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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924011943358

UNITED STATES COMMISSION OF FISH AND FISHERIES

SPHRNCHR FF. BAIRD, COMMISSIONER

THE FISHERIES

AND

FISHERY INDUSTRIES

or THE

UNITED STATES

PREPARED THROUGH THE CO-OPERATION OF THE COMMISSIONER OF FISHERIES
AND THE SUPERINTENDENT OF THE TENTH CENSUS

BY

GEORGE BROWN GOODE

ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM
AND A STAFF OF ASSOCIATES

i

SECTION I
NATURAL HISTORY OF USEFUL AQUATIC ANIMALS
WITH AN ATLAS OF TWO HUNDRED AND SEVENTY-SEVEN PLATES

THX T

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFIOE
1884

ASSOCIATE AUTHORS,

JOBE A) -AUUEN 3 i.,260pencssececce ceils venice ae tesyiectenics Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge.
TARLETON Hy. BRAN. ...00:¢ s2cise0% cece asieiess cenaesues aces U. §. National Museum, Washington.

JAMES TEMPLE. BROWN ...-..-.----- ----05 -- eee eee eee ee U. 8. National Museum, Washington.

A. HOWARD CLARK 6 o.0%2c)2¢ 6-2 S-iwaismuis ateicleee euceleeeeesicsis U. §. National Museum, Washington,
JOSEPH Ws COLLINS 5s 2 20i.<52)2e0 wesens = eee eevee reese oe Gloucester, Massachusetts.

R. Epwarb EaRLu.........-...-- epee de eerren meee nis a U.8.Fish Commission, Washington.
RicHarD H. EDMONDS ......-.-.-----+0+-)- iteheieraemiseatey © Baltimore, Maryland. =
HENRY W. ELLIOTT ...... 2.20... .200ce cece ee cneeee cee ees Cleveland, Ohio.

ERNEST. INGERSOLL. 6005-22246 .2nesdcaes 02 seeaeene anes New Haven, Connecticut.

DAVID. Sis, JORDAN 4 2:0' 04 nacsieine Kiniein sinieic ein ws Sain cate aieseere Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana.
UD WIG: KOMUIEN ec s ccna ekeb ee iiecws totes oigetenee ns Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

MARSHALL MACDONALD ..... 21022. eee ee eee ee eee U. §. Tish Commission, Washington.
FREDERICK MATHER ..... .-.--. 2-2-2. 202 caer Baie cioatces N. Y. Fish Commission, Cold Spring, New York.
BARNET PHILLIPS .... 22.2 .22- 0200 cece cepe cent cece ceee ee -Brooklyn, New, York.

RICHARD RATHBUN.....-.. 2-22 --+- ee eee eee ee eee teens U. S. National Museum, Washington.

JOHN Ay RYDER iy ccontccci deena douse men guenmacenmentes U. 8. Fish Commission, Washington.
CHaRLes W. SMILEY...-...--..--------- 2-22 eee eee eee eee U. S. Fish Commission, Washington.

SILAS (STRARNG) <2c5stohoceatdor ced ccen aus aoneamcemiesinaen Pensacola, Florida.

FREDERICK W. TRUB == <.0-0:02205 cu sen ice ancenterree ncn cuee U. 8S. National Museum, Washington.
WILLIAM A. WILCOX ....2. 200000 ceceee ceeeee ceeeesereeee Boston, Massachusetts,

i

PREFATORY NOTE.

U. S. CoMMISSION OF FISH AND FISHERIES,
Washington, May 30, 1884.

In July, 1879, an arrangement was made with General Francis A. Walker, Superintendent of
the Tenth Census, by which an investigation of the fisheries of the United States was undertaken
as the joint enterprise of the United States Fish Commission and of the Census Bureau. It was
decided that this investigation should be as exhaustive as possible, and that both the United
States Fish Commission and the Census should participate in its results. The preparation of a
statistical and historical monograph of the fisheries, to form one of the series to be presented by
the Superintendent of the Census in his report, was from the first the main object of the work,
but in connection with this work extensive investigations into the methods of the fisheries, into
the distribution of the fishing-grounds, and the natural history of useful marine animals were
inaugurated and carried on.

The direction of this investigation was placed in the hands of Mr. G. Brown Goode, Assistant
Director of the National Museum, who had already been engaged for a number of years in a
systematic, historical, and statistical investigation of the American fisheries, and who as early as
1877 had drawn up a scheme for an exhaustive exploration of the coast, quite as elaborate as that
now adopted and not essentially different. .

The first step taken was to secure the co-operation of as many as possible of those persons
who had in the past given attention to the subject of the fisheries, and this was so successfully
accomplished that it is safe to say that every one who has been of late years prominent in such

. Studies has taken part in the preparation of this report.

The plan of the proposed investigation was drawn up by Mr. Goode before beginning the work,
and was published in an octavo pamphlet of fifty-four pages, entitled ‘‘ Plan of Inquiry into the
History and Present Condition of the Fisheries of the United States.” Washington: Government
Printing Office; 1879.

The scheme of investigation divided the work into the following departments:

I. Natural history of marine products—Under this head was to be carried on the study of the
useful aquatic animals and plants of the country, as well as of seals, whales, turtles, fishes,
lobsters, crabs, oysters, clams, etc., sponges, and marine plants and inorganic products of the
sea with reference to (A) geographical distribution, (B) size, (C) abundance, (D) migrations and
movements, (E) food and rate of growth, (F) mode of reproduction, (G) economic value and uses.

II. The fishing grounds.—Under this head were to be studied the geographical distribution of
all animals sought by fishermen, and the location of the fishing-grounds; while, with referencee

vi PREFATORY NOTE.

to the latter, are considered: (A) location, (B) topography, (C) depth of water, (D) character of
bottom, (E) temperature of water, (F) currents, (G) character of invertebrate life, ete.

III. The fishermen and fishing towns.—Here were to be considered the coast districts engaged
in the fisheries, with reference to their relation to the fisheries, historically and statistically, and
the social, vital, and other statistics relating to the fishermen.

IV. Apparatus and methods of capture —Here were to be considered all the forms of apparatus
used by fishermen; boats, nets, traps, harpoons, etc., and the methods employed in the various
branches of the fishery. Here each special kind of fishery, of which there are more than fifty
in the United States, is considered separately with regard to its methods, its histery, and its
statistics. .

V. Products of fisheries—Under this head were to be studied the statistics of the yield of
American fisheries, past and present.

VI. Preparation, care of, and manufacture of fishery products—Here were to be considered
the methods and the various devices for utilizing fish after they are caught, with statistics of
capital and men employed, etc.: (A) preservation of live fish, (B) refrigeration, (C) sun-drying,
(D) smoke-drying, (E) pickling, (F) hermetically canning, (G) fur dressing, (H) whalebone prep-
aration, (I) isinglass manufacture, (K) ambergris manufacture, (L) fish guano manufacture, (M) oil
rendering, etc.

VII. Economy of the jfisheries—Here were to be studied: (A) financial organization and
methods, (B) insurance, (C) labor and capital, (D) markets and market prices, (E) lines of traffic,
(F) exports, imports, and duties.

The fishery industry is of such great importance, and is undergoing such constant changes
that a visit of a few days or weeks to any locality, even by the most competent experts, has
invariably proved unsatisfactory. We were able therefore to collect only the most important
facts, selected with special reference to the needs of the report in contemplation, leaving many
subjects of interest undiscussed.

The field-work, and the correspondence in connection with it, was carried on by the following-
named special agents, and approximately between the dates below mentioned : ,

I.—Coast of Maine, east of Portland. Mr. R. Edward Earll and Captain J. W. Collins,
August 1 to October 31, 1879; July 29 to October 20, 1880; January 1, 1881, to
January 1, 1883. :
II.—Portland to Plymouth (except Cape Ann) and eastern side of Buzzard’s Bay. W. A.
Wilcox, September 2, 1879, to March 1, 1881.
Iil.—Cape Ann. A. Howard Clark, September 1, 1879, to November 1, 1880; July, August,
and September, 1883.
IV.—Cape Cod. Frederick W. True, July 1 to October 1, 1879; September 1 to October 31,
1880; Vinal N. Edwards, October 1, 1880, to July 31, 1882.
*-V.—Provineetown. Captain N. E. Atwood, August 1, 1879, to August 1, 1880.
VI.—Rhode Island and Connecticut, west to the Connecticut River. Ludwig Kumlien, August
16 to October 16, 1880.
VII,—Long Island and north shore of Long Island Sound, and west to Sandy Hook. Frederick
Mather, August 1, 1879, to July 1, 1881.
VIII.—New York City. Barnet Phillips, January 1, 1880, to July 1, 1881.
1X.—Coast of New Jersey. R. Edward Earli, December, 1880.
X.—Philadelphia. C. W. Smiley and W. V. Cox, November, 1880.
XI.—Coast of Delaware. Captain J. W. Collins, December, 1880.

PREFATORY NOTE. vii

XII.—Baltimore and the oyster industry of Maryland. R.H. Edmonds, October 1, 1879, to

é October 1, 1880.

XITI.—Atlantic coast of Southern States. R. Edward Earll, January 1 to July 25, 1880.
XIV.—Gulf coast. Silas Stearns, August, 1879, to July, 1880.
XV.—Coast of California, Oregon, and Washington. Professor D. S. Jordan and C. H. Gil-
bert, January, 1880, to January, 1881.
XVI.—Puget Sound. James G. Swan, January, 1880, to January, 1881.
XVII.—Alaska fisheries. Dr. T. H. Bean, June to October, 1880.
XVIII.—Great Lakes fishery. Ludwig Kumlien, August, 1879, to August, 1880.
XIX.—River fisheries of Maine. C.G. Atkins, January 1, 1880, to July 3, 1882.
XX.—The shad and alewife fisheries. Colonel Marshall MacDonald, October, 1879, to January
1, 1883.
XXI.—Oyster fisheries. Ernest Ingersoll, October 1, 1879, to July 1, 1881.

XXII.—Lobster and crab fisheries. Richard Rathbun, January 1, 1880, to January 1, 1882.
XXIII.—Turtle and terrapin fisheries. Frederick W. True, October 1, 1880, to January 1, 1882.
XXIV.—The seal, sea-elephant, and whale fisheries. A. Howard Clark, November 1, 1880, to

February 1, 1881.

In addition to the field assistants already mentioned a staff of office assistants were employed
in carrying on correspondence, searching past records, and preparing the report for publication.
Mr. C. W. Smiley, Mr. James Temple. Brown, and Mr. George S. Hobbs were connected with the
work from its start, and subsequently Mr. J. E. Rockwell, Mr. C. W. Scudder, Mr R. I Geare, Mr.
G. P. Merrill, Mr. W. S. Yeates, and others were thus employed. A number of clerks were
temporarily detailed for this work by the Superintendent of the Census; at one time as many as
twenty.

A portion of the clerical force was placed under the immediate direction of Mr. C. W. Smiley,
who had in special charge the distribution of circulars and the compilation of their results, and the
compilation of summary tables from the records of the Treasury Department.

The expense of the field-work from July 1, 1879, to July 1, 1881, was for the most part borne
by the Census, together with a large amount of compilation office-work carried on by clerks
detailed from the Census Office in Washington.

The expense of the preparation of the report, final tabulation of statistics of production, and
preparation of illustrations has been mainly at the cost of the Fish Commission. Since February,
1881, Mr. Goode’s relation to the work has been that of a volunteer, and his services in the
preparation of the reports and in connection with their publication have been rendered without
compensation, in addition to his regular duties as Assistant Director of the National Museum.
In the same manner a large share of the most important work upon special parts of the report
has been done as volunteer labor by officers of the National Museum and Fish Commission, in
addition to their regular duties. A number of employees of the Fish Commission have been
detailed from time to time for special work upon this report, for periods varying from four months
to two years.

The participation of the Census Office and the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries has involved
the expenditure of probably nearly equal amounts of money, and the division of the results, so
far as they are represented in reports ready for the printer, has been arranged to the satisfaction
of both. The extent of the material collected has, however, been much greater than was antici-
pated, and the portion assigned to the Fish Commission being too bulky for publication in the an-
nual reports, application was made to Congress for permission to print as a separate special report
an illustrated work in quarto upon the Food Fishes and Fisheries of the United States.

one

Vill PREFATORY NOTE.

This permission was granted in a joint resolution, worded as follows, which passed the Senate
July 16, 1882: é

Resolved by the Senate (the House of Representatives concurring), That the Public Printer be, and
is hereby, instructed to print, in quarto form, a report by the U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fish-
eries, upon the food fishes and fisheries of the United States, the engravings to be in relief, and to be
contracted for by the Public Printer, under the direction of the Joint Committee on Printing, and to
receive the approval of the Commissioner before being accepted; the work to be stereotyped, and
10,000 extra copies printed, of which 2,500 shall be for the use of the Senate, 5,000 for the use of
the House, and 1,500 for the use of the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries. There shall also be
printed 1,000 extra copies for sale by the Public Printer, under such regulations as the Joint
Committee on Printing may prescribe, at a price equal to the additional cost of publication and 10
per cent. thereon added. ;

The manuscript for the entire report is for the most part ready for the printer, and several
hundred drawings for the illustrations are finished. Part I was placed in the hands of the printer
in August 1882, and would have been published more than a year ago but for the absence of Mr.
Goode in England. The contents of these reports, it is proposed, shall be approximately as fol-
lows, though it is probable that other topics may be added to the discussion before the work is
- completed :

THE Foop FISHES AND FISHERY INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES.
PART I.—The Natural History of Useful Aquatic Animals.
Part IJ.—The Fishing-Grounds.
Part IIJ.—The Fishing-Towns, containing a geographical review of the Coast, River, and Lake Fisheries.
Part IV.—The Fishermen.
Part V.—The Apparatus of the Fisheries and the Fishing-Vessels and Boats.
Part VI.—The Fishery Industries, a discussion of methods and history.
Part VII.—The Preparation of Fishery Products.
Part VIII.—Fish Culture and Fishery Legislation.
Part IX.—Statistics of Production, Exportation, and Importation. Summary Tables.
Part X.—The Whale Fishery ; a special monograph.
Part XI.—A Catalogue of the Useful and Injurious Aquatic Animals and Plants of North America.
Part XII.—A list of Books and Papers relating to the Fisheries of the United States.
Part XIII.—A general Review of the Fisheries with a statistical summary.

The report prepared for the Superintendent of the Census, the manuscript of which is now
for the most part in his possession, is divided into the following sections:

A REPORT UPON THE STATISTICS OF THE FISHERIES AND FISH TRADE OF THE UNITED STATES.

INTRODUCTION (giving a comprehensive abstract of the matter contained in the quarto report referred to above).

Part I.—A Review of the Fisheries of the Atlantic Seaboard, with statistics of production and manufacture.

Part II.—A Review of the Fisheries of the Pacific Coast, with statistics of production and manufactures.

Part III.—A Review of the Fisheries of the Great Lakes, with stat.stics of production and manufactures.

Part IV.-—A Review of the River Fisheries of the United States. (Prepared by C. W. Smiley.)

Part V.—A Review of the Consumption of Fish by Counties, with an estimate of the extent and value of
the inland fisheries. (Prepared by C. W. Smiley.)

Part VI.—A Review of the Fish Trade of cities of the United States having a population of more than 10,000
in 1880. (Prepared by C. W. Smiley.)

Part VII.—Statistics of Importation and Exportation of Fishery Products from 1730 to 1880.

Part VIII.—List of the Fishing-Vessels of the United States in 1880, giving tonnage, value, number of crew,
name of owner, branches of fisheries engaged in, together with other important details.

Part IX.—Monograph of the Seal Islands of Alaska. By Henry W. Elliott. (Already in type; 171 pages. 4to.)

‘Part X.—Monograph of the Oyster Fisheries. By Ernest Ingersoll. (Already in type ; 251 pages.)

The Census volume thus is arranged to include all compilations from circulars, and the results
of the work performed by clerks detailed from the Census Office, together with much derived from

PREFATORY NOTE. ix

the archives of the Fish Commission. The first three sections are mainly made up from the
material collection by the special agents in the field, and the form is as nearly as possible that in
which it was originally collected; much, however, has been added from the archives of the
Commission.

By the plan just detailed, the statistical matter gathered by the joint efforts of the two
organizations is assigned to the Census, together with a sufficient amount of descriptive and
explanatory text to make the statistics fully intelligible, while the descriptive, historical, and
natural history papers are taken by the Fish Commission, these being enriched by a sufficient
amount of statistical detail to render them as useful as possible for the class of readers and students
for whom they are intended.

The statistical results of the investigation have already been published in a preliminary way.
A series of special statistical tables appeared in the Bulletins of the Census Office, as follows :

(1.) Census BULLETIN No. 176.—[Preliminary Report upon the Pacific States and Territories] prepared by Mr. Goode
from returns of Special Agents Jordan, Swan, and Bean. Dated May 24, 1884. 4to. Pp. 6 (+2).

(2.) CENSUS BULLETIN No. 261.—Statistics of the Fisheries of the Great Lakes. Prepared by Mr. Frederick W. True
from notes of Special Agent Kumlien. Dated September 1,1881. 4to. Pp. 8.

(3.) Census BULLETIN No. 278.—Statistics of the Fisheries of Maine. Prepared by Mr. R. E. Earll from his own notes
and those of Capt. J. W. Collins and Mr. C. G. Atkins. Dated November 22, 1881. 4to. Pp. 47 (+1).

(4.) Cunsus BULLETIN No, 281.—Statistics of the Fisheries of Virginia. Prepared by Colonel Marshall MacDonald.
Dated December 1, 1881. 4to. Pp. 8.

(5.) CENSUS BULLETIN No. 295.—Statistics of the Fisheries of Massachusetts. Prepared by Mr. A. Howard Clark from
returns of Special Agents Wilcox, Clark, True, Collins, and Atwood. Dated March 1, 1882. 4to. Pp.35 +1.

(6.) Census BULLETIN No. 291.—Statistics of the Fisheries of New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. Pre-
pared by Mr. A. Howard Clark. Dated April 5, 1882. 4to. Pp. 7(+1.)

(7.) Census BULLETIN No. 297.—Commercial Fisheries of the Middle ‘States. Prepared. by Mr. R. E. Earll and Colonel
M. MacDonald. Dated June 5, 1882. 4to. Pp. 14.

(8.) CeNsuS BULLETIN No. 298.—Commercial Fisheries of thé Southern Atlantic States. Prepared by Mr. R. E. Earll
and Colonel M. MacDonald. Dated June 5,1882. 4to. Pp.18. (This bulletin includes statistics of No. 4 (C.
B., No. 281).

In all 148 pages, quarto. In addition to these certain special tables have appeared.

(10.) StaristicaL TABLE.—Statistics of the Fisheries of the United States in 1880. {Prepared by Messrs. Goode and
Earll from the reports of special agents.] Printed in Compendium of the Tenth Census, p. 88. Pp. —.
Republished in Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission, Vol. IIi, 1883, pp. 270-71, and in Preliminary
Catalogue, International Fisheries Exhibition, January, p. 5.

(11.) STaTISTICAL TaBLE.—Table showing by States the quantity of Spanish mackerel taken in 1880, and the total
catch for the United States. By R. Edward Earll. Report United States Fish Commission. Part VIII,
1880, p. 416,

(12.) Statistica, SuMMARY.—Statistics of the Davis Strait Halibut Fisheries. By Newton P. Scudder. Report
United States Fish Commission. Part VIII, pp. 190-192.

(13.) StaTisticaL SUMMARY.— Statistics of the Swordfish Fishery. By G. Brown Goode. Report United States Fish
Commissioners. Part VIII, pp. 361-367.

(14.) Statistica, SUMMARIES.—Statistics of the Mackerel Fishery in 1880. By R. Edward Earll. Report United

States Fish Commission. Part IX, pp. [124]-[127.]
[Statistics of the Mackerel Canning Industry.] By R. Edward Earll. Ibid, p.[131.]
Statistics of the Inspection of Mackerel from 1804 to 1880. By A. Howard Clark.
Ibid, pp. [162]-[213.]
Vessels in the Mackerel Fishery in 1880. Ibid, p. 418.
Catch of Mackerel by Americans in Canadian waters. 1873~81. Ibid, p. [430.]

(15.) INTRODUCTION to Section B., U. §. Catalogue International Fisheries Exhibition, London. (Collection of Eco-
nomic Crustaceans, Worms, Echinoderms, and Sponges.) By Richard Rathbun. Pp. [3]-[20.] Crabs, p. [3]:
Lobsters, p. [6]: Crayfish, p. [10]: Shrimp and Prawns, p. [11]: Sponges, p. [18], etc.

Xx PREFATORY NOTE.

(16.) INTRODUCTION to Section D., U. 8. Catalogue Int. Fisheries Exhibition. (Catalogue of the Economic Mollusca
and the apparatus and appliances used in their capture and preparation for market, exhibited by the U. 8.
National Museum.) By Lieut. Francis Winslow, U. 8. N., pp. [3] to [58]. Aggregate table of production,
p. [3]: Special tables and statistical statements throughout.

(17.) INTRODUCTION to Section k., U. 8. Catalogue Int. Fisheries Exhibition. (The Whale Fishery and its Appliances. )
By James Temple Brown, pp. [3]-[25.]

(18.) Statistics of the Whale Fishery. By A. Howard Clark, in the preceding, pp. [26]-[29.]

(19.): A Review of the Fishery Industries of the United States, etc. By G. Brown Goode. An address at a conference
of the International Fisheries Exhibition, June 25, 1883. 8vo., pp. &4. Numerous statistical statements,
summaries, and tables.

(20.) ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT.—Method and results of an effort to collect statistics of the fish trade, and consump-
tion of fish throughout the United States. By Chas. W. Smiley. Bulletin U. 8. Fish Commission, vol. ii,
1882, pp. 247-52.

Two special reports have also been published, as follows:

(21.) A Monograph of the Seal Islands of Alaska. By Henry W. Elliott. 4to., illustrated. Pp. 172. An edition of this
report with substitutions on pp. 102-9 was also issued as a Special Bulletin of the Fish Commission, No. 176.
(22.) The Oyster Industry. By Ernest Ingersoll. 4to., illustrated. Pp. 252.

The general results of the investigation, from the statistician’s stand-point, may be briefly
summarized as follows:

In 1880 the number of persons employed in the fishery industries of the United States was
131,426, of whom 101,684 were fishermen, and the remainder shoresmen. The fishing fleet con-
sisted of 6,605 vessels (with a tonnage of 208,297.82) and 44,804 boats, and the total amount of
capital invested was $37,955,349, distributed as follows: Vessels, $9,357,282; boats, $2,465,393 ;
minor apparatus and outfits, $8,145,261; other capital, including shore property, $17,987,413.

The value of the fisheries of the sea, the great rivers, and the Great Lakes, was placed at
$43,046,053, and that of those in minor inland waters at $1,500,000—in all $44,546,053. These values
-were estimatedupon the basis of the prices of the products received by the producers, andif average
wholesale prices had been considered, the value would have been much greater. In 1882 the yield
of the fisheries was much greater than in 1880, and prices both “at first hand” and at wholesale
were higher,'so that a fair estimate at wholesale market rates would place their vulue at the
present time rather above than below the sum of $100,000,000.

The fisheries of the New England States are the most important. They engage 37,043 men
2,066 vessels, 14,787 boats, and yield products to the value of $14,270,393. In this district the
principal fishing ports in order of importance are: Gloucester, New Bedford, the center of the
whale fishery, Eastport, Boston, Provincetown, and Portland.

Next to New England in importance are the South Atlantic States, employing 52,418 men, 3,014
vessels (the majority of which are small, and engaged in the shore and bay fisheries), 13,331 boats
and returning products to the value of $9,602,737.

Next are the Middle States, employing in the coast fisheries 14,981 men, 1,210 vessels, 8,293
boats, with products to the amount of $8,676,579.

Next are the Pacific States and Territories with 16,803 men, 56 vessels, 5,547 boats, and products
to the amount of $7,484,750. The fisheries of the Great Lakes employ 5,050 men, 62 vessels, and
1,594 boats, with products to the amount of $1,784,050. The Gulf States employ 5,131 men, 197
vessels, and 1,252 boats, yielding products to the value of $545,584.

SPENCER F. BAIRD,

Commissioner of Fisheries.
WASHINGTON, May 30, 1884.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM,
Washington, July 18, 1882.

Sm: I have the honor to transmit herewith, for approval and for publication, Section I of
a general work upon THE FISHERIES AND FISHERY INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES,
consisting of an illustrated history of the useful aquatic animals of the United States. This
work is intended especially for the use of the reading public, and technical zoélogical discussions
and descriptions have therefore been intentionally avoided.

I desire, in this place, to express my high appreciation of the manner in which the gentlemen
associated with me in the preparation of this work have performed the tasks which they had
undertaken, their work having been in large degree voluntary and unremunerated.

I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
* G. BROWN GOODE.

Professor SPENCER F. BAIRD, : .

United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries.

A._THE

B.—THE
17.
18.
19.
20.

C.—THE
30.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Part L—MAMMALS.
WHALES AND PORPOISES. By G. BRown GoopE.

« The Sperm: Whales sccncceeccwserennseces secce eects tee ecenuese esas sake eneceewe
. The Blackfishes or Pilot Whales. ..-.....---.. side wenioeseReeereeEe one seeaee aes
. The Grampuses or Cowfishes.....----. 0.2.2. oe eee cece cee ee cee ne cece ee cee eee
. The Harbor Porpoises or Herring Hogs........-.------ cee eee eee cee ce eee eens
a Ee Doo lip Dia a aasstaretee meyshs siete wins iiticcn a: nib ie cis icin ti inie eieiaieterdcieeaidinisaie seiccwleeawee sauce
. The Killer Whales or Orcas.... ..-. 02.222 eee cece eee cen cee eee cee e eeeee
. The Sperm Whale Porpoise .. .......-.---. 02-222 cece eee ee cee eee ebeeersteeube
. The White Whale or Beluga........ 20202 cee cece cece cere cece cece nee eeeee
. The Narwhal..-......--. s SUSAR Sees ee mein ose eAmsmies Sethe s Sesase nes eeae
. The Greenland, Bowhead, or Polar Whale.............-.--. ecee cece ee cee eee cee
3 THO Right! Wihalesis o.oo <a 2 = Sarseccye sciacs oS acieiiisicidis aiwisin aiwenedia gaiaietnieieemadonereneusains
. The Humpback Whales. ........-....-.. picieinieiaias cre case sascisicce a tice ciel win MEa tw eicialnianeiaiee
. The Sulphur Bottom Whales.......-. 2.2.02. eee ee eee e cee e ee cece cone ee cones rasta
» Whe Finback WIE «..:.1.10:sioccceicccisieinwias oh oteie decease cesrecisncete eocewaeuisaigte.s
is PHS SEAR WHA wees irmsvnsaisrera scctainse aie mnie wie weyarntie sala meri Oaienwaee eee euneteekeeees
. The California Gray Whales.........----- PIPER ODOR EOE Ran Ue ate en

SEALS AND WALRUSES. By JogL A. ALLEN.

. The Harbor Seal............---..- as/atsiserpiate) Ste siahaialefelcie'eininle ieee Maver Rete Seine
« Lhe Harp Seal vwssexscecas aww aeawee Gos eawseriaseeaien sien seaeeevemeciceue ness sen
. The Ringed Seal...... SG ces neha ae eat taal
» The Ribbon Seal sss scsjene sowesecesccewed cones scons ties care adit Pulcieigiewmieede ome es

HABITS OF THE FUR-SEAL. By HENRY W. ELLIOTT.

A life history of the Fur-Seal...... 2.22. 2-202. 0-222 e cee cece eee eee cee eee

re aves renner ata 11

Sigsamrareiselaleln crete 26

niticiclesisjc(wersuastets . 28

D._THE MANATEES AND THE ARCTIC SEA-COW. By FREDERIOK W. TRUE.

xiv

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Part II.—REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS.

By FREDERICK W. TRUE.

E.—THE ALLIGATOR AND THE CROCODILE:
33. The Alligator and the Crocodile .........-.--..----- ceccee cecene cee c ee cen eee cecees seen ceneneeees 141

F.—TORTOISES, TURTLES, AND TERRAPINS:

34,
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44,

The Marine Turtles in general ...-....-.--2. 2222 -e2 eee eee ee ee ee ee B cmenibeebucinewceeeta anges 147
The Loggerhead Turtle .......-- Sy "visio le wimiiaalatinnsia 4.9 bteimieeheibinin stb, sip'pigte Seie's Wisiaie Sede Gases emer seemEn oti 147
The: Hawk’s-bill Durtless.ci< <4 « s/s sinisieajels. ws o's 2, etoile elarwiemeusldinisicials alnicic ‘gielete tein eee Screams wse siateceiarwe 149
Phe: Green wl Urtles: se jasscis eo wietalevetare:e tro anetaraje vy eect. esos Aiotetulela)a Biain's (anjets we siesiesin Seles a eith'e eae eree aaa 150
The: Soft-shelled: tortoises. deen xcevetscnance ae se wesleaseed saan: qewoeeie vesseueeucusldsdes aeeouaess 152
The Snapping Turtles ccs. came cesawvcnisnes vmnw cane wiewe exceeds s cilem smeissesesecceiyees'steisieecels 153
The: Musk Tort0iseGicwws 22% scemeeniqass wees eee reece ee tea ees bsie os siehadee dem eerie eeiimegeleeccawices LOF
‘The Freshwater Perrapinel-.a- secesnsoeane ssedcecoeanemets mies tee eee cekoreebcie seed doesctindasle estes 155
The Diamond-back or Salt-water Terrapin ............ 122-22 eee ce ee cee ce cee eee tee nee cee 156
The Pond Tortoises ...........---2- 2 eee eens eee e eee ahem eee ee te See we eR SEE Reeeeseaeeis! oe 157
The Box Tortoises ac 5 2 sue sxeywessars eee sd cee ee eeees Wese ew ce seed eee ees eee mecine Seisiaiele sees 158
G.—THE AMPHIBIANS:
The Bull -fr0@ siciwas sec eee sy sce Setiten bb Gigs void seen hidie naire Wide Se aibele beeen ieee ties wails YS 159

45.

Part IIL—FISHES.

By G. BRown GoopDE.

WITH DISCUSSIONS OF THE PACIFIC SPECIES BY DAVID S. JORDAN AND TARLETON H. BEAN, NOTES ON THE FISHES
OF THE GULF OF MEXICO BY SILAS STEARNS, AND CONTRIBUTIONS FROM JOSEPH W. COLLINS, N. E. ATWOOD,
MARSHALL MACDONALD, R. EDWARD EARLL, LUDWIG KUMLIEN, AND OTHER AUTHORITIES.

H.—THE FILE FISHFS, PIPE FISHES, AND ANGLERS:

46. The Ocean Sun Fishes (Orthagoriscida) ......---- 22-2. cece eee ce nee eens cone coc eee cone ceneee 169
47. The Porcupine Fishes (Diodontida) .. 0.2.02. 22. -.0. sec cee cceceececeee seececes coceceseeecececeuces 170
48. The Bellows-Fish Family (Tetrodontid@) ..---.- .-. 22. 2-20 cece e come ee cee cone cee cece ee cee cence 170
49. The Trunk Fishes (Ostraciontid@) .....2.-. 2 eee eee en cece cece cece e cece ee ce ne tecene secene cece 170
50. The File-Fish Family (Balistid@) ..-.-.....--- 000... ceee ee cece cece ee cece ee cece ee cece ceeeeeeees 171
51. The Sea-Horse Family (Hippocampida) ........-.2--- 200+ cee eee cece ee cece ee cee eee nace ee cee eee cence 172
52. The Pipe. Fish Family (Syngnathida) ...-.. 22-0. cacceececeee coeeee caceee cecceeceeces ceeeeceecess 172
53. The Devil Fishes (Antennariide and Maltheid@) ........2 002.2 cece cece ee cece en cece ee eee eee cece cece 173
54. The Goose Fish (Lophius piscatorius)...-.. 02.02. ce ceee cece en cece en cece ee cee ees cee c ee ene eee cence ee 173
I—THE FLAT FISHES AND FLOUNDERS:
55. The American Soles (Soleida@) ......... 20. 2.222 cece cee cee cece ce ee ee cece cee ene cen can tecuue cccces 175
56. The Plaice (Paralichthys dentatus) .... 2222... ceee eee cence cece ee cote ee veces cece wees eee cee eee cee 178
57. The Bastard Halibut (Paralichthys maculosus) .......2.. 0.0.20 cee cee cee ee cece en cence ceccec eecccce 182
58. The Flat Fish or Winter Flounder (Pseudoplewronectes americanus) .....-.. 20. eee cece cane ceeeee eee 182
59. The Flat Fishes and Soles of the Pacific Coast ........002. 000. c2ee cece ceee wees eee cece ceecccec ce 184
60. The Halibut (Hippoglossus vulgaris) .... 2... cee. cece cece lene cece cece cece eens cuca cece cuecce cece cee 189
61. The Sand Dab or Rough Dab ( Hippoglossoides platessoides) ...... 0... 0-20 cooe sene cece coccececcece 197
62. The Greenland Turbot (Platysomatichthys hippoglossoides) .... 62. eee cece eee ee eee eee cen e cece cee 197
63. The Pole Flounder or Craig Flounder (Glyptocephalus cynoglossus) .... 2.0... -c.ececceecececececeee 198
64. The Spotted Sand Flounder (Lophopsetta maculata) .... 2... .... 0.00 cece cnen cece caceccececccceceee. 199

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

J.—THE COD FAMILY AND ITS KINDRED:

65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
23.
74.

The Cod (Gadus morrhua)... 22... 2-2. 0220 ee eee cee eee eee eee
The Tom Cods (Microgadus feiaeed and. MM. progtmus) wos snas ins esc caieie ainiarsiseinelsisuie sivas vise ov cece eee
The Haddock (Melanogrammus eglefinus) ...... 222-222-202 oe ee ee ce eee cee cece eens

The Pollock (Pollachius carbonarius)....-.....--220 --20-------

The Cusk ( Brosmius brosme). . Sia salats ayerd S16. vIe aupssiecersys ei muse tabase cia manayere inne oiare Siaeuciee

The Hakes (Phycis chuss, none Sxialalsdvelawacianalemecraiia ob aroterel anton sierarouet

The Burbot (Lota maculosa). By TARLETON H. BEAN.......----..----------- bog cee cen sas
The Silver Hake and the Merluccio...--.-..-.. 2-2-2. o-oo cee ee eee ee cece ee nen nenn ee eaenes

The Lant, or Sand Eel ( Ammodytes lanceolatus)........--..---.-.

K.—WOLF-FISHES, SCULPINS, AND WRASSES:

75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84,

85.

86.
87.

94. The Angel-Fish Family (Chetodontid@),. .......----- --eee eens cece cece ee eee cence eee
L.—THE MACKEREL AND ITS ALLIES:

95. The Mackerel (Scomber scombrus).. ....---.--- 02+ -20 ee ne nee e ee cone eee eee sie seaeaes
96. The Chub Mackerel (Scomber colias).... 2.2... 002202 cece cee cee cee nee cece 3 deereeenes
97. The Frigate Mackerel (Ausxis thazard)......-.---- +--+ 200+ -0--- is a busier ene
98. The Spanish Mackerel and its Allies..........-.---.---+2----- 2-2 eee dasa sate
99. The Bonito (Sarda mediterranea). .... .-- 2-2 -20-20 cece ee cee ence eee nee ee eee ene cee e ne tees
100. The Horse Mackerel, Tunny, or Albicore (Orcynus thynnus)........----.2.-.+02005- oats
101. The Little Tunny or Albicore (Orcynus alliteratus)..........- +202. 202-22 _
102.. The: Silver Moon-Fish ea :oisisi = siersios scsi vinisls isis Wee wieis 00 be sis Se ste are ne beebleweeiey seleajssiae ge yyes's Sea 2
103. The Cavally, the Scad, andi tha Fouls. daleioeees ee. bx@ eee seh oc eee ee bbilomese Hs Mem eaeeeeMaE Eee dees
104. The Pompanos (Trachynotus carolinus, etc.).-...-..--- cee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee
105, The Pilot Fish (Nauerates ductor). ..-..-...2-- 0-00 cane cccces socces acces mane cane eee n scence uacces
106. The Amber Fishes and the Leather Jackets.........---.- 2220 coe eee eee eee eens cee ee eee nee

“~~ -:107. The Dolphins (Coryphanida) .......--. 22-0022 c eee cece eee ce cece ce ee ce cone cee en en ge eens eeeeeeee
108. The Rudder-Fish Family (Stromateid@) ...... 0.2.2. 0202 cook eee e eee cee cee ee eee eee eens
109. The Dory, Hen-Fish, and Opah Families...... 0... ..0. 222 eee cee ee te eens cece cee ees cece eee eee
110. The Cutlass Fish (Trichiurus lepturus)......-. 2. 02-202 eee ee cee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee anne
111. The Sword Fish Family (Xiphitde@)....... 0.200 eee e cece cee ne cece wees cee eee te we ne wen ee eee

The Lycodes Pamily, (Lycodtd@) cavsiciseveaacig's 3:35 s:sicevieid slack tinderas naan ae we aecree Hae 6be Siarsine eae semen
The Wolf-Fishes or Sea Catfishes (Anarrhichadid@) .......-.- 2.0.22 0220 cece ee eee cee cee eens
The Blenny Family CBleRAUAB) vasaia.am oe a eisisicis wisie osienseaiavaaciaunnvensaisiad wie a0 sare cnielgee die we weweiem namie
The Toad-Fish (Batrachus tau)...........2-0.- ne areca fe or ia i tbacureaoes

The Lump-Suckers: Lump-fish and Sea-Snails.-.....-....--..

The Gobies (Gobiid@) .. 2. 20. cece cece ee eee ee erent cence eee Sucle wou Ges Geuceemsekcameecee cee
The Sea-Robin or Gurnard Family (Triglide)............ 02.2 2202+. - ee eee
The Sculpin Tribe (Cottide). . a:dieeie a aratolee tule sate tses wine

The Rose-Fish or Red Perch (Sebastes ay aarSake xe used Yikes ee

The Rock Cods of the Pacific. By DAVID 8, JORDAN. ..--.. ...200 seen eee cece eee cee cece eens
. The Rock Trouts (Chiride). By Davip 8. JORDAN.........--.- an : eenegeren
The Tautog or Black Fish (Tautoga onitis).....-.-..----+ 2202 eeee ish MEISE PES ete eee eEayetEserts Ge
The Chogset or Cunner (Ctenolabrus adspersus)...---. ~~. -- 2.20 cece nee cee ee eee ee ee eee ee ences
. The Parrot Fishes and some of their Allies..........--.2- 202 2e eee eee eee eee ee eee eee
. The Demoiselle and the Cichlid Families ..... 2... 02-20... 22. cee eee ee eee cee eee eee eee
. The Surf-Fish Family (Zmbiotocide). By Davip S. JORDAN.......-...2-. .-00 222s
. The Moharra Family (Gerrid@)....--. 0.22. 202 eee een ce ee ee cee eee ee eee
. The Thread-Fish Family (Polynemid@).....--. --.---------- 22-025
3. The Surgeon-Fish Family (Acanthurid@).........--.--00-ose20-

Xvl TABLE OF CONTENTS.

M.—THE TILE-FISH FAMILY AND OTHERS: one
112. The Tile-Fish Family (Latilide)........ 2... 0.22. c2eeeeceeece econ ene FESO SMARTIES ROE 360
113. The Red Mullet Family (Mullida@)....--- 20-022 c0e cece ee eee cee cece cee ee eee ee renee cence 361
114. ‘The Icosteus: Family (1eostetd@) oc... 22ccncccecinedee s ovaw teeeneg rece: Ssbesescsense eeeees teleeesitees 361

115. ‘The Beryx famil (Berytid@) 2222222202 e0 execneneseescces eheestsce sess Vescaeseeteneeresacswacsse SBE

N.—THE DRUM FAMILY:
116. The Squeteague (Cynoscion regale): .... . ---- == = nan wenn cen cece ce ce ee ee cece eee ee cece ec en cence ees 362

117. The Spotted Squeteague (Cynoscion maculatum) ......-... .-2e0e cece ee ene nee cee eee ce sec eee cece 365
118. The Silver Squeteague (Cynoscion nothum) ...... 2-222 cence es cece cee cee ee cee cee ee nee ee 367
119. The Drum (Pogonias chromis) ..---. .----- e2cee cence cee cee cece ee cone cee ee oe nee n en cee eee seeene 367
120. The Fresh Water Drum (Haploidonotus grunniens). By DAVID 8. JORDAN.......-..------------- 370
121. The Spot, or Lafayette (Liostomus xanthurus) ...--- 02.206 cee ee cee eee cee eee eee eee ee eeee 370
122. The Red Fish, or Bass of the South (Sciena ocellata)...-....- 222. eee eee eee ee eee eee segue OtL
123. The Yellow Tail ( Bairdiella chrysura) .....- 2222-22 22+ cone coc cee ce eee ween cece ne cree cece es ce enee 375
124. The King Fish (Menticirrus nebulosus) ...-.. 0222. eee cee ne cee eee ee teens cece ee cone eee e enee 375
125. The Whitings (Menticirrus alburnus and M. littoralis)...--..-.-.2---+ceeens cece nee cece ee cere eee 376
126. The Croaker (Micropogon undulatus) ....2. 0... 2-2-2222 eee ee cee ee cee cee cece ee cones cee en cence 3738
127, The Corvinas and Roncadors of the Pacific coast. By Davin 8. JORDAN...-...-.--------------- 378
0.—SHEEPSHEAD, BASS, BREAM, PERCH, ETC:
128. The Sheepshead (Diplodus probatocephalus) ...-.. 00-221 2202 cece cee ce eee ee ee ee ee tee cease 381
129. The Scup or Scuppaug (Stenotomus chrysops and S. aculeatus, = 8. Gardeni of TOK) vicscersscesexs 386
130. The Sailors’ Choice (Lagodon rhomboides) ....-..---.-- 202 cee ce cee n ee cece nee tee ee cee cee ee 393
131. Certain Minor Sparoids.............-..--...------ (siskish AGuceh temeebediieeese Soaaiee ch ease soeeee 394
132. The Red and Gray Snappers.......-.------------ soe BS auES See ee aeeeeeeeE eee Gees cee eee ote cee 395
133; ‘The:Grunts or. Pig. Wishesxe<:a% .c0e2sapqecind Nace se deeewe ceaciecexes seein cenetaemestsicecacinde 397
134, The Big-Mouth Black Bass (Micropterus salmoides), and the Small-Mouth Black Bass (M. Dolomici) 401
135. The Sun-Fishes and their Allies. By Davip §. JORDAN........-..--- 2-02 -- eee cee eee eee eee 404
136. The Sea Bass (Serranus atrarius).... ..---- -202 cen ee ee ee ee ee eee nee ee cee cee eee eee 407
137. The Groupers .......--- svonttoja 6; disiid: ad gueatae asa Gueyoersiaye tmic |e Sie. id clea Gmiawe ie Selle Seema cee Dede ea meneeiensioes 410
138, The Serranoid Fishes of the Pacific coast. By DAvip S. JORDAN......--.. 20. eee ee eee nee ee eens 413
139. The Yellow Perch (Perca americana) ...... 22-20 0020 cece ee ce cone cee ce eee eee mene eee cnne cennes 414
140. The Log Perch (Percina caprodes). By DAVID S. JORDAN.... 2-2. 022-22 cece e cece ee cee eee aemeemes 417
At Te Poe Pete 66 cee ein os arta eae eee Ses wd cue ue eed we eeesonee at vant ate atle Be 417
142, The Striped Bass (Roccus lineatus)......---- ee cen n ne cone ee eee shinee emia nach Bek See a 425
143. The White Bass (Roccus chrysops) .... 02.20. cece. cece cece ee ce mee ene cee eens cae c en cone tance 423
144, The Yellow Bass (Roceus interruptus) ...--..----- le Geass Sean ae ale AeA SUN ep Aa tine OC ohana a ae 431
145. The White Perch (Roceus americanus) ...... 222220 reece e cee cee cee cee eee ee nee wees cee ween wee 43L
146. The Bluefish Family (Pomatomida@). .... ..-. 12-22. ence en cece cece wees cece ee cen nne ceeee ela a ce re 433
147. The Cobia or Crab-Eater (Hlacate canada) ....-. 02.20. cee ene een e ce eee cee ee ween cece ne eee nee 444
148. The Triple Tail or Black Perch (Lobotes surinanensis) ....-. 22... 02 - ee eee ee eee cece cece ee eens 444
149, The Moon Fish (Chetodipterus faber) ..---. . 2-22. eee nee ee ee cee cee cee cee cence cece ee ence 445
150. The Remora Family (Heheneidi@) ..-..- 2.222. 22 cee cee eee ee eee cece ee cece ee Serwieiate Jaen wiosrs 446
P._BARRACOUTA, MULLET, PIKE, AND MUMMICHOGS:
151. The Barracouta Family (Sphyranid@) ..-.-...---- 2-220 eee eee cee eee eee cece wees eee 448
152. The Deal-Fish Family (Trachypterid@) ...- 0.222. .- 20.2 2022 cece eee eee cece eee cone nee acne 449
153. The Mullets (Mugil albula and M. brasiliensis) ...... 0.2.0. 002 seceeeseeeee sececes cece cece cee ceee 449
154. The Sand Smelts or Silver Sides (Atherinid@) ...-.. 01.20. cece eee c ee cece ee cece ee eee ee eens eens 456
155. The Stickleback Family (Gastirosteid@) ...--. ...-.. ---0 200 cee e ee cece ee cence eee cee e ee cee ees 457
156. The Silver Gar-fishes (Belonida) ..... .-.. - +--+ 2225 cece e cen cone cone sew ene senece ence cans annces 458
157, The Flying-fish Family (Scomberesocid@) ...-.--.--.-+ +21 ceceee cece cece cee eee tees cee eee cece eee ees 459
158: The Pike Family: (Bsocid@) osc goce'seovaudedsctandeises s eaee aon welds seeks soewad tewsaektacesesaeds 461

159. The Mummichog Family (Cyprinodontid@) .... .---2. 22222 eee cece eee eens cee eee ee ps binasteasiise 466

TABLE OF CONTENTS. xvii

P
Q.—THE SALMON TRIBE: on
160. The Salmon (Salmo salar)...-....-.-. dg eisasie ie sisiale iors Ieebiesies suis UL eescatceeecsee see seeeeokees 468
161. The Salmons of the Pacific. By DAVID S. JORDAN ...... 22022-2222 cece ee cee eee cece e cee ce ee cone 474
162. The Quinnat or California Salmon (Oncorhynchus chouicha). By LIVINGSTON STONE...-..-.----- 479
163. The Namaycush or Lake Trout (Salvelinus namaycush) .....-.------2 222-2 cece ee cee eee eee eee 485
164. The Speckled Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis).............-.-- LRA A VOD EOS TERROR SES IAN! 497
165. The Saibling or Bavarian Char (Salvelinus alpinus). ........--.-. 22-02 eee cee cee eee eee 500
166. The Dolly Varden Trout (Salvelinus malma). (By DAVID S. JORDAN.......-22-.0-2- 020202 eee cee 504
167. The Grayling (Thymallus tricolor) ...-.. .-.-2.- 22-22-02 ene eee ee eee cee eee cee cee pil 6.m (eteriteytwniane 505
168. The Lake White-fish (Coregonus clupeiformis). By R. I. GEARE...... 2-222. e220. cece es cee eee 507
169. The Lesser White-fishes. By Davip S. JORDAN .......---- pe shihsbe chee eset yeaa serere desea 541
170;,. The Smelt Group’ sc o20 se cee so ceeawemens Sees otieelss cinies Seieisies ‘aaraiiel 3 seed aendanceg cece cise sien 543
171. Families related to the Salmonida@.........----- 22-22 cee eee cee cece cn cee eee cee ween cence eens 547
R.—THE HERRINGS AND THE MENHADENS:
172. The Herring (Clupea harengus)..-.-...-.- te dish aie 2 tharaleieierieiSeie Toe tele raid wee eeeieen ieee qaien mend 549
73. The Herrings of the Pacific Coast. By Dari © Donn in eae ese eee tee 568
174, The Menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus)...... 20-0... --20ceeees cee eee cece ee eee cere cee ee een ee eres 569
175, The Gulf Menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) ...... 2-2-2 02-2 0- ween eee eee eee cee seen cn enee 575
S—THE SHAD AND THE ALEWIVES. By MargsHaLt MacDonaLp. ‘
176. The River Herrings or Alewives (Clupea estivalis C. and vernalis) ......---..----- inlet elses eyeiaie € 570
: 177. On the occurrence of the Branch Alewife in certain Lakes of New York. By TaBLETON H. BEAN.. 588
178, The Inland Alewife or Skipjack (Clupea chrysochloria)......---- +--+ +--+ + 22-222 cece een ee cee eee 594
179. The Shad (Clupea sapidissima) .... ... 2-20 one conn cee cee cee cee cane cece ne eee ee cee een ceeeee 594
180.' The Hickory Shad or Mattowacca (Clupea mediocris)......... mas oueervoaaie duisinied paidivie'’s See emis eit 607
T.—FAMILIES RELATED TO THE CLUPEIDA:
181. The Mud Shad (Dorosoma cepedianum).......--- .--- 222 cee eee eee cece cece ee eee ste ee cee cece cnee 610
182, The Tarpum (Megalops thrissoides) .....-.. 2-22. 022222 cee eee cece cee cee cee eee cone concen cone enee 610
183. The Big-eyed Herring..........---..--.-------- oe ye sbi aWuwleebeeeeEees seneeecey Sonex vient 611
184.. The Anchovies Hngraulida)s.cc20 axcennecwae seas eaees ss cnewacdcasweceeeseueceeneascae seas see 611
185, The Lady-tish’ Family (Albulid@)....... 222. 2-22-2222. cee cece cece ee cee cece eee cee ee cere cee eee 612
186. The Moon-eye Family (Hyodontida@).... 2... 222-2222 cece cee e eee cece e cece teen ee cena eens anes 612
U.—CARP, SUCKERS, CATFISH, AND EELS:
187. The Sucker Family (Catostomide). By DAVID 8. JORDAN....2. 0-220. cece ceeececccccce cee ceeees 614
188. The Carp Family (Cyprinidae). By Davin S. JORDAN..-.-. 22. 0.00 eee ee nee cee ween cece ce eees 616
189. The Carp (Cyprinus carpio). By RUDOLPH HESSEL...-.. 2.22. 0-220 cane cece ence cenecceeceeeeees 618
189, The Catfish Family (Siluridw). By DAVID 8. JORDAN...-.. 22.2 cee eee cence cence en cee cee cence 627
190. The Morays (Mur @ntde) o.<(5.2 sccsiicitig os oi 6 sido Sake sea lne ded ekiduage Reeemesteaee wede-aueene sexe 629
IL. The Bel.( Anguilla dulgariz)....c2 02 << oece ce cece snes ses sad ce decde saveea ment anes Soesisewcewae acetic. 630
192. The Conger Eel (Leptocephalus conger) .,......2.++---+---+-- koe tea Skee Ses See etee cee ces © OB6
V.—_STURGEONS, SKATES, SHARKS, AND LAMPREYS:
193. The Bowfins (Améida) ...-.. 2... 6.222. 00220000 cose seeeen coon ee ON eieTR TOT heh) Sie tes: 659
194. The Paddle-fishes ( BolyodOnttdes) gaiei sie soja Siaswa? sia'od 2 Hed dcemsieas da be asce mesma noe eke Se Meageeaten 660
195. The Sturgeons (Acipenserid@) ..--....----. Ou cene sees seterweeteekecectakeass ye Pont Sass aoesaeee 660
196. The Chimera Family (Chimerida)...........-.--. 02-0. pSherS Sea aieie atau ara iar aidiska lala telsiuls ewaaerelicogees 663
197. The Gar Pikes (Lepidosteidw).............. Sa eee Aaah tes heh A sth at aectogles taicheta hte hets eat gs 663
198. The Torpedoes and Skates (Raiw@)........2. e202 cece ne cone cee e ee cence eee na ranclvara'd ptdiate nyabcncte Pareaisle 665
199. The Saw-fish (Pristis pectinatus).... 2.2. 2-22 cece cs cece ee cee cee nee cee ene eee ee cee epee cece cane 668
200. The Sharks (Squali) . . ncauiste mo deredeeaiefenma cee seie Bebe tree Seer aceweaNeRss deeeesaeeee G6B
201. The Sharks of the Pacific C Coast. By Davip 8S. JORDAN......-- 222-222 - cece eee ee ee eee cee ee 675
202. The Lampreys (Petromyzontid@) .... 220. 0.220. ceee cece cane ee cece cence cote eecees ceceee ceceeeeeees 677
203. The Hag Fishes (Mywinida@) ......---. 220. ce nce ce eee cn ne ee ne ce ce ce ee cece cen ccceceeeeees 681
204. The Lancelets (Branchiostomid@)...... 0.2... --c0cecccecee cece cecee cece cecececececsececce secees 682

XVili

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Part IV.—MOLLUSKS.

Page.
W.—MOLLUSKS IN GENERAL. By Ernest INGERSOLL.
205. The Cuttles: Cephalopoda .....----..---0+ ------ eben e eee eee jig heielSia aera aise aictelelal lee SieisleSdneioes 687
206. The Sea-snails: Gasteropoda.......--...-- aiaeineGacin eld vealed pbisuc plu te ee taG absentee 693
207. The Wing-shells: Pteropoda.... ....... 22. cece cece cece eee cece ee cone cece ceceneeesccceccess 702
208. The Tusk-shells: Solenoconcha...... J SSauoe eaves, ee ete cee alls el daetitewetsiae eee aen 2. 708
209. The Bivalves: Lamellibranchiata.........-.. 222.220. cece eee cece cee cee ee nec e een ences we--- 703 >
X.—THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. By Joun A. RYDER.
210. Outline Sketch of the Coarser Anatomy of the Oyster.-..- cyte eee eter cree et cone eee eee eee 711
211. The Minute Anatomy Of: ther Oyster acs ck cca a poi oaae Mea e oad DAs s ARO SAR eede seks 715
212. Sex of the American and European OYster saeco se eioteeinseel eke Re San oa aie Besen-s 719
213. New Methods of Distinguishing the Sexes and of Taking the Eggs of the Oyster............---- 722
214. Rate of Growth of Ostrea virginica:
215. The Food of the Oysters... ... .--- -- 20. nee cece ee cen e teens tet m eee e teen cen es coweee cone enenee 729
216. The Cause of the Green Color of Oysters..........--.---2------ Se eT ee ee Rr eae 735
217. Local Variations in the Form and Habits of the Oyster....-....----- 202. seeeee eee eee eee eee eee 742
218. The Oyster Crab as a Mess-mate and Purveyor....---.----..----- 2222s ceeees wees cence cece eens 744
219. Physical and Vital Agencies Destructive to Oysters ....-. 1... 22-22. 2-22 eee e eee cee cece ee cee eee 746
920. Natural and Artificial Oyster Banks........2..2-2-0 0-2. ceceeecevecececececeeees ye le hs tnd 750
Part V.—CRUSTACEANS, WORMS, RADIATES, AND SPONGES.
By RICHARD RATHBUN.
Y.—CRUSTACEANS:
221. The, Crabs ieee case gage se eSiadesoreeonaes sees seaeee meas eeeebes Seek sees CERES e Sees dees seks 763
222. The Common Edible or Blue Crab ...--- 222. 02 cee n cee eee cee ce eee cee ene cee eee seneee 175
223. The Lobsters sce seetcesccesesdes dae ase sehereeeereeetniatines scesatesedesieancseeticee seecee Louies 780
224. ‘The, American: Lobster ses cc.csecesepeces seen see tecteaedecies woes cles coe seed cede curbs ies ctwieciaiers 781
225. The Cray Fishes, Astacus and Cambarus...... 2-2. 2.0202 cee eee ce eee cee eee cence eee cee cee e enee 812
096. "The Shrimps and Prawns) «es cxenss essa s semene seetercesiwane os cece cher eea xen veSece eees cals 816
227. The Mantis, Shrimps: Squillids 5. sesso s.ceseccciece wersiea s viene seneee cise snc caeeinenesic oe enee cack 823
be The Ain ppodseskieceess csterc sianaaceoaeincet eadeuceasessauek eeu sce ieee anaemia. ROA
229... The Iso pods ice ssa: cibesiosdacesasateesmecanacceeckesiscic eile sdisieibevae eden en saeeeesegsnecece aateee 826
230; The Emtomostracans:. «.jcise ieee cde e a sisisind) saree ceianisieed maces sane esisieg eicdames Semmes eee eee aoe 827
O31 4 The: Ciripedlar ns c2cc-sosecels poe d viele seis ewig diac wiad au acleies ae & Scemige dene aw Ginemele ea lawbisisisabalatale’D 828
2526 The Kiphosura)s.cis::5u2 he oMe eiatesraijsweis ceee seers a wekcen semewteeercsecedeeteseadeeredcasadgiaces 829
Z.—WORMS:
283; The: Atin Cli: is5:220.5) 22 Saisie ccscla owas wie orate ans ween cicical albielale geeiGhe ab aa Senenibanstaes rneisstea metres 831
234, The Leeches.........-.. pec tes tte es sence cere cece ee teeta tees ce ee eee ee eee teens eeecet tees eae’ 1 833
ZA.—THE RADIATES:
235. ‘The HGhinOd6rims sciciwicm ancncerwic deciicicigie Acuisnebinein senisicuicieicesaiaeawies sclecion nue e cocci newetsimed 838
236. The Coslenterates scsi sass irtciccievosce Soecind saediaeieeeeiveesiorsaeenenicaecucisa beso suey ccaacenes 841
ZB.—THE PORIFERS:
237;, “The Sponges 2a saw weir ve cdevucek ieee somes visu acca deecmiecm@acewes aitece uentwnawsededeceeue wees 843
238. The Genus Spongia, and the American Commercial Sponges........... --2- sence eneceecncees cece 846
239. Injurious Sponges sea sxes vas cvisiowde Keieen a seech aca, seu ticmved edoweeeeasisemueddecese wanceoemes 850

7.

LIST OF PLATES.

' (Engraved by the Photo-Engraving Company of New York City.)

[The plates are bound together in the accompanying volume. The figures at the right refer to the pages of the text upon which

the species illustrated are described.]

The Sperm Whale, Physeter macrocephalus L..--2.e0ec-2 cece ceceee cece ne coc ee tonnes pecees cone cannes tenees
Outline from Scammon's Marine Mammals of the Northwest Coast, plate xiv.

The Pygmy Sperm Whale, Kogia Goodei True.-...--- 22-22. 22-222 cee ee cere cee eee rece cece ceees (acisiee beateare
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 13738, U.S. National Museum. Stranded at Spring Lake, New Jersey, April 27, 1883.

The Blackfish, Globiocephalus melas (Traill) sens cpspmacsen yaaa el ica wie Roo re ena ema isis he oe, eatuaia Sreis p's eND ete Sra wEG aeislO le
From Transactions of the Zoological Society of London, vol. 8, plate 30. :

The capture of a school of Blackfish in Cape Cod ..... 2-2. .eeeee cece e cee e cee e cone ence ee cane meee conn ones
Drawing by Henry W. Elliott, from a sketch by John S. Ryder.

The Cowfish or Grampus, Grampus griseus (Less.) Gray -..-- 22. coos eens cece cee cree cee te eee eee ee cece cece
Outline by Henry W. Elliott, from cast No. 12839, U. S. National Museum. # .

The Harbor Porpoise, or ‘‘ Herring Hog,” Phocana brachycion Cope...-.---- uegists Geeesresieesesageaas Saiee
Outline by Henry W. Elliott, from photograph by U. 8. Fish Commission.

The Skunk Porpoise or Bay Porpoise, Lagenorhynchus gubernator Cope (= L. perspicillatus Cope)...--------
Outhne from plate iv, Proceedings Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 1876.

The High-finned Killer, Orca rectipinnis Cope... ... 220+ ce cee cece cee e cone cee cece eee cece neee cone ee ececes
Outline from Scammon's Marine Mammals of the Northwest Coast.

The Sperm Whale Porpoise, Hyperaodon bidens Owen .--.-.----+-0+ c-----eeecee cree cence cence tee c es ceceee
Sketch by James Henry Blake, 1869, from specimen stranded at North Dennis. :

The White Whale, or Beluga, Delphinapterus catodon (L.) Gill -.. 12-222 eee eee ween ce eee cee ene cee nee
Outline by Henry W. Enliott, from cast No. 12490, U. S. National Biudenna: obtained rear Sachs, 1875. r)

The Narwhal, Monodon monoceros L..-.-.---- 220. see eee cee eee cence eee eee suena he seceouie ae eed lecueac assess

_ Sketch by Henry W. Elliott, adapted from Vogt and Specht’s ‘‘Saugethiere,” p. 236.

The Bowhead or Arctic Whale, Balena mysticetus L.. ....-- diseeeielercaercia Reinisch we siesicielaesocncels Bae aioe
Outline from Scammon’s Marine Mammals, plate xi.

The Right Whale of the Pacific, Balena japonica Gray. oe CULLAMACH) 202 ceca ne ween ne cnn ee neeees
Outline from Scammon’s Marine Mammals, plate xii.

Diagrams illustrating the use of the whalebone plates in the oath of the Bowhead Whale...............
From sketches by Captain David Grey in Land and Water, December 1, 1877.

(Upper.) The Bowhead with its mouth open.
{Lower.) The Bowhead with its mouth shut.

The Humpback of the Pacific, Megaptera versabilis Cope .. 2.00 ceeeee cone cone cence nce cee cen een ceeens ceenes
Outline from Scammon’s Marine Mammals, plate vii. .

The Sulphur Bottom of the Pacitic, Sibbaldius sulfureus Cope... 2.200. 022222 cae cee cece eeeeee chee tees cecens
Outline from Scammon’s Marine Mammals, plate xiii.

Cutting in a Humpback Whale at Provincetown, Massachusetts...... 2.2 02-22-2222 eee eee eee eee ee eee
From a sketch by John S. Ryder.

The Finback of the Pacific, Balenoptera velifera Cope... 20. ceeeee cone ee cece cone cote ee semen e rece ee c eee neee
Outline from Scammon's Marine Mamunals, plate ii. ; !

The California Gray Whale or Devil-fish, Rhachianectes glaucus Cope... 21. - .2eees eee e ee ene ene cee eee ce eeee
Outline from Scammon’s Marine Mammals, plate ii *

The Pacific Walrus, Odobenus obesus (Illiger) Allen......---.---. Beteces Reais seceehnceaewicedereniaecaeaces
Sketch by Henry W. Elliott, Walrus Island, Alaska, July 5, 1872.

Steller’s Sea Lion, Zumetopias Stelleri (Less. ) Peters tides ciaibvayarsliva ssw evsiaieiaus iain mara mresaie aime mie Maen cin Rue miae tiasrere mele
Sketch from life by Henry W. Elliott. :

The California Sea Lion, Zalophus californianus (Less.) Allen...... earaies Seema teeter ceeeeeedeee aot ts .
Sketch from life by Henry W. Elliott.

The Harbor Seal, Phoca vitulina L.....-....- vaiare: dieleds hese osedewe sauce’ een eee tee Gas sme sewtocciesicle

Sketch from life by Henry W. Elliott, Alaska, 1872.
xix

XX LIST OF PLATES.

16.

17

18

19.

20

21

22.

26.

27.

31

bo
Ss

The Harp Seal, Phoca groenlandica Fabricius .-..--.. 2.2.0.2. .220 --eee aecyoptec ise eae amet «ere atbelenemeeries
Sketch by Henry W. Elliott, from specimens in the U. S. National Museum, Nos. 13741, 13748, 13938, and 13939 obtained
on the north shore of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence by Dr. C. Hart Merriam.
The Ringed Seal, Phoca fatida Fabricius -... 2.2.22. 020. eee cee cee cee ees cee ee eee een ween eee
Sketch by Henry W. Elliott, adapted from figure in Allen’s North American Pinnipeds, p. 601.
The Ribbon Seal (Male and Female) Histriophoca fasciata (Zimmermann) Gill........-.-.---------2 ----+ +=
Drawing by Henry W. Elliott, from specimens in U. S. National Museum, No. 13284, obtained at Plover Bay, East
Siberia, August 12. 1880, by W. H. Dall, and No. 13285, obtained from Bering Sea, 1880, by Captain H. E. Williams.
The West Indian Seal, Monachus tropicalis Gray ..---. 22-22. 0-22 ee ee ee ee ee ee eee eee eee
Drawing by Henry W. Elliott, from specimen in U. S. National Museum. No. 13950, obtained by Professor Felippe Poey

at Matanzas, Cuba, '
The Hooded Seal (adult and young) Cystophora cristata (Erxl.) Nilss. ...... 22.22. 02-222 eee cence eee eee cere
Sketch by Henry W. Elliott, from specimens in U. S. National Museum, Nos.13742 and 13753, collected by Dr. C. Hart
Merriam, off Labrador, 1883.
The Gray Seal, Halicherus grypus (Fabricius) Nilss ...-..-..---. 22-22-22. eee een ce cee ee cee eee cece eee
Sketch by Heury W. Elliott, from specimen in U. S. National Museum, No. 5851, collected at Sable Island, Nova Scotia,
1862,
The Square Flipper Seal, Erignathus barbatus (Fabricius) Gill....--.-.----- ..---- -- eee eee eee eee eee eee
e Sketch by Henry W. Elliott, from specimen in U. S. National Museum, No. 13755, collected by Dr. C. Hart Merriam, off
Battle Harbor, Gulf of Saint Lawrence, 1883.
The Sea Elephant, Macrorhinus angustirostris Gill.... 2.2.02 2-2 222 eee e cee ee eee ee ce eee cone cee eee eee

Drawing by Henry W. Elliott, from specimen in U. 8. National Museum, from Santa Barbara Island, “California.
Map of the world on Mercator’s Projection, showing the geographical distribution of the Species of the Hair
Seal Family. Prepared by J. A. Allen .-.--- 222-222-220 cece ee eee ne eee ee ce eee cee ee eee ce een eens

Map of the world on Mercator’s Projection, showing the geographical distribution of the Walruses, Fur
Seals, Sea Lions, and Sea Elephants, prepared for the illustration of the chapter by J. A. Allen. Prepared
by de A Allen accaaty coal Slee tia wieteematcitocta-cieisie test wibianace chasiere ee ou Me Sb Sie vies sme icreme ere araene Ohistemteie

The: coun ténanceof ‘Callorhinusiccjaseteol0 wieecaseeesecessee wee te cad eucerioiuiscen seed Gueaiece peices
A life study of an adult male fur-seal. (Full face of old male, profile and under view of female heads.) Drawing by
Henry W. Elliott, North Rookery, Pribylov Group, July 5, 1873.

The Fur-Seal, Callorhinus ursinus ....--.. 22.22. 022. oe ee cee e eee ee eee cee eee meee eek o Sieemals Serge Gatsharcts
A series of life studies by Henry W. Elliott, Pribylov Islands, 1872-1876.
A.—Old ‘‘Seecatch”’ or male, eight to twenty-four years.

B.—Young ‘‘Seecatch,” six to eight years.
C.—‘' Holluschickie,” or young males, two years.
D.—‘' Matkah” or mother nursing her ‘‘ Pup,” I
E.—'' Cow” fanning herself.

F.—' Cow” sleeping.

G.—"‘Cow” napping and fanning herself.

H.—‘' Cow ” crooning to the male.
J.—Characteristic position of old males.

Sundry Seal Sketches on the Pribylov Islands... ..-. 0.2226 c22e sees cone coon cece cone cone noes cone coesececes
From the portfolio of Henry W. Elliott, 1872-1876.

Hauling and Breeding Grounds of the Fur-Seal.... .....--.- 22. 22-0 cee e ne ce eee cee eee nee eee ee cee eee
Sketched from nature onthe North Rookery, Saint George’s Island, Pribylov Group, by Henry W. Elliott, July, 1874.

The north shore of Saint Paul’s Island, Pribylov Group ......-..-----. 2-22 ee ee ee eee eee nec eee eee

Sketched from the summit of Hutchinson’s Hill, by Henry W. Elliott, looking over a wing of the great Norastoshoah
Rookery, July, 1872.

Pelagic attitudes of the Fur-Seal ..-... a4s% URsRWeRREd WERE S PeohES De smeRS deviaeieee Mt er sc S4iiewicie eeyeilaoetiais
Sketched from life by Henry W. Elliott, Saint Paul’s Island, 1872. Village of Saint Paulin distance. Black bluffs to the -
right on middle ground.

1. Position while sleeping.
2. Position when rising to breathe, survey, etc.
3. Position when scratching.
4. “Dolphin jumps.’’
Fur-Seals Sporting around the “ bidarrah” .......-..-. ..--22 cece eee eee eee cee cee ee eee ee eee ceee
Sketched from life by Henry W. Elliott in Zoltoi, Saint Paul’s Island, 1872. A view of the Reef Point and Gorbatch
, Rookery on the horizon.

The Manatee, Trichechus manatus Li ...--. .-- 222 een ee ee nee eee ee ee eee eee Spleldbis Saininiow de leisele ames
Sketch by Henry W. Elliott, from plate in Transactions, as Society of London.

Manatees SWIMMING ..., 22d. oe Sore octenitecalesentd.loe cde cetines seen eebeeueneeiey srepeceisis cal wiawe ciale o 4R.6,eclvle
Sketch by Henry W. Elliott, from plate in Transactions, Fealogioat Society of London. ©

The Sunfish, Mola rotunda Cuvier .......----. 02-222 cee nee cee eee eee ee cece ne cee cen cen ee ene eee cence

From wash-drawing by H. L. Todd, from a cast,

The Swell-fish or Burr-fish, Chilomycterus geometricus (Schneider) Kaup.......... -2.0 2. cee cece e ence cence
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No, 14825, U. S. National Museum, collected at Noank, Connecticut, 1874, by U. Ss. Fish
Commission.

67

68

70

70

72

33
ri)

96
99

99

101

102

114

114

170

170

LIST OF PLATES.

The Rabbit-fish, Lagocephalus levigatus (L.) Gill. eter Mee Duy citsiaey wae haar seod tee eden kawetei ec eeenes
Drawing by H. L. Toda ‘from No. 20757, U. S. National Museum, collected at Newport, Rhode Island, by Hon. Samuel
Powel.
37. The Trunk-fish or Cow-fish, Ostracion quadricornis L.. sishbajisanisnaS giewe shew chvaves seca pieces teemaes ca Recemen
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 21548, U.S. National Museum, collected at Charleston, South Carolina, July, 1878, by
Cc. C. Leslie. :
38. The Trigger-fish, Balistes capriscus Gmelin.... ..-....--- 22-00-22 ee cece ce ee ce cee cee ce ce eee cee e eee eee
Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No. 15233, U.S. National Museum, collected at New York by Mr. Sutherland.
39. The Sea Horse, Hippocampus heptagonus Raf.....-.. 2.26.02 nee cee ee ee ee ne ce ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ce eee es

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 3451, U.S. National’ Mase, collected at Old Point Conforn, Virginia, by Commodore
Farragut, U.S. N.
40. The Goose-fish or Bellows-fish, Lophius piscatorius L....-. 122.122. 222. cee cee ee ce cece ee ee eee ee ees
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from specimen collected in Vineyard Sound, Massachusetts, by the U.S. Fish Commission.
41. The American Sole or ‘“ Hog Choker,” Achirus lineatus (L) Cuv........ 2-2. ----25 2-222 eens cece eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 12985, U.S. National Museum, collected at; Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, July 14, 1871,
by Vinai N. Edwards.
' (Upper.) Showing upper side of fish.
(Lower.) Showing under side of fish.

42. The American Plaice or Turbot Flounder, Paralichthys dentatus (L.) J. & G....---. 22-2 eee eee eee eee ee

Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No. 21279, U.S. National Museum, collected at Arlington, Saint John’s River, Florida,
1878, by G. Brown Goode.

43, The Four-spotted Flounder, Paralichthys oblongus (Mitch.) J. & G..... 22.200 cece eceee eee cece cee weet ees

Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No. 10730, U. 8. National Museum, collected at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, by Professor
: S. F. Baird.

44, The Flatflsh or Winter Flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus (Walb.) Gill.--.-.---.---- fate Stoiet seasald ayy sieisle
Drawing by H. L. Todd.

45. The Smooth Flounder, Pleuronectes glaber (Storer) Gill. ..-.---. 2-22 00. eee eee eee eee en ee ce ee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 5368, U.S. National Museum, collected at Salem, Massachusetts, by C. Putnam. .

46. The Starry Flounder, Pleuronectes stellatus Pallas. :...... 1... 22-2 2220 eee eee eee cee cee eee ween cee

Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No. 24164, U.S. National Museum, collected at San Francisco, California, January 1880,
by Professor D. S. Jordan.
iy ti

47. The Arctic Flounder, Pleuronectes glacialis Pallas...... ....-.---- 22-2220 cece cee cee cee eee cee nee eens

and Bean.

xxi

Page—
170

170

172

172

178

183

184

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27947, U. S. National Museum, collected at Kotzebue Sound, September 2, 1880, by Dall -

4

48. The Rough Limanda, Limanda aspera (Pallas) Bean....... 2.222.222. eee eee eee ee cee nee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27944, U.S. National Museum, collected at Sitka, Alaska, 1880, by Dr. T. H. Bean.
49. The Rusty Dab, Limanda ferruginea (Storer) Goode & Bean.....-. 22.222. 222-22 eee eee cee cee eee
Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No. 21020, U. S. National Museum, collected at Halifax, Nova Scotia, September 4, 1877,
by U. S. Fish Commission.
50. The California ‘‘Sole,”’ Lepidopsetta bilineata (Ayres) Gill.... 2222. oe ee ee ee eee cece ee ee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27602, U.S. National Museum, collected at Saint Paul’s, Kodiak Island, Alaska, 1880,
by Dr. T. H. Bean.
51, The San Francisco ‘‘ Sole,” Psettichthys melanostictus Girard .. ..---. ---- 20 222 cece cece cee dee cone ee eene eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 24167, U. S. National Museum, collected at San Francisco, California, January, 1880,
by Professor D. S. Jordan.
52. The Alaska Sand Dab, Hippoglossoides elassodon J. & G...... 2222. eee cee ee eee ee ee cree eee eens
Drawing by H. L, Todd, from No. 27938, U. S. National Museum, collected at Humboldt Harbor, Shumagins, Alaska,
July 19, 1880, by Dr. T. H. Bean.
53. The Atherestes Flounder, Atheresthes stomias J. & G....-..---- siggiowiag seme Pee aes eines aa avesce acess noose
Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No. 27186, U.S. National Museum, collected at Point Reyes, California, 1880, by Jordan
and Gilbert.
54. The Halibut, Hippoglossus vulgaris Fleming ....-..2- 2.2222 202 cee eee eee cece e cee cee eee cee ee ceeeee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10439, U.S. National Museum, collected at Eastport, Maine, 1872, by U.S. Fish Commis-
sion.
55. The Sand Dab, Hippoglossoides platessoides (Fab.) Gill...-.. 2-2-2 22. fice ee eee ce ee cece een ee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 21002, U.S, National Museum, collected at Le Have Bank, August 21, 1877, by U.S.
Fish Commission.

56. The Greenland Turbot, Platysomatichthys hippoglossoides (Walb.) Goode & Bean.........-.-. 22-00. -2e- eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from a specimen obtained in Fulton Market, New York.
57. The Pole Flounder, Glyptocephalus cynoglossus (L. See Co0 b Renee tener irre eter ON ra a ences ee eR ane NEO ee Ree pr eG
Drawing by H. L. Todd.
58. The Codfish, Gadus morrhua L......--- 222 0222 eee cee ee eee eee ce ene cee nee ce eee ee ee veee eeeee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10444, U. S. National Museum, collected at Eastport, Maine, 1872, by U. 8. Fish Com-
mission.
The Atlantic Tom Cod, Microgadus tomcod (Walb.) Gill... -.- 22-22. concen cone cen cee eee cee eee cece seen ences

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 17733, U.S. National Museum, collected at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, December 23,
1875, by Vinal N. Edwards.

184

200

XXil LIST OF PLATES.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64,

65.

67,

69,

70.

The Haddock, Melanogrammus eglefinus L. Gill --.....-.---. ees eee eee eee cee eee cee eee renee weet
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10440, U.S. National Museum, eollentedl at Eastport, Maine, 1872, by U.S. Fish Com-
mission.
The Saida Cod, Boreogadus saida (Lepechin) Bean ...... -.-.-. 12-22. 22-22. eee eee ee eee eee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 21746, U.S. National Museum, collected at Annanactook Harbor, Cumberland Gulf,
October 19, 1877, by Ludwig Kumlien.
The Pollock, Pollachius carbonarius (L.) Gill..-.-------- +++ 2-22 2-2-2 2 ee eee ee eee eee ce ee eens
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10443, U.S. National Museum, collected at Eastport, Maine, 1872, by Professor S. F.
Baird.
The Alaska Pollock, Pollachius chalcogrammus (Pallas)...--.---..-- ete ete Wad Sion deaiion aie matenaeieeeaiae
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27637, U.S. National Museum, collected at Pirate Cove, Shumagin Islands, Alaska,
1880, by William H. Dall.
The Cusk, Brosmius brosme (Miiller) White ...--......--..-----+ = 2-22 cece cee ee eee eee cee cee teens
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 29967, U.S. National Museum, collected at Boston Market, January 11, 1882, by W. A. -
Wilcox.
The Burbot or “ Freshwater Cusk,” Lota maculosa (Le Sueur) C. and O.......--. ---- 2-2 ee ee eee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10553, U.S. National Museum, collected at Ecorse, Michigan, by J. W. Milner.
The Common Hake, Phycis chuss (Walb.) Gill.-..---... 2022.22. 22 eee cee cee ee ee cee eee eee cee ee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 28707, U.S. National Museum, cullected at Martha’s Vineyard, July 16, 1881, by U.S.
Fish Commission.
The Squirrel or White Hake, Phycis tenuis (Mitchill) De Kay...-...---...----- ----. +--+ 2-222 eee ee eee ee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 21029, U. S. National Museum, collected in Halifax Harbor, November 30, 1877, by U.S.
Fish Commission.
The King Hake, Phycis regius (Walb.) Gill..-.-. 2. +. 22-22 po 2. ee eee ne cee ee ee cee eee eee bd
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20923, U.S. National Museum, collected at New York Aquarium, 1878, by E. G. Black-
ford.
Earl’s Hake, Phycis: Barllit, Bean s0.c so 0s scseccnees 4ecaey cndswsueeeed eee seca cceneteaeee semess eccnee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 25207, U.S. National Miscura, collected at Charleston, South Carolina, March 25, 1880,
by R. E. Earll.
Chester’s Hake, Phycis Chesteri Goode & Bean.... -...-.-2. 222-22 eee ee eee ee ee cee nee ee cee eee cece
Drawn by H. L. Todd from
The Blue Hake, Haloporphyrus viola Goode & Bean ....-. 0.2. 222.00 eee ene cae cece eee cence en cee eens
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 21837, U.S. National Museum, collected on Le Have Bank, August 26, 1878, by Captain
J. W. Collins, schooner Marion.
The Merluccio, Merlucius productus (Ayres) Gill -... 22-202 022. eee ene cee ee cee ce ee ce eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 26638, U.S. National Museum, collected at Seattle, Washington Territory, 1880, by
Colonel F. W. Prosser.
The Silver Hake or New England Whiting, Merlucius bilinearis Mitch.) Gil..... 02.22. .2.0 0222 cece cee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 21016, U.S. National Museum, collected at Halifax, Nova Scotia, September 8, 1877,
' by the U. S. Fish Commission.
The Sand Cusk, Ophidium marginatum De Kay ......--.- .----- 22225 ce eee ee eee eee cece eee cece eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10762, U.S. National Museum, collected at Tompkinsville, New York, by C. L. Copley.
The Onion-fish or Grenadier, Macrurus rupestris (Muller) Bloch .......--.-----. 2-202 2 eee ee eee cee ee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 15608, U.S. National Museum, collectedat Saint George’s Bank, Oetilben 27, 1875. Pre-
sented by E. G. Blackford. .
The Lant or Sand Eel, Ammodytes americanus De Kay -........-- 6-2-0 ee eens cee eee eee cede cee
Drawing by H. a Todd, from No. 16500, U.S. National Museum, collected at Nantucket, Massachusetts, Recast 12, by
*1 U.S. Fish Commission.
The Mutton-fish, Zoarces anguillaris (Peck) Storer ......-. 22-20 02-2 e ee eee ee eee eee eee cece ce cee
Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No. 10438, U.S. National Museum, collected at Eastport, Maine, 1872, by U. S. Fish Com-
mission.
Vahl’s Lycodes, Lycodes Vahlit Reinhardt ....-...---. 22-202 -2eeee cee eee ee cee eee cee cece ee cee cee cece
Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No. 21991, U.S. National Museum, collected on Le Have Bank, by Captain Z. Hawkins,
schooner Gwendolen.
The Common Cattish or Wolf-fish, Anarrhicas lupus L....---.-.----- 0p. cee eee eee cece eee ee cee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 21846, U.S, National Museum, collected on Gene 8 Bank, September 27, 1878, by Cap-
tain John Gourville.
The Spotted Catfish, Anarrhicas minor Olafsen ....-.. sehetgial Sia aeicraiais Bias PatelesS. 8 Giese Guin’e wie bieleleidud see deseo
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 21618, U.S. National Museum, collected at sea November, 1878, by Captain R. H. Hurl-
bert.
The Gulf Toadfish, or ‘‘Sapo,” Batrachus pardus Goode & Bean... --.-. 2.222.000. 0022 cee cece ee eee cee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 22237, U.S, National Museum, collected at Pensacola, Florida, 1878, by Silas Stearns.
“The Naked Star-gazer,” Astroscopus anoplus (C. & V.) Brevoort .... 2-22... 2. 022i cee cee eee eee ee eeee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 4622, U.S. National Museum, collected at Norfolk, Virginia.
The Lump-fish, Cyclopterus lumpus L.........---- --e 220 wee eee ee ee cee cee eee eee cee eee (SECLUORRART SF

Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No. 14795, U.S. National Museum, collected at Eastport, Maine, 1872, by U.S. Fish Com-
mission.

233

235

234

234

234

243

240

244

247

247

251

LIST OF PLATES. p-0:4 15

71, Tho Sea Robin or Wingfish, Prionotus palmipes (Mitch.) Storer .......22..20. 020.2202 cone cece eee eee cnen cee
Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No.774, U.S. National Museum, collected at Beesley’s Point, New Jersey, 1858, by Pro-
fessor S. F. Baird.
The Striped Sea Robin, Prionotus evolans (L.) Gill ....- «2222 02-000 cece cece cee cee eee cee eee eee eee ees
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 5556, U.S. National Museum, collected at Wood's Holl, Massachusetts, by Vinal N.
Edwards.
72. The Northern or European Sculpin, Cottus scorpius L........------ enGisigtec one Siemines deslgaaielaes eyacs
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No, 21989, U.S. National Museum, collected at Cumberland Gulf, September 25, 1877, by
Ludwig Kumlien.
The Common Sculpin, Cottus scorpius L., subspecies greenlandicus (C. & V.) Bean ..-..----. 22-22-2222 eeee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10441, U. S. National Museum, collected at Eastport, Maine, 1872, by U. S. Fish Com-
mission.
73. The Alaska Seulpin, Cottus polyacanthocephalus Pallas......-.-- i teste! Hareeieia te eaicieis piste aan usb muy enstemercic eis
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 23499, U.S. National Museum, collected at Unalashka, 1879, by William H. Dall.
The Southern Sculpin, Cottus octodecimspinosus Mitch ...............-206 2-2 ee cee cece cece eee cece eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 4552, U.S. National Museum, collected at Beesley’s Point, New Jérsey, 1858, by Pro-
fessor S. F. Baird.
74. The Sea Raven, Hemitripterus americanus (Gmelin) C. & V....-- iso OG Thee SUDEawea teas oak Ceetensees oneekes
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 23199, U.S. National Museum, collected at Halifax, Nova Scotia, September 13, 1877,'by
U.S. Fish Commission. ‘
Jordan’s Cabezon, Hemilepidotus Jordani Bean............- 2-20 cece ee eee ee cee eee eens cence neces cee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27598, U.S. National Museum, collected at Miulink, Unalashka Island, 1880, by Dr. T.
H. Bean. 5
75. The Rose-fish or Norway Haddock, Sebastes marinus (L.) Liitken..........----- 02-20. eee ee eee cece cee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No, 10442, U.S. National Museum, collected at Eastport, Maine, 1872, by U.S. Fish Com-
mission. i
76, The Black-banded Rockfish, Sebastichthys nigrocinctus (Ayres) Gill ....--. .- +22. 0 eee keene cee eee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27285, U. 8. National Museum, collected ab Puget Sound, 1880, by Jordan and Gilbert.
77. The Tree-fish, Sebastichthys serriceps J. & G..---- 22 2ee oe eee ee cece ween eee eee eee cone eee ee nee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27041, U.S. National Museum, collected at Monterey, California, 1880, by J ordan and
Gilbert.
78, The Yellow-backed Rockfish, Sebastichthys maliger J. & G.. .22 222-22 s cece eee eee cee cee ce eee cee eee
Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No. 27713, U.S. National Museum, collected at Sitka, Alaska, June, 2, 1880, by Dr. T. H.
Bean.
79, The Corsair, Sebgstichthys rosaceus (Grd.) THOGK eh Atec eae a watts Sada enna ot Seta eng AND eran
‘Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 26961, U.S. National Museum, collected at Santa Barbara, California, 1880 (1), by Jor-
dan and Gilbert.
80. The Orange Rockfish, Sebastichthys pinniger (Gill.) Louk sas Smicie daersie reais Dar, wontons aiatymacciaen dteeaicnisletata sisi
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27488, U. S. National Museum, collected at Neeah Bay, Wyoming Territory, December,
1880, by James G. Swan.
81, The Black Rockfish, Sebastichthys mystinus J. & G...-. 220-202 cee cee eee ee cece cece cence ene sees
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27031, U.S. National Museum, collected at Monterey, California, 1880, by Jordan and
Gilbert.
82. The Spotted Black Rockfish, Sebastichthys melanops (Grd.) J. & G.- 2. -c ee cece eee eee eee veces eee
Drawing by H. L. sab from No, 27628, U.S. National Museum, collected at Sitka, Alaska, May 28, 1880, by Dr. T. H.
, Bean.
83. The “ Black Cod,” “ Black Candle-fish,” or Beshow, Anoplopoma fimbria (Pallas) Gill..............-..2 220
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27745, U. S. National Museum, collected at Sitka, Alaska, December, 1880, by Com-
mander L. A. Beardslee, U. S. N. °
The “‘Atka Mackerel” or Yellow-fish, Plewrogrammus monopterygius (Pallas) Gill......--.....22.-2e--eceee-
Drawing by H. L. Todd. from No. 27954, U. S. National Museum, collected at Diuliuk, Unalashka, 1880, by Dr. T. H.
Bean.
84, Steller’s Rock-trout, Hexagrammus asper Steller. ..-... 20-2... .0 22 cece ee cece ee eee cone cece seen ee veces
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 21530, U. S. National Museum, collected at Saint Michael's, Alaska, June, 1875, by
L. M. Turner.
The Cultus Cod, Ophiodon elongatus Girard ...... 22222-12222. cee eee cones wae aeeiguBansd nesses shosecaesealeees
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 65727, U. 8. National Museum, colleeted at Sitka, Alaska, June 7, 1880, by Dr. T. H.
Bean.
85. The Tautog, Tautoga onitis (L.) Gthr ... 22. 0... nee eee eee cee ee cece cee ee cere acne cane cecnenes
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 17738, U. 8. National Museum, collected at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, December 13,
1875, by, Vinal N, Edwards.
86. The Chogset or Cunner, Ctenolabrus adspersus (Walb.) Goode ....-...---...-+2- + ivatsie Be) ajiaeiedecae xeeeeees
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 17741, U.S. National Museum, collected at Wood's Holl, Massachusetts, December 11.
- 1875, by Vinal N. Edwards.
87. The Fat-head or Redfish, Pimelometopon pulcher (Ayres) Gill. = Trochocopus pulcher ........ .--.-00+ e200 000

’ Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No, 24890, U. S. National Museum, sic a at San Diego, California, January, 1880, by
Jordan and Gilbert.

