery was at its height, but it continued to be an occupation along those shores until the beginning of the eigh- teenth century, after which it gradually declined. The fishery of whales began to be carried farther afield than the shore, and for a long time the Basques furnished expert harpooners to whaling vessels proceeding to the Arctic seas.” Toothed Whales (Odontoceti).—The largest of these is the Cachalot or Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus, fig. 1227), which has been credited with reaching a length of over 80 feet, though this is probably an exaggeration. It ranges throughout the warmer seas of the world. The great head possesses a squarish snout that projects in front of the mouth, which is consequently placed on the under side of the body, obliging the Cachalot, it is said, to turn over like a shark when it wishes to bite. Many stories are current regarding the fierceness of this animal, and no doubt many whale-boats have been crushed in its formidable jaws, but that whaling and other vessels have at times been reported “missing” as a result of the attacks of Cachalots, as has been suggested, would appear to be more problematical. Like other cetaceans, this whale has a thick coat of blubber under the skin, and the front part of the skull is modified into a curious basin-shaped receptacle, which is full of the liquid fat known as spermaceti. As much as forty-five barrels of this have been taken from a single individual. Mixed with a small percentage of bees’-wax it was formerly much used in manufacturing candles of the better sort. The White Whale or Beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) is an WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, ETC. 317 Arctic species related to the Dolphins and Porpoises. The average length of adults is about 10 feet, but this may be con- siderably exceeded. It is chiefly hunted on the north of Russia and north-east of Canada, and is one of those cetaceans which ascend rivers. The blubber is of good quality, and the skin is made into the “porpoise leather” of commerce, which is of con- Fig. 1227.—Cachalot or Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus) siderable value for the manufacture of shooting-boots and some other articles. Reptices (Reptitia).—It need only be said here that orna- mental leather is made from the skins of Crocodiles and various Lizards, while ‘‘tortoise-shell” is obtained from certain Turtles. Of the last something will be said in a succeeding section. Fisues (Piscrs).—The skins of various members of this group are of economic value. Those of certain sharks and dog-fishes, for instance, are the source of “shagreen”, used to some extent as ornamental leather, but chiefly for polishing wood. Their value for the latter purpose depends upon the fact that they are full of little hard-pointed scales, covered with enamel. The skins of some of the ordinary bony fishes (Teleostei) are employed for 318 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY clarifying beer, while in Eastern countries, such as India and China, they are converted into fish-glue, which is a very powerful adhesive. Other fishes serve as a source of oil for technical purposes, as, e.g., the Menhaden or Pogy (Clupea menhaden), a member of the herring family. This species is largely captured on the eastern coasts of the United States for this particular purpose. The livers of sharks and dog-fishes are also of considerable value as a source of oil. Insects (INsEcTA).—One would scarcely expect this group to be included under the present heading, but it appears that in Algeria locusts are utilized in the preparation of a kind of oil. MEDICINAL AND MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS. ANIMALS AND ANIMAL Propucts as MepicinaL AGENTS.—In former days large use was made of animals in medicine, the pre- scriptions being usually fanciful and often revolting. To consider these ancient practices at length would be here superfluous, and the subject will be sufficiently illustrated by the following quotation from Hulme’s Natural History Lore and Legend, a book in which much curious matter is brought together :—‘ Cogan in his Havex of Health declares ‘thus much will I say as to the commendation of the hare, and of the defense of hunters’ toyle, that no beast, be it never so great, is profitable to so many and so diverse uses in Physicke as the hare’, and he then proceeds to give numerous prescriptions in which it is the principal feature. ‘The knee-bone of an Hare taken out alive and worne abute the necke is excellent against Convulsion fitts’, we are told, and perhaps it may be so, but the point that more especially strikes us, and it impresses one over and over again in these medieval recipes, is the cold-blooded cruelty and indifference to animal suffering that is shown in so many of them. Fried mice were considered a specific in small-pox, but it was necessary that they should be fried alive; while for cataract a fox should be captured, his tongue cut out, and the animal released; the member thus barbarously procured was placed in a bag of red cloth and hung round the man’s neck. For erysipelas a favourite old remedy was to cut off one-half of the ear of a cat and let the blood drop on the part affected, while for fits one popular recipe was to take a mole MEDICINAL AND ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 219 alive, cut the tip of his nose off, and let nine drops of the blood fall on to a drop of sugar: the swallowing of this was held to be a certain cure.” ‘“The shrew-mouse, one of the most inoffensive of creatures, was by our ancestors held to be of terribly poisonous nature. Its bite was thought to be most venomous, and even contact with it in any way was accounted extremely dangerous. Cattle and horses seized with any malady that appeared to cause any numb- ness of the legs were at once reputed shrew-struck. ‘It is a raven- ing beast,’ quoth Topsell, ‘feigning itself gentle and tame, but being touched it biteth deep and poysoneth deadly. It beareth a cruel minde, desiring to hunt anything, neither is there any creature that it loveth.’ On whatever limb it crept was ‘cruel anguish’, often ending in paralysis. These calumnies have pre- vailed in many countries and for many ages, the Romans being as firmly convinced of the deadly nature of the shrew-mouse as any British rustic of a century ago. . . . Happily there was a certain antidote against the evil wrought by this malevolent beast. A large ash-tree being chosen, a deep hole was made in its trunk, and after certain incantations were made a shrew-mouse was thrust alive into the opening, and the hole securely plugged. ‘A shrew-ash’, says Gilbert White in his Matuval History of Selborne, ‘is an ash whose twigs or branches, when gently applied to the limbs of cattle, will immediately relieve the pain which a beast suffers from the running of a shrew-mouse over the part affected. Against this accident, to which they were continually liable, our provident forefathers always kept a shrew-ash at hand, which when once medicated would maintain its virtue for ever.’ One of these shrew-ashes, now but a fragment of what was evidently once a massive stately tree, may still be seen (1895) near the Sheen Gate in Richmond Park, and there are those still living who can remember cattle and horses being brought to it for its healing virtues.” “To cure a stye our forefathers had great faith in rubbing it with hairs from a cat’s tail, two essential points being that the cat should be a black one, and that the operation should take place on the first night of the new moon; but to cure warts the hairs must be taken from the tail of a tortoise-shell cat, and even then the remedy is only efficacious during the month of May.” ‘Toads were in great repute in sickness. ‘In time of com- 320 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY mon contagion,’ writes Sir Kenelm Digby in 1660, ‘men used to carry about with them the powder of a toad, and sometimes a living toad or spider shut up in a box, which draws the contagious air which otherwise would infect the party’; and many other illus- trations of their employment as preventive or remedies might be given. The spider and the toad seem to have been each regarded as most venomous creatures, and in many of the old remedies one or other of them at will are recommended, either alternative being regarded as equally efficacious; thus for whooping-cough, if one cannot find a toad to thrust up the chimney, two spiders in a walnut-shell will serve equally well.” The physicians of former times were particularly fond of ad- ministering all sorts of animal extracts, some of them noisome enough, and it is somewhat curious that of recent times large use has been made of certain such extracts with beneficial result, though it need hardly be said that our modern methods of pre- paration are not on the old lines. Pepsin, for instance, a well- known aid to gastric digestion, is prepared from the lining of the pig’s stomach, while pancreatin, which facilitates intestinal diges- tion, is obtained from the pancreas of domestic animals. Disease of the thyroid “gland” in the throat leads to serious mal-nutrition, or even to cretinism, palliation if not cure of which can be effected either by grafting a healthy piece of thyroid from an animal into the patient, or by administering thyroid extract. Several other preparations of the kind are also in use. Certain specific germ-diseases can also be prevented or combated by animal preparations, the most familiar instance being that of vaccination as a safeguard against small-pox. Diphtheria is now often cured by an extract (antitoxin) derived from horse’s blood. Different principles are involved in the uses of the extracts, &c., mentioned, but details would here be out of place. Various kinds of animal fat are used in pharmacy in the pre- paration of ointments, &c. They include mutton suet, hogs’ lard, spermaceti, and lanoline, the last being the natural grease of wool. Gelatine is employed for making “gelatine lozenges” and various jujubes, also as the adhesive medium for “court plaster”. It is obtained from bones, hides, horns, and hoofs by steaming. — Isin- glass (see p. 278) is a superior kind of gelatine. It should not be forgotten that the careful study of the anatomy and physiology of lower animals has played a leading VARIETIES OF THE FIELD-SNAIL (Helix hortensts) Variation is one of the fundamental phenomena upon which the Evolution Theory is based. No two individuals of the same species are ever precisely alike, a fact familiarly illustrated by the dissimilarity which often exists between children of the same parents. It appears that all parts of the body are liable to varia- tion, which may be of very marked kind and is no doubt, at least in part, due to the action of surroundings. A typical case, selected for this plate because it appeals to the eye, is that of the Field- Snail (Helzx hortensts), of which some go races or varieties have been described. In some of these the shell is “self-coloured”, yellow or pinkish-brown being common tints. In other cases there are in addition dark bands, the number of which is distinctive of the race, while the ground colour has also to be considered. Enough varieties have been introduced into the plate to illustrate the principle. VARIETIES OF THE FIELD-SNAIL (HELIX HORTENSIS) MEDICINAL AND ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 321 part in the evolution of modern medicine. Without skilled re- searches on such animals it would never have been possible for operative surgery to reach its present high pitch of perfection. The prevention and cure of disease, other than by surgical methods, have also benefited greatly in the past by such investi- gations, and seem likely to benefit to a much larger extent in the immediate future. Medicinal Value of Fish-Oil.—It need only be said here that the preparation of cod-liver oil, of which the Cod-Fish (Gadus morrhua) is the recognized source, is a by no means unimportant industry. Medical Uses of Insects.—The Oil-Beetles (Meloide or Can- tharid@) are so called because they abound in an irritant sort of oil, which no doubt protects them to some extent from the attacks of insec- tivorous animals. Some of them are used to make preparations for blister- ing the skin, and of these “blister-beetles” the most notable are the ‘‘ Spanish flies” (Cantharzdes), belonging to South and Central Europe. For commercial purposes a bright-green species (Lytta vestcatoria, fig. 1228), collected in Hungary, is most important. Various officinal extracts and plasters are pre- pared from the dried bodies of these insects. Although Cochineal, another insect product (see p. 260), ap- pears to have no value as a drug, it is largely used to give liquid medicines an attractive appearance. Medicinal Use of Leeches (Discophora).—Two kinds of Leech are used for blood-letting, the commoner being the Medicinal Leech (Azrudo medicinals), which is mostly collected in Spain, France, and Italy. The Green Leech (4. officinalis) of Hungary answers the same purpose. In these days the extent to which these creatures are employed is comparatively small, but in the Middle Ages, when blood-letting was esteemed a sovereign cure for every ailment, the physician took his name from this favourite remedy, and was familiarly known as a “leech”. Fig. 1228.—Spanish Fly or Blister Beetle (Ly¢ta vesicatoria) aand 4, Adults; ¢, larva. 322 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY MisceLtLangous ANIMAL Propucts.—It will be convenient to consider here a few odds and ends, which are difficult to place under other headings. Miscellaneous Products of Molluscs (Mollusca).—The internal shell of the Cuttle-fish (Sepza officinalis, fig. 1229), under the name of “cuttle-bone”, is ground up to form an in- gredient of various tooth- powders. Before the inven- tion of blotting-paper it was largely used (as also was fine sand) to sprinkle upon wet writing. It was known as “pounce”, and a ‘ pounce- box”, with a perforated top, was part of the regular equip- ment of an old-fashioned ink- stand or standish. Cooke (in The Cambridge Fig. 1229.—A Cuttle-bone Natural Ffistory) makes the following interesting remarks about the miscellaneous uses of shells:—‘‘ The employment of shells as a medium of exchange was exceedingly common amongst uncivilized tribes in all parts of the world, and has by no means yet become obsolete. One of the commonest species thus em- ployed is the ‘money cowry’ (Cypraa moneta, L., fig. 1230), which stands almost alone in being used entire, while nearly all the other forms of shell money are made out of por- tions of shells, thus requiring a certain amount of labour in the pro- Fig. 1230.—Money Cowry (Cyprwa moneta) cess of formation. .. . In British India about 4ooo are said to have passed for a shilling, but the value appears to differ according to their condition, poor specimens being comparatively worthless. According to Reeve a gentleman residing at Cuttack is said to have paid for the erection of his bungalow entirely in cowries. The building cost him gooo Rs. sicca (about £400), and as 64 cowries = I pice, and 64 pice = 1 rupee sicca, he paid over MEDICINAL AND ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 323 16,000,000 cowries in all. Cowries are imported to England from India and other places for the purpose of exportation to West Africa, to be exchanged for native products. The trade, however, appears to be greatly on the decrease. At the port of Lagos, in 1870, 50,000 cwts. of cowries were imported. A banded form of Nerzta folita was used as money in certain parts of the South Pacific. The sandal-wood imported into the China market is largely obtained from the New Hebrides, being purchased of the natives in exchange for Ovulum angu- Zosum, which they especially esteem as an ornament. Some- times, as in the Duke of York group, the use of shell money is specially restricted to certain kinds of purchase, being employed there only in the buying of swine. Among the tribes of the north-west coasts of America, the common Dentalium indianorum |a_tusk- shell] used to form the standard of value, until it was superseded, under the auspices of the Hudson’s Bay Company, by blankets. A slave was valued at a fathom of from twenty-five to forty of these REE SERRE shells, strung lengthwise. Inferior or broken specimens were strung together in a similar way, but were less highly esteemed; they corresponded more to our silver and copper coins, while the strings of the best shells repre- sented gold. The wampum (fig. 1231) of the eastern coast of North America differed from all these forms of shell money, in that it required a laborious process for its manufacture. Wam- pum consisted of strings of cylindrical beads, each about a quarter of an inch im length and half that breadth. The beads were of two colours, white and purple, the latter being the more valuable. Both were formed from the common clam (Venus mercenaria), the valves of which are often stained with purple at the lower margins, while the rest of the shell is white. Cut small, ground down, and pierced, these shells were converted into money, which appears to have been current along the whole seaboard of North America from Maine to Florida, and on the Gulf Coast as far as Central America, as well as among the 324 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY inland tribes east of the Mississippi. Another kind of wampum was made from the shells of Busycon carica and B. perversum. By staining the wampum with various colours, and disposing these colours in belts in various forms of arrangement, the Indians were able to preserve records, send messages, and keep account of any kind of event, treaty, or transaction. Another common form of money in California was Olivella dbtplicata, strung together by rubbing down the apex. Button-shaped discs cut from Saxzdomus arata and Pachydesma crassatelloides, as well as oblong pieces of /Ya/zof7s, were employed for the same purpose, when strung together in lengths of several yards.” Shells are put to various uses in the islands of the Pacific, as, e.g., the making of fish-hooks, spoons, knives, and axe-heads. The ingenious Chinese convert the thin translucent shell of a flat bivalve (Placuna placenta) into window-panes, grind up cockle-shells for lime, or, by mixing the powder with oil, make a sort of putty. Speaking of the West of Scotland, Anderson Smith (in Benderloch) thus describes an old-time practice:—‘ There is a curious old custom that used formerly to be in use in this locality, and no doubt was generally employed along the sea- board, as the most simple and ready means of arrangement of bargains by a non-writing population. That was, when a bar- gain was made, each party to the transaction got one half of a bivalve shell—such as a mussel, cockle, or oyster—and when the bargain was implemented, the half that fitted exactly was delivered up as a receipt. Thus a man who had a box full of unfitted shells might be either a creditor or a debtor; but the box filled with fitted shells represented receipted accounts. Those who know the difficulty of fitting the valves of some classes of bivalves will readily acknowledge the value of this arrangement.” Sponges (Portfera).—The horny skeletons of certain sponges have been used for toilet and other purposes since the times of the ancient Greeks. The best kind of Bath Sponge (Zuspongia officinalis), known to commerce as ‘ Turkey Sponge”, comes from the Mediterranean and Red Sea, as well as the less esteemed Zimocca Sponge (£uspongza ztmocca) and Horse Sponge (77ippospongia equina). Other kinds, both fine and coarse, are imported from the Bahamas, and sponges of commercial value are to be found off Australia and some of the South Sea Islands. WILD ANIMALS BENEFICIAL TO MAN 325 Three methods of sponge-fishing are practised in the Medi- terranean, according to the depth of water. Where this is very shallow a five-pronged fork is employed, beyond the range of which (up to about 30 fathoms) diving is resorted to, while speci- mens growing in comparatively deep water (up to 200 fathoms) are dredged. The yield of the Italian sponge-fisheries for 1902 was worth £24,720. WILD ANIMALS BENEFICIAL TO MAN ON ACCOUNT OF THEIR HABITS From the economic stand-point many wild forms are of very considerable benefit to man, because they prey upon other crea- tures which are injurious to himself, his stock, and his crops. To some such animals we should extend the “ protection” which they deserve at our hands, while for others equally beneficial (e.g. certain insects) we can do nothing in that direction. And it should be remembered that without very full knowledge it is very risky either to mercilessly persecute native forms, or to intro- duce species from other countries. The result of the ruthless slaughter of bats in a particular locality has been elsewhere men- tioned (see vol. ii, p. 346), while the introduction of rabbits into Australia has led to unexpected and undesirable consequences. Certain other wild species deserve the name of ‘“ beneficials ” because they promote the health of mankind, or unconsciously assist in the work of agriculture, &c. It will sufficiently serve the purposes of this work if the general nature of our indebtedness to certain groups of animals is indicated in a few paragraphs. For this and the other aspects of applied natural history readers who may be interested are specially recommended to consult Theobald’s Fzrst Report on Economic Zoology (1902), one of the publications issued under the auspices of the British Museum (Natural History). This is rendered particularly valuable by the Introduction (‘A Classi- fication of Animals from the point of view of Economic Zoology ”) written by Ray Lankester. The word “ beneficials ” is applied by him in a somewhat narrower sense than it is here. BenericiaL Mammats (Mammatia).—The destructiveness of Foxes, Weasels, Stoats, and the like, is so obvious, that the idea of their being ‘‘beneficials” would be scouted by many, though VoL. IV. 116 326 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY they probably do more good than harm. The Fox, for instance, in spite of his ravages on poultry, destroys large numbers of field-voles and field-mice, together with noxious insects, such as cockchafers. And, of the Weasel (fig. 1232), Ritzema Bos says (in Agricultural Zoology):— The weasel does some damage in fowl-houses and dove- cots, and is also de- structive to game. This, however, does not outweigh its very great use, since it is above all an untiring vole - catcher. When in any region the field- voles have multiplied excessively, an immi- gration of weasels takes place from sur- rounding parts. In years when there is a plague of voles the usual breeding-time in spring is followed by another later on. A very large number of weasels may be found in a vole-infected dis- trict, and they thin out the mischievous rodents in a surprising manner. Nor are the Wigs gugeho weasels (Pudovine avlearis) weasels less useful in winter than in sum- mer. They even follow under the snow the voles which winter in the country, and the slaughter effected at this period must exert a great influence on the following season, when these animals re- commence their injurious work.” The feelings of poultry-keepers and game-keepers are readily intelligible, but without full know- ledge it is unwise to stigmatize as ‘‘ vermin” apparently undesir- able animals. Foxes only escape the libel for sporting reasons. WILD ANIMALS BENEFICIAL TO MAN 327 The Insect-eating Mammals (Insectivora), such as Mole, Hedgehog, and Shrews, destroy enormous numbers of noxious insects and insect-larve, and are beneficials of the first rank. The mole is also of use in mixing and draining the soil. The vast majority of Bats (Chiroptera) feed on insects, and do much to keep down the numbers of the innumerable species which are injurious to stock and cultivated plants, as well as to forest-trees. In the hotter parts of the globe some Mammals do useful work as scavengers, e.g. Hyzenas (see vol. ii, p. 14). Rats and the like also act as sanitary agents. BENEFICIAL Brrps (Aves). — By destroying field-voles, &c., and small birds of injurious char- acter, many of the smaller birds of prey, such as Kestrels, Buzzards, and Merlins, do much good, though it must be con- fessed that there is an- other side to the matter. Aflalo says of the Kestrel (in Natural History of the British Isles):—“ Its food consists almost en- tirely of mice, so that its persecution is wanton folly”. Even should it prove requisite to classify any of our native species, unfortunately now existing in greatly diminished numbers, as “vermin”, they ought to be de- stroyed in a merciful way. Some of the steel traps used for slaughtering these and other wild animals (such as rabbits) are a disgrace to civilization, and only fit for the days of rack and thumb-screw. Owls are more useful, but even more disliked than the diurnal birds of prey, partly as a result of the superstitions associated with them. Aflalo makes the following apposite remarks in this regard about the Barn Owl (S¢vzx flammea, fig. 1233).—“ Its dis- appearance from neighbourhoods where it once was plentiful is Fig. 1233-—Barn Owl (Strix fammea).and Nest 328 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY doubtless due to the short-sighted policy of persecution meted out to the unoffending bird by gamekeepers. As rats, shrews, and voles are among its favourite articles of food, a few of these voracious birds on an estate should be worth a ton of poison... . The way in which gardener, farmer, and game-preserver unite in persecuting this owl has been mentioned, and it is to be doubted whether they would achieve a far different result were they actually to breed and turn down rats and voles, of which this bird must annually destroy hundreds of bushels.” A great many birds render us invaluable service by destroying vast numbers of injurious insects and insect-larve. The Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus), for example, is a great protector of fruit- culture and forestry, for it greedily devours certain hairy kinds of caterpillar, which most other birds refuse to touch. Among other benefactors may be particularly mentioned—Swifts, Swal- lows, Martins, and Tit-Mice. In Germany various useful species are provided with suitable nesting-boxes and wintering - boxes, the size of the opening being adjusted to the particular kind of bird. The African Secretary Bird (Serpentarius secretartus) is a notable destroyer of poisonous snakes, and is domesticated by the farmers of South Africa for the sake of its services in this direction. There are also scavenging birds, such as Vultures, which in hot countries discharge a most useful office. BENEFICIAL ReptiLes (ReptiLi1a).—Lizards are certainly to be regarded as beneficials, for they feed largely upon injurious insects and the like. Many Snakes are also useful, and some of them render conspicuous service by preying upon small rodents. Some species may even be domesticated on this account, as, e.g., the Corn Snake (Coluber guttatus) in North America, and the Rat Snake (Zamenzs mucosus) in India. BENEFICIAL AMPHIBIANS (AmPHIBIA).—AI] the members of the class are beneficial, inasmuch as they live upon insects, snails, slugs, and other destructive creatures. Ritzema Bos states that . . . . “in the research garden attached to the Rouen entomological laboratory the snails were entirely exter- minated in 1891, as a result of introducing a hundred toads and ninety frogs”. The Toad in particular is one of the most useful animals that can be put into a garden, effectually protecting WILD ANIMALS BENEFICIAL TO MAN 329 strawberries from the ravages of slugs and performing other valuable offices of like nature. BENEFICIAL FisHes (Pisces).—Much of the scavenging work in the sea and fresh water is efficiently discharged by members of this class. Among freshwater fishes Carp are particularly valuable in maintaining the purity of our drinking supply, keeping it free from insects, insect larve, and decaying matter. They are not infrequently kept in reservoirs on this account. And since the larvee of such notorious pests as gnats, mosquitoes, and sand- midges are all aquatic, we are largely saved from annoyance and even from disease by the good offices of these and various other freshwater fishes. BenerictaL Insects (Insecta).— There are quite a large number of insects which either when adult or in the larval state, or it may be throughout life, are the natural enemies of many notorious insect pests. Sufficient examples have already been given in vol. ii, chap. 1x, vol. ili, pp. 391-393, and in pp. 194, 195 of the present volume. Carrion is also largely destroyed by insect-larvz, such as the grubs of Burying-Beetles and the maggots of various Flies. Nor must we forget the large part which insects take in the fertilization of plants (see p. 83), including many which are of great import- ance to mankind. BENEFICIAL SPIDER-LIKE ANIMALS (ARACHNIDA).—Of the members of this group it need only be said that Spiders, in par- ticular, largely assist in keeping the numbers of insects within due limits. BewnerFiciaL Myriapops (Myrrapopa).—The numerous kinds of Centipede undoubtedly destroy large numbers of noxious ground- insects, and have therefore a claim to be included among beneficial animals. BENEFICIAL CRUSTACEANS (CrusTAceEa).—A large amount of scavenging work is carried on by the members of this class, and, so far as the sea is concerned, Crabs are particularly notable in this respect. BENEFICIAL ANNELIDS (ANNELIDA).—Earth-Worms render con- siderable service to agriculture (see vol. ii, p. 258) in more than one way. They reduce large quantities of soil to a finely-divided state, making it into a suitable seed-bed, bring earth to the surface as a sort of natural “top-dressing ”, and it may be added that their 330 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY burrows in the ground help on the work of drainage and aeration. In short, the habits of these animals benefit the land in much the same way as the operations of ploughing, harrowing, and the like. BENEFICIAL Parasitic Worms.—At first sight one is rather apt to imagine that the members of the several groups of these not altogether pleasing creatures do nothing but harm. This is not, however, strictly true, for many of them pay special atten- tion to noxious animals, and assist considerably in keeping down their numbers. CHAPTER LXX ANIMAL FOES—THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN PersonaL Enemies AMONG Mammats (Mammatia).—We are not justified in calling the fiercer and larger Mammals or other animals our enemies, simply because they defend themselves when attacked, and in most cases man will probably be found to have been the first aggressor. And even when that is not the case, at least when carnivorous forms are in question, casualties are usually the outcome of the Law of Hunger, or it may be parental solici- tude. Partly owing to its comparatively straightforward habits, the Lion (Felis ¢eo), when left alone, does not attack human beings to the extent that might be supposed, unless pressed by hunger. Speaking of North-East Africa, Sir Samuel Baker says (in Wild Beasts and thetr Ways):—“‘In the locality which I have men- tioned, the lions, although numerous, were never regarded as dangerous unless attacked; there was an abundance of game, therefore the carnivora were plentfully supplied, and a large area of country being entirely uninhabited, the lions were unaccus- tomed to the sight of human beings, and held them in respect. During the night we took the precaution to light extensive bon- fires within our camp, which was well protected by a circular fence of impenetrable thorns, but we were never threatened by wild animals except on one occasion.” Where the country is thickly populated it is only to be expected that individual animals may at times acquire bad habits, or, as Vogt puts it (in Mammalia) :—‘ Old experienced lions who know how little danger they are exposed to in breaking in upon the villages of the badly-armed negroes will, it appears, hanker after human flesh”. The stealthy cat-like habits of the Tiger (Fedx tigris, fig. 1234) render it a good deal more dangerous to man than its 331 332 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY nobler cousin. But even the ‘‘man-eaters”, which at one time undoubtedly accounted for a considerable number of the Indian natives, must have been but a small percentage of the tigers actually in existence. Of these once-dreaded marauders G. P. Sanderson gives the following graphic account (in 7hzrteen Years among the Wild Beasts of India):—‘ This truly terrible scourge to the timid and unarmed inhabitants of an Indian village is now happily becoming very rare; man-eaters of a bad type are seldom Fig. 1234.—Tiger (Felis tigrts) heard of, or, if heard of, rarely survive long. Before there were so many European sportsmen as there now are in the country, a man-eater frequently caused the temporary abandonment of whole tracts; and the sites of small hamlets abandoned by the terrified inhabitants, and which have never been reoccupied, are not uncommonly met with by the sportsman in the jungles. The terror inspired by a man-eater throughout the district ranged by him is extreme. The helpless people are defenceless against his attacks. Their occupations of cattle-grazing or wood-cutting take them into the jungles, where they feel that they go with their lives in their hands. A rustling leaf, or a squirrel or bird moving in THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN 333 the undergrowth, sets their hearts beating with a dread sense of danger. The only security they feel is in numbers. Though the bloodthirsty monster is perhaps reposing with the remains of his last victim miles away, the terror he inspires is always present to every one throughout his domain. The rapidity and uncertainty of a man-eater’s movements form the chief elements of the dread he causes. His name is in every one’s mouth; his daring, ferocity, and appalling appearance are represented with true Eastern exag- geration; and until some European sportsman, perhaps after days or weeks of pursuit, lays him low, thousands live in fear day and night. Bold man-eaters have been known to enter a village and carry off a victim from the first open hut. Having lived in a tract so circumstanced until I shot the fiend that possessed it, and having myself felt something of the grim dread that had taken hold of the country-side, where ordinary rambling about the jungles, and even sitting outside the tent after dark except with a large fire, or moving from the encampment without an escort, were unsafe, I could realize the feelings of relief and thankfulness so earnestly expressed by the poor ryots when I shot the Jezebel that had held sway over them so long. The man-eater is often an old tiger (more frequently a tigress), or an animal that, through having been wounded or otherwise hurt, has been unable to pro- cure its usual food, and takes to this means of subsistence.” Ina recent article (in The Sports of the World) Lieutenant-general Sir Montagu G. Gerard thus speaks on this subject:—‘ Man-eaters are very rare indeed, and. . . probably become so accidentally. The accepted belief that they are necessarily mangy is a myth; it may be the cause, not the effect. For whatever reason, they seem to acquire preternatural cunning, and natives believe that the soul of a man is imprisoned within them. I once spent a fortnight following one, who never during that time killed within ten miles of her last victim. . . . A former colonel of the C.I. Horse, the most celebrated tiger slayer of thirty years back, killed an excep- tionally mischievous one, which in a year had accounted for eighty-seven known victims. ... I have only killed four un- doubted ones, whose victims ranged from thirty-three to about a dozen apiece; but I have known of several others, generally sulky males, who had killed cattle-herds or wood-cutters disturbing them.” Of other members of the Cat family (Felidae) large enough to 334 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY be dangerous to man, it need only be said that, since they are expert climbers, trees afford no refuge to human beings if they chance to be attacked. Bears (Ursidz), from their great strength and powerful claws, are dangerous antagonists when roused, but they can scarcely be considered the natural enemies of mankind, for most of them leave human beings alone unless provoked, or impelled by hunger. It may be gathered from accounts of Arctic expeditions, for example, that a hungry Polar Bear (Ursus marztimus) will not hesitate to attack men, and similarly for the Brown Bear of Europe (U. arctos), and the North American variety of that species commonly known as the “Grizzly”. It is rather curious that the Indian Sloth-Bear (U. daézatus), which chiefly lives on fruit, honey, and insects, is somewhat given to turning upon our species, though, obviously, not as the result of hunger. At least Sir Samuel Baker says (in Weld Beasts and their Ways):— This species is very active, and although it refuses flesh, it is one of the most mis- chievous of its kind, as it will frequently attack man without the slightest reason, but from sheer pugnacity”. And under these circumstances the long-curved claws are capable of inflicting “terrible wounds upon a human being”. Wolves, when pressed by hunger, are destructive to human life in several countries, their habit of hunting in large packs greatly aggravating the danger, as everyone is aware. The annual casualties due to wolves in parts of the Russian Empire are by no means inconsiderable. Even without special provocation some of the larger wild Mammals of purely herbivorous habit may injure or kill human beings, as in the case of Hippopotami, Buffaloes, Rhinoceroses, and Elephants. All have heard, for example, of “rogue” Ele- phants, ill-natured males which have been expelled from their herds for general misbehaviour. But details are here unnecessary. Some of the smaller forms, such as Wild Boars, are also danger- ous, and the Peccaries (Dzcotydes), which range from South America to Mexico and Texas, are even more so. A. G, Requa recounts the following amusing adventure (in Zhe Big Game of North America) with a herd of White-lipped Peccaries (D. dadiatus), which sufficiently illustrates their ferocity:—‘I had not sat there more than five minutes before I heard the sharp noise of the Peccaries. They came in sight not more than twenty yards below me. There THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN 335 were not more than a dozen that I could see, and there were plenty of small pines near by; so I thought that I would just kill the whole herd, provided they showed fight. As they came into the open ground they seemed to wind me, as they began to snuff and paw. I fired at one, and, just as I intended, only crippled him. He set up a great squealing, and, sure enough, here they came! I was just a little excited, and started for a tree, forgetting my coat and turkey. I had scarcely time to get up when they were around the tree, and instead of twelve, they kept coming till there were at least two hundred. I commenced shooting, and killed five with my rifle, that being the number of shells in my gun. It then occurred to me that my rifle-shells were in my coat; so, having no further use for my rifle, and realizing that it would become a burden to me if compelled to stay in the tree several hours, as seemed likely, I threw it down. Fortunately I had both revolvers, and a belt full of cartridges for them; so I went at them. They were chewing the tree, and climbing over each other trying to get at me. Each shot laid one out, and each shot seemed to make them more and more furious, as they would rush at the tree, and gnaw the bark and wood, while the white flakes of froth fell from their mouths. I tried to count them, and found that there were over two hundred left, and I had killed twenty- three. The position I had was not a comfortable one, but I had to stand it. Then for the first time I thought of the boys. Had they heard my shooting? if so, would they come? Then I remembered I had not fired the signal agreed on, and that I had followed the turkeys up the mountain and down again, and by this time the boys must be four miles up the cafion and on the opposite side. The Peccaries showed no signs of leaving. It was now noon, and very warm. They would root around, then come back to the tree, and grunt, and paw, and bite the tree; then they would cool down a little, would go a short distance away, root around awhile, then come back again. I was getting tired of being treed, but it was just what we had planned the night before, only we were not all together. If the boys could only hear my firing, and come over, how quick we would wipe them out! Such thoughts ran through my head; but still the pigs stayed. One o'clock came, then two; still they stayed. Then I thought I would fire a signal with my revolver—maybe the boys were hunting for me; so I made a noise, and back to the tree they came. I killed three 336 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY of them in about a second; then I waited. Three o’clock came, then four, and no sign of the boys. Some of the pigs would feed while the others stood guard; then they would change off. I was so tired I could scarcely stay in the tree; so I took my belt off and buckled myself fast to the trunk, so that I would not fall out. Seven o'clock! I could see no change; they still camped near me, showing no signs of weakening. Then the sun went behind the mountain; darkness came on, and I was thirsty, hungry, and tired; but, worse than all, I was a prisoner. Twelve o'clock! The moon shone brightly, and I could see my sentinels scattered around. Two o'clock! Then came a signal from some of the outside ones; the rest snuffed the air, then away they all went. | could hear them far below, going down the mountain. . . . Here- after, anyone who wants to hunt Peccaries can hunt them, and be blanked; but I prefer some kind of game that is not so fond of human flesh as they are.” Without the friendly tree the adventure might have ended differently, for the same writer tells us of these animals that—‘‘If one of their number is wounded so that it squeals, the whole herd becomes ferocious, will charge their enemy on sight, and speedily destroy him, unless he escapes by climbing a tree or by flight”. The blood-sucking Bats have been spoken about elsewhere (see vol. ii, p. 39). PersonaL ENEMIES AMONG ReEpTILES (ReptiLiA).—The larger Crocodiles and Alligators are particularly destructive to human life, though their sphere of operations is obviously much limited by their aquatic habits. Speaking of Ega on the Upper Amazons, Bates says (in 7he Naturalist on the Amazons) :— Alligators were rather troublesome in the dry season. During these months there was almost always one or two lying in wait near the bathing-place for anything that might turn up at the edge of the water—dog, sheep, pig, child, or drunken Indian.” With reference to Crocodiles in Madagascar, Sibree remarks (in The Great African Island): —‘ They are regarded with a superstitious dread by many of the Malagasy tribes, and are so dangerous in some parts of the island that at every village on the banks of the rivers a space is carefully fenced off with strong stakes, so that the women and girls can draw water without the risk of being seized by the jaws or swept off by the tail of these disgusting-looking creatures”. Tales about the ferocity of Crocodiles are sufficiently numerous, many of them, of THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN 337 course, having reference to that notable species, the Nile Crocodile (Crocodtlus Niloticus, fig. 1235). The following remarks by Sir Samuel Baker (in Weld Beasts and Their Ways) will sufficiently illustrate the point:—‘The throat of a crocodile is not only large, but is capable of great expansion, and although the habits of the creature usually permit the body of a victim to rest in quiet until it is devoured in piecemeal, there are many exceptions to the rule; large crocodiles will swallow a small person without the slower operation of dismemberment. . . . When I was in Fig. 1235.—Nile Crocodile (Crocoditus Niloticus) command of the Khedive’s expedition, our losses through croco- diles were very distressing, all of which were terrible examples of the ferocity, combined with cunning, which characterizes this useless scourge. On one occasion the vessels were sailing up the White Nile with a strong north wind, making at least 7 knots an hour; one of the cavasses was sitting upon the deck, with his legs dangling over the sides of the deeply-laden vessel, his feet being half a yard above the water. Suddenly a rush was made by a very large crocodile, and the man was seized and carried off in a shorter time than it would take to announce the fact. This was done in the presence of a hundred men on board the vessel, and nothing was ever heard of the unfortunate cavass.” 338 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY Mention may here be made of the fact that two species of poisonous Lizards exist, both native to North America. One (Heloderma horridum, fig. 1236) is a Mexican form, while the other, commonly known as the “Gila Monster” (AZ. suspectum), inhabits New Mexico and Arizona. The sharp curved teeth of these creatures are grooved in front and behind for the purpose of conducting the poison, which is secreted by a series of small glands opening along the edge of the lower jaw. Of the Gila Monster, Fig. 1236.—Mexican Poisonous Lizard (Heloderma horridum) Gadow states (in Zhe Cambridge Natural History):—‘ Frogs are probably paralysed or killed by the bite, which, although not so dangerous as that of poisonous snakes, is effective enough to produce severe symptoms even on man, and a few cases of death of people who had been bitten are on record”. Poisonous Snakes are among the most formidable personal enemies of man, and are justly dreaded in the countries they in- habit, which embrace all but the coldest parts of the globe. There is also reason to think that at least one of the larger non-poisonous snakes, z.e. the Anaconda or Water-Boa (Euneces murinus) of northern South America, may now and then crush and devour THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN 339 human beings. This species is said to attain the length of 33 feet, or possibly more. The mechanism by which a venomous serpent bites its victim, So as to introduce poison into the wound, has been described already (see vol. ii, p. 80), so does not require mention here. In Justice to such creatures it may be said that, as a rule, they only attack human beings when interfered with, as, e.g., by being accidentally trodden _ upon. Among the f- most dreaded species are the Indian Cobra { Nata tripudians ); the even more dan- gerous Krait (Bun- garus coeruleus) of the same country; the Australian Death - Adder (Acanthophis antarcticus ) ; the Coral-Snake (Zlaps corallinus) of tropical South America; the Sea-Snakes (/7ydro- phine) of the Indian Ocean; the African Puff- Adder (Vzfera arvetans); Russell’s Viper (V. Russell), native to South Asia; and the American Rattle-Snakes (species of Crotalus). The following remarks by Semon (in lz The Australian Bush) will prove of interest :— “Tt is decidedly no exaggeration to say that 500 persons are yearly bitten on the Australian continent, although the majority of these cases do not prove fatal. The population of Australia is at present supposed to amount to 3,000,000 [in I901 it was nearer 4,000,000]. About 20,000 deaths by snake-bite are yearly re- ported from the British provinces of India, containing 120,000,000 inhabitants [population of India in r901 was 294,266,701]. This record may indeed be somewhat exaggerated, and may owe its Fig. 1237.-—Indian Cobra (Waza tripudians) 340 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY enormity to conscious or unconscious deception of the magistrates by the native officials. Decidedly, however, the figures are not so much overrated as is frequently believed. In India, as well as in Australia, in the course of a year about one person in 6000 falls a victim to snake-bite.” PersonaL ENEMIES AMONG FisuHeEs (Pisces).—Some of the larger Sharks injure or devour bodily a good many human beings every year. The most notable is the Rondeletian Shark (Car- charodon Rondeletii), which ranges through the warmer parts of the ocean, and may attain the length of 4o feet. Those fishes also which possess poisonous spines (see vol. ii, p. 355) may cause serious injury, while some species are poisonous as food, such, ¢, as Globe-Fishes (Dzodox and a Tetrodon) and _ Coffer - _| Fishes (Ostraczon). i] PERSONAL ENEMIES. / amonc Mottuscs (Mot- Lusca).—Some of the giant Squids, and larger creatures of the Octopus kind, are certainly capable of injuring or destroying human beings. How far they do so, or have done so, it is im- possible to say. And a few Sea-Snails, such as Cone-Shells (see vol. ii, p. 357), give poisonous bites. PersonaL ENEMIES AMONG INseEcts (INSEcTA).—It is quite impossible here to pass in review the host of insects which bite or sting, and many of which make up by numbers what they lack in size. Bees, Wasps, Ants, Gnats (fig. 1238), Mosquitoes, Midges, Sand-Flies, Fleas, Bugs, and Lice are all more or less notable in their way, or perhaps notorious would be a better word. And many insects which do not bite or sting may nevertheless be a serious nuisance, ¢.¢. House-Flies and Flesh-Flies. But a fresh and unwelcome interest attaches to insects now that it is known that some of them are the means of conveying the germs of serious disease into the human body. The recent Fig. 1238.—A Gnat (Culex), enlarged THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN 341 work of Major Ross in reference to malarial fever is the best illustration that can be given. It appears that a particular sort of Mosquito (Anopheles) is infested with certain stages in the life- history of a parasitic animalcule (emameéa) which are intro- duced into the blood of persons bitten. Further development is there possible, serious disturbances of the system resulting. And when the mosquito bites a human being whose blood harbours these further stages it is in turn infected. In short the mosquito infects man, and man infects the mosquito. Some of the details are given in fig. 1239. Fortu- nately the researches of Ross en- able preventive measures to be adopted. The early part of the life of the insect is passed in stagnant water (compare vol. iii, p. 403), from which the immature stages can be cleared out by the use of petroleum, if applied at a suitable time. The method has been exceedingly successful at A, Two parasites within a red blood-corpuscle of man ; Hawannal, formerly: @: -S6edt acne oPchocane bisndiiage a divisions! same fate breeding-ground for yellow fever minute spores; D, spores liberated by breaking up of the corpuscle; when taken up into the body of the mos- and other disorders of malarial quito with human blood some spores assume the form E, a others the form F; G shows fusion of an E-spore with a type. The subject suggests an- thread from an F-spore; H, the fusion is complete, and at 5 ‘ this stage the parasite pierces the wall of the mosquito’s other homily on the necessity digestive tube; after complex changes the parasites reach f 1 d . : ifi the salivary glands of the insect, where the stage 1 is or proper y en owing scientinc produced, which is introduced into the blood of a human being and attacks the red corpuscles; J, the mosquito research. (Anopheles). All but J greatly enlarged. Fig. 1239.—Malaria Parasite (Ha@mamaba) PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG SPIDER-LIKE Animas (AracHnipa).—It need only be noted that Scorpions possess poisonous stings, while some of the -larger Spiders inflict poisonous bites. At one time an exaggerated virulence was ascribed in Italy to the latter. Violent exercise was the reputed cure, hence the origin of the rapid dance known as a “Tarantella” (ze. the diminutive of ‘“ Tarantula”, the name of the spider). The unpleasant skin-disease known as “Itch” is caused by the attacks of a kind of Mite (Sarcoftes scabet, see p. 196). PersonaL ENEMIES AMONG Myriapops (Myrrapopa).—The VoL. IV. 117 342 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY large Centipedes (Scolopendra) which abound in tropical countries are well known on account of their painful and poisonous bites. PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ANNELIDS (ANNELIDA).—Some of the Leeches, especially the Land-Leeches of tropical countries, are peculiarly unpleasant to encounter (see vol. i, p. 148). PersonaL ENEMIES AMONG FLat-Worms (PLATYHELMIA).— Among the Flukes (Zvematoda) about eleven different species have been described as parasitic in human beings, including the kind which causes “liver-rot” in sheep, and which will be the subject of further notice. On one notorious scourge of the sort (Bilharzia hematobia) Gamble remarks as follows (in The Cam- bridge Natural History):—‘ This formidable parasite was dis- covered by Bilharz in 1853 in the veins of the bladder of patients at the Cairo Hospital, and is remarkable from its abundance on the east coast and inland countries of Africa from Egypt to the Cape, as well as in the districts bordering Lake Nyassa and the Zambesi river, while westwards it occurs on the Gold Coast. Mecca is a source of infection whence Mohammedans carry the disease to distant places. In Egypt about 30 per cent of the native population is affected by the serious disease known as hematuria, resulting from the attacks of Bz/harzia, so that, of the many scourges from which in Africa man suffers, this one is perhaps the most severe.” A number of Tape-Worms (Ces¢oda) infest the human subject, and one example has been given in an earlier volume (vol. 1, p. 441), ze. the Common Tape-Worm (Zienia sodium), which is a common consequence of eating ‘‘measly” pork in a partially cooked condition. Another not infrequent human parasite in Western Europe is the Beef Tape-Worm (7 zza sagznata), derived from “measly” beef. The Broad Tape-Worm (Bothriocephalus /atus), which is well known as a parasite of man in Russia, Switzer- land, North America, and Japan, results from eating diseased fish, especially pike, which have not been sufficiently cooked. All these three forms attain their adult state in the human intestine, from which they can be expelled with comparative ease by suitable drugs. Another tape-worm (Zenza echtnococcus) which when adult is found in the dog’s intestine, is a much more dangerous parasite to man, in whom it may occur in its earlier bladder-worm form of existence as a swelling or cyst in the lungs or liver (Echinococcus veterinorum, fig. 1240), often with fatal consequences. THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN 343 Pigs and ruminants are also liable to the disease. Gamble says of the bladder-worm stage (in Zhe Cambridge Natural History) :— “Echinococcus is most fre- quent in Iceland, where it affects 2 to 3 per cent of the population, and a still larger proportion of sheep; while in Copenhagen, Northern Germany, some districts of Switzerland, and Victoria it is not uncommon, but is fre- quently found during Zost- mortem examinations when no definite symptoms of its presence had been previously noticed.” PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG Rounp - Worms (NEMATHELMIA).—A number of species of these objection- —— g, outer covering of cyst, which has been cut away: slong: 8 able forms are found as in- toshow the cyst itself (c); 4, d, d, secondary cysts each of which may produce several tape-worms. Reduced. ternal parasites within the bodies of human beings. The Round-Worm (Ascaris lumbri- cotdes) and Thread-Worm (Oxyurts vermicularis) are two of the commonest sorts. Far more dangerous than these is one of the Palisade-Worms (Dochmius duodenal), which possesses spines in the neigh- bourhood of the mouth, enabling it to burrow in the wall of the small intestine of its host. This worm is the cause of the fatal disease called ‘“ miners’ anemia ”. The Guinea-Worm (/7larza medt- nensts), only too well known in tropical countries, is the cause of serious tumours, especially in the legs. These are caused by the female, an elongated (usually 20 to 32 inches) slender creature which lives under the skin of the person affected. Trichinosis is an extremely dangerous disorder contracted by eating diseased pork, containing the encapsuled stage of a minute Fig. 1240.—Echinococcus Cyst from the Liver of a Cow Fig. 1241.—Trichinz encysted in Muscle. Much enlarged. 344 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY thread-worm (Zvichina spiralis, fig. 1241). On reaching the human stomach the capsules are dissolved, the minute worms become adult, and myriads of larve are produced, which bore into the walls of the intestine. They are then carried in the blood to different parts of the body, especially the muscles, where they come to rest, and pass into the encapsuled stage. Pigs contract the complaint by eating diseased rats, or the offal from their slaughtered fellows, if the latter are infected. PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG HEDGEHOG- SKINNED ANIMALS (EcuinopERMATA).—Unpleasant wounds may be given by the long sharp spines of some sea-urchins, especially when these are provided with poison-glands (see vol. 1, p. 361). PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ZOOPHYTES (CC@LENTERATA).— The larger Jelly-Fishes, such as the Portuguese Man-of-war (Phy- salia), possess innumerable nettling capsules, by which they can inflict painful stings, of which the effects may long be felt. PerRsoNAL ENEMIES AMONG ANIMALCULES (PRoTOzoA).—These are probably more numerous than at one time suspected. The malaria-parasites introduced by means of Mosquitoes (see p. 341) are the most serious at present known. CHAPTER LXXI ANIMAL FOES—FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES A large volume would be required to give anything like an adequate account of the innumerable animal pests which more or less diminish the success of many human operations. Keepers of stock or poultry, crop-growers, gardeners, foresters, and the like, all have constant and painful experience of some such forms. Other animals damage buildings, food, clothes, and various manu- factured articles. To cope successfully with many of these foes requires much knowledge of their habits and life-histories, and such knowledge can only be acquired by patient and long- continued scientific research, carried out by trained experts. . Although an increasing amount of this kind of work is done in the United Kingdom, we are at present very far behind such countries as Germany and the United States, where the value of research is fully appreciated by the authorities. Our own govern- ment is comparatively apathetic in the matter, and our univer- sities are too much occupied in turning out graduates by the score to undertake more than a small fraction of the original investiga- tions upon which the prosperity of many of our industries ulti- mately depends. It is only possible here to briefly review the animal kingdom with a view to pointing out some of the more injurious forms. Injurtous Mammats (Mammatia).—It goes without saying that the carnivores which attack man (see p. 331) are still more mischievous by way of raiding flocks and herds. Besides which, members of the same group which are not powerful enough to be considered our own personal enemies, may nevertheless be very destructive to domesticated animals. Foxes, Weasels, and Stoats may be mentioned in illustration. But at the same time it ought to be remembered that the damage inflicted is not 345 346 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY infrequently balanced, or even outweighed, by benefits conferred in other ways (see p. 325). Cultivated plants are often injured or destroyed by herbivorous or omnivorous Mammals—Deer and various gnawing mammals, such as Rats, Mice, Voles, Hares, and Rabbits. Such creatures may also be injurious in gardens, orchards, and woods, by in- juring the bark of trees. In this re- spect Goats are particularly de- structive. A re- markable instance of this is given in the following pas- sage from Wallace (Lsland Life):— ‘“When first dis- covered [over 400 years ago], St. Helenawas densely covered with a luxuriant forest vegetation, the trees overhanging the seaward preci- pices and covering every part of the surface with an evergreen mantle. This indigenous Wik: xaaa:—Cominon HousesM one Laie oadeennis, vegetation has been almost wholly destroyed; and although an immense number of foreign plants have been introduced, and have more or less completely estab- lished themselves, yet the general aspect of the island is now so barren and forbidding, that some persons find it difficult to believe that it was once all green and fertile. The cause of the change is, however, very easily explained. The rich soil formed by decomposed volcanic rock and vegetable deposits could only be retained on the steep slopes so long as it was FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 347 protected by the vegetation to which it in great part owed its origin. When this was destroyed, the heavy tropical rains soon washed away the soil, and has left a vast expanse of bare rock or sterile clay. This irreparable destruction was caused in the first place by goats, which were introduced by the Portuguese in 1513, and increased so rapidly that in 1588 they existed in thousands. These animals are the greatest of all foes to trees, because they eat off the young seedlings, and thus prevent the natural restoration of the forest. They were, however, aided by the reckless waste of man.” Rats, Mice (fig. 1242), and other small rodents are destructive to stored grain and other commodities, and may become a thorough nuisance in dwellings, as most of us have found by experience. Such creatures may also be productive of serious harm by disseminating various diseases. Rats, for example, often cause trichinosis in swine (see p. 344), and hence indirectly in human beings, or may spread such viru- lent germs as those of bubonic plague. Injurtous Birps (Aves).—Large birds of prey, such as Eagles, may attack various domesticated animals, and even the Raven (Corvus corax) is known to injure lambs, among other forms. The Kea Parrot Fis it ia (Nestor notabilis) of New Zealand has acquired the reprehensible habit of killing sheep by biting deep holes in their backs, its object being said to be to reach the fat in the neighbourhood of the kidneys. The smaller Birds of Prey may raid poultry-yards or game-preserves, and some of them destroy useful insectivorous birds. Certain species, however, do more good than harm (see p. 327). Among insectivorous birds the Woodpeckers damage trees in the course of their search for food (fig. 1243), and also sometimes by excavating nesting-holes in sound trunks. A great many plant-eating or omnivorous birds do much mischief in cultivated fields, gardens, and orchards, the exact nature of the depredations depending upon the species. Most, if not all, omnivorous birds also do a certain amount of good, sufficient, in some cases, en- 348 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY tirely to outweigh their misdeeds. Crows, Rooks, and Sparrows are among the most hurtful forms in Western Europe. Some of the mainly beneficial species are: Thrushes, Starlings, and Chaffinches. Injurtous Reptites (Reptivia).—It is only necessary to note that Crocodiles, Alligators, and poisonous Snakes destroy a num- ber of domesticated animals. Injurious Fisues (Pisces).—Some of the more voracious freshwater forms, especially the Pike (Zsav Zucews) destroy other species of greater value, or interfere with the work of fish- culture. Skate and Rays are destructive to oysters. Injurtous Mottuscs (Mo ttusca).—Forms like the Octopus and its kind destroy oysters, as also do several species of boring sea-snail. Of the latter the ‘‘whelks” detrimental to British oyster- culture are chiefly the Common Whelk (Buccinum undatum), the Dog-Whelk (Vassa reticosa), and the Purple-Shell (Pz7- saanianbat pura lapillus). Various North Fig. 1244.—1, Field-Slug (Liveax agrestis): 2, Black Slug American Species which do (Arion ater); and 3 a related species (4. emprivorum) arm in the same way are with its eggs 4. . popularly known as “drills”. Cultivated plants of almost all kinds are liable to the attacks of various Land-Snails and Land-Slugs (fig. 1244), which are probably by far the most injurious of all molluscs from the human stand-point. Among injurious bivalves the Ship-Worm (Zevedo navalis) is notorious for the way in which it has damaged the timbers of ships and wooden piles. At one time it worked such devastation in the sea-dykes of Holland that serious disaster was threatened. The Edible Mussel (AZyt7/us edulis) is sometimes an enemy to oyster- culture, as it may cover up and smother beds of young oysters. Inyjurtous Insects (InsEcta).—These are so excessively numerous, and at the same time so destructive, that they are the subject of a particularly extensive literature, and constantly engage the attention of many skilled naturalists, especially at the numerous experimental Entomological Stations of America. FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 349 Domesticated animals are attacked by a great variety of insects, of which only a few can be here mentioned. Some- thing has elsewhere been said about Bot-Flies (see p. 191). Two such forms, the Ox-Warble Flies (Hypoderma bovis and fT. lineatus, fig. 1245), lay their eggs on the legs of cattle, usually near the heels. It is probable (but not absolutely cer- tain) that the maggots when hatched pierce the skin, under which they make their way to the back. At any rate they are found in that region later on, living in swellings (‘‘warbles”) which open to the exterior. Of the injuries inflicted Somerville says (in Farm and Gar- den Insects): — “ The damage done by this insect is enormous, the Newcastle Hide Pro- tection Society, for in- stance, reporting that the hides dealt with in that town alone in 1892 had been damaged by warbles to the extent of £14,000. Besides the injury to the leather fT, bovis causes great damage by unsettling cattle and preventing them thriving properly. When cattle dis- cover that the fly is hovering near they rush wildly about the field; and the constant irritation to which the larva subjects them when located in the skin is no less detrimental to the ani- mals. The flesh in the neighbourhood of the warbles is also much reduced in value, being covered by a jelly-like substance known as ‘licked beef’.” The bite of the much-dreaded Tsetse Fly (Glosstna morsitans) of tropical Africa is fatal to horses, producing “nagana” or “ fly- sickness” (see p. 241). This is because the bite introduces into the horse’s blood certain stages in the life-history of a parasitic animalcule (Zv7ypfanosoma), which attacks the red corpuscles. Other biting flies may introduce fatal germs, as, e.g., the bacilli which are the cause of anthrax (splenic fever, quarter evil). The insect pests which damage stock are mostly Flies and Fig. 1245.—Ox-Warble Fly (Hypoderma), enlarged 350 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY Fleas (Dzftera), but forms extremely injurious to cultivated and other plants are to be found in several orders, as a brief summary will show. It will be convenient to mention at the same time some of the species which damage food, clothing, buildings, &c. &e. Bugs (Hemiptera).—By means of their, piercing and suctorial mouth-parts innumerable members of this order are able to feed upon the sap of plants, often with the most deplorable consequences. Aphides or Green-Flies (4phzde) and Scale- Insects or Mealy Bugs (Coccede) are among the most mis- chievous, for though of small size they are astoundingly pro- Fig. 1246.—Vine Aphis (PAy/loxera vastatrix) a, Wingless root-sucking female; 4, winged over- Fig. 1247.—Apple Scale-Insect (J7Zy- ground female; c, wingless overground female; a, tilaspis pomorum), enlarged. a, Male. male; e, gall-producing female. B, Female. c, Nymph. lific. Aphides are often popularly known as “blight”, and nearly 200 species of them are British, while some 800 have altogether been described. Many important cultivated plants are infested by particular kinds of Aphis, as will be gathered from the names of the following:—Corn Aphis (Aphzs cerealis), Oat Aphis (A. avene), Bean Aphis (Ad. fabe), Cabbage Aphis (4. drassice), Turnip Aphis (4. rage), Hop Aphis (A. humuli), Cherry Aphis (4. cerasz), Plum Aphis (4. prunz), &c. &c. Enormous damage is done in vineyards by the Vine Aphis (PhyWovera devastatrix, fig. 1246). During the spring and summer wingless females work havoc upon the roots, which swell up into small galls. They lay unfertilized eggs, which hatch out into forms like themselves, and there may be as many as eight generations of the kind produced during the season. But the last batch of these eggs produced in autumn gives rise to wingless males and winged females, that live above-ground and attack the leaves. The fertilized ‘“ winter- FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 351 eggs” of this generation survive, lie dormant during the winter, and wingless females hatch out from them in the following spring. Scale-Insects (Coccéde), of which one kind has already been described (see vol. iii, p. 381), are particularly harmful in fruit- culture. Well known in Britain are—Apple Scale (Mytilaspis pomorum), white woolly Currant Scale (Pulvinaria ribesie), and Gooseberry and Currant Scale (Lecanium ribis). Lringe-Winged Insects (Thysanoptera). See vol. i, p. 355. files (Diptera)—The most familiar pests belonging to this group are the Crane-Flies or ‘‘ Daddy-Long-Legs” (Zipudide), of which there are at least some thirty British species. The larvae, known as ‘leather -jackets”, are very de- structive to the roots of grasses and cereals (fig. 1248). A species which has been responsible for great damage to cereal crops in America is the Hessian Fly (Ceczdomyta destructor), so called because it is supposed to have been introduced into the New World in 1778 by means of straw brought by Hessian mercenaries. The female fly lays her eggs in pairs in the angles where the leaves _ Fig. 1248.—Crane-Fly (Tifule oleracea). 1, Larva; cae 2, pupa; 3, adult; 4, eggs. of wheat, barley, or rye join the stem. The maggots feed upon the juices of the haulm, causing this to bend or break, and interfering greatly with the develop- ment of the grain. The Wheat-Midge (Cectdomyia tritic?) is chiefly destructive to wheat and rye, the eggs in this case being laid in the flowers. The Frit-Fly (Osczuzs frit) is injurious to cereals in much the same way as the Hessian Fly, but its eggs are here laid on the under sides of the leaves. Some flies lay their eggs on food, and cause great annoyance. The Blow-Fly or Blue-Bottle (Zusca vomztoria) and the Cheese-Fly (Prophila caset) are well-known examples. Moths and Butterflies (Lepidoptera).—Almost everyone has noticed the way in which the caterpillars of these insects vora- ciously devour plants of various kind, and a mere list of destructive species would occupy a considerable space. Among injurious 352 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY Butterflies the Whites (Pzerzd@) are only too familiar. They in- clude, for example, the Large Garden White or Cabbage Butter- fly (Piers brassicae), the Small White (P. rape), and the Green- veined White (P. zafz). The leaves of cabbages, cauliflowers, turnips, and other cruciferous plants are ravaged by the insatiable caterpillars. The larve of many species of Owlet Moths (Noctuede), under the name of “surface caterpillars ”, are responsible for a large amount of damage to various cultivated plants. Notable forms are the Turnip Moth (Agrotis segetum), Heart- and-Dart Moth (4. excla- mations), and Great Yellow Underwing (7riphena pronuba). Among other species of which the larve are destructive to ordinary crops may be mentioned—Silver-Y Moth (Plusca gamma), inimical to most cultivated herbs; Cabbage Moth (Mamestra brassicae, fig. 1249); Pea Moth (Graphohtha nebri- tana), the caterpillars of which penetrate the young pods and feed on the immature peas; Grass Moth (Chareas graminis), a Fig. 1249.—Cabbage Moth (J/amestra brassicae). 1, Adult female, 2, larva; 3, pupa. Fig. 1250.—Codlin Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella). Adult female on left, larva in centre, pupa to right (its actual size indicated by a line). pasture pest; and Diamond-back Moth (Plutella cructferarum), destructive to various crucifers. Various trees of economic importance are liable to be attacked by voracious caterpillars. What are known as ‘“ worm-eaten” apples, for instance, commonly owe their condition to the larve of the Codlin Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella, fig. 1250). The large caterpillars of the Goat Moth (Cossus ligniperda) bore great holes in forest-trees, while the larve of other species ravage their FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 353 foliage. The Nun (Pszlura monacha) is a very serious forest pest in Germany, for its caterpillars devour pine-needles and the leaves of hardwood trees in a wholesale manner. The Gipsy Moth (Ocnerta dispar), introduced from Europe into the United States some thirty years ago, has within the last decade proved a veri- table scourge to many trees. Fletcher Osgood makes the follow- ing observations about this particular pest (in Hasfer's Magazine, 1897):—“ The careful reckoning of science has demonstrated that the unrestricted caterpillar increase of a single pair of gipsy moths would suffice in eight years to devour the entire vegetation of the United States. In the ordinary course of nature (let Heaven be thanked for it!) such in- crease is never left wholly un- restricted. .. . Since the work [of extermination] began [in Massachusetts], some forty- two millions of trees have been inspected, while the number of the buildings, walls, and fences thus looked over exceeds four hundred thousand. Besides myriads a ae aR giana ee. Bf the piuey kind deauuyed 7 ous Gogg Se aie by burning and in other ways, i al al enlarged (actual size in same position and hosts escaping record in the first years of the outbreak, the force employed against the caterpillar has killed directly by hand, to date, about two billions and three millions of these dreadful creatures. The unrecorded destruction will doubtless bring the list of killed to at least some four billions. The results so far have more than justified the necessary outlay.” The Corn Moth or Corn Wolf (Zixea granella, fig. 1251) is a small granary-pest that does much damage to stored grain. The Clothes-Moths, so destructive to garments of cloth and fur, are closely related. The last species to be here mentioned is the Wax Moth (Galleria mellonella), one of the enemies of apiculturalists. The female tries to enter a bee-hive, and, if successful, lays her eggs there. When the caterpillars hatch out they burrow into the combs, and feed upon the wax. 354 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY Injurious Beetles (Coleoptera).—Many notorious malefactors belong to this order. Among the most injurious are ‘ wire- worms”, which do great damage to the underground parts of cereals, grasses, and root-crops, and are no other than the larve of the little Click-Beetles (Z/ateridz). The still smaller Turnip Flea-Beetles (Hadtica nemorum, fig. 1252, and HZ. undulata), popularly known as Turnip-‘ Flies”, are very injurious to turnips and related plants, for the adults attack the leaves from the outside, while their larvee burrow within them. Some of the “Chafers” are very injurious to trees, crops, and pastures. The Common Cockchafer (J/e/olontha vulgaris), when adult, ravages the foliage of trees, while its grubs live underground, and attack the roots of grasses, various crop - plants, and many trees. A form which created a ‘‘scare” in this country some years ago is the Colorado Beetle (Chry- somela decemlineata), a par- ticularly prolific insect which, Fig. 1252.—Stages of Turnip Flea-Beetle (Hadtica nemorum). both in the larval state and 1, Adult (enlarged), showing wing-covers and wings spread when adult, devours potato out; 2, 3, natural sizé of same; 4, 5, eggs (5 enlarged); 6, 7, bur- rows of larvze (7 enlarged); 8, 9, larva (natural size and en- leaves larged); 10, 11, pupa (natural size and enlarged). The larve of Beetles belonging to one family (Bruchid@) burrow in seeds, and some of them infest plants of economic value, e.g. Pea-Beetles (Br uchus post) and Bean-Beetle (B. fade). The little long-snouted Weevils (Czsculzontdz), of which some- thing like 20,000 species have already been described, include a large number of pests, of which both adults and larve feed on vegetable matter. The Pea-Weevil (Sztones Zineatus), for example, devours the leaves of pea, bean, clover, &c., while its larvae prey upon their roots. The Apple-blossom Weevil (Axthonomus po- morunt) is very destructive in orchards to both apple and pear. The female insect deposits her eggs in the young flower-buds, one in each, and may carry on this injurious operation for two or three weeks. The Corn-Weevil (Calandria granaria, fig. 1253) bores holes in young grains of corn, and each of the some 150 eggs of a single female are deposited within separate grains. Some of FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 355 the Weevils are among the pests of forestry, certain forms attack- ing conifers, e.g. species of Hylobius and Pissodes. Some of the Beetles are indoor pests, their larvae feeding on all sorts of substances. The members of one small family (Dermestide) devour animal substances, and are very destructive in museums. To one species at least (Anthrenus fasciatus) the horse-hair coverings of furniture prove palatable. The larvae of the Bacon-Beetle (Dermestes lardarius) indulge in a more luxurious diet, as the name indicates. The larve and adults of certain species belonging to another family (P¢znzde) are not often seen, though some of them are frequently heard, and their “works” are familiar. A kind of literary flavour at- taches itself to the Biscuit- “Weevil” (Anobtum pant- ceunt), for its larva is most likely the ‘original book- worm” which finds its pabu- lum in libraries, though paper is not the only item in its bill Fig. 1253.—Weevils. 1, Grain of wheat, showing the punc- of fare, for Sharp remarks tured hole; and 5, the exit of the perfect weevil. 2. Pupa (in Zhe Cambridge Natural meerlnide, Gon Core Weal eens paieen eet History) ha... anuse an pease 8, 9, Rice-Weevil (C. ovyz@), natural size possess extraordinary powers of digestion, as we have known it to pass several consecutive generations on a diet of opium; it has also been reported to thrive on tablets of dried compressed meat; in India it is said to disintegrate books; a more usual food of the insect is, how- ever, hard biscuits; weevily biscuits are known to every sailor, and the so-called ‘weevil’ is usually the larva of A. pantceum”. The “Greater Death-Watches” belong to allied species (4. striatum and A. tessellatum), and are the cause of ‘“ worm-eaten ” wood and much superstition. Tngurious Membrane-Winged Insects (Hymenoptera).— To farmers and fruit-growers the Saw-Flies are here most dele- terious, while Wood-Borers are among the pests of forestry. Their operations have been already sufficiently described (see vol. i, p. 371; vol. ii, p. 203; and vol. iti, p. 386). Prominent pests are the Corn Saw-Fly (Cephus pygmeus), Turnip Saw-Fly 356 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY (dthalia spinarum), Apple Saw-Fly (Hoblocampa testudinea), Gooseberry and Currant Saw-Fly (Mematus ribesit), Cherry and Pear Saw-Fly (EZrocampa limacina), Plum Saw-Fly (/Zoplocampa fulvicornis), and Pine Saw-Fly (Lophyrus pint, fig. 1254). Other net-winged insects may at times be injurious, e.g. Wasps sometimes damage large quantities of fruits, while Ants make raids on provisions (especially those containing sugar), and Carpenter- Bees (Xylocopa) destroy woodwork. Injurious Net-winged Insects (Neuroptera).—The Biting-Lice (Mallophaga) live as ectoparasites on birds or mammals, and feed on their feathers or hairs, at the same time causing much irritation. Domestic fowls are pestered by no less than five species of these insects, one (AZenopon pallidum) being particularly common. The Fig 1254.—Pine Saw-Fly (Lophyrus pint). On the branch to the left are two larvee, a cocoon, and an adult male; on the right is an adult female, enlarged (actual size indicated by the line). Biting Dog-Louse (Z77chodectes latus) not only torments its host, but also harbours a stage in the life-history of a tape-worm which lives when adult in the dog’s intestine. In some of the hotter countries of the world Termites or “White Ants” are very harmful to furniture and woodwork, on account of their habit of excavating and feeding upon wood (see p. 120). An interesting example is giving by Sharp (in Zhe Cambridge Natural History), who says:—“ A Termite (Zermes tenuis) was introduced—in what manner is not certainly known —to the island of St. Helena, and committed such extensive ravages there that Jamestown, the capital, was practically de- stroyed, and new buildings had to be erected”. L[njgurious Straight-winged Insects (Orthoptera).—Locusts have been one of the scourges of mankind from the earliest times, owing to their enormous fertility and the wholesale manner in which they devour all sorts of vegetation (see vol. i, p. 382, and vol. iii, p. 379). The species which migrate from place to place in vast swarms are those which do most mischief. The follow- ing quotation from Sharp (in Zhe Cambridge Natural History) FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 357 regarding such forms will give an idea of the possibilities:—“ In countries that are liable to their visitations they have a great influence on the prosperity of the inhabitants, for they appear suddenly on a spot in huge swarms, which, in the space of a few hours, clear off all the vegetable food that can be eaten, leaving no green thing for beast or man. It is difficult for those who have not witnessed a serious invasion to realize the mag- nitude of the event. Large swarms consist of an almost incal- culable number of individuals. A writer in Mature [Carruthers, 1889] states that a flight of locusts that passed over the Red Sea Fig. 1255.—Larva and Adult Female of the Migratory Locust (Schistocerca peregrina) in 1889 was 2000 square miles in extent, and he estimated its weight at 42,850 millions of tons, each locust weighing 3’g of an ounce. A second similar, perhaps even larger, flight was seen passing in the same direction the next day. That such an esti- mate may be no exaggeration is rendered probable by other testimony. From official accounts of locusts in Cyprus we find that in 1881, up to the end of October, 1,600,000,000 egg-cases had been that season collected and destroyed, each case containing a considerable number of eggs. By the end of the season the weight of the eggs collected and made away with amounted to over 1300 tons, and, notwithstanding this, no less than 5,076,000,000 egg-cases were, it is believed, deposited in the island in 1883. When we realize the enormous number of indi- viduals of which a large swarm of locusts may consist we can see that famine is only a too probable sequence, and that pestilence may follow—as it often has done—from the decomposition of the Vou. IV. 118 358 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY bodies of the dead insects. This latter result is said to have occurred on some occasions from locusts flying in a mass into the sea, and their dead bodies being afterwards washed ashore.” Of other well-known members of the present order which are to be regarded as pests may be mentioned: The Earwig (Forficula auricularta), which attacks flowers and fruits; Cockroaches (our common species is Pezplaneta ortentalis), that are troublesome in houses and on board ships; and the Mole-Cricket (G7ylotalpa vulgaris), which is injurious to pasture. Principles regulating the Methods enployed in Combating Ln- jurtous Insects.—These are summarized by Ritzema Bos (in Zzer- wsche Schidlinge und Niitslinge) under (1) Preventive Measures, (2) Curative Measures, (3) Measures which are both Preventive and Curative. It may be well once more to emphasize the fact that to successfully combat harmful insects (and all other pests) an intimate knowledge cf their habits and_ life-histories is essential. There is commonly, for example, some stage in the development of a particular animal which can be exterminated with comparative ease and at relatively small expense. This must be carefully borne in mind, or it may turn out that, financially speaking, ‘‘the remedy is worse than the disease”. (1.) Preventive Measures.—Sickly plants are in many cases more subject to infestation than healthy ones, and it therefore follows that all the means adopted by farmers, gardeners, and foresters to promote the vigour of the forms with which they are concerned assist in warding off the attacks of injurious insects, Xc. It is also well known that seedlings are less able to resist their enemies than plants in a later stage of development, from which it follows that crops should be stimulated to rapid growth at the time when sprouting begins. One of the benefits to be derived from rotation of crops is to check the ravages of various injurious insects, &c., which only feed upon one or a few kinds of plant. They are often, so to speak, starved out. Clean seed is another important preventive, for without precaution in this direction sowing may mean a dis- tribution of pests as well as plants. And as during part of their existence some noxious forms are harboured in straw, another preventive measure is thereby suggested. It is also sufficiently obvious that the natural enemies of pests should be protected and encouraged as far as possible. This FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 359 particular preventive measure chiefly applies to insectivorous birds and mammals. (2.) Curative Measures.