256

258

258

258

260

263

263

264

265

265

266

266

268

267

268

274

275

xxiv LIST OF PLATES.

z Page.
88. The Hogfish or Capitaine, Lachnolemus falcatua (L.) C. & V.. .cccecceecee teccencecececeeceeceeeeeceeenes 275
Drawing by H. L. Todd.
89. The Alfione, Rhacochilus toxotes Agassiz...-.-- 02-220. oe eee eee cee ee cee cee cence cece coerce cen eeeeneees 277
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27015, U.S. National Museum, collected at Monterey, California, 1880, by Jordan and
Gilbert.
90. The Spanish Pompano, Gerres olisthostoma Goode & Bean....-.-.-.---. 222... - eee eee eee cee cee ee eeeeees 279
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 25118, -U. 8, National Museum, collected at Indian River, Florida, March 8, 1880, by
R. E. Earll.
91. The Mackerel, Scomber scombrus Li...--. 2.2222 cee cee cee nee cece ne eee cee eee cee eee cone ne eee cen eneeeeees 281

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 25256, U. 8. National Museum, collected at Provincetown, Massachusetts, September,
1879, by U. S. Fish Commission.
The Chub Mackerel or “ Thimble Eye,” Scomber colias De La Roche .....-..-.-.---- 2-2-2 e-e eee eee e ee eee 303
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 23480, U.S. National Museum, collected at Provincetown, Massachusetts, September,
1879, by U. S. Fish Commission.
92. The Frigate Mackerel, Ausis thazard Lacépéde.........-. 22-220 eee ee eee eee cee ce eee cence eee eens 305,
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 25757, U. S. National Museum, collected at Newport, Rhode Island August, 1880, by
U.S. Fish Commission.
The Bonito, Sarda mediterranea (Schu.) J. & G..--2.- een eee cee cee ee ce ee cee cee cee eee eee 316

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10419, U. S. National Musetim, collected at Wood’s Holl, Massachpsetts, 1871, by
U.S. Fish Commission.

98, The Spanish Mackerel, Scomberomorus maculatus (Mitch.) J. & G...--.-.-2------ 222+ eee eee eee eee 307
Drawing by H. ZL; Todd, from No. 15582, U.S. National Museum, collected at Fulton Market, New York, by E. G. Black-
ford. :
94, The Spotted Cero, Scomberomorus regalis (Bloch) J. & G..------. 2-22. ee eee eee eee AME Ree tae Mate *_... ° 316
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 12527, U. S. National Museum, collected at Key West, Florida, by E. G. Blackford
The Cero or Kingfish, Scomberomorus caballa(C. & V.) J. & G. ---2e eee ee eee eee ce eee eee ee eee eeee = 8316

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 19418, U.S. National Museum, collected at Wood's Holl, Massachusetts, 1875, by U.
S. Fish Commission.
95. The Alalonga or Long-finned Tunny, Orcynus alalonga (Gmel.) Risso......--..----.------ee ee ee ee eee ---- 320

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No, 21884, U.S. National Museum, collected at Banquereau, September 10, 1878, by Capt-
tain William Thompson, schooner Magic.

The Striped or Oceanic Bonito, Euthynnus pelamys (L.) Liitken....... 222.202.2022 -eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee-. 319
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20762, sent from Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
96. The Horse Mackerel or Tunny, Orcynus thynnus (L.) Poey........------ 2200 ee cece cee eeee ceceeeese---. 320
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from specimen collected in Vineyard Sound by U.S. Fish Commission.
97, The Horsefish or Blunt-nosed Shiner, Selene setipinnis (Mitch.) Lutken ........-...---.-----2------------- 322
Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No. 16252, U. 8. National Museum, collected in Fulton Market, New York, by E. G.
Blackford.

98. The Silver Moonfish or ‘‘Look-down,” Selene argentea Lacépéde
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 22279, U. S. National Museum.
99. The Cavally or Crevallé, Caranxz hippos (L.) Gtbr...-.- 020-2 eee ee eee ce nee wenn eens cece en ceee 323
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10431 U. 8. National Museum, collected at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, 1871, by U.S.
Fish Commission.
100. The Goggler or ‘‘Goggle Eye,” Caranz crumenophthalmus (Block) Lac
Drawing from H. L. Todd, from No. 20681, U. S. National Museum, collected at Wood's Holl, Massachusetts, October 3,
1877, by Vinal N. Edwards.
101. The Jurel or Hard Tail, Caran pisquetus C. & V.=C. chrysosGthr.......- Oo cgc Abaa ee WacGwee male enaee 324
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 16512, U. S. National Museum, collected at Wood's Holl, Massachusetts, by U. S.
Fish Commission.
102. The Round Robin or Cigar-fish, Decapterus punctatus (Ag.) Gill... -. 22. eee eee eee ee eee eee ee eee BRB

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20639, U. S. National Museum, collected at; Wood's Holl, Massachusetts, September 11,
1877, by Vinal N. Edwards.

103. The Scad or Dutch Marsebanker, Trachurus saurus Rat. ..-.-...---. .. 2201 2-e ee ee eee cee ee nee eee cee 326
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 23421, U. S. National Museum, collected at Newport, Rhode Island, by S. Powell.
104. The Common Pompano, Trachynotus carolinus (L.) Gill ...... 222.022 eee eee eee ee cee cece ee eee ence 327

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 15178, U.S. National Museum, collected at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, October 5, 1871,
by Professor S. F. Baird. :

105. The Short Pompano, Trachynotus ovatus (L.) Gthr. .. 22. 220. 0. eee ee cee ce eee cee eee eee ce eeee ences: 329
Drawing from No. 26585, U. S. National Museum, collected at Florida by Silas Stearns.

106. The Banner Pompano, Trachynotus glaucus C. & V.....--. .- 22 cee cece cece cee cee ee eee cece tcc eeeesees 329
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 30176, U.S. National Maseum, collected at Pensacola, Florida, January 7, 1882, by Silas i

Stearns.
107. The Pilot-fsh, Naucrates ductor (L.) Raf .-...- Aiea chine Gites ty Sra cas ae ee Seyevayayal vate vad ercbvtat ciclclatassre estas Seeders Sven atSae 330

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 23197, U. S. National Museum, collected at New Bedford, Massachusetts, September 27,
1878, by William A. Bansett.

108.

109.

110.

111

112.
113.
114,
115.
116.
117.

118.

121.

122.
123.

124.

125

126.

127.

LIST OF PLATES.

The California Yellow-tail, or Amber-fish, Seriola dorsalis C. & V..... -.----- 2-222 -2-e eee cee eee ee eee
Drawing by H.L, Todd, from No. 26835, U. S. National Museum, collected at San Pedro, California, 1880 (?), by Jordan
and Gilbert.
The Dolphin, Coryphana hippurus Li _... 2... 222-222 ee eee ee ce ence ee cee ee cee eee eee ee re cee teeeeeeees
(Male.) Drawing by H. L, Todd, from specimen in Fulton Market, New York, collected by E. G. Blackford, i ean tomer
18, 1875.
(Female.) Drawing by H. L. Todd, from specimen in Fulton Market, New York, collected by E. G. Blackford, Septem-
ber 18, 1875. '
The Harvest-fish, Stromateus alepidotus (L.) J. & G..---2. 222 eee cele cee eee ee ee cee ee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 15234, U. S. National Museum, collected at New York, by Mr. Sutherland.
The Butterfish or Dollar-fish, Stromateus triavanthus Peck. ........ Ne ayes cada araraeesusdveloan a Bake yecespiade Bem
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 787, U. S. National Museum, collected at Beesley’s Point, New Jersey, 1858, by Pro-
fessor S. ¥. Baird. .
,The Log-fish or Black Rudder-fish, Lirus perciformis (Mitch.) J. & G..-.. 22-2 i225 cece ee cece cee eee eens
. Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. '22650, U.S. National Museum, collected at Le Have Bank, by Captain James Hawkins.
The Pomfret, Brama Rayi Schn ....... 222-200 cee cece eens eee cee nee cee eee ee cancer eneneneeeeer seenee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 26234, U. S. National Museum, collected at west end of Grand Bank, May, 1881, by
Captain Andrew McKinney.
The Boar Fish, Zenopsis ocellatus (Storer) Gill...... 0.2. .--.- 2222 c-eeee eee es cece ee eet cee eee eee eee ceeee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from specimen taken at Provincetown, Massachusetts, in museum of Eben Society of Natural
History.
The Cutlass-fish, Trichiwrus lepturus L.-..... 2.022220 eee eee cede nee eee cee eee eee eee cn emee en eees
Drawing by H. L. Toad, from No. 18028, U. S. National piueaae collected at Saint Augustine, Florida, 1877, by Dr.
Janeway, U.S. N.
The Swordfish, Xiphias gladius L -...... 00.2000 cece cee cece cece ceee ceeee cocece cneneeteeees ceceeeueeees

(Adult.) Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 16126, U. S. National Museum, collected at New Bedford, Massachusetts,
July 17, 1875, by U.S. Fish Commission.
(Young.) Drawing by H. L. Todd, from plate 225, Cuvier & Valenciennes, Histoire Naturelle des Poissons.

The Sail-fish, Histiophorus gladius (BrownyY Gthr.....-.-..... 0.2.2... Bhs eis lS ela cette M SL an ite at asi seaa tees
The Spear-fish, Tetrapturus albidus Poey..... - Licciisteyeh pate Wales Meaea eee See RRe SEE eitels: Kas ehe Cum Re veeIeS

The Tilefish, Lopholatilus chameleonticeps Goode & Bean.......0. 0.02 -.2cc2 ence ce cece eee eee eee ee eneees
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 22899, U. S. National Museum, collected 80 miles south by east of No Man’s Land,
i May, 1879, by Captain Kirby.
The Gulf Blanquillo, Caulolatilus microps Goode & Bean... .... 2.22.20 eee cece ee eee cee ene eee eee cece
Drawing by H. L, Todd, from No. 20971, U.S. National Museum, cellented at Pensacola, Florida, March 18, 1878, by Silas
Stearns.
The Ronchil, Bathymaster signatus Cope. .... -.-. 2-2 e200 cence eee cece ce eee cece ee cece ce cece ce seeees
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27646, U. S. National Museum, collected at Shumagins, Alaska, 1880, by E. P. Herendeen.
The Squirrel-fish, Holocentrum pentacanthum (Block) Vaill. & Bocourt.............2-2-. .-eeee eee ee ee eeee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 26580, U. S. National Museum, collected at Key West, Florida, 1880, by Silas Stearns.
The Spotted Squeteague, Cynoscion maculatum (Mitch.) Gill...2.. 2.22. cece eee ee cee cee eee cece ee ceeeee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 15000, U. S. National Museum, collected at Norfolk, Virginia, 1872, by Mr. Sibley.
The Common Squeteague, Cynoscion regale (Schn.) Gill ..... 2.222.222 222.2 e eee cece cece ee cece ee cee eee es
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10421, U. S. National Museum, collected at Wood's Holl, Massachusetts, 1871, by
U. S. Fish Commission. :
The Drum, Pogonias chromis (L.) C. & V..- 2... eee ence ce eee ene cee eee cee eee cee ees cen ceeceeeee sees

(Young.) Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 18036, U. S. National Museum, collected at Matanzas River Inlet, Florida,
February, 1877, by John C. Willets.

The Drum, Pogonias chromis (L.) C. & V.. 2222.22 e le cece eee ce eee cee cence cee ene cee eee ccee ceneeecces
(Adult.) Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 22936, U.S. National Museum.
The Fresh-water. Drum or Gaspergou, Haploidonotus grunniens Raf...... 2... 2-22.20 -2eeceecee eeceee waee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10542, U.S. National Museum, collected at Ecorse, Michigan, by J. W. Milner.
The Spot or Goody, Liostomus xanthurus Lac... ..--.. 22-222. e 2 eee cee cece eee cece ee cece ec neeeeeee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20222, U.S. National Museum, collected at Newport, Rhode Island, November, 1875,
by Samuel Powel.
The Red-fish or Bass of the South, Sciwna ocellata (L.) Gthr ....0 2.222. .2 2 eee cece cee ee cece cece cece
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 622, U.S. National Museum, collected at Indianola, 1858, by Major Emory.
The Yellow Tail. Bairdiella chrysura (Lac.)......-.---. 22-222 cence cece ee cece ee ce nees eens ceceacecseeeees
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 771, U. 8S. National Museum, collected by Beesley’s Point, New Jersey, 1858, by
Professor S. F. Baird.
The Kingfish or Sea Mink, Menticirrus nebulosus (Mitch.) Gill..:....20-0. ccc. coc eee cee cee ceceee ceceee

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No, 25403, U. S, National Museum, collected at Charleston Harbor, South Carolina,
March 25, 1880, by R. E. Earll.

The Carolina Whiting, Menticirrus alburnus (L.) Gill....22 2. 2222 eee cece econ we ee ee cence eee ccecceeeee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 22832, U.S. National Museum, collected at Pensacola, Florida, 1878, by Silas Stearns.

333

333

335

338

356
357
360

360

361

361

365

362

367

367

370

370

371

375

375

376

Xxvi LIST OF PLATES.

Page.
128. The Croaker, Mieropogon undulatus (L.) C. & V..---- 22-202 een ee cee cee ce neg cee cree eee eee eeeees 378
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20742, U.S. National Museum, collected at Newport, Rhode Island, 1877, by Samuel
Powel.
129. The Roncador, Roncador Stearnsii (Steindachner) J. & G.....----- 2. cence cece cece cee eee ee eee cee eee 379
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 26864, U. S. National Museum, collected at Santa Barbara, California, 1880, by Pro-
fessor D,§. Jordan.
.130. The Sheep’s-head, Diplodus probatocephalus (Walb.) J. & G....-----e- eee eee ee eee cece nee nee cee ee ee 381
(Young). Drawing by E.L. Todd, from specimen in U.S. National Museum.
131. The Sheep’s-head, Diplodus probatocephalus (Walh.) J. & G....-. 22-22-22 eee eee ee eee eee cere eee ees = 881
(Adnlt). Drawing by H. L. Todd, from specimen in U.S. National Museum.
132. The Charleston Bream or Pin-fish, Diplodus Holhbrookii Bean.......--.- ------ -2.20- 02-222 eee ee eee eee 386

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20979, U.S. National Museum, collected at Charleston, South Carolina, March 29, 1878,
by G. Brown Goode.

133, The Scuppaug, Scup, or Northern Porgy, Stenotomus chrysops (Mitch.) Bean...--..-..------------------- 386

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10425, U. S. National Musenm, collected at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, 1871, by
Professor S. F. Baird.

134. The Southern Scup, Stenotomus Gardeni Bean..-----.- wihsiden Aces wats’ a ale alah ansiaseytitcudete, dhcte,neridaunsnl on eae 387
135, The Gulf Scup, or Goat’s Head Porgy, Stenotomus caprinus. Goode & Bean .......- ..----.----+-----2 eee ee 393
, Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 32683, U.S. National Museum, collected at Pensacola, Florida, by Silas Stearns.

136. Milner’s Pagellus, Pagellus Milneri, Goode & Bean....... 2... .----- 22-22 nee cee eee cee eee eee eee eee 393

‘ Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 6134, U.S. National Museum, collected at Charlotte Harbor, Florida, by C. B. Baker.
137. The Margate Fish, Bastard Snapper of Charleston, or Porgy of Pensacola, Sparus pagrus L .......------- 394
- Drawing by H.L. Todd, from specimen in U.S. National Museum, collected at Charleston, South Carolina, by G. Brown

Goode.

138. The Sailor’y Choice, Lagodon rhomboides (L.) Holbrook .... .-.-..-.---------- 02 eee eee eee eee ee eee - $393

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 21280, U.S. National Museum, collected at Saint John’s iver Florida, April, 1878,
by G. Brown Goode.
139. The Bermuda Chub, Cyphosus Boscii Cine Is 28e Gva wien sewers a dateuleiss Malt Aged seme deadece dase de ee 394
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20635, U.S. National Museum, collected at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, September 11,
1877, by Vinal N. Edwards.
140. The Medialuna, Scorpis californiengis Steindachner ..-.....---. .----- -+-- + 2222+ cece eee eee cee eee eens 395
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 26952, U.S. National Museum, collected at Santa Barbara, California, 1880 by Jordan
and Gilbert. 7 .
141. The Florida Red Snapper, Lutjanus Blackfordii Goode & Bean....-.-..2-. 2222 eee eee eee eee eee eee 395
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 21330, U.S. National Museum, collected at Pensacola, Florida, May, 1878, by Silas
Stearns.
142. The Pensacola Snapper, Lutjanus Stearnsit Goode & Bean.....-.-.-..---- 22 eee. cee eee cee eee eee ee eens 396
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 21837, U.S. National Museum, collected at Pensacola, Florida, May, 1878, by Silas
Stearns.
143. The Mangrove Snapper, Rhomboplites aurorubens (C. & V.) Vaillant....-.--.---.----. 2-2-2 e eee eee ee eee 396

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 21338, U.S. National Museum, collected at Pensacola, Florida, May, 1878, by Silas
Stearns.

144, The Black Grunt, Hemulon Plumieri (Lac.) J. & G .... 22. 22 ee cen cee ce eee cen eee cen cece ee enee 398
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20980, U.S. National Muscum, collected at Charleston, South Carolina, May 29, 1878,
by G. Brown Goode.
145. The Striped Grunt, Hemulon elegans (C. & V.) ..-. ---- 202 22 - een cee ee eee ee cee eee wees “OOF
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 32603, U.S. National Museum, collected at Key West, Florida, by Dr. J . A. Henshall.
146. The Pigfish, Pomodasys fulvomaculatus (Mitch.) J. & G....- ate Me dc pen aca re inca Atm Spo yc Sep Lp Ne ch 398
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 3113, U.S. National Museum, collected at Charlotte Harbor, Florida, by C. B. Baker.
147. The Big-mouth Black Bass or Oswego Bass, Micropterus salmoides (Lac.) Henshall. ........-..-....2-2---- 401
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 14143, U.S. National Museum, collected at Little Falls, Potomac River, 1874, by Major
T. J. Hobbs. ‘
148. The Small-mouth Blavk Bass, Micropterus Dolomici Lac. ......-.--. 222. 2.2220 ceee cece eee cece ceee eens = 401
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10323, U.S. National Museum, collected at Sandusky, Ohio, by J. W. Milner.
149. The Rock-Bass or Red Eye, Ambloplites rupestris (Raf.) Gill... 2.22. 2.0. 20. ee en eee cee cee cee ee eee 404
Drawing by H. 1. Todd, from No, 9401, U.S. National Museum, collected at Ecorse, Michigan, by George Clark.
150. The Mud-Bass, Acantharchus pomotis (Baird) Gill. ...--. .. 222. 22-22. eee eee ee ec cee eee eee eee 405
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 6475, U. S. National Museum, collected at Tarborough, North Carolina, by Mr.
Bridger.
151. The Sacramento Perch, Archoplites interruptus (Girard) Gill...-....... aanets RNase tEeamasheccosmusea ely 405
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27137, U. S. National Museum, collected at San Francisco, California, 1880, by Pro-
fessor D. S. Jordan
152. The War-mouth Bass, Chanobrytius gulosus (C. & V.) Jordan. ....2. 2.2.22. cee cece cece cece ne cece cece 405

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No, 17803, U. S. National Museum, collected at Jackson’s Lake, Alabama, July 14, 1876,
vy Kumlien and Bean.

LIST OF PLATES. XXVii

153, The Pumpkin-Seed or Sunfish, Lepomis gibhosus (L.) McKay. ..-..-.. 2.220 sence cece cece cece ee cone eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 4163, U. 5. National Museum, collected at Root River, Wisconsin, July 1853, by Pro-
fessor S. F. Baird.
154. The Long-eared Sunfish, Lepomis auritus(L.) Raf..-... 2-2-2. .-2220 2222 eee ee eee eee cee eee eee .
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 15351, U. S. National Museum, collected at Susquehanna River, Bainbridge, Pennsyl-
vania, May, 1875, by Dr. T. H. Bean.
*155. The Blue Suntish or Copper-nose, Lepomis pallidus (Mitch.) J. & G..2.. 22220202 e ee eee cee eee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 8448, U. S. National Museum, collected in Tennessee.
156. The Chinquapin Perch, Lepomis punctatus (C. and V.) Jordan.......--..-- DAGa ae Mie Necere stale ae Seeie ee ise
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 4227-’46, U.S. National Museum, collected in Florida.
157, The Broad-eared Sunfish, Lepomis obscurus AQ ..-.-. 1-2-2 eee ce eee cee cee cee eee ene nent eee e en eeeee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20031, U. S. National Museum, collected at Cumberland River, Tennessee, by A.
Winchell,
158, The Rainbow Sunfish, Centrarchus macropterus (Lac.) Jordan.....-. 22-22. --- 2-2 ee eee eee cee cee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20395, U. S. National Museum, collected at Kinston, North Carolina, 1875, by Welsher
and Hyatt.
159, The Calico Bass or Strawberry Bass, Pomoxys sparoides (Lac.) Grd-....-------- 222-22 eee eee ee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10077, U. S. National Museum, collected at Rochester by J. W. Milner.
160. The Crappie or Sac-a-lait, Pomoxys annularis Raf Riseiee Su aiiaie Se bee oe maak Suan esaeety ee OeGae ay gee owen
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10387, U. 8S. National Museum, collected at Norfolk, Virginia, 1873, by Dr. H. C.
Yarrow.
161, The Black-banded Sunfish, Mesayonistius chetodon (Baird) Gill..... 2.222. 2-22 eee cee eee cee beeen eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20354, U. S. National Museum, collected at. Trenton, New Jersey, 1875, — Dr. C. C.
Abbott. ,
162. The Sea Bass, Serranus atrarius (L.) J. and G..--2. 22.2 eee cee eee eee eee cee een cee cee ee cen neee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 14838, U. 8 National Museum, collected at Noank, Connecticut, 1874, by U. 8. Fish
Commission.
163, The Squirrel-fish, Serranus fascicularis c. BN, Vi sccisia Peite seed wing beware tess cmscae Sere te see eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 21543, U. §. National ee asllecled at Charleston, South Carolina, J ae 1878, by
C. C. Leslie.
164. The Red Grouper, Epinephelus morio (Cuv.) Gill. .....----. -20. 22-222 cece ee cee eee cece eee cence eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Toda, from No. 22129, U. S. National Museum, obtained in the Washington Market, District of
Columbia, by G. Brown Goode.
165. The Jew-fish or ‘“‘ Warsaw,” Promicrops guasa Poey ......- 2-2-2 12222 ee eee cee cece tec eee cee cee ene neee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 22306, U.S. National Museum, collected at St. John’s River, Florida.
166, The West Indian Cabrilla, Serranus clathratus(Grd.) Steind ..-... 2222.2 -- 22 -e cece cee cee cee eens te eee cees
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 26574, U.S. National Museum, collected at Key West, Florida, May, 1880, by Silas
Stearns.
167. The Pensacola Black Grouper, Trisotropis mierolepis Goode and. Bean. ........---- 22-225 neces cece e cee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 5137, U. S. National Museum, collected at West Florida by Kaiser and Martin.
168. The Yellow Perch, Perca americana Schrank........--..----- 2-2-2 cece eee eee eee cee cee eee eens
Drawing by EL L. Todd, from No, 25199, U. S. National Maseum, collected at’ Washington Market, District of
Columbia, April, 1880, by U.S. Fish Commission.
169. The Wall-eyed Pike or Dory, Stizostedium vitreum (Mitch.) Jordan and Copeland............-----..--+---
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 22494, U. S. National Museum, collected at Port Deposit, Maryland, April 7, 1879,
by R. E. McClenahan.
The Sauger or Land Pike, Stizostedium canadense (Smith) Jordan ...-.. ...--- .2-. cee eee eee beeen eee eee
Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No. 10072, U. S. National Museum, collected at Rochester, New York, i J. W. Milner.
170. The Striped Bass or Rockfish, Roccus lineatus (Bloch.) Gill (= Roccus saxatilis auctorum) ...-.....-..------
Drawing by H. L. Todd, Son No. 25219, U.S. National Museum, collected at Washington Market, District of Columbia,
April 24, 1880, by U. S. Fish Comission.
171. The White Bass, Roccus chrysops (Raf.) Gill......-----. -- 22 eee eee ee eee cee ee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No, 10326, U. S. National Museum, collected at Sandusky, Ohio, by J. W. Milner.
172. The Yellow Bass, Roccus interruptus (Gill) J. and G..... 2.2 2-2 cee ee cee cee ee cee cee eee eee ner eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from specimens, in National Museum.
173. The White Perch, Roccus americanus (Gml.) J. and G...---2. een. eee wee cee ee cee eee cee cee neee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 15681, U.S. National Museum, collected at New York, November 15, 1875, by E. G.
Blackford.
174. The Bluefish Pomatomus saltatrix (L.) Gill ...--. 0222-2 2-2 ene ce ee ee ee eee ee eee eee eee Fre pie
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from speci in U.S. National Museum.
The Cobia or Crab-eater, Hlacate canada (L.) Gill...-.. --.- 2-22 222 cee eee eee cee cee cee eee teen eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 18563, U.S. National Museum.

17%. The Triple-Tail or Black Grouper, Lobotes surinamensis (Bi.) Cuvier....-. .---- --+--0+ senses eee ecee cess
476, The Moon-fish or Spade-fish, Chatodipterus faber (Brouss.) J. and G..-.-.....---.--+- pcidesamernceecieled

410

411

412

413

413

414

421

424

425

431

XXViil , LIST OF PLATES.

177,

178.

179.

180.

181.

182.

183.

184,

185.

186.

187.

188.

The Spear-fish Remora, Rhombochirus osteochir (Cuv.) Gill...--. 2222-2 lee cee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 19022, U. S. National Museum, collected at, Wood's Holl, Massachusetts, 1875, by U.S.
Fish Commission.
The Sword-fish Remora, Remoropsis brachyptera Lowe....-. 022-2. 22+ s2e202 coos eee cee cece cece ee eeeee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 23374, U.S. National Museum, collected at sea in 250 fathoms of water by Daniel
McEachran.
The West Indian Barracouta or Sennet, Sphyrana picuda Schn.......--.------ 2-2-2 0- -e eee eee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 14978, U.S. National Museum, collected at Florida by E. G. Blackford.
The Northern Barracouta, Sphyrena borealis De Kay...-...----- 22-222 eee eee cee ee eee eee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 18862, U.S. National Museum, collected at Wood's Holl, Massachusetts, 1876, by Vinal
N. Edwards.
The Striped Mullet, Mugil albula L ...---...----------- Bo Aad aera ananre aot oes sce be weeneekecernn anes
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 24456, U.S. National Museum, collected at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, December 15,
1879, by Vinal N. Edwards.
The White Mullet, Mugil brasiliensis Agass .... .--- 2-2-2 +2 pee nee cee ee cen ce eee cece cnet ee nee
Drawn by Miss M. Smith, from No. 21498, U. S. National Museum, collected at Pensacola, Florida, 1878, by Silas Stearns.
The Sand Smelt or Silversides, Menidia notata (Mitch.) J. and G-_.....-.--. 02-2022 e eee eee ee eee eae
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from specimen in U. S. National Museum, collected at Noank, Connecticut, by U.S. Fish
Commission.

The California “‘Smelt” or Pescadillo, Atherinopsis californiensis Girard....-.--.---- 2-202 eeeeeeeeeeee eee

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 26764, U.S. National Museum, collected at San Diego, California, 1880, by Professor D.
8. Jordan.

The Two-spined Stickle-back, Gasterosteus aculeatus L.........---. 22-22 ee ee ee ee cee eee ce eee

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20875, U. S. National Museum, collected at Wood's Holl, Massachusetts, December 3,
1877, by Vinal N. Edwards.

The Silver Gar-fish, Tylosurus longirostris (Mitch.) J. and G....2.. 222 cece eee eee eee Bon gases neeesanecsanee

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from specimens in National Museum.

The Skipper or Saury, Scomberesox saurus (Walb.) Fleming....----.--------- 2-222 - eee eee ee eee cee eee
Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No. 19853, U.S. National Museum, collected at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, November 3,
1875, by Vinal N. Edwards. Y
The Half Beak, Hemiramphus unifasciatus Ranzani ...--..----. ------ 22-22. eee ee ee eee ee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 16944, a S. National Museum, collected in Chesapeake Bay, August, 1876, by Otto
Lugger.
The California Flving-fish, Exocetus californiensis Cooper......------ .----- 22-2 ee eee eee ee ce ee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 26907, U.S. National Museum, collector at Santa Barbara, California, 1880, by Jordan
and Gilbert.
The: Pilkey son: Uiveiigy Ta siciwt on! lst tessa etecnecaivis than oot Fela etsrsssicstengicicjerciniaie = via inine cae Seis didnare ratdra sail oie le fe pial iataed Wied
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 9289, U.S. National Museum, collected at Ecorse, Michigan, ay George Clark.
The Pickerel or Federation Pike, Esox reticulatus Le Sueur..---. 2-22. -222 eee e cee e eee cen ee cee eee eee
Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No. 20381, U.S. National Museum.
The Western Brook Pickerel, Hsox umbrosus Kirtland ....-..-.---- 222.2222 cence eee cee eee eee ee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, Paes No. 20708, U.S. National Museum, collected by E. G. Blackford.
The Muskellunge, Hsox nobilior Thompson ..---. ..----- +2 +22. 2 eee ee eee cee ee cee cee ee eee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10607, U.S. National Museum, collected at Ecorse, Michigan, by George Clark.
The Mummichog, Fundulus majalis (Walb.) Gthr. (Female)
Drawing H. L. Todd, from No. 13788, U.S. National Museum, collected at Wood's Holl, Massachusetts, September 15,
1871, by U,S. Fish Commission.
The Blackfish of Alaska, Dallia pectoralis Bean ....-...-.-. --- 2200-022 e eee cee eee ce eee ce ee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from 23498 A, U.S. National Museum, collected at Saint Michaelis, Alaska, February, 1877, by
L. M. Turner.
The Atlantic Salmon, Sulmo salar L ...-.-..-------- 2+ eee eee eee ee eee eee ee ee eee Seve 2 hoe eaeKsice
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from specimen in the U.S. National Museum, taken in the Delaware River.
The Quinnat or California Salmon, Oncorhynchus chouicha (Walb.) J. and G_... J... 2.2. 022. cece ee eee eee
Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No. 24671, U.S. National Museum, collected at Neeah Bay, December, 1879, by James G.
Swan.
The Steel Head, Salmo Gairdnert Richardson ....-..----------- 0-2 ceee eee cee cee ee eee cee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27218, U.S. National Museum, collected at Columbia River, 1880, by Professor D. S.
Jordan.
The Rainbow Trout, Salmo irideus Gibbons ...-...----- 2-2-2 ee eee cee eee cee cee ee eee ces see eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from Ne: 29093, U. S. National Museum, collected at McCloud River, California, 1881, by Livings-
‘ton Stone.
The Black-spotted Trout, Salmo purpuratus Pallas.-..-....---.... wh ieiseieise Sate ew Meee meee Se-seetee ne eases
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27905, U. 8. National Museum, collected at Sitka, Alaska, 1870, by L. A. Beardsley.

448+

448:
449)

449:

456-
457
457

458

460-
461
459°

461
464
464
464

466
466.

468:

479
474
475.

415

189.

190.

191.

192.

193.

194,

195.

196,

197.

198

199,

200.

» 201.

202,

LIST OF PLATES.

The Kayko or Dog Salmon, Oncorhynchus keta (Walb.) Gill and Jordan......-. 222. 2.2 eee cee cece cone eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27617, U. 8. National Museum, collected at Fort Alexander, Cook's Inlet, Alaska, July
4, 1880, by J. Cohen.

The Gorbuscha or Hump-backed Salmon, Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (Walb.) Gilland Jordan........-----.--
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27743, U. S. National Museum, collected at Cook’s Inlet, Alaska, July 6, 1880, by Dr. T.
H. Bean. 3
The Kisutch or Silver Salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walb.) J.and G....------------ ---- 2-2-0 -e ee ee ee ee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27712, U.S. National Museun, collected at Lliuliuk, Unalashka, October 12, 1880, by Dr.
T. H. Bean.
The Krasnaya Ryba, Red-fish of Idaho, or Blue Back Salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka (Walb.) Gill and Jordan.

(Hook-jawed Male.)
(Female) Drawings by H. L. Todd, from specimens in U.S. National Museum, collected by Captain C. Bendire, U.S. Ne,
in the Wallowa River, Idaho.

XX1xX

Page.
476

477

477

477

485

497

503

504

505

505

The Krasnaya Ryba or Blue Back Salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka (Walb.) J. and G....---.-.--+- ---- +--+ alias
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from fresh run male, sent to U. S. National Museum from the Columbia River, April, 1884, by A. .
Booth, esq.
The Namaycush or Lake Trout, Salvelinus namaycush (Walb.) Goode......---.------------+-- 2-20 ee ee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 17012, U.S. National Museum, collected at Raquette Lake, New York, February 23,
1877, by Verplauck Colvin.
The Speckled Trout, Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitch.) Gill and Jordan......-.....-----. 22 ----- eee cee ee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 28651, U. S. National Museum, obtained in New York Market, July, 1881, by E.G.
Blackford.
The Oquassa Trout, Salvelinus oquassa (Grd.) Gill and Jordan..........-..- +... 22+ eee ee eee ee en eee eee
Drawing by H. i Todd, from No. 20688, U.S. National Museum, collected at Oqeuxeoo Lake, New York, November 9,
1877, by E. G. Blackford.
The Malma or Dolly Varden Trout, Salvelinus malma (Walb.) J.and G...--. .---2. 22-2 ween eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27740, U. 8. National Museum, collected at Port Chatham, Cook's Inlet, Alaska, 1880, by
Dr. T. H. Bean. :
The Grayling, Thymallus tricolor Cope ..--...--- ---- -- 20-22 cee eee cee ee eee eee eee eee eee e eee
Drawing by M. L. Todd, from No. 31115, U. 8. National Museum, obtained from Au Sable River, Michigan, by J. W.
Milner.
The Alaska Grayling, Thymallus signifer Richardson .-.....-.--. .----- 022-02 cece ee eee cee eee eee ee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 3333, U.S. National Museum, collected at Port Simpson, June, 1860, by B. R. Ross.
The Whitefish, Coregonus clupeiformis (Mitch.) Milner ........--.-.-- 2-2-0 ee 222s cee e eee ee ween nee Sut

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10300, U. S. National Museum, collected at Ecorse, Michigan, by George Clark.
The Cisco or Lake Herring, Coregonus Artedi Lesueur .......--.---.-- 2-225 22 eee ee eee eee cee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 33958, U. S. National Museum, collected at Neer Field Bay, Wiscosin, by J. W. Milner
The Moon-eye or Cisco, of Lake Michigan, Coregonus Hoyt (Gill) Jordan ........---.-----+-+2------+-- e+
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 32162, U. S. National Museum, collected at Seneca Lake, New York, June, 1878, by Pro-
fessor H. L. Smith
The Alaska Whitefish, Coregonus Merki Gthr.......---. --0020 (eee e cee eee cee eee ee ee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27698, U. S. National Museum, collected at Alaska, 1880, by U. S. Steamer Corwin.
The Lauretta White-fish, Coregonus Laurette Bean ied ak coos oo tat becraur ae cccheatiece seuasotewemenee ts
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27695, U.S. National Museum, collected at Point Barrow, Alaska, July, 1880, by U.S.
Steamer Corwin.
The Eastern Smelt, Osmerus mordax (Mitch.) Gill...-..-...- 22-2. eee eee cee eee cee ee cee none
Drawing by H. L Todd, from No. 21435, U.S. National Museum, collected at Wood's Holl, Massachusetts, 1878, by 'Vinal
N. Edwards.
The Alaska Smelt, Demers denied Stat het «occ wees eooce saad scan ee keewan ss ace eGnn su ewamase ascend eae
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27914, U. S. National Museum, collected at Port Clarence, Alaska, 1880, by Dr. T. H.
Bean.
fhe Alaska Surf Smelt, Hypomesus olidus (Pallas) Gthr......2.2. 01. ee cee cee ce ee cee ne cee rene nee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 23973, U. S. National Museum, collected at Saint Michaels, Alaska, May 20, 1877, by
M. L. Turner.
The California Surf Smelt, Hypomesus pretiosus (Grd.) Gill ... 22. 2-2-2 ee eee eee cee cere cee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27995, U. S. National Museum, collected at Yakutat Bay, Alaska, 1880, by Dr. T. H.
Bean.
The Capelin, Mallotus villosus (Muller) Cuiv5..30 pete eed Seca egeete ie ti feel sori aee ee wenn
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 3418. U. S. National Museum, collected at Grosswater Bay, by Dr. E. Coues.
The Eulachon, Thaleichthys pacificus (Rich.) Girard ..-.-...----. 2202+ eee eee cee eee eee Sideivante deste
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 28001, U. S. National Museum, collected at Chilkat River, Alaska, June, 1880, by Mar-
cus Baker.
The Hand Saw fish, Alepidosaurus ferox Lowe ..---....-.- 222 ce enn e eee e eee eee tenes cence ee ceee

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 18028, U. S. National Museum, collected atSaint Augustine, Florida, 1877, by Dr. Jane-
way, U.S. N.

544

547

547

xxx LIST OF PLATES.

203.

204.

205,

206.

207.

208.

209.

210.

211.

212.

213.

214,
215.

216.

217

218.

219,

220,

Baird’s Alepocephalus, dlepocephalus Bairdii Goode & Bean... ...-.. 222+ 2 --- cece cee eee ee cere rene cereee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 22468, U.S. National Museum, collected on Grand Bank, by Christian J obnson, Schr.
William Thompson.
Miiller’s Scopelus, Scopelus Miillert (Guel,) Collett ....-. .----. econ cee e ee ee eee ee cece eee eee ce eeee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20943, U. 8. National Museum, collected by F. Mather.

The Snake fish, Trachinocephalus myops (Forster) Gill ...--..------- 2-26-22 eee ee eee eee eee eee

" Drawing by L. H. Todd, from No.16951, U. S. National Museum, collected at Wood's Holl, 1876, by Vinal N. Edwards.

The Herring, Clupea harengus L..-.--. ------ 222 22-2 e eee eee ee cee eee ee eee eee cree eee

Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No. 16667, U.S. National Muscum, collected at Washington market, June, 1875, by J. H.
Richards. ‘

The California Herring, Clupea mirabilis Girard........-..----- Re Sueded aml Souemnraretaiaraiers 2 aera mace aasevea See
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 24865, U.S. National Museum, collected at San Diego, California, J: anuary, 1880, by Jor-
« dan & Gilbert.
The Menhaden or Mossbunker, Brevoortia tyrannus (Latrobe) Goode....-.-----.-----+--+ 22+ -2-- eee ee nee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20666, U.S. National Museum, collected at Wood’s Holl, October 18, 1877, by Vinal N.
Edwards.
The Gulf Menhaden, Brevoortia patronus Goode .... ----- 22-222 ween cee eee eee ce eee rene teens
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 892 A, U.S. National Museum, collected at Brazos, Santiago, Texas, by Captain Van
Vleet.
The Branch Herring (Female), Clupea vernalis Mitchill..........- 22-22. 0220 .2 22 eee eee cee eee cee eee
Drawing Ly H. L. 'fodd, from No. 27197, U. S. National Museum, obtained from Potomac River, March 29, 1880, by U.S.
Fish Commission.
The Branch Herring (Male), Clupea vernalis Mitchill..... 1... 2.222. -2 20 eee ne cee eee cee cee eee ee eee

Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No, 25196, U.S. National Museum, obtained fen Potomac River, March 27, 1880, by U.S.
Fish Commission.

The Glut or Summer Herring (Male), Clupea estivalis Mitchill .........--. --.. 2+. 02-222 eee eee eee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 32639, U.S. National Museum, obtained from the Washington market, April, 1883, by
H. L. Todd.

The Glut Herring (Female), Clupea estivalis Mitchill -.....2...2-. 0-22-22 eee cece eee eee eee eee cee eee
Deaying oy H.L. Todd from No. 32640, U.S. National Museum, obtained at Washington Market, April 21, 1883, by H.
. Tod. ; .

The Inland Alewife or Skipjack, Clupea chrysochloris (Raf.) J. & G -.--- aos Senwesd Dawa ais geese ated cinema
Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No. 30159, U.S. National Museum, collected at Pensacola, Florida, by Silas Stearns.

The Shad, Clupea sapidissima Wilson (Male) .....-..--2. 0-2-2222 2 cee eee eee ee eee eee ene ee eens
Drawing by H. &. Todd from No. 25096 U.S. National Museum, collected at Norfolk, Virginia, March 12, 1880, by U.S.

Fish Commission.
The Shad, Clupea sapidissima Wilson (Female) ...... .----. .--. 22-2 222 ene nee ce eee cee nee cee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 25095, U.S. National Monnet, collected at Norfolk, Virginia, March 10, 1880, by U.S.

Fish Commission.

Map of the River Basins of the Atlantic Slope. By Col. M. MacDonald....... 2 pecinaebaapmenennee idee
Diagram illustrating the influence of Hydro-Thermals in determining the direction, and limiting the range
of the migrations of the Shad and Herring (Alewives). By Col. M. MacDonald............-.....-.-.
The Hickory Shad or Mattowacca, Clupea mediocris Mitch ...--..-.. ---. 222 22-2 eee eee eee cee ee eee nee
Male. Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 25148, U.S. National Museum, obtained from Potomac River, March 19, 1880, by
H. L. Todd.

(Female.) Drawing by H.L. Todd, from No. 25132, U.S. National Museum, collected at Potomac ivan March, 1880, by

Dr. T. H. Bean.
The Mud Shad or Gizzard Shad, Dorosoma Cepedianum (Le 8.) Gill...-.. ..--.. -- 22 eee ee eee eee eee eee

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20034, U.S. National Museum, collected at Cumberland River, Tennessee, May, 1877,
by Mr. A. Winchell.
The Tarpum or Grand-Ecaille, Megalops thrissoides (Schn.) Gthr.... 2.222.222. 222-2. eee ee eee eee ee eee
. ‘Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 14924, U. S. National Museum, collected at New Jersey, 1874, by E. G. Blackford.
The Big-eyed Herring, Elops saurus L.....-.----------- 22 eee eee eee ee ce cee ee ee ee ee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from specimen in U. S. National Museum, from Massachusetts,
The Anchovy, Engraulis vittatus Mitchill...........----.-----.---+----- insider Seis See Stee See
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 14087, U.S. National assoc, collected at Noaniz; “Conreottant, September 21, 1874,
by U.S. Fish Commission.
The Lady-fish or Bone-fish, Albula vulpes (L.) Goode ...--...---. 2... ee eee ce eee cee cee ee eee eee eens

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 25962, U. S. National Museum, collected three miles southeast of Eastern Point, New-
port, Rhode Island, August 11, 1880, by Captain Rockliff, U. S. Fish Commission.

The Moon-eye, Hyodon tergisus Le Sueur ......-. .-2 220222 eee ene ee cee cee wees cece cece sees cence ceeecees

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 8710, U. $. National Museum, collected at Ecorse, Michigan, February, 1872, hy
George Clark.

The Chub Sucker, Erimyzon sucetta (Lac.) Jordan....-. 2-2... 02-2 eee eee ene cee ee ne cee ee ee eee eee

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27867, U. S, National Museum, collected at Nippersink Lake, Dlinois, by Professor S.
A. Forbes.

568

569

575

579

579

580

580

594

594

594

LIST OF PLATES.
221. Goode’s Sucker, Erimyzon Goodei Jordan.......-...- 222. <2 -- oe eee ee cece ee eee cee ee ee cee cece eee eee
Drawing by Miss M. Smith, from No. 25589, U. S. National Museum, collected at Ogechee Ponds, near Savannah. Georgia,
March 6, 1880, by Colonel M. McDonald.
222. The Red Horse, Moxostoma macrolepidotum (Le 8.) Jordan..-.-...-------- 22 cee cece eee cee eee ee ones
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 9393, U.S. National Museum, collected at Ecorse, Michigan, February, 1872, by George
Clark.
The Carp Mullet, Moxostoma carpio (Val.) Jordan........-------+e2-2eeee cece ee eee eee eee eee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10793, U. S. National Museum, collected at Cincinnati, Ohio, by J. W. Milner.
223. The Montana Sucker, Catostomus retropinnis Jordan ...-.--.------2- ee eee cece cee eee cone eee eee eee
The Brook.Sucker or Common Sucker, Catostomus Commersoni (Lac.) Jordan.-.-...---.---2+----+--+-- +--+
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10548, U. S. National Museum, collected at Ecorse, Michigan, by J. W. Milner.
224. The Black Horse, Cycleptus elongatus (Le 8.) Ag.....----. 022222 eee eee eee ee eee eee cee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10790, U. S. National Museum, collected at Cincinnati, Ohio, by J. W. Milner.
225. The Quill-back, Carpiodes cyprinus (Le 8.) Ag.---4.----.0 222 eee cee eee cece ee eee ee cee eee eee ee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 33073, U. 8. National Museum, collected at Havre de Grace, Maryland, June, 1882,
by Dr. T. H. Bean. f
226. The Red Mouth Buffalo-fish, Ictiobus bubalus (Raf.) Ag.....----.-- 20 scene eee ee ce eee eee ee eee re eeee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20774, U. S. National Museum, collected at Normal, Illinois, 1877, by Professor S. A.
Forbes.
227, The Golden Shiner or Bream, Notemigonus chrysoleucus (Mitch.) Jordan ........-2--.----22 2-2-2 sees eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20243, U. S. National Museum, collected at Hackensack River, 1875, by Professor
8. F. Baird.
The Sacramento ‘‘ Pike,” Ptychochilus oregonensis (Rich.) Grd.-.....---.. ence Oe in tee ed oma tease
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27291, U. 8. National Museum, collected at Columbia River, 1880, by Professor
D.S. Jordan. ‘
228. The Fall-fish or Silver Chub, Semotilus bullaris (Raf.) Jordan ......---- .-220- ope eee cee eee cee e eens ceee eee
Drsvins by H. L. Todd, from No. 15359, U; S. National Museum, collected at Bainbridge, Pennsylvania, May, 1875, by
-, T. H. Bean. '
The Horn aie Semotilus corporalis (Mitch.) Putnam ........-------- .----- --- 22 eee eee ee eee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 19163, U. 8. National Museum, collected at Aux Plains River by R. Kennicott.
229. The Horny Head or River Chub, Ceratichthys biguttatus (Kirtland) Girard .... 2... 222.22 0-00-2220 eeee eee ee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 16969, U.S. National Museum, collected at Bainbridge, Pennsylvania, 1875, by Dr.
T. H. Bean, ; fl
The Orthodon Chub, Orthodon microlepidotus (Ayres) Girard ....-.. 2.122. 22202 cee ee eee ce ee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27139, U. 5. National Museum, collected at Sacramento River, California, 1880, by
Jordan and Gilbert.
230. The Leather Carp, Cyprinus carpio L. (var. coriaceus)... 2-02-22 ee ne eee cee ee eee cent cece ceeeees
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 25217, U. S. National Museum, collected at the Carp Ponds, Washington, D. C.,
April 26, 1880, by U. S. Fish Commission.
‘231, The Gold Fish, Carassius auratus (L.) Bleeker '...... 00.022 2-2- eee eee ce eee cee cee cece eee cee ceeee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 22107, U.S. National Museum, collected at Carp Ponds, Washington, D. C., January 24,
1878, by William Palmer.
232. The Channel Catfish of the Potomac, Ictalurus albidus (Le 8.) J. & G.....----..----- pie xe ve aeiemand speleaste
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20925, U. 8. National Museum, collected at Potomac River, 1877, by emotessor 1). Ss.
Jordan.
233. The Bull-Head, Amiurus melas(Raf.) Jord. & Copeland ...-.. 2-2-2222 2020 cee cee eee cee cee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 1497, (vu. S. National Museum, collected at Aux Plains River by R. Kennicott.
The Bull-Head or Catfish, Amiurus catus CEs )EGis ocooe none ise cate demkeae cote aeets ate al oceddtdesae
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 33075, U.S. National an eaitleotatl at Havre de Grace, Maryland, June, 1882, by
Dr. T. H. Bean.
234, The Bull-Head, Amiurus vulgaris (Thompson) Nelson. ....-- ..---- -.--0- e eee eee cece cece eee ee cee e tees
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 31946, U.S. National Museum, collected at Winnepeg, Manitoba, 1883, by Historical
and Scientitic Society.
235. The Gaff Topsail Cattish, Hilurichthys marinus (Mitch.) B. & G.....-....2-2. 222-2022 eee ee eee ee eee
Drawing by H. L, Todd, from No. 10422, U. S. National Museum, collected at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, 1871, by
Professor 8. F. Baird.
236. The Salt Water Catfish, Arius felis (L.) Jee Ge sisal ais Pulstetet he hence teenie toa ge mace ea cles gone Geld ciate
Drawing by HL, Todd, from No. 21487, U.S. National Museum, collected at Sees Florida, 1878, by Silas Stearns.
237. The Spotted Moray, Gymnothorax moringa (Cuv.) Goode & Bean--....---- 1.022.222 ee ee ee ee ce eee eens
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 6994, U.S. National Museum, collected at Garden Key, Florida.
238. The Spiny-back Eel, Ptilichthys G000Gt BOB icmries os aie ae oc oie vide SEGRSuee ama male ele Smee oan need on seme elem

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 26619, U. S. National Museum, collected at Dliuliuk, Kasia, July 28, 1880, by Dall
& Bean.

XXX}

Page.
614

614

614

615
615

615

615

615

616

616

616

628

628

628

628

XXXii LIST OF PLATES.

239.

240.

241.

242,

243.

245.

246.

247,

248.

249.

250.

251.

252.

3.

The Common Eel, Anguilla vulgaris Turton .......-2- 2022-22 eee eee cee ce ee cee eee ee cee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 20470, U. S. National Museum, collected at Holyoke, Massachusetts, 1876, by U.S.
Fish Commission.
The Conger Sea Eel, Leptocephalus conger (L.) J. & G ..---2- eee ee eee ee eee eee ce eee ce eee cen ene
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 16027, U. S. National Museum, collected at Noank, Connecticut, October 10; 1874, by
J. H. Latham.
The Bowfin or Mudfish, Amia calva Li... 22-22. neon cen ee ee ne ee ee ce nee cee eee cece EA vciedy Seeeatiereeee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 6702, U. S. National Museum.

The Short-nosed Gar Pike. Lepidosteus platystomus Rat :

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 3241, U. S. National Museum, collected at Cleveland, Ohio, by Professor S. F. Baird.

The Paddle-fish, Polyodon spatula (Walb.) J. & G..... 220-20 cece cee cee cee ee eee cee eee eens

Under view. Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 12235, U. S. National Museum, colleoted at Cincinnati, Ohio, by J. W.
Milner.

Side view. Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 12235, U. S. National Museum, collected at Cincinnati, Ohio, by J. W.
Milner.’
The Common Sturgeon, Acipenser sturio L. (= A. oxyrhynchus) ....-------- 2-2-0 eee cee eee ee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 22495, U. S. National Museum, collected in Potomac River by William Woltz.
‘The Short-nosed Sturgeon, Acipenser brevirostris Le Sueur .....--. .----- --- 2-2 eee nee ee ee eee eee cee wee
Drawn from a photograph of a specimen collected at Wood's Holl, Massachusetts, 1871.

The Lake Sturgeon, Acipenser rubicundus Le Sueur ........--- (ees Sapea Sie cts ea carne) Sere lcncaane Heat oe etele Grapele
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 10252, U. S. National Museum, collected at Ecorse, Michigan, by J. W. Milner.
The Shovel-nose Sturgeon, Scaphirhynchops platyrhynchus (Raf.) Gill ..---. 22). .2.--- 022 eee eee eee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 22159, U. S. National Museum, collected at Mount Carmel, Illinois, 1878, by Robert
Ridgway.
The Southern Sting Ray, Trygon sabina Le Sueur...-.. .--. .--. 222. eee eee ee ee ee eee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 31043, U. S. National Museum, Soa at Galvéston, Texas, by Professor D. S.
Jordan.
The Barn-door Skate, Raia levis Mitchill ........ 2-220 cee ne cee oe ne ee ee ee eee cee nee enews
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 21577, U. S. National Museum, collected at Gloucester, Massachusetts, October, 1878,
by U.S. Fish Commission. 7
The Torpedo, Torpedo occidentalis Storer ...-....---- 022 eee ee ee eee ee ee eee ce ee eee eee eens
Drawing by H. L. Tadd, from cast of specimen in U. S. National Museum, collected at Wood's Holl, Massachusetts,
_ 1871, by U. S. Fish Commission.
The Sawfish, Pristis pectinatus Latham ........... 22-22 oe ee eee ce ce ee eee eee eee nace nes
(Side view.) Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 30678, U. S. National Museum, collected at Pensacola,: Florida, by Silas
Stearns.
(Under view.) Drawing by H. L. Toad, from No. 80678, U. S. National Museum, collected at Pensacola, Florida, by
Silas Stearns. .
The Basking Shark or Bone Shark, Cetorhinus maximus (L.) Blainville .......--.....---.---22--2-e2 ee cones
Copied by H. L. Todd, from Plate 6, Annales du Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, Vol. 18.
The Mackerel Shark, Lamna cornubica (Gmel.) Fleming .-...-.--. 2-2-2. -22 22. 22 ee cee cee eee ee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 27368, U. S. National Museum, collected at Santa Cruz, California, 1880, by Jordan
& Gilbert.
The Thrasber Shark. Alopias vulpes (Gmel.) Bonap ...-.. ..-.---. 2222 ene cee eee ce ee ee ee eee eee
' Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 25962, U. S. National Museum, collected at Eastern Point, Newport, Rhode Island,
August 11, 1880, by Captain Rockliff.
The Horned Dogfish, Squalus acanthias L..-.--.-.--+- 2-2-2 cee e cee eee eee tee cee ee cee cee cee cee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 22316, U. 8. National Museum, collected at Gloucester, Massachusetts, 1878, by U. S.
Fish Commission.
The Tope, or Oil Shark, Galeorhinus galeus (L.) Blainville ..--..-- 22.0.0. .e ee ee eee cee eee cee ee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 26978, U. S. National Museum, collected at Mionterey, California, 1880, by Jordan &
Gilbert.
The Sea Lamprey, Petromyzon marinus L... ...--. 2... 2-0. eee eee eee ce ee ce eee cece ee cece ee nee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, trom No. 10654, U. S. National Museum, collected at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, by Vinal N.
Edwards. :
The Alaska Brook Lamprey, Ammocxtes aureus Bean ..--..- sieie join laa stcaevee en cease Rite oe Stelelsiad wen ae ae ey
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 21524, U.S. National Museum, collected at Yukon River; Alaska, by L. M. Turner.
The Slime Eel or Hag, Mywine glutinosa L. ...--. 2-222 eee eee ee cee ene eee ce nee cee nee ce eee .
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 23466, U. S. National Museum, collected at sea, by Captain R. L. Morrison.
The Short-finned Squid, Ommastrephes illecebrosus (Le 8.) Verrill -...- 2.222.000. oie cece ee eee cee wee Sree

Drawing of young male from Provincetown, Massachusetts.
The Giant Squid, Architewthis princeps Verrill ae
Drawing by Professor A. E. Verrill, from specimen obtained at Fortune Bay, Newfoundland, December, 1874.
Common Squid, Loligo LFealei (Le 8.)

Drawing of female from Vineyard Sound, Massachusetts.

660

660

661

663

665

667

670

672

673

676

254,

255.

256.

257,

258.

259.
260.

261.

LIST OF PLATES. XXXIil

Page.
Sea Snails, Periwinkles, Drills, and Borers -......--. ----22 -- 2200 cece cee e cece cone cere eee cee cece ee neee 693
Fig. 1. Lunatia heros. See Report U.S. Fish Commission. Part I, p.700.
Fig. 2. Purpura lapillus. See Report U.S. Fish Commission. Part I, p. 698.
Fic. 3. Purpura lapillus, banded variety.
Fig. 4. Neverita duplicata. See Report U.S. Fish Commission. Part I, p. 700.
Fic. 5. Ilyanassa obsoleta. See Report U.S. Fish Commission. Part I, p. 696.
Fig. 6. Tritia trivittata.
Fic. 7. The Whelk, Buccinum undatum. See Report U.S. Fish Commissiun. Part I, p. 699.
Fig. 8. The Periwinkle, fulger carica. See Report U.S. Fish Commission. Part I, p. 694.
Fie. 9. Astyris zonalis.

Fig. 10. Astyris lunata.
Fig.11. Rissoa aculeatus.
Fig. 12. The Drill or Borer, Urosalpinx cinerea, p. 697.
Various species of clams... ---- 22. 22-2 cee eee cee cee ce tee eee cee eee ee meen cee cone ceee meee eens cees 703
Fig.1. Angulus tener.
Animal reduced one-half. See Report U.S. Fish Commission. Part I, p. 677.
Fic. 2. The Long Clam, Soft Clam, or Manninose, Mya arenaria.
With animal in extension, reduced to one-half the natural size.
Fic.3. Tagelus gibbus.
With animal, the siphon not fully extended. One-half natural size. See Report U.S. Fish Commission. Part I, p. 675.
Fig. 4. The Razor Clam, Ensatella americana. See Report U.S. Fish Commission. Part I, p. 707.
With animal extended. One-half natural size.
Fig.5. Shows some of the terminal papille enlarged.
Fie. 6. The Razor Clam, Ensatella americana.
Shell. Natural size.
Fic.:7. The Ship Worm, Teredo navalis.
Enlarged two diameters.
Fic.8. The Scallop, Pecten irradians. See Report U.S. Fish Commission. Part I, p. 709.
Natural size.
Fig.9. The Bloody Clam, Argina pexata.
Natural size.
Various species of clams ......-. olen deelcter dh tected cw op hed tvepme cs euasunieiee canis srs roimraraicie Sie '2 Mela Siaie bis anetateiansats - 703
Fig.1. The Quahaug or Little-necked Clam, Venus mercenaria.
Natural size. ;
Fic. 2. The Quahaug of Puget Sound, Saxidomus Nuttalli.
Natural size of large specimen. Drawn by J. H. Emerton.
Fic. 3. The Gaper Clam of the West Coast, Schizotherus Nuitalli (Conrad).
(I.) Specimen of ordinary size, reduced about one-fourth in length. The siphons are somewhat contracted; the foot (F)

expands about as usual.
(IL.) Outline of the left valve of alarger specimen, reduced to the same extent. Drawn from nature by R. E, C. Stearns.

The Geoduck, or Giant Clam of the Pacific, Glycimeris generosa ..-...---------200 ee scence eee cree cece eee 708
Natural size; specimens with siphons partly contracted; weight when alive, 64 pounds. Drawn by R. E. C. Stearns.
Mussels.and:SeaiClams. cede 2acie asi ditee scien GE pen eles = Slope me berskcereienin tena mand castes sane eceieeeeceeece, (1209

Fic. 1. The Beach Clam or Hen Clam, Spisula solidissima. See Report U.S. Fish Commission. Part I, p. 708.
Natural size.
Fig. 2. The Sea Clam, Cyprina islandica.
Natural size.
Fie.3. The Black Mussel, Mytilus edulis. See Report U.S. Fish Commission. Part I, p. 709.
Fig. 4. The Black Horse Mussel, Modiola nigra.
Fig.5. The Rough Mussel, Modiola plicatula. See Report U.S. Fish Commission. Part I, p. 709.
Fig. 6, The Horse Mnssel, Modiola modiolus. See Report U.S. Fish Commission. Part I, p. 709.
The anatomy of the oyster. (See opposite page for full explanation)
Fig. 1. The Rock Crab, Cancer irroratus Say; male one-half natural size .---....2... -2 eee cece cee wees 766
Fic. 2. Zoéa of the same, in the last stage before it changes to the megalops condition; lateral view,
enlarged seventeen diameters.
Fig. 3. Megalops stage of the same, just after the change from the zoéa condition; dorsal view, enlarged
thirteen diameters.
Fig. 4. The Jonah Crab, Cancer borealis Stimpson; male, two-thirds natural size...........-..2202- 22 ee 769
Figs. 5, 6. Terminal joints of the big claws of the same, viewed from the outer side, natural size.
Drawings by J. H. Emerton.

The Common Crab of the Pacific Coast, Cancer magister Dana; male, somewhat smaller than natural size.. 770
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 2553, U. S. National Museum. California, William Stimpson.

XXXIV LIST OF PLATES.

262.

263.

264,

265.

266.

267.

268.

269.

276.

277,

The Red Crab, Cancer productus Randall; male, natural size........ 2222-2 22 ee ee eee eee cee ee eres
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 2529, U.S. Nationai Museum. San Francisco, California, H. Hemphill.

The California Rock Crab, Cancer antennarius Stimpson; natural size.....-.- 222. -- 22 eee eee ee eee eee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 2033, U.S. National Museum. California, William Stimpson.

The Stone Crab, Wenrppe mercenarius Gibbes; male, about four-fifths the natural size....-.-.---------+----
Drawing by 1. L. Todd, from specimen obtained at Charleston, South Carolina.

The Green Crab, Carcinus menas Leach; slightly enlarged .....2.-.. 022. 02.222 eee ee eee ee ee eee
Drawing by J. II. Emerton, from specimen obtained at Wood's Holl, Muawebuse tts, 1882.

The Lady Crab, Platyonichus orellatus Latreille; about one-third larger than natural size.....--.---------
Drawing by J. H. Emerton, from specimen obtained at Woon's Holl, Massachusetts, 1882.

The Common Edible or Blne Crab Callinectes hastatus Ordway; male, somewhat smaller than natural size-
Drawing by J. H. Emerton, from specimen obtained at Wood's Hull, Massachusetts, 1882.

The Kelp Crab, £pialtus productus Randall; female, natural size... 0... .----- -2 22 ee eee eee cee ee eee
Drawing by H. L. Vodd, from No. 2139, U. S, National Museum. Pacific coast of the United States, Dr. Suckley.

Fig. 1. The Fiddler Crab, Gelasimus pugilator Latreille; male, slightly enlarged....--...-..-------+---+-+-

Fig. 2. The Oyster Crab, Pinnotheres ostreum Say; male, enlarged four diameters. ...-.-------------+-----+

Fic. 3. The Mud Crab, Panopeus depressus Smith; male, natural size....-...-.--------- cee eee eee eee eee

Fias. 4, 5. The Spider Crabs. Fig. 4, Libinia emaryinata Leach; male. Fig. 5, Libinia dubia Edwards;

male, Bolt three-fourtlis natural e176 ee <02 cose emcees dgacidsiea'sis cele cele tees Patents Gaemey Bae ye eee

Fic. 6. The Sand Bug or Bait Bug, Hippa talpoida Say; enlarged about two diameters ...-.--.-----------

Fig. 7. The Hermit Crab, Lupagurus bernhardus Brandt; about natural size.......----. ..---.-----+ +--+
Drawings by J. H. Emerton.

eS

. The Spiny Lobster or Rock Lobster, Panulirus interruptus Randall; somewhat smaller than natural size...

Drawing by H. L. Todd, from specimen obtained on the coast of California.

. The American Lobster, Homarus americanus Edwards; male, much below natural size ..-.-..-.- ae cieeitaeaie

Drawing by J. H. Emerton, from specimen obtained at Eastport, Maine, 1882.
The River Cray-fish, Cambarus affinis Erichsou; one and one-half times t he natural size --.....-......----
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from specimen obtained at Havre de Grace, Maryland.
The Southern Shrimp, Penceus setiferus Edw ards; about one-fifth larger than natural size -.....--..------
Drawing by J. H. Emertun, from specimen obtained on the coast of Louisiana.
The Mantis Shrimp, Squilla empusa Say; natural size.... 2... 2... 22 eee eee eee eee eee ee
Drawing by H. L. Todd, from No. 3752, U.S. National Museum. Wood's Holl, Massachusetts, V. N. Edwards.
Fig. 1. The Common Shrimp, Crangon vulgaris Fabr.; male, natural size .-...-- Pane yceis aioe sees S
Fig. 2. The Common Prawn, Palemonetes vulgaris Stimpson; mule, enlarged one and one-half diameters.
Fig. 3. ‘the Deep- water Prawn, Pandalus Montagui Leach; slightly smaller than natural size.
Fig. 4. The Beach-Flea, Orchestia agilis Smith; male, enlarged five diameters.
Fia.5. The Scud, Gammarus locusta Gou'd; male, enlarged two diameters.
Fic. 6. The Boring Amphipod, Chelura terebrans Phillipi; enlarged about fourteen diameters.
Fic. 7. The Gribble, Limnoria lignorum White; enlarged ten diameters.
Fic. 3. The Salve Bug, 4iga psora Kriéyer; young specimen, enlarged three diameters.
Fic. 9. The Horse-Shoe Crab, Limulus Polyphemus Latreille; much smaller than natural size.
Drawings by J. H. Emerton, S. I. Smith, and O. Harger.
Marine. Annelids;usedas bart ...c02 sade dresece ok 4 axe eeeeeedineseSiameaxidesd Geeeese ee eiceeeeccenmssece
Figs. 1,2,3. Nereis pelagica Linné. Fig. 1, larger figure, female; swaller, male; natural size. Fig. 2, howd.
Fig. 3, proboscis, enlarged.
Fic. 4. Nereis limbata Ehlers; male, anterior part of body, head, and extended proboscis, enlarged.
Fics. 5,6. Diopatra cuprea Claparéde. Fig. 5, head and anterior part of body, showing part of the branchia,
side view. Fig. 6, ventral view, showing the mouth open and jaws thrown back, enlarged.
Figs. 7, 8,9. Clymenella torquata Verrill. Fig. 7, entire animal, side view, natural size. Fig.8, head and
extended proboscis, front view, enlarged. Fig. ¥, posterior and caudal segments, dorsal view,
enlarged.
Drawings mostly by J. H. Emerton.
Fig. 1. The Sea-Cuecumber, Pentacta frondosa Jeger; much smaller than natural size..... .
Fic. 2. The Green Sea Urchin, Strongylocentrotus Drébachiensis A. Ag.; side view, much smaller thas natural
size.
Fic.3. The Sand Dollar, Echinarachnius parma Gray; upper surface, with the spines mostly removed,
natnral size; a, ambnlacral zones; b, inter-ambnlacral zones.
Fic. 4. The Star-ftish or ‘‘ Five Finger,” Aslerias Forbesii Verrill; much smaller than natural size.
Figs. 5, 6,7. The Jelly Fishes. Fig.5, Zygodactyla Grenlandica Agassiz; profile view, one-half natural size.
Fig. 6, Aurelia flavidula Peron and Le Sueur; dorsal view, about. one-fourth natural size. Fig. 7,
Dactylometra quinquecirra Agassiz ; lateral view, one-fourth natural size.

832

840

PART I,

MAMMALS.

A.—THE WHALES AND PORPOISES......-.----.---+. By G. Brown GOODE.
B.—THE SEALS AND WALRUSES. ....-.......--.----.-- By JoEL A. ALLEN.
C.—THE HABITS OF THE FUR-SBAL........-......... By HENRY W. ELLIOTT.

D —THE MANATEES AND THE AROTIC SEA-COW...By FREDERICK W. TRUE.

(3)

ANALYSIS.

Page.
A.—THE WHALES AND PORPOISES:
1. The Sperm Whale.........-....-..... dohieceaatecneaes ceiieas seis eee eetee duis awe omni ssiebe tei Se seeueScaists ?
2. The Blackfishes or Pilot Whales ...... 222-222-220 eee cece cece ee cece eee e nee e te eene sa karecweaera 11
3. The Grampuses or Cowfishes ... 22... 222. -0 2 cee eee cee eee cece ee cee cee teen cee ces cance cone iohiwn hoses 13
4. The Harbor Porpoises or Herring Hogs........---- .2-2ee cece ee eee cece ce cnn e bene ce ee cence ee enee 14
5. (he: DOlphinsiccs.ss a2cccewe te ssc cue seco cee eee abe ote abetddene ee dideamedeeeans chameeaseu he 16
G. Phe Killer, Whales Or Orcass.scss cs ose eae te cet sesas woos aw codecs mankind emane se See smoeee nee 17
7. Lhe Sperm Whale: Porpoisersccce.c.2c0s sae wees Goeeciny Melons siaie'e ie a tea dee Fees ewe Sasineec mes siccis oe 18
8: The: White. Whale:or Beluga’. siitc ose ccmiencictcracio ieieiats's Soka Saas Gan eebelewecahe ms eeteensccee cowets 18
9. Che: Narwhall ccecsc. ciuwe vesee Hewusieceeswciemcs eves tees eee eee ee eeebe easier acne eemaes acme seme 19
10. The Greenland, Bowhead, or Polar Whale ...... -...-.- 022-2222 ee ee cee cee eee eee eee teens 20
Tl, The Right Whale 2scc2c-.ccseceaeecee oe tou orca sens enteteadselece seceseeubemseceeeeens acne canes s 24
12. The Humpback Whales -............-.-- Selected wale ae eldaldweracicclen es ceeGebaeag ease eoseeemeacie s oe 26
13. The Sulphur Bottom Whales......-.-. 2.20.02 22. ee eee cee eee cee eee eee ieee bet bouscd aasenists teem 27
V4. DHE in bale: WDB tesiesacsca stvcierese ace tase aininsa aici bib ww Sits ev afalsione pielewew Seatwrete eu wee aedioeuseminmarten ewe ne 28
15.. THe Sera ge WHAES a... .s25 «iio. ac.aie sa,cwiare aielerame alam haretbrere oae-eceeinieienre aie sie desciciiwavbiats bem serene wne's steer 30:
1G. Phe California.Gray Whales ace ccicices, denetas asanewesssew aeGmmined cites aboesanweinunex Sat cowdoos 31
B.—THE SEALS AND WALRUSES:

14, DHS Seal tS Tin GENET Al eos cspcins cscein shea ewwwin sretaisia vieidin be wisi be ewiciee ale ba leiisieyesw Sisjeie-eeie.s et oreiee 33.
18; “Lhe Waleusesicacs S4aa5) toca Saccicameneint ccematns seed ue cddeeamateises ee nnaaouen Noite eeeeeee 34
19. The Sea Lions and Fur Seals in general...... 2.2.02 220 - e eee cee eee ce ee ec eee cece eee eeee 37
205; Ph erSeai Di ODes. ose er crsiewicesinins ratale oral erizaintcfe Siefa'e aie Se aR Seraeede d enesererscatele pie gicictaial Siaeiatete Seale sie oeits 38:
21; ‘ThexCalifornia Sea Lionietissisciss caisicra sierciciay s'wisis iiciniecatelate Sininis ‘gists nre'is sisie’pleln,a elaia’s' a cisie OetaccieG 'sterarmiew ventas 44
02.) The; Pur Seales a4 oct cade So sete sales ue eee adiod wnetheels eas wreelcterastarsietie weighs pavedinet sees demise 49
23. The Harbor Seal . cecsccece sacivisie cece cecewecnccee si iccos gicidiwiaba ratte Varelec nie senes ecverasiayteisias oe Stetes 55
24, The Harp S€@] scssacss nciaind ous ota auweihs cuieeselinacslstets cies geicinisle sieidleinw sem siseiaccecnieueined lane wele one 62
25. The Ringed Seal.......... tidisie o sie ahaneteie ei b 2.5’ e she oidieusrerorcicis gig’ g wate’ @laieis is tayeigianleteie.eitarsidhaea apa(erate istelelots Stee 65
262 The RiIbDONUSEAL jecisjecic so eer tea cet Lares Sede cena arse pinay omeiise Babee on esmmremee sees gad see eters 67
27, "The: West Indian Seal) cic. cosseanveis nein sctew ssa te lessee esis na signe acdsee ces adbecscs deug sss xeewae st 67
28. "The Hooded Seal cccisansscann sete osivcie seis oSias)and Siew Pereere's wicieiae's aeric sists sara ce ateg RSeliaaeies ane SUES 68
29. The California Sea Elephant...... 2.222222 2 020 eee ee cece eee eee eee eee Bsdcdoelinsreea eu aes seem eects 72

C.—Tuer Habits or THE FuR-SEAL:
30. A life history of the Fur-Seal..........--.----.------- Stain Grate ieee ate piee erecta Waloiwcte ocuay aavoleteeetistcte 75
D.—THE MANATEES AND THE SEA-Cow:

31.

The. Manateeiisccac estos ctecunwaioniecidias Stcecje emis eleccis eaweece

Reiciies weesebseccasstdtecsieeeus, | 214

32. The Arctic Sea-cow ......--2.eeeeee eld sieieyanibimarsleionecccmee eat ews view belesiats edule aelininile-cneeee sGunee 128

5

THE FISHERIES AND FISHERY INDUSTRIES OF
THE UNITED STATES.

MAMMALS.

A—THE WHALES AND PORPOISES.
1. THE SPERM WHALE.

DISTRIBUTION.—The Sperm Whale, Physeter macrocephalus Linn., was first described by
Clusius in 1605 from specimens cast up on the coast of Holland in 1598 and 1601. It is the Cachalot
of the French, the Pottfisch of the Germans, Potvisch or Kazilot of Holland, Kaskelot or Potfisk
of Scandinavia, and one of the most valuable of cetaceans. Sperm Whales occur in every ocean, and
though preferring warmer waters, are to be found at times close to the limits of the arctic regions.
In the Pacific they have been taken off Cape Ommany, Alaska, latitude 56° 12’, and in the Atlantic
as far north as Scotland and Orkney, and perhaps even Greenland. In both Pacific and Atlantic
they range below the southern tips of the continents and are believed to pass freely from ocean to
ocean, around Cape Horn, though they are said never to round the Cape of Good Hope. Murray
states that they have been seen and captured in almost every part of the ocean between latitude
60° south and 60° north. He mentions that they have been recorded as found off the north of
Scotland but no further, though he gives some credence to ancient authors who mentioned their
having been seen off Greenland.

Beale, writing in 1836,! gave a list of their favorite resorts. It is interesting to compare the
range of the species as then understood with their present range as indicated by the locations, and
this comparison has been carefully made by Mr. A. Howard Clark, in the chapter on THE WHALE
FISHERY, in a subsequent section of this report. In discussing the facts before him, Murray’
expresses the opinion that almost every place which has been mentioned as a favorite resort of the
Sperm Whales, although out of soundings, has claims to be considered the site of submerged lands.
The islands of Polynesia, which are their special feeding ground, are the beacons left by the sub-
merged Pacific continent. “ They are also to be seen,” he continues, ‘about the equinoctial line in
the Atlantic Ocean, but they would seem to be either straggling ‘schools’ which have rounded
Cape Horn, or unprospering colonies. It is from these that the specimens which have been occa-
sionally met with in the North Atlantic or in the English seas have wandered. They have been
now and then cast ashore, and then they are usually in an emaciated condition. They seem to be
unprepared for, or not to be adapted for, shallow seas. Accustomed (perhaps not individually, but

11836. Bratz, THomMas: Natural History of the Sperm Whale. London, 1836, p. 180.
21866. MURRAY, ANDREW: The Geographical Distribution of Mammals. London, 1066, p. 212.
(7)

8 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

by hereditary practice or instinct) to swim along the coral islands of the Pacific, within a stone’s
throw of the shore, they cannot understand, their instinct is not prepared to meet, shallow coasts
and projecting headlands.”

Murray’s views, though suggestive, are, perhaps, not entirely well iounded. I[t is certain,
however, that the favorite haunts of the species have always been in the warmer seas, within or
upon the verge of the tropics.

ABUNDANCE IN FORMER DAYS ON THE COAST OF THE UNITED STATES.—There is no reason
to doubt that Sperm Whales were at one time, nearly two centuries back, as abundant in the
North Atlantic as in more recent years in the North Pacific. The vigorous prosecution of the
whale fishery since the early part of the eighteenth century by American vessels has had much to
do with their present scarcity. The traditions of the American whale fishery all point to their con-
siderable abundance near the eastern coast of the United States.

Macy, the historian of Nantucket, narrates that the first Sperm Whale known to that settle-
ment was found dead and ashore on the southwest part of the island, and that the first taken by
Nantucket whalemen was captured about the year 1712 by Christopher Hussey, who, “ cruising
near the shore for Right Whales, was blown off some distance from the land by a strong northerly
wind, where he fell in with a school of that species of whale, and killed one and brought it home.”!
That Sperm Whales cannot at that time have been rare near the shore, may be inferred from the
fact that the Nantucket Sperm Whale fleet which was then fitted out, and which three years later
consisted of six sloops, producing oil to the value of $5,500 annually, were usually absent only
six weeks, during which time they procured the blubber of one or two whales.2. The Boston
“News Letter” of October 2, 1766, stated: “Since our last a Number of Vessels have arrived from
Whaling. They have not been successful generally. One of them viz: Capt. Clark on Thursday
morning last discovered a Spermaceti Whale near George’s Banks, mann’d his Boat, and gave Chase
to her & she coming up with her Jaws against the Bow of the Boat struck it with such Violence
that it threw a son of the Captain (who was forward, ready with his Lance) a considerable Height
from the Boat, and when he fell the Whale turned with her devouring Jaws opened, and caught
him. He was heard to scream, when she closed her Jaws, and part of his Body was seen out of
her Mouth when she turned and went off.’

The log of the whaling sloop “Betsey,” of Dartmouth, records that on August 2, 1761, her
crew saw two Sperm Whales and killed one in latitude 45° 54’, longitude 53° 57’: this woulu be in
the gully between the Grand Bank and Green Bank, about fifty miles west of Whale Deep, in the
Grand Bank, and sixty miles south of the entrance to St. Mary Bay, Newfoundland. August 9, this
vessel and her consort killed two to the south and west of the Grand Bank in latitude 45° 57’. In
1822 Captain Atwood was on the “Laurel,” of Provincetown, which took a Sperm Whale on the
sixth day out, on the course to the Azores, just east of the Gulf Stream, and less than 500 miles
from Cape Cod. The nearest grounds upon which Sperm Whales now regularly occur are those to
the north and east of Cape Hatteras, the ‘Hatteras Ground,” and a ground farther south known as.
the “Charleston Ground.” The last one observed on the New England coast was very young, only
sixteen feet long, and was taken near New Bedford, Mass., March 29, 1842.4

In Douglass’ “North America,” published in 1755, it is stated that Spermaceti Whales -‘are to
be found almost everywhere, but are most plenty upon the coast of Virginia and Carolina.”

1 Macy, Zaccurus: History of Nantucket, p. 36.

*STARBUCK, ALEXANDER: in Report U. S. Fish Commission, part iv, 1878, p. £0.

3 STARBUCK, op. cit., p. 46-47.

1845. Jackson, J. B. 8.: Boston Journ. Nat. Hist., 1845, p. 138, pl. 16, fig. 1 (the stomach).

SPERM WHALES—ABUNDANCE AND HABITS. 9)

A Sperm Whale came ashore in 1668 in Casco Bay, and the circumstance seems not to have
been regarded as unusual in those days.!

A person writing in 1741 discourses as follows: ‘Some Years since, there stranded on the
Coast of New England adead Whale, of the Sort which, in the Fishers Language, is called Trumpo,
having Teeth like those ot a Mill; it?s Mouth at a good Distance from and under the Nose, and
several Partitions in the Nose, out of which ran a thin oily Substance that candy’d, the Remainder
being a thick fat Substance, being scraped out, was said to be the Sperma Ceti; it was said so, and
I believe that was all. Whales were often caught formerly between New-England and New-York,
and if the Sperma Ceti had really been in the Nose of that, it must have been more common, and
more cheap, than Experience tells us, it has been even since this Discovery, and at this present
time. As tothe Whale Fishery, ’tis now almost as much a Rarity in New as Old England; the
Fishery of Cod is at this time very great here, tho’ still far short of that of Newfoundland.”?

OCCURRENCE ON THE COAST OF EUROPE.—In the Eastern Atlantic, also, the occurrence of
this species has been by no means unusual. Fleming, in “ British Animals,” 1828, states that ‘the
Spermaceti Whale often comes ashore in Orkney.”? In 1788, twelve males ran ashore in the Eng-
lish Channel. Other instances of their stranding on the English coast occurred in February, 1689,°
1795,° 1766,’ February 16, 1829,° in 1825,° and 1863, while others were obtained on the coast of
Brittany in 1784," and in the Mediterranean, at St. Nazaire, in 1856,” and on other occasions for
which dates are not given.

OCCURRENCE ON THE CALIFORNIA COAST.—Although Spermin Whales have occasionally been
taken off the California coast for the past thirty years, it would appear that few have been seen in
those waters since 1874. Captain Scammon has cited in his book no instances of individuals per-
sonally observed by him.

SIZE AND CoLOR.—The sexes differ greatly in size and form, the female being slenderer and
from one-fifth (Beale) to one-third or one-fourth (Scammon) as large as the male. The largest
males measure from eighty to eighty-four feet in length, the head making up about one-third of the
whole. In the head is the cavity known as the “case,” from which is obtained the spermaceti and
a quantity of oil. The youngest Sperm Whale on record is the one measuring sixteen feet, already
mentioned as having been taken near New Bedford in 1842; its weight was 3,053 pounds.

The Sperm Whale is black or brownish-black, lighter on the sides, gray on the breast. When
old it is gray about the nose and top of the head. :

HABIIS OF ASSOCIATION, MOTION, BLOWING, ETC.—Sperm Whales are gregarious and are
often seen in large schools, which are, according to Beale, of two kinds, (1) of females accompanied
by the young and one or two adult males, (2) of the young and half-grown males; the adult males
always go singly. Their manner of motion is well described by Scammon as follows:

1In 1663 a Spermaceti Whale of 55 foot long was cast up in Winter Harbor, near Casco Bay. The like hath hap-
pened in other places of the country at several times, when, for want of skill to improve it, much gain hath slipped
out of the hands of the finders.—Hubbard’s History of New England, From the Discovery to 1680. Boston, 1848, p. 642.

2British Empire in America. London, 1741, vol. i, pp. 188-189.

3VLEMING: British Animals, 1828, p. 29.

4Gray: Catalogue of Seals and Whales, 1866, p. 203.

5SIBBALD: Phalainologia, 1773, p. 33, pl. 1.

5MOLYNEUX: Phil. Trans., xix, 1795, p. 508.

TRuTtTY: jide Gray, op. cit.

8HUNTER and Woops: Mag. Nat. Hist., ii, 1829, p. 197.

9THOMPSON: Mag. Nat. Hist., ii, 1827, p. 477.

lWGRAY: op. cit., p. 204.

U BLAINVILLE: Ann. fr, et dtr. d’Anatomie et de Physiologie, ii, p. 235.

2GrRvalis: Comptes-Rendus, 1864, p. 876.

10 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“Among the whole order of cetaceans there is none which respires with the same regularity as
the Cachalot. When emerging to the surface, the first portion of the animal seen is the region of
the hump; then it raises its head, and respires slowly for the space of about three seconds, sending
forth diagonally a volume of whitish vapor like an escape of steam; this is called the ‘spout,’ which,
in ordinary weather, may be seen from the mast-head at a distance of three to five miles. In respir-
ing at its leisure, the animal sometimes makes no headway through the water; at other times it moves
quietly along at the rate of about two or three miles an hour; or if ‘making a passage’ from oue feed-

‘ing ground to another, it may accelerate its velocity.. When in progressive motion, after ‘blowing,’

hardly an instant is required. for inspiration, when the animal dips its head a little, and moment-
arily disappears; then it rises again to blow as before, each respiration being made with great
regularity. * * * * With the largest bulls, the time occupied in performing one inspiration is
from ten to twelve seconds, and the animal will generally blow from sixty to seventy-five times at
a rising, remaining upon the surface of the sea about twelve minutes. As soon as ‘his spoutings
are out’ he pitches headforemost downwards; then ‘rounding out,’ turns his flukes high in the air,
and, when gaining nearly a perpendicular attitude, descends to a great depth, and there remains
from fifteen minutes to an hour and a quarter.

“When the Cachalot becomes alarmed or is sporting in the ocean, its actions are widely
different. If frightened, it has the faculty of instantly sinking, although nearly in a horizontal
attitude. When merely startled, it will frequently assume a perpendicular -position, with the
greater portion of its head above water, to look and listen; or, when lying on the surface, it will
sweep around from side to side with its flukes to ascertain whether there is any object within
reach. At other times, when at play, it will elevate its flukes high in the air, then strike them
down with great force, which raises the water into spray and foam about it; this is termed ‘lob-
tailing” Oftentimes it descends a few fathoms beneath the waves; then, giving a powerful shoot
nearly out of the water, at an angle of 45° or less, falls on its side, coming down with a heavy
Splash, producing a pyramid of foam which may be seen from the masthead on a clear day, at
least ten miles, and is of great advantage to the whaler when searching for his prey. * * * *
When individually attacked it makes a desperate struggle for life, and often escapes after a hard
contest. Nevertheless, it is not an unusual occurrence for the oldest males to be taken with but
little effort on the part of the whaler. After being struck, the animal will oftentimes lie for a few
moments on the water as if paralyzed, which affords the active man of the lance opportunity to
dart his weapon effectually and complete the capture.” !

Owing to the peculiar shape and position of the mouth, the Sperm Whale has to turn upon its
Side to seize large objects between its jaws, and when one of them attacks a boat, it is in a reversed
position, holding its lower jaw above the object it is trying to bite, as is shown in many pictures of
whaling adventure.

Foop.—tThe food of this species consists of squids and of various kinds of fish. Couch tells
of a young one, twenty feet long, taken on the coast of Cornwall, which had three hundred mack-
erel in its stomach. Captain Atwood states that when struck by the harpoon they eject from the
stomach quantities of large squids.

REPRODUCTION.—They are said to breed at all seasons of the year. Scammon states that the
time of gestation is supposed to be ten months, that the number of cubs is rarely two, never more,
and that they are about one-fourth the length of their mother. In suckling the female reclines
upon her side in the water.

1 ScAMMON, CHARLES M.: The Marine Mammals of the Northwestern Coast of North America, described and
and illustrated, together with an account of the American Whale Fishery. San Francisco, 1874, pp. 74-84.

BLACKFISHES OR PILOT WHALES. . 11

USEFUL PRODUCTS.—The peculiar products of the head of this cetacean, the sperm oil and
the spermacett, render its capture particularly profitable. According to Captain Atwood about
one-fifth of the yield of oil may be generally set down as the amount of spermaceti afforded by a
Sperm Whale. The teeth are used by ivory cutters, and the ambergris is a substance valuable to
druggists and perfumers. The parts of the body are to be described in the chapter on oil making,
where the manner of cutting away the blubber will be discussed. The great lower jaws with their
rows of bristling teeth are often brought home as trophies by whalers, and in Provincetown, New
Bedford, or Nantucket may be seen gateways spanned by arches made of these bones.!

The following statement of yield of oil from whales taken by. New Bedford whalers was
furnished by Capt. Benjamin Russell in 1875:

Capt. C. Allen captured one Sperm Whale, which tried out 150 barrels.

Captain Tilton captured one Sperm Whale, which tried out 154 barrels.

Captain Spooner captured one Sperm Whale, which tried out 130 barrels.

Captain Knowles captured one Sperm Whale, which tried out 127 barrels.

A number of captains report Sperm Whales yielding from 80 to 120 barrels each.

THE PORPOIsE SPERM WHALE.—A small cetacean rather closely allied to the Sperm Whale,
and called by certain authors the Porpoise Sperm Whale, occurs in the wa mer parts of the Pacific.
A specimen nine feet long was taken at Mazatlan, and was described by Professor Gill under the
name Kogia Floweri2 It is of no economic importance. Nothing is known of its habits. A
sketch of the animal and its jaw are preserved in the National Museum.

2. THE BLACKFISHES OR PILOT WHALES.

DISTRIBUTION.—The Blackfish, Globicephalus intermedius (Harlan) Gray, is one of the most
important and most abundant of the small whales of the east coast. It occurs in great numbers
to the northeast of the Grand Bank, and off the New England and Middle States. How far south
it ranges is not certainly known. A closely related species is the Pilot Whale or Céing Whale of
Europe, G. srineval (Lac.) Gray, also called Black Whale, Social Whale, Blowing Whale, and
Bottiehead, the Svine-hval of Scandinavia; abundant in the North Sea and the northeastern

1In Douglass’s North America (Boston and London, 1755, vol.i, p.57), the products of the Sperm Whale are thus
‘discoursed upon:

“Sperma ceti Whales are to be found almost everywhere, they have no bone, so called; some may yield 60 to
70 barrels oil called viscous oil, the fittest for lamps or a burning light. It is from this whale that we have the par-
macitty or spermaceti (very improperly so called). The ancients were at a loss whether it was an animal or mineral
substance; Schroder, a celebrated Pharmacopoeia writer about the middle of last century, calls it Aliud genus bitu-
minis quod sperma ceti officinae vocant, he describes it Pinguedo furfurosa producta exhalatione terrae sulphureae.
We now find that any part of its oil, but more abundantly the head-matter, as the whalers term it, if it stand at rest
and in the sun will shoot into adipous fleaks resembling in some manner the chrystalisation of salts: instead of sperma
ceti, it ought to be called adeps ceti, in the materia medica. This same whale gives the ambergrease, a kind of per-
fume, as is musk: anciently it was by the natural historians described as a kind of bitumen, hence the name Ambra
grisea. Dale, a noted author, in his pharmacologia not long since publishes it as such. It is now fully discovered to
be some production from this species of whale, for some time it was imagined some peculiar concreted juice lodged
in a peculiar cystis, in the same manner as is the castoreum of the beaver or Fiber Canadensis, and the zibethum of the
civit-cat or hyena, in cystis’s both sides of the Ani rima; thus, not long since, some of our Nantucket whalers imag-
ined that in some (very few and rare) of these male or bull whales, they had found the gland or cystis in the loins near
the spermatick organs: late and more accurate observations seem to declare it to be some part of the ordure, dung,
or alvine excrement of the whale; squid-fish, one of the Newfoundland baits for cod, are sometimes in Newfoundland
cast ashore in quantities, and as they corrupt and fry in the sun they become a jelly or substance of an ambergrease
smell; therefore as squid bills are sometimes found in the lumps of ambergrease, it may be inferred, that ambergrease
is some of the excrement from squid-food, with some singular circumstances or dispositions that procure this quality,
seldom concurring; thus the Nantucket whalers for some years last, have found no ambergrease in their whales.
The Sperma ceti Whale has no bone or baleine in his mouth, but fine white teeth; they are most plenty upon the coast
of Virginia and Carolina.”

*GILL: Sperm-Whales, Giant and Pigmy, < American Naturalist, iv, p. 738, fig. 167.

12 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Atlantic. Another species is the Blackfish of the Eastern Pacific, @. Scammonii Cope, ovce
abundant, according to Scammon, on the coast of Lower Califoruia, but now usually found off
Guatemala, Ecuador, and Peru, though occasionally ranging to high northern and southern
latitudes.

S1zE.—The ordinary length of the New England Blackfish is fifteen to eighteen feet, though
they sometimes grow larger. The largest ever seen by Capt. Caleb Cook, a veteran oil maker of
Cape Cod, measured twenty-five feet and yielded five barrels of oil. The weight of a fifteen-foot
Blackfish is estimated at 800 to 1,000 pounds.

MovrEemMEnts.—They swim in large schools, sometimes several hundred together. They make
little commotion at the surface of the water as they swim, not rolling like their little kindred, the
Porpoises, but come up often to spout, the jet of spray rising three or four feet, and emitted with a
low, deep, snorting sound. When at the surface they often remain in sight several minutes. Usu-
ally their movements are sluggish, though at times energetic enough, as can testify any one who has
seen a school of them driven up on the beach. They feed upon schooling fish, menhaden, mackerel,
herring, and squids. Blackfish are in great terror of the Killer Whales, which drive them about
mercilessly. In September, 1878, I saw a school of them which had for some days been hovering
around the entrance to Provincetown Harbor fleeing tumultuously before two large whales with
high back-fins.

REPRODUCTION.—They breed in summer about Cape Cod. Out of one hundred and nineteen
driven ashore at Dennis in August, 1875, fully eighty were females with young, or recently born
calves of seven or eight feet. A foetus cut from a gravid Blackfish of eighteen feet was nearly
seven feet long. All the females were yielding milk, and as the fishermen cut into their sides the
warm fluid poured out in copious streams.

Watson records, in the case of a female on the British coast suckling its young, that the calf
was four feet six inches long in December and seven feet in January. Scammon thinks that in the
Pacific they breed at all seasons. He found mothers with young calves off the Gulf of Dulce,
Guatemala, in February, 1853.

STRANDING OF THE BLACKFISH SCHOOLS.—As Will be told more in detail in another chapter,
hundreds, and often thousands, of them are stranded yearly on the shores of Cape Cod. They
occasionally run ashore at Nantucket, and instances have occurred of their being driven in at Cape
Breton. Although there have been similar instances in Europe, especially at the Orkneys, I can-
not learn that such occurrences are sufiiciently common anywhere else to be counted on by the
people as a regular source of income. A Cape Cod fisherman oveasionally wakes up in the morning
to find two or three of these animals stranded in his back yard. ‘A pretty windfall,” remarked
one of them to me. Cape Cod, projecting far out to sea, with its sloping, unbroken sandy shores,
seems like-a trap or weir naturally adapted for their capture, and the Indians took advantage of
this circumstance long before the European settlement. The Pilgrims, in 1620, found Indians on
the shore at Wellfleet cutting up a Grampus, and in the shell-heaps of the surrounding iégton are
yet to be found many evidences of their use of the smaller cetaceans forfood. It is doubtful whether
the Blackfish, stupid as they seem, would ever run ashore if not frightened by such enemies as the
Killer. In fact a large share of those which become stranded are purposely driven up out of shoal
water, into which they have strayed, by men in boats.

Little can be said about the time when they are most abundant. It seems to depend on the
supply of suitable food. Captain Cook believes that they feed mostly or entirely upon squids,
and if this be the case their appearance must be regulated by the abuudance of these animals.
They are never seen earlier than June or later than December. Thirty years ago they were most.

BLACKFISHES AND GRAMPUSES. 13

plentiful in August. Before 1874 they had never been seen before July. In July, 1875, a school
of 120 came ashore at North Dennis. Those taken in the fall are usually the fattest.

CAPTURE OF BLACKFISH.—Many years ago several Cape Cod whalers made a business of
pursuing the Blackfish on the whaling grounds east of the Grand Bank. This enterprise, described
in the chapter on the whale fishery, has been abandoned, but it is not uncommon for ordinary
whalemen to kill them from their boats to obtain supplies of fresh meat, and of oil to burn on
shipboard. That the flesh is not unpalatable the writer maintains, and can summon as witnesses
a number of persons who tasted one at the Smithsonian Institution in 1874. There is a fishery
for them at the Faroe Islands, and in the Pacific, says Scammon, small vessels are occarionally
fitted out for their capture. “Sperm whalers,” he writes, ‘do not lower their boats for Blackfish
when on Sperm Whale ground, unless the day is far spent and there is little prospect of ‘seeing
whales.” The northern polar or whale-ships pay but little attention to them, except, perhaps, when
passing the time ‘between seasons,’ cruising within or about the tropics.”

UsnruL PRopuctTs.—The yield of oil from a Blackfish varies, according to the size and fatness
of the animal, from ten gallons to ten barrels. This is dark in color, and is classed-with the
ordinary “body oil” or “whale oil.” The blubber varies from one to four inches in thickness, and
is nearly white. The jaws yield a fine quality of machine oil, known as “ porpoise jaw-oil”, of which
however, a limited quantity suffices to supply the market. The value of a stranded Blackfish in
Cape Cod varies from $5 to $40.

As is related elsewhere, Blackfish are often taken by whaling vessels when on a cruise, to
obtain oil for burning and a supply of fresh meat. The brains are made by the ship’s cook into
“dainty cakes,” as the whalemen cali them, and the livers are said to be delicate and appetizing.’

Blackfish are harpooned by the Grand Bank cod-fishermen to be cut up and used for bait.

3. THE GRAMPUSES OR COWFISHES.

DistTRiBuTion.—Associated with the Blackfish on our east coast, though not so common, and
rarely stranded, is the Cowfish, Grampus griseus (Lesson) Gray, also found in Europe, south to
the British channel or farther, and there known as the “Grampus.”

COLOR AND sIzE.—Its slate-colored sides are curiously variegated with white markings, very
irregular in size, shape and direction, evidently the results of accidental scratches in the epidermis.

11635, July 25 (on the Newfoundland Banks).—On Friday, in the evening, we had an hour or two of marvel-
lous delightful recreation, which also was a feast unto us for many days after, while we fed upon the flesh of three
huge porpoises, like to as many fat hogs, striked by our seamen, and hauled with ropes into the ship. The flesh of
them was good meat, with salt, pepper and vinegar; the fat, like fat bacon, the lean like bull-beef; and on Saturday
evening they took another also.—Richard Mather’s Journal. Young’s Chronicles of the First Planters of Mass. Bay
Colony. Boston, 1846, p. 466.

Icannot refrain from quoting the following passage from the journal of the Rev. Richard Mather, one of the
earliest of the Massachusetts colonists:

1635, June 27, 28.—The first Sabbath from Milford Haven, and the sixth on shipboard; a fair, cooi day; wind
northerly, good for our purpose. I was exercised in the forenoon, and Mr. Maud in the afternoon. This evening we
saw Porpoises about the ship, and some would fain have been striking, but others dissuaded because of the Sabbath;
and so it was let alone.

“Monday morning, wind still vortherly ; a fair, cool day. This morning, about seven of the clock, our seamen
struck a great Porpoise, and hauled it with ropes into the ship; for bigness, not much less than a hog of 20 or 25 shil-
lings apiece, and not much unlike for shape, with flesh fat and lean, like in color to the fat and lean of a hog; and
being opened upon the deck, had within his entrails, as liver, lights, heart, guts, &c., for all the world like a swine.
The seeing of him hauled into the ship, like a swine from the sty to the trestle, and opened upon the deck in view of
all our company, was wonderful to us all, and marvellous merry sport, and delightful to our women and children. So
good was our God unto us, in affording us the day before spiritual refreshing to our souls and this day morning also
delightful recreation to our bodies, at the taking and opening of this huge and strange fish.”—Young’s Chronicles of
the First Planters of Mass. Bay Colony. Boston, 1846, p. 460.

14 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Captain Cook thinks that these are the marks of the teeth made by the animals in playing with
each other. It attains the length of fifteen or twenty feet, but is slenderer than the Blackfish. Its
jaws are esteemed by the makers of fine oil.

HaBits.—Regarding this species, Captain Cook writes: “About the same time that the Black-
fish made their appearance in our waters, there was another of the whale kind made their appear-
ance also, called by the fishermen Cowfish. These whales are very much in shape of the Blackfish,
only smaller, not so fat, and not so dark colored. These fish have only made their appearance in
our waters three or four times for the last forty years, or about once in ten years. Probably not
more than fifty have been taken in this period. The method of taking them is the same as that used
for Blackfish.”

Several specimens, old and young, were obtained by the Fish Commission in 1875, November
29, November 30, and December 2. and their casts are in the National Museum. That this animal
was known to the early colonists of New England appears probable from allusions in the early
records.)

Propvucts.—The oil of the Cowfish, particularly that of its jaws, is highly prized, though prob-
ably no better than that of the Blackfish. The “Barnstable Patriot” of Novémber 7, 1828, has this
item: “A quantity of oil from the Grampus lately caught at Harpswell has been sold at Bath at
$18 per barrel.” It is very possible, however, that the Barnstable people of 1828 designate the
Blackfish and the Grampus by the same name. Douglass’ ‘ North America,” published in 1755,
remarks: “Blackfish, 7. e. Grampus, of six to ten barrels oil, Bottlenose of three or four barrels, may
(like sheep) be drove ashore by boats.”

THE CALIFORNIA GRAMPUS.—On the California coast occurs the Whiteheaded or Mottled
Grampus, G. Stearnsit Dall, described by Scammon as growing to the average length of ten feet.
“They are gregarious,” he writes, “‘and congregate frequently in large schools; at times two or
three, or even a solitary individual will be met with, wandering about the coast or up the bays in
quest of food, which consists of fish and several varieties of crustaceans. It is rarely taken, as it is
extremely shy.” He refers also tu four other forms, unknown to zoologists, but familiar to whale-
men: chief among these is the “Bottlenose,” which grows to be twenty-five feet long, and has
occasionally been taken, though with much difficulty owing to its great strength and speed. Its
oil is reputed to be equal in quality to that of the Sperm Whale.

4. THE HARBOR PORPOISES OR HERRING HOGS.

DISTRIBUTION.—On the Atlantic coast occurs most abundantly the little Harbor Porpoise,
Phocena brachycion Cope, known to the fishermen as “Puffer,” “Snuffer,” “Snuffing Pig,” or
“Herring Hog.” The Bay Porpoise of California, P. vomerina Gill, and the Common Porpoise or
Marsuin of Europe, are very similar in size, shape, and habits: with the latter in fact it is probably
specifically identical. The Atlantic species occurs off Nova Scotia and probably farther north-
ward, and ranges south at least to Florida. The California Species, according to Scammon, has
been found at Banderas Bay and about the mouth of the Piginto River, Mexico (latitude 20° 30’),
and north to the Columbia River (latitude 46° 16’). In the winter these Porpoises are seen off
Astoria and in Cathlamet Bay twenty miles above, but in spring and summer, when the river is
fresh to its mouth, they leave the Columbia. The Atlantic Porpoise also ascends rivers. They go

1 Belknap’s American Biography has the following account of one of the journeys of the first settlers of Massa-
chusetts in 1620:

“The next morning, Thursday, December 7, they divided themselves into two parties, eight in the shallop, and
the rest on shore, to make farther discovery of this place, which they found to be ‘a bay, without either river or creek
coming into it.’ They gave it the name of Grampus Bay, because they saw many fish of that species.”—Belknap’s
American Biography, New York, 1846, vol. ii, p. 318.

HARBOR PORPOISES: MOVEMENTS AND HABITS. 15

up the Saint John’s in Florida to Jacksonville, and about 1850 one was taken in the Connecticut
at Middletown, twenty miles from brackish water. In Europe they ascend the Thames, the Weser,
and other streams.

SIZE AND MOVEMENTS.—They rarely exceed four or four anda half feet in length. Every one
has seen them rolling and puffing outside of the breakers or in the harbors and river mouths. The
western Atlantic species swim in droves of from ten to one hundred, but Scammon says that those
of California are never found associated in large numbers, though six or eight are often seen together.
In England, according to Couch, seldom more than two are seen at once. They never spring from
the water like Dolphins, but their motion is a rolling one and brings the back-fin often into sight,
this always appearing shortly after the head has been exposed and the little puff of spray seen and
the accompanying grunt heard. The rolling motion is caused by the fact that to breathe through
the nostrils, situate on the top of the snout, they must assume a somewhat erect posture, descending
from which the body passes through a considerable portion of a circle.

REPRODUCTION.—The breeding season is in summer, in August and September, in Passama-
quoddy Bay, perhaps also at other times. The new-born young of an English Porpoise fifty-six
inches long, measured twenty-six inches, and was sixteen inches in circumference.

Foop.—They feed on fish, particularly on schooling species like the herring and menhaden,
and are responsible for an enormous destruction of useful food material.

UsrEs.—Though frequently taken in the pounds and seines along both coasts and off Massa-
chusetts in the gill-nets set for mackerel, they are of little importance except to the Indians of
Maine and our Northwestern Territories, who carry on an organized pursuit of them, shooting them
from their canoes. This industry will be described in the chapter upon ABORIGINAL FISHERIES.

DESTRUCTIVENESS.—The Porpoise is pugnacious as well as playful. A fisherman in Florida
told me that he once tried to pen a school of them in a little creek by anchoring his boat across its
entrance. When they came down the creek they sprang over the boat against the sail, through
which they tore their way and regained the river. A correspondent, whose name has been mislaid,
writes: “A very unusual event occurred at Far Rockaway on Tuesday morning, about four o’clock,
in front of the Nelson House. A school of Drumfish were chased into shallow water by a school
of Porpoises. The Drumfish tried their best to get away, but the Porpoises pursued them so hotly
that a number of the former were driven ashore. The people of the hotel were awakened by a
great splashing and a noise somewhat similar to but less distinct than the grunt of a frightened
hog. Looking out of the windows they saw the Porpoises striking the Drumfish with their tails.
Soon after the Porpoises turned and left. The porters at the hotel and some of the fishermen
secured with boat-hooks about twenty-five dead Drumfish, and a large number are still floating
around Jamaica Bay. The Drumfish secured weighed from thirty to seventy pounds each. Some
were sent to Canarsie for exhibition and others to Fulton Market for sale.”

The Drum being an enemy of the Oyster, it is possible that the Porpoise by destroying them is
a benefactor. It would be no more curious than the experience of the Canadian Government in
decreasing their Salmon fishery in the St. Lawrence by destroying the White Whales which preyed
upon the seals, the enemies of the Salmon. The story about the Porpoises killing drum seems
incredible, but is supported by Sir Charles Lyell’s account of a battle between the Porpoises and the
Alligators in Florida: “Mr. Couper told me that in the summer of 1845 he saw a shoal of Por-
poises coming up to that part of the Altamaha where the fresh and salt water meet, a space about
a mile in length, the favorite fishing ground of the Alligators, where there is brackish water,
which shifts its place according to the varying strength of the river and the tide. Here were seen
about fifty Alligators, each with head and neck raised above water, looking down the stream at

16 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

their enemies, before whom they had fled terror-stricken and expecting an attack. The Porpoises,
not more than a dozen in number, moved on in two ranks, and were evidently complete masters of
the field. So powerful indeed are they that they have been known to chasea large Alligator to the
bank, and, putting their snouts under his belly, toss him ashore.”?

The authority referred to, Mr. Hamilton Couper, of Hopeton, Ga., was a gentleman of some
prominence as a geological observer.

5. THE DOLPHINS.

Hapits.—The Dolphins constitute a large group of cetaceans, represented by many species, and
abundant everywhere in temperate and tropical seas. They are often seen in mid-ocean sporting
in large schools, pursuing the pelagic fishes, but are still more common near the coast. They are
from five to fifteen feet long, gracefully formed, and very swift. Nowhere are they the objects of
organized pursuit, though frequently caught in nets or harpooned from the bows of vessels at sea.
Many cod schooners fishing on the Grand Banks, especially those from Cape Cod, depend chiefly for
bait upon the Porpoises they can kill and the birds they can catch. The best known species on the
Atlantic coast are the “Skunk Porpoise” or “ Bay Porpoise,” Lagenorhynchus perspicillatus Cope,
and related forins. Large schools are often seen in the sounds and along the shore. They are
easily distinguished from the little Harbor Porpoise, just spoken of, by the broad stripes of white
and yellow upon their sides. When schools of a hundred or more can be surrounded and driven
ashore by the fishermen, as is often done on Cape Cod, a large profit is made from the sale of their
bodies to the oil-makers, though they are not so much prized as the Blackfish, so much larger and
fatter. A closely related species is the Common Porpoise of California, Lagenorhynchus obliquidens
Gill. “They are seen,” writes Captain Scammon, “in numbers varying from a dozen up to many
hundreds tumbling over the surface of the sea, or making arching leaps, plunging again on the
same curve, or darting high and falling diagonally sidewise upon the water with a spiteful splash,
accompanied by a report which may be heard to some distance. In calm weather they are seen in
numerous shoals, leaping, plunging, lobtailing and finning, while the assemblage moves swiftly in
various directions. They abound more along the coasts where small fish are found. Occasionally
a large number of them will get into a school of fish, frightening them so much that tbey lose
nearly all control of their movements, while the Porpoises fill themselves to repletion.”

The Right Whale Porpoise, Leucorhamphus borealis (Peale) Gill, is found in the Pacific from
Bering Sea to Lower California, though not so abundantly as the last. The Right Whale Porpoise
of the Atlantic, often spoken of by our whalers, is a related species, perhaps L. Peronii (Lac.)
Lilljebo:g, abundant in the South Atlantic and Pacific, but not yet recorded by naturalists for our
waters. Several species of the true Dolphins occur in the North Atlantic, but only one, Delphinus
clymenis, has been found with us, Cope having secured it in New Jersey. Baird’s Dolphin D.
Bairdti Dall, a species six or seven feet long and weighing 100 to 175 pounds, is frequent in Cali-
fornia. The Cowfish of California, Tursiops Gillit Dall, is a sluggish species known to the whale-
men of the lagoons,? and an allied species, 7’. erebennus (Cope) Gill, is known on the Atlantic coast.
New forms of this group are constantly being discovered. All are of commercial value when taken.

1LYELL: Second Visit to the United States, vol. i, 1849, p. 252,

?The habits of the Cowfish, as observed on the coasts of California and Mexico, are strikingly different from those
of the true Porpoises. It is often remarked by whalemen that they are a ‘‘mongrel breed” of doubtful character, being
frequently seen in company with Blackfish, sometimes with Porpoises, and occasionally with Humpbacks, when the
latter are found in large numbers on an abundant feeding ground. They are met with likewise in the lagoons along
the coast, singly or in pairs, or in fives and sixes—rarely a larger number together—straggling about in a vagrant man-
ner through the winding estuaries, subsisting on the fish that abound in these circumscribed waters. At times they
are seen moving lazily along under the shade of the mangroves that in many places fringe the shores, at other times
lying about in listless attitudes among the plentiful supplies of food surrounding them.—ScammMon:: op. cit., p. 101.

THE KILLER-WHALES: HABITS AND USES. T%

6. THE -KILLER WHALES OR ORCAS.

HABITS AND DISTRIBUTION.—The Killer Whales are known the world over by their destruc-
tive and savage habits. Although their strength and speed render ‘t almost impossible to capture
them, they are of importance to the fisherman as enemies of all large sea animals, often putting
them to flight at inconvenient times. The Atlantic species, Orca gladiator (Bonnaterre) Gill, was
first brought to notice in 1671 in Martens’ “Voyage to Spitzbergen.” It is often seen on the New
England coast in summer, driving before it schools of the blackfish or othersm all whales: it is a
special enemy of the tunny or horse mackerel: Captain Atwood tells of the consternation shown
by these enormous fishes when a number of them have gathered in Provincetown Harbor and the
Killers come in. They are a great annoyance to the Cape Cod people when they are trying to drive
a school of blackfish ashore, and on the other hand often drive these ashore when they would not
be accessible to the fishermen. They prey largely, too, upon the white whale in northern seas.
In the Pacific there are two species at least, the Low-finned Killer, Orca atra Cope, and the High-
finned Killer, Orca rectipinna. The latter, though rarely more than twenty feet long, has an
enormous dagger-shaped fin, six feet high, upon its back, which towers above the surface when
the animal swims high. In fact the Killer Whales all have these high back-fins, by which they
may be recognized at any distance.

DESTRUCTIVENESS.—Captain Scammon, in his “ Marine Mammals of the Northwestern Coast,”
gives a long account of their habits, and of their fierce attacks upon the largest whales. The stories
of the combats of the swordfish and the thresher shark upon whales have probably originated in
such combats as these, witnessed at a distance and imperfectly understood. Captain Scammon
writes: ‘The attacks of these wolves of the ocean upon their gigantic prey may be likened in some
respects to a pack of hounds holding the stricken deer at bay. They cluster about the animal’s
head, some of their number breaching over it while others seize it by the lips and haul the bleeding
monster under water; and when captured, should the mouth be open, they eat out its tongue.
We saw an attack made by three Killers upon a cow whale and her calf ina lagoon on the coast
of Lower California, in the spring of 1858. The whale was of the California gray species, and her
young was grown to three times the bulk of the largest Killers engaged in the contest, which lasted
for an hour or more. They made alternate assaults upon the old whale-and her offspring, finally
killing the latter, which sunk to the bottom, where the water was five fathoms deep. During the
struggle, the mother became nearly exhausted, having received several deep wounds about the throat
and Jips. As soon as their prize had settled to the bottom, the three Orcas descended, bringing up
large pieces of flesh in their mouths, which they devoured after coming to the surface. While
gorging themselves in this wise the old whale made her escape, leaving a track of gory water
behind.”!

ANNOYANCE TO WHALEMEN.— Instances are given where whales which had been killed by whale-
men and were being towed to the ship have been forcibly carried away by bands of Killers. They
are also obnoxious as destroyers of the young fur seal, and often remain for a long time in the
vicinity of the seal islands. Eschricht says that thirteen porpoises and fourteen seals were found
in the stomach of an Atlantic Killer, sixteen feet in length. They are particularly abundant in
the bays and sounds of British Columbia and Alaska, in search of seals and porpoises feeding there
upon small fish. They even attack the full-grown walrus and rob it of its young.

Usts.—Their range is cosmopolitan. They are never attacked by whale ships, and their only
pursuers in America are the Makah Indians of Washington Territory, who, according to Scammon,

1SCAMMON: op. cit., pp. 89-90.
2F

18 THE WHALES AND PORPOISES.

occasionally take them about Cape Flattery, considering their fat and flesh luxurious food. Their
jaws, studded with strong conical teeth, are often sold in our curiosity shovs.

7. THE SPERM WHALE PORPOISE.

CAPTURE OF TWO INDIVIDUALS IN NEW ENGLAND.—A specimen twenty-five feet long of this
animal, Hyperaodon bidens Owen, was found on the beach at North Dennis, Mass., January 29,
1869; another was obtained in 1866 or 1867 at Tiverton Stone Bridge, R. I. I am indebted to Mr.
J. WW. Blake for an outline of this cetacean, and the following notes, taken by him at the time, he
having visited Dennis and obtained the skeleton for the Museum of Comparative Zoology: ‘When
found,” he writes, “the blood was still warm. It was twenty-five feet long, six feet high, and the
tail was six feet across. The flippers were twenty-nine inches long, the snout twenty inches. The
hump on the back was three or four inches high, thick at the base and narrowing toward the
tip. The blubber was two and a half to four inches thick, and sold for $175. Squid-beaks enough
to fill two water-buckets were taken from the stomach.”

8. THE WHITE WHALE.

DISTRIBUTION.—The White Whale, Delphinapterus catodon (Linn.) Gill, first described in 1671
in Martens’ “ Voyage to Spitzbergen,” resembles in form the other members of the Dolphin family,
slender and graceful, with a small head and powerful tail. The adult, which attains a length of
fifteen or sixteen feet, is creamy white in color; the young, five or six feet long when newly born,
is lead-colored, passing through a period of mottled coloration before assuming the mature appear-
ance. The species is abundant in the North Atlantic, North Pacific, and Arctic Oceans. Stragglers
have been seen in the Frith of Forth, latitude 56°, while on the American coast several have been
taken within the past decade on the north shore of Cape Cod. They are slightly abundant in New
England waters, but in the Saint Lawrence River and on the coast of Labrador are plentiful, and
the object of a profitable fishery. They abound in the Bering and Okhotsk Seas, and ascend the
Yukon River, Alaska, to a distance of 700 miles. The names in use are Beluga and Whitefish
among whalers, Porpoise, Dauphin Blanc, Marsuin or Marsoon in Canada, and Keela Luak with the
Greenland Eskimos.

Hapirs.—The species is familiar to many from having been recently exhibited in several aqua-
riums, and also by traveling showmen. When in captivity they feed on living eels, of which a grown
individual consumes two or three bushels daily. They are also known to subsist on bottom fish,
like flounders and halibut, on cod, haddock, and salmon, squids and prawns. They are, in their
turn, the food of larger whales, such as the killer or orca. They swim in small schools, entering
shallow sounds and rapid rivers in swift pursuit of their food. They spout inconspicuously, and
are not easily distinguished when swimming.

The few which have been taken recently along our Atlantic coast have been sold to aquariums
or to natural history museums, yielding good prices to their captors. The fishery in the river
Saint Lawrence is of considerable importance.

HIsToricaL NoTE.—The first allusion to the occurrence of this cetacean in our waters was
printed by Josslyn in 1675, in his “Account of Two Voyages to New England”: “The Sea-hare is
as big as Grampus or Herrin-hog, and as white as a sheet; There hath been of them in Black-point
Harbour, & some way up the river, but we could never take any of them, several have shot sluggs
at them, but lost their labour.”

CAPTURES IN MASSACHUSETTS.—“ About the year 1857,” writes Captain Atwood, “a species of
cetacean twelve or fourteen feet long was killed in Provincetown Harbor, off Long Point, which no

WHITE WHALE AND NARWHAL. 19

one knew. I examined it and found it to differ from all the others then known here. Not long
after it was announced that there was a White Whale on exhibition at the Aquarial Gardens in
Boston; that Mr. Cutting had brought alive from the River Saint Lawrence a species that had never
been seen south of that river. Soon after I visited Boston and called to see it. I pronounced it to
be identical with the unknown species taken at Provincetown. In 1875 or 1876 another was seen in
the harbor, but the boats could not get it.”

October 11, 1875, two individuals, a cow about ten feet long and weighing 700 pounds approx-
imately, and a calf nearly as large as its mother, weighing about 500 pounds, were taken in the:
Yarmouth River by Capt Benjamin Lovell. They were sold to the Boston Society of Natural
History.

UseEs.—Certain oil manufacturers from Cape Cod have agencies in Canada, from which they
obtain the materials for the manufacture of an excellent machine oil, sold under the name of
“Porpoise-jaw oil.” A large White Whale yields from eighty to one hundred gallons of ordinary
oil, besides the more precious head oil. Porpoise leather is made from the skins, a leather of almost
indestructible texture, and peculiarly impervious to water. From this the Canadian mail-bags are
made, and, to some extent, tourists’ walking shoes, On our Alaska coast they are not unfrequently
taken, chiefly by the natives, but the fishery has not yet become of commercial importance. In
Eastern Siberia, according to Scammon, there are extensive fisheries carried on by the natives
from June to September, with nets and harpoons. They eat the flesh and sell the oil, a considerable
portion of which is no doubt secured by American whale ships.”

9. THE NARWHAL.

DISTRIBUTION.—The Narwhal, Monodon monoceros Linn., whose long spiral tusk has always
been an object of curiosity, and gave rise to the stories of the imaginary creature known as the
Unicorn, is now found in only one part of the United States—along the northern shores of Alaska.
Jt is still abundant in the Arctic Ocean, and many tusks are brought down yearly by American
and European whalers, obtained from the natives of Greenland and Siberia. It has long since
ceased to appear on the coasts of Great Britain, the last having been seen off Lincolnshire in 1800.
There is a record of one having been seen in the Elbe at Hamburg in 1736.

SIZE, USES, ETC.—The Narwhal is ten to fourteen feet long, somewhat resembling the white
whale in form, is black, and in old age mottled or nearly white. The tusk, a modified tooth,
grows out of the left side of the upper jaw, to the length of eight or ten feet. All its teeth, except
its tusks, are early lost, and it is said to feed on fish and soft sea-animals. The Eskimos utilize it
in many ways. Its ivory, however, is the only product of value to civilized man, this being made

1 Yesterday morning Capt. Benjamin Lovell captured two fine specimens of the White Whale in the weir at
Yarmouth, which is probably the first time this kind of fish has been taken in the waters vf the United States on the
Atlantic seaboard. The specimens captured are w cow and calf, the former about ten feet loug, perfectly white, and
weighing about 700 pounds, and the latter some two feet less in length, of a dark gray color, and about 500 pounds
weight, both being quite fat.—Evening Standard, New Bedford, October 12, 1875.

2At a meeting, in 1860, of the Polytechnic Association of the American Institute, in New York, a paper was read,
prepared by D. H. Tetu, of Kamouraska, Canada, on the White Whale of the Saint Lawrence. The Canadians call
it a Porpoise; it is found for a distance of 200 miles between Saint Roch and Father Point, also in the rivers emptying
into Hudson’s Bay. Since the discovery of Canada, an article of commerce, but the oil not very good and little use
found for the skin; lately M. Tetu has succeeded in purifying the oil and tanning the skin. The oil is equal to the
best sperm oil. The average price of the animal ten years ago was $40, now it is $150, The average weight is 2,500
pounds; the largest weigh 5,000 pounds, and are worth $200. The average length is twenty-two feet, and circumfer-
ence fifteen feet. M. Tetu caught the whale in nets near the river Saguenay.

The skin does not make good sole-leather, being too pliable. Ordinary tanning processes are employed, except that
the lining is omitted, and the ‘“‘training” takes more time on account of the closeness of the fiber of the skin. The
leather is very durable, and the skin of a whale is equal to the skins of twelve to twenty-four calves. The leather igs
chiefly used in the British army.

20 THE WHALES AND PORPOISES.

into canes and other articles of ornament. The supply in this country is chiefly imported from
Denmark. In New York City in 1880 a good tusk sold for $50.

10. THE GREENLAND, BOWHEAD, OR POLAR WHALE.

CONFUSION BETWEEN THE BOWHEAD AND THE RIGHT WHALE.—Much uncertainty has
resulted from the manner in which the Bowhead of the arctic regions has been confused with the
right whales of the adjoining temperate seas. Murray, writing in 1866,’ made no attempt to clear
up the subject; previous writers were confused as well as vague, and it is only in Scammon’s
writings that a clear account of the distribution and habits of the species is to be found. The
materials for the following biographical sketch are derived in the main from the statements of this
author, and quotation marks are omitted only because the facts are arranged in a new sequence.”

DISTRIBUTION.—The range of the true Balena mysticetus extends west from Nova Zembla to
the coast of Eastern Siberia. Its northern limits yet remain undefined: it is seldom seen in Bering
Sea south of the fifty-fifth parallel, which is about the southern extent of the winter ice, though in
the Sea of Okhotsk it ranges south to the parallel of 54°. It was formerly found to the north of
Spitzbergen, but it has been shown by Eschricht and Reinhardt that its habitat is, and always has
been, confined to the polar seas, and that it has no claim to a place in the fauna of Europe.’

Everything tends to prove that the Bowhead is truly an “ice-whale,” for its home is among
the scattered floes or about the borders of the ice-fields or barriers. It is true that these animals
are pursued in the open water during the summer months, but in no instance has their capture
been recorded south of where winter ice-fields are occasionally met with. In the Okhotsk Sea they
are found throughout the season after the ice disappears, nevertheless they remain around the floes
till these are dispelled by the summer sun, and they are found in the same localities after the
surface of the water has again become congealed in winter.

iMurrRaAy: Geographical Distribution of Mammals, pp. 207-208.

2In ‘A Digression concerning Whaling,” written in 1748, published in Douglass’ North America, Boston and
London, 1755, vol.i, p. 56, is the earliest discrimination I have met with of the Bowhead and the Right Whale of the
extra-polar regions. Some interesting facts are given:

“The New-England whalers distinguish 10 or 12 different species of the whale-kind; the most beneficialis the
black whale, whale-bone whale, or true whale, as they call it; in Davis’s-straits in N. lat. 70 D. and upwards they are
very large, some may yield 150 puncheons being 400 to 500 barrels oil, and bone of 1% feet and upwards; they are a
heavy loggy fish, and do not fight, as the New-England whalers express it, they are easily struck and fastened, but
not above one third of them are recovered; by sinking and bewildering themselves under the ice, two thirds of them
are lost irrecoverably; the whalebone whales killed upon the coast of New-England, Terra de Labradore, and entrance
of Davis’s-straits, are smaller, do yield not exceeding 120 to 130 barrels oil, and 9 feet bone 140 lb. wt. ; they are wilder
more agile and do fight.

“The New England whalers reckon so many ct. wt. bone, as bone is feet long ; for instance, 7 foot bone gives 700
wt. bone: New England bone scarce ever exceeds 9 feet; and 100 barrels oil is supposed to yield 1000 wt. of bone;
whales killed in deep water, if they sink, never rise again.”

A few paragraphs below, however, he proceeds to mix the subject up again, speaking of the Finback, when it is
quite evident that the Whale he has in mind is not the right-whale but the ‘Right Whale.”

“The fin-back, beside two small side-fins, has a large fin upon his back, may yield 50 to 60 barrels oil, his bone
is brittle, of little or no use, he swims swifter, and is very wild when struck. The Bermudians some years catch 20 of
these whales, not in sloops, but in whale-boats from the shore as formerly at Cape-Cod. The governor of Bermudas
has a perquisite of 10£. out of each old whale.

“Whales are gregarious,” he continues, ‘‘ and great travellers or passengers; in the autumn they go south, in
the spring they return northward. They copulate like neat cattle, but the female in a supine posture. The true or
whalebone whale’s swallow is not much bigger than that of an ox, feeds upon small fish and sea insects that keep in
sholes, has only one small fin each side of his head of no great nse to him in swimming, but with a large horizontal
tail he sculs himself in the water. The North Cape (in N. Lat. 72 D, in Europe) whales, are of the same small kind
as are the New-England, and entrance of Davis’s-straits: here we may again observe, that the high European latitudes
are not so cold as the same American latitudes, because 72 D. is the proper N. Lat. in Davis’s-straits for the large

whales, and the Dutch fish for them longside of fields or large islands of ice, they use long warps, not drudges as in
Now-England.”

3 ESCHRICHT & REINHARDT: Om Nordhvalen, 1861.

THE BOWHEAD: SIZE, USES. 21

REPRODUCTION.—The time and place of breeding are not certainly known, but it is supposed
that the young are born in the inaccessible parts of the Arctic Ocean. In Tchantar Bay are found
small whales called ‘ Poggys,” which resemble the Bowhead, and are by many believed to be their
young.

The Bowheads of the Arctic are classed by Scammon as follows: (1) the largest whales of a
brown color, average yield of oil 200 barrels; (2) smaller, color black, yield 100 barrels; (3) small-
est, color black, yield 75 barrels, and to these should perhaps be added (4) the “ poggy,” yield 20 to
25 barrels. Those of the third class are generally found early in the season among the broken
floes, and have been known to break through ice three inches thick that had been formed over
water between the floes. This they do by coming up under and striking it with the arched portion
of their heads. Hence they have been called “ ice-breakers.”

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE.—The Bowhead is the most valuable of the whalebone whales, not so
much by reason of its size, for it rarely exceeds fifty feet in length, never sixty-five, but because
it yields so large an amount of oil and whalebone. It is short, bulky, and bloated in appearance,
Like the sperm whale, it has a head the length of which is nearly one-third of the total, and which
is its most striking feature. The caudal fin is immense, being sixteen to twenty feet in extent from
tip to tip, and correspondingly thick and broad.

S1zE.—Scammon gives measurements of two individuals. One, from the Arctic Ocean, August,
1867,was forty-seven feet long, and yielded eighty barrels of oil. The other, from the same ocean,
in 1870, was forty-five feet long, yielded sixty barrels of oil and 1,050 pounds of bone. Capt. David
Gray, of Peterhead, also gives measurements of an individual taken in Greenland. Some of the
most important dimensions of these three whales are presented here, in order to impart to the
reader an idea of their proportions:

Scammon, Scammon, iGnptatn Gray's
“Captain Poole’s | ‘‘Captain Smith’s whale.”

whale.” whale.”

Feet. in. Feet. in. Feet. in.
DON GU ta idscis sin cicincerenioerniets dctenaciownerca 47 0 45 0 47 0
Length of head—nose to eye .....-..-.|---- 22 ee eee eee eee [e eee ee eee eee eee 17 8
Breadth of body Wetween NN8 peeves. |eewwrnerasss tenesselos er necerenecesorns ll 0
Girth in largest place .........---..---[seeeee eens eeee ee eee 28. 10) Anaeaiwemiaiors tesa cies
Length of pectorals ...-...-..--------- 8 0 Ye a cee eee ear
Breadth of tail ....-.....--.---...-.--- 19 0 16 0 20 0
Length of longest bone .......--.----- 10 6 9 6 10 1
Thickness of blubber .........-..--..- 1 QD lace satevimwarsnion aimee
Breadth of lip.....-.-.-. 2-22-22 seeceec[ee eee e cee e recor eee e fener nee e eee e rene eee 5 0
Gapé of nioUth see ccngeeeweskcersssecd eateeds secinadeesumacilicosons yauiisleweeieacess 10 8

MovemMENtTSs.— When not disturbed the animal remains up, generally to respire, from one and
a half to two minutes, during which time it spouts from six to nine times, and then disappears for
the space of ten to twenty minutes. The volume of vapor is similar to that ejected by the right
whale. Sometimes, when engaged in feeding, it remains down for twenty-five minutes or more.
When struck by the whalemen they have been known to remain on the muddy bottom, at a depth
of fifty fathoms or more, for the space of an hour and twenty minutes. Their movements and the
periods of time they remain above or below the surface are, however, irregular. When going
gently along or lying quietly, they show two portions of the body—the spout-holes, and a part of
the back.

BALEEN.—The baleen, or ‘ whalebone,” of the Greenland and the Right Whales, being of so much
importance commercially, it cannot be amiss to explain, by means of diagrams and a description,

De THE WHALES AND PORPOISES.

how it is attached to the mouth of the animal, and for what purposes it is used, even at the risk of
being a trifle too elementary for many of the readers of this chapter.

It is wrongly called “whalebone,” since it is not bone, but a substance, resembling equally hair
and horn, which grows in the mouth of the animal as a substitute for teeth,’ being, as anatomists
generally admit, a peculiar development of hair growing upon the palate.2 This substance is
developed into a sieve-like apparatus, consisting of extensive rows of compact, flexible, closely set
plates or blades, growing from the thick gum at the circumference and palatal surface of the upper
jaw, hanging down upon both sides of the tongue.

Capt. David Gray, of the whaling ship “Jclipse,” of Peterhead, Scotland, has recently made
a number of important observations upon these whales, one of the most important of which was the
ascertainment of the manner in which the Baleen Whales operate the powerful sieve-like organs
within their jaws. He has also published some very interesting diagrams of the interior of
the mouth of the Greenland Whale.

“Along the middle of the crown-bone,” writes Captain Gray, ‘the blades of whalebone are
separated from each other by three-quarters of an inch of gum, but the interval decreases both
towards the nose and the throat to a quarter of an inch. The gum is always white; in substance
it resembles the hoof of a horse, but softer. It is easily cut with a knife, or broken by the hand,
and is tasteless. The whalebone representing the palate is lined inside the mouth with hair, for
the purpose of covering the space between the slips, and prevents the food on which the Whale
subsists from escaping. This hair is short at the roof of the mouth, but is from twelve to twenty
inches long at the points of the whalebone. This it requires to be, because when the mouth is
opened the bone springs forward, and the spaces are greatest at the points. I counted the number
of blades of whalebone in a whale’s head last voyage, and found 286 on the left, and 289 on the
right side of the head.

“Hitherto it has been believed that the whalebone had room to hang perpendicularly from
the roof of the mouth to the lower jaw, when the mouth was shut, but such is not the case. The
bone is, however, arranged so as to reach from the upper to the lower jaw when the mouth is open;
were it otherwise the whale would not be able to catch its food; it would all escape underneath
the points of the whalebone. The whale has no muscular power over its whalebone, any more
than other animals have over their teeth. When the animal opens its mouth to feed, the whale-
bone springs forward and downward, so as to fill the mouth entirely; when in the act of shutting
it again, the whalebone being pointed slightly towards the throat, the lower jaw catches it and
carries it up into a hollow in front of the throat.”

1The unborn Greenland Whale has undeveloped teeth (“sixty to seventy dental pulps on each side of each jaw”),
but they never cut the gum, but are reabsorbed into the system.

2?Buckland remarks: ‘Aristotle first remarked this fact: ‘Mysticetus etiam pilas in ore habet vice dentium suis
setis similes’—the whale has hairs in his mouth, instead of teeth, like the hairs of a pig.” Professor Owen has also
remarked that ‘‘to a person looking into the mouth of a stranded whale, the concavity of the palate would appear to
be beset with coarse hair.”

3Land and Water, December 1, 1877, p. 468.

4Capt. David Gray’s observations upon the position of the whalebone in the mouth of the Greenland Whale are
quite novel, and of great interest. They arose, as the captain tells me in a letter just received, in consequence of a
conversation which we had together a few years ago, while looking at the skeleton of the large Whale mounted in the
Museum of the College of Surgeons. I asked if he could explain, what had always been to me, as to others who have
never had Captain Gray’s opportunities of observation, a great puzzle, viz, how the whalebone could be so much
longer than the space which it occupied in the animal’s mouth, supposing the blades to be placed, as usually repre-
sented, at tight angles with the long axis of the jaws. This difficulty occurred in looking at all the authentic figures,
such as Scoresby’s, in which the height of the head is far too small for the length assigned to the whalebone on the
supposition stated above, and equally in looking at the actual bony frame-work of the head. Captain Gray’s explana-
tion that the slender ends of the whalebone blades fold backwards when the mouth is shut, the longer ones from the

THE BOWHEAD: FOOD AND FEEDING. : 2a

Foop.—The food of the Bowhead consists of floating animals, classed by the whalemen under
the names “right whale feed” and “brit.” Many kinds of invertebrates are, of course, included
under these general terms, one of the most abundant of which is, perhaps, a kind of winged or
pteropod mollusk, the Clio borealis, which occurs in northern seas, floativg in great masses. When
the Bowhead is feeding it moves with considerable velocity near the surface, its jaws being open
to allow the passage of currents of water into the cavity of the mouth and through the layers of
baleen at the sides. All eatable substances are strained out by the fringes of the baleen and are
swallowed.

FEEDING HABITS.—The manner of feeding is well described by Captain Gray: ‘When the food
is near the surface they usually choose a space between two pieces of ice, from three to four
hundred yards apart, which we term their beat, and swim backwards and forwards, until they are
satisfied that the supply of their food is exhausted. They often go with the point of their nose so
near the surface that we can see the water running over it just as it does over a stone in a shallow
stream; they turn round before coming to the surface to blow, and lie for a short time to lick the
food off their bone beforé going away for another mouthful. They often continue feeding in this
way for hours, on and off, afterwards disappearing under the nearest floe, sleeping, I believe, under
the ice, and coming out again when ready for another meal. In no other way can this sudden
reappearance at the same spot be accounted for.

“Very often the food lies from ten to fifteen fathoms below the surface of the water. In this
case the whales’ movements are quite different. After feeding they come to the surface to breathe
and lie still fora minute. One can easily see the effort they make when swallowing. They then
raise their heads partially out of the water, diving down again, and throwing their tails up in the
air every time they disappear. Their course below the water can often be traced from their eddy.
This is caused by the movement of the tail, which has the effect of smoothing the water in circles
immediately behind them.

“ More w hales have been caught when feeding in this way than in any other; they lie longer on
the surface, often heading the same way every time they appear, which is very important to whale
fishers, because whales must be approached tail-on to give any certainty of getting near enough
to have a chance of harpooning them, and the harpooner has a better idea where to place his boat
to be in readiness to pull on to them whenever they vome to the surface.

“« Like all the other inhabitants of the sea, whales are affected by the tides, being most numerous
atthe full and change of the moon, beginning to appear three days before, and disappearing entirely
three days after, the change. Often this will go on for months with the utmost regularity, unless
some great change in the ice takes place, such as the floes breaking up on the ice being driven off
the ground; in either case they will at once disappear.

‘No doubt whales are seen, and often taken at any time of the tides; but if a herd is hunted

wniddle of the jaw falling into the hollow formed by the shortness of the blades behind them, as seen in the side view, is
perfectly clear and satisfactory. It shows, moreover, how, whether the mouth is shut or open, or in any intermediate
position, the lateral spaces between the upper and lower jaw are always kept filled up by the marvelously constructed
hair sieve, or strainer, which adapts itself by its flexibility and elasticity to the varying condition of the parts between
which it is, as it were, stretched across. If the whalebone had been rigid and depending perpendicularly from the
upper jaw when the mouth was opened, a space would be left between the tips of the whalebone forming the lowe1
edge of the strainer, which, as Captain Gray justly remarks, would completely interfere with its use, although the stiff,
wall-like lower lip, closing in the sides of the mouth below, may have the effect of reniedying such a contingency
to a certain extent; at least, it would do so if the whalebone were short and firm as in the finners. The function of
this great lip in supporting the slender and flexible lower ends of the blades of the Greenland Whale and preventing
them being driven outwards by the flow of water from within when the animal is closing its mouth, is evident from
Captain Gray’s drawings and explanation. The whole apparatus is a most perfect piece of animal mechanism.—
FLOWER, W. H.: Land and Water, December 1, 1877, p. 470.

24 THE WHALES AND PORPOISES.

systematically, and they are attached to a particular feeding bank, this is their usual habit.
Neither can this peculiarity in their habits be easily accounted for; their food is as abundant
during the neap as it is in the spring tides.

“The principal food of the Greeuland Whale consists of a small crustacean, not larger than the
common house-fly, which is found in greatest abundance when the temperature of the sea is from
34° to 35°, the ordinary temperature amongst ice being 29°, the color of the water varying from
dark brown to olive green and clear blue, the blue water being the coldest.

“The crustacea live upon the animalcule which color the water. They are transparent, and
the contents of their stomachs can be easily seen to be dark brown or green as the case may be.”!

11. THE RIGHT WHALES.

DISTRIBUTION AND AFFINITIES.—There is no group of existing mammals so important as the
Right Whales, concerning which so little that is satisfactory is known. Zoologists have not yet
determined how many species there are, nor what are the limits of their distribution. All that
can be certainly said is, that Right Whales—that is, the right kind to kill for the whalebone—
occur in the North Atlantic and the North Pacific, and also in the cooler waters of the southern
hemisphere. In the northern hemisphere they never cross the Tropic of Cancer, though in’ the
south, both in the Pacific and the Atlantic, they have occasionally been known to cross that of
Capricorn.

The Right Whales of the north have, until very recently, been confounded by whalemen and
zoologists with the bowhead, or polar whale, to which they are closely related. There is one
group of baleen-bearing whales, the rorquals, finners, or finbacks, which have a fin upon the
back: the true Right Whales, however, have none. The rorquals, the largest of whales, are
very swift and slender, and are believed to occur in tropical as well as temperate seas, all the
world over.

The Right Whale of the Western Atlantic has been described by E. D. Cope, under the
name Hubalena cisarctica. This species, not remotely related to the Hubalena biscayensis, of the
Eastern Atlantic, was formerly abundant on the coast of New England, and, as will be shown in
the chapter on the shore whale fishery of New England, its presence in such numbers about
Cape Cod was one of the chief reasons for planting the early English settlements in this district.
Captain Atwood informs me that they are most abundant off Provincetown, in April and May,
though occasionally seen at other seasons. One was killed in Cape Cod Bay, near Provincetown,
in 1867; it was forty-eight feet long, and yielded eighty-four barrels of oil, as well as 1,000 pounds
of baleen, valued at $1,000. Two or three others have since then been killed in the vicinity, but
years now often pass by without any being seen.?

A Right Whale of forty to fifty feet was killed in the harbor of Charleston, 8. C., January 7,
1880, after it had been swimming about within the bar several days.’

In evidence of the former abundance of this species, may be mentioned the fact, that when,
about the middle of the last century, whales began to be scarce along the coast, a large fleet was
dispatched to Davis Straits, where none but whalebone whales occur. . cisarctica oceurs at
least as far south as the Bermudas. A species of Right Whale is found also about the Azores.

In the North Pacific occurs the Pacific Right Whale, or “ Northwest Whale” of the whalers,

1Land and Water, December 1, 1877, p. 470.
* WHALING AT PROVINCETOWN.—A Right Whale was captured in Provincetown Harbor last Thursday, by a party in

three boats. Estimated to yield sixty barrels of oil.—Gloucester Telegraph, November 6, 1850.
3 See Charleston News, January 8, 1880.

THE RIGHT WHALES: MOVEMENTS AND REPRODUCTION. 25

Eubalena cullamach (Chamisso) Cope. Its distribution is not well understood. Dall gives it as
occurring in the Arctic, Bering, and Okhotsk Seas, off Lower California, and, perhaps, in Japan.!

Scammon writes that in former years they were found on the coast of Oregon, and occasion-
ally in large numbers; but their chief resort was upon what is termed the ‘Kodiak Ground,”
which extends northwestward from Vancouver's Island to the Aleutian Islands, and westward to
the one hundredth and fiftieth meridian. They also abounded in the Okhotsk and Bering Seas,
and along the Kamschatka coast. He supposes that those which have been observed on the coast
of California were stragglers from the north. ‘Some, indeed,” he writes, “have been taken (from
February to April) as far south as the Bay of San Sebastian Viscarrio, and about Cedros, or Cevros,
Island, both places being near the parallel of 29° north latitude; while on the northwestern coast
they are captured by the whalers from April to September inclusive.”?

None appear to have been killed on the California coast, within thirty or forty years, if we may
judge from Captain Scammon’s failing to mention such instances. .

In the Antarctic Seas and the adjoining waters are other Right Whales. Hubalena australis,
the Cape Whale or Black Whale, abounds about the Cape of Good Hope, and is regarded by
Murray as an inhabitant of the South Atlantic, South Pacific, and Indian Oceaus.> HE. antipodarum
was described by Gray from New Zealand, and in Murray’s map is designated as a more antarctic
form than the Cape Whale, though in the text of his book he denies that this is known to bea
fact. Owing to the fact that the bowhead and the Right Whales have until recently been con-
sidered identical, there is a dearth of reliable observations upon habits known to refer definitely
to these animals.

MovEMENTS.—Their manner of feeding and general mode of life are, as might be expected,
very similar to those of the bowhead. I quote from Scammon:

“They are often met with singly in their wanderings, at other times in pairs or triplets, and
scattered over the surface of the water as far as the eye can discern from the masthead. Toward
the last of the season they are seen in large numbers crowded together. The herds are called
‘gams,’ and they are regarded by experienced whalemen as an indication that the whales will soon
leave the grounds.

“Their manner of respiration is to blow seven to nine times at a ‘rising,’ then, ‘turning flukes’
(elevating them six or eight feet out of the water), they go down and remain twelve or fifteen
minutes. It is remarked, however, since these whales have been so generally pursued, that their
action in this respect has somewhat changed. When frightened by the approach of a boat they
have a trick of hollowing the back, which causes the blubber to become slack, thus preventing the
harpoon from penetrating. Many whales have been missed, owing to the boat-steerer darting at
this portion of the body. Having been chased every successive season for years, these animals have
become very wild and difficult to get near to, especially in calm weather.”

REPRODUCTION.—The time of gestation is fixed by Scammon at about one year. Twins are
occasionally though rarely born. The time and place of calving is not known, but are supposed to
be variable, as in the case of the sperm whale. These whales are said to resort to the Californian
“bays” to bring forth their young, and formerly were sought for in the inland waters of these
high southern latitudes, where many a ship has in past years quickly completed her cargo by “ bay
whaling.”

'Daty: Catalogue of the Cetaceaus of the North Pacific Ocean. <ScamMMon: Marine Mammalia, p. 305.
2SCAMMON: op. cit., p. 67.

3Murray: Geographical Distribution of Mammals, p. 208, map.

4MuRRAY: op. cit.

5SCAMMON: op. cit., p. 67.

26 THE WHALES AND PORPOISES.

SIZES AND YIELD OF o1L.—The following statement of sizes of whales taken by New Bedford
vessels, as indicated by their yield of oil, is very instructive. It was furnished by Capt. Benjamin
Russell, in 1875. There is no means of distinguishing the bowheads from the Right Whales:

Captain Devot took one Right Whale off Kodiac; made 290 barrels.

Captain Devot took four Right Whales off Kodiac; made 920 barrels.

Captain Clark took one Right Whale off Kamtchatka; made 180 barrels.

Captain Wood took one Right Whale off Kamtchatka; made 230 barrels.

Captain Rice, of New London, took ten Right Whales off Kamtchatka; made 700 barrels.

Captain Winston took one Right Whale off Kamtchatka; made 270 barrels.

Captain Winston took two Right Whales off Kamtchatka; made 480 barrels.

Captain Spooner took one Right Whale off Kamtchatks; made 260 barrels.

Captain Cox took one Right Whale off Kodiac; made 225 barrels.

Captain West took two Right Whales; made 508 barrels.

Captain West took thirteen Right Whales; made 1,780 barrels.

Captain Wood took one Right Whale; made 280 barrels.

A number of captains report one each, from 80 to 200 barrels.

12. THE HUMPBACK WHALES.

DISTRIBUTION.—The Humpback Whales, also often called Bunch Whales by Europeans, occur
in both Atlantic and Pacific. Captain Ross saw them as far south as latitude 719° 50’. In the
Pacific they range to the Arctic Circle, and there is reason to believe that they occur also about
Greenland. Our Atlantic species is Megaptera osphyia Cope, that of the California region AL. ver-
sabilis. As usual, the inquirer must go to Scammon for accurate observations, little being known
about the species of the Atlantic.

MIGRATIONS.—They appear to resort periodically, and with some degree of regularity, to cer-
tain localities where the females bring forth their young. Scammon found them breeding in July
and August, 1852 and 1853, in the Gulf of Guayaquil, Peru; in December in the Bay of Valle de
Banderas, Mexico, latitude 20° 30’; and in May, 1855, at Magdalena Bay, Lower California, lati-
tude 24° 30% Captain Beckerman observed them at Tongataboo, Friendly Group, latitude 21° south,
longitude 174° west, in August and September. Large vumbers of both sexes migrate north in
summer aud south in winter.

SizzE.—They attain the length of twenty-five to seventy-five feet, and yield from eight to
seventy-five barrels of oi]. The largest taken in 1871 by Captain Beckerman was seventy-five
feet long, and produced seventy-three barrels, but the average yield was forty barrels, including
the entrail fat, which amounted to about six barrels. One taken off the bay of Monterey, in 1858,
yielded 145 barrels.

The blubber, according to Bennett, is yellowish-white, five to fifteen inches thick, and the oil is
said to be better than that of the right whale.

The baleen possesses a moderate commercial value. In a specimen fifty-two feet long, Scam-
mon records 540 lamin, the longest two feet eight inches long and nine inches broad, and elsewhere
he estimates its yield at 400 pounds to 100 barrels of cil.

Foop.—Their food consists of fish and crustaceans scooped up at the surface. When feed-
ing they are most easily captured. The time and place of breeding have already been spoken
of. “In the mating season,” writes Scammon, ‘they are noted for their amorous antics. At such
times their caresses are of the most amusing and novel character, aud these performances have
doubtless given rise to the fabulous tales of the swordfish and thrashers attacking whales. When

'SCAMMON: op. cit., pp. 40, 41.

. THE HUMPBACK AND THE SULPHUR-BOTTOM. 27

lying by the side of each other, the Megapteras frequently administer alternate blows with their
long fins, which love-taps may on a still day be heard at a distance of miles. They also rub each
other with these same huge and flexible arms, rolling occasionally from side to side, and indulging
in other gambols.”

HUMPBACK WHALES IN NEw ENGLAND.—The Humpback Whale was formerly a frequent
visitor to the waters of New England, but of late years has not often been seen. Captain Atwood
tells me that a great many have been killed near Provincetown within his recollection: that is to
say, or since 1817. One harpooned in the harbor in 1840 yielded fifty-four barrels of oil. Two
were killed in the spring of 1879, with bomb-lances.

This species is the most valuable of the ordinary whales of the region, though, of course, far
inferior to the right whale. In addition to the oil, the baleen or whalebone is of some worth. In
past years it has sold for as much as six and one-quarter cents a pound. It rarely exceeds two
feet in length and is not very elastic. The shore fishery of Cape Cod, which was quite vigorously
prosecuted in the early part of the last century, was probably largely concerned with this species.

In 1879 the Humpbacks were abundant on the coast of Maine. One of the most successful
whalers out of Provincetown this season is the “Brilliant,” a very old pink-stern schooner of
seventeen tons, which had been hunting this species off Deer Isle, Maine. Up to September 1, she
had taken four whales, yielding one hundred and forty-five barrels. The “Brilliant” carries but
one whale-boat and tries out the oil upon shore, towing in the whales as they are killed. On
the 14th of May, 1881, twenty Humpbacks were shot with bomb-lances in Provincetown harbor.

“Phe Humpback,” says Douglass, of the New England whales, in 1748, “has a bunch in the
same part of his back, instead of a fin. The bone is not good; makes fifty to sixty barrels oil.”

The oil of the Humpbacks is said by Bennett to be superior to that from the right whale, and
but little less valuable than sperm oil.

13. THE SULPHUR-BOTTOM WHALES.

DISTRIBUTION AND MOVEMENTS.—The Sulphur-bottom Whale of the Pacific coast, Sibbaldius
sulfureus Cope, is said to be the largest known cetacean.! Its name and that of its related Atlan-
tic species, S. borealis (Fischer) Geoffroy, is derived from a yellowish tint upon the white belly.
The Atlantic Sulphur-bottom, which is also called by English whalers the “Flat Back,” does not
grow to the immense size characteristic of the Pacific form. In the Atlantic, the Sulphur-bottom
is not uncommon, though rarer than the humpback and finback. On the coast of the Califor-
nias, writes Scammon, it occurs at all seasons, and from May to September is often found in large
numbers close in with the shore, at times playing about ships at anchor in the open roadsteads, near
islands or capes, but, as a general rule, not approaching vessels with the same boldness as the
finbacks. It glides over the surface of the ocean, occasionally displaying its entire length. When
it respires its vaporous breath ascends to such a height that its immense size is evident to the
observer. It is occasionally captured with a bomb-lance, but never except by aid of the bomb-
lance. Being considered the swiftest of all whales, it is seldom pursued, and still more rarely
taken.

The Sulphur-bottom of the Atlantic resembles the finbacks in shape and habits, and is probably
often confounded with them by those who see it swimming. Captain Atwood informs me that
none have been seen near Provincetown of late years. Professor Baird obtained a fine skeleton
at Nantucket in 1875 (No. 16039, U.S. N. M.). Captain Atwood writes: “Like the finback, it

1Captain Roys, quoted by Scammon, gives the following memoranda of an individual measurement by him:
Length, ninety-five feet; girth, thirty-nine feet; length of jaw-bone, twenty-one feet; length of longest baleen, four
feet; yield of baleen, 200 pounds; yield of oil, 110 barrels; weight of whole animal by calculation, 294,000 pounds.

28 THE WHALES AND PORPOISES.

has on its back a very small dorsal fin. Being very much elongated, it is a swift runner and hurries
through the water with a velocity so great that the whaleman cannot kill them in the same way
that they take the other species. I have never seen it dead and know but little about it.”?

14. THE FINBACK WHALES.

DIsTRIBUTION.—The Finback Whales of the Atlantic, Sibbaldius tectirostris Cope, and S.
tuberosus Cope, are closely related to the sulphur-bottoms. The former is the most common of
the larger cetaceans in Massachusetts Bay, and half a dozen or more may be seen in an afternoon’s
cruise any sunny afternoon of summer. They become abundant in the Gulf of Maine soon after
the beginning of April. They swim near the surface, often exposing the back for half its length,
and I have several times seen them rise within fifty feet.of the yacht on which I stood. Septem-
ber 12, 1879, four were swimming and spouting in Provincetown Harbor.

The skeleton obtained by the Fish Commission in 1875 (No. 16045, U.S. N. M.) belongs to
the species whose name heads this paragraph. The Museum of Comparative Zoology also has a
specimen, taken at Provincetown, forty-seven feet long, which yielded eighty barrels and fourteen
gallons of oil.

Movements.—Captain Atwood tells us that Finbacks are rapid swimmers and are not often
attacked by the whalers. They “run” so hard that the boats “cannot tow to them,” and it is
impossible to get up to them to lance them. They sometimes strand on the shore, and of late years
a few are occasionally killed with a bomb-lance in the spring. One was lanced one autumn, about
the year 1868, by boats pursuing blackfish. It was sixty feet long, and made about twenty barrels
of oil. The “bone” is shorter than that of the humpback, and is of little value.” When lanced,
not being oily enough to float at once, they sink and remain at the bottom for a few days, during
which time much of the blubber is eaten off by sharks. They yield very little oil.

ADUNDANCE IN NEw ENGLAND.—Two ran ashore some years ago in Provincetown Harbor,
one of which yielded fourteen, the other twenty barrels of oil. One killed at Provincetown, though
fifty-four feet long and a good fat whale of its kind, yielded only twenty barrels of oil.?

THE DuBERTUS.—An interesting question regarding the name by which this whale was
known in the early days of the American colonies has recently been discussed.

The charter of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, granted in 1663 by Charles IT,
provides, among more important rights and privileges:

“And ffurther, for the encouragement of the inhabitants of our sayd collony of Providence
Plantations to sett upon the businesse of takeing whales, itt shall bee lawefull ffor them, or any
of them, having struck whale, DUBERTUS or other greate ffish, itt or them to pursue unto any parte
of that coaste, and into any bay, river, cove, creeke or shoare belonging thereto, and itt or them
upon the sayd coaste, or in the sayd bay, cove, creeke or shoare belonging thereto, to kili and order
to the best advantage, without molestation, they makeing noe wilfull waste or spoyle, anything
in these presents conteyned, or any other matter or thing, to the contrary notwithstanding.”

! Bulletin Museum Comparative Zoology, vol. viii, p. 204.

2A large Finback Whale, forty feet in length, got aground on the flats near the light-house at Wellfleet, on
Wednesday, by the fall of the tide, and he was killed by cutting a hole in him and then using an oar as a spade,
When the tide is out people can walk around the whale.—Semi-Weekly Advertiser, Boston, February, 27,1872.

On the 2d of May, 1828, a whale was cast ashore at Whale Reach, Swampscott, measuring sixty feet in length, and
twenty-five barrels of oil were extracted from it.—LEwis & NEWHALL: History of Lynn, p. 391.

1755. A whale, seventy-five feet in length, was landed on King’s Reach, on the 9th of December. Dr. Henry
Burchsted rode into its mouth, in a chaise drawn by a horse ; and afterwards had two of his bones set up for gate-
posts at his house in Essex street, where they stood for more than fifty years. [Opposite the doctor’s house, the cot
of Moll Pitcher, the celebrated fortune-teller, stood. And many were the sly inquiries from strangers for the place
where the big whale-bones were to be seen. ]—Jbid., p. 330.

2 Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, vol. viii, p. 204, and in letters.

TRUMBULL CONCERNING DUBERTUS. 29

In answer to a letter of inquiry from Professor Baird, Professor Trumbull wrote as follows:

HARTFORD, February 1, 1880.

DEAR PROFESSOR BArRD: Your query of January 29 just now comes to hand. Isn’t that
troublesome Dubertus rhodinsulensis satisfactorily disposed of yet? More than twenty-one years
ago (in November, 1858) the Rev. S. C. Newman, of Pawtucket, questioned Professor Agassiz on
the subject. His reply was, that having looked in the only work in which he supposed the desired
information was likely to be found—Nemnich’s Pollyglotten Lexicon—he could only say that it did
not even contain the name ‘“ Dubertus.” The correspondence, so far unsatisfactory, was printed in
the ‘ Providence Journal,” December 9. The next day the Hon. Albert G. Greene wrote to the
“Journal” that “before aud at the time of the granting of the charter of Rhode Island, ‘ Dubertus’
was the word used to distinguish the sperm whale from the common or right whale,” and referred
for his authority to the description given by Sir Thomas Browne “of the spermaceti whale,”
which “mariners (who are not the best nomenclators) called a Jubartas, or rather Gibbartas.” Mr.
Greene came very near being right, and undoubtedly was right in identifying the ‘‘Dubertus” of
the charter with the “Jubartas” or “Gibbartas” of the old whale fishermen; but he was wrong on
the main point that either ‘“Jubartas” or “ Dubertus” was a distinctive name of the sperm whale,
except by a “vulgar error” of the Norfolk mariners, who, as Sir Thomas Browne understood, “are
not the best nomenclators.” The “Jubartas,” ‘““Gibbartas,” or ‘‘Gubartas”—as the name which, by
an error of the engrossing clerk, appears as “Dubertus” in the Rhode Island charter, was
variously written by naturalists in the seventeenth century—was a Finback, the “‘ Balena Nove
Anglie,” as Klein calls it, the “Jupitervisch” of the Dutch whalers, Balenoptera Jubartes of
Lacépéde. (The last name I heard for it was, I think, Sibbaldius tuberosus ; but this was a year
or two ago, and it may have been rechristened a dozen times since then.) The name, however, has
been applied to more than one species of Finback, for naturalists, when dealing with cetacea, were
not, in the last century, much better ‘““nomenclators” than the English mariners; but it has always
been restricted to the Balenopteride, and has never designated any species of either sperm or
right whales.

The history of the name is curious. Rondelet (“De Piscibus” lib. xvi, p. 482) gives a figure of
a ‘ Balena Vera” (drawn from life, he says) which “the whale fishers of Saintonge call Gibbar, a
Gibbero Dorso, that is, raised in a hump, on which is the fin.” From this provincial name came
Gibbartas, Gubartas, Jubart, Jubartes, Jupiter, and half a dozen other corruptions, introduced first
among mariners, and afterwards adopted or recognized as synonyms by naturalists, and distributed
among three or four different species. —

Lacépéde, under Balenoptera Jubartes, includes Balena boops (Gmelin), and “probably the
sulphur-bottom of the west coast of North America,” the Jubartes of Klein, and the Jupiter Fisch,
described by Anderson, as well as Baleine Jubarte of Bonnaterre (Encyc. Méth.).

Klein (“‘Mise. Pise.,” 11, 13) says that the whale catchers have corrupted the name of the Jupiter,
or Piscis Jovis, to Jubartes, which is reversing the actual process of corruption. He calls this the
“Whale of New England.”

Anderson, cited by Lacépéde, in ““Nachrichten von Island, Gronland, etc.,” p. 220, describes “the
Jupiter or Jupiterfisch ” as a kind of fin-fish, saying that its name, without doubt, comes from that
of Gubartes or Gibbartas, which has been given it by others, and which is itself a corruption of
the Biscayan Gibbar,

But Lacépéde makes “ Balena nodosa,” “Humpback Whale of the English,” and Balena
gibbosa,” the Whales of New England, and refers to Bonnaterre, who separates le Gibbar, Engl.

Finfish, from la Jubarte B. boops. Between Gibbar and Gibbosa, Jupiter and Gubartus, the things
get rather mixed.

30 THE WHALES AND PORPOISES.

Cranz, in his history of Greenland (Engl. transl., vol. i, p. 110) describes “the Jupiter Whale,
which the Spanish whale fishers cail more properly Gubartas, or Gibbar, from a protuberance,
gibbero, which grows towards the tail, besides the fin.”

Returning to the “Dubertus” of the charter, Senator Anthony will see how easy it was for an
engrossing clerk to mistake the initial “G,” in seventeenth century chancery-hand, for a “D,” in an
unfamiliar name. A more troublesome mistake was made by the engraver of the seal of the
Massachusetts Bay Company, which obliged Governor Winthrop always to describe himself, in

official papers, as governor of the Company of Mattachusetts Bay, etc.
J. HAMMOND TRUMBULL.

THE Paciric FinBAcK.—The Finback of the Pacific, Balenoptera velifera Cope, also called
the Oregon Finner, is common in Oregon and California, and is the rival of the sulphur-bottom in
swiftness. Like the Atlantic Finbacks, it can be taken only with the bomb gun. . Scammon gives
the measurements of an individual sixty feet long which came ashore near the Golden Gate. He
states that enormous quantities of codfish have been found in their stomachs. ‘The habitual
movements of the Finback in several points are peculiar. When it respires, the vaporous breath
passes quickly through its spiracles, and when a fresh supply of air is drawn into the breathing
system, a sharp and somewhat musical sound may be heard at a considerable distance, which is
quite distinguishable from that of other whales of the same genus. (We have observed the intervals
between the respirations of a large Finback to be about seven seconds.) It frequently gambols
about vessels at sea, in mid-ocean, as well as close in with the coast, darting under them, or shoot-
ing swiftly through the water on either side; at one moment upon the surface, belching forth its
quick, ringing spout, and the next instant submerging itself beneath the waves as if enjoying a
spirited race with the ship darting along under press of sail. Occasionally they congregate in
schools of fifteen to twenty or less.” !

“An instance occurred in Monterey Bay in 1865, of five being captured; a ‘pod’ of whales
was seen in the offing, from their shore station, by the whalemen, who immediately gave chase.
One was harpooned, and, although it received a mortal wound, they all ‘run together’ as before.
One of the gunners managed to shoot the whole five, and they were all secured.

“A Finback sixty-five feet long yielded seventy-five barrels of oil. The blubber was clear
white, seven to nine inches thick. The largest baleen measured twenty-eight inches in length,
thirteen in width, and was provided with a long fringe.”?

Another related form, the Sharp-headed Finner, B. Davidsonii Scammon, has habits similar to
the Finback, but frequents more northern waters, where it is sometimes taken by the Indians of
Cape Flattery.

15. THE SCRAG WHALE.

HISTORY OF THE ScRAG WHALE.—The Hon. Paul Dudley, writing in 1809 of the whales of
New England, remarked upon a certain kind in these words: “A Scrag Whale: Is near akin to the
Fin Back, but instead of a fin upon its back, the ridge of the after part of its back is scragged with
half a dozen knobs or knuckles. He is nearest the right whale in figure and quantity of oil. His
bone is white but won’t split.” 3

Atwood also writes: ‘A species of whale known by this name, nearly allied to if not identical
with the right whale, is sometimes taken here. It is the opinion of many of our whalemen that
they are not a distinct species, but the young right whale that lost its mother while very young,

1SCAMMON: op. cit., p. 35.
®*SCAMMON: op. cit., p. 34.
3 DUDLEY, PauL: Philosophical Transactions, xxxiii, 1809, p. 259.

THE SCRAG AND THE DEVIL-FISH. 31

and grew up without parental care, which has caused a slight modification. The most promineut
feature is that in its dorsal ridge, near the tail, there are a number of small projections or bunches,
having some resemblance to the teeth of a saw. It has no dorsal fin or hump on its back.”?

Douglass, writing in 1748, also mentioned the Scrag and the humps upon its body.

Cope has formed for this whale the genus Agaphelus, and it stands in the lists under the name
Agaphelus gibbosus [Erxl.] Cope. .

The Scrag is of special interest on account of its influence in first developing the whaling
industries of Nantucket. Macy, the historian of the island, states that in the very early days of that
colony, prior to 1672, “A whale of the kind called the Scragg came into the harbor and continued
there three days. This excited the curiosity of the people and led them to devise measures to prevent
his return out of the harbor. They accordingly invented and caused to be wrought for them a
harpoon with which they attacked and killed the whale. This first success encouraged them to
undertake whaling as a permanent business; whales being at that time numerous in the vicinity
of the shores.”?

Scammon remarks: “Our observations make it certain that there is a ‘Scrag’ Right Whale in
the North Pacific which corresponds very nearly to that of the Southern Ocean, - - and
which yields a paltry amount of oil.”? No identification of this form has yet been made. Dieffen-
bach states that in the southern seas “Scrags” is the whalers’ name for the young of the right

whale.*
16. THE CALIFORNIA GRAY WHALE.

DISTRIBUTION.—The California Gray Whale, Rhachianectes glaucus Cope, called by whalemen
“ Devil-tish,” ““ Hard Head,” “ Gray Back,” “Rip Sack,” and “ Mussel Digger,” though long known
to fishermen, was first described in 1869, from specimens brought to the United States National
Museum by Capt. W. H. Dall, of the United States Coast Survey. The only account of its habits
is in Scammon’s book, already often quoted. Its range is from the Arctic Seas to Lower Cali-
fornia. From November to May it is found on the California coast, while in summer it resorts to
the Arctic Ocean and the Okhotsk Sea. In October and November it is seen off Oregon and
Upper California, returning to warm water for the winter.

Hasirs.—They follow close along the shore, often passing through the kelp, and congregate
in the lagoons of the southern coast, where they are the objects of the extensive lagoon or bay
whale fishery.

ABUNDANCE.—Their abundance in former years and at present was thus discussed by Captain
Scammon in 1874: “It has been estimated, approximately, by observing men among the shore
whaling parties that a thousand whales passed southward daily from the 15th of December to the
1st of February, for several successive seasons after shore whaling was established, which occurred
in 1851. Captain Packard, who has been engaged in the business for over twenty vears, thinks
this a low estimate. Accepting this number without allowing for those which passed off shore out
of sight from the land, or for those which passed before the 15th of December, and after the 1st
of February, the aggregate would be increased to 47,000. Captain Packard also states that at the
present time the average number seen from the stations passing daily would not exceed forty.
From our own observation upon the coast, we are inclined to believe that the numbers resorting
annually to the coast of California from 1853 to 1856 did not exceed 40,000—probably not over
30,000; and at the present time there are many which pass off shore at so great a distance as to

JALLEN: Mainmalia of Massachusetts. <(Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, 8, p. 203.
2Macy: History of Nantucket, p. 28.

3ScaMMON: loc. cit., p. 67.

4D1IErrenBacu, E.: Travels in New Zealand, i, 1843, p. 45.

oo THE WHALES AND PORPOISES.

be invisible from the lookout stations; there are probably between 100 and 200 whales going south-
ward daily from the beginning to the end of the ‘down season’ (from December 15 to February 1).
The estimate of the annual herd visiting the coast is probably not large, as there is no allowance
made for those that migrate earlier and later in the season. From what data we have been able
to obtain, the whole number of California Gray Whales which have been captured or destroyed *
since the bay whaling commenced in 1846 would not exceed 10,800, and the number which now
periodically visits the coast does not exceed 8,000 or 10,000.”?

On another page he writes: “None of our whales are so constantly and variously pursued as
this; and the large bays and lagoons where these mammals once congregated, brought forth and
nurtured their young, are already nearly deserted. The mammoth bones of the California Gray lie
bleaching on the shores of these silvery waters, and are scattered along the broken coasts from
Siberia to the Gulf of California; and ere long, it may be questioned whether this mammal will
not be numbered among the extinct species of the Pacific.” ?

S1zE.—The male attains the average length of thirty-five feet, while the female grows to forty
or more. A female forty-four feet long and twenty-two feet in circumference is considered large,
though some still greater have been caught, yielding sixty or seventy barrels of oil. The average
yield of the male is twenty to twenty-five barrels. The baleen is ight brown or nearly white,
coarse-grained, with a heavy, uneven fringe, the longest strips measuring from fourteen to sixteen
inches. The blubber is solid and tough, reddish in color, and from six to ten inches thick.

FooD AND REPRODUCTION.—The nature of the food of the California Gray Whale is not
satisfactorily known, though it is reasonable to suppose that it consists of surface animals, strained
out by the baleen.

They breed in the winter, the females entering the California lagoons, while the males remain
outside. To their disturbance on their breeding grounds may be attributed the great diminution
in numbers. The period of gestation is about a year. After the young are born, male and female
and calf are seen working northward together, and Scammon thinks that they bear young only
once in two years.

CAPTURE.—The habit of frequenting shoal bays is peculiar to this one species. They are
often seen among the breakers, where they are tossed about by the groundswell, and where the
water is hardly deep enough to float them. The pursuit of this whale is very dangerous, owing
to their savage disposition and the shoalness of the water into which they are followed. The
Eskimos and Indians of the Northwest kill many, using their flesh for food and their skins for
clothing.

1$caMMON: op. cit., p. 23.
2 SCAMMON: op. cit., p. 33.

THE SEAL TRIBE IN GENERAL. 33

B—THE SEALS AND WALRUSES.

NovreE.—The following biographies of the Seals and Walruses are, by the permission of the author,
J. A, Allen, extracted from the“ Monograph of the Pinnipeds of North America.” It is considered
important to present in this Report, in a form convenient for reference, biographies of all the im-
portant aquatic animals of the United States; and since it is manifestly impossible to secure from
any other source so complete and reliable a discussion of the Seals as that given by Allen, it has
been thought allowable to reprint the biographical portion of his monograph. The material is here
published in such a different form, being divested of the great mass of technical matter, interesting
chiefly to zoologists, with which it was originally surrounded, that it is to all intents a fresh pre-
sentation of the subject.

The Biography of the Walruses has been condensed and rewritten by Mr. Goode, during the
ill-health and absence of Mr. Allen, the discussions in the monograph being too extended for the
necds of this Report. For an exceedingly interesting biography of these most interesting animals
the reader is referred to Mr. Allen’s more detailed work !

17. THE SEAL TRIBE IN GENERAL.

The Pinnipeds, or Pinnipedia, embracing the Seals and Walruses, are commonly recognized by
recent systematic writers as constituting a suborder of the order Fere, or Carnivorous Mammals.
They are, in short, true Carnivora, modified for an aquatic existence, and have consequently been
sometimes termed “ Amphibious Carnivora.” Their whole form is modified for life in the water,
which element is their true home. Here they display extreme activity, but on land their move-
ments are confined and labored.

The existing Pinnipeds constitute three very distinct minor groups or families, differing quite
widely from each other in important characters: these are the Walruses, or Odobenide, the Eared
Seals, or Otariide, and the Earless Seals, or Phocide. The first two are far more nearly allied than
are either of these with the third, so that the Odobenide and Otariide may be together contrasted
with the Phocide. The last named is the lowest or most generalized group, while the others appear
to stand on nearly the same plane, and about equally remote from the Phocide. The Walruses
are really little more than thick, clumsy, obese forms of the otarian type, with the canines enor-
mously developed, and the whole skull correlatively modified. The limb-structure, the mode of
life, and the whole economy are essentially the same in the two groups. and aside from the cranial
modifications presented by the Odobenide, which are obviously related to the development of the
canines as huge tusks, the Walruses are merely elephantine Otariids, the absence or presence of
an external ear being in reality a feature of minor importance.

The Pinnipeds present a high degree of cerebral development, and are easily domesticated
under favorable conditions. They manifest strong social and parental affection, and defend their
young with great persistency and courage. They are carnivorous (almost without exception),
subsisting upon fishes, mollusks, and crustaceans, of which they consume enormous quantities.
The Walruses and Eared Seals are polygamous, and the males greatly exceed the females in size.
The ordinary or Earless Seals are commonly supposed to be monogamous, and there is generally
little difference in the size of the sexes. The Walruses and Eared Seals usually resort in large
numbers to certain favorite breeding grounds, and during the season of reproduction leave the
water, and pass a considerable period upon land. The Earless Seals, on the other hand, with the
exception of the Sea Elephants, do not so uniformly resort to particular breeding grounds on land,

‘1880. ALLEN, JoEL Asapn: History of North American Pinnipeds; a moncgraph of the Walruses, Sea Lions, Sea
Bears, and Seals of North America. Washington, Governmeut Printing Office, 1880, 200 pp., xvi, 7°5. Miscellaneous
publications, No. 12, U. S. Geol. & Geog. Surv., F. V. Hayden, Geologist in charge.

3 °F

34 THE SEALS AND WALRUSES.

and leave the water only for very short intervals. They usually bring forth their young on the ice,
most of the species being confined to the colder latitudes. Only one of the various species of the
Pinnipedia appears to be strictly tropical, and very few of them range into tropical waters. As a
group, the Pinnipeds are distinctively characteristic of the arctic, antarctic, and temperate portions:
of the globe, several of the genera being strictly aretie or subarctic in their distribution. The
Walruses are at present confined mainly within the Arctic Circle, and have no representatives south
of the colder portions of the Northern Hemisphere. The Otariide and Phocide, on the other hand,
are abundantly represented on both sides of the Equator, as will be noticed more in detail later.

18. THE WALRUSES.

DISCUSSION OF THE ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC SPECIES.—There are two species of Walrus,
that of the Atlantic, Odobenus rosmarus Malmgren, and that of the Pacific, O. obesus (Mliger) Allen.
These animals are found only in the extreme north, and it was for many years commonly supposed
that there was but a single circumpolar species. Mr. Allen has confirmed the views of Pennant,
expressed in 1792 and emphasized since 1870 by Elliott and Gill. Their differences are thus
described :

The Pacific Walrus is similar in size, and probably in general contour, to that of the Atlantic
(though possibly rather larger, and commonly described or depicted as more robust or thicker at the
shoulders), but quite different in its facial outlines. The tusks are longer and thinner, generally more
convergent, with much greater inward curvatures, the bristles upon the muzzle shorter and smaller.
The chief external difference appears to consist in the shape of the muzzle and the size and form
of the bristly nose-pad, which has a vertical breadth at least one-fourth greater than in the
Atlantic species. Very important differences between the two species are exhibited in the skulls,
which are tully described in Mr. Allen’s book.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE ATLANTIC WALRUS.—The Atlantic Walrus is not now to be found
within the limits of the United States, nor las it been within historic time, or during the last three
hundred and fifty years, though, like the musk ox, the caribou, and the moose, it ranged during
the great Ice Period much beyond the southern limit of its boundary at the time the eastern coast
of North America was first visited by Europeans. During the last half of the sixteenth century
they are known to have frequented the southern coast of Nova Scotia as well as the shores and
islands to the northward, but this appears at that time to have been their southern limit of
distribution, and to these islands New England vessels seem occasionally to have resorted to kill
them for their teeth and oil.’ In 1775 they were abundant in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, at the
Magdalen Islands, Saint John’s, and Anticosti, where they congregated yearly to the number of
seven or eight thousand, aud where they were soon exterminated by the ‘* Americans.”

In 1866 and 1869 Packard and Gilpin recorded the killing of individuals near the Straits of
Belle Isle, and in 1868 one was driven ashore in Saint George Bay, Newfoundland. The last seen
in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence was, according to Professor Packard, in 1841, when one was killed
at Saint Augustine, Labrador. Dr. Bernard Gilpin speaks of the occurrence of their bones at
Miscou, on the Bay of Chaleur, in such numbers as to form artificial sea-beaches. These were,
doubtless, victims of “the Royal Company of Miscou,” founded during the earlier part of the seven-

1A vessel that returned at that time (1641) from the Isles of Salles made a better voyage, bringing four hundred
pair of Sca-horse teeth with divers tun of oil, besides much other govds of like sort which they left bebind, worth
£1500,—HuBBarn’s History of New England from the discovery to 1048, p. 379.

The Sea-Cow or Morse is plenty upon the coasts of Nova-Scotia and the Gulph of St. Laurence, particularly at the
island of St. John’s; it is of the bigness of a middling cow (it is not the same with the Manatee of the Gulph of
Mexico), a very thick skin with hair like that of a seal.— Douavass’ North America, 1755.

2?Meaning, of course, people from the southern colonies.

THE WALRUS: HABITS AND DISTRIBUTION. 35

teenth century by the King of France, and whose ephemeral city of New Rochelle has passed
away, leaving no sign. The murdered Sea-horses have left a more enduring monument than their
inurderers. At the present time its distribution in the Western Atlantic seems to be limited on
the south by the parallel of latitude 65°, and on the west along the arctic coast by the ninety-
seventh meridian of longitude. It inhabits the shore of Hudson’s Bay, Davis’s Strait, and Green-
land, ranging north to Repulse Bay and Prince Regent Inlet. In the Old World it is found only
about the islands and in the icy seas of Eastern Europe and the neighboring waters of Western
Asia. It has rarely been met with to the eastward of the Jenisei (longitude 82° E.), and has not
been seen eastward of the one hundred and thirtieth meridian. As lately as 1857 a straggler was
seen at Orkney and another in Nor’ Isles. The distribution of this species has been thus carefully
noted because its destruction has been participated in, and the time of its extermination doubtless
to some extent hastened, by the efforts of American whalemen.