—It is possible to collect and destroy many sorts of pest (see p. 353), although this is usually an ex- pensive matter. The question as to which stage in the life-history of a particular form most readily lends itself to the method is clearly one of great economic importance. Collection is sometimes facilitated by “luring” pests by means of something which serves to attract them. Slices of potato, for example, have been found to draw large numbers of wire-worms. Fig. 1256.—Winter-Moth (Cheimatobia brumata); male (centre), female (right), and chrysalis (left). The vertical lines indicate actual sizes. Many creatures can be destroyed in the places where they live by means of certain powders and sprays, distributed by various ingenious appliances. Soot, quick-lime, ‘‘ Paris green” (an aceto- arsenite of copper), soap-suds, paraffin emulsion, &c. &c., all have their special uses. (3.) Measures which are both Preventive and Curative-—These may be illustrated by ‘“tar-rings”, employed in combating the Winter-Moth (Chetmatobia brumata, fig. 1256), destructive to fruit-trees, and the Gipsy-Moth (Ocnerza dispar), which is an enemy to all sorts of trees. In both these species the dormant chrysalis stage is passed through in the ground. As the wings of the female Winter-Moth are small and useless, while the female Gipsy-Moth cannot (or at any rate does not) fly, both of them have to creep up the tree-trunks in order to lay their eggs. This can be prevented by means of a tar-coated band of suitable material fixed round the trees a short distance above the ground. Collection and destruction of moths and eggs naturally follow. 360 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY InjuRIouS SprpeR-LIkE ANIMALS (ARACHNIDA).—The only forms of great importance here are the Mites (Acavzua). Mange- and Itch-Mites, injurious to domesticated animals, have already been mentioned (see p. 196). Poultry are attacked as well as quadrupeds. Fowls are also liable to be infested by Red Fowl- Mites (Dermanyssus galline), which suck their blood and set up an intolerable itching. Domesticated animals are also often attacked by Ticks ({xodid@), which are able to draw large quantities of blood, and, what is more serious, may convey the germs of disease. Infec- tion by means of one such Tick (Lvodes reduvius) is, for example, the cause of ‘“Jouping ill” in sheep. Cultivated plants also suffer from the attacks of Mites, among which the following may be men- tioned :— Currant Gall - Mite (Pkhytoptus ribts), Red Hop-‘ Spider” (Ze- tranychus telarius), Red Plum-‘ Spider” (7. ra- bescens), and Harvest or Gooseberry - “ Bug” (7. autunnalis). Other kinds of Mite Fig. 1257.—Stages in Life- History of Liver- Fluke (Fasciola hepatica), enlarged. a, ciliated larva; B, sporocyst, within which spoil furniture and attack rediz are developing; c, redia, within which a new generation of rediz is developing; pb, redia, with contained cercariz (G, opening food especially meal by which these escape; D, intestine); &, cercaria. B to E are : , parasitic within the water-snail F (Limn@a truncatula), from which cheese, and sugar. E escapes to encyst on the stem of a plant. Injurrous Myrrapops (Myrraropa).— Some of the Millipedes (‘false wire-worms ”) attack the underground parts of various plants, or may damage soft fruits. Injurious Friat-Worms (PLATYHELMIA).—A large number of Flukes (Trematoda) and Tape-Worms (Cestoda) are parasitic within the bodies of domestic animals, as previously stated in dealing with the personal enemies of man (see p. 342). A few details may be appropriately added. Flukes (Trematoda).—It is only necessary here to refer to the FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 361 Liver-Fluke (Fasciola hepatica, fig. 1257), a brief account of which has already been given (see vol. i, p. 443). The adult Fluke is parasitic in the liver of the sheep, causing the serious disease known as “liver-rot”, while certain earlier stages of the life- history are passed within a small water-snail (Limnea trun- catula). The following extract from Gamble (in Zhe Cambridge Natural Firstory) will give some idea of the serious losses which may be caused by this destructive parasite:—‘‘ Over the whole of Europe, Northern Asia, Abyssinia, and North Africa, the Canaries, and the Faroes the fluke and the snail are known to occur, and recently the former has been found in Australia and the Sandwich Islands, where a snail, apparently a variety of Lemna truncatula, is also found. Over these vast areas, however, the disease usually only occurs in certain marshy districts and at certain times of the year. Meadows of a clayey soil, liable to be flooded (as in certain parts of Oxfordshire), are the places where this Lznea occurs most abundantly, and these are consequently the most dangerous feeding-grounds for sheep. The wet years 1816, 1817, 1830, 1853, and 1854—-memorable for the occurrence of acute liver-rot in England, Germany, and France—showed that the weather also plays a considerable part in extending the suitable ground for Limnea over wide areas which in dry years may be safe pastures. In 1830 England lost from this cause one and a half million sheep, representing some four millions of money, while in 1879-80 three millions died. In 1862 Ireland lost 60 per cent of the flocks, and in 1882 vast numbers of sheep perished in Buenos Ayres from this cause. In the United Kingdom the annual loss was formerly estimated at a million animals, but is now probably considerably less.” This extract clearly shows the importance of scientific re- search to agriculture, as preventive measures clearly depend upon an accurate knowledge of the life-history of the fluke. Tape-Worms (Cestoda).—The disease of sheep known as “staggers” or “sturdy” is due to the presence of large cysts that cause pressure on the brain, and are the bladder-worm stage (Cenurus cerebralis) of a Tape-Worm (Tenia cenurus) that lives when adult in the intestine of a sheep-dog (fig. 1258). A sheep contracts the disease by swallowing eggs of the parasite which have passed out of the body of a dog, while in its turn a dog becomes infected if it devours cysts from the brain of a sheep that has died of staggers. 362 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY Dog and Rabbit (or Hare) are the two hosts of another kind of Tape-Worm (Texia serrata), of which the adult lives in the intestine of the former animal, while the bladder-worm stage (Cysticercus pisiformis) is harboured in the body of the latter. Inyjurrous THREAD- Worms (NEMATHELMIA).—Many of the worms belonging to this group are injurious to domesticated animals and cultivated plants. The large Horse-Worm (Ascaris megalocephala), for example, often infests in great numbers the intestine of the horse and its allies, while smaller species of round-worm live as parasites within dogs and cats. Much more dangerous is the minute Trichina (Zrechina spiralis) that sets up trichinosis in pig and man (see p. 343). Much harm is caused by the Palisade-Worms or Stron- vyles (Strongylide), related to the species which produces ‘“miners’ anaemia” in human beings (see p. 343). The Giant - Strongyle (£ustron- gylus gigas), of which the female may be from a foot to over a yard long, lives in Fig. 1258.—The Tape-Worm (Tenia canurus), of which the kidneys af horse, “ox, Soe ee odes land, tteanay be, ation, ing hooks and suckers; 3, cyst from sheep's brain. Several Swellinos in the arteries of groups of developing tape-worm heads are indicated. 5S the horse are caused by the presence of Armed Strongyles (Strongylus armatus), while other deadly parasites are the Stomach-Strongyle (S. contortus) of the sheep, and the Lung-Worm (S. f#/arza) of the lamb. The disease known as ‘‘gapes”, to which young poultry and game- birds are liable, is caused by the presence of a related species, the Red- or Forked-Worm (Syxgamus trachealis). Some of the little Eel-Worms (dxguz//uid@) are serious agri- cultural pests. They possess a spine at the front end of the body, by which they bore into the tissues of plants. One species, the Wheat Eel-Worm (Zyenchus scandens), has been described in FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 363 an earlier section (see vol. ii, p. 222). The Stem Eel-Worm (Z. devastatrix) attacks the stems and leaves of rye, oats, buck- wheat, clover, &c., leading to stunted growth, or even killing the plants outright. “Clover sickness” is set up by the presence of this parasite. The Beet Eel-Worm (Heterodera Schachtit, fig. 1259) infests the roots of its host- plant, and causes “beet sick- ness”. The related Root-knot Eel-Worm (A. radicicola) pro- duces galls on the roots of clover, lucerne, cucumber, tomato, and many other cultivated plants. INJURIOUS ANIMALCULES (Protozoa).—Nagana or “‘fly- sickness” (see p. 241) is the best example of disease result- ing from the presence of para- Fig. 1259—Roots of Beet, infested by Beet Eel-Worm sific animaleules in the bodies: namig aut iil: s moe ainding aro of domesticated animals. Some ailments of cultivated plants are also the result of the attacks of certain Protozoa. One instance is afforded by “ finger- and-toe” or ‘‘anbury”, a turnip disease associated with curious deformation of the roots. It is due to the presence of one of the Fungus-Animals (Mycetozoa) within the tissues (ie. Plasmodzo- phora brassice). CHAPTER LXXII THE ZOOLOGY OF SPORT It is hardly necessary to remark that the literature of those forms of “sport” which depend upon the existence of wild animals is very extensive, and includes accounts of experiences and adventures in all parts of the world. Much of it is highly technical, most of it is anecdotal, and but a small part is the work of authors who represent the sportsman and_ naturalist combined. To name a selection of books for the benefit of ex- pert huntsmen and anglers is of course quite superfluous, but general readers may profitably refer to the following works :— The volumes of Zhe Badminton Library, Fur and Feather Serves, and Zhe American Sportsman's Library; \zaak Walton's Com- pleat Angler; Selous’ A Hunter's Wanderings in Africa; Sir Samuel Baker's Il7/d Beasts and their Ways and Il 7th Rifle and Flound in Ceylon; The Big Game of North America, English Sport, Sport in Europe, and The Sports of the World, edited re- spectively by G. O. Shields, Alfred E. T. Watson, and (the two last) by F. G. Aflalo. We have already had occasion to notice (p. 208) that the first stage in the evolution of civilization was represented by the primeval hunter and fisherman, a stage still in evidence to-day among various savage races. But our remote prehistoric ances- tors, like modern savages, were “ pot-hunters” rather than sports- men, while the intimate knowledge they must have acquired of the habits of wild animals imparted a certain flavour of the field naturalist. Many primitive races have also had, and some still have, to defend themselves and (in the pastoral and agricultural stages) their domesticated animals from the attacks of predaceous forms. Even when hunting and fishing were necessary for existence, however, a good deal of pleasurable excitement must have attached to the pursuit of wild animals, 364 THE ZOOLOGY OF SPORT 365 rivalry and emulation playing no unimportant part in the matter. When the further evolution of civilization diminished the material importance of hunting and fishing, these arts continued to be pursued for pleasure as well as for profit; hence the origin of modern sport. This is not the place to enter into a long disquisition regarding the ethics of field-sports, but such of them as deserve the name involve certain obvious fundamentals. There must be room for skill, the quarry must have a fair chance, and every precaution should be taken to prevent a miserable and lingering death on the part of maimed or wounded animals. The hunter of “big game” would no doubt add that “the greater the danger the greater the sport”. Selous, for instance, remarks (in Zhe Sports of the World):—* Lion-hunting by savages, armed only with spears or bows and arrows, must have been incomparably more dangerous, and therefore infinitely finer sport, than the pursuit of these animals by civilized man at the present day armed with modern rifles”. On the other hand, it is quite possible for a recognized form of sport to become so highly artificial as to demand hardly more skill to make a “bag” than would be required to slaughter the inhabitants of the poultry-yard with a shot-gun. Under such circumstances ‘‘ massacre” and not “sport” would be the proper word to employ. Our pluck, vigour, and enterprise as a nation are undoubtedly due in no small degree to the influence of field-sports, and to entirely exclude these from our national life, as some would have us do, on the ground of cruelty to animals, would be as inex- pedient as it is impossible. On the other hand, the view of the matter which suggests that it is rather a pleasure than otherwise to be hunted may be regarded as a little optimistic. Lady Augusta Fane, for example, makes the following remarks on fox-hunting (in Euglish Sport):—“ Worthy folks who fancy that they are more humane than their neighbours write about the cruelty of fox-hunting, drawing fancy pictures of a poor, timid, terrified little creature pursued by savage dogs, ruthless viragoes, and brutal men! As a matter of fact, foxes constantly live to a green old age, and defeat their pursuers season after season. They do not even pretend to be frightened. How often we have seen a fox break out of covert, look around, give himself a good shake, and, whisking his brush, trot off without the 366 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY slightest sign of fear! He knows where he means to go, and all the safe refuges ex route; and if he gets tired he is familiar with the woods, where he can find a friend to take his place.” The limited space here available must necessarily be devoted to briefly reviewing the animals which are of importance from the sporting stand-point, including those which assist man in the chase. Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes are the only groups with which we are concerned, though the “ naturalist” who hunts down insects or the like merely to add to his collec- tion is more of a sportsman (in a very small way) than a man of science; often, however, he is neither! MAMMALS (MamMALiA) AS AIDS TO SPORT It is a natural consequence of the slow rate of human loco- motion that several Mammals have been pressed into the service of man in order to make up for this deficiency, or, it may be, reduce the element of danger. From time immemorial, in many sorts of sport, horse and elephant have saved him the work of using his own legs, while dog or falcon have pursued the quarry and tackled it at close quarters. Tue Horse (Equus CcaBatius).—The combination of intelli- gence and speed by which the horse is characterized, and its susceptibility to thorough domestication, have naturally led to its large employment in the chase. The extraordinary way in which the long-continued influence of man has resulted in the production of widely different breeds of the same kind of animal is here very strikingly exemplified. A well-bred hunter combines to perfec- tion the two desiderata of speed and endurance, and it is, to all intent and purposes, a product of human ingenuity, without which many forms of sport would be comparatively tame and featureless. It may also be remarked in passing, that without highly specialized breeds of horses certain forms of sport which do not depend upon the existence of a quarry, such as horse- racing and trotting, could never have attained their present high pitch of perfection. By the practice of what may almost be called a species of artificial evolution, man has been here able to further his own ends in a remarkable manner. Tue Inpran Evepuant (ELepHas Inpicus).—The use of this animal in tiger-shooting is too well known to need description. MAMMALS AS AIDS TO SPORT 367 It is here not so much a question of speed as of size and strength, by which otherwise impracticable ground can be tra- versed, while the personal risk of the sportsman is reduced. On the other hand, an element of different kind is introduced by the nervousness and uncertain temper of the elephant, both of which are decidedly in favour of the quarry. Tue Doc (Canis Famitiaris).—The Dog has been the com- panion of man in the chase from the remotest times, and to all appearance keenly shares in the exhilarating pleasures of pursuit. Fig. 1260.— Pointer He has proved singularly susceptible to the selective influence of man, practised for unnumbered centuries, the result of which has been the evolution of a very large number of breeds, many of which have been brought into existence for sporting pur- poses. We know that the ancient Egyptians possessed several breeds of dogs, one of which was a sort of white hound (see p. 222) used in hunting antelopes, for which sport a similar kind of dog is to this day employed in North Africa. They also used packs of mixed character, though the nature of the breeds is doubtful. Upon the Assyrian sculptures we find hunting- mastiffs and greyhounds figured, while inscriptions inform us that still other breeds existed, some of which appear to have been used in sport. Sporting Dogs (Canes venatzcr) of various kinds were possessed 368 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY by the ancient Romans, some hunting by scent (xave sagaces), while others, more fleet (fedzbus celeres), were let slip when the game was in sight. To enumerate all the existing breeds employed in sport would be both tiresome and unnecessary. The names of many, e.g. fox-hound, deer-hound, and otter-hound, to some extent serve as an indication of their character. The exaggeration of natural instincts in artificial directions would appear to have led to the evolution of ‘“ point- Ss : ers” (fig. 1260) and = : “retrievers”. _ Dar- win suggests that the Fig. 1261.—Cheetah (Cynaslurns yudatus) pursuing an Indian Antelope original act of “pointing” was simply the pause which a car- nivorous animal often makes before springing upon its prey. It is further interesting to note, that when we employ a pack of hounds to hunt down an animal by scent we are simply making use of the natural methods used by similar forms, when wild, in the pursuit of prey. Tue CHeetan, oR Huntinc Leoparp (CynalLurus JUBATUS, fig. 1261).—This long-legged animal, which is enabled by its fleetness to capture prey in a more straightforward way than is usual among felines, is employed by the native dignitaries of India for coursing antelopes. In former times this variety of sport was practised very largely, and is of ancient origin, having BIRDS AS AIDS TO SPORT 369 been known to the Persians so far back as 865 B.c., while at a still earlier period it was familiar to the Assyrians. Tue Ferret.—The slender bodies of the bloodthirsty mem- bers of the weasel kind enable them to pursue their prey under- ground, and advantage is taken of this peculiarity when rabbits are driven from their burrows by means of Ferrets, which are a domesticated variety of the Pole-Cat (Putorius fatidus). BIRDS (Aves) AS AIDS TO SPORT Certain Birds of Prey have been employed from very remote times in the pursuit of wild animals, mostly other birds, but the art of Falconry in Europe has steadily declined since firearms came into general use. Another contributing cause has been the gradual increase of the area under cultivation. Lord Gran- ville Gordon (in Sport ix Europe) thus speaks of the antiquity and wide popularity of this form of sport:—‘ Records of hawking and falconry are supplied in the writings of Pliny and Aristotle. In Japan, in India, Arabia, Persia, and Syria, we can find it has been practised, and in our own Middle Ages stringent laws were passed referring to it. Hawks and falcons were allotted to men according to their rank and station. An earl had a peregrine, a yeoman a goshawk, a priest a sparrow-hawk, and so on. The king of birds in falconry in our Middle Ages was, and even now is, the peregrine, and the noble game at which to fly this bold and splendid bird was the heron; but I do not think this form of sport is followed any longer in our island.” Hawking for rooks or larks is still, however, to be included in the list of British sports. What may be termed a magnified variety of falconry is prac- tised by the Kirghiz of the Asiatic steppes, the “falcon” in this case being no less noble a bird than the Golden Eagle, while the quarry is often the fox or the wolf (fig. 1262). MAMMALS (Mammalia) HUNTED FOR SPORT FLesH-EaTING Mammats (Carnivora).—The Lion (Feds deo, fig. 1263) is undoubtedly the noblest quarry that falls to the rifle of the sportsman, while the attendant danger and excitement appeal so strongly to those who engage in this form of sport that 370 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY it will be popular so long as lions continue to exist. Regarding the antiquity and characteristics of the pursuit Selous makes the following remarks (in Zhe Sports of the World):—* Lion hunting must undoubtedly be reckoned amongst the most ancient and Fig. 1262.—Kirghiz hunting the Wolf with the Golden Eagle time-honoured of all field-sports, for ages and ages before the days when Assyrian kings pursued the king of beasts for pleasure, and shot him with bow and arrow from their light two- wheeled chariots, the prehistoric races of man, inhabiting the whole of Africa, as well as large areas in Asia and Europe, must have hunted lions as a sporting necessity, in defence of MAMMALS HUNTED FOR SPORT 371 their flocks and herds as well as of their own lives. . . . Speaking generally, it is a difficult matter to find and hunt lions in the daytime, and shooting them at night cannot be called hunting. Lion hunting on horseback, as it used to be commonly practised in South Africa, is the most exciting form of big game hunting I have had experience of, as lions almost always turn vicious when chased on horseback, and charge freely, and whether you Fig. 1263.—Lion (Feds deo) are galloping after a lion or a lion is close behind your horse's heels, your nerves are kept strung as long as the hunt lasts. It will be many a long day yet before the lion has ceased to haunt the wilds of Africa, but when that day comes, one of the grandest forms of wild sport will also have become a thing of the past.” The hunting of the Tiger (Fes tagrzs) appears at the present time to be an increasingly rare and expensive form of sport, when conducted in an orthodox way with numerous elephants, some for beating, and others with howdahs for the accommodation of the actual huntsmen. In some parts of India packs of dogs 372 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY also help in the sport, and are more feared by the quarry than one would be apt to imagine. Advantage is also often taken of the fact that the tiger is not a climbing animal to shoot him from a secure station in a tree, a goat or buffalo-calf having been previously tied up within easy range to serve as a “ bait”. Although justifiable for the destruction of man-eaters, this can hardly be dignified by the name of “sport”. ~ The different species of Bear (Ursus) are hunted, and also slaughtered in a variety of ways, but do not take a very high place in the estimation of most sportsmen. In parts of Russia, Fig. 1264.—Fox (Canis vulpes) for example, Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) are considered to be “vermin”. The Lapps, however, do not hesitate to attack this animal in its den, a method sufficiently dangerous and exciting to satisfy the most exacting in such matters. The European Wolf (Canzs Zuéus) is the object of more than one form of popular Russian sport. A favourite variety involves the use of fox-hounds and wolf-hounds, the former being em- ployed for drawing the coverts, and the latter for the actual work of coursing. As previously mentioned (p. 369), the Kirghiz practise a species of falconry, of which the wolf is a favourite quarry. The Fox (Canzs vulpes, fig. 1264) is familiar to all as the object of one of the most popular, sociable, and exhilarating forms of British sport, but Lord Granville Gordon tells us (in Sport i Lurope) that “it is doubtful if fox-hunting can long MAMMALS HUNTED FOR SPORT 373 continue in a congested country like England. Bad agricultural seasons and barbed wire point to its doom.” Otter-hunting is undoubtedly a declining sport in Britain, on account of the in- creasing diminution in numbers of the quarry. ELEPHANTS (PRogoscipEA).—Wild Elephants, whether African or Indian, naturally take high rank among “big game”, chiefly because their enormous strength, and great ferocity when thor- oughly aroused (especially if they are “ rogues”), are liable to make them exceedingly dangerous antagonists. But the great perfection to which firearms have now attained render even these great beasts no match for the most destructive member of the Mammalia—Man. Hoorep Mammats (UncGuLata). — Rhinoceroses, of course, reckon as “big game”, and, as a rule, seem to be inoffensive enough, though sufficiently dangerous when wounded. Under such circumstances the two-horned White and Black Rhinoceroses of Africa (Rhznoceros stmus and Atelodus bicornis) bring the long front horn into action, while the one-horned Indian species (2. Lndicus) can bite with terrible effect. The Hippopotamus (//ippopotamus amphibius) is sufficiently formidable when attacked from boats to give it a place among sporting mammals. But to kill it with a rifle from a place of security on the bank of its native river is simply a variety of target-shooting. Among the many other Ungulates that are pursued for sport some are especially esteemed on account of their pluck and dangerous qualities, ee. the African or Indian Buffaloes and the Wild Boar, while the great speed or agility in climbing of others furnish the requisite zest to the chase, as in the case of Deer, Antelopes, or Ibexes. The joys and dangers of ‘“ pig-sticking”, as pursued with reference to the Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) of Europe, his Indian cousin (S. crzs¢ata), and the African Wart-Hog (Phacocherus), have been fully described by many authors, and need no mention here. Regarding the Peccaries (Dicotyles) of America, something has already been said (see p. 334). To give here even a brief account of the numerous swift runners or active climbers which belong to the Ungulata, and pro- vide many varieties of sport, is both impossible and unnecessary. Among them the Red Deer (Cervus elaphus, fig. 1265) may perhaps Vou. IV. 119 374 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY be given first place, at least from the English stand-point, and though the glories of stag-hunting have faded so far as Britain is concerned, innumerable trophies still attest the important place it once held in our national life. Deer-stalking in the ‘deer forests ” of Scotland is excellent sport, but not comparable to hunting the wild animal in the old-time fashion, which, in this country, is now only possible on Exmoor. Regarding a third variety of the sport once popular in Britain Lord Granville Gordon makes the following very apposite remarks (in Sport 2x Europe):— True we can still pursue him in what might be described as a pickled state, with rorns shorn off, around the purlieus of Windsor, or in one or two other places, but, pleasant though the run may actually be, the ‘sport’ cannot stand close investigation, for sport consists in the strategy and skill of man in pursuing and capturing a wild animal. It loses all its charm and all its poetry when the game is first, as it were, tethered”. Wild Red Deer are fortunately more numerous in other parts of Europe, e.g. in Hungary, than in Britain, but stalking and driving are in most cases the chief methods employed. The following remarks by Paul Caillard (in Zhe Sports of the World) are of interest as showing that stag-hunting is to this day practised in France on a considerable scale:—‘ If hunting gener- ally is known as the ‘sport of kings’, then surely is stag-hunting particularly associated with the memories of medizval courts, and, although some might not perhaps expect it, modern France preserves above all other lands the tradition and even the out- ward forms of the ancient chasse. ... In many of our French forests it would be as great a heresy to kill a deer otherwise than before the hounds as ever it would on Exmoor, and many visitors to our meets have expressed their pleasure at the survival of such picturesque sport.” Gnawinc Manmats (Ropentia).— Coursing the Hare with greyhounds is a very ancient form of amusement, which appears to have been indulged in by the Assyrians (fig. 1266). We next hear of it in Greece, and many details are given by Arrian (born Fig. 1265.—Red-Deer ‘lrophy BIRDS HUNTED FOR SPORT 375 A.D. 90) in his work on coursing. The ancient Gauls were ex- perts in this form of sport, which was probably introduced into Britain from their country. With us, however, it is now almost entirely replaced by hare-hunting with harriers, which supplies much of the interest of fox-hunting at considerably less expense. We know from Xenophon (z.c. 400) that the ancient Greeks in his time pursued the hare with two kinds of dog, the nature of which is doubtful, though they were certainly not greyhounds. It is hardly necessary to add that the sporting value of the Hare is found in its great speed, coupled with considerable in- genuity in “doubling”, calculated to baffle even the swift grey- hound. The passion for sport, which is so thoroughly British, is Fig. 1266.—Hares coursed by Greyhounds, as depicted on the edge of an Assyrian bronze dish. gratified and kept alive among those with slender means by the possibilities which the inexpensive Rabbit (Lepus cunzculus) offers. The use of the Ferret has already been indicated (see p. 369). Nor even here do we reach the lowest plane, for the Brown Rat (AZus decumanus) undoubtedly seems to minister in no small degree to the sporting instincts of a considerable fraction of the community, though it would not be admitted into an orthodox work on Sport. BIRDS (AvEs) HUNTED FOR SPORT In the palmy days of falconry the Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) was, of course, the chief bird pursued for sport, but hawking (for Rooks, Larks, &c.) is now practised by the few (see p. 369), having fallen from its once high estate owing to the introduction of and constant improvement in firearms. Among the numerous species which now fall victims to the art of the gunner the GameE- Birps (Gatuin&) take first place, and of these, in this country, three are pre-eminent, ze. Pheasant (Phaszanus Colchicus), Red 376 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY Grouse (Lagopus Scoticus), and Partridge (Perdix cinerea). Other well-known members of the group are: Capercailzie (Zetrao urogallus), Black Grouse (Lyrurus tetrix), Ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus), and Quail (Coturnix communis). In many kinds of shooting one is rather inclined to think that things are made too easy for the gunners, not all of whom can be called good shots, and the size of the ‘‘ bag” too often appears to be the object of overmuch attention. It is clear that both these tendencies greatly diminish the true “sporting” element. The following quotations show that some sportsmen are inclined to compare our own methods unfavourably with those of ‘the good old days”. Nicholas Everitt (in Ze Sports of the World) thus speaks on the point:—‘‘In England, in the old days, our forbears were wont to sally forth in the early morning, before the autumnal dews had left the grass and undergrowth, accom- panied by their favourite pointers, setters, or spaniels, to double the hedgerows and to hunt the commons and likely places for pheasants, when, if they obtained as many single birds as some of the modern school of sportsmen now require hundreds, they would return home contented with their bag and lot”. The Marquess of Granby (in ZxgZish Sport) speaks still more strongly: —‘ But, nevertheless, it is open to question whether there is as much real keenness about working for their sport amongst the younger generation of gunners as there used to be twenty or thirty years ago, let alone a century. A wild, rough day’s shooting does not nowadays apparently appeal to many. The large majority of gunners would not say ‘thank you’ for the offer of such a day’s sport. It would look as if the deliberately com- petitive system of shooting, which now so largely prevails—by which I mean that very often the owner of one shooting-place seems to vie with the next-door one as to the amount of game he can kill off his property, and appears seriously annoyed if he hears that anyone round about him has had an exceptionally heavy day's sport, or one better, as regards numbers, than any he can produce—has to a great extent unfamiliarized the rising and just risen race of sportsmen with those days when hard walk- ing, and consequently good condition, coupled with some know- ledge of wood and field craft, were necessary if any satisfactory results were to be obtained.” The Red Grouse (Lagopus Scoticus) is a game-bird of par- RED GROUSE (Lagopus Scoticus) GLIDING UP TO THE GUNS The Red Grouse or Muirfow] is here selected for illustration not only on account of its importance as a game-bird, but also because it is the only member of its class peculiar to our islands. In Great Britain it ranges from the Orkneys to Shropshire and Glamorgan, and is also found in Ireland, though less abundantly. The Red Grouse is closely ,related to the Willow Grouse (Lagopus albus), which ranges right round the colder parts of the Northern Hemi- sphere, but it does not, like this species and the Ptarmigan (Z. mutus), turn white in winter, though there are seasonal changes in the plumage. It is popularly supposed that the date at which grouse-shooting begins determines the rising of Parliament, and although the notion is erroneous its origin is not far to seek. SNND JHL OL dN ONIGIND (snoiLoos sndcov1) 3SNOND day BIRDS HUNTED FOR SPORT 377 ticular interest, as it happens to be peculiar to Britain. The old method of ‘ walking” has now mostly given place in this country to “driving”. The latter practice, curiously enough, is more favourable to the maintenance of sufficient numbers on a grouse- moor than the former. It is suggested that when the birds are driven the old ones are the first to glide up to the guns, so that the undue destruction of immature indivi- duals is obviated. Besides which the’ old birds are said to be so quarrelsome as seriously to interfere with the domestic plans of their juniors. PERCHING Birps (PassERES).— Hawk- ing for Rooks (Covwas Jrugilegus) and Sky- Larks (Alauda ar- vensts) has already been mentioned (see p. 369). Provers (Limt- COLE). — Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) and Snipe (Galiinago celest?ts) are familiar sporting birds. Bustarps (ALEc- TORIDES).—The Great Bustard (O¢zs tarda), once a native of Britain, affords good sport in several European countries, including Hungary, Russia, Roumania, Spain, and Portugal. The Little Bustard (O. ¢etrax) is also the object of sporting attentions. Ducks, Geese, SwANs, AND FLamIncoEs (ANSERES).—The art of wild-fowling is largely applied to the members of this group (also to Woodcock and Snipe) on inland waters, in swampy dis- tricts, and along low shores. Our own Norfolk Broads furnish an example. In sport of the kind punting plays a large part. AA Neches! Fig. 1267.—Flamingoes (Phanicopterus roseus) 378 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY The Flamingo (Phenzcopterus roseus, fig. 1267) is one of the most interesting birds that falls to the gun of the fowler in the Peninsula. Chapman & Buck (in W2dd Spain) thus describe the method pursued: — ‘‘ Flamingoes are always shy and watchful birds, and their great height gives them a commanding view of threatening dangers; but there are degrees in intensity of wild- ness, and despite the unquestionable difficulty of flamingo-shooting, we would certainly not place these long-necked birds in the first rank among impracticable wild-fowl. Wild geese, for example, many of the duck-tribe, and nearly all the larger raptores far exceed them in incessant vigilance and downright astuteness. Flamingoes, however, will not, as a rule, permit of approach by the ordinary Spanish method of the stalking-horse, or cadresto: while the treacherous pony is still two gunshots away, the warning croak of the sentries is given, and at once the whole herd start to walk away, opening out their ranks as they move off. The method we found most effective to secure them was by partially surrounding a herd with a line of mounted men, who rode far out beyond them and then drove them over our two guns, each concealed behind his horse and crouching knee-deep in water. Of all the dirty work that wild-fowling in its many forms necessitates, this fla- mingo-driving takes the palm. It is mud-larking pure and simple, man, horse, and gun alike encased in a clinging argillaceous covering like the street-Arab amphibians below London Bridge. It is a fine sight to see a big flight of amingoes, say five hundred, coming well in to the gun—entrando bien & la escopeta! The whole sky is streaked with columns of strange forms, and the still air resounds with the babel of discordant croaks and cries. How wondrously they marshal those long uniform files, bird behind bird, without break or confusion, and how precisely do those thousand black wing-points beat in rapid regular unison! Fla- mingoes are not ‘hard’ birds: their feathers being loose and open, and the extremely long neck a specially vulnerable part, they may be brought down from a considerable height even with small shot.” REPTILES (ReEpTILIA) HUNTED IN SPORT About the only Reptile that can be considered as furnishing anything in the nature of sport is the American Alligator FISHES HUNTED IN SPORT 379 (Alhgator Mississippiensis), native to the south-eastern part of the United States. The “’Gator” is shot from the bank or from a boat, and is sometimes attracted by tying up a dog as a bait. FISHES (Pisces) HUNTED IN SPORT The “gentle craft” has always had, and always will have, a large number of supporters. It of course finds its highest ex- pression in fly-fishing, as applied to species the capture of which r ies : a Fig. 1268.—Grayling (Thyimallus vulgaris) calls for the exercise of patience, skill, and other sportsmanlike qualities. Salmon (Salmo salar) and Trout (.S. farzo, &c.) are generally regarded as taking first rank among game-fishes, and the Gray- ling (Zhymatlus vulgaris, fig. 1268) may also be given an honourable place. H. A. Rolt’s appreciation of the last-named fish (in The Sports of the World) is well worth quoting, especially as the pleasures of angling for Grayling are much less familiar than the joys of the fisher for salmon or trout:—‘‘It is remarkable what a peculiar fascination there is in connection with the capture of the grayling with the artificial fly) Some men who have killed hundreds of trout fall hopelessly in love with the sport the ‘gray lady of the stream’ affords from the very first moment they enter the lists against it, and infinitely prefer the autumn and winter pastime it provides to any other branch of angling. 380 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY The enthusiasm and all-absorbing interest it evokes in the angler are incomprehensible even to many disciples of the good and observant Walton himself, for to sally forth, fly-rod in hand, when the ground is hard with frost or the fields are white with snow, seems to them to savour somewhat of folly and madness. In the soft, bright spring-time it is delightful to wander by the rippling stream and stalk the spotted trout, to the accompaniment of the glorious melody of birds—to watch the budding foliage bursting into new life, and gaze upon the river shining like gold Fig. 1269.— Pike (Eso.x luctus) in the dancing sunlight. On quiet, restful summer evenings, too, the splash of the fish as they enjoy an abundant feast of Duns is the sweetest of music to the angler’s ear, and he may perchance induce his quarry to look with favour upon the arti- fically-dressed copy of the fly he offers them, and grass a brace or two of lovely specimens ere darkness compels him, as a thorough sportsman, to leave the stream. But it is amid different and far less exhilarating surroundings that the grayling fisher’s labours begin and are continued to the end. As autumn approaches, the rise of fly becomes sparse and erratic, and when September's days are out, the trout fisher finds his occupation gone. Thymallus steps in to fill what would otherwise be a great gap in his piscatorial life. But for the grayling, his rods would hang upon the wall during the long winter months, FISHES HUNTED IN SPORT 385 ‘a mournful, half-accusing row’, unused, and perhaps uncared for.” Some of the “coarse fish” also provide good sport, particularly the Pike (Zsox luctus, fig. 1269), the Barbel (Bardus vulgarzs), and the Perch (Perca fluviatzlis). Sea-fishing in many forms also has innumerable votaries. If size, strength, and game qualities are taken as the criteria, the great Tarpon (Megalops thrissordes), common off the coast of Florida, must be given a prominent position. It is to all intents and purposes a gigantic herring, which may be as much as five feet in length; and W. H. Grenfell says of it (in Zhe Sports of the World) that “. .. until a new sporting fish is found I think the tarpon in the sea, as the salmon in fresh water, can still claim to be the most exciting quarry of the angler with the rod and line”. Fishing for the Tunny (Ovcynus thynnus) off the south coast of Spain would also seem to be a worthy occupation for the brethren of the rod, and specimens captured in this way have scaled as much as 50 pounds. Among native marine fishes, the Grey Mullet (AZugzl cafzto) and Bass (Laérax /upus) are perhaps the most esteemed, on account of their sporting qualities and the difficulties attending their capture. Both frequent estuaries, and the Bass is a near relative of the Perch. CHAPTER LAAT UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY—ANIMAL PETS It is the merest commonplace to say that a considerable number of animals are either domesticated or kept in captivity as pets, and those which have perhaps the best right to the name simply afford gratification to human tastes, or, it may be, serve as objects of affection. In the latter case the pet-keepers may either have a genuine liking for animals, or else the over- fed lap-dog, the spoilt feline, or the loquacious parrot may be the recipient of caresses that under different circumstances might have been bestowed upon some specimen or other of that alleged highest Mammal—//omo sapiens. MAMMALS (Mammatia) AS PETS Monkeys (Primates).—On account of their intelligence many species of Monkey find favour as pets among both civilized and uncivilized races. But most of them are so terribly mischievous that only a sailor or the late Frank Buckland could put up with their pranks for any lengthened period. It is said that even Buckland found his two favourites, ‘‘ Tiny” and “The Hag”, trying at times, and a friend recommended him to build a cage for himself in the middle of his study. It is interesting to note that the keepers in Zoological Gardens often make great pets of their charges, especially when these happen to be intelligent apes, as, é.g., Chimpanzees (fig 1270). The Marmosets are attractive little creatures, so far as appearance goes, and are not infrequently kept as pets; but they are rather lacking in intelligence, and apt to impose a tax on the olfactory organs. FLESH-EATING Mammats (Carnivora).—The fact that this order includes both Dog and Cat makes it of primary im- portance from the present stand-point. 382 MAMMALS AS PETS 383 The Dog (Canis familiaris), man's earliest friend among the animals, is undoubtedly the “king of pets”, for even the commonest mongrel is full of intelligence, and overflows with affection for his owner, even when subjected to much ill treatment, as is but too often the case. Among the breeds which have been brought into existence simply to be petted may be men- tioned—the Italian Greyhound, the Pug (a diminutive and Fig. 1270.—Young Chimpanzee (Axthrofpopithecus niger) particularly ugly relative of the mastiff, fig. 1271), the King Charles Spaniel, the Skye Terrier, the “Toy” Terrier, and the Poodle. The last is particularly clever in learning tricks, as may often be noted in exhibitions of performing dogs. The Dalmatian and the Hairless Dog of Japan are both curiosities in their way. No better example than these and other breeds of Dog could be given to show the effect of human interference upon the normal course of evolution. Modifications in shape, size, proportions, colour, hair, and even temperament have been brought about within a comparatively short space of time, in a 384 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY way that suggests nothing so much as ‘clay in the hands of the potter”. By taking advantage of variations that occur naturally it is possible to ‘‘make to order” almost any desired pattern of the canine race. The Cat (Fels domesticus).—The differences between the various breeds of this animal are by no means so striking as those existing between the different sorts of dog, and chiefly relate to colour, character of the fur, and relative length of the tail. It has been suggested that the stripes of the “tabby” indicate a strain derived from the ordinary Wild Cat (Fedzs catus) of Europe. Among both wild and tame ani- mals it is not uncommon to find individuals in which pigment is either present in excess, or else largely deficient. Ilustra- tions of this are afforded by “nigger” rabbits and white blackbirds. Such “sports” are respectively described in technical language as examples of ae m7 “melanism” and “al- Fido te7n= bur Doe binism”. The jet black cat once associated with magical practices, and the pure white pussy with blue eyes are thus classed. Why albino cats should be usually deaf, as appears to be the case, is as yet unexplained. The long and handsome coats of the Persian or Angora Cats (fig. 1272) renders them great favourites among those who admire felines, though they seem rather apt to be short-tempered, if one may be permitted to say so. That the indigenous cats of the Isle of Man are devoid of tails is known to all; some of the Crimean cats are said to be similarly deficient, and the same peculiarity has been noticed in some Japanese individuals. Lydekker (in Zhe Royal Natural FTrstory) thus speaks of some other peculiar varieties:—-‘‘ In Siam there is a breed of cats reserved for royalty, characterized by MAMMALS AS PETS 385 their uniform, and often dark, fawn colour, their blue eyes, and the presence of two or more perfectly bald spots on the forehead. Siam, together with Burma, also possesses a breed known as the Malay cat, in which the tail is but of half the usual length, and is often, through deformity in its bones, tightly curled up into a knot.” The present writer is not a great lover of cats, but, desiring to be just, adds the following appreciation by Romanes (in Axzmal Lntelligence) of this domestic carnivore:—“ The cat is unques- tionably a highly intelligent animal, though, when contrasted Fig. r272.—Persian Cat with its great domestic rival the dog, its intelligence, from being cast in quite a different mould, is very frequently underrated. Comparatively unsocial in temperament, wanderingly predaceous in habits, and lacking in the affectionate docility of the canine nature, this animal has never in any considerable degree been subject to the psychological transforming influences whereby a prolonged and intimate association with man has so profoundly modified the psychology of the dog. Nevertheless, the cat is not only by nature an animal remarkable for intelligence, but, in spite of its naturally imposed disadvantage of temperament, has not altogether escaped those privileges of nurture which unnumbered centuries of domestication could scarcely fail to supply. Thus, as contrasted with most of the wild species of the genus when tamed from their youngest days, the domestic cat is conspicuously of less uncertain temper towards its masters 386 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY —the uncertainty of temper displayed by nearly all the wild members of the feline tribe when tamed being, of course, an expression of the interference of individual with hereditary experience. And, as contrasted with all the wild species of the genus when tamed, the domestic cat is conspicuous in alone manifesting any exalted development of affection towards the human kind; for in many individual cases such affection, under favouring circumstances, reaches a level fully comparable to that which it attains in the dog.” Passing notice may be given to the Mangoustis or Mungooses, also known as Ichneumons, of which one, the Egyptian Mungoose Fig. 1273. —Indian Mungoose | Herfestes griseus) (fLerpestes tchneumon), has been domesticated in Egypt from time immemorial, while the common Indian Mungoose (77. griseus, fig. 1273) is commonly kept as a pet in its native country, and appears to be both intelligent and affectionate. The latter species is known to the readers of Kipling as ‘“ Rikki-tikki”. Gnawinc Mammarts (Ropentia).—Human influence has re- sulted in the production of a large number of varieties of Rabbits, Rats, and Mice, some of which have been alternately tended and neglected by almost every boy. Upon the Rabbit (Lepus cuniculus) one of the most remarkable results of domestication has been, in certain breeds, the great elongation of the ears, and the drooping position they have assumed. There has also been a large amount of variation in the colour and character of the fur. The various domesticated breeds of Rat (J/us rattus) and BIRDS AS PETS 387 Mouse (JZ. musculus) differ chiefly from one another in colour. The curious evolutions of ‘waltzing mice” appear to be due to defects in the structure of the internal ear. Among other rodents serving as pets may be mentioned—the Alpine Marmot (Arctomys marmotta), the Dormouse (AZuscardinus avellanarius), the Squirrel (Sczwrus vulgaris), and the Guinea-Pig. BIRDS (Aves) AS PETS The number of species represented among pet-birds, includ- ing those which are better described as “captives”, is very large indeed, and it will be unnecessary to mention more than a few of them. PercuinG Birps (Passeres).—Many of these are domesticated on account of their beauty or vocal powers, or both, and not a few of these have exchanged the sweets of liberty for a small and uncomfortable cage. To treat small birds in this fashion is scarcely less than criminal. Large aviaries, of course, are on a somewhat different footing. Fortunately the objection does not apply to the most popular of all pet birds, the Canary (Serznus canarius, fig. 1274), of which countless generations have been brought up in captivity, and of which the numerous strikingly different breeds may almost be regarded as artificial products. Newton makes the following remarks about this bird (in A Dec- tionary of Birds):—It abounds not only in the islands whence it has its name, but in the neighbouring groups of the Madeiras and Azores. It seems to have been imported into Europe very early in the sixteenth century. Turner in 1544 speaks of the birds ‘guas Angha aues canarias uocat’, a statement confirmed by the poet Gascoigne, who died in 1577, and speaks . . . of ‘Canara byrds’. Gesner had not seen one in 1555, but he gave an account of it... , communicated to him by Raphael Seiler of Augsburg under the name of Suckerudgele. The wild stock is of an olive-green, mottled with dark-brown above and greenish- yellow beneath. All the bright-hued examples we now see in captivity have been induced by carefully breeding from any chance varieties that have shown themselves; and not only the colour but the build and stature of the bird have in this manner been greatly modified. The change must have begun early, for Hernandez, who died in 1587, described the bird . . . as being 388 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY wholly yellow (¢o¢a /udea), except the end of its wings. Of late the ingenuity of ‘the fancy’, which might seem to have exhausted itself in the production of top-knots, feathered feet, and so forth, has brought about a still further change from the original type. It has been found by a particular treatment, in which the mixing Fig. 1274.—Canaries (Serinus canarius). 1, Wild form; 2, common yellow; 3, crested variety; 4, Scotch fancy. of large quantities of cayenne-pepper with the food plays an important part, the ordinary ‘canary yellow’ may be intensified so as to verge upon a more or less brilliant flame colour. Birds which have successfully undergone this forcing process, and are hence called ‘hot canaries’, command a very high price, for a large proportion die under the discipline, though it is said that BIRDS AS PETS 389 they soon become exceedingly fond of the exciting condiment.” Space forbids any attempt to describe the methods by which the German fanciers of the Harz valleys teach canaries the notes of other birds, or even various tunes. Another well-known and extremely pretty cage-bird is the Java Sparrow (Muna orystvora), which has long been an object of domestication, and is distinguished by its extreme tameness. On account of their intelligence, sprightliness, and imitative powers, the Raven, Jackdaw, Magpie, and Starling appeal to many persons more than Canaries and other small singing-birds. They are not, however, so frequently seen in captivity, partly on account of the thievish propensities of all but the last. Parrots (Psirraci).—Among the many species of this group which are kept in captivity, the common Grey Parrot (Pscttacus erithacus), native to tropical Africa, probably stands highest in public estimation. This is partly due to its extreme liveliness, but chiefly on account of the clever way in which it learns frag- ments of human speech, and imitates familiar sounds, such as the drawing of corks and the like. The often singularly malapropos nature of the remarks and sounds greatly increase their charm. Parrots have been known and appreciated for more than two thousand years as clever imitative birds, often with brilliant plumage. Some of the Indias species appear to have been those first known to Europeans, while the resources of Africa were exploited later on. Regarding this, Newton (in A Dre- tionary of Lirds) speaks as follows:—‘ That Africa had parrots does not seem to have been discovered by the ancients till long after, as Pliny tells us (vi, 29) that they were first met with by explorers employed by Nero beyond the limits of Upper Egypt. These birds, highly prized from the first, reprobated by the moralist, and celebrated by more than one classical poet, as time went on were brought in great numbers to Rome, and ministered in various ways to the luxury of the age. Not only were they lodged in cages of tortoise-shell and ivory, with silver wires, but they were professedly esteemed as delicacies for the table, and one emperor is said to have fed his lions upon them. . . . With the decline of the Roman Empire the demand for parrots in Europe lessened, and so the supply dwindled, yet all knowledge of them was not wholly lost, and they are occasionally mentioned by one writer or another until in the fifteenth century began that Vou, IV. 120 390 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY career of geographical discovery which has since proceeded un- interruptedly. This immediately brought with it the knowledge of many more forms of these birds than had ever before been seen, for whatever races of men were visited by European navi- gators—whether in the East Indies or the West, whether in Africa or the islands of the Pacific—it was almost invariably found that even the most savage tribes had tamed some kind Fig. 1275.— Macaw (Ara) of parrot; and, moreover, experience soon showed that no bird was more easily kept alive on board ship and brought home, while, if it had not the merit of ‘speech’, it was almost certain to be of beautiful plumage.” One of the prettiest pets among these birds is the Grass- Parakeet or Budgerigar (JZelops:ttacus undulatus) of Australia. Yellow, green, and black are the chief components of the colour scheme, but the two central tail-quills are blue, and there is a patch of the same hue on either side of the face. The affectionate little Love-Birds are deservedly popular. REPTILES AS PETS 391 The name is properly applied to certain African species (of Agapornis), but it may also be taken to include the Parrotlets (fstttacula) of South America. The sprightly crested Cockatoos (Cacatucde) of the Australian region do not lack their admirers, while for gaudy coloration few birds surpass the long-tailed Macaws (species of Ava, fig. 1275), which range from Mexico into South America. REPTILES (Reptitia) AS PETS Reptiles make no appeal to the affections or fancies of most persons, though various species prove attractive to some. The ancient Egyptians, as everyone knows, regarded the Nile Croco- dile (Crocodilus Niloticus) as sacred, and made a sort of pet divinity of the creature, but this hardly comes within the scope of the present section. Some persons have a fancy for certain Snakes, such as our common and innocuous Grass-Snake (77opédonotus natrix), and the Indian snake-charmers tame the Cobra (Maza tripudians), actuated, however, by strictly business motives. Re- garding the latter, Gadow (in The Cambridge Natural History) speaks as follows:—‘ This cobra is used by Indian conjurers. The ‘dance’ is the habit of these snakes of erecting themselves, when agitated, upon the hinder third or quarter of their length, whilst they spread out the hood and sway the head and neck to the right and left, always in an attitude ready for striking. They are docile, and by nature not vicious. Most of the performing cobras have their teeth drawn, and they then know well that they cannot bite. They only strike at the hand, just as uninjured specimens soon avoid biting into the iron rod with which they are lifted up in menageries. The drawing of the teeth is an operation which has to be repeated, since reserve-teeth soon take the place of the lost pair.” Various Lizards are or have been tamed, and some of them are very attractive, eg. the beautiful Green Lizard (Lacerta viridis). The Common Gecko (Zarentola Mauritanica) of North Africa and South Spain and Portugal often lives in houses in a half-domesticated condition, running over the walls and ceilings in pursuit of flies. And such lizards are sometimes actually tamed. The most familiar domesticated reptile in this country is the Grecian Tortoise (Zestudo Greca), though it can scarcely be 392 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY called an interesting pet. Gilbert White has immortalized one specimen, which was over forty years old when it came into his possession in 1780, and died fourteen years later. But, for lon- gevity, it would be hard to beat some of the huge land-tortoises which were at one time common in the islands of the Indian Ocean. Regarding one species (Zestudo Sumetret) Gadow makes the following interesting remarks (in Zhe Cambridge Natural ffistory):—‘ This kind is supposed to have been the species peculiar to the Seychelles. In 1766 five large tortoises were brought from the Seychelles to Mauritius by Chevalier Marion de Tresne. Of these only three were alive in 1898, two in Mauritius and one in London; the latter specimen soon died in the Zoological Gardens. One of the two survivors, the last of their race, is famous. It was kept at Port Louis, and when Mauritius became a British possession in 1810 the tortoise was especially mentioned and taken over. It still [1900] lives there in the grounds of the barracks of the garrison. According to the proverbial oldest inhabitants, it had in 1810 already reached its present size, namely, a shell-length of about 4o inches, with a greatest circumference of . . . 8 feet 6 inches. When walking it stands about . . . 25.4 inches high, . . . and it can then carry with ease two full-grown men on its back. This old male is now nearly blind, but is otherwise of regular habits and in good health. Although it has been known for nearly 150 years, it had to wait for its scientific name until the year 1892.” AMPHIBIANS (Ampuipia) AS PETS Ordinary Toads and Frogs have at times been subjected to domestication, and are by no means wanting in interest and in- telligence. The pretty little Green Tree-Frogs of Europe (Hy/a arborea) are less known as pets than they deserve to be. In North and Central America the Horned Toad (Phrynosoma) is subjected to a certain amount of domestication. FISHES (Pisces) AS PETS The greatest favourite in the aquarium is probably the Gold- Fish (Carasszus auratus, fig. 1276), a kind of carp native to China and Japan. Domestication has eliminated dark pigment from its INSECTS AS PESTS 393 skin, leaving only the golden-yellow hue from which its name is derived. Various monstrosities have also been produced, espe- cially the “Telescope Fish”, with eyes on short projections, and a large abnormal tail-fin. It is stated that the Gold-Fish was originally introduced into this country in 1691. Another aquarium favourite is the Paradise-Fish (Polyacanthus viridt-auratus, fig. 1276), domesticated in China from very remote ia tts Freaks, | ae tote! Fig. 1276.—Pet Fishes. 1, Gold Fish (Carassius auratus; 2, ‘‘ Telescope” variety of same; 3, Paradise Fish (Polyacanthus viridi-auratus). times, and only known in captivity. Its golden sides are cross- barred with red, and some of its fins are abnormally developed (see also vol. iii, p. 427). The Siamese keep certain pugnacious fishes in captivity in order to enjoy the sight of their combats. INSECTS (Insecta) AS PETS Some Insects are excitable, and can easily be induced to fight together. The ingenious Chinese keep various species in captivity in order to enjoy these mimic combats. Their list includes Mantids, Beetles, Grasshoppers, and Crickets. The same curious kind of amusement is practised to some extent in Italy. Nor must the evolutions of performing Fleas be forgotten. CHAPTER. Ly UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY—ANIMAL PRODUCTS USED FOR DECORATIVE PURPOSES—ANIMAL AESTHETICS We have here first to consider the chief animal products employed for decorative purposes, and afterwards briefly to review the principles of Animal Esthetics. ANIMAL PRODUCTS USED FOR DECORATIVE PURPOSES A number of animal products which were originally valued by mankind chiefly as ministering to the primary necessities of life, now derive their main worth from the ornamental or decora- tive possibilities they present, or they are, at any rate, in increased demand on that account. Furs, horns, silk, and the skins of some birds belong to this category (see pp. 303, 310, 259, and 308). We are especially concerned in this chapter with products which from the first have been employed by way of ornament or decoration, sometimes also as a means of heightening the attractions of materials of other kind. Decorative Propucts or Mammazts (Mammatra).—Some Mammals have been ruthlessly hunted down by man for the sake of the ivory furnished by their teeth. Prominent among these are the Elephants (Z/ephas), and, as will be gathered from fig. 1277, the tusks of the African species may attain very large dimensions. The extinct Mammoth (£2. prtmigentus) has also long been known as a source of “fossil ivory”. The tusks of Walrus (Zrichechus rosmarus) furnish a further supply, as does the long spirally-grooved “horn” of the male Narwhal (JZonodon monoceros), of which two are occasionally present in the same animal. While the tusks of the Walrus are canine teeth, those of the other animals mentioned are incisors. 394 ANIMAL PRODUCTS USED FOR DECORATIVE PURPOSES 395 Many of the trophies of sport are decidedly ornamental, such as the skins of beasts of prey, the antlers of deer, the heads of fox or wolf, the prepared feet of the elephant, &c. &c. Among primitive races such things as necklaces of tigers’ or lions’ claws are greatly esteemed. DecoraTIVE Propucts or Birps (Aves).—The _ beautiful plumage of many birds seems always to have appealed to the human colour-sense or appreciation of form, and much slaughter of certain members of the feathered race has resulted on the part of savage races, often to minister to the vanity of other races sometimes supposed to be fully civil- ized, The trade in os- trich-feathers (see p. 251) is a legitimate branch of the plume-industry, and nothing can be = said against the use of the cast feathers of beautiful forms like the different species of Peacock. But, on the other hand, the wholesale massacre that takes place every year of many exquisitely lovely species, purely to satisfy the love of finery which has been inherited by civilized nations from barbarian ancestors, deserves the most unsparing censure. Birds of Paradise, Sun- Birds, Humming-Birds, and Egrets are prominent in the long list of victims. DecoraTIVE Propucts oF Reptites (Reptitta).—The skins of Crocodiles and various lizards are used for ornamental purposes, but the most important reptilian product is tortoise-shell, which consists of the horny epidermic shields of the widely-distributed Hawksbill Turtle (Chelone imbricata, fig. 1278). When softened oie Sonn otha ay ee posers hae | Fig. 1277.-—Tusks of African Elephant 396 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY by heat these can be worked up into all sorts of artistic objects. Very undesirable practices are often resorted to in procuring the raw material, as will be seen from the following quotation from Tennent (in Zhe Natural History of Ceylon).—‘ If taken from the animal after death and decomposition, the colour of the shell becomes clouded and milky, and hence the cruel expedient is resorted to of seizing the turtles as they repair to the shore to deposit their eggs, and suspending them over fires till heat Fig. 1278.—Hawksbill Turtle (Chelone imbricata) makes the plates on the dorsal shields start from the bone of the carapace, after which the creature is permitted to escape to the water. At Celebes, where the finest tortoise-shell is exported to China, the natives kill the turtles by blows on the head, and immerse the shell in boiling water to detach the shields. Dry heat is only resorted to by the unskilful, who frequently destroy the tortoise-shell in the operation.” DecorativE Propucts or FisHes (Pisces). — Ornamental leather is made from the skins of Dog-Fishes and Sharks (shagreen), while the scales of Dace (Leuczscus vulgaris) and ANIMAL PRODUCTS USED FOR DECORATIVE PURPOSES 397 Bleak (Z. adburnus) are employed in the manufacture of arti- ficial pearls. Decorative Propucrs or Mottiuscs (Mottusca). — The shells of the Pearly Nautilus, of many univalves, and numerous bivalves, are largely used for purposes of personal decora- tion by savage races, and to some extent by civilized ones. Some of them are worked up into ornamental knick-knacks even in British watering - places, while the Chinese are singularly skil- ful in the construction of the images of gods, human beings, animals, and plants, from a variety of small shells (fig. 1279). Sea-Snatls (Gastropoda). ---The thick shells of some Sea-Snails (species of Casszs, &c.) are made up of layers of different tints, which has rendered them a favourite material upon which to carve cameos (fig. 1280). Pink pearls are the pathological products of certain species, especially the large Conch - Shell (St¢romedbus gigas) of the West Indies. The most famous product of Sea- Snails was, however, the royal dye Fig. 1279.— Chinese Shell-ornament Fig. 1280.—Shell-Cameos Fig. 1281.—Murex Bronderi known as Tyrian Purple, prepared by the ancient Phcenicians from species of Purpura and Murex (fig. 1281). It is secreted by a gland in the gill-cavity, closely connected with the intestine. 398 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY The explorations of the Phoenicians westward, which had no small influence upon the course of history, were partly conducted with the object of securing larger supplies of these molluscs. Some of the travellers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries state that the natives of Ecuador and Costa Rica obtained a purple fluid from a species of Purpura, and used it to dye cotton. A kind of Sea-Slug (4flysza camelus) is still used by the Portuguese for a similar purpose. Bivalve Mollusca (Lamellibranchia).—Pearls and mother-of- pearl are chiefly derived from members of this group. Mother- of-pearl or nacre is the iridescent internal layer of the shell, Fig. 1282.—Shells of Pearl-Oyster (I/argaritifera vulgaris), and pearl of same. while pearls consist of layers of similar material deposited round various foreign bodies which, in the most valuable kinds, are stages in the development of parasitic forms (see p. 204). The most important pearl-fisheries are those of the Red Sea, India, Ceylon, Queensland, some of the South Pacific archipelagoes, lower California, and the Pacific coast of Central America. The bivalve of greatest economic value in this connection is the Pearl-Oyster (Jlargarttifera vulgaris), which in reality is more of a mussel than an oyster, but belongs to a different family from either (dvecu/zde). The once important pearl-fisheries of Ceylon, after a record yield in 1891, benefiting the revenue of the island to the extent of hard on a million rupees, completely failed for an entire decade. As the outcome of this the pearl- oyster question has recently been investigated by Professor Herdman, assisted by Mr. James Hornell. These two experts have fully worked out the life-history of the tape-worm which leads to the formation of ‘‘orient pearls”, and it is hoped that ANIMAL PRODUCTS USED FOR DECORATIVE PURPOSES 399 the knowledge acquired will form the basis of measures by which the industry may be resuscitated. The first part of Herd- .man’s Report on the Pearl-Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar includes a very interesting historical sketch from which the following extract is taken:—‘ The pearl-fisheries of Ceylon, India, and the Persian Gulf, yielding the highly prized ‘Oriental’ pearl, are of very great antiquity. They are probably the most ancient fisheries still in existence, and seem to be carried on at the present day under very much the same conditions as 2000 or perhaps even 3000 years ago. These fisheries are referred to by various classical writers, and Pliny, after saying how highly valued the pearls are at Rome, refers to Taprobane [Ceylon] as ‘the most productive of pearls of all parts of the world’. ... But the Singhalese records take us to still earlier times. According to the ‘Mahawanso’, pearls figure in the list of native products sent as a present from King Vijaya of Ceylon to his Indian father-in-law in about 540-550 B.c.; and again when, in B.c. 306, King Devanampiyatissa sent an embassy to India the presents are said to include eight kinds of Ceylon pearls. The King’s Hall in the Brazen Palace at Anuradhapura (B.c. 161) is said to have been decorated with native pearls. The mortar in the ruins of Polonaruwa shows the remains of the pearl-oyster shells which were used in its manufacture—no doubt the refuse of an early fishery. Many other references could be given. In the eighth to eleventh centuries, trade in the East was in the hands of the Persians and Arabs, and we find Arab writers alluding to the pearls. We know also that they enriched the kings of Ceylon in the days of Marco Polo (1291). One record, given by Friar Jordanus, says that in 1330 about 8000 boats were engaged in the pearl-fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar.” From the remote times mentioned in the above extract down to the present day the pearl-oysters have been collected by native divers, but it is not improbable that dredging will ultimately be the chief method employed. Pearls are formed within a number of bivalves besides the one mentioned, nor are all of these marine, for the once famous British pearls were obtained from Fresh water Mussels. Purple pearls are formed within some of the Ark-Shells (47a). Decorative Propucts oF Insects (INsrecta).—There is not much to mention with regard to this group of animals. The 400 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY hard metallic-looking wing-covers or elytra of certain Beetles serve for various decorative purposes, and some of the more beautiful Butterflies are sometimes placed in glass cases and used as ornaments. Some of the Scale-Insects (Cocczd@) are the source of economic products of some importance in the present connection, ¢.g. the Cochineal Insect (Coccas cactz) furnishes red pigment (see p. 260). Objects known as “ground pearls” are found in the earth in various parts of the world, e.g. in the island of St. Vincent (West Indies), where they are made into neck- laces, &c. They are in reality the encysted pupe of Scale- Insects, covered by a hard substance looking like pearl or glass. The West Indian ones mentioned above belong to a species of Margarodes. ANIMAL ASSTHETICS The course of human evolution has necessarily involved a gradually improving adaptation to surroundings, of which the outcome is seen in all the intricate details of modern civilization. Imaginative literature and the various branches of art are among the most remarkable results of this evolution, and the full discussion of their nature and origin is the province of that branch of philosophy known as A#sthetic. But as, after all, man is an animal, who has always lived among other animals that have profoundly influenced the course of his mental de- velopment, it naturally follows that the study of ®sthetic, as indeed of all other departments of philosophy, must look for its foundations among the principles of biology. The interdepend- ence of natural science and philosophy is well brought out in the following quotation from Karl Groos (in 7he Play of Animals):— ‘“Man’s animal nature reveals itself in instinctive acts, and the latest investigators tell us that man has at least as many instincts as the brutes have, though most of them have become unrecog- nizable through the influence of education and tradition. There- fore an accurate knowledge of the animal world, where pure instinct 1s displayed, is indispensable in weighing the importance of inherited impulses in men. . . . The animal psychologist must harbour in his breast not only two souls, but more; he must unite with a thorough training in physiology, psychology, and biology the experience of a traveller, the practical knowledge of ANIMAL ASTHETICS 401 the director of a zoological garden, and the outdoor lore of a forester. And even then he could not round up his labours satisfactorily unless he were familiar with the trend of modern zsthetics.” To briefly indicate some of the chief points of con- tact between Biology and Aésthetics is all that can be attempted here, and those who wish to pursue the subject fully are referred to the works of Herbert Spencer, Bain, Baldwin, Romanes, and Lloyd Morgan, as also to Grant Allen’s Physzological Esthetics, Knight’s Philosophy of the Beautiful, Bosanquet’s History of Listhetic, and Groos’s Play of Animals. No human being or highly-organized animal would be able to live for any length of time, nor would the preservation of its species be possible, if constant adjustment to the surroundings was not brought about by the agency of the nervous system and sense-organs (see p. 2). This is seen, for example, in the utili- tarian significance of pleasure and pain. Pleasure, broadly speaking, promotes actions which conduce to self-preservation and the maintenance of the species, while pain as constantly forbids other actions which would mean self-destruction. Unless pleasure were associated, for instance, with the act of eating, an animal would probably be content to starve, while if contact with burning substances caused no pain it would be very liable to self-cremation. Now there can be no doubt at all that the feelings to which Beauty and Ugliness give rise are simply to be regarded as finer manifestations of pleasure and pain, and since Aésthetics is concerned with such feelings it clearly rests upon a physiological basis. THE SENSE OF SIGHT AND ITS BEARING ON ASTHETICS.— We have only to reflect for a moment on the deprivations suffered by a man blind from birth to realize that artistic enjoy- ment depends most upon the sense of sight. And our criteria of what is beautiful in colour, form, and movement have largely been evolved with reference to the animal world, including human beings. To mention examples is unnecessary, for the illustra- tion scheme of this work provides them in abundance. But a few generalities are perhaps desirable. No one will deny that the human colour-sense has been largely educated by the materials which flowers provide. But the exquisite tints and colour-schemes of the floral world are strictly utilitarian with reference to plants themselves, being 402 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY simply devices for attracting beneficial insects (see p. 85). To insects, therefore, our esthetic debt is very large. The Courtship Colours of Insects, Birds, and some other animals (see p. 143) are also as a rule beautiful to us, and have played no small part in the evolution of our artistic sense. With reference to the animals which display them it is pretty certain that they are purely utilitarian. Were we similarly to consider the materials upon which our ideas of the beautiful in form and movement are based, we should once more have to acknowledge that the evolution of the zsthetic sense has largely progressed on lines determined by the animal world. Ugliness in the first instance appears to have been associated with what was harmful or dangerous. The repugnance which most of us feel towards snakes, scorpions, and centipedes is . probably part of the legacy which has been handed down to us by our prehistoric ancestors (see vol. iii, p. 370). It is also generally admitted that ‘warning coloration”, which marks undesirable properties in many animals, is crude and _ inartistic from the human stand-point. Tue SENSE OF HEARING AND ITS BEARING ON A‘STHETICS.— Next to sight, hearing is the most important sense, from the esthetic stand-point. The song of birds and the chirp of insects, which further the courtships of their owners (and hence are of utilitarian nature), must have had something to do with the evolution of our standards of what is beautiful in the realm of sound. THE SENSE OF SMELL AND ITS BEARING ON A®STHETICS.— That certain odours are, to our thinking, of fragrant nature, is largely due to the direct or indirect influence which animals have had upon human development. Many species emit strong musky odours, serving for purposes of recognition, and also as court- ship accessories. Civet-cats are an example of this, and at one time ‘‘civet”, obtained from certain glands in these animals, was a favourite perfume, though it would now be considered rank. It has been replaced by musk, obtained from glands possessed by the Musk Deer (A/oschus moschiferus), though even this perfume is too coarse for cultivated tastes, which show a pre- ference for floral odours. But, as we have elsewhere seen (see p. 85), the delicate scents of flowers are of utilitarian mean- ANIMAL ASTHETICS 403 ing to the plants which possess them, being so many baits to attract useful insects. One substance used as a sort of basis in the manufacture of perfume, z.e. ambergris, is on an entirely different footing from such things as musk or attar of roses, its properties being, so to speak, accidental. It consists of concretions, which are formed in the intestine of the Sperm-Whale as a result of disease. THE SENSE or TasTE AND ITS BEARING ON ASTHETICS.— The organs of taste were, in the first instance, undoubtedly evolved in relation to food-testing, a purely utilitarian matter. Adaptation to diets of particular kind would have been difficult, if not impossible, without this, and there would also have been a liability to take in poisonous substances. Pleasurable sensations would gradually come to be associated with the taste of desirable food, and sensations of opposite kind with that of unsuitable aliment, to say nothing of poisons. Tastes pure and simple, such as that of sweetness, do not rank very high in the esthetic scale, but it is otherwise with “flavours”, which are combinations of tastes and odours. The triumphs of the art of cookery, so dear to the gourmand, are of necessity largely based on the properties of animals in the dead state. But this of course is a mere commonplace. Tue EvoLution or ART AND CERTAIN FORMS OF LITERATURE. —In the evolution of Aésthetics, Groos considers that “ play” has been a dominant factor. By Spencer (and Schiller before him) play was regarded as a manifestation of surplus energy, an expression of the “joy of life”. But Groos interprets the play of animals as being an instinct whereby preparation is given for the stern realities of existence. A kitten, for example, by play- ing with various objects, including its own tail, acquires fitness for the pursuit of mice. According to this view an animal or young child does not play because it is young, but has a period of youth in order that it may play. Imitation is here of import- ance in helping the acquisition of powers that will later on be useful. Baldwin regards it as standing between instinct and intelli- gence, sometimes promoting the preservation of the former, and in other cases enabling it to be more or less discarded in favour of intelligent actions. Groos summarizes his ideas regarding the rela- tion between play and art in the following table, which, though susceptible of criticism, will serve as the basis for a few remarks. 404 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY PLAY Experimentation (Joy in being able) (Pretence: conscious self-deception) | Self-exhibition. Imitation. Decoration. The Personal. The True. The Beautiful. : . { Courtship Imitative arts. Building arts. ij > . . . With animals arts. Imitative dance. Ornamentation. ee with Pantomime. Architecture. a xcitement. Sculpture. With man_ sca: . ae Music. Painting. Lyric poetry. Epic Poetry. Drama. Plenty of examples of each of the three primary groups above are to be found in the animal world. Sedfexhibition as mani- fested in Courtship arts is sufficiently illustrated by Birds and Spiders, and some account of it has already been given (see pp. 148 and 166). No better instance of /mer¢tation could possibly be given than the concerted Dances of some birds, graphically described by Hudson (in Zhe Naturalist in La Plata). The following is his account of the evolutions of the Spur-winged Lapwing (/op- lopterus cayanus, fig. 1283) of South America:—‘ The lapwing display, called by the natives its ‘dance’, or ‘serious dance ’— by which they mean square dance—requires three birds for its performance, and is, so far as I know, unique in this respect. The birds are so fond of it that they indulge in it all the year round, and at frequent intervals during the day, also on moon- light nights. If a person watches any two birds for some time —for they live in pairs—he will see another lapwing, one of a neighbouring couple, rise up and fly to them, leaving his own mate to guard their chosen ground; and instead of resenting this visit as an unwarranted intrusion on their domain, as they would certainly resent the approach of almost any other bird, they welcome it with notes and signs of pleasure. Advancing to the visitor, they place themselves behind it; then all three, keeping step, begin a rapid march, uttering resonant drumming notes in time with their movements; the notes of the pair behind ANIMAL ASSTHETICS 405 being emitted in a stream, like a drum-roll, while the leader utters loud single notes at regular intervals. The march ceases; the leader elevates his wings and stands erect and motionless, still uttering loud notes; while the other two, with puffed-out plumage and standing exactly abreast, stoop forward and down- ward until the tips of their beaks touch the ground, and, sinking their rhythmical voices to a murmur, remain for some time in this posture. The performance is then over, and the visitor Fig. 1283.—Dance of Spur-winged Lapwings (Haplopterus cayanus) goes back to his own ground and mate, to receive a visitor himself later on.” As to the third kind of artistic development, placed under the head of Decoration, we once more find among Birds the best illustrations. Their nests not only exemplify, in some cases, the art of building carried to a high pitch of perfection (see vol. iii, p. 457), but may also involve a certain amount of deco- rative skill. Both, however, are most strikingly seen in the curious “runs” made by the Bower-Birds, native to the Austra- lian region. They appear to play some part in courtship, and their original discoverer, Gould, describes them as follows (in P.Z.S. 1840):—‘ These constructions are perfectly anomalous in the architecture of birds, and consist in a collection of pieces of stick or grass, formed into a bower; or one of them (that Vo. IV. 121 406 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY of the Chlamydera) might be called an avenue, being about 3 feet in length, and 7 or 8 inches broad inside; a transverse section giving the figure of a horse-shoe, the round part down- wards. They are used by the birds as a playing-house, or ‘run’ as it is termed, and are used by the males to attract the females. The ‘run’ of the Satin-Bird is much smaller, being less than 1 foot in length, and moreover differs from that just described in being decorated with the highly-coloured feathers of the parrot tribe; the Chlamydera, on the other hand, collects around its Fig. 1284.