The Walrus is the Morse or Sea-horse of ancient writers, many quaint extracts from whom, with
reproductions of their figures, are given by Mr. Allen.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE PACIFIC WALRUS.—While the Atlantic Walrus has been familiar to
our race since A. D. 871, when the Norman explorer Othere brought tusks of the ‘“‘ Horsewhale”
from the Arctic Sea to King Alfred of England, that of the Pacific was not discovered until 1648,
when the Cossack adventurer Staduchin found its tusks on the arctic coast of Eastern Asia; nor
was it fairly known until the time of Steller, Cook, Kotzebue, and Pallas, in the latter half of the
eighteenth century. Its range is comparatively narrow, being confined on the one hand to a com-
paratively small stretch of the northern and eastern coasts of Asia, and to a still smaller portion of
the opposite American coast. To the westward the Walrus appears not to have been traced beyond
Cape Schelatskoi (157° 30/ east longitude), and to have occurred in large herds only as far west as
Koljutschin Island (150° east longitude). On the eastern coast of Asia, as early as 1742, none had
been seen south of latitude 60°, and of course their southern range in that direction is now still
more limited. In the Arctic Sea, north of Bering Strait, they have been met with as far north
as Ships have penetrated, their westward range being limited only by the unbroken ice sheet. On
the American coast they have been traced eastward only as far as Point Barrow. They were
formerly abundant about the islands in Bering Sea, but there is no evidence that they ever ranged
as far south as the outermost islands in the Aleutian chain. On the mainland they were found by
Cook, at Bristol Bay, latitude 58° 42’, where now, according to Elliott, they are more numerous
than at any point south of the Arctic Circle. Their immense destruction, chiefly by American
whalers, renders it probable that before long they will be entirely exterminated in the territory of
the United States. —

S1zE.—The length of a full-grown male Atlantic Walrus is given by Dr. Gilpin at twelve feet.
three inches, its weight being estimated at 2,250 pounds, while Elliott gives the length of a
similar Alaska specimen at twelve to thirteen feet, its girth ten to fourteen feet, and its weight
2,000 pounds, the skin alone weighing from 250 to 400, the head from 60 to 80 pounds.

Hasits.—The Walruses are at all times more or less gregarious, occurring generally in large
or small companies, according to their abundance. Like the Seals, they are restricted in their
wanderings to the neighborhood of shores or large masses of floating ice, being rarely seen far out
in the open sea. Although moving from one portion of their feeding ground to another, they are
said to be in no sense a migrating animal. They delight in huddling together on the ice floes, or om
shore, to which places they resort to bask in the sun, pressing one against another like so many
swine. They are also said to repair in large herds to favorable shores or islands, usually in May
and June, to give birth to their young, at which times they sometimes remain constantly on land

36 TOE SEALS AND WALRUSES.

for two weeks together, without ever taking food. They are believed to be monogamous, and to
bring forth usually but a single young at a time, and never more than two. The period of gesta-
tion is commonly believed to be about nine months. The young are born from April to June, the
time probably varying with the latitude. The Walrus, like the common Seal, is said to have its
breathing hole in the ice. The tusks appear to be used for two purposes, to aid in landing upon
icy and rocky shores, apd in aid of their clumsy locomotion, and also in digging up the shell-fish
and roots of marine plants upon which they feed. Their voice is a loud roaring or “hucking,” and
the yoices of a herd may be distinguished at the distance of several miles. Although savage in
appearance, they are inoffensive and harmless, except when attacked, but when enraged are fierce
and vindictive, especially in defense of their young, for which they exhibit much affection. They
are wary and shy, however, and difficult to approach except under cover of darkness.

The hide, the oil, and the tusks of the Walrus are of commercial value, and the walrus fishery
of the Pacific is of considerable importance.

“In looking at this uncouth animal,” writes a contributor to ‘Scribner’s Monthly Magazine,’
“the most natural question at once arises, What earthly service can such an ungainly, stupid beast
render? What, indeed, is the use of its existence? But the answer is swift and satisfactory: were
it not for the subsistence furnished so largely by the flesh and oil of the Morse, it is exceedingly
doubtful whether the Esquimaux of North America, from Bering Strait clear around to Labrador,
could manage to live. Itis not to be inferred that walrus meat is the sole diet of these simple
people, for that is very wide of the truth; but there are several months of every year when the
exigencies of the climate render it absolutely impossible for the hardiest native to go out and procure
food, and then the value of the cache of walrus meat is appreciated, when for weeks and weeks it
forms the beginning and end of every meal. The Walrus responds to as many demands of the
Innuit as the camel of the Arab, or the cocoa-palm of the South Sea Islander. Its flesh feeds him;
its oil illuminates and warms his dark hut; its sinews make his bird-nets; its tough skin, skillfully
stretched over the light wooden frame, constitutes his famous kayak, and the serviceable oomiak,
or bidarrah; its intestines are converted into water-proof clothing, while the soles to its flippers are
transferred to his feet; and, finally, its ivory is a source of endless utility to him in domestic use
and in trade and barter. Walrus famines among the Esquimaux have been recorded in pathetic
legends by almost all of the savage settlements in the arctic. Even now, as I write (November,
1880), comes the authentic corroboration of the harsh rumor of the starvation of the inhabitants of
Saint Lawrence Island—those people who live just midway between the Old World and the New,
in Alaskan waters. The winter of 1879-’80 was one of exceptional rigor in the arctic, though in
this country it was unusually mild and open. The ice closed in solid around Saint Lawrence
Island, so firm and unshaken by the mighty powers of wind and tide that the Walrus were driven
far to the southward and eastward, out of reach of the unhappy inhabitants of that island, who,
thus unexpectedly deprived of their mainstay and support, seem to have miserably starved to death,
with the exception of one small village on the north shore. The residents of the Poonook, Poogo-
vellyak, and Kagallegak settlements perished, to a soul, from hunger—nearly 300 men, women,
and children. I was among these people in 1874, during the month of August, and remarked their
manifold superiority over the savages of the northwest coast and the great plains. They seemed
then to live, during nine months of the year, almost wholly upon the flesh and oil of the Walrus.
Clean-limbed, bright-eyed, and jovial, they profoundly impressed one with their happy subsistence
and reliance upon the walrus herds of Bering Sea; and it was remarked then that these people had
never been subjected to the temptation, and subsequent sorrow, of putting their trust in princes;
hence their independence and good heart. But now it appears that it will not suffice, either, to put
your trust in Walrus.”

THE EARED SEALS: HABITS AND DISTRIBUTION. 37

19. THE SEA LIONS AND FUR SEALS IN GENERAL.

GENERAL CHARACTERS.—The largest species of the Otaries (genera Otaria and Eumetopias)
are Hair Seals, while the smallest (genera Callorhinus and Arctocephalus) are Fur Seals; but the
species of Zalophus, although Hair Seals, are intermediate in size between the other Hair Seals and
the Fur Seals. All the Hair Seals have coarse, hard, stiff hair, varying in length with age and
season, and are wholly without soft underfur. All the Fur Seals have an abundant soft, silky
underfur, giving to the skins of the females and younger males great value as articles of commerce.
The longer, coarser overhair varies in length and abundance with season and age. All the Hair
Seals are yellowish or reddish brown (in Zalopkus sometimes brownish-black), generally darkest
when young, and becoming lighter with age, and also in the same individuals toward the molting
season. There is also cousiderable range of individual variation in representatives of the same
species, so that co.oration alone fails to afford satisfactory diagnostic characters. All the Fur Seals
are black when young, but they become lighter with age, through an abundant admixture of grayish
hairs which vary from yellowish-gray to whitish-gray. The southern Fur Seals are generally, when
adult, much grayer than the northern. There is hence a wide range of color variation with age in
the same species, as there is also among conspecific individuals of the same sex and age. While
some have the breast and sides pale yellowish-gray, others have these parts strongly rufous, the
general tint also showing to some extent these differences.

There is also a wonderful disparity in size between the sexes, the weight of the adult males
being generally three to five times that of the adult females of the same species. There are also
very great differences in the form of the skull, especially in respect to the development of crests
and protuberances for muscular attachment, these being only slightly developed in females and
enormously so in the males. With such remarkable variations in color and cranial characters,
dependent upon age and sex, it is not a matter of surprise that nany nominal species have arisen
through a misappreciation of the real significance of these differences.

Hasits.—The Eared Seals show also a remarkable resemblance in their gregarious and pelyg-
anous habits. All the species, wherever occurring, like the Walruses and Sea Elephants, resort
in great numbers to particular breeding stations, which, in sealers’ parlance, have acquired the
strangely inappropriate name of “‘rookeries.” The older wales arrive first at the breeding grounds,
where they immediately select their stations and await the arrival of the females. They keep up a
perpetual warfare for their favorite sites, and afterward in defense of their harems. The number
of females acquired by the successful males varies from a dozen to fifteen or more, which they guard
with the utmost jealousy—might being with them the law of right. The strongest males are nat-
urally the most successful in gathering about them large harems. The males, during the breeding
season, remain wholly on land, and they will suffer death rather than leave their chosen spot. They
thus sustain, for a period of several weeks, an uninterrupted fast. They arrive at the breeding
stations fat and vigorous, and leave them weak and emaciated, having been nourished through
their long period of fasting wholly by the fat of their own bodies. The females remain uninter-
_ ruptedly on land for a much shorter period, but for a considerable time after their arrival do not
leave the harems. The detailed account given a century ago by Steller, and recently confirmed by
Bryant and Elliott, of the habits of the northern Fur and Hair Seals during the breeding season,
is well known to apply, in greater or less detail, to nearly all the species of the family, and
presumably to all. As the observations by Messrs. Elliott and Bryant are presented later in this
work at length, it is unnecessary to give further details in the present connection.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—The most striking fact in respect to the distribution of the
Otariide is their entire absence from the waters of the North Atlantic.

7

38 THE SEALS AND WALRUSES.

As already noticed, the Eared Seals are obviously divisible, by the character of the pelage, into
two groups, which are commercially distinguished as the “ Hair Seals” and the ‘Fur Seals,” which
are likewise respectively known as the Sea Lions” and the “Sea Bears.” The two groups have
nearly the same geographical distribution, and are commonly found frequenting the same shores,
but generally living apart. Usually only one species of each is met with at the same localities,
and it is worthy of note that, with the exception of the coast of California, no naturalist has ever
reported the occurrence together of two species of Hair Seals or two species of Fur Seals, although
doubtless two species of Hair Seals exist on the islands and shores of Tasmania and Australia, as
well as on the Californian coast.

The Hair and Fur Seals are about equally and similarly represented on both sides of the
Equator, but they are confined almost wholly to the temperate and colder latitudes. Of the nine
species provisionally above recognized, two of the five Hair Seals are northern and three southern;
of the four Fur Seals, three are southern and one only is northern; but the three southern are closely
related (perhaps doubtfully distinct, at least two of them), and are evidently recent and but slightly
differentiated forms of acommon ancestral stock. Of the two Eared Seals of largest size (Humetopias
Stellert and Otaria jubata), one is northern and the other southern, and, though differing generically
in the structure of the skull, are very similar in external characters, and geographically are strictly
representative. Zalophus is the only genus occurring on both sides of the Equator, but the species
are different in the two hemispheres. The Fur Seals of the north are the strict geographical repre-
sentatives of those of the south. Phocarctos Hookeri is Australasian, and has no corresponding form
in the Northern Hemisphere. No species of Eared Seal is known from the North Atlantic. Several
of the southern species range northward into the equatorial regions, reaching the Galapagos Islands
and the northern shores of Australia.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FUR SEALS IN THE SOUTHERN SEAS.—They occur not only
on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the South American continent, about its southern
extremity, and on all the outlying islands, including not only the Falklands, the South Shetland
and South Georgian, but at other small islands more to the eastward, at Prince Edward’s, the
Crozets, Kerguelen, Saint Paul, and Amsterdam, the southern and western shores of Australia,
Tasmania, New Zealand, and at the numerous smaller islands south of the two last named. They
have been found, in fact, at all the islands making up the chain of pelagic islets stretching some-
what interruptedly from Cape Horn and the Falkland Islands eastward to Australia and New
Zealand, including among others those south of the Cape of Good Hope, so famous in the annals of
the seal-fishery. It has been stated by Gray and others that the Cape of Good Hope Fur Seals
(really those of the Crozets and neighboring islands) are far inferior in commercial value to those
of other regions; but in tracing the history of the sealing business I have failed to notice any
reference to the inferior quality of those from the last-named locality, or that there has been any
difference in the commercial value of the fur seal skins obtained at different localities in the
Southern Seas. The quality differs at the same locality, wherever the Fur Seals are found, with
the season of the year and age of the animals, so that skins may come not only from the Cape of

Good Hope, but from any other of the sealing places, that one “might feel convinced could not be
dressed as furs,” being “‘ without very thick underfur.”

20. THE SEA LION.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—The known range of this species, Ewmetopias Stelleri (Lesson)
Peters, extends along the west coast of North America from the Farallone Islands, in latitude 37°
40’ north, to the Pribylov Islands. Its northern limit of distribution is not definitely known, but

THE SEA LION: GENERAL HISTORY. 39

it does not appear to have been met with north of about the latitude of Saint Matthew’s Island
(about latitude 61°). Neither Mr. W. H. Dall nor Mr. H. W. Elliott has met with it above this
point, and they have both informed me that they have no reason to suppose it extends any further
northward or beyond the southern limit of floating ice. According to Steller, it existed in his time
along the whole eastern coast of Kamtchatka and southward to the Kurile Islands. He found it
abundant on Bering’s and Copper Islands, where it is still well known to exist. If Dr. Gray’s
Eumetopias elongatus, as originally described in 1873 (the same specimen was referred by him in
1872 to H. Stelleri), be referable, as I believe, to the female of H. Stelleri, the range of this species
appears to extend southward on the Asiatic coast as far as Japan. ;

Although the Sea Lions of the California coast that have of late years attracted so much
attention appear to be the smaller species, Zalophus Californianus, the occurrence of the present
species there is also fully established, where it is resident the whole year, and where it brings forth
its young, as proven by specimens transmitted some years since by Dr. Ayres to the Smithsonian
Institution.

GENERAL HISTORY.—The Northern Sea Lion was first described in 1/51 by Steller, who, under
the name of Leo marinus, gave a somewhat detailed account of its habits and its geographical range,
so far as known to him.

Captain Scammon, in 1874, published a very interesting account of the Sea Lions of the Aleu-
tian Islands, particularly as respects the methods employed in their capture, portions of which will
be quoted later. His account is devoted largely, however, to the Sea Lions of the California coast,
and certainly includes the history of the smaller species, if in fact this part does not relate mainly
to the latter. About the same time appeared Mr. H. W. Elliott’s more detailed history of the
northern species, which is so full and explicit that I transcribe it almost entire.

The Sea Lion, he says, “‘has a really leonine appearance and bearing, greatly enhanced by the
rich golden-rufous of its coat, ferocity of expression, and bull-dog muzzle and cast of eye, not
round and full, but showing the white, or sclerotic coat, with a light, bright-brown iris.

“Although provided with flippers to all external view as the Fur Seal, he cannot, however, iaake
use of them in the same free manner. While the Fur Seal can be driven five or six miles in twenty-
four hours, the Sea Lion can barely go two, the conditions of weather and roadway being the same.
The Sea Lions balance and swing their long, heavy necks to and fro, with every hitch up behind
of their posteriors, which they seldom raise from the ground, drawing them up after the fore feet
with a slide over the grass or sand, rocks, &c., as the case may be, and pausing frequently to take
a sullen and ferocious survey of the field and the drivers.

“The Sea Lion is polygamous, but does not maintain any such regular system and method in
preparing for and attention to its harem like that so finely illustrated on the breeding-grounds of
the Fur Seal. It is not numerous, comparatively speaking, and does not ‘haul’ more than a few
rods back from the sea. It cannot be visited and inspected by man, being so shy and wary that’
on the slightest approach a stampede into the water is the certain result. The males come out and
locate on the narrow belts of rookery ground, preferred and selected by them; the cows make their
appearance three or four weeks after them (1st to 6th June), and are not subjected to that intense
jealous supervision so characteristic of the Fur Seal harem. The bulls fight savagely among them-
selves, and turn off from the breeding ground all the younger and weak males.

“The cow Sea Lion is not quite half the size of the male, and will measure from eight to nine
feet in length, with a weight of four and five hundred pounds. She has the same general cast of
countenance and build of the bull, but as she does not sustain any fasting period of over a week
or ten days, she never comes out so grossly fat as the male or ‘see-catch.’

40 THE SEALS AND WALRUSES.

“The Sea Lion rookery will be found to consist of about ten to fifteen cows to the bull. The
cow seems at all times to have the utmost freedom in moving from place to place, and to start witb
its young, picked up sometimes by the nape, into the water, and play together for spells in the
surf-wash, a movement on the part of the mother never made by the Fur Seal, and showing, in this
respect, much more attention to its offspring.

“They are divided up into classes, which sustain, in a general manner, but very impertectly,
nearly the same relation one to the other as do those of the Fur Seal, of which I have already spoken
at length and in detail; but they cannot be approached, inspected, and managed like the other,
by reason of their wild and timid nature. They visit the islands in numbers comparatively small
(I can only estimate), not over twenty or twenty-five thousand on Saint Paul and contiguous
islets, and not more than seven or eight thousand at Saint George. On Saint Paul Island they
occupy a small portion of the breeding ground at Northeast Point, in common with the Callorhinus,
always close to the water, and taking to it at the slightest disturbance or alarm.

“The Sea Lion rookery on Saint George Island is the best place upon the Seal Islands for
close observation of these animals, and the following note was made upon the occasion of one of
my visits (June 15, 1873):

“¢ At the base of clifts, over four hundred feet in height, on the east shore of the island, on a
beach fifty or sixty feet in width at low water, and not over thirty or forty at flood tide, lies the
only Sea Lion rookery on Saint George Island—some three or four thousand cows and bulls. The
entire circuit of this rookery belt was passed over by us, the big, timorous bulls rushing off into
the water as quickly as the cows, all leaving their young. Mawy of the females, perhaps half of
them, had only just given birth to their young. These pups will weigh at least twenty to twenty-
five pounds on an average when born, are of a dark chocolate-brown, with the eye as large as the
adult, only being a suffused, watery, gray-blue where the sclerotic coat is well and sharply detined
in its maturity. They are about two feet in length, some longer and some smaller. As all the pups
seen to-day were very young, some at this instant only born, they were dull and apathetic, vot
seeming to notice us much. There are, I should say, about one-sixth of the Sea Lions in number
on this island, when compared with Saint Paul. As these animals lie here under the cliffs, they
cannot be approached and driven; but should they haul a few hundred rods up to the south, then
they can be easily captured. They have hauled in this manner always until disturbed in 1868, and
will undoubtedly do so again if not molested.

“-These Sea Lions, when they took to the water, swam out to a distance of fifty yards or so,
and huddled all up together in two or three packs or squads of about five hundred each, holding
their heads and necks up high out of water, all roaring in concert and incessantly, making such a
deafening noise that we could scarcely hear ourselves in conversation at a distance from them of
over ahundred yards. This roaring of Sea Lions, thus disturbed, can only be compared to the
hoarse sound of a tempest as it howls through the rigging of a ship, or the playing of a living
gale upon the bare branches, limbs, and trunks of a forest grove.” They commenced to return as
soon as we left the ground.

“The voice of the Sea Lion is a deep, grand roar, and does not have the flexibility of the Cal-
lorhinus, being confined to a low, muttering growl or this bass roar. The pups are very playtul,
but are almost always silent. When they do utter sound, it is a sharp, short, querulous growling.

“The natives have a very high appreciation of the Sea Lion, or see-vitchie, as they call it, and
base this regard upon the superior quality of the flesh, fat, and hide (for making covers for their
skin boats, bidarkies and bidarrahs), sinews, intestines, &c.

“As I have before said, the Sea Lion seldom hauls back far from the water, generally very

THE SEA LION: ITS CAPTURE. 41

close to the surf-margiu, and in this position it becomes quite a difficult task for the natives to
approach and get in between it and the sea unobserved, for, unless this silent approach is made,
the beast will at once take the alarm and bolt into the water.

“By reference to my map of Saint Paul’s, a small point, near the head of the northeast neck
of the island, will be seen, upon which quite a large number of Sea Lions are always to be
found, as it is never disturbed except on the occasion of this annual driving. The natives step
down on to the beach, in the little bight just above it, aud begin to crawl on all fours flat on
the sand down to the end of the neck and in between the dozing sea-lion herd and the water,
always selecting a semi-bright moonlight night. If the wind is favorable, and none of the men
meet with an accident, the natives will almost always succeed in reaching the point unobserved,
when, at a given signal, they all jump on their feet at once, yell, brandish their arms, and give a

‘sudden start, or alarm, to the herd above them, for, just as the Sea Lions move, upon the first
impulse of surprise, so they keep on. For instance, if the animals on starting up are sleeping with
their heads pointed in the direction of the water, they keep straight on toward it; but if they
jump up looking over the land, they follow that course just as desperately, and nothing turns
them, at first, either one way or the other. Those that go for the water are, of course, lost, but
the natives follow the land-leaders and keep urging them on, and soon have them in their control,
driving them back into a small pen, which they extemporize by means of little stakes, with flags,
set around a circuit of a few hundred square feet, and where they keep them until three or four
hundred, at least, are captured, before they commence their drive of ten miles overland down
south to the village.

“The natives, latterly, getting in this annual herd of Sea Lions, have postponed it until late
in the fall, and when the animals are scant in number and the old bulls poor. This they were
obliged to do, on account of the pressure of their sealing business in the spring, and the warmth
of the season in August and September, which makes the driving very tedious. In this way I
have not been permitted to behold the best-conditioned drives, ¢. ¢., those in which a majority of
the herd is made up of fine, enormously fat, and heavy bulls, some four or five hundred in number.

“The natives are compelled to go to the northeast point of the island for the animals, inas-
much as it is the only place with naturai advantages where they can be approached for the purpose
of capturing alive. Here they congregate in greatest number, although they can be found, two or
three thousand of them, on the southwest point, and as many more on ‘Seevitchie Cammin’ and
Otter Island.

“Capturing the Sea Lion drive is really the only serious business these people on the islands
have, and when they set out for the task the picked men only leave the village. At Northeast
Point they have a barrabkie, in which they sleep and eat while gathering the drove, the time of
getting which depends upon the weather, wind, &c. As the squads are captured, night after
night, they are driven up close by the barrabkie, where the natives mount constant guard over
them until several hundred animals shall have been secured and all is ready for the drive down
overland to the village.

“The drove is started and conducted in the same general manner as that which I have detailed
in speaking of the Fur Seal, only the Sea Lion soon becomes very sullen and unwilling to move,
requiring spells of frequent rest. It cannot pick itself up from the ground and shamble off on a
loping gallop for a few hundred yards, like the Callorhinus, and is not near so free and agile in its
movements on land, or in the water for that matter, for I have never seen the Humetopias leap trom
the water like a dolphin, or indulge in the thousand and one submarine acrobatic displays made
constantly by the Tur Seal.

42 THE SEALS AND WALRUSES.

“This ground, over which the Sea Lions are driven, is mostly a rolling level, thickly grassed
and mossed over, with here and there a fresh-water pond into which the animals plunge with great
apparent satisfaction, seeming to cool themselves, and out of which the natives have no trouble in

driving them. The distance between the sea-lion pen at Northeast Point and the village is about
ten miles, as the Sea Lions are driven, and occupies over five or six days under the most favorable

circumstances, such as wet, cold weather; and when a little warmer, or as in July or August, a
few seasons ago, they were some three weeks coming down with a drove, and even then left a
hundred or so along on the road.

“ After the drove has been brought into the village ou the killing-grounds, the natives shoot
down the bulls and then surround and huddle up the cows, spearing them just behind the fore
flippers. The killing of the Sea Lions is quite an exciting spectacle, a strange and unparalleled
exhibition of its kind. . . . The bodies are at once stripped of their hides and much of
the flesh, sinews, intestines (with which the native water-proof coats, &c., are made), in conjunction
with the throat-linings (wsophagus), and the skin of the flippers, which is exceedingly tough and
elastic, and used for soles to their boots or ‘tarbosars.’

“As the Sea Lion is without fur, the skin has little or no commercial value; the hair is short,
and longest over the nape of the neck, straight, aud somewhat coarse, varying in color greatly as
the seasons come and go. For instance, when the Eumetopias makes his first appearance in the
spring, and dries out upon the land, he has a light-brownish, rufous tint, darker shades back and
under the fore flippers and on the abdomen; by the expiration of a month or six weeks, 15th June,
he will be a bright golden-rufous or ocher, and this is just before shedding, which sets in by the
middle of August, or a little earlier. After the new coat has fairly grown, and just before he leaves
the island for the season, in November, it will be a light sepia, or vandyke-brown, with deeper
shades, almost dark upon the belly. The cows, after shedding, do not color up so dark as the
bulls, but when they come back to the land next year they are identically the same in color, so
that the eye, in glancing over a sea-lion rookery in June and July, cannot discern any noted
dissimilarity of coloring between the bulls and the cows; and also the young males and yearlings
appear in the same golden-brown and ocher, with here and there an animal spotted somewhat like
a leopard, the yellow, rufous ground predominating, with patches of dark-brown irregularly inter-
spersed. I have never seen any of the old bulls or cows thus mottled, and think very likely it is
due to some irregularity in the younger animals during the season of shedding, for I have not
noticed it early in the season, and failed to observe it at the close. Many of the old bulls have a
grizzled or shghtly brindled look during the shedding period, or, that is, from the 10th August
up to the 10th or 20th of November. The pups, when born, are of a rich, dark chestnut-brown;
this coat they shed in October, and take one much lighter, but still darker than their parents’, but
not a great deal.

“Although, as I have already indicated, the Sea Lion, in its habit and disposition, approxi-
mates the Fur Seal, yet in no respect does it maintain and enforce the system and regularity found
on the breeding-grounds of the Callorhinus. The time of arrival at, stay on, and departure from
the island is about the same; but if the winter is an open, mild one, the Sea Lion will be seen
frequently all through it, and the natives occasionally shoot them around the island long after the
Fur Seals have entirely disappeared for the year. It also does not confine its landing to these
Pribylov Islands alone, as the Fur Seal unquestionably does, with reference to our continent, for it
has been and is often shot upon the Aleutian Islands and many rocky islets of the northwest coast.

“The Sea Lion in no respect whatever mauifests the intelligence and sagacity exhibited by
the Fur Seal, and must be rated far below, although next, in natural order. I have no hesitation

THE SEA LION: ABUNDANCE, FOOD, &c. 43

in putting this Humetopias of the Pribylov Islands, apart from the Sea Lion common at San Fran-
cisco and Santa Barbara, as a distinct animal; and I call attention to the excellent description of
the California Sea Lion, made public in the April number for 1872 of the Overland Monthly, by
Capt. C. M. Scammon, in which the distinguishing characters, externally, of this animal are well
defined, and by which the difference between the Eumetopias of Bering Sea and that of the coast
of California can at once be seen; and also I notice one more point in which the dissimilarity is
marked: the northern Sea Lion never barks or howls like the animal at the Farralones [ste] or
Santa Barbara. Young and old, both sexes, from one year and upward, have only a deep bass
growl, and prolonged, steady roar; while at San Francisco Sea Lions break out incessantly with a
‘honking’ bark or howl, and never roar.

*“T am not to be understood as saying that all the Sea Lions met with on the Californian coast
are different from FH. Stelleri of Bering Sea. I am well satisfied that stragglers from the north are
down on the Farrallones, but they are not migrating back and forth every season; and I am further-
more certain that not a single animal of the species most common at San Francisco was present
among those breeding on the Pribylov Islands in 1872-773.

“According to the natives of Saint George, some fifty or sixty years ago the Humetopias held
almost exclusive possession of the island, being there in great numbers, some two or three hundred
thousand ; and that, as the Fur Seals were barely permitted to land by these animals, and in no
great number, the Russians directed them (the naiives) to hunt and worry the Sea Lious off from
the island, and the result was that as the Sea Lions left, the Fur Seals came, so that to-day they ovcupy
nearly the same ground covered by the Humetopias alone sixty years ago. This statement is, or
seems to be, corroborated by Choris, in his description of the Iles 8.-George’s et S.-Paul’s [sic],
visited by him fifty years ago;! but the account given by Bishop Veniaminov, . . . differs
eutirely from the above, for by it almost as many Fur Seals were taken on Saint George, during the
first years of occupation, as on Saint Paul, and never have been less than one-sixth of the number
on the larger island. . . . Iam strongly inclined to believe that the island of Saint George
never was resorted to in any great numbers by the Fur Seal, and that the Sea Lion was the dominant
animal there until disturbed and driven from its breeding-grounds by the people, who sought to
encourage the coming of its more valuable relative by so doing, and making room in this way for it.

‘““The Sea Lion has but little value save to the natives, and is more prized on account of ‘its
flesh and skin, by the people living upon the islands and similar positions, than it would be else-
where. The matter of its preservation and perpetuation should be left entirely to them, and it will
be well looked after. It is singular that the fat of the Sea Lion should be so different in characters
of taste and smell from that of the Fur Seal, being free from any taint of disagreeable flavor or
odor, while the blubber of the latter, although so closely related, is most repugnant. The flesh of
the Sea Lion cub is tender, juicy, light-colored, and slightly like veal; in my opinion, quite good.
As the animal grows older, the meat is dry, tough, and without flavor.”

The food of the Sea Lion is well known to consist, like that of the other species of Eared
Seals, of fish, mollusks, and crustaceans, and occasionally birds. As shown by animals kept in
confinement, they require an enormous quantity. Captain Scammon states that the daily allow-
ance of a pair kept in Woodward’s Gardens, San Francisco, amounted to forty or fifty pounds of
fresh fish.

‘From fifteen to twenty thousand Sea Lions,” says Captain Bryant, “breed annually on the
Pribylov or l'ur Seal Islands. They do not leave the islands in winter, as do the Fur Seals, to
return in spring, but remain during the whole year. They bring forth their young a month earlier

'Voyage Pittoresque autour du Monde.

44 ’ THE SEALS AND WALRUSES.

than the Fur Seals, landing during the months of May and June. They advance but Jittle above
high tide-mark, and those of all ages land together. The strongest males drive out the weaker and
monopolize the females and continue with them till September. They go with them into the water
whenever they are disturbed, and also watch over the young. When in the water they swim about
the young and keep them together until they have an opportunity to land again. The females also
keep near, rushing hither and thither, appearing first on one side and then on the other of the
groups of young, constantly uttering a deep, hoarse growl at the intruder whenever they come to
the surface. When left undisturbed they all soon land again, preferring to spend the greater
portion of their time at this season on the shore. During the breeding season they visit the same
parts of the shore as the Fur Seals, but the Sea Lions, by their superior size and strength, crowd
out the Seals, the latter passively yielding their places without presuming to offer battle to their
formidable visitors. After having been disturbed the Sea Lions continue for some time in a state
of unrest, occasionally uttering a low moaning sound, as though greatly distressed. Even after
the breeding season they keep close to the shore near the breeding station until the severe weather
of January. After this time they are seen only in small groups till the shores are free from snow
and ice in the spring.”
21. THE CALIFORNIA SEA LION.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—The exact boundaries of the habitat of Zalophus californianus
cannot at present be given. The only speciinens I have seen are from the coast of California and
its islands, from San Diego and San Nicholas Island northward to the Bay of San Francisco.
Captain Scammon (see infra, pp. 301, 302) twice alludes incidentally to its presence “along the
Mexican and Californian coasts,” and Dr. Veatch states that “Sea Lions” (which he calls “ Otaria
jubata,” but which are, almost beyond doubt, the present species) had populous breeding stations
twenty years ago, and doubtless have still, cn Cerros or Cedros Island, in about the latitude of
284°, off the Lower California coast. Whether they occur southward of this point at the present
time I am unable to state, but should infer that such was the case from Scammon’s allusion to
their capture along the “Mexican” coast. In any case, it appears probable that in Dampier’s tiwe
they ranged as far south as the Chametly and Tres Marias Islands, respectively in latitudes about
23° and 21°, at which points he saw “Seals” in the year 1686. In describing the Chametly Islauds
(the most northerly of the two groups mentioned by him under this name), situated off the west
coast of Mexico in latitude 23° 11’, he says, “The Bays about the Islands are sometimes visited
with Seals; and this was the first place where I had seen any ot these Animals, on the North side
of the Equator, in these Seas. For the Fish on this sandy Coast lye most in the Laguues or Salt-
Lakes, and Mouths of Rivers; For this being no rocky Coast, where Fish resort most, there seems
to be but little Food for the Seals, unless they will venture upon Cat-Vish.”!

He also met with Seals at the Tres Marias Islands (in latitude “21° 5/”), and consequently
two degrees south of the Chametly Islands, in describing one of which islands, named by him St.
George’s Island, he says: “The Sea is also pretty well stored with Vish, and Turtle or Tortoise,
and Seal. This is the second place on this Coast where I did see any Seal: and this place helps
to confirm what I have observed, that they are seldom seen but where there is pleuty of Fish.”?

It is of course not certain that the Seals here alluded to are Zalophus californianus, since the
Sea Elephant of the California coast also occurs at Cedros Island, and probably still further south,
the two species having apparently about the same range. If they had been the latter, Dampier
would probably have made some allusion to their large size.

‘A New Voyage round the World, 5th ed., vol. i, 1703, pp. 253, 264.
2Lbid., p. 276.

THE CALIFORNIA SEA LION: HABITS. 45

The species of Zalophus occurring in Japan has been by some writers considered to be the
same as the Californian one; but, though doubtless closely allied, its affinities, as will be noticed
later (see infra, p. 293), appear to be not as yet satisfactorily determined. As Zalophus califor-
nianus has not yet been detected on the American coast north of California, its occurrence on
the Asiatic coast seems hardly to be expected.

This species has hitherto been believed to be free from any serious complications of synonymy,
and to have been first brought to the notice of the scientific world by McBain in 1858. Allen has,
however, shown that it was noticed in 1822 by Choris and described by Lesson under the name of
Otaria californiana.

Hapbrirs.—Several more or less full accounts of the habits of the Californian Sea Lions have
been given by different writers, who have, however, failed to distinguish the two species occurring
along the Californian coast, and consequently their descriptions are not wholly satisfactory. The
large northern species certainly occurs, and rears its young, as far south as the Farallones, but
probably exists there only in small numbers, while I have seen no evidence of its presence at Santa
Barbara Island. Even Captain Scammon, in his account of the Sea Lions of California, has not
distinctly recognized the two species occurring there, and his description doubtless refers in part
to both species, but unquestionably relates mainly to the present one.’ His “Sketch of a sealing
season upon Santa Barbara Island,” in 1852, presumably relates exclusively to Zalophus califor-
nianus, but in addition to this I quote a few paragraphs from his general account of “the Sea Lion,”
since it is the testimony of a trustworthy eye-witness.

“On approaching an island, or point, occupied by a uumerous herd,” he observes, “one first
hears their long, plaintive howlings, as ifin distress; but when near them, the sounds become more
varied and deafening. The old males roar so loudly as to drown the noise of the heaviest sur-
among the rocks and caverns, and the younger of both sexes, together with the ‘clapmatches,’
croak hoarsely, or send forth sounds like the bleating of sheep or the barking of dogs; in fact,
their tumultuous utterances are beyond description. A rookery of matured animals presents a
ferocious and defiant appearance; but usually at the approach of man they become alarmed, and,
if not opposed in their escape, roll, tumble, and sometimes make fearful leaps from high precipitous
rocks to hasten their flight. Like all the others of the Seal tribe, they are gregarious, and gather
in the largest numbers during the ‘pupping season, which varies in different latitudes. On the
California coast it is from May to August, inclusive, and upon the shores of Alaska it is said to be
from June to October, during which period the females bring forth their young, nurse them, asso-
ciate with the valiant males, and both unite in the care of the little ones, keeping a wary guard,
and teaching them, by their own parental actions, how to move over the broken, slimy, rock-
bound shore, or upon the sandy, pebbly beaches, and to dive and gambol amid the surf and rolling
groundswells. At first the pups manifest great aversion to the water, but soon, instinctively,
become active and playful in the element; so by the time the season is over, the juvenile creatures
disappear with the greater portion of the old ones, only a few of the vast herd remaining at the
favorite resorts throughout the year. During the pupping season, both males and females, so far
at we could ascertain, take but little if any food, particularly the males, though the females have
been observed to leave their charges and go off, apparently in search of subsistence, but they do
not venture far from their young ones. That the Sea Lion can go without food for a long time is
unquestionable. One of the superintendents of Woodward’s Gardens informed me that in

'That Captain Scammon confounded the two species of northern Sea Lions is evident not only from his published
writings, but from his having transmitted to the National Museum specimens of Zalophus from Santa Barbara Island,
labeled by him ‘‘ Eumetopias Stelleri.”

46 THE SEALS AND WALRUSES.

numerous instances they have received Sea Lions into the aquarium which did not eat a morsel of
nourishment during a whole month, and appeared to suffer but little inconvenience from their long
fast.

‘As the time approaches for their annual assemblage, those returning or coming from abroad
are seen near the shores, appearing wild and shy. Soon after, however, the females gather upon
the beaches, cliffs, or rocks, when the battles among the old males begin for the supreme control
of the harems; these struggles often lasting for days, the fight being kept up until one or both
become exhausted, but is renewed again when sufficiently recuperated for another attack; and, really,
the attitudes assumed and the passes made at each other, equal the amplification of a professional
fencer. The combat lasts until both become disabled or one is driven from the ground, or perhaps
both become so reduced that a third party, fresh from his winter migration, drives them from the
coveted charge. The vanquished animals then slink off to some retired spot as if disgraced.
Nevertheless, at times, two or more will have charge of the same rookery; but in such instances
frequent defiant growlings and petty battles occur. So far as we have observed upon the Sea
Lions of the California coast, there is but little attachment manifested between the sexes; indeed,
much of the Turkish nature is apparent, but the females show some affection for their offspring,
yet if alarmed when upon the land, they will instantly desert them and take to the water. The
young cubs, on the other hand, are the most fractious and savage little creatures imaginable,
especially if awakened from their nearly continuous sleeping; and frequently, when a mother
reclines to nurse her single whelp, a swarm of others will perhaps contend for the same favor.

“To give a more detailed and extended account of the Sea Lions we will relate a brief sketch
of a sealing season on Santa Barbara Island. It was near the end of May, 1852, when we arrived,
and soon after the rookeries of ‘clapmatches,’ which were scattered around the island, began to
augment, and large numbers of huge males made their appearance, belching forth sharp, ugly
howls, and leaping out of or darting through the water with surprising velocity, frequently diving
outside the rollers, the next moment emerging from the crest of the foaming breakers, and wad-
dling up the beach with head erect, or, with seeming effort, climbing some kelp-fringed rock, to
doze in the scorching sunbeams, while others would lie sleeping or playing among the beds of sea-
weed, with their heads and outstretched limbs above the surface. But a few days elapsed before
a general contention with the adult males began for the mastery of the different rookeries, and the
victims of the bloody encounter were to be seen on all sides of the island, with torn lips or muti-
lated limbs and gashed sides, while now and then an unfortunate creature would be met with minus
an eye or with the orb forced from its socket, and, together with other wounds, presenting a ghastly
appearance. As the time for ‘hauling-up’ drew near, the island became one mass of animation;
every beach, rock, and cliff, where a Seal could find foothold, became its resting-place, while a
countless herd of old males capped the summit, and the united clamorings of the vast assemblage
could be heard, on a calm day, for miles at sea. The south side of the island is high and precipi-
tous, with a projecting ledge hardly perceptible from the beach below, upon which one immense
Sea Lion managed to climb, and there remained for several weeks—-until the season was over.
How he ascended, or in what manner he retired to the water, was a mystery to our numerous ship’s
crew, as he came and went in the night; for ‘Old Gray,’ as named by the sailors, was closely
watched in his elevated position during the time the men were engaged at their work.!

1 “Relative to the Sea Lions leaping from giddy heights, an incident occurred at Santa Barbara Island, the last
of the season of 1852, which we will here mention. A rookery of about twenty individuals was collected on the brink
of a precipitous cliff, at a height at least of sixty feet above the rocks which shelved from the beach below; and our
party were sure in their own minds, that, by surprising the animals, we could drive them over the cliff. This was
easily accomplished; but to our chagrin, when we arrived at the point below, where we expected to find the huge
beasts helplessly mutilated, or killed outright, the last animal of the whole rookery was seen plunging into the sea.”

THE CALIFORNIA SEA LION. AT

“None, but the adult males were captured, which was usually done by shooting them in the
ear or near it; for a ball in any other part of the body had no more effect than it would in a Grizzly
Bear. Occasionally, however, they are taken with the club and lance, only shooting a few of the
masters of the herd. This is easily accomplished with an experienced crew, if there is sufficient
ground back from the beach for the animals to retreat. During our stay, an instance occurred,
which not only displayed the sagacity of the animals, but also their yielding disposition, when
bard pressed in certain situations, as if naturally designed to be slain in numbers equal to the
demands of their human pursuers. On the south of Santa Barbara Island was a plateau, elevated
less than a hundred feet above the sea, stretching to the brink of a cliff that overhung the shore,
and a narrow gorge leading up from the beach, through which the animals crowded to their favor-
ite resting-place. As the sun dipped behind the hills, fifty to a hundred males would congregate
upon the spot and there remain until the boats were lowered in the morning, when immediately the
whole herd would quietly slip off into the sea and gambol about during the day, returning as they
saw the boats again leave the island for the ship. Several unsuccessful attempts had been made
to take them; but at last a fresh breeze commenced blowing directly from the shore, and prevented
their scenting the hunters, who landed some distance from the rookery, then cautiously advanced,
and suddenly yelling, and flourishing muskets, clubs, and lances, rushed up within a few yards of
them, while the pleading creatures, with lolling tongues and glaring e;es, were quite overcome
with dismay, and remained nearly motionless. At last, two overgrown males broke through the
line formed by the men, but they paid the penalty with their lives before reaching the water. A
few moments passed, when all hands moved slowly toward the rookery, which as slowly retreated.
This maneuver is termed ‘turning them,’ and, when once accomplished, the disheartened creatures
appear to abandon all hope of escape, and resign themselves to their fate. The herd at this time
numbered seventy-five, which were soon dispatched, by shooting the largest ones, and clubbing
and lancing the others, save one young Sea Lion, which was spared to see whecher he would make
any resistance by being driven over the hills beyond. The poor creature only moved along
through the prickly pears that covered the ground when compelled by his cruel pursuers; and. at
last, with an imploring look and writhing in pain, it held out its fin-like arms, which were pierced
with thorns, in such a manner as to touch the sympathy of the barbarous sealers, who instantly
put the sufferer out of its misery by a stroke of a heavy club. As soon as the animal is killed, the
longest spires of its whiskers are pulled out, then it is skinned, and its coating of fat cut in sections
from its body and transported to the vessel, where, after being ‘minced,’ the oil is extracted by
boiling. The testes are taken out, and, with the selected spires of whiskers, find a market in
China—the former being used medicinally, and the latter for personal ornaments.

‘At the close of the season—which lasts about three months, on the California coast—a large
majority of the great herds, both males and females, return to the sea, and roam in all directions in
quest of food, as but few of them could find sustenance about the waters contiguous to the islands,
or points on the mainland, which are their annual resorting places. They live upon fish,’ mollusks,

1 THE SEA LIONS DESTRUCTIVE OF FISH.—The Farallone Egg Company, several years ago, altempted to kill the
Sea Lions which frequented those barren islands for their oil and skins. They built try works and went to considerable
expense, but it was found that the oil obtained from a carcass did not pay for trying it, and the only disposition that
could be made of the skins was to sell them to glue factories. The best return they got trom the carcass was from
bristles or whiskers and the livers. Both of these were sold to Chinamen. The former they make use of to clean their
opium pipes, while the latter is chopped up, pnt into a mixture of alcohol and another fluid, and admiuistered as
a radical cure for many acute diseases. The company accordingly gave up the plan of sea-lion hunting, but the
effect of their brief warfare upon these animals was to drive vast droves of them over to the rocks about the Cliff House
and the neighborhood of the Heads. In consequence of their being protected by law in these localities, they have
doabled and trebled in number within the past three years. The Sea Lions are a very expensive luxury. It is probable

’

48 THE SEALS AND WALRUSES.

crustaceans, ahd sea-fowls; always with the addition of a few pebbles or smooth stones, some of
which are a pound in weight.’ Their principal feathery food, however, is the penguin in the South-
ern Hemisphere, and the gulls in the Northern; while the manner in which they decoy and catch
the Gartota of the Mexican and California coasts displays no little degree of cunning. When in
pursuit the animal dives deeply under water and swims some distance from where it disappeared ;
then, rising cautiously, it exposes the tip of its nose above the surface, at the same time giving it
a rotary motion, like that of a water bug at play. The unwary bird on the wing, seeing the object
near by, alights to catch it, while the Sea Lion‘at the same moment settles beneath the waves, and
at one bound, with extended jaws, seizes its screaming prey, and instantly devours it.’

“A few years ago great numbers of Sea Lions were taken along the coast of Upper and Lower
California, and thousands of barrels of oil obtained. The number of Seals slain exclusively for
‘their oil would appear fabulous, when we realize the fact that it requires on an average, throughout
the season, the blubber of three or four Sea Lions to produce a barrel of oil. Their thick, coarse-
grained skins were not considered worth preparing for market, in a country where manual labor
was so highly valued. At the present time, however, they are valued for glue-stock, and the
seal hunters now realize more comparative profit from the hides than from the oil. But while
the civilized sealers, plying their vocation along the seaboard of California and Mexico, destroy
the Lobo marino, for the product of its oil, skin, testes, and whiskers, the simple Aleutians of
the Alaska region derive from these animals many of their indispensable articles of domestic
mse. 4 2 a

The whiskers are carefully saved and sent to China, where they are used for cleaning opium
pipes; the livers are also used in the Chinese pharmacopeeia.

Mr. Elliott, in referring to the differences between the Californian and Alaskan Sea Lions, calls
attention to the dissimilarity of their voices. The Northern Sea Lion, he says, “never barks or

that they consume more fish than are caught in the bay for food, and if they continue to increase in the future as
in the past, it will be but a few years before the waters of the bay will be destitute of fish. Formerly these animals
seldom cam within the Golden Gate, but now it isa very common thing for passengers on the Oakland boats to see
their mischievous-looking heads rise from the water with a large fish in the mouth—they give it a shake, bite out a
piece, drop it, and then, diving again, catch it, and rising to the surface, take another nibble until it is consumed. It
is certain that something should be done to diminish their numbers. If the legislature was to offer a royalty of from
75 cents to $L per skin, it is thought by many interested in our fish supply that it would be an economical act. As it
is now, the Sea Lions are protected by law—no one being allowed to molest or kill one within a mile of the Cliff House.
An effort has been made on several occasions to repeal this law, but at the first intimation of anything in that direction,
the lobby in Sacramento has been re-enforced by delegations from a certain stratum of society which history tells us
has had more or less influence with legislation since the days of Marc Antony. The consequence is, the law is still
upon the statute-books, and the Sea Lions continue to increase, while the fish supply proportionately decreases.—San
Francisco Call, November 13.

'«Tke enormous quantity of food which would be required to maintain the herd of many thousands, which, in
former years, annually assembled at the small island of Santa Barbara, would seem incredible, if they daily obtained
the allowance given to a male and female Sea Lion on exhibition at Woodward’s Gardens, San Francisco, California,
where the keeper informed me that he fed them regularly, every day, forty pounds of fresh fish, . . . .”

(That the destruction of fish by the Sea Lions on the coast of California is very great is indicated by the following
item, which recently went the rounds of the newspapers: ‘In a recent meeting at San Francisco of the Senate
Committee on Fisheries, the State Fish Commissioners, and a committee representing the fishermen of the coast, the
question as to the destructive performances of the Sea Lionsin the harbor was actively discussed. One of the fishermen's
representatives said that it was estimated that there were 25,000 Sea Lions within a radius of a few miles, consuming
from ten to forty pounds each of tish per day; the Sea Lions were protected while the fishermen were harassed by the
game laws. Another witness declared that salmon captured in the Sacramento River often bore the marks of injury
from Sea Lions, having barely escaped with life; but it was supposed that the salmon less frequently fell victims to
the amphibian than did other fishes that cannot swim as fast.”—Country, January 26, 1878. }

*[This account appeared originally in Captain Scammon’s account of the ‘Islands off the West Coast of Lower
California,” in J. Ross Browne’s ‘‘ Resources of the Pacific Slope,” second part, p. 130 (1869), and has been quoted by
Mr. Gurney in the “ Zodlogist” for 1871, p. 2762. ]

38CAMMON: Marine Mammalia, pp. 130--135.

THE NORTHERN FUR SEAL OR SEA BEAR, 49

howls like the animal at the Farallones or Santa Barbara. Young and old, both sexes, from one
year and upward, have only a deep bass growl, and prolonged, steady roar; while at San Francisco
Sea Lions break out incessantly with a ‘honking’ bark or how], and never roar.”

The California Sea Lion is now a somewhat well-known animal with the public, various individ-
uals having been at different times on exhibition at the Central Park Menagerie in New York City,
and at the Zodlogical Gardens at Philadelphia and Cincinnati, as well as Woodward’s ‘Gardens
in San Francisco. They have also formed part of the exhibition of different traveling shows,
especially that of P. T. Barnum. They have also been carried to Europe, where examples have
lived for several years at the Zodlogical Gardens of London, Paris, and elsewhere. Their peculiar
“honking” bark, referred to by Mr. Elliott, is hence not unfamiliar to many who have never met
with the animal in a state of nature. heir various attitudes and mode of life on the Farallones
have also been made familiar to many by the extensive sale of stereoscopic views of the animals
and their surroundings. The Sea-Lions that have been exhibited in this country all, or nearly all,
belong to the present species, although often wrongly labeled ‘‘ Humetopias Stelleri.”. The true £.
Stelleri has, however, at least in one instance, been exhibited in Eastern cities.

22. THE NORTHERN FUR SEAL OR SEA BEAR.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATION.—The Fur Seal, Callorhinus ursinus (Linné)
Gray, is well known to have been formerly abundant on the western coast of North America,
as far south as California, but the exact southern limit of its range I have been unable to
determine. Captain Scammon speaks of having seen them “on one of the San Benito Islands, on
the coast of Lower California,” and again says, ‘“‘On the coast of California many beaches were
found fronting gullies, where [Fur] Seals in large numbers formerly gathered; and, as they there
had plenty of ground to retreat upon, the sealers sometimes drove them far enough back to make
sure of the whole herd, or that portion of them the skins of which were desirable.”! He also states
that the “Fur Seal and Sea Elephant once made the shores [of Guadalupe Island] a favorite re-
sorting place,” and refers to their former occurrence on Cedros Island, in latitude 28°. Although
at one time abundant on the California coast, they are by no means numerous there now, having
been nearly exterminated by unrestricted destruction by the s.alers. The writcr above cited refers
also to their capture by the Indians at the mouth of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The Seals appear
here and on the neighboring coast, he adds, “some years as early as the first of March, and more
or less remain till July or August; but they are most plentiful in April and May. During these
two months the Indians devote nearly all their time to sealing when the weather will permit.” He
reports their increase there in later years, and that while only a few dozens were annually taken
there from 1843 to 1864, fully five thousand were taken in 1869.3 Captain Bryant has given a
similar report, referring especially to their abundance along the coasts of Oregon, Washington Ter-
ritory, and British Columbia in 1869, as compared with former years. He says those taken “‘ were
mostly very young Seals, none appearing to be over a year old. Formerly in March and April the
natives of Puget Sound took large numbers of pregnant females,‘ but no places where they have
resorted to breed seem to be known off this coast.” He thinks it probable, however, that they
may occupy rocky ledges off shore which are rarely visited by boats.’ In his MS. report just

1ScamMMON, C. M.: The Marine Mammals of the Northwestern Coast, &c., pp. 152, 154.

2BRowWNE, J. Ross: Resources of the Pacific Slope, second part, p. 128.

3Scammon, C. M.: The Marine Mammals of the Northwestern Coast, &c., p. 154.

4Thero are six skulls in the National Museum from Puget Sound and the neighboring coast (collected at several
different points by Messrs. Scammon and Swan), all of which are females.

>Bulletin Museum Comparative 4odlogy, ii, p. 88.

4F

50 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

received he states that a half-breed hunter told him that he found in summer, “on Queen Charlotte’s
Island, groups of these animals consisting of two or more beach-masters with a dozen or more
females and pups, but no half-grown males.”

As is well known, the Pribylov or so-called “‘ Fur Seal Islands,” off the coast of Alaska, form
the great breeding-ground of the Fur Seals, to which hundreds of thousands annually resort to
bring forth their young. The Pribylov Group consists of four small islands, known respectively
as Saint Paul’s, Saint George’s, Otter, and Walrus Islands. The two last named are of small size,
and are not used as breeding-grounds by the Seals, although Otter Island is visited by a large
number of “non-breeding Seals.” Saint Paul’s Island is the largest, containing an area of about
thirty-three square miles, and having a coast line of about forty-two miles, nearly one half of which
is sand beach. Of this, sixteen and a half miles, according to Mr. Elliott, are occupied in the
breeding season by the Fur Seals. Saint George’s Island is somewhat smaller, with only twenty-
nin’ miles of shore line. It presents a bold coast, a grand wall of basalt extending continuously
for ten miles, with no passageway from the sea.. It has, in all, less than a mile of sand beach, and
only two and a quarter miles of eligible landing grounds for the Seals.

A few old male Fur Seals are said to make their appearance at the rookeries on these islands
between the 1st and 15th of May, they acting, as it were, the part of pioneers, since their number is
not much increased before the first of June. At about this date, and with the setting in of the
humid, foggy weather of summer, the male Seals begin to land by “hundreds and thousands,” to
await the arrival of the females, which do not appear before about July first. The young are born
soou after, and toward the last of this month the rookeries begin to lose their compactness and
definite boundaries, but they are not fully broken up till about the middle of September. The
Seals begin to leave the islands about the end of October, the greater proportion departing in
November, while some remain till the end of the following month, and even later.

The number of Fur Seals present on Saint Paul’s Island in July, 1872, was estimated by Mr.
Elliott to exceed three million, and on Saint George’s Island in July, 1873, at about one hundred
and sixty-three thousand. Although these islands form by far their most populous resorts, they
are said to occur in considerable numbers on some of the islands to the north ward, but I am unable
to find definite statements as to their numbers or favorite stations. Mr. Elliott, after examining
Saint Matthew’s and Saint Lawrence Islands, became convinced that they were not only not resorted
to as breeding stations by the Fur Seals, but that these islands, by their constitution and climatic
conditions, were unsuitable for this purpose, and adds, “it may be safely said that no land of ours
in the north is adapted to the wants of that animal, except that of Saint Paul and Saint George.”
Mr. W. H. Dall states that “they have never been found in Bering Strait, or within three hundred
niles of it.” In early times these animals are well known to have been abundant on Behring’s and
Copper Islauds. According to Krascheninikow, they were so numerous upon Behring’s Island
about the middle of the last century as to cover the whole southern ghore of the island. Their
range on the Asiatic coast is given by Steller and others as extending southward along the Kamt-
chatkan coast to the Kurile Islands. Krascheninikow states that they appeared there, however,
only in spring and in September, none being seen there from the beginning of June till the end of
August, at which time he says they return from the south with their young. Von Schrenck speaks
of their occurrence in the Ochotsk Sea and the Tartarian Gulf as far south as the forty-sixth degree
of latitude, or to the southern point of Saghalien Island. The natives reported to him the occurrence
of great numbers of the animals on the eastern coast of that island. Captain Scammon also refers
to their abundance twenty years since on the eastern side of Saghalien.

Except during the season of reproduction, these animals appear to lead a wandering life, but
the extent and direction of their migrations are not yet well known. Steller spoke of their migra-

THE FUR SEAL: SIZE, AND GHYNERAL HISTORY. dl

tions as being as regular as those of the various kinds of sea-fowl, and they are recorded as arriving
with great regularity at the Pribylov Islands, but where. they pass the season of winter is still a
matter of conjecture.

S1zE.—Mr. Elliott has given a table showing the weight, size, and rate of growth of the Fur
Seal, from the age of one week to six years, based on actual weight and measurement, with an
estimate of the size and weight of specimens from eight to twenty years of age. From this table
it appears that the pups when a week old have a length of from twelve to fourteen inches, and a
weight of six to seven and a half pounds. At six months old the length is two feet and the weight
about thirty pounds. At one year the average length of six examples was found to be thirty-eight
inches, and the weight thirty-nine pounds, the males and females at this time being alike in size
The average weight of thirty males at the age of two years is given as fifty-eight pounds, and the
length as forty-five inches. Thirty-two males at the age of three years were found to give an
average weight of eighty-seven pounds, and an average length of fifty-two inches. Ten males at
the age of four averaged one hundred and thirty-five pounds in weight, and fitty-eight inches in
length. A mean of five examples five years old is: weight, two hundred pounds; length, sixty-five
inches. Three males at six years gave a weight of two hundred and eighty pounds, and a length
of six feet. The estimated average weight of males from eight years and upward, when fat, is
given as four hundred to five hundred pounds, and the average length as six feet three inches
to six feet eight inches. Mr. Elliott further adds that the average weight of the female is from
eighty to eighty-five pounds, but that they range in weight from seventy-five to one hundred and
twenty pounds, and that the five and six year old males, on their first appearance in May and
June, when fat and fresh, may weigh a third more than in July, or at the time those mentioned in
the table were weighed, which would thus indicate an average maximum weight of about three
hundred and seventy-five pounds for the six-year-old males. According, however, to my own
measurements of old males, from mounted and unmounted specimens, the length is between seven
and eight feet, and of a full-grown female about four feet. Captain Bryant states that the males
attain mature size at about the sixth year, when their total length is from seven to eight feet, their
girth six to seven feet, and their weight, when in full flesh, from five to seven hundred pounds.
The females, he says, are full grown at four years old, when they measure four {cet in length, two
and a half in girth, and weigh eighty to one hundred pounds. The yearlings, he says, weigh from
thirty to forty pounds. The relative size of the adults of both sexes and the young is well shown
in the accompanying illustration drawn by Mr. Elliott.

GENERAL HISTORY.—The northern Fur Seal was first made known to science by Steller, in
1751, under the name of Ursus marinus. During his visit to Kamtchatka and its neighboring
islands, in 1742, he met with these animals in great numbers at Bering’s Island, where he spent
some time among them, and carefully studied their habits and anatomy, a detailed account of
which appeared in his celebrated memoir entitled ‘‘ De Bestiis Marinis,” in the Transactions of the
Saint Petersburg Academy for the year 1749.1 This important essay was the source of nearly all of
the accounts of this animal that appeared prior to the beginning of the present decade. The
twenty-eight quarto pages of Steller’s memoir devoted to this species gave not only a detailed
account of its anatomy, with an extensive table of measurements, but also of its remarkable habits,
and figures of the animals themselves. A little later Krascheninikow, in his History of Kamt-
chatka,? under the name of “Sea Cat,” gave also a long account of its habits, apparently based

1Noy. Comm. Acad. Petrop., ii, pp. 331-359, pl. xv, 1751. This, as is well known, is a posthumous paper, pub-
lished six years after Steller’s death, Steller dying of fever November 12, 1745, while on his way from Siberia to Saint
Petersbu:g. The description of the Seca Bear was written at Bering’s Island in May, 1742.

2 Hist. Kamtchatka (English edition), translated {rom the Russian by James Grieve, pp. 123-130, 1764.

D2 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIU ANIMALS.

mainly on Steller’s notes,! but it embraces a few particulars not given in “De Bestiis Marinis.”
Steller’s description of the habits of this animal has been largely quoted by Buffon, Pennant,
Schreber, Hamilton, and other general writers.

Buffon, Pennant, Schreber, Gmelin, and nearly all writers on the Pinnipeds, down to about
1820, confounded the northern Fur Seal with the Fur Seals of the Southern Hemisphere, blending
their history as that of a single species. Péron, in 1816, first recognized it as distinct from its
southern allies, as it was so treated somewhat later by Demarest, Lesson, Fischer, Gray, and other
systematic writers,’ but its distinctive characters were not clearly set forth till 1859, when Dr. J.
I. Gray described and figured its skull, aud showed that the northern species was not even con-
generic with the Sea Bears of the south. Very few specimens of either the northern or southern
Sea Bears appear to have reached European museums prior to about that date, so that naturalists
had not previously been able to make a direct comparison of this species with any of its southern
affines. Dr. Gray, in referring to this point in 1859, wrote as follows: “I had not been able to see
a specimen of this species in any of the museums which I examined on the Continent or in England,
or to find a skull of the genus [Arctocephalus] from the North Pacific Ocean, yet I felt so assured,
from Ste'ler’s description and the geographical position, that it must be distinct from the Eared
Fur Seals from the Antarctic Ocean and Australia, with which it had usually been confounded,
that in my ‘Catalogue of Seals in the Collection of the British Museum’ [1850] I regarded it as a
distinct species, under the name of Arctocephalus ursinus, giving an abridgment of Steller’s descrip:
tion as its specific character.” ‘The British Museum,” he adds, “has just received, under the name
Otaria leonina, from Amsterdam, a specimen [skull and skin] of the Sea Bear from Bering’s Straits,
which was obtained from Saint Petersburg”;? which is the specimen already spoken of as figured
by Dr. Gray. From the great differences existing between this skull and those of the Southern Sea
Bears, Dr. Gray, a few weeks later, separated the northern species from the genus Arctocephalus,
under the name Callorhinus.*

It seems, however, that there were two skulls of Steller’s Sea Bear in the Berlin Museum as
early as 1841,5 and three skeletons of the same species in the Museum of Munich in 1849,° yet
Dr. Gray appears to have been the first to compare this animal with its southern relatives, and to
positively decide its affinities.

Misled, however, by erroneous information respecting specimens of Eared Seals received at the
British Museum from California, a skin of the Callorhinus ursinus was doubtfully described by this
author, in the paper in which the name Callorhinus was proposed, as that of his Arctocephalus
monteriensis, which is a Hair Seal. This skin was accompanied by a young skull, purporting, by the
label it bore, to belong to it, but Dr. Gray observes that otherwise he should have thought it too
sinall to have belonged to the same animal. Seven years later,’ he described the skull as that of
a new species (Arctocephalus californianus), still associating with it, however, the skin of the

'Krascheninikow, it is stated, ‘‘received allof Mr. Steller’s papers” to aid him in the preparation of his ‘‘ History
of Kamtchatka.”

?Nilsson and Miiller in 1841, and Wagner in 1846 and 1849, on the other hand, still considered all the Sea Bears
as belonging to a single species. Wagner, in 1849 (Arch. fiir Naturg., 1849, pp. 37-49) described the osteological char-
acters of the northern species from three skeletons in the Munich Museum received from Bering’s Sea. One of these
was apparently that of a full-grown female; a second was believed to be that of a half-grown male, while the third
belonged to a very young animal, in which the permanent teeth were still not wholly developed. Wagner compares
the species with Steller’s Sea Lion, and with the figures of the skulls of the southern Sea Bears given by F. Cuvier,
Blainville, and Quoy and Gaimard, and notes various differences in the form of the teeth and skull, but believes that
these differences must be regarded as merely variations dependent upon age.

3Gray, J. E., in the Proceedings of the Zodlogical Society of London, 1859, p. 102.

4GrRay, J. E., in the Proceedings of the Zodlogical Society of London, 1859, p. 359.

'See Archiv fiir Naturgesch., 1841, p. 334.

6GRAY, J. E., in the Proceedings of the Zodlogical Society of London, 849, p. 39.

7Gray, J. E., Catalogue of the Seals and Whales in the British Museum, 1866, p. 51.

THE FUR SEAL: FIGURES. 53

Callorhinus ursinus. The skull he subsequently considered as that of a young A. monteriensis
(=Lumetopias Steller); and referring his A. californianus to that species, he was consequently led
into the double error of regarding the Humetopias Stelleri us a Fur Seal (as already explained under
that species and elsewhere in the present paper), and of excluding the Callorhinus ursinus from the
list of Fur Seals. To this I called attention in 1870, and in 1871 Dr. Gray correctly referred his A.
monteriensis and A. californianus in part (the “skin only”) to Callorhinus ursinus?

What may be termed the second or modern epoch in the general history of this species began
in 1869, when Captain C. M. Scammon published a highly important contribution to its biology,? he
describing at considerable length, from personal observation, its habits, distribution, and products,
as well as the various methods employed for its capture. The following year Mr. W. H. Dall
devoted a few pages® to its history, in which he made many important suggestions relative to
the sealing business. During the same year I was able to add not only something to its technical
history, but also to make public an important communication on its habits kind}y placed at my
disposal by Captain Charles Bryant,® government agent in charge of the Fur Seal Islands of
Alaska. In 1874, Captain Scammon republished his above mentioned paper,’ adding thereto a
transcript of Captain Bryant’s observations already noted. Almost simultaneously with this
appeared Mr. H. W. Elliott’s exhaustive Report on the Seal Islands of Alaska,’ in which the present
species properly comes in for a large share of the author’s attention. The work is richly
illustrated with photographic plates, taken from Mr. Elliott’s sketches, about twenty-five of which
are devoted to the Fur Seal. The text of this rare and privately distributed work has been since
reprinted,’ with some changes and additions, and has been widely circulated. It contains very
little relating to the Fur Seal that is strictly technical, but the general history of its life at the
Pribylov Islands is very fully told, while the commercial or economic phase of the subject is treated
at length. A few minor notices of this species have since appeared (mostly popular articles in
illustrated magazines, chiefly from the pen of Mr. Elliott), but nothing relating to its general history
requiring special notice in the present connection, until the publication, in 1881, by the Census
Bureau and the Fish Commission, of the two editions of Mr. Elliott’s elaborate monograph of
the Seal Islands of Alaska.®

FicurEs.—The first figures of the Northern Sea Bear were given by Steller, in his p- per already

‘cited. They represent an adult male, in a quite natural attitude, and a female reclining on her back.
In respect to details, these early figures were naturally more or less rude and inaccurate. They

'Gray; J. E.: Supplementary Catalogue of the Seals and Whales, p. 15; Hand-List of Seals, p. 32.

28camMon, C. M., in the Overland Monthly, vol. iii, Nov., 1869, pp. 393-399.

3DaLL, WILLIAM H.: Alaska and its Resources, 1870, pp. 492-498.

4Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Cambridge, ii, pp. 73-89.

‘Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Cambridge, pp. 89-108.

6ScamMoNn, C. M.: The Marine Mammals of the Northwestern Coast, &c., 1874, pp. 141-163.

TELLIOTT, HENRY W.: Report on the Prybilov Group, or Seal Islands of Alaska, 4to, unpaged, 1973 [1874].

8ELLIOTT, HENRY W.: Condition of Affairs in Alaska, 1875, pp. 107-151.

91881. ELLiott, HENry W.: Department of the Interior. | — | Tenth Census of the United States. | Francis A.
Walker, | Superintendent. | — | The history and present condition | of the fishery industries. | Prepared under the
direction of Professor 8. F. Baird, U.S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, by G. Brown Goode, Assistant Director,
U.S. National Museum. | — | The Seal-Islands of Alaska, | by | Henry W. Elliott. | (Seal of Department of the Inte-
rior.) | Washington: | Government Printing Office: | 1881. Quarto, pp.176. Two maps; twenty-nine plates.

1881. KLLioTr, Henry W.: U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries. | Spencer I’. Baird, Commissioner. | — | 176.

| Special Bulletin. | — | A Monograph | of the | Seal Islands of Alaska | by | Henry W. Eltiott | — | Reprinted, with
additions, from the Report on the Fishery Industries | of the Tenth Census. | Washington: | Government Printing
Office. | 1882. Quarto, pp.176. Two maps; twenty-nine plates.

These two editions differ in the fact that in the census edition, pp. 102 to 109, relating to ‘“‘The Reproduction of
the Fur Seal, Sea Lion, and Walrus,” are replaced by ‘‘A Brief Review of the Official Reports upon the Conduct of
Affairs on the Seal Islands.”

54. NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

were copied, however, by Buffon, Schreber, Pennant, and other early writers, and are the only
representations of this species known to me that were made prior to about the year 1839, except
Choris’s plate of a group of these animals entitled “Ours marins dans Vile de St. Paul,”! published
in 1822. This represents three old males, surrounded by their harems, and indicates very faithfully
the mode of grouping and the variety of attitudes assumed by these animals when assembled
on the rookeries. Hamilton, in 1839, gave a figure of the “Sea Bear of Steller (Otaria ursina)”
which he tells us is “from the engraving of the distinguished Naturalist of the Rurick,”? the original
of which I have not seen. This represents a male and female, the latter reclining on its side, with
2 pup resting on its right flipper.

The first figure of the skull is that published by Gray in 1859,3—a view in profile of the skull
of an adult male. A wood-cut of the same was given in 1866,‘ and a fine lithographic plate in
1874,° representing the skull in profile, from above and from below.®

In 1870 I gave figures of two adult male skulls (two views of each), of an adult female skull
(three views), of a very young skull (three views), and of the scapula, dentition, etc. These, so far
as known to me, are the only figures of the skull or other details of structure thus far published.

In 1874 Captain Scammon gave figures of the animal,’ a zincograph of an old male,® from a
sketch by Mr. Elliott, a wood-cut of the head of a female seen from helow (drawn by Elliott),°
two outline figures representing the female as seen from below and in profile, and two others in
outline illustrating “attitudes of the Fur Seals.” Mr. Elliott, in his first Report on the Seal
Islands, in a series of over two dozen large photographic plates (from India ink sketches from
nature), has given an exhaustive presentation of the phases of fur seal life so faithfully studied
by him at Saint Paul’s Island. Among these may be mentioned especially those entitled “The East
Landing and Black Buttes—The beach covered with young Fur Seals”; “The North Shore of Saint
Paul’s Island” (giving an extensive view of the rookeries); “Lukannon Beach” (Fur Seals playing
in the surf, and rookeries in the distance); “Old male Fur Seal, or ‘Seecatch’” (as he appears at
the end of the season after three months of fasting); “‘Fur-seal Harem” (showing the relative size
of males, females, and young, various attitudes, positions, ete.); “Fur-seal Males, waiting for their
‘Harems’” (the females beginning to arrive); “ Fur-seal ‘Rookery’” (breeding-grounds at Polavina
Point); “Fur-seal Harem” (Reef Rookery, foreground showing relative size of males and females);
“Fur-seal Pups at Sleep and Play”; ‘Hauling Grounds” (several views at different points);
“Capturing Fur Seals”; “Driving Fur Seals”; ‘Killing Fur Seals—Sealing gang at work,” ete.

The only other pictorial contributions to the history of the Fur Seal of noteworthy importance
prior to the publication by the Census of Mr. Elliott’s latest work, is Mr. Clark’s colored plate, on
which are represented a nearly full-grown male, a female, and a pup, prepared from skins sent to
the British Museum by the Alaska Commercial Company. In these the attitudes are excellent and
the coloring fair.

For detailed discussions of this species, its capture and its commercial uses, the reader is
referred to Elliott’s “Monograph” and to the chapters on THE HABITS OF THE FuR SEAL, and
THE FuR SEAL FISHERY, in subsequent pages of this work.

'Cnoris, L.: Voyage pittoresque autour du Monde, Paris, 1822. Tes Aléoutiennes, pl. xv.

*HAMILTON, R.: Marine Amphibiz, p. 266, pl. xxi.

5Gray, J. E., in Proceedings of the Zodlogical Society of London, 1859, pl. 1xviii.

‘Gray, J. E.: Catalogne of the Seals and Whales in the British Museum, p. 45, fig. 16.

5Gray, J. E.: Hand-List of Seals, pl. xix.

ST infer this to be the same specimen in each case, not only from the resemblance the figures bear to each other,
but from Dr. Gray, so far as I can discover, referring to only the single skull from Bering’s Strait, received in 1869.

*SCAMMON, C. M.: The Marine Mammals of the Northwest Coast, &c., pl. xxi, two figures.

SELLIOTT, HENRY W.: Report on the Pribylov Group, or Fur Seal Islands, of Alaska, unpaged, and plates net
numbered.

*Proceedings of the Zodlogical Society of London, 1878, 271, pl. xx.

THE HARBOR SEAL. 55

23. THE HARBOR SEAL.

GENERAL HISTORY AND SYNONYMY.—The common Seal, Phoca (Phoca) vitulina Linné, is
mentioned in the earliest works on natural history, having been described and rudely figured by
various writers as early as the middle of the sixteenth century as well as during the seventeenth
century. Even down to the time of Linné it was the only spevies recognized; or, more correctly,
all the species known were usually confounded as one species, supposed to be the same as the
common Seal of the European coasts. Consequently almost down to the beginning of the present
century the ‘“‘common Seal” was generally supposed to inhabit nearly all the seas of the globe,
Buffon, Pennant, Schreber, and others referring to it as an inhabitant of the Southern Hemisphere.
Linné distinguished only a single species, even in the later editions of his “Systema Nature.” As
‘is well known, the smaller species of Seal are with difficulty distinguishable by external characters,
particularly during their younger stages. Few, however, are so variable in color as the present,
and none has so wide a geographical range.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—The Harbor Seal appears to have formerly been much more
numerous on portions of our eastern coast than it is at present.! Dr. DeKay, writing in 1842,
states that the “common Seal, or Sea Dog,” is “now comparatively rare in our [New York]
waters,” though “formerly very abundant.” He adds, ‘A certain reef of rocks in the harbor of
New York is called Robin’s Reef, from the numerous seals which were accustomed to resort there;
robin or robyn being the name in Dutch for Seal. Atsome seasons, even at the present day, they
are very numerous, particularly about the Execution Rocks in the Sound; but their visits appear
to be very capricious.” He further alludes to their capture nearly every year in the Passaic River,
in New Jersey, and states that a Seal was taken in a seine in the Chesapeake Bay, near Elko,
Maryland, in August, 1824, supposed by Dr. Mitchill, who saw it, to be of this species? Although
still occasionally appearing on the coast of the Atlantic States as far southward as North Carolina,*
it is of probably only accidental occurrence south of New Jersey, and rare south of Massachusetts.

In respect to its occurrence on the New Jersey coast, Dr. C. C. Abbott, the well-known
naturalist of Trenton, N. J., kindly writes me, in answer to my inquiries on this point, as follows:
“In going over my note-books, I find I have there recorded the occurrence of Seals (Phoca
vitulina) at Trenton, N. J., as follows: December, 1861; January, 1864; December, 1866; February,
1870; and December, 1877. In these five instances a single specimen was killed on the ledge of
rocks crossing the river here and forming the rapids. In December, 1861, three were seen, and
two in February, 1870. A week later one was captured down the river near Bristol, Bucks County,
Pennsylvania. My impression is that in severe winters they are really much more abundant in
the Delaware River than is supposed. Considering how small a chance there is of their being seen
when the river is choked with ice, I am disposed to believe that an occasional pair or more come
up the river, even as high as Trenton, the head of tide-water, and one hundred and thirty-eight
miles from the ocean.

1The “Semi-Weekly Advertiser,’’ Boston, January 10, 1872, had the following:

‘The keeper of the Bird Island light-house at Marion reports that one day last week he saw over 300 Seals on the
ice at one time. He shot one and obtained from it two gallons of oil. In eight years that he has kept the light he
never saw more than three at a time until now.”

2DrKay, James E.: New York Zodlogy, or the Fauna of New York, part i, 1842, pp. 54, 55.

3A recent record of its capture in North Carolina is the following, the reference, I think, unquestionably relating
to the present species:

“ SOUTHERN RANGE OF THE SEAL.—The Wilmington, N. C., ‘Star’ of February 28, mentions the capture, in New
River, Onslow County, of a large female Spotted Seal, measuring about seven feet in length, and weighing 250
pounds. This is an interesting note. The species must probably have been the common Harbor Seal ( Phoca vitulina),
The same newspaper says one was reported near Beaufort some time ago.”—[W. E. D. Scott,] ‘‘ Country,” vol. i, No
21, p. 292, March 16, 1¢78,

56 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“On examination of old local histories, I find reference to the Seals as not uncommon along
our coast, and as quite frequently wandering ‘up our rivers in winter. I can find no newspaper
references to the occurrence of Seals later than February or earlier than December, but as histor-
ical references to climate, as well as the memory of aged men still living, show conclusively that
our winters are now much milder than they were even fifty years ago, it is probable that Seals did
come up the river earlier in past years. ;

“In conversation with an old fisherman, now seventy-six years old, who has always lived at
Trenton, and has been a good observer, I learn that every winter, years ago, it was expected that
one or more Seals would be killed; and that about 1840 two were killed in March, which it was
supposed had accompanied a school of herring up the river.

“Tn my investigations in local archeology I have found, in some of the fresh-water shell heaps,
or rather camp-fire and fishing-village sites along the river, fragments of bones which were at the’
time identified as those of Seals. I did not preserve them, as I had no knowledge of their being of
interest. They were associated with bones of deer, bear, elk, and large wading birds, and then
gave me the impression, which subsequent inquiry has strengthened, that the Seal, like many of
our large mammals, had disappeared gradually, as the country became more densely settled, and
that in pre-European times it was common, at certain seasons, both on the coast and inland.” !

In later communications (dated January 25 and March 20, 1879) he inclosed to me newspaper
slips and notes respecting the capture of eight specimens in New Jersey, mostly near Trenton,
during the winter of 1878-79.

On the coast of Massachusetts they occur in considerable numbers about the mouth of the
Ipswich River, where I have sometimes observed half a score in sight at once. They are also to
be met with about the islands in Boston Harbor, and along the eastern shore of Cape Cod. . Captain
N. E. Atwood states that they are now and then seen at Provincetown, and that in a shallow bay
west of Rainsford Island “many hundreds” may be seen at any time in summer on a ledge of
rocks that becomes exposed at low water.”

Farther northward they become more numerous, particularly on the coast of Maine and the
shores of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, Newfoundland, and Labrador, and are also common on the
shores of Davis’s Strait and in Greenland, where, says Dr. Rink, “it occurs here and there
throughout the coast,” and is likewise to be met with at all seasons of the year. Mr. Kumlien
Says it is one of the “rarer species” in the Cumberland waters, but its exact northern limit I have
not seen stated.

On the European coasts it is said to occur occasionally in the Mediterranean, and to be not
rare on the coast of Spain. It is more frequent on the coasts of France and the British Islands,
and thence northward along the Scandinavian peninsula is the commonest species of the family.
It also extends northward and eastward along the arctic coast of Europe, but late explorers of
the Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen Islands do not enumerate it among the species there met with.
Malmgren states distinctly that it is not found there,’ and it is not mentioned by Von Heuglin
nor by the other German naturalists who have recently visited these islands. From its littoral
habits its absence there might be naturally expected. It is also said by some writers to occur in
the Black and Caspian Seas, and in Lake Baikal, but the statement is seriously open to doubt, as
will be shown later in connection with the history of the Ringed Seal.

On the Pacific coast of North America it occurs from Southern California northward to

‘Letter dated Trenton, N. J., Dec. 26, 1878.
*See Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl., vol. i, p. 193.
* Weigm. Arch. fiir Naturg. 1864, p. 84.

THE HARBOR SEAL: RANGE AND HABITS. 57

Bering’s Strait, where it seems to be an abundant species. I have examined specimens trom the
Santa Barbara Islands, and various intermediate points to Alaska, and from Plover Bay, on the
eastern coast of Siberia. The extent of its range on the Asiatic coast has not been ascertained.
If it is the species referred to by Pallas under the name Phoca canina, and by Temminck, Von
Schrenck, and other German writers, under the name Phoca nummularis, as seems probable, it
occurs in Japan and along the Amoor coast of the Ochotsk Sea. Von Schrenck speaks of it, on
the authority of the natives, as entering the Amoor River.!' The late Dr. Gray referred a speci-
men from Japan to his “ Halicyon Richardsi,” which, as already shown, is merely a synonym of
Phoca vitulina. It thus doubtless ranges southward along the Asiatic coast to points nearly cor-
responding in latitude with its southern limit of distribution on the American side of the Pacific.

The Harbor Seal not only frequents the coast of the North Atlantic and the North Pacific,
and some of the larger interior seas, but ascends all the larger rivers, often to a considerable dis-
tance above tide-water. It even passes up the Saint Lawrence to the Great Lakes, and has been
taken in Lake Champlain. DeKay states, on the authority of a Canadian newspaper, that a Seal
(in all probability of this species) was taken in Lake Ontario near Cape Vincent (Jefferson County,
New York) about 1824, and adds that the same paper says that Indian traders report the previous
occurrence of Seals in the same lake, though such instances are rare.2 Thompson gives two
instances of its capture in Lake Champlain; one of the specimens he himself examined, and has
published a careful description of it, taken from the animal before it was skinned.°

They are also known to ascend the Columbia River as far as the Dalles (above the Cascades,
and about two hundred miles from the sea), as well as the smaller rivers of the Pacific coast, nearly
to their sources. Mr. Brown states that “ Dog River, a tributary of the Columbia, takes its name
from a dog-like animal, probably a Seal, being seen in the lake whence the stream rises.” !

Hapits.—The Harbor Seal is the only species of the family known to be at all common on
any part of the eastern coast of the United States. Although it has been taken as far south
as North Carolina, it is found to be of very rare or accidental occurrence south of New Jersey.
Respecting its history here, little has been recorded beyond the fact of its presence. Captain
Scammon has given a quite satisfactory account of its habits and distribution as observed by him
on the Pacific coast of the United States, but under the supposition that it was a species distinct from
the well-known Phoca vitulina of the North Atlantic. Owing to its rather southerly distribution,
as compared with its more exclusively boreal affines, its biography has been many times written
in greater or less detail. Fabricius, as early as 1791, devoted not less than twenty pages to its
history, based in part on his acquaintance with it in Greenland, and partly on the writings of pre-
ceding authors ;° and much more recently extended accounts of it have been given by Nilsson and

1Von ScurENK: Reisen im Amoor-Lande, Bd. i, p. 180.
2? DeKay: New York Zodlogy, or the Fauna of New York, pt. i, 1842, p. 55.
— ®His record of the capture of these examples is as follows:

“While several persons were skating upon the ice on Lake Champlain, a little south of Burlington, in February,
1810, they discovered a living Seal in a wild state which had found its way through a crack and was crawling upon
the ice. They took off their skates, with which they attacked and killed it, and then drew it to the shore. It issaid to
have been four and a half feet long. It must have reached our lake by way of the Saint Lawrence and Richelieu.”—
Thompsons’ Nat. and Civil Hist. of Vermont, 1842, p. 38.

‘Another Seal was killed upon the ice between Burlington and Port Kent on the 23d: of February, 1846. Mr.
Tabor, of Keeseville, and Messrs. Morse and Field, of Peru, were crossing over in sleighs when they discovered it
crawling upon the ice, and, attacking it with the butt end of their whips, they succeeded in killing it and brought it on
shore at Burlington, where it was purchased by Morton Cole, esq., and presented to the University of Vermont, where
its skin and skeleton are now preserved, * * * * At the time the above-mentioned Szal was taken, the lake, with
the exception of a few cracks, was entirely covered with ice.”—Jbid., Append., 1853, p. 13.

4 Proc. Zoél. Soc. Lond., 1868, p. 412, foot-note.

5 Fabricius appears to have exhaustively presented its literary history, his references to previous authors, in his
table of synonymy, occupying nearly four pages.

58 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Lilljeborg, but unfortunately for English readers the first of these histories is written in Danish
and the other in Swedish. It has, however, been noticed quite fully by Bell, Macgillivray, and
other British authors, while lesser and more fragmentary accounts of itare abundant. On the New
England coast, as elsewhere, it is chiefly observed about rocky islands and shores, at the mouths
of rivers and in sheltered bays, where it is always an object of interest. Although ranging far
into the arctic regions, it is everywhere said to be a sedentary or non-migratory species, being
resident throughout the year at all points of its extended habitat. Unlike most of the other
species, it is strictly confined to the shores, never résorting to the ice-floes, and is consequently
never met with far out at sea, nor does it habitually associate with other species. On the coast of
Newfoundland, where it is more abundant and better known than at more southerly points, it is
said to bring forth its young during the last two weeks of May and the early part of June, resorting
for this purpose to the rocky points and outlying ledges along the shore. It is said to be very
common along the shores of the Gulfof Saint Lawrence and ot Newfoundland in summer, or during
the period when the shores are free from ice, but in winter leaves the ice-bound coast for the re-
moter islands in the open sea. It is at all times watchful, and takes great care to keep out of reach
of guns. Still, many are surprised while basking on the rocks, and fall victims to the seal-bunters,
while considerable numbers of the young are captured in the seal-nets. They are described as very
sagacious, and as possessing great parental affection. Mr. Carroll states that when an old one is
found on the rocks with its young it will seize the latter and convey it in its mouth so quickly to
the water that there is not time to shoot it; or, if the young one be too large to be thus removed, it
will entice it upon its back and plunge with it into the sea. The same writer informs us that this
species is a great annoyance to the salmon-fishers, boldly taking the salmon from one end of the
net while the fisherman is working at the other end. It is also troublesome in other ways, since,
whenever the old ones get entangled in the strong seal-nets, they are able to cut themselves free, a
feat it is said no other Seal known in Newfoundland will do.

This species is known to the inhabitants of Newfoundland as the ‘Native Seal,” in conse-
quence of its being the only species found there the whole year. The young are there also called
“Rangers,” and when two or three years old—at which age they are believed to bring forth their
first young—receive the name of “Dotards.” Here, as well as in Greenland, the skins of this
species are more valued than those of any other species, owing to their beautifully variegated
markings, and are especially valued for covering trunks and the manufacture of coats, caps, and
gloves.! Mr. Brown informs us that the natives of the eastern coast of Greenland prize them highly
“as material for the women’s breeches,” and adds “that no more acceptable present can be given
to a Greenland damsel than a skin of the ‘ Kassigiak,’ as this species is there called." The Green-
landers also consider its flesh as ‘the most palatable of all ‘seal-beef’”.

According to Mr. Reeks, the period of gestation is about nine months, the union of the sexes
occurring, according to the testimony of the Newfoundlanders, in September.? Only rarely does
the female give birth to more than a single young. This agrees with what is stated by Bell and
other English authors respecting its season of procreation.

Respecting its general history, I find the following from the pen of Mr. John Cordeaux, who,
in writing of this species, as observed by him in British waters, says: “The Seal (Phoca vitulina)
is not uncominon on that part of the Lincolnshire coast adjoining the Wash. This immense
estuary, lying between Lincolnshire and Norfolk, is in great part occupied with large and dangerous

1'CaRROLL, MICHAEL: Seal and Herring Fisheries of Newfoundland, 1873, pp. 10, 11.
*>BRowN, Rosent, in Proceedings of the Zodlogical Society of London, 1868, p. 413
7REEKS, HENRY: Zodlogist, 2d ser., vol. vi, 1871, p. 2541.