—Gardener-Birds (diébdyornts inornatus), with hut and garden; male in foreground, female at back. ‘run’ a quantity of stones, shells, bleached bones, &c.; they are also strewed down the centre within.” Newton thus describes (in A Dectionary of Birds) some even more remarkable kinds of Bower-Bird, unknown to science at the time of Gould’s observations:—‘t A bird of New Guinea, .. Amblyornuis inornatus, fig. 1284, has been found by Signor Beccari to present not only a modification of bower-building, but an appreciation of beauty perhaps unparalleled in the animal world. His interesting observations . . . show that this species, which he not inaptly calls the ‘Gardener’ (Gyardinzere), builds at the foot of a small tree a kind of hut or cabin (cafanna) some 2 feet in height, roofed with orchid-stems that slope to the ground, regularly radiating from the central support, which is covered ANIMAL ASTHETICS 407 with a conical mass of moss, and sheltering a gallery round it. One side of this hut is left open, and in front of it is arranged a bed of verdant moss, bedecked with blossoms and berries of the brightest colours. As these ornaments wither they are removed to a heap behind the hut, and replaced by others that are fresh. The hut is circular and some 3 feet in diameter, and the mossy lawn in front of it nearly twice that expanse. Each hut and garden are, it is believed, though not known, the work of a single pair of birds, or perhaps of the male only; and it may be observed that this species, as its trivial name implies, is wholly inornate in plumage. Not less remarkable is the more recently described ‘bower’ of Przoxodura, a genus of which the male . . . is conspicuous for his bright orange coloration. This structure is said by Mr. Devis . . . to be piled up almost hori- zontally round the base of a tree to the height of from 4 to 6 feet, and around it are a number of hut-like fabrics, having the look of a dwarfed native camp.” With the stages in the evolution of human art we are here not directly concerned, but enough has been said to show that a careful study of the habits of animals is likely to throw a good deal of light upon the subject. AnImMats AS MaTerRIAL FoR ART AND LITERATURE.—Animals form such an important part of the environment of man that they naturally figure largely in art and literature. If, in ima- gination, we entirely eliminate animal forms from galleries of sculpture or pictures we shall realize this very fully, and ideas derived from the animal world are also embodied to some extent in music. As we have elsewhere seen (p. 341), the Tarantella originated with reference to a kind of spider. The art of decoration is also indebted to the animal world, some of the most beautiful designs being based upon animal forms. Mr. Talwin Morris’ ‘peacock design” on the covers of this book is a particularly charming example. In literature our debt to animals is no less great. The very letters of the alphabet, which, as everyone knows, are the descen- dants of Egyptian picture-symbols or hieroglyphs, were in some instances originally based on animal forms. V, for example, represents the last remains of a drawing of the Horned Viper (Cerastes) of Egypt (fig. 1285). Animals make no inconsiderable figure in both prose and 408 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY poetry. In fables, from the time of Asop downwards, they often supply the principal characters. Sterne has immortalized the Starling, Shakespeare and Shelley the Sky-Lark, Poe and Dickens the Raven, Aristophanes and Thoreau the Frog. Other examples are scattered broadcast through the literatures of the world, and to name them would be a work of supererogation. They often supply the wotzf for poetic efforts which express our Vy Fig. 1285.—Evolution of V. @, Egyptian hieroglyphic; 4, abbreviation of same; c, Phcenician form; d, final form. sympathy with Nature, and appeal more particularly to those of us who are counted among the worshippers of “the great god Pan”. The poem “ Enchanted Tones”, by J. S. Welhaven, may serve to illustrate this point, and it will be unknown to most readers, for its native language is Norwegian. “A bird flew over the pine-clad hill Of the old, old legends singing, And carried me out of life’s beaten way Into dreamland’s dim beginning. I came to the moorland’s secret spring Where fairies their thirst were slaking, But ever those magical notes I heard *Midst the sighs that the breeze was making. *‘T stood in the beech-trees’ silver shade As the sunset rays low slanted, When glimmered the dew in the darkling glade And on hill shone like gold enchanted: Then rustled the branches, a sound drew nigh As of wings that were rising and falling, And ever from fell-top, and ever from tree Those magical flute-notes were calling. “ Away in the woodland, far away, Is the songster’s leafy dwelling, From under the pine-trees, ever and aye, His melody’s tide is swelling; And though I never may reach his home, The song there is no forgetting, That sounded sweet when eve’s dewy wings Shut soft as the sun was setting.” DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME CHAPTER LXXV GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION To consider, and so far as possible explain, the way in which animals are now spread over the surface of the globe is the province of Geographical Distribution, or, as it is sometimes called, Zoogeography. Alfred Russel Wallace, more than any other man, has been the means of placing this branch of Natural History on a really scientific footing, and his invaluable works The Geographical Distribution of Animals and [sland Life will long remain standard sources of information on the subject. Smaller books by Heilprin and Beddard (Geographical and Geo- logical Distribution of Animals, and Zoogeography) will also be found extremely useful by the student. A good deal of information about the parts of the world to which a number of animals belong has already been given in the preceding sections of this work, but certain facts and principles require special mention here, though only elementary treatment is possible, or, it may be, desirable. Before the theory of evolution became dominant it was com- monly believed that any particular kind of animal found within a certain area was specially created there, and speculation was deemed out of place, though it was assumed that one sort of climate suited certain species, and another sort of climate other species. But we are not now contented with the statement “This is so”, and always ask “ Why is this so?” To which question we sometimes get a fairly satisfactory answer. Areas oF DistrisuTion.—If we consider any kind or species of animal, or any one of the larger groups, such as a genus, a family, an order, or a class, we shall find that it may occupy a limited 409 410 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME or an extensive area, or that it may be found in two or more widely distant parts of the world, and be entirely absent from the intervening regions. The last and perhaps the most interesting case is technically described by speaking of a ‘discontinuous area of distribution”. Believing that existing species have been evolved in course of time from other species, it is pretty obvious that any sort of animal which occupies a restricted area must either have come into existence comparatively recently, or else be an ancient form which has gradually lost ground and is pro- gressing towards extinction. A good example of the latter state of things is afforded by the Tuatara (atteria punctata), now only to be found on some islets in the Bay of Plenty, off the North Island of New Zealand, upon which larger land-mass we know that it formerly existed. The evidence of geology also proves that it is the last living representative of an order of Reptiles (AZychocephala) which was once widely distributed and dominant, being very likely the parent reptilian group from which all the other orders took origin. In dealing with questions of distribution it is important to remember that the outlines of land and sea have undergone many changes in the course of the world’s history. At various periods, for example, the land-masses of the Old and New Worlds have been connected together in the North, while Australia and the East Indies are the surviving remnants of an extension ‘of the mainland of Asia. Comparatively recent union between land- areas now distinct is often indicated by intervening shallow water, more ancient union by deeper water. From this and other facts we conclude that the British Isles were part of the continent of Europe in comparatively recent times, while many ages have elapsed since Madagascar was continuous with Africa, and the connection of Australia with Asia was still more remote. On the other hand, there are certain small islands isolated in mid-ocean, such as St. Helena and Ascension, which probably never formed part of any existing continent. Using this principle as a basis, Wallace classifies islands as “continental”, e.g. the British Isles and Madagascar, which once were united with adjacent main- lands; and “oceanic”, e.g. St. Helena, in which this has never been the case. That such a view explains many of the features of island faunas we shall presently see: the bearing of the former existence of ‘‘land-bridges ”, long since submerged, upon questions GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 41I of discontinuous distribution is, for the moment, our immediate concern. One of the best examples of discontinuous distribution is afforded by the order of Pouched Mammals (Zarsupialia), now mainly limited to the Australian region, though also represented in America by the Opossums and one other form (Ca@xolestes). Without the aid of the geological record the reason for this would ever remain a matter of the merest conjecture. We know, how- ever, from the evidence this record affords, that in the remote past Pouched Mammals were common enough in Europe, and there are enough facts upon which to base the view that the earliest representatives of the order were evolved in the land- mass of Eurasia. From this area the Pouched Mammals gradually spread, entering what are now America and Australia over tracts of land since submerged beneath the sea. Elsewhere, owing to the competition of more highly specialized mammals, they have died out. But the Australian region having been cut oft from the northern land-mass before the higher mammals had a chance of entering it, the pouched forms of that region had a field free from serious competition, in which have since been evolved numerous species adapted to many diverse modes of life. In America they had a harder struggle for existence, and at the present time are poorly represented there, chiefly by Opossums, the ancestors of which no doubt reached the New World by one or more formerly existing land-bridges in the north. There is also good reason for thinking that South America aiso received a population of pouched mammals from Australia, by means of a southern land-bridge, of which some existing islands appear to be remnants. This Australian stock has since died out almost entirely, being now only represented by two small species of Opossum-Rats (Cano/estes), native to Colombia and Ecuador. Discontinuous distribution explained on somewhat different lines is exhibited by the Lung-Fishes (2zpz0z), now represented only in the fresh waters of Africa, South America, and Queens- land (see vol. i, p. 264). Once more a clue is afforded by the geological record, from which we know that the ancestors of the Lung-Fishes were at one time a dominant and widely distributed marine group. Hard pressed by fishes better adapted to life in the sea, some of them took refuge in estuaries, ultimately pass- ing into the fresh waters of the land. It is only these which 412 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME in widely distant parts of the world have left descendants, while all the marine types were doomed to extinction. DispeRSAL OF AwnimaLs.—A species which meets with any success in the struggle for existence increases largely in numbers and, led chiefly by the search for food, comes to occupy a tract of land or sea of continually increasing size (z.e. it widens its area of distribution) until prevented by natural causes from migrat- ing farther. The means of locomotion possessed by such a species necessarily plays an important part in the matter. The power of flight, for example, often renders wide dispersal possible, as in the case of Bats. But there are usually certain physical barriers which put a stop to the migratory movements of most kinds of animal. Mammals other than Bats are unable to cross even narrow arms of the sea, while mountain chains and deserts often prove potent checks to further advance. And for every other group of land forms obstacles of varying kind present themselves. Even in the case of marine species limits are im- posed by temperature, depth of water, supply of suitable food, competition with other species, and so on. ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF THE Lanp.—It is generally considered that Mammals afford the best means of dividing the land into regions possessing characteristic faunas, and as the areas thus demarcated answer fairly well for Birds, the sub- divisions made by W. L. Sclater on this basis, and afterwards adopted by Wallace, will here be given. A reference to the accompanying map (fig. 1286) will show that the boundaries between Sclater’s six great regions are largely constituted by physical barriers. Each of these primary subdivisions is again divided into sub-regions. All that can be attempted here is a brief account of the leading features of the large distributional areas, especially with reference to Mammals and Birds. So many incorrect ideas are current, even among educated persons, about the distribution of well-known animals, that no attempt will be made to avoid details that will be commonplace to some readers. Most of the forms of life mentioned in this chapter will be found to have received notice in other connections. It may be well first of all to enumerate the regions and sub-regions. I. PaL@arctic Recion.—Europe,—all but the south of Asia, —and Africa north of the Sahara. Sub-Regions:—1. European; 2. Mediterranean; 3. Siberian; 4. Manchurian. 413 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION *(3X9} das) sUOISaI-qns ayy ayeoIpul sainSy oyy, “puery ay} Jo suoiBoy jeorydesS0aZ007—‘ggzr “Sty obr ra oor 09 ce Oor OTL LMUdII) Jo IIeq SuoT = YoIMudeis) JO ysafy Bu0T ay Jo “aid obvya qoyenb Moats FIY9 414 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME II. Nearcric Recion. — Practically equivalent to North America. Sub-Regions:—1. Canadian; 2. Californian; 3. Rocky Mountain; 4. Alleghany. III. Erurorran.—Africa south of the Sahara, south Arabia, and Madagascar. Sub-Regions:—1. West African; 2. South African; 3. East African; 4. Mascarene. IV. OrtentaL Recron.—South Asia, the western part of the East Indies, the Philippines, and Formosa. Sub-Regions:—r. Indian; 2. Cingalese; 3. Indo-Chinese; 4. Indo- Malayan. V.—AuSTRALIAN Recion.—The eastern part of the East Indies, Australia and adjacent islands, New Zealand, and Poly- nesia. Sub-Regions:—1. Austro-Malayan; 2. Australian; 3. Polynesian; 4. Novo-Zelanian. VI. NeorroricaL Recion.—Central America, South America, and the West Indies. Sub-Regions:—r. Mexican; 2. Chilian; 3. West Indian; 4. Brazilian. Chalmers Mitchell has devised the following ingenious way of representing the regions and sub-regions in a diagrammatic form, which readily lends itself to expressing the distribution of any animal or group of animals, by simply leaving out the numbers of those sub-regions in which that particular form or group does not occur. Regions and Sub-Regions. Distribution of Crocodiles and Alligators (Crocodilia). II I II I I I 3 23 4 2 4 3 4 4 VI Ill IV VI III IV aoe So name sl P32 tr Bar 3 2 4 2 4 Vv Vv sae) 1 | 2 Ar 2 ony 2 4 Fai 2. 4 2 FauNA OF THE PaL-earctic Recion.—In spite of its great size this region possesses comparatively few animals which are found nowhere else. The number would be much larger if there were not a good many species common to it and the Nearctic Region. This is not very surprising when we remember the GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 415 comparative narrowness of the Behring Straits, across which there was a land-bridge at no very remote period, geologically speaking. At one time, too, Europe and North America were connected by land occupying the North Atlantic, and the sea between Britain and Greenland is still comparatively shallow. It may be objected that even if such unions once existed the rigour of the northern climate would prevent land animals from migrating across them; but we know that there have been many changes in climate during the past history of the globe, and that for part of the time when these land-bridges existed a much higher temperature prevailed in the areas they occupied than is now the case. Besides which, the objection, even if valid, would not apply to Arctic forms; and, further, many animals which we now associate with the warmer parts of the earth are able to endure a larger amount of cold than is sometimes supposed. It may be added that the resemblances between the faunas of the Palearctic Region and the northern part of North America are so striking that many writers associate these together under the name of the Holarctic Region. This fact is mentioned because in dealing with certain forms it will be convenient to speak of them as *belhe “ holarctic”, Palearctic Mammals (Mammalia). —Among _Insect-eating Mammals (/zsectzvora) our common Mole (Talba Europea) and related species of the same genus are confined to this region, as also are the Desmans (Myogale), while Hedgehogs (Zrinacezdz) are very characteristic, though not peculiar. Of the Flesh-Eaters (Carnivora) very few are entirely limited to the region, the most notable being the Raccoon-Dog (Wyctereutes, fig. 1287) of north- east Asia, and the Common Badger (AZeles taxus) with some of its immediate allies. It should be stated, however, that a number of Carnivores are purely holarctic, eg. the Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus), the Glutton (Guo duscus), Lynxes, and Arctic Foxes; while some others are very characteristic, e.g. Wolves, Bears (other than the Polar species), Martens, and Weasels. Some aquatic Car- nivores are entirely holarctic, such as the Sea Otter (Latax lutrts), the Greenland Seal (Phoca Grenlandica), the Walrus (77echechus rosmarus), and the Greenland Whale (Balena mysticetus). The Palearctic region is comparatively rich in Hoofed Mammals (Ungulata) native to no other part of the world. Among these are conspicuous typical Oxen (Bos), Goats (Capra), 416 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME and Sheep (Qvzs), which are hardly represented elsewhere; also a number of Deer (Cervzd@), such as the Fallow-Deer (Dama vulgaris), Roe-Deer (Cervus capreola), and Water-Deer (Aydro- potes); while, besides these, certain Antelopes, such as the Chamois (Aupicapra tragus) and the Saiga Antelope (Sazga Tartarica), are peculiar. Nor must mention of the Camels Fig. 1287.—Raccoon Dog |Vyctereutes) (Camelus) be omitted. The Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), Elk (Atces machlis), and Musk-Ox (Ovzbos moschatus) may be men- tioned as typically holarctic Ungulates. Among Gnawing Mammals (Rodentia), Dormice (JZyaxus) and Mole-Rats (Sfa/ar) are Palearctic, while Marmots (A7c- tomys) and Calling Hares or Pikas (ZLagomys) are holarctic. Beavers (Castor), Voles (AZtcrotus), Ground-Squirrels (Zamzzas), and most of the Hares and Rabbits (Lepzs) are also holarctic. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 417 Palearctic Birds (Aves).—Among the genera which are limited to this region are some of those including a number of our familiar British forms, e.g. Grasshopper Warbler (Locustedla), Robin Redbreast (Zrzthacus), ‘Bearded Tit” or Reedling (Panurus), Long-tailed Tit (Acreduda), Buntings (Eméeriza), Chaffinch (/72ng7la), Bullfinch (Pyrrhula), Jay (Garrulus), Nut- cracker (Vucifraga), and Partridge (Perdix). Ordinary Pheasants (Phastanus) and some of their more ornamental relatives are also very characteristic Palearctic forms. Some other British birds belong to holarctic genera, e.g. Red Grouse and Ptarmigan (Lagopus), Capercailzie (Zetrao), Divers (Colymbus), Razor-Bills (Aca), Guillemots (Urza), and Puffins (Fraiercula). Palearctic Reptiles (Reptilia).—A solitary species of Alli- gator (Adiigator Sznensis) is native to South China. Our indigenous Blind-Worm represents a purely Palearctic genus (Anguis) of limbless lizards, while that (Lacerta) which includes the Sand-Lizard, Green-Lizard, and Wall-Lizard is hardly represented outside the region. Palearctic Amphibians (Amphibia).—Peculiar to this region are the genera including the Fire-bellied Toads (Bombznator), that form (AZyées) in which the male carries about the egg- masses, and the Salamanders (Salamandra). It is also inter- esting to notice that the great majority of Tailed Amphibians (Urodela) are limited to the Northern Hemisphere. Palearctic Fishes (Pisces)—Among British freshwater fishes, Carp and Tench may be mentioned as representing genera (Cyprinus and 77nca) peculiar to the region, as also are the Gold- fishes, &c. (Carasszus), of China and Japan. There are also some families of fishes which are very characteristic of the Northern Hemisphere, e.g. those containing Pikes (Zsoczde), Sticklebacks (Gasterosterde), and Salmon (Salmonide). Most of the curious archaic Ganoids (Gazozdez) also belong to the same hemisphere. These forms (see vol. i, p. 266) present a good example of a discontinuous area of distribution to be explained in the same way as that of the Lung-Fishes (see p. 266). Palearctic Insects (Lusecta).—Perhaps the most striking feature of the region is the great abundance of predaceous Ground-Beetles (Carabzde) which it possesses, regarding which Wallace says (in /sland Life) that ‘‘. . . the large and handsome genus Carabus, with its allies Procerus and Procrustes, contain- 418 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME ing nearly 300 species, is almost wholly confined to this region, and would alone serve to distinguish it zoologically from all other parts of the globe”. Fauna or THE Nearctic Recion.—It will be remembered that the “holarctic” forms already mentioned are common to the Palearctic region and northern part of the Nearctic region, and need not, therefore, be mentioned again, though it may be well to state that the Musk-Ox (Ouvzdos) is almost entirely Nearctic. Nearctic Mammals (Aammata).—Among the Insect-Eaters (/z- sectivora) the Star- nosed Mole (Condy- lura, fig. 1288) is the most remarkable of the purely Nearctic forms. A number of the Flesh-Eaters (Car- nivora) differ from those of the Old World, but as the most important of these are even more character- istic of the Neotropical region, mention of them will be post- poned. Two of the Hoofed Mammals (Uzgzata) are essentially Nearctic, z.e. the Pronghorn (A ztelocapra) and the Rocky Moun- tain Goat (/faplocervos). Two families of Gnawers (Rodendéia) are confined to this region, the Pouched Rats (Saccomyede), including Gophers, Kangaroo- Rats, and Pocket-Mice, and the Sewellels (Haplodontide), including two species of small rodents allied to the squirrels but with the habits of marmots. Besides these, two very typical Nearctic genera belong to this order, 7.e. those to which the Tree-Porcupine (£7e¢h7zon) and the Prairie- Dogs (Cyzonzys) belong. Opossums (Lidelphyide) represent the Pouched Mammals (J/arsufrafia) in this region, but are more typical of the Neotropical. Nearctic Birds (Aves).— Many of the familiar Palzarctic Fig. 1288.—Star-nosed Mole (Coudylura) GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION - 419 species are replaced by members of characteristic American families. There are also a number of peculiar Nearctic genera, but to give a list of them would serve no useful purposes. Turkeys (JZeleagris) are well represented, but also range south into Central America. Nearctic Reptiles (Reptilia).—It need only be said that poisonous Lizards (Heloderma) are characteristic, as also are Rattlesnakes (C7o¢adus), though both range into the Neotropical region, while Crocodiles and Alligators are represented in the south of the United States. Nearctic Amphibians (Amphibia).—The region is richer than any other part of the world in Tailed Amphibians (Uvode/a), and among the peculiar forms are the curious Mud- Eels (Amphiuma) and Sirens (Szren). Nearctic Fishes (Prsces).—Several families and a consider- able number of genera of freshwater fishes are native to this region only, but their names would convey little meaning to average European readers. Nearctic Freshwater Molluscs (Mollusca). — Wallace states that the Nearctic region is richer in characteristic forms than any other part of the world. Fauna oF THE Eruiopran Recion.—We have seen that the approximation in high latitudes of the great land-masses of the Northern Hemisphere has led to a great deal in common be- tween the faunas of the Palearctic and Nearctic regions, and both of them are rather deficient as regards the presence of peculiar forms known to the lay reader. This renders it rather difficult to treat them in a popular manner; but there is no such difficulty with regard to the southern regions which remain for consideration, as all of them have well-marked characteristics, and their more typical animals are familiar to everyone. In varying degree they have been more or less isolated by physical barriers for very long periods of time, and this isolation has rendered possible the evolution of distinctive faunas. Ethiopian Mammals (Mammata).—There is no lack of Apes and Monkeys (Przmates) belonging to genera not represented elsewhere. Among the higher or man-like Apes the Gorilla (Gorilla) and Chimpanzee (Axnthropopithecus) are typical, while of lower forms may be mentioned the Colobi (Cododus) with reduced thumbs, the Guenons (Cercopithecus), and a number of 420 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME Baboons (Pafio or Cynocephalus). The majority of Lemurs (Lemuroidea) are African. The peculiar Ethiopian Insect- Eaters (/isecézvora) include the Golden Moles (Chrysochloris), and an otter-like West African form (Potamogale), among many other characteristic types. There are also Flesh-Eaters (Car- nivora) belonging to purely Ethiopian genera, ¢,g. the Foussa (Cryptoprocta) of Madagascar, the Aard-Wolf (Protedes), and the Cape Hunting-Dog (Lycaon). Though Lion (Fels eo) Fig. 1289.—Wart-Hog (PAacocherus) and Leopard (/. leopardus) are both very characteristic, the former ranges into Asia (and has only become extinct in Europe during historic times), while the latter so closely resembles the Asiatic Panther (4. panthera) that the two animals are often considered as belonging to the same species. A curious nega- tive feature is found in the complete absence of animals of the Bear kind. Of Hoofed Mammals (Uzgz/ata) many remarkable forms are limited to the Ethiopian region. They include Zebras (species of Aguzs), characteristic species of Rhinoceros, Wart-Hog (Phacocherus, fig. 1289), Red River-Hog (Potamocherus), Hippo- potamus (//2pfopotamus), the Giraffe (Gzraffa), Okapi (Okapza), a number of Antelopes, and the little Water-Chevrotain (Dorca- GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 421 therium). Deer and wild Oxen are absent. Gnawers (Rodendza) are represented by a number of peculiar forms, of which may be mentioned the Cape Jumping-Hare (/edetes) and the African “Flying ”-Squirrels (A zomalurus). The archaic order of Mam- mals Poor in Teeth (Zdez¢ata) is represented by the Cape Ant- Eater or Aard-Vark (Orycteropus), and Pangolins (JZanzs), though the latter are shared with the Oriental region. Ethiopian Birds (Aves)—Among the many peculiar forms it may suffice to mention Plantain-Eaters (J/usophaga), Colies (Colzus), Whydah Finches (Vzdua), Ox-Peckers (Buphaga), many of the beautiful little Sun-Birds (Wectariniide), the Secretary- Bird (Sevfentarius), and the African Ostrich (Struthzo). Ethiopian Reptiles (Reptilia).—Crocodiles are abundant but not peculiar, while among Lizards (Lacertzfia) the large majority of the Chameleons are limited to the region. Among the in- numerable Serpents (Ophzdia) the Egg-eating Snake (Dasypeltis) and deadly Puff-Adders (#z¢zs) are purely Ethiopian. Ethiopian Amphibrans (Amphibra).— The Clawed Toads (Xenopus) are limited to Africa, while, on the other hand, not only are Tailed Amphibians (Uvode/z) entirely absent, but also several families of Tailless Amphibians (Azura), e.g. the Tree- Frogs (Hytide). Ethiopian Freshwater Fishes (Pisces).—Some of the most archaic types are limited to the region, eg. one of the Lung- Fishes (Protopterus), the Bichir (Polypterus), and the Reed- Fish (Calamozchthys), the last two being Ganoids. Ethiopian Land and Freshwater Molluscs (Mollusca).—One of the large Land-Snails (Achatina) is very characteristic, though not limited to Africa, while Land-Slugs are comparatively scarce, and freshwater molluscs are less abundant than in some other regions. The fauna of Lake Tanganyika presents some re- markable features. As we have seen elsewhere (see p. 313) the Caspian Sea and Lake Baikal were once continuous with the Arctic Ocean, the fact that each is inhabited by a peculiar species of Seal being accounted for in this way. It appears that in remote geological times Tanganyika was also part of a sea area, and was converted into a lake as one of the results of a series of land-upheavals. Some of the marine molluscs and other animals living in the sea of which it formed a part proved able to accommodate themselves to the altered conditions, and VoL. IV. 122 422 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME these ‘“halolimnic” forms, some to all appearance closely resem- bling ancient extinct types, are now found in the fresh waters of this lake, side by side with ordinary freshwater species. Ethiopian Insects (Insecta).—The region is very rich in insect life, but it is not possible here to enter into details regarding the many interesting and beautiful species. Wallace mentions the large and handsome Goliath-Beetles as being especially characteristic, and some of the complex societies of African Termites have been spoken of elsewhere (see p. 124). Fauna oF Mapacascar.-—This subdivision of the Ethiopian region calls for a few remarks, since it is one of the best existing examples of an ancient continental island connected in remote times with the adjacent continent. There can be no doubt that a large part of the Mascarene fauna has been derived from the mainland of Africa, but Madagascar became isolated at a time when that continent did not include among its inhabitants many of the animals by which it is now characterized. Long-standing isolation has also resulted in the evolution of many peculiar species, some of highly remarkable kind. Both the positive and the negative characters of the Mascarene fauna are best illus- trated by reference to the Mammals and Birds. Mascarene Mammals (Mammata).—Of the sixty-six species of Mammals native to Madagascar about half are Lemurs (Lemuroidea), representing no less than nine peculiar genera (Lemur, Chirogaleus, &c.), of which one (Chzromys) includes the remarkable Aye-Aye. Except for about fourteen small species shared between the continent of Africa and the Oriental region, these ill-defended creatures are found nowhere else, and _ their abundance in Madagascar is no doubt to be attributed to the scarcity of carnivores in that island. The case is on a par with that of the Pouched Mammals of Australia. With the single exception of a Shrew, all the Insect-Eaters (/zsectivora) of Madagascar belong to the peculiar family of Tanrecs (Centetidc), while the few Gnawers (Rodentia) are rats and mice, all belong- ing to distinctive genera. Flesh-Eaters (Carnzvora) are only represented by the Foussa (CryvAfoprocta) and eight kinds of Civet-Cat. Of Hoofed Mammals (Ungulata) there is only a species of River-Hog (Polamocherus), although the Hippopo- tamus is known to have been once indigenous. The charac- teristic Apes and Monkeys, most of the Flesh-Eaters and Hoofed CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS OF THE ISLAND OF MADAGASCAR Madagascar is a good iype of “ancient continental islands” that in remote times were connected with the adjacent continents, which they broadly resemble in the nature of their fauna, though the separation has been long enough to render possible the evolution of peculiar species. The Mascarene animals find their nearest allies on the mainland of Africa, the characteristic monkeys, carni- vores, ungulates (with one exception), elephants, and ostriches of which are, however, absent. Half the Mammals (33) of the island are Lemurs, one of the most remarkable of which is the Aye-aye (Chironys, Madagascariensts, 1), formerly mistaken for a Rodent. A Mouse-Lemur (CAzrogaleus pusillus) is represented at 2. Most of the Insectivores, of which the Tenrec (Cezfetes ecaudatus, 3) is best known, belong to a family (Cenéet/d@) represented nowhere else. Of about 150 species of land-birds no less than 127 are peculiar. The two figured are a Fruit-Pigeon (Alectorenas pulcherrima, 4), native to the Seychelles: (which belong to the Mascarene sub- region), and a form (PAz/efitta jala, male, 5) related to the so- called “ Ground-Thrushes” or Pittas, but constituting with another Mascarene species a special family (Phelepidtide). CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS OF THE ISLAND OF MADAC 1. Aye-aye. 2. Mouse-Lemur, 3. LTenrec, 4. Fruit-Pigeon, GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 423 Mammals, and also the Elephants of the African continent are conspicuous by their absence. Mascarene Birds (Aves).—The power of flight possessed by most members of this class to a large extent prevents the evolu- tion of peculiar species by isolation, and we must not therefore expect the land-birds of Madagascar to be so characteristic as the mammals, though it is sufficiently striking to find that out of 238 species no less than 129 are limited to the island, and these include representatives of 35 peculiar genera. We may take as examples two species (of Pkzlepitta) of great beauty, allied to the Ground-Thrushes, though constituting a distinct family, and four kinds of Fruit-Pigeon belonging to a genus (Adectoroenas) only represented in Madagascar and some of the smaller islands of the sub-region. Fauna or St. Hetena.—This typical oceanic island, 1100 miles distant from Africa and 1800 miles from South America, may be taken here as a good illustration of its class. Never having formed part of a continent its indigenous fauna naturally presents a strong contrast with that of Madagascar, being en- tirely made up of such forms of life as have been able to reach it by natural agencies. And since a broad stretch of sea is an insuperable barrier to animals of many kinds, the faunistic char- acters of St. Helena are largely negative, as in all other such cases. On the other hand, the effect of isolation has been very great, and a large proportion of the species are peculiar. St. Helena possesses no native Mammals, Land Birds, Rep- tiles, Freshwater Fishes, or Freshwater Molluscs. There is, however, one peculiar species of Plover (4gzalitis Sancte- Flelene) allied to one native to South Africa. Of Land-Snails twenty appear to be indigenous, if we include thirteen that have become extinct in recent times. The Beetles (Coleoptera) of the island have been studied with greater care than any other group of insects, and 129 species are native to the island, to which all except one of them are absolutely restricted. More than two- thirds of these beetles are weevils, and, considering the boring habits of such creatures, it is highly probable that the remote ancestors of many of them were conveyed to St. Helena by the agency of drift-wood. There can be no doubt that many of the animals originally native to this island have become extinct as the result of human 424 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME occupation, the introduction of goats having had much to do with this (see p. 346). FAUNA OF THE ORIENTAL Recion.—The boundaries between this region and the Palearctic area are in part ill-defined, which naturally means the possession of a number of species in common. The south-eastern boundary, marking it off from the Australian region, is usually known as ‘“ Wallace's line”, which runs between Bali and Lombok, and thence northwards between Borneo and Celebes. Bali and Borneo thus mark the limit of the Oriental region in this direction. Oriental Mammals (Mammatia).—Taking first the Apes and Monkeys (Primates), we find that the higher or man-like Apes are shared between this and the Ethiopian region, for while the Gorilla and Chimpanzee are peculiar to the latter, the Orang- utan (Szzza) and Gibbons (/7y/odates and Stamanga) are purely oriental. The Proboscis Monkey (Vasafis) is restricted to Borneo, while Entellus Monkeys, &c. (Sesenopithecus), with Bonnet Monkeys and their immediate allies (J/acacus), mostly belong to this region. It is also the home of three species of Lemur, two of the Loris (or ‘*Slow” Lemurs), and the little Spectre Tarsier. Of the first, one (Zovzs) is restricted to South India and Ceylon, while the other (Vyctzcedus) ranges into the Philippines. The Spectre Tarsier (Zarstus spectrum), though chiefly oriental, is also found in Celebes. Two peculiar families of Insect-Eaters (/zsectzvora) are purely oriental, one including the Banxrings or Tree-Shrews (Zufazzde, fig. 1290), while the only representative of the other is the remarkable Flying- “Lemur” (Galeopithecus). There are also two peculiar genera (Aylomys and Gymnura) of the hedgehog kind. Among Bats (Chiroptera) the large Fruit-Bats (Pteropus) are characteristic, though not peculiar. Among Flesh-Eaters (Carnzvora) the Tiger (/elis tigris), though very typical, also ranges into North China; but there are a number of peculiar genera belonging to various carnivorous families, while Bears are not absent, as in the Ethiopian region. The Hoofed Mammals (Ungulata) are abundantly represented, and some of them are found nowhere else, e.g. the little Chevrotains (Zragu/us, represented in West Africa by Dorcatherium), the small Deer known as Muntjacs (Cervulus), and certain Antelopes (A zfzlofe and the four-horned Tetraceros). Rhinoceroses and Elephants (Prodoscidea) are shared GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 425 between this region and Africa. Tapirs (Zapzrws) are only to be found here and in the Neotropical area. Of Gnawers (fo- dentia) the most notable are perhaps the Asiatic Flying-Squirrels (Pderomys). Mammals Poor in Teeth (£dentata) are represented by some of the Pangolins (4Zanzs), though some of these are also native to Africa. Ortental Birds (Aves).—Two families of Perching Birds are confined to the region, z.e. the Green Bul- buls (Phyllornithide) and the Broadbills (Eurylemide); while some of the many pe- culiar genera include such _ better - known forms as the Tailor- Birds ( Orthotomus ), typical Hornbills ( Buceros ), Peacocks ( Pavo), Peacock- Pheasants (Polyplec- tron), Silver Pheas- ants (Genn@us) and related species, and the Water- Pheasant (Hydrophastanus ). Highly characteristic, though not entirely limited to this region, are the Jungle- Fowl (Gallus). Se cede ene ehvew Wales Oriental Reptiles (Reptilia).—Crocodiles (Crocodlus) are abundant in the region, and the long-snouted Garials (Garzats and Rhynchosuchus) are limited to it. Of the numerous Lizards (Lacerti/ia) the pretty little Flying Dragons (Draco) are purely oriental. The burrowing Shield-tailed Snakes (Uvofeltzde) are found in no other region; and the same is true for one genus (Bungarus) of poisonous ser- pents, including the Krait, which is supposed to work more havoc among the natives of India than any other creature of its kind. i 426 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME Oriental Amphibians (Amphibia). — Though tailed forms (Urodela) are represented they are vastly outnumbered by the tailless ones (dura), but none of these call for special mention. Oriental Freshwater Fishes (Pisces).—Most of the Snake- headed Fishes (Ophzocephahde), which are able to live during the dry season in liquid mud, are limited to the region, and the same is true of the members of a small family (J/astacembehde) of eel-like forms, which, however, have nothing to do with the true eels. Oriental Insects (Insecta).—Regarding these Wallace remarks (in /sland Life):—‘ Among insects we may notice the magnificent golden and green Papilionide [7.e. Swallow-tail Butterflies] of various genera as being unequalled in the world; while the great Atlas Moth is probably the most gigantic of Lepidoptera, being sometimes 10 inches across the wings, which are also very broad. Among the beetles the strange flat-bodied Malayan Mormolyce is the largest of all the Carabide [z.e. predaceous ground-beetles], while the Catoxantha is equally a giant among the Buprestide. [The beautiful wing-covers of various species of this family are largely used in India for ornamental purposes.| On the whole, the insects of this region probably surpass those of any other part of the world, except South America, in size, variety, and beauty.” FauNA OF THE AUSTRALIAN Recion.—‘‘ Wallace’s line” (see p. 413), which divides this region from that last considered, is not the sharply-marked boundary that was at one time supposed, for a considerable number of oriental forms range to the east of it, and Australian forms to the west of it. Some authorities consider that the line should be drawn to the east of Celebes, which would then belong to the oriental region. Wallace’s line, if thus amended, would be a somewhat sharper boundary than it is now. New Zealand, too, possesses such well-marked positive and negative features that it should possibly be considered as a distinct (Novo-Zelanian) region, instead of being ranked merely as a sub-region. A few of its peculiarities will be indicated in the following brief sketch. Austrahan Mammals (Mammatia).— Among the animals found in Celebes are three belonging to peculiar genera, ze. a Black Ape (Cynopithecus), a Dwarf Ox (dzoa), and the Babirussa (Porcus or Babtrussa, fig. 1291), a curious pig-like form with long curled tusks in the upper jaw. It is also inhabited by a species GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 427 of Deer, a Civet-Cat, and five kinds of Squirrel, while the Spectre Tarsier (Zarsus spectrum) is said to be found on a small adjacent island. The Deer and Civet-Cat have possibly been introduced. Typical Pigs (Svs) range as far east as New Guinea, but with this exception, various Bats, a number of rats and mice, and the doubtfully indigenous Dingo (Canzs dingo) of the Australian continent, the mammalian fauna of the region (excluding Celebes) is made up of Marsupials (represented in Celebes) and Egg- GRISY Fig. 1291.—Babirussa (Badirussa) laying Mammals (J/onotremata). The last, which include the Duck-Bill (Ovnithorhynchus) and Spiny Ant-eaters (Zchzdna and Proechidna), are found in no other part of the world, though Marsupials are scantily represented in America. New Zealand is singularly devoid of indigenous mammals, there only being two peculiar species of bat, a doubtful rat, and a problematical otter-like creature. Australian Birds (Aves).—Among the most typical Australian groups are the beautiful Honey-Suckers (AZus¢phagide), many distinctive kinds of Parrot and Cockatoo, Birds of Paradise, 428 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME Crowned Pigeons, the land Kingfisher (Dace/o) familiarly known as the “ Laughing Jackass”, the ‘“ More-Pork” birds (Podargus), the Mound-Builders, Cassowaries, and Emus. All these, except Honey-Suckers, Parrots (not Cockatoos), and Pigeons, are repre- sented in New Zealand, but the other birds named are absent. There are, however, some highly peculiar Novo-Zelanian forms, found in no other area. These include the Kea and Kaka Parrots (JVeséor), the ground-dwelling Owl-Parrot (S¢zxgops), and the Kiwi (d4féeryx), which is the smallest existing represen- tative of the Running Birds (Radztz). But within the period of human occupation a number of large species of the last-named group existed in the islands, ze. the ‘*Moas” (Dznxornzthide), some of which were over 10 feet in height. Australian Reptiles (Reptilia).—Crocodiles range across the northern part of the region as far east as the Solomon and Fiji Islands. Among the numerous Lizards two peculiar to the Australian continent deserve mention, ze. the Frilled Lizard (Chlanydosaurus), which can run for some distance on its hind- legs, and the spiny Mountain Devil (JZo/och). Snakes are found in abundance, but details are unnecessary. New Zealand pos- sesses a number of Lizards (Geckoes and Skznxks), but neither Crocodiles nor terrestrial Snakes. Some small islands in the Bay of Plenty are, however, of peculiar interest, for they are the home of the Tuatara (/fad/evia), which is the last surviving member of an exceedingly ancient and once widely distributed reptilian order (AAyuchocephala), that was very probably ancestral to all the other known groups. Austrahan Amphibians (A mphibia).—Tailless forms (Azur) are well represented in the region, but New Zealand has only one indigenous species of amphibian, a sort of Toad (Lzofe/ma). Australian Fishes (Pisces).—The most interesting species native to this region is Ceratodus, a Lung-Fish (Dzfxo0z) now limited to Queensland. Fauna oF THE NeotropricaL Recion.—Although the results of isolation are not here quite so well marked as in the case of Australia, to say nothing of New Zealand, the fauna of the region presents many well-marked characteristics, both positive and negative. It affords a refuge to certain archaic forms, which have been able to prolong the tenure of their existence in the absence of large numbers of carnivores, and, for the same reason, GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 429 may be regarded as the head-quarters of some other animals which, though not decadent, are comparatively defenceless. On the other hand, the region stands unsurpassed for variety and wealth of life, which is partly due to its unparalleled range in latitude and diversity in altitude. Every kind of climate and environment are exemplified, from the tropical forests of Brazil to the rigour of the high Andes or Tierra del Fuego, from the grassy pampas of the Argentine to the Patagonian desert. Neotropical Mammals (Mammaha).— To this region are absolutely confined the American Monkeys (Ceé¢de) and the Marmosets (/apatzde), both (especially the latter) of lower grade than their Old World cousins. Lemurs (Lemwrordea) are entirely absent, as from America in general. There are no fruit-eating Bats (Péeropide), but a number of genera are peculiar to the region, especially those including the blood-sucking Vampires (Desmodus and Diphylla). A somewhat remarkable negative feature of the Neotropical fauna is the almost complete absence of Insect-Eaters (/xsectzvora). The widely distributed Shrews (Sorzced@) are, however, represented in Central America, while the Agoutas (So/enodon) of Cuba and Hayti constitute a distinct family. Of the most predaceous Flesh-Eaters (Carnivora), z.e. the members of the Cat Family (/e/d@), there is a decided scarcity, the three largest indigenous species—Puma (felzs concolor), Jaguar (/ onca), and Ocelot (/. fardalis)—also ranging into North America. - The Civet Cat Family (V2verride) is entirely unrepresented; while of Bears (Urszd@) there is only the Spec- tacled Bear (Ursus ornatus) of Peru and Chili. Weasels (Mustelidz@) and creatures of the Dog Family (Canzd@) are fairly abundant. On the other hand, the Neotropical region is the head-quarters of the almost purely American family of Raccoons (Procyontde) and their allies) The Kinkajou (Cer- coleptes) is limited to the region, the long-snouted Coatimundis (Nasua) range as far north as Texas, while the Raccoons (Procyon) have a wide distribution in the New World. One member of this family is native to the Old World, ze. the Panda (4vurus) of the south-eastern Himalayas, and we have here therefore a good example of discontinuous distribution. The positive and negative characteristics of the region as regards Hoofed Mammals (Ungulata) are both well marked. 430 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME The Odd-toed Ungulates (Pevzssodacty/2) are only represented by the archaic Tapirs (Zapzrus) of South and Central America. They are one of the stock examples of discontinuous distribution, being also found in south-east Asia. As in many similar cases they are the last surviving representatives of a once widely dis- tributed group (compare p. 410). There is also a scarcity of Even-toed Ungulates (d7feodactyla), for of non-ruminants there are only the little Peccaries (Ducotyles), which differ in many ways from the Swine of the Old World. They also range into the south of the Nearctic region. Among the Ruminants or Cud-Chewers (Rumnantia) the Deer Family (Cervzde) is repre- sented by a number of species belonging to two genera exclusively American. One of these (Padus) only includes a very small form (P. humztis), native to the Chilian Andes, and of which the male possesses tiny spikes by way of antlers. Most of the species belonging to the other genus (Cavzacus) are restricted to the Neotropical region, but the largest forms, e.g. Virginian and Mule Deer, which also have the most complex antlers, are Nearctic. The large family (Louzde) embracing Sheep, Goats, Antelopes, and Oxen, which has but few representatives in the Nearctic region, here has none at all. The Camels of the Old World are also absent, but the Guanaco (Lama guanacus) and Vicunia (ZL. vecunza) belong to the same family (Camefde), and furnish another typical example of discontinuous distribution. Gnawers (fodenfia) are extremely numerous in the Neotro- pical region, and among peculiar forms may be noted the Cavies (Cavizde), which include the largest existing Rodent (Aydro- cherus capybara), the Agoutis (Dasyproctide), and the Chinchillas (Chinchillide). The archaic and decadent order of Mammals Poor in Teeth (Zdentafa) is also better represented here than anywhere else, for typical Ant-eaters (AZyrimecophagid@), Sloths (Bradypodide), and Armadilloes (Dasypodidz) are only to be found in South America. As to Pouched Mammals (J/arsa- pialia), the Opossums (Lidelphyide) are native to both Americas, while the Opossum Rats (Cazolestes) belong to Colombia and Ecuador. Neotropical Birds (Aves).—The region stands unsurpassed for the richness and variety of its avifauna, while a great many families and genera are represented nowhere else, and some of the most distinctive forms are only shared with the Nearctic area. THE GREAT ANT-EATER (ALyrmecophaga jubata) The southern land-masses constitute the last refuge of a number of archaic groups, among which are the Mammals poor in Teeth (Zdentata), that are most abundantly represented in South America. The plate represents the Great Ant-eater (AZyrmecophaga jubata), one of the most remarkable Edentates native to that continent. If the long tail is included, its total length may be over 7 feet. The digits of the inwardly turned fore-feet are armed with long sharp claws, well adapted for tearing open ant-hills, and also serving as formidable defensive weapons. The small mouth is placed at the end of a long narrow snout, and the jaws are tooth- less. Ants are secured by means of the long protrusible tongue, which is made sticky by the abundant secretion of enormous salivary glands. The Great Ant-eater is a ground-animal, but some of its immediate relatives are small arboreal creatures. THE GREAT ANT-EATER (MYRMECOPHAGA JUBATAS ONE OF THE MOST REMARKABLE ANIMALS OF SOUTH AMERICA GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 431 Of Perching Birds (Passeres) a number of families are peculiar, and of these the following are among the most typical:—Manakins (Pupride), small birds which resemble the Tits in appearance and habits. The large family of Chatterers (Co¢¢xgéd), which include the Umbrella-Bird (Cephalopterus ornatus), so named from its large overhanging crest of feathers, and the clear-toned Bell- Bird (Chasmorhynchus). The Tree-Creepers or Picucules (Dendrocolaptide) vary remarkably in appearance and in the nature of their nests (see vol. iii, p. 463), while some of the insectivorous Ant-Thrushes (formicarizde) give notice by their twittering of the approach of armies of Foraging Ants (Zc7¢ous). We have also the American “ Orioles” (/c¢eridz), among which are the Cow-Birds (A/Zolobrus), some of which, like Cuckoos, lay their eggs in the nests of other species (see p. 186). The true “singing birds” (Oscznes) of the Old World are comparatively ill represented in this region, the feathered inhabitants of which appeal more to the eye than the ear. Thrushes, however, are abundant. Among Picarian Birds (Pcariz) the brilliantly coloured large- billed Toucans (Ahamphastid@) constitute a family peculiar to the region. A well-known and remarkable family common to South and North America is that of the Humming-Birds (77ochilde), which for beauty of form and plumage have few serious rivals. Though they range as far north as Alaska, their head-quarters are in the Neotropical region, which is the home of some 400 species, about four-fifths of the total number. Of Parrots (Pszttacz) there are a number of genera not represented elsewhere, and the gorgeous long-tailed Macaws (Conuride) make up a family widely distributed through the region, though also ranging into the Nearctic area. Among true Game-Birds (Gale) the large and handsome Curassows and their allies, which are related to the Mound- Builders of the Australian region, constitute a family (Cracide) which is almost entirely neotropical. The remarkable Hoatzin (Opisthocomus cristatus), native to the northern part of South America (see vol. iii, p. 472), may perhaps be regarded as an aberrant game-bird, but it possesses so many structural pecu- liarities that it is placed in a distinct family (Opzsthocomide), while some authorities even consider that it is entitled to an order (Opzsthocomz) of its own. 432 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME The South American forms known as Tinamous, sufficiently like game-birds to have earned the local name of “ partridges”, are in reality very primitive forms, which constitute a distinct order (Crypturz). One of the South American Birds of Prey (Accipitres), the huge Condor (Sarcorhampus gryphus) of the Andes, a kind of Vulture, is the largest existing flying bird, its spread of wing being as much as 9 feet. The only Running Birds (Aati/@) native to the New World are the Rheas (AZea) or South American Ostriches, which are smaller and less specialized than their African cousins. Neotropical Reptiles (Reptilia).—The warmer parts of the region are inhabited by Crocodiles (Cvrocodi/us), and forms known as Caimans (Cazzan), which are pretty closely related to the Alligators. Among the many Lizards (Lacerte/7a) members of the Iguana Family (/gvanid@) are conspicuous, though the group is shared with North America, and there are outlying forms in Madagascar and the Fiji Islands. The type-genus (/gzana) is only represented in tropical America and the West Indies, while the curious Basilisks (Basz/zscus) are limited to the former area. The Sea-Lizard (dimdblyrhynchus cristatus) of the Gala- pagos Islands is remarkable from its habit of browsing on sea- weeds which grow on the sea-floor in shallow water. Snakes (Ophidia) are well represented in the Neotropical region. They include most of the species of Boa, and the gigantic Anaconda (Zuneces murinus), which is the largest known serpent. The harmless Coral-Snake (//ysza scy¢ale), coral-red with black rings, is native to tropical South America. Of this species Gadow remarks (in Zhe Cambridge Natural Hrstory) that, “On account of its beauty, perfectly harmless nature, and for ‘cooling purposes’, this snake which grows to nearly a yard in length, is sometimes worn as a necklace by native ladies”. The name Coral Snake is also applied to a virulently poisonous species (Zaps coradlinus) native to the same area and also to the Lesser Antilles. It is related to the Cobras and Kraits of India, and the Death-Adders of Australia. A nphibians (Amphibia).—Though tailed forms (Uvode/a) just get into the northern part of the region, the vast majority of its Amphibians are Frogs and Toads (dura), The tongueless and toothless Surinam Toad (P2ja Americana), native to the north of South America, is one of the most interesting species, GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 433 which has been spoken about elsewhere, as also have some other neotropical forms (see vol. ili, p. 437). Neotropical Freshwater Fishes (Pisces).—A large eel-shaped Lung-Fish (Lefzedostven) is peculiar to South America, and the order (Dzpuor) to which it belongs is only elsewhere represented in Africa and Queensland (see p. 411). In ordinary Bony Fishes (7Ze/eostez) the region is extremely rich, and a few peculiar forms require mention. One family (Osteoglosside) is remarkable in the fact that its geographical range closely corresponds with that of the Lung-Fishes, except that it also includes Borneo and Sumatra. One of the neotropical species (Arapaima gigas), abundant in the great rivers of Brazil and the Guianas, is the largest freshwater representative of the order, for it may grow to a length of over 15 feet, and attain a weight of more than 400 lbs. Some of the neotropical members of the widely distributed Cat-Fish Family (Sz/u7zd@) are small forms distinguished by their armoured skins. The Electric Eels (Gymmnotzde) are characteristic of tropical America. Most Sharks and Rays (Z/asmobranchiz) are typically marine, yet some of the Sting-Rays (Zxygouide) are at home in the great rivers of South America, though the Indian Ocean is the head- quarters of the family. Neotropical Land- Molluscs (Mollusca). — The Neotropical region is particularly rich in members of this group, the West Indies being especially so, but it is unnecessary to enter into details. One curious negative feature is the complete absence of all members of the family (Zzmaczdz) that includes the ordinary Land-Slugs of the Old World, these being replaced by other types. Neotropical Insects (Lnsecta).— Regarding these Wallace makes the following remarks (in Zhe Geographical Distribution of Animals):—The Neotropical region is so excessively rich in insect life, it so abounds in peculiar groups, in forms of ex- quisite beauty, and in an endless profusion of species, that no adequate idea of this branch of its fauna can be conveyed by the mere enumeration of peculiar and characteristic groups. . . . The Butterflies of South America surpass those of all other regions in numbers, variety, and beauty; and we find here, not only more peculiar genera and families than elsewhere, but, what is more remarkable, a fuller representation of the whole series of families.” 434 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME It is very interesting to note that in the tropical forests of South America the carnivorous beetles, which in countries like our own live upon the ground, have taken to an arboreal life. They are, in fact, driven from their natural domain by predaceous Ants, the habits of some of which have elsewhere been mentioned (see OL. Uy LOA). CHAPTER LXXVI LIFE IN DIFFERENT SURROUNDINGS—SHALLOW WATER, DEEP WATER, AND SURFACE FAUNAS OF THE SEA In writing this book an attempt has been made to illustrate some of the innumerable ways in which animals have become adapted to exist in various surroundings or environments. Occa- sion has been taken to consider pretty fully adaptations to various kinds of food, to the exigencies of life in water, on the ground, in the ground, among the trees, and in the air. It may there- fore perhaps suffice here to deal with a few facts having reference to the adaptations which have been evolved in relation to exis- tence in the sea, especially as the last chapter has been mainly devoted to land animals. In dealing with marine forms it is found convenient to divide the oceans into three zones which pass into one another, the Neritic, the Abysmal, and the Pelagic, each of which is char- acterized, broadly speaking, by a special fauna. The Pelagic zone includes the surface waters so far as penetrated by light to any marked extent; the Neritic zone extends from high-tide mark to a depth of 500 fathoms; and the Abysmal zone stretches from this into the deepest and gloomiest ocean abysses. It is further the practice to divide marine animals into the three groups of Benthos, Nekton, and Plankton, according to their locomotor possibilities. In the Benthos are included fixed forms, and animals which creep upon the sea-floor, or burrow in stone, sand, or mud. Adult corals, for instance, possess no power of moving from place to place, most crabs and sea-snails live on the sea-floor, while many annelids and most bivalves burrow. The Nekton is made up of animals, e.g. cetaceans and fishes, which are powerful swimmers and easily range from place to place of their own free-will. The Plankton fauna con- sist of weaker creatures, and numerous larve, which float or 435 436 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME drift with the currents, against which the swimming powers that many of them possess can make no headway, though useful in a minor degree. Such are various animalcules, small crustaceans, jelly-fishes, and salps. Floating eggs and innumerable larvee also belong to the Plankton. THE NERITIC ZONE—LIFE IN SHALLOW WATER The Neritic Zone embraces the area between tide-marks, z.e. the littoral sub-zone and the shallow waters adjacent. There being abundant light a great variety of colours and patterns are exhibited by the animals, many of these being useful to their possessors in one way or another. And, as might be anticipated, neritic animals mostly possess well-developed eyes, unless they happen to have become adapted to a burrowing mode of life. The fauna of this zone is rich in the extreme, its character vary- ing with climate and the nature of the sea-floor, among other determining circumstances. The intertidal area is of particular interest, for, being exposed to the action of the air at periodic intervals, it is intermediate in character between sea and land, presenting an environment which has rendered possible the evolution of certain terrestrial forms (see vol. ii, p. 459), some of which have again more or less reverted to the ancient aquatic existence. Land-Crabs, for instance, have sprung from purely marine forms, while Cetaceans have undergone a_ secondary adaptation to the original mode of life that characterized their exceedingly remote fish-like ancestors. Neritic Mammals (Mammatia).—A number of forms which partly belong to the land have more or less claim to be included in the fauna of this zone, though some of them also spend more or less of their time in the Pelagic area. Such in particular are the Sea-Lions or Eared Seals (Ofaride), Walruses (Trichechide), and Seals (Phocede), which make up a special group (Pzxnipedia) of the Flesh-Eaters. The Sea-Cows (Szrenia), including the Dugong (/falicore) and Manatee (J/anatus), have deserted the land entirely, though the latter pass up into rivers and are there- fore, in part, members of the freshwater fauna. Neritic Birds (Aves).—The nature of the development of birds prevents them from deserting the land altogether, but many species spend so large a part of their lives on the shore or in THE NERITIC ZONE—LIFE IN SHALLOW WATER 437 shallow water that some allusion to them is necessary here. Among forms which still make considerable use of the land, other than for nesting purposes, the Gulls (Lavide) may be particularly mentioned, and many others have been dealt with in earlier sections, while the Penguins (/mpennes) are as neritic as it is possible for members of the class to be. Neriti Reptites.—The only case requiring mention is that presented by the Sea-Lizard (Amblyrhynchus cristatus), which spends a large part of its time feeding on the sea-weeds that grow in the shallow water. Neriti fishes (Pisces).—These are immensely numerous, and many of them have been dealt with in other sections. The majority of food-fishes, for instance, are neritic, though those of the herring and mackerel kind furnish important exceptions, yet many of these pelagic species favour the zone of shallow water for spawning purposes. The beautiful forms which abound in the neighbourhood of coral-reefs would alone require considerable space to do them justice. The effect produced upon the imagi- nation by the coral-fauna is vividly summarized by Alcock (in A Naturalist in Indian Seas) in the following impressionist sentences:—“ Looking back after thirteen years, I can only remember visions of fairy groves and glades, lit by a strange ethereal light, half moon half sun, where, among Christmas-trees of purple and blue and golden green, fishes painted like butter- flies flitted and hovered”. Those who desire to get some notion of the colour-schemes presented by such a fauna are referred to the magnificent plates in Saville Kent's Great Barrier Reef of Austraha, There are naturally a large number of interesting adaptations to be found among reef-animals, one of which has elsewhere been described (see p. 171). An interesting protective arrangement is found in a Coral-Fish (Apznephelus hexagonatus, fig. 1292) common in the Andaman Islands. The dark polygonal patches on its skin harmonize very well with the particular corals among which it feeds. A modification of different kind is pre- sented by the Parrot-Fishes (Scars), which owe their name to the strong curved jaws that enable them to browse upon the branches of various sorts of coral. Many British fishes of no economic value haunt the neighbour- hood of the coast, or may be seen in tidal pools. Such are some of the Gobies (Goézzdz), which include the beautiful Dragonets Vou. IV. 123 438 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME (Callionymus), and, in warmer countries, the little Mud-Skippers (Periophthalmus and Boleophthalmus), the habits of which have already been noticed. Other families are those which include the Blennies (Blexnzide), many of the Bull-Heads (Cottzde), and the gorgeously tinted Wrasses (Laérzdz). There are also the curious Pipe-Fishes (Syxgvathide), remarkable for the brood- pouch possessed by the male, and among these are the Sea- Horses (Hippocampus, Phyllopteryx, &c.), which are not found in British seas. Primitive Vertebrates (Protochordata) of the Neritic Zone.— Lancelets (A mphiovus) and Acorn-headed Worms (Balanogéossus) Fig. 1292.—Coral-Fish (Z£pznephelus hexagonatus) are widely distributed neritic forms, with burrowing habits. The zone is also inhabited by large numbers of Ascidians or Sea- Squirts (Urochorda), some solitary and some colonial, which in their adult stage are attached to various objects. Nerttic Molluscs (Mollusca)—Head-footed Molluscs (Cepha- lopoda) abound in shallow water, Squids and Cuttle- Fishes, for instance, being found in large numbers around our own coasts, while eight-armed forms, such as the Poulpe (Octopus) and its allies, belong as much to the Benthos as to the Nekton, of the Neritic region, for they crawl as much as they swim, or possibly more so. Sea-Snails and Sea-Slugs (Gastropoda) simply swarm both in shallow water and between tide-marks, especially in the tropics. Among the commonest littoral forms on the British coasts are the Limpets (Pate//a2), which adhere so closely to the rocks that they defy the wash of the tide, to which their conical shell affords but little purchase; the Purple-Shells (Purpura lapillus), well THE NERITIC ZONE—LIFE IN SHALLOW WATER 439 protected against the buffets of the waves when withdrawn into their thick white dwellings; and the Periwinkles (Littorina), including the edible species (Z. Z¢tovea); a smaller, more rounded kind (LZ. odtusata), often of bright-orange hue, which crawls over brown sea-weeds; and a third sort (Z. rudis), that dwells near high-water mark and has its breathing organs modified in consequence (see vol. ii, p. 459). Sea-Lemons (Doris) and other marine slugs are also common. Among neritic Bivalves (Lamellibranchia) forms of economic importance may be mentioned, such as the Oysters (Ostvea), attached by the substance of one valve; the Edible Mussels (Afytzlus), moored by silky byssus threads; the Scallops (Pectex), some of which can swim by opening and closing their shells; and the Cockles (Cardium), which burrow in the sand. Other delvers in sand or mud are the Gapers (AZya), the Razor-Shells (So/ez), and many more; while Piddocks ( Pho/as) and Date-Shells (Zztho- domus) are able to excavate dwellings in stone. Of Primitive Molluscs (4 mphineura) the flattened Mail-Shells (C&ztoz) live under stones or in rock-crevices. Neritic Crustaceans (Crustacea).—Prominent among these are the Prawns, Shrimps, Lobsters, and Crabs, of many species. Some forms of the last kind which we commonly see on our own coasts are the Edible Crab (Cancer pagurus), the green Shore-Crab (Carcznus manas), and, near low-tide mark, the little flattened Porcelain Crabs (Porcellana). Nerittc Annelids (Annelida).—Of these there is a vast host. Of British forms may be mentioned the actively-creeping Sea- Centipedes (Vervezs) and many related species; the Sea-Mice (Aphrodite), short plump worms with beautiful iridescent bristles; Scale-Worms (Polyzoe); Lug-Worms (Avenzcola), that burrow in sand or mud; Sand-Worms (Sade//aria), living in communities and gluing grains of sand into dwellings; and various species sheltered in white calcareous tubes, sometimes irregular in shape (Serpula), or coiled into small flat spirals (Sp7vorb7s) attached to brown sea-weeds. Other Worm-like Animals of the Neritic Zone.— Here may be mentioned, in passing, the colonial Moss-Polypes (Po/yzoa), of which the branching skeletons are often taken for sea-weeds; Nemertine Worms (Vemertea), slimy unsegmented creatures often found coiled up under stones; Siphon-Worms (Szpunculus), that 440 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME burrow in the sand; and Turbellarian Worms (7Zurbellaria), variously shaped flattened forms often seen adhering to stones or other objects. Neritic Hedgehog-Skinned Animals (Echinodermata). — In warmer seas, and to some extent in our own, Feather-Stars (Comatula) climb or swim in shallow water. Ordinary Star- Fishes (Asterordea) use their numerous tube-feet for creeping, and Brittle-Stars (Ophzurordea) progress on the sea-floor by Fig. 1293.—Section through part of a Coral Reef means of their snake-like arms. Sea-Urchins (Zchznotdea) creep slowly about after the fashion of star-fishes, and their tube-feet adhere so strongly to rock-surfaces that some of them can even withstand the surf of coral-reefs. The Sea-Cucumbers (ffolo- thuroidea) of shallow water either creep or burrow. Neritic Zoophytes (Calenterata).—On British coasts the solitary Sea-Anemones, often beautifully coloured, are the most noticeable of the Sea-Flowers (duthozoa). The fauna of the Great Barrier Reef of Australia includes some creatures of this kind which are as much as 2 feet in diameter when fully expanded. In some of the warmer seas, where the water is sufficiently clear, THE NERITIC ZONE—LIFE IN SHALLOW WATER 441 reefs are built up from the dead skeletons of a bewildering variety of Corals, simple or colonial, and the animals to which they belong _are closely related to the sea-anemones. Some Corals live on the floor of the deep sea, but the reef-builders, so far as we know, cannot sw, exist in water deeper than about 40 fathoms. Since some reefs extend down- wards into much greater depths (their foundations consisting of the skeletons of dead polypes, fig. 1293), Darwin came to the con- clusion that such reefs had been formed inareas where fig. 1294.—An encircling Coral-Reef in Plan and Section. By the sea-floor was sinking, hens ae he eee a corresponding upgrowth of coral, but at so slow a rate that upward growth kept pace with it. The theory affords a simple explanation of the ring-shaped reefs known as atolls, which might be supposed to have come into existence from the gradual sink- ing of islands fringed by reefs (figs. 1294, 1295). Borings recently made on coral islands lend strong support to the hypothesis. waar Fig. 1295.—An Atoll The population of the Neritic zone further includes large numbers of hydroid zoophytes and jelly-fishes (/7ydrozoa), these being in some cases the fixed and free-swimming stages in the life-history of the same species. 442 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME THE ABYSMAL ZONE—LIFE IN DEEP WATER The Abysmal Zone includes that part of the sea into which daylight penetrates but little, if at all. Even the average depth of the ocean, taken as a whole, is about 2100 fathoms (12,600 feet), while the profoundest abysses may be more than double this. The deepest patch at present known is off the coast of New Zealand, where a sounding of over 5000 fathoms (30,000 feet) has been obtained. It was long supposed that the deep sea was entirely devoid of life, but the numerous scientific in- vestigations made during the last few decades have proved that even at great depths there is a rich and varied fauna, closely allied to that of the Neritic zone, but presenting many peculiar features in relation to the entirely different physical conditions. Except where this realm adjoins the Pelagic zone above it, it is probably in complete darkness so far as daylight is concerned, though it is more or less lit up by the phosphorescent glow given out by many of its inhabitants. The pressure is enormous, and the deep sea is also very cold, the temperature of its floor not being far removed from freezing-point. There is a complete absence of plants (except perhaps bacteria), and many of the animals are consequently predaceous in a marked degree. The requisite supply of food is maintained by the dead organisms which rain down from the Pelagic zone, or get washed in at the sides from the Neritic zone. Deep-sea animals present a great variety of colours, though no one tint can be said to characterize the fauna as a whole, and there is generally no blending of differ- ent hues in the same animal, nor any complex patterns or mark- ings. It would seem that the utilitarian explanations that are more or less applicable to the colour-schemes of neritic forms fall short here. Certain other features will best be explained by briefly reviewing some of the chief groups of animals. Deep-Sea Fishes (Pisces).—Most of the fishes of the deep sea are black or brown in colour, but some of them are purple, pink, or red, and since these brighter hues are most prevalent in the upper regions of the abyss, at depths of from 100 to 250 fathoms, it is not impossible that they may correspond to a dull kind of sunset illumination due to light which has filtered down from the surface. Many deep-sea fishes are also characterized by the possession of variously arranged phosphorescent organs on THE ABYSMAL ZONE—LIFE IN DEEP WATER 443 the head and body, but the use of these can only be conjectured in most cases. In some of the Deep-Sea Anglers (e.g. AZelano- cetus Murrayt) a luminous knob at the end of the “lure” almost certainly serves the purpose of attracting prey (see vol. ii, p. 85). The bodies of these abysmal forms are of great fragility, and there is a deficiency of lime in their skeletons. Huge mouths, provided with formidable teeth, associated with swallowing powers of no mean order, distinguish many species, giving them a hungry wicked ger Fig. 1296.—Blind Deep-Sea Fishes. 1, Typhlonus nasus; 2, Ipnops Murrayi; 3, Aphyonus gelatinosus. and ferocious appearance, and suggesting that no chance of a square meal is let slip. In the manner of sight there are startling differences which at first appear difficult to reconcile. In most cases the eyes are either large and owl-like, serving to catch the faintest rays of light, or else they are degenerate, sometimes, indeed, having entirely disappeared (fig. 1296). It is usually supposed that those fishes descended from ancestors which ex- changed neritic for abysmal life with sufficiently plastic eyes, so to speak, to render their adaptation to the new conditions possible, have gradually acquired exaggerated positive characteristics, while the blind or purblind forms have taken origin from ancestors in 444 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME which such plasticity was absent. It is also clear that species which spend more or less of their time in the uppermost part of the abyss (and even in the Pelagic zone) have a better chance of improving their organs of vision. But the matter is still in the conjectural stage. Some of the fishes which see indif- ferently or not at all partly make up for the deficiency by the possession of long feelers, derived from fin- rays, which serve as a means of exploring the sur- rounding area to some distance (see p28), Deep-Sea Molluscs (Mollusca). — Some of the deep-sea Cuttle- Fishes (e.g. Taontus abyssicola, fig. 1297) are dis- tinguished by the possession of excep- tionally large eyes. The species figured has been dredged from depths of 902~ 1370 fathoms in the Indian Ocean. st die ae Ne a There are also several curious Octopods . ass (see vol. iii, p. 33). The Snails and Bivalves possess unusually thin and fragile shells, while some of the former have lost the characteristic rasping-organ (odontophore). ae a! EE LS RF Ve i Fig. 1298.—Deep-Sea Prawn (Glyphocrangon priononota) with large eyes, and well-developed organs of smell Deep-Sea Crustaceans (Crustacea).—Pink and red are here the prevailing colours, but some forms are purple, yellow, cream- THE ABYSMAL ZONE—LIFE IN DEEP WATER 445 colour, red, and even white, while others are spotted or striped in a simple manner. The hard investment of the body is comparatively thin and free from lime. As among Fishes, we find that the eyes are either greatly developed, or else more or less degenerate. We may take as an example of the former condition a kind of Prawn (Glyphocrangon priononota, fig. 1298) inhabiting the Indian Ocean at depths of 865-1022 fathoms. The figure illustrates two other interesting features. One branch of the first feelers (the thicker of the two fila- ments seen projecting in front) is of large size, and as this is the region which bears the olfactory organs the possession Fig. 1299.—Large Eyes of a Deep-Sea a (Para- of a keen sense of smell may ee ee eee (2) or be inferred. There is, further, a sharp defensive spine at the end of the tail, which can be turned up and held in that position by a sort of “locking joint”, acting as a bayonet to repel enemies at close quarters. It also appears that in some deep-sea crustaceans the fluid excreted from the renal organs gives out a phosphorescent light. In another kind A A A A A A A A A A A A 4 A i Fig. 1300.—A Blind Deep-Sea Shrimp (Prionocrangon ommeatosteres) of Prawn (Parapandalus spinipes, fig. 1299) there is what looks like a small accessory eye near the big one. If, however, this is really a luminous organ, as some think, the prawn provides its own eyes with light. To illustrate blind crustaceans we may take one of the Shrimps (Prionocrangon ommatosteres, fig. 1 300), which is absolutely destitute of eyes. 446 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME Fig. 1301.—Group of Deep-Sea Animals. In foreground—a Sea-Cucumber on left, and a Coral (Lophohelia) on right. At back—Venus’ Flower-Basket (Zuflected/a) on right, two Sea-Lilies (RAizocrinus and Pentacrinus) in centre, and on left. In the middle—a Pelican Fish (Saccopharynx pelecanoides). The Stopper-Fisted Hermit-Crabs (Pydocheles) of the Indian Ocean and Caribbean Sea do not possess the twisted tails of our common native species, which live in cast-off snail-shells, nor is one of the pincers much larger than the other. These particular hermits are in all respects symmetrical, in adaptation THE ABYSMAL ZONE—LIFE IN DEEP WATER 447 to their dwellings, which consist of water-logged joints of man- grove or bamboo. The large pincers act as a front-door, but a loophole is left between them to serve as a means of observation. Certain kinds of crustacean grow to a very much larger size in the deep sea than elsewhere. Among the Slaters (/sopoda), for example, of which the terrestrial wood-lice are the most familar types, we find one species (Bathynomus giganteus) which is a foot long. a Animals (Echinodermata) of the Deep Sea.—Star-Fishes, Brittle-Stars, and Sea-Urchins are all abun- Fig. 1302.--Deep-Sea Pycnogonid (Codossendeis) dantly represented in the abyss, while the beautiful Sea-Lilies (Crinocdea, fig. 1301), the representatives of a once dominant group, are found only in this zone. To this too are restricted the Elasipods, remarkable and apparently primitive types of the Sea- Cucumbers (folothurordea). They have a flattened under sur- face, and creep about like slugs on the soft deposits which cover the sea-floor (fig. 1301). Abysmal Sea-‘ Spiders” (Pycnogonida).— These curious jointed-limbed animals, which in the Neritic zone are represented by comparatively small forms, attain relatively colossal propor- tions in the abyss. One of them (Co/ossendezs) is represented in fig. 1302. Deep-Sea Corals (Anthozoa) and Sponges (Porifera).—Some 448 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME very beautiful Corals and Sponges are found in the deep sea. Some of the latter resemble elegant vases in shape, with walls supported by glassy threads interwoven like lace (fig. 1301). Others are moored in the soft deposits of the sea-floor by long bundles of slender spicules of similar nature. PELAGIC ZONE—SURFACE LIFE It will here be convenient to consider separately animals which are powerful swimmers (Nekton) and those which float or drift (Plankton). PeLacic NEKTON. | —Among Mammals we find that the Pinnipede Carnivores (see p. 436) spend more or less of their time in this zone, to which they partly be- long. More purely pelagic, and alto- gether independent of the land, are Whales and their allies (Cetacea). There are also Birds which are pelagic, notably the | Albatross (Dionedea Ti app es neds aes . exudans) and the Tropic Birds (Pha- éthon); while the Sea-Snakes (f/ydrophine) of the Indian Ocean and part of the Pacific belong here in the main. A number of Fishes are chiefly met with in the open sea, among them being the Blue Shark (Carcharias glaucus) and the Rondeletian Shark (Carcharodon Rondeleti?). The Flying-Fish (Zxv0cetus volitans) and its enemy the Bonito (4Albicore bonito) are also pelagic, and so is the remarkably-shaped Sun-Fish (O7thagoriscus mola, fig. 1303). Many of the best swimmers among the Cuttle-Fishes and Squids are also found at or near the surface of the sea, far away from land. PELAGIC ZONE—SURFACE LIFE 449 Petacic PLanxton.—The floating and drifting population of the sea possess a number of common characteristics related to their mode of life. They are typically translucent or transparent, a feature due to the large proportion of water in their tissues. By making some of them more or less difficult to see, this may serve to some extent as a means of protection (see vol. ii, p. 278), and by reducing the density of their bodies it must certainly Fig. 1304.—A Ray-Animalcule (7halassicola pelagica) with “‘ bubbly ” protoplasm, much enlarged. render floating a comparatively easy matter. The latter purpose is also promoted by arrangements of other kind. In many of the minute crustaceans and crustacean larve, for example, there are numerous spines and hairs which must reduce the tendency to sink. Oil-globules are of common occurrence, both in adult animals and in some floating eggs, such as those of fishes. And there may also be gas-receptacles for buoying up the body. In some of the Animalcules, for example, the living substance (protoplasm) of the animal is of ‘‘ bubbly” consistency, owing to the presence of minute spaces filled with liquid, or even gas (fig. 1304). In many of the Compound Jelly- Fishes (Szphono- phora) there is a gas-filled float at the upper end of the colony, 450 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME and sometimes (Vedella, fig. 1305) a crest projecting from this may almost be said to serve as a sail. It must not be supposed, however, that plankton animals are always found at the surface, for, on the contrary, they are able to withdraw themselves from it to a greater or less depth, and thus avoid the damaging effects of a rough sea or an excess of temperature. Our ignorance is at present too great to enable us to explain the reasons for all the upward or downward move- ments which constantly go on, sometimes in a curious periodic manner. As Hickson says (in Zhe Story of Life im the Seas, Fig. 1305.—Velella a little book which is heartily commended to the attention of readers) :—‘‘ The fact is, that the conditions of life in the surface waters are so complicated that it is extremely difficult for us to accurately estimate the balance of the forces which act upon these organisms. The direct heat of the sun, the light of both the sun and the moon, the tranquillity or roughness of the sea, the con- ditions of the tides and winds which cause changes in the surface temperature of the water, independently of the direct heat of the sun, all influence the delicate tissues of which these animals’ bodies are composed, and cause them to change their position.” Phosphorescence is another common property of plankton animals, and its meaning is in many cases difficult to understand. Plank- tons are of very various character. Some contain animals of many different species, others consist of a single form of life. Vertebrates (Vertebrata) of the Plankton.—Among Fishes (Prsces) occasion has already been taken to note (see vol. iii, PELAGIC ZONE—SURFACE LIFE 451 p. 425) that a great many species lay floating eggs, and these, together with the transparent larve that hatch out of them, belong to the plankton fauna. Primitive Vertebrates (Profo- chordata) are abundantly represented by certain Sea-Squirts or Ascidians (Uvochorda), including some little tadpole-shaped forms (Appendicularia, &c.), Barrel Ascidians (Doliolum), Salps (Salpa), and Fire-Cylinders (Pyzosoma), all of which have received notice Fig. 1306.—Wing-Footed Snails (Pteropfoda). a, Cuvierina; 8, Clio; c, Creseis; p, shell of Cleodora; £, Limacina; F, Clione; Gc, Halopsyche; u, front part of Pneumoderma, with hook-bearing tubes and groups of stalked suckers, for securing prey. A-£, Shell-bearing forms; F-H, shell-less forms. in earlier sections (see vol. i, p. 299; vol. iii, pp. 38 and 422; and p. 106 of present volume). Plankton Molluscs (Mollusca).—The beautiful Violet-Snail (Lanthina), with its egg-raft, belongs here, also the members of the remarkable and diversified group of Fin-Footed Snails (/e¢ero- oda), and a curious little Sea-Slug (Phydirhoe), which is flattened from side to side (see vol. iii, pp. 34 and 36). Far more characteristic than these, however, are the little Wing-Footed Snails (Pteropoda, fig. 1306), which are often found associated in vast shoals, affording an important contribution to the bill of fare of animals so large as Whales. 452 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME The larve of numerous Molluscs simply swarm in the surface waters of the sea. Plankton Insects (Insecta).—Although Insects are essentially land-forms, a few Bugs (e.g. /Ya/obates) live on the surface of the open sea. Plankton Crusta- ceans (Crustacea). — Many members _ of this group, and in- numerable crustacean larvee, are among the most important plank- ton animals. Some, as the Swimming- Crabs, may be of fair size, but by far the most dominant order is that of the Fork- Footed Crustaceans (Copepoda, fig. 1307), which are of great economic importance, because they constitute the staple diet of Her- rings and some other valuable food - fishes (See p. 293), Plankton Anneltds . ( Annelida ). — Some ee eerie are specially adapted to a life in the surface waters, and one remarkable example (Tomopteris) has elsewhere been described (see vol. iii, p. 22). Plankton Echinoderms (Echinodermata).—The curious larve of all sorts of Echinoderms are abundantly found in plankton at certain times of the year, but the adult members of the group seem little suited for this kind of life. A kind of Sea-Cucumber (Pelagothuria), however, has acquired the necessary adaptations for the purpose (see vol. iii, p. 24). Nemertine Worms (Nemertea) of the Plankton.—The larve bo PELAGIC ZONE—SURFACE LIFE 453 of these curious Worms, like those of the last-named group, are well represented in the surface waters of the sea, and some adult Nemertines have given up creeping and taken to a pelagic life. One of the most remarkable (Peda- onemertes) is represented in fig, 1308. Plankton Thread-Worms (Ne- mathelmia). — Among the com- Fig. 1308.—Pelagic Nemertine Worm Fig. 1309.—Night-Light Animalcules (Pelagonemertes), reduced (Woctzluca), enlarged monest inhabitants.of the surface waters are the curious little fish-shaped Arrow-Worms (Sagztta, Spadella, &c.), which con- stitute a special group (Chefognatha) that is generally supposed to be an outlying constituency of the Thread-Worms (see vol. iii, p- 21), though its affinities are doubtful. Fig. 1310,—Shells of Ray-Animalcules (Radiolaia), imbedded in the fibrous skeleton of a sponge Plankton Zoophytes (Caelenterata).—A bewildering variety of jelly-fishes, belonging to all sorts of groups, abound in the surface waters. Many of them have abandoned altogether the fixed zoophyte-stage that is found in the life-history of many such creatures (see vol. iii, p. 349). Perhaps the most interesting 124 VoL. IV. 454 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME among them are the Compound Jelly-Fishes (Szphonophora), which are floating colonies, often of very complicated nature, as the members of the colony are modified in many various ways in order to fit them for diverse functions (see p. 103). Plankton Animatcules (Protozoa).—One very interesting form, the Night-Light Animalcule (Voc¢zduca, fig. 1309), is a common cause of the phosphorescent appearance of the sea around our TAMA RAL Fig. 1311.—Group of Foraminifera. 1, Ammodiscus incertus; 2, A. charoides: 3, Trochammina coronata; 4, T. nitida; 5, Textularia agglutinans; 6, Verneuilina pygmza; 7, Lagena seminuda; 8, t{Nodosaria scalaris; 9, Ramulina globulifera; 10, Polystomella imperatrix. coasts. Two groups are very dominant in the plankton, the Ray-Animalcules (Radzolaria, fig. 1310) and the Forams (Fora- minifera, fig. 1311). The former possess a flinty skeleton, often of great complexity and beauty, while the latter are provided with elegant calcareous shells of the most various shapes. Vast areas of the sea-floor are covered by soft “oozes”, which are largely composed of the hard parts of deceased members of these two groups that are being continually rained down from the surface waters. There also appear to be some few species PELAGIC ZONE—SURFACE LIFE 455 of both groups that actually live on the floor of the abysmal zone. Besides the typical plankton fauna which has just been briefly dealt with, the Pelagic zone is also inhabited by another assem- blage of animals associated with various drifting objects, and particularly with the vast accumulations of sea-weeds that are found in the Sargasso Sea and elsewhere. Details would here be out of place, but it may be remarked that fixed forms of life, such as hydroid zoophytes, by attaching themselves to floating sea-weed, are enabled to maintain a foothold in the Pelagic zone. It is a matter of common knowledge that one of the most curious of fixed Crustaceans, the Ship- Barnacle (Zefas), is commonly found adhering to drifting objects. The skins of Whales and Fishes also afford a home to quite a number of attached species, some of which are external parasites belonging to various groups. And many pelagic animals are also the unwilling hosts of numerous internal parasites, from which no zone affords escape. Large bodies of fresh water may also be divided into zones, inhabited by characteristic faunas. The plankton of lakes is of particular interest, and also of some economic importance, as its population augments the food-supply available for freshwater fishes. CHAPTER LXXVII DISTRIBUTION IN TIME—THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD If a large and complicated tree were submerged in water except the ends of some of its branches, these ends, projecting above the surface, would have the same sort of relationship to one another as existing groups of animals. ‘To sketch the sub- merged tree on the evidence of the parts seen above water would prove a hopeless task, and to determine the mutual affinities of existing groups of animals without knowledge of their past history is also a difficult matter, though structure and development give many clues. Geology, however, furnishes us with a great deal of material from which to reconstruct the ancient life-history of the earth. It deals with periods of which the oldest date back to immensely remote times, if measured by the ordinary human standards of years and centuries, and the history of mankind occupies only the last page of the chronicle. Tue GeroLocicaL Rrecorp.—At the present time deposits of sand, mud, and limestone are being formed in the sea, in bodies of fresh water, and some other places, and these enclose the remains of dead animals, such as are well provided with hard parts standing the best chance of preservation. These deposits are arranged in successive layers, of which the uppermost are necessarily the youngest, and contain the remains of such animals as have most recently deceased. Examination of the hard frame- work of the land shows that a large part of it is made up of rocks, such as clay, slate, sandstone, and limestone, which are similarly arranged in layers, 7.e. are stratified, each such layer being known as a stratum (fig. 1312). Imbedded in these strata are fossz/s, which are no other than the remains of animals (and _ plants) which once existed, or markings, e.g. footprints and other im- pressions, that prove the existence of certain forms of life at the time when the rocks containing them were formed. These strati- 456 DISTRIBUTION IN TIME—THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD 457 fied rocks, the pages of the geological record, are the deposits formed in ancient seas and ancient lakes, or more rarely on old land-surfaces, in the same way that sand, or mud, or ooze is now accumulating on the floor of the existing ocean, in existing bodies of fresh water, or, it may be, on land. Such old deposits, how- ever, have usually undergone more or less consolidation, and those which we now find above-water owe their present position to movements of elevation, such as are even yet in progress in certain parts of the world. But as these movements are generally extremely slow, they usually produce no obvious result in the brief span of a human lifetime. Remembering that a particular stratum or layer of rock (and of necessity its fossils) is older than those which rest upon it, and younger than those which underlie it, geologists have been able to arrange the different strata in their proper chrono- logical sequence, and thus to construct a continuous geological record, often pic- turesquely known as the “record of the rocks”. The fossils of the record obviously afford some idea, though necessarily an sig :y1a— Strata in Vertical Section imperfect one, of the successive faunas of the globe for many millions of years, how many can only be conjectured. A hundred millions is a common estimate, based on many different kinds of evidence. GroLocicaL Prrtops.—Without entering into details which may be found in any text-book of geology, it may be stated that the geological record can be divided into four great epochs, which are, beginning with the youngest: KAINOZOIC EPOCH (Gk. aznos, recent; zoé, life)—Age of Birds and Mammals. MESOZOIC EPOCH (Gk. mesos, middle; zoé).—Age of Reptiles. PALAZEOZOIC EPOCH (Gk. palaios, ancient; zo@)—Age of Amphi- bians, Fishes, and Invertebrates. EOZOIC EPOCH (Gk. cos, dawn; zoé).—Age of Unknown Life. The time represented by these four epochs is of very unequal length, but the Kainozoic, in which we live, has endured for a much shorter period than the Mesozoic, which in its turn was briefer than the Paleozoic, while possibly the Eozoic was longer than the other three put together. The entire geological record includes stratified rocks to a thickness of over 100,000 feet, a 458 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME sufficiently bulky volume in which to study the evolutionary his- tory (phylogeny) of animal groups. As will be seen from the above indication of the types dominant in the successive epochs, there has been a successive progress from low to high, in con- formity with the doctrine of evolution; but the record is very imperfect, and that part of it belonging to the Eozoic is made up of pages which so far have turned out to be practically blank. Many parts of the world, however, are as yet unexplored, so far as their geology is concerned, and during the last few decades the additions to our knowledge have been so great that much is to be hoped for in the future. LIFE IN THE PAL/-EOZOIC EPOCH That animal life existed long before the commencement of this epoch is sufficiently shown that in its earliest stage all the great groups of Backboneless Animals (Invertebrata), save those en- tirely devoid of hard parts capable of preservation, are represented, mostly by forms which we are able to classify with some approach to certainty. And before the epoch came to an end all the classes of Backboned Animals (Vertebrata), except Primitive Vertebrates (of the past history of which, owing to the soft nature of their bodies, we can never hope to learn much), Birds, and Mammals, had come into existence, as testified by numerous fossils. PaLozoic ANIMALCULES (PRoTozoA).—The Ray-Animalcules (Radiolaria) and Forams (Foramznztfera) are here and there abun- dant. The flinty shells of the former make up hard siliceous bands (cherts) which were certainly deposited in very deep water, and correspond to the Radiolarian oozes which now cover parts of the ocean floor. Some of the limestones (e.g. the Fusulina lime- stone) belonging to that part of the epoch when our coal-fields were formed are made up mainly of the shells of Foraminifera, and these may be compared to the wide-spread foraminiferal oozes of the present day. It may be remarked, in passing, that some of the rocks of the Eozoic epoch (in Brittany) contain the remains of Ray-Animal- cules. PaLtmozoic ZOOPHYTES (C@LENTERATA).— The variously-shaped colonial forms known as Graptolites (Ahabdophora, fig. 1313) are largely represented in some of the older Palzeozoic rocks, and the LIFE IN THE PALA OZOIC EPOCH 459 group died out entirely before the end of the epoch. They were very probably related to the existing Hydroid Zoophytes, and most of them belonged to the plankton of their time, and were most likely attached to drifting masses of sea-weed. In fact, Sargasso conditions were probably then more widely spread than now. Corals were extremely abundant, and some of them were reef- builders, but they were mostly of a more primitive type than those now existing, and chiefly belonged to the extinct group of Four- Rayed Sea-Flowers ( Ze¢rac- tinva or Rugosa). PaL£o0zoic HEDGEHOG - SKINNED ANIMALS (EcHINO- DERMATA).—Sea- Lilies (C7- noidea), now a declining group, were extremely abun- dant, and some of the Palzo- zoic limestones are mainly composed of their remains. Two other classes of fixed Crinoids are limited to this epoch, and one of them (Cystotdea) is of particular interest, because it pro- Fig. 13t3.—Forked Graptolites (Didymograptus) on the bably represents the stock surface of a piece of rock. A small part of one is drawn to a larger scale. from which all other echino- derm groups have been derived, directly or indirectly. The other order (Blastordea) was a sterile side-branch. Star-Fishes (Asterordea) and Brittle-Stars (Ophzurodea) were both repre- sented, and one of the former (Padzodiscus) possessed a biting apparatus like that of many Sea-Urchins. The class (Zchzn- oidea) to which creatures of the last-named kind belong was represented by a number of primitive types, with more numerous plates than later species, and (on the evidence of Palaodiscus) it has been suggested that Sea-Urchins are descended from Star- Fishes. Patsozoic Lamp-Suetts (Bracuiopopa).—This group of greatly specialized worms, distinguished by the possession of a bivalve shell, at the present time contributes but little to the fauna of the sea. In the Paleozoic epoch it was extremely 460 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME dominant, and embraced a great variety of species, mostly be- longing to extinct types. It is notable, however, that some of the lowlier forms which lived at the beginning of the period, eg. the Tongue-Shells (Lingula, &c., fig. 1314), have persisted to the present day with but slight modification, so far as can be judged from the shell alone. That these and other “persistent types” should remain unmodified for vast periods of time has been brought forward as an argu- ment against the doctrine of evolution. It is, on the contrary, what might be expected to some- times occur in animals devoid of relatively com- plex adaptations to their surroundings. It was Fic vA foo 8180 at one time positively stated that Lamp- ee Shells, taken as a whole, afford no instance of modification on evolutionary lines. Of late years, however, thanks to the brilliant work of the American school of geologists, we know that the evidence afforded by this group is enough in itself to convince any candid naturalist that evolution has been the guiding principle in the animal world. PaLtsozorc JornTeD-Limpep Animats (ArTHROPopDA).—AI] the existing orders of Crustaceans (Crustacea) were represented Fig. 1315.—Upper Surfaces of three Trilobites. Olenus (left), Paradoxides (centre), Olenellus (right). Actual size indicated by the fractions. in the fauna of this epoch, except the Fork-footed Crustaceans (Copepoda), which are of too delicate a nature to be preserved as fossil, though they no doubt existed. It is noticeable that some of the more primitive types made their appearance very early, the contrary being true for the more specialized ones, such as creatures of the prawn and crab kind. LIFE IN THE PALZOZOIC EPOCH 461 The curious 77zlodites (Trilobita, fig. 1315), which constituted a closely allied class, were dominant in the older Palaeozoic periods, but became entirely extinct before the end of the epoch. In these creatures the upper side of the body was covered by a firm in- vestment divided into a head-shield, a varying number of thoracic segments, and a tail-shield. There was also, as a rule, a longi- tudinal division into three regions, and this is the origin of the name “trilobite”. The numerous species exhibited a great range of characters, both as regards size, shape, and other features. The upper side of the head- shield often bore a pair of eyes, fre- quently large and facetted, but visual organs were sometimes entirely ab- sent. Our knowledge of the under surface and limbs of trilobites was very incomplete till comparatively recently, : No . OPEN IOAN partly on account of the delicacy of Wy PEFR these parts, but now, chiefly owing Cex Zan to the investigations of American ee a geologists on certain well-preserved species, many points relating to them have been elucidated. The head carried a pair of slender feelers, and there were numerous pairs of forked e 6 = Fig. 1316.—a, Under side of a Trilobite (77z- limbs used for crawling and swim- arthrus) restored, showing the numerous jointed limbs. azz., antenne; 2.2, upper lip; 2.2., lower ming, while some of those in the 42°), Diagrammatic cross-section through same, region of the mouth acted as jaws seve tnbresom. s; Pjeson saving a (fig. 1316). Many of the stages in growth have been observed, and it may be said that trilobites which, when adult, are of simple structure, resemble the early stages of those which attain to greater complexity. This is precisely what the doctrine of evolution would lead us to expect. It may be added that many trilobites were able to roll up like hedgehogs, and this was no doubt a means of protection. Appearing rather later in time than the Trilobites, which they to some extent supplanted, we find Lurypterids (e.g. Pterygotus, fig. 1317), some of which attained a length of about 5 feet. They died out before the end of the epoch, and appear to have 462 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME been related to the Crustaceans. The Azng-Crabs (Xtphosura), now represented by a single genus (Lzudus), first made their appearance in Palzozoic times. They are sometimes included with the Eurypterids in a special group (JZerostomata). Centipedes and ALillipedes (Myriapoda) were represented by several palzozoic forms with somewhat primitive characters, while among Spider-like Animals (Arachnida) there were Scorpions, which appeared comparatively early, Whip-Scorpions, and Spiders, besides representatives (e.g. Aophrynus, fig. 1318) of ee 2 2, 2. Cp Fig. 1317.—A Eurypterid (Péerygotus), much reduced Fig. 1318.—An extinct Arachnid (Eophrynus) an order limited to the epoch. Four orders of /nsects (Insecta) had palozoic representatives, ze. Primitive Wingless Insects (dptera), Straight-Wings (Orthoptera), Net-Wings (Meuroptera), and Bugs (/femzptera). Some of them were of considerable size, and it is by no means certain that the older types really belonged to existing orders. Pat.zozoic. Mottiuscs (Motiusca).—Among Aead- Footed Volluscs (Cephalopoda) now existing, only the Pearly Nautilus (Nautilus) possesses an external shell, of which the part not occupied by the animal is divided by partitions into a series of gas-filled chambers. But in the paleeozoic rocks we find the re- mains of a great many species thus characterized. Their shells were straight, curved, open spirals, or closed spirals, like that of Nautilus, which dates back to the middle of the epoch. It seems LIFE IN THE PALAOZOIC EPOCH 463 probable that the straight-chambered shell was first evolved, and that this gradually underwent a process of coiling up, as a means of facilitating locomotion. Marine Snacls (Gastropoda) are abundantly represented among the paleozoic fossils, and it may be said generally that they be- longed to the more primitive families, and were mostly of vege- tarian habit. We also know that Land-Snails existed. The Lusk-Shells (Scaphopoda) date back to this epoch, and Bivalves (Lamellibranchia), the older ones of primitive type, were abundant. Primitive Molluscs (Anphineura) were represented by Mail-Shells (Chzton, &c.) of various kind. PaLwozoic Fisues (Pisces).—There is no clear proof of the existence of fishes in the earlier rocks of the epoch, but later on they became abundant. The teeth and spines of Sharks, &c. (Elasmo- branchit), are common fossils, and the armour- plated marine ancestors of Ganozds (Ganotdet) were abundantly represented, as also forms in all proba- bility ancestral to the Lung-Fishes (Dipnot). Many palzozoic fishes also belonged to orders that are — Fig.1319.—AnOstra- now extinct. Some of the oldest of the fish-like "iid forms, distinguished by a covering of shelly plates on the front part of the body, also by the absence of lower jaws and paired fins, were probably not really fishes at all, and have been placed in a special group (Ostracodermata, fig. 1319) of lower rank. Pataozorc Ampuipians (Ampuipia).—These are represented in the second half of the epoch by numerous species, all belonging to an extinct order (Stegocephala), distinguished by the possession of skins which were more or less armour-plated, especially on the head. While some of these creatures were small, others attained considerable dimensions. The footprints of some of them have been preserved. The chief interest attaching to the order lies in the fact that it was probably ancestral to Reptiles. It is also worth while noting that some few members of the order (e.g. Dolichosoma) were limbless and snake-like, suggesting a com- parison with the recent Cecilians (Gynophiona), a widely dis- tributed and in some respects primitive group, eg. in the possession of little bony plates in the skin. PaLawozoic Reptites (RepTiLia).—A few fossil types from 464 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME the last stage in the Paleozoic epoch, formerly placed in the Stegocephala, are now referred to an extinct order of Reptiles (Proreptilia), which furnishes the nearest approach to the original reptilian stock. A further stage in evolution was represented by a second order (Rhyuchocephala), from which the remaining groups of reptiles have probably sprung. There is a single exist- ing species, the Tuatara (//atterva punctata) of New Zealand. There were some other palozoic reptiles, but these will be mentioned in dealing with the succeeding epoch. LIFE IN THE MESOZOIC EPOCH The animals of this epoch approached more nearly those of the present day than did their paleozoic predecessors. They included, however, a number of remark- able extinct groups, some of which were extremely dominant, while other classes, e.g. Birds and Mammals, which now play leading parts, were but feebly represented. Mesozoic ANIMALCULES (PROTOZOA).— The familiar chalk, which makes up the Fig. 1320.—Foraminifera fromthe“ white cliffs of Albion”, and ranges east far into Asia, was deposited in the later part of the epoch. It is very largely made up of the remains of Foraminifera (fig. 1320), and before compacted and upheaved must have borne a close resemblance to the foraminiferal oozes which are now spread over a large part of the ocean floor. Mesozoic Sponces (PortrerA).—During the chalk period a large number of Sponges possessed of siliceous skeletons existed in the moderately deep sea, and it is their remains which chiefly furnished material for the large flint nodules that abound in part of the chalk, and which have a very particular interest for students of the evolution of human civilization, since from them many of the stone implements and weapons of prehistoric European races were fashioned. Mesozoic ZoopnyTes (C@LENTERATA).—Corals were extremely abundant during the epoch, and many of them were reef-builders. They belonged to the same great group (/evacéinza) that includes the most typical recent forms, being, like them, distinguished by a six-rayed symmetry. LIFE IN THE MESOZOIC EPOCH 465 Mesozoic HepGEHoG-SKINNED ANIMALS (ECHINODERMATA).— Sea-Lilies (Crznozdea) were far less dominant than during the Palaeozoic epoch, and were represented by types of different kind, some of them (e.g. Pextacrinus) being closely allied to forms now living in the deep sea. Feather-Stars, belonging to the same class, but distinguished by the fact that when adult they abandon their stalks and take to a free life, first made their appearance during this epoch. Ordinary Star-Fishes (Asterordea) and Brittle-Stars (Ophzu- rotdea) were of increasing importance, and very numerous Sea- Urchins (Zchznordea) existed, many of them resembling recent forms, and differing greatly from the primitive paleozoic types. Mesozoic Lamp-SHELLs (Bracui- opopa).—These lost their dominance during this epoch, and the most im- portant species belonged to genera which are represented at the present day (e.g. Terebratula and Rhyucho- nella). Mesozoic JoInTED-Limpep ANI- maLs (ArTHROPODA).—The Trilobites and Eurypterids of the Paleozoic epoch were entirely unrepresented, but undoubted Crustaceans (Crustacea) were common. These included numerous species belonging to the highest order (Decapoda), and more or less resembling the Lobsters, Prawns, Shrimps, and Crabs of the present day. Among the air-breathing forms Jusects (/usecta) were gradually acquiring a dominant position. Of orders for the first time represented may be mentioned Beetles (Codeoptera), Flies (Dzpdera), and Membrane-Wings (Hymenoptera). Ants are the most ancient members of the last order, so far as the Fig. 1321.—Shell of an Ammonite (reduced) evidence goes. Mesozoic Motiuscs (Mottusca).—Head-Footed Molluscs (Cephalopoda) took a leading place in the marine fauna. Two important types, ze. Ammonites and Belemnites, were practically limited to the epoch. The former (fig. 1321) possessed spiral chambered shells, with the turns in one plane, and the edges of the partitions between the successive chambers elaborately folded. Towards the end of the epoch, however, we find more or less 466 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME unrolled species (fig. 1322), some even that were perfectly straight. Such types may perhaps be regarded as unsuccessful attempts at adaptation to changing surroundings. The Belemnites (fig. 1323) possessed internal shells, and in this and some other respects, e.g. the possession of an ink-bag, resembled recent Cuttle-Fishes, though they belonged to a distinct group. Cuttle- Fishes and Squids, which are now dominant members of their class, were feebly represented in Mesozoic times, but as they alone proved able, mainly by acquiring a rapid mode of swim- ming, to fully adapt themselves to their environment, they finally succeeded in almost entirely sup- planting the more ancient types related to them. omit Fig. 1323.—Belemnites (reduced). 1 and 2, Res- Fig. 1322.—Unrolled Cephalopods related to Ammonites torations; ADC, internal shell; F, funnel; 11, short (Hamites left, Scaphites right), reduced arms; Kk, long arms; N, ink-bag; 3, shell. Although many of the primitive palzeozoic types of marine Snails (Gastropoda) were able to maintain their foothold during this epoch, the leading place was taken by specialized carnivorous forms, which became more numerous and varied as time went on. Bwalves (Lamelhibranchia) played a much more important part than in the preceding epoch, many new and more advanced types coming into existence. The families now represented by Oysters, Cockles, Mussels, and Razor-Shells, among many others, first made their appearance. Mesozoic Fisues (Pisces)—The last marine representatives of existing Lung-Fishes (Dipnor) existed in the earlier part of the epoch, and some of the fossil teeth are so like those of the Queensland Lung-Fish (Ceratodus) as to suggest a close relation- ship with that form. There were many mesozoic Sharks, &c. (Elasmobranchi7), and we can trace the gradual specialization of LIFE IN THE MESOZOIC EPOCH 467 their flattened relatives, the Skates and Rays. Ganozds (Ganozdez) abounded, and some of them appear to have been ancestral to Sturgeons. Ordinary Bony Frshes (Teleostet) are the dominant members of their class at the present day, and date back to the later stages of the Mesozoic epoch. Some of the older types, less well adapted than they to an aquatic life, have gradually declined since the time of their first appearance. Mesosorc AMPHIBIANS (AmpuiBiIA).—The armoured Amphibians (Stegocephala) of the paleozoic lived on into the earlier part of this epoch, to which belonged the largest known member of the order (Mastodonsaurus), the head of which was about four feet long. The teeth and footprints (fig. 1324) of this and related forms were charac- teristic, and have been known to geologists for a comparatively long time. The former were conical, and exhibit in cross-section very elabo- rate folds of enamel, which suggested the name of ‘ Labyrinthodon” (ze. labyrinth tooth). The footprints look something like the impressions fig. 1304.—Labyrinthodon. a, Tooth and foot of clumsy hands, hence the old name aa a “Cheirotherium” (ze. hand-animal). Mesozoic Reprives (Repritta).—The ancient order (Ahzyn- chocephala), of which the Tuatara (/Za¢terza) is the only living representative, includes a number of species which were widely distributed in the early part of this epoch. Some of them were as much as 6 feet in length. One of the most interesting extinct orders of the class, the Varied-Toothed Reptiles (Anomodontia) includes characteristic land-forms which lived during the later part of the Paleozoic epoch and the earlier part of the Mesozoic. The interest attaching to them lies in the fact that in certain respects they were inter- mediate in structure between the Armoured Amphibians and the lower Mammals, so that they probably represent the stock from which the last class has taken origin. Among mesozoic types may 468 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME be mentioned the following :—Pareiasaurus (fig. 1325), a particu- larly clumsy-looking creature some 8 feet long and between 2 and 3 feet high; Cynognathus, with skull and teeth not unlike those of a dog; and Dicynodon, possessing large tusk-like upper canines. The five extinct orders of Reptiles now to be mentioned were Fig. 1325.— Pareiasaurus (much reduced) represented by a large number of forms peculiar to the epoch, and severally adapted to the most various conditions of life, in the sea, on the land, and even in the air. Fish-Lizards (Lchthyosauria).—These were large rapacious marine forms, something like whales in shape, and with paddle- like limbs (fig. 1326). Judging from their enormous eyes they Fig. 1326.—Restoration of Fish-Lizard (/chthyosaurus), much reducea were of nocturnal habit. Another interesting feature was the unsymmetrical tail, with the larger lobe below. The shape of this would facilitate return to the surface after diving (see vol. iii, p. 289). Sea-Lizards (Plestosauria).—These also were marine reptiles with large paddles, and the most familiar types (e.g. Pleszosaurus fig. 1327) possessed a long almost swan-like neck. The earlier members of the order appear only to have been semi-aquatic. LIFE IN THE MESOZOIC EPOCH 469 Sea-Serpents (Pythonomorpha).—During the later part of the epoch the marine reptiles belonging to the last two orders diminished in numbers and importance. They were to some extent replaced by the snake-shaped creatures of the present group, with small short paddles. Some of the largest forms (Mesasaurus) seem to have been as much as 49 feet in length. LTerrible Reptiles or Dinosaurs (Dinosauria).—The members of this varied group were the domi- nant land-reptiles of the epoch, and were represented by a great variety of remarkable species. The Reptile-Footed Dinosaurs (Sauropoda) were herbivorous forms with hoof-bearing planti- grade extremities. Some of them attained a very large size, the most gigantic (AZ/antosaurus) is even believed to have been as much as 115 feet long. The Beast-footed Dinosaurs (Zkhero- oda) were of carnivorous habit, and distinguished by the great proportionate length of their hind-limbs, which suggests that hopping was their typical mode of locomotion. They included species of greatly differing size, from that of a cat to that of an elephant. The Armoured Dino- saurs (Stegosauria) were herbiv- orous creatures, and in the type- genus (Stegosaurus, fig. 1328), which included species some 28 feet long, the back was pro- tected by a series of large flattened bony plates, passing into spines on the upper side of the tail. The head was of relatively small size, and the brain so tiny that the intelligence must have been small. The herbivorous Bird-Footed Dinosaurs (Ovaz- thopoda) are so-called because the structure of their hind-limbs Vou. IV. 125 Fig. 1327.—Skeletons of Fish-Lizard (/chthyosaurus) and Sea-Lizard (Plesiosaurus), much reduced 470 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME presents some points of resemblance to birds, probably due to their having been adapted to the same kind of locomotion on 4 uty, Fig. 1328.—Stegosaurus (much reduced) the ground. These limbs were relatively very long, and they were also digitigrade, z.c. the animals possessing them walked on tiptoe. The best-known member of the group (/euanodon, fig. 1329) inhabited England, Belgium, and Germany during the second half of the Meso- zoic epoch, and the larger of the two known species was nearly 30 feet in length. The Horned Dinosaurs (Ceratop- sta), which were among the later forms of the epoch, i cluded a remarkable herbiv- orous creature (77ceratops) over 20 feet in length, with three horns on the head, and a curious bony shield covering Fig. 1329.—Iguanodon (much reduced). sc, Scapula; ¢o, coracoid; 1 and v (in fore-limb), thumb and little finger; 2, pubis produced back into post-pubis (#4); zs, ischium; the neck. I-IV (in hind-limb), rst to 4th toes. ‘ ” fhing Reptiles (Ptero- sauria).—The organs of flight of these extraordinary animals have elsewhere been described (see vol. iii, p. 308). Some were of small size, and of these the Pterodactyles (Prerodactylus, LIFE IN THE MESOZOIC EPOCH 471 fig. 1330) were short-tailed. But one of the later types (Pera- nodon) was a toothless reptile with a spread of wing not far short of 20 feet. Crocodiles (Crocodilia) and Turtles (Chelonia) were numer- ous during the Mesozoic epoch, and in the later part of it both Lizards (Lacertilia) and Snakes (Ophidia) are known to have existed. Mesozoic Brrps (Aves).—The few mesozoic birds which have so far been discovered have certain characters, ¢.g. the possession of teeth, which suggest reptilian descent. In the oldest known form (Archeopteryx), which has elsewhere been described (see vol. iii, p. 296), the tail was long, and bore pairs of quill- feathers at regular intervals. Mesozoic Mammats (Mam- MALIA).—That a certain number of small mammals lived during the Mesozoic epoch is known from the discovery of fossil lower jaws in several localities. Some of these suggest affinity with, Egg-laying Mammals (JJonotremata), while gig 1330.—Pterodactyle (Preredactylus), reduced. others probably belonged to small jeer a ius ma isco, ie toes Pouched Mammals (AZarsupiala). lias) Shon andl fongeras sh siemens ilominal ribs; Z, pubis; 22, ilium; 1-v (in hind-limb), toes. It has been suggested that Mam- mals evolved from some of the Varied-Toothed Reptiles (4 xomo- dontza) on a land-area in the southern hemisphere, which there is some reason to believe once existed (see p. 411). Smith Woodward (in Vertebrate Paleontology) states that in Jurassic (z.e. mid-mesozoic) times—‘‘... it is extremely probable that on some continent in that part of the globe the Anomodontia were gradually being transformed into Mammalia. At least, in the Jurassic formations both of Europe and North America there are occasional remains of small mammals as large as rats; and the most plausible explanation of these is, that they were acci- dental escapes from some other region with a more advanced fauna, just as are the rats and mice of the present day in the comparatively antique realm of Australia.” 472 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME LIFE IN THE KAINOZOIC EPOCH Even in the earlier stages of the Kainozoic epoch we find that the fauna had a comparatively modern aspect, and the later stages ultimately merge into the present. Among backboned land-animals Mammals and Birds were dominant, and it will be as well to confine our attention to a few interesting facts con- cerning these groups. Katnozorc Mammats (Mammatia).—The fossil remains which have so far been examined enable us to trace the gradual evolu- tion of the subdivisions of several mammalian orders, notably Fig. 1331.—Restoration of Phenacodus (reduced) so as regards ffoofed Mammals (Ungulata) and Flesh-Eaters (Carnivora). In the earliest stage of the epoch we find the ancestors of the hoofed forms represented by small primitive swamp-dwellers, constituting an extinct group (Coxdylarthra), of which a well-known type (Pezacodus) is represented in figs. 1331 and 1332. By increasing complications of structure, affecting limbs, teeth, brain, &c., the various odd-toed and even-toed un- gulates have sprung from creatures of the kind, as also Conzes (/Zyracoidea), and, most probably, Evephants (Proboscidea). The nature of some of the specializations which took place have been briefly explained in a previous section (see vol. iii, p. 137). What is true for Hoofed Mammals as regards one primitive group is also true for Flesh-Eaters with reference to another such group (Creodonta). Indeed there is not a great deal AN EXTINCT GROUND-SLOTH (Megathertum) It is a remarkable fact that certain groups of land-animals were in part represented, in comparatively late geological times, by gigantic forms which have since become extinct. This is the case, for example, with the Mammals poor in Teeth (Edeztata), to which belongs the South American Ground-Sloth (Megatherium) tepre- sented in the plate, which is taken from a photograph of a restora- tion in the British Museum. In size it was nearly as large as an elephant, and is believed to have fed on leaves, as do the relatively in- significant Sloths which now live in the trees of the South American forests. The plate represents the Ground-Sloth in the position it assumed for the purpose of pulling down branches, or uprooting small trees, in order to obtain its food. EXTINCT SOUTH AMERICAN GROUND-SLOTH (MEGATHERIUM) LIFE IN THE KAINOZOIC EPOCH 473 of difference between the early kainozoic ancestors of Ungulates and Carnivores, both of which undoubtedly sprang from the same mesozoic stock, though this is as yet unknown. In similar fashion we find that the lines of descent of recent /usect-Eaters (Lusecttvora), Lemurs (Lemurotdea), and Monkeys (Primates) converge as we trace them back to the beginning of the epoch. The branches of the genealogical tree of mammals corresponding to the last two groups actually meet, and on this account some experts would place the Lemurs in the same order as Monkeys (Primates). We further find that the lines of descent of Insecti- vores, Lemurs, and Monkeys converge towards those of the Ungulates and Carnivores, and this appears to be also true for the Mammals Poor in Teeth (Edentata). Some day, perhaps, we may be able to trace back all these six orders, together with Conies and Ele- phants, to common meso- zoic ancestors. Whales, &c. (Cetacea), Sea-Cows (Szrenia), Gnawers (Rodentia), and Bats (Chiroptera) seem to have acquired their typical characters before the Kainozoic epoch began, and we are not yet able to trace them back to the main line of mammalian descent. The two first groups, and creatures of the seal kind, replaced the marine reptiles of Mesozoic time in the life of the sea, and the Flying Reptiles proved unable to maintain their supremacy against the competition of Bats and Birds. In the later part of the Kainozoic epoch certain orders of mammals were represented by relatively gigantic forms. A good instance of this is afforded by certain extinct American representatives of the I/ammals Poor in Teeth (Edentata). At this time South America and the southern part of the sister continent were inhabited by huge Ground-Sloths, of which one typical form (Megatherium) was at least as large as an elephant. It and its allies combined some of the structural features of exist- ing Sloths and American Ant-Eaters. That so large an animal as the one mentioned was not a climber is sufficiently obvious. Fig. 1332.—Skeleton of Phenacodus (reduced) 474 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME It is supposed to have been a leaf-eater, pulling off branches, or even uprooting small trees. A related form (J/ylodon), which attained the size of a rhinoceros, possessed an external skeleton consisting of small bony plates imbedded in the skin. Remains of the skin, &c., of an allied type (Veomylodon) were not long since discovered in a South American cave, and in so fresh a state as to warrant a belief in the animal’s recent extinction, while some naturalists, partly on the strength of native traditions, believe (or at any rate hope) that the creature still lives in the desert regions of Patagonia. Gigantic Armadilloes, of which one type (GZyptodon) was about 16 feet in length, inhabited America in comparatively late Kainozoic times. Turning to Australia, we find that some of the immediate prede- cessors of the Pouched Mammals (Varsupiaha) of that continent at- tained large dimensions. The skull of the Pouched “ Lion” ( Zhy/acoleo), a form related to the existing Pha- langers, was about g inches long. Its name is rather unfortunate, for Pisce mr it was probably of vegetarian habit. Fig. 1333.—Irish Elk (Cervus Hibernicus), . mingehs vedueed Very much larger than this was a gigantic animal (Dzfvotodon) related both to the Phalangers and Kangaroos, for it was about as large as a rhinoceros, its skull alone being over 3 feet in length. Its limbs were adapted for walking. Three large extinct Mammals have a special interest as being contemporaneous with prehistoric Man in Western Europe, including Britain. One was the Irish “ Elk” (Cervus Hobernz- cus, fig. 1333), remains of which are not uncommon in the peat- bogs of Ireland. The female possessed no antlers, but the male was well-endowed in this respect, for in him these weapons sometimes had a spread of about 10 feet. The Sabre-Toothed Tiger (J/achairodus) belonged to a group of Flesh-Eaters now extinct, and possessed enormous upper tusks, which are respon- sible for its name. The lower tusks were quite small. It seems that the huge weapons of creatures of the kind were too well developed to be of much use, probably indeed acting as encum- LIFE IN THE KAINOZOIC EPOCH 475 Fig. 1334.—Mammoth (Evephas primigenius), much reduced brances which in the end brought about extinction. Here, as in many other cases, over-specialization proved fatal. The last Fig. 1335.—Skeleton of Moa (Pachyoriis elephantopus), much reduced extinct Mammal to be mentioned is the Mammoth (Elephas primigentus, fig. 1334), a sort of Elephant which had a very wide geographical range in the northern hemisphere, especially in the colder parts of this. The frozen bodies of Mammoths are now and then discovered in the iron-bound soil of the Siberian tundras, and these prove the exis- tence of a thick coat of long black over -hair, together with reddish wool, a character no doubt to be regarded as a climatal adaptation. One of the prehistoric drawings made by the men of the Stone Age (see p. 233) gives a rough outline of one of these animals, and indicates the shagey coat. It was found in a French cavern, and executed upon a piece of mammoth tusk. The Siberian variety has long been known as a source of fossil ivory. Kainoszoie Birds (Aves).—Some of the extinct Running Lrirds (Ratite) are perhaps the most in- teresting. In New Zealand, for example, the Moas existed during the period of human occupation, and were finally exter- 476 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME minated by the Maoris. The largest form (Dznxornis maximus) attained a height of over 11 feet. Another sort of Moa (Pachy- oruts elephantopus, fig. 1335), though not so large as this, was much more massive in build. Egg-shells and feathers of these birds have been found, as well as skeletons. The bones and egg-shells of other large running birds (.£pyornis) have been abundantly discovered in Madagascar, and it is not unlikely that they too owed their extinction to human agency. Some species were little inferior in size to the largest Moas. It is not improbable that the creation of the fabulous bird known as a “roc”, which figures in the Arabian Nights and other Eastern stories, was originally based upon ancient traditions regarding some of the extinct running birds. At the present time such birds are limited to the soutnern hemisphere, but we know that during early Kainozoic times they also existed in the northern half of both Old and New Worlds. PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY CHAPTER LXXVITI PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY—THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION —EVOLUTION AS A FACT Having now considered at some length the relations of animals to their surroundings (or environment), in which, of course, other organisms are included, and having also reviewed the life-cycles or life-histories of certain typical forms, this work may be fitly concluded by a brief survey of the Theory of Evolution, which at the present day not only dominates the realm of Natural History, but has also had a far-reaching influence upon almost every branch of learning. The kinds or speczes of animal at present existing are almost innumerable, and we know from the geological record that a host of others once lived which are now extinct, some having become so within the historic period, while others died out millions of years ago. Until the second half of last century it was commonly believed that all these species came into existence by “special creation”, and to ask “why?” any kind of animal had a particular structure, developed after a special fashion, exemplified certain habits, or lived in a definite area, was con- sidered undesirable or even impious. The only answer to such questions given by the doctrine of special creation was that these things were so because they had been designed to be so, accord- ing to a plan into which the human mind was forbidden to pry. Now and then, however, from the time of Aristotle onwards, this paralyzing dogma failed to satisfy the minds of certain naturalists who were ahead of their times. Among these per- haps the most notable was the eminent French zoologist Lamarck, who in 1801 expressed the view that all existing species have descended from, z.e. been evolved from, pre-existing ; 477 478 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY species. He further propounded a Theory of Evolution, which attempted to explain ow species have originated from those which preceded them. But comparatively little attention was paid to the evolutionary views of Lamarck and some _ other naturalists till the year 1858. In that year a new Theory of Evolution (now commonly known as Darwinism) was_ simul- taneously propounded by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, who, working independently on facts collected in entirely different parts of the world, had reached practically the same conclusions regarding the manner in which organisms of different kind have come into existence. The publication of Darwin’s epoch-making book, Zhe Origin of Spectres, followed in 1859, and since that date the doctrine of evolution has made steady head- way, at first against strong and even embittered opposition, until now the doctrine of special creation is almost entirely held by those who have had no scientific training worthy the name, together with some few others who cling tenaciously to the old and once popular view. This chapter is concerned with the fact of Evolution, and not with the various theories associated with the names of Darwin and many others which attempt an explanation of that fact. The distinction between the fact and its explanation is of im- portance in a popular work like this. Botanists and zoologists, after the manner of their kind, are constantly engaged in polemics about all sorts of evolutionary problems, their controversies being often not a little acrimonious, and sometimes even taking a personal turn. These things, however, are not unknown among the votaries of other studies. But in such cases it is not the fact of evolution that is in question, but this or that difficult question as to the way in which it has come about. All are agreed that evolution and not special creation has been and is the primary law of organic nature, probably, indeed, of nature in general. Since the whole of this book has been written from the evolu- tionary stand-point, much has already been adduced in support of the fact of evolution, and it will therefore suffice to summarize some of the chief arguments in its favour, following the order adopted by Romanes (in Darwzz and After Darwin). Tue ARGUMENT FROM CLAssIFIcaTION.—If the various kinds or species of animal were absolutely separate creations we should expect to find them clearly distinguishable from one another, EVOLUTION AS A FACT 479 but this is by no means universally the case. Indeed, it is by no means easy to exactly state what a species is. Some such definition may be given, for example, as the one by Swainson :-— ‘A species, in the usual acceptation of the term, is an animal which, in a state of nature, is distinguished by certain peculiarities of form, size, colour, or other circumstances, from another animal. It propagates, ‘after its kind’, individuals perfectly resembling the parent; its peculiarities, therefore, are permanent.” But un- fortunately there are such things as varzefzes or races, which are subdivisions of species, and might be taken for such if seen in a museum. In the case of the Field Snail (fedex hortenszs), for example, there are many such races, distinguished by variously coloured and banded shells. But in cases like this we usually find that the different varieties, when crossed, produce offspring (mongrels) which are perfectly fertile as regards one another and the parent varieties. On the other hand, the offspring (hybrids) produced by crossing two undoubted species are usually, but not always, infertile. A notable instance is seen in mules, which are obtained by crossing horses (Zguus caballus) with asses (Z£. asinus). We further find that two or more apparently distinct species may be connected by a series of intermediate varieties. This is beautifully seen in some of the extinct Lamp- Shells and Snails, while the early turns of the spiral in some Ammonites (see p. 465) may resemble one adult species, though the later turns may correspond to another adult species. Facts of the kind cited, while only susceptible of interpretation in a mystical manner by the doctrine of special creation, harmonize very well with the evolution theory, according to which organ- isms are constantly being adapted to changing surroundings, and new specializations are continually coming into existence. On this hypothesis we may regard varieties as species ‘‘in the making”. Species are aggregated into larger groups known as genera, these into families, and so on, to orders, classes, and phyla or sub-kingdoms, respectively marked out by agreements and differ- ences of increasingly broader and more general kind. If these various groups of, e.g., Backboned Animals, are diagrammatically arranged so as to best express their mutual arrangements, a tree-like arrangement results (see vol. i, p. 111), the phylum corresponding to a main branch. This was perceived in pre- evolutionary days, and the only rational explanation so far given 480 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY of it is that such a tree is really a genealogical one. The con- clusion is fully confirmed by the geological record. We also find a number of existing animals which, though on the whole susceptible of classification in one group, also show points of marked agreement with members of one or more other groups. A notable instance is afforded by Peripatus (see vol. i, p- 398), which, though an undoubted Arthropod, is singularly like a segmented Worm or Annelid in some respects. If the classification tree is a genealogical one, the existence of such animals is readily intelligible. Such cases are otherwise inex- plicable, unless some unintelligible and dogmatic statement offered by the believer in special creation can be so regarded. Tue ARGUMENT FROM ForM AND STRUCTURE (MorpPHOLOGY). —A very large number of examples might be brought forward to show that many organs can only be rationally interpreted on an evolutionary basis. A particularly good instance is afforded by the lungs of air-breathing vertebrates, which appear to be modifications of the swim-bladders possessed by fishes (see vol. ii, p. 421). And it may be added that there are many other structural characters of these air-breathing forms which point to an aquatic ancestry. That this should be so, is only intelligible from the stand-point of evolution. If we take a particular group of animals, say Mammals, we shall find that they are constructed on a particular plan, modified in a great variety of ways to suit the exigencies of various modes of life. This is very well illustrated by the structure of the limbs, in reference to different kinds of locomotion, e.g. swift progression by running on a firm surface, swimming, climbing, and burrow- ing, as set out in detail in the section on Locomotion (vol. iii). We have here, it would appear, a gradual Adaptation by a pro- cess of evolution to conditions of different kind. The strongest argument from structure in favour of the doctrine of evolution is that derived from those parts of animals which are known as ves¢zges (rudimentary organs). The human body, for example, is in itself quite a museum of such structures. Indeed, one may say that it is an archeological museum, for vestiges can only be reasonably explained as the remains of organs which were of greater importance in ancestral forms. The lower end of the backbone (coccyx), for instance, looks uncommonly like the remains of what was once a tail, and the EVOLUTION AS A FACT 481 same explanation can be given of the tailless condition of the man-like or anthropoid apes (Gorilla, &c.). The troublesome little outgrowth from the intestine familiarly known as the “appendix”, which when diseased leads to appendicitis, corre- sponds to what is a large and useful structure in some other Mammals; and a little red fold (semilunar fold) in the inner corner of the eye appears to be the remnant of a third eyelid. And so on, almost indefinitely. Among Mammals other than Fig. 1336. —(1) and (2), Upper and lower grinding-teeth of a young Duck-Bill (Ovncthorhynchus), natural size and enlarged; (3) grinding tooth (enlarged) of an extinct Mesozoic mammal (A/icrolestes). ourselves we find a great variety of vestiges. Whalebone Whales, to take a well-known case, possess neither teeth nor externally visible hind-limbs. But traces of teeth are found in the jaws of very young individuals, although they are never cut. And vestigial hind-limbs are found even in adults, im- bedded in the muscles of the hinder part of the body, exactly where hind-limbs should be were they fully developed. Unless we simply accept these things as inexplicable facts, we must fall back on the doctrine of evolution, and consider such structures as dwindled heritages, reminiscent of earlier conditions. Passing from the higher Mammals to their lowest existing 482 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY relatives, we find in the Australian Duck-Bill (Ovxzthorhynchus) that the adult animal possesses four horny plates in place of teeth. But these are preceded by small molars (fig. 1336) which last for a short time only. The conclusion may be drawn that the Duck-Bill is descended from ancestors which possessed teeth when adult. And, in connection with this, it is interesting and significant that the transitory teeth of this creature are singularly like those possessed by an extremely ancient Mesozoic mammal, which has been extinct for an enormous length of time. ARGUMENT FROM DeEVELOpMENT.—As already explained in the section on Development and Life-History (vol. iti), an animal of complex structure results from a process of gradual up-building, in which the ovum or egg-cell is the first and simplest stage. Speaking very broadly, the course of this development is taken to be a recapitulation of the history of the group to which the particular animal belongs. The life- history of a particular form may, for example, include stages adapted to different modes of life, and in some cases these apparently correspond to ancestral stages similarly adapted. We see this in the Frog, which is hatched out as an aquatic tadpole, breathing by gills and fitted in various other ways for life in water. From this the conclusion is drawn that the remote ancestors of Frogs were aquatic creatures, related to the stock from which recent fishes have descended. The argument may be extended to Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals, for though these do not begin life as aquatic tadpoles, all of them possess gill- slits during certain stages in their development. But these slits have nothing to do with breathing, apparently serving no useful purpose, and ultimately close up. One result of their presence in the embryo is that some of the blood-vessels develop in a somewhat roundabout manner (see vol. i, p. 244). These vessels begin in conformity to what may be called the “fish- plan”, abandoning this later on for the arrangement. char- acterizing the air-breathing adult. Such a peculiar method of development is quite unintelligible unless it is explained by reference to ancestry. The Feather-Star (Comatu/x) furnishes a striking example of recapitulation in its life-history. It is for some time fixed to some firm object by means of a stalk, which is later on aban- doned. This may very reasonably be taken to mean_ that EVOLUTION AS A FACT 483, Feather-Stars have descended from fixed forms resembling the related Sea-Lilies, some of which still live in the deep sea. THE ARGUMENT FROM THE GEoLocicaL Recorp.—Although our knowledge of the successive faunas which have existed in the course of the earth’s history is lamentably incomplete, all the facts with which we are acquainted harmonize with the doctrine of evolution (see p. 456). There has been a general progress from low to high, and many animal pedigrees have been worked out in considerable detail. Taking Hoofed Mam- mals and Flesh-Eaters, for instance, the geological record shows that the existing subdivisions of these orders can be traced back, respectively, to common ancestors (see p. 472). The most ancient birds known possess characters which are strong evidence of reptilian descent, and Reptiles, in their turn, are in all pro- bability an offshoot from an amphibian stock. Similar evolu- tionary conclusions can be drawn in all cases where sufficiently abundant evidence is available. THe ARGUMENT FROM GEOGRAPHICAL DistriputTion.—The way in which animals are at the present time distributed over the face of the globe is susceptible of no satisfactory explanation unless we have recourse to the theory of evolution. Admitting this, and at the same time making full use of the evidence afforded by the geological record, many things which would otherwise be entirely unintelligible find an easy solution, as has already been sufficiently indicated (see p. 409). We are able in this way to understand why Tapirs are at the present time only to be found in south-east Asia and tropical America, Pouched Mammals in the Australian region and America, and similarly for many other apparent anomalies. CHAPTER LXXIX THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION—THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES If we admit that the existing kinds or species of animals have arisen by a process of evolution from pre-existing species, the pertinent question ‘“ How?” demands an answer. Our ignorance is here so profound that we have so far only been able to frame working hypotheses to account for the facts. And every theory from time to time propounded leads to endless controversy, though, on the whole, we are constantly getting nearer to the heart of things. Everything depends upon the properties and possibilities of the living substance (protoplasm) which is the essential part of every organism, but it is precisely here that the gaps in our knowledge are most painfully obvious. The history of every science presents us with regularly alter- nating phases of fact-collection, and generalization upon facts. At the present time we badly need more facts, upon which to base further speculations as to the methods of evolution. And this is more particularly true regarding experiments on heredity and related matters, upon which satisfactory answers to evolu- tionary questions must necessarily depend. We are here only concerned with a brief statement of the leading theories and principles which have so far been brought forward, commencing with the doctrine of Natural Selection, simultaneously advanced by Darwin and Wallace, and which has had a quite unprecedented influence upon the methods of human thought. NATURAL SELECTION (DARWINISM) This theory of evolution, which is essentially of utilitarian character, marshals together a large number of indisputable facts, suggests their mutual relations, and builds up, step by step, a very convincing hypothesis as to how and why new species have 484 NATURAL SELECTION 485 come into existence during the countless ages for which life has existed on the earth. It is, to begin with, sufficiently obvious that the available living space on the earth is, after all, restricted, and there must therefore be a limit to the number of plants and animals that can exist at the same time. We know, however, that all organ- isms tend to increase in a more or less rapid manner, yet, in a given locality, the numbers of individuals belonging to a par- ticular species remain fairly steady. There must, therefore, be various checks preventing indefinite increase—a constant fight for life, a Struggle for Existence. Every plant and every animal is engaged in a keen competition with other forms of life, and has also to battle with the constantly-changing physical condi- tions which collectively constitute climate. Individuals that for any reason surpass others in this constant warfare with their surroundings are, so to speak, se/ected by Nature to carry on their race, while their less fortunate fellows go to the wall. We have, in short, the active principle of Natural Selection or Survival of the Fittest. We have further to consider how and why it is that given individuals are thus favoured in the universal struggle for ex- istence. The classes of facts which give us some insight into this matter may be conveniently arranged in the following tabular statement, followed by a brief discussion of the principles involved. PROVED FACTS NECESSARY CONSEQUENCES Limited Surface cf Globe and Rapid } : PG eeeeeieianbers 5 Struggle for Existence Natural Selection or Survival of the Fittest Natural Selection and Heredity ... Origin of New Species Struggle for Existence and Variation l Rapip IncREASE IN NumBers.—Darwin takes the elephant as an example of an animal of which the numbers increase with minimum rapidity, a family of six within the space of 60 years being the average, while individuals live for about a century. Supposing all the offspring to survive for the full tenure of existence, this gives a total of about 19,000,000 elephants de- scended from a single pair after the lapse of from 740 to 750 years. As an example of a species which increases with great rapidity a 126 VoL. IV. 486 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY we may take the Field Vole (A7wvicola arvalis), which produces several broods during the same summer, some of these propa- gating in their turn before winter. Crampe has calculated that, if there were no checks to increase, a single pair of these animals, supposing their first brood to be born on April 15 of a given year, would be represented by the very respectable total of 198 on the following 8th of October. Continental agriculturists sometimes have a very unpleasant object-lesson as to these possibilities, for in certain ‘‘vole years” the ordinary checks to increase are inefficient, the result being that enormous numbers of field-voles make their appearance, and do an immense amount of damage to crops. It not infrequently happens that when particular species of animals are introduced into a new country, where the checks that keep down their numbers in their native countries cease to operate, they increase in a phenomenal way. The result of intro- ducing rabbits into Australia affords one of the best examples of this. Variation AND Herepity.—It is a well-known fact that no two individuals of the same species are precisely alike. There is, in other words, a tendency to vary. The fact of Variation enables us to understand why certain individuals, rather than others, have a better chance of surviving in the struggle for existence. For in any given environment variations in some directions must more or less favour the animals which possess them. They are, in fact, wsefu/ variations, tending to greater filness as regards some particular set of surroundings. In many herbivorous animals, for example, in regions where carnivorous enemies abound, it is clear that an individual varying in such a way that its locomotor powers are somewhat better than those of its fellows, will have a better chance of escaping from enemies, and also of securing an abundant supply of food. Other things being equal, it will also be more likely to perpetuate its species than more slowly moving individuals of the same species. Next comes the question of Heredity. No one disputes the possibility of certain characters being transmitted from one genera- tion to another. The doctrine of Natural Selection involves the view that favourable variations are thus perpetuated, and as, in each successive generation, individuals which continue to vary in favourable directions will have the best chance of surviving, NATURAL SELECTION 487 we can suppose such variations to gradually accumulate until their amount is so large as to constitute a new species. Darwin’s conclusions as to the joint result of variation and heredity were largely based on observations made upon domes- Fig. 1337.—Blue Rock and some of the domesticated varieties of Pigeon: (1), Blue Rock (Columba ¢ivia); (2), Tumbler; (3), Owl; (4), Jacobin; (5), Fantail; (6), Pouter ticated animals. We know, for example, that all the numerous breeds of pigeons (fig. 1337), such as Pouters, Fantails, Carriers, Tumblers, &c. &c., are descended from one original species, ze. the Blue Rock (Columba fivia), as the result of artificial selection by human agency. That is to say, individuals varying in some particular direction have been selected by man with a 488 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY view to producing offspring presenting the special character or characters in an increased degree. OpjECTIONS TO THE THEORY oF NaTuRAL SELECTION.—At various times a number of objections have been made to the theory, some being of a very trifling and quibbling sort, others of more serious nature. It is no part of the plan of this book to enter into all the difficulties that require or have required to be met, and it may suffice to mention one of the most formidable objections, derived from the supposed ‘‘ swamping effects of inter- crossing”. That is to say, supposing a favourable variation to have arisen, it seems at first sight that it is just as likely to gradually disappear again by intercrossing as to be emphasized by heredity, indeed more likely. Fleeming Jenkin, the first propounder of this difficulty, illustrated it by the possible case of a white man becoming king of a black island population, his whiteness typifying a favourable variation. His immediate de- scendants would not be white, but yellow, and in the course of several generations the royal house would probably be just as black as their subjects. It may be added that if a number of domesticated races of, say, pigeons, are allowed to cross freely together, their peculiar characteristics gradually disappear, and the features possessed by the original wild stock are reacquired. This is generally explained as a case of reversion or atavism, or in more popular language, a “throw back” to the ancestral type. The objection has been often met by supposing that the particular variation occurred not in one, but in a number of individuals, thus giving a better start for the formation of a new species, but such an idea requires proof. Even if we admit the probability of the occurrence, the factor of Isolation must be emphasized, as has been done by Romanes and others. _ Isola- tion of individuals presenting a certain kind of variation would certainly prevent the swamping effect of intercrossing from oper- ating, and pigeon-fanciers, for example, could never succeed in producing new breeds if they did not sort out and keep their birds separate, according to their special requirements. Such isolation actually occurs in nature when a small number of indi- viduals belonging to a particular species reach, say, an oceanic island, where adaptations to a new set of surroundings become necessary, and where they are separated from the original home SUPPLEMENTARY FACTORS OF EVOLUTION 489 of their kind. And it is particularly significant to note, in this connection, that such islands are peculiarly rich in distinct species. Isolation is also exemplified by the area between tide-marks, as in some of the periwinkles. Some of these creatures are gradu- ally becoming adapted to breathing damp air, those which are best off in this respect living near high-water mark. It is pretty clear that individuals varying so as to breathe damp air better than their fellows would naturally take to living further from the sea, and would be thus to some extent isolated. Isolation may also be of a physiological nature, as emphasized by Romanes in his theory of phystological selection. We know that, as a rule, the crosses between allied species, ze. hybrids, are infertile, and it is largely owing to this fact that animal species remain distinct. It seems, therefore, a plausible assump- tion that the rise of new species has partly been rendered possible by an increasing tendency for the crosses between them and their parent stocks to be infertile. In other words, there has been a physiological variation in the direction indicated, alongside of other variations in shape, proportion, colour, &c. &c. SUPPLEMENTARY FACTORS OF EVOLUTION Admitting the importance of Natural Selection, it by no means follows that it has been the only evolutionary factor determining the origin of new species. CourtsHip SELEcTION.— Darwin believed that some of the characters of male animals have been brought about by selec- tion exercised on the part of their mates. The possibilities in this direction have already been discussed at some length (see p. 143) in dealing with the Law of Battle and the Law of Beauty. It is, after all, a special kind of Natural Selection, which may have determined the evolution of certain weapons and of zsthetic characters. LamarckismM.—Under this head may be included the pre- Darwinian views of the French naturalists Lamarck and Buffon, to which Darwin himself was inclined to attach some importance. These views turn upon the inheritance of ‘‘acquired characters ”, regarding which there has been an interminable amount of discussion. It must be premised that the body of an animal higher in the scale than an Animalcule is related to (1) 490 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY the existence of the individual, and (2) the existence of the species. The greater part of the body, having more particu- larly to do with (1), is conveniently termed the “soma” (Gk. soma, body), and this is the bearer of germ-cells, some of which are destined to grow into fresh individuals, and are therefore concerned with (2). An “acquired” character is ene which comes into existence in the soma, as an accommodation to its mode of life, ze. as an individual adjustment to surroundings. Here have to be considered the results of ‘‘use and disuse” of organs possessed by the individual. Let us take, for example, some of the sea-snails which live between tide-marks, and are accommodating themselves to breathing damp air as against air dissolved in water. The gill or gills which are specially concerned with the latter kind of breathing have less work to do than in purely aquatic forms, and there is no reason to doubt that they may therefore (as the result of partial ‘‘disuse”) be slightly diminished in size in the lifetime of an individual which is migrating towards high-tide mark. On the other hand, the roof of the gill-chamber (see vol. ii, p. 460) has to do with breathing damp air, and in the lifetime of the individual supposed, may well (by “use”) acquire increased specialization in connection with that duty. According to the Lamarckian view, these two acquired char- acters of the soma, ze. dwindling gill and specializing roof to gill-chamber, would be transmitted to the offspring. Were this so, use and disuse might ultimately lead to the evolution of a race of land-snails well adapted for air-breathing, but with gills shrunk to mere vestiges or absent altogether. Lamarckism also involves the view that the surroundings of an animal, by their d@rect action, bring about acquired char- acters, positive or negative, as the case may be. We have, in other words, a direct action of the environment. Considering once more the case of a sea-snail living between tide-marks, it may be regarded as alternately subject to two influences so far as breathing is concerned, ze. the action of the water which covers it for part of its existence, and the action of the damp air which surrounds it during the other part. The former favours gill-retention, the latter gill-reduction, and conversely as regards the arrangement for breathing ordinary air. Near low- tide mark the influence of water is obviously predominant, and near high-tide mark the action of air is more felt. Some further remarks will be made about acquired characters in the sequel. Neo-Lamarckism.—It is difficult to sum up in a few words the beliefs of the Neo-Lamarckian school. They essentially involve the view that there are general Laws of Growth, leading to progress in definite directions, by means of successive varia- tions of the same kind. The action of Natural Selection is largely discounted. This chapter may perhaps best be concluded by the addition of a few remarks on Variation and Heredity. VARIATION Beyond the fact that living matter does vary, we know very little. No clear answer can as yet be given to the questions why this should be so, and ow variations of a given kind are brought about. There can be no doubt, however, that the indi- viduals of any particular species differ from one another in a great variety of ways, and often to a very considerable amount. There is, in fact, an illimitable field for the action of selected principles. Many variations, too, are sudden or dzscontinuous, and probably new species have been often evolved at a much more rapid rate than supposed by Darwin, who believed in the selection and accumulation of swa/ variations. Since his time our knowledge of variational possibilities has been largely increased. There can be no doubt that a large majority of the characters of animals are adaptations to the environment, ze. fit them to live in relation to certain surroundings. The origin of such adaptations must naturally be sought in variations. Here it is necessary to clearly distinguish between variations of the soma and variations of the germ, 7z.e. somatic and germinal variation. As we have seen, the Lamarckians believe that the former (acquired characters) can be transmitted. According to the school of Weismann, on the other hand, it is only the germinal variations which are capable of transmission. As, of course, the development of a germ-cell into an individual means the pro- duction of a new soma as well as more germ-cells, this new soma will have been influenced by variations which have taken place in the germ from which it has been developed. That is to say, the character of a soma mainly depends upon the char- 492 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY acters of the germ from which it has been developed, but the soma has no direct influence upon the germs of which it is the bearer. Organic Selection.—Lloyd Morgan, Baldwin, and Osborn have elaborated a view (of which Weismann himself suggested the possibility) as to the possibility of co-operation between germinal and somatic variations in the interests of the species. Even if we admit that the latter (acquired characters) are non-trans- missible, it by no means follows that they have no evolutionary import. However unimportant the soma may be as to the pro- vision of variations that can be inherited and so help in the making of new species, it is at least the bearer of germ-cells, to which its survival and well-being are of the first importance. If, therefore, it is able to accommodate itself to its surroundings so as to survive and leave offspring, it will give variations which have arisen in its germ-cells a chance of being preserved. Accommo- dation, z.e. the rise of acquired characters, is consequently inti- mately bound up with the adaptation of the species. It must not be regarded as definitely settled that acquired characters are never transmitted, although many supposed in- stances have been explained away. A vast amount of observa- tion and experiment is still necessary, and dogmatism is at present quite out of place. The question still remains as to whether variations are inde- pendent of the action of the environment, directly due to its action, or to some extent dependent upon it. There are probably perhaps several possibilities. The germ-cells, for instance, are in many cases so sheltered from the action of surroundings that some of their variations may well be inherent. It is also well-nigh certain that there is such a thing as environmental variation. But here there are two possibilities. The action of the surroundings may directly set up variations, or it may simply act in such a way as to favour variational possibilities, z.c. it may direct and further, but not absolutely initiate. Nor is its action necessarily limited to either alternative. HEREDITY In cases of egg-development it is necessarily the germ-cells that are the means of transmitting characters from one genera- tion to the next. Innumerable investigations upon such cells HEREDITY 493 also render it practically certain that the part concerned with heredity is the zacleus, te. the specialized particle of protoplasm which every germ-cell contains. Weismann limits the field still further, and considers that the nucleus is in part composed of ‘germ plasma”, a protoplasmic material specially concerned with the transmission of characters. In typical egg-propagation (see vol. ili, p. 335) germ-cells from the two parents fuse together, and the essential point about the process seems to be the union of the two nuclei. This has undoubtedly an important bearing on the question of heredity, but precisely what bearing is still a matter of doubt. It is perhaps the most remarkable fact in the whole realm of knowledge that the fusion of two microscopic particles of protoplasm should carry with it so vast a range of possibilities as regards inheritance. There are some clear cases which prove that the germ-cells are influenced by some of the factors in the surroundings. Yung, for example, by bringing up tadpoles on specially nutritious food, was able to produce with certainty an abnormal proportion of females (90 per cent or even more), and we have elsewhere seen (see p. 256) that a fertilized bee’s egg may give rise to either a worker or queen, according to the nature of the food received by the larva. Even more remarkable is the case of certain lowly crustaceans upon which Schmankewitsch experimented. In the course of several generations he was able to convert a species (Artemia Milhauseniz) living in saltish water into another species (A. salina), by gradually increasing the amount of salt. He also found it possible to conduct the experiment in the reverse order, and in this instance was able to go a step further, obtaining a third species of a distinct genus (BLranchipus stagnalis), char- acteristic of perfectly fresh water. In the light of such facts it seems difficult to believe that there is no possibility of acquired somatic characters being transmissible, for we can scarcely main- tain that in all the cases cited the germ-cells were directly influenced by modification in the surroundings. Galton has formulated a law (since modified by Karl Pearson) expressing numerically the influence of parents and remoter an- cestors upon the characters of offspring, and the application of mathematical methods to biological statistics is likely to yield important results in the immediate future, as regards heredity, variation, and many other problems. On the botanical side very 494 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY remarkable results bearing on the theory of heredity have been obtained by applying the principles of Mendel, but these cannot be discussed here, especially as there are difficulties in the way of conducting similar experiments on animals. Readers who wish to acquire further knowledge in matters relating to biological theory would do well to consult the works of Darwin, Wallace (especially Darwenzsm), Romanes (Darwin and After Darwin), Weismann, Lloyd Morgan, Verworn (General Physiology), E. B. Wilson (The Cell tn Development and [nhert- tance), T. Hunt Morgan (£volution and Adaptation), and Mendel (Principles of Fleredity). A good preliminary acquaintance with the subject may be obtained by reading Arthur Thomson's Science of Life. GLOSSARY Abomasun, in the stomach of Ruminants, the fourth compartment (chemical stomach). Abysmal zone (Gk. abyssds, very deep), the deepest part of the sea. Accommodation, adjustment of the individual to its surroundings. Acetabulum (L. for vinegar cup), the socket in the hip into which the thigh-bone fits. Acquired character, a character acquired by an individual in relation to its surroundings. Adaptation, the adjustment of species to their surroundings. Adductor muscles (L. adduco, I lead to), muscles which by their contraction close the shells of Bivalve Molluscs, Lamp-Shells, and Mussel-Shrimps. Adipose fin, the small, fatty second dorsal fin of members of the Salmon Family. Esthetic or Esthetics (Gk. arsthétikds, sen- sitive), the philosophy of the beautiful. Afferent branchial vessels (L. afféra, I carry to; Gk. branchia, gills), blood-vessels which carry impure blood to gills to be purified. Afferent nerve-fibre (L. afféro, I carry to), a nerve-fibre in which the impulse travels towards the central organs. Air-bladder. See Swim-bladder. Ala spuria. See Bastard-wing. Albinism (L. a/éus, white or pale), exceptional whiteness or paleness in hue of some mem- bers of a species. Albino, an individual exhibiting albinism. Albumen, or Albumin, the complex albumi- noid (which see) of which the white of an egg is made up. Albuminoids, complex compounds, chiefly made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, and (in some cases) phosphorus. Alima, pl. -z, in Mantis-Shrimps, an attenu- ated kind of larva. Ambergris, concretions formed in the intestine of the sperm-whale. Used in perfumery. Ambulacral, relating to an ambulacrum; Am- bulacral area, a band or zone bearing tube- feet; Ambulacral ossicle, one of the cal- careous plates roofing an ambulacrum. Ambulacrum, pl. -a (L. for pleasure grove), in Star-Fishes, one of the grooves in which the tube-feet are lodged. 495 Ammocetes, the larva of a Lamprey. Ameeboid movement, irregular flowing or creeping movements, performed by naked masses of protoplasm, e¢.g. in the Proteus Animalcule (Amceba). Amphibious (Gk. amphi, both ways; bzds, life): (1) able to breathe both ordinary air and air dissolved in water; (2) breathing dissolved air during the early part of life and ordinary air afterwards. Ampulla (L. ampulla, a flask): (1) in the internal ear of Vertebrates, the swollen part of a semicircular canal; (2) in Echinoderms, a small sac connected with a tube-foot. Anabolic, relating to anabolism. Anabolism (Gk. azaddlé, an ascent), the up- building chemical processes that take place within the body. Analogous, displaying analogy. Analogy (Gk. analjgés, in agreement with), applied to parts which do the same physio- logical work irrespective of relative position and mode of development. See also Hom- ology. Anatomy (Gk. anatomé, dissection), the study of structure. Anbury, in turnips, a disease due to the pres- ence of a fungus-animal (Plasmodiophora brassice). Antenna (L. for yard-arm): (1) one of the feelers of an Insect, or Myriapod; (2) one of the second feelers of a Crustacean; (3) one of the head-feelers of a Bristle-Worm. Antennary gland, in higher Crustaceans, one of a pair of excretory organs by which nitro- genous waste is removed from the body. They open at the bases of the antenne. Antennule, in Crustaceans, one of the small first pair of feelers. Anthrax, in cattle, &c., a bacterial disease, often set up by insect bites. Anthropoid (Gk. anthrépds, man; eidds, ap- pearance), man-like. Anti-toxin (Gk. anti, against; L. tox‘cum, poison), a complex organic substance (defen- sive proteid) conferring immunity against disease-germs. Antler, in Deer, a bony outgrowth from the skull, which is shed annually. 