THE HARBOR SEAL: HABITS. 59

sand-banks, intersected by deep but narrow channels. At ebb the sands are uncovered; and at
these times, on hot days, numbers of Seals may be found basking and sunning themselves on the
hot sands, or rolling and wallowing in the shallow water along the bank. Sometimes a herd of
fifteen or twenty of these interesting creatures will collect on some favorite sand-spit; their chief
haunts are the Long-sand, near the centre of the Wash; the Knock, along the Lincoln coast; and the
Dog’shead sand, near the entrance to Boston Deeps. In the first week of July, when sailing down
the Deeps along the edge of the Knock, we saw several Seals; some on the bank; others with their
bodies bent like a bow, the head and hind feet only out of the water. They varied greatly ir size,
also in color, hardly any two being marked alike; one had the head and face dark colored, wearing
the color like a mask; in others the upper parts were light gray; others looked dark above and
light below, and some dark altogether. . . . The female has one young one in the year;
and as these banks are covered at flood, the cub, when born, must make an early acquaintance with
the water. In most of the Phocidw the young one is at first covered with a sort of wool, the second
or hairy dress being gradually acquired; and until this is the case it does not go into the water.
This, however, dves not appear to be the case with the common Seal, for Mr. L. Lloyd says (I be-
lieve in his ‘Game Birds and Wild Fowl of Norway and Sweden,’ but I have not the book to refer
to) that the cub of the common species, whilst still in its mother’s womb, casts this wooly covering;
and when ushered into the world has acquired its second or proper dress.’ If this is the case, it
fully accounts for the cub being able to bear immersion from the hour of its birth. The Seal, if
lying undisturbed and at rest, can remain for hours without coming to the surface.””

Iam informed by competent observers that on the coast of Maine they assemble in a similar
manner on sand bars, but take to the water before they can be closely approached.

Mr. Kumlien (in his MS. notes) observes: “The so-called ‘Fresh-water Seal’ of the whalemen
is one of the rarer species in the waters of Cumberland Sound. They are mostly met with far up
in the fjords, and in the fresh-water streams and ponds, where they go after salmon. They are
rather difficult to capture, as at the season when they are commonly met with they have so little
blubber that they sink when shot. . . . The adult males often engage in severe combats
with each other. I have seen skins so scratched that they were nearly worthless. In fact, the
Eskimo consider a ‘ Kassiarsoak’ (a very large ‘Kassigiak’) as having an almost worthless skin,
and seldom use it except for their skin tents. The skins of the young, on the contrary, are a great
acquisition.” He further states that they do not make an excavation beneath the snow for the
reception of the young, like Phoea fetida, “but bring forth later in the season on the bare ice, fully
exposed.”

Under the name “ Leopard Seal,” Captain Scammon has given a very good account of the habits
of this species as observed by him on the Pacific coast of North America. He speaks of it as dis-
playing no little sagacity, and considerable boldness, although exceedingly wary. He says it is
“found about outlying rocks, islands, and points, on sand-reefs made bare at low tide, and is
frequently met with in harbors among shipping, and up rivers more than a hundred miles from the
sea. We have often observed them,” he continues, “close to the vessel when under way, and
likewise when at anchor, appearing to emerge deliberately from the depths below, sometimes only
showing their heads, at other times exposing half of their bodies, but the instant any move was
made on board, they would vanish like an apparition under water, and frequently that would be

‘A statement to this effect is also made by Mr. Carroll, but Mr. Robert Brown affirms, on the authority of Captain
McDonald, that in the Western Isles of Scotland the young are “born pure white, with curly hair, like the young of
Pagomys fetidus, but within three days of its birth begins to take dark colors on the snout and tips of the flippers.”—
Proc. Zod]. Soc. Lond., 1868, p. 413.

2CORDEAUX, JOHN, in Zodlogist, 2d ser., vol. vii, 1872, pp. 3203, 3204,

60 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

the last seen of them, or, if seen again, they would be far out of gunshot.” They come ashore, he
observes, “more during windy weather than in calm, and in the night more than in the day; and
they have been observed to collect in the largest herds upon the beaches and rocks, near the full
and change of the moon. They delight in basking in the warm sunlight, and when no isolated rock
or shore is at hand, they will crawl upon any fragment of drift-wood that will float them. Although
gregarious, they do not herd in such large numbers as do nearly all others of the Seal tribe; further-
more, they may be regarded almost as mutes, in comparison with the noisy Sea Lions. It is very
rarely, however, any sound is uttered by them, but occasionally a quick bark or guttural whining,
and sometimes a peculiar bleating is heard when they are assembled together about the period of
bringing forth their young. At times, when a number meet in the neighborhood of rocks or reefs
distant from the mainland, they become quite playful, and exhibit much life in their gambols,
leaping out of the water or circling around upon the surface. . . . Its rapacity in pursuing
and devouring the smaller members of the piscatory tribes is quite equal, in proportion to its size,
to that of the orca. When grappling with a fish too large to be swallowed whole, it will hold and
handle it between its fore flippers, and, with the united work of its mouth . . . the wriggling
prize is demolished and devoured as quickly, and in much the same manner, as a squirrel would
eat a bur-covered nut.

“Leopard Seals are very easily captured when on shore, as a single blow with a club upon the
head will dispatch them. The Indians about Puget Sound take them in nets made of large hemp
line, using them in the same manner as seines, drawing them around beaches when the rookery is
on shore. They are taken by the whites for their oil and skins, but the Indians and Esquimaux
make great account of them for food.” He adds that the natives of Puget Sound singe them before
a fire until the hair is consumed and the skin becomes crisp, when they are cut up and cooked as
best suits their taste.!

The apparent fondness of this animal, in common with other species of the family, for music,
has been often noted.

The food of this species consists largely of fish, but, like other species, it doubtless varies
its fare with squids and shrimps. That it aspires to more epicurean tastes is evidenced by its
occasional capture of sea-birds. This they ingeniously accomplish by swimming beneath them as
they rest upon the water and seizing them. An eye-witness of this pastime relates an instance as
observed by him on the Scottish coast. ‘While seated on the bents,” he writes, “watching a flock
of [herring] gulls that were fishing in the sea near Donmouth, I was startled by their jerking high
in the air, and screaming in an unusual and excited manner. On no previous occasion have I
observed such a sensation in a gull-hood, not even when a black-head was being pursued, till he
disgorged his newly-swallowed fish, by that black-leg, the skua. The excitement was explained
by a Seal [presumably Phoca vitulina, this being the only species common at the locality in ques-
tion] showing above the water with a herring gull in his mouth. On his appearing the gulls
became ferocious, and struck furiously at the Seal, who disappeared with the gull in the water.
The Seal speedily reappeared, but on this occasion relinquished his victim on the gulls renewing
their attack. The liberated gull was so disabled as to be unable to fly, but it had strength enough
to hold up its head as it drifted with the tide.” 2

They are evidently discriminating in their tastes, and not loath to avail themselves of a fine
salmon now and then not of their own catching. Their habit of plundering the nets of the fisher-
men on the coast of Newfoundland has been already alluded to, but this peculiarity is evidently

‘Scammon, C.M.: Marine Mammals, etc., pp. 166, 167.
*Anaus, W. CralBE, in Zodlogist, 2d ser., vol. vi, 1871, p. 2762.

THE HARBOR SEAL: ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. 61

not confined to the Newfoundland representative of the species, as shown by the following incident
related by the writer last quoted. “Ona sunny noon in the autumn of 1868,” says this observer,
“] observed a Seal, not far from the same place, with a salmon in his mouth, which he forced
through the meshes of a stake net. The struggling salmon, whose head was in the jaws of the
Seal, struck the water violently with his tail, which gleamed like a lustre in the lessening ray.
The Seal rose and sank alternately, keeping seaward to escape Eley’s cartridges from the shore.
When above the water he shortened the silver bar, which continued to lash his sides long after its
thickest part had disappeared, by rising to his perpendicular, as if to allow the precious metal by
its own weight to slip into his crucible. The Seal evidently swallowed above, and masticated
below, water—the process lasting about twelve minutes, during which the Seal had travelled a full
half. mile.”

In their raids upon the nets of the fishermen they become sometimes themselves the victims,
being in this way frequently taken along our own coast as well as elsewhere. They are, however, at
all times unwelcome visitors. DeKay states that formerly they were taken almost every year in
the “fyke-nets” in the Passaic River, greatly to the disgust of the fishermen, the Seals when
captured making an obstinate resistance and doing much injury to the nets. Their accidental
capture in this way often affords a record of their presence at localities they are not commonly
supposed to frequent, as in the Chesapeake Bay, and at even more southerly localities on the
eastern coast of the United States.

Owing to the difficulty of capturing this species, and its comparatively small numbers, it is of
little commercial importance, although the oil it yields is of excellent quality, and its skins are of
special value for articles of dress, and other purposes, in consequence of their beautifully variegated
tints. Though not a few are taken in strong seal-nets, they are usually captured by means of the
rifle or heavy sealing gun. On rare occasions they are surprised on shore at so great a distance
from water that they are overtaken and killed by a blow on the head with aclub. Like other
species of the seal family, the Harbor seal is very tenacious of life, and must be struck in a vital
part by either ball or heavy shot, in order to kill it on the spot. Says Mr. Reeks, “I have been
often amused at published accounts of Seals shot in the Thames or elsewhere, but which ‘sank
immediately.” What Seal or other amphibious animal would not do so if ‘tickled’ with the greater
part of, perhaps, an ounce of No. 5 shot?” He adds that it is only in the spring of the year that
this seal will “float” when killed in the water, but says that he has never seen a Seal “so poor,
which, if killed dead on the spot, would not have floated from five to ten seconds,” or long enough
to give ‘‘ample time for rowing alongside,” supposing the animal to have been killed by shot, and
the boat to contain ‘two hands.” The oil of this species, according to the same writer, sells
in Newfoundland for fifty to seventy-five cents a gallon, while the skins are worth one dollar each.
Mr. Carroll gives the weight of the skin and blubber of a full-grown individual as ranging from
eighty to one hundred pounds, while that of a young one averages, at ten weeks old, thirty to
thirty-five pounds. The flesh of the young, the same writer quaintly says, is “as pleasant to the
taste as that of any description of salt-water bird.” Its flesh, as already stated, is esteemed by the
Greenlanders above that of any other species. Few statistics relating to the capture of this species
are available, but the number taken is small in comparison with the “catch” of other species,
particularly of the Harp or Greenland Seal. Dr. Rink states that only from one thousand to two
thousand are annually taken in Greenland, which is about one to two per cent. of the total catch.
They are hunted to a considerable extent, however, wherever they occur in numbers.

The Harbor Seal received this name from its predilection for bays, inlets, estuaries, and fjords,

62 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

from which habit it is also often termed Bay Seal, and, on the Scandinavian coast, Fjord Sea,
(Fjordskil), and also Rock Seal (Steen-Kobbe).’

24. THE HARP SEAL.

GENERAL HISTORY AND NOMENCLATURE.—The Harp Seal, Phoca (Pagophilus) grenlandica
Fabricius, like the Crested Seal, presents characters, at least in the male sex, that readily attract
the attention of even the casual observer—the one by its “saddle” or “harp-mark” of black on a
light ground, the other by its inflatable hood. Accordin gly both were mentioned by various early
writers, but notably by Egede, Ellis, and Cranz, and the indications they gave of their existence
enter into the technical history of the species, forming as they do the basis of the first systematic
names. Erxleben described the species in 1777, under the name Phoca grenlandica, bis descrip-
tion being founded mainly on information previously made public by Cranz.

Few Seals vary so much in color with age as the Harp Seal. This was long since mentioned
by Cranz, who says: ‘All Seals vary annually their color till they are full grown, but no sort so
much as this [the Attersoak], and the Greenlanders vary its name according to its age. They call
the foetus iblaw; in this state these are white and wooly, whereas the other sorts are smooth and
coloured. In the 1st year ’tis called Attarak, and ’tis a cream-colour. In the 2d year Atteitsiak
then ’tis gray. In the 3d Aglektok, painted. In the 4th Mélaktok, and in the 5th year Attarsoak.
Then it wears its half-moon, the signal of maturity.”

Dr. Rink states that at the present day the Greenlanders, as well as the Europeans, divide the
“Saddle-backs” into four or five different classes according to their age, but that in familiar
language they only distinguish by different names the full-grown animals from the half-grown
ones, the latter being called “ Bluesides.”

The young, when first born, are called by the Newfoundland sealers “‘White-coats”; later,
during the first moit, “Ragged-jackets”; when they have attained the black crescentic marks
they are termed “Harps,” or ‘Saddlers,” and also “Breeding Harps”; the yearlings and two-year-
olds are called “Young Harps” or “ Turning-Harps,” and also “ Bedlimers” (or ‘ Bellamers,” also
spelled “‘BedJamers”). The older and some recent writers state that the mature pattern of
coloration is not attained till the fifth year, while Jukes, Brown, Carroll, and others state that it is
acquired in the third or fourth year. There is also a diversity of statement respecting the sexual
differences of color in the adults, some writers affirming that the sexes are alike, while others state
that the female is without the harp-mark, or has the dark markings of the male only faintly indi-
cated. Mr. Carroll says: ‘“‘The reason why they are called Harp Seals, or ‘Saddlers,’ is, the male
Seal, as well as the female, has a dark stripe on each side from the shoulders to the tail, leaving a
muddy white stripe down the back. The male Harp Sealis very black about the head as well as
under the throat. . . . The female Harp is of a rusty gray about the head and white under
the throat.” Both Jukes and Reeks, however, refer to the absence of the harp-mark in the female.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—Although the Harp Seal has a circumpolur distribution, it

1 Seals appear to be increasing in numbers in Massachusetts Bay. We observed them frequently near Race Point,
Provincetown, in 1879, where they sometimes get into the gill-nets set for mackerel. At Barnstable they have become
very numerous and troubleso: e of late. They are often shot or taken in the weirs at Barnstable and Yarmouth, and
are accused of seriously depleting the fisheries in this locality, as well as at Plymouth, where they have been preserved
for a number of years. Crossing the entrance to Barnstable Harbor at sunset Noveinber 10, 1 counted eight or ten
heads above the surface. The number here is estimated at sixty-five or seventy, and there are probably not less than
three hundred in the bay. They are resident, disappearing for a time in the spring and returning accompanied by
their young, about one-quarter as large as their parents, in April or May. Capt. Gideon Bowley, of Provincetown,
tells me that they feed on ‘‘sun squalls,” or medusx, and that he has seen them “boil ’em up,” or vomit them, when
caught.—G. BROWN GOODE.

THK HARP SEAL: DISTRIBUTION, AND USES. 63

appears not to advance so far northward as the Ringed Seal or the Bearded Seal; yet the icy seas
of the north are pre-eminently its home. It is not found on the Atlantic coast of North America
in any numbers south of Newfoundland. A few are taken at the Magdalen Islands, and while on
their way to the Grand Banks some must pass very near the Nova Scotia coast. Dr. Gilpin,
however, includes it only provisionally among the Seals that visit the shores of that Province. It
doubtless occasionally wanders, like the Crested Seal, to points far south of its usual range, as I
find a skeleton of this species in the collection of the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, bearing
the legend “ Nahant, Mass., L. Agassiz.” I have at times felt doubtful about the correctness of
the assigned locality, as this seems to be the only proof of the occurrence of this species on the
Massachusetts coast. I have, however, recently been informed by Dr. C. C. Abbott, of New Jersey,
that a Seal, described to him as being about six feet long, white, with a broad black band along
each side of the back, was taken near Trenton, in that State, during the winter of 1878/79. This
description can of course refer to no other species than Phoca grenlandica, and as it comes from
a wholly trustworthy source it seems to substantiate the occasional occurrence of this species as
far south as New Jersey. Von Henglin gives it as ranging “in den amerikanischen Meeren
stidwarts bis New York,”! but I know not on what authority.

The Harp Seals are well known to be periodically exceedingly abundant alone the shores of
Newfoundland, where, during spring, hundreds of thousands are annually killed. In their migra-
tions they pass along the coast of Labrador, and appear with regularity twice a year off the coast
of Southern Greenland. Capt. J. C. Ross states that in Baffin’s Bay they keep mostly “to the
loose floating floes which constitute what is termed by the whale-fishers ‘ the middle ice’ of Baftin’s
Bay and Davis’ Straits.” He says he never met with them in any part of Prince Regent’s Inlet,
but states that they are reported by the natives to be very numerous on the west side of the
Isthmus of Boothia, but that they are not seen on the east side.2. They are well-known visitors to
the shores of Iceland, and swarm in the icy seas about Jan Mayen and Spitzbergen. They also
occur about Nova Zembla, and Payer refers to their abundance at Franz Josef Land. They occur
in the Kara Sea, and along the arctic coast of Kurope. Malmgren, Lilljeborg, and Collett state
that it is of regular occurrence on the coast of Finmark, where it occurs in small numbers from
October and November till February. Although reported by Bell and others as having been taken
in the Severn, and by Saxby as observed at Baltasound, Shetland, the capture of a specimen in
Morecombe Bay, England, reported by Turner in 1874, Mr. E. R. Alston says is ‘the first British
specimen that has been properly identified.”

The distribution of this species in the North Pacific is not well known. Pallas (under the
name Phoca dorsata) records it from Kamtchatka, where its occurrence is also affirmed by Steller.
Temminck mentions having examined three skins obtained at Sitka, but adds that it was not
observed by “les voyageurs néerlandais” in Japan. In the collections in the National Museum
from the North Pacific this species is unrepresented, the species thus far received from there being
the following four, namely: Phoca vitulina, Phoca fetida, Erignathus barbatus, and Histriophoca
JSasciata.

HUNTING AND PRODUCTS.—AS 80 large a part of what has been already said in the general
account of the seal fishery of the North Atlantic and Arctic waters necessarily relates to the
present species, it is scarcely requisite in the present connection to more than recall, the leading
points of the subject, with the addition of a few details not previously given. As already stated,
the sealing grounds par excellence are the ice-floes off the eastern coast of Newfoundland and around

1Von HEUGLIN: Reisen nach dem Nordpolarmeer, p. 56.
2CARROLL: Seal and Herring Fisheries of Newfoundland, p. 26.

64 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Jan Mayen Island, where the present species forms almost the sole object of pursuit. The sealing
season lasts for only a few weeks during spring; the enterprise: gives employment during this
time to hundreds of vessels and thousands of men, the average annual catch falling little short of
a million Seals, valued at about three million dollars. While the pursuit is mainly carried on in
vessels, sailing chiefly from English, German, and Norwegian ports, or from those of Newfoundland
and the other British Provinces, many are caught along the shores of the countries periodically
visited by these animals, as those of South Greenland, Southern Labrador, Newfoundland, and
the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The pursuit with vessels, and the various incidents connected
therewith, have already been detailed, and sufficient allusions have perhaps also already been made
to the Greenland method of seal-hunting.

In consequence of the gregarious habits of the species, and the fact that one-half to two-thirds
of those taken are young ones that are not old enough to make any effectual attempt to escape,
the success of a sealing voyage depends almost wholly upon the mere matter of luck in discovering
the herds. While the old Seals are mostly shot, the young are killed with clubs. In respect to
the ease and facility with which they are captured it may be noted that it is not at all unusual, in
the height of the season, for the crew of a single small vessel to kill and take on board from five
hundred to a thousand in a day. Mr. Brown states: “In 1866 the steamer Camperdown obtained
the enormous number of 22,000 Seals in nine days,” or an average of 2,500 per day. “It is nothing
uncommon,” he adds, “ for a ship’s crew to club or shoot, in one day, as many as from 500 to 800 old
Seals, with 2,000 young ones.”? Such slaughter is necessarily attended with more or less barbarity,
but this seems to be sometimes carried to a needless extreme. The Seals are very tenacious of
life, and, in the haste of killing, many are left for a long time half dead, or dre even flayed alive.
Jukes states that even the young are “ sometimes barbarously skinned alive, the body writhing in
blood after being stripped of its skin,” and they have even been seen to swim away in that state,
as when the first blow fails to kill the Seals their hard-hearted murderers “cannot stop to give
them a second.” ‘ How is it,” he adds, “one can steel one’s mind to look on that which to
read of, or even think of afterwards, makes one shudder? In the bustle, hurry, and excitement,
these things pass as a matter of course, and as if necessary; but they are most horrible, and
will not admit of an attempt at palliation.” Scoresby and other writers refer to similar heartless
proceedings—as though the necessary suffering attending such a sacrifice of unresisting creatures
were not in itself bad enough without the infliction of such needless cruelty. The young Seals
not only do not attempt any resistance, but are said to make no effort to move when approached,
quietly suffering themselves to be knocked on the head with a club. The old Seals are more
wary, and are generally killed with firearms. Scoresby relates that “‘When the Seals are
observed to be making their escape into the water before the boats reach the ice, the sailors give
a long-continued shout, on which their victims are deluded by the amazement a sound so unusual
produces and frequently delay their retreat until arrested by the blows of their enemies.”

The annual catch of Harp Seals in Greenland is stated by Rink to be 17,500 full-grown “Sad-
de-backs” and 15,500 “ Bluesides,” or 33,000 in all. The catch from the Newfoundland ports alone
often reaches 500,000, and in the Janu Mayen seas often exceeds 300,000, so thag the total annual
catch of this species alone doubtless ranges from 800,000 to 900,000.

The commercial products are the oil—used in the lubrication of machinery, in tanning leather,
and in miners’ lamps—and the skins, which are employed for the manufacture of various kinds of

'For statistics of the seal fishery, see Allen’s “‘North American Pinnipeds,” pp. 497-502.
*Man. Nat. Hist., Geol., &c., Greenland, Mammals, p. 67, foot-note.

THE RINGED SEAL: HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION. 65

leather and articles of clothing. The skins are said to be mostly sold to English manufacturers,
who employ them in the preparation of a superior article of “‘ patent” or lacquered leather. The
flesh is esteemed by the Greenlanders as superior to that of their favorite Neitsik (Phoca fetida).

25. THE RINGED SEAL.

GENERAL HISTORY AND NOMENCLATURE.—The earliest notices of Phoca fotida, Fabricius,
in systematic works are based on the brief account given by Cranz in 1765, but there appear to be
still earlier references to it by Scandinavian writers.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—Although the Ringed Seal is a well-known inhabitant of the
Arctic Seas, of both hemispheres, the southern limit of its distribution cannot be given with certainty.
Wagner! records specimens from Labrador, which is the most southern point on the eastern coast of
North America from which it seems to have been reported. It is not enumerated by Jukes or Carroll
as among the species hunted by the Newfoundland sealers,’ nor is it mentioned by Gilpin’ as occurring
in Nova Scotia. Its occasional presence here and in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence is doubtless to be
expected. Further northward, and especially along the shores of Davis’s Straits and Greenland,
its abundance is well attested. It has also been found as far north as explorers have penetrated,
having been met with by Parry as high as latitude 82° 40’. J. C. Ross states that it is common
on both sides of the Isthmus of Boothia, where it forms the chief means of subsistence to the
inhabitants during eight or nine months of the year. It is common in Iceland, and Malmgren and
Von Heuglin state it to be numerous at Spitzbergen. The last-named author gives it as abundant
in summer in the Stor-Fjord and its branches, in Henlopen Strait, and in the bays of the northwest
coast of Spitzbergen, occurring in great herds as well as singly, in the open water along the shores
and in the openings in the ice-floes. He states that it is also numerous about Nova Zembla, where
great numbers are killed for their skins and fat. It is a common species on the coast of Finland,
and farther eastward along the arctic coast of Europe and doubtless also of Western Asia.’ It is
also a common inhabitant of the Gulf of Bothnia and neighboring waters, and also of the Ladoga
and other interior seas of Finland. It is said by Blasius to extend southward along the coast of
Middle Europe to North Germany, Ireland, and the British Channel. Professor Flower has recorded
its capture on the coast of Norwich, England; it undoubtedly occurs at the Orkneys and the
Hebrides, where it is supposed to be represented by the species known there as “ Bodach” or “Old
Man.” A specimen was also taken many years since on the coast of France, but here, as on the

1SCHREBER’S Siugethiere, vii, 1846, p. 31.

2 Professor Jukes says four species are known on the coast of Newfoundland, namely, the ‘‘ Bay Seal” (Phoca
vifulina), the Harp Seal (Phoca grenlandica), the Hooded Seal ( Cystophora cristata), and the ‘‘Square Flipper” (probably
Halicherus grypus). ‘The first he did not see on the ice among the Seals pursued by the sealers. The second is the
one that forms the principal object of the chase. The third seems not to be numerous, but occurs occasionally out on
the ice-floes with the Harp Seals. The fourth is referred to as very rare, and as being larger than the Hooded Seal.
Not one was heard of or seen that season. He supposes it may be the Phoca barbata.—Excursions in Newfoundland,
vol. i, pp. 308-312.

Carroll states that the species of Seal that are taken on the coast of Newfoundland are the ‘‘ Square Flipper Seal”
(probably Halicherus grypus), the ‘Hood Seal” (Cystophora cristata), the ‘(Harp Seal” (Phoca grenlandica), and the
“Dotard” or “Native Seal” (Phoca vitulina).—Seal and Herring Fisheries of Newfoundland, 1873, p. 10.

3The species given by Gilpin as found on the coast of Nova Scotia are the Harbor Seal (Phoca vitulina), the Harp
Seal (Phoca granlandica), the Gray Seal (Halicherus grypus), and the Hooded Seal ( Cystophora cristata).

4Ross’s Second Voyage, App., 1835, p. xix.

5 Reise nach dem Nordpolarmeer, Th. iii, p. 50.

6In an account of Professor Nordenskjéld’s late arctic voyage, published in ‘‘Nature” (vol. xxi, p. 40, November
13, 1870), 1t is stated that Phoca fetida ‘‘was caught in great numbers, and along with fish and various vegetables
forms the main food of the natives” at Cape Serdze (about 120 miles from Bering’s Straits), the point where the
“Vega” wintered, this and the polar bear being the only mammals seen.

5 F

66 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

shores of the larger British Islands, it can occur as merely a rare straggler.’ Its fossil remains
have been reported by Professor Turner as having been found in the brick clays of Scotland. It
appears also to be « common species in the North Pacific, there being specimens in the National
Museum, unquestionably of this species, from the coast of Alaska, and from Plover Bay, on the Sibe-
rian side of Bering’s Strait. Its southern limit of distribution along the shores of the North Pacific,
on either the American or the Asiatic side, cannot at present be given. Judging from its known
distribution in other portions of the arctic waters, there is no reason to infer its absence from the
northern shores of Eastern Asia and Western North America.

HABITS, PRODUCTS, AND HUNTING.—The Ringed Seal is pre-eminently boreal, its home being
almost exclusively the iey seas of the arctic regions. Its favorite resorts are said to be retired
bays and fjords, in which it remains so long as they are filled with firm ice; when this breaks up
they betake theinselves to the floes, where they bring forth their young. It is essentially a littoral,
or rather vlacial species, being seldom met with in the open sea. [rom its abundance in its chosen
haunts it is a species well known to arctic voyagers, and frequent reference is made to it in most
of the narratives of arctie explorations.’

The habits of the Ringed Seal, as observed in European waters, seem to agree with what has
already been related respecting their life-history in Davis’s Strait and Cumberland Sound. Malm-
gren, for example, states that the females bring forth their young on the western coast of Finland,
on the ice, near the edge of great openings, between the 24th of February and the 25th of March, or
at the time given by Fabricius and later writers for the same event on the coast of Greenland, and
in no respect does their mode of life appear to differ in the icy seas about Spitzbergen from what
has already been related.

The Ringed Seal is of far less commercial value than the Harp Seal, but in this respect may
be considered as holding the second rank among the northern Phocids. Brown states that ‘it is
chiefly looked upon and taken as a curiosity by the whalers, who consider it of very little commer-
cial importance and call it ‘Floe-rat”” Von Heuglin, however, states that many thousands are
annually taken by the sealers for their skins and fat, in the vicinity of Nova Zembla and Spitz-
bergen. Itis of the greatest importance, however, to the Esquimaux and other northern tribes,
by whom it is captured for food and clothing. Mr. Brown informs us that it forms, during the
latter part of summer and autumn, ‘the principal article of food in the Dauish settlements, and
on it the writer of these notes and his companions dined many a time; we even learned to like it
and to become quite epicurean connoisseurs in all the qualities, titbits, and dishes of the well-
beloved Neitsik! The skin,” he continues, “forms the chief material of clothing in North Green-
land. All of the of zoddot dress: in Neitsik breeches and jumpers; and we sojourners from a far
country soon encased ourselves in the somewhat hispid but most comfortable nether garments. It
is only high dignitaries like ‘Herr Inspektor’ that can afford such extravagance as a Kassigiak
(Callocephalus vitulinus) wardrobe! The arctic belles monopolize them all.” Rink states that the
number annually captured in South Greenland has been calculated at 51,000. Capt. J. C. Ross

1Respecting the southern limit of the habitat of this species in Europe, Professor Flower has the following:
‘Nilsson speaks of it as being found on all the Scandinavian coasts, and as having been met with as far south as the
Channel, on the strength of specimens in the Paris Museum trom that locality; but he was unable to find any proofs
of its having been met with on the coast of England. Nor have I been able to discover any positive evidence that it
can, at the present day, be reckoned a British species, although there is little doubt that it must occasionally visit cur
shores, where its occurrence would be easily overlooked.”—Proc. Zo6l. Soc. Lond., 1871, p. 150.

Collett, contrary to the testimony of Nilsson, excludes it from the mammalian fauna of Norway, and states that
he does not know of an authentic instance of its capture on the Norwegian coast.—Bemerkninger til Norges Pattedyr-
fauna, 1876, p. 57, foot-note 2.

2In Allen’s Pinnipeds, J. c., is a long and interesting account of their habits, from the pen of Ludwig Kumlien.

THE RIBBON SEAL AND WEST INDIAN SEAL. 67

states that the Esquimaux wholly depend upon it for their winter food, and von Schrenck alludes
to the great importance of this animal to the natives of Amoor Land.

26. THE RIBBON SEAL.

GENERAL HISTORY.—The first account of the present species was published by Pennant,
under the name ‘‘ Rubbon Seal,” in the first quarto edition of his “History of Quadrupeds,” in 1781
(vol. ii, p. 523),

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—According to Pallas, the present species, Histriophoca fas-
ciata (Zimm.) Gill, occurs around the Kurile Islands and in the Ochotsk Sea. Von Schrenck states
that Hr. Wosnessenski obtained specimens that were killed on the eastern coast of Kamtchatka,
and that he himself saw skins of examples killed on the southern coast of the Ochotsk Sea, where,
however, the species seems to be of rare occurrence. He further states that it occurs also in the
Gulf of Tartary, between the island of Saghalien and the mainland, but apparently not to the
southward of that island, the southern point of which (in latitude 46° N.) he believes to be the
southern limit of its distribution. Mr. Dall secured specimens taken at Cape Romanzoff.! Captain
Scammon states, ‘It is found upon the coast of Alaska, bordering on Bering Sea, and the natives
of Ounalaska recognize it as an occasional visitor to the Aleutian Islands. . . . The Russian
traders who formerly visited Cape Romanzoff, from Saint Michael’s, Norton Sound, frequently
brought back the skins of the male Histriophoca, which were used for covering trunks and for other
ornamental purposes.” This writer also states that he ‘‘observed a herd of Seals upon the beaches
at Point Reyes, California,” in April, 1852, which, “ without close examination, answered to the
description given by Gill” of the present species. Probably, however, a “close examination”
would have shown them to be different, as no examples are yet known from the Californian coast,
and the locality is far beyond the probable limits of the habitat. Its known range may, therefore,
be given as Bering’s Sea southward—on the American coast to the Aleutian Islands, and on the
Asiatic coast to the island of Saghalien.

Hapbits.—Almost nothing appears to have been as yet recorded respecting the habits of the
Ribbon Seal. Von Schrenck gives us no information of importance, and we search equally in vain
for information elsewhere. All of the four specimens obtained by Wosnessenski were taken on
the eastern coast of Kamtchatka, at the mouth of the Kamtchatka River, about the end of March.
According to the report of hunters, it very rarely appears at this locality so early in the season,
being not often met with there before the early part of May. The natives use its skins, in common
with those of other species, for covering their snow-shoes.

27. THE WEST INDIAN SEAL.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—Respecting the present geographical distribution of the
West Indian Seal, Monachus tropicalis Gray, I am indebted for valuable information to Mr. R. W.
Kemp, who, under date of “Key West, Fla., April 29, 1878,” wrote me as follows: “‘Some two or
three years ago there were two seen near Cape Florida. It was supposed that they had strayed
from some of the Bahama Islands, as there are some few to be found in that vicinity. I am
informed by reliable parties that Seals are to be found in great numbers at the Anina Islands.
situated between the Isle of Pines and Yucatan. One of my informants says that as he was sailing
about the islands fishing and wrecking, he and lis party discovered a number of Seals on one of
them, and went on shore to kill some, merely ‘for fun.’ On nearing the shore the Seals got into

'The National Museum possesses four fine specimens, two obtained by Mr. Dall, in 1280, and two by Mr. E. W:
Nelson, as well as several large pouches, each made of an entire skin of this species by the Eskimos.

68 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

the water. They then hid themselves in the shrubbery along the beach, and in about ten or fifteen
minutes the Seals came on the beach again. The men, armed with axes, sprang upon them, the
Seals trying to get into the water again. Two of them were killed, and another one, as one of the
men came up to him, turned around and barked furiously at him, which frightened the poor man
so badly (he having never seen one before, and knowing nothing of their habits) that he almost
fainted. The Seals are said to be very easily killed or captured alive. They yield a great deal of
oil. The skins are very large, but not easy to cure, on account of their fatty substance.” In a
later letter he refers to their great rarity on the Florida coast, where he says they occur “only
once or twice in a life-time,” but alludes. to their comparative abundance on the coast of Yucatan,
and their occasional occurrence at the Bahama Islands.

Mr. L. F. de Pourtalés also informs me that there is a rock on Salt Key Bank, near the Bahamas,
called “Dog Rock,” presumably from its having been formerly frequented by the Seals. Also, that
his pilot, in 186869, told him he had himself killed Seals among the rocky islets of Salt Key
Bank.

I learn trom Dr. S. W. Garman, who accompanied Mr. Agassiz during his dredging expedition
in the Caribbean Sea, in the United States Coast Survey steamer “Blake,” during the winter of
1877~78, that the Seal of those waters is well known to the wreckers and turtle-hunters of that
region, and that they often kill it for its oil. He also informs me that these animals had also been
frequently seen and killed by one of the officers of the “Blake,” especially about the Isle of Pines,
south of Cuba, and at the Alazranes, where, as already noted, they occurred in such abundance at the
time of Dampier’s visit in 1676 as to be extensively hunted for their oil. They are also known to
the whalers who visit these waters.

The specimens described by Messrs. Hill and Gosse were taken at the Pedro Kays, off the
southern coast of Jamaica, where thirty years ago they appear to have occurred in considerable
numbers.

On a “Chart of the Environs of Jamaica,” published in 1774,! as well as on hater maps of this
region, are indicated some islets off the Mosquito coast, in about latitude 12° 40’, which bear the
name “Seal Kays,” doubtless in reference to the presence there of these animals.

It therefore appears that the habitat of the West Indian Seal extends from the northern coast
of Yucatan northward to the southern point of Florida, eastward to the Bahamas and Jamaica,
and southward along the Central American coast to about latitude 12°. Although known to have
been once abundant at some of these localities, it appears to have now well nigh reached extinction,
and is doubtless to be found at only a few of the least frequented islets in various portions of the
area above indicated. Being still well known to many of the wreckers and turtle-hunters, it seems
strange that it should have so long remained almost unknown to naturalists. The only specimen
extant in any museum seems to be the imperfect skin transmitted by Mr. Gosse to the British
Museum thirty years ago. Consequently, respecting none of the Pinnipeds, at least of the northern
hemisphere, is information still so desirable.

28. THE HOODED SEAL.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATIONS.—The Hooded or Crested Seal, Cystophora
cristata (Erxl.) Nilss., is restricted to the colder parts of the North Atlantic and to portions of the
Arctic Sea. It ranges from Greenland eastward to Spitzbergen and along the arctic coast of
Europe, but is rarely found south of Southern Norway and Newfoundland. As is the case with

1 History of Jamaica, vol. i, facing title-page. The work is anonymous, but the authorship is attributed to
Edward Long. :

THE HOODED SEAL: DISTRIBUTION. 69

other pelagic species, stragglers are sometimes met with far to the southward of the usual range
of the species. On the North American coast it appears to be of uncommon occurrence south of the
point already mentioned, as it is said by Gilpin! to be “a rare visitor to the shores of Nova Scotia.”
Like the Harp Seal, it appears also to be regularly migratory, but owing to its much smaller nuinbers
and less commercial importance, its movments are not so well known. Carroll states that it visits
the coast of Newfoundland at the same time as the Harp Seal, or about the 25th of February, the
time, however, varying with the state of the weather. He further states that Hooded Seals always
keep to the eastward of the Harp Seals, amongst the heavy ice; also that they are quite numerous
in spring in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, where “many of them are killed by persons who reside
on Saint Paul’s Island.”? Dr. Packard states that it “is not uncommonly, during the spring, killed
in considerable numbers by the sealers” along the coast of Labrador.’ Rink says, “It is only occa-
sionally found along the greater part of the coast [of Greenland], but visits the very limited tract
between 60° and 61° N. lat., in great numbers, most probably in coming from and returning to the
east side of Greenland. The first time it visits us is from about May 20 till the end of June, dur-
ing which it yields a very lucrative catch.”* Robert Brown observes, ‘ With regard to the favorite
localities of this species ot Seal, Cranz and the much more accurate Fabricius disagree—the former
affirming that they are found mostly on great ice islands where they sleep in an unguarded manner,
while the latter states that they delight in the high seas, visiting the land in April, May, and June.
This appears contradictory and confusing; but in reality both authors are right, though not in an
exclusive sense.” Again he says: ‘ This Seal is not common anywhere. On the shores of Green-
land it is chiefly found beside large fields of ice, and comes to the coast, as was remarked by Fabri-
cius long ago, at certain times of the year. They are chiefly found in South Greenland, though it is
erroneous to say that they are exclusively confined to that section. I have seen them not uncom-
monly about Disco Bay, and have killed them in Melville Bay, in the most northerly portion of
Baffin’s Bay. They are principally killed in the district of Julianshaab, and then almost solely in
the most southern part, on the outermost islands, from about the 20th of May to the last of June;
but in this short time they supply a great portion ot the food of the natives and form a third of
the colony’s yearly production. In the beginning of July the Klapmyds leaves, but returis in
August, when it is much emaciated. Then begins what the Danes in Greenland call the maigre
Klapmydse fangst, or the ‘lean-Klapmyds-catching,’ which lasts from three to four weeks. Very
seldom is a Klapmyds to be got at other places, and especially at other times. The natives call a
Klapmyds found single up a fjord by the name of Nerimartont, the meaning of which is ‘ gone
after food’ They regularly frequent some small islands not far from Julianshaab, where a good
number are caught. After this they go farther north, but are lost sight of, and it is not known
where they go to (Rink, l.¢.). Those seen in North Greenland are mere stragylers, wandering trom
the herd, and are not a continuation of the migrating flocks. Johannes (a very knowing man of
Jakobshavn) informed me that generally about the 12th of July a few are killed in Jakobshavn
Bay (lat. 69° 13’ N.). It is more pelagic in its habits than the other Seals, with the exception of
the Saddleback.”®

I conclude the account of the geographical distribution of the Hooded Seal in Baffin’s Bay
with the following from Mr. Kumlien’s account:

1 Proceedings and Transations Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Sciences, vol. iii, pt. 4, p. 884.
2Seal and Herring Fisheries of Newfoundland, pp. 13, 14.

3Proc. Bost Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. x, p. 271.

4Danish Greenland, etc., 1877, p. 126.

5Proc, Zod). Soc. Lond., 1868, pp. 436, 437; Man. Nat. Hist., etc., Greenland, Mam., pp. 65, 66.

70 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“The Bladder-nose appears to be very rare in the upper Cumberland waters. One specimen
was procured at Annanactook in autumn, the only one Isaw. The Eskimo bad no name for it, and
said they had not seen it before. I afterward learned that they are occasionally taken about the
Kikkerton Islands in spring and autumn. I found their remains in the old kitchenmiddens at
Kingwah. A good many individuals were noticed among the pack-ice in Davis’s Straits in July.”?

On the European coast this species is said to be of not very common occurrence on the northern
coast of Norway, but more to the southward only stragglers appear to have been met with.? In
March and April, according to Malmgren, they are seen about Jan Mayen, and they are said to
occur on the coast of Finmark, and at the mouth of the White Sea. Von Baer? and Schultz also
state that it is rarely found not only in the White Sea, but along the Timanschen and Mourman
coasts. Von Heuglin says it appears to be found in the Spitzbergen waters only on the western
coast of these islands,‘ and states that it is not known to occur at Nova Zembla. He gives
its principal range as lying more tu the westward, around Iceland and Greenland.

It thus appears that the range of the Crested Seal is restricted mainly to the arctic waters of
the North Atlantic, from Spitzbergen westward to Greenland and Baftfin’s Bay, and thence south-
ward to Newfoundland. Stragglers have been captured, however, far to the southward of these
limits, on both sides of the Atlantic. Thus Gray observes:

“<A young specimen has been taken in the river Orwell; at the mouth of the Thames; and at
the Island of Oleron, west coast of France, but I greatly doubt if it had not escaped from some ship
coming from North America; there is no doubt of the determination of the species. The one caught
on the River Orwell, 29th June, 1847, is in the Museum of Ipswich, and was described by Mr. W.
B. Clarke, on the 14th August, 1847, in 4to, with a figure of the Seal and skull. The one taken on
the Isle d’Oleron is in the Paris Museum, and is figured, with the skull, in Gervais, Zool. et Paléont.
Frang., t. 42, and is called Phoca Isidorei, by Lesson, in the Rev. Zool., 1843, 256. The young is
very like that of Pagophilus grenlandicus, but is immediately known from it by being hairy between
the nostrils, and by the grinders being only plated and not lobed on the surface.”*®

Its vapture has occurred a few times on the coast of the United States, as far from its usual
range even as on the European coast. A large Seal is occasionally seen on the coast of Massa-
chusetts, which has been supposed to be the Crested Seal, but just what this large Seai is remains
still to be determined. DeKay, in 1824, recorded’ the capture of a male example of this species

1 Bulletin of the United States National Museum, No. 15, 1879, p. 64.

2Says Blasius, writing in 1857, ‘‘An den siidlichen Kiistenlindern der Nordsee hat man sie bis jetzt noch nicht
gesehen.”—Naturgesch. der Siugeth. Deutschlauds, p. 260.

3 Bull. Acad. Imp. des Sci. de St. Pétersb., iii, 1838, p. 350.

4Malmeren, writing some years earlier, says that in recent times it has not been observed with certainty at Spitz-
bergen, though reported as occurring there by Martens and Scoresby. Possibly, he says, during its summer wanderings
it may extend to the latitude of Spitzbergen. During Torell’s first journey to Spitzbergen a young individual was
killed in the vicinity of Bear Island. He says it is only exceptionally taken by the seal-hunters about Jan Mayen,
only a comparatively small number being captured.—Arch. fiir Naturgesch., 1864, p. 72.

5Gray, J. E., in Zodlogist, 2d ser., vol. vii, 1872, p. 3338.

6In my ‘‘ Catalogue of the Mammals of Massachusetts,” I refer to this large Seal as follows, supposing it to be the
Hooded Seal: ‘‘ From accounts I have received from residents along the coast of a Seal of very large size observed by
them, and occasionally captured, I am led to think this species is not of unfrequent occurrence on the Massachusetts
coast. Mr. C. W. Bennett informs me of one taken some years since in the Providence River, a few miles below Provi-
dence, which he saw shortly after. From his very particular account of it I cannot doubt that it was of this species.
Mr. C. J. Maynard also informs me that a number of specimens have been taken at Ipswich within the past few years,
that have weighed from seven hundred to nine hundred pounds. It seems to be most frequent in winter, when it appar-
ently migrates from the north.”—Bnll. Mus. Comp. Zodél., vol. i, No. 8, 1869, pp. 193, 194. This identification was
made almost solely on the ground of size, taken in connection with the fact that the species had been taken in Long
Island Sound near New York City. The question, however, may fairly be raised whether the large Seals more or less
frequently seen on the coast of New England are not really the Gray Seal (Halicherus grypus).

7Ann. New York Lycenm Nat. Sci., vol. i, 1824, p. 94.

THE HOODED SEAL: HABITS. ei

in a small creek that empties into Long Island Sound at East Chester, about fifteen miles from
New York City. Twenty years! later he refers to this as the first and only known instance of its
occurrence within the limits of the State of New York, where, he says, “it can only be regarded
as a rare and accidental visitor.” Professor Cope, however, has recorded its capture in the Chesa-
peake Bay, where he says it has twice occurred.2. The first specimen was recorded in 18653 as
“some species of Cystophora, taken near Cambridge, Maryland, on an arm of the Chesapeake Bay,
eighteen miles from salt water, by Mr. Daniel M. Henry.” The specimen, it is said, “‘ measured
63 feet, and weighed, when living, about 330 lbs.” Although Professor Cope adds, “‘ Whether this
species is the C. cristata or antillarum, cannot be determined, owing to the imperfection of extant
descriptions,” there is no reason for doubting that it was really the Crested Seal, a conclusion to
which Professor Cope seeins to have later arrived. Although Gray’s suggestion avent the English
specimen naturally arises, namely, transportation from the north in some ship, it seems more
probable that they were really wanderers from the usual home of the species.

Hapirs.—As already noted in the account of the geographical distribution of this species, it is,
like the Harp Seal, pelagic and migratory, preferring the drift ice of the ‘high seas” to the vicinity
of land, and seems rarely if ever to resort to rocky islands or shores. It brings forth its young on
the ice, remote from the land, in March, a week or ten days later than the Harp Seal, with which
it appears only rarely to associate, although the two species are often found on neighboring ice-
floes. It is commonly described as the most courageous and combative of the Phocids, often
turniug fiercely upon its pursuers.

The Hooded Seal is described as very active when in the water. It swims very low, with only
the top of the head above the surface. During the rutting season the males wage fierce battles for
the possession of the females, the noise of. which may be heard miles away. At times the sexes
are said to live apart, but associate in families during the breeding season. Their affection for
each other, and especially for their young, is represented as very strong, both parents remaining
by them wi bh such persistency that the whole family are easily killed.

Foop.—The food of this species doubtless consists chiefly of fishes of different species. Malm-
gren supposed it to subsist mainly on those of large size. That it also feeds upon squids, and
probably on other mollusks, is evinced by their remains having been found in their stomachs, as
well as ‘the beaks of large cuttle-fish.”4

HUNTING AND PRODUCIS.—This species, owing to its scarcity, is of relatively small commer-
cial importance, yet many are taken every year by the Newfoundland and Jan Mayen sealers;
generally no separate estimates, however, are given of the number taken. Dr. Rink states that
the average annual catch in Greenland is 3,000. The flesh is greatly esteemed by the Greenlanders.

The Hooded Seal is usually taken on the ice, but Mr. Reeks states that many are also shot in
the spring of the year by the settlers along the coast of Newfoundland. As already stated, the
hood of the male affords such a protection to its owner as to render the animal so provided very
hard to kill with the ordinary seal-club, or even with a heavy load of shot; and they are, further-
more, “at times very savage, and it requires great dexterity on the part of the seal-hunters to keep
from being bitten.”

'New York Zodélogy, or the Fauna of New York, 1842, pt. i, p. 56.

2New Topographical Atlas of Maryland, 1873, p. 16.

3 Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 1865, p. 273.
4JuKES: Excursions in Newfoundland, vol. i, p. 312.

72 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

29. THE CALIFORNIAN SEA ELEPHANT.

GENERAL HISTORY.—The California Sea Elephant, Macrorhinus angustirostris Gill, was first
described by Dr. Gill, in 1866, from a skull of a female in the Museum of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, received trom Saint Bartholomew’s Bay, Lower California. Its external characters were first
made known by Capt. C. M. Scammon in 1869, and the species was redescribed by him in 1874,
with detailed measurements of two adult females and a newly-born pup. This is all that has thus
far appeared relating to its technical history. Captain Scammon, as early as 1854, gave some
account of the habits of this species, under the name Sea Elephant, and earlier incidental references
to it doubtless occur in the narratives of travelers. Dr. Gill observes, in his paper already cited,
“For a long time, the fact that a species of the genus Macrorhinus or Elephant Seal inhabits the
coast of Western North America has been well known. But, on account of the want of opportunity
for comparison of specimens, the relations of the species have not been understood.” I fail to find,
however, in any technical account of the Sea Elephant, any previous notice of their occurrence on
the coast of North America.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—The Sea Elephant seems to have been formerly very abun-
dant on the coast of California and Western Mexico, whence it became long since nearly extirpated.
Captain Scammon, in writing (about 1852) of Cedros Island, off the coast of Lower California, says:
“Seals and Sea. Elephants once basked upon the shores of this isolated spot in vast numbers, and
in years past its surrounding shores teemed with sealers, sea-elephant and sea-otter hunters; the
remains of their rude stone houses are still to be seen in many convenient places, which were once
the habitations of these hardy men.”! A few Sea Elephants are still found at Santa Barbara Island,
where they are reported, however, to be nearly extinct. Whether or not they still occur elsewhere
along the Californian coast [ am without means of determining, although it is probable that a small
rempant still exists at other points, where scarcely more than a quarter of a century ago vessels
were freighted with their oil. Neither is it possible to determine with certainty the limits of their
former range. Captain Seammon, who doubtless obtained his information from trustworthy sources,
states that it extended from Cape Lazaro, latitude 24° 46’ north, to Point Reyes, in latitude 38°, or
for a distance of about two hundred miles. As has heretofore been stated, Dampier, in 1686, met
with Seals on the islands off the western coast of Mexico, as far south as latitude 21° to 23°, but of
what species his record unfortunately fails to show. They were doubtless either Sea Elephants 01
Sea Lions (Zalophus californianus), and may have included both. This rather implies its former
extension, two hundred years ago, considerably to the southward of the limit assigned by Captain
Scammon, on probably traditional reports current among the residents of this part of the coast at
the time of his visit there in 1852.

“The sexes vary much in size, the male being frequently triple the bulk of the female; the oldest
of the former will average fourteen to sixteen feet; the largest we have ever seen measured twenty-
two feet from tip to tip.” “The adult females average ten feet in length between extremities.”—
Scammon. ‘“ Round the under side of the neck, in the oldest males, the animal appears to undergo
a change with age; the hair falls off, the skin thickens and becomes wriukled—the furrows cross-
ing each other, producing a checkered surface—and sometimes the throat is more or less marked
with white spots. Its proboscis extends from opposite the angle of the mouth forward (in the larger
males) about fifteen inches, when the creature is in a state of quietude, and the upper surface
appears ridgy; but when the animal makes an excited respiration, the trunk becomes elongated,
and the ridges nearly disappear.” The females ‘are destitute of the proboscis, the nose being like
that of the common Seal, but projecting more over the mouth.”—Scammon.

'ScaMMON, C. M.: ‘“‘On a new species of the genns Vacrorhinus.” Proc. Chicago Acad., i, 1866, pp. 33, 34.

THE SEA ELEPHANT: HABITS. io

Captain Scammon gives the length of a ‘“‘new-born pup” as four feet.

Haxirs.—We are indebted to Captain Scammon, who has fortunately had favorable oppor-
tunities for observation, for everything of importance that has thus far been recorded respecting
the habits of the Sea Elephant of California. “The habits of these huge beasts,” he tells us,!
““when on shore, or loitering about the foaming breakers, are in many respects like those of the
Leopard Seals [Phoca vitulina]. Our observations on the Sea Elephants of California go to show
that they have been found in much larger numbers from February to June than during other
months of the year; but more or less were at all times found on shore’ pon their favorite beaches,
which were about the islands of Santa Barbara, Cerros, Guadalupe, San Bonitos, Natividad, San
Roque, and Asuncion, and some of the most inaccessible points on the mainland between Asuncion
and Cerros. When coming up out of the water, they were generally first seen near the line of surf;
theu crawling up by degrees, frequently reclining as if to sleep; again moving up or along the
shore, appearing not content with their last resting place. In this manner they would ascend the
ravines, or ‘low-downs,’ half a mile or more, congregating by hundreds. ‘They are not so active on
land as the Seals; but, when excited to inordinate exertion, their motions are quick—the whole
body quivering with their crawling, semi-vaulting gait, and the animal at such times manifesting
great fatigue. Notwithstanding their unwieldiness, we have sometimes found them on broken and
elevated ground, fifty or sixty feet above the sea.

‘“‘The principal seasons of their coming on shore are, when they are about to shed their coats,
when the females bring forth their young (which is one at a time, rarely two), and the mating
season. These seasons for ‘hauling up’ are more marked in southern latitudes. The different
periods are known among the hunters as the ‘pupping cow,’ ‘brown cow,’ ‘bull and cow,’ and
‘March bull’ seasons;? but on the California coast, either from the influence of climate or some
other cause, we have noticed young pups with their mothers at quite the opposite months. The
continual hunting of the animals may possibly have driven them to irregularities. The time of
gestation is supposed to be about three-fourths of the year. The most marked season we could
discover was that of the adult males, which shed their coats later than the younger ones and the
females.. Still, among a herd of the largest of those fully matured (at Santa Barbara Island, in
June, 1852), we found several cows and their young, the latter apparently but a few days old.

“ When the Sea Elephants come on shore for the purpose of ‘shedding,’ if not disturbed they
remain out of water until the old hair falls off. By the time this change comes about, the animal
is supposed to lose half its fat; indeed, it sometimes becomes very thin, and is then called a
‘slimskin.’

“In the stomach of the Sea Elephant a few pebbles are found, which has given rise to the
saying that ‘they take in ballast before going down’ (returning to the sea), On warm and sunny
days we have watched them come up singly on smooth beaches, and burrow in the dry sand,
throwing over their backs the loose particles that collect about their fore limbs, and nearly covering
themselves from view; but when not disturbed, the animals follow their gregarious propensity, and
collect in large herds.” ‘The largest, number I ever found in one herd,” he states in another
connection, ‘‘was one hundred and sixty-five, which lay promiscuously along the beach or up the
ravine near by.”

'Marine Mammals, 1874, pp. 117-119. See also Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1269, pp. 63-05, where the account
here quoted was first published. See further J. Ross Browne’s ‘‘ Resources of the Pacitic Coast” [Append. ], p..129, where
the same author bas also given a short account of its habits as observed at Cedros (or Cerros) Island in 1852. Also an
article entitled “Sca-elephant Hunting,” in the ‘Overland Monthly,” iii, pp. 112-117, Nov., 1870.

2 Referring to the habits of the Southern Sea Elephant (JMJacrorhinus leoninus), as he had “learned from sbip-
masters who have taken Seals about Kerguelen’s Land, the Crozets, and Hurd’s Island.” See Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Phila., 1°59, p 64.

74 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Nothing further respecting the breeding habits or sexual relations of the species appears to
have been as yet recorded, but they may be presumed to be similar to those of the Sea Elephant
of the Antarctic Seas.!

COMPARISUN WITH THE SOUTHERN SEA ELEPHANT.—So far as can be determined by descrip-
tions, the Northern and the Southern Sea Elephants’ differ very little in size, color, or other
external features. Captain Scammon gives the average length of the full-grown male of the
northern species as twelve to fourteen feet, aud says that the largest he ever measured had a length
of twenty-two feet “from tip to tip.” Péron gives the length of the southern species as twenty to
twenty-five, and even thirty feet, with a circumference of fifteen to eighteen feet. Anson gives
the length as twelve to twenty feet, and the circumference as eight to fifteen feet. Pernety records
the total length as twenty-five feet. Scammon gives the length of the young of the northern
species, at birth, as four feet; and Péron gives four or five feet as the length of the young at birth
for the southern species. The skeletons of the two old males of the southern species, already
mentioned, allowing for the intervertebral cartilages that have disappeared in maceration, neasure
respectively not over fifteen and sixteen feet, adding to which the length of the hind flipper and
the proboscis gives a total length, from “tip to tip,” of about twenty-one to twenty-two feet. From
the foregoing we may infer that the usual difference in size between the two species is not great,
the southern species on the whole appearing to be somewhat the larger of the two. It would seem
that the Northern and Southern Sea Elephants, though presumably distinct, are closely allied, as
well in structural characters as in habits. In respect to geographical distribution, I am not aware
that the southern species has been found north of about the 35th degree of south latitude (the
Island of Juan Fernandez), or the northern species south of about the 24th degree of north latitude.
It may consequently be safely assumed that the two forms have been long isolated, and that the
southern is an offshoot from northern stock, since the only other known species of the Cystophorine
is also northern in its distribution.

1It is here assnmed that the Sea Elephants of the Southern Hemisphere are all referable to a single species, the
Phoca leonina of Linné, 1758, based on the Sea Lion of Lord Anson, which was renamed Phoca elephantina by Molina,
1782, and again renamed Ploca proboscidea by Péron, in 1816, and of which Phoca Byroni of Desmarest, and also Phoca
Ansoni of the same author (the latter species in part only), and the Mirounga patagonica of Gray are synonyms. Iam
aware, however, that Peters has recently proposed the recognition of four species, namely, Cystophora leonina (= Anson’s
Sea Lion), C. falklandica (= Pernety’s Sea Lion), C. proboscidea (ex Péron), and C. kerguclensis (the Sea Elephant of
Kerguelen Island). He scems not, however, to have arrived at this course by an examivation of an extensive suite of
specimens from varions localities, as he refers in this connection to only a single old male example from Kerguelen
Island. He seems to have been influenced merely by the varying statewents in respect to size and some other features
given by Pernety, Anson, and Péron. His entire presentation of the case is as follows: ‘‘Pernety gibt von seinem
Secléwen cine lange Mine, cine Totalliinge von 25 Fuss und einem Durchmesser der Basis der Eckziihne von 3 Zoll an.
Pérons See-Elephanten sollen bis 30 Fuss lang und von blaugrauer Farbe sein. Vielleicht sind alle diese Arten
verschieden und es wiirde dann der Name C. leonina L. bloss dem Ansou’schen Seeléwen zu belassen sein, wiihrend die C.
JSalklandica, wie man die von Pcrnety benennen kénnte, die C. proboscidea Péron, die C. angustirostris Gill der nérdlichen
Hemisphire und dic von Kerguelenland besonderen Arten angehdren wiirden. Fiir den letzteren Fall schlage ich vor,
diese Art kerguelensis za benemmen.” (Monatsb. d. K. P. Akad. Wissensch. zu Berlin 1875, p. 394, foot-note).

?The Sea Elephants appear to be exceptional among the Phocide in the great disparity of size between the sexes,
in which, as well as in their breeding habits, they closely resemble the Otaries. Although, unlike the latter, they
have not the power of using the hind limbs in locomotion on land, and are hence unable to walk, they manage to
crawl to a considerable distance trom the sea—according to Scammon, a “‘half a mile or more.” The habits of the
Southern Sea Elephant (Macrorhinus leoninus) were long since described by Anson and Pernety, and later by Péron,
but their accounts seem in some respects to be tinged with romance. According to these writers the males fight
desperately for the possession of the females,

THE HABITS OF THE FUR SEAL. 75

C—THE HABITS OF THE FUR SEAL.
By Henry W. ELLIorTT.

30. LIFE-HISTORY OF THE FUR SEAL.

DESCRIPTION OF AN ADULT MALE.—The Fur Seal, which repairs every year to the Pribylov
Islands to breed and to shed its hair and fur, in numbers that seem almost fabulous, is the highest
organized of all the Pinnipedia, and, indeed, for that matter, when land and water are weighed in
the account together, there is no other animal known to man which can be truly, as it is, classed
superior, from a purely physical point of view. Certainly there are few, if any, creatures in
the animal kingdom that can be said to exhibit a higher order of instinct, approaching even our
intelligence.

I wish to draw attention to a specimen of the finest of this race—a male in the flash and priine
of his first maturity, six or seven years old, and full grown. When it comes up from the sea early
in the spring, out to its station for the breeding season, we have an animal before us that will
measure six and a half to seven and a quarter feet in length from tip of nose to the end of its
abbreviated, abortive tail. It will weigh at least 400 pounds, and J have seen older specimens
much more corpulent, which, in my best judgment, could not be less than 600 pounds in weight.
The head of this animal now before us, appears to be disproportionately small in compurison with
the immense thick neck and shoulders; but as we come to examine it we will find it is mostly all
occupied by the brain. The light frame-work of the skull supports an expressive pair of large
bluish hazel eyes; alternately burning with revengeful, passionate light, then suddenly changing
to the tones of tenderness aud good nature. It has a muzzle and jaws of about the same size and
form observed in any full-blooded Newfoundland dog, with this difference, that the lips are not
flabby and overhanging; they are as firmly lined and pressed against one another as ourown. The
upper lips support a yellowish white and gray moustache, composed of long, stiff bristles, and when
it is not torn out and broken off in combat, it sweeps down and over the shoulders as a luxuriant
plume. Look at it as it comes leisurely swimming on toward the land ; see how high above the
water it carries its head, an'! how deliberately it surveys the beach, after having stepped upon it
(for it may be truly said to step with its fore-flippers, as they regularly alternate when it moves
up), carrying the head well above them, erect and graceful, at least three feet from the ground.
The fore-feet, or flippers, are a pair of dark bluish-black hands, about eight or ten inches broad at
their junction with the body, and the metacarpal joint, running out to an ovate point at their
extremity, some fifteen to eighteen inches from this union; all the rest of the forearm, the ulna,
radius, and humerus being concealed under the skin and thick blubber-folds of the main body and
neck, hidden entirely at this season, when it is so fat. But six weeks to three months after this
time of landing, when that superfluous fat and flesh has been consumed by self-absorption, those
bones show plainly under the shrunken skin. On the upper side of these flippers the hair of the
body straggles down finer and fainter as it comes below to a point close by, and slightly beyond
that spot of junction where the phalanges and the metacarpal bones unite, similar to that point on
our own hand where our knuckles are placed; and here the hair ends, leaving the rest of the skin
to the end of the flipper bare and wrinkled in places at the margin of the inner side; showing, also,
fine small pits, containing abortive nails, which are situated immediately over the union of the
phalanges with their cartilagiuous continuations to the end of the flipper.

76 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

On the other side of the flipper the skin is entirely bare, from its outer extremity up to the
body connection; it is sensibly tougher and thicker than elsewhere on the body; it is deeply and
regularly wrinkled with seams and furrows, which cross one another so as to leave a kind of sharp
diamond-cut pattern. When they are placed by the animal upon the smoothest rocks, shining and
slippery from algoid growths and the sea-polish of restless waters, they seldoin fail to adhere.

When we observe this Seal moving out on the land, we notice that, though it handles its foie-
feet, in a most creditable manner, it brings up its rear in quite a different style; for, after every second
step ahead with the anterior limbs, it will arch its spine, and in arching, it drags and lifts up, and
together forward, the hind-feet, to a fit position under its body, giving it in this manner fresh
leverage for another movement forward by the fore-feet, in which the spine is again straightened
out, and then a fresh hitch is taken upon the posteriors once more, and so on as the Seal progresses.
This is the leisurely and natural movement on land, when not disturbed, the body all the time
being carried clear of and never touching the ground. Butif the creature is frightened, this method
of progression is radically changed. It launches into a lope, and actually gallops so fast that the
best powers of a man in running are taxed to head it off. Still, it must be remembered that it cannot
run far before it sinks trembling, gasping, breathless, to the earth; thirty or forty yards of such
speed marks the utmost limit of its endurance.

The radical difference in the form and action of the hind-feet cannot fail to strike the eye
at once; they are one-seventh longer than the fore-hands, and very much lighter and more slender;
they resemble, in broad terms, a pair of black kid gloves, flattened out and shriveled, as they lie
in their box.

There is no suggestion of fingers on the fore-hands; but the hind-feet seem to be toes run into
ribbons, for they literally flap about involuntarily from that point where the cartilaginous processes
unite with the phalangeal bones. The hind-feet are also merged in the body at their junction with
it, like those anterior; nothing can be seen of the leg above the tarsal joint.

The shape of the hind-flipper is strikingly like that of a human foot, provided the latter were
drawn out to a length of twenty or twenty-two inches, the instep flattened down, and the toes run
out into thin, membraneous, oval-tipped points, only skin-thick, leaving three strong, cylindrical,
grayish, horn-colored nails, half an inch long each, back six inches from these skinny toe-ends,
without any sign of nails to mention on the outer big and little toes.

On the upper side of this hind-foot the body-hair comes down to that point where the meta-
tarsus and phalangeal bones join and fade out. From this junction the phalanges, about six inches
down to the nails above mentioned, are entirely bare, and stand ribbed up in bold relief on the
membrane which unites them as the web to a duck’s foot; the nails just referred to mark the ends
of the phalangeal bones, and their union in turn with the cartilaginous processes, which run
rapidly tapering and flattening out to the ends of the thin toe-points. Now, as we are looking at
this Fur Seal’s motion and progression, that which seems most odd, is the gingerly manner (if I may
be allowed to use the expression) in which it carries these hind-flippers; they are held out at right
angles from the body directly opposite the pelvis, the toe-ends or flaps slightly waving, curled, and
drooping over, supported daintily, as it were, above the earth, the animal only suffering its weight
behind to fall upon its heels, which are themselves opposed to each other, scarcely five inches apart.

We shall, as we see this Seal again later in the season, have to notice a different mode of pro-
gression and bearing both when it is lording over its harem, or when it grows shy and restless at
the end of the breeding season, then faint, emaciated, dejected ; but we will now proceed to observe
him in the order of his urrival and that of his family. His behavior during the long period of
fasting and unceasing activity and vigilance, and other cares which devolve upon bim as the most

THE FUR SEAL: ARRIVAL OF THE BULLS. 77

eminent of all polygamists in the brute world, I shall carefully relate; and to fally comprehend
the method of this exceedingly interesting animal, it will be frequently necessary for the reader
to refer to my sketch-maps of its breeding-grounds or rookeries, and the islands.

ARRIVAL AT THE SEAL GROUNDS: COMING IN OF THE BULLS.—The adult males are the first
examples of the Callorhinus to arrive in the spring on the seal ground, which has been deserted by
all of them since the close of the preceding year.

Between the 1st and 5th of May, usually, a few males will be found scattered over the rook-
eries, pretty close to the water. They are at this time quite shy and sensitive, seeming not yet
satisfied with the land; and a great many spend day after day idly. swimming out among the
breakers, a little distance from the shore, before they come to it, perhaps somewhat reluctant at
first to enter upon the assiduous duties and the grave responsibilities before them in fighting for
and maintaining their positions in the rookeries.

The first arrivals are not always the oldest bulls, but may be said to be the finest and most
ambitious of their class. They are full grown and able to hold their places on the rookeries of the
breeding-flats, which they immediately take up after coming ashore. Their method of landing is
to come collectively to those breeding-grounds where they passed the prior season; but I am not
able to say authoritatively, nor do I believe it, strougly as it has been urged by many careful men
who were with ine on the islands, that these animals come back to and take up the same position
on their breeding-grounds that they individually occupied when there last year. From my knowl-
edge of their action and habit, and from what I have learned of the natives, I should say that
very few, if any, of them make such a selection and keep these places year after year. Even did
the Seal itself intend to come directly from the sea to that spot on the rookery which it left last
summer, what could it do if it came to that rookery margin a little late and found that another
“*See-catch” had occupied its ground? The bull could do nothing. It would either have to die in
its tracks, if it persisted’ in attaining this supposed objective point, or do what undoubtedly it
does do—seek the next best locality which it can attain adjacent.

One old ‘“See-catch” was pointed out to me at the “Gorbatch” section of the Reef Rookery
as an animal that was long known to the natives as a regular visitor close by or on the same rock
every season during the past three years. They called him “Old John,” and they said they knew
him because he had one of his posterior digits missing, bitten off, perhaps, in a combat. I saw
him in 1872, and made careful drawings of him in order that I might recognize his individuality
should he appear again in the following year, and when that time rolled by I found him not; he
failed to reappear, and the natives acquiesced in his absence. Of course it was impossible to say
that he was dead when there were ten thousand rousing, fighting bulls to the right, left, and below
us, under our eyes, for we could not approach forinspection. Still, if these animals came each to a
certain place in any general fashion, or as a rule, 1 think there would be no difficulty in recog-
nizing the fact; the natives certainly would do so; as it is, they do not. 1 think it very likely,
however, that the older bulls come back to the same common rookery-ground where they spent
the previous season; but they are obliged to take up their position on it just as the circumstances
attending their arrival will permit, such as finding other Seals which have arrived before them, or
of being whipped out by stronger rivals from their old stands.

It is entertaining to note, in this connection, that the Russians themselves, with the object of
testing this mooted query, during the later years of their possession of the islands, drove up a
number of young males from Lukannon, cut off their ears, and turned them out to sea again. The
following season, when the droves came in from the “hauling-grounds” to the slaughtering: fields,
quite a number of those cropped Seals were in the drives, but instead of being found all at one

73 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

place—the place from whence they were driven the year before—they were scattered examples of
croppies from every point on the island. The same experiment was again made by our people in
1870 (the natives having told them of this prior undertaking), and they went also to Lukannon, drove
up 100 young males, cut off their left ears, and set them free in turn. Of this number, during the
summer of 1872, when I was there, the natives found in their driving of 75,000 Seals from the dif-
ferent hduling-grounds of Saint Paul up tothe village killing-grounds, two on Novostashnah Rookery,
ten miles north of Lukannon, and two or three from English Bay and Tolstoi Rookeries, six miles
west by water; one or two were taken on Saint George Island, thirty-six miles to the southeast,
and not one from Lukannon was found among those that weie driven from there; probably, had
all the young males on the two islands this season been examined, the rest of the croppies that had
returned from the perils of the deep, whence they sojourned during the winter, would have been
distributed quite equally about the Pribylov hauling-grounds. Although the natives say that they
think the cutting off of the animal’s ear gives the water such access to its head as 10 cause its death,
yet I noticed that those examples which we had recognized by this auricular mutilation were
normally fat and well developed. Their theory does not appeal to my belief, and it certainly
requires confirmation.

These experiments would tend to prove very cogently and conclusively, that when the Seals
approach the islands in the spring, they have nothing in their minds but a general instinctive
appreciation of the fitness of the land, as a whole; and no special fondness or determination to elect
any one particular spot, not even the place of their birth. A study of my map of the distribution
of the seal-life on Saint Paul, clearly indicates that the landing of the Seals on the respective
rookeries is influenced greatly by the direction of the wiud at the time of their approach to the
islands in the spring and early summer. The prevailing airs, blowing, as they do at that season,
from the north and northwest, carry far out to sea the odor of the old rookery flats, together with
the fresh scent of the pioneer bulls which have located themselves on these breeding-grounds, three
or four weeks in advance of their kind. The Seals come up from the great North Pacific, and hence
it will be seen that the rookeries of the south and southeastern shores of Saint Paul Island receive
nearly all the seal-life, although there are miles of perfectly eligible ground at Nahsayvernia, or
north shore. To settle this matter beyond all argument, however, I know is an exceedingly difficult
task, for the identification of individuals, from one season to another, among the hundreds of
thousands, and even millions, that come under the eye on one of these great rookeries, is well nigh
impossible.

AGE OF FEMALES WHEN FIRST PREGNANT.—As to the time when the virgin cow is first
covered by the bull, I found a strange medley of ideas among the people on the island. The com-
mon opinion of the others and the natives was, that they were not covered until they were three
years of age, bringing forth their first young in the former case, in the generally accepted version,
when they reached their fourth year. But this, on examination, was not a difficult problem at all
to solve. The evidence every year decides when the yearlings are driven up to the village in the
fall, that although to external appearance there is no difference between the sexes, an examination
conclusively established the fact, that the yearling females herded with the yearling males on the
hauling-grounds, each about equal in number, and that when the balance of the “ Holluschickie.”
two-year-olds and upward, were driven in they never found a female! in the droves. Where were
these two-year-old females then? They were not upon the hauling-grounds with the yearling females
and bachelors. Where were they? The answer is, they have come up on the breeding-grounds,
clothed with desire and supplied with physical life to meet prospective maternity.

li. e., virile female.

THE FUR SEAL: BATTLES OF THE MALES. 719

RELATIVE DURATION OF LIFE: REPRODUCTION 18 TERRESTRIAL.—This fact also shows
that, as the female Fur Seal is so conspicuously inferior to the male, physically viewed, as to size
and weight, so also is her life lessened. In other words, when she is matured, as she must be by
her third year, in bearing then her first pup, she can reasonably be expected to live no longer than
nine or ten years, according to the general natural law governing this question; while the male,
not coming to his maturity and physical prime until he is five or six years of age, lives, in obedience
to the same law, fifteen or twenty years.

OLD AND YOUNG MALES FIGHTING.—The males under six years of age, although hovering
about the sea wargins of the breeding-grounds, do not engage in much fighting there; it is the six
and seven year old males, ambitious and flushed with their reproductive consciousness, that swarm
out. and do battle with the older males of these places. The young male of this latter class is,
however, no match for an old fifteen or twenty year old bull, provided that the aged “ Seecatchie”
retains his teeth; for, with these weapons, his relatively harder thews and sinews give him the
advantage in almost every instance, among the hundreds of combats that Ihave witnessed. These
trials of strength between the old and the young are incessant until the rookeries are mapped out;
and by common consent the males of all classes recognize the coming of the females. After their
arrival and settlement over the whole extent of the breeding-grounds, about the 15th July at the
latest, very little fighting takes place.’

ONLY ONE PUP BORN AT TIME OF PARTURITION.—Touching the number of young born at a
birth, the most diligent inquiry and scrutiny of observation on the rookeries have satisfied me that
it is confined toasingle pup. If they have twins, I have failed to discover a single instance of
that character. I also failed to notice a malformed pup or a monster anywhere throughout the
multitudes under my observation, from July until the middle of November every season. I think
this somewhat noteworthy, as it presents, perhaps, better than any other exhibition in the animal

‘It has been suggested to me that the exquisite power of scent possessed by these animals enables them to reach
the breeding-grounds at about the place wliere they left them the season previously ; surely the nose of the Fur Seal
is endowed to a superlative degree with those organs of smell, and its range of appreciation in this respect must be
very great.

‘¢In carnivorous quadrupeds the structure of the bones of the nasal cavities is more intricate than in the her-
bivorous, and is calculated to afford a far more extensive surface for the distribution of the nerve. In the Seal this
conformation is most fully developed and the bony plates are here not turbinated, but ramitied, as shown in the woodcut.
Eight or more principal branches rise from the main trunk, and each of these is divided and subdivided to an extreme
degree of minuteness, so as to form in all many hundred plates. The olfactory membrane, with all its nerves, is closely
applied to every plate in this vast assemblage, as well as to the main trunk and to the internal surface of the surrounding
cavity, so that its extent cannot be less than 120 square inches in each nostril. An organ of such exquisite sensibility
requires au extraordinary provision for securing it against injury, and nature has supplied a mechanism for the
purpose, enabling the animal to close at pleasure the orifice of the nostril.”—Harwoop: Comp. Anat. and Physiol.,
Bridgewater Treatise, vol. ii, p. 402.

I noticed in all sleeping and waking Seals that the nasal apertures were never widely expanded; and that they
were at intervals rapidly opened and closed with inhalation and exhalation of each breath; the nostrils of the Fur
Seal are, as a rule, well opened when the animal is out of water, and remain so while it is on land.

The distances at sea, away from the Pribylov Islands, in which Fur Seals are found during the breeding season,
are very considerable ; scattered records have been made of seeing large bands of them during August as far down the
northwest coast as they probably range at any season of the year, viz, well out at sea in the latitude of Cape Flattery,
47° to 49° south latitude. In the winter and spring, up to middle of Juue, all classes are found here spread out over
wide areas of the ocean; then, by the 15th June they will have all departed, the first and the latest, en route for the
Pribylov Islands. Then, when seen again in this extreme southern range, I presume the unusually early examples of
return, toward the end of August, are squads of the yearlings of both sexes, for this division is always the last to land
on, and the first to leave, the Seal Islands, annually. Also, the two-year-old females which have been covered on the
breeding-grounds during June and July undoubtedly stray back to sea, and down again from the Pribylov group, very
early in August, some of thei as far as the coast-heads of Fuca Straits; at least, many of them at one time are never
seen massed on the rookeries, and as they do not consort with the Holluschickie and yearlings on land, quite a number
of their large aggregate doubtless make frequent and extended fishing excursions during the height of the breeding

season. oe

80 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

kingdom, the survival of the fittest in the struggle for existence; for these balls, by their own
evolution, permit only the strongest and most perfect of their kind to stamp their impress on the
coming generations. !

From the time of the first arrival in May up to the beginning of June, or as late as the middle
of that month, if the weather be clear, is an interval in which everything seems quiet. Very few
Seals are added to the pioneers that have landed, as we have described. By the Ist of June, how-
ever, sometimes a little before, and never much later, the seal-weather—the foggy, humid, oozy
damp of summer—sets in; and with it, as the gray banks roll up and shroud the islands, the bull
Seals swarm from the depths by hundreds and thousands, and locate themselves in advantageous
positions for the reception of the females, which are generally three weeks or a month later than
this date in arrival.

PRE-EMPTION OF THE ROOKERIES: BATTLES OF THE SEALS.—The labor of locating and
maintaining a position on the rookery is really a terribly serious business for those bulls which
come in last; and it is so all the time to those males that occupy the water-line of the breeding-
grounds. <A constantly sustained fight between the newcomers and the occupants goes on
morning, noon, and night, without cessation, frequently resulting in death to one or even both of
the combatants.

It appears, from my survey of these breeding-grounds, that a well-understood principle exists
among the able-bodied bulls, to wit: that each one shall remain undisturbed on his ground, which
is usually about six to eight feet square, provided that at the start, and from that time until the
arrival of the females, he is strong enough to hold this ground against all comers; inasmuch as the
crowding in of the fresh arrivals often causes the removal of those which, though equally able-
bodied at first, have exhausted themselves by fighting earlier and constantly, they are finally
driven by these fresher animals back farther and higher up on the rookery, and sometimes off
altogether.

Many of these bulls exhibit wonderful strength and desperate courage. I marked one veteran
at Gorbatch, who was the first to take up his position early in May, and that position, as usual,
directly at the water-line. This male Seal had fought at least forty or fifty desperate battles, and
fought off his assailants every time—perhaps nearly as many different Seals which coveted his
position—and when the fighting season was over (after the cows are mostly all hauled up), I saw
him still there, covered with scars and frightfully gashed; raw, festering, and bloody, one eye
gouged out, but lording it bravely over his harem of fifteen or twenty females, who were all
huddled together on the same spot of his first location and around him.

This fighting between the old and adult males (for none others fight) is mostly, or rather entirely,
done with the mouth. The opponents seize one another with their teeth, and then clenching their
jaws, nothing but the sheer strength of the one and the other tugging to escape can shake them
loose, and that effort invariably leaves an ugly wound, the sharp canines tearing out deep gutters
in the skin and furrows in the blubber, or shredding the flippers into ribbon-strips.

They usually approach each other with comically averted heads, just as though they were
ashamed of the rumpus which they were determined to precipitate. When they get near enough
to reach one another they enter upon the repetition of many feints or passes, before either one or
the other takes the initiative by gripping. The heads are darted out and back as quick as a flash;

1A trained observer, Kumlien, who passed the winter of 1877~78 in Cumberland Sound, and, speaking of this
feature in the Ringed Seal (Phoca fotida), says, ‘‘ There is usually but one young ata birth; still twins are not of rare
occurrence, and oue instance came under my observation where there were triplets; but they were small, and two of
them probably would not have lived had they been born.”

THE FUR SEAL: ATTITUDES AND COLORATION. 81

their hoarse roaring and shrill, piping whistle never ceases, while their fat bodies writhe and swell
with exertion and rage; furious lights gleam in their eyes; their hair flies in the air, and their blood
streams down; all combined, makes a picture so fierce and so strange that, from its unexpected
position and its novelty, is perhaps one of ‘the most extraordinary brutal conte ts man can
witness.

In these battles of the Seals, the parties are always distinct; the one is offensive, the other
defensive. If the latter proves the weaker he withdraws from the position occupied, and is never
followed by his conqueror, who complacently throws up one of his hind flippers, fans himself, as it
were, to cool his fevered wrath and blood from the heat of the conflict, sinks into comparative quiet,
only uttering a peculiar chuckle of satisfaction or contempt, with a sharp eye open for the next
covetous bull or ‘‘See-catch.”!

ATTITUDES AND COLORATION OF THE FuR SEAL.—The period occupied by the males in
taking and holding their positions on the rookery, offers a very favorable opportunity to study
them in the thousand and one different attitudes and postures assumed, between the two extremes
of desperate conflict and deep sleep—sleep so profound that one can, if he keeps to the leeward,
approach close enough, stepping softly, to pull the whiskers of any old male taking a nap on a
clear place; but after the first touch to these moustaches, the trifler must jump with electrical
celerity back, if he has any regard for the sharp teeth and tremendous shaking which will surely
overtake him if he does not. The younger Seals sleep far more soundly than the old ones, and it is
a favorite pastime for the natives to surprise them in this manner—favorite, because it is attended
with no personal risk; the little beasts, those amphibious sleepers, rise suddenly, and fairly shrink
to the earth, spitting and coughing their terror and confusion.

The neck, chest, and shoulders of a fur-seal bull comprise more than two-thirds of his whole
weight; and in this long, thick neck, and the powerful muscles of the fore-limbs and shoulders, is
embodied the larger portion of his strength. When on land, with the fore hands he does all climb-
ing over the rocks and grassy hummocks back of the rookery, or shuffles his way over the smooth
parades; the hind-feet being gathered up as useless trappings after every second step forward,
which we have described at the outset of this chapter. These anterior flippers are also the propel-
ling power when in water, the exclusive machinery with which they drive their rapid passage; the
hinder ones floating behind like the steering sweep to a whale-boat, used evidently as rudders, or
as the tail of a bird is while its wings sustain and force its rapid flight.

The covering to the: body is composed of two coats, one being a short, crisp, glistening over-
hair, and the other a close, soft, elastic pelage, or fur, which gives the distinctive value to the pelt.
I can call it readily to the mind of my readers, when I say to them that the down and feathers on
the breast of a duck lie relatively as the fur and hair do upon the skin of the Seal.

At this season of first “hauling up,”® in the spring, the prevailing color of the bulls, after they
dry off and have been exposed to the weather, is a dark, dull brown, with a sprinkling in it of
lighter brown-black, and a number of hoary or grizzled gray coats peculiar to the very old males.
On the shoulders of all of them, that is, the adults, the over-hair is either a gray or rufous ocher,
or a very emphatic “pepper and salt”; this is called the “wig.” The body-colors are most intense
and pronounced upon the back of the head, neck, and spine, fading down on the flanks lighter, to
much lighter ground on the abdomen; still never white, or even a clean gray, so beautiful and
peculiar to them when young, and to the females. The skin of the muzzle and flippers is a dark

1“ See-catch,” native name for the bulls on the rookeries, especially those which are able to maintain their position.
2 Hauling up,” a technical term, applied to the action of the Seals when they land from the surf and haul up or
drag themselves over the beach. It is expressive and appropriate, as are most of the sealing phrases.

6F

82 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

bluish-black, fading in the older examples to a reddish and purplish tint. The color of the ears
and tail is similar to that of the body, being somewhat, if anything, a trifle lighter; the ears on a
bull Fur Seal are from one inch to an inch and a half in length; the pavilions or auricles are tightly
rolled up on themselves, so that they are similar in shape to, and exactly the size of, the little finger
on the human hand, eut off at the second phalangeal joint, a trifle more cone-shaped, however, as
they are greater at the base than they are at the tip. They are haired and furred as the body is.

I think it probable that this animal has and does exert the power of compressing or dilating
this seroll-like pavilion to its ear, just according as it dives deeper or rises in the water; and also,
Tam quite sure that the Hair Seal has this control over the meatus externus, from what I have seen
ofit. I have not been able to verify it in either case by actual observation; yet such opportunity
as I have had gives me undoubted proof of the fact, that the hearing of the Fur Seal is wonderfully
keen and surpassingly acute. If you make any noise, no matter how slight, the alarm will be given
instantly by these insignificant-looking auditors, and the animal, rising up from deep sleep with a
single motion erect, gives you a stare of stupid astonishment, and at this season of defiance,
mingling it with incessant, surly roaring, growling, and “spitting.”

VoICcE OF THE FuR SEAL.—This spitting, as I call it, is by no means a fair or full expression
of the most characteristic sound or action peculiar, so far as I have observed, to the Fur Seals alone,
the bulls in particular. It is the usual prelude to all their combats, and it is their signal of aston-
ishment. It follows somewhat in this way: when the two disputants are nearly within reaching
or striking distance, they make a number of feints or false passes, as fencing-masters do, at one
another, with the mouth wide open, lifting the lips or snarling so as to exhibit the glistening teeth,
and with each pass of the head and neck they expel the air so violently through the larynx, as
to make a rapid choo-choo-choo sound, like steam-pufis as they escape from the smoke-stack of a
locomotive when it starts a heavy train, especially when the driving-wheels slip on the rail.

All of the bulls have the power and frequent inclination to utter four distinct calls or notes.
This is not the case with the Sea Lion,! whose voice is confined to a single bass roar, or that of the
walrus, which is limited to a dull grunt, or that of the Hair Seal,? which is inaudible. This
volubility of the Fur Seal is decidedly characteristic and prominent; he utters a hoarse, resonant
roar, loud and long; he gives vent to a low, entirely different, gurgling growl]; lie emits a chuckling,
sibilant, piping whistle, of which it is impossible to convey an adequate idea, for it must be heard
to be understood; and this spitting or choo sound just mentioned. The cows® have but one note—
a hollow, prolonged, bla a-ting call, addressed ouly to their pups; on all other occasions they are
usually silent. It is something strangely like the cry of a calf or an old sheep. They also make a
spitting sound or snort when suddenly disturbed —a kind of a cough, as it were. The pups “blaat”
also, with little or no variation, their sound being somewhat weaker and hoarser than their mother’s,
after birth; they, too, comically spit or cough when aroused suddenly from a nap or driven into a
corner, opening their little mouths like young birds in a nest, when at bay, backed up in some
crevice, or against some tussock.

1 Eumetopias Stelleri.

2 Phoca vitulina,

Without explanation, I may be considered as making use of paradoxical language by using these terms of
description; for the inconsistency of talking of “pups” with ‘‘cows,” aud “bulls,” and ‘‘rookeries,” on the breeding-
grounds of the same, cannot fail to be noticed; but this nomenclature has been given and used by the American and
English whaling and sealing parties for many years, and the characteristic features of the Seals themselves so suit the:
naming, that I have felt satisfied to retain the style throughout as rendering my description more intelligible, especially
so to thos’ who are engaged in the business, or may be hereafter. The Russians are more consistent, but not so ‘ pat”;
they call the bull “See-catch,” a term implying strength, vigor, etc.; the cow, ‘‘Matkah,” or mother; the pups,
‘‘Kotickie,” or little seals; the non-breeding males under six and seven years, ‘‘Holluschickie,” or bachelors. ‘The
name applied collectively to the Fur Seal by them is ‘‘—Morskie-kot,” or Sea Cat.

THE FUR SEAL: EFFECTS OF HEAT. 83

Indeed, so similar is the sound, that I noticed a number of sheep which the Alaska Commercial
Company had brought up from San Francisco to Saint George Island, during the summer of 1873,
were constantly attracted to the rookeries, and were running in among the “ Holluschickie”; so
much so that they neglected the good pasturage on the uplands beyond, and a small boy had to be
regularly employed to herd them where they could feed to advantage. These transported Ovide,
though they could not possibly find anything in their eyes suggestive of companionship among the
Seals, had their ears so charmed by the sheep-like accents of the female pinnipeds, as to persuade
them against their senses of vision and smell.