2 2 496 Antler-royal, the third branch of a Red Deer's antler (counting from its base). Aorta (Gk. aéird, I carry), the chief artery of the body. Aortic arches, the arteries which traverse the visceral arches of Vertebrates. Apical disc, in Echinoderms (especially sea- urchins), a double circlet of plates on the upper surface of the body. Apiculture (L. agzs, a bee), bee-culture. Apteria (Gk. a, without; pferylin a feather), featherless patches of a Bird's skin. Arch, of a vertebra (or joint of the backbone), the dorsal part which forms the roof and sides of the hole traversed by the spinal cord. Archenteron (Gk. arché, a beginning; enferon, an intestine), the digestive cavity of the Gastrula (which see). Area of distribution, area inhabited by a species or other animal group. It is d/scon- tinuous if consisting of two or more isolated portions. Artery, a blood-vessel which carries blood from the heart. Articular processes, projections on the arches of vertebrae, by which these are connected together. Artificial selection, the production of breeds of domesticated animals by human agency. Assimilation (L. ads7mzlo, I make like), the conversion of digested food into body-sub- stance. Atavism (L. afavus, an ancestor). Sion. Atlas, the ring-shaped first vertebra of the neck-region. Atoll, a ring-shaped coral island. Atrial cavity (L. atrium, a hall), a space sur- rounding most of the pharynx in Lancelets and Ascidians. Atriopore, the opening of the Atrial cavity (which see). Auricle (L. auzvicula, a little ear), a relatively thin-walled heart-chamber, into which veins pour blood. Auricularia, pl. -z (L. for lobe of the ear), in Sea-Cucumbers, a bilateral larva, provided with a sinuous ciliated band, suggesting the appearance of an ear in side-view. Australian region, Australia and adjacent islands, with eastern part of East Indies, New Zealand, and Polynesia. Axis, the second neck-vertebra. See Rever- Balancers (halteres), small club-shaped struc- tures representing the reduced hind-wings in Flies. Baleen (‘‘ whalebone”), in toothless Whales, elastic plates hanging down from the roof of the mouth. Barb, one of the flattened branches borne by the axis of a feather. Barbel, one of the sensitive filaments with GLOSSARY which the mouth-region is provided in some Fishes, e.g. Cat-Fishes. Barbule, one of the small branches borne by the barbs of a feather. Bastard-wing (ala spuria), a tuft of feathers borne by the thumb of a bird. Béche-de-mer, Trepang (which see). Bedeguar, a tufted gall on the rose, produced by the attack of a Gall-Fly. Beneficials, those wild animals that by their habits promote the welfare of mankind. Benthos (Gk. 4énthds, depth), the assemblage of animals inhabiting deep water. Bez-tine, the second branch of a Red Deer's antler (counting from its base). Biconcave, hollow on both sides, e.g. the ver- tebra of a Fish. Bicuspid. See Premolar. Bilateral Symmetry. See Symmetry. Bile, or Gall, the secretion of the liver. Bile-duct, a tube through which bile passes into the intestine. Biology (Gk. 870s, life; /égds, a discourse), the science of life. Bipinnaria, pl. -z, in Star-Fishes, the bilateral larva, which is provided with pairs of soft ciliated arms. Bivalve, applied to the shell of a Mollusc when made up of two pieces or valves, e.g. in a Mussel. Lamp-shells (Brachiopoda) are also bivalve, and Mussel-Shrimps (Ostracoda) possess a bivalve shield or shell. Blastopore (Gk. d/astis, a germ; pora, a pas- sage), the mouth of a Gastrula (which see). Blastosphere (Gk. dlastis, a germ; sphaira, a sphere), a hollow and spheroidal kind of Blastula (which see). Blastula (Gk. dim. of dlastés, a germ), the embryonic stage resulting from Cleavage (which see). Blight, a disease of plants, often due to the presence of aphides. Blubber, in marine Mammals, a thick layer of fat below the skin. Body - cavity, in animals higher than Zoo- phytes, a space or series of spaces between the internal organs and body-wall. Botany (Gk. dofané, a plant), the science deal- ing with plants. Bouchot, in mussel-culture, a collector made of stakes with interwoven twigs. Brachiolaria, pl. -#, a variety of the Bipin- naria (which see). Bronchus, pl. -i, one of the two main branches of the wind-pipe. Brood - parasitism, used of animals (e.g. the Cuckoo) which evade the responsibility of bringing up their own young. Brow-tine, the lowest branch of a Red Deer's antler, projecting over the forehead. Byssus (Gk. dyssos), adhesive threads by which some Bivalve Molluscs attach themselves. GLOSSARY Czcum, pl. -a (L. cecus, blind), a blindly ending tube. : Calcaneum (L. for heel), the heel-bone. Calcar (L. for spur), a small pointed projection on the inner side of a Frog’s hind-foot. Calcareous (L. calx, calcis, lime), of a limy nature. Callosity, a hardened patch of skin. Calyx (Gk. kalyx, a cup), the outer investing leaves of a flower. Canine, one of the four ‘‘eye-teeth” ina Mam- mal. Situated outside the Incisors(which see), and well developed in carnivorous forms. Cannon-bone: (1) in Horse, &c., the large metacarpal or metatarsal of the single digit; (2) in Ruminants, the compound bone formed by fusion of third and fourth meta- carpals or metatarsals. Capillaries (L. capzllus, hair), microscopic blood-vessels with exceedingly thin walls. The name is misleading, since they are much smaller than the finest hairs. Carapace, a firm protective shield covering the upper side and flanks in some animals. Cardia (the Greek name), the opening be- tween gullet and stomach. Cardo (L. for hinge), the basal joint of an Insect’s second jaw. Carinate (L. carina, a keel): (1) with a keel- like projection; (2) applied to flying birds, in which the breast-bone possesses such a pro- jection, for the attachment of the muscles of flight. Carnassials (L. carnosus, relating to flesh), or Flesh-teeth, in Carnivores, four cutting cheek-teeth which act like scissors. Carnivorous, flesh-eating. Carotid (Gk. dara, the head), a term applied to arteries which carry blood to the head and neck. Carpale, pl. -ia (Gk. karpds, the wrist), the distal elements of the carpus. Carpel (Gk. arpds, fruit), a modified flower- leaf that bears ovules. The Pistil (which see) consists of one or more carpels. Carpus (Gk. karpis, the wrist), the skeleton of the wrist. Cartilage, gristle. Caste, in social Insects, a set of similar indi- viduals. Caval veins, in air-breathing Vertebrates, the great veins which return impure blood to the heart. Caviare, the preserved hard roes (ovaries) of the sturgeon. Cell, a nucleated mass of protoplasm, gener- ally microscopic, and usually regarded as the unit of structure. Centrale, a central element of the carpus or tarsus. Centrum, pl. -a, of a vertebra, the relatively massive ventral part, flooring the hole tra- versed by the spinal cord. Cephalo-thorax (Gk. képhailé, the head; thdrax, 497 the chest), in some Arthropods, the front region of the body, formed by fusion of the head with part or all of the thorax. Cerata (Gk. 2érata, horns), in Sea-slugs (Nudi- branchs), club-shaped outgrowths springing from the back. Cercaria, pl. -2 (Gk. érkds, a tail), in Flukes, a tadpole-shaped stage in the life-history. Produced by the Redia (which see), and immediately preceding the adult stage. Cerci (Gk. érkus, a tail), jointed rods project- ing from the hinder end of an Insect’s abdo- men. Cere (L. cera, wax), a bare patch of skin at the base of a Bird's beak. Cerebellum (L. dim. of cerebrum, the brain), an unpaired dorsal outgrowth from the hinder part of the brain of a Vertebrate. Cerebral hemispheres (L. cerebrum, the brain), the highest part of the brain in Vertebrates, usually consisting of a pair of outgrowths from near its front end. Cervical (L. cervix, the neck), relating to the neck, Chalaza (Gk. for hail), in a Bird’s egg, a twisted cord-like structure traversing the albumen (‘‘ white”’) at either end. Cheek-teeth, the back-teeth. Chelicera, pl. -2, (Gk. chélé, a claw; kéras, a horn), one of the first pair of head-limbs in Spider-like animals (Arachnida). Chlorophyll (Gk. chords, grass green; phyllin, a leaf), or Leaf-green, the characteristic pig- ment of green plants. It also occurs in a few lower animals. Chordotonal organ (Gk. chérd@, a string; tonazios, stretched), in some Insects, a kind of sense-organ related to balance, or hearing, or both. Choroid (Gk. chdriin, skin; eddés, appearance), the middle coat of the eyeball. It is pig- mented and vascular, and externally forms the iris (which see). Chromatophore(Gk. chroma, colouring matter; phéro, | bear), a small or minute body con- taining pigment, and situated in the skin. Colour-changes are due to the alteration in size of such bodies. Chrysalis, pl. -ides (the Greek name), the pupa of a Moth or Butterfly. Ciliary action, the movement of cilia. Cilium, pl. cilia (L. cz/iwm, eyelash), a micro- scopic thread of protoplasm, possessing the power of alternately bending and straighten- ing. Numerous cilia are usually associated together. The derivation is misleading. Circulatory organs, the structures concerned with distributing blood and lymph through- out the body. Cirrus, pl. -i (L. c¢rrus, a tentacle): (1) one of the slender-jointed appendages of a Barnacle; (2) one of the sensory filaments borne by the segments of Bristle-Worms; (3) in Sea-Lilies, one of the jointed threads of which numerous circlets are borne by the stalk. 498 Claire, in French oyster culture, a muddy salt pond in which oysters are ‘greened’ by feeding on minute algae. Clavicle, the collar-bone. Cleavage, the early divisions of the fertilized egg-cell, resulting in a Blastula (which see). Clitellum (L. clitelle, a pack-saddle), in Earth-Worms and Leeches, a glandular re- gion of the skin, which secretes the material for the cocoon. Cloaca (L. cloaca, a sewer), a chamber into which, e.g. in a Frog, intestine, excretory organs, and reproductive organs open. Coccyx (Gk. for cuckoo), the reduced tail- region of the backbone in Man and the man- like Apes. Cochineal, a red pigment extracted from the dried bodies of Cochineal Insects. Cochlea (L. cochlea, a snail-shell), in Mam- mals, a spirally-coiled part of the membran- ous labyrinth. Cocoon, a variously shaped case in which the eggs or other inactive stages in the life- history of various animals are enclosed. Celom (Gk. folds, hollow), a Body-cavity (which see) containing lymph-like fluid and communicating with the exterior by excretory tubes. Ceenosarc (Gk. ko/nds, common; sarx, sarcos, flesh), in colonial Zoophytes, the common body by which the individuals are united. Collar-cell, in Sponges, a cell bearing a single flagellum with a collar-like projection at its base. Collector, in oyster- and mussel-culture, an arrangement of twigs, boards, or tiles, to which the larve or fry attach themselves. Colonial, relating to a Colony (which see). Colony, an assemblage of lower animals, in which the bodies of all the individuals are continuous. The condition is a result of vegetative propagation. Columella (L. columella, a little pillar), a small rod which stretches across the drum of the ear in Birds, some Reptiles, and some Am- phibians. Columnar epithelium, epithelium composed of cells clongated at right angles to the surface. Commensalism (L. con-, together; mensa, a dining-table), the association of two organ- isms as messmates, or commensals, to the benefit of one or both. Compound eye, an eye made up of more or less numerous optically distinct elements each with an external facet. Possessed by many Arthropods. Concha (L. concha, a shell) the ear-flap of a Mammal. Condyle (Gk. condy/los, a tubercle), a rounded projection on a bone or cartilage, where it helps to form a movable joint. Mandibular condyles, at back of lower jaw, where it unites with skull. Occipital condyle (or condyles), on back of skull, where it joins the backbone. GLOSSARY Conjugation (L. conjugato, conjugatum, to bind together), in some Animalcules, the temporary or permanent fusion of two indi- viduals, accompanied by union of nuclear material, and having an invigorating eftect, shown by active vegetative propagation. Continental island, an island that was at one time part of an existing continent. Contractile, endowed with contractility. Contractility, the power possessed by proto- plasm of changing its shape with no or slight change in volume. Coracoid bone (Gk. £drax, a raven), a ventral element in the shoulder-skeleton of lower Vertebrates. Coracoid process, a projection (compared in Man to a raven’s beak) on the shoulder-blade of Mammals, equivalent to the coracoid bone. Cornea (L. corneus, horny), a transparent area of the sclerotic coat through which light enters the eye. Corolla (L. for little crown), the inner invest- ing leaves of a flower. Usually brightly coloured. Corpus callosum (L. for hard body), a band of nerve-fibres which in most Mammals connects the cerebral hemispheres. Corpuscles (L. dim. of corpus, a body), micro- scopic bodies floating in blood or lymph. White or Colourless Corpuscles, nucleated cells, able to change their shape, found in both blood and lymph. Red Corpuscles, round or oval discs present in the blood of many animals. Cortex (L. cortex, bark), the external layer of the cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum. Costal (L. costa, a rib), relating to the ribs. Courtship coloration, beautiful colours dis- played (usually by the male) as a courtship accessory. Courtship selection, preferential mating, as determined by combat, or by the possession of zsthetic characters. Cranial flexure, a bend in the brain. Cranial nerves, the nerves which arise from the brain. Cranium (Gk. Ardnzon, the skull), the brain- case. Crop, in the gut of various animals, a dilated part of the gullet, or enlarged region follow- ing the gullet. It serves for temporary stor- age of food. Cross-fertilization, fertilization of an egg-cell by a sperm (or its equivalent) derived from another organism. Cross-pollination, transfer of pollen from the stamens of one flower to the stigma of another flower. Coxa (L. cova, a hip), the basal joint of an Insect’s leg. Cul de mulet, Sea-anemones used as an article of food in parts of southern Europe. Cultch, in oyster-culture, empty shells, broken tiles, &c., upon which oysters are grown. GLOSSARY Cuticle, an elastic exoskeleton of horny con- sistency external to the epidermis, by which it is secreted. Cysticercus, pl. -i (Gk. cystis, a bladder; kérkds, a tail), in most Tape-Worms, the bladder-worm stage. Darwinism. See Natural selection. Degeneration, a process of simplification whereby some forms adapt themselves to a parasitic or to a fixed mode of life. Denitrifying, used of bacteria which liberate nitrogen from organic matter. Dental formula, a numerical expression, show- ing the number and kinds of teeth present in a given species of Mammal. Dentine (L. dens, dentis, a tooth), a hard sub- stance of which teeth are chiefly composed. Dermatoptic vision (Gk. dérma, -atvs, a skin; optikis, pertaining to sight), seeing by means of the skin. Dermis (Gk. dérma, a skin), the inner layer of the skin. Diaphragm (the Greek name), the midriff. Didactyle (Gk. dz-, two; daktylés, a finger or toe), possessing two digits. Digitigrade (L. digitus, the toe of an animal; grado, | walk), walking upon the digits. Diphycercal (Gk. diphyés, double; kérkds, a tail). See Protocercal. Diploblastic (Gk. dzplous, double; blastis, a germ), applied to animals in which the body is essentially composed of two cellular layers. Dispersal, the spreading of a species from the area where it was first evolved. Dorsal (L. dorsum, the back), applied to the upper side of an animal. Ductless glands, a name applied to a number of small structures, of various use, which do not possess ducts or tubes for carrying off a liquid secretion. See Lymphatic glands, Thymus, Thyroid, Spleen. Ectoderm (Gk. e/0s, outside; derma, a skin), the external cellular layer of the body. Ectoparasite. See Parasite. Eder-fold, one of the nesting-grounds of the eider-duck. Efferent branchial vessels (L. efférd, I carry from; Gk. branchia, gills), blood-vessels which carry off purified blood from gills. Efferent nerve-fibre (L. efféra, I carry from), a nerve-fibre in which the impulse travels , outwards from the central organs. Elevage, in French oyster-culture, the rearing _ of young oysters to a marketable size. Eleveur, a French oyster-culturalist concerned with élevage. Elytron, pl. -a, (Greek name for (1) ): (1) in Insects, a fore-wing modified into a hard cover for the delicate hind-wing; (2) in some marine Bristle-Worms, a breathing- scale. 499 Embryology (Gk. émbrydn, an embryo; ldgds, a discourse), the study of the development of animals. Endoderm (Gk. édin, within; dérmd, a skin), the internal cellular layer of the body. Endoparasite. See Parasite. Endoskeleton, internal hard parts serving for support, &c. Entomophilous (Gk. &/mds, an insect; philed, I love), of flowers, pollinated by insects. Environment, the sum total of an animal's surroundings. Eozoic epoch (Gk. eos, dawn; zoé@, life), the most ancient geological era. Ephippium (Gk. &phippidn, a saddle-cloth), in Water-‘‘ Fleas”, a saddle-shaped thicken- ing of the parent-shell, serving to enclose and protect the winter-eggs. Ephyra, pl. -z, a young jelly-fish of flattened form, produced by transverse fission of a fixed Zoophyte. Epidermis (the Greek name), the protective outer layer of the skin. Epigenesis (Gk. &7, after; gennad, I pro- duce), the accepted view that development of animals is a process involving a gradual up-building from simple to complex. See Preformation. Epiglottis (the Greek name), in Mammals, an elastic flap which prevents food from enter- ing the wind-pipe. Epipodium, pl. -ia (Gk. ef7, upon; fous, podds, a foot), in some Molluscs, a muscular flap arising high up either side of the foot. Epipubic, connected with the front end of the Pubis (which see). Epithelium, pl. -a, layers of cells covering ex- ternal and lining internal surfaces. Ethiopian region, south Arabia with Africa south of the Sahara. Euglenoid movement, a wriggling mode of creeping effected by altering the shape of the body, as in Euglena, a sort of Animalcule. Eustachian tube, a passage connecting the drum of the ear with the pharynx in air- breathing Vertebrates. Evolution (L. evolutio, an unfolding), the de- velopment of species by modification of pre- existing species. See also Special creation. Excretion, the getting rid of waste products. Exhalent. See Siphon. Exoskeleton, external hard parts serving for support, &c. Extensor, applied to muscles which straighten or extend a limb, or region of the body. Fascine, in oyster-culture, a bundle of twigs used as a Spat-collector. Femoral, relating to the thigh. Femur (L. for thigh): (1) the thigh-bone of Vertebrates; (2) a part of the leg in Insects, &e. Fenestra ovalis (L. for oval window), in Verte- brates, a membrane-filled vacuity in the 500 outer wall of the firm capsule containing the essential organs of hearing. Fertilization, the fusion of two nuclear masses, commonly derived from different individuals. Fetlock, in limbs of Horse, &c.: (1) the knuckle-joint of the single digit; (2) the tuft of hair attached to this joint. Fibula (L. for bodkin), the bone of the lower leg which is on the little-toe side. Fibulare, a proximal element of the tarsus, situated on the side next the little toe. Filoplume, a small and imperfect feather, of downy texture. Finger-and-Toe. See Anbury. Fin-rays, in Fishes, skeletal rods which sup- port the fins. Fins, in various aquatic animals, flat expan- sions of the body used in swimming. Fission (L. findo, fissum, to split), vegetative propagation by splitting of the parent body. Flagellum, pl. -a (L. for whip-lash), an elon- gated thread of protoplasm, capable ot executing lashing movements. A single cell bears but one or a few. See Cilium. Flexor, applied to muscles which bend or flex a limb, or region of the body. Fluke, in Cetaceans, one of the tail-lobes. Fly-sickness, a fatal disease of horses, &c., set up by the attacks of the tsetse-fly. Food-vacuole, in Animalcules, a food-contain- ing space within the body. Food-yolk, nutritive material stored up in (or outside) the egg-cell, for use during develop- ment. Foot: (1) in broad sense, the extremity of any limb used for locomotion; (2) more strictly, the extremity of a hind-limb in Vertebrates; (3) an unpaired muscular projection from the under side of a Mollusc, used in locomotion. Foot-stump. See Parapod. Foramen, pl. -ina (L. for hole), a hole through which (usually) a nerve or blood-vessel passes. Foramen magnum, the large open- ing in the back of the brain-case, where brain and spinal cord are continuous. Foramina repugnatoria, in Millipedes, small pores on the sides of the body, by which the stink-glands open. Fore-gut, the front part of the digestive tube, developed as an inpushing from the exterior. Fossils (L. fossz/is, dug out), the remains of organisms, or proofs of their existence, which have been naturally imbedded in rocks. Frenulum (L. dim. of frenum, a bridle), in Moths, one or more bristles projecting from the front of the hind-wing, and attaching this to the fore-wing by interlocking with the Retinaculum (which see). Funicle (L. funzculus, a cord), in Moss-Po- lypes, a fibrous band connecting the stomach with the body-wall. Funnel, a muscular tube through which Cuttle- fishes, &c., eject water from the gill-cavity, and are enabled to swim. GLOSSARY Furcula (L. for a prop), the ‘‘ merry-thought” of a Bird, consisting of the two collar-bones united together. Galea (L. for a helmet), in Insects, the outer branch of the second or third jaw. Gall: (1) bile; (2) an abnormal external growth resulting from the attack of a parasite. Gall-bladder, a membranous bag in which bile is temporarily stored. Ganglion, pl. ganglia (Gk. for a small tumour), an aggregation of nerve-cells. Ganglion-cell. Ganoid (Gk. ganos, brilliancy; eidos, appear- ance), applied to the regularly arranged bony plates (ganoid scales) covering the bodies of some Fishes. Gapes, in Birds, a disease due to the presence of parasitic worms (Syngamus trachealis) in the air-passages. Gastric glands, minute tubes imbedded in the lining of the stomach, and secreting gastric juice. Gastric juice, a digestive fluid secreted or elaborated by the gastric glands. It acts on albuminoids, converting them into soluble diffusible peptones. Gastric mill, in Crustaceans, a chewing apparatus with which the stomach is pro- vided. Gastrula (L. dim. from gaster, a stomach), a double-layered embryo possessing mouth and digestive cavity (archenteron). Gemmation (L. gemma, a bud), production of new individuals by budding. General aggressive resemblance, applied to predaceous forms which harmonize in appearance with their surroundings, and are thus rendered inconspicuous. Genus, pl. genera (L. for a race or family), a classificatory group including one or more species. Germinal disc, that part of the egg which, e.g. in a Bird, develops into the embryo. Germinal variation, variation of germ-cells (ova and sperms). Germ Plasma, that part of the nucleus of a germ-cell concerned (according to Weis- mann) with heredity. Gill arches and clefts, in Fishes, &c., those visceral arches and clefts (which see) related to the gills. Gill-cover, or Operculum, (pl. -a), in many Fishes, &c., a flap which covers the gill-slits. Gill-rakers, in some Fishes, filaments project- ing from the edges of the inner openings of the gill-pouches, and serving as a straining- apparatus. Gizzard, in various animals, a_ thick-walled part of the digestive tube in which food is broken up. Glenoid cavity (Gk. g/éé, a shallow socket), the socket into which the bone of the upper arm fits. See Nerve-cell. GLOSSARY Glochidium, pl. -a, the larva of a Fresh- water Mussel. Glottis (the Greek name), the opening of the windpipe in the floor of the pharynx. Gonophore (Gk. gdnds, offspring; phérd, I bear), in Zoophytes, a bud in which egg- cells or sperms are produced. Green glands. See Antennary gland. Grey matter, that part of the central nervous system made up largely of nerve-cells. Ground-Pearl, in some Scale-Insects, the en- cysted underground pupa. Gular (L. gw/a, the throat), near the throat. Gut, the digestive tube or alimentary canal. Hemoglobin (Gk. haima, blood; globin, a kind of albuminoid), a complex substance to which red corpuscles owe their colour, and which in some animals may be dissolved in the blood-plasma. Acts as an oxygen- carrier. Halteres (L. for club-shaped weights used by gymnasts). See Balancers. Haptic (Gk. haptikds, endowed with the sense of touch), used of sensations of contact. Herbivorous, plant-eating. Heredity, the transmission of characters from one generation to another. Heterocercal (Gk. h&éros, diverse; kérkis, tail), unsymmetrical. Used of the tail-fin of certain Fishes, e.g. Sharks. Heterodactylous (Gk. étérds, different; dak- tylés, a toe), in the feet of some climbing Birds, with the first and second toes turned back, while the third and fourth are directed forwards. Hind-gut, the hinder part of the digestive tube, developed as an inpushing from the exterior. Hip-girdle, the skeleton of the hip-region. Histology (Gk. Azstés, a texture; légds, a dis- course), or Minute anatomy, the study of structure by means of the compound micro- scope. Hock, in hind-limb of Horse, &c., the ankle. Holarctic (Gk. dlds, all; arktés, the north), native to the colder parts of the Northern Hemisphere. Homocercal (Gk. himds, like; kérkds, a tail), applied to the lobed and externally sym- metrical tail of ordinary Fishes. Homologous, displaying homology. Homology (Gk. homdligis, agreeing), applied to parts which resemble one another as re- gards relative position and mode of develop- ment, irrespective of use or function. Serial homology, agreement between structures forming a series, e.g. spinal nerves. See also Analogy. Honey-comb stomach. See Reticulum. Host, an organism on which a parasite preys. See Parasitism. Humeral, related to the upper arm. Vor. IV. 501 Humerus (the Latin name), the upper-arm bone. Hybernation, the habit of passing into a torpid state during the cold or dry season. Hybrid (L. Aybrida, a cross-bred animal), a cross between two distinct species. Hybrids are usually sterile. Hydroid Zoophytes, colonial Coelenterates which in fixed stage superficially resemble sea-weeds. Hyoid bone, supports root of tongue in higher Vertebrates. Hyomandibular, related to visceral arches (which see), known as mandibular and hyoid. the first two respectively Ilium, the dorsal element of the hip-girdle. Imago, pl. -ines (L. for figure, portrait, or statue), in Insects, the adult stage. Incisor, one of the front teeth of a Mammal. Next to these are the Canines. See Canine. Inhalent. See Siphon. Insertion of a muscle, the end attached to a relatively movable part. Instinct, the power of performing complex actions, subserving adjustment to surround- ings, independently of experience or instruc- tion. Integropalliate, in the shell of a Bivalve Mol- lusc, with continuous pallial line. Intelligence, the ability to profit by experience in adjusting behaviour to changing surround- ings. Interambulacral area, in Echinoderms, a band or zone which does not bear tube-feet. Inter -clavicle, a skeletal element situated between the clavicles in some animals. Intermedium, a proximal median element in the carpus or tarsus. Interradial, in radially symmetrical animals, relating to an interradius. Interradius, in radially symmetrical animals, a region of the body coming between two of the radii. Invertebrate, devoid of a backbone or its equivalent. Iris (L. for rainbow), the coloured part of the eye, serving as a diaphragm external to the lens. Its opening is the pupil. Ischium, the ventral and posterior element of the hip-girdle. Isinglass, a fine kind of gelatine, prepared from the swim-bladders of fishes, especially sturgeons, Joint-gill, in Crustaceans, a gill attached to the joint at the base of a limb. Kainozoic epoch, (Gk. kainds, recent; 308, life), the latest geological era. Katabolic, relating to katabolism. Katabolism (Gk. katabolé, a casting down), 127 502 the down-breaking chemical processes that take place within the body. Knee, in fore-limb of Horse, &c., the wrist. Kungu cake, an edible substance prepared on the shores of Lake Nyassa, by collecting and compressing the aquatic larve of Insects. Labellum (L. for little lip), the large lower petal of an Orchid. Labium (L. for a lip), the lower lip of an In- sect, formed by the more or less complete fusion of the third jaws (second maxilla). Labrum (L. for lip), the upper lip of an Arthropod. Laceration, in Sea-Anemones, production of new individuals by the separation of small fragments of the base. Lacinia (L. for a small part), in Insects, the inner branch of the second or third jaw. Lacteals (L. /ac, milk), the lymphatics of the intestine, so called on account of the milky appearance of their contents (digested fat) after a meal. Lagena (L. for earthen jar), a curved tubular part of the membranous labyrinth in Birds, &c., equivalent to the Cochlea (which see) of Mammals. Land-bridge, a submerged area that once united two tracts of land now separated by the sea. Larva, pl. -e (L. /arva, a kind of actor's mask), in many life-histories, an early free- living stage (e.g. a Tadpole or a Caterpillar) which is more or less unlike the adult. Larynx (the Greek name), the voice-box. Licked beef, diseased flesh in the neighbour- hood of Warbles (which see). Ligament: (1) a fibrous band running between two skeletal elements; (2) an elastic band (external ligament) or pad (internal liga- ment) by which the shell of a Bivalve Mollusc is opened. Limb-gill, in Crustaceans, a gill attached to a limb. Littoral (L. //tus, littor’s, a shore), belonging to the shore. Liver-rot, in Sheep, &c., a disease caused by the presence of Liver-Flukes. Lophophore (Gk. Jiphos, tuft or crest; phéera, I bear), in Moss-Polypes, the crown of ten- tacles. Louping-ill, in Sheep, a_ bacterial caused by the attacks of Ticks. Lung- books, in Scorpions and Spiders, breath- ing organs consisting of depressions into which numerous leaf-like folds project. Luring, the attraction of farm-pests from the plants they attack. Lymph, clear fluid containing colourless cor- puscles. Lymphatic glands, swellings in the course of lymphatics, in which new colourless cor- puscles are developed. Lymph-system, a series of spaces and tubes containing Lymph (which see). disease GLOSSARY Macronucleus (Gk. makrés, large), in Ani- malcules, the large nucleus. Madreporite, in Echinoderms, a perforated calcareous plate, through which fluid enters the water-vascular system. Maggot, in Insects, a limbless worm - shaped larva. Malpighian tubes, in Insects, excretory tubes opening into the hinder part of the gut. Mandible: (1) in Vertebrates, the lower jaw; (2) in Arthropods, one of the first pair of jaws. Manna,a sweet substance (honey-dew) secreted by a species of Scale-insect. Mantle, in Molluscs and Lamp-Shells, a flap of the body-wall, on the outer side of which shell-substance is formed. Mantle-cavity, in Molluscs and Lamp-shells, a space between the body and Mantle (which see). It contains the gill or gills (in aquatic Molluscs), and the intestine, excretory organs, &c., usually open into it. Manyplies. See Omasum. Masking, inconspicuousness produced by a covering of foreign objects, e.g. stones and bits of sea-weed. Mastax (Gk. for the mouth), the gizzard-like pharynx of Rotifers. Maxilla, pl. -2 (L. max7lla, a jaw): (1) in Ver- tebrates, a bone of the jaw; (2) in Arthro- pods, one of the second or third pair of jaws. Medusa, in Jelly-Fishes, the egg-producing stage, which is usually free-swimming. Megalopa, pl. -2 (Gk. megilipous, having large feet), in Crabs, the larval stage sic- ceeding the Zoza. The legs are well-de- veloped and the tail large. Melanic, exhibiting melanism. Melanism (Gk. mé/as, -ands, dark), excep- tional darkness in hue of some members of a species. Membranous labyrinth, in Vertebrates, the complex bag constituting the essential part of the internal ear. Mentum (L. for the chin), the part of an Insect's lower lip that succeeds the Sub- mentum (which see). Mesentery (Gk. mésénféridn, same meaning as (1) ): (1) in Vertebrates, a membrane by which the digestive tube is held in place; (2) in Bristle-Worms, one of the transverse par- titions marking off the segments internally; (3) in Sea-Anemones, &c., one of the par- titions connecting the gullet with the body- wall. Mesoderm (Gk. msds, middle ; dérma, a skin), the middle cellular layer of the body. Mesogleea (Gk. mésds, middle; gld70s, a jelly- like substance), in Zoophytes, the middle often jelly-like layer of the body. Mesotarsal, in the middle of the tarsus, e.g. a Bird's ankle-joint. Mesozoic epoch (Gk. mesos, middle; z0é, life), the latest geological era but one. GLOSSARY Metabolic, relating to metabolism. Metabolism (Gk. métabolé, change), the cycle of chemical changes taking place within the body. Metacarpale, pl. -ia, one of the skeletal ele- ments supporting the palm. Metacarpus (Gk. métakarpidn, the palm of the hand), skeleton of palm of hand. Metamorphosis (Gk. for transformation), the series of changes by which the adult stage is attained, in cases where the young animal dif- fers markedly from its parents. See Larva. Metatarsale, pl. -ia, one of the skeletal ele- ments supporting the instep. Metatarsus (Gk. mé&a, after; farsds, the broad part of the foot), the skeleton of the instep- region of the foot. Micronucleus (Gk. mzkrds, small), in Ani- malcules, the small nucleus. Microtome (Gk. mzkris, small; feémnd, I cut), an instrument for cutting thin slices for microscopic examination. Mid-gut, the middle section of the digestive tube. Migration (L. mzgratio, removal from one home to another), the wandering of species from one place to another, often in a periodic manner. See also Dispersal. Milk dentition, in Mammals, the first set of teeth. Milk molar, in Mammals, one of the cheek- teeth of the milk dentition. Mimicry, or Spurious warning, the resem- blance existing between certain innocuous forms and others exhibiting Warning colora- tion, &c. (which see). The mimicking species share in the relative immunity enjoyed by the mimicked forms. Miners’ anemia, a dangerous intestinal dis- ease, caused by a palisade-worm (Dochmius duodenalis). Molar, one of the permanent cheek-teeth of a Mammal, belonging to the hinder part of the series, and without a predecessor in the first set of teeth (milk teeth). Mongrel, a cross between two varieties or races of the same species. Mongrels are usually fertile. Morphology, (Gk. mdrphé, form; Jlégds, a discourse), the study of form and structure. Morula (L. dim. of sorum, a mulberry), a solid and spherical variety of Blastula (which see). Mucous membrane, the soft membrane lining the digestive tube. Mule, a cross between Horse and Ass. Muscle: (1) the tissue which makes up flesh; (2) a definitely-shaped piece of flesh, con- cerned with some special movement or move- ments. Mutualism, or Symbiosis, the intimate associ- ation of two organisms as mutualists, for the benefit of both. Myrmecophilous (Gk. myrméx, -ékds, an ant; philed, 1 love), of certain plants, protected 593 by ants, which in return receive food and shelter. Nagana, Fly-sickness (which see). Natural selection, the survival of individuals which vary in favourable directions in rela- tion to their surroundings. Nauplius (Gk. Mauplids, a son of Neptune), in lower Crustaceans, an ovoid unsegmented larva possessing only the three first pair of head-appendages, by means of which it swims. Nearctic region (Gk. néds, new; arktds, the north), the northern part of the New World. Nectar (Gk. né&/dr, the drink of the gods), a sweet fluid produced by a nectary. Nectary, in plants, an organ secreting nectar. Neo-Lamarckism, a theory of evolution which postulates the existence of definite Laws of Growth. Neolithic period (Gk. neds, new; Mithds, a stone), the later stages of the Stone Age. Neotropical region (Gk. neds, new; trdprkds, relating to the tropics), Central and South America, with the West Indies. Nephridium, pl. -ia (dim. of Gk. néphrds, a kidney), in many groups of animals, excre- tory tubes by which nitrogenous waste is removed from the body. They place the Coelom (which see) in communication with the exterior. Neritic zone (néri/és, a sea-snail), the shallow waters of the sea. Nerve-cell, the essential part of a Neuron (which see). Nerve-fibre, the conducting thread into which a Neuron (which see) is produced. Nerve-loop, in Molluscs, part of the central nervous system which gives off nerves to the gills and viscera. Nerve-ring, in Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs, &c., part of the central nervous system which surrounds the front portion of the gut. Nervure, one of the linear thickenings support- ing the wing of an Insect. Nettling-cell, in Zoophytes (Coelenterata), a stinging capsule. Neural (Gk. n&urin, a nerve), related to the central nervous system, or in the proximity of this. Neuron (Gk. for a nerve), a nerve-unit, con- sisting of a nerve-cell with its prolongations. Nictitating membrane, the translucent third eyelid of Birds, &c., which can be drawn over the eye as a protection. Nidicole (L. nzdus, a nest; colo, I inhabit), in Birds, helpless nestlings. Nidifuge (L. nzdus, a nest; fugio, I run away), in Birds, young which run about and feed themselves almost immediately after hatching. Nitrifying, used of bacteria, &c., which cause free nitrogen to enter into combination. Notochord (Gk. 2dtén, the back; chdrdé, a string), an elastic supporting-rod which 504 underlies the central nervous system of a Vertebrate embryo, and may persist through- out life. Usually more or less replaced by the backbone, of which it is the forerunner. Nuchal (L. xwcha, neck), relating to the neck. Nucleus (L. for a kernel), a specialized par- ticle of protoplasm within a cell. Nymph, in Insects with incomplete metamor- phosis, the stage which hatches from the egg. Oceanic island, an island that has never formed part of any existing continent. Ocellus, pl. -i, (L. for a little eye), in Arthro- pods, a small simple eye. Ocular (L. ocu/us, an eye), bearing eyes, e.g. the ocular plates in the apical disc of a sea-urchin. Odontophore (Gk. ddous, dddntis, a tooth; phéro, I bear), the rasping organ in the mouth-cavity of Snails, Cuttle-Fishes, &c. Csophagus, the gullet. Omasum, in the stomach of Ruminants, the third compartment. Omnivorous, of mixed diet. Ontogeny (Gk. dna, beings; génnad, I pro- duce), the development of individual animals. Operculun,, pl. -a (L. for lid or cover): (1) the gill-cover of a Fish; (2) the horny or shelly plate with which the opening of the shell can be closed in some Sea-snails; (3) in Scorpions, King-Crabs, &c., a plate on the under side of the body, immediately behind the last pair of legs; (4) the plug with which some tube-dwelling Annelids can close the openings of their tubes. Opisthobranch (Gk. dfisthé, behind; branchia, gills), applied to Sea-Snails with gills behind the heart. Oral (L. ds, the mouth), relating to the mouth. Oral papilla, in Peripatus, a pair of stump- like limbs near the mouth, upon which the slime-glands open. Orbit, the cavity of the skull in which the eye- ball is lodged. Organic selection, the co-operation of Accom- modation and Adaptation (which see) in the production of new species. Oriental region, south Asia, with the adjacent part of the East Indies, the Philippines, and Formosa. Origin of a muscle, the end attached to a relatively fixed part. Osculum (L. for a little mouth), in Sponges, an opening by which currents of water leave the body. Osphradium, pl. -ia (dim. of Gk. dsphra, an odour), a sense-organ which probably tests the nature of the water entering the gill- cavity of aquatic Molluscs. Ossicle (L. dim. of ds, a bone), a small ir- regular bone. Auditory ossicles, in drum of ear. Otocyst (Gk. ows, dtds, an ear; cystis, a bladder), a minute vesicle of sensory nature, GLOSSARY containing one or more hard particles. Pro- bably a balancing organ. Otolith (Gk. ous, dts, an ear; lithds, a stone), a firm particle within an otocyst or internal auditory organ. Ovary, an organ producing egg-cells. Oviparous (L. ovum, anegg; pario, I produce), egg-laying. Ovipositor, in Insects, a piercing arrange- ment at the hinder end of the body in the female, for making holes in plants, &c., and introducing eggs into them. Ovule (L. dim. of ovum, an egg), in Flowering Plants, the small body which becomes a seed after the egg-cell it contains has been fer- tilized. Ovum, pl. -a (L. for an egg), an egg-cell, the earliest stage in the development of an embryo. Oyster-park, an enclosed area of water in which oysters are grown. shallow Pacinian corpuscle, a minute ovoid laminated body, connected with a sensory nerve, and probably having to do with the pressure- sense. Palearctic region (Gk. palazos, ancient; arktos, the north), the northern part of the old world. Paleolithic period (Gk. falatis, ancient; Zithds, a stone), the earlier stages of the Stone Age. Paleozoic epoch (Gk. palaiis, ancient; 208, life), the most ancient geological era but one. Pallial line, in Bivalve Molluscs, a mark on the inner side of each valve, corresponding to the attachment of the mantle or pallium. Pallium (L. for a cloak). See Jantle. Palmated (L. palma, a hand), divided like a hand. Palp (L. palpo, I touch gently), a sensitive outgrowth, e.g. of some mouth-parts in Insects. Labial palp, one of four sensitive triangular flaps adjoining the mouth of a Bivalve Mollusc. Pancreas (the Greek name), the sweet-bread. An abdominal gland, which pours its secre- tion (pancreatic juice) into the intestine. Pancreatic juice, the secretion of the pancreas. It acts upon albuminoids, starch, and fats. Papilla (L. for a nipple), a small projection. Parapod, or Parapodium, pl. -ia (Gk. fara, by the side of; fous, podds, a toot): (1) in Bristle-Worms, one of the hollow conical unjointed foot-stumps; (2)in some Sea-Slugs, a muscular flap arising far down on each side of the foot. Parasite (Gk. parasifés, a sycophant), an organism which lives on (ectoparasite) or in (endoparasite) a larger organism (‘‘ host”), feeding on its juices, substance, or digested food. Parasitism (Gk. farasitis, a sycophant), the association of a parasite with a ‘‘host”’, the GLOSSARY former preying upon the latter by feeding on its blood, &c., or the food it has digested. Parotid glands, the hindermost pair of sali- vary glands. Patella (the Latin name), the knee-pan Paunch. See Rumen. Pearl, in Molluscs, a disease product, formed by deposit of calcareous layers round a foreign body, e.g. a dead parasite or a grain of sand. See also Ground-Pearl. Pecten (L. for a comb), a vascular folded structure that projects into the eye of a Bird, behind the lens. Pectines (L. for combs), in Scorpions, a pair of comb-shaped organs situated immediately behind the operculum (which see). Pectoral (L. pectus, pectoris, the chest), ap- plied to structures, e.g. the fore-limbs of a dog, connected with the chest or thorax. Pectoralis major, the great muscle of the breast, by which the fore-limbs are drawn towards one another. Pedicellaria, pl. -2 (dim. of L. pedica, a trap), in Star-Fishes and Sea-Urchins, a pincer-like spine. Pedipalp, in Spider-like animals (Arachnida), one of the second pair of head-limbs. Pelagic (Gk. pelagikds, marine), living in the open sea, at or near the surface. Pelagic zone, the surface waters of the sea. Pelvic, applied to structures, e.g. the hinder pair of fins in a shark, connected with the Pelvis (which see). Pelvis (L. pelvis, a basin), applied to that part of the skeleton to which the hind-limbs are attached. Pemmican, sun-dried meat. Pentadactyle (Gk. pénté, five; daktylés, a finger or toe), possessing five digits. Pepsin, an albumen-digesting ferment con- tained in gastric juice. Peptic glands. See Gastric glands. Peptone, a soluble and diffusible form of albuminoid. It is produced by the action of gastric juice and pancreatic juice upon the albuminous part of the food. Pericardial, relating to the pericardium. Pericardium (Gk. perz, around; cardza, the heart), the cavity in which the heart is con- tained. Peristaltic (the Greek word), applied to the wave-like contractions of the intestines and (in lower forms) blood-vessels. Permanent dentition, the second set of teeth in a Mammal. Persistent type, an animal species or genus persisting for a long period of geological time, without obvious modification. Petal (Gk. pétalén, a flower-leaf), one of the inner set (corolla) of investing flower-leaves. Phagocyte (Gk. phagein, to eat; cytds, a small box, hence a cell), a colourless cor- puscle. Phalanges, sing. Phalanx (Gk. phalanx, a 595 finger- or toe-bone), bones of fingers and toes. Pharyngeal, relating to the Pharynx (which see). Pharynx (the Greek name), that region of the digestive tube which follows the mouth- cavity. Phylogeny (Gk. phylin, a tribe; génnad, I produce), the evolutionary history of animals. Phylum, -a (Gk. phylon, a race or tribe), one of the main subdivisions of the animal king- dom, e.g. Vertebrata, Mollusca, Protozoa. Physiological selection, the theory that the isolation necessary for the origin of new species is due to partial or complete sterility of varying forms with the parent stock. Physiology (Gk. Ahysis, nature; ligis, a dis- course), the study of the uses or functions . of the parts (organs) of plants and animals. It was formerly used in a much wider sense. Pilidium, pl. -a (Gk. pilididn, a little cap), in some Nemertine worms, a ciliated larva resembling a cap or helmet with rounded side-flaps. Pineal body, a problematic structure con- nected with the roof of the brain in Verte- brates, and probably representing the re- mains of a Pineal eye (which see). Pineal eye, an unpaired dorsal eye present in some Reptiles. See Pineal body. Pinna, the ear-flap of a Mammal. Pinnule (dim. of L. fznna, a feather), in Feather-stars, one of the small branches of the ten arms. Pisciculture (L. pzscés, a fish), the artificial culture of Fishes, e.g. carp in ponds. Pisiform bone (L. pzsum, a pea), a small rounded bone present in the carpus of some animals, external to the ulnare (which see). Pistil (L. pzstil/um, pestle), the central part of a flower, in which seeds are produced. Pituitary body, a problematic structure attached to the under side of the brain in a Vertebrate. Possibly the vestige of a sense organ (cp. Pineal body). Placoid (Gk. plakous, a cake; ezdis, appear- ance), used of the thick rounded bony scales of Sharks and Rays. Placula (Gk. dim. of plakous, a flat cake), a plate-shaped Blastula (which see). Plankton (Gk. Alanktos, wandering), the float- ing and drifting population of the sea and lakes. Plantigrade (L. planta, the sole of the foot; gradior, | walk), walking upon the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. Planula (L. dim. of planus, a vagrant), in Sponges and Zoophytes, an ovoid ciliated larva. Plasma (Gk. plasma, that which has been formed), the fluid part of the blood and lymph. See also Corpuscles. Plastron, (Fr. for a breastplate), the under part of the exoskeleton in a Tortoise or Turtle. 506 Ploughshare-bone: (1) in Birds, the bone which supports the tail-quills; (2) in the Mole, a flat curved bone on the inner side of the hand. Pluteus, pl. -ei (L. for a roof made of hurdles), in Brittle-Stars and Sea-Urchins, the bi- lateral larva, which is provided with pairs of ciliated arms, and supported by an internal calcareous skeleton. Pneumatic duct, in Fishes, a tube which (temporarily or permanently) connects the swim-bladder with the gullet. Polar bodies, in the maturation of the egg- cell (ovum), two small cells resulting from the last two cell-divisions. Pollen (L. for fine flour), in flowers, the fertilizing substance produced by the stamens, and consisting of minute pollen- grains. Pollen-tube, a delicate tube growing from a pollen-grain, and effecting the fertilization of the egg-cell. Pollination, in flowers, transfer of pollen to the stigma. Pollinium, pl. -ia, an agglutinated mass of pollen. Polype, in Zoophytes (Coelenterata), an in- dividual animal. Portal veins, veins which carry impure blood to the liver (hepatic portal vein) or to the kidneys (renal portal veins). Post-axial, behind the axis of a limb. Posterior nares, the opening or openings by whichin air-breathing Vertebrates the cavities of the nose open into the mouth-cavity or pharynx. Pre-axial, in front of the axis of a limb. Precoracoid, a skeletal element present in front of the coracoid in some animals. Preformation, the obsolete theory that the development of an animal results from simple increase in size of parts already present in miniature. Prehensile (L. prehenso, I seize), grasping. Premolar, one of the permanent cheek-teeth of a Mammal, belonging to the front part of the series, and often preceded by a Milk molar (which see). Primary, inherited from remote ancestors. Proboscis (the Greek name), an elongated structure at the front end of certain animals, e.g. the trunk of an elephant or the sucking mouth-parts of a butterfly. Process, a projecting part, e.g. of a bone. Proceelous (Gk. f70-, in front; ko7z/ds, hollow), applied to vertebra of which the bodies are concave in front and convex behind. Producteur, a French oyster-culturalist con- cerned with production. Production, in French oyster-culture, the col- lection and rearing of spat. Proglottis, pl. -ides (Gk. proglissis, the tip of the tongue), in Tape-Worms, one of the egg- producing joints of the body. GLOSSARY Pro-legs, in Insect-larvz, temporary sucker- like legs. Pronation (L. pronus, prone), position of the fore-arm when back of hand is directed up- wards. Prosobranch (Gk. f7o-, in front of; branchia, gills), applied to Sea-snails with gill or gills in front of the heart. Prostomium (Gk. /pro-, mouth), the head-lobe. Proteids. See Albuminoias. Protocercal (Gk. prdtis, first; Rérkos, tail), applied to the symmetrical unlobed tail of some fishes. Protoplasm (Gk. prétds, first; plasma, that which has been formed), the complex sub- stance which makes up the living part of the bodies of all organisms. Proventriculus (Gk. f7d-, in front of; L. ven- triculus, the stomach), the first or chemical stomach of a Bird. Proximal, at or near the attached end. Psalter. See Omasum. Pseudobranch (Gk. fpseudés, talse; branchia, gills), a gill which has been reduced to a Vestige (which see). Pseudopodium, pl. -ia (Gk. pseudés, false; pous, podds, a foot), in naked Animalcules, one of the blunt lobes which can be pro- truded by the protoplasm. Psychology (Gk. psyché, the mind; légds, a discourse), the study of mind. Pteryla, pl. -2 (Gk. pferdén, a plume), a feather-covered tract of skin. before; stéma, a Pubis, the ventral and anterior element of the hip-girdle. Pulmonary (L. pu/mo, a lung), relating to the lungs. Pulvillus, pl. -1 (L. pulvil/lus, a little pillow), in the feet of some Insects, an adhesive end-flap. Pupa (L. for a doll), in Insects, a motionless stage in the life-history. Pupil (L. pupilla, same meaning), the opening in the Iris (which see). Pygal (Gk. fyvge, the rump), related to the hinder part of the body. Pyloric, applied to that end of the stomach which adjoins the intestine. See Pylorus. Pylorus (Gk. pyladrds, having charge of a gate), the opening between stomach and intestine. Quadrate bone and Quadrate cartilage, a bone (or cartilage) by which the lower jaw is attached to the skull in most Vertebrates except Mammals. Quarter-evil. See Anthrax. Rachis (Gk. rhachis, the backbone), the axis of a teather. Radial, in radially symmetrical animals, relat- ing to a radius. Radiale, a proximal element in the carpus, situated on the side next the thumb. GLOSSARY Radial symmetry. See Symmetry. Radius: (1) (L. radzus, a ray), in radially sym- metrical animals, one of the axes of sym- metry which radiate from a central point, as the spokes of a wheel do from the hub; (2) (the Latin meaning), the bone of the fore- arm which is on the thumb-side. Radula (L. vadula, a scraper), the horny tooth-studded ribbon that constitutes the rasping part of the Odontophore (which see). Raphides (Gk. rhaphis, -idis, a needle), in plants, bundles of needle-shaped crystals of oxalate of lime. Ratite (L. razes, a raft): (1) shaped like a raft, z.e. devoid of a keel-like projection; (2) ap- plied to running birds, in which the breast- bone is so shaped. Recapitulation, repetition of ancestral stages in the life-history. Recognition-markings, in Birds and Mam- mals, colour-arrangements which aid in rapid recognition by members of the same species. Rectrices (L. for female rulers), quill-feathers of the tail. Redia, pl. -e (after the Italian naturalist Redz), in Flukes, a cylindrical stage in the life-history, produced by the Sporocyst (which see). Reed. See Abomasum. Regeneration, the power of repairing injuries. Rejuvenescence (L. rejyuvenesco, I become young again), the invigoration produced by nuclear fusion. See Fertilization. Remiges (L. for rowers), quill-feathers of the wing. Rennet stomach. See Abomasum. Rennin, a milk-curdling ferment contained in gastric juice. Resemblance, General, a harmonizing with surroundings producing inconspicuousness. It may be protective, aggressive, or both. When capable of adjustment it is said to be variable. Resemblance, Special, a resemblance to some specific object in the surroundings, by which inconspicuousness is produced. It may be protective, aggressive, or both. When capable of adjustment it is said to be variable. Reticulum (L. for a little net), in the stomach of Ruminants, the second compartment. Retina (L. refe, a net), the sensitive internal layer of the eye. Retinaculum (L. for a rope or bond), in Moths, a tuft of scales or flap on the posterior part of the fore-wing. The Frenulum (which see) interlocks with it. Retractile (L. vretractum, drawn back), ca- pable of being drawn back. Reversion, the appearance of characters un- like those of the preceding generation, but resembling those of remoter ancestors. Rhabdites (Gk. rhabdés, a rod), in Planarian 5°7 Worms (Turbellaria), microscopic rods dis- charged from the skin as a means of defence and probably of irritant nature. Rhopalion, pl. -a (Gk. rhdpaldn, a club), in some Jelly-fishes, a specialized club-shaped tentacle bearing various sense-organs. Rods and Cones, the sensitive cells of the eye in Vertebrates. Rostellum (L. for little beak), a sticky knob connected with the pollinia of an orchid. Rudimentary organ. See Vestige. Rumen (L. ruminatio, chewing the cud), in the stomach of Ruminants, the first compart- ment. Rumination (L. ruminatio), chewing the cud. Sacrum, in the backbone, the part connected with the supports (hip-girdles) of the hind- limbs. Saliva (the Latin name), spittle. Salivary gland, a gland which secretes or elaborates saliva (spittle). Scaly epithelium, epithelium composed of flat cells. Scapula (the Latin name), the shoulder-blade. Sclerotic (Gk. sk/érds, hard), the tough exter- nal coat of the eyeball. Sebaceous (L. sebum, grease), of a greasy or oily nature. Secondary: (1) acquired within the limits of a group; (2) replacing some earlier structure. Segmentation: (1) the division of the adult body into successive rings, segments, or somites; (2) the early stages of division in the egg-cell. Self-fertilization, fertilization of an egg-cell by a sperm (or its equivalent) derived from the same organism. Self-pollination, transfer of pollen to the stigma of a flower from its own stamens. Semi-plantigrade, with palms and soles partly resting on the ground. Sepal (Gk. skéé, a covering), one of the outer set (calyx) of investing flower-leaves. Sessile (L. sessz/s, sitting), without a stalk. Seta, pl. -2 (the Latin name), a bristle. Shagreen, the skins of certain Sharks and Dog - Fishes, containing numerous hard scales. Shell-cameos, carvings made on certain shells which are composed of differently coloured layers. Shell-gland, in lower Crustaceans, one of a pair of excretory organs removing nitrogen- ous waste from the body. They open at the bases of the third jaws (2nd maxillz). Shell-muscle, the muscle by which a snail is attached to its shell. Shoulder-girdle, skeleton of shoulder. Side-gill, in Crustaceans, a gill attached to the side of the body. Signalling coloration, conspicuous patches of colour, e.g. the white tail of a Rabbit, dis- played during rapid movement. The ap- 508 proach of danger is thus communicated to other members of the community. Simple epithelium, epithelium only one cell thick. Sinupalliate (L. szzus, a bay), in Bivalve Molluses, with a posterior indentation in the pallial line, caused by the attachment of a muscle for drawing back the siphons. Siphon (L. szpho, a siphon), in aquatic Mol- luses, a tubular prolongation of the mantle by which water enters (inhalent siphon) or leaves (exhalent siphon) the gill-chamber. Siphuncle (L. s#phunculus, a small pipe), in the Pearly Nautilus and many extinct Ce- phalopods, a sort of tube that runs through the chambers of the shell. Society, an association of gregarious animals. Soma (Gk. for body), the body of an animal exclusive of the germ-cells. Somatic variation, (which see). variation of the soma Spat, the free-swimming larva or fry of Oy- sters, Mussels, &c. Special creation, applied to the almost obso- lete view that all species or kinds of organism have been independently created. See Zvolu- tion. Sperm (Gk. sférma, seed), a small and usually motile propagative cell, which fertilizes an egg-cell (ovum) by fusing with it. Spermaceti, in the Sperm-Whale, liquid fat contained in a deep depression on the upper side of the skull. Spermary, an organ producing sperms. Spicule, (L. speculum, a sharp point), in some Zoophytes (Ceelenterata), Sponges, and Ani- malcules (Protozoa), an element of the skeleton, of varied shape and chemical com- position. Spinal cord, or Spinal marrow, a cylindrical nerve-mass, constituting the hinder part of the central nervous system in a vertebrate animal. Spinal nerve, a nerve taking origin in the spinal cord. Spinnerets, in Spiders, small rounded projec- tions on the under side of the abdomen, on which the silk glands open. Spiracle, (L. spzro, I breathe): (1) the external opening of the Spiracular cleft (which see); (2) the blow-hole (nostril) of a whale. Spiracular cleft, the front gill-cleft of some Fishes (e.g. Sharks), which is losing or beginning to lose its original function. Spleen (the Greek name), a large abdominal ductless gland in Vertebrates, of doubtful function. It is richly provided with blood- vessels. Splenic fever. See Anthrax. Splint-bones, in the Horse, &c., the dwindled remains of 2nd and 4th metacarpals or meta- tarsals. Spore (L. sfdra, seed), in some Animalcules, one of the minute parts into which the body GLOSSARY breaks up during vegetative propagation of a particular kind. Spore-formation, in some Animalcules, vege- tative propagation by means of spores. Sporocyst (Gk. spdra, seed; cystis, a bladder), in Flukes, a shapeless bag-like stage in the life-history. Sporoduct, in some Gregarines, one of the tubes by which the spores pass out of the firm case (cyst) in which they are produced. Sporosac (Gk. spdra, seed), in Zoophytes, a degenerate Gonophore (which see). Staggers, in Sheep, a disease due to the presence of tape-worm cysts on the brain. Stamen (Gk. s/émdén, a thread), a slender modified flower-leaf, which produces pollen. Statoblast (Gk. sfa/ds, resting; b/astds, a bud), in fresh-water Moss-Polypes, an internally formed winter-bud. Sternal: (1) in Vertebrates, relating to the breast-bone or sternum; (2) in Arthropods, near the sternal or under side of the body. Sternum, pl. -a (Gk. sférndn, the breast or breast-bone): (1) in Vertebrates, the breast- bone; (2) in Arthropods, that part of the exoskeleton covering the ventral surface of a segment. Stigma, pl. -ata (Gk. for a mark): (1) the opening of an air-tube in Insects, &c.; (2) in Plants, the receptive surface to which pollen- grains adhere. Stimulus, pl. -i (L. for an ox-goad), any physical or chemical agent by which a sense- organ is thrown into activity. Sting, a piercing weapon that inflicts a poi- soned wound. The name is not applied to parts connected with the mouth, such as the poison-fangss of a Viper. Stipes (L. for a branch, or stump), in Insects, the second joint of the second jaw. Stratified: (1) of epithelium, more than one cell thick; (2) of rocks, arranged in layers. Stratum, pl. -a (L. for pavement), a layer of rock. Struggle for existence, a metaphorical way of expressing the strenuous nature of Ac- commodation (which see). Sturdy. See Staggers. Subclavius, in Birds, the muscle which raises the wing. Sublingual glands, a pair of salivary glands situated under the tongue. Submaxillary glands, a pair of salivary glands situated between the halves of the lower jaw. Submentum (L. swb, under; mentum, the chin), in Insects, the basal part of the lower lip. Supination (L. svfznus, lying on the back), position of forearm when palm of hand is directed upwards. Supra-scapula, a skeletal element present above the scapula in some animals. Sur-royal, the fourth branch of a Red Deer's antler (counting from its base). Survival of the fittest. See Natural selection. GLOSSARY Swim -bladder, or Air-bladder, a gas-contain- ing outgrowth from the digestive tube of some Fishes, which serves as a hydrostatic organ. Symbiosis (Gk. sy, together; d2dszs, life). See Mutualism. Symmetry (the Greek name), regularity of build. In Radial Symmetry the parts of the body are arranged with reference to a centre of sym- metry, e.g. in a coral polype. In Bilateral Symmetry, as seen, e.g., in a Fish, we can distinguish right and left sides, anterior and posterior ends, upper and lower surfaces. Sympathetic nervous system, a part of the nervous system concerned with the regula- tion of the blood-vessels and internal organs. Syndactylous (Gk. syn, together; daktylis, a finger or toe), with some of the digits bound closely together. Syrinx (Gk. for reed-pipe), the vocal organ or voice-box of a Bird, situated where the wind- pipe divides into a branch (bronchus) for each lung. Systemic, applied to a heart which contains pure blood only. Tail-coverts, feathers covering the tail-quills. Tarsale, pl. -ia, one of the distal elements of the tarsus. Tarso-metatarsus, a bone in the leg of a Bird, formed by the fusion of part of the ankle- skeleton (tarsus) with three of the instep- bones (metatarsus). Tarsus (Gk. farsds, the broadest part of the foot): (1) in Vertebrates, the skeleton of the ankle; (2) in Insects, the foot. Teeth: (1) in Vertebrates, hard structures used for securing prey, or for breaking up food; () hard projections with which the radula (which see) of Molluscs is studded; (3) small projections usually present in the “hinge” of a bivalve shell: they fit into correspond- ing sockets, and prevent shifting when the shell opens or closes. Telson (Gk. for a termination), in higher Crustaceans, the last segment of the abdo- men. It bears no limbs, and is the middle part of the tail-fin. Tendon, a fibrous inelastic band by which a muscle is attached to a part of a skeleton. Tensor muscles (L. tendo, tentum, tensum, to stretch), in Birds, muscles which keep the wing-membranes on the stretch. Tentacle (L. ¢ento, I feel), a soft feeler, e.g. one of the ‘‘horns”’ of a Snail, or one of the numerous fleshy filaments surrounding the mouth-end of a Sea-Anemone. Tentaculocyst (tentacle; Gk. cystis,a bladder), in some Jelly-Fishes, a short specialized ten- tacle serving as a balancing organ. Tergum, pl. -a (L. for the back), in Arthro- pods, that part of the exoskeleton covering the dorsal surface of a segment. Test (L. Zesta, a shell), the firm investment of Ascidians, Echinoderms, and some other lower animals. 599 Tetradactyle(Gk. ¢efra, four; daktylds, a finger or toe), possessing four digits. Thoracic duct, a narrow tube lying imme- diately ventral to the backbone. It receives most of the lymphatics, and opens into the great veins at the base of the neck. Thread-cell. See Nettling-cell. Thymus gland (Gk. ‘hymés, the heart), a fatty-looking ductless gland situated (in Mammals) near the base of the heart. Thyroid gland (Gk. ¢hyreds, a shield; ezdés, resemblance), a ductless gland in the neck- region, having something to do with regu- lating the nutrition of the body. Tibia (the Latin name for(1)): (1) the shin-bone of Vertebrates; (2) that region of the leg in Insects, &c., which adjoins the foot. Tibiale, in the tarsus, a proximal element situ- ated on the side next the great toe. Tibio-tarsus, in Birds, a bone formed by fusion of the shin-bone (tibia) with part of the ankle- skeleton (tarsus). Tissue, an aggregate of cells specialized for the performance of some particular kind of physiological work. Tornaria, pl. -z (Gk. /07nd0, I make round), the ciliated larva of some species of acorn- headed worm. Tortoise-shell, an ornamental product pre- pared from the horny epidermic plates of certain Turtles. Trachea (Gk. ¢rachéliaids, neck), the wind-pipe. Tracheze. See Tracheal tubes. Tracheal gill, in some aquatic Insects, a gill traversed by air-tubes (¢rachee). Tracheal tubes, the air-tubes of air-breathing Arthropods. Tragus, a pointed projection (‘ earlet”’) within the ear of a true Bat. Trepang, dried Sea-Cucumbers, an important article of food in the Far East. Trez-tine. See Anéler-royal. Trichinosis, a disease due to the attacks of minute thread-worms (Trichinz). Trichocysts (Gk. ¢hrix, trichds, a hair; cystis, a bladder), in some Animalcules, micro- scopic rods discharged from the outer layer of the body as a means of defence, and pro- bably of irritant nature. Tridactyle (Gk. 777, three; daktylos, a finger or toe), possessing three digits. Triploblastic (Gk. ¢r7p/d0s, threefold; dlastis, a bud), applied to animals in which the body essentially consists of three cellular layers. Trochanter (Gk. for a process of the thigh- bone), in Insects, the small second joint of the leg. Trochosphere (Gk. ¢rdchds, a wheel; sphaira, a sphere), in various Invertebrates, a bilateral ovoid larva, with a well-marked head-lobe, at the base of which is a circlet of large cilia. Tubercle, a rounded projection, e.g. on the crown of a tooth. relating to the 510 Tuberculated, possessing tubercles. Tympanic (L. ¢ympanum, a drum), connected with the drum of the ear in air-breathing Mammals. Tympanum (L. tympanum, a drum): (1) the drum of the ear; (2) the cavity of the song- box (syrinx) of a bird. Ulna (L. for the elbow), the bone of the fore- arm which is on the little finger side. Ulnare, a proximal element of the carpus, situated on the side next the little finger. Umbo (L. wmbo, the boss of a shield), the pro- jecting beak commonly possessed by each half of a bivalve shell, and which is the oldest part. Uncinate (L. wxcinatus, hooked), hook-like. Unidactyle (L. wus, one; daktv&s, a finger or toe), possessing one digit. Univalve, applied to the shell of a Mollusc, When made up of only one piece or valve, as, e.g., ina Snail. Ureter, a tube by which the urine is carried off from a kidney. Urostyle (Gk. oura, a tail; s/ylos, a pillar), the bony rod which forms the hinder part of a Frog's backbone. Vacuole (L. dim. of vacuum, an empty space), in cells, a small space filled with liquid or gas. Pulsating vacuole, in Animalcules, a vacuole which alternately empties and fills in a regular manner. Vagus nerves (L. vagus, wandering), the tenth pair of cranial nerves, which run back into the abdominal region. Valve (L. valva, a folding-door): (1) an ar- rangement of one or more projecting flaps by means of which food in the gut, blood in the heart, &c., are obliged to move forward; (2) a distinct piece of shell. See Bivalve and Unitvalve. Vane, the projecting flat part of a feather. Variable aggressive coloration, in predaceous forms, coloration which changes with the surroundings so as to produce inconspicuous- ness. Variation, the appearance of new characters with the result that no two individuals of the same species are exactly alike. Vegetative propagation, increase by methods other than egg-production, e.g. by Gem- mation, Fission, and Spore-formation (which see). Vein, a blood-vessel which carries blood to or towards the heart. Veliger (L. velwm, a sail; gero, I carry), in Molluscs, a shell-bearing larva with a large ciliated head-Hap by means of which swim- ming is effected. Velum (L. for sail or veil), in some Jelly-fishes, an inwardly projecting shelf at the edge of the umbrella. Ventral (L. for the belly), applied to the under side of an animal. GLOSSARY Ventricle (the Latin name), a relatively thick- walled and muscular heart-chamber, which pumps blood into arteries. Vertebra, pl. vertebrze (the Latin name), one of the joints of the backbone. Vertebral column, the backbone, or (in some Fishes) its gristly equivalent. Vertebrate, applied to animals possessing a backbone or its equivalent. Vestige, or Rudimentary organ, a structure which has undergone reduction, as the result of adaptation to surroundings. Vestigial, reduced to a Vestige (which see), Visceral, relating to the viscera. See Viscus. Visceral arches and clefts, thickenings and slit-like openings on each side of the throat, which are possessed by every Vertebrate for at least part of its life. The clefts place the pharynx in communication with the exterior. Visceral hump, the projecting upper part of many Molluscs, containing many of the chief internal organs. Viscus, pl. -era, one of the internal organs contained in the chest or abdomen. Vitelline membrane, the membrane surround- ing an egg-cell. Viviparous (L. w/vus, alive; pario, I produce), giving birth to more or less well-developed young, as opposed to egg-laying. Vocal chords, in Mammals, &c.; two elastic folds in the voice-box. A sound is emitted when their edges are brought parallel and thrown into vibration by an air-current. Wallace’s Line, the boundary between the Oriental and Australian regions. Wampun, the shell-money and ornaments of North American Indians. Warbles, swellings on the backs of cattle, caused by the presence of larval bot-flies. Warning coloration, crude colours and pat- terns possessed by many inedible or well- armed forms, and producing conspicuous- ness. By advertising unpleasant properties it reduces the chance of attacks by enemies. Some forms are also protected by emitting warning sounds, or assuming warning (or terrifying) attitudes. Water-vascular system, a system of tubes into which sea-water enters. It is concerned with locomotion and respiration. White matter, that part of the central nervous system made up of nerve-fibres. Wing coverts, feathers covering the wing- quills. in Echinoderms, Zebra-mule, a cross between Zebra and Horse. Zoea, pl. -2 (Gk. zd7a, life), in higher Crustaceans, a large-headed larva, swim- ming by its foot-jaws, and possessing a limb- less abdomen. Zoodgeography (Gk. zd0n, an animal), distri- bution of animals in space. A Aard-vark, i 136, 137 (illust.); ii 42, 44. Aardwolf, i 87, 91-92 (illust.); ii 15. Abdomen— — arachnids, i 386-393 (illust.). — crustaceans, i 403-423 (illust.). — insects, i 345-381 (illust.). — mammals, i 24-25 (illust.), 34, 47. Abdominal pore, i 258. — ribs, i 206. Ablepharus pannonicus, i 22s. Abomasum, ii 169; iii ygo. Abramis brama, i 282. [307. Abraxas grossulariata, i 364; ii Abysmal zone, iv 435, 442-448. Acacia sphzrocephala, iv 8:. Acanthia lectularia, ii 123. Acanthias vulgaris, i 286; ii 335. Acanthophis antarcticus, iv 339. Acanthopterygii, i 273-276. Acarina, i 387, 393; iv 195-196. Accentor modularis, i 160. Accipiter nisus, i 174. Accipitres, i 152, 173-176. Acetabulum, i 31, 144, 196. Achatina, iv 421. Acherontia atropos, i 363. Achtheres percarum, iv (illust.). Acipenser Giildenstddti, iv 277. — huso. iv 277. — ruthenus, iv 277, 278. — sturio, i 268; iv 277. Acipenseride. See Sturgeons. Acmea, testudinalis, i 323; ii 395- Aconite, iv 80. (396. Acorn-headed Worm, i 300-301 (illust.); ii 306, 390 (illust.); iii 7 (illust.), 215-216 (illust.), 420-421 (illust.). “Acquired characters”, iv 489- 499, 491, 492, 493. Acreeids, ii 311, 312-313. = [262, 459. Acredula caudata, i 158; ili 261- Acridiide, ii 213; iii 379. See also Grasshoppers and Locusts. Acridium migratorium, iv 356-357. — peregrinum, i 382. See Schistocerca peregrina. Acrobates pygmezus, iii 285, 286. Acrocephalus arundinaceus, iii 458. — palustris, i 160. — phragmitis, i 160. — streperus, i 160; iii 458. Actzeon, ili 218 (illust.). Actinia mesembryanthemum, i 473; IV. 25. 197 INDEX Actinophrys, i 496. Actinosphzrium, i 489, 496 (illust.); ili 6 (illust. ). Actinozoa, i 473-478. Flowers. Adams, i 3. ‘‘Adam’s apple”, i 47. [445. Adder, i 234 (illust.); ii 80, 282; iii Adductor muscles, of Bivalve- Molluscs, i 330-331, 336, 337, 338; ii 357; ili 36, 37. Adjutants, i 179; ii 69; iii 307, 308. #gialitis Cantiana, i 169; ii 286; iii 453- — hiaticula, i 169; ii 286; iv 133. — Sancta-Helene, iv 423. A#githalus pendulinus, iii 459. A:lurus, iv 429. olidia, ii 100. olis. See Eolis. Epyornis, iv 476. Epyprymnus rufescens, iii 480. #schna grandis, i 376. [408. :sthetic Zoology, i 15-16; iv 4o0- Athalium, i 498; ii 270. Aéthurus glirinus, iii 284. [iv 9. Afferent branchial vessels, i 242, 262, 272. Afferent nerve-fibres, i 51, 52-53: Aflalo, iii 186; iv 327, 364. After-shafts, i 142, 188. Agalena, ili 374. — labyrinthica, ti 130. Agamide, iii 53. Agapornis, iv 391. Aggressive resemblance :— — amphibians, ii 291. arachnids, ii 299-300. mammals, 11 7-9, 18, 19, 22, 279, 290. reptiles, it 282. Aglaophenia, iv 103 (illust.). Aglossa, iii so. Agouta, i 85; ii 33. Agouti, i 133-134. Agricola, Julius, iv 293. Agrion puella, i 376. Agriotes lineatus, ii 211. — obscurus, ii 211. Agriotypus armatus, iv 194-195. Agrotis exclamationis, i 364; iii gor: iv. 352. — segetum, iv 352. Aguarachay, 1i 17. Air-bladder. See Swim-bladder. Air-cells, i 45; ii 427. Air-chambers, i 103. Air-passages, i 45-46. — birds, i 147. [429. — mammals, i 45-46; ii 428 (illust.), — reptiles, i 206. 513 See also Sea- Air-sacs and air-spaces, i 45. — birds, i 147; 11 426; ili 57, 60, 61, 62, 63.13% 297. — insects, 11 439; ll 312. — reptiles, ili 309. Air-tubes, i 45. — arachnids, ii 443. — insects, 1 348; i1 437-438, 439, 440- 442, 463, 464, 465, 467, 468; ili 310, — myriapods, ii 436, 437. (315. — peripatus, 1 401; il 434-435. Alactaga decumana, iii 195-196. Ala spuria, i 143. Alauda arborea, i 156. — arvensis, i 156; ili 455, 456, 468-469. Albatross, wandering, i 183 (illust.). Albatrosses, i 152, 182-183; ii 52, 53. Albicore, i 274. Albinism, iv 384. Albumen, i 33, 151; ili 347. Albuminoids, i 33, 37. Alburnus lucidus, i 282; ii 449, 450. Alca forda, i 184; iii 66. — impennis, 1 184; iit 66. Alcedo ispida, i 164; ili 453-454. Alces machlis, 1 112; ili 152. Alciope, iv 44 (illust.). Alcock, iv 37, 437- Alcyonium digitatum, i 477. Aldrovandia, iv 73. Alectorides, i 152, 170. Alectorocenas, iv 423. Alder-Fly, i 377 (illust.); ii 466-467. Algea, ii 193, 195, 197, 198, 268-269, 271, 273, 295: iv 64-65, 75, 76. Alima, iii 368 (illust.), 369. Allen, Grant, iv gor. Alligator, Chinese, i 210, 211 (illust.). — Mississippiensis, i 210; iii 124, 448; iv 151-152, 378-379- — pike-headed or American. See A. Mississippiensis. — Sinensis, i 211. (50-51. Alligators, 1 203, 209-210, 211; ili Alligator-Terrapin, ii 72. Allman, iv 281. Allolobophora, iii 228. — feetida, ii 361. Allurus, iii 361. Alopecias vulpes, i 286; ii 88. Alpaca, i 122; iv 231-232 (illust.). Alternation of generations, iii 349-350, 352, 382, 422. Alucita polydactyla, i 366. Alytes obstetricans, iii 440 (illust.). Amalthea amebigera, iii 353 Ambergris. iv 403. {(illust. ). Amblyornis inornatus, iv 406-407. Amblyrhynchus cristatus, ii 192; ill 51, 52. 514 Ambulacral areas, i 457-458, 462, 464; lil g & — vessels, ili 91, 92, 95. Ambulacrum (pl. Ambulacra). See Ambulacral grooves. Amia, i 267, 269; ii 453. Ammocetes, i 292; ili 423. Ammodiscus charoides, iv 454. — incertus, iv 454. Ammonites, iv 465 (illust.), 479. Ammophila sabulosa, i 373; ii 106. Ameeba, i 488-491 (illust.); ii 268-269, 418; ui 2, 6 (illust.), 231, 318-319 (illust.); iv 4-5. — limax, iv 4. (iil 2-4. Ameboid movement, i 39, 49, 149; Amphibia, i 60, 62-63, 238-256; ii 82- 83, 192-194, 291, 304-305, 322-323, 334) 355, 371-372, 422-423, 456-458; lil 45-50, 116-121, 182-184, 212-214, 272, 287-288, 332, 434-443; iV 29-30, 47) 152-154, 201, 214, 328, 417, 419, 421, 428, 432, 463, 467. — extinct, ii 334; lll 214; iv 463, 467 (illust.). — limbless, i 245, 255-256. See also Ceecilians. — tailed, i 245-249. See also Newts and Salamanders. — tailless, i 245, 249-255. Frogs and Toads. Amphidasis betularia, ii 293-204. Amphidotus cordatus, iii 357. Amphineura, 1 311, 339-341; 404-4095. Amphioxus, i 61, 293-207; ii 244-245, 382, 389; ii 8, 40, 214-215, 342, 344- 3455 Iv. 46. See also iii 104, —lanceolatus, i 293-297. See also Lancelet. Amphipoda, i 414-415 (illust.); ii T42-143, 222, 44-405; Ul 174-1 Amphisbena fuliginosa, 11 76 — handed, ii 76. [209. — spotted, ii 76. (210. Amphisbenide, ii 320, 425; ili 200- Amphiuma means, i 248; iii 48, 435: (i 355 Amphiura squamata, i455 (illust.); Ampulla (pl. Ampulle), i 453, 457; ill gt, 92. Ampullaria, ii 83, 460-461. Anabas scandens, ii 451-452; Anableps, iv 47-48. (116, Anacanthini, i 273, 278 Anaconda, i 232 (illust.) iv 338-330. Anal fin (of Fishes), i 257, 266, 2 273, 278, 290, 295. (2 Anals (anal shields of the Tortoise Anarrhichas lupus, i 275; ii 86. Anas boschas, i176; il 65; ili 58; iv 247-248. Anchovy, iv 265 (illust.). Anemonia, i 474 (illust.). Angel-Fish, i 286-287 (illust.). Angler, deep-sea, ii 85-86 (illust.). Angler-Fish, i 274; ii 84-85 (illust.): ill 115. [2r. Anguillula aceti, i 448; ii iii — vulgaris, i 283; ti 447-448; ili. ary, 33-434: IV 128, 274. Anguis fragilis, i 223; ii 76, 371; Ul 111, 446. 71, 14. )i INDEX Animalcules, i 304, 487-499 (illust.); 11 163, 266-270, 272-274, 341, 361-362, 418-419; ili 2, 4, 5, 6 (illust.), 8-9, 88-89, 231, 317-325, 333-335: IV 40 (illust.), 49, 76, 77, 99-101 (illust.), 206-207, 341, 344, 363, 449, 453, 454- 455» 458, 404. — extinct, iv 458. Animal products— — as medicinal agents, iv 318-321. — miscellaneous, iv 322-325. Animals, i 4. — class-names of, 1 7-8. — generic names of, i 9. — relations between plants and, iv 64- 98 (illust. ). — specific names of, i 9. — study of, i 4-17. Ankle, amphibians, i 253. — birds, i 145-146; ili 126. — mammals, i 24, 32; ili 190, 254-256 — reptiles, i 199. C(llust. . Annandale, ii 118, 304, 306, 52, 178, 179. Annelida (see also Bristle- Worms and Leeches), 1 304, 425-433; 11 146-140 7-259, 308, 338-330, 360-361, 374- 82, 408-410, 444-445; ill. 7, 8, 97-99. 226-230, 329-330, 358 «9-10, 12; 25; 26; 34;..42),.44~ 45, 75» 199-200, 216-217, 439, 452. Anobium, i 379. — paniceum, iii 224; — striatum, iii 223-22 315; iil iv 355. + IV 355. — tessellatum, ili 223-224; iv 355. Anodon. See Anodonta. Anodonta, i 328; ii 248-249, 335, 398- 399; ll 37, 406-407. Anomalurus, i 126. — pelii, iil 283-284. Anomia ephippium, iii 408-409. Anomma arcens, ii 103. Anomodontia, iv 467-468. Anopheles, iv 207, 341. Anosia erippus, ii 307, 312. Anous stolidus, ii 53. Anser albifrons, 1177. — brachyrhynchus, i 177. — cinereus, 1177; ii 238; iv 248. — domesticus, iv 248-249. — segetum, i177. Anseres, i 152, 176-178; ii 237-238. Ant (and see Ants). — black garden, i 373; iv 119. — brown garden. See Slave Ant. — slave, 1373; iv 175-178. — slave-making or Amazon, i 373; iv 175-178 (illust.). — solitary, i 373. — wood- or horse-, i illust.). — yellow, i 373; iv 119-120. Ants (see also Ant), i 373: ii 206-200, 251, 358, 373; iv 81-83, 92, 97, 113- 120, 175-179, 465. — Asiatic, iv 115-116. — driver, ii 103-104. — foraging, ii 104-106 (illust.); iv 120. — harvesting, li 207-208. ii 206-207 (illust.). — leaf-cutting, 11 208-209 (illust.). Ant-Bear, i136. See also Ant-Eater, great Ant-Eater, banded, ii 42. — Cape, i 136, 137 (illust. — great, 1136; ii. 41-42; 373; iv 116-118 Ul 256, 482. Ant-Eater, lesser, iii 255, 256 (illust.). — scaly, ii 42. See also Pangolin. — spiny, i 70, 143; ii 43 (illust.), 44, 322, 333; ili 475-477 (illust.); iv 211- — spiny-tongued, i 70. (212. — two-toed, ili 256, 257 (illust.). Antechinomys laniger, iii 192. Antedon. See Comatula rosacea. Antelope, Klipspringer, iv 142. — royal, i 109. — sable, ii 352, 354. — saiga, i. 118 (illust.). Antelopes, i 114, 117-118; ii 279, 352, 354, 365-366; iii 248; iv 98, 140, Iql, 142. {iv 12, 28. Antenne, of crustaceans, i 405, 406; — of insects, 1 345, 350, 356, 357, 358, 359, 360, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 368; ll 440; IV 164. — of myriapods, i 395, 396, 397, 398 — of peripatus, i 399; ili 102. Antennary glands, i 408, 416. Antennules, of crustaceans, i 404; iv 12-13, 30 (illust.), 31, 35. Anthea cereus, i 476. Ant-hills, i 373. [iv 161-162. Anthocharis cardamines, i 362; Anthocopa papaveris, iii 39r. Anthonomus pomorum, iv 354. Anthophora, i 374; iv 193. Anthozoa, i 473. See also Sea- Flowers. Anthrax, i 3; iv 349. — morio, ii 119 Anthrenus fasciatus, iv 355. Anthriscus sylvestris, iv 161. Anthropomorpha, iii (illust.). Anthropopithecus niger, i 72; iii 160, 161; iv 382, 383. Anthus obscurus, i 157. — pratensis, 1157. — Richardi, i 157. — trivialis, i 157. {ili sz. Antilocapra Americana, i 112-113; Anti-toxin, iv 79-30, 320. 160 -— 161 Antlers, i 110, rrz (illust.), r12; ii 351-352. Ant-Lions, i 377, 378, 379; ii 111-113 (illust.); iv 16. Ant-plants, iv 75- Ant-thrushes, ii 105 Anura, i 245, 249-255: 182-184, 436-442. and Toads. Anurida maritima, i 384. Anurosorex, ii 34. iii 45, 49-50, See also Frogs Aorta, i 41, 147. See also Aortic arches. Aortic arches, i 41, 147, 101, 201, 208, 215, 240-244, 254, 262, 272. Apatura iris, i 361. Ape, Barbary, i 74-75 (illust.). — black, iii 159 (illust.); iv 426. Apes, i 71-75; ii 348-349; ili 236-238, 493-494; IV 419-420, 424. — anthropoid, i 72 (illust.); iil 158-161 (llust.). Aphenogaster arenarius, ii 208. — barbarus, ii 207-208. Aphides, i 353 (illust.); ii 122, 217; ili 381-382; iv 116, 119-120 (illust.), Aphis avenz, iv 350. (350. — brassicae, i 353; iv 350. — cerasi, iv 350. Aphis cerealis, iv 350. — fabz:, iv 350. — humuli, iv 350. -— pruni, iv 350. — rapz, iv 350. — sambuci, iv 119 (illust.). Aphis, bean, iv 350. — cabbage, i 353 (illust.); iv — cherry, iv 350. — corn, iv 350. — hop, iv 350. — oat, iv 350. — plum, iv 350. — turnip- flower, i ili 382 (illust.); iv 350. — vine, i 353; ii 217; iv 350 (illust.). Aphis-Lions, i 378; ii 114. Aphrodite aculeata, i 429; ii 147, 339, 408. Aphyonus gelatinosus, (illust. ). Apical disc, i 458. Apiculture, iv 252-259. Apis mellifica, i 374: 43, 108, III, 251-259. Aplysia, i 324-3 li 397; — camelus, iv 398. Apocyrtus, ii 3:5. Aporia crategi, i 362. Appendages. See also Legs, Mouth- parts, Tentacles, &c. — annelids, i 426; ili 22-23. — arachnids, i 386, 388, 389, 390-391, 393, 394; 11 126, 127, 131, 132, 217- 350. iv 443 ii 205, 439; iv iii 35, 218, (412. 218. — cephalopods, i 311, 312, 313; iii 31, 32, 33+ — crustaceans, i 302-303, 403-406, 410, 412, 413, 414, 418, 420, 421, 422; 01 137, 141, I42, 144, 5. 250; ML 25-27, 28, 277, 394, 3 Vi 13-14 — echinoderms, i 455, 459 ; ul 23- 24, LI14-115, 278 — insects, i 345-346; ill 28-30, 167, 222-223, 273-276. — king-crab, i 423. — myriapods, i 394, 395, 396, 397- — peripatus, i 399: — pycnogons, i 424. Appendicularia, i 298 (illust.); iii 39. “ Appendix”, iv 481. Aptenodytes Forsteri, i 186; iti 67. — Pennanti, i 186. Aptera, i 351, 384-385; ii 118, 213- 214; iii 176, 314, 377- Apteria, i 142. [450 Apteryx, i 190; ii 63, 320; iii 130, 449, ); ii 255-256, (llust.); iv Apus, i 421-422 (illust.) 405; ili 26 (illust.), 362 12-13 (illust. ). Aqueous humour, i 58. Aquila Ghy SSUES 1174. Ara, iv 399, 391. deacunan. See Spider-like animals. Araneide, i 387, 390-393. See also Spiders. Arapaima gigas, iv 433 Arca lactea, i 337; iv 399. Archexopteryx, i 206-207; ili 296, 298; iv 471. Archenteron, iii 341, 344. Archiannelida, i 429, 431-432; iii 99, 359- Archigetes Sieboldi, iv 203-204 Arctia caja, i 363. {(illust. ). Arctictis, ii 13. Arctium majus, iv 98. Arctocebus, ii 320. INDEX Arctocebus calabarensis, iii 243. Arctomys, iv 135. — marmotta, i 126; iv 387. — monax, i 126. Ardea cinerea, i179; ii 55; iv 375. — minuta, i 179. Arenicola Claparedii, iv 34. — Grubii, iv 34. — piscatorum, i 430; il 257, 408-409; lil 226; iv 34. Argali, iii 248. (418. Argonaut, i 315-316 ; iii 32-33/(illust.), Argonauta argo, i 315-316; iii 32- 33, 418. Argulus, iv 196-197 (illust.). Argyroneta aquatica, i 392-393; li 131; lit 375-376. Arion ater, i 328; 434; iv 348. — empiricorum, iv 348. Aristophanes, iv 247, 248. ii 199-201, 247, Aristotle, i 8, 60; ii 294; iii 393; iv 369. ‘‘Aristotle’s lantern”, i 458, 459. Arius, iii 427. Ark-shells, i 336-337; iv 399. Arm, i 30-3. Armadillidium, li 222. — vulgare, ii 143, 342. Armadillo, hairy, ii 234 — six-banded, i 136 (illust.). — small, ii 367. -- three-banded, ii 341-342. Armadilloes, i 64; ii 333; iii 482; “Armour”, ii 333-341. [iv 474. “Army Worm”, iv 127. Arnoglossus macrolophus, iv 159. Arrian, iv 374. Arrow-Worms, iii 21 (illust.); iv 42 (illust.), 453- Artemia Mulhausenii, iv 493. — salina, iv 493. Arterial bulb, i 272. — cone, i 240, 243- Arteries, i 39-41; iii 11-12 (illust.). See also Aortic arches. Arthropoda, i 304, 342-424 (and see Jointed-limbed animals). Arthrostraca, i 410, 414-415; iii 1747175- Articular processes, i 26, 229. Articulates, i 11. Artiodactyla, i 147-154, 488-490. mals, hoofed. Arts, i1. Arum-lily, iv 80. Arvicola. See Microtus. Ascaris lumbricoides, i 447; iv iv 343. — megalocephala, i 4473 Ascidia mentula, i 297 ( 38-39 (illust.), 421-422 104, 107-122; ili See also Mam- iv 362 (illust.), iit Ascidians, i 297-300 (illust.); 11 245- 246, 278, 306, 389-390; ili 8, 38-30 (illust.), 332, 421-422 (illust.); iv 38 (illust.), 46 (illust.), 105-106 (illust.), 438, 451. — barrel, iii 39 (illust.). Asellus aquaticus, Asio accipitrinus, 1 165. — otus, 1 165. Aspidobranchia, i 317, 322-324. Aspredo, iii 426. Asps, African, ii 80. Asses, i 107; iv 238-239. — African, wild, i 107. — Nubian, iv 239. i 475; ti 143, [222, 405 o25 Assimilation, i 43 (and see Food). Association of organisms, i 18; iv 63-207. — colonial animals, iv 99-106. —commensalism, iv 74-75, 184. — courtship and mating of animals, iv 143-169. — general principles, iv 63-64. — mutualism, iv 67, 75-76, 170. — parasitism, iv 76-79, 170, 184-207. — plants and animals, iv 64-98. — social animals, iv 107-142. Astacus fluviatilis, i 412; ii 137, 253, 402-403 ; lili 367-368 ; iv 200, 300. — nobilis, iv 300. Asteriada, ii 153-154. Asteroidea, i 454. See also Star- Fishes. Astia vittata cs ies (illust.), 168. “Astrachan”, i Astragalus, iit» 254. 256. Astroides calycularis, (illust.) Atalanta, i 321; ii 99 (illust.). Atavism, iv 235, 488. Ateles Bartleiti, ili 255. Atelodus. Sce Rhinoceros. Athalia spinarum, i 371; ii iit 389; iv 356. Atherura Africana, i 132. Atkinson, Canon, ii 343. Atlantosaurus, iv 469. Atlas (or first) vertebra, i 26, 194, 239, 251- Atolls, iv 441 (illust.). Atrial cavity, i 296, 298; ii 244, Atriopore, i 296, 297 (245. Atropus divinatoria, i 379; iii 223. Attacus atlas, i 363. Atta fervens, ii 208, 209. Attide, iii 168, 175-176; iv 166. Attus volans, iii 280. Atya, ii 253-254 Atypus Sulzeri, i 302. Auditory cells, i 56. Hearing, organs of. 170-183, 22) iv 102 204; 143, See also — sacs, i 464. — vesicles, i 479, 480. Audubon, iii 233. Auk, great, i 184; — little, 1 184. Auks, i 184: ii 53; iii 66. Aulastomum gulo, i 433; li 1,49. Aurelia, i 482 (illust.’ ; iii 352 (illust.), iii 66. ‘So3) UE LaIE? i 40, 147, 148, 200-201, 207, 240, 262, 265, 308, 314, 320, 323, » 3275 329, ae Auricularia, iii 357 (illust. ). Auroch, i try. See Bison, European. Austen, Godwin, i 2 (428. Australian region, iv 413, 414, 426- Autodax lugubris, iii 435. Autolytus prolifer, iii 358 (illust.) Avebury, Lord, 209, 227. Avens, iv 98 (illust.). Aviculide, iv 398. Avocet, iii 127-128. Axis, ii 351-352. Axis vertebra, i 27, 194. Axolotl, i 249 (illust.); 111 435-436. Aye-aye, ii 320. Azalea, iv 94. i 397; iv 118, 119, 516 B Babirussa, i 109; iii 488; iv 426, 427 Baboon, Arabian, i 75. ((illust.). — black, iii 159 (illust.); iv 426. — yellow, 1 76. Baboons, i 75-76: ii 349, 363-365 (illust.); iii 158, go4; iv 134, 145-146. Bacillus anthracis, iv 78. Backbone. See Vertebral column. Bacteria, i 3; iv 65, 67-68, 76, 77-78 uillust.), 79, 98. Bacterium aceti, iv 78. Badamia exclamationis, iii 402. Badger, common, i 97 jillust.); 11 230- — honey-, 1i 231. (231; ili 156. Badgers, i 94, 96, 97; il 230-231. Bain, iv gor. Baker, Sir Samuel, ii 15, 262, 351; ili 138, 140; iv 212, 241, 331, 334 337) 304. Balena australis, iv 31s. as mysticetus, i101; li 29; iv 314-315. Balenoptera boops, 11 20. Balance, or balance and organs of, i 56, hearing, 203, 209, 245, 263, 310, 333, 409; iv 32-39. — of amphibia, i 245; iv 39 (illust.). — of annelids, iv 33-34 (illust.). — of ascidians, iv 38 (illust.). — of birds, i 150 —of crustaceans, i = of fishes, 1263: — of hydrozoa (Jelly-F illust.). — of insects, iv 37-38 illust.’. — of mammals, i 56 illust.). —of molluses, i 3333 iV 34-35 — of reptiles, i 203, 209. {(llust. . Balancers, 1 355. Balanida, ii 406. Balaninus glandium, —nucum, ii zit Balanoglossus, 306, 390; i 7, Balanus, i 417: Baldwin, iv yor, 403, 492. Baleen, i ror illust.). [402, 403. Baler, of crustaceans, i 4o4, 405; il Balfour, Maitland, i 398; iii 337. Balistes, iv 205. — capriscus, i 278. Balloon-Fish, 1i 306. Balsams, iv o1-0 Bamboo-Rats, ili 204. Banana, iv 89. Bandicoot, pig-footed, iii 191-192 Bandicoots, ii 43, 234; ili 191-192. Banxrings, i 83 (illust.); il 246-247. “Barbados earth”, i 496. Barbel, i 282: iv 381. Barbels, i 268, 278, 279, 280, 2 Barberry, iv 96. [29 Barbets, iv 133. Barbs, i 142. Barbules, i 142. Barbus vulgaris, i 252; Barnacle, acorn, 1 417, 150, (allust. yoo; iv 39 (illust iv 38- ishes', iv 38-39 310, ((illust.). iv 381. 418-419; 1 254, 4O6; il 363-364. —ship-, i 417-418 (illust.); il 254 (illust.); iit 363-364. Barnacles, i 410, 417-419; ii T44, 254, 406; iii 363-364; Iv 197-199. Barramunda. See tralian. Barrigudo, i 77. Lung-Fish, Aus- | Batoidei, i INDEX Basiliscus Americanus, i 223; iii 52-53. Basilisk, helmeted, i 3 lil 52-53. “Basket-Worms ”, iii 400. Bass, common, i 273; iv 381. Basses, i 273. Bastard wing, i 143; ili 301, 304. Bat (and see Bats)— — barbastelle, i 82. — Rechstein’s, i 82. — Daubentin’s, 1 82. — hairy-armed, i 82. — horse-shoe, i 83. — — greater, i 83. — — lesser, i 83. velin-, ii 39, 40 Ilust.) — kalong, i 82; iil 245. — long-eared, i 81, 82 (illust.). — long-tongued shrew-, 11 39. — Natterer’s, i 82. — noctule, i 82. — pipistrelle, i 82; ili 292-293 (illust. ). — serotine, 1 82. ((illust. ). —vampire, long-tongued, li 38-39 — — true, i 82-83; ii 39-40. — whiskered, i 82. Bats (and see Bat), 1 68, 81-83; ii 38- 40, 320-321, 328, 346-347; lil 244-245, 292-295, 485-486; iv 89, 327, 424, 427, 420, 473- [iv ere. — fruit-eating, i 81-82; i 321; iit 245; — insect-eating, 1 82-83. — leaf-nosed, i 82-83 321 — true, i 82. — vampire, i 82-83; 11 38, 39-40. Bates, i 6; ii 40, 1o4, 186, 311, 325, 326; ill 210; iv 251, 336. Bateson, 11 287, 289; iv 32. Bathynomus giganteus, iv 447. 284, 287-290. See also Skates and Rays Bdellostoma, ii Ba Beadlet, i 473-474. Beak, of birds, i 141, 158, 161, 164, 166, 169, 174, 175, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 186, 1838, 190; it 64, 186-187, 188-191, 242 (illust.); in 266. Beaked chelmon, ii 87-88. Bear, brown, (illust.); ii 227-228; , 4g (illust.); iv 334, 372. 384. 153, 155, 156, 195 — polar, li 19-20, 227, 279; ili 75, 76, 155-156; 1V 334 — proboscis-, ii 229, 230 (illust.). — sloth-, it 228 (illust.). — spectacled, iv 420. Bears (and see Bear), 1 86, 94-99; il 5, 227-230; iil 1357 136; iv 334. — large, i o4- 5} iii 15 4Qt. — small, i 94; ii 229-230; iil 247-248. Bear - Auieoateulae. i 387, 304 Bear-Cat, ii 13. {(illust.). “Beast”, i 8. Beaver, American, 307. — European, i 127; iv 135-136, 307-308. Beavers, i 127; 11.1775 ill 73-74. Bechstein, iv 149. Beddard, iii 286, 361, 493; 315, 409: 1 127; iv 136-140, iv 142, 222, 307, Bedeguars, ii 204-205 (illust.): iv 79. Bedichon, Madame, iv 213. Bee, carpenter, i 374; lil 390-391 (illust.); iv 108, 356. — flower-, 1 374. Bee (Cont.) —hive- or honey-, i 374; il 205; iii 274-275 (illust.); iv 43 (illust.), 108, III, 121, 251-259 (illust. ) — humble-, i 374 (illust.); ii 11g (illust.); iv 94, 109-111. — poppy, ili 391. — wood-, i 374 (illust.). Bees (and see Bee), i 373, 374; il 205- 206, 250, 307, 358, 439: Mi 274-275, 311, 312, 313; IV 29, 45, 160, 192-164. — leaf-cutting, i 374; iii 391; iv 108. — mason-, iv 53-54, 108, 195. — “‘short- tongued”, iv 109. — solitary, i 374. Bee-Fly, ii 119 (illust.). Bee-keeping, i 15 ; iv 257-259 (illust.). Bee-‘‘ Louse”, iv 190. Beetle (and see Beetles)— — bacon, il 109 (illust. ), iv 354. — bombardier, ii 358-359, 373 — Colorado potato-, ii 211; iv 354. — goliath-, i 368. — Hercules, i 368. [304 — long-horned oak-, iii 273 — maggot- eating ii 09 illust. — pea, ii 211; iv 354- [(illust. ). — sacred scarab, 1 368; ii 209-211 -— stag, i 368. tiger, field, ii 107. — — green, i 367 (illust.). — violet ground-, i 367; ii 107. great, 1 367 (illust.); ii 108- 109 (illust.), 439; ili 29 (allust.). —— great black, li 109, 440; ili 398, 399 (illust. ). ((illust. ). —whirligig, i 367; ii q4o; ili 29-39 Beetles (and see Weevils, Ladybirds, &c.), i 351, 366-369; ii 209-232) 287, 308, 314-315) 326-327, 110; iv 355. — bean, ii 211; (illust). (llust.), — water, 107-110, iv 43, 82-83, 159, =166, 192-194, 354-355» , iv 321 (illust.). [423. — burying: or sexton-, it 109 (illust.), ; Uli 396-398 (illust.). — carrion-, ii tog (illust.), rro. — — rove, ii r10. — click-, ii 211, 359 ; 111177-178 (illust.}, 224; iv 354. — flea-, 1 366; iii 178. — — turnip, i 366 (illust.); ili 178; iv 354 (illust. ). — ground., i 367; — oil-, iv 19 — rove-,i 367-368 ; — scarab, i 368; ii 209-211. 110 li 107. 321. i 108, — tiger, 1 367; ii 107, 315. — tree-, lll 273-274. liv 16 (illust.). — water-, 1 367; 11 108-109, 439-440; Behemoth, i 108. Belemnites, iv 465, Bell, iii 71. Bell-Animalcule, i 489, 403-494 (illust.) ; i1 266-267, 418; ili 2, 5, 6, (illust.', 8-9, 319-320 (illust.), 321, 323, 325 (illust.), 335. Bell-bird, iv 431. Belloe, ii 370. Belone vulgaris, i 275. Belt, 16; ii 304: iv r20, 257-258 (illust.). Beluga. Sce Whale, white. Benham, ii 330. Benthos, ii 330-331. Bernard, iv 130. Bernicla brenta, i 177; ii 238. 466 (illust. ). Beroé, i 483; ii 156 (illust.); iit 19 (illust. ). [(illust. ). Berry Animalcule, ii 273-274 Bettongia Lesueuri, iii 480. [453. Bichir, i 266-268 (illust.); ii 334, 421, Bicuspids, i35 See also Teeth. Bighorn, iii 187. Bilateral symmetry. metry. Bile, i 37-38, 48; ii 212-213. Bile-duct, i 37. Binturong, ii 13. Biology, i 4, 5, 16-17. Bipalium Kewense, ii 446. Bipinnaria, i 450; ili 356. Bird-Lice. See Biting-Lice. Birds, i 30, 31, 60, 139-190; ii 45-69, 184-191, 235-243, 279, 290, 295-296, 309-311, 322, 328, 333, 343-344) 354, 367-370, 426-427; ili 56-67, 125-132, 185-186, 261-267, 286, 295-308, 332, 448-474; Iv 29-30, 59-62, 88-89, 95, 96, 129-134, 146-151, 202-203, 214, 246-251, 308-309, 327-328, 347-348, 369, 370, 375-378, 387-391, 395) 417) 418-419, 421, 423, 425, 427-428, 430-432, 436-437, 445. — extinct, ii 45 (illust.) ; ili 296 (illust.), 298; iv 471, 475-476 (illust.). — of Paradise, i 154-155 (illust.). — of prey, i 173; ii 69, 370; ili 307; iv 327. See also Eagles, Vultures, Owls, &c. (170, 171. Birgus latro, ii 220-221, 469-470; ili Bison, American, i rrq (illust.). — European, i 114; iv 225. Biting-Lice, i 374, 379-380; ii110-111; iv 356 Bittacus tipularius, ii 111. Bitterling, ii 452 (illust.). Bittern, common, i 179. — little, i 179. Blackbird, i 159; iii 185; iv 96. Bladder-headed Fly, ii 119 (illust.). Bladderworts, iv 73-74 (illust.); 95. Blastoidea, iv 459. Blastopore, iii 344. Blastosphere, iii 338, 344. Blastula, iii 338, 339, 340-341, 342, 344. [396. Bleak, i 282; ii 449 (illust.), 450; iv Blennies, i 275; ii 86; ili 425-426. Blennius pholis, i 27s. Blenny, smooth, i 275. — viviparous, iii 425-426. Blindworm, i 223-22 371; iii rrz (illust.), 446. Blood, i 38-39 (illust.), 41, 69, 147, See Sym- ii 76, 311, 200-202, 208, 463; ii 426. See also Circulatory organs. Blood-corpuscles, i 38-39. See also Corpuscles. Blood-system, i 38, 39-41, 63. also Circulatory organs. Blood-vessels, i 35, 38, 39, 49, 147. See also Circulatory organs. Blow-Fly, iv 72, 351. Blubber, i roo; iii 84; iv 312, 314. Blue-bottle, i 358. Blue-buck, ii 169-170. Blue Roller, ii 60-61 (illust.). Blyth, iv 247. [iit 270. Boa-constrictor, i 232 (illust.); ii 79; Boar, wild, i 108; ii 231-234 (illust.); Boas, iii 270. [iv 233, 334, 373- —. tree-, 1179 —water-. See Anaconda. Vou. IV. See INDEX Body-cavity, i 303, 468. See also Abdominal cavity, Caelom, &c. Body-wall, i 401, 426, 427, 447-448, 462, 467-468, 484, 485, 486; iii 101. Bohemilla comata, iv 25 (illust.). Boletus edulis, iv 81. — Satanas, iv 81. Bombinator, iv 417. Bombus, iv 109-111. Bombus leucorum, i 374. — ruderatus, iv 111. — terrestris, i 374. Bombyx mori, i 364; ii 214; iv 259- Bon, De, iv 289. (260. Bone, i 25. Bonellia, green, ii 150 (illust.); 410. — viridis, ii 150, 410. Bones. See Skeleton skeleton. Bonito, i 274. Bonxie, ii 52. “Boobies”, i 181; iii 63. Book-Lice, i 374, 37y; iii 223 (illust.). Books, i 6-7, 15. Book-Scorpions, i 389 (illust.). Book-‘* Worm”. See Book-Lice. Boonder, i 74. Boring organ, of molluscs, ii 97-98. Bos Americanus, i 114. — bonassus, i 114. — bubalus, i 115. — caffer, i 115. — frontalis, iv 225. — gaurus, i irq. — grunniens, i 114; iv 225. — indicus, i rrq; iv 225. — longifrons, iv 224. — primigenius, i 114; iv 224. — taurus, i r14; ii 167-169; iv 225. Bostrichus typographus, iii 224 Botany, i s. [(illust. ). Botaurus stellaris, i 179. Bot-Flies, i 353; ii 121; iv 191 (illust.). Bothriocephalus latus, iv 342. Botryllus, i 300 (illust.); iv 105-106 (illust. ). Bower-Birds, i 155; iv 405-407. Bowfin, i 269; ii 453. Bow-Fly, ii 119 (illust.). Brachinus crepitans, ii 358-359, Brachiolaria, iii 356. (373. Brachiopoda, i 436, 438-440; ii 259- 260, 339-340, 411; ili 8. Bradypus tridactylus, ii 178-179; Braem, iii 330. {iii 256, 481. Brain. See also Cerebral-hemispheres. — amphibians, i 245; iv 2r (illust.). -— annelids, iv 8-9, 12. — birds, i 149 (illust.); iv 22. — crustaceans, iv 12, 13, 14. — development of vertebrate, iv 20-23 — fishes, iv 21 (illust.), 22 [Qllust. ). — mammals, i 24, 52 (illust.), 67-68; iv 21-23 (illust.). — reptiles, i 209, 216. Brain-case, i 24, 27-28, 80, 103, 193, Brain ganglia, i 303. [202-203. Brambling, i 156. Branchellion, ii 410. Branchiata, i 343, 402-424; 1 135- Branchiobdella, iv 200. [r45. Branchiomma, iv 44-45. Branchiopoda, i 421-422. Branchipus, ii 4os. — stagnalis, iv 403. Braula ceca, iv 190. . Bream, common, i 282. and Endo- 517 Breast-bone, i 29, 145, 152; iii 202, 299, 309. Breathing, i 17, 45-46, 148; ii 376- 350, 420-421, 424. — of plants, ii 379-380. Breathing organs :— — acorn-headed worm, ii 390. amphibians, i 240-242, 244-245, 254; ii 422-423, 456-458. — animalcules, ii 418-419. [446. —annelids, i 428, 429, 408-410, 445- — arachnids, i 386, 388-389, 390, 391, 392; li 442-443. — ascidians, i 298; ii 389-390. — birds, i 147-149; 11 426-427. — crustaceans, i 403-404; i1 400-406, 443-444, 469-470. (416. — echinoderms, i 452, 458, 463; ii 411- — fishes, ii 383-388, 447-456. See also Gills, Gill-clefts, &c. — flat-worms, ii 445-446. — insects, i 348-349, 357; ii 437-442, — king-crab, ii 406-407. (462-468. — lamp-shells, ii 411. — lancelet, ii 389. — mammals, i 45-47, 67; ii 427-431. — molluscs, i 308, 331, 332, 333, 340, 3415 il 391-399, 432-434, 459-462. — moss-polypes, ii 410-411. — myriapods, 1 395, 397; ii 435-437. — nemertines, ii 391, 445. — peripatus, i 401; il 434-435. — reptiles, i 202, 209, 215-216, 230; ii — siphon-worms, ii 410. [424-426. — sponges, ii 418. — wheel-animalcules, i 435; ii 410. — zoophytes, ii 416-4138. Breathing-pores. See Stigmata. Breathing tube, of insects. See Air-tubes. — of molluscs. See Syphon. Breeze-Flies, iv 190. Brehm, i 6; ii 279, 365; ili 186; iv 146, 148, 301. Brephos notha, iii 4or. Brill, iii 432; iv 268. Bristles, of annelids, i 425-431; ili 227-229, 360. Bristle-Tail, i 433 (illust.); ii 410. Bristle-Worms, i 425-432 (illust.); ii 146-147, 257-258, 338-339, 360-361, 380, 408-409; ili 22-23, 97-99. 226- 230, 329-330 (illust.), 358-36r (illust.); iv 8, 44-45, 199-200, 216-217. — few-bristled, i 430-43r. — many-bristled, i 430-431. — simple-segmented, i 431-432. Brittle-Stars, i 454, 455-456; li 285, 44, 416; iii urq-zr5 (illust.), 278 (illust.), 328, 354-355 (illust.); iv 459. Bronchial tubes, i 46; ii 427. Bronchus (pl. bronchi), i 46. Bronze age, iv 208, 233, 234, 262. Brood-capsules, i 422. Brood-pouches— — amphibians, ili 440-441 (illust.), 442. — annelids, iii 358, 359 (illust.). — crustaceans, iii 362-363 (illust.), 364, 365. — echinoderms, iii 355 (illust.), 356- — fishes, ili 427 (illust.). [357- — mammals, ili 476 (illust.), 477. — molluscs, iii 405-406. Bruchide. See Beetles—Pea- and Bean-. Bruchus fabz, ii 211; iv 354. — pisi, it 211; iv 354. 128 518 Brunner, ii 250. Bryophyta, iv 64. Bubalus arni, iv 226. — buffelus, iv 225-226. — caama, iv 141. Bubble-Shells, i 324 (illust.); ii 100. Bubo ignavus, i 166. Buccinum undatum, i 321; ii 96, 97, 394-395; iii 4r2, 413; iv 348. Buceros galeatus, ii 242. Bucerotide. See Hornbills. Buck, iii 460; iv 378. Buckland, Frank, i 6; ii 139; ili 444; Budgerigar, iv 390. [iv 382. Buffalo, Cape, i1zs; ii 321. — Indian, i 115; iv 226. Buffaloes, i 114-115; ii 352; iv 225- Buffon, iv 489. 226, 334).373 Bufo calamitata, i 255. — vulgaris, i 255; il 82, 83; iil 50, 436- Bufonide, i 255. (437. Bug, bed-, ii 123; iv 190. — needle-, 1 354; il 123-124. Bugs (and see Bug), i 351-355; li 122- 124, 216-217, 316, 359, 440-441; ill 29, 178-180, 380-383; iV 189-190, 192, 350-351. —mealy. See Scale-Insects. — tree- or plant-, ili 22 and see Cicada. — water, 1 354-355: Bugula, iv 10s. Bulimus, iii 414. Bulla, i 324 (illust.). Bullfinch, 1 156. Bull-heads, | 274: Bullia, iti 103. Bungarus coeruleus, iv 3309. Bunting, cirl, i 156. — corn, i 156. — reed, i 156 — snow, 1 156. — yellow, i 156 (illust.) Buphaga Africana, ii 62. Burbot, i 279. Burdock, iv 08 (illust.). Buried coal-fields, i 2-3 Burnett salmon. See Lung-Fish, Australian. “Burrs”, iv 97-08. Bustard, Australian, iv 150 (illust.). — great, 1.170; il 241-242; Iv 150, 377. — little, iv 377. Bustards, i 152, 170; Busycon carica, iv 324. — perversum, iv 324. Butcher-Bird, great, ii 65 (illust.). “Butcher-Birds”, i 158; ii 64-65. Buteo lagopus, i 174. — vulgaris, i 174 Buthus Europeus, i 387. Butler, Cyrus W., ili 124; iv 151. Butter-Fish, iii 426. Butterfly (and see Butterflies)— — black-veined brown (or monarch), ii 307, 312. — black-veined white, i 362. — blue, common, i 362. — brimstone, i 362. -225, 380-381; ii 123-124; ili 382- (383: iv 190. iv 273 il 240-242; iv (147. — cabbage, or large white, i 362, 372; li 214, 311, 399-400 (illust.); iv 164 (illust.), 162; iv 194, 352 — copper, small, i 362. —green-veined white, i 362, 373 (illust.) ; iv 352. — Indian skipper, iit 4o2 (illust.). — orange tip, i 362; iv 161-162 (illust.). INDEX Butterfly (Coz7.) —- painted lady, i 361; iii 400. — peacock, i 361; ii 215; ili 400; v 56. purple emperor, i 361. red admiral, i 361; ili 400. resplendent Ptolemy, i 361. small white, or garden white, i 362: iv 352. [iii goo. — tortoiseshell, great, i 361 (illust.) ; — — small, i 361; ii 215, 294; ili 400. — white admiral, ii 312. Butterflies (and see Butterfly), i 351, 358-362, 372, 373; li 120, 214-215, 252, 311-313; ili 167, 310, 311, 399- 402; 1v 56, 160-162, 351-353, 433- — bird-winged, i 362. — blues, i 362. — coppers, 1 362. — fritillaries, i 361; iii goo. — leaf-, ii 298-290 (illust.), 300 — swallow-tailed, i 362; ii 312; — whites, i 361. Butterwort, iv 68 Buzzard, common, i 174. — honey, i 175. — rough- ag 1174. Byssus, i 335, 339, 337) 338; iil 406, 407, 408, 409. lv 43- C Caccabis rufa, i 172. Cachalot, ii 29. See also Whales, sperm-. Cacti, Mexican, iv 95. (lust. ). Caddis-Fly, diamond-spotted, i 375 — large, 1 375 (illust.). Caddis-Flies, i 374, 378- 379; ii 116, 467; ili 385-386 (illust.) ; iv 195. — land- illust.) Caddis-“ Moths”. See Caddis-Flies. Caddis Shrimps, iii 369. “Caddis-Worms”, i 378-379; ii 116, 337 (illust.), 467; iii 385. Cecilians, 55-256 (illust.); ii 83, 329, 423; 46, 213-214 (illust.), 442-443 (illust.). Ceecum (pl. Ceca), i 348, 453; ii 167, | 172, 176; and see Digestive organs. Cerostris mitralis, 11 299-300. Caillard, Paul, iv 374. Caiman sclerops, i 211 (illust.). — spectacled, i 211 (illust.). Caimans, i 210. Mi Cairina moschata, iv 151, 248 Calamaries. See Squids. Calamoichthys, i 266, 268; ii 453. Calandra granaria, i 369; iv 354-355 — oryze, i 360. Calandruccio, iii 433. Calcaneum, i 207; ill 192. Calcar, of frog, i 250. — of rotifers, 1435. Calicide, iii 403-404. Calidris arenaria, i 169. Caligus, iv 2or. Callidina symbiotica, iv 75. Calling hares, i r2s. Callionymus carebares iv 159 -— lineatus, iv 158-159. — lyra, it 306; iv 158. Callorhynchus antarcticus, i 291; Callosities, i 72. [ii 335. Callula pulchra, 11 304. Calocalanus pavo, iv 452. Calodactylus aureus, iii 268. Calotermes flavicollis, i 379; ii 212-213; iV 122-123. Calotes nigrilabris, i 222. Cambrensis, Geraldus, iv 136. Camel, Arabian, i 122; iii 151 (illust.) ; IV 230. — bactrian, i 122; iv 230, 231 (illust.). Camelopard, i 119; and see Giraffe. Camelopardalis giraffa. See Giraffa camelopardalis. Camels, i 109, 120-122; ii 171, 279; iil 152-153; iv 230-237. (231. Camelus bactrianus, i 122; iv 230, — dromedarius, i 122; ii 151; iv 230. Campanularia, ii 351 (illust.). Canaries, ili 261; iv 387-389 (illust.). Canarium commune, li 190. Cancer pagurus, i 412; ii 140, 337-338, 403-404 ; ili 366 ; iv 298-299. Canes venatici, iv 367-368. Canidae, iii 491 ; iv 220-222 Canine teeth, i 35, 98, 109; Teeth. Canis aurenus, i 93. — azare, ii 17, 343. — dingo, i 94; ii 343; iv 222. —familiaris, it 132-137, 154-155 220-222, 367-368, 383-384. — lagopus, ii 18. — latrans, i 93. — lupus, i 93; iv 372. — vulpes, i 94; iv 372-373. — zerda,io4; ii 19. Cannabina flavirostris, i 156. — linaria, i 156. — rufescens, i 156. “Cannon-bones”, iii 142, 149, 150, Cannula, ii 80. (152, 153, 196. Cantharide. See Beetles, oil-. and see iv Cantharides, iv 32r. Canvas-back, iii 60. Capercailzie, i 172; ii Capillaries, i 41. Capra agagra i 117; ii 248, 249; — hirea, i 117; iv 229-230. [iv 230. — ibex, i117; ili rst. — Pyrenaica, 117. — Siberica, i 117. — Sinaitica, i117. Caprella, i415: i142, 404-405; 111 277. Capreolus caprea, i 112. Caprimulgus Europzus, i 163; ii _ Virginianus, ii 58. (56-58; ii 453. Capsus, i 352 illust.). Capuchin weeper, i 77 Capybara, i 134-1353 _ ae iit Carabidae, ii 107. “tt (illust.). Carabus violaceus, i 36 os ii 107. Carapace, i 214. — crustaceans, 1 406, 421, 422; ili 27. — tortoises and turtles, i 212, 213-214, 216-217, 218, 210, 220; il 334 (illust.). Carassius auratus, i282; iv 392-393. Carbohydrates, i 33. Carbonate of lime, ii 259, 277. carbon en Carbonic acid gas ( CO. i 44; li 270, 271, 273, 289, 377-380, 382, 383, 384, 420; iv 65-68, 76. Carboniferous period, ii 380, 463, 464. {it qr. Carcharias glaucus, i 284; ii 88; Carcharodon Rondeletii, i 286; ii 88: iv 340. Carcinus moenas, Cardiida, iii 180. ii t40; iv [197-199 i 412: Cardium edule, i 334; ii 373; iii 189; iv 296-297. Carduelis elegans, i 156. Carinaria, i 321; ii 99. Carinats, i 152-186; ili 450-474. Carmine, iv 260. Carnivora. See Mammals, flesh- eating. Carotid arches, i 243. Carp, beaked, ii 195. [(illust.). — common, i 282; ii 448; iv 196, 200 Carpalia, i 198. Carpenter, i 17; ii 252; iv 164. Carpincho. See Capybara. Carp-‘‘ Louse”, iv 196-197 (illust.). Carpocapsa pomonella, i 365; iv Carps, i 282; ii 195; iv 286, 329. [352 Carpus. See Wrist. Cartilage(s), i 25-26, 239, 26r. — costal, i 29. — hyomandibular, i 260, 271. — thyroid, i 47. Caryophyllia Smithii, i 476. Cassell, i 17. Cassis, i 321. Cassowaries, i 187, 188, 189-190; iii 130, 131 (illust.), 449, 450. Castor Canadensis, i 127; iv 136-140, 307. — fiber, i 127; ili 73-74; iv 135-136, Castoride, ii 177. (307-308. Casuarius, i 189; ii 243; ili 130, 131, 449, 450. Cat, domestic, i 87, 93; ii 225; ili 157, 158 (illust.); iv 146, 222-223, 384- 386 (illust. ). — fallow, 1 88; iv 222, 223 (illust.). — fishing, ii 11; ili 75-76. — pampas, i 88. — wild, i 88; iv 222. Cats proper, i 86-88; ii 5, 10-17; iii 157-158, 247, 491-492; and see Cat. Catch-Flies, iv 86 (illust.), 93, 94. Caterpillars, i 359-360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 365 (illust.); ii 214-215, 252, 293- 294, 297-298 (illust.), 300, 307, 313- 314 (illust.), 346-347, 359-360, 374; iii 102-103, 399 (illust.), 400, qo1 (illust.), 402 (illust.); iv 59, 77, 259 (illust.), 352, 352, 353. — ‘‘false”, i 371. — “‘surface”’, i 364. Catesby, ii 140. Cat-Fishes, i 280; ii 335; iii 426-427. — electric, ii 86. Cat-gut, iv 259. Catheturus Lathami, iii 451-452. Catoblepas gnu, i 118. Cattle (see also Oxen)— — humped, i 114; iv 225. — white (or Chillingham), iv 224. Caval veins, i 200. Cavia cutleri, i 134. Cavicornia, i 113; ii 352; ili 152. Caviide, i 134; ii 178. Cavius porcellus, i 134. Cavy, cutler’s, i 134. — restless, 1 134. Cavies, i 134; ii 178. Cebida, ii 326. Cebus capucinus, i 77. Cecidomyia destructor, iv 351. — tritici, iv 351. Celandine, greater, iv 80, 97. Cells, i 49, 51, 55-56, 467, 469-471, 471, 484-486; ii 270; ili 2, 3-4, 5 (illust.), 9-10, 12, 13, 317, 326, 333, INDEX 334, 335, 338, 339, 349, 342; iv 5, 25 (illust.), 26, 29, 30, 31-32 (illust.), 33, 34) 35> 37) 39) 40 41, 42, 43, 44. Cell-walls, ii 270, 273. Cellulose, ii 273. Cement, i 35; ii 166. Cement-glands, i 418, 435; ili 363. Centaurea alpina, iv 82. Centetes, i 85. — ecaudatus, ii 33. Centipede, shield-bearing, ii 133-134 (illust.), 436-437 (illust.); iii 165 (illust.). — thirty-foot, i 394 (illust.); ii 132-133; Ml 371-372. Centipedes, i 342, 394-398; ii 132- 134, 360, 435-437; ili 163-165, 370- 3735 1V 14-15, 215-216, 329. — earth, ii 133; ili 225 (illust.). Centronotus Gunnellus, iii 426. Cephalochorda, i 293-297; ii 244- Cephalophus, ii 365-366. (245. — monticola, ii 169-170. Cephalopoda, i 311-317; ii 94-96, 372-373, 392-3933 iii 30-33, 104, 108- 130, 417-419; 1v 18-19, 45. Cephalopterus ornatus, iv 43r. Cephalo-thorax, of arachnids, i 386. — crustaceans, i 413, 414. (356. Cephus pygmeeus, iii 387-388; iv Cerambyx heros, iii 273, 394. Cerastes cornutus, ii 282; iv 407, Cerata, ii 357, 382. [408. Ceratodus, i 264, 265; ii 83-84, 454- Ceratophrys ornata, ii 305. [456. Ceratopogon, i 357; ii 12t. Ceratopsia, iv 470. Cercaria, i 444. Cerceris, iv 160. Cerci, i 345, 350. Cercolabes prehensilis, iii 253, 255. Cercoleptes, ii 326. — caudivovulus, iii 247-248, 255. Cercopide, ii 217; iti 178. Cercopithecus cephus, i 74. — diana, i 74. — sabzus, i 74. Cere, i 140, 166, 175. Cerebellum, i 52, 150, 263; iv 22, 23. Cerebral ganglia. See Brain gan- glia. Cerebral-hemispheres, i 52, 67-68, 70, 149, 202, 263; iv 22-23 (illust.). Ceriornis satyrus, iv 148-149. Certhia familiaris, i 157; ii 59-60; iii 264. Cerura vinula, i 363; ii 313-314, 359-360; ili 401-402. Cervical groove, i 402. Cervide. See Deer. Cervulus, iv 424. Cervus axis, ii 351-352. — Canadensis, i rrr. — dama, isi; iii 151. —- elaphus, i 111; iv 144-145, 373-374- — Hibernicus, iv 474. Cestoda, i 441-443; and see Tape- Worms. Cestracion Philippi, i 287; ii 89- go; ili 424. Cestus, i 483; iii 20. Cetacea, i 61, 68, 99-101; li 25-30, 329, 430; il 83-86, 490-491; Iv 314- 317, 473. See also Whales, Por- poises, &c Cetonia aurata, i 368, 369. Cetorhinus maximus, ii 88. 029 Cherocampa elpenor, ii 314. — porcellus, ii 314. Cheronycteris, ii 38. Cheropus, ii 43. — castanotus, iii 191-192. Chetoderma, i 341 (illust.); iii 222 Cheetognatha, iii 21. {(illust. ). Chetopoda, i 425-432. See also Bristle- Worms. Chafers, i 368, 366 (illust.). Chaffinch, i 156; ii 187; iii 469 (illust.), 470; iv 147 (illust.), 148, 348. Chalcides ocellatus, ii 77. — tridactylus, i 225. Chalicodoma muraria, iv 53-54, Chalk, i 496. [1g5. Chalk period, iii 309. Chamezleo Oweni, iv 15st. — vulgaris, i 227; ili 269, 270, 446. Chameleon, common, i 227 (illust.); lil 269 (illust.), 270, 446. — Owen’s, iv 151 (illust.). Chameleons, i 221, 226-227; ii 73-75, 290-291, 425-426. Chamois, i 117-118; iii 248. — Alpine, ii 36s. Change of function. See Function. Chapman, ii 21; iii 460; iv 378. Charadrius pluvialis, i 169; iii 455. — Virginicus, iii 30s. Charzas graminis, iv 163, 352. Chasmorhynchus, iv 431. Chatterers, iv 43r. Cheek-pouches, i 72, 73, 74, 126, 129; iil 192-193. Cheeks, i 37. Cheese-Fly, iii 178; iv 351. Cheetah, i 88; ii 10-11; iii 157-158; iv 368-369 (illust.). [iv 359. Cheimatobia brumata, i 364, 372; Cheironectes variegatus, iii 70. Cheirotherium, iv 467. Chelicere, i 386. See also Mouth- parts. Chelidon urbica, i 161; iii 461, 467, Chelifer cancroides, i389. [468. Chelmon rostratus, ii 87. Chelone imbricata, i 218; ii 72, 191; ili 55; iv 395-396. — midas, i 218; ii 191; ili 55, 446-447. Chelonia, i 203, 212-221; ii 191-192, 333-334; lll 54-56. — S-necked, i 216, 217-219. Chelonids. See Turtles. Chelura terebrans, ii 222; iii 225. Chelydra serpentina, ii 72. Chemical changes within the body, i 43-44 (illust.); i1 1-3, 376-380. — elements, i 33. Chemistry, i 4, 17. Chenalopex Agyptiacus, i 177. Chervil, wild, iv 161. Chest. i 24, 46. Chevrotain, Asiatic, i 109, 110 (illust.); iii 150, 152. — water, 1 109; ill 150. Chevrotains, i too; ili 150, 152. Chiasognathus Grantii, iv 159 illust.). Chiffchaff, i 160; iii 185 (illust.). Chilognatha, i 396. See also Milli- pedes. Chilomonas, i 489 (illust.); iii 6 Chilopoda, i 396. See also Centi- pedes. {(illust. ). Chimera, bottle-nosed, i 290, 291 — monstrosa, i 290-291; ii 387. 520 Chimeras, i 257, 290-291 (illust.); ii 335- Chimarrogale Himalayica, ii 34- 35; Wl 7T. Chimpanzee, i 72 (illust.); ii 349; il 160 (illust.), 161, 494; iv 382, 383 (illust. ). Chinchilla, common, i 133 (illus — lanigera, i 133; iv 308. liv 308. Chipmunk, common, i 126. Chiromys, 11 320. Chironomide®, ii 121, 467-468. Chironomus plumosus, i 357. Chiroptera. See Bats. Chirotes caniculatus, ii 76; ii 209. Chiton marginatus, i 340. — polii, il 4o4 Chitons, i 340-341 (illust.); ii 342, 391-392: lil 104; 1v 16-17. Chlamydera, iv 406. Chlamydosaurus Kingi, i 123-124. Chlamydoselache anguineus, i Chlorophyll, i 466, li 3, 270, 271, 272, 273, 379: 1v 65, 66. Cholepus didactylus, i 135, 136; Chondrostina, 11 195. (ii 179-180 Chordata, See also Vertebrates. Chordotonal organs, of insects, iv Choroid coat, i 58. (37 (illust.). Chough, i 154. Chromatophores, i 313. Chrysochloris capensis, 11 Ml 202, 203. Chrysolophus Amherstia, iv 148 — giganteus, iv 148. — pictus, 1172; iv 148. Chrysomela decemlineata, IV 3545 Chrysomitris spinus, i 156 Chrysopa, ii 114. — vulgaris, i 378. Chrysophanus phleas, i 36>. Chrysopide. Sce Lace-wing Flies. Chrysops cecutiens Chrysosplenium, iv 83 Chrysothrix sciurea, i 78. Chrysotoxum bicinctum, ii 119 Chubb, i 282. Chun, ii 287. Churn-Owl. i 62), 292-293. ii 217; See Ni ht-Jar Cicada septendecim, ii 217; ili 224- 225, 377, 380-381. — seventeen-year, li 217; ili 224-225 illust.), 377, 380-381. Cicadas, i 352-353 (illust.). Cicindela campestris, i 367; ii 107. Ciconia alba, i 179: ii 55; ili 127; iv Cilia. See Cilium. (62. Ciliata, i 403: iii 5, $9. Ciliated grooves, of zoophytes, ii 417-418. Ciliated membranes, i 49, 149. Cilium (pl. Cilia’, 1 so {illust.), 332, 445, 470, 483, 484, 492, 493: = 248, 249, see 262). 203) 265, 266, 398, 400, 417, 418, 446; ill 8, 20, 38, 39, 23, 3421 359) 360, 304, 400, 4 ii 266-267; 4345 89; 915, 319, 320, 322, 20, 421; Cimex lectularius, i 354; 1V 190. Ciona intestinalis, i 296 (illust.). Circulatory organs, i 38. — amphibians, 1 240-244, 253-254. — annelids, i 427-423. — birds, 1 146-147. INDEX Circulatory Organs (Couzt.) — crustaceans, i 408, 422. Circus zruginosus, i 174. echinoderms, i 452, 458, 463. - fishes, 1 261-262, 265, 272; ii 384. insects, i 348; 11 465-466. mammals, i 38-43, 67. molluscs, i 308, 317, 320, myriapods, ii 437. peripatus, 1 399-400. 32, 349 reptiles, i 200-201, 208, 215. cineraceus, 1 175. cyaneus, i 175. Cirolana borealis, i 415 (illust.); ii Cirratulus, i 430. Cirripedia. Cirroteuthide, Cirroteuthis, 11 Cirrus (pl. 401; L. Cisticola cursitans, iii Cirri), 146. (143. See Barnacles. i 418, 426, 428 Civet-Cats, 1 89; il 11-14, 226-227; ill 156-157, 247. — African, i 8g; iii 157 (illust. ). Cladocera, Vepens a “Clams”, Indian, i 89 (illust.). palm-, li 12-13, 2 IV 204, 323. Clarke, S. F., iii 448 Class, i o. Classification, i 7, 21-499. amphibians, i 245. animalcules, i 425. arachnids, i 387 arthropods, 1 342- artificial, iit. biblical, 1 7-8. birds, i 152. by definition, 1 10. — pedigree, i ir. — type, iro y 1 4to. echinoderms, 1 454. - fishes, i 257. flat-worms, 1 441. insects, i 350-351. invertebrates, 1 304. linear, i 10. mamunals, 1 68-70. molluses, i 311. myriapods, 1 396. natural, i 11. of Aristotle, 18, 60. — Cuvier, 110 — Linnzus, 1 9-10. plants, iv 64. reptiles, 1 sponges, i 4 standpoint of, 1 7-11. vertebrates, i 60. — primitive, 1 293. zoophytes, 1 473. Clathrulina, i 406. Clausilia plicatula, ii 200. Clavellina, i 300. Claviceps purpurea, iv 08. Clavicle, i 29, 145, 207: Claws, i 64 arachnids, i 391; ii birds, 1 141, 190; il insects, ili 273-274, mammals, i 78, 87, 8 97, 133) 1345 206, 244-245 (illust.), reptiles, iii 208. li 256; 343- iit 201, il 26. iii 202, 298. st.), 264. 89, 90, 91, 92, 202, 203, 205, 247}. 251, 252, Cleavage, iii 338. Cleavers, iv 97-98. Clegg, ii 120-121. Cleodora, iv 451. [30. Cléon dipterum, ii 465 (illust.); ili Clepsidrina blattarum, i 489, 498; iii 6 (illust.); iv 206-207. Clepsine, ii 149. Climbing birds, iu 263. Climbing-scales, iii 283, 284 (illust.). Clio, iv 451. Clione, iv 451. Clisiocampa neustria, i 314. Clitellum, i 431; ili 360. Cloaca, 1 60, 140, 146, 192, 200. 215, 240, 261, 463 Clover, iv 76. Clover-dodder, iv 76. Clupea harengus, i 283; ii 425; iv 128, 129, 263-264. , 208, "= menhaden, iv 318. | Clupeide. — pilchardus, i 283; iv 265. — sprattus, 1 283; iv 264. See Herrings. Clytus arietis, ii 314. Cnethocampa processionea, ii Coal, i 2-3; 11 380. (346-347. Coal-Fish, iv 266-269. | Coati, ii 229, 230 (illust.); ili 247 Cobitis tenza, ii 450. Cobra, common, i 234; — giant, 280. “Cobra de capello.” common. Cobras, i 232, 234: Coccide, iii 381; iv 350, 351, 400 Coccinella, i 369; ii 100-110, — bipunctata, i 366, 369. — septempunctata, i 366, 360. Coccothraustes vulgaris, i 156. Coccus cacti, i 353: iv 260. Coccyx, i 27: iv 480. Cochineal, iv 260, 321. Cochinealinsect,i 353: iv 260 illust.). Cockatoo, great bl: ii 189-190 Cockatoos, 1 166. {illust.). Cockchafer, i 368; ii 209; ill 224; iv 354: Cockle, common, i 334; i 180 (illust.) ; iv 296-207 Cockles, i 334; ti 398; ili 180. Cockroach, i 343-350 (illust. 498-499; ii tor-102, 250, 438: 273-274, 378; iv 358. Cockroach gregarine, ili 6; iv 206-207 (illust.). Cocoons, — annelids, iil 360-361 (illust.). — arachnids, ui 374, 375. — beetles, iii 398 (illust.). — membrane-winged insects, i 370, 371; lit 388, 389; iv 110, 112, 115, 118, 126. — moths and butterflies, 1 360, 362, 363, 364; ill 4oo, got, 402 (illust.); iv 250. il 80; Iv 339 {(llust.), 301. See Cobra, ii 303. 308, (3t5- a8 » 381, ili 167, 1 498-499; Cod-Fish, common, i 22 (illust.), 278; ill 425; iv 266 (illust.), 3 Cod-Fishes, i 278- 279: y 265-268. Codonocladium, i pie 494 (illust.); Codosiga, iv 100 (illust.). hii 6. Celaria labyrinthiformis, i 475 (illust.). Celenterata. See Zoophytes Ceelogenys paca, i133. Coelom, i 427. See also Body cavity. Coeloplana, i 483; iii s. Coenolestes, i 138; ii 42; ili 478. Coenosare, i 476, 478, 479; iv rot. Coenurus cerebralis, iv 361. Coffer-Fishes, i 278; ii 334; iv 340. Cogan, iv 318. Colchicum, iv 97. Coleoptera, i 351, 366-369; ii 107-110, 209-211, 314-315, 326-327, 337, 358- 359, 373» 439-440; ili 29-30, 177-178, 223-224, 313-314, 393-399; iv 192- 194, 354-355) 423+ Coleridge, i 183. Colies, iii 266-267. Colius macrurus, iii 267. Collar Animalcules, i 494; ii 267. Collar-bone, i 29; iii 202, 298. See also Clavicle. Collar-cells, i 484, 486, 494; ii 266. Collard, A.O., iv 292. Collembola, i 384-385; iii 176. Collocalia, iii 462 (illust.). Colobi, i 73. {ii 315. Coloborhombus fasciatipennis, Colobus guereza, i 73; ili 237, 238. Coloration, i. 16. See also Warning coloration and Courtship coloration. — amphibians, i 238, 251; ii 291, 304- 305; ili 288; iv 153. — animalcules, ii 267, 273. — annelids, ii 308. — arachnids, i 390; ii 299-300, 308; idi ii [iv 168. — birds, ii 279, 281, 290, 295-296, 309-311; lil 450, 465, 471; iv 132- 134, 148, 387-388, 390. — birds’ eggs, ii 285-286. — crustaceans, ii 278, 279, 292-293; lili 175; iv 168-169, 444-445. — fishes, i 269, 274, 275, 276; ii 84, 283-284, 291-292, 296, 305-306, 431; iv 154, 155, 156, 157, 158-159, 171, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 442. — flat-worms, ii 271, 308, 446; iv. 203. — insects, i 361, 363, 364, 366, 367, 368, 369, 376; ii 117, 118, 286-287, 293-294, 296-300; 307-308, 311-316, 360; iv 160-162, 176. — mammals, i 64-65, 119; ii 7-9, 18- 19, 22, 178, 279, 283, 289-290, 295, 302, 324, 366-367; ili 488; iv 140, 145-146, 235-236, 239, 244. — molluscs, i 313; ii 285, 292, 296, 306-307; ili 37. — plants, iv 81, 85. —reptiles, i 224, 232-233, 234-235, 246; li 81, 281-282, 290-291, 303-304, 311, 344-345; ili 211, 212, 287; iv 152. — reversed shading, ii 282-284. — zoophytes, ii 272, 285, 308-309, 361. Colossendeis, iv 447 (illust.). Colour-bodies, i 313. Colour-schemes. See Coloration. Colpoda cucullus, iii 321 (illust.), Coluber guttatus, iv 328. [322-323. — longissimus, iii 270. Colugo, i 86 (illust.); iii 281-282, 435. Columba livia, i 139, 167; ii 184; iv 250-251, 487. — enas, i 167; ii 185. — palumbas, i 167; ii 185; iii 458. Columbe, i 152, 167-168. See also Pigeons. Columella, i 150. Coly, long-tailed, iii 267 (illust.). Colymbus arcticus, i 185; ii 54; iil — glacialis, 1 184. [60, 66. — septentrionalis, i 185; iii 66. Comatula rosacea, i 460, 461; ii 264-265, 413, 414-415; lil 23; iv 482. INDEX Comb-Jellies, i 473, 483 (illust.); ii 155-156 (illust.), 278; iii 5, 19-20 (illust. ). (184. Commensalism, iv 74-75, 170-183, — crustaceans, iv 172-174, 179-182 — echinoderms, iv 172. [(illust. ). — fishes, iv 170, 171. — insects, iv 175-179 (illust.). — molluscs, iv 172-174, 183. — siphon-worms, iv 182, 183 (illust.). — sponges, iv 172, 181-182. —zoophytes, iv 171, 172, 182, 183 (illust.). Comparative method, i 12. Conan Doyle, i 121-122. Concha. See Ear-flap. Conch-Shell, iv 397. Condor, i 175; iv 432. Condylarthra, iv 472. Condyles, occipital— — amphibians, i 66. — birds, i 66, 143. — mammals, i 28-29, 66, 123; ii 176. — reptiles, i 66, 193. (315. Condylodeira tricondyloides, ii Condylura cristata, ii 37; iii 202; iv 418. Cone-Shells, i 321; ii 357; iv 340. Confucius, iv 244. (274. Conger vulgaris, i i 283; iii 434; iv Conies, i 68, 103-104; iii 248-250; iv 472. Conjugation of Animalcules, iii 323-325 (illust.). Connective tissue, i 25, 469. Conolophus subcristatus, ii 192. Conops flavipes, ii 119. Contour feathers, i 142, 143, 153. Contractile vacuole. See Pulsat- ing vacuole. Contractile vesicle, i 435. Conus, i 32T. “Convergence”, iii 193, 208, 213. Convoluta Roscoffensis, ii 271. Cony, Abyssinian, i 104 (illust.), iii -— Syrian, i 104. (250. — tree, ili25o (illust.). See also Conies. Cooke, li 199; ill 106; iv 215, 322. Coot, i 171; ii 240, 295; iii 61-62 (illust.), 128, 456; iv 147. Copepoda, i 410, 420; ii 144, 254-255; ill 25-26, 363; iv 196-197, 283-284, Copilia vitrea, iv 452. (452. Coracias garrulus, ii 60-6r. Coracoid bone, i 30, 69, 145, 187: — process, i 29, 69 (illust. ). {ili 298. Coral (and see Corals)— —antler-, i 475 (illust.). — brain-, i 475 (illust.). — clove-, i 475 (illust.) — hedgehog-, i 475 (illust.). — madrepore, i 475 (illust.). — millepore, ii 160-161 (illust.). — mushroom, i 475 (illust.), 476. — organ-pipe, i 477-478, ii 341, 417. — red, i 23, 478 (illust.). — shrub-, i 475 (illust.). — sun-, i 475 (illust.). — tuft-, i 475 (illust.). Corals (and see Coral), i 465, 473, 475, 476; ii 158-159, 272, 285, 308, 328, 353; iv 102, 199, 440-441, 446, 447-448, 459, 464. Coral-Fish, iv 437, 438 (illust.). Corallimorphus rigidus, iii 353 (illust. ). Corallium rubrum, i 23 (illust.). 179-181, 521 Coral polypes, i 23 (illust.). Cordiceps, iv 77. [(illust.). Corethra plumicornis, iv 37 Cormorant, black, i 181; ii 48; iii 63, 64, 471 (illust.). — green, i 181; ii 48; ili 63-64. Cormorants, i 152, 181; ii 48-49; iii 62-64. Corn-Crake, i 171; ii 240 (illust.)., Cornea, i 58. [368. Corn Thrips, i 355 (illust.); ii 216. Corn Wolf. See Moth, corn. Coronella levis, i 232. Corophiid@, iii 369. Corpus callosum, i 52, 68. Corpuscles, colourless, i 38, 42, 435 49, 149, 469, 488; ii 269; ili 3; iv 79. — red, i 38, 147. — touch-, i 53-54. Cortex, cerebral, iv 22-23. Corvide, i 153-154; ii 187, 235-237. Corvus corax, i 153; iv 347. — cornix, i 154. — corone, i 153. — frugilegus, i 153; ii 235-236, iv 130- — monedula, i 153. (132. Corydaloides Scudderi, ii 463. Corythaix leucotis, iii 263. Corythopanes cristatus, i 223. Cosmia trapezina, ii 252. Cossus ligniperda, i 363; iv 352. Cotile riparia, i 161; iii 453. Cotingida, iv 431. Cottide. See Gurnards. Cottus gobio, i 274; iv 273. — scorpius, i 274. Coturnix communis, i 172; ii 239. Courtship and mating, iv 143- — amphibians, iv 152-154. (144. — arachnids, iv 166-168 (illust.). — birds, iv 146-151. — crustaceans, iv 168-169. — fishes, iv 154-159. — insects, iv 114, 118, — mammals, iv 144-146. — reptiles, iv 151-152. Courtship coloration, i 16; iv 402. — amphibians, iv 153. — arachnids, iv 168. — birds, iv 148. — crustaceans, iv 168-169 — fishes, iv 154, 155, 156, 157, 158-159. — insects, iv 160-162. — mammals, iv 145-146. — reptiles, iv 152. Cowan, iv 257, 258. 121, 159-166 [(illust. ). Cowries, i 321 (illust.); iv 322-323 Coyote, i 93. [ illust.). Coypu, iii 74. Crab (and see Crabs)— — Anderson’s blanket-, iv 180-181 — bear-, i qrz (illust.). ((llust.). — buffoon, iii 172. —cocoa-nut. See Crab, robber. — countryman, ii 220. — demon-faced, iii 171, 172 (illust.). — devil, it 338. — dromia, i 411 (illust.). — edible, i 412; ii 140, 337-338, 403- 404; ill 366-367 (illust.); iv 298 (illust.), — gulf-weed, ii 140. (299. — musical strand-, iv 37. — northern stone-, ii 338 (illust —robber or cocoa-nut, ii (illust.), 469-470; ili 170-171. —shore, i 412; ii 140; iv 197-199 (illust. ). 522 Crab (Cont.) — spider, i qrt (illust.); ii 287-289. — sponge-, common, iv 181. — — Andaman, iv 181-182 (illust.). — squeaker, iv 37. — swimming or fiddler, iii 28 (illust.). Crabs, i 412; 11 138-141, 403-404; 443, 469-470; ili 27-28, 170-172, 175, 277, 332, 365-367, 368; iv T4-15, 35, 43; 329. [1g0; mi 171. — swift land or swift-footed sand, ii Crake, spotted, i171. Crampe, iv 486. Crane, common, i 170 (illust.); ii 241. — crowned, ii 241 (illust.).— ((illust.). Cranes, i 152, 170; ll 240-242, 427 Crane-Flies, i 358; ii 119 (illust.), 215-216; iv 351 (illust.). Crangon vulgaris, i 412; ii 137: iv 298, 299-300. Cranial flexure, i 203. — nerves, 1 52-53, 55; IV 19. Cranium. See Brain-case. Cranmer, iv 249. Crayfish, common or fresh-water, i 412; li 137, 253 (illust.), 402-403; iii 27, 277, 278, » 367-368 (illust.); iv 13-14 (illust.), 30 (illust.), 31, 200, 300. Creeper, common or tree-, i 157; i 59-60 (illust.); 111 264, 463-464. Creodonta, iv 472. Crepidula, iii 413. Crex pratensis, i 171; ii 368, 240. Cricetus, ii 177. — frumentarius, i 129. Cricket, field-, i 383. — house-, i 383. — mole-, i 383 (illust.); ii 328, 359; ili 222-223, 379-380, 381: iv 358. Crickets, i 381, 383; ii 315; 380; iv 38, 162. Crinoidea, i 454. See also Feather- Stars and Sea-Lihes Cristatella, ii: 100 (illust.), 330-331 Crocidura aranea, ii 34. i — Etrusca, i 85. Crocodile, estuarine, i 210, 212. — Indian, i 210. — Nile, i 210, 2rr (illust.); ii 70-71, 333 (illust.); tii so-5r (illust.), 447; Tv’ 397; 39%. — West African, i 212. Crocodiles, i 203, 204-209, 210-212; i 70-71, 320, 424-425; lll 50-51, 124, 447-448; iv 152, 336-337. — American, i 212. Crocodilia, i 203, 204-212 (illust.); and see Crocodiles and Alligators. Crocodilus cataphractus, i 212. — niloticus, i 210, 211; il 70-71, 333; iii 50-51, 447; iv 337, 391. — palustris, i 210. — porosus, i 210. Crop, i 146. Crossbill, i 156; ii 187-188 (illust.’. “Cross-Carrier ”, i 390. Cross-fertilization, of flowers, iv 84, 85-89. Crossopus fodiens, i 84; ii 34. “Cross-Spider ”, i 390. Crotalus, iv 330. — durissimus, i 234; ii 80. Crow, carrion, i 153. — hooded, i 154 [307; iv 348. Crows, i 153-154; ii 187, 235-237; in Crowned Tyrant, ii 61 (illust.). iil 379" INDEX Crumen, iv 142. Crustacea, i 343, 402-422; ii 135-144, 253-256, 278-279, 287-289, 292-293, 337-338, 374, 400-406, 443-444, 469- 470; ili 25-28, 169-172, 174-175, 225, 277-278, 332, 362-369; iv 12-14, 35- 37, 196-199, 216, 297-300, 439, 444- 447, 452, 460, 465, 493- — bivalve, i 410, 419-420. — fork-footed, i 410, 420; ili 25-26, 363; iv 196-197, 283-284, 452. — higher, i 410-416; ii 135-143, 220- 222, 253-254, 400-405; iil 27-28, 365- — intermediate, i 410, 416. [369. — leaf-footed, i 410, 421-422; 11 405; ill 26-27, 362-363. — lower, i 410, 416-422; ii 144-145, 254-256, 405-406; ili 25-27, 362-365; iv 196-199. — sessile-eyed, i 410, 414-415; ii 141- 142, 404-405; lil 174-175, 365. — stalk-eyed, i 410-414; i1 135-141; ili 365-368. See also Lobsters, Crabs, Opossum Shrimps, &c. —ten-legged. See Lobsters; Crabs; Crustacea, stalk-eyed, &c. Cryptobranchus lateralis, i 248; li 457; ili 48. Cryptoprocta ferox, 1 88; ii 12. Crypturi, i 152, 173. Cteniza, i 302. — ca#mentaria, iii 376-377. Ctenobranchia, 317, 318-321. Ctenophora, i 473, 483; il 155-156, 279; lil 19-20. Ctenoplana, i 483; ili s. Cuckoo, common, i 162 (illust.); ii 58; ili 449; iv 62, 328. — South African, i 162. Cuckoos, i 162; ii 309. [178. “Cuckoo spit”, i 353; ii 217; ill Cuculus canorus, i 162; ii 58; ili 449; — gularis, i 162 liv 62, 328. Cucumaria, i 462 (illust.). See also Sea-Cucumbers. Culex, i 356-357; iv 340. — annulatus, ill 403-404. — pipiens, i 356-357; ii 121, 442. Culicide, ii 121. Cumacea, i 410, 414 (illust.). Cunningham, iii 426, 431; iv 261, Curassows, iv 431. (281, 288. Curculionidae. See Weevils. Curlew, Stone-, i 169; iii 471. Curlews, i 169; ii 67, 68 (illust.). Cuscuta, iv 76. Cushat, i 167. Cusps, ii 6. Cuttle-bone, i 313-314; iv 322 (illust.). Cuttle-Fish, common, i 311-314 (illust.); iii 418; iv 18-19 (illust.), 3226 Cuttle-Fishes, i 311-316; ii 94-06 (illust.), 372-373, 392-393 (illust.); ili 30733; 1V 20, 34-35, 45 (illust.), 444. Cuvier, i to. Cuvierina, iv 451. Cyamus ceti, i 415. Cyanecula suecica, i 160. Cyclas, ili 232 (illust.), 406, 407. — cornea, ii 249-250. Cyclophorus, ii 432. Cyclops, i 420 (illust.); ii 254-255; iii 25-26, 363, 364. Cyclopterus lumpus, ii 202. Cyclostoma elegans, ii 200, 432; ii 106, Cyclostomata, i 257, 291-292; ii. g1- g2; and see Lampreys and Hags. Cyclothurus didactylus, iii 256, Cyclura carinata, iii 52. (257. Cydippe, i 483 (illust.); ii 155; ii 19- 20 (illust.). Cygnus atratus, i 177. — Bewicki, i 177. — musicus, i 177. — nigricollis, i 177 — olor, i177; iil 456, 457. Cynailurus jubatus, i 88; iii 157- 158; iv 368-369. Cynips argentea, iv 82. Cynogale, ii 13. Cynognathus, iv 468. Cynomys Columbianus, iv 135. — Ludovicianus, i 126; ii 367; iv 135. — Mexicanus, iv 135. Cynopithecus niger, iii 159 (illust. ); Cypreea, i 321, 322. liv 426. — moneta, iv 322-323. Cypridina, iii 364. Cyprinid@, ii 195. Cyprinus carpio, i 282; ii 448. Cypris, i 419-420; iii 364. Cypselida, iii 462. Cypselus apus, i 163; iii 186, 462. Cyrena, iii 406. Cysticercus pisiformis, iv 362. Cystoidea, iv 459. Cystophora cristata, iv 312. Cytherea dione, ii 336. — spiny, ii 336. Cyttide. See John Dory. D Dab, iii 432; iv 269. — lemon, iii 432; iv 270. Dabb, i 222. Dabchick, i 185; ili 65-66 (illust.), Daddy-Long-Legs, i 358. [457 Dace, i 283: iv 306. Dacelo gigantea, i 165. Dachshund, iv 221 (illust.). Dafila acuta, i 176. “Dam”, of Beaver, iv 136-139. Danaids, ii 311, 312. Danais chrysippus, ii 312. — echeria, ii 312. — niavius, ii 312. Dancing-Flies, iii 291. Dandelion, iv 80. Dannevig, Captain, iv 287, 298. Daphnia pulex, i 4109 (illust.), 422; ii 256, 405; ili 26 (illust.), 362-363 (illust.). Darters, i 181; ii 49-50 (illust.): ili 64. Darwin, i 6, 11, 15; il 30, 192, 220, 258, 2590, 342, 344, 365; iv 68, 88, 143, 146, 149, 159, 161, 163, 210, 217, 222, 235, 244, 248, 251, 441, 478, 485, 487, 489, 492, 494. Darwinism, iv 478, 484-488. Dasychira pudibunda, i 364. Dasychone, iv 44-45. Dasypeltis, iv 421. Dasyprocta agouti, i 133. Dasypus minutus, ii 367. — sexcinctus, i 136. — villosus, ii 234. Dasyures, ii 322. Date-Shells, iii 411 (illust.). Daudebardia rufa, ii 200 Daulias luscinia, i 160. Day, iii 116. Day-Flies. See May-Flies. Dead-man’s Fingers, i 477 (illust.). Dean, iii 41. Death-Adders, ii 80; iv 339. Death-feigning habit, ii 342-345. — arachnids and insects, ii 345, 373- — birds, ii 343-344. (374. _ mammals, i ii 343. — reptiles, ii 344-345. [224; iv 355. “Death-watches”, i 379; iii 223- Decapoda (Cephalopoda), i 314-315; 11 30-31. — (Crustacea), i 410-412; ii 135-141, 337-338, 400-404, 469-470; ili 27-28, 1697172, 175, 365-368; iv 13-14. Deer, i 109, 110-112; ii 321, 367; ili 152; lv 142, 144-145, 346. — Chinese water, i rz. — fallow, i111; iii r5x (illust.). —mouse-. See Chevrotains. — mule, iv 430. [142, 402. — musk-, i r10-111; ili 1g1 (illust.); iv — red, i zzz; iv 144-145, 373-374. — roe, i 112. — spotted, ii 351-352. — Virginian, iv 430. Defences of animals, i 17; ii 275- 375. é es — precautionary measures, ii 276, 277- 331. — resistance, ii 276-277, 332-362. — retreat, ii 277, 363-375. Degeneration, biological, i 298, 431, 432; ili 420-421; iv 197, 197-199, 203. Degu, i 132 (illust.). Delphinapterus leucas, iii 83; iv Delphinida, ii 26-29. [316-317. Delphinus delphis, ii 27-28. Dendrelaphis, iii 270. Dendrocolaptide, iii 463. Dendrocopus major, i 162; ii 58. — minor, i 162. Dendrohyrax arborea. See Pro- cavia. Dendrolagus, ii 182. Dendronotus arborescens, ii 296. Dendrophis, iii 270. Dendryphantes capitatus, iv 167. Dental formule, of mammals, i 36, 67, 72, 78-793 ii 6, 7. Dentalium, i 338; lil 221-222, 412. — indianorum, iv 323. — vulgare, i 336-330: Dentine, i 35, 102. Derbyshire-neck, i 43. Dermanyssus galling, iv 360. Dermaptera, iii 282. Dermatochelys. See Sphargis. Dermatocoptes, iv 196. Dermatophagus, iv 196. Dermatoptic vision, iv 39-40. Dermestes lardarius, ii 109, t10; Dermestide, ii 110. liv 355. Dermis, i 25. See also Skin. Descartes, i 203. Desman, Russian, ii 35; ili 71-72 — Spanish, ili 72. {(illust.). Desmans, i 83; ii 35; ili 71-72, 246. Desmodus rufus, ii 39. _([(illust.). Desmognathus fuscus, iii 435 Desoria glacialis, i 384; ii ar4. Development, i 11, 14, 18. See also Life Histories and Metamorphosis. — direct, iii 355. INDEX Development (Cowz.) — indirect, iii 355. — influence of food-yolk on, iii 345-348. -— acorn-headed worm, iii 420-421. — amphibians, i 62-63, 240-242, 249, 254, 256; ii 457-458; iii 434-443. — animalcules, i 491, 493-494, 498; iii 317-325, 333-335; 1V 206-207. — annelids, iii 318, 329-330, 358-361. — arachnids, i 387; ili 373-377. — ascidians, ili 332, 421-422; iv 105- — birds, i 151-152; ili 448-453. [106. — crustaceans, 1 409; ili 362-369; iv 197-199. — echinoderms, iii 328, 354-357. — fishes, i 60, 264, 279; ili 422-434. — flat-worms, iii 329; iv 201-205. — insects, ili 377-404. — king-crabs, iii 369. — lancelet, iii 342, 344-345: _ mammals) 4 lil 474-494. — molluscs, iii 4o4-419. — moss-polypes, ili 330-331; iv 104. — myriapods, ili 370-373. — nemertines, iii 419. — peripatus, ili 370. — reptiles, i 203, 209, 216; iii 443-448. — sponges, i 485; ili 325-326, 341-342, — thread-worms, iv 205-206. (343. — zoophytes, i 471-472, 476, 478-479, 480, 481, 482; il 327-328, 339-341, 349-353; iV 103-104. Devil’s coach-horse, i 368 (illust.); Devis, iv 407. [ii 108. Dianthecia albimacula, iv 86. Diapheromera femorata, iii 379. Diaphora mendica, ii 313. Diaphragm, See Midriff. Diatoms, ii 248; iv 72. Dibranchiata. See Cuttle-Fishes. Dickens, i 383; iv 408. Dicotyles, iv 141-142. — labiatus, iii 489; iv 334-336. — torquatus, i 109; ii 233, 234; ili 149, Dicynodon, iv 468. (489. Didelphyidz. See Opossums. Didelphys azare, iii 480. — marsupialis, ili 255. — murina, ili 479. — Virginiana, 1 138; iii 260. Didus ineptus, ii 369-370. Difflugia, i 489 (illust.); ii 341; ili 6 Digby, Sir Kenelm, iv 320. [(illust.). Digestion, i 37-38; ii 1-3. Digestive ceca, i 348. Czecum. — cavity, i 34. — glands, i 34, 36-37. Digestive organs, i 34-38. — amphibians, i 240, 253; ii 194. — annelids, i 427; ii 259. — birds, i 146; ii 184. — crustaceans, i 407; ii 136-137. — echinoderms, i 452-453) 458; ii 413. — fishes, i 261, 271-272; ii 450. — insects, i 346-348. — mammals, i 67. — — carnivorous, ii 7. — — herbivorous, ii 165, 167, 168-169, I7I, 172, 176. [233-234 — — omnivorous, i 34-38; ii 225, 226, — molluscs, i 308, 332-333. — nemertines, ii 391. —- reptiles, 1 199-200, 207, 215, 230. — siphon worms, ii 260. — thread-worms, i 448. — zoophytes, i 471, 473-474. See also 523 Digestive-tube and Breathing, ii 382-383. Digitigrade feet structure:— -— birds, ili 126. — mammals, 86, 87; ii 5-6 (illust.); iii 134, 154-155, 157- Digits, i 24, 31-32. — amphibians, i 238, 248, 250, 252; ili 48, 49, 121, 272, 288. — birds, i 141, 146, 149, 152, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 170, 171, 173, 176, 179, 180, 185, 188; iii 58, 59, 61- 62, 65, 66, 126, 127, 128, 130, 153, 261, 263, 264-265, 266, 295, 299, 473. — fishes, iii 119. — mammals:— — —— flesh-eating, i 86, 90, 91, 92; ili 76, 78-79, 80, 84, 154, 155, 156, 157, 247. gnawing, i123, 125, 128, 133; ili 745 751 194, 195, 196, 197, 203, 205, 252, 253. hoofed, i 104-105, 106, 107, 108, 110, I13-114, 120; lii 130, 137-138, 139, 142-144, 147, 148, 149, 150, 152, 153. insect-eating, i 83, 86; iii 197- 198, 202. (258-260. pouched, iii 190, 191-192, 206, — — bats, 181, 82; iii 244-245, 292, 293- — — conies, i 104; ili 249. [294. —- — edentates, i 136; ili 254, 256. — — elephants, i 102. — — lemurs, i 80; ili 241, 242, 243, 244. —-— man and monkeys, i 24, 31-32, 73, 73) 775 78; iii 158, 233-234, 237, 238, 240. — reptiles, i 196-198, 205, 209, 213, 275, 218, 223, 225, 237; ill 54, 55, 122, 209, 268-269, 270, 286. Dingo, i 94; ii 343; iv 222. Dinophilus, i 431. Dinornis maximus, iv 476. Dinornithide, iv 428. Dinosauria, iii 124; iv 469-470. Dinosaurs, armoured, iv 469, 470 — beast-footed, iv 469. ((illust.). — bird-footed, iv 469-470 (illust.). — horned, iv 470. — reptile-footed, iv 469. Diodon, i 278; ii 334; iv 340. Diomedea exulans, i 183. Dionza muscipula, iv 69-70. Diphyes, ii 161. Diploblastica, i 467, 490, 491. Diplonychus, iii 382. Diplopoda, i 396. See also Milli- pedes. ((ilhust. ). Diplozo6én paradoxum, iv 201-202 Dipnoi, i 257, 264-266. See also Lung-Fishes. Dipodide, iii 192, 194-197. Dipodomys Phillipsi, iii 193-194. Diprotodon, iv 474. Dipsacus laciniatus, iv 92. Diptera, i 351, 355-358; ii 119, 120- 122, 215-216, 251, 314, 441-442, 462, 467-468 ; ili 178, 289-200, 293, 311, 313, 402-404; iv 127, 190-192, 349, Dipus jaculus, ii 319, 322. (35. — Mauritanicus, iii 196. “Discontinuous distribution ”, iv 410-412, 429, 430. See also Dis- tribution in space. Discophora. See Leeches. Distomum macrostomum, iv 202- 203 (illust.). 524 Distribution in space, i 14-15; iv 409-455, 483. — acorn-headed worms, iv 438. — amphibians, i 245, 247, 248, 249, 254, 255; Wi 213, 214, 272, 288; iv 417, 419, 421, 426, 428, 432. — animalcules, iv 453-454. (452. — annelids, i 431-432; 11 445; iv 321, — arachnids, i 387, 389, 392; ii 131. — ascidians, iv 438, 451. — birds:— anserine, i 177-178; iv 309. game-, 1172; 11239; lll 450-452; iv 417, 419, 425, 431. perching, i 153, 155-156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 168; iv 417, 421, 423, 425, 427, 431- picarian, i 161, 162, 163, 164; iv 425, 428, 431. 432 running, i188, 189; iv 42t, 428, — — bustards and cranes, i 170. — — divers and grebes, i 184; iv 417. —— eagles and vultures, i 174, 175, 176; iV 421, 43 — — gulls, i 168; iv 437. — — herons and storks, 1 179, 180. — — owls, 1 165-166 — — parrots, i 166; iv 427-428, 431. pelicans and cormorants, 1 181; 53; li 62; iv 448. — — penguins, i 186; iv 437 32. —— petrels and albatrosses, i 182 iv 448. — — pigeons and sandgrouse, 1 139, 167-168; iv 250, 423, 428. — — plovers, i 168; iv 423 — — rails, i 171. — — tinamous, i 173; iv 432. — crustaceans, 1 410, 413, 416, 417, 421; 1V 297, 444-447, 452 — echinoderms, i 454, 456, 459, 461, 464; 1V 440, 447, 452. — fishes:— = bony, i 260, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 270, 280, 282, 283; iv 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268 , 270, 271, 272) 273) 274, 275, 275, 417, 426 433, 437-438, 443-444) 448. : ganoid, i 266, 268, 269; Iv 277- 278, 417, 421. _- lung, i 264; 11 454-455; lv 417, 421, 428, 433. — — chimeras, i 290, 291. —— round-mouths, i 291, 292. — — sharks and dog-fishes, i 284, 285, 286, 287: iv 448. —— skates and rays, i 288, 290; ii 357; IV 433. — flat-worms, i 445; 1 446; iv 342-343, 361, 440. — insects, i 353, 361, 362, 367, 368, 369, 378, 379, 382, 383; il 117, 118, 204, 311, 312; iv 252, 417-418, 422, 423, 426, 433-434, 452. — king-crabs, i 422-423. — lamp-shells, i 438. — lancelets, 1 293-204; iv 438. — mammals:— — —— egg-laying, i 70; li 44: iv 427. flesh-eating, 1 87-88, 89, go, or, 93, 94, 95, 97-98, 99, 276; ill 247; iv 303, 304, 311, 312, 313, 415, 418, 420, 422, 424, 429, 436, 448. gnawing, i 124-125, 126, 127, 128, 120, 130, 131, 132-133, 134; ill 74, 192, 106, 203, 282, 283, 284; iv 135- 136, 308, 416, 418, 420, 422, 425, 430. INDEX Distribution in space (Cowz.) — mammals (cov. ) hoofed, i 105, 106, 107, 108-109, LIO, ILI, 12, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, ; lil 248; iv 225, 226, 230- 232, 233, 415-416, 418, 420, 422, 424, 426-427, 429-430. ; insect-eating, i 83, 84, 85, 86; 11 34, 355 iv 415, 418, 420, 422, 424, 429. pouched, i 69, 138; ill 260; iv 411, 418, 427, 430. —— apes and monkeys, 1 72, 74, 75- 76; IV 419-420, 424, 426, 429. — — bats, i 82, 83; ili 294-295; iv 424, 7s 429. f _ 15, 415, 448. — — cetaceans, 1 ror; i1 28, 29; iv 314, — — conies, i 103. — — edentates, 1 136; iv 421, 425, 430. — — elephants, i 103; iv 424-425. — — lemurs, i 79; iii 240-241, 244; lv 420, 422, 427- . [316, 436. — — sea-cows, i 102; il 173; iv 313, — molluscs, i 314, 315, 316, 328, 334, 337; iv 288, 295, 296, 419, 421, 433; 438-439, 444, 451-452. — moss-polypes, i 436; iii 100; iv 439. — myriapods, i 397. (452-453. —nemertines, i 305; ii 444; iv 439, — peripatus, i 398. — reptiles, i 209, 210, 2 122; li 23. 223 ane 236; ill 51, 52, , 211; iv 410, 417, 419, 421, 54) 425, 428, 432, 437, 448. — sea-‘‘spiders”’, iv 447. — siphon-worms, iv 439-440. — sponges, i 486, 487; iv 324, 447-448. — thread-worms, iv 453. — zoophytes, 1 473, 475, 476, 481, 483; IV 440-441, 453-454. (456-476. Distribution in time, i 15, 19; iv — amphibians, iv 463, 467. — animalcules, i 496; iv 458, 464. — arachnids, iv 462. — arthropods, extinct, iv 460-462. — birds, iv 471, 475-476. — crustaceans, iv 460, 465. — echinoderms, iv 459, 464. — fishes, iv 463, 466-467. — insects, iv 462, 465. — king-crabs, iv 462 — lJamp-shells, i 438; iv 459-460, 464. — mammals, i t11-112, 127; iv 471, 472-475 — molluscs, iv 462-463, 465-466. — myriapods, iv 462. — reptiles, iv 463-464, 467-471. — sponges, iv 464. — zoophytes, iv 458-459, 464. Diver, black-throated, i 185; ii 54 (illust.); iii 60 (illust.), 67. — great northern, i r84. — red-throated, 1185; ili 66. Divers, i 152, 183-185; ii 53: ii 64-66. Division of physiological labour, 1 469, 481; 1164, 161, 417; iii Q-r10, To, 317) 333-334, 339) 342; IV 5, 22, 39, 100-101, 102-105 (illust.), 107, 110, III, 112, 114-127, 128-129, 130, 135, 138, 177. Dixon, ii 57; iii 453, 455, 457, 465: iv 131. Dochmius duodenalis, iv 343. Dodo, ii 369-370 (illust.). Dog-Fish, piked, i 286; ii 335. — spotted, i 257-264, 284, 285 (illust.), 286; ii 385-387; ili 424. Dog-Fishes, i 12-13, 257-264, 284, 286; 111 40-41; iv 32, 39, 128-129. — spiny, 1 286. Dog-Louse, biting, iv 356. Dogs, &c., i 86, 92-94, 380; ii 15-16 (illust.); ili 132-137 (illust.), 154-155, 491-492; iv 220-222 (illust.), 367-368, Dog-Tick, iv 195. (383-384. Dog-Whelk, iii 412. Dolichosoma, iv 463. Doliolum, iii 39. Dolomedes fimbriatus, ii 131. Dolphin, common, ii 27-28 (illust.). — gangetic, ii 28 (illust.), 71. Dolphins, ii 26-29; iii 85. Domestication, iv 217-220. — birds, iv 246-251 (illust.). — insects, iv 251-260 (illust.). — mammals, iv 220-245 (illust.). Dorcatherium aquaticum, i 109; ili 150. Dories, i 273-274; and see John- Dory. Dorippe facchino, iti 172. Doris, i 326; ii 397; iii 412. Dormouse, common, i 131 (illust.); ll 176, 367; ill 251-252 (illust.). — fat, iv 244-245 (illust.). Doto coronata, ii 296. Dotterel, i 169; iii 465 (illust.). Double-Eyes, iv 47-48. Double-tube arrangement, of vertebrates, i 24, 61, 303. Dove, ring-, i 167. —rock-, i 167; and see Pigeon, blue- rock. — stock-, i 167; ii 185. — turtle-, 1167; ii 185. Doves, i 167; iv 133. Down-feathers, i 143. Draco volans, i 222; iii 287. Dragonet, gemmeous, ii 306; iv 158 — sordid, iv 158. (illust. ). — spangled, iv 158-159. Dragon-Fly, demoiselle, i 376. — great, i 376. Dragon-Flies, i 374, 376; ii 114-115, 464-465; iil 311, 312, 313 (illust.), 383-385 (illust.); iv 43. Dragons, flying, i 222; ii 327. Drake, gray, i 376 (illust.). — green, i 376. “Drills”, iv 348. Dromzus Nove-Hollandiz, i 188; li 243; ili 130, 440, 450. Dromia, i 411 (illust.). Drone-Fly, ii 119, 216, 314, 441-452 (illust.); ili grr. Drones, iv 252-253 (illust.), 254, 256. Droserace®, iv 68-60. “Drum ”, of ear, i157; ii 386-387. Dryandra, iv 89. Dryiophide, ii 79. Dryophis, iii 27r. Duck, ferruginous, i 176. — golden-eye, i 176. — long-tailed, i 176. — musk or “‘muscovy”, iv 248, rst. — steamer, iil 60. — tufted, i 176. [248. — wild, i 176; ili 58, 467 (illust.): iv Ducks (and see Duck), i 152, 176-177; ii 65 (illust.), 237-238; iti 58, 59-61; iv 26, 147-148, 247-248. — eider-, 176; iv 308-300. — — common, iii 59, 60 (illust.); iv 60 (illust.), 309 (illust.). Ducks (Coxt.) — eider- (cond) — — Scandinavian, iv 309. — shoveller, i 176. Duck-Bill, See Duck-Mole. Duck-Mole, or Duck-billed Platy- Pus, i 69, 70 (illust.), 1433 li 44, 322; iii 69-70, 475, 477-478; iv 211, 212, Duckweeds, iv 95. [481-482. Duct:— — bile-, i 37. — thoracic, i 42. Ductless glands, i 43. Dugong, i 102; ii 173-174 (illust.); iii 81-82, 490; iv 313-314. Dumble-Dor, i 368. Dunilin, i 169. Duyker-Boks, ii 365-366. Dwellings of Animals (see also Nests), i 18; iii 349. — annelids, ii 257-258; ili 358. — arachnids, iii 373, 374-377. — crustaceans, iii 368-369. — echinoderms, iii 355, 356, 357- — insects, ii 116; ili 380-381, 390-391, 392, 393, 400; iv 1og-110, 111-112, TI5-117, 120, 122, 124, 125-126. — mammals, ii 477-478, 480, 482, 483- 485, 491-492, 494; iv 135, 136-140. — molluscs, ili 407-411, 414-417, 418. — nemertines, iii 419. — reptiles, ili 444, 447, 448. — wheel-animalcules, iv 75. Dynastes hercules, i 368. Dytiscus marginalis, i 367, 368; ii 108-109, 439; ili 29; iv 16. E Eagle, fishing-. See Osprey. — golden, i174; iv 61, 369, 370 (illust.). — white-tailed, i 174. Eagles, i 152, 173-175: iv 347. Ear, i 56, 59; and see Hearing, organs of. Ear-capsule, ii 386-387. Ear-flap, i 57, 81, 98; iii 74; iv 57. “Earlet’’, i 82. Earth-Wolf, i 87, 91-92 (illust.); ii z5. Earthworms, i 431, 467-468; ii 258- 259, 328, 444-445; ill 3, 227-230 (ilust.), 360-361; iv 8-9, 29, 34, 40, 98, 329-330. Earwig, i 380-381 (illust.); ii 250, 359; iil 167, 377-378 (illust.); iv 44, 358. “‘Eating-cells”, ii 269. Echidna, i 70; ii 43, 44; ili 475; iv — aculeata, ili 475-477- (211-212. Echinococcus veterinorum, iv 342-343 (illust. ). Echinodermata. See Hedgehog- skinned Animals. Echinoidea, i 454. See also Sea- Urchins. Echinomyia grossa, ii r19. Echinopora gemmacea, i 475 (illust. ). Echinorhynchidz. See Thorn- headed Worms. Echinorhynchus, i 449. — gigas, i 449. {iii 92-93. Echinus esculentus, i 456; ii 412; Echimroidea (and Echiurus), i 433: ii 149-150, 410. Eciton drepanophora, ii 105-106. — hamata, li 104-106; iv 120. INDEX Economic Zoology, i 15; iv 208-330, 394-400. Ectoderm, i i 467, 468, 470-471, 474, 484; ili 339, 342, 344, 345, 359; iv 6, 7, 8, 20, 24, 25 3°, 31, 33) 34, 35) 41, Ectoparasite, i iv 76. (46, 47. Ectosare, i 492, 493. Edentata, i 68, 136; li 41-42, 178- 180, 234, 322, 327, 341-342; ili 253- 257, 482; iv 421, 425, 430, 473-474. Edriophthalmata, i ii r41- 143. Eel, common, i 283 (illust.); ii 447-448; iii 214, 433-434; iv 128, 274. —conger, i 283; ili 434; iv 32, 274 (illust. ). — electric, ii 86, 87 (illust.). — Mediterranean murzna, i 283-284. Eels, i 283-284; ili 43, 272; iv 274, 285. Eel-pout, i 279. Eel-Worm, beet, iv 363 (illust.). — root-knot, iv 363. — stem-, iv 363. Eel-Worms, iv 78; iv 362-363. Efferent branchial vessels or efferent gill arteries, i 242, 262. Efferent nerve-fibres, i 51, 52; ivo. Effodientia, ii 44. Efts, i246. See also Newts. Egg-bags, iii 363, 373, 374. Egg-capsules, iii 378 (illust.), 412 (illust. ), 413, 418 (illust.), 424, (illust.), 425 (illust. ). Egg-cells, iii 335-337, 338, 340, 344, 345-3475 352, 353, 414, 478; iv 84, 85. Eggers. See Moths, lappet-. Egg-glue, iii 365, 368. Eggs and Egg-producing or- gans:— — amphibians, iii 434, 435 (illust.), 436, 437 (illust. ), 438, 439 (illust. ), 440, 441, — annelids, iii 358, 360-361. [442. — arachnids, iii 373; iv 196. — ascidians, iii 421, 422. — birds, i rsr (illust.), 162, 163, 188, 190; li 285-286 (illust.); ili 346, 347 (illust.), 448, 449, 450, 451-452, 453 (illust.), 454, 455-458 (illust.), 46r, 462, 464, 465, 466, 471; iv 60 (illust.), 186, 187-188, 214, 246, 250. — crustaceans, iii 362-363, 364, 365, 369; iv 298. — fishes, i 264, 284; iii 346, 424, 425 (illust.), 426-427, 429-430, 432; iv 128, 263, 266, 268, 270, 272, 273, 275, 286-287, 450-451. — flat-worms, iv 185, 201, 202, 204. — flukes, i 444. — insects, 1 350, 356-357, 358, 361, 372, 373, 376, 377, 378; ii 464, 466, 467; iii 378-379, 380, 381, 382, 383 (illust.), 387, 389, 397, 392, 396, 398, 399, 400, 402, 403 (illust.); iv 72, 110, 111, 115, 118, 119, 126, 191 (illust.), 192, 193, 194, 253; 254, 351, 354- — king-crab, ili 369. — lancelet, i 294. — mammals, i 69; iii 475, 477, 478. — molluscs, i 314; ili 404, 405-406, 411, 412-413 (illust.), 414, 417-418 (illust. . — myriapods, iii 371-373. — nemertines, ili 419. — peripatus, ili 370. — reptiles, 1276; ill 444, 445, 446, 447, 448; lv 274. —- tape-worms, i 442-443. — thread-worms, iv 206. — zoophytes, i 472, 479. 525 Egg-sacs, of Cyclops, i 420. “Egg-tooth”, of embryo reptiles, iii 445, 446 (illust.), 447. Eider ducks, i 176. [iv 339. Elaps corallinus, i 234; ii 79, 303: Elasipoda, iii 96-97; iv 447. Elasmobranchii, i 257, See also Sharks and Rays. Elateridz. See Beetles, click-. Elbow-joint, i 30. Electric organs, of fishes, ii 86, 91. Eledone moschata, i 315; ii 94; iii 418. Elephant, African, i 103 (illust.); ii 172; iv 242-243. — Indian, i 103; ii 172 (illust.), 366, 367. Elephants, i 68, 102-103; ii 171-172, 321, 349-350; ili 153, 490; iv 212, we 241—243, 334, 373) 394; 395, 424, 472. Elephant ’-shrew, i 1 83, 84 (illust.); ii 37-38; ili 197-198, 246. Elephas Africanus, i 103; ii 172; iv 242-243. — Indicus, i 103; ii 172; iv 241-242, 243, 366-367. ‘ — primigenius, iv 394, 475. ELK. i 112; iii 152. — Inish, iv 474 (illust.). Elliot, H. W., iv 305. Elysia viridis, ii 292. Elytra (sing. Elytron), — annelids, i 429; ii 408. — insects. See Wing-covers. Emarginula, ii 394. Emberiza cirlus, i 156. — citrinella, i 156. — miliaria, i 156. — sheeniclus, i 156. Embryo (and see also Development, Life Histories, &c.):— [(illust.). —amphibians, iii 439 (illust.), 443 — fishes, iii 425 (illust.), 426 (illust.). — lancelet, iii 344-345 (illust.). -- mammals, iii 477 (illust.). — reptiles, iii 445, 446 (illust.). — tape-worms, iv 205. — vertebrates, i 62; ii 381-382 (illust.), — zoophytes, tii 340-341. [420-421. Embryologist, standpoint of, i 13-14. Embryology. See Development. Emeus, i 187, 188-189; ii 354; iii 128, 130, 449, 450. Empide, iii 291. Empusa musce, iv 76, 77. Emys orbicularis, i 218; iii 54, Endoderm, i 467, 468, 470-471, 474, 484, 490; ii 272; ili 339, 342, 344-343: Endoparasite, iv 76. [iv 6. Endosare, i 492, 493. Endoskeleton :— — amphibians, 239, 251-253. -~ birds, i 143-146, 186-187. — fishes, i 259-261, 271. — mammals, i 25-32, 66-67. [301. — primitive vertebrates, 1295, 298, 290, — reptiles, 1 193-199, 205-207, 214-215, 229-230. Energy :— -— actual or kinetic, i 44. — potential, i 44. Engraulis encrasicholus, iv 265. Enoicyla pusilla, iii 386. Entellus Monkey, i 72-73 (illust.). Entomostraca, i 410; ii 254-256. See also Crustacea, lower. Eolis, i 326 (illust.); ii 306, 357. 284-290. + Iv 241-242, 243, (446. 122 22h 526 Eophrynus, iv 462 (illust.). Eozoic epoch, iv 457-458. Epeira diadema, i 390-392; ii 129; li 276; iv 44. Ephelota gemmipara, iii = ° 127- Ephemera danica, i376. —[(illust — vulgata, 1 376; li 465. Ephemeride, i 376-377; ii 115-116, Ephippium, iii 363. [465-466. Ephyre, i 482; iii 352 (illust.). Epicrium glutinosum, i 256. Epidermis (see also Skin), i 25, 63- 64; Iv 25. Epigenesis, doctrine of, iii 336. Epiglottis, i 46; ii 429. Epinephelus hexagonatus, iv 437, Epipodium, i 324. (438. Epipods, ii gor, 403-404. Epipubic bones, i 69; iii 478. Epistylis, iv 99-100 (illust. ). Epithelium, i 468, 469-470 (illust.) ; Equus, i 106. fit 344. — Africanus or taniopus, i 107; iv — asinus, iv 238-239. (239. — Burchelli, i 107; iv 235. — caballus, i 107; ii 165-167; ili 132, 134, 140-147; iv 233-238, 366. — onager, i 107. — Przewalski, iv 234. — tarpan, i 107. Erethizon dorsatus, i 132; iii 253. Eretmophorus, iv 28-29 (illust.). Erinaceus Europeus, ii 32-33, 342: il 484. Eriocampa limacina, iv 356. Eriodes arachnoides, i 77. Eristalis tenax, ii 119, 216, 441, 442. Erithacus rubecula, i 160. Ermine, 1 98; ii 22 (illust.), 290; iv Errantia, i 429. [30 Erycina, iii 108 (illust.). Erythrinus, ii 452. Eschricht, ii 27. 3 Esox lucius, i 282; ii 84; iv 348, Esquimaux, iv 210, 213, 227- . 233- (423. Ethiopian region, iv 413, 414, 4197 Eucyrtidium, i 489 (illust.); i 6 (illust.). (465. Eudromias morinellus, i 169; iii Eudyptes, iii 186. Eudyptula minor, i 136. Euglena viridis, i 489 (illust.), 404; ii 267, 272; ii 6, 88-89; iv go (illust.). Euglossa, ii 206. Eumeces Schneideri, ii 77. Eumenes arbustorum, ili 39 Eumenid®, iii 392-303. ((illust. ). Euneces murinus, i 232; ii 79; ili 53; Iv 338-339. Euphorbia, iv 80. Euplectella, i 486; iv 446. Euplotes, iii 88 (illust.). Eurypterida, iv 461-462 (illust.). Euscorpius Europeus, i 387. Euspongia officinalis, i 486, 487; ili — zimocea, iv 324. [326; iv 324. Eustachian tube, i 57, 203. Eustrongylus gigas, iv 362. Eutheria, i 68; and see Mammals. Euthyneura, i 317, 324-328. Evans, A. H., ii 241, 266; iii 466. Everitt, Nicholas, iv 376. Evolution:— — of wsthet 314; lv 403-407. — of air-sacs, il 439. INDEX Evolution (Covz.) — of birds, iii 185. [20-23 (illust.). — of brain and nervous system, iv 6, — of crustaceans, iii 364-365. — of ear, iv 38-39. — of gill-clefts, 111 381-382. — of gill-pouches, iti 382. — of human civilization, iv 208. — of insects, ili 274. (452-453. — of lungs, i 47, 264, 269; ii 421-422, — of mammals, iii 143, 154, 158, 200, 474-475) 481; WV 471, 472-473. — of metazoa, ili 333-334. — of parachutes, ili 281, 284, 286. —of sight organs, iv 40-41, 46-47 — of teeth, i 12-13. ((illust. ). — of wings of insects, ili 314-315. Evolution theory, i 12-17; iv 477-494. — argument from classification, iv 478- development, iv 482. [480. — — form and structure, iv 480-482. geographical distribution, iv 483. _ geological record, iv 483. — heredity, iv 492-494. — natural selection, iv 484-489. — supplementary factors, iv 489-491. — variation, 1v 491-492. (eqs. Ewart, Cossar, iii 142; Excretory organs:— — amphibians, i 238, 251. — animalcules, i 491, 492, 493. — annelids, i 425, 428. — ascidians, iv 106. — birds, i r4o. — crustaceans, i 408, 416, 422. — echinoderms, 1 453, 456, 458, 459, 460, 463. — fishes, i 258, 261, 272, 284. — flat-worms, i 442. -- insects, i 349. — lamp-shells, 1 440 — mammals, 1 43-45, 47-48. — molluscs, i 308, 310, 331, 333. — moss-polypes, 1 438. — nemertines, i 305. — peripatus, i gor. — reptiles, 1 199-200, 208, 215, 227. — siphon-worms, 1 433, 434- — thread-worms, i 448. — wheel-animalcules, i 435 Excretory pores of Sea-Flowers (Anthozoa), i 474. [i 331. Exhalent aperture, of molluscs, Exoccetus, i 275-276; iii 288. — volitans, i 276. Exoskeleton, i 25; and see Shell, Carapace, Scales, &c. — amphibians, i 255; ill 214. — birds, i 141-143. — crustaceans, i 406. — echinoderms, i 452, 456, — fishes, 1 258-259, 266-260. — insects, 1 346. — mammals, i 25, 63-65. — reptiles, 1 192-193, —spider-like animals (arachnids), i 385-386. Extensor muscles, Muscular system. Eye camera, iv 44- 46, 47-48. _— compound, 1 346; iv 43-44 (illust.). — pineal, iv 47 fillust.), 48. Eyeball, i 57-58 (illust.), 263 Eye-cups, iv 41 (illust.), q2. Eyelid, third, i 140, 151, 205; iv 481. [ili 95, 97. 460, 464; 205, 213-214. i go8; and see iil 74; iv 235, 240," Eyelids, i 57, 225, 226, 228. Eyes. See Sight, organs of. Eye-spots, i 435, 480; ili 359, 360; Iv 40, 41, 42, 46. F Fabre, ii 210; iii 387, 392; iv 53, 54, 108, 192, 195. Face, i 28-29, 73, 74, 75- Falco zsalon, i 174. — peregrinus, 1 174. — subbuteo, i 174. — tinnunculus, i 174. — vespertinus, i 174. Falcon, peregrine, i 173 (illust.), 174. — red-footed, i 174. Falcons, i 173-174; ii 46 305, 306 (illust.) ; iv 61. False gill, i 263, 270; ii 386. (132. False Scorpions, i 387, 388-389; ii False Spiders, i 387-388; iii 169. ‘“‘False-Wireworms”, ii 219; iii 225. Fane, Lady Augusta, iv 365. Fasciola hepatica, i 443-445: iv 202, Fats, i 33, 37-38. (360, 361. Feathers, i 142-143 (illust.) dy T4725 1545 186, 188; iii 297-298, 301; iv 248-240, — ‘‘powder-down",i178-179. — [251. (illust.) ; iit — “rowing”, iii 296, 301. — “steering”, iii 296, 301. Feather-Stars, i454, 460, 461 (illust.): ii 413, 414-415, 264-265; iii 8, 23 (illust.), 278 (illust.), 279, 328; iv 199, Feather tracts, i 142. (482. Fecundity, ii 345-347; ili 362, 425, 436, 482-483; iv 193, 194, 202, 486. Feeding habits. See Food. Feet (see also Appendages and Digits):— — amphibians, iii 46, 48, 49. — arachnids, ili 276. — birds, i 161, 163, 164, 166, 178, 184: iii 58 (illust.), 59, 61 (illust.), 62, 65 (illust.), 66, 127-128 (illust.), 261, 263, eee ; 264, saat iv 254 (jllust, i — mammals, i 24, 32: ili 71-72, 73, 74, 75) 79, 77, 79, 81, 155 (illust.), 158 (illust.), 233, 234, 238, 242 (illust.), 243-244, 248, 249, 253, 258, 259, 260. — reptiles, iii 50, 268-270 (illust.). Felidge. See Cats proper. Felis caffra, iv 222. — cattus, 1 88; iv — concolor, i 88; ii 9. 386. — domesticus, iii 157, 158; iv 222-223, — leo, i 87; ii 9; iv 331, 369-371 — leopardus, 1 87-88. — maniculata, i 88; iv. 222, 223. — onca, i 88. — pajeros, 1 88. — panthera, i 87-88. — pardalis, iv 420. -— tigris, 1 87; 11 7-93 iv 331-333, 371- — viverrina, ii 9; ili 75-76. [372- Femur, amphibia, i 241, 252; iii 183. — birds, 1 144. — insects, i 344; lili 163, 176. — mammals, 1 31-32. — reptiles, i 197-198. Fenestra ovalis, i 57. Fennec, i 93 (illust.), 04: ii 19, 270. Fern-Owl. Sce Night-jar. “Ferreiro”, iii 437-438 (illust.). Ferret, i 98° iv 369. Fetlock, of horse, iii 140-141. Fiber zibethicus, i 130; iii 73; iv 307, 308. [183. Fibula, amphibians, i 241, 252; iii Pe mammals, i 31-32, 123-124, 125, 127, 131; Uli 134-135, 147, 143, 149, 152, 158, 190, 194, 237, 258. — reptiles, i 197-198. Fieldfare, i 159; iii 463. Filaria medinensis, iv 343. File-Fishes, i 277-278. File-Shells, iii 36-37 (illust.), 408. Filoplumes, i 142. Fin, adipose, i 282. — anal or ventral, i 257, 271, 273, 278- 279, 282, 285, 288, 290. — caudal, i 257, 258; and see Tail-fin. — dorsal, i 257, 270, 273, 274. — pectoral, i 258, 266, 271. — pelvic, i 258, 266, 271. — unpaired, i 257, 258. Fins, of amphibians, iii 45, 46. — — arrow-worms, iii 21. —— bony-fishes, i 270-271, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 282, 283; iii 41-43, 115-116, 182, 272, 288, 289, 427; iv 28-29, 158-159, 272, 275. — — cetaceans, ili 84. — — chimeras, i 290. — — lancelet, i 294-295. — — lung-fishes, i 264, 265, 266. —— molluscs, iii 33. — — round-mouths, i 291, 292. — — sharks and dog-fishes, i 257-258, 285; ili 40-41. — — skates and rays, i 288; ili 44. Finches, i 156 (illust.); ii 187-188; iv — desert, ii 279. [150. Fingers. See Digits. Fin-rays, i 261; ili rr5, 118. Fire-cylinder, iv 106 (illust.). Fire-Flies, ii 323; iv 165-166. Fischer, iv 315. - Fisheries, iv 279-288. Fishes, i 12, 23, 60, 62, 257-292; ii 83-92, 194-195, 283-284, 291-292, 296, 305-306, 323, 330, 334-335, 355- 357, 383-388, 421-422, 447-456; ili 40-44, I15-116, 182, 214, 272, 288- 289, 422-434; iv 32, 38-39, 46, 47-48, 328-129, 154-159, 196-197, 200-201, 204, 205, 214, 261-279, 317-318, 329, 340, 348, 379-381, 392-393, 396-397, 417, 419, 421, 428, 433, 437-438, 442- 444, 448, 463, 466-467. — bony, i 259, 266-284. noids and Teleosts. — — cartilaginous, i 259, 284-290. — extinct, iv 463 (illust.), 466. — firm-jawed, i 273, 277-278. — soft-finned, 273, 278-280. — spine-finned, i 273-276. — tube-bladdered, i 273, 280-284. — tuft-gilled, i 273, 276-277. Fish-hatching, i 15; iv 284-288. Fish-Hawk, iv 61. Fishing-Frog, i 274; ii 84-85 (illust.). Fish-‘‘Lice”, ii 144; iv 196-197 (illust.). Fish-Lizards, iv 468, 460 (illust.). “Fish Newts”, i 247-248. Fission (see also Development), iii 318-320, 325-326, 327-328, 329, 330; 335, 352; iV 99, IOI, 105. — multiple, iii 321-322, 325. See also Ga- INDEX Fissipedia, i 86-98. Dogs, Bears, &c. Fissurella Grzeca, i 323; ii 394. Flagellata, i 494-495; ii 266, 267- 268; iii 8 Flagellum (pl. Flagella), i 471, 484, 494) 495, 498; ii 266, 267, 273, 274; iti 4-5 (illust.), 8, 322, 334, 335; iv Iol. Flamingo, common, i 177-178; iii 460, 46r (illust.); iv 377 (illust.), 378. Flamingoes, i 152, 177; iv 378. Flat-Fishes, i 60, 61 (illust.), 279- 280; ii 284, 297; iii 43, 431-432. Flat-Worms, i 304, 441-447; ii 151- 152, 271, 308, 361, 445-446; ili 7, 20- 21, 329; iv 200-205, 268-270, 342- 343, 360-362. Flea, common, i 358; ii 122 (illust.); iii 178 (illust.). Fleas, i 355, 358; ii 222; ili 178, 314; Fleure, H. J., iv 35. [iv 192. Flexor muscles, i 407; iii 261. Flies, two-winged, i 351, 355-358; ii 119 (illust.), 120-122, 215-216, 251— 252 (illust.), 314, 441-442, 462, 467- 468; iii 167, 178, 289-290, 291, 311, 313 (illust.), 4o2-4o4; iv 127, 190- 192, 349, 351- “Flittermice”, i 81. Floscularia, ii 263. Flounder, iii 432; iv 269. Flower, ii 166; iii 85, 487, 490. Flowers, iv 83-90. See also Plants. “Plowers of tan”, i 498; ii 270. Fluke, Liver-, 443-445 (illust.); iv 202, 360, 36x (illust.). — Pollack-, i 200, 201 (illust.). Flukes, i 441, 443-445; ii 151; iv 200- 203, 342. Flustra, i 436-437. Flycatcher, spotted, ii 61. Flycatchers, American or tyrant, ii — old world, ii 61. (6x. Flying Birds, i 152-186. See also Birds. Flying Dragons, i 222; iii 287. Flying-Fish, common, i 276. Flying-Fishes, i 275-276; iii 288- 289. ling. Flying-Foxes. See Bats, fruit-eat- Flying Frog, ii 319 (illust.), 323, 327; iii 287-288, Flying-‘‘Lemur”, i 86 (illust.); iii 281-282, 485. Flying-Mouse, iii 285 (illust.), 286. Fly-Mould, iv 76, 77 (illust.). Food, animals as a source of, iv 211- 217, 261-300. — assimilation of, i 43; li 2. (324. — feeding at favourable times, ii 318- — — in suitable places, ii 324-331. — kinds of, i 33. — necessity for, i 32; ii 1-3. — process of digestion, i 37-38; ii 1-3. — relation between nutrition of plants and animals, iv 68-74. Food and Feeding Habits, i 17; ii 1-274. — of acorn-headed worm, 11 243, 246. — amphibians, i 240, 254, 255; ii 82- See also Cats, 83, 192-194. 2 —animalcules, i 488, 490; i1 266-270, 272-274. [259. — annelids, i 429, 433; ii 146-149, 257- — arachnids, i 385, 392, 393; li 125- — ascidians, ii 245-246. [132. 527 Food and Feeding Habits (Cont.) — birds, i 151, 155, 157, 158, 160, 161, 164, 175, 176, 179, 180-181, 183, 186; ii 45-69, 184-191, 235-243, 322; ili 455, 465-466, 467-471. — crustaceans, ii 135-144, 220-222, 253-256. -— echinoderms, ii 153-154, 264-265. — fishes, i 274, 275, 276, 278; ii 83-92, 194-195, 323; iv 283-284. — flat-worms, i 445; ii 151-152, 271. See also Parasitism. — insects, i 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 359, 361, 363, 364, 365, 367, 368, 369, 372, 382; 11 101-124, 202-217, 250- 252, 326-328; iv 56, 110, 111-112, 116, 119-120, 121, 122-123, 256, 259, — king-crab, ii 144-145. [260. — lamp-shells, ii 260-261. — lancelet, ii 243, 244-245. -- mammals, ii 1-44, 164-183, 224-234; ill 474-475. egg-laying, ii 44, 322; ili 477. flesh-eating, i 91, 94, 98-99; li 5-25- gnawing, i 128, 129; ii 31-38, 174-178, 321-322, 324-325. hoofed, i 106, 109; ii 165-171, 321, 323-324, 366, iv 490. insect-eating, i 83; ii 31-38. See also Bats. pouched, ii 42-43, 180-183, 322; iil 478-479. —-—apes and monkeys, ii 164-165, 225, 320, 325, 326. — — bats, i 82; ii 38-40, 320-321. —— cetaceans, i 100-101; ii 25-30, 490-491. — — edentates, ii 41-42, 178-180, 322, — — elephants, i 103; ii 321. (327. — — lemurs, ii 225-226, 320. — — man, i 32-34; ii 164, 225; iv 208- 217. [490. — —sea-cows, 1 102; ii 173-174; ili — molluscs, i 311, 319; ii 94-100, 196- 201, 247-250. — moss-polypes, ii 261. — myriapods, ii 132-134, 218-219. — nemertines, ii 93. — peripatus, ii 134. (65-74. — plants, i 33, 488; ii 3, 270-274; iv — primitive vertebrates, ii 243. —reptiles, i 199, 215, 218, 222, 223 224, 225, 226, 232, 233, 236; il 70-81, IQI-I92, 320. — siphon worms, ii 149-150, 259-260. — sponges, i 484, 488; ii 265-266. — thread-worms, ii 222-223. See also Parasitism. — wheel-animalcules, ii 261-263. — zoophytes, i 466-467; ii 155-162, 271-272; iV 103. Food-grooves, ii 265, 414-415. Food-vacuoles, ii 266, 268, 419. Food-yolk, i 152; iii 340, 345-347 (illust.), 414, 417, 418, 424, 425, 431, 434) 439) 442, 444, 475» Foot, mammals, &c. See Feet. — molluscs, i 307, 317, 319, 321, 323, 326, 332, 334, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341; 11 94, 373; Ml 34, 35, 36, 103, 104-106, 107-108, 180 (illust.), 1&1, 218, 219, 220, 221, 232, 406, 408, 409, 410, 413, 416, 417; iv 35 (illust.). — wheel-animalcules, iii too. Foot-jaws, i 404. See also Mouth- parts, of crustaceans. 528 Foot-stumps, i 425, ise 428; ii 408; iii 22-23, 98, 226, 227, 228; iv 199. Foramen esi. i poms repugnatoria, i 396, Forandatfans: 1 489, 495-4096 (illust.); | li 100, 248, 269-270, 341; li 6; iv 4 Forbes, i 6; iit Forearm, i 24, 30 Fore-limbs. See Limbs. Forest-Fly, ii 122; iv 190. Forficula auricularia, i 380-381; li 2503 ill 377- 378; iv 44, 358. Formic acid, ii 105, 359-360; iv 118, Formica exsecta, iv 82-83; — fusca, i 373; iv 175-178. — pratensis, iv 119. — rufa, i 373; iv 116-118. — And see Ant and Ants. Fossores, iii 392-393. Foster, Sir Michael, iii rr. “Foumart”, i 08. Foussa, i 88; ii r2 (illust.). Fowl, red jungle-, i 172; iv 246. Fowls, domestic, i 172, 320; (illust.), 347; iv 148, 246-2 — game-, i 172; iv 246-247 Fowler, Warde, i 6. Fox, common, i 94; iv 372-373. — Sahara, i 93 (illust.), 94; ii 19, 279. — white or Arctic, ii 18-16 (illust.). Foxes, ii 15, 17-19; iv 326, 345. Foxglove. iv 80, 00, 94- Fratercula arctica, i 124 Fredericella, iii 331 (illus Fregatus, i 1 181- 1 — aquila, i 182; 115-119. li 126 illust. ). > un 66. 53+ Frenulum, iii 312. Friar Birds, ii 309-311 (illust.). Frigate- Bird, great, i 182; il 52. Frigate-Birds, i (illust.); iii 62. Fringilla cannabina, 1156. — celebs, i156; ii 187; lil 469, 470. _ montifringillina, i 1 156. Frit-Fly, i ts Frog, bull-, 1254; lil 5o. — common or grass-, i 249-25 ii 82, 192, 291, 422-423, 45 50, 182-184 (illust.), 436-437; iv 408. — edible, i 254; iii 50; iv 153. — flying, it 319 (illust.), 323, 32 — Guppy’s, i 255. [287-288 “wrestler”, il 371-372. Frogs, i 249-255; ii 457-458; iii 8, 4o- 50, 272, 332, 436-442; iv 26, 201, 152- 154. — tree-, ii 82-83; iii 437-430, 441-442 (illust.), 2 72. — — green, iii 272 (illust.); iv 392. — ‘‘water”, ili 50. Frog-Hoppers, i 353: ii 217: Frontal sinuses, iv ror. Frullania dilatata, iv 7s. Fucus, i 320; ii 198, 206. — serratus, iv 75. Fulcrum, iii 15, 16, 302, 310. Fulica atra, i 171; ii 240; ili 61-62, Fuligula cristata, i 176. (456 — ferina, i 176; ili 59. — glaucion, i 176. — marila, i 176. — myroca, i 176. — vallisneria, ili 50. ili 178. INDEX Function, change of, i 13, 244, 260, 263, 269; ii 80, 126, 386-387, 390, 393, 499, 435; ili 31, 475-477; iv 28-29. Fungi, iv 65, 67-68, 76, 77, 78, 08. Fungia scrutaria, i 475, 476 (illust. ). Fungus-Animalcules, i 496-497; ii 270; iii 322; iv 363. Funnel, of head-footed molluscs, i 313, 317; li 393; ili 31, 32. “Punny-bone”, i 30. Fur, i 64, 06, 98, 130, 133-134; tii 68, 69, 71, 76-77, 201, 202, 203, 204, 207; iv 136, 228-229, 243, 301-308. Furcula merrythought), i 144, 145, 187; ili 298. Furnarius, iii 461, 464. G Gad-Flies, i 355; ii 11g (illust.), r20- Gadide. See Cods. (121; iv 43. Gadinia, ii 462. Gadow, ii 334; ili 46, 53, 117, 183, 212, 268, 287-288, 271, 446; iv 338, 391, 392, 432+ Gadus eglefinus, i lag — merlangus, i 279; i — morrhua, i 2 — virens, iv 261 Galagos, ii 320. Galanthus nivalis, iv 03. Galeodes araneoides, i Galeopithecus, iii Galeus canis, i 28s. Galium aparine, iv 97-93. Gall. See Bile. Gall-bladder, i 37, 110, 200, 241, 253, Galle, i 3. (262, 270. 267. oe iv 26 7. a w rs) 281-282, 485. Galleria mellonella, iv 353. Gall-Fly, rose, ii 204-205 (illust.). iv 78-79, ; 11 204-205; Gall-Flies, i 372 Galline, i ili 450-452; iv 148-140. Gallinago ccelestis, i 169. — gallinula, i 169. — major, i 169. Gallinula chloropus, i 171; ii ili 61. “Galls”, iv 78-79 (illust.), Gallus bankiva, i 172; ii 2 — domesticus, iv 246-247. Galton, Sir Francis, iv 218, 493. Gamble, ii 292, 308, 446: iv 342, 343. Game-Birds, i 152, 172-173; ii 238- 239; Nl 450-452; iv 148-149, 375-377. Gammarus, i 414. — locusta, ii 142. — neglectus, ili 365 (illust.). Ganglion (pl. Ganglia), i 298, 303, 307, 310, 314, 327, 333) 347) 349) 407, 428, 440; iv 8, 11, 12, 13-14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 34, 35+ — brain (or cerebral), i 298, 310, 349, 401, 409, 427, 428, 438, 440, 444, 446. — buccal, of molluscs, i 327. — foot (or pedal), of molluscs, i 310, 333. —- lateral (or pleural), of molluscs, i 310;,3 [i 309, 333. — wixceeal (or abdominal), of mollus Ganglion-cells. See Nerve- eos Gannet, common, i 181, 418; ii 50; iti 62 (illust. ), 63; 455: Gannets, i 181; ii 62-63, 471. Ganoidea. See Ganoid Fishes. wo Ne) = e Ganoid Fishes, i 266-269 (illust.); ii 453; lv 277-278. — ‘‘fringe-finned”, i 266, 268. “ray-finned”, i 268-269. Ganoid scales, i 266, 268. Gapers, i 334-335. — sand, i 334 (illust.); ii 250; iii 220. Gardener-Birds, iv 406-407 (illust.). Gare-Fowl, i184. See Auk, great. Gar-Fish, common, i 275. Garial, Gangetic, i 212 (illust.); ii 71. — Schlegel’s, i 212. Garialis Gangetica, i 212; ii 71. Garials, i 209, 212. Gar-Pike, i 268 (illust.); ii 453. Garrulus glandarius, i 153-154. Garstang, ii 305, 306, 308. Gasterosteide. Sce Sticklebacks. Gastrea theory, iii 341. Gastric (or peptic) glands, i 37, 146. Gastric juice, i 37; ii 160. Gastric mi, i 407-. 408; 11 136 (illust.). Gastrophilus equi, i 358; iv rot. Gastropoda (see also Snails and Slugs), i 3rr, 317-328; ii 96-100, 196- 201, 247, 278, 306-307, 335-337, 373, 393-397, 432-434, 459-462; ili 33-36, 104-108, 180-181, 217-219, 412-417; iv 17-18, 35, 57-58, 397-308. Gastrosteus aculeatus, i 276; iii 28; iv 154-157. — pungitius, i 276; ili 428, 430-431. — spinachia, i 276; iii 428, 431. Gastrula, iii 341, 342, 344. Gaur, i II4. Gavia, i 152, 168. Gayal, iv 22s. Gazella Arabica, i i 118; ii 353. — Bennetti, i 118. — Cuvieri, ii 353. — doreas, i118; ii 353. — euchore, ii 353; iti 187-188, — Granti, ii 353. — Scemmeringi, il 353: — subgutturosa, i 118. Gazelle, Arabian, i 118; ii 353. — dorcas, i 118; ii 353 — Indian, i 118. — Persian, 1 118. Gazelles, i 113; ii 353 (illust.). Gecarcinidz, lll 170. Gecarcinus ruricola, ii Gecinus viridis, i 161; ii Gecko, fringed, iii 286, 287 (illust.). — wall, i221 (illust. ); ii 319 (illust.); iv 391. Geckos, i 221-222; ili 268-269. Geese (and see Goose), i 152, 177; ii 237-238; iv 147-148, 248-249. Gehyra mutilata, iii 268. Gemmation (see also Development), lil 320-321, 325-326, 330, 332, 335, 340, 342, 350, 4 99, IOT, 103, 104, 105, 106. Gemmules, iii 326. Generalization, i 2-4. “Generalized type”, i 195-106, 4o5- Generic name, i o. [406, 422. Genet, common, i 89. Genetta vulgaris, i 80. Gennceus nycthemerus, i 172. Genus, i o. Geodephaga, ii 326-327. Geology, i 15, 17; iv 456-458. Geometridze (Geometers ii 102-103. il 73-74, 322, 371; 327-328, 97-208 ; Geomyidz. See Pouched Rats. Geomys bursarius, i 131; iii 204-205. Geonemertes Palaensis, ii 444. Geophilida, ii 133-134: ili 225. Geophilus longicornis, i 394, 397; iii 225. Geotrupes stercorarius, i 368. Gephyrea, i 304, 433-434. See also Siphon- Worms. Gerard, Sir Montague G., iv 332. Germ-cells, iv 490, 491, 492, 493- Germinal disc, 151. “Germ plasma”, iv 494. Germ theory, i 3. [ili 29. Gerris paludum, i 354; ii 123, 124; Gesner, Conrad, i 9; iv 387. Geum urbanum, iv o8. [(illust. ). Gibbon, Silver, i 71 (illust.); iii 160 Gibbons, i 72; ili 160-161, 237-238. Gibson, Ernest, ii 303. [(illust. ). Gigantorhynchus gigas, iv 205-206 “Gila monster”, iv 338 Gill-aperture, amphibians, ii 457. — crustaceans, ii 403, 469. — fishes, iii 214. Gill-arches, amphibians, i 242. — embryo vertebrates, i 242, 244. — fishes, i 260, 266, 270; ii 386. Gill-arteries, afferent, i 262, 272. efferent, i 262. liv 201. Gill-cavity, or chamber, amphibians, — annelids, ii 408. — crustaceans, ii 400, 402, 403, 460, — fishes, ii 448, 451. [470. — insects, ii 466. — molluscs, ii 392, 393-394, 395-396 (illust.), 397, 432-433) 459, 460 (illust. ), 261, 462; il 31. Gill-clefts, acorn-headed worm, i 301. — amphibians, i 240-242, 248, 249, 254, 256; iii 442-443 (illust.). — ascidians, ili 421-422. — embryo vertebrates, i 62-63, 67, 242, 244; 11 381-382. — fishes, i 62, 258, 262-263, 264, 265, 266, 270, 284, 286, 287, 288, 291; li 381, 386-387, 388, 448. — formation of, ii 381-383. — lancelet, i 295-296: i1 389. Gill-cover, crustaceans, 1 403-404; ii 400, 403. — fishes, i 264, 266, 270, 277; 1387, 388. — king-crab, ii 406. Gill-filaments, annelids, i 430. — fishes, 1 266, 270, 277; ii 388. Gill-folds, amphibians, ii 457. — crustaceans, ii 469. — fishes, i 262, 263, 265, 266; ii 383, 385, 386, 388, 451. — king-crab, i 423; i1 406-407. Gill-formula, of lobster, ii 4or (illust.). Gill-openings, See Gill-clefts. Gill-plate, crustaceans, i 404. — molluscs, iii 405-406. Gill-pouches, acorn-headed worm, i 301; li 390. — formation of, ii 381, 382. —lampreys and hags, i 292; ii 383, 384 (illust.), 385. — salamanders, ii 457. — sharks and rays, ii 385-386. “ Gill-rakers”, 1i 387. Gills, ii 381, 387, 388-380, 420. — amphibians, i 240-242, 248, 249, 254, 256; il 456, 457; ili 442; iv 207. — annelids, i 430; ii 408, 409, 410. — crustaceans, 1 403-404; il 400-402 INDEX Gills (Couz.) (illust.), 403, 404 (illust.), 405, 406, 443, 469, 470. [416. — echinoderms, i 458, 459; ii 413, 415, — fishes, i 62, 265, 270; 1i 387, 455, 456; lil 424; iv 200-201. — insects, ii 463, 464, 465, 466, 467, 468. — king-crab, ii 406. — lamp-shells, ii 411. — molluscs, i 308, 313, 317, 318, 322- 324, 326, 332, 336, 337, 338, 340, 341; 1 249, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396-397, 398-399, 432-433, 459, 460, 461, 462. Gill-slits, See Gill-clefts. Giraffa camelopardalis, i 119-120; ii 170; ili sr. Giraffes, i 109, 119-120 (illust.); ii 170; ili 151 (illust.), 153. Girdle, of earthworm, i 431. Gizzard, i 146; ii 184 (illust.). Gjardiniere, iv 406. Glacier-‘‘ Flea”, i 384 (illust.); ii 214. Glandina, ii 96. Glandular pit, of hoofed mammals, i tro, 116, 117. Glareolus pratincola, i 169. Glass-Crabs, ii 279. Glaucus atlanticus, ii 100, 284. Glenoid cavity, i 29. [340. Globe-Fishes, i 278; ii 306, 334; iv Globigerina, i 489, 496 (illust.); iii 6 Globigerina ooze, i 496. _[(illust.). Glochidium, iii 37 (illust.), 406-407 Gloger, ii 347. {(illust. ). Glomeris, i 396. {iv 349. Glossina morsitans, i 358; ii 120; Glossiphonia, iii 361. Glossophaga soricina, ii 39. Glottis, birds, i 147. — mammals, i 34, 46; ll 429. Glow-Worms, iv 165-166 (illust.). Gluten, i 33. Glutton, i 98; ii 20-21. Glyphocrangon priononta, iv 444, Glyptodon, iv 474. (445 (illust.). Gnat, common, i 356-357 (illust.); ii r21 (illust.), 442 (illust.). — ringed, iii 403-404 (illust.). Gnats, i 355; ii 121, 251; ili 30, 403- 404; iv 190, 340 (illust.). — fungus, iv 127. Gnu, i 178, 129 (illust.). Goat, Angora, iv 229 (illust.), 230. — Bezoar, i 117; ili 248, 249 (illust.) ; lv 230. — domestic, i 117; iv 229-230. — Kashmir, iv 230. — Rocky Mountain, i117. — wild, i117. Goats, i 29, 114, 117; ii 169, 352; iii 248; iv 145, 229-230, 346-347. Goat-Sucker. See Night-jar. Gobies, i 275; ii 87. Gobio fluviatilis, i 282. Gobius niger, i 275. Godwit, bar-tailed, i 169. — black-tailed, i 169; ii 66 (illust.). Godwits, i 169; ii 68. Goeldi, iii 437. Goitre, i 43. (114, r1g (illust.). Golden-eyed Fly, i 378 (illust.) ; ii Goldfinch, i 156. Gold-Fish, i 282; iv 392-393 (illust.). Goliathus Drurei, i 368. Gomphocerus, i 381. [iii 350. Gonangium (pl. Gonangia), i 479; Goniaster, i 450, 457. 529 Gonophores, iii 350-351 (illust.). Gonopteryx rhamni, i 362. Goosander, i 177; ii 238; iii 61. Goose (and see Geese), bean, i 177. — bernicle, i 177. — brent, i177; ii 238 (illust.). — Egyptian, i177. [248. — gray-lag, i 177 (illust.); ii 238; iv — pink-footed, i 177. —solan. See Gannet, common. — white-fronted, i 177. Goosegrass, iv 97-98 (illust.). Gopher, common, iii 204-205 (illust.). — striped, i 126. Gordian-Worm, i 448. Gordius, i 448. (374. Gordon, Lord Granville, iv 369, 372, Gorgonia, i 478. — verrucosa, li 285. Gorilla, i 72 (illust.); ii 348; ili 160 (illust.), 161, 236, 237, 494. —savagei. See Gorilla. Gosse, i 7. Gould, iv 405. Goura, i 167. Goureau, ii 316. Graber, iii 135, 165, 166, 232. Gralla, i152, 171; ii 240; ili 61-62. Granby, Marquis of, iv 376. Grant, Ogilvie, iv 148. Grantia compressa, i 486. Grapholitha nebritana, iv 352. Grapside, ii 469. Grapsus varius, iii 175. Graptolites, iv 458-4509 (illust.). Grasping Organ of Feather Stars, ili 279. ((illust. ). Grasshopper, migratory, i 382 Grasshoppers, i 381-382; li 213, 315; ill 379-380; iv 38, 162. — desert, 11 282. — green, i 381, 382-383; iii 176-177 (illust.), 379, 380 (illust.). Grassi, ii 212; ili 433; iv 121, 123, 124. Gravitation, laws of, i 3. Gray, iv 210. Grayling, iv 379-381 (illust.). Grebe, eared, i 185. — great crested, i 185. — little, i 185; 1i 65-66 (illust.), 457. — red-necked, i 185. — Slavonian, i 185. [64-66; iv 308. Grebes, i 152, 183-185; ii 53, 295; ili Greenfinch, i 156; ii 187. “Green-Fly.” See Aphides. Gregarines, i 492, 498-499; iii 322; iv. 206-207. Grenfell, W. H., iv 382. Greyhound, iv 221 (illust.). Grey matter, of brain, i 52. — of spinal cord, i 50-51. Grey Mullet, thick-lipped, iv 273. — thin-lipped, iv 273 (illust.), 381. Grey Mullets, i 275; iv 273. Gribble, ii 222; ili 225-226. Gristle. Sce Cartilage. Groos, Karl, iv 400, 401, 403. Grosbeak, iii 463 (illust.). Ground-Sloths, iii 256; iv 473-474. Grouse, black, i 17 39- — red, i 172-173; ii 239; iv 376-377. Grus cinerea, i 170. — communis, ii 241. Gryllidee. See Crickets. Gryllotalpa campestris, ii 379-380, 381. — vulgaris, i 383; ili 222-223; i 539° Gryllus campestris, i 383. — domesticus, 1 383. Guacharo, ii 188. Guanaco, i 122; ui 153; Guara rubra, i 180. Gudgeon, i 282. Guenon, green, i 74. Guenons, i 73. Guereza, i 73; ili 237, Guiana Pig, i 134. Guillemot, black, i 184. — common, i 184; iii 66, 453. Guillemots, i 184; ii 53. Guinea-Fowl, i 172; ii 239; iv 249- Guinea-Pig, i 134. [250 (illust.). Guinea-Worm, iv 343. Gulars, i 214. Gular sac, iii 287. Gull, black-backed (great), i 168. — — (lesser), i 168. — black-headed, 1 168. — common, i 168. — glaucous, i 168. ((illust. ). —herring, i 168 (illust.); i 57-58 — Iceland, i 168. _ little, i 168. [305, 308. Gulls, i 152, 168; 11 51; ili 57-58, 304, Gullet, of mammals, i 35, 37, 49- Gulo borealis, i 98. — luscus, il 20. Gunnel, iii 426. {iv 266, , 276. Giinther, ii 296, 356, 448, 451; ill 425; Gurnard, grey, iv 273. — red, i 275; iv 273. {iv 272- Gurnards, i 275; ii 306; iii 11s, Gut. See Digestive-tube. Gymnophiona, i 245, 255-256; ili 45- 46, 213-214, 442-443. Gyps Riippeli, i 175. Gyrinids. Sce Gyrinus natator. Gyrinus natator, i 367; ii 440; ill 29-30. iv 232. 236 (illust.). 273 11g; H Haacke, iii 76, 243. Habenaria bifolia, iv 87, 88. Habrocestum splendens, (illust. ). Haddock, i 278-279; iv. 267 (illust. ). Haddon, ii 450. Heckel, iii 341. Hemameeba, iv 341 (illust.). Hematococcus pluvialis, ii Hematopota pluvialis, ii 120. Hematopus ostralegus, i 160; ii iv 167 [274. 273- 67-68. (468. Hemoglobin, i 38, 45, 428; ii 467- Hag-Fish, Californian, ii 383-384 (illust. ). {(illust. ). — common, i 292; 11 or, 92 (illust.), 385 Hags, i 291-292; ii 91-92, 383-385 Hair, i 2s. — of mammals, i 25, also Fur. Hair-follicles, i 63 (illust.). Hake, iv 201, Halcyon, ii 54. Half-Loopers, iii 103. Haliaétus albicilla, i 174. Halibut, iii 425, 432; iv 268-269. Halichondria panicea, i 486; iv Haliclystus, i 482. [ror. Halicore dugong, i 102; ii 173-174; Wi 400; iV 313. Halictus, iv 109. 63-65, 67. See 268. INDEX Haliotis tuberculata, ii 393-394; iii qr2 Halitherium, iii 83. Halobates, i 354; ii 124; iii 382. Halopsyche, iv 451. Halteres, i 355; iii 313. Haltica nemorum, i 366; — undulata, iv 354. Halticidz. See Beetles, flea-. Hamites, iv 466 (illust. Hamster, common, 1 129. Hamsters, i 129-130; ii 177. Hancock, H. J. B., iv 117. Hand, of mammals (see also Digits), i 24, 30, 313 ili 233-236, 237, 240 (illust.), 241 (illust.), 242 (illust.), 243-244, 251, 252 (illust.), 259-260. Hapale Jacchus, i 78. Haploceros montanus, i 117. Haplodactylus, ii 19s. Haplodontida, iv 418. (289, Hare, Alpine or Irish, i 9, 124-125; i — American, ii 289. Hares, 9, 123-125; ii 174-176 (illust. ) 324; iii 188, 482, 483; iv 244, 346, 374 Harelda glacialis, 1176. Harmer, iii 100, 330. Harpa, i 32:. Harpagophytum, iv 08. Harp-Shells, i 321. Harpy, crowned, i 174. Harpyhaliaétus coronatus, i 174. Harrier, hen, i 175. — marsh, i 174. — Montagu's, i 174-175. Harriotta, i 290 (illust.), Harte, Bret, iii 236. Hartebeest, iv 141 (illust.). Liv 360. Harvest (or Gooseberry-) “Bug es Harvestmen, i 387, 390 (illust.); i Hasarius Hoyi, iv 167-168. [r. 32. “Hastening of events”, law of, iii 119, 348, 439. Hastings, Marquess of, iv 213. Hatteria punctata, i 236-237; iii 56, 444; iV 47, 410. Hausen. See Sturgeon, giant. Haviland, ii 213. Hawfinch, i 156. Headley, iii 290, 307, 472; iv 6r. Head-lobe, of sea- Soe ee. 1426; iv Head-Louse, i 354. (12, 13. Head-shield, iii 218. Hearing, organs of, iv 24, 32-33, 402. — amphibians, i 245, 254. — birds, i 150. — crustaceans, i 409; i — development of, iv 38: — fishes, i 263; il 386-387; iv 38-30. — insects, i 381, 382; iv 37-38 (illust.). — mammals, i 56-57 (illust.). — reptiles, i 232. —See also Balance and organs of. Heart (see also ee ae — amphibians, i 240-241, 25 — arthropods, i 342, 348, 400, 408. — birds, i 147-148. _— fishes, 1 262, 265, 272. — invertebrates, 1 303. i 307-311; iv 324. _ B54 ill 178; 1v 291. hearing, ((illust. ). — mammals, i 38-41 (illust.); iii 12 — molluscs, i 308, 314, 317, 320, 325, 328, 333, 340. — reptiles, i 200, 207-208. — vertebrates, i 63, 303. Heart-Urchin, purple, i 459; (illust. ). li 415 ' Hedge - Accentor. Heart-Urchins, i 459; iii 357 (illust. ). Heathcote, iii 164. See Sparrow, hedge-. Hedgehog, common, i 85 (illust.) ; ii 32-33, 342; Uli 135, 484; iv 327. Hedgehogs, i 64, 83, 85; ii 333; iii 246. Hedgehog-skinned animals (echi- nodermata), i304, 450-464; ii 153-154, 223, 264-265, 279, 340, 361, 411-416; iil 3-4, 23-24, 90-97, I14-115, 230, 232, 278-279, 328-329, 354-357; iv 41, 217, 344, 440, 446, 447, 452, 459, 465- — extinct, 111 93; 1V 459, 465. Heilprin, iv 409. Helcion pellucidum, ii 199. Heliastrea Forskaliana, i 475 Helicarion, ii 373; iii 181. [(illust.). Heliconids, ii 311-312. Heliosphera, i 489 (illust.); iii 6 Heliozoa, i 496. (illust.). Helix arbustorum, ii 200. — aspersa, i 326-328; ii 196, 199, 335, 433; lil 104, 414; iv 18, 31, 45, 58. — fruticum, ii 200. — hortensis, ii 200. — ichthyomura, ii 200. — lapicida, ii 200. — nemoralis, ii 200. — pomatia, i 328; ii 200. Hell-Bender, i 248; ii 456-457; ili 48. Helmet-Shells, i 321. (355; iv 338. Heloderma horrida, i 224; ii 354- — suspecta, i 224; iv 338. Helophilus, ii 110. Hemerobiidz. See Lace-wing Flies. Hemerobius, ii 114. {(illust. ). Hemiaster cavernosus, iii 355 Hemichorda, i 293, 300-301. See also Acorn-headed Worm. (189. Hemicognathus leptorhyncus, ii Hemidactylus coctzi, iii 268. Hemiptera, i 351-355; ii 122-124, 216-217, 316, 359, 440-441; ili 178- 180, 380-383; iv 189-190, 350-351. Hensen, iv 283. Heptanchus, ii 386. Herdman, ii 296, 306; iv 204, 398, 399. Heredity, i 19: iv 486, 492-494. Hermione hystrix, ii 330. Hermit-' Crab, common, i 412 (illust.); ii 137-138 (illust. ), 403. — stopper-fisted, iv 446-447. Hermit-Crabs, i 412; ii 220. Hermiteles melanarius, i Hernandez, iv 387. Herodiones, i 152, 178-180. Herodotus, iv 223. Heron, boat-billed, i £70. — common grey, 1179; il 54-55; iv 375+ — night, i 1790. 373 [iillust. Herons, i 152, 178-179; iii 463; iv 61. Herpestes griseus, i 91; iv 386. — ichneumon, i go-gr; iv 386. —urva, ii 14. — Widdringtoni, i gr. (271. Herpetodryas carinatus, iii 270, Herrings, i 283; ili 425; iv 128, 129 (illust.), 200, 263-265 (illust. ). Hesperornis regalis, ii 45 (illust.). Hessian Fly, iv 351. Heteralocha Gouldi, ii 64 Heterocephalus, iii 204. Heterocera, i 360, 362-366. See also Moths. Heterodera radicicola, iv 363. — Schachtii, iv 363. Heterogeny, iii 382. Heteromita, i 480, 494; iii 6 (illust.). Heteropods, i 321; 11 gg-100 (illust.), 278; iii 34-35 (illust.), 412; iv 35 (illust. ). {(illust. ). Heteropora Hemprichii, i 475 Heteroptera, i 353-355. Hexactinia, i 474-476. Hexamita, i 489 (illust.); iii 6 (illust.). Hexanchus, ii 386. Hickson, i 7; ii 372, 448; iii 175; iv 450. Hilara, iii 291. Hip-bone, i 31. Hip-girdles, i 31, 196; iii 119-120. — amphibians, i 239, 251, 253; ill 183. — birds, i 145; iii 125. — fishes, i 261. — mammals, i 37; iii 133. — reptiles, i 199, 215. Hippobosca PHU iv 190. Hippoboscide, ii 122; iv 190. Hippocampus Suiauerditi! i277; li 296; ill 43-44, 427. Hippoglossus vulgaris, iv 268-269. Hippolyte varians, ii 292-293, 294. Hippopotami, i 107-108; ii 171, 321, 351; iit 148, 248, 489-490; iv 334. Hippopotamus, common (amphib- lus), i 107 (illust.); ii 171; ili 489-490; lv 373- — Liberian (Liberiensis), i 107. Hippospongia equina, iv 324. Hippotragus niger, ii 352, 354. Hirmoneura obscura, iii 290. Hirudo medicinalis, i 432; ii 147-148; lil 22; iv 42, 321. — officinalis, iv 321. Hirundo rustica, i 161; Hispa, ii 337. Hissing-Fly, ii 119 (illust.). Histeride, ii r10. Hister quadrinotatus, ii 109. Hoatzin, iii 472-473 (illust.); iv 431. Hobby, i 174; ii 370. Hock, of horse, iii 140-141. Hog, red river-, i 108. — wart, 1 108-109. Holarctic region, iv 415. Holocephali, i 257, 290-201. also Chimeras. Holothuroidea, i 454, 462-464; and see Sea-Cucumbers. Holt, iii 426; iv 158. Homarus vulgaris, i 302-304, 342, 402-409; ii 135-137, 400-402; ili 169, (467-468. iii 461, See 277-278; iv 297-299. Homer, iv 248. Homes, of animals. See Dwellings and Nests. (58. “Homing instinct”, i18; iv 54, 57, Homoptera, i 352-353. Homoris gutturalis, iii 464. — lophotis, iii 464. Homo sapiens, i7z. See also Man. Honey, iv 110, 251-252, 258-259. Honey-bag, ii 206. Honey-Bear, iii 247-248, 255 (illust.). Honey-comb, iv 254-255 (illust.). Honey-eaters. See Friar Birds. Honey-Guide, white-eared, ii 63-64 Honey-Guides, ii ror. ((illust. ). Honeysuckle, iv 87, 88, 94 (illust.). Hoofed Mammals. See Mammals. Hoof-glands, i 116. Hoofs, of mammals, 149, 152, 248. ““Hook-and-eye” iii 143-144, 148, {i 362, 369-370. arrangement, INDEX Hoopoe, European, i 164 (illust.). Hoopoes, i 163-164; iii 454. Hoplocampa, fulvicornis, iv 356. — testudinea, iv 356. (268. Hoplodactylus Anamallensis, iii Hoplopterus cayanus, iv 404-405. Hop-‘‘ Spider”, red, iv 360. Horn, iv 310-311. Hornbill, great, ii 186, 242 (illust.). — rhinoceros, i 164 (illust.). Hornbills, i 164; ii 242; iii 466, 471. “Horncores”, ii 352. Horned “Toad”, Californian (rep- tile), i 223; iv 392. Hornell, iv 204, 398. Hornet, common, i 374; ii 250; iv 112. Hornets, ii 307. {iv 317. Horns, of rhinoceros, i 105-106; ii 350; — of ruminants, i 64, 112-113, 115, 116, 117, 118, 120; ii 352-354 (illust.); iv Bir. Horse, Arabian, iv 236 (illust.), 237. -- Clydesdale, iv 237 (illust.). — Przewalsky’s, iv 234 (illust.). Horses, i 106-107; ii 165-167, 350-354; ili 129-130, 132, 134, 140-147; iv 190, IQI, 233-238, 366. — prehistoric, iii143;iv2 — tarpan, or ‘‘ wild”, i 107; ii 350-351; — tiger. See Zebras. liv 234. Horse-bot, i 358; iv rgz (illust.). Horse-Fly, great, ii 120. Horse-Leech, i 433. “Horse-shoe Crab.” Crabs. Horse-Stinger, i 358, 376 (illust.). Horse-Worm, iv 362. Hotinus candelabrius, iii 179. — spinole, ili 179-180. Houghton, iv 239, 244. House-Fly, i 355-356, 358; ii 120, 251- 252 (illust.); iii 275-276 (illust.); iv 16 (illust.), 43, 77 (illust.). House-Martin, i 161; iii 461, 467, 468, 471; iv 60. Houssay, ii 370; iv 130. {(illust. ). Hover-Fly, ii 119 (illust.), 216; iii 4o2 Hudson, W. H., i 7; ii 10, 17, 303, 305, 343) 37%, 372; lil 463, 480, 486; iv 404. Hugo, Victor, i 315; ili 419. Huias, ii 64 (illust.). Hulme, iv 318. Human body, structure and func- tions of, i 24y-s9. See also Man. Humboldt, iv 216. Humerus, i 29-30, 144, 197-198, 241, 252; ili 118, 298. [89, 431. Humming-Birds, i 163; ii 191; iv Hunuman, i 72-73; ii 164-165. Hurst, iii 403. Huxley, i 2, 24, 402, 418, 435, 436; 3) 254, 400, gor; ili 338; iv 282. Hyena, brown (brunnea), i gt. — spotted, or laughing (crocuta), i 91; — striped (striata), i gr. ii rq (illust.). Hyenas, i 87, 91; ii 14-15; iv 327. Hyenide. See Hyznas. Hyalinecia, ii 339. Hyalonema, i 486. [328, 339-34T. Hydra, i 465-473; ii 160; iii 2, 10, 327, — brown (fusca), i 466. (271-272. — green (viridis), i 465, 466 (illust.); ii Hydra-tuba (pl. Hydra-tube), i Hydrocarbons, i 33. [482. Hydrocherus capybara, i 134; ii 178; lil 74-75. 33) 234 (illust. ). See King- 531 Hydrocharis, iv 9s. Hydrochelidon nigra, i 168. Hydrogen, i 33; ii 378. Hydroid Zoophytes. See Zoophytes. Hydromedusz. See Zoophytes, hydroid. Hydrometride, ii 440. Hydrophid@, ii 80; iii 53-54; iv 339. Hydrophilus piceus, ii 109, 440; iii 398, 399- Hydropotes inermis, i z11. Hydropsychide, ii 116. Hydrozoa, i 465-473, 478-483; ii 160- 162, 278; ili 17- 19, 89-90; 1V 33-34. Hydrus bicolor, iii 54 (illust.). Hyla arborea, iii 272; iv 392. — Europea, ii 82-83. — faber, iii 437-438. — Goeldii, iii 442. Hylide. See Frogs, tree-. Hylobates leuciscus, iii 160. Hylobius, iv 35s. [(illust.). Hylodes Martinicensis, iii 439 Hylotoma rose, iii 388. Hymenoptera, i 351, 369-374; li 102, 103-107, 202-209, 250-251, 307, 358; lili 28-29, 386-393; iv 108-120, 194- 195, 355-350. ““Hyoid apparatus”, i 29, 193, 199, 229 230, 244, 260; 11 58. — arch, i 260. Hyo-mandibular bone, i 271. cartilage, 1 260. cleft, i 260. Hypoderma, bovis, i 358; iv 349. — lineatus, iv 349. Hypogeophis, iii 443. Hyponomenta padella, i 365. Hypotriorchis sublutes, ii 370. Hypsiprymuus, ii 182. Hyracoidea. See Conies. (250. Hyrax, Abyssinian, i zo4 (illust.); ui — Syrian, i ro4. — tree-, ili 250 (illust.). Hystricomorpha, ii 178. Hystrix cristata, i 132; ii 342. I Ianthina, iii 413. Ibex, Alpine, i 117; iii 151 (illust.). — Arabian, i 117. [iv 230. — Grecian, i 117; ili 248, 249 (illust.); — Himalayan, i 117. — Spanish, i 217. {(illust.). Ibis, African (Ethiopica), i 179-180 — scarlet, 1 179. Thises, i 179-180. [386. Ichneumon, Egyptian, 1 90-91; iv — grey, igz (illust.); iv 386. Ichneumons, i 90-91; iii 157. Ichneumon-Fly, yellow-legged, iv 194 (illust.). Ichneumon-Flies, i 372-373; ii 107, 360; ili 388 (illust.); iv 194-105. Ichthyomys, 1 129. Ichthyophis glutinosa, iii 442-443. Ichthyopsida, i 204, 237. Ichthyosauria, iv 468, 460. Idotea, i 415; ii 405. Iguana, common, (illust.); iii 52, 445. — ring-tailed, ili 52. —tuberculata. See Common. Iguanas, i 221, 222-223, 229; il 192; ili 52-53, 267. ii 192, 193 i 220: 532 Iguanodon, iv 470 (illust.). Tlium (pl. ae 1 145, 196, 197, 199, 247, 252, 2 Tlysia cotati iii 211; iv 432. Imago, i 356, 350; and see Insects, vol. iii, &c. {iii 310. “Immortality of the Protozoa”, Impatiens tricornis, iv 91-92. Impennes, i 152, 186; iii 66-67. Inachus, ii 287-289. Incisors, i 35-36. See also Teeth. Indicatoridz. See Honey-Guides. Indicator Sparmanni, ii 63-64. Infusoria, i 492-495; ii 266-268. also Animalcules. Inhalent aperture, molluscs, i 331, 336. Ink-bag, of molluscs, i 313; 373: iv 466. Insecta. See Insects. Insectivora. See Mammals, insect- eating. See of bivalve li 372- Insects, i i 8, 18, 342, 343-385; il 101- 124, 202-217, 250-252, 282, 286-287, 293-294, 296-300, 307-308, 311-316, » 320-328, 337, 340-347, 357-360, 373: 437-442, 462-4 165-167, 176-18 3097315) 377-4043 , 303; 399, 417-418, 422, 423, 452, 462, 405. lon of, 1 350-351. — extinct, ii 463, 464. — fringe-winged, i 351, 355; ii 216. —half-winged. See Bugs. — membrane-winged, i 351, 369-374; li 102, 103-107, 202-209, 307, 358; ul 386-393; 194-195, 355 — net-winged, 1 ay -380 (illus Il 110-116, 211-213, 462 il 383-386; iv 120-1 — praying, i 381; ii 116-118; iii 378. See also Mantis, praying. —scale-winged. See Moths and Butterflies. — sheath-winged. See Beetles. “stick-” and ‘“‘leaf-”, i 381; ii 2 200, 359; li 102-103 (illust.), 3 — straight-winged, i 351, 380-333 116-118, 213, 250, 200, eer il 176-177, 377-380; iv 356-35 — two-winged. See Flies. — wingless, i 351, 384-385; li 213-274; ii 176, 324, 377. (49-53- Instinct and intelligence, i18; iv — birds, iv 59-63, 130-134, 186. — insects, iv 53-56, 108-127, 176. — mammals, iv 135-142. — molluses, iv 56-58. Interambulacral areas, i 457-458. Interfemoral membrane, of bats, i Sr; ii 38. Intestine (and see Digestive-tube) : — aniphibians, i 240, 241 — birds, i 146. — fishes, i 260, 262, 270, 272. — large, i 35, 146. — mammals, i 35, 37, 69; ili 12. — reptiles, i 200, 207, 208, 229. — small, 1 35, 146. Introduction, i 1-10. TInuus ecaudatus, i 73-75. 9 253+ INDEX Invertebrates, general and classi- fication, i 8, 302-304. See also under the various groups. Ipnops Murrayi, iv 443 (illust.). Tris, i 58. Iron age, iv 208. Ischium, i 145, 196-197, 239, 252. Isolation, iv 488-489. Isopoda, i 414, 415 (illust.) ; 143, 222, 404, 405; iv 199. Ivory, iv 394, 395, 475- Ixodes reduvius, iv 360. — ricinus, iv 195. ll 142, 222, i Jacanas, iii 128, 129 (illust.). Jacares, i 210. Jackals, i 93; ii 15, 16. [iv 96. Jackdaw, i 153; ii 235, 236; ili 455; Jacobi, S. L., iv 286. Jaguar, i 88; ii 7, 10; ili 247; iv 142. Java Sparrow, i 156; iv 389. Jaw-bones, i 28, 69 (illust.), (illust.). See also Jaws. Jaw-joint, i 28-29, 123. Jaws. Jaws, amphibians, i 239, 240, 253. — birds, i 143-144, 166. — fishes, 1 259-260 (illust.), 266, 268, 270, 271, 277-278, 282. — invertebrates. See Mouth-parts. — mammals, i 28-29, 66, 69, 86, 91, li 7. 1 193, 199, 206, 210, 212, ; ul 80-81. = vertebrates, 1 62. (458 (illust.). Jaw- -spines, of echinoderms, i 452, Jay, i153; iv 97. Jefferies, Richard, i 6, 7. Jelly - Fish (see also Comb-Jellies), i 465, 481-483; il 160, 278 i 278 See also 3, 17-19, 89-9 327, 349-35. 4) 40-41, 102, 344. ipound, i 481; ii 161-162, 417; ill 19, 327; 1V 103-104. Jelly-tubes, i 293-264. Jenkin, Fleeming, iv 488. Jenkins, J. Travis, iv 261, 283. Jenks, iv 208, 218. Jenner Weir, iv 149. Jerboa, Egyptian, ii 319 (illust.', 322. ili 196 (illust.). — five-toed, iii 195-196. — Siberian, i 131 (illust.); iil 195-106. — three-toed, ii 196. Jerboas, i 131; ii 279; iii 192, 104-107. John-Dory, i 273-274: iv 272 (illust.). Johnston, Sir Harry, ii 170; 1v 243. Jointed-limbed Animals (Arthro- poda), i 304, 342-4245 il 101-145, 202- » 400-407) 4 ic, 1 342, 402-424. — classification of, i 342-343. — extinct, ii 342; iv 460-462. Joint-gills, ii 400-402. See also Gills. Jones, Rymer, iii 32. Jouannetia, iii 4ro-411. Julus guttatus, i 3096. — Londinensis, i 306. — terrestris, 1 396; 11 218-210; iii Jumping-Hare, Cape, iii 195 (illust.), 252 (illust.). Jumping-Mice, i 131; 197. See also Jerboas. Jumping-Mouse, North American, lil 194-195. [(illust. ). Jumping-Shrew, Cape, iii 197-198 — rock, iii 198. (197-108. Jumping-Shrews, i 83; ii 37-38; ili Jungle-Fow], red, i 172; ii 239; iv 246. Jurinea mollis, iv 82. Justinian, Emperor, iv 259. ili 192, 194- K Kainozoic epoch, iv 457, 472-476. Kakapo, i 166; ii 310 (illust.), 320. Kallima inachis, ii 298 (illust.). Kanchil, i 109, r1o (illust.); iii 150, 152 (illust.). Kangaroo, red, iii 180- 190 (illust. ). Kangaroos, i 14, 69; ii 42, 182, 354, 367; ili 188-191, 478, 479 [illust. , 480; iv 89. Kangaroo-Rat, common, i 130 (illust.), 131; iii 193-194 (illust.). — Lesueur’s, ili 480. 322 — red, iii 480. Katydids, i 383. Kea, i 166. Kearton, C. and R.,i7; ii 52, 54; iil Keeble, ii 292. [185, 468. Kent, Saville, iv 437. Kerner, iv 64, 70, 82, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93; 94, 96, 97+ Kerr, Graham, ii 456. Kestrel, i 174; iv 327. Kidneys. See Excretory organs. “King Charles’s oak-apples”, 372. King-Crabs, i 343, 422-4235 Ui 144- 145, 406-407; iii 369; iv 462. Kingfisher, European, i 164. Kingfishers, i 164-165 (illust.) il 453-454, 471. “King of the Herrings”’, i 290- 291 (illust.); ii 387. Kinkajou, iii 247-248, Kipling, i 121; iv 223, 3 Kite, i 175. Kite-Flying, iii 289-20r. Kittiwake, i 168; iii 455 (illust.), 456. Kiwis, i 187, 190; ii 68-69, 320; iit 130, 449, 450. Knee, of birds, iii 65. — of mammals, iii 140-141. Knee-joint, i 32. Knee-pan, i 32. Knot, i 160. (2 Koala, ii 180, 181 (illust.), 322; Koodoo, common, ii 366. Krait, iv 339. Krauss, ii 140; iii 171. Kreuz-spinner, i 390. Krieghoff, iii 290. Rasa illust.). 60, 479. iil 259- L 1332 Labial palps, i 332; also Mouth-parts. ii 248, 240. See Labium, i 346. See also Mouth- parts. Labrax lupus, iv 351. Labrum, i 346. See also Mouth-parts. Labrus maculatus, i 276. Labyrinthodon, iv 467 (illust.). Lace coralline, i 437- (122-123. Lacerta agilis, i 191, 2253 li 281; ili — muralis, i 225; iii 267-268. — ocellata, iii 445-446. — viridis, i 225; iv 391. Lacertilia, i 203, 221-227; Lizards. Lace-wing Flies, i 377, 378; ii 114. Lacon murinus, ii 359. Lacteals, i 38, 42. Lactuca sativa, iv 93. Lady-Bird, seven-spotted, i 369. — two-spotted, i 369. Lady-Birds, i 366, 369 (illust.); ii rog- 110, 308; iv 59. Lemargus borealis, i 286. Lagena, i 150. — seminuda, iv 454. Lagomys Alpinus, i 12s. Lagopus mutus, i 172; ii 290; iv 134. — Scoticus, ii 239; iv 376-377- Lagostomus trichodactylus, i 133}: li. 17. Lagothrix Humboldti, i 77. Lake, iv 260. Lama guanacus, 1122; ill 153; iv 232. — lama, i 122; — pacos, 1 122; iv 231-232. — vicunia, i 122; ili 153. Lamarck, iv 477-478, 489. Lamarckism, iv 489-490. Lamella, of sponges, i 484. — of zoophytes, i 467, 468, 474, 479- Lamelle, iii 269. Lamellibranchia, i 311, 328-338; ii 248-250, 398-399; ili 8, 36-37, 104, 108, 180, 219-221, 405-411; iv 18, 398-399. Lamna cornubica, i 286. Lampern, i 2g (illust.); ii gt; iil 423; Iv 279. [iv 279. Lamprey, river, i 291 (illust. bs lil 423; — sea, i 291; ii 91-92; ili 423; iv 279. _— small, i 2gr; iil 423. Lampreys, i 291-292; ii 91-92, 383- 385 (illust. }. Lamp-Shells, i 304, 438-440; ii 260- 261, 279, 339-340, 411; li 8; iv 465. — extinct, ii 340; iv 459-460, 479. Lampyride, ii 323. Lampyris noctiluca, iv 165. Lancelet, i 61, 293-297 (illust.); ii 244-245 (illust.), 382, 389 (illust.) ; iii 8, 40, 214-215 (illust.), 342, 344-345 (illust.); iv 46. Land-Snails. Langley, iii 307. Lanius collurio, i 158. — excubitor, i 158; ii 65. Lantern-Fly, Chinese, iii 179 (illust.). Lantern-Flies, i 353; ili 179-180. Lapwing, i 169; ili 454, 472 (illust.). — spur-winged, iv 404-405 (illust.). Larks, i 156; ii 370; iii 303. — desert, ii 279. Larus argentatus, i 168; ili 57-58. — canus, i 168. — fuscus, i 168. — glaucus, i 168. — leucopterus, i 168. — marinus, i 168. — minutus, i 168. — ridibundus, i 168. Larva (pl. Larva), i140; iii 347-348. — acorn-headed worm, iii 7, 420-421. Von. IV. and see See Snails. INDEX Larva (Coxz.) — amphibians, iii 434-435, 439) 440, 441, 442, 443: Tadpoles. — annelids, iii 7, 359-360; iv 199. _— ascidians, i 298-299; iii 38-39, 421- 422; iv 38, 46. — crustaceans, i 417; iii 25, 27-28, 364- 365, 366-367, 368, 369; iv 197, 198. — echinoderms, i 450, 461; ili 7, 23, 354-357: — fishes, i 292; iii 423, 431, 432-434. — flat-worms, i444; iv 201, 202, 204-205. —insects. See also Nymphs and Caterpillars. — —— membrane-winged, i 370, 372, 3733 i 203, 204, 387, 388, 390, 391, 392; IV 110, 115, 116, 120, 194-195, 256. net-winged, i 374, 375, 376, 436, 437, See also 371, 389, 118, 377) 378-379; il 111-113, I14, 115, 116, 467; ili 385-386. — — beetles, i 367, 369; ii 107, 109, II0, 209, 211, 337, 439; lll 223-224, 394, 398; Iv 192, 193, 194, 329, 354 355- — — bugs, i 353; ii 123, 217, 359; 11 224-225. — — flies, two-winged, i 357, 358; i 121, 215, 216, 441-442, 467-468; ili 30, 178, 402-403; IV 37, 127, 191, 215, 329, 351. — — moths and butterflies. See Cater- pillars. — king-crabs, iii 369. — molluscs, iii 37, 404-405, 406-407, 411-412, 414. — moss-polypes, iii 7. — myriapods, iii 372. — nemertines, ili 419. — sponges, iii 342. — zoophytes, ili 350, 353. Larynx, birds, i 147. — mammals, i 47 (illust.). Lasiocampa quercus, i 364; iv 163. Lasiocampide, iii 400. Lasius flavus, i 373; iv 119-120. — niger, i 373; iv 119. Latax lutris, ii 23-24; ili 77; iv 304. Lateral line, i 263, 271, 447, 448; iv Latex, iv 80-81, 93. (39. Latrodectus scelio, ii 127, 308. Laughing Jackass, i 164-165 (illust. ). Law, i 17. Leaf-green. See Chlorophyll. Leather, iv 310, 317. (351. “Leather-jackets”, ii 215-216; iv Lecanium ribis, iv 351. Leech, fish-, iv 200 (illust.). — green, iv 321. — horse-, ii 149. — medicinal, i 432: ii 147-148 (illust.); iii 22; iv 321. Leeches, i 425, 432-433; ii 147-140, 409-410; ill 22, 99, 360, 361; iv 8, 42, — land-, ii 148-149. [200, 341. Leeuwenhoek, iv 43. Leg, i 31-32. See also Tibia and Fibula. Legs (see also Limbs, Appendages) : — arachnids, i 386, 389, 391, 393- — birds, i 141, 188; ili 58, 59, 62, 65, 126-128, 129-130. — crustaceans, i 403, 406, 413, 414, 420; iii 28, 169-172, 277, 278. — insects, 1 345, 381, 382, 383; ii 113- II4, 115, 117, 123; ili 29-30, 165-167, 176, 178, 222-223, 273, 274; iv 254. 533 Legs (Coxz.) — mammals, i 31-32; 11 354; ill 140, 150, 161, 162. [163-165. — myriapods, i 394, 395, 396, 397: iii — peripatus, 1 399, 111 101. Lemming, Norwegian, i 130 (illust.). Lemmings, i 130; ii 177. Lemna, iv 95. Lemur, bear, iii 243 (illust. ). —catta. See Ring-tailed. — dwarf mouse-, ili 493. — ring-tailed, i Go (illust.). Lemurs, i 68, 79-80; ii 225-226, 320; lii_ 240-244, 492-493; 1V 140, 420, 422, 424, 427, 473- — slow, ii 319 (illust.); iii 242-244. Lemuroidea. See Lemurs. Lens of Eye, i 58; iv 47-48. [247. Leopard, African, i &8; ii 5, 7, 10; ili Leopards, hunting, i 88; it 10-11 (illust.); iii 157-158. Lepas anatifera, i 417-418; ii 254; Uli 363-364. (268. Lepidodactylus aurantiacus, ii Lepidoptera (see also Moths and Butterflies), i 351, 358-366; ii 120, 214-215, 252, 293-204, 297-209, 307- 308, 311-314, 346-347, 359-360; ill 309-402; iv 351-353. (456. Lepidosiren, i 264, 265, 266; ii 83, Lepidosteus, i 268; ii 334, 453. Lepisma saccharina, i 384; ii 214. Leptocephalus brevirostris, iii 434 — Morrisii, ili 434. {(illust. ). Leptodactylusmystacinus, iii 437. Leptodera oxophila, ii 222. Leptogorgia virgulata, ii 285. Leptoplana tremellaris, ii 152; iii 20-21. (iii 357 (illust.). Leptoptychaster Kerguelensis, Leptostraca, i 410, 416; iii 365. Lepus Americanus, ii 289. —cuniculus, i 9, 124; ii 174-176; iii 482; Iv 141, 243-244, 308, 375, 386. — timidus, i 9, 124; ii 174-176; ini 188, 482, 483; iv 244. — variabilis, i 9, 124-125; il Lernza, iv 197 (illust.). Lett, W. P., ii 16. Leucandra aspera, i 487 (illust.). Leucania pallens, i 364. Leuciscus alburnus, iv 396. — cephalus, i 283. — phoxinus, i 283. — rutilus, i 282; ii 449, 450. — vulgaris, i 283; iv 396. [203. Leucochloridium paradoxum, vi Leuecopsis gigas, iv 195. Leverets, i 124; iii 483. Leverrier, i 3. Levers, iii 15 (illust.), 11g, 302, 310. Lewis, iii 300. (384 (illust.). Libellula depressa, i 375, 376: iii Lice, i 3543 i1 122, 124; ill 314; iv 190. Lichens, iv 6s, 75-76 (illust.). Liesk, ii 221. Life-histories, iii 316, 335-330, 349. — acorn-headed worm, ili 420-421. — amphibians, i 254; 11 457-458; ili 45- 46, 434-443. — animalcules, 1 497, 498; iii 317-325, 333-334; iv 341. —annelids, iii 329-330, 334-335, 358- 361; iv 199-200, 206-207. — arachnids, ili 373-377: iv 195-1096. — ascidians, i 298, 299; ili 38-39, 421- 22; iv 105-106. 289. 129 534 Life-histories (Con¢.) — birds, iii 448-474. [196-1909. — crustaceans, ill 27-28, 362-369; iv — echinoderms, 1 450, 461; ill 328-320: 354-357- — fishes, iii 422-434; iv 282-283. — flat- worms, flukes, i 444-445; iv 200-203. planarian worms, iii 329. tape-worms, i 442-443; lv 203- 205, 342-343- ; — insects, membrane-winged, 1 3725 ll 203; 104-195, 256. net-winged, i374, 376, 3975 378" 379; ii 464, 466-467; ili 383-386; iv 12J-1206. (377-380. straight-winged, i 350, 380; i wingless, ili 377. [iv 192-104. — — beetles, 1 367; 1 211; ili 393-309; — — bugs, i 353; ii 217; ili 225, 380- 383; iv 380-381. 3725, iil 386-393; iv 108-120, — — flies, two-winged, i 356-357; ii 467-468; ili 4o2-404; iv 72, 191. — — moths and butterflies, i 3 361, 362, 363, 364, 365; il 309 402; — king-crabs, iii 369. [iv 72, 259. — lancelet, iii 342, 344-345. — mammals, ill 474-. ae — molluscs, 1 323-324; Ill 404-419. — moss-polypes, 1 436; ili 330-331. — myriapods, ili 370-373. — nemertines, ill 419. -— peripatus, ili 370. — reptiles, ili 443-448. — sponges, iil 325-326, 341-342, — thread-worms, i 448, 449; iv 205-2 343-344- — zoophytes, 1 478-48 328, 339-341, 349-353; IV ToI-104. Ligaments, i 330; ili 141-142, 2 Ligia oceanica, ii 143. (301, Ligula, ii 205, 206. See also Mouth- parts of insects. Ligurinus chloris, i 156; ii 187. Lima, iii 36-37, 408. Limacina, iv 451. Limax, iii 4r4. — agrestis, 1 328; i1 247; iv 348. — maximus, ii 199, 201. Limb-gills, ii 400-402. Gills. Limbs (see also Appendages, Legs, Digits, &c.): _ amphibians, i iii 48-50, 117-170, (illust.), 212-214, 2 — birds, i 1g0-141: 482; iil 327= See also i 58, 59, 61-62, , 125-132, 261-267, 295-304. — fish, i 23. _— mamrials. 1 24, 29-32, 61, 66-67, 91, 98, Too, rot, 102; il 25-26, 182; iii 7o-86, 132-144, 147-162, 186-108, 201-207, 233-260, 292-294. —reptiles, i 196-199, 207, 213, 215, 216, 228, 232; ili 50-51, 53-56, 122- 124, 208, 209, 211, 267-270. — vertebrates, 161; iti 117-120 (illust.). — evolution of, iii 117-121. — modiheation of, 1 61, 66-67, 70, 100, 104, 127, 140. Limenitis misippus, ii 312. — sibylla, ii 312. Limicole, i 152, 168-169. Limnea stagnalis, i 328 34, 104, 106, 414; iv 18. —- truncatula, i 444; iv 360, 361. sol 434s ii INDEX Limnobates stagnorum, i 354: ii 123-124. Limnophilus rhombicus, i (illust. ). Limnoria lignorum, ii 222; iii 225- 226. Limosa belgica, i 169; ii 66. — lapponica, i 169. Limpet, bonnet-, iii 413. — common, i 323: ii 197-199 (illust.), 336-337, 395-396, 432-433; iil 104, 272, 412, 415 (illust.), 416-417 (illust.); Iv 35, 42-43, 57-56 (illust.), -— John Knox's, 1323; 11 395-396 (illust. ). — keyhole, i Limpets, 1 iii 416-417. Limulus, i 422-423 (illust.); it 144-145, 406-407; ii 36 — polyphemus, iii 369 (illust.). Linaria cannabina, ii 187; iii 470. Lincecum, ii 208. Linckia multiflora, iii 320 (illust. ). Linckiid@, iii 328, 320 (illust.). Line-Fishing, iv 261-262. Lineus marinus, i 305. Ling, iv 267-268. Linguatulide, i 387, 303; iv 1096. Lingulella, iv 460. Linnea borealis, iv 97 (illust. ) Linneus, 19-10, 351; ii 346. Linné, Karl von. See Linneus. Linnet, i 156 470 (illust.). Lion, i 87; iii yor: iv 98, x (illust.). 375 li 196, 197-199; Lipoptena cervi, iv 190. Lips, of arthropods, &e. parts. — of mammals, i 34, 69, 103, Lithinus nigrocristatus, (illust. ). Lithobius forficatus, i 304: ii 132- 133; Ml 165, 371-372. Lithocolletis corylella, i 36s. Lithodes maia, ii See Mouth- (173. Lithodomus, iii 41r. [iv 297. Littorina littorea, i 318; ii 106, 460: — obtusata, 1 32 — rudis, i 320; ii . Littorinide, ii 450-460. See also Littorina. Liver, i 37, 48. “Liver” tubes, i 348. Liverworts, iv 75 illust.. Livingstone, iv 215. Lizard (and see Li : — black-lipped tree-, i 222. — bronze-, ii 77 (illust.). — three-toed, i 2 — capuchin, i 223. — common, cylinder, ii 77 (illust.). — European snake-eyed, i 225 (illust.). — eyed, ili 445- 446. — frilled, i 222; ili — eel lands, i225 (illust. ). ; it z92) iti 51, 52 (illust — green, i 225; iv — sand, i 191-2 — — Spanish, ili es stump-tailed, i 226 (illust.); ii 76. viviparous, ii 446. — wall, i < 6 iS Lizards \see also Tlewanas, Monitors, Xs) il 73-76, ((illust.). Ui 122-123 ii 281; [ 1 100, 203, 221-227; Lizards (Cozz.) 192, 281-282, 329, 333-334, 344-345, 370-371, 424, 425; iii 51-53, 111, 122-124, 184-185, 207-210, 267-270, 286-287, 332, 445-446; iv 151, 152, — agamoid, i 221, [328. — burrowing, i 225. See also Skinks. — common, i 221, 225. — flying, i 222; iii 28 — scale-footed, i 221, 222. — snake-, i 221, 223-224; ii 76. —-—reversible, ii 76; iii 209-210 (illust. ). (282. — thorny-tailed, i 222; ii 77 (illust.), — Tunisian, ii 77 (illust.). — venomous, i 221, 2 355 (illust.); iv 338. Llamas, i 120, 122 (illust.); iv Lloyd Morgan, i 7; ii 74, 343: iv 40, 50, 53, 56, 59, 156, 186, 4or, 492, 494. Loach, common, i 283; ii 450. — spring, ii 450. Lobelia cardinalis, iv 80. Lobster, American, iv 297. — common, i 222, ) 24-225; il 302-304, 342, 402-409 (illust.); ii 135-137, 400-402 (illust.); iii 169, 277-278 (illust.); iv 207-200 — Norway, i 412. {illust. ). —rock-, i 410, 412 (illust.); it 137, 279, 338; ili 368; iv 37. [43. Lobsters, iii 27, 332, 36. Lob-worm, common, ii “Local death”, i 43-44. i Locust, migratory, i 382; ii 2 356-357 (illus — red-legged, iii 379 (illust.). Locusts, i 381-382; ii 213, 439; ili 379: iv 318, 356-358. (177. Locusta viridissima, i 383; iii 176- Locustella nevia, i 160. Locustidee. See Grasshoppers, green. Locust-shrimps, i 410, 413-414 (illust.). “Lodge”, of beaver, iv 139-140. Logger-head, iii 5 Loir. See Dorniouse, fat. Loligo vulgaris, i 314; Long, Francis, ii 19. “Longicorns”, iii 273. Lonicera alpigena, iv 94. — Etrusca, iv 87, 88. Looping movements, 467; ili 99, 102-103, 107. Lophius piscatorius, i 274; ii 83- 85; ili 115. Lophobranchii, i 2 Lophohelia, iv 44 Lophophore, i Lophopus crystallinus, i 438; i 261; ill 100, 331. Lories, ii tor. Loriquets, ii ror. Loris, common, ii Gn 4r7-418. 30H, 482, [(illust. ). 320; ill 241, 242 —gracilis. See Slende — slender, iii 241 (illust.), 242. Lota vulgaris, i 270. Love-Birds, i 166; iv 300-301 Lower jaw-bone, i 28, 108. See also Jaws. (188. Loxia curvirostra, i 156; ii 187- Lubbock, Sir John. See Avebury, Lord. Lucanus cervus, i 368. Lucernaria, i 452. Luciola, iv 165-166. Lugard, Captain, iv 240. [ili 226. Lugworm, i 430 (illust.); i 4o8-409 ; Lumbricus herculeus, i 431; ii 258 — rubellus, iii 367. {iii 228. Luminous organs, of insects, iv Lump-Fish, iii 425. [165-166. Lumpsucker, ii 292. “Lung-books”, i 386; ii 442-443. See also Breathing organs, of arach- nids. [ii 83, 456. Lung-Fish, African, i 264, 265 (illust). ; — Australian, i 264, 265 (illust.); i 83-84, 454-456. [ii 83, 456. — South American, i 264, 265, 266; Lung-Fishes, i 257, 264-266; ii 83- 84, 330, 422-423, 453-456; iv 29-30, Lungs, i 45-47; ii 420. (411-412. — amphibians, i 240-242, 244-245, 254, 256; ii 422-423, 456, 457- — birds, i 47; ii 426-427 (illust.). — crustaceans, ii 443, 469. [421-422. — evolution of, i 47; ii 452-453; ili — fishes, i 264; ii 453-456. _—[(illust.). — mammals, i 45-47, 67; ii 427-431 — molluscs, i 328; ii 432-434 (illust.), 460, 461, 462. — reptiles, i 202, 209, 226-227, 230; il Lung-sac, ii 436. [424-426 (illust.). Lung-Worm, iv 362. Lures, of fishes, ii 84-86. Luth, i 216 (illust.). Lutra felina, ii 23. — vulgaris, ii 22-23; iii 76. Lycosa, ii rr4. — piratica, ii 130-131. — tarantula, ii 130. Lycoside, i 393; ili 373-374. Lydekker, i 17; iii 194, 493: iv 384. Lymph, i 38, 41-42, 469. Lymph-system, of annelids, i 428. — of mammals, i 38, 41-43 (illust.). Lymphatic glands, i 43. — vessels, i 42. 89. Lynx, Polar (vulgaris), i 88 (illust.), — Spanish (pardinus), i 88. Lyre-Birds, i 161. Lyriocephalus scutatus, iii 270. Lyrurus tetrix, ii 239. Lytta vesicatoria, iv 321. fey M Macacus cynomolgus, i 74. — ecaudatus, i 74. — nemestrinus, ili 233, 234. — rhesus, i 74. — silenus, i 74-75. Macaques, i 74-75. Macaws, i 166; iv 390 (illust.), 391. MacBride, iii 92. (287 (illust.). MacDonald’s hatching-bottle, iv Macgillivray, iii 6r. Machairodus, iv 474. Machetes pugnax, i 169. Machilis maritima, i 394. Mackerel, common, i 274; iii 42, 43, (illust.) ; iv 270 (illust.). — Spanish, iii 41-43. Mackerels, i 274; ii 84; iv 128-129, 270-271. Mackerel-Pikes, i 275-276. Macrobiotus, i 394 (illust.). Macronucleus, i 493: iii 323, 325- Macropodidee. See Kangaroos. Macropomus viridiauratus, iii Macropus, ii 182. (427. — rufus, iii 189-190. INDEX Macroscelides tetradactylus, iii 198. — typicus, i 83; iii 197-198. Madrepora laxa, i 475 (illust.). Madrepores (madrepore corals), i 452, 475. [95-96. Madreporite, i 452, 458, 463; ili 91, Maggot, i356. See Larve. Magot, i 74. Magpie, i 153. Maia, ii 287-289. — squinado, i 4r1 (illust.). Mail-Shells, i 340-341 (illust.); ii 342, 391-392 (illust.); iii 104, 404-405; iv 16-17 (illust.). Malacostraca, i 410. See also Crus- tacea, higher. Mallard. See Duck, wild. Malleolar bone, iii 152. Malpighi, i 12. Malpighian tubes, of insects, i 349. Maltby, W. B., ii 455. Mamestra brassicae, i 364; iv 352. Mammals, i 8, 60, 63-138; ii 1-44, 164-183, 224-234, 279, 289-290, 295, 301-303, 427-431; ili 68-86, 132-162, 186-198, 199-207, 232-261, 281-286, 292-295, 332; iv 29-30, 88, 89, 134- 142, 144-146, 208-213, 220-245, 301- 308, 325-327, 331-330, 345-347, 366- 375, 382-387, 394-395, 415-416, 418, 419-420, 422, 424-425, 426-427, 429- 430, 480-482. egg-laying, i 69-70, 138; ii 44, 332: ili 69-70, 475-478; iv 211-212, 427. — extinct, i 111-112; ili 83, 143, 256; iv 471-475, 481-482. — flesh-eating, i 68, 86-99; ii 5-25, 226-231, 343; ili 75-86, 154-158, 188, 247-248, 491-492; iV 212-213, 220-224, 303-307, 366-373, 382-386, 415, 418, 420, 422, 424, 420, 436, 472-473. — gnawing, i 68, 122-135; ii 174-178, 234, 321-322, 345-346, 366-368; iii 72- 75, 188, 192-197, 202-205, 250-253, 282-284, 482-484; iv 135-141, 212, 307-308, 374-375, 386-387, 416, 418, 421, 422, 425, 430, 473- — hoofed, i 68, 104-122; ii 165-171, 231-234, 321, 350-354, 365-366; ill 137r154, 186-188, 248, 249, 486-490; iv 140-142, I44-145, 212, 373-374, 415-416, 418, 420, 422, 424, 426-427, 429-430, 472. — insect-eating (see also Bats), i 68, 83-86; ii 31-38; iii 71-72, 197-198, 200-202, 245-247, 281-282, 484-485; iv 212, 415, 418, 420, 422, 424, 420, 473+ — pouched, i 69, 136-138; ii 42-43, 180-183, 322, 354, 430-431; iil 70, 188-192, 205-207, 257-261, 284-286, 478-481; iv 411, 418, 427, 430, 474. — Seealso Man, Monkeys, &c., Lemurs, Cetaceans, Sea-Cows, Elephants, Conies, and Edentata. Mammary glands. glands. Mammillaria, iv 95. Mammoth, iv 394, 475 (illust.). Mampalon, ii 13 (illust.). Man, i 15, 21-59 (illust.), 70-71; ii 6, 225; ili 8, 158-162 (illust.), 233-237, Manakins, iv 431. (493-494. Manatee, i 102 (illust.); ii 173; iii 81- 82 (illust.), 490. [ili 81-82, 490. Manatus Americanus, i 102; ii 173; Mandible, i 28. See also Jaws. See Milk- 535 Mandibles, i See also Mouth-parts. Mandibular arch, i 260. [[illust.). Manarill, i 75-76 (illust.); iv 145-146 Mangousti, crab-eating, ii 14. Mangoustis, i 89, 90-91; ii 13-14; ili 156-157; iv 386. (42, 295- Manis pentadactyla, i 136, 138; it Mantidz. See Mantis, praying-. Mantis, praying-, i 381; ii 117-118 (illust.), 315-316; ili 167, 378 (illust.).. Mantis net-wings, ii 113-114 (illust.). Mantispes styriaca, ii 114. Mantispides, ii 113-114. Mantis religiosa. See Mantis, praying-. [404; ili 369. “Mantis-Shrimps”, i 413; ii 141, Mantle, of molluscs, i 308, 329, 330; il 432, 433- — -cavity, of molluscs, i 308, 312, 313, 319-320, 327-328, 332; li 392. — -gills, of molluscs, i1 396-397. —-lobes, of molluscs, i 331, 338; iii Manubrium, i 479. (220-221. Manyplies, ii 169. See also Diges- tive organs, of mammals, herbivorous. Mareca penelope, i 176; iii 58. Marey, iii 311. (398. Margaritifera vulgaris, iv 205, Margarodes, iv 400. Markham, Gervaise, iv 244. Markham, Sir Clements, iv 315. Marmoset, common, i 78 (illust.). Marmosets, 1 71, 78-79; ii 225; iii 494. Marmot, Alpine, i 126; iv 387. Marmots (see also Prarie-Marmots), 1 126-127; iv 135. Marrow, i 24-25, 26, 28. Marshall, Milnes, i rq: ii 2; iii 337. Marsupialia, i 69; and see Mam- mals, pouched. Marsupial Mole. Pouched Mole. [iv 303. Martens, i 97-98; ii 22; ili 156, 247; Martin, H. T., iv 136, 139. Martin, house-, i 161; iii 461, 467, 468, 471; iv 60. — sand-, i 161; ili 453. Mask, of insects, ii 115. Masking, ii 287-289. Mastacembelide, iv 426. Mastax, i 435. Mastodonsaurus, iv 467. Mataco, ii 341-342. Mating. See Courtship. Matter, i 4. Maxille, first, i 345-346. Mouth-parts. — second, i 345-346. See also Mouth- 345-346. See See also parts. May-Fly, common, i 375, 376 (illust.}; ii 465 (illust.). May-Flies, i 374, 376-377; i 115-116, 465-466; 111 30; iv 164-165 (illust.). M'‘Cook, ii 208, 200. Meadow-Flies, ii 119 (illust.). Median lines, i 447, 448. Medulla oblongata, i 50, 150, 203, 253; iv 21. Medusa (pl. Meduse), i 478, 479, 480, 481, 482. See also Jelly-Fish. — ‘covered-eyed”’, i 483. — ‘“naked-eyed”, 1 483. Megachile, iii 391. Megalobatrachus 247; 11 457; ll 48. maximus, 536 Megalopa, iii 28, 366 (illust.), 367. Megalops thrissoides, iv 381. Megapelia (Goura) victoriz, ii Megapodiide, iii 450-. (18s. Megapodius eremita, i — Layardi, iii 451. — tumulus iii 452. Megatherium, ii 327; iv 473-474. Melanism, iv 384. (443: Melanocetus Murrayi, ii 85-86; iv Melanoplus femur-rubrum, iii 379 [iv 249. Meleagris gallopavo, i 172; ii 239: Meles taxus, i 97; H 230; ill 156. Melianthus major, iv 87, 89. Melipona fasciculata, iv 251- Mellinus arvensis, i 373; ii 106. Mellivora, ii 231. Meloé, iv 193-194. Meloids. See Beetles, oil-. Melolontha vulgaris, i 36 iii 224; iv 354. Melophagus ovis, iv 190. Melophorus, ii 206. Melopsittacus undulatus, iv 390. Membranipora, i 437. (i 245. Membranous labyrinth, amphibia, — — birds, i 150. — — fishes, i 263; 8; 11 209; iv 39. 56. — — reptiles, 1 203, 200, — — vertebrates, lower, iv 3g (illust.). Mendel, iv 493, 494. Menhaden, iv 318. Menopon pallidum, i 380: Mephitis suffocans, ii 301-303, 354. Merganser, red-breasted, i177; ii 54 (illust.); ili 60-61 (illust.). Mergansers, iii 60-61. Mergulus alle, i 154. Mergus albellus, i 177. — merganser, 1177; iil 641. — serrator, 1177; il 54; ill 60-61. Merlin, i 174; iv 327. Merluccius vulgaris, iv 268. ‘Mermaids’ purses”, iii 424. Merostomata, iv 462. Merriam, Hart, iii 253. {iii 298. “Merry-thought”, i 144, 145, 187; Mesenteries, i 473, 474, 476. Mesoderm,, iii 342, 344, 345; iv 47- Mesogleea, iti 330, 342- Mesotarsal ankle-joint, i 146, 190. Mesozoic epoch, iii 308; iv 457, 464- 47%. Metacarpus, ii 197, 198; iii 134, 290. Metagenesis, iii 382, 42 Metamorphosis, i 350; iii 377. also Life-histories. — acorn-headed worms, ili 420-421. — amphibians, ili 434-435, 438-439, — ascidians, iii 421. (442, 443 — crustaceans, i 409. — echinoderms, i 450; ili 354-356. — fishes, iii 423, 431-433- — insects, membrane-winged, i 370; iii 386-393; iv 195. [3793 ili 383-386. net-winged, 1 374, 376, 377, 378, straight-winged, iii 377-380. wingless, iii 377. [193. — — beetles, i 367; iii 393-399; iv 192, — — bugs, ili 380-383. — — flies, two-winged, i 356-357; iil 402-404; IV 191. [iii 309-402. — — moths and butterflies, i 359-360; ili 405, 406-407, 411-412, — nemertines, iil 419. (414, 415. [iv 356. ll 111; See — molluscs, INDEX Metatarsus, i 31, 144, 146, 241, 252; ii 197, 198; iii 126, 134. Metatheria, i 68-69; and see Mam- mals, pouched. (333-334, 335+ Metazoa, i 490, 491; iii 2, 318, 325, Method, comparative, i 12. — scientific, i 1-4. Methone Anderssoni, ii 282. Mias, See Orang-utan. Mice, i 125, 127-131; ii 234, 321; iii 483; iv 387. See also Mouse. Microbes. See Bacteria. Microcebus pusillus, iii 493. Micrococcus prodigiosus, iv 78. Microgaster glomeratus, i 372; iv 194. (ror. Microglossus aterrimus, ii 189- Microlestes, iv 484-482. Micronucleus, i 493; ili 323- Microscope, effect on st zoology, i 10-12. Microstomum lineare, iii 320. Microtome, i 466. Microtus, i 1290; 11.177; iv 486. — agrestis (common field-vole — amphibius, i 129. — arvalis (southern field-vole), iv 486. —glareolus,i129. , Midge, black, i 357; ii 121. — plumed, i 357. Midges, i 357; ii 121, 467-468; iv 190. — sand-, ii 121, 468 (illust.); iv 190. Midriff, i 24, 46, 67, 148, 209; il 42 Migration, i 18. ae — as means of protection, ti 329-331. — birds, i 168; ii 239, 241; iil 305; iv 325- udy of ), 1129. 7s O. 61-62. (263, 276. — fishes, ili 423, 426, 433, 434; iv 128, — insects, iv 127, 256-257. — mammals, 1 130. Miliola, i 489 (illust.); iii 6 (illust.). Milk, 1 65 (48x. Milk-glands, i 65-66; in 474-475, — apes and monkeys, i 71 — bats, 181; iil 485. — cetaceans, ili 490-491. — edentates, iii 482. — elephants, ili 490. — lemurs, i 80. (477. 478. — mammals, egg-laying, 1 69; iN 475- — —— hoofed, 1 108; in 487, 488, 480. — —— insect-eating, 1 83; ill 484, 485. pouched, i 68-69; iii 478-479. — sea-cows, i 102. Millais, ii 48, 62, 63; ii 187. Millepora, i 480-481; ii 160-161. Miller’s thumb, i 274; iv 273. Millipedes, i 342, 394-398; ii 218- 219, 360, 435-437; iii 163-164, 370- 373; iv 14-15, 30, 31, 360. — flattened, i 396 (illust. ). — pill-, 1 306. — snake-, ill 225. (219; iii 372. earth, or common, i 396; 218- — —— London, i 306 (illust.). spotted, i 396 (illust.). Milvus ictinus, i 17s. Mimicry, ii 301, 309-317. — arachnids, ii 299-300, 316; ili 168. — birds, ii 309-311. — insects, ii 311-316; iv 160. — mammals, ii 37; ili 246-247. — plants, iv 81. — reptiles, ii 311; iii arr. Mimulus luteus, iv 90. Mineral salts, i 33. Minks. See Visons. Minnow, i 283. M'‘Intosh, iii 426. Mirikis, i 77 (illust.). Mitchell, Chalmers, iv 414. Mite, cheese-, i 393 (illust.); ii 443. — currant gall-, iv 360. — gall-, ii 217. — hair-, iv 196 (illust.). (341- — mange- or itch-, 1 393; iv 196 (illust.), — meal-, ii 217. — red fowl-, iv 360. Mites, i 387, 393; ii 132, 217-218, 442— 443; Iv 15, 83, 195, 196, 360. Mitra, i 321. Mitre-Shells, i 321. “Moas”, iv 428, 475-476 (illust.). Meebius, iii 23r. Moggridge, ii 207. “Mohair ”, iv 230. Molars, i 36; and see Teeth. Mole, common, i &r (illust.), $6; ii 36- 37 (illust.); iii 200-202 (illust.), 484- 485 (illust. Je iv 3275 — golden, i 86; ii 33-34 (illust.); il 202, 203. — star-nosed, ii 37 (illust. 418 (illust. ). Moles, i 86; ii Mole. Molecular vibration, i 54, 57. Molecules, i 54. Mole-Rat, common, ii 177-178 (illust.); ill 203-204 (illust. ). — great, 1 130. [204. Mole-Rats, i 130; ii 177-178; ili 203- Mole-Shrews, ii 35-36 (illust.). Molge cristatus, i 246; iii 46, 47; iv — palmatus, i 246; ili 46. (353: — taeniatus, 1 246. — vulgaris, ili 46. — Walltli, ii 334. Mollusca. See Molluscs. Molluscs, i 11, 304, 307-341; ii 93+ 100, 196-201, 247-250, 279, 287, 292, 296, 306-307, 335-337, 342, 357, 372- 373, 391-399, 432-434, 459-462; ili ; lili 202; iv > and oy 28; ill 24 see 30-37, 103-110, 180-181, 217-222, 331, 404-419; Iv 16-19, 29, 31, 34-35, 45-46, 56-58, 214-215, 288-207, 322- 324, 349, 348, 397-399, 419, 421-422, 33, 438-439, 444, 448, 451, 462-463, 465-466. — bivalve, i 311, 328-338; ii 248-250, 337, 335, 336, 357, 398-309; in 8, 36- 37, IO4, 108, 180, 219-221, 232, 4o5- 411; iv 18, 34, 40, 45-46, 215, 288- 297, 398-399. — extinct, iv 465-466, 470. — head-footed, i 311-317; ii 391-393; iii 104, 108-110, 417-419; iv 18-19, 347-35, 45) 274, 438. — “headless”, i 331. — Primitive. See Protomolluscs. Molluscoida. See Moss-Polypes and Lamp-Shells. fiv 428. Moloch horridus, i 222; ii 333-334; Molva vulgaris, iv 267-268. Monads, i 494: ii 267-268; iii 6 illust.). — springing, i 489, 494 (illust.}; 11 267- 268. “Money - Spinner” Spider), i 393; ii 218. Monitor, desert, ii 73, 282. — Nile, i 224-225 (illust.); ii 73. — Papuan, ii 73. — water, ii 73; ili 52 (illust.). [s2. Monitors, i 221, 224-225; ii 73; iii 51- (or Money- Monkey (and see Monkeys): — barrigudo, i 77. — Diana, i 74. — entellus, i 72-73 (illust.); ii 164-165. — green guenon, i 74. — guereza, 1 73. — Java, i 74. — miriki, i 77 (illust.). — moustache, i 74. — owl-faced night-, ii 319 (illust.), 320. — pig-tailed, ili 233, 234 (illust.). — proboscis, i 73. — red howling, i 76-77. — rhesus, i 74. — saki, black, i 78; iii 240, 241 (illust.). — spider, i 77; iii 239-240 (illust.), 255 — squirrel, i 78. ((illust. ). — wanderoo, i 74-75 (illust.). Monkeys (and see Monkey, Baboons, &c.), 1 71-79; il 225, 325, 326, 348- 349, 363-365; Ul 158-162, 223-240, 493-494; iv 134, 140, 382, 419-420, 424, 429, 473- — Capuchin, i 77. — clawed. See Marmosets. —colobi or African thumbless, i 73; — guenon, i 73-74. [iii 237, 238. — howling, i 76-77; iv 146. — macaques, i 74-75. — naked-tailed, i 76-77. — New World, i 76-78; iii 238-240. — Old World, i 72-76; and see Apes, Baboons, &c. — sakis, i 76, 78. — tailed, i 72. Monkey-Musk, iv 90 (illust.). Monk-Fish, i 286-287 (illust.). Monkshood, iv 80. Monodon monoceros, iv 394. Monotremata. See Mammals, egg- laying. Montagu, iv 149. Moor-Hen, i 171; ii 240, 295; iii 61. Moose, i 112; iii 52; and see Elk. Moquin-Tandon, ii 199, 2or. Mordella, iv 43. “More-Pork” Birds, iv 428. Morgan, Lewis H., iv 136. Morgan, Lloyd. See Lloyd Morgan. Morgan, T. Hunt, iv 494. Morone labrax, i 273. Morpho cypris, i 36r. — Neoptolemus, i 36r. Morphology, of animals, i rt-13, 17; iv 480-482. Morris, iii 434; iv 407. Morula, iii 338, 340, 341, 342. Mosasaurus, iv 469. Moschus moschiferus, i 110; iii 151; iv 402, Moseley, i 7, 398. Mosquitoes, i355; ii 121, 215; iv 190, 207, 341 (illust.). Moss-Polypes, i 304, 436-438; ii 261, 279, 339, 410-411; ili 7, 8, 99- 100, 330-331; 1V 104-105, 439. Motacilla alba, i 157. — flava, i157; ii 66. — lugubris, i 157: ii 65. — melanope, i 157; iii 125, 457-458. — Raii, i 157. Moth (and see Moths) : — antler, iv 163. — atlas, i 363. — black arches, ii 287. — brimstone, i 364; ii 297-298; iii ro2. — brown dolly, i 365. INDEX Moth (Conz.) — buff-tip, i 363; ii 299. — cabbage, iv 352 (illust.). — chimney sweeper, i 364. — cinnabar, iv 59. — clothes, i 36s (illust.); iv 353. — codlin, i 365; iv 352 (illust.). — common wainscot, i 364. — corn, iv 353 (illust.). — currant, i 364; ii 307. — death’s-head, i 363; iv 43. — diamond-back, iv 352. — dun-bar, ii 252. — early thorn, ii 300. — emperor, i 363; ii 120; iv 164 (illust.). — ermine-, little, i 365. — — white, ii 313. — gipsy, iv 353, 359- — goat, 1 363; IV 43, 352. — gold-tail, ii 360. — grass, iv 352. — great yellow underwing, iv 352. — green oak, i 365. [iv 352. — heart-and-dart, 1 364; ili gor (illust.); — humming-bird, iii 311. — lackey, i 364. — lobster, ii 313-314 (illust.). — magpie or currant, i 364; ii 307. — muslin, ii 313. — nun, iv 353. — oak eggar, i 364; iv 163 (illust.). — oak procession-, ii 346-347. — oak silk-, iv 260. — pale tussock-, i 364. — pea, iv 352. — peppered, ii 293-294. — pine Hawk-, i 363; ii 314. — plume, common, i 366. — — twenty, i 366. — privet, i 363. [401-4 — puss, i 363; ii 313-314, 359-360; — silkworm, i 364; ii 214; iil gor; iv 259-260 (illust.). — silver Y, i 364; ili gor (illust.); iv 352. — tiger, i 363. — turnip, iv 352. — wax, Iv 353. — winter-, i 364, 372; iv 3509 (illust.). Moths (and see Moth), i 351, 358-360, 362-366; ii 120, 214-215, 252, 313; ill 312, 313, 399-402; iv 56, 72, 162-164, 351-353- — burnet, ili 402. — clear-wing, i 362, 363. — — hornet, i 363; ii 313. — hawk-, i 362, 363; iv 88. — — elephant, ii 314. — lappet, iii 4oo. — large, i 362, 363-364. — leaf-miner, i 362, 365. — leaf-roller, i 362, 36s. — looper, i 362, 364. — owlet, 1 362, 364; ili 103, gor; iv 352. — plume, i 362, 365-366. — small, i 362, 365-366. — South American, ili gor. — spinner, i 362, 363-364. “Mother Carey’s chicken”, i 183. Mother-of-pearl, iv 398. Mouflon, iv 227. [406. Moulting process, of crustaceans, i Mountain Devil. See Moloch. Mouse, harvest (and see Mice), i 128; iii 483 (illust.). (347- — house-, i 128; ii 321; iv 346 (illust.), — wood-, or long-tailed field-, i 128. Mouse-Birds, iii 266-267. 537 Mouse-Deer, i 109; and see Chevro- tains. Mouth and Mouth-cavity (see also Mouth-parts, Jaws, &c.): — of acorn-headed worm, i 301. — of amphibians, i 238, 240, 253, 255- — of animalcules, i 492, 493, 494, 495- — of annelids, i 426, 427, 432; ii 147, 148. — of arachnids. See Mouth-parts. — of ascidians, i 297, 298. -- of birds, i 143-144; and see Beak. — of crustaceans. See Mouth-parts. — of echinoderms, i 451, 452, 455, 4575 458, 459, 460, 462. — of fishes, i 13, 258, 261, 265, 271, 274, 276, 283, 284, 291-292. — of flat-worms, i 442, 443, 444, * 446. — of insects. See Mouth-parts. — of king-crabs. See Mouth-parts. — of lancelet, i 294. — of mammals, i 34, 46, 54-55. — of molluscs, i 307, 311, 331, 339; ll 196-197, 198 (illust.). — of moss-polypes, i 437. — of myriapods. See Mouth-parts. — of nemertines, i 305. — of peripatus. See Mouth-parts. — of reptiles, i 13, 192, 193, 199, 206, 216, 228, 229. — of siphon-worms, i 432; ii 150. — of thread-worms, i 447. — of vertebrates, i 303. [263. — of wheel animalcules, i 434-355: il — of zoophytes, i 466, 473, 476, 477, 479, 481, 483. Mouth-parts and Mouth of Ar- thropods (see also Limbs, Jaws, Appendages): — arachnids, 1 386, 388, 390, 391, 394- — crustaceans, i 403, 404, 407, 408, 413, 414, 417, 418, 421, 422; il r4r, 142, 144; lil 277-278. — insects, 1 345, 346, 348. beetles, i 367; li 107. bugs, i 351-352; il 122-123 (illust.), 216-217. flies, two-winged, i 355-356, 358; ii 120, 121 (illust.), 215. moths and butterflies, i 359 (illust.); ii 103, 214-215 (illust.), 252; iv 164. fringe-winged, ii 216. — — membrane -winged, i 370; ii 205-206, 207; iv 254, 255 (illust.). net-winged, i 376, 377; ii 111, 113, II4, 115, 116; ili 223, 386; iv 122. {ii 102. straight-winged, i 345-346, 380; — king-crabs, i 423. (218 (illust.). —myriapods, i 395, 396; li 132-133, — peripatus, i 399, 401; ii 134. — sea-spiders, i 424. Movement, i 17-18. — amoeboid, i 49: ii 1-4. — ciliary, i 49: ili 4-8. See also Cilia. — euglenoid, ili 88-89. — muscular, i 48-49; ili 8-16, 17-18, 270, 445, 122 22, 87-88, 112-113, 173-174, 199-200, 231, 292. See also Muscular Sys- tem. —organs of (see also Appendages, Digits, Limbs): (216. — —acorn-headed worm, ili 215- amphibians, ili 45-50, 116-121, 182-184, 212-214, 272, 287-288. 538 Movement, organs of (Cont.) animalcules, 1 490, 492, 494, 495; ill 2, 4, 5, 8, 88-89, 231. annelids, 1 426, 430-431, 432; lll 22-23, 97-99, 226-230. — — arachnids, i 386; iii 168-169, 175-176, 276, 280, 290-291. ascidians, iii 38-39. birds, 1 149; 11 56-67, 125-132, 185-186, 261-267, 286, 295-308. crustaceans, 1 403, 406; iii 25- 28, 169-172, 174-175, 225-226, 277- 278, 366-367. echinoderms, i 451, 453, 455, 457, 464; ill 3-4, 23-24, 90-97, 114- 115, 230, 232, 278-279. fishes, i 257-258; lll 40-44, 115- 116, 182, 272, 288-289. 2I. flat-worms, i 445, 446; ill 20- insects, 1 345; ill 28-30, 102- 103, 165-167, 176-180, 222-225, 272- 278, 309-315. lancelet, ili 40, 214-215. mammals, i 48-49, 98, too; il 24-25; ill 68-86, 132-162, 186-198, 200-207, 232-261, 281-286, 292-295. molluscs, i 307, 312-313, 317, 323, 326, 332, 334, 336, 341; ill 30-37, 103-110, 180-181, 217-222, 232 moss-polypes, 111 99-100. — —— myriapods, 1 394, 395, 396, 397; ili 163-165, 225. — —— nemertines, iii 24. peripatus, i 399; ill ror-ro2. reptiles, i 195-199; ill 50-56, IIO-111, 121-124, 184-185, 207-212, 267-272, 286-287, 308-309. siphon-worms, ill 230. thread-worms, ii 21. wheel-animalcules, i 4 IOO-I01. [2 zoophytes, 1 467, 483; i Mucous membrane, i 35, 5 3 Mud-‘‘ Eel” or Siren, i 249; ii 457; iii 48-40, 273 (illust.). Mud-Fishes. See Lung-Fishes. Mud-Shrimp, i 416 (illust.); it 405; iii 365. Mud-Skippers, ii 87 (illust.), 448, 450; iii 115-116, 182, 272. Musgil capito, i 275; iv 273, 381. — chelo, iv 273. Mugilide. See Grey-Maullets. Mules, iv 239-241, 479. Miiller, Johannes, i 12. Mullide. Sce Red-Mullets. Mullus barbatus, iv 271. — surmulletus, iv 271. Mungoose, Egyptian, i 90-91; iv 386. — Indian, i 91; iv 386 (illust.). Munia oryzivora, i 156; iv 389. Muntjacs, iv 424. Murena helena, i 283-284. Murenida. See Eels. Murex, i 320-321; ii 336. — Branden, iv 397 (illust.). Muride. Sce Rats and Mice. Mus decumanus, i 128; iv 375. — minutus, i 128; ili 483. — musculus, i 128; 11 321; iv 346. — rattus, i 128. — sylvaticus, i 128. Musca carnaria, ii 346. — domestica, i 355-356, 358; ii 120, 251-252; ill 275 iv 16, 77- — vomitoria, i 358: iv 351. [ii 367. Muscardinus avellanarius, i 131; INDEX Muscicapa grisola, ii 61. Muscicapide, ii 61. Muscivora regia, ii 61. Muscle, “involuntary”, i 49; iii 10-13. — striated, iii 12-13 (illust.). — unstriated, iii 10-12 (illust.). — ‘voluntary’, i 49; iii 13. Muscles, i 48-49, 303, 469; ili 13-16. See also Muscular System and Move- ment. Muscle-fibres, iii 8-9, 10, 11-13, 14, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 40, 91, 92, 93, 95; 100, 105, 216, 228, 229, 272, 279. Muscular action, i 48-49. Movement. Muscular locomotion. See Move- ment and Muscular System. Muscular System, acorn-headed worm, iil 215-216. — amphibians, ii 272. —annelids, iti 22, 98, 99, 226, 228-229. — ascidians, iti 38-39. — birds, i r49; iti 261-262, 297, 299-303- — crustaceans, i 408; iii 278. — echinoderms, ili 91-92, 93, 95, 97, 115, 278, 279. See also Water- vascular System. — fishes, ili 115-116. — flat-worms, ili 20-21. — insects, ili 163, 310-311. — lancelet, iii 40-345. — mammals, i 48-49; ili 135, 201, 202, 233-236, 293. — molluscs, iii 31, 33, 36-37, 104-106, 219, 222. — moss-polypes, iii 99-100. — peripatus, ili ror. — reptiles, ili 110-111, 208, 270. — siphon-worms, ili 230. — thread-worms, ili 21. — zoophytes, iii 18. Muscular tissue, iii 10, 13, 14. See also Muscular System. Musical organs, of insects, i 353, 382, 383; iv 38. Musimon. See Mouflon. Musk, i 110-111. Musk-glands, i 205. Musk-Ox, i 115 (illust.). Musk-Rat, i 130; iii 73 (illust.). Musk-Shrew, i.83; iii 71. Musquash, i 130; iii 73 (illust.); iv 307 (illust.), 308. Mussel, edible, i 335-336; iii 405, 406, 407-408 (illust.) ; iv 294-295 (illust.), — culture, iv 295-296 (illust.). (348. Mussels, freshwater, i 328-333; i1248- 249, 335) 398-399; ill 37, 220, 4c6- — sea, 1 335-337- (407 (illust.). Mussel-Shrimp, i 419-420 (illust.); ii 405-406; ili 25, 26, 364. Mustela Americana, iv 303. —erminea. See Putorius ermineus. —lutreola. See Putorius lutreolus. — martes, i 98; ii 22. — putorius. See Putorius feetidus. — Sibirica. See Putorius Sibiricus. —vison. See Putorius vison. — vulgaris. See Putorius vulgaris. — zibellina, i 98; iii 156; iv 303. Mustelida, i 97-98; ii 21-22; ili 156; iv 303-304. See also Martens and Weasels. Mustelus levis, i 28s. Mutilla Europea, i 373; ii 106. Mutualism, i 18; iv 67, 75-76, 170. Mya arenaria, i 334; ii 250; ili 220. See Mycetes caraya, iv 146. — seniculus, 1 76-77. Mycetophilide, iv 127. Mycetozoa, i 489, 496, 498 (illust.); li 270; iii 6, 8, 322. Mygale avicularia, i392; ii 106, 130, Mygnimia aviculus, ii 315. (443. Myliobatis aquila, i 288; ii 90; iii Mylodon, iv 474. (44. Myodes lemmus, i 130; ii 177. Myogale moschata, i 83; ii 35; ill 71- — Pyrenaica, iii 72. (72. Myopa ferruginea, ii 119. Myopotamus coypu, iii 74. Myoxid@, ii 176-177; iii 251-252. Myoxus glis, iv 244-245. Myrianida, iii 318 (illust.). Myriapoda (see also Centipedes and Millipedes), i 342, 394-398; 11 132- 134, 218-219, 360, 435-437; ill 163- 165, 225, 370-373; iv 14-15, 462. — insect-like, i 396, 397. — larva-like, i 396, 397-398. — spider-legged, i 396, 397. Myrmecobius, ii 42-43. Myrmecocystus Mexicanus, ii 206-207. Myrmecophaga jubata, i 136; ii 41-42; lll 256, 482. Myrmeleo, i 378; iv 16. — formicarius, ii 111-113. Myrmica rubra, iv 119 (illust.). Mysis, i 413; ili 365; iv 36. Mystacoceti, ii 26. See also Whales, toothless. (3st. Mytilaspis pomorum, iii 381; iv Mytilus edulis, i 335; ili 40s, 406, 407-408; iv 294-295, 348. [385. Myxine glutinosa, i 292; ii 91, 92, Myxomycetes. See Mycetozoa. Myzostoma, iv 199 (illust.). N Naia bungarus, ii 80. — haie, ii 80. — tripudians, i 234; ii 80; iv 330. Nails, of mammals, 1 25, 64; and see Claws. Nais, iv 42 (illust.). Names, scientific, i 9. Narwhal, iv 304. Nasal cavities (see also Smell): — birds, i 147. — mammals, i 55-56 (illust.). Nassa reticosa, iii 412; iv 348. Nasua socialis, ii 229, 230. = (413. Natica Josephina, ii 98; iii 217, 218, Native Wolf, ii 42. See also Thyla- cinus. Natterjack, i 255. Natural classification, i 11. —history. See Zoology. Natural Selection, iv 484-488. — objections to theory of, iv 488-489. Nature-Study, i 5-7; iv 63-64. Naumann, ii 370. Nauplius eye, i 422. [198. — larva, i 417; ili 25, 364-365; iv 197, Nautilus, paper, i 315-316; iii 32-33, 418. — pearly, i 316-317 (illust.); i1 335, 393; li 108-109, 418; iv 18, 45 (illust.). —pompilius. See Nautilus, pearly. Nearctic Region, iv 413, 414, 418- Nebalia, i 416; ii 405; 111 365. (419. Neck, i 35. — -ligament, ii 165, 167. — -vertebrze, i 26-27, 66; iii 83-84. Necrophorus, iii 396-398. — Germanica, ii 109, 110. — vespillo, ii 109, 110. Nectogale elegans, ii 35; iii 71. Nekton, iv 435, 448. (450. Nemachilus barbatulus, i 283; ii Nemathelmia. See Thread-Worms. Nematodes, ii 222. Nematus ribesii, iv 356. Nemertea. See Nemertines. Nemertines, i 304, 305-307; ii 93, 391, 4445 lil 24, 419; iv 10, 11, 439, Nemesia, i 392. (452-453. Nemobius sylvestris, i 383. Neo-Lamarckism, iv 491. Neomenia, i 341. Neomylodon, ii 327; iv 474. Neotropical Region, iv 413, 414, 428-434. [iii 382-383. Nepa cinerea, i 354; ii 108, 124, 440; Nepenthes, iv 70-71. Nephridia (sing. nephridium), i gor. See also Excretory organs. Nephrops norvegicus, i 412. Nepide, ii 440-441; ili 382-383. Nereis, i 425-429; ii 146-147; iii g7- 98; iv 12, 44. Nerita polita, iv 323. Neritic Zone, iv 435-441. Nerve-cells, i 51 (illust.), 471; iv 6- 7) 9s 14s 17, 22-23. Nerve-centre, iv 9. gha, &c. Nerve-cord (see also Nervous Sys- tem), of invertebrates (higher), i 303-304, 306-307, 349, 400, 401, 407, 409, 428; iv 7-8, g (illust.), ro, 11- 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17. — of vertebrates (primitive), i 293, 296- 297. [27. Nerve-fibres, i 51-52; iv 6, 8, 9, 14, Nerve-loop (see also Nervous Sys- tem), of molluscs, i 310, 318, 320, 324, 325, 328; iv 17-18, 19. Nerve-plate, iv 20 (illust.). Nerve-ring (see also Nervous Sys- tem), of invertebrates (higher), i 303- 304, 306-307, 310, 328, 333, 349, 407, 409, 427, 428, 440, 443, 444, 448; IV 7, 8, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19. Nerves, i 50. — auditory, i 56. — cranial, i 52-53, 55. — olfactory, i 55-56 (illust.). — optic, i 58. — sensory, i 53. — spinal, i 51. Nerve-tissue, iii 10. vous System. Nervous System, i 18, 49-53; iv 1- — amphibians, iv 21. (5, 19-20. — annelids, i 428; iv 7-10, 34. — arachnids, iv 15. — birds, i 149-150; iv 22. — crustaceans, i 407, 409; iv 12-14. — development of, in vertebrate em- bryo, iv 20. — echinoderms, i 454, 458. — evolution of, iv 6. — fishes, i 263, 270, 272; iv 21. — flat-worms, i 442, 444, 446. — insects, i 347, 349; iv 15-16. — invertebrates, higher, i 303-304. — lamp-shells, i 440. See also Gan- See also Ner- INDEX Nervous System (Covz.) — mammals, i 49-53; iv 19-23. — molluscs, i 309, 310, 332; iv 16-19, — moss-polypes, i 438. [34-35- — myriapods, i 395; iv 14-15. — nemertines, i 306-307. — peripatus, i 400, 4o1; iv 14, 15. — reptiles, 1 200, 202, 209. — sympathetic, i 50, 53; iv 19-20. — thread-worms, i 448. — — primitive, i293, 294, 295, 296-297, — vertebrates, i 63. (298, 301. — visceral, iv 10, 14, 16, 17. — wheel-animalcules, i 435. — zoophytes, iv 5-7. Nestor meridionalis, ii 191. — notabilis, i 166; ii 190, 191; iv 347. Nests and Nesting Habits (see also Dwellings): — amphibians, ili 437-438, 439, 442. — arachnids, 1 393; ili 374-377. — birds, i 163, 179, 188, 189, 190; ili 449, 450, 451-452, 453-464, 466, 468, 469, 472; lv 59-61, 130-132, 186, 187- 188, 405-407. — fishes, iii 427-430; iv 157. — insects, i 373, 374, 379; il 208-209; il 390-391, 392, 393, 394-396; iv 53- 54, IOQ-II0, I11-112, 115, 116, 117, 120, 126, 252-253, 254-255- — mammals, iii 478, 480, 483, 484, 493. — molluscs, ili 408. — myriapods, iii 372. — reptiles, 1 209; iii 444-446, 447, 448. Net-Fishing, iv 262. Nettling organs, i 467, 471, 474; ii 306, 309, 357, 361; iv 103, ro4. Neurons, iv 6, 7, 8, 9, 20, 23 (illust.). Neuroptera, i 351, 374-380; ii 110- 116, 156, 157-158, 160, 161, 162, 211, 213, 462-467; ili 30, 383-386; iv 120- Newman, Edward, iii 396. (126. Newt, common, iii 46. — crested, i 246 (illust.); ili 46, 47: iv — small, i 246. [152 (illust. ). — Spanish, ii 334. — webbed, i 246; ili 46. Newts, i 245-246; ii 83, 457; ili 46, II7-I1Q, 120-121, 332, 434, 435- — ‘‘ Fish”, i 247-248; and see Sala- manders. Newton, Alfred, iv 61, 246, 249, 309, 387, 389, 406. Newton, Sir Isaac, i 3. Nichomache, ii 339. [74. Nictitating membrane, i 192; iii Night-hawk. See Night-jar. Nightingale, i 160; iv 149. Night-jar, i 163; 11 56-57 (illust.); ii 453- [(illust.), 454. Night -light animalcule, iv 453 Nitrogen, i 33, 44; iv 65-68. Noctiluca, i 489, 495 (illust.); ii 6; iv 453, 454+ Noctuidez. See Moths, owlet. Nodosaria, i 489 (illust.); iii 6. — scalaris, iv 454. Nopal, iv 260. Nose, of mammals, i 34, 55, 81; and see Smell. Nose-leaf, of bats, i 82-83. Nostrils, amphibians, ii 423. — birds, i 182-183; ili 62. — fishes, i 258, 265; ii 422-423. — mammals, i 46, 72, 76, 100; ii 430. — reptiles, 1 205, 216; il 424-425; ill ! Notarchus, iii 107 (illust.). [208, 539 Nothura maculosa, ii 343. Notidanus griseus, i 287. Notochord, i 61, 292-293, 295, 298, 301; ili 38-39, 40, 214, 216, 344. Notonecta, i 354-355; iii 29. — glauca, ii 124. Notonectide, ii 440. [iii 206-207. Notoryctes typhlops, ii 43, 329; Nototrema, iii 442. Nuchal, i 214. (187. Nucifraga caryocatactes, i 154; ii Nucleus (pl. Nuclei), i 39, 469, 490, 49T, 493, 494, 496, 498; iii 317, 318, 319, 320, 323-325, 338; iv 493. Nucula, i 338; iii 108. Nudibranchia, i 324, 326; ii 100, 306-307, 382; ili 36. — arquatus, i 169; ii 67. — phzopus, i 16g. [iv 249-250. Numida meleagris, i 172; ii 239; Nummulina, i 496. Nurse Hound, i 286. Nut-cracker, i 154; ii 187. Nut-hatches, i 157; ii 187; iii 264, 454- Nutrition, i 32. See Food. Nyctea Scandiaca, i 165; ii 279. Nycteribia, iv 190. Nycticebus tardigradus, ii 319, 320; Ill 241, 242. Nycticorax griseus, i 179. [320. Nyctipithecus trivirgatus, ii 319, Nymphalide, iil 400. Nymphs, bugs, ili 381. — insects, net-winged, ii 464-465, 466; i 30, 384-385; iv 121, 122, 123. — — straight-winged, ili 378. O Oak, iv 79, 81-82. “Oak-apples”, iv 79. “Oak spangles”, i 372. Obelia, i 478-480. Occipital bone, i 28. — condyles. See Condyles. Ocellus (pl. Ocelli), i 376. Ocelot, iv 429. Ocneria dispar, iv 353, 359. Octactinia, i 474, 476-478; iv ro2. Octobothrium merlangi, iv 200. — pollachii, iv 200, 201 (illust.). Octocoralla, i 476-478. See Sea-F lower, eight-rayed. Octodon degus, i 132 (illust.). Octodons, i 131-132. [410. Octopoda, i 315-316; iii 31-33, 418- Octopus, common, i 315; ii 94; iii 31- 32, 109-110 (illust.), 418. -— musky, il 04. — vulgaris. See Octopus, common. Octopi, i 315; iv 18-19, 56-57, 348; and see Octopus. Ocypoda, arenaria, ii 141. — ceratophthalmus, ii 140-143; iii 171. — macrocera, iv 37. Ocypodide, ii 140; iii 171. Ocypus olens, i 368. Odonata, ii 464-465; ii 383-385. Odontoceti, ii 26. See also Whales, also toothed. Odontoid peg, i 194. Odontophore. See Rasping organ. Odynerus parietum, i 374. — reniformis, iii 392 (illust.). Ccodoma, ii 208-209. 540 Ccophylla smaragdina, iv 115- Cdemia fusca, i 177. (116. — nigra, 1177. Cdicnemus scolopax, i 169; iii 471. stride, iv ror. Estrus ovis, i 358; iv 191. Ogle, iv or. Oil-Birds, ii 188. (454. Oil-gland, of birds, i 140; ili 56-57, Okapi, ii 170-171 (illust.); iii gr. Okapia Johnstoni. See Okapi. “Old-man’s beard”, i 372. Olfactory cells, i 55-56; iv 31-32 — nerves, 1 55~-56 (illust.). ((illust. ). Oligocheta, i 429, 430-431; ii 140; lll 227, 360-361; iv 199-200. Oligoneuria, ii 466. Oliva. See Olive-Shells. Olivella biplicata, iv 324. Olive-Shells, i 321 (illust.); ii 218. Olm, i 249 (illust.); ii 457; ii 48. Omasum, ii 169. See also Digestive organs of mammals, herbivorous. Ommatidium, iv 43. Onager, i 107. Oncea venusta, iv 452. Onchidium, ii 330; ili 414, 415 (illust.), 435. Oniscus murarius, i 415; 11 222. Ontogeny, iii 335. Onuphis conchilega, ii 330. Opelet, i 476. (358-359. Operculum, annelids, ii 258, 339; iii — arachnids, 1 386. — fishes. See Gill-cover. — king-crab, ii 406. (iii 415-416. — molluscs, 1 319; 11 336 (illust.), 460; — moss-polypes, 11 339. Ophidia, i 203, 227-236 Ophidiaster diplex, iii 329 (illust.). Ophiocephalus, ii 451. Ophiuroidea, i 454. See also Brittle- | Stars. (34, 35-36. Opisthobranchia, i 317, 324-326; iii Opisthocomus cristatus, ili 472- 473: IV 431. Opisthoteuthis, iii 33 (illust.). Opossum, Azara’s, ili 480 (illust.). — common, i 69, 138; ili 260 (illust.). — mouse, iii 479. — water, ill 70 (illust.). Opossums, ii 42, 180, 181, 234, 343: ili 255, 260, 478. Opossum-Shrimps, i 410, 412-413 (illust.); ili 365; iv 36 Optic cup, iv 46-47. — lobes, i 149-150, 203; iv 21-22. — nerves, i 58, 149, 151; iv 47. — tracts, i 149. — vesicle, iv 46. Opuntia coccinellifera, iv 260. Oral hood, i 204. Oral papilla, i390. [160. 161, 494 Orang-utan, i 72 (illust.); ti 349: i Orbits, i 57, 71, 80. Orca gladiator, ii 27; iii 85. Orchids, iv 74-75, 36-88 (illust.). Orcynus thynnus, iv 270, 381. Oreotragus saltator, iv 142. Organic selection, iv 492. Oriental Region, iv 413, 414, 424- Oriole, golden, i 155-156. (426. Orioles, i 155-156; ii 309-311 (illust.) Oriolus decipiens, ii 310-311. — galbula, i 155. Ormer, i 307-311 (illust.), 322-323: ii 393-394; iil 412; iv 35. INDEX Ornithopoda, iv 469-470. Ornithoptera, i 362. Ornithorhynchus paradoxus, i 70; li 44; iii 69-70, 475, 477-478; iv 211, 212, 481-482. Orthagoriscus mola, iv 448. Orthoptera, i 351, 380-383; ii 116- 118, 213, 250, 299, 315-316, 327, 359: ill 176-177, 377-380; iv 356-357. — leaping, i 380, 381-383. — running, i 380-381. Orthotomus sutorius, iii 459, 460. Orycteropus capensis, i 136, 137; Oryzorictes, ii 33. [ii 42. Osborn, iv 492. Oscinis frit, iv 351. Osculum, i 484, 486; ili 325, 326, 342. Osgood, Fletcher, iv 353. Osmerus eperlanus, i 282; iv 276. Osmia papaveris, iii 391. Osphradium, i 310-311. Osprey, i 175; ii 48; iv 6r. Ossicles, i 29. — auditory, i 57. Osteoglosside, iv 433. Ostracion quadricornis, i 278; ii 334; iv 340. Ostracoda, 1 410, 419-420; ii 255, 405-406; ill 25, 364. Ostracodermata, iv 463 (illust.). Ostrea, iii 409. — angulata, iv 288. — edulis, i 338; iii 406; iv 288. — Virginiana, iii 405; iv 288. Ostrich, African, i 187, 188 (illust.); ii 367-368; ili 130, 153, 449; iv 5 251. [449. — American, i 187, 188; ill 130, 153. Ostriches, i 188; ii 354; ili 128-132, 153, 186; iv 146. Otaria stelleri, i 08. — ursina, ili 492; iv 304-307. Otaridz. See Sea-Lions. Otis australis, iv 150. — tarda, i170; ii 241-242; iv 150, 377. — tetrax, iv 377. Otocorys alpestris, i 156. Otocysts, iv 33, 34, 35 (illust.), 36, 37, 38. Otolicnus, ii 320 Otoliths, iv 33, 34, 35, 36. Otter, common, i 98; ii 22; ili 76. — feline, ii 23. — sea, ii 23-24; ill 77 (illust.). Otters, i 98; ii 22-24; ii 76-77, 492. Oval window, i 57. Ovary, iii 340; and see Eggs and Egg-producing organs. Oven-Birds, iii 461 (illust.), 464. Ovibos moschatus, i 115. Ovicells, iv 104. Ovipositor, i 370, 372, 377, 382, ii 203, 204 (illust.), 205; iii 379, 3 (illust.), 381, 386-387 (illust.), 3 (illust.); iv 194, 195 (illust.). Ovis argali, iii 186-187, 248. — aries, ii 168; iv 226-229. — Canadensis, i 116. — montana, iii 187. — musimon, i 116; iv 227. — tragelaphus, iv 227. Ovules, iv 8s. Ovulum angulosum, iv 323. — patulum, ii 285. . —uniplicatum, ii 285. Ovum (pl. Ova), ili 335-337. also Egg-cells. See Owl, barn-, i 165; iv 327-328. — burrowing, i 166; iv 135. — fish, i 166. — great-horned or eagle, i 166. — hawk, i 166; ii 319 (illust.). — long-eared, i 165. — pigmy, i 166. — short-eared, 1 165. — snowy, 1 165; ii 279. — tawny or wood-, i 165. Owls, i 152, 165-166; ii 46, 322; Iv 327-328. Ox-bot, i 358. Oxen (and see Cattle), i 109, 113-115; ii 167-169, 225, 352; Iv 224-225. — European, i 114; iv 225. — Hungarian, iv 224 (illust.). Ox-Fly, ii 120. Oxidation, ii 377. Ox-Peckers, ii 62-63 (illust.). Ox-Warble Flies, iv 349 (illust.). Oxyethira costalis, iii 385 (illust.), 386. [420; iv 65-68, 76. Oxygen, i 33, 45: ii 377-380, 382, 383, Oxythyrea funesta, iv 82-83. Oxytricha, iii 88 (illust.). Oxyuris vermicularis, iv 343. Oyster (and see Oysters) : — American, ili 405; iv 288. — common, i 338; ii1 406. — “flat”, iv 288. — pearl-, iv 205, 398 (illust.). — Portuguese, iv 288. (204 Oysters, i 338; ii 398; ili 409; iv 288- — thorny, ii 336; ili 409. Oyster-catcher, i 169; ii 67-68. Oyster-culture, i 15; iv 288-204 Ozothalilia, 11 198. [(illust. ) i Paca, i 133-134. (324. Pachydesma crassatelloides, iv Pachyornis elephantopus, iv 475, 476 (illust.). Pacinian bodies, iv 27 (illust.). Packard, iii 165. Packing cells, i 471. Padus humilis, iv 430. 138, 403. Pagurus Bernhardus, i 412; ii 137- Palearctic Region, iv 412, 413, 414- Palemon, iv 35, 36. (418. — Jamaicensis, ii 137. — serratus, i 412; ii 137, 292, 403; iil 169; iv 298, 299-300. Paleodiscus, iv 459. Palzozoic epoch, iv 457, 458-464 Palingenia horaria, i 375 (illust.). Palinurus vulgaris, i 412; ii 137, 279, 338; ili 368; iv 37. Palisade-Worms, iv 343, 362: see Strongyles. Pallas, ii 140. (334 Pallial line, of bivalve molluscs, 1 331, Palm, i 24, 30-31. See also Hand. Palm-Cat, ii 226-227 (illust.). (227. Palm-Civets, Asiatic, ii 12-13, 226- Palmer Worm, ii 360. Palm-Thief. See Crab, robber-. Palolo viridis, iv 216-217. Palolo Worm, iv 216-217. Palp, i 346. See also Mouth-parts. Paludicella, iii 33x (illust.). Paludina vivipara, i 320; iii 4r4; iv 17-18. Palustra, iii gor. and Pancreas, i 37, 146, 200, 241, 253, 261, Pancreatic juice, i 37. (272. Pancreatin, iv 320. Panda, iv 429. Pandion haliaétus, i 175; ii 48. Pangolin, long-tailed, i 136, (illust.). Pangolins, i ii 42, 295, 333) 342: lil 257. Paniscus cephalotes, i ii 360. Panther, Asiatic, i 88. Panthers, i 87-88. [462. Panyptila Sancti Hieronymi, iii Papilio machaon, i 362. — meriones, ii 312. — merope, ii 312. Papille, of tongue, i 54-55 (illust.). Papillosa, ii roo. Papio babium, i 76. — hamadryas, i 75. — mormon, i 75-76; Parachute, iii 281. — amphibians, iii 288. — arachnids, ili 289. — birds, iii 286. — mammals, ili 282, 283, 284-285, 286. — reptiles, ili 286, 287. (281-2809. “Parachute animals”, ii 327; iii Paradisea apoda, i 154, 155. Paradise Bird, great, i 154, (illust.). Paradise Fish, iii 427; iv 393 (illust.). Paradoxures, ii 12. Paradoxurus typus, ii 226-227. Parakeet. See Parroquet. Parameecium, i 489, 492-493; ii 266, 361-362; ili 5, 6. — caudatum, ili 323-325. Parapandalus spinipes, Parapod, of molluscs, iii 35. Parapods, of annelids. See Foot- stumps. Parasitism, i 18; iv 170, 184-185. — animalcules, iv 78, 206-207, 341, 349, — annelids, iv 199-200. (363. — arachnids, iv 195-196. — birds, iv 185-188. — crustaceans, iv 196-199. — fishes, iv 188. — flukes, iv 200-203, 342, 360, 361. — insects, iv 78-79, 189-196, 356. — molluscs, iv 188-189. — plants, iv 76-77. — tape-worms, i 442-443; iv 203-205, 342-343, 361-362. (363. — thread-worms, iv 78, 205-206, 362- Pareiasaurus, iv 468 (illust.). Parenteau, ii 199, 201. Parietal foramen, i 193, 203. “ Parr’, iii 432. Parra jacana, iii 128, 129. Parroquet, grass, iv 390. — slight-billed, ii 189. Parrot, blue-mountain, ii 191. — gray, i 166; iv 389. — ka-ka, ii I91. — kea, i 166; ii 191 (illust.); iv 347. — owl, i 166-167; ii 189, 319 (illust.), 320. Parrots (and see Parrot), 1 152 166- 167; ii 188-191; iii 265-266; iv 389- — hanging, iii 266. [391- — nestor-, 1 166, — pigmy, ili 266. Parrot-Fish, ii 361; iv 437. Parrotlets, i 166. Partridge, common, i 172; ii 239. — red-legged or French, i 172. 138 iv 145-146. 155 ((illust. ). iv 445 INDEX Parus ater, i 158. — ceeruleus, 1 158. — cristatus, i 158. — major, i 158. — palustris, i 158. Pasang, i 117. [469- she Passer domesticus, i 156; ii 187; — montanus, i 156; ii 187; ili 470. Passeres, i 152-161. See also Perch- ing-Birds. Pastor roseus, i 155. Patagium, iii 292. Patella. See Knee-pan. Patella vulgata, i 323-324; ii 197- 199, 336-337, 395-396, 432-433; il 104, 272, 412, 416-417; iv 42, 57-58. Path-Wasp, i 373; ii 106. Paunch, ii 168. See also Digestive organs of mammals, herbivorous. Pauropoda, i 396, 397-398. Pauropus, i 398. Pavo cristatus, i 172; iv 148. Peacock, i 172; ii 239; iv 148, 149. Pearl-fisheries, iv 398-399. Pearls, iv 205, 398-399. Pearson, Karl, iv 493. Peccary, collared, i 109; ii 233 (illust.); ili 149, 489- — white-lipped, iii 489; iv 334-336. Peccaries, i 109; 11 234, 351; 11 149- 150, 487, 489; iv 141-142, 334-336. Peckham, Dr. and Mrs,, ii 316; iv 55, 56, 166, 168. [(illust. ). Pectanthis asteroides, iii 90 Pecten, i 337, 151; ili 36-37, 409; iv 45-46, 295. — Jacobzus, i 337. Pectinaria, ii 339. Pectinatella, iii 100. -~ gelatinosa, iii 100. Pectines, i 386. Pectoralis major, iii 300. Pectoral muscles, i 149; iii 300. Pedal cords, i 309, 310; iv 16-17. Pedetes caffer, iii 195, 252. Pedicellariz. See Jaw-spines. Pediculus capitis, i 354. Pedipalpi. See Whip-Scorpions. Pedipalps, i 386. See also Mouth- parts. Pedipes, iii 107 (illust.). ((llust.). Peewit, i 169; ii 286; iii 454, 472 Pelagic Zone, iv 435, 448-455. Pelagonemertes, iii 24; (illust. ). Pelagothuria, iii 24 (illust.). Pelamides, ii 28. Pelargonium, iv 94. Pelecanus, ii so. — onocrotalus, i 181. — trachyrhynchus, iii 62. Pelias berus, i 234; ii 80, 282 Pelican, European, i 18r. {ili 307. Pelicans, i t52, 180-181; ii 50 (illust.); Pelican Fish, iv 446 (illust.). Pelvis, iii 119, 120. — amphibians, i 239, 241, 253- — birds, i 144, 145; iii 132. — fishes, i 259, 261. [159. — mammals, i 27, 31, 69; ii 120, 133, — reptiles, i 196, 197, 199. Penguin, blue, i 186; iii 67 (illust.). — emperor, i 186; iii 67. — king, i 186, 187 (illust.). Penguins, i 152, 186, 187; ii 54-55, — crested, iii 186. (329; 1ii 66-67. Pennatula, i 478; iv 102. iv 453 3 Hl 445. 541 Pentacrinus, i 459-461 (illust.). See also Sea-Lilies. Pentastomum tznioides, i 393. Pepsin, iv 320. Pepsis, ii 106. Peptic, or gastric glands, 1 37, 146. Peptone, i 37. Perameles, ii 43; iii 191. Peramelid@, iii 191-192. (381. Perca fluviatilis, i 269-272; ii 84; iv Perch, climbing, ii 451-452 (illust.); ili 116, 272. (381. — common, i 269-272 (illust.); ii 84; iv Perches, i 273; ii 388; iv 197. Perching Birds, i 152-161; iii 261- 263; iv 387-389. “Perching mechanism”, of birds, 1149; ili 261-263. Perch-“ Louse”, iv 197 (illust.). Perdix cinerea, i 172; 11 239. Perez, iv 123. Perga Lewisii, iii 389-390. Pericardium, i 325, 327, 320, 333, 342, 348, 400, 408, 435. Pericheta, iii 227-228. Periophthalmus, ii 448, 450; iii 115- — Keelreuteri, ii 87. (116, 272. — Schlosseri, iii 116. Peripatus, i 342, 392-402 (llust.); it 134, 360, 434-435; iii 101-102, 274, 370; iv 14, 15. Periplaneta Americana, i 343. — orientalis, i 343-350; ii 250, 438; ill 273-274, 378; iv 358. Perissodactyla, i 104-107; iii 137- 147, 487-488; and see Mammais, hoofed. Peristaltic movements, iii 11. Periwinkle, i 318-320 (illust.); ii 196, 459-460; iv 97, 297, 438, 489. Perla bicaudata, i 377. Perlida, ii 116, 463-464. Pernis apivorus. i 17s. Perodicticus potto, ii 320; iii 243. Perognathus fasciatus, i 131. Perris, iv 123. “Persian lamb”, iv 220. Perspiration. See Sweat. Pests, agricultural, i 18, 120; Petauroides volans, iii 286. Petaurus breviceps, iii 285. — sciureus, iii 284-285. Petrels, i 152, 182-183. — storm, i 183; ii 52, 53. Petrogale, ii 182. — xanthopus, iii 479. Petromyzon, ii 384. — branchialis, i 291. — fluviatilis, i 291; ii gr; — marinus, i 291; ii gt-92; — Planeri, iii 423. Pettigrew, iii 68, 81, 131. Phacocheerus thiopicus, i 108. — Africanus, 1 100. Phaéthon, i 182; iii 62. — zthereus, i 182. Phagocytes, ii 260. Phalacrocorax Capensis, ii 48. — carbo, i 181; ii 48; ill 63, 64, 471. — graculus, i 181; ii 48; iti 63-64. Phalenopsis Schilleriana, iv 86- 8 (illust.). Phalanger, common, iii 259 (illust.). — long-snouted, ii 181-182 (illust.); iv 89. Phalangers, ii 180-182, 234, 322; ii 258-259. (359. iv 3497 iil 423: Iv iil 42° 3 542 Phalangers ae — flying, ii 2 — — squirrel, 1 are Phalanges, sing. Phalanx (and see Digits): — birds, i 146. — mammals, i 31, 32; ili 84. — reptiles, 1 198. Phalangistide, ii 180-182. Phalangium opilio, i 390. Phalarope, grey, i 169 (illust.), 170; —- red-necked, i 169. iil 127-128, Phalaropus fulicarius, i 169; ii 127, — hyperboreus, 1 169. (128. Phallusia mammillata, i 2096 (illust. }. Phallus impudicus, iv 98. Pharyngeal bones, lower, i 276. Pharynx, annelids, 1 427, 429, 430- —ascidians, i 297, 298; li 245, 246, 389-390. — flat-worms, i 445, 446; 1 151, 152. lancelet, ii 389, 390. mammals, 1 34-35. molluscs, 1 308. nemertines, ii 391. — wheel-animalcules, i 435. Phascolarctos cinereus, 101; ll 259-260, 479. Phascolomyida, ii 183; 111 480. Phascolomys. See Phasculumyide. Phasianella, iii 106. Phasianus Colchicus, i 172; i Phasmid@, ii 359: 11 378-379. Pheasant, Amherst’s, iv 148. — Argus, iv 148. — common, 1 172. — gold, 1172; — silver, 1172. ii 180, iv 148. Pheasants, i172; ii 239; ili 300 ilust.). Pheasant-Shells, iii 106. Phelsuma Andamanense, ii 268 Phenacodus, iv 472, 473 (illust.). Phengodes Hieronymi, iv 165. Phidippus morsitans, iv 168. Phileanus spumarius, ii 217. Philemon Timorlaoensis, 11 310- Philepitta, iv 423. (gur. Philhetzrus socius, iii 463. Philine aperta, i 324; ii 100 Philodina roseola, i 435; ii 262; iil 100. liv 477 Philosophical Zoology, i 16-17, 19: Phoca Caspica, iv 313. — Greenlandica, i 99; 1 — Sibirica, iv 313. — vitulina, i 99. (26-27. Phoceena communis, i 100-101; ii Phocide. See Seals, true. Pheenicopterus roseus, iii 460, 461; iv 377, 378. Pholadidea, iii 410. Pholas dactylus, i 335, 336; ili 221, Phoraspis, ii 315. [409-410. Phormosoma luculenta, iii 94-95. Phryganea grandis, i 375 (illust.). — striata, iii 385 (illust.), 386. Phryganeide. Sce Caddis-Flies. Phrynosoma cornutum, i Phrynus, i 389: iii 160. Phyllirhoé, i 326; iii 36. Phyllomedusa Jheringi, iii 437. Phyllopertha horticola, i 368. Phyllopoda, i 410, 421-422; li 255- 256, 405; ii 362-303. — gill-footed, 1 421-422. Phyllopteryx eques, 11 296; iv 75. iv 223; (392. | Pilidium, iii 419 (illust.). INDEX Phylloscopus rufus, i 160; iii 185. — sibilatrix, 1 160. — trochilus, i 160. [ii 39, 40. Phyllostoma spectrum, i 82-83; Phyllostomata, i 82-83. Phylloxera vastatrix, i 353; ii 217; Phylogeny, iii 335. [iv 350. Physalia, ii 161-162; iv 344. Physeter macrocephalus, ii 29; Physics, i 4, 17. [iv 316, 317. Physignathus Lesueuri, iii 53. Physiological selection, iv 489. Physiology, standpoint of, i 13. Physophora hydrostatica, 1 161, 162 (illust. ). Physostomi, i 273, 280-284. Phytophthora infestans, iv 76. Phytoptus ribis, iv 360. — vitis, 1 218. Picarie, i 152, 161-165. Picarian Birds, i 152, 161-165. Pica rustica, i 153. Piscicola, iv 200 (illust. ). Pisciculture, i 18; iv 284-288. Pisidium, iti 407. Pissodes, iv 355. Pitcher Plants, iv 70-72. Pithecia Satanas, i 78; iii 240, 241- Placoid scales, i 12-13, 259, 261, Placula, iii 338, 339. (288. Placuna placenta, iv 324. Plagiolepis, ii 206. Plaice, i 279; ii 291-292; Plan, of work, i 17-19. Planaria gonocephala, ili 7 (illust.). — lactea, i 445 (illust.). [269. lil 432; iv Planarian worms, i 441, 445-447, 483; ii 151-152, 271, 308, 361, 445— 446; ili 7, 20-21, 32 9 iV 41, 440. — land forms, i 446; ii 152. Planes minutus, ii 140. Plankton, i 420; ii 29, 330; iv 283- 284, 435, 449-455, 459- (414. Planorbis corneus, i 328; ii 434; iii Picid@, 111 264-265. Plantain-Eater, African, iii 263 Picucules, iii 463-464 (illust.). Piculets, ii 264. 