The sound which arises from these great breeding-grounds of the Fur Seal, where thousands
upon tens of thousands of angry, vigilant bulls are roaring, chuckling, and }-iping, and multitudes
of seal-mothers are calling in hollow, blaating tones to their young, that in turn respond inces-
santly, is simply defiance to verbal description. It is, at a slight distance, softened into a deep
booming, as of a cataract; and I have heard it, with a hght, fair wind to the leeward, as far as six
miles out from Jand on the sea; and even in the thunder of the surf and the roar of heavy gales,
it will rise up and over to your ear for quite a considerable distance away. It is the monitor which
the sea-captains anxiously strain their ears for, when they run their dead reckoning up, and are
laying to for the fog to rise, in order that they may get their bearings of the land; once heard,
they hold on to the sound and feel their way in to anchor. The seal-roar at ‘Novostashnah,”
during the summer of 1872, saved the life of the surgeon,' and six natives belonging to the island,
who had pushed out on an egging-trip from Northeast Point to Walrus Island. I have sometimes
thought, as I have listened through the night to this volume of extraordinary sound, which never
ceases with the rising or the setting of the sun throughout the entire season of breeding, that it
was fully equal to the churning boom of the waves of Niagara. Night and day, throughout the
season, this din upon the rookeries is steady and constant.

EFFECTS OF HEAT ON THE SEALS.—The Seals seem to suffer great inconvenience and positive
misery from a comparatively low degree of heat. I have been often surprised to observe that,
when the temperature was 46° and 48° Fahr. on land during the summer, they would show every-
where signs of distress, whenever they made any exertion in moving or fighting, evidenced by
panting and the elevation of their hind-flippers, which they used incessantly as so many fans.
With the thermometer again higher, as it is at rare intervals, standing at 55° and 60°, they then
seem to suffer even when at rest; and at such times the eye is struck by the kaleidoscopic appear-
ance of a rookery—in anr of these rookeries where the Seals are spread out in every imaginable
position their lithesome bodies can assume, all industriously fan themselves; they use sometimes
the fore-ilippers as ventilators, as it were, by holding them aloft motionless, at the same time
fanning briskly with the hinder ones, according as they sit or he. This wavy motion of fanning
or flapping gives a hazy indistinctness to the whole scene, which is difficult to express in language;
but one of the most prominent characteristics of the Fur Seal, and perhaps the most unique feature,
is this very fanning manner in which they use their flippers, when seen on the breeding-grounds.
at this season. They also, when idle as it were, off-shore at sea, lie on their sides in the water
with only a partial exposure of the body, the head submerged, and then hoist up a fore- or hind-
flipper clear out of the water, at the same time scratching themselves or enjoying a mome. tary
nap; but in this position there is no fanning. I say “scratching,” because the Seal, in commom

1Dr. Otto Cramer. The suddenness with which fog and wind shutdown and sweep over the sea here, even when
the day opens most auspiciously for a short boat-voyage, has so alarmed the natives in times past, that a visit is now
never made by them from island to island, unless on one of the company’s vessels. Several bidarrahs have never been
heard from, which, in earlier times, attempted to sail, with picked crews of the natives, from one island to the other,

d+ NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

with all animals, is preyed upon by vermin, and it has a peculiar species of louse, or parasitic tick,
that belongs to it.

SLEEPING AFLOAT —Speaking of the Seal as it rests in the water, leads me to remark that
they seem to sleep as sound and as comfortably, bedded on the waves or rolled by the swell, as they
do on the land; they lie on their backs, fold the fore-flippers across the chest, and turn the hind
ones up and over, so that the tips rest on their necks and chins, thus exposing simply the nose
and the heels of the hind-flippers above water, nothing else being seen. In this position, unless it
is very rough, the Seal sleeps as serenely as did the prototype of that memorable song, who was
“rocked in the cradie of the deep.”

FASTING OF TH:; SEALS AT THE ROOKERIES: INTESTINAL WORMS.—AII the bulls, from the
very first, that have been able to hold their positions, have not left them from the moment of their
landing for a single instant, night or day; nor will they do so until the end of the rutting season,
which subsides entirely between the Ist and 10th of Augnst, beginning shortly after the coming
of the cows in June. Of necessity, therefore, this causes them to fast, to abstain entirely from food
of any kind, or water, for three months at least; and a few of them actually stay out four months, in
total abstinence, before going back into the water for the first time after “hauling up” in May;
they then return as so many bony shadows of what they were only a few months anteriorly ;
covered with wounds, abject and spiritless, they laboriously crawl back to the sea to renew a fresh
lease of life.

Such physical endurance is remarkable enough alone; but it is simply wonderful, when we
come to associate this fasting with the unceasing activity, restlessness, and duty devolved upon the
bulls as the heads of large families. They do not stagnate like hibernating bears in caves; there
is not one torpid breath drawn by them in the whole period of their fast; it is evidently sustained
and accomplished by the self-absorption of their own fat, with which they are so liberally supplied
when they first come out from the sea and take up their positions on the breeding-grounds, and
which gradually disappears, until nothing but the staring hide, protruding tendons and bones,
marks the limit of their abstinence. There must be some remarkable provision made by nature for
the entire torpidity of the Seals’ stomachs and bowels, in consequence of their being empty and
unsupplied durmg this long period, coupled with the intense activity and physical energy of the
animals during the same time, which, however, in spite of the violation of a supposed physiological
law, does not seem to affect them, for they come back just as sleek, fat, and ambitious as ever, in
the following season.

I have examined the stomachs of hundreds which were driven up and killed immediately after
their arrival in the spring, near the village; I have the word of the natives here, who have seen
hundreds of thousands of them opened during the slaughtering seasons past, but in no single case
has anything ever been found, other than the bile and ordinary secretions of healthy organs of
this class, with the marked exception of finding in every one a snarl or cluster of worms,! from the
size of a walnut to a bunch as large as a man’s fist. Fasting apparently has no effect upon the
worms, for on the rare occasion, and perhaps the last one that will ever occur, of killing three or
four hundred old bulls late in the fall to supply the natives with canoe skins, I was present, and
again examined their paunches, finding the same worms within. The worms were lively in these
empty stomachs, and their presence, I think, gives some reason for the habit which the old bulls
have (the others do not) of swallowing small water-worn bowlders, the stones in some of the
stomachs weighing half a pound apiece, in others much smaller. In one paunch I found over five

Nematoda.

THE FUR SEAL: PARASITIC WORMS. 85

pounds, in the aggregate, of large pebbles, which, in grinding against one another, I believe, must
comfort the Seal by aiding to destroy, in a great measure, these intestinal pests.

The Sea Lion is also troubled in the same way by a similar species of worm, and I preserved
the stomach of one of these animals in which there was more than ten pounds of stones, some of
them alone very great in size. Of this latter animal, I suppose it could swallow bowlders that
weigh two and three pounds each. J can ascribe no other cause for this habit among these animals
than that given, as they are the highest type of the carnivora, eating fish as a regular means of
subsistence, varying the monotony of this diet with occasional juicy fronds of sea-weed or kelp,
aud perhaps a crab or such once in a while, provided it is small and tender or soft-shclled. I know
that the sailors say that the Callorhinus swallows these stones to “ ballast” himself; in other words,
to enable him to dive deeply and quickly ; but I noticed that the females and the “ Holluschickie”
dive quicker aud swim better than the old fellows above specified, and they do so without any
ballast. They also have less muscular power, only a tithe of that which the ‘‘Sea catch” possesses.
No, the ballast theory is not tenable.

ARRIVAL OF THE COW SEALS AT THE ROOKERIES.—Between the 12th and 14th of June, the
first of the cow Seals, as a rule, come up from the sea; then the long agony of the waiting bulls is
over, and they signalize it by a period of universal, spasmodic, desperate fighting among them-
selves. Though they have quarreled all the time from the moment they first landed, and continue
to do so until the end of the season, in August, yet that fighting which takes place at this date is
the bloodiest and most vindictive known to the Seal. I presume that the heaviest percentage of
mutilation and death among the old males from these brawls occurs in this week of the earliest
appearance of the females.

A strong contrast now between the males and females looms up, both in size and shape,
which is heightened by the air of exceeding peace and dove-] ke amiability which the latter class
exhibit, in contradistinction to the ferocity and saturnine behavior of the males.

DESCRIPTION OF THE COW SEAL.—The cows are from four to four and a half feet in length
from head to tail, and much more shapely in their proportions than the bulls; there is no wrapping
around their necks and shoulders of unsightly masses of blubber; their lithe, elastic forms, from
the first to the last of the season, are never altered; this they are, however, enabled to keep,
because in the provision of seal economy, they sustain no protracted fasting period ; for, soon after
the birth of their young, they leave it on the ground and go to the sea for food, returning perhaps
to-morrow, perhaps later, even not for several days in fact, to again suckle and nourish it; having
in the mean time sped far off to distant fishing banks, and satiated a hunger which so active and
highly organized an animal must experience, when deprived of sustenance for any length of time.

As the females come up wet and dripping from the water, they are at first a dull, dirty-gray
color, dark on the back and upper parts, but in a few hours the transformation in their appearance
made by drying is wonderful. You would hardly believe that they could be the same animals, for
they now fairly glisten with a rich steel and maltese gray luster on the back of the head, the neck,
and along down the spine, which blends into an almost snow-white over the chest and on the
abdowen. But this beautiful coloring in turn is again altered by exposure to the same weather ;
for after a few days it will gradually change, so that by the lapse of two or three weeks it is a
dull, rufous-ocher below, and a cinereous brown and gray mixed above. This color they retain
throughout the breeding season, up to the time of shedding their coat in August.

The head and eye of the female aie exceedingly beautiful; the expression is really attractive,
gentle, and intelligent; the large, lustrous, blue-back eyes are humid and soft with the tenderest
expression, while the small, well formed head is poised as gracefully on her neck as can be well

86 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

imagined; she is the very picture of benignity and satisfaction, when she is perched up on some
couvenient rock, and has an opportunity to quietly fan herself, the eyes half-closed and the head
thrown back on her gently-swelling shoulders.

The females land on these islands not from the slightest desire to see their uncouth lords and
masters, but from an accurate and instinctive appreciation of the time in which their period of
gestation ends. They are in fact driven up to the rookeries by this cause alone; the young cannot
be brought forth in the water, and in all cases marked by wyself, the pups were born soon after
landing, some in a few hours, but most usually a day or so elapses before delivery.

ORGANIZATION OF THE ROOKERIES.—They are noticed and received by the males on the
water-line stations with attention; they are alternately coaxed and urged up on to the rocks, as
far as these beach-masters can do so, by chuckling, whistling, and roaring, and then they are
immediately under the most jealous supervision ; but, owing to the covetous and ambitious nature
of the bulls which occupy these stations to the rear of the water-line and way back, the little cows
have a rough-and-tumble time of it when they begin to arrive in small numbers at first, for no
sooner is the pretty animal fairly established on the station of male number one, who has welcomed
her there, than he, perhaps, sees another one of her style in the water from whence she has come,
and, in obedience to his polygamous feeling, he devotes himself anew to coaxing the later arrival,
by that same winning manner so successful in her case; then when bull number two, just back,
observes bull number one off guard, he reaches out with his long strong neck and picks up the
unhappy but passive cow by the scruff of her’s, just as a cat does a kitten, and deposits her upon
his seraglio ground; then bulls number three and four, and so on, in the vicinity, seeing this
high-handed operation, all assail one another, especially number two, and for a moment have a
tremendous fight, perhaps lasting half a minute or so, and during this commotiou the little cow is
generally moved, or moves, farther back from the water, two or three stations more, where, when
all gets quiet again, she usually remains in peace. Her last lord and master, not having the
exposure to such diverting temptation as her first, gives her such care that she not only is unable
to leave, did she wish, but no other bull can seize upon her. This is only a faint (and I fully
appreciate it), wholly inadequate description of the hurly-burly and the method by which the
rookeries are filled up, from first to last, when the females arrive. This is only one instance of
the many trials and tribulations which both parties on the rookery subject themselves to, before
the harems are filled.

Far back, fifteen or twentr ‘ See-catchie” stations deep from the water-line, and sometimes
more, but generally not over an average of ten or fifteen, the cows crowd in at the close of the
season for arriving, which is by the 10th or 14th of July; then they are able to go about pretty
much as they please, for the bulls have become so greatly enfeebled by this constant fasting,
fighting, and excitement during the past two months, that they are quite content now even with
only ove or two partners, if they should have no more.

The cows seem to haul up in compact bodies from the water, filling in the whole ground to
the rear of the rookeries, never scattering about over the surface of this area; they have mapped
out from the first their chosen resting places, and they will not lie quietly in any position outside
of the great mass of their kind. This is due to their intensely gregarious nature, and admirably
adapted for their protection. And here I should call attention to the fact that they select this
rookery-ground with all the skill of civil engineers. It is preferred with special reference to the
drainage, for it must lie so that the produce of the constantly dissolving fogs and rain-clouds
shall not lie upon them, having a great aversion to and a firm determination to rest nowhere on
water-puddled ground. This is admirably exhibited, and will be understood by a study of my

THE FUR SEAL: ORGANIZATION OF THE ROOKERIES. 87

sketch-maps which follow, illustrative of these rookeries and the area and position of the Seals
upon them. Every one of these breeding-grounds slopes up gently from the sea, and on no one
of them is there anything like a muddy flat.

I found it an exceedingly difficult matter to satisfy myself as to a fair general average number
of cows to each bull on the rookery; but, after protracted study, I think it will be nearly correet
when I assign to each male a general ratio of from fifteen to twenty females at the stations nearest
the water; and for those back in order from that line to the rear, from five to twelve; but there
are so many exceptional cases, so many instances where forty-five and fifty females are all under
the charge of one male; and then, again, where there are two or three females only, that this
question was and is not entirely satisfactory in its settlement to my mind.

Near Ketavie Point, and just above it to the north, is an odd washout of the basalt by the
surf, which has chiseled, as it were, from the foundation of the island, a lava table, with a single
roadway or land passage toit. Upon the summit of this footstool I counted forty-five cows, all
under the charge of one old veteran. He had them penned up on this table-rock by taking his
stand at the gate, as it were, through which they passed up and passed down—a Turkish brute
typified.

UNATLACHED MALES.—At the rear of all these rookeries there is invariably a large number
of able-bodied males who have come late, but who wait patiently, yet in vain, for families; most
of them having had to fight as desperately for the privilege uf being there as any of their more
fortunately located neighbors, who are nearer the water, and in succession from there to where
they are themselves; but the cows do not like to be in any outside position. They cannot be
coaxed out where they are not in close company with their female mates and masses. They lie
most quietly and contentedly in the largest harems, and cover the surface of the ground so thickly
that there is hardly moving or turning room until the females cease to come from the sea. The
inaction on the part of the males in the rear during the breeding-season only serves to qualify
them to move into the places which are necessarily vacated by those males that are, in the mean
time, obliged to leave from virile exhaustion, or incipient wounds. All the surplus able-bodied
inales, that have not been successful in effecting a landing on the rookeries, cannot at any one
time during the season be seen here on this rear line. Only a portion of their number are in
sight; the others are either loafing at sea, adjacent, or are hauled out in morose squads between
the rookeries on the beaches.

COURAGE OF THE FuR SEALS.—The courage with which the Fur Seal holds his position as
the head and guardian of a family, is of the highest order. I have repeatedly tried to drive them
from their harem posts, when they were fairly established on their stations, and have always
failed, with few exceptions. I might use every stone at my command, making all the noise I could.
Finally, to put their courage to the fullest test, I have walked up to within twenty feet of an old
veteran, toward the extreme end of Tolstoi, who had only four cows in charge, and commenced with my
double-barreled fowling-piece to pepper him all over with tine mustard-seed shot, being kind enough,
in spite of my zeal, not to put out his eyes. His bearing, in spite of the noise, smell of powder, and
painful irritation which the fine shot must have produced, did not change in the least from the
usual attitude of determined plucky defense, which nearly all of the bulls assumed when attacked
with showers of stones and noise; he would dart out right and left with his long neck and catch
the timid cows, that furtively attempted to run after each report of wy gun, fling and drag them
back to their places under his head; and then, stretching up to his full height look me directly
and defiantly in the face, roaring and chuckling most vehemently. The cows, however, soon got
away from him; they could not stand my racket in spite of their dread of him; but he still stood

88 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

his ground, making little charges on me of ten or fifteen feet in a succession of gallops or lunges, |
spitting furiously, and then comically retreating to the old position, with an judescribable leer and
swagger, back of which he would not go, fully resolved to hold his own or die in the attempt.

This courage is all the more noteworthy from the fact that, in regard to man, it is invariably
of a defensive character. The Seal is always on the defensive; he never retreats, and he will not
attack. If he makes you return when you attack him, he never follows you much farther than
the boundary of his station, and then no aggravation will compel him to take the offensive, so far
as I have been able to observe. I was very much impressed by this trait.

BEHAVIOR OF THE FEMALE SEALS ON THE ROOKERIES.—The cows, during the whole season,
do great credit to their amiable expression by their manner and behavior on the rookery; they
never fight or quarrel one with another, and never or seldom utter a cry of pain or rage when they
are roughly handled by the bulls, which frequently get a cow between them and actually tear the
skin from her back with their teeth, cutting deep gashes in it as they snatch her from mouth to
mouth. If sand does not get into these wounds it is surprising how rapidly they heal; and, from
the fact that I never could see scars on them anywhere except the fresh ones of this year, they
must heal effectually and exhibit no trace the next season.

The cows, like the bulls, vary much in weight, but the extraordinary disparity in the size of
the sexes, adult, is exceedingly striking. Two females taken from the rookery nearest to Saint
Paul Village, right under the bluffs, and almost beneath the eaves of the natives’ houses, called
‘Nah Speel,” after they had brought forth their young, were weighed by myself, and their
respective returus on the scales were fifty-six and one hundred pounds each, the former being
about three or four years old, and the latter over six—perhaps ten; botb were fat, or rather in
good condition—as good as they ever are. Thus the female is just about one-sixth the size of
the male! Among the Sea Lious the proportion is just one-half the bulk of the male,’ while the
Hair Seals, as I have before stated, are not distinguishable in this respect, as far as I could observe,
but my notice was limited to a few specimens only.

ATTITUDES OF FUR SEALS ON LAND.—It 8 quite beyond my power, indeed entirely out of
the question, to give a fair idea of the thousand and one positions in which the Seals compose
themselves and rest when on Jand. They may be said to assume every possible attitude which a
flexible body can be put into, no matter how characteristic or seemingly forced or constrained.
Their joints seem to be double-hinged ; in fact, all ball and socket union of thé bones. One favorite
position, especially with the females, is to perch upon a point or edge-top of some rock, and throw
their heads back upon their shoulders, with the nose held directly up and aloft; and then closing
their eyes, to take short naps without changing their attitude, now and then softly lifting one or
the other of their long, slender hind-flippers, which they slowly wave with their peculiar fanning
motion to which I have alluded heretofore. Another attitude, and one of the most common, is to
curl themselves up just as a dog does on a hearth rug, bringing the tail and nose close together.
They also stretch out, laying the head close to the body, and sleep an hour or two without rising,
holding one of the hind flippers up all the time, now and then gently moving it, the eyes being
tightly closed.

I ought, perhaps, to define here the anomalous tail of the Fur Seal. It is just about as
important as the caudal appendage to a bear, even less significant: it is the very emphasis of
abbreviation. In the old males it is positively only four or five inches in length, while among the
females only two and a half to three inches, wholly inconspicuous, and not even recognized by the
casual observer.

!Adult male and female—Callorhinus ursinus.
2Adult male and female—Kumetopias Stelleri.

THE FUR SEAL: SLEEPING HABITS. 89

SLEEPING SEALS.—I come now to speak of another feature which interested me nearly, if not
quite, as much as any other characteristic of this creature; and that is their fashion of slumber.
The sleep of the Fur Seal, seen on land, from the old male down to the youngest, is always accom-
panied by an involuntary, nervous, muscular twitching and slight shifting of the flippers, together
with ever and anon quivering and uneasy rollings of the body, accompanied by a quick folding
anew of the fore-flippers; all of which may be sigus, as it were, in fact, of their simply baving
nightmares, or of sporting, in a visionary way, far off in some dream-land sea; but perhaps very
much as an old nurse said, in reference to the smiles on a sleeping child’s face, they are disturbed
by their intestinal parasites. I have studied hundreds of such somnolent examples. Stealing
softly up, so closely that I could lay my hand upon them from the point where I was sitting, did
I wish to, and watching the sleeping Seals, I have always found their sleep to be of this nervous
description. The respiration is short and rapid, but with no breathing (unless the ear is brought
very close) or snoring sound; the quivering, heaving of the flanks only indicates the actiou of the
lungs. I have frequently thought that I had succeeded in finding a snoring Seal, especially among
the pups; but a close examination always gave some abnormal reason for it; generally a slight
distemper, never anything severer, however, than some trifle by which the nostrils were stopped
up to a greater or less degree.

The cows on the rookeries sleep a great deal, but the males have the veriest cat-naps that can
be imagined. I never could time the slumber of any old male on the breeding-grounds, which
lasted without interruption longer than five minutes, day or night; while away from these places,
however, I have known them to lie sleeping in the manner I have described, broken by these fitful,
nervous, dreamy starts, yet without opening the eyes, for an hour or so at a time.

With the exception of the pups, the Fur Seal seems to have very little rest awake or sleeping;
perpetual motion is well nigh incarnate with its being.

FUR-SEAL PUPs.—As I have said before, the females, soon after landing, are delivered of their
young. Immediately after the birth of the pup (twins are rare, if ever) the little creature finds its
voice, a weak, husky blaat, and begins to paddle about with its eves wide open from the start, in a
confused sort of way for a few minutes, until the mother turns around to notice her offspring and
give it attention, and still later to suckle it; and for this purpose she is supplied with four small,
brown nipples, almost wholly concealed in the fur, and which are placed about eight inches apart,
lengthwise with the body, on the abdomen, between the fore- and hind-flippers, with about four
inches of space between them transversely. These nipples are seldom visible, and then faintly
seen through the hair and fur. The milk is abundant, rich, and creamy. The pups nurse very
heartily, almost gorging themselves, so much so that they often have to yield up the excess of what
they have taken down, mewling and puking in the most orthodox manner.

The pup from birth, and for the next three months, is of a jet-black color, hair and flippers,
save a tiny white patch just back of each forearm. It weighs first from three to four pounds, and
is twelve to fourteen inches long. It does not seem to nurse more than once every two or three
days, but in this I am very likely mistaken, for they may have received attention from the mother
in the night, or other times in the day when I was unable to keep up my watch over the individuals
which I had marked for this supervision.

The apathy with which the young are treated by the old on the breeding-grounds, especially
by the mothers, was very strange to me, and 1 was considerably surprised at it. 1 have never seen
a seal-mother caress or fondle her offspring; and should it stray to a short distance from the hare ,
I could step to and pick it up, and even kill it before the mother’s cye, without causing her the”
slightest. concern, as far as all outward signs and manifestation would indicate. The same indiffer-

90 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

ence is also exhibited by the male to all that may take place of this character outside of the
boundary of his seraglio; but the moment the pups are inside the limits of his harem-ground, he is
a jealous and a fearless protector, vigilant aud determined ; bnt if the little animals are careless
enough to pass beyond this boundary, then I can go up to them and carry them off before the eye
of the old Turk without receiving from him the slightest attention in their belalf—a curious
guardian, forsooth!

It is surprising to me how few of these young pups get crushed to death while the ponderous
males are floundering over them, engaged in fighting and quarreling among themselves. I have
seen two bulls dash at each other with all the energy of furious rage, meeting right in the midst of
a small “pod” of forty or fifty pups, tramp over them with all their crushing weight, and bowling
them out right and left in every direction by the impetus of their movements, without injuring a
single one, as far as'I could see. Stili, when we come to consider the fact that, despite the great
weight of the old males, their broad, flat flippers and yielding bodies may press down heavily on
these little fellows without actually breaking bones or mashing them out of shape, it seems
questionable whether more than one per cent. of all the pups born each season on these great
rookeries of the Pribylov Islands are destroyed in this manner on the breeding-grounds.'

The vitality of the Fur Seal is simply astonishing. His physical organization passes beyond
the fabled nine lives of the cat. Asa slight illustration of his tenure of life, I will mention the
fact, that one morning the chief came to ine with a pup in his arms, which had just been born, and
was still womb-moist, saying that the mother had been killed at Tolstoi by accident, and he sup-
pos: d that I would like to have a “choochil.”? I took it up into my laboratory, and finding that
it could walk about and make a great noise, I attempted to feed it, with the idea of having a
comfortable subject to my peneil, for life-study of the young in the varied attitudes of sleep and
motion. It refused everything that I could summon to its attention as food; and, alternately
sleeping and walking, in its clumsy fashion, about the floor, it actually lived nine days—spending
the half of every day in floundering over the floor, accompanying all movement with a persistent,
hoarse, blaating cry—and I do not believe it ever had a single drop of its mother’s milk.

In the pup, the head is the only disproportionate feature at birth, when it is compared with
the adult form; the neck being also relatively shorter and thicker. The eye is large, round, and
full, but almost a “navy blue” at times, it soon changes into the blue-black of adolescence.

The females appear to go to and come from the water te feed and bathe, quite frequently, after
bearing their young, and the immediate subsequent coitus with the male; and usually return to
the spot or its immediate neighborhood, where they leave their pups, crying out for them, and
recognizing the individual replies, though ten thousand around, all together, should blaat at once,
They quickly single out their own and nurse them. It would certainly be a very unfortunate matter
if the mothers could not identify their voung by sound, since their pups get together like a great
swarm of bees, and spread out upon the ground in what the sealers call “pods,” or clustered groups,
while they are young and not very large; but from the middle or end of September, until they
leave the islands for the dangers of the great Pacific, in the winter, along into the heat of November,
they gather in this manner, sleeping and frolicking by tens of thousands, bunched together at
various places all over the islands contiguous to the breeding-grounds, and right on them. A
mother comes up from the sea, whither she has been to wash, and perhaps to feed, for the last day
or two, feeling her way along to about where she thinks her pup should be—at least where she left

1 The only damage which these little fellows have up here, is being caught by an October gale down at the surf-
margin, when they have not fairly learned to swim; large numbers bave been destroyed by sudden “nips” of this
character.

2A specimen to stuff.

THE FUR SEAL: HABITS OF THE PUPS. 91

it last—but perhaps she misses it, and finds instead a swarm of pups in which it has been incor-
porated, owing to its great fondness for society. The mother, without first entering into the crowd
of thousands, calls out just as a sheep does for a lamb; and, out of all the din she—if not at first,
at the end of a few trials—recognizes the voice of her offspring, and then advances, striking out
right and left, toward the position from which it replies. But if the pup happens at this time to
be asleep, it gives, of course, no response, even though it were close by; in the event of this silence
the cow, after calling for a time without being answered, curls herself up and takes a nap, or lazily
basks, to be usually more successful, or wholly so, when she calls again.

The pups themselves do not know their own mothers—a fact which J ascertained by careful
observation; but they are so constituted that they incessantly cry out at short intervals during
the whole time they are awake, and in this way the mother can pick out from the monotonous
blaating of thousands of pups, her own, and she will not permit any other to suckle it; but the
“ Kotickie” themselves attempt to nose around every seal-mother that comes in contact with them.

I have repeatedly watched young pups as they*made advances to nurse from another pup’s
mother; the result invariably being, that while the mother would permit her own offspring to
suckle freely, yet, when these little strangers touched her nipples, she would either move abruptly
away. or else turn quickly down upon her stomach, so that the maternal fountains were inaccessible
to the alien and hungry “ Kotickie.” I have witnessed so many examples of the females turning
pups away, to suckle only some particular other one, that I feel sure I am entirely right in saying
that the seal-mothers know their own young; and that they will not permit any others to nurse
save their own. I believe that this recognition of them is due chiefly to the mother’s scent and
hearing.

DISORGANIZATION OF THE ROOKERIES.—Between the end of July and the 5th or 8th of
August of every year, the rookeries are completely changed in appearance; the systematic and
regular disposition of the families or harems over the whole extent of the breeding-ground has
disappeared; all that clock-work order which has heretofore existed seems to be broken up. The
breeding-season over, those bulls which have held their positions since the first cf May leave, most
of them thin in flesh and weak, and of their number a very large proportion do not come out again
on land during the season; but such as are seen at the end of October and November, are in good
flesh. They have a new coat of rich; dark, gray-brown hair and fur, with gray or grayish-ocher
“wigs” of longer hair over the shoulders, forming a fresh, strong contrast to the dull, rusty brown
and umber dress in which they appear to us during the summer, and which they had begun to
shi d about the first of August, in common with the females and the “‘Holluschickie.” After these
males leave, at the close of their season’s work and of the rutting for the year, those of them that
happen to return to the land in any event do not come back until the end of September, and do
not haul upon the rookery-grounds again. As a rule they prefer to herd together, like the younger
males, upon the sand-beaches and rocky points close to the water.

The cows and pups, together with those bulls which we have noticed in waiting in the rear of the
rookeries, and which have been in retirement throughout the whole of the breeding-season, now
take possession, in a very disorderly manner, of the rookeries. There come, also, a large number
of young, three, four, and five year old males, which have been prevented by the menacing threats
of the older, stronger bulls, from landing among the females during the rutting-season.

Before the middle of August three-fourths, at least, of the cows at this date are off in the
water, only coming ashore at irregular intervals to nurse and look after their pups a short time.
They presented to my eye, from the summits of the bluffs round about, a picture more suggestive
than anything I have ever seen presented by animal life, of entire comfort and enjoyment. Here,

92 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

just out and beyond the breaking of the rollers, they idly lie on the rocks or sand-beaches, ever
and anon turning over and over, scratching their backs and sides with their fore- and hind-flippers.
The Seals on the breeding ground appear to get very lousy.

The Fur Seal spends a great deal of time, both at sea and on land, in scratching its hide; for it
is annoyed by a species of louse, ‘a Pediculus, to just about the same degree and in the same manner
that our dogs are by fleas. To scratch, it sits upon its haunches, and scrapes away with the
toe-nails of first one and then the other of its hind-flippers; by which action it reaches readily all
portions of its head, neck, chest, and shoulders; and, with either one or the other of its fore-
flippers, it rubs down its spinal region back of the shoulders to the tail. By that division of labor
with its feet, it can promptly reduce, with every sign of comfort, any lousy irritation wheresoever
on its body. This Pediculus, peculiar to the Fur Seal, attaches itself almost exclusively to the
pectoral regions; a few, also, are generally found at the bases of the auricular pavilions.

When the Fur Seal is engaged in this exercise, it cocks its head and wears exactly the same
expression that our common house-dog does while subjugating and eradicating fleas; the eyes are
partly or wholly closed; the tongue lolls out; and the whole demeanor is one of quiet but intense
satisfaction.

The Fur Seal appears also to scratch itself in the water with the same facility and unction so
marked on land; only it varies the action by using its fore-hands principally, in its fluviatile
exercise, while its hind-feet do most of the terrestrial scraping.

While I have written with much emphasis upon the total absence of any record as to the prev-
alence of an epidemic in these large rookeries, I should, perhaps, mark the fact that no symptoms
of internal diseases have ever been noticed here, such as tuberculosis of the lungs, etc., which
invariably attack and destroy the Fur Seal when it is taken into confinement, as well as the Sea
Lions also; the latter, however, have a much greater power of endurance under such artificial
circumstances of life. The thousands upon thousands of disemboweled Pribylov fur-seal carcasses
have never presented abnormal or diseased viscera of any kind.

MANGY Cows AND puPS.—The frequent winds and showers drive and spatter sand into their
fur and eyes, often making the latter quite sore. This occurs when they are obliged to leave the
rocky rookeries and follow their pups out over the sand-ridges and flats, to which they always
have a natural aversion. On the hauling-grounds they pack the soil under foot so hard and tightly
in many places, that it holds water in the surface depressions, just like so many rock-basins. Out
of and into these puddles the pups and the females flounder and patter incessantly, until evapora-
tion slowly abates the nuisance. This is for the time only, inasmuch as the next day, perhaps,
brings more rain, and the dirty pools are replenished.

The pups sometimes get so thoroughly plastered in these muddy, slimy puddles, that the hair
falls off in patches, giving them, at first sight, the appearance of being troubled with scrofala or
some other plague: from my investigations, directed to this point, I became satisfied that they
were not permanently injured, though evidently very much annoyed. With reference to this
suggestion as to sickness or distemper among the Seals, I gave the subject direct and continued
attention, and in no one of the rookeries could I discover a single Seal, no matter how old or young,
which appeared to he suffering in the least from any physical disorder, other than that which they
themselves had inflicted, one upon the other, by fighting. The third season, passing directly under
my observation, failed to reward my search with any manifestation of d'sease among the Seals
which congregate in such mighty numbers on the rookeries of Saint Paul and Saint George. The
remarkable freedom from all such complaints enjoyed by these animals is noteworthy, and the

THE FUR SEAL: MANGINESS. 93

most trenchant and penetrating cross-questioning of the natives, also, failed to give me any history
or evidenve of an epidemic in the past.

HosPiraLs.—The observer will, however, notice every summer, gathered in melancholy squads
of a dozen to one hundred or so, scattered along the coast where the healthy Seals never go, those
sick and disabled bulls which have, in the earlier part of the season, been either internally injured
or dreadfully scarred by the teeth of their opponents in fighting. Sand is blown by the winds into
the fresh wounds and causes an inflammation and a sloughing, which very often finishes the life of
the victim. The sailors term these invalid gatherings “hospitals,” a pbrase which, like most of
their homely expressions, is quite appropriate.

YOUNG SEALS LEARNING TO Swim.—Early in August, usually by the 8th or 10th, I noticed
one of the remarkable movements of the season. I refer to the pup’s first essay in swimming. Is
it not odd—paradoxical—that the young Seal, from the moment of his birth until he is a month or
six weeks old, is utterly unable to swim? If he is seized by the nape of the neck and pitched out
a rod into the water from shore, bis bullet-like head will drop instantly below the surface, and his
attenuated posterior extremities flap impotently on it; suffocation is the question of only a few
minutes, the stupid little creature not knowing how to raise his immersed head and gain the air
again. After they have attained the age I indicate, their instinct drives them down to the margin
of the surf, where the alternate ebbing and flowing of its wash covers and uncovers the rocky or
sandy beaches. They first smell and then touch the moist pools, and flounder in the upper wash
of the surf, which leaves them as suddenly high and dry as it immersed them at first. After this
beginning they make slow and clumsy progress in learning the knack of swimming. For a week
or two, when overhead in depth, they continue to flounder about in the most awkward manner,
thrashing the water as little dogs do, with their fore feet, making no attempt whatever to use the
hinder ones. Look at that pup now, launched out for the first time beyond his depth; see how he
struggles—his mouth wide open, and his eyes fairly popping. He turns instantly to the beach,
ere he has fairly struck out from the point whence he launched in, and, as the receding swell which
at first carried him off his feet and out, now returning leaves him high and dry, for a few minutes
he seems so weary that he weakly crawls up, out beyond its swift returning wash, and coils
himself up immediately to take’a recuperative nap. Hesleeps afew minutes, perhaps half an hour,
then awakes as bright as a dollar, apparently rested, and at his swimming lesson he goes again.
By repeated and persistent attempts, the young Seal gradually becomes familiar with the water
and acquainted with his own power over that element, which is to be his real home and his whole
support. Once boldly swimming, the pup fairly revels in his new happiness. He and his brethren
have now begun to haul and swarm along the whole length of Saint Paul coast, from Northeast
Point down and around to Zapadnie, lining the alternating sand-beaches and rocky shingle with
their plump, black forms. How they do delight in it! They play with a zest, and chatter like
our own children in the kindergartens—swimming in endless evolutions, twisting, turning, or
diving—and when exhausted, drawing their plump, round bodies up again on the beach. Shaking
themselves dry as young dogs would do, they now either go to sleep on the spot, or have a lazy
terrestrial frolic among themselves.

How an erroneous impression ever got into the mind of any man in this matter of the pup’s
learning to swim, I confess that 1 am wholly unable to imagine. I have not seen any “driving”
of the young pups into the water by the old ones, in order to teach them this process, as certain
authors have pointedly affirmed. There is not the slightest supervision by the old mother or father
of the pup, from the first moment of his birth, in this respect, until he leaves for the North Pacific,

1 ALLEN: History of North American Piunipeds, p. 387.

94 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS,

full-ledged with amphibious power. At the close of the breeding-season, every year, the pups are
restlessly and constantly shifting back and forth over the rookery ground of their birth, in large
squads, sometimes numbering thousands upon thousands. In the course of this change of position
they all sooner orlater come in contact with the sea; they then blunder into the water for the first
time, in a most awkward, ungainly manner, and get out as quick as they can; but so far from
showing any fear or dislike of this, their most natural element, as soon as they rest from their
exertion they are immediately ready for a new trial, and keep at it, provided the sea is not too
stormy or rough. During all this period of self-tuition they seem thoroughly to enjoy the exercise,
in spite of their repeated and inevitable discomfitures at the beginning.

PODDING OF THE PUPS.—The “ podding” of these young pups in the rear of the great rookeries
of Saint Paul, is one of the most striking and interesting phases of this remarkable exhibition of
highly organized lite. When they first bunch together they are all black, for they have not begun
to shed the natal coat: they shine with an unctuous, greasy reflection, and grouped in small
armies or great regiments on the sand-dune tracts at Northeast Point, they present a most extraor-
dinary and fascinating sight. Although the appearance of the ‘ Holluschickie” at English Bay
fairly overwhelins the observer with the imprexsion of its countless multitudes, yet I am free to
declare, that at no one point in this evolution of the seal-life, during the reproductive season, have
I been so deeply stricken by the sense of overwhelming enumeration, as I have, when, standing on
the summit of Cross Hill, I looked down to the southward and westward over a reach of six miles
of alternate grass and sand-dune stretches, mirrored upon which were hundreds of thousands of
these little black pups, spread in sleep and sport within this restricted field of vision. They
appeared as countless as the grains of the sand upon which they rested.

SECOND CHANGE OF COAT.—By the 15th of September, all the pups born during the year
have become familiar with the water; they have all learned to swim, and are now nearly all down
by the water’s ed ge, skirting in large masses the rocks and beaches previously this year unoccupied
by Seals of any class. Now they are about five or six times their original weight, or, in other
words, they are thirty to forty pounds avoirdupois, as plump and fat as butter-balls, and they
begin to take on their second coat, shedding their black pup-hair completely. This second coat
does not vary in color, at this age, between the sexes. They effect this transformation in dress
very slowly, and cannot, as a rule, be said to have ceased their molting until the middle or 20th of
October.

This second coat or sea going jacket, of the pup, is a uniform, dense, light-gray over-hair, with
an under-fur which is slightly grayish in some, but in most cases is a soft, light-brown hue. The
over-hair is fine, close, and elastic, from two-thirds of an ineh to an inch in length, while the fur is
not quite half an inch long. Thus the coarser hair shingles over and conceals the soft under. wool
completely, giving the color by which, after the second year, the sex of the animal is recognized.
The pronounced difference between the sexes is not effected, however, by color alone uutil the
third year of the animal. This over-hair of the young pup’s new jacket on the back, neck, and
head, is a dark chinchilla-gray, blending into a stone-white, just tinged with a grayish tint on the
abdomen and chest. The upper lip, upon which the whiskers or moustaches take root, is covered
with hair of a lighter gray than that of the body. This moustache consists of fifteen or twenty
longer or shorter bristles, from half an inch to three inches in length, some brownish, horn-colored,
and others whitish-gray and translucent, on each side and back and below the nostrils, leaving the
muzzle quite prominent and hairless. The nasal openings and their surroundings are, as I have
before said when speaking of this feature, similar to those of a dog.

EYES OF THE PUP-SEALS.—The most attractive feature about the fur-seal pup, and that

THE FUR SEAL: EYES OF YOUNG. 95

which holds this place as it grows on and older, is the eye. This organ is exceedingly clear, dark,
and liquid, with which, for beauty and amiability, together with real intelligence of expression,
those of no other animal that I have ever seen, or have ever read of, can be compared; indeed,
there are few eyes in the orbits of men and women which suggest more pleasantly the ancient
thought of their being “windows to the soul.” The lids to the eye are fringed with long, perfect
lashes, and the slightest annoyance, in the way of dust or sand, or other foreign substances, seems
to cause them exquisite annoyance, accompanied by immoderate weeping. This involuntary tear-
fulness so moved Steller that he ascribed it to the processes of the Seal’s mind, and declared that
the seal-mothers actually shed tears.

RANGE OF viston.—I do not think that their range of vision on Jand, or out of the water, is
very great. I have experimented frequently with adult Fur Seals, by allowing them to catch
sight of my person, so as to distinguish it as of foreign character, three and four hundred paces
off, taking the precaution of standing to the leeward of them when the wind was blowing strong,
and then walking unconcernedly up to them. I have invariably noticed, that they would allow me
to approach quite close before recognizing my strangeness; this occurring to them, they at once
made a lively noise, a medley of coughing, spitting, snorting, and blaating, and plunged in spasmodic
lopes and shambled to get away from my immediate neighborhood; as to the pups, they all stupidly
stare at the form of a human being until it is fairly on them, when they #lso repeat in miniature
these vocal gymnastics and physical efforts of the older ones, to retreat or withdraw a few rods,
sometimes only a few feet, from the spot upon which you have cornered them, after which they
instantly resume their previous occupation of either sleeping or playing, as though nothing had
happened.

BEHAVIOR OF FUR SEALS AT NIGHT.—I naturally enough, when beginning my investigation
of these seal-rookeries, expected to find the animals subdued at night, or early morning, on the
breeding-grounds; but a few consecutive nocturnal watches satisfied me that the family organiza-
tion and noise was as active at one time as at another throughout the whole twenty-four hours. If,
however, the day preceding had chanced to be abnormally warm, I never failed then to find the
rookeries much more n: isy and active during the night than they were by daylight. The Seals, as
a rule, ‘ome and go to and from the sea, fight, roar, and vocalize as much during midnight moments
as they do at noonday times. Anaged native endeavored to satisfy me that the ‘Seec :tchie” could
see much better by twilight and night than by daylight. I am not prepared to prove to the
contrary, but I think that the fact of his not being able to see so well himself at that hour of
darkness was the true cause of most of his belief in the improved nocturnal vision of the Seals.

As I write, this old Aleut, Phillip Voilkov, bas passed to his final rest—“un konchielsah”—
winter of 1878-79. He was one of the real characters of Saint Paul; he was esteemed by the
whites on account of his relative intelligence, and beloved by the natives, who called him their
“wise man,” and who exulted in his piety. Phillip, like the other people there of his kind, was
not mich comfort to me when I asked questions as to the Seals. He usually answered important
inquiries by crossing himself, and replying, “God knows.” There was no appeal from this.

SULLENNESS OF OLD MALE SEALS.—The old males, when grouped together by themselves,
at the: close of the breeding-season, indulge in no humor or frolicsome festivities whatsoever. On
the contrary, they treat each other with surly indifference. The mature females, however, do
not appear to lese their good nature to anything like so marked a degree as do their lords and
masters, for they will at all seasons of their presence on the islands be observed, now and then,
to suddenly unbend from severe matronly gravity by coyly and amiably tickling and gently teasing
ove, another, as they rest in the harems, or later, when strolling in September. There is no sign

96 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

given, however, by these seal-mothers of desire or action in fondling or caressing their pups; nor
do the young appear to sport with any others than the pups themselves, when together. Some-
times a yearling and a five or six months old pup will have a long-continued game between them-
selves. They are decidedly clannish in this respect—creatures of caste, like Hindoos.

POWER OF SCENT: ODOR OF THE SEALS.—The greatest activity displayed by any one of
the five senses of the Seal, is evidenced in its power of scent. This faculty is all that can be
desired in the line of alertness. I never failed to awaken an adult Seal from the soundest sleep,
when from a half to a quarter of a mile distant, no matter bow softly I proceeded, if I got to the
windward, though they sometimes took alarm when I was a mile off.

They leave evidences of their being on these great reproductive fields, chiefly at the rookeries,
in the hundreds of dead carcasses which mark the last of those animals that have been rendered
infirm, sick, or were killed by fighting among themselves in the early part of the season, or of those
which have crawled far away from the scene of battle to die from death-wounds received in the
bitter struggle for a harem. On the rookeries, wherever these lifeless bodies rest, the living, old
and young, clamber and patter backward and forward over and on the putrid remains, and by this
constant stirring up of decayed matter, give rise to an exceedingly disagreeable and far-reaching
“funk.” This has been, by all writers who have dwelt on the subject, referred to as the smell
which these animals emit for another reason—erroneously called the “rutting odor.” If these
creatures have any odor peculiar to them when in this condition, I will frankly confess that I am
unable to distinguish it from the fumes which are constantly being stirred up and rising out of
these decaying carcasses of the older Seals, as well as from the bodies of the few pups which have
been killed accidentally by the heavy bulls fighting over them, charging back and forth against
one another, so much of the time.

They have, however, a very characteristic and peculiar smell, when they are driven and get
heated; their breath exhalations possess a disagreeable, faint, sickly odor, and when I have
walked within its influence at the rear of a seal-drive, I could almost fancy, as it entered my
nostrils, that I stood beneath an ailanthus tree in bloom; but this odor can by no means be
confounded with what is universally ascribed to another cause. It is also noteworthy, that if
your finger is touched ever so lightly to a little fur-seal blubber, it will smell very much like
that which I have appreciated and described as peculiar to their breath, which arises from them
when they are driven, only it is a little stronger. Both the young and old Fur Seals have this
same breath taint at all seasons of the year.

REVIEW OF STATEMENTS CONCERNING LIFE IN THE ROOKERIES.—To recapitulate and sum
up the system and regular method of life and reproduction on these rookeries of Saint Paul and
Saint George, as the Seals seem to have arranged it, I shall say that—

First. The earliest bulls land in a negligent, indolent way, at the opening of the season, soon
after the rocks at the water’s edge are free from ice, frozen snow, etc. This is, as a rule, about
the 1st to the 5th of every May. They land from the beginning to the end of the season in perfect
confidence and without fear; they are very fat, and will weigh at an average 500 pounds each;
some stay at the water’s edge, some go to the tier back of them again, and so on until the whole
rookery is mapped out by them, weeks in advance of the arrival of the first female.

Second. That by the 10th or 12th of June, all the male stations on the rookeries have been
mapped out and fought for, and held in waiting by the “Seecatchie.” These males are, as a rule,
bulls rarely ever under six years of age; most of them are over that age, being sometimes three,
and occasionally doubtless four, times as old.

Third. That the cows make their first appearance, as a class, on or after the 12th or 15th of

LIFE IN THE FUR SEAL ROOKERIES. 97

June, in very small numbers; but rapidly after the 23d and 25th of this month, every year, they
begin to flock up in such numbers as to fill the harems very perceptibly; and by the 8th or 10th
of July, they have all come, as a rule—a few stragglers excepted. The average weight of the.
females now will not be much more than eighty to ninety pounds each.

Fourth. That the breeding-season is at its height from the 10th to the 15th of July every year,
and that it subsides entirely at the end of this month and early in August; also, that its method
and system are confined entirely to the land, never effected in the sea.

Fifth. That the females bear their first young when they are three years old, and that the
period of gestation is nearly twelve months, lacking a few days only of that lapse of time.

Sixth. That the females bear a single pup each, and that this is born soon after landing; no
exception to this rule has ever been witnessed or recorded.

Seventh. That the “Seecatchie” which have held the harems from the beginning to the end
of the season, leave for the water in a desultory and straggling manner at its close, greatly
emaciated, and do not return, if they do at all, until six or seven weeks have elapsed, when the
regular .systematic distribution of the families over the rookeries is at an end for the season. A
general medley of young males now are free, which come out of the water, and wander over all
these rookeries, together with many old males, which have not been on seraglio duty, and great
numbers of the females. An immense majority over all others present are pups, since only about
25 per cent. of the mother-seals are out of the water now at any one time.

Eighth. That the rookeries lose their compactness and definite boundaries of true breeding
limit and expansion by the 25th to the 28th of July every year; then, after this date, the pups
begin to haul back, and to the right and left, in small squads at first, but as the season goes on,
by the 18th of August, they depart without reference to their mothers; and when thus scattered,
the males, females, and young swarm over more than three and four times the area occupied by
them when breeding and born on the rookeries. The system of family arrangement and uniform
compactness of the breeding classes breaks up at this date.

Ninth. That by the 8th or 10th of August the pups born nearest the water first begin to learn
to swim; and that by the 15th or 20th of September they are all familiar, more or less, with the
exercise.

Tenth. That by the middle of September the rookeries are entirely broken up; confused,
straggling bands of females are seen among bachelors, pups, and small squads of old males,
crossing and recrossing the ground in an aimless, listless manner. The season now is over.

Eleventh. That many of the Seals do not leave these grounds of Saint Paul and Saint George
before the end of December, and some remain even as late as the 12th of January; but that by the
end of October and the beginning of November every year, all. the Fur Seals of mature age—five
and six years, and upward—have left the islands. The younger males go with the others: many
of the pups still range about the islands, but are not hauled to any great extent on the beaches or
the flats. They seem to prefer the rocky shore-margin, and to lie as high up as they can get
on such bluffy rookeries as Tolstoi and the Reef. By the end of this month, November, they are,
as a rule, all gone.

Such is the sum and the substance of my observations which relate to the breeding-grounds
alone ou Saint Paul and Saint George. It is the result of summering and wintering on them,
and these definite statements I make with that confidence which one always feels, when he speaks
of that which has entered into his mind by repeated observation, aad has been firmly grounded
by careful deductions therefrom.

THE “ HOLLUSOHICKIE” OR “BACHELOR” SEALS: A DESCRIPTION.—I now call the attention

7F

98 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

of the reader to another very remarkable feature in the economy of the seal-life on these islands.
The great herds of “ Holluschickie,”! numbering from one-third to one-half, perhaps, of the whole
aggregate of near 5,000,000 Seals known to the Pribylov group, are never allowed by the “‘See-
catchie,” under the pain of frightful mutilation or death, to put their flippers on or near the rookeries.

By reference to my map, it will be observed that I have located a large extent of ground—
markedly so on Saint Paul—as that occupied by the Seals’ “hauling-grounds”; this area, in fact,
represents those portions of the island upon which the “Holluschickie” roam in their heavy
squadrons, wearing off and polishing the surface of the soil, stripping every foot, which is indicated
on the chart as such, of its vegetation and mosses, leaving the margin as sharply defined on the
bluffy uplands and sandy flats as it is on the map itself.

The reason that so much more land is covered by the “Holluschickie” thau by the breeding
Seals—ten times as much at least—is due to the fact, that though not as numerous, perhaps, as the
breeding Seals, they are tied down to nothing, so to speak—are wholly irresponsible, and roam
hither and thither as caprice and the weather may dictate. Thus they wear off and rub down a
much larger area than the rookery Seals occupy; wandering aimlessly, and going back, in some
instances, notably at English Bay, from one-half to a whole mile inland, not traveling in desultory
files along winding, straggling paths, but sweeping in solid platoons, they obliterate every spear of
grass and rub down nearly every hummock in their way.

DEFINITION OF “HOLLUSCHICKIE.”—All the male Seals, from six years of age, are compelled
to herd apart by themselves and away from the breeding-grounds, in many cases far away; the
large hauling-grounds at Southwest Point being about two miles from the nearest rookery. This
class of Seals is termed “Holluschickie” or the “Bachelor” Seals by the natives, a most fitting and
expressive appellation.

The Seals of this great subdivision are those with which the natives on the Pribylov group are
the most familiar: naturally and especially so, since they are the only ones, with the exception of
a few thousand pups, and occasionally an old bull or two, taken late in the fall for food and skins,
which are driven up to the killing grounds at the village for slaughter. The reasons for this exclu-
sive attention to the “ Bachelors” are most cogent, and will be given hereafter when the “business”
is discussed.

LOCATING THE HAULING-GROUNDS: PATHS THROUGH THE ROOKERIES.—Since the “Hollu-
schickie” are not permitted by their own kind to land on the rookeries and stop there, they have
the choice of two methods of locating, one of which allows them to rest in the rear of the rookeries,
and the other on the free beaches. The most notable illustration of the former can be witnessed
on Reef Point, where a pathway is left for their ingress and egress through a rookery—a path left
by common consent, as it were, between the harems. On these trails of passage they come and go
in steady files all day and all night during the season, unmolested by the jealous bulls which guard
the seraglios on either side as they travel; all peace and comfort to the young Seal if he minds
his business and keeps straight on up or down, without stopping to nose about right or left; all
woe and desolation to him, however, if he does not, for in that event he will be literally torn in
bloody griping, from limb to limb, by the vigilant old “‘Seecatchie.”

Since the two and three year old “ Holluschickie” come up in small squads with the first bulls
in the spring, or a few days later, such common highways as those between the rookery-ground
and the sea are traveled over before the arrival of the cows, and get well defined. A passage for
the “Bachelors,” which I took much pleasure in observing day after day at Polavina, another at
Tolstoi, and two on the Reef, in 1872, were entirely closed up by the ‘‘Seecatchie” and obliterated,

' The Russian term ‘‘Holluschickie” or ‘ Bachelors” is very appropriate, and is usually employed.

FUR SEAL HAULING-GROUNDS. 99

when I again searched for them in 1874. Similar passages existed, however, on several of the
large rookeries of Saint Paul; one of those at Tolstoi exhibits this feature very finely, for here the
hauling-ground extends around from English Bay, and lies up back of the Tolstoi Rookery, over a
flat and rolling summit, from 100 to 120 feet above the sea-level. The young males and yearlings
of both sexes come through and between the harems, at the height of the breeding-season, on two
of these narrow pathways, and before reaching the ground above, are ubliged to climb up an almost
abrupt bluff, which they do by following and struggling in the water-runs and washes which are
worn into its face. As thisis a large hauling-ground, on which, every favorable day during the
season, fifteen or twenty thousand commonly rest, the sight of skillful seal-climbing can be
witnessed here at any time during that period; and the sight of such climbing as this of Tolstoi
is exceedingly novel and interesting. Why, verily, they ascend over and upon places where an
ordinary man might, at first sight, with great positiveness say that it was utterly impossible for
him to climb.

HAULING-GROUNDS ON THE BEACHES.—The other method of coming ashore, however, is the
one most followed and favored. In this case they avoid the rookeries altogether, and repair to the
unoccupied beaches between them, and then extend themselves out all the way back from the sea,
as far from the water, in some cases, as a quarter and even half of a mile. I stood on the Tolstoi
sand-dunes one afternoon, toward the middle of July, and had under my eyes, in a straightforward
sweep from my feet to Zapadnie, a million and a half of Seals spread out on these hauling-grounds.
Of these, I estimated that fully one-half, at that time, were pups, yearlings, and ‘“ Holluschickie.”
The rookeries across the bay, though plainly in sight, were so crowded, that they looked exactly as
I have seen surfaces appear upon which bees had swarmed in obedience to that din and racket
made by the watchful apiarian, when he desires to hive the restless honey-makers.

The great majority of yearlings and ‘Holluschickie” are annually hauled out and packed
, thickly over the sand-beach and upland hauling-grounds, which lie between the rookeries on Saint
Paul Island. At Saint George there is nothing of this extensive display to be seen, for here is
only a tithe of the seal-life occupying Saint Paul, and no opportunity whatever is afforded for an
amphibious parade.

GENTLENESS OF THE SEALS.—Descend with me from this sand-dune elevation of Tolstoi, and
walk into that drove of “ Holluschickie” below us; we can do it; you do not notice much confusion
or dismay as we go in among them; they simply open out before us and close in behind our tracks,
stirring, crowding to the right and left as we go, twelve or twenty feet away from us on each side.
Look at this small flock of yearlings, some one, others two, and even three years old, which are
coughing and spitting around us now, staring up in our faces in amazement as we walk ahead;
they struggle a few rods out of our reach, and then come together again bebind us, showing no
further sign of notice of ourselves. You could not walk into a drove of hogs at Chicago, without
exciting as much confusion and arousing an infinitely more disagreeable tumult; and as for sheep
on the plains, they would stampede far quicker. Wild animals indeed! You can now readily
understand how easy it is for two or three men, early in the morning, to come where we are, turn
aside from this vast herd in front of and around us two or three thousand of the best examples,
and drive them back, up and over to the village. That is the way they get the Seals; there is not
any “hunting” or “chasing” or “capturing” of Fur Seals on these islands.

“ HOLLUSCHICKIE” DO NOT FAST.—While the young male Seals undoubtedly have the power
of going for lengthy intervals without food, they, like the female Seals on the breeding-grounds,
certainly do not maintain any long fasting periods on land; their coming and going from the shore
is frequent and irregular, largely influenced by the exact condition of the weather from day to day ;

100 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

for instance, three or four thick, foggy days seem to call them out from the water by hundreds of
thousands upon the different hauling-grounds (which the reader observes recorded on my map).
In some cases, I have seen them lie there so close together that scarcely a foot of ground, over
whole acres, is bare enough to be seen; then a clear and warmer day follows, and this seal-covered
ground, before so thickly packed with animal life, will soon be almost deserted: comparatively so
at least, to be filled up immediatcly as before, when favorable weather shall again recur. They
must frequently eat when here, because the first yearlings and ‘“ Holluschickie” that appear in the
spring are no fatter, sleeker, or livelier than they are at the close of the season; in other words,
their condition, physically, seems to be the same from the beginning to the end of their appearance
here during the summer and fall. It is quite different, however, with the “Seecatch”; we know
how and where it spends two to three months, because we find it on the grounds at all times, day
or night, during that period.

SPORTS AND PASTIMES OF THE YOUNG ‘‘ BACHELORS.”—A small flock of the young Seals, one
-to three years old, generally, will often stray from these hauling-ground margins, up and beyond,
over the fresh mosses and grasses, and there sport and play one with another, just as little puppy-
dogs do; and when weary of this gamboling a general disposition to sleep is suddenly manifested,
and they stretch themselves out and curl up in all the positions and all the postures that their
flexible spines and ball-and-socket joints will permit. They seem to revel in the unwonted vege-
tation, and to be delighted with their own efforts in rolling down and crushing the tall stalks of
the grasses and umbelliferous plants; one will lie upon its back, hold up its hind-flippers, and lazily
wave them about, while it scratches, or rather rubs, its ribs with the fore-hands alternately, the
eyes being tightly closed during the whole performance; the sensation is evidently so luxurious
that it does not wish to have any side-issue draw off its blissful self-attention. Another, curled up
like a cat on a rug, draws its bseath, as indicated by the heaving of its flanks, quickly but regu- |
larly, as though in heavy sleep; another will lie flat upon its stomach, its hind-flippers covered and
concealed, while it tightly folds its fore-feet back against its sides, just as a fish carries its pectoral

. fins—and so on to no end of variety, according to the ground and the fancy of the animals.

These “ Bachelor” Seals are, I am sure, without exception, the most restless animals in the
whole brute creation, which can boast of a high organization. They frolic and lope about over the
grounds for hours, without a moment’s cessation, and their sleep, after this, is exceedingly short,
and it is ever accompanied with nervous twitchings and uneasy muscular movements; they seem
to be fairly brimful and overrunning with spontaneity—to be surcharged with fervid, electric life.

Another marked feature which I have observed among the multitudes of “ Holluschickie,”
which have come under my personal observation and auditory, and one very characteristic of this
class, is, that nothing like ill-humor appears in all of their playing together; they never growl or
bite, or show even the slightest angry feeling, but are invariably as happy, one with another, as
can be imagined. This is a very singular trait; they lose it, however, with astonishing rapidity,
when their ambition and strength develop and carry them, in due course of time, to the rookery.

The pups and yearlings have an especial fondness for sporting on the rocks which are just at
the water’s level and awash, so as to be covered and uncovered as the surf rolls in. On the bare
summit of these wave-worn spots, they will struggle and clamber in groups of a dozen or two at a
time throughout the whole day, in endeavoring to push off that one of their number which has just
been fortunate enough to secure a landing; the successor has, however, but a brief moment of
exultation in victory, for the next roller that comes booming in, together with the pressure by its
friends, turns the table, and the game is repeated, with another Seal on top. Sometimes, as well
as I could see, the same squad of ‘‘Holluschickie” played for a whole day and night, without a

THE FUR SEAL: SPORTIVE HABITS. 101

moment’s cessation, around such a rock as this, off Nah Speel Rookery; but in this observation
I may be mistaken, because the Seals cannot be told apart.

SEALS AMONG THE BREAKERS.—The graceful unconcern with which the FuxSeal sports
safely in, among, and under booming breakers, during the prevalence of the numerous heavy gales
at the islands, has afforded me many consecutive hours of spell-bound attention to them, absorbed
in watching their adroit evolutions within the foaming surf, that seemingly, every moment, would,
in its fierce convulsions, dash these hardy swimmers, stunned and lifeless, against the iron-bound
foundations of the shore, which alone checked the furious rush of the waves. Not at all. Through
the wildest and most ungovernable mood of the roaring tempest and storm-tossed waters attending
its transit, I never failed, on creeping out, and peering over the bluffs, in such weather, to see
squads of these perfect watermen—the most expert of all amphibians—gamboling in the seething,
creamy wake of mighty rollers, which constantly broke in thunder tones over their alert, dodging
heads. ‘The swift succeeding seas seemed, every instant, to poise the Seals at the very verge of
death. Yet the Callorhinus, exulting in his skill and strength, bade defiance to their wrath, and
continued his diversions.

SWIMMING FEATS OF THE ‘ BACHELORS.”— The “ Holluschickie” are the champion swimmers
of all the seal tribe; at least, when in the water around the islands, they do nearly every fancy
tumble and turn that can be executed. The grave old males and their matronly companions sel-
dom indulge in any extravagant display, as do these youngsters, jumping out of the water like so
many dolphins, describing beautiful elliptic curves sheer above its surface, rising three and even
four feet from the sea, with the back slightly arched, the fore-flippers folded tightly against the
sides, and the hinder ones extended and pressed together straight out behind, plumping in head
first, to reappear in the same manner, after an interval of a few seconds of submarine swimming,
like the flight of a bird, on their course. Sea Lions and Hair Seals never jump in this manner.

All classes will invariably make these dolphin-jumps, when they are surprised or are driven
into the water, curiously turning their heads while sailing in the air, between the “rises” and
“plumps,” to take a look at the cause of their disturbance. They all swim rapidly, with the
exception of the pups, and may be said to dart under the water with the velocity of a bird on the
wing; as they swim they are invariably submerged, running along horizontally about two or three
feet below the surface, guiding their course by the hind-flippers as by a rudder, and propelling
themselves solely by the fore-feet, rising to breathe at intervals which are either very frequent or
else so wide apart that it is impossible to see the speeding animal when he riscs a second time.

How long they can remain under water without taking a fresh breath, is a problem which I
had not the heart to solve, by instituting a series of experiments at the island; but I am inclined
to think that, if the truth were known in regard to their ability of going without rising to breathe,
it would be considered astounding. On this point, however, I have no data worth discussing, but
will say that, in all their swimming which I have had a chance to study, as they passed under the
water, mirrored to my eyes from the bluff above by the whitish-colored rocks below the rookery
waters at Great Eastern Rookery, I have not been able to satisfy myself how they used their long,
flexible hind-feet, other than as steering media. If these posterior members have any perceptible
motion, it is so rapid that my eye is not quick enough to catch it; but the fore-flippers, however,
can be most distinctly seen, as they work in feathering forward and sweeping flatly back, opposed
to the water, with great rapidity and energy. They are evidently the sole propulsive power of the
Fur Seal in the water, as they are its main fulcrum and lever combined, for progression on land.
I regret that the shy nature of the Hair Seal never allowed me to study its swimming motions, but
it seems to be a general point of agreement among authorities on the Phocide, that all motion in

102 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

water by them arises from that power which they exert and apply with the hind-feet. So far as
my observations on the Hair Seal go, I am inclined to agree with this opinion.

All their movements in water, whether they are traveling to some objective point or are in
sport, are quick and joyous; and nothing is more suggestive of intense satisfaction and pure physi-
cal comfort, than is that spectacle which we can see every August, a short distance out at sea from
any rookery where thousands of old males and females are idly rolling over in the billows side by
side, rubbing and scratching with their fore- and hind-flippers, which are here and there stuck up
out of the water by their owners, like the lateen-sails of the Mediterranean feluccas, or, when the
hind-flippers are presented, like a “cat-o’-nine tails.” They sleep in the water a great deal, too,
more than is generally supposed, showing that they do not come on Jand to rest—very clearly not.

LEAPING OUT OF WATER: “ DOLPHIN-JuMPS.”—AS I never detected the Sea Lions or the Hair
Seals leaping from the water around these islands, in those peculiar dolphin-like jumps which I have
hitherto described, I made a note of it early during my first season of observation, for corrobora-
tion in the next. It is so: neither the Sea Lion nor the Hair Seal here ever leaped from the ocean
in this agile and singular fashion heretofore described. Allen, so conservative usually, seems, how-
ever, to have fallen into an error by reading the notes of Mr. J. H. Blake, descriptive of the Sea
Lions of the Gallapagos Islands. As Allen quotes them entire in a foot-note,! I am warranted in
calling attention to the fact, that no authentic record has as yet been made of such peculiar
swimming by Phocide, or the sea-lion branch of the Otariidw. My notice has been called to this
mistake by Professor Allen’s own note, page 367, upon a quotation from my work, citing Mr.
Blake’s notes above referred to, which are themselves very interesting, but do not even hint at a
dolphin-jump.

How fast the Fur Seal can swim, when doing its best, I am naturally unable to state. I do know
that a squad of young “ Holluschickie” followed the “Reliance,” in which I was sailing, down from
the latitude of the Seal Islands to Akootan Pass with perfect ease, laying around the vessel, while
she was logging straight ahead, 14 knots to the hour.

The Fur Seal, the Sea Lion, the Walrus, and the Hair Seal all swim around these islands, and
in these waters, submerged, extended horizontally and squarely upon their stomachs. I make this
note here because I am surprised to read? that the Harp (Hair) Seal’s “favorite position when
swimming, as affirmed by numerous observers, is on the back or side, in which position they also
sleep in the water.” Although this is a far-distant, geographically speaking, relative of the Hair
Seal of Saint Paul Island, yet the remarkable difference in fashion of swimming seems hardly
‘warranted, when the two animals are built exactly alike. Still, I have no disposition to question,
earnestly, the truth of the statement, inasmuch as I have learned of so many very striking radical
differences in habits of anima's as closely related, as to pause, ere seriously doubting this assertion
that a Harp Seal’s favorite way in swimming is to lie upon its back when so doing. It is simply
an odd contradiction to the method employed by the Hair Seals of the North Pacific and of Bering
Sea.

While I am unable to prove that the Fur Seal possesses the power to swim to a very great depth,
by actual tests instituted, yet Iam free to say that it certainly can dive to the uttermost depths,
where its food-fish are known to live in the ocean; it surely gives full and ample evidence of
possessing the muscular power for that enterprise. In this connection, it is interesting to cite
the testimony of Mr. F. Borthen, the proprietor of the Fro Islands, a group of small islets off
Trondhjems Fidrd, in Norway; this gentleman has had an opportunity of watching the Gray Seal

1 History of North American Pinnipeds, p. 211.
2 ALLEN: op. cit., p. 651.

THE FUR SEAL: LEAPING HABITS. 103

(Halicherus grypus) as it bred and rested on these rocks during an extended period of time. Among
many interesting notes as to the biology of this large Hair Seal, he says: “ As a proof that they [the
Seals] fetch their food from a considerable depth, it is related that a few years agoa young one was
found caught by one of the hooks of a fishing line that was placed at a depth of between seventy
and eighty fathoms, on the outer side of the islands. Gray Seals have several times been seen to
come up to the surface with lings (Molva vulgaris) and other deep-water fishes in their mouths,
such fishes seldom or never found at a less depth than between sixty and seventy fathoms.”!

CLASSING THE “‘HOLLUSCHICKIE” BY AGE.—When the “ Holluschickie” are up on land they
can be readily separated into their several classes as to age by the color of their coats and size,
when noted, namely, the yearlings, the two, three, four, and five years old males. When the
yearlings, or the first class, haul out, they are dressed just as they were after they shed their pup-
coats and took on the second covering during the previous year in September and October; and
now, as they come out in the spring and summer, one year old, the males and females cainot be
distinguished apart, either by color or size, shape or action; the yearlings of both sexes have the
same steel-gray backs and white stomachs, and are alike in behavior and weight.

Next year these yearling females, which are now trooping out with the youthful males on the
hauling-grounds, will repair to the rookeries, while their male companions will be obliged to come
again to this same spot.

SHEDDING THE HAIR: STAGEY SEALS.—About the 15th and 20th of every August, they
have become perceptibly “stagey,” or, in other words, their hair is well under way in shedding.
All classes, with the exception of the pups, go through this process at this time every year. The
process requires about six weeks between the first dropping or falling out of the old over-hair, and
its full substitution by the new. This takes place, as a rule, between August 1 and September 28,

The fur is shed, but it is so shed that the ability of the Seal to take to the water and stay
there, and not be physically chilled or disturbed during the process of molting, is never impaired.
The whole surface of these extensive breeding-grounds, traversed over by us after the Seals had
gone, was literally matted with the shed hair and fur, This under-fur or pelage is, however, so
fine and delicate, and so much concealed and shaded by the coarser over-hair, that a careless eye
or a superficial observer might be pardoned in failing to notice the fact of its dropping and renewal.

The yearling cows retain the colors of the old coat in the new, when they shed it for the first
time, and from that time on, year after year, as they live and grow old. The young three-year-
olds and the older cows look exactly alike, as far as color goes, when they haul up at first and dry-
out on the rookeries, every June and July.

The yearling males, however, make a radical change when they shed for the first time, for
they come out from their “staginess” in a nearly uniform dark gray, and gray and black mixed,
and lighter, with dark ocher to whitish on the upper and under parts, respectively. This coat,
next year, when they appear as two-year-olds, shedding for the three-year-old coat, is a very much
darker gray, and so on to the third, fourth, and fifth season; then after this, with age, they begin,
to grow more gray and brown, with rufous-ocher and whitish-tipped over-hair on the shoulders.
Some of the very old bulls change in their declining years to a uniform shade all over of dull-
grayish ocher. The full glory and beauty of the Seal’s moustache is denied to him until he has
attained his seventh or eighth year.

COMPARATIVE SIZE OF FEMALES AND MALES.—The female does not get her full growth and
weight until the end of her fourth year, so far as I have observed, but she does most of her

1 RoBeRT COLLETT: On the Gray Seal. Proceedings Zoélogical Society London, part ii, 1881, p. 387.

104 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

growing longitudinally in the first two; after she has passed her fourth and fifth years, she weighs
from thirty to fifty pounds more than she did in the days of her youthful maternity.

The male does not get his full growth and weight until the close of his seventh year, but
realizes most of it, osteologically speaking, by the end of the fifth; and from this it may be
perhaps truly inferred, that the male Seals live to an average age of eighteen or twenty years,
if undisturbed in a normal condition, and that the females attain ten or twelve seasons under the
same favorable circumstances. Their respective weights, when fully mature and fat in the spring,
will, in regard to the male, strike an average of from four to five hundred pounds, while the
females will show a mean of from seventy to eighty pounds.

I did not permit myself to fall into error in estimating this matter of weight, because I carly
found that the apparent huge bulk of a sea-lion bull or fur-seal male, when placed upon the
scales, shrank far below my notions: I took a great deal of pains, on several occasions, during the
killing season, to have a platform scale carted out into the field, and as the Seals were knocked
down, and before they were bled, I had them carefully weighed, constructing the following table
from my observations:

Table showing the weight, size, and growth of the Fur Seal (Callorhinus ursinus), from the pup to the
adult, male and female.

Age. Length. | Girth. welghtot wos Remarks.
Inches. | Inches. | Pounds. | Pownds.
One week........ 12 to 14 | 10 to 104 6 to 74 14 | A male and female, being the only ones of the class handled, June 20, 1873.
Six months ...... 24 25 39 3 | A mean of ten examples, males and females, alike in size, November 28, 1872.
“One year......... 38 25 39 44 | A mean of six examples, males and females, alike in size, July 14, 1873.
Two years ....... 45 30 58 53 | A mean of thirty examples, all males, July 24, 1873.
Threo years...... 52 36 87 7 | A mean of thirty-two examples, all males, July 24, 1873.
Four years....... 58 42 135 12 | A mean of ten examples, all males, July 24, 1873.
Five years....... 65 52 200 16 | A mean of five examples, all males, July. 24, 1873.
Six years ....... 72 64 280 25 | A mean of three examples, all males, July 24, 1873.
Eight to twenty | 75to80 | 70to76 |400t0500 | 45to50 | An estimate only, calculating on their weight when fat, and early in the season.
years.

WEIGHT OF FEMALE SEALS.—The adult females will correspond with the three-year-old
males in the above table, the younger cows weighing frequently only seventy-five pounds, and
many of the older ones going as high as one hundred and twenty, but an average of eighty to
eighty-five pounds is the rule. Those specimens of the females which I have weighed were
examples taken by me for transmission to the Smithsonian Institution, otherwise I should not
have been permitted to make this record of their weight, inasmuch as weighing them means to
kill them; and the law and the habit, or rather the prejudice of the entire community up there, is
unanimously in opposition to any such proceeding, for they never touch females here, and never
set their foot on or near the breeding-grounds on such an errand. It will be noticed, also, that I
have no statement of the weights of those exceedingly fat and heavy males which first appear on
the breeding-grounds in the spring; those which I have referred to, in the table above given, were
very much heavier at the time of their first appearance in May and June, than at the moment
when they were in my hands, in July; but the cows, in the other class, do not sustain protracted
fasting, and therefore their weights may be considered substantially the same throughout the year.

CHANGE IN WEIGHT.—Thus, from the fact that all the young Seals and females do not change
much in weight from the time of their first coming out in the spring, till that of their leaving in
the fall and early winter, I feel safe in saying that they feed at irregular but not long intervals,

THE FUR SEAL: CHANGES IN WEIGHT. 105

during the time that they are here under our observation, since they are constantly changing from
land to water and from water to land, day in and day out. Ido not think that the young males
fast longer than a week or ten days at a time, as a rule.

DISPERSAL OF THE “ HOLLUSCHICKIE.”—By the end of October and the 10th of November,
the great mass of the “ Holluschickie,” the trooping myriads of English Bay, Southwest Point,
Reef Parade, Lukannon Sands, the table-lands of Polavina, and the mighty hosts of Novostashnah,
at Saint Paul, together with the quota of Saint George, had taken their departure from its shores,
and had gone out to sea, spreading with the receding schools of fish that were now returning to
the deep waters of the North Pacific, where, in that vast expanse, over which rolls an unbroken
billow, five thousand miles from Japan to Oregon, they spend the winter and the early spring,
until they reappear and break up, with their exuberant life, the dreary winter isolation of the land
which gave them birth.

TASTE OF THE SEALS IN THE MATTER OF WEATHER.—A few stragglers remain, however,
as late as the snow and ice will permit them to, in and after December; they are all down by the
water’s edge then, and haul up entirely on the rocky beaches, deserting the sand altogether; but
the first snow that falls makes them very uneasy, and I have seen a large hauling-ground so
disturbed by a rainy day and night, that its hundreds of thousands of occupants fairly deserted
it. The Fur Seal cannot bear, and will not endure, the spattering of sand into its eyes, which
always accompanies the driving of a rain-storm; they take to the water, to reappear when the
nuisance shall be abated.

The weather in which the Fur Seal delights is cool, moist, foggy, and thick enough to keep the
sun always obscured, so as to cast no shadows. Such weather, which is the normal weather of
Saint Paul and Saint George, continued for a few weeks in June and July, brings up from the sea
millions of Fur Seals. But, as I have before said, a little sunshine, which raises the temperature
as high as 50° to 55° Fahr., will send them back from the hauling-grounds almost as quickly as
they came. Fortunately these warm, sunny days on the Pribylov Islands are so rare that the
Seals certainly can have no ground of complaint, even if we may presume they have any at all.
Some curious facts in regard to their selection of certain localities on these islands, and their
abandonment of others, I will discuss in a succeeding chapter, descriptive of the rookeries; this
chapter is illustrated by topographical surveys made by myself.

ALBINOS.—I looked everywhere and constantly, when treading my way over acres of ground
which were fairly covered with seal-pups, and older ones, for specimens that presented some
abnormity, that is, monstrosities, albinos, etc., such as I have seen in our great herds of stock; but
Iwas, with one or two exceptions, unable to note anything of the kind. I have never seen any
malformations or “‘monsters” among the pups and other classes of the Fur Seals, nor have the
natives recorded anything of the kind, so far as I could ascertain from them. I saw only three
albino pups among the multitudes on Saint Paul, and none on Saint George. They did not differ,
in any respect, from the normal pups in size and shape. Their hair, for the first coat, was a dull
ocher all over; the fur whitish, changing to a rich brown, the normal hue; the flippers and muzzle
were a pinkish flesh-tone in color, and the iris of the eye sky-blue. When they shed the following
year, they are said to have a dirty, yellowish-white color, which makes them exceedingly conspic-
uous when mixed in among a vast majority of black pups, gray yearlings, and “ Holluschickie” of
their kind.

MONSTROSITIES AMONG THE SEALS.—Touching this question of monstrosities, I was led to
examine a number of alleged examples presented to my attention by the natives, who took some
interest, in their sluggish way, as to what I was doing here. They brought me an albino fur-seal

106 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

pup, nothing else, and gravely assured me that they knew it owed its existence to the fecundation
of a sea-lion cow by a fur-seal bull; if not so, how could it get that color? I was also confronted
with a specimen—a full and finely grown four-year-old Callorhinus which had, at some earlier day,
lost its testicles either by fighting or accident while at sea; perhaps shaven off by the fangs of a
saw-toothed shark, and also gravely asked to subscribe to the presence of a hermaphrodite!

Undoubtedly some abnormal birth shapes must make their appearance occasionally; but at
no time while I was there, searching keenly for any such manifestation of malformation on the
rookeries, did I see a single example. The morphological symmetry of the Fur Seal is one of the
most salient of its characteristics, viewed as it rallies here in such vast numbers, but the osteological
differentiation and asymmetry of this animal are equally surprising.

WHERE DO THE SEALS DIE ?—It is perfectly evident that a large percentage of this immense
number of Seals must die every year from natural limitation of life. They do not die on these
islands; that much I am certain of. Not one dying a natural death could I find or hear of on the
grounds; they evidently lose their lives at sea, preferring to sink with the rigor mortis into the
cold, blue depths of the great Pacific, or beneath the green waves of Bering Sea, rather than to
encumber and disfigure their summer haunts on the Pribylov Islands.

THE REPRODUCTION OF THE FuR SEAL.'—By treating this subject at length, my object is to
fix attention upon several points connected with the reproduction of the Fur Seal which have vital
importance to its relation with, and residence upon, the breeding-grounds of thesé islands under
discussion. In the first place, naturalists generally have taken notice of the generative appara-
tus exhibited by the Phocidew; and, while they have spoken at length in anatomical detail and
discussion of the male organs of the Otariide, yet they exhibit a strange neglect or oversight
with respect to those of the female. The singular cloacal arrangement of the female organs of
generation in the Phocide has excited comment and description from the earliest times.

The modification of the generative apparatus peculiar to the male Otartide, in contradistine-
tion to those organs possessed by the male Phocidw, has been noticed to some extent by several
authorities? prior to the date of this publication; but, while calling attention to this marked change
in the morphology of the male organs of the Otariide, they are silent in regard to the fact that,
though the Phocide are very distinct, by the armature of the males, from the Otariide, yet the
cloacal arrangement of the females in both genera is identical. This is in itself, as I view it, quite
as remarkable with regard to the females as it is noteworthy in respect to the males. Surely the
wonderful modification of the physical structure of the male Fur Seal from that of his kindred,
the Hair Seal, is very great; and we are not surprised to find that his generative organs are pro-
nounced, in common with all the others, distinct. So the females differ, physically, in every respect,
to as great a degree, with the solitary exception of the intra-uterine life, and the cloacal form of
the external generative organs.

NECESSITY OF UNDERSTANDING THE SUBJECT.—This subject of the method of reproduction,

1 When they the approaching time perceive,

They flee the deep, and watery pastures leave:

On the dry ground, far from the swelling tide,

Bring forth their young, and on the shores abide

Till twice six times they see the Eastern gleams

Brighten the hills, and tremble on the streams,

The thirteenth morn, soon as the early dawn

Hangs out its crimson folds or spreads its lawn,

No more the fields and lofty coverts please,

Each hugs her own, and hastes to rolling seas.

—Old Roman poem: Hair Seals of the Mediterranean.

2 ALLEN: North American Pinnipeds, 1880. Mure: Trans. Zool. Soc., 1869-72.

THE FUR SEAL: REPRODUCTION. 107

as carried out by the Fur Seals on the breeding-grounds of the Pribylov Islands, should be under-
stood distinctly and authoritatively, before the truth or falsity of certain hypotheses, which depend
upon it, can be intelligently discussed. The general impression and commonly-received opinion
in the popular, as well as the scientific world, is that the amphibian life of the ocean breeds in the
water thereof; or, in other words, that the fertilization of the seal-life takes place by coition therein,
and that the young may be born in this watery element, safely nurtured and cared for by their
mothers.!. No end of fanciful rumor and romance has been published touching this point. We are
told that some man of great credibility has seen Seals in the water, with their new-born clasped
to their bosoms, rising in the waves to look at their disturbers, and then sinking, to carry away
their young to safety and quiet. To this fanciful description, undoubtedly, the mermaid owes its
origin in our recent mythology; for the Hair Seal, in especial, has a bland, round, full physiog-
nomy; the large circular eyes are placed more in front of the skull than in the crania of any other
genera of its kind. Such a head popping up suddenly in front of the mariner might naturally
suggest a human face; and it needs but a very little embellishment to trim it with long hair,
place mamme on its bosom, and all the other peculiar attributes of the yellow-haired mermaid
so celebrated in song and art.

FINE OPPORTUNITIES FOR OBSERVATION.—Therefore, what I wish to distinctly settle with
regard to the reproduction of the Fur Seal, which I now have under consideration, is that mooted
question as to the place, the manner, and the time of the union of the two sexes necessary for the
reproduction of its kind. I have no personal knowledge of the system of fertilization employed,
with reference to it, by the Phocidw; hence I shall not attempt to describe it. What I have

1Reasonably enough, the closet naturalist, no matter how able, will be deceived now and then in this manner by
untrustworthy statements made by those who are supposed to know by personal observation of what they affirm.

Asan apt illustration of this confusion which the best of closet naturalists are thrown into by untrustworthy
information touching this very matter, I may cite the case of Hamilton, who, in 1839, while writing of the Fur Seal of
Cook and Forster, discovered in particular by them on South Georgia, in 1771, declares it to be no Fur Seal at all! He
feels warranted in doing so, because one Captain Weddell says so. This authority was a hardy sailor who made sealing
a specialty in the Antarctic during 1823~26. Hamilton, after specifying the wide range of this Arctocephalus, “ at
Dusky Bay, New Zealand, in New Georgia, Staten Land, Juan Fernandez, and the Gallapagos,” goes on to say:

“¢Tt will be observed that several of these authorities, particularly Dampier and Cook, speak of the fineness of the
fur of this Seal. It is probably these statements which have led the able author of the article Phoque in the ‘‘ Dict.
Classique d’Hist. Naturelle” to state that this Seal is the Fur Seal of commerce. His words are: ‘L’otarii de Forster
est le Phoque & fourrures des pécheurs européens.’ But this, we suspect, isa mistake. No one will doubt that Captain
Weddell was familiar with the Fur Seal. He was also familiar with the Ursine Seal, both as encountered in its haunts
and as described by naturalists; and yet, when speaking of the Ursine Seal (so denominated by him), he never once
hints that its fur has any peculiar value, but the contrary.”—Amphibious Carnivora. Edinburg, 1839, p. 265.

Thus Hamilton quotes this old sailor, Weddell, throughout his whole memoir, with the utmost trust; and in the
same manner others have been cited. They are worthless, unless taken ‘cum grano salis.” The “long and short” of
it is this: when most of the seafaring sealers and whalers are in the field, they are blind to everything except the
mere capture of their quarry. When they return, they are importuned, usually at first, for details which, in fact, they
have never thought of, while away.

2+‘ The inconsequential numbers of the Hair Seal around and on the Pribylov Islands, seem to be characteristic of
all Alaskan waters and the northwest coast; also, the Phocide are equally scant on the Asiatic littoral margins. Only
the following four species are known to exist throughout the entire extent of that vast marine area, viz:

PHOCA VITULINA—Everywhere, between Bering Straits and California.
PHoca FaTIDA—Plover Bay, Norton’s Sound, Kuskokvim mouth, and Bristol Bay, of Bering Sea; Cape Séartze

Kammin, Arctic Ocean to Point Barrow.

ERIGNATHUS BARBATUS—Kamtchatkan coast, Norton’s Sound, Kuskokvim mouth, and Bristol Bay, of Bering Sea.
HISTRIOPHOCA FASCIATA—Yukon mouth, and coast south to Bristol Bay, of Bering Sea and drifting ice therein.

Then, in addition to this, Mr. Ivan Petrov, the special agent of the Tenth Census, United States Army, reports
the presence of a land-locked Sealin the fresh waters of Iliamna Lake, and also in Lake Walker. It may be as distinct
from any of the Phocide above enumerated as is the Baikal or the Caspian Seals; and, as such, I suggest that it shall
receive the name of Phoca petrovi, when it is eventually secured, and if identified as new to our lists.—Preliminary
Report of Progress, Census of Alaska: Ivan Petrov, Washington, December, 1880, p. 45.

In this connection, it is a somewhat curious fact that the description which Aristotle [300 B. C.] gives of the

108 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

heard from the natives would point clearly to the fact, that they know nothing really worthy of
scientific attention; but in regard to the Fur Seal I have had unusual advantages, and an extended
experience, ranging over four consecutive breeding-seasons, in which thousands of these animals,
all perfectly in accord, have passed within the scope of my observation and record.

GENITALIA OF THE MALE AND FEMALE FuR SEAL.—Considering the male Callorhinus:
When it is first born the external organs of generation are not evidenced to the sight, and it
requires a nice touch to find them under the skin. It is not until this animal has rounded off the
second year of its existence, that the testes descend and become externally exposed: first faintly,
but rapidly succeeding to the same prominence and same relative position that they occupy in the
example of the dog. When this creature becomes three and four years old, its testes hang pendant
in a somewhat flabby scrotum, which in the old male is as pendulous as that of an ordinary
bull; the. sack is smooth and shiny, entirely devoid of hair, and black, with a slightly wrinkled
surface. The sheath of the penis is so merged with the skin of the abdomen that it does not lie
ribbed there and prominent as in the other carnivora; but it is an erectile organ, with a bony
skeleton, measuring, when fully developed, from five to seven inches in length. .The females have
their parts of generation exactly as they are described by Owen and Huxley—which descriptions
are based upon examples of the well-known Phocide; their external organs are entirely concealed,
by the fact that the rectum terminates on the opposite side of the vulva; and a common, somewhat
flaccid, sphincter closes both apertures. In other words, the anal and genital openings of the
female are united into a single one, through which the regular secretions of the body pass, and the
forces of reproduction are received and introduced. Thus, while the female Phocide correspond
in this respect with the female Otariide, yet the extraordinary development of the male organs in
the Otariide are quite marked, when contrasted with those peculiar to the Phocide.