4to (illust.). | Plantigrade feet structure, am- Piddocks, i 335 (illust.); ii 221, 4o9- phibians, iii raz. Pieride, i 361-362; 11 312; and see | — insects, iii 166. Pieris. Pieris brassicae, i 362; ii 214; il 309- 400; iv 161, 162, 194, 352. — napi, i 362; — rapz, i 362; i Pigeon, blue meet i 139-152, 167; 352. — mammals, i 94 (illust.); ili 135-136, 155, 156, 158, 162. Plant-Lice. See Aphides. Plants, association of animals and, iv carnivorous, iv 68-74. (74-76. classification of, iv 64. 186; iv 250-251, 487 (illust.). — defences of, iv 80-83, 90-95. — crowned, i 167 (illust.); i1 185 — dispersal of, by animals, iv 95-98. — nutmeg,, i 186. (illust.’. | — food of, i 33, 488; li 3, 270-274; iv —wood-, i 167; ii 185, 286; ill 4 — parasitism, iv 76-77. (65-74. Pigeons, i 130-152 (illust.); 11 184, 185- pollination of, iv 83-90. 186; iii 286 (illust.), 304, 305 (illust.), | — relation between nutrition of ani- 470-471; iV 250-251, 487 (illust.). mals and, iv 68-74. [353- — ‘fruit"-, ii 185-186. Planula (pl. Planulee), iii 342, 350, — ground-, 11 185. — tree-, ii 185-186. “ Pigeon’s milk *, 1151; Pigs, i 67, 105, 108-10 ; i 487, 488-489; iv 98, 204, Pika, Sibenian: 1 125 (illust.). Pikas, i 125; and see Calling-Hares. Pike, bony, ii 334. ((llust.), 381. -—— common, i 282; ii 84; iv 348, 380 Pikes, i 282. Pilchard, 1 283: ill 470-471. 351; lv 265. “Pill Bugs”, ii 342. Pillow-Fish, ii 306. Pimpla instigator, iv 194. Pindar, iv 247. Pine Marten, i 08; ii 22. Pineal body, i 203. — eye, 1 203; iv 47 (illust.), 48. Pinguicula, iv 68. Pinna. See Ear-flap. Pinnipedia (see also Sea-Lions, Wal- ruses, and Seals), i 86, 98-99; 1 24- 25, 329; 111 77-86, 492. Pinnules, i 459; i 26s. Pintail, i 176. Piophila casei, iii 178; Pipa Americana, iii 50, Pipe-Fish, iii 427. great, 1277; ill 427. Pipit, meadow, i 157. - Richard's, i 157. — rock, 1157. — tree, i157. Pipride, iv iv 351. 441, 442. 31. Plasma, 1 38, 42, 147, 428, 469. Plasmodiophora brassice, iv 78: lv 363. Plastron, of turtles and tortoises, i 214, 217, 218, 220; il 334. | Platalea leucolodia, i 180. Platanista Gangetica, ii 28-20. “Plate Beaver”, iii 74. Platyhelmia, i 304, 441-447; and see Flat-Worms. Platypus, duck-billed. See Duck- Mole. Plecotus auritus, i 82. Plectognathi, i 273, 277-278. Plectrophenax nivalis, i 156. Plesiosauria, iv 468, 469. Pleurobranchus membranaceus, il 306. Pleuronectes flesus, iv 269. — hmanda, iv 269. — microcephalus, iv 270. — platessa, i 279; iv 360. Pleuronectida, See }lat-Fishes. Pliny, iv 245, 369, 389, 399. Plotus, ii 49; iii 64. Ploughshare bone, i 144; ili 202 (illust.), 298. (455; iv 61-62. Plover, golden, i 169 (illust.); iti q54— — — American, iii 30s. — grey, 1 160. — Kentish, 1 169; it 286; iti 453. — ringed, i 169; ii 286; iv 133 (illust.). Plovers, i 152, 168-169; ii 67-68, 296; ili 465; iv 377, 423. Plumatella, i 437; ii 261; iti 337. Plumbago, iv 93. Plume coralline, i 437. Plum-‘‘ Spider ”, red, iv 360. Plumularia, i 480. Plunkett, Sir Horace, iv 246. Plusia gamma, i 364; ili 4o1; iv Plutarch, iv 239. [352. Plutella cruciferarum, iv 352. Pluteus (pl. Plutei), iti 355, 356. Pneumatic duct, ii 452. Pneumoderma, iv 451. Pochard, i 176; iii so. Pocillopora favosa, i 475 (illust.). Pocket-Gopher, common, i 131. Pocket-Mouse, banded, i 131. — common, iii 193-194 (illust.). Podargus, iv 428. Podicipes, i 185; iv 308. — auritus, i 185. — cristatus, i 185. — fluviatilis, 1 185; — griseigena, i 185. — nigricollis, i 185. Podura aquatica, i 384. -— villosa, iii 176. Poe, iv 408. Pogonomyrmex barbatus, ii 208. Pogy, iv 318. Pointer, iv 367 (illust.), 368. ili 65-66, 457. [(illust. ). Poison-bag, echinoderms, ii 361 — fishes, ii 356-357 (illust.). — insects, iv 118. (234. Poison fangs, of reptiles, i 224, 230, Poison-glands, amphibians, ii 355. — arachnids, 1 386, 388, 391; ii 125, = echinoderms, 1 1458. {126. — insects, it 105, 358. — molluscs, ii 97, 357- — myriapods, i 394; ii 133. — nemertines, ii 93. (355; iv 338. — reptiles, 1 224, 230, 234; li 80, 354- Poison-spines, of echinoderms, ii 361 (illust.). — of fishes, ii 305-306, 355-357 (illust. ). Polar bodies, iii 336-337 (illust.). Pole-Cat, i 97-98; ii 22. Pole-Cats, water-, ii 22; and see Visons. Polian vesicles, iii 92. Political Economy, i 17. Pollack, iv 200. (92. Pollen, iv 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, “Pollen basket”, of bees, iv 254 (illust. ). Pollination, of flowers, iv 83-90. Polyacanthus viridiauratus, iii 4273 iV 393- Polyborus tharus, ii 303. Polycheta, i 429-430; 11 146, 408; ili — free-living, 1 429. [22 — sedentary, i 429-430. Polycirrus aurantiacus, ii 380. Polyclades, ii 151, 152. Polydesmus complanatus, i 396. Polyergus rufescens, i 373. Polygordius, i 431-432; ili 99, 350- Polylophus, iii 326. [360. Polynema gracilis, iv 194. — natans, ili 28-29. Polynoé, i 429; ii 408. Polynoids, ii 408; ili 358. Polyommatus alexis, i 362. Polype, freshwater, i 465-473 (illust.); li 160, 271-272; ili 2, 10 (illust.), 327, 328, 339-341. Polypterus, i 266-268; ii 334, 421, 453. Polyrhachis, iv 115. Polystomella imperatrix, iv 454. INDEX Polystomum integerrimum, iv 201. [(illust. ). Polyxenia cyanostylis, iv 33 Polyzoa, i i 436-438; il 261, 339, 410- 411; ili 7, 8, 99-100, 330-331; iv 104- 105. Polyzonium Germanicum, iii 373. Pomatoceros triqueter, ii 258. Pompilius exaltatus, i 373. — viaticus, ii 106. Pond-Skater, i 354; 440; ili 29 (illust.). Pontobdella, iii 361. Pony (and see Horses): — Norwegian, iv 235-236 (illust.). — Shetland, iv 237, 238 (illust.). Porbeagles, i 286. Porcellana platycheles, iii 368. ii 123 (illust.), Porcupine, Brazilian tree-, ili 253, 255 (illust.). — brush-tailed, i 132. — Canadian tree-, i 132; ili 253. — common, i 132; ii 342. Porcupines, i 64, 125, 131-135; i 178, 3335 i 252-253. Porcupine Worm, ii 339. Porcus babirussa, i 109; iii 488. Porgana marnetta, i 171. Porifera. See Sponges. Pork “measles”, i 443. Porpoise, i i 67, 100-101 (illust.); 11 26; iii 490-491. Porschinsky, ii 315. Portal circulation, i 41, 202. — vein, i qr. Porte croix, i 390. Porthesia aurifiua, ii 360. Portuguese Man-of-war, ii 161- 162; iv 344. Posterior nares, i 46, 147. Potamides, iii 417. [108. Potamocherus penicillatus, i Potamogale velox, ii 35; ii 72. Potato-Fungus, iv 76. Potato plant, iv 76. — thrips, i 355 (illust.). Potto, Bosman’s, iii 243 (illust.), 244. Pottos, ii 320. (479. Pouch, of marsupials, iii 193, 206, 478- Pouched-Bear, ii 259- 260, 479. Pouched-Jerboa, iti 192. Pouched “Lion”, iv 474. Pouched mammals. See Mammals. Pouched-Mole, ii 43 (illust.), 328-329; iil 206-207. Pouched-Rats, i 130-131; 193, 204-205; iv 418. Poulpe. See Octopus. Poulton, ii 286, 293, 294, 297, 300, 303, 305, 314, 359: ii 399; Iv 160, 162. Poultry-Louse, pale, ii 111. Power, Madame Jeanette, iv 57. Poyou, 1 137 (illust.). Pracellodomus sibilatrix, iii 464. “Prairie Dog”. See Prairie-Mar- mot, common. Prairie-Marmot, Columbian, iv 135. — common, i 126-127 (illust.); ii 367; — Mexican, iv 135. [iv 135. Pratincola rubetra, 1 160. — rubicola, i 160. Pratincole, i 169. Prawn, sop, ii 292-293, 294. : — common, 1 412; ll 137, 292, 403; ML 169; iv 298 (illust.), 299-300. — freshwater, ii 253-254. — Jamaica, ii 137. iil 192- 543 Prawns, iii 27, 365; iv 35, 36, 444- 445 (illust. ). Praying -Insects, i 381; and see Mantis, praying-. Preformation, doctrine of, iii 336. Premolars, i 36. See also Teeth. Priapulus, ii 410 (illust.). | Primates, i 68, 70-79. See also Man, Apes, and Monkeys. Prionocrangon ommatosteres, iv 445 (illust.). Prionodura, iv 407. Pristis antiquorum, i 288; ii 89. Proboscidea. See Elephants. Proboscis, of acorn-headed worm, ili 215, 210. — elephants, i 102; ii 171-172. — insects, 1 359, 363; li 205, 206, 214, — molluscs, i 320, 339. {2rs. — nemertines, i 305-306; ii 93. — siphon-worms, i 433; li 150. --— tapirs, 1 105. Proboscis-Bear, ii 229, 230 (illust.). | Proboscis-sheath, of nemertines, i 305-306. Procavia Abyssinica, i 104; ili 250. — arborea, ili 250. — Syriaca, i 104. Procellaria pelagica, i 183. Proctotretus multimaculatus, ii 344-345- (247. Procyon lotor, i 94; ii 229-230; iii Proéchidna, i 70; iii 475. Proglottides, iv 204. Pro- -legs, i 360, 361, 362, 365; il 314; ili 102, 103. Proneomenia, i 341 (iJlust.). Prongbucks, i 109, 112-113; iii 151 (illust. ). (34-35. Prosobranchia, i 317, 318-324: iii Prosopistoma, ii 466 (illust.) ; iii 30. Prosthiostomum, ii 152. Prostomium, iii 359; iv 32. Proteas, iv 89. Protection of eggs and young, 118; ili 349, 362. —amphibians, ili 434-435, 438-439, 440-441, 442, 443+ — annelids, i 8, 361. peach aides ill 373-374, 375- — Virds, iii 448, 449, 451-452 453» 454s 457, 464-474; iv 60 (368 — crustaceans, ili 362-363, 365, 367- — echinoderms, iii 355, 356-357- — fishes, ill 423, 424, 426-430. 378, 379, 380, 381, 383, 387-388, 389-390, 391-392, 394-396, 4oo, 402; Iv 56, 115, 118, 120, 126, 256. — mammals, i 65; ili 474-475, 478-480, 481, 482-483, 485, 486, 488, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494 — molluscs, iii gog, 405-406, 412-413, 414, 417-418 — myriapods, iii _ peripatus, i — reptiles, ili 444, 445, 446, 447- -- zoophytes, ili 350, 352-353- Protective mimicry. See Mimicry. Protective resemblance (see also Masking and Mimicry), ii 278, 282- 283, 285, 289, 294-295, 300. — amphibians, ii 291. — arachnids, ii 299-300. — ascidians, ii 278. — birds, it 279, 281, 290, 297-296; iil 450, 453, 471; lv 132-134. 363, 364, 436-437, 382- 3935 117, — insects, ili 477> 487. 544 Protective resemblance (Cowz.) — birds (Conz.) — — eggs and young, ii 285-286. — crustaceans, ii 278, 279, 292-293. — fishes, ii 283-284, 291-292, 296. — insects, ii 282, 286-287, 293-294, 296-300; ili 399; iv 160, 161-162. — mammals, ii 18, 279, 289-290, 295; ii 488. — molluscs, ii 278, 285, 287-289, 292, — reptiles, ii 281-282, 290-291. (296. — zoophytes, ii 278. Proteids. See Albuminoids. Proteles Lalandii, i 91-92; ii 15s. Protelide, i 87, 91-92; and see Pro- teles. Proterospongia, iv 100-101 (illust. ). Proteus anguineus, i 249; ii 457; ili 48. Proteus animalcule, i 488-491; i 268-269, 418; ili 2, 6, 231, 318-319; lv 4-5. Protochordata, i 60, 292-301. See also Lancelet, Ascidians, and Acorn- headed Worm. Protohydra, i 480. Protomolluscs, i 311, 339-341; 391-392; lll 222, 404-405; 1V 16-17, Protomyxa, i 497, 498. (215. Protoplasm, i 39, 43-44, 469, 484, 487-488, 490, 492, 498; 11 1-3, 260, 268, 270, 379; M11; 1V 1-3, 449, 484. Protopterus, i 264, 265; i 83, 456. Prototheria, i 69-70. See Mam- mals, egg-laying. Prototracheata. Sce Peripatus. Protozoa, i 304, 487-499; 11 163, 266- 270, 272-274, 341, 301- ili 2, 4, 5, 6, 8-9, 88-89, 333-335; IV 40, 49, 7 77, 99-101, 206-207, 363, 449) 453) 454-455) 455) — ameeba-like, 1 492, 495-498. [464- Proventriculus, i 146. Prussic acid, ii 360. Psalter, ii 169. See also Digestive organs of mammals, herbivorous. Psammodromus Hispanicus, ii Psephurus, i 268. (446. Pseudobranch, i 263: ii 386. Pseudobranchus striatus, iii 40. Pseudoceros velutinus, ii 308. Pseudopods, of animalcules, i 490, 495, 496; ii 268-269, 279; ili 2, 3, 4; iv 4-5. Pseudoscorpionide, i 387, ili 265-266. Psittacus erithacus, i 166; iv 389. Psocus fasciatus, i 379. Psolus ephippifer, iii 357. Psopheticus stridulans, iv 37. Psychide, iii 4oo. Psychology, i 17. Psychropotes, ii Ptarmigan, i 172; 134 (illust.). Pteranodon, iii ; iv 471. Pterasteride, iii 356. Pteridophyta, iv 64. Pteroceras, ii 336. Pterodactylus, iv 470-471 (illust.). Pteromalus pontiz, iv 194. — puparum, iv 194. Pteromys petaurista, iii 282-283. Pteronarcys, ii 464 (illust.). Pterophorus pterodactylus, i 366. 6 (illust.). ii 2go (illust.); iv INDEX Pteropoda, i 325-326; ii 278; ili 35- 36, 412; IV 451. Pteropus, i 81-82; ii 321; iv 212. — edulis, i 82; iii 245. Pterosaur, paddle-tailed, iii 308-309 (illust. ). (471. Pterosauria, iii 292, 308-309; iv 470- Pterotrachea, i 321; ii 9g (illust.) ; iv 35 (illust.). Pteryle, i 142. [155. Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus, i Ptinide, iv 355. Ptyodactylus homolepis, iii 268. Pubis, i 145. Puff Adder, ii 80, 303-304; iv 339. Puffin, common, i 184; iti 66. Puffins, i 184; ii 53. Pug Dog, i 383, 38, (illust.). Pulex irritans, i 358; ii 122; iii 178. Pulicidz. See Fleas. Pulmonary artery, i 40-41. Pulmonata, i 317, 324, 326-328; ii 10C, 330, 461-462. Pulsating vacuole, i 491, 493, 494, 496; il 419. Pulvillus, iii 274-275, 276. Pulvinaria ribesia, iv 351. Puma, i 88; ii 9 (illust.), 10; ili 247. Pupa (pl. Pupe): — beetles, i 367; iii 394 (illust.); iv 192. — bugs, ili 381. — flies, two-winged, i 356, 357; ii 442 (illust.), 468 \illust.); iii go2 (illust.), 403-404 (illust.); iv gr (illust.). — insects, membrane-winged, i 370, 371, 372; ili 387, 388, 389, 391; iv I10, 112, 115, 117, 118, 120, 177, 195, 255, 256. — — net-winged, i 377, 378, 379; ili 6. s and butterflies, i 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 365; 111 399-400 (illust.), gor (illust.), go2 (illust.). Pupil, of mammals, i 58, 93, 94. “Pure cultures”, i 4. Purple-Shell, i 320-321; ii 96-97 (illust.), 394-395; ili 412 (illust.), 416; iv 348. Purpura lapillus, i 320-321; ii 97, 394-395; ili 412, 416; iv 348. Putorius ermineus, i 98; ii 2 — foetidus, i197; ii 22; iv 369. — lutreolus, iii 76; iv 304. — Sibiricus, iii 76. — vison, iii 76; iv 304. — vulgaris i 98; ii 21, 290. Pycnogon, shore, i 424 (illust.). Pycnogonida, i 343, 424; iv 447 (illust. ). Pycnogonum littorale, i 424. Pygera bucephala, i 363-364; ii 299. Pygopodes, i 152, 183-185; ili 64-65. Pygopus lepidopus, i 222. Pylocheles, iv 446-447. Pyloric ceca, i 272. Pyloric sac, i 453. Pyrosoma, i 300; iv 106. — gigantea, iv 106. Pyrrhocorax graculus, i 154. Pyrrhula Europea, i 156. Python, Indian (molurus), i 231, 232 (illust.). 395 — mo — West African (sebx), i 231, 232 (illust. ). Pythons, i 232: ii 79, 320; ill 270, 445. Pythonomorpha, iv 469. Q Quadrate bone, i 143, 193, 206, 215, Quadrumana, iii 253. (237. Quadrupeds, i 8. Quail, i 172; ii 239. Quercus pubescens, iv 81-82. Querquedula crecca, iii 58. —_ quetta, 1176. Quill-feathers, i 142-143 (illust.), 153, 155, 156, 157, 158, 163, 173, 178, 182, 186; ili 296-297, 301. R Rabbit, i 9, 124 (illust.); ii 174-176, 324, 325, 345-346, 366-367; ili 11, 12, 202, 482; iv 140, 141, 243-244, 308, 346, 375, 386. — angora, iv 243, 244 (illust. ). — chinchilla, iv 243. Raccoon, common, i 94 (illust.); ii Rachis, i 142. (229-230; ili 247. Radiale, i 144, 197, 198, 252; ili 299. Radial vessels. See Ambulacral vessels. Radiates (Radiata), i rr. Radiolaria, i 496; ii 341; iv 76, 77, 453) 4545 458. Radiolarian ooze, i 496. Radius, i 30, 144, 196, 197, 241, 251, 252; ili 118, 134, 141, 149, 158, 237, 299. Radula, pl. Radule (see also Rasp- ing organ), i 310; ii 95, 96, 97, 196, Radula sac, i 310; ii gs. [198. Raia batis, i 288; ii 386; iii 424; iv 278. — clavata, i 288; ii 334; iv 278. Rail, land-, i 171; ii 240 (illust.), 343- — water-, i171; ii 344. (344, 368. Rails, i 152, 171; ii 240, 343-344, 368; ili 61-62, 186. Rallus aquaticus, i 171. Ramulina globulifera, iv 454. Rana Catesbyana, i 254; ili 50. — esculenta, i 254; iii 50; iv 153. — Guppyi, i 255. — temporaria, i 249; ii 82, 192-194, 201, 422-423, 457-458; ili so, 182- 184, 436-437. {iti 383. Ranatra linearis, i 354; ii 124, 440; Rangifer tarandus, i 111; iii 152; iv 219. Ranide, i 254. Raphides, iv 8o. Raphidia ophiopsis, i 377. Rasores, ii 238. Rasping organ, of molluscs, i 308- 310, 311, 339; ii 94-96 (illust.), 97, 99, 196, 247, 248. Rat, black, i127; and see Rats. — common or brown, i 127; iv 375. —water-. See Vole, water-. Rats, 1 127; ii 234, 321; iv 346, 347. See also Mole-Rats, Pouched- Rats, &e. Ratite, i 152, 186-190; ii 243; ili 128- 132, 449-450. Rat-Kangaroos, ii 182. “Rat-tailed Maggot”, ii 216, 441, 442 (illust.). “Rattle”, i 235; ii 304 (illust.). Rattlesnake, i 234-235 (illust.); ii 80 (illust.), 304 (illust.); iv 135, 339. See also Frogs. Raven, i 153; ii 235, 236, 237; iv 96, Ray, John, i 9. [130, 347) 408. Ray, thornback, i 288 (illust.); ii 334: — whip-, i 288. [iv 278 (illust.). Rays, i 257, 284, 287-290; ii go, 385- 387; Ill 44, 424-425; iv 204, 278, 348. — eagle-, 1 288; ii go (illust.); iii 44 (illust.). [(illust. ). — electric, i 290 (illust.); ii go, or — sting, i 288-290; ii 356, 357; iv 205. — true, i 288. Ray-Animalcule, i 496; iv 76, 77 (illust.), 449 (illust.), 453, 454, 458. Ray Lankester, 1 400; iv 282, 325. Razorbill, common, i 184 (illust.); iii 66. Razor-Shells, i 355 (illust.); iii 220 (illust.}; iv 215. Reason, i 52; iv 53. Réaummr, iii 388. Recapitulation, law of, i 14; ii 9, 15, 29, 394; lil 118-119, 142-143, 321, 3357336, 337-339, 348, 432: iv 482. Rectal gills, ii 464. See also Gills, of insects. Rectrices, i 143; iii 297. See also Feathers. Rectum, ii 464-465, 466. (128. Recurvirostra avocetta, iii 127- Redia (pl. Rediz), i 444. Red-Mullet, plain, iv 271. — striped, iv 27: (illust.). Red-Mullets, iv 271-272. Red- or Forked-Worn, iv 362. Redpole, lesser, i 156. — mealy, i 156. “Red-Spider ”, i 393; ii 218, 443. Red-spotted Bluethroat, i 160. Redstart, i 160. — black, i 160. [190. Reduvius personatus, ii 123; iv Redwing, i 160. Reed, ii 169. Reed-fish, i 266, 268 (illust.); ii 453. Reeve, iv 322. Reeves, W. H., iv 292. Reflex actions, iv 9 (illust.), 24, 33, 34, 49, 50. Regeneration, biological: amphibians, iii 332. — annelids, ii 374-375; ili 329. — birds, iii 332. — crustaceans, il 374; ili 331-332. — echinoderms, i 454; iii 328-329. — flat-worms, ili 329. — mammals, ili 332. — moss-polypes, iii 331. — reptiles, ii 371; ili 332. — sponges, iii 325, 326. — zoophytes, iii 328. Regulus cristatus, i 160. — ignicapillis, i 260. Reindeer, i 111-112; ili 152; iv 218, 21g (illust. ). “Reindeer Age”, i 112. Remiges, i 143; iii 296. See also Feathers. Rengger, iv 146. Rennin, ii 169. Reptiles, i 60, 191-237; ii 70-81, 191- 192, 281-282, 290-291, 303-304, 311, 320, 333; 344-345, 354-355, 370-371, 424-426 ; ili 50-56, 110-111, 121-124, 184-185, 207-212, 267-272, 286-287, 308-309, 332, 443-448; iv 29-30, 47, 48, 151-152, 214, 317, 328, 336-337, 348, 378, 391-392, 395-396, 417, 419, INDEX Reptiles (Couz.) 421, 425, 428, 432, 437, 463-464, 467- 47%. — extinct, ii 328, 329-330; ill 124, 292, 308-309 (illust.); iv 463-464, 467-471 — flying. See Extinct. [(illust.). — terrible. See Dinosaurs. — toothless, i 212-221. See also Turtles and Tortoises. — varied-toothed, iv 467-468. Respiratory organs. See Breath- ing organs. Respiratory trees, of echinoderms, li 414; ili 96, 97. Retepora, i 437 (illust.). Reticulum, ii 168. See also Diges- tive organs of mammals, herbivo- rous. Retina, i 58. Retinaculum, iii 312. [99- Retractor muscles, i 334, 438; iii Retropinna Richardsoni, iv 275. Reversion, iv 488. Rhabdites, ii 36r. Rhabdoceeles, ii 151, 152. Rhabdophora, iv 458-459. Rhacophorus pardalis, iii 287-288. — Reintwardti, ii 319, 323; ili 288. — reticulatus, iii 441-442. — Schlegeli, iii 439. Rhamphastide, ii 186-187. Rhamporhynchus, iii 308-309. Rhea, common (Americana), i 188. — Darwin’s (Darwini), i 188. — long-billed (macrorhynca), i 188. Rheas, i 188 ; ii 243; iii 130, 153, 449. Rhina squatina, i 286-287. Rhinoceros, common or black (bicor- nis), i 106 (illust.); ii 350; iii 138-139, 140. [350; iii 139 (illust.). — Indian (unicornis), i 106 (illust.); ii — white (sinus), iii 138. Rhinoceroses, i 64, 105-106; ii 350; ili 138-140, 488; iv 334, 373- Rhinoderma Darwini, iii 440-441 (illust.). Rhinolophus ferrumequinum, i 83. — hipposideros, i $3. (83. Rhinopoma microphyllum, i 82- Rhizocrinus, iv 446. Rhizomys, iii 204. Rhizopoda, i 492, 495-498; ii 268- 270, 341. See also Animalcules. Rhodeus amarus, ii 452 (illust.). Rhodites rose, i 372: ii 204-205. Rhombus levis, iv 268. — maximus, i 279; ili 431-432; iv 268. Rhopailia, iv 41 (illust.). Rhopalocera, i 360-362. See also Butterflies. Rhyacophilides, ii 116. Rhynchites betula, iii 394-396. Rhynchocephala, i 203, 236-237; iii 56, 444; iv 410, 464, 467. Rhynchodesmus terrestris, ii 446. Rhynchops, ii 52. Rhynchosuchus Schlegeli, i 212. Rhyssa, iv 195. Rhytina, ii 173-174. Ribs, amphibians, i 239. — birds, i 144-145. — fishes, i 261. — mammals, i 29, 46. — reptiles, i 194-195, 206, 237; ii 424; lil rro-111, 287. Rice-Bird, i 156. Richardia Athiopica, iv 80. 545 Ridley, H. N., iii 483. Rimula, ii 394. Ring-muscle, ii 171. Ring-Ousel, i 160. Rissa tridactyla, i 168; iii 455, 456. Ritzema Bos, ii 235, 347; iv 326, 328, 358. River-Shrew, African, ii 35° River-Worm, red, 1 431; iv 203-204. Roach, i 282; ii 449 (illust.), 450. Robin Redbreast, i 160; iii 185; iv Robinson, Louis, iii 234. [96. Rock-Badgers. See Conies. Rock-borers, i 335. Rock Goby, i 275. “Rock Hoppers”, iii 186. Rock-Kangaroos, ii 182. Rock-Lobster. See Lobster. Rock-Wallaby, yellow-footed, iii 479 (illust.). Rodentia, See Mammals, gnawing. Rods and Cones, i 58; iv 47. Rolliing-up habit, ii 341-342. Rolt, H. A., iv 379. Romanes, ii 154, 324; ili 19, 95, 115, 234; iv 385, 4or, 478, 488, 489, 494. Rondeletius, iv 315. Rook, i 153 (illust.); ii 235, 2364illust.), 354; ill 185, 186, 463; iv 130-132 (illust.), 348. Rorqual, ii 29; iii 85. Rose-bedeguars, i 372. Rose chafer, i 368, 369 (illust.). Ross, iv 207, 341. Rotalia, i 489 {illust.); iii 6. Rotatoria. See Wheel-Animalcules. Rotifer (and see Wheel-Animalcules): — crown, ii 262 263 (illust.). — flower, ii 263. — rose-coloured, 1 434-435 (illust.); ii 262; ili roo (illust.). Rotifera, i 304, 434-435; and see Wheel-Animalcules. Round-mouths, i 257, 291-292; ii 91-92, 383-385; iii 423; iv 278-279. Round-Worm, i 447-448 (illust.); iv Roy, iii 307. (343. Rozites gongylophora, ii 209. Ruff, i 169; iv 147. Rumen, ii 168. See also Digestive organs of mammals, herbivorous. Rumia crategata, i 364; ii 297-298: iii 102. Ruminants (see also Mammals, hoofed), i 29, s0g-122; ii 351-354, 365-366; ill 150-153, 489-490. — “‘hollow-horned”, i113; ii 352. Running Birds, i 152, 186-187; ii 243, 354, 367-368; ill 128-132, 449- 450; iV 475-476. {iii 248. Rupicapra tragus, i 117; ii 365-366; Ruthenica, iv 82. Ruticilla phenicurus, i 160. — tithys, i 160. S Sabella, ii 339, 409. Sabellaria, i 430; ii 339. Sable, American, iv 303. — Russian, i 98; iii 156 (illust.); iv 303. Saccopharynx pelecanoides, iv 446. Sacculina, iv 197-199 (illust.). Sacral vertebre, i 27, 144, 194, 239. 546 Sacrum, i 27, 31, 144, 241, 257; iil 82, 84, 120, 125, 133. Saddle-Oysters, iii 408-409 (illust.). Sagitta, iii 21 (illust.); iv 42. Saitis pulex, iv 166-167 (illust.). Sajous, i 76-77. Saki, black, i 78; iii 240, 241 (illust.). Sakis, i 76, 78. Salamander, black, i 245; ili 436. — giant, i 247; ii 457; iii 48. — Mississippi, i 248; ii 456-457; iil 48. —siren, i 249; ii 457; ili 48-49, 213 — spectacled, ii 423. ((illust.). — spotted, i 238-245 (illust.); 1183, 304; ili 46-47 (illust.), 436. — three-toed, 1 248; ili 48, 435. Salamanders, i 245, 247-249; ii 423, 456-457; ill 46-49. — fish, 11 83; ili 48. Salamandra atra, 1 245; ili 436. — maculosa, i 238-245; ii 83, 304; ili 40-47, 436. (435: Salamandrella Keyserlingi, iii Salamandrina perspicillata, ii Saliva, i 36, 37; ii 212-213. (423. — of insects, iv 122, 124, 125. Salivary glands, i 36 (illust.); ii 168. Salix, iv 89. Sallust, 9 Salmo fario, i 282; iv 275-276, 379. — salar. See Salmon. Salmon, i 282 (illust.); ii 388; ili 182, 426, 432-433 (illust.); iv 128, 154, 155 y 294. (illust.), 275, 276, 379. Salmon Family, i Salps, i 300; ii 278; i 422 (illust.); Salt, common, i 33. [iv 106. Saltamentum Sardicum, iv 271 80-282. Salticus scenicus, i 393; i 131; i Salts of lime, i 33. (276. Sanderling, i 160. Sanderson, G. P., iv 332. Sand-Flies. See Midges, sand- Sandford, i 106. (220. Sand-Gaper, i 334 (illust.); ii 250; iti Sand- Grouse, i 152, 167-168; i 2 — Pallas’s, 1 168; ii 279-281. Sand-Hoppers, i 414, 415 (illus 142, 404; ill 174-175, 365, 368. Sandias, ii 212; iv rer. Sand-Martin, i 16; ili 453. (128. Sandpiper, common, i 169; iii 127, — curlew, i 169. — green, 1 160. — purple, i 169. — sharp-tailed, i 169. — Temminck’s, i 169. — wood, i 160. Sandpipers, i 160 (illust.); iv 147. Sand-Rats, iii 204. Sand-Wasp, common, i 373: ii 106. — field, or fly-storing, 1 373: il 106. Sand-Wasps, i 373; ii 106 (illust.). Sarcina ventrieuls, iv 76, 78 (illust.). Sarcophaga carnaria, iv 72. — Sarraceniz, iv 72. 341. Sarcoptes scabei, iv 196 (illust.), Sarcorhampus gryphus, i 175; iv Sardine, i 283; iv 26s. [432. — phosphorescent, ii 319 (illust.). Sarracenia variolaris, iv 71-72. Sars, iv 282. Satin-Bird, iv 406. Saturnia carpini, i 363; iv 164. — Pernyi, iv — yama-mai, iv 260. 200. INDEX Sauropoda, iv 46y. Sauropsida, i 204. Savage, ii 103. Saville Kent, ii 153, 159, 272. Saw-Fishes, i 288; ii 8g (illust.). Saw-Fly, apple, iv 356. — Australian, iii 389-390. — cherry and pear, iv 356. — corn, iil 387-388 (illust.); iv 355. — gooseberry and currant, iv 356. — plum, iv 356. — rose, iii 388 (illust.). [iv 355 — turnips, i 371 (illust.); 11 204; ili 389; Saw-Flies, i 370-371; ii 202-204, 387- 390; iv 160, 355-356. Saw-Wort, iv 82-83 (illust.). Saxicava, 1 335. Saxicola, iv 133. — enanthe, i 160; iii 185. Saxidomus arata, iv 324. Saxifrage, golden, iv 88. Scale-Insect, apple, iii 381; iv 350 — currant, iv 351. ((illust.), 351. — gooseberry and currant, iv 351. Scale-Insects, iii 3 IV 350, 351; iv Scales, amphibians 214. [400. — birds’ legs, 1 141-142; ili 297. — fishes, i 264, 269, 271, 280, 283. — — ganoid, i 266-268. — — placoid, 1 12-13, 259, 261, 288. — mammals, i 42. —reptiles, i 192-193, 205, 213-214, 223, 225, 226, 228, 237; ili 210. Scale-Worm, ii 408 (illust.); ili 358. Scallop, edible, i 337-338. — pilgrim, i 337 (illust.). (45-46. Scallops, i 337-338; ili 36-37, 409; iv Scansores, iii 263. Scaphander, ii too. Scaphirhynchus, i 268. Scaphites, iv 466 (illust.). Scaphopoda, i 311, 333-339; ii 247- 248; iii 221-222, 411-412; iv 18. Scapula, i 29, 69, 187, 197, 198, 241, 252; iii 201, 293; and see Shoulder- girdles. “Scar” of Limpet, iv 57-58. Scarabeeus sacer, i 368; ii 209-211. Scarus, ii 361; iv 437. Scaup, i 176. Scelimena, iii 29-30. Scent-glands, iv 142 (illust.), 152. Scepastus pachyrhyncoides, ii Scharff, iii 105. (315. Scheltopusik, i 223 Schiemenz, ii 98. Schiller, iv 403. Schimper, iv 64. Schistocerca (Acridium) pere- grina, i 382; ii 213. Schizopoda, i 410, 412-413. Schizotarsia, i 396, 397. Schmankewitsch, iv 493. Schmidt, Oscar, iii 148. Schneider, iv 56. Sciara militaris, iv 127. Science, i 1, 2. Scientific Method, i 1-4. Scincide, iti 207-208. Scincus officinalis, i 225; 282; Scissor-bills, ii 52 (illust.). Sciuride. See Squirrels. Sciuropterus volucella, iii 233. Sciurus laticaudatus, iii 247. — vulgaris, i 129; ii 367; ill 483-484; (illust.). ii 76, 77, iii 207-208. iv 308. Sclater, W. L., ii 311, 316; Sclerotic coat, i 57. Scolopax gallinago, ili 127, 128. — rusticula, i 169; ii 68. Scolopendra morsitans, i 397. Scolopendrella, i 397. Scomber colias, iii 41-43. — vernalis, i 274; ili 42, 43; iv 270. Scombridz#. See Mackerels. Scopelus engraulis, ii 319. Scorpio, i 387. Scorpion, field-, i 387. — house-, i 387. — rock-, i 387. Scorpions, i 385-387 (illust.): ii 125, 442-443; ili 168-169, 373; Iv 15. Scorpion-Flies, i 377-378 (illust.); ii IIlI. Scorpionids. See Scorpions. Scorpion-Shells, ii 336. Scorpion-Spiders, i 389. Scoter, black, i177. — velvet, i177. Scott Elliot, iv 64, 83, 89. “Scratching” birds, ii 238. Scrobicularia, ii 249, 250 (illust.); ili 219 (illust.). Scrub-Turkey, iii 451-452. Scrupocellaria, iv 10s. Scudder, ii 307. Scutes, of reptiles, 1 192, 205, 209, 210, 223; il 333 (illust.). (6s. Scutigera, i 307; ii 133-134, 436; iil Scyllarus arctus, i 411 (illust.). Scyllium canicula, i 257-264, 284, 285; ii 385-387; ili 424. — catulus, 1 286. Scyphomedus@, i 480, 481-483. See also Hydroids. Sea-Anemones, i 465, 473-474 (illust.); ii 156-158 (illust.), 28 iv 412. 341, 361, 417-418 (illust.); 327- 328 (illust.), 353: iv 7, 25 (illust.), 76, Sea-Bass, ili 425 (illust. ). (217. Sea-Bear, iii 79 4925 iv 304-307. Sea-Breams, ii 19s. Sea-Butterflies, ii 278. Sea-Cat, i 290-291 (illust.); (illust.). Sea-Centipede, i 425-429 (illust.); ii 146; ill 97-98 (illust.); iv 12, 44. Sea-Cows, i 68, ro1-1o02 (illust.); ii 173-174 (illust.), 329; ii 81-83 (illust.), 490; iv 213, 313-314, 436, li 387 473: Sea-Cucumbers, i 454, 462-464 (illust.); ii 264, 414, 416 (illust.); ii 24 (illust.), 92, 95-97 (illust.), 230, 328, 357; 1V 199, 217. — footless, iii 97 (illust.). Sea-Ear. See Ormer. Sea-Flowers, i 473-478; and see Sea- Anemones, Corals, &c. — eight-rayed, i 474, 476-478; — six-rayed, i 474-476. Sea-Hare, i 324-325; ii 397; ill 35 (illust.), 218, 412. [iv 75. Sea-Horse. Australian, ii 296 (illust.); — short-snouted, i 277 (illust.); ili 43- 44, 427 (illust.). Sea-Lemon, ii 397 (illust.); iii 412. Sea-Lilies, i 454, eas (illust.); ii 265, 413, 415; ili 8, 23, 328; iv 199, 446 (illust.), 447, 459- Sea- Lion, Steller’s, i 98, 99 (illust.). Sea-Lions, i il 24-25; iil 77-79 (illust.), 492; iv 304-307. iv 102. Sea-Lizards, iv 468, 469 (illust.). pecs, i 436-437 (illust.), 478; [339, 8: “ea-Mouse” » 1 429; ii 147 (illust.), Sea-Net, i 437 (illust.). Sea-Otter, iv 304. “Sea-Parrots ”, i 184. Sea-Pens, i 473, 478; iv 102. Sea-Scorpion, i 274. Sea-Serpents, iv 469. Sea-Slater, ii 143 (illust.), 405; iii 365, 368; iv 199. Sea-“Spiders”, i 343, 424 (illust.); iv 447 (illust.). Sea-Squirts, i 293, 297-300 (illust.). See also Ascidians. Sea-Urchin, edible, i 456-459 (illust.); lll 92-93 Sea-Urchins, i 454, 456-459; ii 264, 289, 340 (illust.), 36x (illust.}, 412 (illust.), 413, 415-416 (illust. } ); ili g2- 95, 355-356, 357 (illust.); iv 4r, 199, — irregular, i 459. (217, 459- — regular, i459. Sea-weeds, iv 64, 95. See also Alge. Seal, common, i 99 (illust.); iii 78 (illust.), 80-81. —harp, or Greenland, i 99; iv 312, 313 (illust.). — hooded or bladder-nosed, iv 312. — northern fur-, ili 79, 492; iv 304-307. Seals, i 98-99; ii 24-25; iii 492. —eared. See Sea-Lions. — true, i 98-99; ili 80-81; iv 312-313. Sebaceous glands, i 63-64; iii 476- 477; iv 196. Secretary Bird, i (illust.) ; iv 328. Sedentaria, i 429-430. Sedgwick, Adam, i 398: ii 360; iii 102. Segmentation, i 61, 343, 349; ii 375, — annelids, i 425, 426, 427, 431. [382. — arachnids, i 385-386, 388, 392. — crustaceans, i 402-406, 416, 420; iv 13-14. — insects, 1 343, 345, 349, 359, 384. — myriapods, 1 394, 395- —- peripatus, i 399. — vertebrates, i 61, 295; iv 19. Segmented Worms. See Annelida. Seiler, Raphael, iv 387. Selache maxima, i 286. Selachoidei, i 284-287. Sharks and Dog- Fishes. Selenia illunaria, ii 300. Self-fertilization of Flowers, iv 84, 85. Selous, ii 352; iv 364, 365, 370. Semilunar fold, iv 481. 176; ii 46-48 See also Semi-plantigrade feet struc- ture, iii 156, 157. Semnopithecus entellus, i 72-73; — nasica, 173. [ii 164-165. — roxellanus, i 73. Semon, i 7; ii 83, 127, 189, 354, 357, 455; lil 53, 258, 285, 450, 451, 452, 477; iV 211, 212, 252, 313. Semper, ii 315, 444, 445, 450, 461; lil r8t. Sense Organs, i 18; iv 2-5, 24-25: and see Sight, Hearing, Smell, &c. — evolution of, i59; iv 6. — special, i 263-264, 350. — amphibians, i 245, 256; iv 26, 29- —animalcules, i 491; iv 40. —_[30, 32. —annelids, i 428-420; ii 146, 148; iv 25, 26, 28, 20, 34, 40, 42, 44-45. INDEX Sense Organs (Coxz.) — arachnids, i 386-387, 388, 389, 392; iv 44, 45. — ascidians, iv 38, 46. — birds, i 150-151; iv 26, 27, 29-30. — crustaceans, i 408; ii 136; iv 28, 30- 31, 35-37. — echinoderms, i 454, 463-464; ii 154, 415, 416; iv 41; and see Tube-feet. — fishes, i 263-264, 272; iv 28-29, 30, 32, 38-39, 46, 47- — flat-worms, i 446. — insects, i 349-350; ili 387; iv 26, 28, 29) 30, 31; 43-44, 45, 164-166. — king- crabs, i 1 423. — lancelet, iv 46. _— mammals, i 53-59; ii 24, 227, 228, 232; Iv 27, 28, 29, 30, 31-32, 140-142. — molluscs, i 310-311, 332; il 331; iv 28, 29, 30-31, 40, 41, 42-43, 45- — myriapods, i 395, 396, 397; iv 30, 31. — peripatus, i 399, 402. — reptiles, i 203, 209, 213, 228, 232, 2373 iv 27, 29-30, 47, 48. — wheel-animalcules, i 435. — zoophytes, i 479, 480, 482, 483; iv 25, 26, 28, 33-34, 40-41. Sensitiveness, iv 2-3. Sensory nerves, i 53. Sepia officinalis, i 311-314; ii 94-96, 392-393; ili 418; iv 18-19, 322. Septa, of sea-flowers, i 474, 476, 477- Seriatopora subulata, i 475 (illust). Serinus canarius, iv 387-389. Serpentarius secretarius, i 176; ii 46-48; iv 328. Serpula, i 430: ti 258, 339, 409. Serranus atrarius, iii 425. Serratula lycopifolia, iv 82-83. Sertularia, i 480. Sete, i 408, 409, 426, 429, 431, 432, 433; ii 146, 360; and see Sense Organs. Sewellels, iv 418. Shag, i 181; ii 48; iii 63-64. “Shagreen”, iv 317. Shanny, i 27s. Shark, basking, i 286; ii 88. — blue, i 284-286 (illust.); ii 88; — Greenland, i 286. — grey six-gilled, i 287. — hammer-headed, i 285-286 (illust. ). — Japanese frill-gilled, i 287. 390, 230~ iii qr. — Port-Jackson, i 287; ii 89, go; iii 24 (illust.). — rondeletian, i 286; i1 88; iv 340. — thresher or fox-, ii 88-89. — zebra, 1 286. Sharks, i 257, 284-290; ii 88, 385-387; ili 40-41, 424-425; iv 128-129, 204. — comb-toothed, i 287. Sharp, ii 117, 203, 210, 213, 251, 313, 466; ill 30, 225, 264, 379, 388, 389, 303, 3943 IV 113, 215, 355, 355 Sheep, i 29, 114, 115-117; 11 168, 352; ili 248; iv 142, 226-229. — Archar, iii 186-187 (illust.). — Barbary, iv 227. — bighorn, i 116. — flat-tailed, iv 228. — merino, iv 229. — mouflon, i 116. — Rocky Mountain, iii 187. Sheep-bot, i 358: iv 191. Sheep-‘“‘tick”, iv 190 {illust.). Sheldrake, i 177; iii 58 (illust.). Shell-glands, i 416, 422. 547 Shell-membrane, iii 347. Shell-muscle, of molluscs, i 307. Shells, of animalcules, i 489, 495-496: ii 341. — crustaceans, i 406, 419-420; ii 40s. — lamp-shells, i 438-439; ii 339-340. — molluscs, i 307, 310, 316-317, 318- 319, 320, 321, 324, 325, 327, 328, 329- 331, 334-335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 341; ii 335-337, 394; iii 32, 35, 36-37, 408, 409-410, 411, 415, 416; lv 322-324. — turtles and tortoises, i 214, 218, 219, Shields, G. O., iv 364. (220. Shield-Urchins, i 459. Shin-bone, i 32. Shipley, ii 260; iiig2. [411; iv 348. “Ship-Worm”’, i 335; iii 410 (illust.), Shore Lark, i 156. Shoulder-blade, i 29; iii 201, 298. Shoulder-girdles, i 196; iii 119-120. —— amphibians, i 251. —— birds, i 145; iii 298. —— fishes, 1 261; iii 118. — mammals, i 29, 69; ili 132. —— reptiles, i 198, 215. — -joint, i 29-30. Shrew, common, i 84-85. — garden, ii 34, 35 (illust.). — lesser, 1 84. — Tuscan, i 84 (illust.), 85. — water, 1 84; li 34. — web-footed, ii 35; ili 71. Shrews, i 83, 84-85; ii 34-35, 37; ili 73; iv 327. — burrowing, ii 34. — swimming, ii 34-35. — — Himalayan, iii 71. — See also Jumping-Shrews, Shrews, Elephant - Shrew, Shrew, &c. Shrike, grey, i 158. — red-backed, i 158. Shrikes, i 158; ii 64-65; iv 133. Shrimp, common, i 412; ii 137; iv 298, 299-300 (illust. )- — freshwater, i 415; ii 142. Shrimps, ii 403; ili 27, 445 (illust.). Shuckard, iii 391. Sialidee, ii 466-467. Sialis lutaria, i 377; ii 466-467. Sibree, iv 336. Side-gills, ii 401-402. See also Gills. Sight, organs and sense of, iv 24, 39- 48, 401-402. Tree- Musk- 365; iv 35, — development of, iv 46-47. erg. ibi i 249, 251; ili 213- — animalcules, iv 4o. — annelids, i 426, 432; iv 40, 42, 44-45. — arachnids, i 386-390, 392, 399; iv 44, — ascidians, iv 46. [4s. — birds, i 150-151. — crustaceans, i 409, 414, 417, 420, 2; 1V 43, 445. — echinoderms, i 451, 458; iv 41. — fishes, i 60, 263, 270, 279-280, 285, 291; IV 46, 47, 443-444. — flat-worms, i 446; iv 41. — insects, i 346, 352-353, 358, 376; IV 43-44, 45, 121, 164-166. — king-crabs, i 423. — lancelet, iv 46. — mammals, i57- 58. — molluscs, i 312, 317, 327, 328, 3 iii 218-219; iv 40, 41, 45, 444. — myriapods, i 395, 397. — peripatus, i 309, 402. 223 oo co 548 Sight (Conz?.) - pycnogons, i 424. — reptiles, i 203, 213, 225, 226, 228; ili 208, 210, 212; iv 47, 48. — wheel-animalcules, i 435. — zoophytes, i 482; iv 4o-41. [367. “Signalling coloration”, ii 366- Silene nutans, iv 86. — pumilio, iv gq. — 5. Elizabethze, iv 94. Siliceous spicules, of sponges, i 485, 486 (illust.). Silk-glands, iv 116, 259 Silk-industry, iv 259-260. Silkworm-mould, iv 77. Silkworms, i 360; ii 214; iv 259-260 ((illust.). Silpha atrata, ii 109-110. Siluride, i 280; iii 426-427. Silurus glanis, i 280, 281. Silver-Fish, i 384 (illust.; ii 214. Simia satyrus, i 72; ii 349; iii 160, 161, 494. Simmonds, iv 213, 233, 310. Simonea folliculorum, iv 106 Simroth, iii 105. {(illust. ). Simuliide, ii rzr, 468. Sinclair, iii 371, 372, 373; iv 216. Single tube arrangement, of invertebrates, higher, i 303. Siphon, of echinoderms, i 458; ii 413. Siphonaria, ii 462. Siphonariada, ii 461-462. Siphonophora, i 481; ii 161-162; iii 10, 327; IV 103-104. Siphonops annulatus, i 255: iii 213-214. Siphons, of molluscs, i 320, 334, 335: ii 96, 249-250, 331, 336, 305, 462; iii 219, 220, 221, 410, 411; iV 40. Siphon-Worms, i 304, 433- 149-150, 259-260, 410; iii — bristl also Dristle-T: (317. Siphuncle, of pearly nautilus, i 316- Sipunculus nudus, See Siphon- Worms. Siredon Mexicanus, i 249. and see Sea- See Sirenia, i 68, 1o1-102; Cows. Sirenidee. See Salamanders, siren Siren lacertina, 1249; il 457; ili 48- Sirex augur, iii 387. (49, 213. gigas, 1 371} il 203; ili 386-387. Siri cide, iv 195. Siskin, i 156. Sitaris humeralis, iv Sitones lineatus, iv 354. Sitta ceesia, i157; 11187; iii 264, 454. Skater, common, ii 124. — pond.-, i 354; ii 123 (illust.), 440; iii 29 (illust.). Skates, i 284, 287-288 (illust.) ; ii 90, 386; iii 44, 424 (illust.); iv 39, 278, 348. Skeleton (see also Endoskeleton, Exoskeleton, Shell, Scales, Cara- pace, &c.): — axial, i 26-20. —influence of, on development of breathing organs, li 412-414. — acorn-headed worm, i 301. — amphibians, i 239-241 (illust.), 251- 253 (illust.); ili 183 (illust.). — ascidians, i 298. — birds, i 143-146 (illust.); iti 265 (illust.), 298-299 (illust.); iv 475-476. {(illust. ). 192-193 INDEX Skeleton (Coxz.) — echinoderms, i 452, 455, 456-458, 460, 462, 464; iii 355; and see Test. — fishes, 1 259-261 (illust.), 277. — invertebrates, higher, i 303; iii 14. — lancelet, i 294, 295. — mammals, i 25, 26-32 (illust.); ili 14, g (illust.), 83-84, 132-135 (illust.), 141-143, 190-191 (illust.), 236 (illust.), 237, 293-294 (illust.); iv 473-475 (illust. ). — moss-polypes, i 436, 437. — reptiles, i 192-199 (illust.)}, 204, 205- 207, 228-230; ili 110 (illust.), 124 (illust.), 309; 1v 468- 471 (illust. ). — sponges, i 484, 485, 486, 487. — vertebrates, 1 60-62, 302-303. land, iii 119-120 ‘illust.). -— primitive, 1 292-293. — zoophytes, i 475, 476, 477, 478, 480; Ml 328. Skeleton shrimps, i 4t5 (illust.) ll 142, 404- 495; iii 277 (illust.). Skimmers, ii (53-54. Skin (and see Exoskeleton), i 44-45, — amphibians, 1 238-239, 245, 247, 251, 255; ili 214. — fishes, i 258-259, 263, 284, 291, 292. — mammals, i 25. 213-215, 221-222, — molluses, i 313. — pcripatus, i 399. — reptiles, i 220, 226, 228. Skin-glands, i 238-239; ii 435+ Skink, common, i ii 76, 77 (illust.); ili 207-208 (illust.), 282. Skinks, i 221, 225; ii 75-76; ili 207- 208. Skip-Jacks. Sce Beetles, click-. Skua, common or great, i 168 (illust.); — long-tailed, 1 168. [ii 52. — pomatorhine, i 168. — Richardson's, i 168; ii 52. Skuas, i 168; ii 52 (illust.). Skull, amphibians, i 239, 252. — birds, i 143; ii 242 illust.). — fishes, i 259, 271. — mammals, i 27-28 (illust.), 66, 79 (illust.), 103; ii 7 (illust.), 16 (illust.), 31 (illust.), 176 (illust.). — reptiles, i 193, 205-206, 209, 210, 215, 227, 229. (354. Skunk, American, ii 301-303 (illust.), Skunks, i 07; iii 247. Skylark, i 156: iii 455 (illust.), 456, 468-460 (illust.); iv 408. Slade, R., ili 104. (104, 413. Slime-glands, i 309: ii 134, 360; ili Slipper Animalcule, i 459, 492-403 (illust.) ; ii 266, 361-362; ili 5, 6 (illust.), 323-325 (illust.). Sloth, three-toed, ii 178-179 (illust.); ili 256, 481 (illust.), 482. — two-toed, i 136 (illust.); ii 179-180. Sloths, i 14, 136; ii 178-180, 295, 322, 327; ili 254, 256; iv 75. — ground-, ili 256; iv 473-474. Sloth-Bear, iv 334. Slow-Worm, i 223-224. Slug (and see Slugs): — black, i 328; ii 199-201 (illust.), 247, 434) Iv 348 (illust.). — great, li 199-201. — grey field-, i 328; — red, ii 200 (illust.). Slugs, i 317, 326, 328; 11 96-100, 199- 201, 247, 292, 296, 306-307, 330, 357, ((illust. ). ii 247; iv 348 Slugs (Coxz.) 374, 382, 393-397, 432-434, 459-462; iil 33-36, 217-219, 412-417; iV 31, 35, 88-89, 214. — land-, i 328; and see Slug. — sea-, i 324, 326; li 100, 306-307, 382; Smeathman, iv 125. [iii 36. Smell, organs and sense of, iv 24, 30— 32, 402-403. — amphibians, iv 32 (illust.). — birds, i 149, 182-183. — crustaceans, i 409; iv 30-31 (illust.). — fishes, i 261, 265, 272; il 422-423; iv 31-32. — insects, i 350; iv 30-31 (illust.), 164. — mammals, i 55-56 (illust.); ii 227; iv 140-142. — molluscs, i 310-311; iv 31 (illust.). ~- myriapods, iv 30-31 (illust.). Smelt, common, i 282; iv 275, 276 Smew, i 177. { illust.). Smith, Anderson, iii 426; iv 324. Smith, Fred.,i7; it 115, 156; iil 428; Smith, S. 1., ii ryo. {iv 154. Smooth Hound, i 28s. Snail (and see Snails): — Alpine, ii 200 (illust.). — apple-, ii 460-461 (illust.). — bush, ii 200 (illust.). — field, 11 200 (illust.). — garden, i 326-328 (illust.); ii 196, 199; 335, 433; Mi 104, 414; iv 18 (illust.), 31, 45, 58. — glass, iii 180-181. — hedge, ii 200 (illust. ). — operculate land-, ii 200 (illust.). — pond-, 1 328; 11 434; ili 34, ro4, 106, 414; iv 78 (illust.). — purple, i 320-327; ii 96-97 (illust.), 394-395; ili 412 (illust.), 416; iv 348. —river-, i 320; ili 414; iv 17-18: (illust. ). — Roman, i 328; ii 200 (illust.). — round-mouthed, ii 200 (illust.), — South American land-, ili 414. — stone, ii 200 (illust.). — trumpet-, 1328; ii 434; ili 414. — violet-, iii 413 (illust.). — worm, ill 413-414. Snails and see Snail), i 307- 311, 317- ial oP 100, 199-201, 247, 287, 330, » 393-397, 432-434, $59" 462; 11 ne = 104-108, 180-181 219, 412-417; iv 17-18, 29, 31, 35, 88— — comb-gilled, i 318-3 (89, 214. — fore-gilled, i 318-324; — hind-gilled, i 317 ii 34 35-36. — land-, i 326-328; ii 199-201 (illust.); ili 414. |461-462. — lung, i 317, 324, 326-328; ii 100, 330. —sea-, i 307-311 (illust.), 318-3 (illust.); ii 278, 285, 287, 288, 3 lll 412-413; iv 397-398, 451 lillust.). — shield-gilled, 1 318, 322-324. _ Wing: footed, 1 325-326; lil 35-36 (illust.), 412; iv 451 (illust.). Snake (and see Snakes): — A€sculapian, ili 270. — American black, ili 270. — Brazilian wood-, iii 270, 271 (illust.). — coral, i 232, 234; ii 79, 303, 311; iv 330. — coral cylinder, iii 211; — corn, iv 328. — egg-eating, iv gor. — European blind, i 236. iv 432. Snake (Conz.) — grass, i 232, 233 (illust.); ii 78; iii 53, — rat, iv 328. (270, 444-445. —rattle-, i 234-235 (illust.); ii 80 (illust.), 304 (illust.); iv 135, 339. — smooth, i 232-233 (illust. ). — wart, iii 53. Snakes (see also Snake, Pythons, Boas, Vipers, &c.), i 203, 227-236; li 76-81, 303-304, 311, 320, 330, 425; Ml 53-54, 110-111, 184, 210-212, 270- 272, 444-445; iv 152, 328, 338-340, 391. (212 (illust.). — blind-, i 232, 235-236; ii 79, 329; iii — burrowing. See Blind-Snakes. — cylinder-, iii 211. —sea-, i 232, 2343 ii 80; iii 53-54 (illust.); iv 339. — shield-tailed, ii 79; ili211-212(illust.). — simple-toothed, i 232-233. — tree-, iil 270-271. [272. — whip, i 232, 233-234; ii 79; iii 271- — wood-, iii 270. {ili 64. Snake-Birds, i 181; ii 49-50 (illust.); Snake-Flies, i 377; ii 111. Snake-headed Fish, ii 451 (illust.). Snipe, i 169. — common, i 169; iii 127, 128. — great, i 169. — Jack, i 169. [288, 201. Snout, fishes, i 268-260, 275, 276, 282, — mammals, 183, 108; iii 201-202. Snowdrop, iv 92-93 (illust.), 97. Sociology, i 17. Sodium chloride, i 33. [455- Solan Goose, i 181, 418; iii 62-63, Solaster papposus, i 454. Soldier-Crab. See Hermit-Crab. Soldier-Fly, ii 119 (illust.). Sole, common, i 279-280; 32, 26g (illust.). = lemon, See Dab, lemon. Sole-bones, i 32. Sole-region, i 24. Solea vulgaris. See Sole, common Solen, i 335; iii 220; iv 215. — ensis, i 335+ — siliqua, i 335. Solenodon, i 85; ii 33. Solenomya, iii 108. Solenostoma, iii 427. Solmaris coronantha, iv 33 (illust.). Solpugide, i 387-388; ili 169. Soma, iv 490, 491, 492. Somateria Dresseri, iv 309. —_ [309. — mollissima, i 176; iii 59, 60; iv 60, Somerville, iv 349. “Song-birds ”, i 152. Song-box, i 149. Soothsayers, i 381; ii 116-118. See also Mantis, praying-. Sorex minutus, i 84. — vulgaris, i 84-85. Sound-waves, i 56-57. Spalacidz. See Mole-Rats. Spalax typhlus, i 130; ii 177-178; ili 203-204. “Spanish Fly”, iv 321 (illust.). Sparida, ii 195. Sparling. See Smelt. Sparrow (and see Sparrows): iil 432; Iv — hedge-, i 160; iii 185. {(illust. ). — house-, i 156; ii 187, 224; iii 460-470 — tree-, 1156; ii 187; ili 470. (348. 3parrows (and see Sparrow), iv 202, 3parrow-Hawk, i 174 (illust.). 3Spatangus purpureus, i 459; ii 415. Vo. IV. INDEX Spatula clypeata, i 176. Spatularia, i 260. Spawn (see also Eggs): — of amphibians, iii 436-437, 439. — of molluscs, iti 412-414 (illust.), 417- 418 (illust.). [i 14; iv 477, 478. “Special creation”, doctrine of, Species, i 9. Specific name, i 9. Spectre-Tarsier, i 80 (illust.); ii 319 (illust.), 320; iii 244 (illust.). Spelerpes bilineatus, iii 435. Spencer, Herbert, iv 4or, 403. Speotito cunicularia, i 166. Spermaceti, iv 316. Spermaphyta, iv 64. Spermary, iii 340. Spermophilus citillus, i 126, — tridecemlineatus, i 126. Sperms, iii 335, 336, 340. Spheroma, i 415. Sphargide, i 216-217 Sphargis, i 216-217 5 Spheniscus minor, iii 67. Sphex ichneumonea, iv 56. Sphinx ligustri, i 363. — pinastri, 1 363; iv 87. [ili 326, 342. Spicules, i 477, 485 (illust.); ii 341; Spider (and see Spiders): — Australian flying-, iii 289 (illust.). — Australian poisonous, ii 127, 308. — bird-catching, 1 392; ii 130, 443 (illust. ). — garden- (or ¢ross), 1 390-392 (illust. ); ii 127-129, 443; iit 276. (276. — harlequin-, i 3933 ii 132 (illust. i iil — hedge- (or field), i392; ii 130; ili 374 — house-, i 392; ii 129 (illust.), 130, 443; ili 168, 374. — mascarene, ii 308-309. — raft-, ii 131. — tarantula, ii 130; ili 168, iv 341. — water-, i 392-393; ii 131; ill 375-376 (illust. ). Spiders (and see Spider), i 387, 390- 393; il 126-131, 299-300, 316, 345, 373-374, 442-443 5 i 168, 276, 289, 290-291, 373-3773 iv 15, 44, 45, 166- — crab-, iii 168. [168, 329, 341. — four-lunged, i 392. — hunting, ii 130, 131 (illust.); iv 166. — jumping, ii 131; ili 168, 175-176 — segmented, i 392. [(illust. ). — trap-door, i 392; ili 376-377 (illust.). — two-lunged, i 392-393- — unsegmented, i 392-393. — wolf-, 1 393; ii 130-131; ili 373-374. Spider-like animals (arachnida), 1 342, 385-394; H 125-132, 217-218, 299-300, 308, 316, 345, 373-374) 442- 443; ili 168-169, 175-176, 276, 280, 373-377; Iv 15, 166-168, 195-196, 341, — extinct, iv 462. [360, 462. Spilosoma menthastri, ii 313. Spinal bulb, iv er. Spinal cord (and see Yee column), i 26, 50-51 (illust.), 52; i 19, 20. Spinal marrow, i 24-25, 26, 28. Spinal nerves, i 51; iv 19, 20; and see Nervous System. Spines, of echinoderms, i 452, 456- 457; ili 93, 94-95 — fishes, i 271, 273, 274, 275, 276, 278, 286, 288; ii 333-334. — mammals, i 64; ii 333 — molluscs, i 336. 549 “Spinnerets ”, i 392; ii 127 (illust.), 129. (129. Spinning-glands, i i 389, 391; ii 127- Spiracle, i 258, 286; ii 386; iv 201. Spiracular cleft, i 258, 260, 263; ii 386-387. Spiral valve, i 261. Spirocheete cholerz asiatice, iv 78. — Obermeieri, iv 78. Spirorbis, i 430; ii 258, 339; 359 (illust.); iv 75. Spirula, i 315 (illust.). Spittle. See Saliva. Spleen, i 43. Splenic fever, i 3. “Splint-bones ”, iii 142. Spondylus, ii 336; iii 409. Sponge (and see Sponges), bath-, i 486, 487 (illust.); iii 326; iv 324. — bread-crumb, i 486; iv 101. — cup-, iii 326 (illust.). ((illust.). — freshwater, i 487; ii 272; ili 326 — glass-rope, i 486. — horse, iv 324. — zimocca, iv 324. Sponges (and see Sponge), i 304, 484- 487, 494; li 163, 265-266, 285, 309, 341, 418; iil 3, 8, 325-326, 341-343; iv ror, 324, 447-448, 464. — calcareous) i 486, 487 (illust.). — siliceous, i 486-487. Spongilla, i 487; il 272; iti 326. Spontaneity, iv 2-3. Spoonbills, i 180. iii 358+ Spore-formation, iii 321-323. See also Development. Spores, i 498-499; iii 322; iv 98, 206. Sporocyst, i 444; iv 202-203. Sporoducts, iv 206. Sporosacs, iii 351. Sporozoa, i 492, 498-499; ili 322; iv 206-207. See also Animalcules. Sporting Zoology, i 15; iv 364-381. Sprat, i 283; iv 197, 264. Sprat-‘‘ Louse”, iv 197 (illust.). Springbok, iii 187-188. Springers. See Spring-Tails. Spring-Fly, great, ii 119 (illust.). Springing apparatus, of insects, 384; iii 176, 177-178, 179. Spring-Tails, i 384-385; 176 (illust.), 377+ Spurges, iv 80, 89, 97. Squamata, i 227. Squatarola Helvetica, i 169. Squid, common, i 314. Squids, i 314-315; ii 94-96, 392; i 30-33, 417-418; iv 18-19, 45, 340. Squilla, ii 404. — Desmaresti, i 413-414. [369. — mantis, i 411, 413 (illust.); ii 141; ili Squirrel, common, i 125; ii 367, 368 (illust.); ili 483-484; iv 308. — ‘‘flying-” American, ili 283. — — brown, i 126; ili 282-283. Squirrels, i 125-126; ii 176-177; iii 246-247, 251; iv 97. — “flying ’-, 1 126; ii 327; ili 282-284. — — African, i126; iii 283-284 (illust.). — ground-, i 125-126. Stable-Fly, ii 120. Staby, Ludwig, iv 286. Stainton, ii 252. Staphylinida, ii 108. Star-Fish, common, i 450-454 (illust.); ii 153-154; lil go-g2 (illust.); iv qr (illust. ). li 214; ili 130 20° Star-Fishes, i 450-454 (illust.); ii 153- 154, 413 (illust.), 415; ill 3-4, 90-92, 232 (illust.), 328-329 (illust.), 356- 357 (illust.); iv 199, 459. Starling, common, i 155 (illust.); ii 236; iv 408. — rose-coloured, i 155. Starlings, i 155; ii 236; iv 348, 408. Statoblasts, iii 330-331. Stauropus fagi, ii 313, 314. Staveley, ii 124, 128; ili 374, 375- Steatornis Caripensis, ii 188. Steatornithide, ii 188. Stebbing, ii 143; iii 171. (64. Steganopodes, i 152, 180-182; iii 62- Stegocephala, ii 334; ili 214; iv 463, 467. Stegosaurus, iv 460, 470. Stegostoma tigrinum, i 236. Stenobothrus, i 381. Stenopteryx hirundinis, iv 190. Stenorhynchus, ii 287-289. Stentor, iii 3r9. Stephalia corona, iv 104. Stephanoceros, ii 262, 263. Stercorarius, i 168; ii 51-52. — catarrhactes, 1 168; ii 52. — crepidatus, i 168; ii 52. — parasiticus, i 168. — pomatorhinus, i 168. Sterlet, iv 277, 278. Sterna Cantiaca, i 168. — Dougalli, i 168. — fluviatilis, i 168; iii 453. — macrura, i 168. — minuta, i 168; iv 133. Sternal sinus, i 408. Sterne, iv 408. Sternum, amphibians, i 239, 251. — birds, i 145, 186-187; ili 209. — mammals, i 29, 69, 145; lll 202. — reptiles, 1 195, 206; iii 300. Stevenson, Robert Louis, iii 236. Stickleback, fifteen-spined or sea, i 276; iii 428 (illust.), 431. — ten-spined, i 276; ill 430-431. — three-spined, i 276; ili 428 (illust.); iv 154-157. Sticklebacks, i 16, 276; iii 427-431; iv 154-157, 196. Stigmata (sing. Stigma), i 348, 338- 390, 395-397, 401; ii 434-440, 442; IV 193. “Stilt Urchin”, iii 04-95 (illust.). Stimulus (pl. Stimuli), i 53-54, 55; iv 3-5 (illust.), 9, 24-26, 29-30, 32- Sting, of arachnids, i 386. a3) — of insects, i 373; 1 105, 357-358 (illust. ). Stinging -cells. gans. Stink-glands, insects, i 353-354; ii 315, 358-360. [iv rar — mammals, i 97-98; ii 301-303, 354; — myriapods, i 306; ii 360. Stinkhorn, iv 08. Stint, little, i r6o. Stoat, i 98; ii 22, 289; iv 303, 345. Stomach (and see Digestive organs): — honey-comb, ii 168-169. — rennet, il 169. —amphibians, i (illust.), 253 (illust. ). {(illust. ). — birds, i r4o (illust.), 146; ii 184 — crustaceans, i 407-408 (illust.). — echinoderms, i 452-453, 455+ — fishes, i 261, 270 (illust.). See Nettling or- 24 INDEX Stomach (Cowz.) — mammals, herbivorous, i 109; ii 165, 167, 168-169 (illust.), 171, 172; iii 490. [ii 39-40, 225. — — omnivorous, i 35, 36 (illust.), 37; — molluscs, i 308, 309 (illust.). — reptiles, i 207 (illust.), 208. — zophytes, i 473, 474 (illust.), 479. Stomatopoda, i 410, 413-414; ii rqr. Stomoxys calcitrans, ii 120. Stone Age, iv 208, 210, 228, 233. — newer, iv 224, 226. — older, iv 226, 233. Stone chat, i 160; iv 133. Stone-Flies, i 374, 377; ii 116, 463- 464 (illust. ). Stork, American wood, ii 55. — marabout, i 179. [iv 62. — white, 1 179; ii 55; ili 127 (illust.); Storks, i 152, 179; ii 55; ili 127, 307; iv 62. Stratiomys chameleon, ii 119. Stratum (pl. Strata), iv 456-457 (illust.). Strepsiceros kudu, ii 366. Strepsilus interpres, i 169; ii 67. Strepsiptera, iii 314; iv 192. Streptoneura, i 317, 318-324. Striges, i 152, 165-166; and see Owls. Stringops habroptilus, i 166; ii 189, 319, 320. Strix flammea, i 165; iv 327-328. Strombus, i 321 (illust.); ii 373; ili 107 (illust.), 180, 18x (illust.). — gigas, iv 397. Strongyle, armed, iv 362. — giant-, iv 362. — stomach-, iv 362. Strongylus armatus, iv 362. — contortus, iv 362. — filaria, iv 362. (48s. Struggle for Existence, i 65; iv Struthio camelus, i 188; ii 243; ili 130, 153, 449. Strychnos nux-vomica, iv 80. | Sturgeon, common, i 268 (illust.); iv — giant, iv 277. (277 (illust. ). — Giildenstadt’s, iv 277. — shovel-nose, i 268 (illust.). — slender-beaked, i 268-269 (illust. ). —spoonbill or paddle-fish, 1 2 (illust. ). Sturnus vulgaris, i 155; ii 237. Stylaster, i 480-481. Stylopid@, iv 192. Stylops, iii 313 (illust.), 314. Stylops aterrimus, iv 192 (illust.). Subclavius, iii 300. Succinea putris, iv 202 (illust.). Suckers, of bats, iii 245 (illust.). Suctoria, iii 320. Sugarbush, iv 89. Sugar Squirrel, ii 284-285. Suide, ii 231-234. Sula Bassana, ii 50; iti 62-63, 455. — piscatrix, ii 53. Sulphuric acid, ii 08. Sun-Animalcules, i 489, 496 illust.); iii 6 (illust.). Sun-Birds, i 157; iv 89. Sundews, iv 68-6g (illust.). Sun-Fishes, i 278; iv 448 (illust.). Sun-Star, i 454. Supporting tissue. Gristle, &c. Surface tension, i 467. Surnia ulula, i 166; ii 319. 69 See Bone, Sus cristata, iv 373. [373- — scrofa, i 108; ii 231-234; iv 232-233, Susliks, i 126; and see Gophers. Susuk, ii 28-29 (illust.). Swainson, iv 479. Swallow-Fly, iv 190 (illust.). Swallows, i 161; ii 56; ili 304, 305, 461, 467-468; iv 60, 328. Swan (and see Swans): — Bewick’s, i 177. — black, i 177. — black-necked, i 177. (457- — white or mute, i 177; iii 456 (illust.), Swans, i 177; ii 65, 237-238; iii 58, Sweat, i 44-45. (147-148. Sweat glands, i 44-45; iii 476-477. Swift, common, i 163; and see Swifts. — palm, iv 61. Swifts, i 163; ii 56; iii 186, 304, 305, 462; iv 328. | Swim-bladder, of fishes, i 269, 272, 273, 280; ii 421-422 (illust.), 450, 452- 453) 454 455; ill 431, 432. “Swimmerets”, i 403; iii 27. Swimming-bells, iii 19; iv 103. Swimming-feet, i 420, 421-422. Swimming-plates, iii 20. Swine. See Pigs. Sword-Fish, common, i 273. Sword-Fishes, i 273. Syanceia, ii 356. Sycandra raphanus, i 487 (illust.). Syllis ramosa, iii 330. Sylvia atricapilla, i 160. — cinerea, i 160. — curruca, i 160. — hortensis, i 160. — undata, i 160. Symbiosis, iv 67, 75-76, 170. Symmetry, bilateral, i 21-22, 447, 450 452: ili 93-94. [93-94- — radial, i 23, 450, 451, 452, 466; lil Sympathetic ganglia, i 53. Sympathetic System, i 50, 53; and see Nervous System. Symphyla, i 396, 397. Synageles picata, ii 316. Synallaxis phryganophila, iii 464. Synapta, i 464; ili 97 (illust.), 230. Syncoryne, iii 350 (illust. ). Syngamus trachealis, iv 362. Syngnatha, i 396. See also Centi- pedes. Syngnathus acus, i 277: iii 427. Synotus barbastellus, i $2. Syrinx, i 149, 175. Syrittus pipiens, ii 119. Syrnium aluco, i 165. Syrphus, ii 216; iti 402. — balteatus, 1 119; ili 402. — Pyrastri, iii 402. [280. Syrrhaptes paradoxus, i 168; ii AL Tabanus bovis, i 358: ii 119, 120. Tachyeres cinereus, iii 60. Tactile Organs. See Touch, organs of. Tadorna cornuta, i 177: iii 58. Tadpoles, i 62-63; ii 192-104 (illust.), 457-458; ill 4, 45-46 (illust.), 434-436, 437) 435-439 (illust.), 440, 441, 442, 443, 493. Teenia ccenurus, iv 361, 362. — echinococcus, iv 342-343 (illust.). Tenia (Coz2.) — saginata, iv 342. — serrata, iv 362. — solium, i 441-443; iv 204. faguan, iii 286. fail (see also ‘Vail-fin): [45, 49, 47 — amphibians, i238, 245, 250, 254; iii 4, — ascidians, ili 38-39. [298, 301, 302. — birds, i 185, 186; ili 264, 266, 296, — mammals, i 76, 77, 78; ili 70, 71, 72, 73) 74, 79, 77, 82, 84, 85, 159, 188- 190, 239-240 (illust.), 243, 244, 247- 248, 251, 253, 255 (illust.), 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 282, 283, 286, 479-480; iv 140, 228-229. — reptiles, i 194, 224; 11 371; ill 50, 51- 52, 53-54, 56, 211, 272, 308, 309. Tail-coverts, i 143; ili 297. Tail-fin, of amphibians, i 246; iii 45, 46, 442, 443. -- crustaceans, i 408-409; iii 27; iv 36. — fishes, i 258, 264, 271; ii 450; ili 4o- —lancelet, i294. (41, 182, 288-289. — mammals, aquatic, i 98, 100. — round-mouths (cyclostomata), i 29r. — See also Fins, caudal. [ili 30. Tail-rods, of insects, ii 465-466, 467; Tail-shield, iii 211-212. {(illust.). Tailor-Bird, Indian, ili 459, 460 Talegallus Lathami, iii 451-452. Talitrus locusta, i 414, 415: ii 142, 404; lll 174-175. Talorchestia, ii 14r. Talpa Europea, i 86; ii 36; iii 200- 202, 484-485. [256. Tamandua tetradactyla, iii 255- Tamias striata, i 126. Tanagra cherophyllata, i 364. Tanrec. Sce Tenrec. Tantalus loculator, ii 55. Taonius abyssicola, iv 444. Tape-Worm (and see Tape-Warms): — beef, iv 342. — broad, iv 342. — common, i 441-443 (illust.), iv 204. — fish, iv 204. — simple, iv 203-204 (illust.). Tape-Worms, i 441-443; ii 151; iv 203-205 (illust.), 342-343, 361-362. Tapir, Brazilian, i 105 (illust.); iii 487 (illust.), 488. — Malayan, ili 138 (illust.), 488. Tapirs, i 14, 15, 105; ii 166, 327; iil 137-138, 488. (488. Tapirus Americanus, i 105; ili 487, — Indicus, iii 138, 488. Tarantula, ii 130; iii 168; iv 341. Tardigrada, i 387, 394. Tarentola Mauritanica, i 221; ii Tarpon, iv 381. (319: iv 391. Tarsipes rostratus, ii181-182; iv 89. Tarsius spectrum, i 80; ii 319, 320; ili 244. “Tarso-metatarsus ”, i 146; ili 126. Tarsus, amphibians, i 241, 252, 253. — birds, i 145-146; ili 126. — insects, 1 344. — mammals, i 32; and see Ankle. — reptiles, i 197, 198, 199, 204, 207. Tassel-Tails, i 384; iii 377. Taste, organs and sense of, i 54-55, 56; iv 24, 29-30, 403. — amphibians, iv 29-30. — annelids, iv 29. — birds, iv 29-30. — fishes, iv 29-30. — insects, iv 29 (illust.). INDEX Taste (Coxt.) [(illust. ). — mammals, i 54-55 (illust.); iv 29-30 — molluscs, iv 29. — reptiles, iv 29-30. Taste-buds, i 55; iv 29-30 (illust.). Taste-cells, i ss. Teal, i 176; iii 58. (34. Tealia crassicornis, i 476; ii 289, Tear-chamber, of snakes, i 228. Teasel, iv 92 (illust.). Teats, i 66, 108; and see Milk-glands. Tectibranchs, i 324; ii 100; iii 35. Teeth, i 12-13, 37. — carnassial, ii 7, 15. — evolution of, i 12-13. — amphibians, i 253. — birds, extinct, ii 45, 296. — fishes, i 12-13, 27, 261, 275, 276, 282, 284, 287, 288; ii 84, 86, 88, 89- QO, 195. (illust. ). — mammals, egg-laying, iv 481-482 flesh-eating, i 86, 57, 88, 92, 94, 98; ii 6-7 (illust.), 14, 15-16 (illust.), 25. gnawing, i 123 (illust.), 125, 128, 132, 133, 134; i 174-175, 177, 178. hoofed, i 67, 106, 108, 109, 110, III, 113, 120; ii 166 (illust.), 167- 168, 171, 232-233 (illust.), 234, 351. insect-eating, ii 31-32; ili 246. — —— pouched, ii 181, 182, 183. — — bats, i 81, 82; ii 39. — — cetaceans, ii 27, 29, 67, 349. — — edentates, i 67, 136; ii 41, 179- 180. (172 (illust.), 350. — — elephants, i 102-103 (illust.); ii — — lemurs, ii 226. —-—man and monkeys, i 35-36 (illust.), 67, 71, 76, 78-70; li 6, 225, 348-349; iv 146. — — S€a-cows, 1 102. — molluscs, ii 95-96 (illust.). —reptiles, i 199, 207, 209, 210, 212, 224, 230, 232, 233, 234, 237; il 192, 354-355: Tegenaria, i 392; ii 129, 130. — civilis, 1 392. — domestica, i 392; ili 374. Teleostei, i 266, 269-284; ii 84-88, 194-195, 355-357, 388, 447-452; ill cs 425-434; iv 128, 263-276, 317- 318. Teleostomi, i 257, 266-284. See also Teleostei and Ganoids. “Telescope Fish”, iv 393 (illust.). Telson, i 403. Tench, i 283; ii 448. Tendons, i 48; iii 262, 299, 300, 301. Tennent, iv 396. (33 (illust.). Tenrec, common, i 84 (illust.), 85; ii — rice-, ii 33. Tenrecs, i 34-35 (illust.); 11 33. Tensor muscles, iii 300, 30r. Tentacles, of annelids, ii 308; iii 360. — ascidians, ii 246. (416; ili 24, 97. — echinoderms, i 462, 463, 464; ii 264, — molluscs, * 307, 310, 311-312, 324, 327, 328; ili 31, 37, 103, 108-110, 218; iv 28, 58. — zoophytes, i 466, 467, 473, 474, 476, 4775 479, 483; il 155, 156-158, 160, 416, 417; li 20, 89-go; iv 28, 33. Tentaculocysts, iv 33 (illust.). Tenthredinide, iii 388. Terebella conchilega, ii 330, 409 Terebratula, i 438. {illust. ). sat Teredo navalis, i 335; iii 410, 411; iv 348. Termes bellicosus, i 379; iv 124-126. — lucifugus, i 379; iv 123-124. — tenuis, iv 356. Termite (and see Termites): — light-shunning, iv 123-124 (illust.). — warrior, iv 124-126 (illust.). — yellow-necked, iv 122-123. Termites, i 374, 379; ii 110, 212-213; iii 223, 383; iv 16, 120-126, 356. Tern, Arctic, i 168. — black, i 168. — common, i 168; iii 463 (illust.). — little, i 168; iv 133 (illust.). — roseate, i 168. — sandwich, i 168. Terns, i 168; ii 51; ili 463; iv 133. Test, of ascidians, i 297-298; ili 421. — of echinoderms, i 457-458, 459; ii 340, 413; ili 92-93, 95. Testacella, ii roo; ili 415. Testudo, Greca, i 312; ii r9z; ili 54; — nigrita, i 218. [iv 391-392. — polyphemus, ili 447. — sulcata, i 2109 (illust.). — sumeirei, iv 392. Tetrabranchiata, i 316-317. Tetraceros, iv 424. Tetranychus autumnalis, iv 360. — rubescens, iv 360. — telarius, ii 218, 443; iv 360. Tetrao Scoticus, i 172. — tetrix, 1172. — urogallus, i 172; ii 239. Tetrarhynchus, iv 204 (illust.). Tetrodon, i 278; ii 306, 334; iv 340. Tettix, i 382. Textularia agglutinans, iv 454. Thalamita natator, iii 28. Thalassicola pelagica, iv 449. Thalassochelys caretta,iii 55. Thalassophryne, ii 355-356. Thalessa, iv 195 (illust.). Thallophyta, iv 64-65. Thelyphonus, i 389. Theobald, iv 325. Theory of Evolution, i 12-17. See also Evolution. Theridium nervosum, iii 374-375. Theropoda, iv 469. Thick-headed Fly, ii 119 (illust.). Thigh, i 24. — -bone, i 31-32. — -joint, i 31. Thomiside, iii 168. Thomson, Arthur, iv 494. Thomson, Wyyville, i 7. Thoracic duct, i 42 (illust.). (368. Thoracostraca, i 410-414; ili 365- Thorax (and see Cephalo-thorax) : — arachnids, i 388. — birds, i 148. — crustaceans, i 402, 403-404, 410, 413, 414, 415, 416, 418, 420, 427. — insects, i 345, 347, 352, 356, 359 —- mammals, i 24-25, 42. — reptiles, i 193-194, 206. Thoreau, i 7; iv 153, 408. Thornback, See Ray. Thorn-headed Worm, i 442, 449; iv 205-206 (illust.). Thorny Oysters, ii 336; ili 409. Thread-cells. See Nettling organs. Thread-Worms, i 304, 447-449; ii 222-223; ill 21; iv 205-206, 343-344, 453- 552 Thresher, i 286. Thrips cerealium, i355 (illust.); ti 216. — minutissima, i 355. ((illust. }. Throat pouch, of birds, iv 150 — of reptiles, iv 152 (illust.). Thrush, common, or song-, i 159; ili — missel-, i 160. [457, 458; iv 96. — rock-, iv 96. Thrushes, i 158-160; iii 185; iv 348. Thumb, of mammals, i 31, 71, 73, 77; 78, 79, 81. See also Digits. Thumb-joint, i 3:. Thylacinus, ii 16 (illust.), 42 Thylacoleo, iv 474. Thymus gland, i 43. Thynnus albicora, i 274. — pelamys, i 274. —thynnus. See Orcynus thynnus. Thyroid cartilage, i 47. — gland, i 43. Thysanoptera, i 351, 355; ii 122, 216. Thysanura, i 384, 307. Tibia, amphibians, i 241, 252, 253. — birds. See ‘‘ Tibio-tarsus”. — insects, i 344. — mammals, i 32, 123-124, 125, 127, 131; il 134-135, 141, 149, 158, 190, — reptiles, i 197. 258. “Tibio-tarsus”, i 144, 146; iii 126. Tickell, iii 245- Ticks, 1393: il 132; iv 195 (illust.), 360. — dog, iv 195. — sheep, iv 190. Tiger, i 87; ii 5, 7-9; iil 247, 491; iv 331-333 (illust.), 371-372. — sabre-toothed, iv 474. Tinamous, i 152, 173: ii 343. Tinca vulgaris, i 233; ii 448. Tinea granella, iv 353. — pellionella, i 365. Tipula oleracea, i ; Tipulide. See Crar Tit (and see Tits): — blue, i 158. — coal-, i158. — crested, i 158. — great, 1158. — long-tailed, i 158; ili 261-262 — marsh, i 158 — penduline, iii 459 (illust.). Tits, or tit-mice, i 157-158 (illust.); ii 60; iv 202, 328; and see Tit. Titlark, i 157. Toad (and see Toads): — African, clawed, iii 50. — common, i 250 (illust.), 255; li 82, 83 (illust.), 304; ili 50, 436-437; iv 328. — horned (California). See Horned “Toad”. {((illust.). —horned (South America), ii 305 — Surinam water-, iii 49, 50 (illust.), 441, 442 (illust.). Toads (and see Toad), 305, 4573 8; ii 119, 215. -Flies. [459. illust.), se 249, 255; ll 304- iii 49-50, 436, 440-442; IV — fire-bellied, iv 417. (152, 417. — tongueless, ili 50. Toddy-Cats, ii 12-13. (320-321. Tokophrya quadripartata, iit Tolypeutes tricinctus, ii 341-342. Tomopteris, iii 22-23 (illust.). Tongue, amphibians, i 253; ii $2. — birds, i 161, 163; iv 29. — fishes, i 261, 292. — mammals, i 29, 34) 37, S455, 120; ii 38, 30, 42, 182; iv 209. — reptiles, i 199, 207, 224, 226, 230- INDEX Tongue-Shells, iv 460 (illust.). Tongue-Worms, i 387, 393 (illust.); Tope, common, i 285. liv 196. Tornaria, iii 420, 421 (illust.). Torpedo, i 290. -— marmorata (marbled torpedo), i 290; li go (illust.), g1, 410. — nobiliana, i 289 (illust.). Tortoise (and see Tortoises): — European pond-, i 218; iii 54, 122 (illust.), 446. — Gopher, iii 447. — Grecian, i 212-216 (illust.); ii 191; ili 54; iv 391-392. — soft American, i 221. — — Gangetic, i 221. — — Nilotic, i 220 (illust.), 221; iii 55. Tortoises (and see Tortoise), i 203, 212-221; ii 71-72, 333, 334, 424; iil 54-55, 121-122, 446-448; iv 151, 391- — American snapper-, ii 72. [392- — giant, i 218; ii 191-192. — hinged, ii 334. — land and freshwater, i 216, 217-218. — side-necked, i 216, 219. — snake-necked, ii 72. — soft, 1 216, 219-221; ili 54~55 (illust.). “Tortoise- shell”, i 219; 395-396. Tortrix viridana, i 36s. Totanus glareolus, i 169. — hypoleucus, i 169; iii 127, 128. — ochropus, i 160. Toucans, i 162; ii 126-187. Touch, organs and sense of, i 53-55; iv 24, 25-29; and see Sense Organs, Tentacles, &c. — amphibians, iv 26 (illust.). — annelids, i 428; iv 25 (illust.), 26, 28. — birds, iv 26 (illust.), 27, 20. li 72; iv — crustaceans, i 409; iv 2 — echinoderms, i 454. — fishes, iv 28-29 (illust.). iv 26 (illust.), 28. iv 27 (illust.), o — insects, i 349-350; — mammals, i 53-54, 55; — molluscs, i 310; iv 28, — reptiles, iv 27, 29. — zoophytes, i 466; iv 2 Touch-corpuscles, i 53- lv 26, 27 (illust.), 28. Trachea, i 46-47. Trachee, ii 434. 4 (illust.); Qu Y See also Air-tubes. Tracheal gills, ii 463. See also Gills, of insects. Tracheal tubes, i 348. See also Air-tubes. Tracheata. See Centipedes, &c., Insects, and Spider-like Animals. — primitive. See Peripatus. Trachinus draco, ii 357. — vipera, ii 305-306, 357. Trachypetra bufo, ii 282. Trachyphyllia Geoffroyi, i (illust.). (76. Trachysaurus rugosus, i ii Tragopan, scarlet, iv 148-140. Tragulide, i 109: ili 150, 152. Tragulus Javanicus, i 109, 110; ili Tragus, i $2 {150, 152. Transparency, of marine animals, | ii 278-279. Transverse process, i 194, 2 Trawling, iv 262-263 (illust.). Tree-Kangaroos, ii 182; iit 257-258. Tree-Shrews, i 83; ii 37. — Bornean, i 83; iti 246-247 (illust.). Trematoda. Sce Flukes. Tribonyx Mortieri, iii 61. Triceratops, iv 470. Trichechus rosmarus, i 98; iii 79- 80; iv 311-312, 394. [(illust. ). Trichina spiralis, 343-344 Trichocysts, ii 362. Trichodectes latus, i 380; iv 356. Trichoglossus chlorolepidotus, li 191. Trichophaga tapetzella, i 365. Trichosurus vulpeculus, iii 259. Triclades, ii 151, 152. Tricondyla, ii 315. Tricorythus, ii 466. Tridacna, ii 357; iii 408. Trigger-Fish, iv 20s. Trigger-hairs, i 471. Trigla, i 275; iii 115. — cuculus, iv 273. _ gurnardus, i iv 273. — pini, i 275. Trilobites, ii 342; iv 460 (illust.), 461. Trimen, ii 3r2. Trimeresurus, iii 272. Tringa acuminata, i 169. — alpina, i 160. — canutus, i 169. — minuta, i 169. — striata, i 169. — subarquata, i 169. — Temmincki, i 169. Trionyx ferox, i 221. — Gangeticus, i 221. — triunguis, i 221; ili 55. Triphena pronuba, iv 352. Triploblastica, i 468, 490, 491. Triton. See Molge. Trochammina coronata, iv 454. — nitida, iv 454. Trochide, i 322. Trochilide, ii ror. Trochilium apiforme, i 363; ii 313. — crabroniformis, ii 313. Trochospheres, iii 7, 359-360 (illust.), 364-365, 404-405 (illust.), 411-412 (illust.), 414, 415 (illust.). Troglodytes parvulus, i 160. Trogonide, i 266. Trogons, 111 266. Tropic-Bird, red-Beaked i 182. Tropic-Birds, i 181-182; iti 62. Tropidonotus natrix, i i 23 ili 53, 270, 444-445. Trout, common, i 282; ti 292; iv 275- Truffles, iv 98. (276 (illust.), 379. Trumpet -Animalcule, iii 319 (illust. ). Trumpet-Shell, i 328; ii 434; ili 4r4. Trumpeters, ii 240-242. Trunk, of body, i 2s (illust.). — of elephants. See Proboscis Trygonide, i 288-290; ii 357: iv 204. Trygon pastinaca, 1 200; ii 357. Trypanosoma, iv 349. Tsetse-Fly, i 358; ii 120 Igo, 239, 24, 349- Tuataras, i 203, 236-237 (illust. iv ii 78; illust.); iv ; il 56, 444; IV 47, 410. Tube, dorsal, i 24. — ventral, i 24. Tube-construction, annelids, ii 257 | 258 (illust.), 330. | — insects, it 337 (illust.). Tube-feet, of echinoderms, i 451, 453, 454) 455, 457) 458, 459, 460, 462, 463, 464; ii 413 (illust.), 415, 416; ili go, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96, 232. Tube-nosed Birds (Tubinares), i 152, 182-183; ii 53; and see Petrels and Albatrosses. [204. Tubifex rivulorum, i 431; iv 203- Tubipora musica, i 477; ii 341, 417. Tubularia, i 480; ii 160. Tunicates. See Ascidians. Tunny, i 274; iv 270-271, 381. Tupaia tana, i 83, 84; iii 246-247. Tupaiida, i 83; iii 246-247. Turbellaria, i 441, 445-447; ii 151- 152, 271, 445-446; lll 7, on 329. Turbot, i 60-6: (illust.), 279 (illust.) ; ili 425, 431-432 (illust.); ee 268. Turdus iliacus, i 160. — merula, i 159. — musicus, i 159; ili 457, 458. — pilaris, i 159. — torquata, i 160. — viscivorus, i 160. Turkey, i 172; ii 239; iv 249-250. Turner, iv 387. Turnip ‘‘ Flies”. See Beetles, flea-. Turnstone, i 169; ii 67. Turret-Shells (Turritella), i 321. Turtle, edible, iii 55, 446-447. — green, i 218; ii rgz. — hawk’s-bill, i 218; ii 72 (illust.), rgt; lil 55; iv 395-396 (illust.). — leathery. See Turtles. — loggerhead, iii 55. Turtles (and see Turtle), i 203, 212- 221; il 71-72, 333, 334, 4245 ill 54-56, 446-448. — leathery, i 216-217 (illust.); iii 55, 56. Turtur communis, i 167; ii 185. Tusks, of mammals (see also Teeth), 1 102, Tog, TIO, 111} li 348-350. Tusk-Shells, i 311, 338-339 (illust.) ; ii 247-248 ; iii 221-222, 411-412; iv Tusser, iv 249. (18, 323. Twite, i 156. Tylenchus devastatrix, iv 363. — scandens, ii 222-223. Tylopoda, iti 152-153. Tylototriton Andersoni, ii 334. Tympanic cavity, i 57. — membrane, i 57, 192. Type, classification by, i 10. — “generalized”, i 195-196. — ‘‘theoretical”, i 196. Typhlonectes compressicau- data, iii 443. Typhlonus nasus, iv 443 (illust.). Typhlopide, i 235-236; ii 79, 329; iii 212. [212. Typhlops vermicularis, i 236; iii Tyrian purple, i 321; iv 397. Tyroglyphus faring, ii 217. — siro, i 393; ii 443. U Udonella caligorum, iv 201. Ulna, i 30, 144, 196, 197, 241, 251, 252 ili 118, 134, T41, 143, 149, 152, 158, 237, 299 Ulnare, i 144, 197, 198, 252; iii 299. Umbrella-Bird, iv 43t. [237- Uncinate process, i 145, 187, 206, Ungulata, i 68. See also Mammals, hoofed. — even-toed, 1 107-122. — — non-ruminating forms, i 107-109. — — ruminants, i 109-122. — odd-toed, i 104-107. INDEX Unio, i 328; ii 248-249, 335; ili 37, 406-407. Unpaired fin, i 257, 258. Upper arm, i 24. Upper arm-bone, i 29-30; iii 298; and see Humerus. Upupa epops, i 164. Uraster rubens, i 450-454; ii 153: Ureter, i 48. [iii go-92; iv qx. Uria grylle, i 184. —troile, i 184; ili 66, 453. Urinary bladder, i 48. Urochord, i 298. Urochorda, i 293, 297-300. Ascidians. Urodela, i 245-249; ii 456; iii 45, 46- 49) 212-213, 434-436. Uromastix, i 222; ii 77, 282. — acanthinurus, ii 77. — spinipes, i 222. Uropeltide, ii 79; iii 2x1-2712. Uropeltis grandis, iii 211-212. Uropsilus soricipes, ii 36. Urostyle, i 251. Urotrichus, ii 36. Urside, i 94-95; iii 155-156, 491; and see Ursus. — sub-, i 94; ili 247-248. Urson, iii 253. [iv 334, 372. Ursus arctos, i 95, 227-228; ili 155; — ferox, i 95. — labiatus, ii 228; iv 334. — Malayanus, ii 227. — maritimus, i 95; ii 19, 227; iii 75- 76, — ornatus, iv 429. (155-156; iv 334. Urus, i 114; iv 224. {iv 208-408. Utilitarian Zoology, i 15-16, 18; — animal esthetics, iv 400-408. — — foes, iv 321-363. ——-— forms injurious industries, iv 345, 363. — — — personal enemies, iv 321-344. — — friends, iv 219-224, 325-330. — — pets, iv 382-393. — — products used for decorative pur- poses, iv 394-400. [300. — animals as a source of food, iv 211- — domestication of animals, iv 217- 260; and see Domestication. — sporting zoology, iv 364-381. Utricularia, iv 73-74, 95. Vv Vaccination, iv 79, 320. Vacuum (pl. vacua), iii 268-269. Vagus nerve, i 53. (iii 454, 472. Vanellus cristatus, i 169; ii 286; Vanessa, Atlanta, i 361. — cardui, i 361. — Io, i 361; ii 215; iv 56. — polychloros, i 36r. — urtice, i 361; ii 275, 294. Van Someren, ili 456; iv 60. Varanus griseus, ii 73, 282. — Niloticus, i i 224; ii 73. — prasinus, ii 73. — Salvator, ii 73; ili 51-52. Variation, iv 486, 491-492. Varro, iv 248. Vegetative Propagation, i 299; iii 316-332, 422. See also Development and Life-histories. Vein, portal, i 41. Veins, i 39-41; and see Circulatory organs. See also to human 553 Velella, ii 161; iv 450 (illust.). Veliger, iii 406 (illust.),414, 415 (illust.). Velum, i 479; iii 406. Venous sinus, i 200, 240, 262. Ventral cord. See Nerve-cord. Ventral plates, iii 114. Ventral shields, i 228; iii 110-111, 270-271. Ventricle, i 40; and see Circulatory organs. Venus mercenaria, iv 323. Venus’s Flower-Basket, i 486; iv 446 (illust.). Venus’s Fly-trap, iv 69-70 (illust.). Venus’s Girdle, i 483; iii 20 (illust.). Verification of Generalization, 1 3-4. Vermetus, iii 413-414. Verneuilina pygmea, iv 454. Verreaux, ii 47. Vertebree (and see Vertebral column): — atlas, i 26-27 (illust.). — chest-, i 27. — loin-, i 27. — neck-, i 26-27, 66, 144. — sacral, i 27. — tail, i 27, 144, 186. Vertebral column, amphibians, i 239, 251, 256. — birds, 144-145, 186. — fishes, i 260-261, 271. (254. — mammals, i 26-27 (illust.), 66; iii — reptiles, i 193-194, 214-215, 221-222, 229-230, 237; iii 110-111. (x15. Vertebral ossicles, i 455; iii r14- Vertebrates, classification and essen- tial characters, i 60-63. [304. — contrasted with invertebrates, i 302- —See also Vertebrates, primitive ; Round-mouths (Cyclostomata), Fishes, Amphibia, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals. — “cold-blooded”, i 191. — primitive, i 292-301; ii 92, 243-246; iii 38-40, 214-216. See also Lance- let, Ascidians, and Acorn-headed Worm. Verworn, iv 494. (112. Vespa crabo, i 374; ii 250-251; iv — Germanica, iv 111-112. — vulgaris, i 373; li 250-251. Vespertilio Bechsteini, i 82. — Daubentini, i 82. — mystacinus, i 82. — Nattereri, i 82. Vespertilionide, i 82. Vesperugo Leisleri, i 82. — noctula, i 82. — pipistrellus, i 82; ili 292-293. — serotinus, i 82. Vespidee. See Vespa. Vicunia, i 122; iii 153, 248. Vidua, iv 421. Vine-Louse, i 353; and see Aphis, vine-. [222; ili 21. Vinegar- or Paste-Eel, i 448: ii Violet, iv 97. [iv 407-408 (illust. ). Viper (and see Vipers), horned, ii 282; — Russell’s, iv 339. — water, ili 53. Vipers (and see Viper), i 232, 234-235; ii 80-81; ili 445. — pit”, i 235. — tree-, ili 272. Vipera, arietans, ii 80; iv 339. — Russelli, iv 339. Viperidz. See Vipers. 554 Visceral arches, amphibians, i 242. — embryo vertebrates, 1 62; ii 381 — fishes, i 260. ((illust.), ger. Visceral clefts, amphibians, i 242. — embryo vertebrates, i 62; ii 381-382 (illust.), 421. — primitive vertebrates, i 293. — fishes, 1 260. Visceral hump, of molluscs, i 308, 309, 312, 313, 316, 318-319, 322-324, 325, 327- (259. Visceral skeleton, of fishes, i 258- Vison, ii 22; ili 76; iv 303-304. — American, iii 76; iv 304. — European or Russian, ili 76; iv 303. — Siberian, iii 76. Vitreous humour, i s8. Vitrina pellucida, ii 37 Viverra civetta, i 89; ili 157. — zibetha, i 89. (227; ill 156-157. Viverride, i 87, 88-91; ii 11-14, 226- Vizcacha, i 133; ii 17-18 (illust.). Vocal chords, i 47. Vogt, Carl, ii 27, 32, 229, 230, 321, 350, 363; i 85, 150, 160, 196, 249, 331. Voice, organs of, birds, i 147, 149. — mammals, 1 47. — reptiles, i 202. Voice-box, i 47. Vole, bank-, i 129. — field- (common), 1 129; ii 177. — — (southern), ii 177; iv 486. — water-, i 128 (illust.’, 129; ili 73. Voles, i 128-129; ili 73, 483; iv 130, Volucella pellucens, ii iro. [340. Volutes, i 321. Volvox, i 489, 494-495 (illust.); ii 274; iil 6, 334-335 (illust.). Von Baer, i 11. Vorticella, i 480, 493-494; ii 266, 418; iii 2, 5, 6, 8-9, 319-320, 321, 323, 325- Vosseler, ii 255. Vultur monachus, i 175. Vulture, black, i 175. — eagle-, ii 303. — Riippel’s, i 175 (illust.). Vultures, i 152, 173-175; 11 69; iv 328. — American, i 175. W Wagtail, blue-headed, i 157. — grey, i 157; ili 125 (illust.), 457 (illust.), 458. — pied or water, i 157; ii 65. — white, i 157. — yellow, i157; 11 66 (illust. ). Wagtails, i 156-157; ti 65- ili 185. Waldheimia, i 438-430 (illust.). Wallace, i 7, 11; ii 40, 189, 284, 309, 311, 312, 346, 349; ili 282, 287, 204, 494; 1V 132, 140, 143, 160, 212, 346, 409, 410, 472, 417, 419, 422, 426, 433, 478, 494: “Wallace’s line”, iv 424, 426. Walrus, i 98; ii 24-25, 349; ili 79-80 (illust.), 492; iv 311-312, 394. Walton, Taak, iv 364. Wampum, Indian, iv 323-324 (illust.). “Wandering cells”, ili 3-4. See also Cells. Wanderoo, i 74-75 (illust.). Wapiti, i 111. Warbler, blackcap, i 160 (illust.). — Dartford, i 160. — fan-tail, iii 459-460. INDEX Warbler (Cozz.) — garden, i 160 (illust.). — grasshopper, i 160. — marsh, i 160, — reed, i 160; iii 458. — — great, iii 458 (illust.). — sedge, i 160. Warblers, i 160 (illust.) ; iv 202. Warde-Fowler, W., ii 65. See also Mimicry. Warning coloration, i 16; iv 58-59, 160, 402. — acorn-headed worms, ii 306. — amphibians, ii 304-305. — annelids, ii 308. — ascidians, ii 306. — fishes, 1i 305-306. — flat-worms, 11 308. — insects, ii 307-308, 360; ili 399; iv so. — mammals, ii 301-303. — molluscs, ii 306-307. — plants, iv 81. — reptiles, ii 303-304, 311. — sponges, li 309. — zoophytes, ii 308-309, 361. Warnings, spurious. See Mimicry. Wart-Hog, African, iv 373. Wart-Hogs, i 108-109. Wasp (and see Wasps): —- common, i 373; il 250-251. — common sand-, i 373- — fly-storing sand-, i 373. — mud-, i 374. — path-, i 373. Wasps, i 16, 373-374; ii 206, 250-251, ii 301; 307, 358; ill 311-312 (illust.), iv 29- 30 (illust.), 55-56, 59, 111-112 (illust. }, — sand-, i 373. [192, 356. — solitary, 1 374; ill 391-393. Waste-products, 1 44-46; ii 377. Waste-removing organs. Sce Breathing organs and Excretory organs. Water (H,0), i ii 270, 271, 273, 377-380, 382 20; 1v 65-66, 76. Water-Boatmen, i 354-355; ii 124, 440; li 29 (illust.). Water-Fleas, i 419, 421, 422 (illust.), 466-467; ii 256, 405; in 26 (illust.’, 362-363 (illust.). Water-’guana, ili 53. Water-Hen, iii 61. — Mortier’s, iti 61. Water-Pheasant. See Jacana. Water-Scorpions, i 354; li 124, 440- 440; ili 382-383. Water-testing organ, of molluscs, i 320, 333; iv 31. Water-vascular system, of echino- tie i 452, 457, 458-459, 463; ii 2, 414-416; ili 91-92, 95-96, 97. Waterton, Charles, 17; iti 239. Watson, Alfred, E. T., iv 364. Wax-glands, iv 254 (illust.). Weasel, common, i 98; ii 21, 290; iv 326 (illust.). Weasels, i 97-98 (illust.): ili 156; iv 303, 326, 345. Weaver-Birds, i 156. Webs, of arachnids, i 391, 392; ili 374; and see Nests. Weever, aera ii — lesser, i Weever-Fish, li 305-306. Weevil (and see Weevils): — apple-blossom, iv 354. — birch-, iii 394-396 (illust.); iv so. li 20-22; 357: Weevil (Coxz.) — biscuit-, iv 355. [(illust. ). —corn-, i 369 (illust.); iv 354-355 — nut-, i 369; ii 272 (illust.). — pea-, iv 354. — rice-, i 369 (illust. de Weevils, i 369; ii 211, 315, 337; iii 224, 394-396; iv 50, 354-355. Weismann, iii 319; iv 491, 492, 493, Welhaven, J. S., iv 408. (494. Wels, i 280 (illust.). Whale (and see Whales): — fin-back (or Rorqual), ii 29; iii 8s. — Greenland or northern ‘“‘right”, i 10F; ii 29, 30; ili 491; iv 314-315. — killer-, ii 26, 27 (illust.); ili 85. — southern “fright”, iv 315. — sperm- (or Cachalot), ii 29; iv 316, 317 (illust.), 403. — white, iii 83 (illust.); iv 316-317. Whales (and see Whale), i 61, 99-101; li 26-30; iii 83-86, 490-491; iv 209- 210, 314, 317- — toothed, ii 26-29; iv 316-317. — toothless, or whalebone, ii 26, 29-30; iv 314-316. ““Whalebone”’, i 100, 107 (illust.); ii 30 (illust.); iv 314, 315. Whale-Louse, i 415 (illust.); ii 143. Wheatear, i 160; iii 185 (illust.); iv 133. Wheat-Eelworm, ii 222-223 (illust.). Wheel-Animalcules, i 304, 434-435: li 261-263, 410; ill 100-01. Wheel-organ, i 434, 435; ii 410. Whelk, common, i 321 (illust.); ii 06, 97, 394-395; il 412, 413 (illust.); iv — dog-, iv 348. (348. Whewell, i 11. Whimbrel, i 169. Whinchat, i 160; iv 133. Whip-poor- Will, ii <8. Whip-Scorpions, i 387, 380 (illust.); ii 125-126, 443; ili 169 (illust.). “Whiskers”, of mammals, iv 28 White, Gilbert, i 6; iii 380, 466, 467, 471, 483; iv 319. White-“ Ants”. See Termites. “Whitebait”, iv 264. White matter, of spinal cord, i 50-51. Whitethroat, i 160 ‘illust.). — lesser, i 160 (illust.). Whiting, i 279; ii 283; iv 200, 267. Whooper, i 177. Whydah Finches, iv 421. Widgeon, i 176; iii 58. Wiedersheim, iii 118. Wildebeest, i 118. Willey, iii 110, 214, 418. Willows, iv 89, 92. Wilson, E. B., iv 494. Wilson, Gregg, iii 478. Windhover, i 174. Windpipe (and see Breathing organ): — birds, i147; ii 427. — mammals, i 46-47 (illust.). Wing-covers, beetles, i 366; ii 31 ili 313, 314. — insects, straight-winged, 1 345, 380. Wing-coverts, of birds, i 143, 178; Wings :— {iti 297. — bats, i 81; ili 292-294. — birds: game, iii 300. perching, i 153, 155, 156, 158, 160, 161; ili 303, 304. — — picarian, i 163; iil 304. 53 Wings (Coxz.) — birds (Cozz.) running, i 188, 189, 190; iii 130- 132. (66. — — auks, divers and grebes, i 184; iii = eagles and vultures, i 174, 175; ill 305, 306. —— gulls, iii 304, 305, 308. — — herons and storks, i 178, 179, 180; lii 307. (181; iii 307. —-—pelicans and cormorants, i 180, — — penguins, i 186; iii 67. — — petrels and albatrosses, i 183. —— pigeons and sand-grouse, i 140- 143, 145, 167; iii 304, 305. — — plovers, i 168; ili 305. ——rails, i17r. — — structure and action of, i 140-143, 145; lil 295-296, 298-299, 300-301 — insects: [(illust.), 302-308. fringe-winged, i 351, 355. membrane-winged, i 351, 369- 370; iii 28-29, 311 (illust.), 312, 313 (illust.); iv 14. —— net-winged, i 351, 374, 376-379; lil 311-313 (illust.); iv rer. straight-winged, 345, 351, 380. — — beetles, i 351, 366; ili 313; iv 192. — — bugs, i 351-353. —— flies, two-winged, i 351, 355; iii 311; iv 190. — — moths and butterflies, i 351, 358- 359 (illust.), 361-365; ili 311-313 (illust. ). — — evolution of, iii 314-315. — — modification of, iii 312-314 (illust. ). — — structure and action of, iii 309- 312 (illust.). — reptiles, iii 287, 308-309. Wing-Shells, i 32: (illust.); iii 107, 180, 181 (illust.). “Wire-Worms”, ii 211; iii 224; iv 354. Wissman, Major von, iv 240. Wolf (and see Wolves): (372. — common, i 93; iv 369, 370 (illust.), — prairie, i 93. — Tasmanian, ii 322. Wolves, i 93; ii 15-17; iv 134, 334, 369-372. Wolff, Caspar Friedrich, iii 336. Wolf-Fish, i 275; ii 86. Wolverene. See Glutton. Wombat, i 6o (illust.); ii 183 (illust.), 322; ili 480. ““Wonder-nets”, ii 430. Wood, J. G., ii 371; iv 117. Wood-borer, large, i 371 (illust.) ; ii 203; iii 386-387 (illust.). Wood-borers, or Wood-Wasps, i 370- 371; ll 203; ili 386-387; iv 195, 355. Woodcock, i 169; ii 68 (illust.). Woodlark, i 156. INDEX Wood-Louse, i 415 (illust.); ii 222; and see Wood-Lice. — pill, ii 143, 222, 342. — water, li 143, 222, 405. Wood-Lice, i 415; ii 222, 342, 405, 444; iii 368; and see Wood-Louse. Woodpecker (and see Woodpeckers): — great spotted, i 162; ii 58. — green, i 161; iii 263 (illust.). — lesser-spotted, i 162. Woodpeckers, i 161-162; ii 58, 187, 370; ili 264-265, 454; iv 347. — three-toed, iii 264-265. Woodward, Smith, iv 471. Wood-Wasps. See Wood-borers. “Wool”, of sheep, &c., iv 227, 228- 229 (illust.), 230, 232. “Woolly bears”, i 360; and see Caterpillars. “Worm-castings”, i 430; ii 257, 259; ili 226, 230. “Worms.” See Annelida, Earth- Worms, Flat-Worms, Thread- Worms, &c. Wrack, ii 198. Wrasse, Ballan, i 276. Wrasses, i 276; ii 86. Wren, common, i 160, 161. — fire-crested, i 160 (illust.). — golden-crested, i 160 (illust.). — willow, i 160. — wood, i 160. Wrens, i 160-162; iii 185. Wrist-bones, i 30-31; iii 299; and see Radiale and Ulnare. Wunderlich, iii 492. Wuychuchol, iii 71-72 (illust.). x Xanthoptera semicrocea, iv 72. Xenophon, iv 375. Xenophorus, ii 287, 288 (illust.). Xenopus levis, ili so. Xenos, iv 192. Xiphias gladius, i 273. Xiphocera asina, ii 282. Xiphosura, i 343, 422-423; ii r4q- 145, 406-407 ; iii 369. [391. Xylocopa violacea, i 374; iii 390- Y Yak, i 114; iv 225. “Yellow cells”, iv 76, 77. Yellow-hammer, i 156 (illust.). Yew, iv 80. Yolk. See Food-yolk. Yolk-sac, iii 425, 432, 432. 555 Young (see also Larvz). — amphibians. See Tadpoles, Larve, — annelids, iii 358, 361. [&c. — arachnids, i 392; iii 373-376. — birds, i 151-152, 153, 158, 161, 163, 165, 166, 167, 168, 170, 172, 176, 189; ii 285-286 (illust.); iii 448, 449, 450, 452, 460 (illust.), 466-474 (illust.); iv 186, 187 (illust.). —care of, See Protection. — crustaceans, iii 363, 365, 367-368; and see Larve. — echinoderms, iii 355; and see Larve. — fishes, iii 431-434. — insects. See Larvae, Nymphs, and Caterpillars. — mammals, i 65, 68-69; ii 430-431; iii 477 (illust.), 478-480 (illust.), 481 (illust.), 482-494; iv 312-313. — myriapods, iii 372. — reptiles, i 209; ili 443-445, 447. Yung, iv 493. Yungia aurantiaca, ii 308. ZL Zamenis constrictor, iii 270. — mucosus, iv 328. Zapus Hudsonianus, iii 194-195. Zebra, Burchell’s, i 107; iv 235 (illust.), 247. Zebras, i 107; iv 140, 235 (illust.), 239. Zebra-mules, iv 239-241 (illust.). Zebra Shark, i 286. Zebu, i 114; iv 225 (illust.). Zeus faber, i 273-274; iv 272. Zoxa, iii 27-28 (illust.), 366-367 Zooid, i 436, 437. [(illust. ). Zoology, is. — esthetic. See #sthetic Zoology. —economic. See Economic Zoology. — in Middle Ages, i 9. — of sport. See Sporting Zoology. — philosophical. See Philosophical Zoology. — utilitarian. See Utilitarian Zoology. — ways of studying, i 5-17. Zoophytes, i 304, 436, 465-483; ii 155-162, 271-272, 308-309, 340-341, 361, 416-418; ili 17-20, 89-90, 327- 328, 339-341, 349-353; IV 5-7, 25, 26, 33-34, TOT-104, 440-441, 449-450, 453-454, 458-459, 464. — extinct, 1v 458-459. — hydroid, i 465-473, 478-483 (illust.); ii 160-162 (illust.), 340-341; ili 327, 328, 350-352; iv 102-104. Zoospores, ii 273. Zootoca vivipara, i 225; ili 446. Zostera, iii 369. Zygena malleus, i 285-286. 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