No EVIDENCE OF RUTTING ODORS: SPEEDY BIRTH OF PUPS.—When the male Fur Seals
or “Seecatchie,” as the natives call them—a term implying strength and virility—arrive first
upon the breeding-grounds, long before the coming of the females, as described in a preceding
chapter of this monograph, they give no evidence of being in rut; nor do they emit any odor
during the rest of the season which at all resembles the “rutting odor” ascribed to many animals.
I call attention to this because a common blunder has been made, and likely will be made, whereby
the smell upon the rocks, so far-reaching and so offensive, is called the “rutting funk.” It is, as
I have also stated, due to other causes which are conspicuous and which have been specified here-
tofore. When the females came to land upon the breeding grounds, I noticed that, with the
exception of the virgin cows, they were heavy with young; that the period of their gestation must
soon culminate by the birth of their offspring, which usually took place within a couple of hours
after they reached the shore, or within as many days at the most. Frequently I have observed
the mothers land, and ere they were dry the young would be expelled; and the thought rose then
to my mind “how wonderfully well-timed the return of those gravid cows was”—for, in spite of
tempests and currents, and many of them quite two and three thousand miles from their winter

Hair Seal (Monachus albiventer, very likely) is, in most respects, correct; while Buffon, the celebrated French zodlogist,
as late as 1785, has not, despite his vast advantages, been nearly as accurate in his treatment of the Pinnipeds. That
this old Grecian philosopher, three hundred years before the Christian era, should have done better in this respect
than that world-wide distinguished academician did more than two thousand years afterward, affords an entertaining
suggestion as to the alloged degeneracy of the present age, especially so since the monument erected over Buffon’s
remains bears an inscription which declares that he possessed ‘‘a mind equal to the majesty of nature.” (1)

‘See Owen’s Anatomy of Vertebrates,” vol. iii, p. 699, London, 1868. The Phocide are the subject of this eminent
author’s examination and report.

THE FUR SEAL: SPEEDY BIRTH. 109

feeding-places, yet they reach this land-speck in Bering Sea just in season for instant delivery after
arrival!!

PANGS OF IMPENDING PARTURITION ALONE PROMPT FEMALES TO LAND.—The females do
not land until they are obliged to by the precipitation of this event of parturition. They land
upon the breeding-grounds of Saint Paul just as they come in contact with the shore—guided and
influenced at the moment of approach to the islands by only one ruling thought, and that is, to
reach ag near as possible the locality upon which they resided in former years. Soon after landing,
which I have heretofore described, the birth of the young takes place, and in this wise: the cow
shows, an hour or so prior to delivery, great nervous agitation; she trembles all over; her eyes
blinking, and flippers twitching; rolling, stretching, and thoroughly uneasy, until the labor-pains.
If the ground where she happens to rest is rocky, she manages to lie upon the top of a bowlder,
her hind-flippers working spasmodically with a wavy, fan-like motion backward and forward, as
she rests full upon her stomach, with the fore-flippers alternately pressed tightly to the rock or
closely to her sides, like pectoral fins; she sways her head, her eyes are partly closed and her
mouth slightly opened in panting, during the fifteen or twenty minutes which usually ensue
between the first contraction of the uterus, until the expulsion of the intra-uterine life takes place.
These labor-pains are not, in my opinion, at all very severe or abnormal -in any respect. The pup
carries with it, at the moment of birth, the entire placental pouch or “after-birth.” This envelope
is broken, usually by the mother, in forcing the labor and during the first expulsion of the pup’s
head, which is always presented in advance. The little “Kotick” may be said to fairly drop upon

‘If there is any one faculty better developed than the others in the brain of the intelligent Callorhinus, it must be
its “bump” of locality. The unerring directness with which it pilots its annual course back through thousands of
miles of watery waste to these spots of its birth—small fly-dots of land in the map of Bering Sea and the North
Pacific—is a very remarkable exhibition of its skill in navigation. While tho Russians were established at Bodega
and Ross, California, sixty years ago, they frequently shot Fur Seals at sea, when hunting the Sea Otter off the coast
between Fuca Straits andthe Farallones. Many of these animals, late in May and early in June, were so far advanced
in pregnancy that it was deemed certain by their captors that some shore must be close at hand upon which the near
impending birth of the pup took place; thereupon, the Russians searched over every rod of the coast-line of the main-
land and the archipelago, between California and the peninsula of Alaska, vainly seeking everywhere there for a fur-
seal rookery. They were slow to understand how animals, so close to the throes of parturition, could strike out into
broad ocean to swim fifteen hundred or two thousand miles within a week or ten days ere they landed on the Pribylov
group, and almost immediately after gave birth to their offspring.

There is no record made which shows that the Fur Seals have any regular or direct course of travel up or down the
northwest coast. They are principally seen in the open sea, eight or ten miles from land, outside the heads of the
Straits of Fuca, and from there as far north as Dixon Sound. During May and June they are aggregated in greatest
numbers here, though examples are reported the whole year around. The only Fur Seal which I saw, or which was
noticed by the crew of the Reliance, in her cruise, June 1 to 9, from Port Townsend to Sitka, was a solitary ‘‘Hollu-
schack” that we disturbed at sea well out from the lower end of Queen Charlotte’s Island; then, from Sitka to Kadiak,
we saw nothing of the Fur Seal until we hauled off from Point Greville, and coming down by Ookamok Islet, a squad
of agile ‘‘Holluschickie” suddenly appeared among a school of hump-back whales, sporting in the most extravagant
manner around, under, and even leaping over the wholly indifferent cetacea. From this eastern extremity of Kadiak
Island clear up to the Pribylov group we daily saw them here and there in small bands, or also as lonely voyageurs,
all headed for one goal. We were badly outsailed by them; indeed, the chorus of a favorite ‘‘South Sea pirate’s”
song, as incessantly sung on the cutter’s ‘‘’tween decks,” seemed to have special adaptation to them:

“For they bore down from the windwi'ard,
A sailin’ seven knots to our four’n.”
The ancient Greeks seemed to have been impressed somewhere by rookery odors, for old Homer says—
‘The web-footed seals forsake the stormy swell,
And, sleeping in herds, exhale nauseous smell.”

Where this illustrious bard sniffed up this characteristic unpleasantness of breeding-seals, I am at loss to say.
The Pribylov Islands and the great Antarctic grounds were as far from that poet then as the moon is from us to-day.
He must have been introduced to it within the confines of the Caspian Sea, or else credibly informed, by trustworthy
authority, of this peculiarity of the large herds of Phocide in those waters. Small bands, however, of Hair Seals breed
now, 28 they bred then, in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. He may have stumbled upon a few of them while
provoking his muse in lonely travels over Grecian pelagic shores.

110 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

its feet, for the moment it appears from within the natal walls it seems to be in full possession of
all its faculties; its eyes are wide open, and its voice is raised in weak, husky bleatings, as it feebly
paddles around, still attached to the umbilical cord, which it, by its own efforts, pulls asunder as
it flounders about on the rocks or ground of the rookery. The mother, in the mean time, gives her
offspring none of that attention so marked in the case of the Canide and other carnivores, not even
turning to look at it; but she draws herself up with an expression of intense comfort and relief,
throwing her head back with a gentle, swaying motion, as she fans herself slowly with either one
or both of the hind-flippers. She also pays no attention to the cleansing of her own person, the
after-birth lying undisturbed by her, it being speedily trampled under foot and ground out of
recognizance by the restless multitudes around her, which pass to and fro. The pup quickly dries
off, with rapid alternations of short naps with awakenings, in which it gets up and on its flippers
to essay brief scrambles over the rocks and ground until, in nosing about, it claims the attention
of its mother (sometimes hours after birth): this she gives by gently elevating her abdomen and
turning her parts posteriorly, so that one or two of the obscure teats, filled with miJk, can be seized
by the hungry pup, which now nurses therefrom greedily, even to gorging itself.

MILK OF THE FuR SEAL.—The milk of the Fur Seal mother is very rich and creamy, and
the secretion is always abundant, but there is not, under any circumstances, the enlarged udder
and mamme peculiar to dogs and similar animals; the nipples are scarcely distinguishable, even
when exposed to the reach and notice of the young.

IRREGULAR FEEDING OF THE PUPS.—The umbilicus of the pup rapidly sloughs off, and the
little fellow grows apace, nursing to-day heartily in order that he may, perhaps, go the next two,
three, or four days without another drop from the maternal fount; for it is the habit of the mother
Seal to regularly and frequently leave her young, on this spot of ‘its birth, to repair for food in the
sea; she is absent on these excursions, on account of the fish not coming inshore within a radius
of at least one hundred miles of the breeding-grounds, through intervals varying, as I have said,
from a’ single day to three or four, as the case may be. The manner in which she returns after
feeding, and in which she singles out by scent, and at a glance, her own offspring from many
thousands surrounding it, I have clearly described in a foregoing chapter.)

PRELIMINARY ADVANCES OF THE SEXUAL UNION.—The pup being born, the cow rapidly passes
into “heat.” I have noticed examples where ten hours only elapsed between the event of the birth
and that of copulation, and I doubt not of full impregnation for another period. But as a rule
forty-eight hours is a fair figure to express the time from the birth to the state known as “being
in heat.” The cow always makes the first advances to the bull. If she is one of the earlier subjects
tor his attention, the union is soon accomplished; but should she be of the later applicants in his

1When the females first come ashore there is no sign of affection manifested, whatever, between the sexes. The
males are surly and morose, and the females entirely indifferent to such reception. They are, however, subjected to
very harsh treatment sometimes in the progress of battles between the males for their possession, and a few of them
are badly bitten and lacerated every season.

One of the cows that arrived at Nah Speel, Saint Paul Island, early in June, 1872, was treated to a cruel mutilation
in this manner, under my eyes. When she had finally landed on the barren rocks of one of the numerous “‘ Seecatchie”
at the water front of this small rookery, and while I was carefully making a sketch of her graceful outlines, a rival
bull, adjacent, reached out from his station and seized her with his mouth at the nape of the neck, just as a cat lifts
a kitten. At the same instant, almost simultaneously, the old male that was rightfully entitled to her charms, turned,
and caught her in his teeth, by the skin of her posterior dorsal region. Thereshe was, lifted and suspended in mid-air,
between the jaws of her furious rivals, until, in obedience to their powerful struggles, the hide of her back gave
way, and, as a ragged flap of the raw skin more than six inches broad and a foot in length was torn up and from her
spine, she passed, with a rush, into the possession of the bull who had covetously seized her. She uttered no cry
during this barbarous treatment, nor did she, when settled again, turn to her torn and bleeding wound to notice it in
any way whatsoever that I could observe.

When severe inflammation takes place, they seek the water, disappearing promptly from your scrutiny.

THE FUR SEAL: REPRODUCTION. 111

harem, after he has been more or less exhausted by the vital drafts made upon him, she must wait.
I have observed instances of this character in which the female teased the male for hours and
hours before arousing him.

PELAGIC COITION IMPOSSIBLE.—In this act of coition on these breeding-grounds of Saint Paul
and Saint George, I have noticed the fact that, whenever the female was well covered by the
male on the flat or smooth shelves of rock or earth, they moved and shuffled about without any
particular effective coition until brought up againt a rougher inequality, or some fragments of lava
shingle, so characteristic of the rookery grounds. The reason for this is due to the fact, that in
spite of the great weight of the male, six times more than that of the female which he covers, the
orgasms are so rapid and violent that, unless the female is held by some other agency than the
weight of the male, she is literally shoved ahead and away from under him. This fact I call
attention to, as it alone is sufficient, upon the slightest reflection, to satisfy any judicial mind that
it is a physical impossibility for these Seals to copulate in the water. Under no conceivable position
assumed for this supposed pelagic coition could effectual sexual connection be made.

ACTION OF REPRODUCTION.—The male serves the female exactly as a big Newfoundland dog
would serve a small terrier slut. The ‘“Seecatchie” draws his heavy body over and upon the out-
stretched spine of the female, who lies prone before him on her stomach; so that when the male
has adjusted himself, which he does by arching his back from the shoulders to the os coccyx, he
covers her so completely that nothing of her body can be seen, except a portion of her head just
peering out from between his fore-flippers and under his broad chest.

Notwithstanding their great rapidity and the muscular power employed, the orgasms last,
without interruption, for the surprising space of from eight to fourteen minutes—not a second’s
intermission. Of course, toward the close of the season, when the male is tired, he does not remain
in coitu longer than three or four minutes. On account of the vigor and duration of this first
coitus, I am inclined to think that that female has no further intercourse with that male, or any
other one, during the rest of the season. She is satisfied, and passes rapidly out of heat. Certain
it is that she is not noticed by him again; she goes up to his seraglio-grounds, to and from the sea,
seeking her young and feeding undisturbed for the balance of the time; also, that the other bulls
seem to recognize this condition of passed sexual requirement and satisfaction, in her case, by
paying her no attention.

PERIOD OF GESTATION.—Thus it is apparent that the period of gestation in the Fur Seal is
nearly, lacking a few days, twelve calendar months; for the next year finds her again heavy with
young at almost exactly the same day that she gave birth to her previous offspring in the prior
season. The systematic and regular appearance of the females every year upon the Pribylov
Islands at such a time, usually in June or July, without the slightest regard to what the weather

Those extremely heavy adalt males which arrive first in the season, and take their stations on the rookeries, are
so fat that they do not exhibit a wrinkle or a fold of the skins enveloping their blubber-lined bodies; most of this
fatty deposit is found around the shoulders and the neck, though a warm coat of blubber covers all the other portions
of the body save the flippers; this blubber thickening of the neck and chest is characteristic of the adult males only,
which are, by its provisions, enabled to sustain the extraordinary protracted fasting periods incident to their habit of
life and reproduction.

When those superlatively fleshy bulls first arrive, a curious body tremor seems to attend every movement which
the animals make on land; their fat appears to ripple backward and forward under their hides, like waves; .as they
alternate with their flippers in walking, the whole form of the ‘‘Seecatchie” shakes as a bow! full of jelly does when
agitated on the table before us.

There is also a perfect uniformity in the coloration of the breeding coats of the Fur Seals; and it is strikingly
manifest while inspecting the rookeries late in July, when they are solidly massed thereon. Ata quarter mile distance,
the whole immense aggregate of animal life seems to be fused into a huge homogeneous body that is alternately roused
up in sections and then composed, just as a quantity of iron filings, covering the bottom of a saucer, will rise and fall,
when a magnet is passed over and around the dish.

112 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS,

may have been during the winter and spring previous, or is when they land, establishes without
doubt this exact limit of their gestation.

IMPORTANCE OF THIS SERVICE.—The reason why I dwell upon these details is because
they have a very important bearing upon the question as to what ratio of males every year is
needed for service on this great breeding-ground of Bering Sea. If the common opinion, hitherto
entertained, was tenable, of free and effective pelagic coition, then it will be readily understood
that nearly all the males from four years up, and on, could have easy access to the females; and
that it would be a matter of very small concern how many old males, or rather those males upon
the land located over the rookeries, were fit for service. But understanding, as I now do, without
a shadow of tenable contradiction, that these “‘Seecatchie” which receive, fight for, and cover ‘the
females on the rookeries, are the only active fertilizing powers toward the reproduction and
perpetuation of their kind, the importance of my detailed description of the method of coition is
evident; for it shows conclusively that unless we see every year, long prior to the arrival of the
females, a full supply of able-bodied “Seecatchie” holding out upon and located over the rookeries
of Saint Paul and Saint George—unless we see such a number in good condition—we may safely
count upon the fact that danger will arise of imperfect and nugatory fertilization for the coming
year. It will not do to indulge the hope, should a scarcity or diminution of the old males ever
occur, when the rookeries are mapped out in spring, of the deficiency being made good by the
young males which are swimming around everywhere in the water.

VITALITY OF THE MALE.—I believe that an able-bodied adult “Seecatchie” is capable of
serving well from the 14th June to the 14th July, during which period the height of the breeding
season occurs, one hundred females. If he is, however, as he frequently is, enfeebled by previous
fighting and struggling with other males to hold the station which he has selected and fought for,
it is more than likely that his virility will not extend beyond the proper serving of twenty or thirty
cows. As I have said in another place, I found great difficulty in finding, to my own satisfaction,
a fair number of females as the average to every harem on the rookery.! Some instances occur
where the male treats forty-five or fifty females, owing to the peculiar configuration of the landing
grounds; but most generally, and as the rule, I think fifteen or twenty cows to every bull is a true
computation; hence I do not believe, under any normal circumstances and all normal disad-
vantages, such as fighting involves by weakening the males, that, when the females arrive, there
is the least risk of a single one of them getting back to the water without a perfect and effectual
impregnation. A common opinion was prevalent on the islands among the employés touching this
matter, that, when the female was not instantly covered during her first heat, she went to the
water, cooled off, and on returning, sexual desire never reappeared, and she became a farrow or
barren cow from that time to the end of her natural life. Analogous physiology confutes this

1This striking and accurate average is still further complicated by that unknown distribution of the virgin females
which come up to the rookeries every year for their.first meeting with the virile males. What proportion of them
reach the rear of the breeding-grounds compared with their numbers which are served at the water-line? I surely am
at fault to say, for they do not leave that tangible evidence which the other older cows do in the forms of their young.
One of the curious contradictions to generally received ideas of the habit of Seals is the fact that the Fur Seal will
not rest either upon snow or ice; it seems to positively avoid all contact with either of those substances upon which
the Phocide wholly, and the Sea Lions to some degree, delight in hauling over. Callorhinus has the warmest of sea)
coats, by all odds, yet it dreads a snowy or an icy bed with as much sincerity as any habitué of the tropics can. The
Sea Lions and Hair Seals have often been surprised in sporting, or sleeping on the ice floes of Bering Sea in the spring,
by whalemen while cruising at the edge of the frozen pack, waiting for the channel to open, clear into the Arctic
Ovean ; as neither Zumetopias nor Phoca bas any under wool, their sea-jackets are not half as heavy as those peculiar
‘to the bodies of Fur Seals; hence in taking personal notice of this odd aversion of the Callorhinus to snow and ice, I
believe that its dislike is one of pure sentimentality rather than one based on physical inability to rest upon as cold
surfaces, for there is not much difference between the water’s temperature and that of the snow and ice in the spring—
10° Fahr., perhaps—both cold enough at all events.

THE FUR SEAL.—VITALITY OF MALES. LI3

completely; that such warm-blooded, highly-organized “creatures should never have a rapid
recurrence of sexual desire, in common with all other avimals of their class, until it is gratified
in the usual way, is not at all probable, though it may be possible.

SMALL NUMBER OF BARREN FEMALES.—To show, however, that a very small proportion of
the myriads of breeding females are barren, I have only to present this illustration, which is happy
in its conclusion, and easily portrayed: Whenever a female ceases to breed she refuses to haul
up on the rookeries; she roams with the “ Holluschickie,” or the ‘‘ Bachelors,” growing a third
heavier and marked with corresponding darker tones to her coat, yet still preserving the familiar
pattern of the female, so that she can be picked out quickly by an experienced eye from the old
and young males around her. In driving up every season the “Holluschickie” to the killing-
grounds, the natives noticed, and pointed out to me, those barren females in the drive, several of
which were secured for my examination and measurement; but the proportion of barren females
is not more than one in a thousand to the “ Holluschickie” with which they consort.

8F

114 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

C.—THE SIRENIANS OR SEA-COWS.

By FREDERICK W. TRUE.
31. THE AMERICAN MANATEES.

Species or NoRTH AMERICAN MANATEES.—The numerous zodlogists and travelers who
have written upon the American Manatees are not agreed as regards the number of existing species.
In the many and oftentimes discordant descriptions and observations extant, some see-but the
variations of a single species ;! others discern two species,? one of Florida, the other of South and
Central America; and others still are able to distinguish three species, one, as before, in Florida,
but two in South America, a marine and a fluviatile species. I have satisfied myself by examina-
tion of specimens in the National Museum that there are at least two species, and that both occur
within the borders of the United States. Regarding the Manatee of the upper water-courses of
South America I am still in doubt. In the following pages I shall refer to the southern form,
Trichechus manatus, Linné, as the South American Manatee, and to the Floridan form, Trichechus
latirostris, (Harlan) True, as the Florida Manatee.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE FLORIDA MANATEE.—We have, then, upon our coasts two representa-
tives of the Sirenians. The Florida Manatee, the least widely spread species, apparently inhabits
only the Floridan Peninsula and the eastern Gulf States. Regarding its distribution Mr. Silas
Stearns of Pensacola, Fla., contributes the following notes: :

“Tt is generally supposed in Florida and the Gulf State; that there are very few Manatees in
existence in this country, and that these are to be found in the southern portion of the Florida
Peninsula, in the fresh-water rivers, both on the Atiantic and Gulf sides. I have heard of their
being taken or seen in the Myakka River, Peace Creek, Caloosahatchie River, and other small
streams south of Charlotte Harbor and Okeechobee Lake, on the Gulf side, and in the Sainte Lucie
River on the Atlantic side.

“On the Gulf coast (where I am better acquainted) the oldest settlers say that ten, fifteen, or
twenty years ago Manatees were occasionally seen in nearly all the inland waters from Key West
westward to civilization at Pensacola, Mobile, and New Orleans. It is evident that they have
been abundant along the entire Gulf coast, and probably on the Atlantic as far north as the
Carolinas, for their bones can be found along the shore nearly everywhere that civilization
has uot reached.

Those generally found in the salt water along sand-beaches are petrified and black. I have
reason to think that there are still scattering individuals all through Florida, for during the
summer of 1880 I saw one in Santa Rosa Sound, some twenty miles east of Pensacola, where there
has been none seen for many years. While landing a sail-boat on the island we surprised the
animal in shoal water and had a fine opportunity to examine it as it swam by into deeper water.
As they are so shy, there may be many more existing in the State than we are aware of, and their
range may include the whole State of Florida.”

Mr. Goode informs me that specimens could be taken from time to time in the year 1878 near
Sainte Lucie on Indian River.

‘Gray: Cat. Seals and Whales, Brit. Museum, 1866, p. 358, and others. (Manatus australis.)
3 HARLAN: Journal Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, first series, iii, 1824, pp. 390-394.

THE MANATEES: GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, 115

A writer in the journal “Forest and Stream,” of June 11, 1874, under the heading “The
Manatee at Saint Augustine, Fla.,” quotes from the Saint Augustine “Press,” as follows :

“The Manatee continues her domicile in Bar Creek (Saint Augustine). Fishermen have again
reported it and citizens are anxious to go afterit. . . . There are also vague rumors of a very
large animal of the same species having been seen roaming about a place on the North River called
Oleander Town. If so, the one is probably the dam and the other the calf that have become sep-
arated. It is also probable that during some of the heavy blows along the coast between here and
Indian River some herd of these animals has become dispersed and these two may have wandered
into our harbor. It will be remembered that two or three years ago a very large one was seen in
this harbor, which came up to the water-battery of the fort, where it remained until pelted by the
boys. Fishermen report them as having been frequently seen in the harbor.”

Mr. C. J. Maynard, who has been much in Florida, has recorded some valuable notes on the
distribution of the Florida Manatee. He writes: “This singular animal is found in large numbers
about the inlets of Indian River, and Capt. Dummett informs me that he has captured specimens
as far north as his place, which is within five miles of the head of the river. I have been informed
by creditable authorities that it is remarkably abundant upon the western coast in the various
rivers and creeks which abound between Tampa Bay and Cape Sable. I have never seen it in
Mosquito or Halifax Lagoons, and am confident that it does not occur there. ‘his species is said
to feed upon the leaves of the mangrove during the night.”? ;

Dr. von Frantzius stated some-years ago, in an essay on the mammals of Costa Rica, that
the Florida Manatee was the only species found. in that country. He writes as follows: “If we
recognize M. latirostris as a separate species, we shall be able to say that only this species is found
on the coast of Costa Rica.”? It is evident, however, that he has confounded the two species, for a
few lines further on he says: ‘Nearly all the museum specimens arriving in Europe in later years.
come from Surinam and belong to the species known as I. latirostris ; so far as I know no speci-
mens from the coast of Costa Rica or from Greytown have ever been sent to Europe. I had but
one opportunity of seeing the Manatees on the shores of the Sarapiqui, and that at a distance.”?

This statement is in part erroneous; a large proportion of the different figures of specimens
in European museums are those of the southern form, Trichechus manatus.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE SourH AMERICAN MANnaTEE.—The South American Manatee is.
most abundant in the northern part of that continent and in Central America. Its range extends.
much farther north, I believe, than is generally supposed. A skull in the National Museum,
belonging undoubtedly to this species, was received from Texas in 1855. It would seem that the:
animal must occur in some abundance along the Mexican coast. Its ran ge extends on the south at
least as far as the Saint’ Matthew’s River in Brazil. Manatees are found in nearly all the rivers
of northern South America, particularly in the Amazon and its tributaries, and in the Orinoco.
Those which are found in the upper water-courses, as has been already stated, are by some regarded
as distinct, and by others as identical with those of the lower regions and the sea.

THE MANATEE OF THE WEST INDIES.—A species of Manatee occurs more or less abundantly-
in the West Indies, particularly about Cuba, San Domingo, and Porto Rico, but whether it iss
the Florida or Sonth American species seems not to have been ascertained. It is supposably..
however, the Florida Manatee.

1MayYNaRD, C. J.: Cat. Mammals of Florida. Ex. Bull. Essex Institute, iv, 9-10, 1872, pp. 8-9.
2Von FRANTz1Us: Siugethiere Costa Ricas, in Wiegmann’s Archiv, xxxv, Jahrg. i, pp. 304-307.
3 Loo. oit. :

4Prince Maximilian.

116 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

BOUNDARIES OF THE RANGE OF AMERICAN MANATEES.—The entire range, therefore, of <
the American Manatees extends over about forty-nine degrees of latitude—that is, from 30° north
to 19° south. It is probable, as Mr. Stearns surmises, that the existing species ranged farther
north in former days, and, furthermore, it is not definitely known that the southern Manatee does
not extend south of 19° south in Brazil. It is certain, however, as Burmeister distinctly states,
that it is not found on the coast of the Argentine Republic.'

As an instance of the unusual wandering of (probably) the Florida Manatee, it may be noted
that an animal, the description of which faizly portrayed the appearance of that species, was cast
on the coast of Shetland in 1785. It was described by the British zodlogist Fleming as probably
being a Rhytina, but this seems very unlikely to one acquainted with the facts of the geographical
range and size of that animal. Gray refers it to his Manatus australis, which includes both the
Florida and South American Manatees. It seems to me that if it was carried across the ocean by
the Gulf Stream, as Gray suggests, it most probably “set sail” from the Floridan coast.?

Dr. Leidy has described the teeth of two fossil species, Manatus antiquus® and Manatus inor-
natus,’ from the “phosphate beds” of the Ashley River, South Carolina, showing that, as iu the
case of many other American genera, there has been a movement southward in geological time.

ORIGIN OF THE NAME “MANATER.”—I doubt if it is possible to arrive at any satisfactory
conclusion regarding the origin of the name Manatee. Certain it is that it was first used by the
early Spanish and Portuguese explorers. Pietro Martire, who is the first to record the existence
of the animal, in 1500, as I gather from Ramusio’s collection of early voy ages, ‘does not give ita
name. The notes which he gives regarding the animal were probably taken from the original
records of Columbus’s fourth voyage, in the midst of the narrative of which they are given.
Oviedo, in 1535, calls it “‘Manati”;> Exquemelin, about 1650, states that the Spanish call it
‘¢Manentine”;” Atkins.in 1735 uses “ Manatea”; Gumilla, in 1741, uses “Manati.”® The French
writers, beginning with Biet, in 1664, employ the names “Lamantin,” ‘“Lamentin” (Condamine,
1745), and ‘‘Manaty” (Du Tetre, 1667). The appellation “‘Manatee” occurs for the first time, so
far as I am aware, in 1703, in Dampier’s account of his voyages round the world. The word in
this form, or as “Manati,” has been used by most English writers. Whether this name, in its
various forms, refers to the peculiar fore-legs of the Manatee or to its means of suckling its young,
can only be decided by the investigations ot philologists more learned and more zealous than
myself.

DIFFERENT NAMES OF THE MANATEE.—Otber names for the Manatee occur, most of which
define, as it were, the characteristics of the animal. Such are ‘“‘Pegebuey,” a native Amazonian
name, employed by Acufa in 1641, and its translations: “Ox Fish,” as written by Sloane in his
natural history of Jamaica, in 1725, and “Poisson beuf,” as given by Condawine, in 1667, in his
history of the Antilles. The French name, “Vache marin,” and the corresponding English word,
“Sea-cow,” occur in numerous instances in scientific literature.. In Guiana the natives use the
name “Cojumero” (Gray). Bellin (1763) alludes to ““Lamenum.” The term “Petit Lamentin du -
nord,” used by French writers to distinguish the South American Manatee from the Floridan
species, is, I believe, of later origin.

1 BURMEISTER: Description physique, Répub. Argentine, iii, part i, 1879, p. 530.

FLEMING: British Animals, p. 30. Gray: Cat. Seals and Whales, Brit. Museum, 1866, p. 359.
3 LEIDY, in Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, viii, 1856, p. 165.

‘Lripy, in Rept. U.S. Geological Survey, 4°, i, 1873, p. 376, pl. xxxvii, figs. 16,17.

® Oceani Dec. Hispali, 1500, fol., libr. 8, fide Brandt.

®Ovirpo: Hist. general de lay Indias, 1535, lib. xii, ¢. 10.

7 EXQUEMELIN: Buccaneers of America, English translation, 1684, p. 82.

®GuUMILLA: El Orinoco Ilustrado, 1741.

THE MANATEES: SIZE AND WEIGHT. 117

S1zz OF THE FLORIDA MANATEE.—In treating of the size of the American Manatees, it will
be necessary to consider the two species separately, although the adults seem to attain nearly
equal proportions. Harlan gives, as the maximum length of the Florida Manatee, eight or ten feet,
but these measurements were not made by himself... Mr. W. A. Conklin, director of the Central
Park menagerie, in New York City, gives the following dimensions of a specimen kept alive in that
establishment in 1873: ‘The following are its absolute dimensions: length, 6 feet 93 inches; cir-
cumference around the body, 4 feet 9 inches; length of flipper, 1 foot; width of same, 42 inches;
width of tail joining body, 1 foot 62 inches; greatest width of tail, 1 foot 8} inches; wéight, 450
pounds.” 2

I am not aware that any other measurements of the Florida Manatee, under its proper name,
are on record. ;

SIZE AND WEIGHT OF THE SoUTH AMERICAN MANATEE.—The size of the South American
Manatee has been differently estimated by different observers. “This Creature,” says Dampier,
“is about the bigness of a Horse, and 10 or 12 foot long. . . . I have heard that some have
weighed above 1200 L. but I never saw any so large.”

Stedman, alluding to a Manatee which floated past his encampment on the river Cottica, in
Surinam, says: “This Manatee was exactly sixteen feet long, almost shapeless, being an enormous
lump of fat, tapered back to a fleshy, broad, horizontal tail ”*

Smyth and Lowe captured a Manatee in 1835 in Peru, at their encampment at Sarayacu, on
the Ucayali. ‘We had one opportunity,” they relate, “while at this place, of examining a vaca
marina, or manatee, that was just caught; but, not being anatomists, are unable to give a scientific
account of it. The animal was seven feet eight inches long from the snout to the tip of the
tail. . . . This was not considered a large one. . . . When the animal was killed, it
took the united strength of at least forty men to drag it up from the water to the town, which they
effected by means of our ropes.”®

In 1872 Dr. Murie published a valuable memoir on the South American Manatee, in which he
gives measurements of two specimens which reached London in 1866, fresh but not alive. The
length of one, a young male, from the Maroni River, in Surinam, was forty eight inches or four
feet; that of the second specimen, a young female, from Porto Rico, sixty-five inches,.or five feet
five inches. In his remarks on these animals, Dr. Murie says: ‘‘When studying in the Stuttgart
Museum, I derived much information from Professor Krauss, the able director. Among other
things he mentioned that their large stuffed specimen of Manatee was the mother of our Society’s
young male, as attested by Herr Koppler, of Surinam, who transmitted it. The length of the female
mounted skin I ascertained to be 122 inches [ten feet two inches], therefore twice and a half the
length of the young animal possibly six or eight months old. Another stuffed male specimen at
Stuttgart measures 94 inches. Both of the above are doubtless stretched to their fullest extent;
still, one is justified in assuming the adult Manatus to be from 9 to 10 feet long.”* Of the weight,
of the specimens he remarks: “According to Mr. Greey, the entire carcass of the Zodlogical
Society’s female, when weighed immediately after death on board ship, was 228 lbs. That of the

\

young male as ascertained by myself was 61 lbs.”®

1 HARLAN: Fauna Americana, 1825, p. 277.

2 CONKLIN: The Manatee at Central Park, in ‘‘Forest and Stream,” i, 1874, p. 166.

3DampieR: A New Voyage round the World, i, 1703, pp. 33, 34.

4STEDMAN: Narrative of an expedition to Surinam, ii, 1796, p. 175.

5S$mMyYTH and Lown: Journey from Lima to Para. London, 1856, p. 197.

®Muris: On the form and structure of the Manatee. Transactions Zodlogical Society of London, viii, 1873, pp.
129-131.

118 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Another specimen, a female, received by the same society from Surinam, measured eighty
inches, but no indication of its age is given.’ Still another specimen, this time a male, arrived
in London. When dead, measurements showed its length to be ninety-four and five-tenths inches
‘or seven feet ten and one-half inches.’

Of two male Surinam specimens which died in the Zodlogical Gardens at Philadelphia, one
measured exactly six fect from snout to tip of tail, the other six and a half feet.

General Thomas Jordan, writing in “Forest and Stream,” in 1873, says: “Three of these huge
mammals.I saw on Indian River, in 184950, each weighing at least fifteen hundred pounds, and
between fifteen and twenty feet in length.” He adds: “The Florida species (T. latirostris) are
much larger than those found in the Antilles, South America, or Africa.”* This last statement can
scarcely be strictly correct. Other writers, as we have seen, have found quite as large specimens
as those here referred to in South America.

BREEDING HABITS OF MANATEES.—In relation to the breeding of Manatees, and the size and
habits of the young, almost nothing is known. Ogilby, in his account of Cuba, says: “No less:
wonderful is the Fish Manate; it breeds for the most part in the Sea, yet sometimes swimming up
the Rivers, comes ashore and eats Gaass.”® !

This account, however, is of little value, as it was copied by Ogilby, who does not state
whence he derived it. ‘Du Tertre states that two calves are born at atime. “If the mother is
taken,” he writes, ‘one is assured of having the young: for they follow their mother and continue
to move about the canoe until they are made companions of her misfortune.”®

Descourtlitz, writing regarding his own observations in 1809, says: ‘The Manatees possess a
gentle and amiable nature, and lament when they are separated from their young, which the
mother nourishes with much tenderness. They appear sensitive and intelligent; they weep when
they are taken without having received any bad treatment, seeming to regret that they can never
return to their haunts. Although sometimes they appear to avoid man, at other times they regard
him without suspicion and seem to implore his pity. The young do not quit the mother for many
years, and, sharing her dangers, often become the victims of their filial devotion.”7

Brandt, who has examined much of the literature of the subject, states that it is said that the
period of gestation lasts eleven months, and that the young follow the mother a half year.*

Foop oF SIRENIANS.—The Sirenians, as a group, are very strictly graminivorous, and the
American Manavees form no exception. The structure of their lips and teeth is such that this fact
might be surmised were nothing known of their habits. Living as they do at the mouths of rivers
and about the coast, or in the upper waters of streams, they find no lack of aquatic vegetation on
which to subsist. Exactly what plants they thrive best upon bas been the subject-of inquiry by
several observers, especially those who have been interested in the attempt to keep the Manatee in
captivity. Mr. Chapman informs us that the specimen at the Philadelphia gardens ate freely of
various garden vegetables—cabbage, celery tops, spinach, kale, baked apples, and others, while
they devoured as well quantities of the aquatic plant Vallineria spiralis, ‘and the sea-weed Ulva
latissima.2 The Central Park specimen seems to have been more dainty. “A variety of aquatic

1GARROD: Transactions Zodlogical Society of London, x, 1877, p. 137.

*Mouriz: Transactions Zodlogical Society of London, xi, 1880, p. 27.

3CHAPMAN: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, xxvii, 1875, p. 452.

4 Forest and Stream, i, 1873, p. 169.

‘OaiLBy: America, 1671, p. 315.

‘Du Tertre: Histoire Nat. des Antilles, 1667, pp. 201, 202.

TDESCOURTLITZ: Voyage d’un Naturaliste, ii, 1809, pp. 274, 275.

8BRANDT: Symbolx Sirenologics, fase. iti, 1¢61-’68, p. 256.

°Cnapman, H. C., in Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, xxvii, 1875, pp. 459-461.

THE MANATEES: FOOD. 119

plants were placed before its mouth,” says Mr. Conklin, “‘and each in turn rejected. At length
some canna, Canna indica, was procured, which it devoured greedily, and which it continues to use
alternately with sea-weed, Fucus vesiculosus, obtained in the East River.”! The process of eating
takes place under water, which seems strange, in view of the fact that the animal cannot breathe
while therein engaged.

Dr. Murie thus interestingly narrates the feeding habits of the Manatee at the London
Zodlogical Gardens in 1878: ‘On first arrival at the aquarium, cabbage, lettuce, water-cress,
pieces of carrot and turnip, loose and bundles of hay, and quantities of pond-weed were put into
thé tank, both floating and sunk by weights attached. Occasionally it would sniff or examine
these by snout and lips without chewing or swallowing, until its appetite returned as above
mentioned. It then showed a preference to water-cress, though often taking cabbage, but after-
wards it chose lettuce, and entirely eschewed the others. When in the height of health it consumed,
according to Mr. Carrington, from ninety to one hundred and twelve pounds of green food daily.
As lettuce became scarce and dear it cost ten shillings a day to supply it with the French sort; and
although cabbage, etc., was then cheap and abundant, it daintily chose the former, and as steadily
avoided and refused the latter.”? ;

EARLY ALLUSIONS TO THE HABITS OF THE AMERICAN Manaters: , By CoLUMBUS.—
What relates to the food of the Manatee in the writin gs of travelers and explorers is so connected
with observations on its habits in general, that. I may be pardoned for not withdrawing the facts
for insertion in the previous paragraph. We shall find in reviewing the various accounts of the
ltabits of Sea-cows that there is not always a harmony of statements, dnd it will be necessary to
look with a critical eye upon the narratives of some of the earlier voyagers, who seem to have been
a little confused sometimes by the unfamiliar. phenomena with which they were surrounded.

The first apparent reference to the American Manatees in literature appears to be that in the
_ narrative of Columbus’s first voyage, at the stage of his first departure for Spain, in 1493. Taking.
up the thread of the narrative as given by Herrara, we read as follows:

“ Wednesday the ninth of January, he hoised sail, came to Punta Roxa, or Red Point, which is
thirty-six Leagues East of Monte Christo, and there they took Tortoises as big as bucklers, as they
went to lay their eggs ashore. The Admiral [Columbus] affirm’d he had thereabouts seen three
Mermaids, that rais’d themselves far above the Water, and that they were not so handsome as they
are painted, that they had something like a human Face, and that he had seen others on the Coast
of Guinea.”

The probability of the. fact that, the mermaids here referred to were really Manatees is in >
Columbus’s statement of having seen others on the coast of Guinea, as it is in that region that the
African Manatee, T. senegalensis, is abundant. Not many years later, in 1502, on the occasion of
Columbus’s fourth voyage to America, the Manatee became well known to the adventurers while
at San Domingo. Oviedo, as quoted by Herrara, says:

“The Spaniards at this Time found a new sort of Fish, which was a considerable advantage to
them: tho’ in those parts there is much Variety. It is call’d Manati, in shape like a skin they use
to carry Wine in, having only two Feet at the Shouldars, with which it swims, and it is fouud both
in the Sea and in Rivers. From the Middle it sharpens off to the Tail, the Head of it is like that
of an Ox, but shorter, and more fleshy at the Snout; the Eyes small, the Colour of it grey, the Skin
very hard, and some scattering Hairs on it. Some of them are twenty Foot long, and ten in Thick-

1CONKLIN, in Forest and Stream, i, 1874, p. 166.
2 Mcnig, in Trans. Zodlogical Society London, xi, 1880, pp. 22, 23.
3HeERRARA (STEVENS): Hist. America, i, 1725, p. 82. -

120 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

ness. The Feet are round, and have four Claws on each of them. The Females bring forth like
the Cows, and have two Dugs to give suck. . . . Sometimes they are taken ashore, grazing
near the Sea, or Rivers, and when \oung they are taken with Nets.”*

Then follows the oft repeated story of the tame Manatee of the Cazique Carametex:

“Thus the Cazique Carametex took one, and fed it twenty-six Years in a Pond, and it grew
sensible and tame, and would come when call’d by the name of Mato, which signities Noble. It
would eat whatsoever was given it by Hand, and went out of the Water to feed in the House,
would play with the Boys, let them get upon him, was pleas’d with Musick, carry’d Men over the
Pool, and took up ten at a Time, without any Difficulty.”?

FATHER ACUNA UPON THE “PEGEBUEY.”—In the fourth decade of the succeeding century
Father Acuiia, in narrating bis adventures on the Amazon River, makes mention of the South
American Manatee somewhat at length. Among other things he says: “But above all, the fish,
that likea king lords it over all the others, and which inhabits this river from its sources to its
mouth, is the Pegebuey (Fish Ox), a fish which when tasted only can retain the name, for no one
could distinguish it from well-seasoned meat. It islarge as a calf a year and a half old, but on its
head it has neither ears nor horns. . . . This fish supports itself solely on the herbage on
which it browses, as if in reality a bullock; and from this circumstance the flesh derives so good
a flavour, and is so nutritious, that a small quantity leaves a person better satisfied and more
vigorous than if he had eaten double the amount of mutton. It cannot keep its breath long
under water; and thus, as it goes along, it rises up every now and then io obtain more air, when
it meets with total destruétion the moment it-comes in sight of its enemy.’

ROCHEFORT UPON THE HABITS OF THE ANTILLEAN MANATEE.—After Oviedo, Gomara, and
Acuia no one seems to have added any new facts, or supposably new facts, to the history of the
habits of the Manatees until Hernandez and Rochefort published their narratives. The work of
the former I have not had at command, but from F. Cuvier’s notes it would seem that it contains
nothing of importance. Rochefort, the second edition of whose work on the Antilles was pub-
lished in 1665, gives the following information: “This fish feeds upon plants which it collects
about the rocks and on the shallows which are not covered with more than a fathom (brasse) of
water. The females breed at the same season as do cows, and have two mamme with which they
suckle their young. Two calves are born at a birth, which are not adandoned by the mother until
they have no more need of special nourishment, or until they can browse upon plants like the
mother.” *

15. Bret’s anD Du TERTRE’s ACCOUNTS.—Biet repeats these observations, although it is to
be believed independently, saying that the Manatee roams about the shores near the sea browsing
on the plants which grow there.®

Du Tertre in effect repeats the little that his predecessors have laid’ down, but adds some
additional observations which are interesting if sufficiently substantiated. “The food of this
fish,” he says, “is a little plant which grows in the sea, and on this it browses after the manner of
an ox. After being filled with this food it seeks the fresh-water streams, where it drinks and
bathes twice a day. Having eaten and been refreshed it goes to sleep (sen. dort) with its snout
half out of water, a sign by which its presence is recognized by the fishers from afar.”®

1 HERRARA (STEVENS): His‘ory of America, i, 1725, p. 278.

?HERRARA (STEVENS): History of America, i, 1725, p. 279.

SCuRIsTovVAL DE ACUNA: River of the Amazons 1641, pp. 68-99. (Hakluyt Society.)
‘ROCHEFOKT: Histoire des Iles Antilles, 2d ed., 1665, pp. 194, 195.

5 Bret: Voyage en VIsle de Cayenne, 1664, p. 346.

Du TERTRE: Hist. générale des Antilles, 1667, p. 200.

THE MANATEES: HABITS. Lz)

i

THE BUCCANEER EXQUEMELIN’S ACCOUNT.—Only a few years later we find the buccaneers
making fair use of the Manatee in replenishing their oftentimes empty larders, and, in the interval
of slaughtering the defenseless Indians and colonists, one of these hardy pirates finds time to
record some observations regarding the animal. After the destruction of Panama, in 1670,
Exquemelin and his companions sail along the coast of Costa Rica, en route for Jamaica. He
alludes to the Sea-cow in the following language:

“This Accident and Encounter retarded our Journey, in the space of two days, more than we
could regain in a whole Fortnight. This was the occasion that obliged us to return unto our
former Station, where we remained for a few days. From thence we directed our Course for a
Place, called Boca del Dragon, there to make Provisions of Flesh. Especially of a certain Animal
which the Spaniards call Manentines, and the Dutch, Sea-Cows, because the Head, Nose, and
Teeth, of this Beast, are very like unto those of a Cow. They are found commonly in such |
places, as under the depth of the Waters, are very full of Grass, on which, it is thought, they
do pasture. . . . Their manner of engendering likewise, is the same with the usual manner
of the Land-Cow, the Male of this kind being in similitude, almost one and the same thing with
a Bull. Yet notwithstanding they conceive and breed but once. But the space of time that they
go with Calf, I could not as yet learn. These Fishes have the sense of Hearing extremely acute,
in so much ‘as in taking them, the Fishermen ought not to make the least noise, nor row,
unless it be very slightly.”?

The buccaneer seems to have gathered correct information as to the mode of life of the
Manatee, but as to their breeding but once, although, as I believe, we have no facts to disprove
the statement, analogical considerations would lead us to reject it.

CoNDAMINE’S ACCOUNT.—Condamine is, perhaps, the only other early writer to whom it will
be necessary to refer. He alludes to the South American Manatee among other fish, in which
group of animals all the early explorers insisted in placing it. “It is not amphibious, properly
speaking,” he says, “because it never comes entirely out of the water, and cannot walk, vot having
but the two fins near the head, in the form of wings 16 inches long, which serve in place of arms
and feet; it lifts only the head out of'the water, and that to gather the plants along the shore.”

In regard to the habits of Manatees in confinement, I can only quote from the writings of the

' American and English observers who have had the opportunity to study the specimens in the Phila-
delphia, New York, and London zodlogical gardens. Of the Central Park specimen Mr. Conklin
states: “It manifests at times extreme playfulness, and will answer the call of the keeper by a
peculiar noise, somewhat resembling the squeak of a mouse. Some time ago the epidermis on the
back peeled off in small pieces, leaving a bright new skin similar to that of a snake just after shed-
ding. It was kept out in the open air until the thermometer fell to 53°, when it was removed to
a building. It appears to be very sensitive to cold, curling up its back if the water is in the least
chilly. It has been observed to remain under water five or six minutes at a time without coming
tq the surface to breathe.”?

Miss CRANE’S OBSERVATIONS.—Miss Agnes Crane, who attentively observed the South
American Manatees at the Brighton Aquarium in 1879, has given us some interesting facts
regarding the mode of respiration of the Sirenians and their attitudes when at rest. After stating
that the specimens were received trom Trinidad, she says:

“The young male, a fine animal in robust condition, measured, in November, 1879, four feet
ten inches from snout to tail, with a maximum girth of four feet. The female was four feet eight

1EXQUEMELIN: Buccancers of America, English translation, 1684, pp. 82, 83.
2 CONKLIN, in Forest dnd Stream, i, 1573, p. 166.

122 NATURAL UISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

inches in length, of a lighter slate-colour than her companion, of more slender build and proportions.
Both are marked with white on the under sides of their bodies. The pair occupied a tank twelve
feet six inches in length by eight feet six inches in breadth, with an almost flat bottom. Temper-
ature of water, about 70° F.: depth, two feet six inches in the daytime, reduced to six inches
at night. The water is run off daily, a fresh supply being admitted at the requisite heat from a
neighboring tank filled with warmed fresh water. Although the area of these quarters appear
somewhat limited when compared with the bulk of the animals, the Manatees seem perfectly
comfortable, and, being of a sluggish disposition, rarely explore the whole of their small domain.
Nor do they, so far as I observed, avail themselves of the shallowness of the water and, by sup-
porting their bodies on the tail-fin, keep their heads above the surface and avoid the constant
repetition of the upward movemeut in order to breathe the necessary air. They habitually rest
side by side at the bottom of the tank, with the caudal fin stretched out quite straight, and the
tips of the fore fins just touching the ground.

“Thence they rise gently, often with the least perceptible movement of the tail and flapping
motion of the paddles, raising the upper part of the body until the head reaches the surface, when
the air is admitted through the nostril flap-valves, which are closely shut after the operation, and
the original’ and usual position is gently resumed. They seem generally to be compelled to rise to
the surface for aérial respiration every two or three minutes, but the interval between respiration
varies much at different times. In one quarter of an hour, during which one was carefully timed,
it rose nine times, at very irregular intervals. I have been informed that they occasionally remain
under the water for a much longer period, but have never observed them to exceed six minutes,
although I have timed them before and after feeding, and at all hours of the day. The respiratory
movement appears to be repeated almost mechanically and without effort.”?

The fact that these Manatees in confinement kept constantly beneath the surface does not
accord with the observatious of Du Tertre, already quoted. It is probable that the air about the
aquarium was not sufficiently warm to induce them to float with the head out of water, as they do
in their native haunts. The same observer furnishes some facts of a highly important character
regarding the attempts made by the Manatees at terrestrial progression.

“The habits of the animals in captivity, while affording occasional evidence of the ease and
rapidity with which they move in the water, do not furnish much support to’ the views of their
capability of habitual active progression on land. Yet it must be admitted that, supplied with a
sufficiency of nicely varied food, they have no inducement to leave the water, and that the con-
struction of their straight-walled tank precludes such efforts, as a rule. The male, however, has
recently been observed to make some slight attempts at terrestrial movement, turning himself
round and progressing a few inches when his tank was empty. With jaws and tail-fin pressed
closely to the ground, the body of. the animal becomes arched, and is moved by a violent lateral
effort, aided and slightly supported by the fore-paddles, which are stretched out in a line with the ©
mouth. But the effect of these very labored efforts was not commensurate with their violence; in
fact, their relation to active locomotion may ‘be compared to those of a man lying prone, with
fettered feet and elbows tied to side. Nor does the Manatee seem at all at ease out of water, as he
lies apparently oppressed with his own bulk, while he invariably makes off to the deepest corner
of his tank directly the water is readmitted.”?

ABUNDANCE OF THE FLORIDA MANATEE.—In the great struggle for life no animal is, in a man-
ner, more destructive than man himself. The fierce carnivora may prey upon the more peaceful

1 CRANE, Aanus, in Proc. Zodlogical Society of Londen, 1880, pp. 456-457.
3 Loc. cit., pp. 459, 460. ‘

THE MANATEES: ABUNDANCE. 123

graminivora, but the attack must be made, one may say, in person, subject to all the dangers
attendant upon an encounter with those weapons which a long course of selection has developed
in the prey. Man ensnares alike tbe lion and the deer by the devices of his brain, with little or no
danger to himself. Notwithstanding, the fleetest animals oftentimes escape him and the strongest
intimidate him; but such drowsy beasts as the Sirenians fall helpless victims to his strategy. The
past century witnessed the extinction of one of these animals, the Rhytina, through no other
apparent agent than man. The inquiry intrudes itself, Will the Manatees succumb to the same
fate which overtook their huge relative?

It is undoubtedly a fact that the American Manatees are much less abundant in many regions
than they were at the time of the discovery of America. They have withdrawn before the advance
of civilization into the more inaccessible places out of the reach of man.

In regard to the Floridan Manatee, the statement of Harlan (who obtained it from Dr. Burrows),
made so late as 1825, namely, that an Indian could readily obtain a dozen in a year,) is now doubt-
fully true. The statements of Mr. Stearns, given in the early part of this essay, show that it has
disappeared from some localities in Florida within a comparatively recent period. Nevertheless,
the Florida Manatee cannot yet be considered as threatened with extinction, and in Southwestern
Florida, if we may believe Mr. Maynard, is still abundant. Specimens are received from time to
time for our museums and zodlogical gardens, and to satisfy the curiosity of the gaping crowds at
the circus. The prices obtained for specimens of both American Manatees in this country and in
England show, however, that they are not to be obtained without difficulty. ig

Gundlach refers to the abundance of the Manatee in Cuba in the following terms: “ In former
times very abundant; at present much reduced in numbers, but not rare though difficult to capture.”?

According to Dr. Von Frantzius, the South American Manatee was abundant along the western
shores of the Gulf of Mexico, especially in Costa Rica. “They are still very common,” he says,
“along the Atlantic coast, where they find abundant nourishment in the numerous lagoons (Haff:
bildungen), and likewise the needed protection ; they pass into the rivers and are found abundantly |
in San Juan and neighboring streams, the Rio Colorado, Sarapiqui, and San Carlos. Apparently
they are prevented trom going far into the San Carlos on account of the rapids which occur near
ita mouth, and hence are not found in the Rio Frio nor in Lake Nicaragua itself.” *

ABUNDANCE OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN MANATEE.—In relation to the present abundance
of Manatees in South America, it is perhaps unnecessary for me to enter into details here.
Brandt has reviewed the subject at length quite recently, giving many particulars. His investi-
gations show that in many regions, particularly about the mouths of rivers and in other places
where sufficient shelter is wanting, the Sea-cows are disappearing or have become entirely extinct.
-In the upper waters of the rivers, however, where the vative Indians are few and civilization has
not reached, little diminution is probable.

PROBABILITY OF EXTINCTION.—Putting all the facts together, it seems evident that not many
centuries will pass before Manatees will be extremely rare, especially in our own country. More
specimens should be accumulated in our museums, both of the entire animal and of its bones, and
its wanton destruction should cease.

MODES OF CAPTURE.—The methods of capturing Manatees are numerous. In Florida, Mr.
Goode informs me, strong rope nets, with large mesh, are often employed. The details of this

1} HarLan: Fauna Americana, 1825, p. 277.

2Trans, Zoblogical Society London, xi, 1880, p. 21. Edwards’ Guide to Florida, 1875, p. 69.

3GUNDLACH: Revista y Cat.de los Mamiferos cubanos. Repert. Fisico-nat. de Cuba, ii, no. 2, 1866, p. 56.
4Von Fuantzius: Singethiere Costa Ricas. Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, xxxv, i, 1868 (?), pp. 304-307.
5BRANDT: Symbola Sirenologics, fase. iii, 1861-68, p. 253.

124 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

method are given in the notes of an observer, Mr. J. Francis Le Baron, writing from Titusville in 1880.
His account of the fishery, given with much tullness, bears all the evidences of correctness. I may
be allowed to quote the part which pertains to my subject: “The manatee hunter aims to catch
the animal alive, and for this purpose quite an extensive outfit is required. It consists, first, of a
large seine net, about one hundred yards long and six or eight feet wide, made of ‘spun yarn,’ so
called, which consists of three or four rope yarns spun into one line, about the size of a clothes-
line, and very strong. The meshes are fifteen inches wide. The head-line consists of a strong
rope, and floats made of wood, shaped like a double-ended boat, are placed at intervals along this
te keep the top of the net near the surface of the water. The bottom is weighted with small
pieces of brick or stone, just enough to cause the net to hang perpendicularly in the water. A
large sail-boat is also required. The hunter, taking the net in the boat, proceeds quietly to the
part of the river frequented by the manatee, and keeps a sharp lookout for the animals, which.
have a habit of passing up and down the river by certain points. If the lookout perceives a
manatee in the river above him he knows that sooner or later the animal will take a cruise down
the river, and he proceeds accordingly to stretch his net across the channel. One end of the net he
first makes fast to a small bush or twig, or, if no tree is available, to a stake driven for the purpose
into the bank. To this the shore end of the net is fastened by a small cord secured to the head-
line, and the stake or bush before mentioned, care being taken to use a cord so small that in its
struggles it will be easily broken by the animal, for a reason which will appear hereafter. The
boat is then rowed across the stream with the other end of the net, and when the latter is stretched
to its full length, the boat is anchored and the net secured by a similar easily broken cord to the
boat in such a manner that the first struggle of the animal will be felt by the occupants of the boat,
being communicated by the cord to a tell-tale, or the cord is fastened to the body of one of the
hunters, who now go to sleep if night has come on, or perhaps while away the time by a game of
cards, keeping perfectly quiet. There are very likely several manatee in the river, and before long
one attempts to pass by the boat. His progress is of course arrested by the net, and his struggles
to force a passage are at once communicated by the tell-tale cord. Unsuccessful in his first attempt
to effect a passage, the manatee increases his efforts, and the result is that the slender cords holding
the net to the shore and the boat are broken, and the net with the manatee entangled drifts away
with the current. The frantic efforts of the animal only serve to closer enwind him in the meshes
of the net, which doubles and wraps itself around him closer and closer. It is now that the objects
of the light sinkers and slender holding cords are apparent. The manatee is a warm-blooded
animal and must come to the surface for air every few minutes. If the sinkers are too heavy, or if
the net is immovable in the water, he is unable to do this and is drowned. The large floats serve
now to show the hunters the location of the prey, and they bear down upon it and tow it with the
_ confined animal into shoal water. Here a large box or tank is ready. The net is unwound, ropes
are placed around the animal, and by the united efforts of the hunters, he is transferred to the box.
The box is then towed to the ‘crawl,’ which is an inclosure formed by driving stakes close together
in the water with their tops projecting several feet above, and is generally near the home of the
hunters. The box is floated into the crawl and the animal let out. He is there kept and fed daily
until an opportunity occurs for shipment. This is made in the same large box, which is water-
tight and about half filled with water. Such is the method employed by the Indian River hunters
for catching the manatee alive. It is, however, often shot with a rifle, from the shore or a boat,
when feeding or coming to the surface to breathe, but the hunter must be very quick and expert
with his weapon, as they show only one-third of the head, and that only for a second. The profits
of manatee hunting are large. The skeleton, if properly cleaned, will readily bring a hundred

THE MANATEES: MODES OF CAPTURE. 125

dollars, and the skin a like sum if taken off whole, being in demand by scientists for museums all
over the world.”!

“‘So valuable an animal,” says Wood, alluding more particularly to the South American
Manatee, “is subject to great persecution on the part of the natives, who display great activity,
skill, and courage in the pursuit of their amphibious quarry. The skin of the Manatee is so thick
and strong that the wretched steel of which their weapons are composed—the ‘ machetes’ or sword-
knives, with which they are almost universally armed, being sold in England for three shillings
and six pence per dozen—is quite unable to penetrate the tough hide. Nothing is so effectual
a weapon for this service as a common English three-cornered file, which is fastened to a spear-
shaft, and pierces through the tough hide with the greatest ease.”?

Many of the early explorers give lively accounts of the manatee fishery in South America.
“ Diuers other fishes,” says Oviedo, in alluding to the fishes of the Orinoco River, as quaintly
translated by Purchas, “both great-and small, of sundrie sorts and kinds, are accustomed to follow
the ships going vnder saile, of the which I will speak somewhat when I have written of Manatee,
which is the third of the three whereof I have promised to entreat. Manatee, therefore, is a fish
of the sea, of the biggest sort, and much greater than the Tiburon in length and breadth, and is
very brutish and vile, so that it appeareth in forme like vnto one of those great vessel» made of
Goats skins, wherein they vse to carry new wine in Jfedina de Campo or in Arenale: the head of
this beast is like the head of an Oxe, with also like eyes, and hath in the place of armes, two great
stumps wherewith he swimmeth. It is a very gentle and tame beast, and commeth oftentimes out
of the water to the next shoare, where if he finde any herbes or grasse, he feedeth thereof. Our
' men are accustomed to kill many of these, and diuers other good fishes, with their Crosse-bowes,
pursuing them in Barkes or Canoas, because they swim in manner aboue the water, the which
thing when they see, they draw them with a hooke tyed at a small corde, but somewhat strong.
As the fish fleeth away, Archer letteth goe, and prolougeth the corde by little and little, vntill be
have let it goe many fathoms: at the end of the corde, there is tyed a corke, or a piece of light
wood, and when the fish is gone a little way, and hath coloured the water with his bioud, and
feeleth himselfe to faint and draw toward the end of his life, he resorteth to the shoare, and the
Archer followeth, gathering vp his corde, whereof while there yet remaine sixe or eight fathoms
or somewhat more or lesse, he draweth it toward the Land, and draweth the fish therewith by
little and little, as the waues of the Sea helpe him to doeit the more easily: then with the helpe of
the reste of his companie, he lifteth this great beast out of the Water to the Land, being of such
bignesse, that to convey it from thence to the Citie, it shall be requisite to haue a Cart with a good
yoke. of Oxen, and sometimes more, according as these fishes are of bignesse, some being much
greater then other some in the same kinde, as is seene of other beasts: Sometimes they lift these
fishes into the Canoa or Barke without drawing them to the Land as before, for as soone as they
are slaine, they flote aboue the water: And I beleeue verily that this fish is one of the best in the
world to the taste, and the likest vnto flesh, especially so like vnto beefe, that who so hath not
seene it whole, can iudge it to be nother when hee seeth it in pieces then very Beefe or Veale, and
is certainly so like vnto flesh, that all the men in the world may herein be deceiued: the taste
likewise, is like unto the taste of very good Veale, and lasteth loug, if it be powdred: so that in
fine, the Beeéfe of these parts is by no means like vnto this. The Manatee hath a certaine stone, or
‘rather bone in his head within the’ braine which is of qualitie greatly appropriate against the
disease of the hahaa if it be burnt and ground into small or and taken fasting in the morning

‘Lr Baron: In Forest and Stream, xiii, 1880, p. 1005, 1006.
* 2Woop: Illustrated Natural Hieony. Mommie, p. 548.

126 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

when the paineis felt, in such quantities as may lye vpon a peny with a draught of good white
wine. For being thus taken three or foure mornings it acquieteeth the griefe, as diuers haue told
me which haue proved it true, and I my selfe by testimonie of sight doe witnesse that I have seen
this stone sought of divers for this effect.”!

Du Tertre, whose narrative we have already several times quoted, gives an account of the
mode of capture, which has all the tokens of accuracy. He writes:

“Three or four men go in a small canoe (which is a small boat, all of one piece, made of a single
tree in the form of a canoe). The oarsman is at the back of the canoe and dips the blade of his
paddle right and left in the water in such a way that he not only governs the course of the canoe
but makes it advance as swiftly as if it were propelled by a light wind or under reef. The Vareur
(who lances the beast) stands on a small plank at the bow of the canoe holding the lance in his
hand (that is to say, a sort of spear, at the end of which a harpoon or javelin of iron is fastened).

The third man, in the middle of the canoe, arranges the line, which is attached in order to be paid
out when the animal is struck.

“‘ All keep a profound silence, for the hearing of this animal is so acute that the least noise
of water against the canoe is sufficient to cause it to take flight and frustrate the hopes of the
fishers. There is much enjoyment in watching them, for the harpooner is fearful lest the animal
escape him, and continually imagines that the oarsman is not employing half his force, although
he does all that he is able with this arms and never turns his eyes from the harpoon, with the point
of which the harpooner points out the course he must follow to reach the animal, which lies asleep.

‘¢ When the canoe is three or four paces away the harpooner strikes a blow with all his force
and drives the harpoon at least half a foot into the flesh of the animal. The staff falls into the water,
but the harpoon remains attached to the animal, which’is already half caught. When the animal
feels itself thus rudely struck it collects all its forces and employs them for its safety. It plunges
like a horse let loose, beats the billows as a negro beats the air, and makes the sea foam as it
passes. It thinks to escape its enemy, but drags him everywhere after it so that one might take
the harpooner for a Neptune led in triumph by this marine monster. Finally, after having dragged
its misfortune after it, and having lost a great part of its blood, its power fails, its breath gives out,
and being reduced to distress, it is constrained to stop short in order to take a little rest; but it
no sooner stops than the harpooner draws in the line and strikes it a second blow with a harpoon
better aimed and more forcibly thrown than the first. At this second blow the animal makes a
few more feeble efforts, but is soon reduced to extremities, and the fishermen readily drag it to the
shore of the nearest island, where they place it in their canoe, if the latter is of sufficient size.”?

Barbot, after quoting the account of the fishery by Acuiia, in the quaint translation which I
shall quote on a following page, adds some valuable notes on the commercial transactions which
are carried on in connection with salted Manatee meat. He says:

“The Manati’s flesh used at Cayenne is brought ready salted from the river of the Amazons ;
several of the principal inhabitants sending the barks and brigantines thither with men and salt
to buy it of the Indians for beads, knives, white hats of a low price, some linen, toys, and iron
tools. When those vessels are enter’d the river of the Amazons, the Indians, who always follow
the Manati fishery, go aboard, take the salt, and with it run up the river in canoes or Piraguas to
catch the Manati’s ; which they cut in pieces, and salt as taken, returning with that salt fish to the
brigantines; which go not up, because the Portuguese who dwell to the eastward, at Para, and
other places of Brazil, claim the sovereignty of the north side of that river, and give no quarter

'Purchas his Pilgrimes, iii, 1625, pp. 987, 988.
2Du TERTRE: Histoire des Antilles, ii, 1667, pp. 200, 201.

THE MANATEES: CAPTURE. 127

to the French or other Europeans they can take in their liberties, which has occasion’d many
disputes and quarrels between them, as I shall observe hereafter.

“That controversy was decided by the treaty of Utrecht, in the year 1713. The Portuguese
some years since designing to settle on the west side of the Amazons, cruelly massacred TENS; whe
before used to go unmolested, and consequently mistrusting no danger.

“The brigantines having got their lading of salted Manati, return to Cayenne, and sell it there,
commonly at three pence a pound.”!

“The flesh of the Manatee being much esteemed,” writes Descourtlitz, in 1809, from his own
observations, ‘and its fat never becoming rancid, the negroes employ many means to destroy
them, sometimes by the use of nets, in the places where they feed, sometimes by shooting them
from canoes; more commonly they harpoon them when they are able to approach sufficiently
near, but as the animal, although seriously wounded, does not die immediately, they let out a cord
in order not to lose so precious a prey, which one sees reappear at the surface of the water, drowned
and lifeless.” 2

PRODUCTS FURNISHED BY MANATEES.—The Sirenians possess the quality, most fatal to
them, of furnishing palatable food for man. The ‘huge Sea-cow of Bering Sea disappeared from
this cause, and the Dugong, the Sirenian of the Indian Océan, and the Manatees suffer not Jess on
the same account. For the Indian of South America the Manatee is a fund of wealth. On its
flesh he subsists, with its oil he anoints himself, from its skin he makes shields and cords, in its
bones he finds medicine. The early explorers werd not long in discovering its virtues. Herrara
gathers the following estimate of its importance from their accounts of America:

“The Taste of it is beyond Fish: when fresh it is like Veal, and salted like Tunny-Fish, but
better, and will keep longer: the Fat of it is sweet, and does not grow rusty. Leather for Shoes
is dress’d with it. The Stones it has in the head? are good against the Pleurisy and the Stone.” *

Rochefort is not less impressed with the good qualities of the animal. He exclaims: “Amon g
all the fishes there is none having so good flesh as the Lamantin. Two or three of these beasts
will fill a large canoe, and the flesh is like that of a land animal, firm, pink and appetizing, and
mixed with fat, which being rendered never becomes rancid. When it has been two or three days
in pickle, it is better for the health than when eaten entirely fresh.”® He also gives some very
good advice in regard to the use of the ear bones for medicine. “The superstitious,” he says, “Jay
great store by the stones which are found in the head, because they possess the power, they say,
when reduced to powder, to stop the formation of calcareous deposits, and to remove those already
formed; but, since the remedy is very violent, no one ought to use it without the advice of a wise
and experienced physician.”®

Biet mentions the Manatee first in his list of the fishes [sic] of the Ile de Cayenne. Alluding
to the flesh, he says: “It is very excellent, and although one may have other provisions, it will be
‘preferred to beef. Its fat, also, is as sweet as butter, and can be used to advantage in all kinds of
pastry, fricasees, and soups.”7

Barbot seems to have summed up all that was known of the Manatee of South America up to
his time, early.in the eighteenth Goaaes: and ie ea. also, Father Acuiia, in a translation which,

t BARBOT: “Ob. cit., p. ». 563.
2DEscouRTLITz: Voyage d’un Naturaliste, ii, 1809, p. 276.

3 The ear bones.

4HeRRARA: History of America, i, 1725, p.278.

5RocHEFORT: Nat. Histoire des Iles Antilles, 2d ed., 1665, p. 195.
8 Loe. cit., p. 195.

7BirtT: Voyage en Ile de Cayenne, 1664, pp. 346, 347.

%

128 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

according to my notion, is preferable to that of the Hakluyt Society. Having alluded to its small
eye, but quick ear, and to other characteris tics of its organization, he says:

“The flesh of this creature is excellent, very wholesome, and tastes very much like veal of
Europe, when young: for the biggest are not so delicate and agreeable to the palate. Their fat is
hard, and very sweet, as that of our hogs; the flesh resembles veal. It dies with very little loss
of blood, and is not observ’d to come upon dry land; nor is there any likelihood it should,
considering its shape, as in the cut, whence it is concluded not to be amphibious.

“The Spaniards about the island of St. Margaret, or Margarita, called the Manat Pece- Buey,
that is, Ox Fish; and particularly value the stomach and belly part of it, roasted on spits. Others
cut long slices of the flesh of its back, which they salt a little, only for two days, and then dry it
in the air; after which it will keep three or four months. This they roast and baste with butter,
and reckon delicious meat. A gentleman has assur’d me, that at Jamaica they give eighteen pence
a pound for young Manati. At Cayenne it yields but three pence a pound salted.

“I, Christopher de Acunna, iu the relation of his voyage on the river of the Amazons, chap. 25,
describes this fish as follows:

“The Pece-Buey, says he, is of a delicious taste; any one that eats it, would think it to be
most excellent flesh well season’d. This fish is as big as a heifer of a year and a half old; it has a
head and ears just like those of a heifer, and the body of it is all coyer’d with hair, like the bristles
of a white hog; it swims with two little arms, and under its belly has teats, with which it suckles
its young ones. The skin of it is very thick, and when dressed into leather, serves to make
targets, which are proof against a musket bullet. It feeds upon grass, on the bank of the river,
like an ox; from which it receives so good nourishment, and is of so pleasant taste, that a man is
more strengthen’d ‘and better satisfy’d with eating a small quantity of it, than with twice as
much mutton. ;

“Tt has iiot a free respiration in the water, and therefore often thrusts out its snout to take
breath, and so is discover’d by them that seek after it. When the Indians get sight of it they
follow it with their oars in little canoes; and when it appears above water to take breath, cast their
harping-tools made of shells, with which they stop its course, and take it. When they have
kill’d it; they cut it into pieces, and dry it upon wooden grates, which they call Boucan; and thus
dressed, it will keep good above a month. They have not the way of salting and drying it to keep
a long while, for want of plenty of salt; that which they use to season their meat being very scarce,
and made of the ashes of a sort of palm-tree, so that it is more like salt-petre than common salt.”?

For the Romanist of South America the Manatee is, as the old voyagers persisted in calling it,
afish. It is, therefore, eaten on days when a meat diet is forbidden by the rites of the church.

ConcLusion.—In the Manatee, then, we have an animal of great size, of gentle disposition
and apparently of rapid growth, which lives in places readily accessible to man, and is easily
captured, and which furnishes meat which is not’ inferior, oil which is remarkably fine, and
leather which possesses great toughness. From these considerations it would seem evident that,
with the proper protection, it would furnish no small revenue to the people in those portions of
our country which it inhabits, for centuries to come.

4 32. THE ARCTIC SEA-COW.

THE EXTINCTION OF SPECIES IN HISTORICAL TIME.—The catalogue of avimals which are
known to have become extinct within historical times is not a long one. I do not allude, of

1Barzot: A Description of the Island of Cayenne, in Appendix to Description of the Coasts of North and South
Guinea, 1732, p. 563.

° THE ARCTIC SEA-COW: EXTINCTION. 129

course, to those animals which have been driven from their native haunts before advancing civili-
zation, and which with its decline would flourish again amidst the fallen columns and crumbling
walls, but to those of which no remnant remains, whose existence as the representatives of certain
definite stages of organic development is forever closed. Such a one is the Rhytina (Rhytina
gigas, Zimmermann), which inhabited Bering Sea until within about a century. The story of its
discovery and extermination forms one of the most interesting pages of zodlogical history.

THE GREAT NORTHERN EXPEDITION.—At the opening of the last century the northeastern
portion of the Russian Empire was one of the least known quarters of the globe. The barrenness
of the land, the dreadful winter, and the almost impassable sea, had deterred travelers and voyagers
to a large extent from penetrating into its wilds. Those who adventured in the frozen seas went
principally in search of a northwest passage, or in pursuit of other matters relating to geography
and commerce, and paid little attention to the products of the land or of the waters. Early in the
seventeenth century, however, Peter the Great, desirous of knowing whether Asia and America
were contiguous, gave orders that an expedition should proceed to ascertain the truth. Before
they could be executed he died, but the Empress Catherine commanded that they should be fulfilled.
Capt. Vitus Bering was placed in charge of the expedition, and Gmelin, of the St. Petersburg
Academy, was appointed chief naturalist. After several preliminary cruises had been made which
extended over a number of years, two ships set sail from Kamtchatka on the 15th (4th) of June,
1741. Before the departure of this final voyage, however, Gmelin had withdrawn on account of
ill-health, and George William Steller, who had been sent out by the St. Petersburg Academy as
his assistant, was commissioned to complete the scientific researches.

THE DISCOVERY OF BERING ISLAND AND WRECKING OF THE “ST. PETER.”—The two
vessels, the “St. Peter,” commanded by Bering, and the “St. Paul,” in charge of Tschirikov, sailed
eastward toward the American continent. Before arriving, however, on the 1st of July (20th of
June) a storm separated them. Having touched at Alaska, Bering started westward again, encoun-
tering before long the most tempestuous weather. The crew grew weak and sick through long-
continued hardship. On the 10th of November (30th of October) the ship approached Bering
Island, then unknown. A few days after the storm drove her upon the rocks, and the crew were
forced to take up winter quarters on the island.

DEATH OF BERING.—Many of the sick died as soon as they were removed to the land, and on
the 19th (8th) of December the commander also perished. After some days “it was resolved to
examine what store of provisions there was, and compute how long they would last, to regulate
the distribution of the shares accordingly, notwithstanding which thirty persons died on the
island. They found the stores were so much exhausted that if they had not been supplied
with the flesh of sea-animals they must: have all perished for want of food.”!

USE OF THE RHYTINA TO THE SURVIVORS.—Prominent among the -animals which served
them as food was the Rhytina. Its well-flavored flesh and pleasant fat proved a great boon to
them. ‘And the sick found themselves considerably better, when, instead of the disagreeable
hard beaver’s flesh, they eat of the Manati, tho’ it cost them more trouble to catch.than one of the
beavers. They never came on the land, but only approached the coast to eat sea-grass, which
grows on the shore, or is thrown out by the sea. This good food may, perhaps, contribute a great
deal to give the flesh a more disagreeable? taste than that of the other animals that live on fish.
The young ones, that weighed 1,200 pounds and upwards, remained sometimes at low water on the
dry land between the rocks, which afforded a fine opportunity for killing them; but the old ones,

1 MULLER: Voyages from Asia to America. English translation, Jefferys, 1761, p. 58.
? This is surely a typographical error for agreeable.

9F

130 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

which were more cautious, and went off at the right time with the ebb, could be caught no other-
wise than with harpoons fixed to long ropes. Sometimes the ropes were broke, and the animal
escaped before it could be struck a second time. This animal was seen as well in the winter as in
the summertime. They melted some of the fat, with which, like hogs, they are covered from three
to four inches thick, and used it as butter. Of the flesh, several casks full were pickled for ship’s
provision, which did excellent service on their return.”!

STELLER’S OBSERVATIONS.—In the midst of these privations, Steller did not fail to make and
record observations relative to the animals which came about the island. To his most praise-
worthy perseverance we owe all that we know of the appearance and habits of the Rhytina. Not
a word has been added to his account of the characteristics of the animal, which a few years later
became extinct.

THE RETURN TO KAMTCHATKA; MISFORTUNES OF STELLER.—In the summer of 1742 the
shipwrecked crew of the “St. Peter” built a boat from the wreck of their vessel, and on the 21st
(10th) of August sailed toward Kamtchatka. “The next day at noon they were in sight of the
southeast poiut of Bering’s Island, at a distance of four leagues N. by E., to which they gave the
name of Cape Manati; from the above-mentioned Sea-cows, which herd more here than in any other
parts.”? Shortly after they arrived safely in Kamtchatka. But while some of the crew soon
afterward reached St. Petersburg, and had distinctions conferred upon them by the government,
Steller was most shamefully treated because he dared to condemn the abuses of the officials, and
finally died, in November, 1746, in an obscure town, with but a single friend to sympathize with
him. His observations on the Rhytina, which I shall quote at length, together with those on
other marine animals, were published by the St. Petersburg Academy in 1751.

His statements, it should be remembered, relate to the occurrence of Rhytina on Bering
Island only. The somewhat numerous facts which have accumulated regarding the reality or
probability of its occurrence in other regions, I shall cite on another page.

After giving a table of measurements, and a very detailed description of external and internal
parts, which I am not at liberty to quote in this connection, Steller expands upon the natural history
of the Sea-cow.* The following translation of the original Latinis the product of the unremunerated
labor of my brother, Mr. A. Charles True, of the State Normal College, Westfield, Massachusetts,
who has taken pains to make it as accurate as possible.

STELLER’S OBSERVATIONS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SEA-cow.—‘ It was my fortune
on an unlucky occasion,” writes the naturalist, “to observe daily during ten months the habits and

1 Loc. cit., pp. 61, 62.

2 Loe. cit., p. 64.

3“Asto the academical company of travellers,” says Miiller, ‘‘ Gmelin and I arrived at Petersburg on Feb. 15 [26], 1743,
having passed through all the ports of Siberia. But Steller, who stayed in Kamischatka after Waxel, to make researches
in natural history, did not enjoy this good luck. He immerged himself without necessity, though with good inten-
tion, in matters that did not belong to his department; for which he was called to an account by the provincial chancery
at Jakutzk, Steller vindicated himself so perfectly that the Vice Governor there gave him permission to proceed on his
journey. The proceedings were not sent to the Senate at Petersburg so soon as transacted. The Senate, who had
intelligence of his passing through Tobolsk, sent an express to meet him, and. to carry him back to Jakutzk. And soon
after advice being received from Irkutzk, of his acquittal, another express was dispatched to annul the first order. In
the mean tiine, the first express met Steller at Solikamsk, and had carried him back as far as Tara, before the second
express overtook him. He then proceeded without delay on his return for Petersburg by the way of Tobolsk, but got
no farther than Tuwmen, where he died of a fever in November, 1746, in company of one Hau, a surgeon, who had been
with him in the Kamtschatka expedition. I have thought it necessary to relate these circumstances, because many
falsities have been propagated abroad concerning him, nay, even his death has been doubted. He was born on the
10th of March (21st), 1709, at Winsheim in Franconia.”—MULLER: op. cit., pp, 65,66. Scheerer (fide Nordenskiold), in his
biography, attached to Steller’s account of Kamtchatka, states that Steller gut as far as Moscow when ordered to
return, and was frozen by the way.

4STELLER, GEORGE WILLIAM: De bestiis marinis auctore Georgio Wilhelmo Stellero. <Nov. Comm. Acad.
Imp. Petropolitanz, tom. ii, 1751, pp. 289, 294, et seq.

THE ARCTIC SEA-COW: STELLER’S ACCOUNT. 131

manners of these animals before the door of my hut. Hence in a few words I will subjoin the
facts which were most faithfully observed by me.

“These animals love shallow and sandy places about the shore of the sea, but most willingly
spend their time about the mouths of rivers and small streams, allured by the pleasaut motion of
the running waters, and they are always found in herds. In feeding they drive before them those
who are tender and not yet full grown, surround them carefully on the flanks and in the rear, and
always keep them in the middle of the herd, and when the tide is risen they approach so near the
shore that they not only have been often attacked by me with a stick or a spear, but sometimes I
stroked their backs even with my hand.

“ Having received any severe injury, they do nothing else than to depart farther from the shore,
and after a short time ; having forgotten the injury, they again approach nearer. Whole families of
them live most harmoniously as neighbors, the male and female with one full-grown and one young
offspring. They seem to me to be monogamous; they produce their young at any season of the
year, but most commonly in the autumn, as I inferred from the number of new-born young seen
about that time; and from the fact that I observed them in sexual intercourse most especially in
the early spring I concluded that the period of gestation covers more than a year, and from the
shortness of the horns and the dual number of the breasts I conclude that they produce not more
than a single calf, and besides I never observed more than one calf near a mother.

“Moreover, these animals eat most voraciously and without limit, and on account of too great
greed have the head always under the water. They are not at all anxious about life or safety, so
that in a boat or as a naked swimmer you can go into their midst and safely select whichever one
you wish to strike with the harpoon. Four or five minutes having been passed in this intense
devotion to eating, they breathe out air and a little water with a noise like the neighing of horses.
Wuile feeding they move one foot after another slowly forward and so partly swim quietly, partly,
as it were, walk after the manner of feeding cows or sheep. Half of the body, the back and sides,
always rises above the water. During the feeding of the Rhytina, gulls are wont to sit on his
back and refresh themselves with the fleas clinging to his skin in the same way as crows are wont
to feed on the fleas which infest hogs and sheep. Moreover, they do not devour all sea-plants
promiscuously, but especially, (1) a fucus with the crisped leaf of the Savoy cabbage, (2) a club-
shaped fucus, (3) afucus with the form of an ancient Roman whip, (4) a very long fucus with wavy
edges whose sinuses reach to the nerves.

“Where they have pastured even for a single day great heaps of roots and stems are seen thrown
out by the waves upon the shore. When their bellies are filled some among them, lying on their
backs, sleep, and retreating farther from the shore, lest they should be left on dry ground by the
receding tide, are often choked in winter by the ice floating around the shore, which also happens
if, caught by the waves dashing violently about the rocks, they are thrown against the latter. In
winter these animals are so lean that besides the spine all the ribs appear. Coition takes place
in the spring, and especially about evening, in a tranquil sea. They perform many gambols in
anticipation. The female swims quietly hither and thither in the sea while the male continually
pursues. For a long time the female eludes him with many turnings and meanderings until herself
impatient of further delay, as if wearied and overpowered, she throws herself on her back, when the
male, rushing upon her furiously, extorts the tributum Veneris and both mutually embrace.

“Their capture was accomplished with a great iron harpoon, the point of which resembled the
flattened blade of an anchor fluke, and the other extremity, with the aid of an iron ring, was
fastened to a very long and strong cable. A vigorous man took this harpoon, and, together with
four or five others, embarked in a boat, and while one guided the helm and three or four rowed

132 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

hastened out to the herd. The striker stood in the prow, held the harpoon in his hand, and, as
soon as he was near enough to strike the animal from the boat, hurled his weapon. As soon as
this was done thirty men standing on the shore, seizing the other extremity of the rope, held the
animal, and in spite of his desperate efforts to resist drew him with great labor toward the shore.
Those who wree in the boat re-enforced themselves with another rope and wearied the animal with
repeated blows until, exhausted and quiet, he was dispatched with dirks, knives, and various
weapons, and was drawn to the shore. Some cut great pieces from the living animal. All that the
animal did was violently to move his tail and struggle so with his fore-limbs that often great pieces of
the skin split off. He breathed heavily, and as with a groan. From bis wounded back the blood
was thrown in a spray high up after the manner of a spouting fountain. As long as the head was
hidden under the water the blood did not flow, but as soon as he raised his head and breathed the
blood gusbed out. The reason for this is that the lungs, situated on the back, were wounded first,
and as often as these were. afterward filled with air they increased the strength of the flow of blood.
From this phenomenon I almost came to the conclusion that the circulation of the blood in this
animal, as in the seal, is completed in a twofold manner—in the open air through the lungs, but
under water through an oval aperture (foramen ovale) and arterial duct, though I did not find
both. But that they at the same time respire in a different way from fishes I think happens on
account of the deglutition of solid food rather than because of a forward-moving circulation.

“The full-grown and very large animals are captured more easily than the calves, because the
calves move with a far more violent motion; and though the harpoon remains intact, yet when the
skin is broken they easily escape, a thing which is repeatedly attempted.

“But if an animal captured by the harpoon begins to move quite violently, those near or in a
neighboring herd are frequently stirred and are aroused to bear aid to the captive. On account of
this, sometimes they attempt to overturn the boat with their backs, sometimes they fall upon the
rope and strive to break it, or, by the vibration of the tail, labor to extract the harpoon from the
back of the wounded animal, which oftentimes they attempt not without success. It is a most
curious proof of their disposition and conjugal affection that when the female has been taken and
drawn in with the harpoon, the male, after he has attempted her liberation with all his strength,
but in vain, and has been struck many blows by us, none the less will follow her even to the shore,
and sometimes unexpectedly and suddenly will approach her when she is already dead. On the
next day at early dawn when we came to cut the flesh in pieces and carry it home we have found
the male still standing near his female, and I have even seen this on the third day when I
approached alone for the sake of examining the intestines.

“As regards voice, the animal is mute and does not give forth any sound, but only breathes
heavily, and when wounded sighs.

“How much power lies in his eyes and ears I dare not affirm, but frequently he sees and
hears very little for the reason that be keeps the head continually under water; nay, the animal
himself seems to neglect and despise the use of these organs. Among all who have written con-
cerning Sea-cows,' no one has produced a more full and careful account than the most curious and
diligent Captain Dampier in the narrative of his travels published in London in 1702. As I read
his account, nothing seemed to me to be worthy of censure, althcugh some few things did not agree
with our animal. For he says that two species of Sea-cow exist, one of which has stronger eyes
than ears and the other stronger ears than vision. What he says concerning the hunting of this
animal, namely, that the Americans approach it without any noise or talking lest the Sea-cow flee,

1The allusions to the ‘‘Sea-cow” in this paragraph relate to the American and African Manatees. Steller at this
time seems to have regarded both these and the Rhytinia as forming but a single species.

THE ARCTIC SEA-COW: STELLER’S ACCOUNT. 133

is without doubt so in localities where they are frequently captured and by long experience have
learned that men are hostile to them, in the same way as others, otters and seals, which in this
deserted island never before have seen men, nor have been disturbed in their enjoyment of secure
peace, and were killed by us strangers on Bering’s Island without any labor, have already been
rendered equally wild, and in the Kamtchatkan land, not only when an enemy is seen, but when
they scent his tracks, hastily commit themselves to flight. It happens sometimes that these
animals are thrown out dead by the tempests around the promontory called Kronozkoi Nos, and
also around Awatscha Land, and are called by the Kamtchatkans, on account of their use for food,
in their language, Kapustnik, ‘Kraut Emser,’ which fact I learned after my return in 1742.
Finally, concerning the use of the parts of this animal, according to Hernandes, the thick, firm, and
tough skin is used by the Americans for the soles of shoes and for belts. I hear that the skin is
used by the Tschuktschi for boats. They are accustomed to stretch the skin on sticks, and to treat
it in the same way as the tribe of Koraeccica do the skins of the very large seals called Lachtak.

“The fat encircling the whole body under the skin, a span, and in some places almost nine
inches thick, glandulous, consistent, white, when exposed to the sun turning yellow like hog’s
lard, of a very pleasant odor and flavor, is to be compared with the fat of no marine animals,
nay, rather much to be preferred to the fat of quadrupeds; for besides that it can be heated for a
very long time on the warmest days and not become rancid or otherwise offensive to the smell,
when tried out it is so sweet and palatable that it took from us all desire for butter; in taste it
comes very near to the oil of sweet almonds, and can be applied to the same uses as butter; in a
lamp it burns brightly without smoke or smell. Nor, indeed, is its use for medicine to be despised,
since it gently relaxes the bowels; drunk from cups it causes neither nausea nor loss of appetite,
and, as I think, for those afflicted with gravel the Sea-cow would be of more benefit than the
masticatory bones or stones (masticatoria ossa seu lapides), so called. The fat of the tail is harder
and more consistent, and when cooked more delicate. The flesh consists of fibers somewhat more
stout and thick than those of neat cattle, is a deeper red than the flesh of terrestrial animals, and,
what is wonderful, even in the hottest days warms in the open air a very long time without stench,
though it is beset on every side with worms. The reason I allege for this fact is, that since the
animal subsists only on marine fuci and herbs, and these fuci are more sparingly composed of sul-
phur and more largely of sea salt and niter, these salts prevent the exhalation of sulphur and the
softening and resolution of the flesh in the same way as salts or salt brine sprinkled on flesh, and
the more because these salts are mingled intimately with the substance of the flesh and cohere very
strongly to sulphurous parts. Though the flesh must be cooked a longer time, yet when cooked
it is of the best flavor and not easily to be distinguished from the flesh of neat cattle. The fat of
the calves so resembles fresh hog’s lard that you can scarcely perceive the difference ; and the flesh
does not differ at all from veal, is quickly softened with cooking, and, that continuing, so swells,
like the flesh of a young pig, that it claims for itself very much greater room in the pot than before.
The tendinous fat about the head and tail is scarcely fit for boiling; on the other hand, the muscles
of the abdomen, back, and sides are far to be preferred. It not only does not resist salting, as
many have thought, but only grows soft; so that it comes out like salted beef in all respects, and
very palatable. The viscera, heart, liver, and kidneys are too hard, and were not much sought
after by us because there was a very abundant supply of flesh.

“The full-grown animal weighs about 8,000 pounds (eighty hundredweight), or 200 Russian
puds.

“There is so great a multitude of these animals about this single island that they continually
suffice to support the inhabitants of Kamtchatka.

134 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“The Rhytina is infested with a peculiar insect, like a louse, which is wont to occupy and
inhabit in large numbers especially the wrinkled limbs, breasts, nipples, pudendum, anus, and the
rough cavities of the skin, and which bore through the cuticula and cutis. From the extravasated
lymphatic fluid conspicuous warts arise everywhere; the gulls (Lar?) are also allured to hunt with
their sharp beaks these insects (clinging to the backs of these animals), a pleasant food, and more-
over the birds perform a friendly and grateful office for the animals troubled by these parasites.”!

ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS.—This narrative, as I have already stated, contains all that we
know of the natural history of the Arctic Sea-cow, and, I venture to say, all that we shall ever
know from visual observation. There are a number of facts, however, bearing upon the mode of
capture, geographical distribution, and the history of the extinction of this animal which have
been the theme of writers after Steller. Dr. Brandt, a celebrated naturalist of St. Petersburg, and
the Danish explorer Nordenskidld, have taken pains to bring together all that is known on these
topics up to the present time. Most of the books and manuscripts from which they have gathered
their information being inaccessible to me, I must content myself with summing up the results of
their investigations.

THE EXTINCTION OF RHyTINA.—The extinction of the Rhytina followed close upon its
discovery. If we may accept the results of Nordenskiéld’s investigations upon this point, the
animal was last seen in 1854, or a little more than a century after its discovery. Long before this,
at all events, it had become so diminished in numbers as not to furnish any considerable food
supply.

It appears that the existence of the Sea-cow on Bering Island had no sooner been made
known in Russia than the vessels engaged in the fur trade in Bering’s Sea began to make a
practice of wintering on the island, in order to take in a supply of the flesh of the animal for
food. That this custom became general in a few years, appears from Scherer’s narrative of the first
Russian hunting expeditions to the Aleutian Islands. “Ivan Krasselnikoff’s vessel,” he writes,
“started first in 1754, and arrived on the 8th October at Bering Island, where all the vessels
fitted out for hunting the sea-otter on the remote islands are wont to pass the winter, in order to
provide themselves with a sufficient stock of the flesh of the Sea-cow.”?

The next year, 1755, the engineer Jakovlev, who visited Bering Island and the adjacent
Copper Island, in search of copper, recorded in his journal the mode of capturing Rhytina, which
differs in no way from the method employed by Steller and his companions. Jakovlev, however,
was so impressed with the rapidity with which the Sea-cow was disappearing from the islands
that he petitioned the Kamtchatkan authorities that its capture might be restricted. It appears
that at the time of his visit the Rhytina had been driven away from Copper Island.?

Scherer informs us of the landing of three other hunting expeditions at Bering Island.
between 1757 and 1762, for the purpose of capturing Sea-cows, implying at the same time, as in
the instance already quoted from him, that such was the custom of all expeditions sent thither.
His allusions to the subject are as follows: “The autumn storms, or rather the wish to take on
board a stock of provisions, compelled them (a number of hunters sent ont by the merchant
Tolstyk under command of the Cossack Obeuchov) to touch at Commander’s Island (Bering
Island), where, during the winter up to the 24th (13th) June, 1757, they obtained nothing else
than sea-cows, sea-lions, and large seals.”

'Specimens of this crustacean were found in a small piece of Rhytina skin discovered in the British Museum.

?ScHERER: Neue Nachrichten von denen neuentdeckten Insuln in der See zwischen Asien und Amerika, 1776,
p. 38, fide Nordenskiéld.

3 Jakovlev’s diary was published in Russian in 1867, by Pekavski, and translated into Latin and republished in
1868 by Brandt. See Branpt: Symbole Sirenologice, fasc. iii, pp. 295, 296.

THE ARCTIC SEA COW. EXTINCTION, 135

Again: “They (a Russian hunting vessel under Studenzov, in 1758) landed on Behring Island
to kill Sea-cows, as all vessels are accustomed to do.” On another page he states that ‘after
Korovin, in 1762 (on Bering Island), had provided himself with a sufficient stock of the flesh and
hides of the Sea-cow for his boats . . . he sailed on.”! Sauer, in his account of Bering’s
voyages, published in 1802, alluding to the Rhytina, says: “The last was killed on Behring Island
in 1768, and none has been seen since then.”?

In this conclusion most authorities are agreed. Nordenskidld, however, obtained information,
of a character which he regards reliable, which would seem to show that the Sea-cow was not
entirely exterminated before 1854. The first informant was a creole. Nordenskiéld writes: “A
ereole (that is, the offspring of a Russian and an Aleutian), who was sixty-seven years of age, of
intelligent appearance, and in the full possession of his mental faculties, stated ‘that his father
died in 1847 at the age of eighty-eight. He had come from Volhynia, his native place, to Behring
Island at the age of eighteen, accordingly in 1777, The two or three first years of his stay there,
i,é., until 1779 or 1780, sea-cows were still being killed as they pastured on sea-weed. The heart
only was eaten, and the hide used for baydars. In consequence of its thickness the hide was split
in two, and the two pieces thus obtained had gone to make a baydar twenty feet long, seven and a
half feet broad, and three feet deep. After that time no sea-cows had been killed.’

“There is evidence, however, that a sea-cow had been seen at the island still later. Two
creoles, Feodor Mertchenin and Stepnoff, stated that about twenty-five years ago [in 1854] at
Tolstoj-mys, on the east side of the island, they had seen an animal unknown to them which was
very thick before, but grew smaller behind, had small fore-feet, and appeared with a length of about
fifteen feet above water, now raising itself up, now lowering itself. The animal ‘blew,’ not through
blow-holes, but through the mouth, which was somewhat drawn out. It was brown in colour with
some lighter spots. A back fin was wanting, but when the animal raised itself it was horrible, on
account of its great leanness, to see its backbone projecting. I instituted a thorough examination
of both my informants. Their accounts agreed completely, and appeared to have claims to be
regarded as trustworthy. That the animal that they saw was actually a sea-cow, is clearly proved
both by the description of the animal’s form and way of pasturing in the water, and by the account
of the way in which it breathed, its colour, and leanness. In Ausfiirliche Beschreibung von sonder-
baren Meerthieren, Steller says, page 97: ‘While they pasture, they raise every fourth or fifth min-
ute their nose from the water in order to blow out air and a little water. Page 98: ‘During winter
they are so lean that it is possible to count their vertebre and ribs’; and page 54, ‘some sea-cows
have pretty large white spots and streaks, so that they have a spotted appearance. As these
natives had no knowledge of Steller’s description of the animal, it is impossible that their state-
ments can be false. The death-year of the Rhytina race must therefore be altered at least to 1854."

Neither of the statements appear improbable, but they should be accepted, I believe, with
caution. At all events, the Sea-cow was practically extinct within four decades from the time of
its discovery.

CAUSES OF THE EXTINCTION.—Two causes have been assigned for this rapid destruction.
The most generally accepted notion is that the rate of capture much exceeded that of the increase
of the animal, and that extinction followed as a matter of course. Nordenskidld, however, and, in
a certain way, Brandt also avows his belief that the Sea-cow had gotten out of harmony with its
environment many years before the Russians discovered it, and that its extermination would have

1 SCHERER: Op. cit., pp. 40, 45, and 82, fide Nordenskiéld.
2SauER: Bering’s Voyage, 1802, p.181, fide Nordenskiéld.
3 NORDENSKIOLD: Voyage of the Vega. English translation, ii, 1881, pp. 277,278.

136 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

occurred within a comparatively short time without the intervention of man. The fact that in
Steller’s time the range of the animal was much circumscribed, seems to give weight to the latter
view.

The range of the Sea-cow, when discovered by Europeans, seems to have been confined to
Bering and Copper Islands, but the investigations of Brandt show that it probably extended
from Nishne-Kamtchatka or the bay of Karaguescensi to the coast of China and included also the
outermost islands of the Aleutian Archipelago. Sauer’s statement that ‘Sea-Cows were very
common on Kamtchatka and on the Aleutian Islands, when they were first discovered,” seems with-
out foundation, and is properly rejected by Nordenskiéld. Whether the Sea-cow ever occurred on
the Aleutian Islands appears somewhat uncertain. Vosnessenski found a rib of the animal on
Attu, the last island of the archipelago, but, as Brandt suggests, it may have been derived from a
Rhytina washed thither by the waves. Mr. Lucien Turner kindly informed me that an aged Aleut
woman stated that Rhytina had been seen at Attu by her father, but such testimony is, perhaps,
not altogether satisfactory.

Packt i.

THE USEFUL AQUATIC REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS

OF THE

UNITED STATES.

BY

FREDERICK W. TRUE.

ANALYSIS.

Page.
E.~THE ALLIGATOR AND THE CROCODILE:
33. The Alligator and the Crocodile...-......-..-2--- 2-2-2 eee ee eee Siestaseess o Rae womleicimmeince ae 141
IF.—Torroisrs, TURTLES, AND TERRAPINS:
34, The Marine Turtles in general...-.. 2.222222. 2 noe cee nee ee neces teen ceee cece tee cece eee cease 147
30. The Loggerhead Tarte ix. ccanc. siceap ccna as werveacnere ccithend area varcewaamee Gees cee mw aale meh sienna 8 Seele 147
36, ‘The, Hawie’s-bill Turtles ccc ccs: hess cats ctestesen Selene ele ecine Sane aeons cows aumne ewe mbiomeaene Aten 149
a7, Phe Green Turtles ns oc03 sissies ici ete tea age dviainid Vain Gece eaeicaus wewe ome see ohieed ety 150
38: “The Sott-shelléd Tortoises nis. scsiewigerbac ein edioceiedey sais pene as int ee nce essen s see ces 152
oo: ‘Phe: Snapping Durtles wiscciese voice sociak bse does dames dacs wee 2 ibieele sts daneesediccte asia See 153
40). Phe Musk? Tortoises eseccccjee cecinisis sivialate syelsataraielt Syatve male saichete'ets 3 Sigle cial wleteleie eidiatsie renee desis werele ste 154
41. ‘The Fresh-water Derrapins), cui ves seca envae sate aadewks ex seeeee swe cou mveere ces velcisiaistaisie sie’ etfs 155
42. The Diamond-back or Salt-water Terrapin -.....---. 2.222. 2220 ence eee cee cee een eee 156
43.. The Pond: Tortoisesssas0 sanacesmesseciexsiaeen teecins waweep bus < avec: cea cwenaseas caeeas exiemiee meee 157
44. The. Box Tortoises 222263 22nc asesee sees Se eksesee teams eeex sie te wees See eserseertdamen eee ares 158
G.—THE AMPHIBIANS:
AS, The: Boll frog. 6 ai bee s:nces es cares ae cise a Bee wieiaieicieide ce bSS aie nice cine Sides SOR e tases ce eNele case Mewake dese 159

ALLIGATOR AND THE CROUODILE. 141

E.—THE ALLIGATOR AND THE CROCODILE.
83. THE ALLIGATOR AND THE CROCODILE.

THE NoRTH AMERICAN ALLIGATOR AND CROCODILE.—We have in the United States two
reptiles of the Crocodile family, one a true Crocodile, Crocodilus acutus, Cuv., and the other the
well-known Alligator Alligator mississippiensis, Daudin.! The former animal is of rare occurrence,
only a few specimens having been captured in the United States, aud it can, therefore, scarcely
claim attention from a commercial standpoint.? I shall confine my remarks to the Alligator.

ORIGIN OF THE NAME “ALLIGATOR.”—The origin of the name “Alligator” is involved
somewhat in obscurity, but several theories have been entertained regarding it. ‘Some,” says
Holbrook,? “have supposed it derived from the word ‘Legateer’ or ‘Allégater, a name by
which the young Crocodile is distinguished in some parts of India. Cuvier says it is much
more probable that it is a corruption of the Portuguese ‘Lagarto,’ derived from the Latin ‘ Lacerta,’
as Hawkins writes it ‘Alagartos,’ and Sloan, in his ‘History of Jamaica,’ spells it ‘ Allagator,’”

The matter was undoubtedly set right by Cuvier. In the writings of all the very early
English explorers which I have been able to consult the terms ‘‘Crocodile” and ‘‘ Cayman” are
generally used in alluding to the Alligator. Under the name “Cayman” it would seem that the
Alligator and the true Cayman of South America have been confounded. In Sir Walter Raleigh’s
account of his travels in 1595, however, he used the name “ Lagartos” for the Alligator. He says:

“ Vpon this riuer there were great store of fowle, and of many sorts: we saw in it diuers sorts
of strange fishes, and of maruellous bignes; but for lagartos it exceeded, for there were thousands
of those vgly serpents; and the people call it for the abundance of them, The riuer of Lagartos, in
their language.” 4

The name Alligator, with its present orthography, seems to have been adopted about 1730.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—The geographical range of the Alligator has not been very
accurately defined. Holbrook? fixes the northern limit on the Atlantic coast at the mouth of the
Neuse River, North Carolina, although at the present day it is doubtful whether any specimens
could be found so far north. It occurs in increasing numbers southward, and is comparatively
abundant on the northeast coast of the Gulf of Mexico. It ascends the Mississippi River as far
as the mouth of the Red River. In regard to the western limit of its range, Cope states that “it

1A recent writer, the place of publishing of whose article I have forgotten, raises the question of the occurrence
of two species of Alligator in the South. No herpetologist, however, so far as I am aware, has made such a distinction,
and I cannot, therefore, give the matter more than a passing notice here.

3T have been able to gather but few references to instances of the actual capture of C. acutus in Florida. Wyman,
I believe, first pointed out its existence in that state, in 1869, basing his remarks on the features of a skull sent from
the Miami River by Mr. William H. Hunt. (See Amer. Journal of Sci. & Arts, xlix, 1870, pp. 105-106.)

Another specimen, this time a full-grown animal, was obtained by Mr. H. A. Ward, of Rochester, New York,
in Bascayne Bay, Florida. This specimen is now in the National Museum.

Still another Crocodile was said to have been captured in North Lake, Florida, in 1875, by a Mr. William Butler,
but whether this specimen was ever sent to a museum, or was identified by a professional herpetologist, I am unable
to say. (See Forest and Stream, iv, 1878, p. 167.) Two other writers, Mr. C. J. Maynard, of Newtonville, Mass.,
and a gentleman concealed under the pseudonym ‘‘ Wanderer,” claim to have scen the Crocodile in Florida, the former
in 1867. (See Forest and Stream, xiii, 1880, p. 867.)

3 HoLBROOK: North American Herpetology, ii, 1842, p. 61.

4RALEIGH: The Discoverie of the large, rich, and beautifull empire of Guiana. <Hakluyt’s Collection of Voyages,
iv, 1811, p. 137.

5 Op. cit.

142 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

is common in the waters of the Guadalupe drainage, and is occasionally seen in the San Antonio
River, within the limits of the city of San Antonio,”’ and Professor Baird has recorded a specimen
from Brownsville, Tex., on the Rio Grande.? From thence its range extends southward into
South America.

ABUNDANCE.—The Alligator is growing less and less abundant, particularly on the Atlantic
coast, and on the west coast of Florida, owing to the increase of population and the reckless
manner in which it has been hunted and destroyed. Many persons have engaged in slaughtering
these creatures merely for the sport which is supposed to be derived from so doing, no use having
been made of the carcasses.

Sizze.—The Alligator is the largest living reptile occurring within the United States, and is
approached in size only by the marine turtles. Holbrook records having seen one which was
thirteen and a half feet long,? while Bartram, in his narrative of travels in Florida, affirms that
they attain a length of twenty to twenty-three feet in that region.* The latter statement, however,
must be taken with some caution; if true, it would seem that the Alligator does not now attain his
former wonted proportions. From a note in “Forest and Stream,” of 1876, we learn that “the
largest alligator killed in Florida for many years was shot last spring [1876] by Dr. De Marmon, of
Kingsbridge, N.Y. The animal measured 12 feet 6 inches in length when spread on the dock. It
was 6 feet 10 inches round the body, 5 feet 10 inches around the jaws, and weighed about 700
pounds. The head, which is now in the doctor’s possession, is 30 inches long. It was killed on
the Homosassa River, about two miles from Alfred Jones’s grove.”> The average length would
appear to be about ten feet.

FooD AND MANNER OF OBTAINING IT.—The food of Alligators consists almost exclusively
of fish and such small land or semi-aquatic animals as it is able to secure. It would appear that
they are also expert fly-catchers. The quaint allusion of Exquemelin to this subject is too
interesting to be omitted. “The Caymanes,” he says, “are ordinarily busied .in hunting and
catching of flies, which they eagerly devour. The occasion is, because close unto their skin,
they have certain little scales, which smell with a sweet sent, something like unto musk. This
aromatick odour is coveted by the flies, and here they come to repose themselves and sting.
Thus they both persecute each other continually, with an incredible hatred, and antipathy.”®

The existence of this habit, I have recently been informed, has been frequently confirmed
in Louisiana by reliable observers; but the gentleman who informed me was inclined to believe
that it is the saliva which attracts the flies into the gaping jaws of the Alligator. The manner
in which the reptile secures his fill of fishes is related by Dowler in a paper written in 1846, who
founded his remarks on the statements of some, to him, credible observers. He writes as follows:

‘““Many authors assert that Alligators cannot swallow under water. In offering some facts
to disprove this assumption, the sagacity of these animals will be more or less illustrated. A
gentleman, on two occasions, watched Alligators when catching sunfish, which were swimming in
shoals in shallow water. The Alligator placed his long body at a suitable distance from the shore.
As soon as the fish came between him and the land, he curved his body so that they could not
pass; the tail was moored on land; the mouth was opened under water, and brought so close to

1\Copr: On the Zodlogical Position of Texas. Bull. U. S. National Museum, No. 17, 1820, p. 13.
°GIRARD: Herpetology, U. 8. and Mex. Boundary Survey, ii, pt. 2, p. 5.

®’ HOLBROOK: North American Herpetology, ii, 1842, p. 56.

4BarTRAM: Travels through East and West Florida, 1791, p. 128.

5¥Forest and Stream, vii, 1876, p. 84.

SEXQUEMELIN: Buccaneers of America. English translation, 1684, p. 48.

THE ALLIGATOR: FOOD AND FEEDING. 143

the shore that the fish had no method of escaping but through the mouth, where they were
entrapped. Incidit in Scyllam, qui vult vitare Charybdim.”4

PUGNACITY OF THE ALLIGATOR.—When we come to consider the possibility of the Alligator’s
ability to attack successfully large terrestrial animals, such as horses and cows, as well as men,
we find ourselves in great doubt. The accumulated testimony of travelers and observers on
this point can hardly be set aside, although several critical writers have done so, with ridicule.
Whether it was that the earlier observers, misled by the forbidding appearance of the Alligator,
were repeatedly imposed upon by fabulous stories, or whether they actually saw, at least in part,
what they recorded, seems to me, I must confess, a very open question. To cite all the accounts
of mishaps which are said to have occurred to man and beast through the aggressiveness of the
Alligator, would be to fill many pages of this volume. I can only refer to one or two prominent
examples.

Herrara gives the following account of the Alligator in the harbor near Porto Belo, at the
Isthmus of Panama, on the occasion of Columbus's explorations there in 1502:

“In the Harbour there were extraordinary large Alligators, that went to sleep ashore, and
smelt like Musk, being so ravenous, that if they find a Man asleep on the Land, they drag him
away to devour him: tho’ they are so timorous, that they fly, when attack’d. There are many of
them in these Rivers that fall into the North Sea, but many more in those that empty themselves
in the South Sea, and they are very like, if not the same as the Crocodiles of the River Nile.”?

Raleigh, after his allusion to the “river of Lagartos,” a tributary of the Orinoko, as already
quoted, adds: “I had a negro a very proper yoong fellow, who leaping out of the galley to swim
in the mouth of the river, was in all our sights taken and devoured with one of those lagartos.”°

Herrara, again, relating what happened to the Spaniards in Central America in 1516, writes:

“At Panama an Alligator has been known to take a Man off from the Stearn of a Boat, and
carry him away to the Rocks, where as he was tearing him in pieces he was kill’d by a Musket
Shot: the Man being recover’d as the Monster was biting him off near the Groin was carried to the
Hospital, where he liv’d long enough to receive the Rites of the Church.”4

Velasquez seems also to have been impressed with the ferocity of the Alligator during his
sojourn in Cuba. By Herrara he is made to say:

“On the South Side about the Middle there runs down into the Sea a mighty River, which the
Indians call Cauto, the Banks of it are very agreeable, and in it are a vast Multitude of Alligators.
Those who happen to be benighted near it, must be upon their Guard, for those Creatures then
come out of the Water, walk about the Land, and if they can surprize a Man, they drag him into
the Water, and devour him. They sometimes do so by such as venture to ford the River, and even
by Horses. They are to be found all over the Indies, especially to the southward, but in Cuba only
in this River.”

In the eighteenth century the writer who is most loud in the denunciation of the Alligator is
Bartram. He has devoted several pages of his book to the relation of the habits of these animals,
from which I will quote a few lines. Although he begins his account with a query as to how he
shall do credit to what he observed without arousing the suspicion of his readers regarding his
veracity, his description seems overdrawn:

“My apprehensions were highly alarmed after being a spectator of so dreadful a battle; it was
obvious that every delay would but tend to increase my dangers and difficulties, as the sun was

1DoWLER, BENNET, M. D.: Contributions to the Natural History of the Alligator. New Orleans, 1846.
2 HERRARA (STEVENS): Hist. Amer., i, 1725, p. 271.

3RALEIGH: loc. cit., p. 137.

4HERRARA (STEVENS): Hist. Amer., ii, 1725, p. 100.

SHeRRARA (STEVENS): Hist. Amer., ii, 1725, pp. 11, 12.

144 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

near setting, and the alligators gathered around my harbour, from all quarters; from these con-
siderations I concluded to be expeditious in my trip to the lagoon, in order to take some fish. Not
thinking it prudent to take my fusee with me, lest I might lose it overboard in case of a battle, which
I had every reason to dread before my return, I therefore furnished myself with a club for my
defence, went on board, and penetrating the first line of those which surrounded my harbour,
they gave way; but being pursued by several very large ones, I kept strictly on the watch and
paddled with all my might towards the entrance of the lagoon, hoping to be sheltered there from
the multitude of my assailants; but ere I had half-way reached the place, I was attacked on all
sides, several endeavoring to overset the canoe.

“My situation now became precarious to the last degree: two large ones attacked me closely,
at the same instant, rushing up with their heads and part of their bodies above the water, roaring
terribly and belching floods of water over me. They struck their jaws together so close to my ears
as almost to stun me, and I expected every moment to be dragged out of the boat and instantly
devoured, but I applied my weapons so effectually about me, though at random, that I was so
successful as to beat them off a little.”!

Writers of the present century also allude to cases of fatal attacks by Alligators; I may
quote one instance. Wells, writing of Lake Nicaragua in 1857, says: ‘Large tiberones (sharks)
have been captured in the lake; and a few months previous, a woman at Virgin Bay, washing
on the banks, was seized and killed by an alligator.”* Many other similar statements are on record.
The mass of most recent writers and investigators, however, seem inclined to regard all tales of
the Alligator’s aggressiveness as idle fiction, and contend with one accord that he is sluggish,
harmless, and even timid, and that the damage which he sometimes does with tail and jaws
when wounded and tormented is due to aimless madness induced by pain, and not to any deliberate
attempt at revenge.

The stomach of Alligators is often found to contain, in addition to its natural food, a num-
ber of rounded masses of hard material, large pebbles and other indigestible matter. Zodlogists
are not agreed regarding the function of these objects, some supposing that they aid in reducing
other matter taken into the stomach, and others that they serve to keep the stomach distended
when the animal is in a state of hibernation in winter. It seems probable, however, that they are
swallowed by mistake for better food, or are taken down with more nutritious matter when he
feeds too greedily.

MOoDE oF LIFE.—Alligators are pre-eminently fitted for an aquatic or semi-aquatic life. In the
water they seem perfectly at ease, and move about with great velocity, propelling themselves by
powerful strokes of their broad paddle-like tails. The peculiarities of their internal structure,
too, are such as fit them for remaining a considerable time beneath the surface. On land, how-
ever, the Alligator moves slowly and with evident difficulty on account of the weight of the body
and the shortness of the legs. Nevertheless they come frequently to shore, being very fond of
sunning themselves for hours on the sandy or muddy banks of the streams they inhabit. They
are protected from assault while indulging in these siestas by their dull colors and their perfect _
immobility. Holbrook states that “such Alligators as dwell in ponds and streams out of the
influence of tide-water, wander much further from the banks and are not unfrequently seen a mile
or more from water.”*

This statement is confirmed in the writings of other observers. ‘Following the lonely track

1BaRTRAM: Travels in East and West Florida, 1791, p. 119.
2? WELLS: Honduras, 1857, p. 35.
7 HOLBROOK, op. cit., p. 57.

THE ALLIGATOR: HABITS. 145

which leads for thirty-three miles through Savannah’s sand-hills and pine barrens from New
Smyrna, Florida, to the St. John’s River,” writes a correspondent of ‘Forest and Stream,” “we once
came upon an alligator seven feet long, taking his siesta in the middle of the road.

Many alligators have I seen in Florida lakes and rivers, but never before met one on the high
road. Probably the dry weather had drawn the reptile from its accustomed haunts in search of
water.”?!

VoIcE.—In spring and during the breeding season Alligators utter a cry, which has been
likened to that of the bull-frog, but intensified, and to the noise of distant thunder. It is probably
to this cry that Bartram frequently refers, as, for example, in the following sentences: “‘ But whats
yet most surprising to a stranger, is the incredible loud and terrifying roar which they are capable
of making, especially in the spring season, their breeding time; it most resembles very heavy
distant thunder, not only shaking the air and waters, but causing the earth to tremble; and
when hundreds and thousands are roaring at the same time, you can scarcely be persuaded but
that the whole globe is violently and dangerously agitated.”? Most evident hyperbole!

HIBERNATION.—At the approach of winter the Alligators embed themselves in holes and pits
on the banks of their favorite streams, and remain dormant until spring.

BREEDING HABITS.—When the breeding season arrives, early in spring, the female resorts to
a sheltered spot on the bank of the stream, and constructs a small mound of mud and other materials,
in which she deposits her eggs, one to two hundred in number. The eggs hatch in about thirty
days, and the young Alligators immediately take to the water. Although I am loath to quote so
much from one observer, I must refer again to the narrative of Bartram, for I find no other in which
the nests of the Alligator are so fully described, with so great an appearance of accuracy. He
writes:

“TI now lost sight of my enemy again. Still keeping close along shore; on turning a point or
projection of the river bank, at once I beheld a great number of hillocks or small pyramids,
resembling hay cocks, ranged like an encampment along the banks, they stood fifteen or twenty
yards distant from the water, on a high marsh about four feet perpendicular above the water; I
knew them to be the nests of the Crocodile, having had a description of them before, and now
expected a furious and general attack, as I saw several large Crocodiles swimming abreast of
these buildings.

“These nests being so great a curiosity to me, I was determined at all events immediately to
land and examine them. Accordingly I ran my bark on shore at one of their landing places,
which was a sort of nick or little dock, from which ascended a sloping path or road up to the edge
of the meadow, where their nests were; most of them were deserted, and the great thick whitish
egg-shells lay broken and scattered upon the ground round about them.

“The nests or hillocks are of the form of an obtuse cone, four feet high and four or five feet
in diameter at their bases; they are constructed with mud, grass, and herbage: at first they
lay a floor of this kind of tempered mortar on the ground, upon which they deposit a layer of
eggs, and upon this a stratum of mortar seven or eight inches in thickness, and then another
layer of eggs, and in this manner one stratum upon another, nearly to the top: I believe they
commonly lay from one to two bundred eggs in a nest: These are hatched I suppose by the heat
of the sun, and perhaps the vegetable substances mixed with the earth, being acted upon by the
sun, may cause a small degree of fermentation, and so increase the heat in those hillocks. The
ground for several acres about these nests shewed evident marks of a continual resort of alligators:

18. C. C.” [S. C. CLarkE] in Forest and Stream, xii, 1879, p. 307.
2BARTRAM: op. cit, p. 129.

10F

146 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS,

The grass was everywhere beaten down, hardly a blade or straw was left standing; whereas, all
about, at a distance, it was five or six feet high, and as thick as it could grow together.”

ECONOMICAL VALUE.—The principal commercial products furnished by Alligators are leather,
ivory, oil, and musk. The first two are by far the most important.

Alligator leather is quite impervious to water, and consequently a valuable material from
which to manufacture shoes and boots. Besides serving for these purposes, however, it is fre-
quently more carefully prepared and used in making articles which require a soft leather, such as
satchels, card-cases, and the like, the oddity of its appearance being much admired. It has
many cheap imitations. Hides of large size and good quality bring about eight dollars in the
market.

The ivory is obtained from the teeth. These are carved into a variety of forms, such as
whistles, buttons, and cane-handles, and also sold as jewelry. This industry is carried on prin-
cipally in Florida.

Alligator oil, which is extracted from the fat of the animal, has been recommended for the
cure of quite a variety of diseases.

The musk of the Alligator is obtained from glands situated in the lower jaw. It is not of the
best quality, but serves as the basis of certain perfumes.

THE FISHERY.—In regard to the capture of Alligators in Florida for the products they
furnish, and their consequent diminution, a writer in “ Forest and Stream” states:

« Alligator hunting is growing ‘less and less successful in Florida as the game diminishes in
numbers. From being simply a pastime it has become a regular business, and thousands upon
thousands of these creatures are now annually slaughtered for the:r hides and teeth. The former
are converted into leather, and make a valuable commodity, while the teeth are manufactured into
various articles of use and ornament At the rate the alligator family is now disappearing, not
many years will elapse betore the supply will be wholly exhausted, .and the capture of an alligator
become an uncommon event in sporting life.”?

MopE OF CAPTURE.—There is but one mode of capturing Alligators, so far as I am aware,
namely, that of shooting them with the rifle. This is not so expeditious a method as would at first
appear. The iron-like hide of the upper surface of the reptile’s body, with its rugged bosses,
secures him impunity against the ill-aimed shot. The eye is the most vulnerable spot, and it is
through this organ that the rifle-ball penetrates into the vital region, the brain.

1BaRTRAM: op. cit., pp. 126, 127.
2“ Pp, H. A.” in Forest and Stream, vi, 1876, p. 264.

TORTOISES, TURTLES, AND TERRAPINS. 147

F.—TORTOISES, TURTLES, AND TERRAPINS.

INTRODUCTION.—The species of Tortoises which inhabit the territory of the United States
and the adjacent seas are forty-two or forty-three in number. With the exception of the Musk
Tortoises, all are more or less available for food and other economic uses. The number of species
actually in demand, however, is small. It includes the Marine Turtles, two or three species of
Soft-shell Turtles, the Snapping Turtle, three or four kinds of Terrapins, and the Gopher or Land
Tortoise. Some are too small to be of any great value, and others are of too rare occurrence, at
least within the limits of the United States.

For convenience of treatment, following in a certain way the classification of Duméril,’ we
may separate the Tortoises into three large groups, namely, (1) the Mariue Turtles, (2) the Marsh
Tortoises, and (3) the Land Tortoises.

34, THE MARINE TURTLES IN GENERAL.

MODE OF LIFE.—The Marine Turtles are especially adapted for their aquatic life. Their bodies,
which are large and broad, have a specific gravity almost exactly equivalent to that of the water
in which they are immersed, so that they are able to sustain themselves at the surface of the sea
for any length of time without fatigue. Their feet are transformed into broad paddles, evabling
them to swim freely and rapidly. The fore-feet are used in propelling the body, while the hind-feet
serve as rudders. The motion of the fore-feet is very similar to that of a bird’s wings, and, indeed,
all their movements are more those of flying than of swimming. These Turtles never go on shore
except to lay their eggs, and their movements at such times are slow and constrained.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE MARINE TURTLES.—The Marine Turtles are most abundant in tropical
regions, and occur in considerable numbers only along the extreme southern portions of our coast.
Specimens are occasionally seen as far north as Long Island Sound, aud still more rarely in Massa-
chusetts Bay and on the southern coast of Maine. I am further informed by Capt. Joseph W.
Collins, a most reliable observer, that he has frequently seen Turtles, which he believed to be Green
Turtles, about the fishing banks of Newfoundland. Such occurrences, however, must be considered
accidental, and are unimportant from a commercial point of view.

SPECIES OF COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE.—The species which are of commercial importance
are, 1. The Loggerhead; 2. The Hawk’s-bill Turtles of the east and west coasts; and, 3. The Green
Turtles of the east and west coasts. In addition to these, a species known as the “ Bastard,”
Thalassochelys Kempti, Garman, bas been recently described. It occurs commonly in the Gulf of
Mexico, but is not at all sought for. In contrast to the other species, it lays its eggs in the winter
months, from December to February.

TH LEATHER TURTLE.—Another species which may be mentioned is the so-called “ Leather
Turtle,” or “ Luth,” or “Trunk Turtle.” It belongs to a different family from those enumerated
above, is larger than they, and occurs sparingly all along our Atlantic coast, from Massachusetts
Bay to Florida. It has no commercial value with us, so far as known, but in the West Indies a
fat is procured from it which is used as a lubricator.

35. THE LOGGERHEAD TURTLE.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE LOGGERHEAD.—This Turtle is commonly known in the United States
as the “ Loggerhead,” Thalassochelys caretta, (Linné) True, in allusion to its large and thick head.

1DumERIL and Bipron: Erpétologie générale.

148 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

It occurs along the Atlantic coast from Virginia to Guiana and Brazil, and is common everywhere
in the Gulf of Mexico and among the West Indies. It is also found in the Mediterranean, where
formerly it was very abundant, and specimens have been taken on the coasts of England and Scot-
land. Thus it appears that the Loggerhead inhabits generally somewhat more northerly localities
than most other species of Marine Turtles.

Sizzu OF THE LOGGERHEAD.—In size the Loggerhead is second only to the huge Leather
Turtle, previously mentioned. A specimen of moderate size, captured in 1871, measured six feet
in length, and nine feet across the back to the extremities of the fore-feet or “flippers.” The head
was eleven inches long and eight inches broad. Its weight was about 850 pounds. In the more
southern localities the species sometimes attains a weight of 1,500 or 1,600 pounds. The specimens
taken on our coast about Beaufort and Morehead City, N. C., which enter into commerce, are
undoubtedly young animals. Their average weight, according to Mr. Earll, is not more than fifty
pounds.

Foop.—The Loggerhead is one of the most powerful of the Marine Turtles. It swims with
very considerable speed and not ungracefully. It is frequently seen far from land, floating on the
waves and apparently asleep or resting. Unlike most of the members of the group, it is generally
considered carnivorous, feeding upon crabs, various shells, and fishes. It is said to be particularly
fond of a large conch (Strombus), which it breaks with its powerful jaws and devours in great quantity.)

BREEDING HABITS OF THE LOGGERHEAD.—On our shores this Turtle breeds in April, May,
and June, during which months the female comes to land and deposits its eggs in the sand, usually
selecting a spot on the southern side of a shoal. She scoops out a shallow pit with her hind legs,
and deposits a number of eggs, varying from 150 to 200. Having laid this large number, the Turtle
covers them with sand and leaves them to be hatched by the heat of thesun. While these animals
are engaged in this operation they seem unconscious of the presence of intruders, and from this
fact, and because they are very helpless on land, they are frequently captured while so engaged.
They breed sometimes as far north as Virginia, and commonly in Georgia, Florida, and the eastern
Gulf States. The young make their way to the water as soon as hatched.

RATE OF GROWTH.—Like all other species of Turtles, the Loggerhead is probably very slow
in coming to maturity, and many years must elapse before it is fully grown. One of the small
Marsh Terrapins is said to be ten or eleven years old before it breeds,? and it would seem that in
marine species, which are many times larger, the period must be much longer.

ECONOMIC VALUE.—The economic value of the Loggerhead, aside from that of its eggs, is
very small. The flesh of the adult is leathery and oily, and smells very strongly of musk; it is,
therefore, not generally eaten, although some pretend that they have partaken of it when fresh
without nausea. Formerly it was salted in the West Indies and given to the slaves for food.
Young Loggerheads are considered tolerably esculent and are eaten to a limited extent in the
United States. They are captured from time to time on the coast of North Carolina, and sold in
the markets of the interior cities.

A large amount of oil can be obtained from this Turtle, but its rank odor unfits it for use in
cooking. It has been employed, however, to smear on the sides of vessels, which it is said to pre-
serve from worms; aud to soften certain kinds of leathers. Its scales, although larger than those
of the Tortoise-shell Turtle, are very thin, and apt to be wrinkled and filled with impurities, and
therefore are not used to any considerable extent in the arts.

The eggs of the Loggerhead are larger than those of other species, and are not inferior in
flavor. They are highly esteemed as food, and also furnish a considerable quantity of oil.

'Hotsrook: North American Herpetology, ii, 1842, p. 37.
*AGassIz: Contributions to the Natural History of the United States, ii, 1857, p. 496.

THE HAWK’S-BILL TURTLES. 149

36. THE HAWK’S-BILL TURTLES.

NorgTH AMERICAN SPECIES.—These two Turtles, the former inhabiting the Atlantic and the
latter the Pacific Ocean, were for a long period erroneously considered identical. But though
different, the distinctions which separate them are of a technical nature, and we can readily treat
of them together. They are commonly known under the names “ Hawk’s-bill” and ‘“ Tortoise-
shell” Turtles (Hretmochelys).

RANGE OF THE HAWRK’S-BILL TURTLES.—The Atlantic species, #. imbricata, occurs on the
southern coasts of Florida and of the States bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, and from thence
its range extends southward over the Gulf, among the West Indies, northeastward to the Bermudas,
and as far south as Guiana and Brazil. Holbrook records as an unusual occurrence the presence
of a Turtle of this species on the shores of Carolina, whither, he says, it was probably driven by a
heavy storm.’ The Pacific species, EL. squamata, occurs on our western coast, and is common also
in the Chinese and Japanese waters, and in the Indian Ocean generally.

S1zE.—The Hawk’s-bill is smaller than either the Loggerhead or the Green Turtle. It is
generally considered that a Turtle must have a weight of about one hundred and sixty pounds
before its “‘shell is of suitable thickness to be used in the arts, but it often attains to at least twice
that weight, and sometimes even approaches in weight the Green Turtle.”

FooD AND HABITS.—The habits of the Hawk’s-bill Turtle do not differ essentially from those
ot the Loggerhead. Its diet is strictly vegetable, but it is said to be much more fierce than the
carnivorous but harmless Loggerhead. It bites severely, and occasions painful wounds, so that
the fishermen have to be on their guard against its attacks. On our shores its breeding season
extends from the latter part of April to the first of July. It usually selects a gravelly rather than
a sandy beach in which to deposit its eggs.

ECONOMIC VALUE: GRADES OF ‘'SHELL.”—The Hawhk’s-bill Turtle is chiefly valued for the
horn-like scales or plates which cover its bony shell. These form the “tortoise-shell” of com-
merce. The back of the Turtle is covered with three rows of plates, a central and two lateral
tows. The central row contains five plates and each of the lateral rows four plates; in addition,
the margin of the shell is occupied by twenty-five small plates. The plates of the three rows
covering the back are known as “blades,” and collectively as the “‘head” of shell. The small
marginal plates are denominated “ feet,” or “noses.” These, together with the thinner plates of
the central row, are also sometimes known as “hoofs and claws.” The plates which have the
highest value are the two middle ones on each lateral row, since they have the greatest thickness
and size. The colors of tortoise-shell which are preferred are mingled “golden yellow, reddish
jasper, and white, or brown approaching black.” A variety of shell in which a large amount of
white occurs is also much esteemed, especially by the Chinese. Such shell is known as “ white”
head or “blonde” shell. Plates in which the patches of color are nearly of equal size, and occupy
nearly: the same position on both sides, are also highly valued. ‘The largest Turtle does not furnish
more than fifteen or sixteen pounds of tortoise-shell. ‘‘The best tortoise-shell comes from the
Indian Archipelago, where Singapore is the principal port for its exportation. It is also sent
from the West Indies, from the Gallapagos Islands, situated on the west coast of South America,
and from Mauritius, Cape Verde, and Canary Islands.”

The plates on the plastron, or under part of the shell, are golden sallow in color. Articles
made from them are much admired in some localities. It is said that combs of this color are
eagerly sought for by Spanish ladies, who will readily pay fitteen or twenty dollars for them.

'tHoLsrooxk: North American Herpetology, ii, 1842, p. 42.

150 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS

Tor HAWK’S-BILL AS FOOD.—The flesh of the Hawk’s-bill Turtle is comparatively value-
Jess; indeed, in the West Indies it is said that it possesses cathartic qualities in a high degree.
The Turtle is occasionally brought to our markets from North Carolina. I have seen it in
Washington several times recently, both in the markets and before certain restaurants of the city.
The eggs are not inferior to those of other Marine Turtles, and are valuable both as food and as
the source of a limpid and not ill-flavored oil, which is used in cookery and in the arts.

37. THE GREEN TURTLES.

NortTH AMERICAN SPECIES.—The two species ot Green Turtle, the one, C. mydas, inhabiting
the Atlantic and the other, C. virgata, the Pacific Ocean, like the two Hawk’s-bill Turtles, are very
similar in general aspect, and have been confounded by many observers. The Atlantic species,
however, has been most often described and commented upon, and it is to that species that most
of my remarks will refer.

Names.—As far as known, the Green Turtle has no other popular name in the United States
or in England. In France it is called the “Tortue Franche,” in Portugal the “Tartaruga,” and
in Brazil the “‘ Jurucua.”

DisrRiBuTIoON.—The Atlantic species occurs all along our coast, from Long Island Sound,
where it has been taken several times, but is not common, to Florida and the coasts of the Gulf
States. Captain Collins believes that he has seen this species on the northern fishing-banks.
It is abundant in the West Indies, and is found as far south as Guiana and Brazil; is said to
occur also along the west coast of Africa. I am informed by Mr. K. G. Blackford that the
supply for New York market is brought principally from Indian River, Cedar Keys, and Key
West, Florida. The Pacific species is “found along the whole southern coast of California,” but
its northern limit has not been ascertained. It is said to occur also in the Indian Ocean.

S1zz.—In size the Green Turtle ranks intermediate between the Loggerhead and the Tortoise-
shell Turtles. Those taken on the coast of the Carolinas are very small, but the species increases
in size southward. The specimens taken at the more northerly localities seem to be young or
dwarfed individuals, as in the case of the Loggerhead. At Beaufort and Morehead City, as Mr.
Earll ascertained, they weigh only about eight pounds; at Charleston, usually from five to fifteen
pounds, the largest weighing twenty-five pounds; about Saint Augustine, the average size is
twenty or twenty-five pounds; at Halifax River, thirty-five pounds; at Indian River, fifty or sixty
pounds, specimens weighing as much as two hundred pounds being not infrequently taken; at Key
West the weight is usually from forty to one hundred pounds; at Cedar Keys specimens weighing
from six hundred to eight hundred pounds are sometimes taken, and rarely some weighing a
thousand pounds. Thus it appears that there is gradual increase in size as we pass southward.

FooD AND FEEDING HABITS.—Holbrook makes the following statements in regard to the food
of the Green Turtle: “The Chelonia mydas lives mostly in deep water, feeding on marine plants,
especially one called turtle-grass (Zostera marina). his, according to Audubon, they cut near
the roots, to procure the most tender and succulent part, which alone is eaten, while the rest of
the plant floats to the surface, and is there collected in large fields, a sure indication that the feeding
ground of the Green Turtle is near. In confinement, however, they eat readily enough purslain
(Portulaca oleracea), and even grow fat on this nourishment.”? A specimen taken at Noank,
Connecticut, in Angust, 1874, was full of Irish moss (Chondrus erispus). After browsing for a

{This fact, which corresponds with what has been observed regarding some other animals, is of great interest from
a zodlogical point of view.
*HoLBroox: North American Hepetology, ii, 1842, p. 29.

GREEN TURTLES: FOOD AND FEEDING. 151

time in these pasturages of sea-weed, the Turtles seek the mouths of rivers, where they apparently
take great pleasure in bathing in the fresh water, which seems to be necessary to them from time
to time. They are very timid on such occasions, and hasten away into deep water at the approach
of man. Jn Florida, it “is said by turtle-fishers to enter the creeks which abound on that coast,
and having eaten its fill of the sea-grass growing there, to roll together masses of it of the size of
a man’s head, which it cements with clay on which the grass grows, and then when the turn of
the tide takes it out to sea, follows it, feeding upon it. When, therefore, the fishermen find any
of these balls floating down from a creek, they at once spread a strong net across the mouth, and
almost always secure a number of these Turtles.” !

BREEDING OF GREEN TURTLES.—The Green Turtle breeds on the coasts of Florida and in
the Bahamas and West Indies generally. On our coast its breeding season is from April to July.
Holbrook gives also an excellent account of the breeding habits of this Turtle, and we cannot do
better than quote his words. “In the months of April and May, great numbers seek for this pur-
pose [the laying of eggs] the sandy shores of desolate islands, or the uninhabited banks of certain
rivers, where they are least liable to interruption in their work of reproduction. The Tortugas
Islands are a favorite haunt; these are four or five uninhabited sand banks, which are only visited
by turtlers and wreckers. Between these islands are deep channels, so that the Turtles come at
once to a good landing. They are not confined, however, to these islands, but are found abun-
dantly on keys and inlets on the main. The female arrives by night. Slowly and cautiously she
approaches the shore, and if undisturbed, crawls at once over the sand above high water mark;
here with her fins she digs a hole one or two feet deep, in which she lays her eggs, between one
and two hundred in number. These ‘she arranges in the most careful manner, and then scoops the
loose sand back over the eggs, and so levels and smooths the surface that few persons on seeing
the spot could imagine that anything had been done to it.’ This accomplished, she retreats speedily
to the water, leaving the eggs to be hatched by the heat of the sun, which is generally accomplished
in about three weeks.? Two or three times in the season does the female return to nearly the same
spot and deposit nearly the same number of eggs, so that the amount annually would be four or
five hundred.”? The young make their way at once to the water, but many of them fall a prey to
the various carnivorous birds which frequent the breeding grounds.

Uses.—The flesh of the Green Turtle is considered an excellent article of diet, and forms the
basis of the well-known “turtle soup.” Two portions of the body have received special names in
the language of cookery. These are “calipash,” a name for the flesh which is attached to the
upper shell of the Turtle, and is of a dull greenish color; and “calipee,” the corresponding name
for the flesh adhering to the lower shell, which is of a yellowish hue.

The animal is brought to the markets of New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and other cities
regularly during the season, and large numbers are sold. The Pacific species, Professor Jordan
informs me, is seen from time to time in the markets of San Francisco, being brought in occasionally
by vessels coming from the south. The eggs of the Atlantic Green Turtle are eagerly sought for,
both on our coast and in the West Indies, and are valuable both as food and on account of the oil
they furnish. I am informed by a prominent manufacturer of soap that the article bearing the
name of “turtle-oil” soap is in reality made from beef or other fats, and contains not the least
modicum of turtle oil. The name is simply a “trade name”; no turtle oil has been imported into
the United States for many years.

' KNIGHT: Proceedings Boston Society of Natural History, 1870, p. 16.
2 Agassiz says the period cannot be less than seven weeks.
3 HOLBROOK: Op. cit., p. 29.

152 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS,

38. THE SOFT-SHELLED TORTOISES.

The marsh and river Tortoises constitute a large group, well represented in North America.
It includes all the Tortoises which live in the marshes, fresh and salt, and in ponds and running
streams. It may be conveniently divided into six sections, comprising (1) the Soft-shelled
Tortoises; (2) the Snapping Turtles; (3) the Musk Tortoises; (4) the Fresh-water Terrapins; (5)
the Salt-water Terrapin and Geographic Tortoises ; (6) the Pond Tortoises.

RANGE OF THE SOFT-SHELLED TORTOISES.—The species of Soft-shelled Tortoises, Trionychide,
inhabiting our country are six in number, and belong to two different genera, known scientifically
as Amyda and Aspidonectes. Their combined range extends from Lake Champlain, the Lower Saint
Lawrence, and the Upper Hudson on the east, westward through the great lakes and Northwestern
States, to the Yellowstone and Musselshell Rivers; thence southward, east of the Rocky Mountains,
to Eastern Texas; thence along the Gulf States to Florida, and from there northward, west of the
Alleghanies, to the Upper Hudson.

“In the Northwestern States, two species occur together, belonging to two different genera,
Amyda mutica and Aspidonectes spinifer ; in the middle Western States one species, Aspidonectes
nuchalis; in the South-Eastern and Southern States, two species, belonging to two different genera,
Platypeltis [Aspidonectes] ferox and Aspidonectes asper;’ and in the South-West, in Texas, one species,
Aspidonectes Emoryi.”?

These Tortoises seem to be known everywhere in the country under the single name “Soft-shell
Turtle.” As the habits of all the species are very similar, it will be scarcely necessary to consider
each separately. They vary in length from six or eight inches to two feet or even more, and their
weight is from four or five pounds to fifteen or sixteen pounds. Probably the largest species is A.
spinifer.

Foop.—The food of the Soft-shell Turtles consists of small fishes, snails, and other small
animals, and a variety of vegetable matter. It is said that some species do great damage in potato
fields, situated near the streams they inhabit, since they are very fond of browsing on the stems.
It is improbable, however, that they go very far from the water. They are most frequently seen
on the margin of sluggish, shallow streams, their bodies buried in the mud, and only the tip of their
long snout protruding, or crawling over the muddy bottom of the stream, or floating on its surface.
The fact of their fierceness has been regarded with doubt by some authorities, but they will
undoubtedly bite severely if provoked. They breed in June and July, seeking a dry sandy spot
on the bank of the streams they inhabit, in which to deposit their eggs. The female leaves the
water for this purpose, and returns to it immediately after the eggs are laid, leaving them to be
hatched by the heat of the sun. The number of eggs is large, varying from thirty or forty to sixty
or seventy.

ECONOMIC VALUE.—Soft-shell Turtles are commonly eaten in the regions where they occur,
and are frequently seen in the markets. Their flesh furnishes a superior article of food, surpassing,
it is said, in delicacy the flesh of the Green Turtle. The eggs also are considered very excellent.
The Turtles are captured with hook and line, almost any bait being suitable, for they snap greedily
at any kind of food. They are also shot with the rifle while sunning themselves or floating on the
surface of the water. Mr. E. C. Pridgen, of Oakohay, Mississippi, informed me that the eggs are
discovered by following the tracks of the animal to the nest, the location of which is recognized by
the presence of a little depression of the earth.

1Both belong to the same genus, according to Cope. See Cope: Check-list, North American Batrachia and
Reptilia, 1875, p. 51.
? Agassiz: Contributions to the Natural History of the United States, i, 1857, pp. 402, 403.

SNAPPING TURTLES: NUMBER OF SPECIES. 153

39. THE SNAPPING TURTLES.

NorTH AMERICAN SPECIES.—The Snapping Turtles, or Chelydride, of the United States
are two in number, belonging to two different genera, Chelydra and Macrochelys. The more
northern species, Chelydra serpentina, known everywhere throughout the United States as the
“Snapping Turtle,” is very widely distributed. It has been found as far north as Nova Scotia,
and its range extends from that point southward to Florida and the Guif States, and westward to
the States immediately on the west bank of the Mississippi River. It has not been recorded
trom farther west than the limits given, but it is probable that it occurs even as far as the Sierra
Nevadas. The southern species, Macrochelys lacertina, known as the “Alligator Turtle,” or “ Log-
gerhead,”! is found in western Georgia, and in all the States bordering on the Gulf, from Florida
to Texas. It also occurs in Missouri, where it is said to receive the name ‘‘Caouane.”

S1zE.—The northern species is considerably smaller than the southern; twenty or thirty
pounds may be considered the maximum weight of the former, but the latter commonly attains a
weight of fifty or sixty pounds, and frequently as much as one hundred. In both the strength of
the jaws is very great. Ihave myself seen an “Alligator Snapper,” of perhaps forty pounds
weight, bite the handle of a broom quite in two when enraged.

Both species inhabit running streams and stagnant, muddy ponds and lakes, but they
apparently prefer the latter.2 They are sometimes seen at a considerable distance from the
water, walking with a constrained and limping gait, very similar to that of the Alligator. At
such times they are probably in search of food or of a suitable place for the deposit of their eggs.
Their food consists of various animal matter, fishes, frogs, and shells, and lastly of ducks and
other water fowl, which they draw under water to be devoured at leisure.

BREEDING SEASON AND HABITS.—The breeding season of the Snapping Turtle is in June,
in the North from the 10th to the 25th (Chelydra serpentina). In preparing to deposit its eggs, it
‘“excavates at first directly downward, and then laterally, so that the widest part of the hole, in
which the eggs are deposited, is on one side of the external opening of the nest. Hence a stick
thrust straight into the mouth of the nest would not touch the eggs, which are laid in the Jateral
dilation of the excavation.

“The fact that these animals oftentimes dig several holes before selecting one for deposit, shows
that they exercise a discrimination with regard to the fitness or unfitness of these several spots for
the encouragement and rapid development of their young. When engaged in digging or laying, not-
withstanding their habitual shyness at other times, they seem utterly unconscious of any intruder,
but proceed in their occupation till it is finished, and then trampling down and smoothing over the
earth, so that when dry the place of the nest may not be noticeable, leave the spot and disappear
among their usual haunts.”? The place of deposit is usually at a short distance from the water
in a sandy bank. The number of eggs varies from twenty to forty, or even more.

Regarding the breeding habits of the Alligator Turtle little is exactly known, but they are
probably similar to those of the Snapping Turtle.

EConoMIC VALUE.—Both the Snapping Turtle and the Alligator Turtle are esteemed as food,
and are commonly eaten by the people in the localities where they occur. The former is generally
considered inferior to the Soft-shell Turtles, or the Green Turtle, while it is claimed by some,
although it seems hardly probable, that the flesh of the latter is even more delicate than that of
the Green Turtle. In old animals, at any rate, the smell of musk is very strong and disagreeable.

1This is not to be confounded with the marine Loggerhead.

2During the summer of 1877 two specimens of Snapping Turtle were caught in the salt waters of Provincetown
Bay, Cape Cod, Massachusetts.

3AGassiz* Contributions to the Natural History of the United States, ii, 1857, pp. 500, 501.

154 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

The Snapping Turtle is regularly seen in spring in the markets of Washington, dressed for
cooking, that is, having the under part of the shell and the entrails removed. The eggs of both
species are comparatively small, but delicate, and are eaten in many localities. They may be
found by probing in the sand with a small rod, in places indicated by the tracks of the animal.

A large proportion of the commercial supply of the Snapping Turtle, as the observations of
Capt. J. W. Collins show, is derived from Delaware.

Storer remarks that in many localities in the interior of Massachusetts the oil of the Snapping
Turtle is carefully preserved on account of its supposed curative properties for bruises and strains,
when externally applied.'!. The carapace is used by the Indians as a rattle and ornament.

40. THE MUSK TORTOISES.

CHARACYERISTICS OF THE Musk ToRTOISES.—It is perhaps scarcely necessary to mention
the Musk Tortoises, or Cinosternide, in this connection. They are of small size, and possess a
very strong and rank scent of musk, which makes them entirely unavailable as a source of food
supply. Indeed, the exceeding rankness of the odor of one species, Aromochelys odorata, has
gained for it the very expressive appellation of ‘‘Stink-pot.” They are very troublesome to fisher-
men, in placid waters, often swallowing the bait so quietly as to produce no agitation of the float,
so that their presence for some time is unperceived. They are often seen devouring dead and
decaying animals in streams, and therefore undoubtedly prove efficacious as scavengers. In fact,
it has been surmised that one cause of the prevalence of yellow fever in the Southern States is to
be found in the wholesale destruction of various Tortoises which feed on the refuse vegetable and
animal matter which collects in the rivers, some for food and others because supposedly obnoxious.

DisTRIBUTION.—Of the six species of Musk Tortoises inhabiting the United States, three are
found only in Arizona and the Sonoran region generally, one in the Southern States, except lower
Florida and Texas, and the remaining three in the Eastern and Southern States, and the central
States westward to the extremities of the tributaries of the Mississippi.

41. THE FRESH-WATER TERRAPINS.

TERRAPINS AND Pond ToRTOISES.—In the group of Terrapius and Pond Tortoises are
comprised about one-half of all the Tortoises inhabiting the United States. The members of the
group vary greatly in habits and size and in other relations. Exclusive of the Marine Turtles,
they furnish the greater proportion of the reptilian food of the country. All the species are
available for food; that is to say, none of them have disagreeable qualities such as the Musk
Tortoises, for instance, possess, but some are too small and others of too rare occurrence to
furnish any considerable supply.

The Emydide of the United States have been divided among six genera,’ based on certain
differences of their structure, and since the division is a convenient one for the present purpose,
we will adopt it and treat of the species of each genus together.

THE FRESH-WATER TERRAPINS.—The habitat of the members of this group is decidedly
southern, for they are rarely seen north of the forty-first parallel of latitude. They live in moist
and marshy localities and in running water, their strneture being well adapted for semi-aquatic
and aquatic life. Some are vegetable feeders, while others are carnivorous. The genus includes
seven North American species. Of these the most important is the “Red-bellied Terrapin,”
Pseudemys rugosa. The animal is also known under the names “ Potter,” ‘“Red-fender,” and

'STorER: Report on the Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds of Massachnsetts, 1839, p. 213.
* Cope: Check-list of North American Batrachia aud Reptilia, 187A, pp. 52, 53.

THE RED-BELLIED TERRAPIN OR SLIDER. 155

‘Slider.” Its range seems to be limited to the Delaware River, the Susquehanna River, and other
streams emptying into Chesapeake Bay. It is common in the vicinity of Washington, and is
frequently seen in the markets in considerable numbers. It is a large species; the shell is usually
ten or eleven inches in length. As has been already stated, the Red-bellied Terrapin is regularly
seen in the markets, and as it is more abundant and less esteemed than the ‘ Diamond-back
Terrapin,” it is usually much lower in price. It is commonly substituted in certain proportion for
the “ Diamond-back” in making terrapin stew.

Aside from its somewhat slow growth there is apparently no reason why this Terrapin should
not be introduced into waters both north and south of its present range. It furnishes a very
considerable amount of nutritious food at no expense to the producer. :

THE MOBILIANER.—Another important species is that known as the “ Mobilianer,”
Pseudemys mobiliensis. This is perhaps the largest representative of the genus or of the whole
group in the United States. The shell is often from 14 to 16 inches in length. It is found more
or less abundantly in all the Gulf States, from extreme Western Florida to the Rio Grande of
Texas. Its form would suggest that it lives mostly in the water. Of what its food consists is
not definitely known, but it is undoubtedly mostly of a vegetable character. It is considered
quite delicate, and is esteemed as food. It is frequently sold in the markets of Mobile, New
Orleans, and other Southern cities.!

THE YELLOW-BELLIED TERRAPIN.—Pseudemys scabra, a species which occurs in the Carolinas,
Georgia, and Northern Florida, is used to a considerable extent for food. It is known popularly
as the “ Yellow-bellied Terrapin.” That it is a very abundant species, at least in Florida, we may
learn from the following note, communicated to the Boston Society of Natural History in 1870, by
the Rev. C. F. Knight:

“Tn the early summer [this species] congregates in great numbers in the shallow parts of
certain lakes, and the warm and still bayous near the mouths of those streams which empty into
the Gulf. On one occasion the speaker [Mr. Knight], floating quietly down stream, came upon
one of these gatherings where there seemed to be many thousands within the space of two or
three acres, covering every log and stump and hummock almost as thickly as shingles lie upon a
roof.”

The Yellow-bellied Terrapin is largely a carnivorous animal. It lives on small reptiles and
other such animals as it can capture in the streams and ponds which it inhabits. In confinement,
however, it will condescend to partake of vegetable food, particularly of the common purslain,
Portulaca oleracea, of which it seems quite fond. It is frequently brought to Charleston, South
Carolina, and other Southern markets in considerable numbers. The flesh is not considered as
delicate as that of the “‘ Diamond-back Terrapin,” but the amount furnished is greater.

OTHER SPECIES.—Of the remaining species it will be necessary to speak only of Pseudemys
concinna. The other three species, Pseudemys hieroglyphica, inhabiting the Middle, Western, and
Gulf States, Pseudemys Troostii, inhabiting the Mississippi Valley, as far north as linois, and
Pseudemys elegans, inhabiting Ohio and Texas and the States through which the western and
northern tributaries of the Mississippi Liver flow, seem not to be sufficiently abundant to furnish
regular supplies of food. Pseudemys concinna, the ‘‘ Florida Cooter,” is found in all the Southern
States, from southern North Carolina to Florida, and from thence westward to Texas, and also in
Arkansas. They seem to prefer brackish waters, but are found also in fresh-water streams.
Their diet is principally of animal matter; in Florida they are said to feed upon certain species of
worms which they capture by thrusting their long claws into the worm-holes in the clay. Although

1HoLBRooK: North American Herpetology, i, 1442, p. 74.

156 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

not as abundant as the Yellow-bellied Terrapin, they are sufficiently so to furnish considerable
food, but whether they are brought to market I am not aware.

42. THE DIAMOND-BACK OR SALT-WATER TERRAPIN.

Three species of the genus Malacoclemmys inbabit the United States. By far the most
important of these, and the most valuable of all Terrapins, is the Malacoclemmys palustris, or
“Diamond-back Terrapin.”

The other two species, the Geographic Tortoises, M. geographica and M. Lesueuri, are of com-
paratively rare occurrence, and are not used for food to any considerable extent.

DISTRIBUTION.—The “ Diamond-back,” or ‘‘Salt-water Terrapin,” is common along our entire
Atlantic coast from Nantucket and New Bedford, in Massachusetts, to Texas. It also occurs in
South America. It was introduced into Italy by the Prince of Canino, a number of years ago, but
of the success of the enterprise I have been unable to learn. Those which enter into commerce,
however, are principally from Chesapeake Bay and the coast of the Carolinas. Some very fine
ones also come from Egg Harbor, N. J.

CHARACTERISTICS AND HABITS.—The Diamond-back lives in salt marshes near the coast, and
is seldom found far from them. They were formerly very abundant in such localities, and could
be often seen on warm days sunning themselves on the bars and flats. But the increasing demand
for them and the wholesale capture of old and young have reduced their numbers very materially.
The species is a comparatively small one, and varies much in external appearance. The females
attain a larger size than the males, and are much more highly prized in market. The average
length of the under part of the shell is seven inches, and the weight of the animal four or five
pounds. Rarely the length reaches ten inches, and the Terrapin weighs about ten pounds. The
fixed standard of length for salable females in most markets is six inches, but in some it is as low
as five inches. Terrapin having that length are known as “counts.” The small specimens are
separated into “heifers” and “little bulls”; their under shell rarely exceeds five inches in length.
As has been already said, they are deemed very inferior to the females, and the price of them is
therefore much lower.

In regard to the rate of growth, I have seen it stated that the Diamond-back reaches
maturity, or rather lays eggs, when four years old, but this is hardly probable. It does not accord
with the observations of Agassiz and others, nor with the peculiarities of the group generally.
Experiments made by a dealer in North Carolina seem to show that the species grow about one
inch each year, so that “counts” are at least six years old. Probably ten years at least elapse
before they are fully grown.

Foop.—What the food of the Diamond-back Terrapin is does not seem to be exactly known.
Very probably, however, it consists of such matter, both animal and vegetable, as the animal is able
to find in the marshes in which it lives. When penned, preparatory to sending them to market, they
are fed on crabs, oysters, and fish. To give them the finest flavor they are said to be fed upon
celery for some days previous to being served. In the winter the tortoise hibernates and takes no
food, remaining buried several inches in the mud. Unfortunately for its welfare, a little mound of
mud is always raised above the spot where it disappears, which at once catches the eye of the
terrapin fisherman. A large proportion of the Terrapins are taken while they are in this torpid
condition.

BREEDING HABITS.—Like all other species of Tortoises, the Diamond-back deposits its
eggs on land. When the laying season arrives the female seeks some sandy bar or bank above
water, and having excavated a shallow pit with the hind legs, deposits from five to seven eggs.

THE DIAMOND-BACK: BREEDING HABITS. oT

The breeding season occurs in the latter part of June and early part of July. It is said that the
young show no disposition to seek the water, but prefer to remain in the sand.

ECONOMIC VALUE.—The Diamond-back is highly prized for food. Philadelphia furnishes
the best market for this species, but it is also sold in large numbers in Baltimore, Washington,
New York, Boston, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Saint Louis, and many other cities. The
season lasts from the beginning of October to the first or middle of June; the best months are
October and November. The specimens from North Carolina usually appear in the market last.
The “counts,” or those over six inches long, bring from eighteen to thirty-six dollars per dozen in
the market; the smaller ones are usually sold separately, at prices of from fifteen to fifty cents
apiece. These prices, however, are almost sixty per cent. higher than the prices received by the
catcher, for the Terrapins pass through several hands on their way to market. The majority of
Terrapins are actually caught in the summer months and are penned in yards, known as “crawls,”
until the marketing season arrives. A description of the crawls and of the method of capturing
the Terrapin will be found in the chapter on THE TERRAPIN FISHERY.

There are two principal modes of cooking the Diamond-back Terrapin, one known as the
Maryland style, and the other as the Philadelphia style. The Maryland style is as follows: The
Terrapin is first thrown alive into tepid water, the skin and claws are removed; a second
immersion in the water: follows. The under shell is then cut away and the gall-bladder and
liver removed. After this operation the Terrapin is stewed until thoroughly cooked. The stew
is then garnished with eggs, cream, butter, and spices, and when ready for the table a little
wine is added. The Philadelphia style is different from the preceding only in the addition of
terrapin eggs, which, in the estimation of epicures, are necessary to complete the dish.

43. THE POND TORTOISES.

THE GENUS CHRYSEMYS.—Three species of genus Chrysemys, the Pond Tortoises, inhabit
the United States: OC. picta, whose range extends from Nova Scotia and Maine to Wisconsin and the
States on the east bank of the Mississippi, and southward to Louisiana, Northern Mississippi, and
Georgia; C. Belli, whose range is from the States on the west bank of the Mississippi, and Texas,
westward to the Sierra N evadas, excepting the Sonoran region; and C. reticulata, whose range is
from Southern North Carolina to Florida and west to Louisiana. Of these the most important,
perhaps, is the Chrysemys picta. It is a very abundant species, is of considerable size, the shell
being six or seven inches in length, and has no disagreeable qualities. It lives in ponds, ditches,
and sluggish rivers, where it is almost invariably seen lying on rocks and fallen trees, basking in
the sun. It is very timid, dropping into the water immediately on the approach of man, and soon
dies in confinement. It feeds on worms, insects, and small aquatic reptiles.

Tus “CHicken ToRTOISE.”—Of the two remaining species C. reticulata is the more valued.
It is known under the name of ‘Chicken Turtle” in the region where it occurs. Its habits are
very similar to those of the preceding species, but it is a somewhat larger animal. It is
frequently brought to the Southern markets, and is somewhat more highly esteemed than the
Yellow-bellied Terrapin Pseudemys scabra.

BELL’s TORTOISE.—The remaining species, CO. Belli, is a fine Tortoise, but appears to be rare,
except in the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers. Little is known of its habits, except that it
prefers clear waters. So far asI am aware itis but rarely eaten.

THE GENUS CHELOPUS: THE “HL-LA-CHICK.”—Four species belonging to this genus inhabit
the United States, of which the most important, commercially, is C. marmoratus, occurring on the
Pacific coast between the Sierras and the sea, from Vancouver’s Island to Monterey, California.

158 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

It lives in the rivers and fresh-water ponds, preferring those of which the water is somewhat warm.
Tt grows to a very considerable size, the shell frequently measuring seven or eight inches. It is
said to deposit its eggs in June. “They are almost constantly for sale in the markets of San Fran-
cisco, and make pretty good soups, though much inferior to the Sea Turtles.” They are also seen
in the markets in other parts of California. The species is called ‘El-la-chick” by the Nisquallies.

THE Woop TorRTOISE: OTHER SPECIES.—Chelopus insculptus, or the ‘‘Wood Tortoise,”
which inhabits the Eastern States from Maine to Pennsylvania and west to Ohio, is a species of
medium size, but though available for food, it is, as far as I am aware, rarely eaten. It lives mostly
in ponds, but is frequently seen on land, either in search of food, or, as has been suggested, to rid
itself of the leeches which cling very persistently to it. The “Spotted Tortoise” or “Speckled
Turtle,” Chelopus guttatus, and Muhlenberg’s Tortoise, Chelopus Muhlenbergi, are comparatively
worthless varieties. The former occurs in the New England States and in New York, Pennsylvania,
and Michigan, and probably also in Ohio. The latter inhabits southern New York, New Jersey,
and eastern Pennsylvania. The Speckled Turtle lives in ponds and running waters, but C. Muhlen-
bergi is frequently found on land. Both subsist principally on an animal diet. The Speckled
Turtle, when feeding, uses the fore-feet in retaining the prey, in a manner reminding one of that
of the domestic cat.

THE GENUS Emys.—Only one species of this genus inhabits the United States; it has, so
far as I am aware, no common name. This is the Hmys meleagris. It occurs in the New England
States and westward to Wisconsin. It is a rare animal and seldom seen, and hence little is known
of its habits.

44. THE BOX TORTOISES.

THE CAROLINA Box TuRTLE.—To the genus Cistudo belong the Tortoises which have the
power of shutting the body and limbs within the shell, and from this peculiarity are known as
“Box Turtles.” The most common species is Cistudo carolina, with its Southern variety, triunguis,
which singularly has but three claws on the hind foot. It occurs all over the eastern United States
from the coast to the States on the west bank of the Mississippi River. In the Southern States it
is known as the “ Pine-barren Terrapin,” and is also called ‘‘Cooter” by the negroes. It lives
almost entirely on land, feeding on insects and other animal matter, and also on certain kinds of
vegetables.

It is said to do damage in the fields to cucumbers and other growing vegetables. In confine-
ment it can be readily raised on apples and other fruits. It has been sometimes kept in
cellars to destroy mice and rats, but it is doubtful whether so sluggish a tortoise would be able to
capture so nimble a rodent as a mouse.

Another species, or perhaps only a variety of the preceding, known as Cistudo ornata, occurs
in the Mississippi Valley.!

1 Although not appertaining strictly to the subject of this report, but as cowpleting the foregoing sketch of the
Tortoises of the United States, I may be allowed to allude to the three Gopher Tortoises of the South and West. The
Florida ‘‘Gopher,” Xerobates polyphemus, (Daudin) Cooper, inhabits the Southern States from South Carolina to Texas;
Agassiz’s Gopher, X. Agassizi, Cooper, is found in Southern California and Arizona; and Berlandier’s Tortoise, X. Ber-
landieri, Agass., Southern Texas and Northeastern Mexico. All live in dry and sandy regions, and feed upon vegetable
matter. The eastern and western Gophers, and possibly Berlandier’s Tortoise, dig deep burrows in which to dwell,
The Florida Gopher furnishes no inconsiderable proportion of the meat supply of many negro families in the South.

THE BULL-FROG. 159

G.—_THE AMPHIBIANS.
45. THE BULL-FROG.

DISCOVERY OF THE BULL-FROG.—The first mention of the Bull-frog, Rana Catesbiana, Shaw,
is found in the eighteenth volume of the Philosophical Transactions, published in London in 1694,
in which Clayton alludes to it as being a larger Frog than any found in England, and one
which “makes a noise something like the bellowing of a bull.”! Years later it was accurately
described by Catesby under the name of “Bull-frog,” an appellation by which it is now universally
known.

RanGE.—The geographical range of the Bull-frog has never been accurately defined. It is
found in all the States on the Atlantic seaboard, and in Canada. In the collections of the
National Museum there are specimens from Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas,
among the southwestern States; from Ohio, Wisconsin (Racine), and Montana (Yellowstone
River); and from California (San Diego). If the specimens have been correctly identified, the
species must extend over the greater part of the United States.

SizE: MODE OF L1FE.—In regard to size, the Bull-frog is undoubtedly the largest animal of
its kind inhabiting North America. Holbrook? states that it reaches a length of twenty-one
inches, although the average, of course, is considerably less. It lives in quiet ponds and slug-
gish rivers, and is solitary in habit, collecting together only during the breeding season. Like
other Frogs, it is carnivorous, feeding upon insects, mollusks, and other small animals which live
in or near bodies of fresh water. It seizes its prey when in motion, and bites greedily at the hook.

BREEDING HABITS: FROG CULTURE.—The Bull-frog breeds in spring, at which time hundreds
are to be seen together in small ponds. During this season the male utters the well-known
bellowing cry which may be heard at a long distance.

The artificial culture of Frogs has been attempted in a number of localities, with greater or
less success. Mr. Seth Green gives the following account of a method for propagating them,
which he employed with good results:

“1, How to get the spawn.—Take a large dipper and go to the pond where the frog casts
its spawn. You will find them in a glutinous bunch. When you dip them up, be very careful
not to break the glutinous matter which binds them together. Put them in a pail or can, filled
with water, and take them to your hatching-box, which is made after the fashion of the shad-
hatching box. It is a box two feet long, eighteen inches wide, and a foot deep, covered on the
bottom with gas-tarred wire sieving, twelve wires to the inch. Anchor the box in a gentle
current. They will hatch in from seven to fifteen days, according to the temperature of the
water.

“2. How to take care of them.—Soon after they are hatched, they should be turned loose
in a pond prepared with great care, as they have numerous enemies, such as fish, snakes, birds,
lizards, coons, and many other animals. The pond should be made where the ground is springy,
and have plenty of soft muck in the bottom. In this muck the frog lies during the winter.
The pond should have a tight board fence, so that no animals could get in, and should be built
so close to the water that no bird could stand on the ground inside the fence and pick up the

'Philosophical Transactions, xviii, 1694, p. 125.
?HOLBROOK: North American Herpetology, iii, 1838, p. 82.

160 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

polliwogs. If you do not heed all these precautions, and more too, your young fry will all
disappear down the stomach of some bird or animal; and if you are not an unusually close
observer, you will be in great wonder where they have gone. You will have no trouble in feeding
the young while they are polliwogs; nature has provided for that in all waters. They feed upon
microscopic forms found in the sediment.”!

MOoDES OF CAPTURE.—The capture of Frogs is effected in various ways. In Canada the fishery
is carried on largely by boys, who employ spears, in the use of which they are said to become quite
expert. Insome localities scoop-nets are used. Mr. Paul Pieombo, of Oakland, California, informs
me that he seldom has need of any apparatus, as he finds no difficulty in securing the Frogs
by grasping them with his hands.

In regard to the capture of Frogs in Europe, where the species Rana esculenta is most
generally eaten, Mr. Buckland furnishes us with the following information :

“The old fishwife of whom I bought the frogs informed me that she had a man regularly in
her employ to catch them. He went out every evening at dusk to the ponds in the neighborhood
of Paris, with a lantern and a long stick, to end of which was attached a piece of red cloth. The
frogs were attracted by the light to the place where the fisherman stood. He then lightly dropped
his cloth on the surface of the water; the frogs, imagining that some dainty morsel was placed
before them, eagerly snapped at it, and, their teeth becoming entangled, they became an easy prey,
destined for to-morrow’s market and the tender mercies of the tish or rather frog woman.”?

ECONOMIC USES.—Desmarest, in his article on Frogs in the ‘‘ Dictionnaire d’ Histoire Naturelle,”
makes the following remarks regarding the uses to which these animals may be put:

“The flesh of Frogs is white and delicate, and contains a great deal of gelatine. It is eaten
alinost everywhere in Europe, but particularly in France. Frogs taken in autumn are in the best
condition for food, but they are also taken in the summer. In spring the flesh is not at all delicate.
In England all parts of the Frog are eaten except the skin and the viscera, but with us only the
hind legs are employed.

“Frog soup is used in medicines in cases of phthisis, hypochondria, and all those chronic affec-
tions which are accompanied by permanent irritation. This remedy, which has been prescribed by
a celebrated Doctor Pomme, is not in use at the present time. In ancient days many preparations
were nade from Frogs, such as oil and salve, and from the spawn, water and oil, etc. Dioscorides
recommended Frogs cooked with salt and oil as a remedy for the bite of the venomous serpents,
and would have the patient swallow a heart every morning as a pill for incurable diseases. In the
country the lack of ice is sometimes supplied by the application of a frog to the forehead in cases
of cerebral congestion.” 3

The late Mr. Buckland, in his entertaining work on “Curiosities in Natural History,” already
quoted, also alludes to the gastronomic value of the Frog, in his usual inimitable style, as follows:

“Frogs are not often used in Germany, but in France they are considered a luxury, as any bon
vivant, ordering a dish of them at the ‘Trois Fréres’ at Paris, may, by the long price, speedily
ascertain. Not wishing to try such an expensive experiment in gastronomy, I went to the large
market in the Faubourg Saint-Germain and inquired for Frogs. I was referred to a stately looking
dame ata fish stall, who produced a box nearly full of them, huddling and crawling about, and
occasionally croaking, as though aware of the fate for which they were destined. The price fixed
was two a penny, and, having ordered a dish to be prepared, the Dame de la Halle dived her hand in

‘Report, United States Fish Commissioner, part ii, 1874, pp. 557, 58.
2? BUCKLAND, Francis T.: Curiosities of Natural History, 1840, p. 39.
*Dictionuvaire Universel (Histoire Naturelle, vi, 1845, p. 328.

THE BULL-FROG: GASTRONOMIC QUALITIES 161

among them and, having secured her victim by the hind legs, severed him in twain with a sharp
knife; the legs minus skin still struggled and were placed on a dish, and the head with the fore
legs affixed retained life and motion and performed such motions that the operation became painful
to look at. These legs were afterwards cooked at the restaurateur’s, being served up fried in bread-
crumbs, as larks are in England; and most excellent eating they were, tasting more like the
delicate flesh of the rabbit than anything else I can think of.

“J afterwards tried a dish of the common English frog, but his flesh is not so white nor so
tender as that of his French brother.

“Should any person wish to have a dish of real French frogs, he can buy them at Fortnum
and Mason’s for half-a-guinea, a tin-caseful. They are beautifully preserved and are ready for
cooking. I have eaten them at the house of a lady who kindly invited me to luncheon when she
tried the experiment.

“The edible frog (rana esculenta) is brought from the country, in quantities of from thirty to
forty thousand at a time, to Vienna, and sold to great dealers who have conservatories for them.
These conservatories are large holes, four or five feet deep, dug in the ground, the mouth covered
with a board, and in severe weather with straw. In these conservatories, even during a hard
frost, the frogs never become quite torpid; they get together in heaps one upon another,.
instinctively, and thereby prevent the evaporation of their humidity, for no water is ever. put to
them.”!

The custom of eating Frogs was introduced into the United States from Europe, and has
spread from the cities on the east coast to those in the interior and on the west coast. On account
of the limited supply which is sent to market, frog meat has hitherto been considered an article of
luxury, rather than one of general consumption. In restaurants and hotels it is seldom found on
the regular bill of fare, but in those of the better class, in the large cities at least, it is not
wanting on the order-list.

The supply of Frogs for the New York market, according to the statement of Mr. E. G. Black-
ford, is obtained principally from Canada, Northern New York, and the vicinity of Philadelphia.
The season lasts from May to November. The hind legs, or “hind quarters” as they are termed,
are the only portions usually eaten, there being but an insignificant amount of flesh on other parts
of the animal. Mr. Blackford states that he is accustomed to sell about 12,000 pounds of frog
meat annually, and it is probable that the consumption of New York City is not less than 60,000
pounds. The average retail price is thirty cents per pound.

At Boston “Frogs are sold generally by the dozen, and bring from twenty to fifty cents,
according to quality. As the demand increases the business will furnish quite a source of rural
income. . . . The subject of canning Frogs is being talked of, and efforts are being made
to discover a good process for this purpose.”?

The following paragraph from an American newspaper of recent date contains some informa-
tion regarding the extent of the business in Minnesota: “(A new industry has recently sprung up
in parts of Minnesota, that has already arrived at the dignity of statistics. Frog culture is the
new thing; it is a simple matter, consisting chiefly in the protection of eggs and tadpoles from
birds and other enemies, by means of wire screens. The product, thus far reported, amounts to
3,000 dozen of frogs’ legs, of which about two-thirds have been shipped to Saint Louis. The
average quotation of prices is twenty cents per dozen.”

Frogs are quoted regularly as appearing in the San Francisco market. Mr. Paul Pieombo,

1 BUCKLAND, Francis T. : Curiosities of Natural History, 1840, pp. 38-40.
2 Boston Commercial Bulletin.

11F

162 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

whose name has been already mentioned, if his statements are reliable, is one of the largest dealers
in Frogs in California. He writes, in answer to a circular: ‘“ Most of the Frogs caught in this State
are caught by me”; and in response to the questions propounded, states that he sells about three
hundred dozens of live Frogs annually, sending two-thirds of them to San Francisco, and the
remainder to various other localities in California. The price during summer ranges from one
dollar to two dollars and a half, and in winter from three to five dollars,

Are Ea.

THE FOOD FISHES

OF THE

UNITED STATES.

BY

G. BROWN GOODE.

WITH DISCUSSIONS OF THE PACIFIC SPECIES BY DAVID 8. JORDAN AND TARLETON H. BEAN,
NOTES ON THE FISHES OF THE GULF OF MEXICO BY SILAS STEARNS, AND CONTRIBU-
TIONS FROM JOSEPH W. COLLINS, N. E. ATWOOD, MARSHALL McDONALD,

R. EDWARD EARLL, LUDWIG KUMLIEN, AND OTHER AUTHORITIES.

ANALYSIS.

H.—THE Fine Fisnes, Pipe FIsHes, AND ANGLERS.....--- 02-220 2020 eee ence eee ee cone nceee ces emai siete

46,
47.
48,

54.

The Ocean Sun Fishes (Orthagoriscide).. ........--+---+--

The Porcupine Fishes (Diodontide)........
The Bellows-Fish Family (Tetrodontide) . .

. The Trunk Fishes (Ostraciontide) .....-.--
50. The File-Fish Family (Balistida) ......-- 200 cee cece ce cee ce ne ce eee ee ce ee rene nee eee cc eees
51. The Sea-Horse Family (Hippocampida)...--
52. The Pipe-Fish Family (Syngnathide) ......
. The Devil Fishes (Antennariide and Maltheid@)....--.. 022-2022 ce ce ee ee ee cere cee ee eee eee eee

The Goose Fish (Lophius piscatorius).... .--

I.—Tur FLAT FISHES AND FLOUNDERS.........-...-
The American Soles (Soleid@)...... 2... 2+ eee cece ee cee ce eee ce cece eee ne cee gene renee eeneees
The Plaice (Paralichthys dentatus).... .-.. 20+. .222 cee cee ee cee een eee cone ne ee cee seen ee cene
The Bastard Halibut (Paralichthys maculosus) ...-.. --.- 22-220 eee ee eee nee ce nee eee teen cence
The Flat Fish or Winter Flounder ( Pseudopleuronectes umericanus)......-..24-----+ 22222 eee ee eee
The Flat Fishes and Soles of the Pacific Coast..........-- 22-2 22-2 cece ee ce cee ee ce ee ce ee eee eeee

55.

56.
57,

58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.

65.
66.

67,
68.

69.
70.
71,

72.
73.
7A.

%.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
¢ The Sculpimi Tribe: (Cowtid@) sco ss 2-20 dic eaieiee Sead groaned mas ideida seis oe\e ast ewige See mEeee Nee ER IES
. The Rose-Fish or Red Perch (Sebastes marinus) ...... 2... 2220-2 e ee ee eee eee ee cee eee eee
. The Rock Cods of the Pacific. By Davip
. The Rock Trouts (Chiride). By Davin 8S.
. The Tautog or Black Fish (Zautoga onitis) ...--. 02-2. 202 ene ce ee eee ce eee ee eee eee
. The Chogset or Cunner (Ctenolabrus adspersus) .... 0.2200 cee nee oe eee eee eee cee eee ee cece neces
. The Parrot Fishes and some of their Allies
. The Demoiselle and the Cichlid Families. .

io]
>

The Halibut (Hippoglossus vulgaris) .......

The Sand Dab or Rough Dab ( Hippoglossoides platessoides) ....--.------- +--+ ---- e022 eres eee
The Grecnland Turbot (Platysomatichthys hippoglossoides).........----- +--+ 2-222 eee e eee eee trees
The Pole Flounder or Craig Flounder (Glyptocephalus apis. ola in dereidle ta Gre cts Seinn cece meee
The Spotted Sand Flounder (Lophopsetta maculata) ...--. 2-2-2. .-2 cee oon eee wee cee ee eee eee
J.—THE Cop FAMILY AND ITs KINDRED ........-..-
The Cod (Gadus morrhua) ....-..-- da vbisedtdinleeieuia’a Awad aro SESE ROU oa eebnenl ae, Seem ee OR ae eee
The Tom Cods (Microgadus omend and Mi DrOdtMs) ioe 2.5, ¢ nee! Gaels ee eee htan dees see cSe eee SERAE

The Haddock (Melanogrammus eglefinus) - .
The Pollock (Pollachius carbonarius).....--
The Cusk (Brosmius brosme) .-...---------
The Hakes (Phycis chuss, etc.) ...-..-..---

The Burbot (Lota maculosa). By TARLETON H. BEAN ....-..---2. -- 2200 ee ee cee eee eee eee eee

The Silver Hake and the Merluccio...-...

Several Unimportant Families related to the Gadidwe..-..-..-. 2-2-2 2-2-2 ee eee eee cee eee
The Lant, or Sand Eel (Ammodytes lanceolatus) ..-....--. 2-22 222 ence ee eee ce ee eee eee teens
K.—WOLF-FISHES, SCULPINS, AND WRASSES ....-..-..

The Lycodes Family (Lycodid@) ..........

The Wolf-Fishes or Sea Catfishes (Anarrhichadid@) ......-..- 2220-2205 cee cee ce eee eee eee eee eee

The Blenny Family (Blenniida)......--.--
The Toad-Fish (Batrachus tau) ......-.--

The Lump-Suckers: Lump-fish and Sea-Snails .... 2... 22-22. 022-0. eee e ee ee cree eee ee eee eeee

The Gobies (Gobiidw)......-2-.-22..2.. 52.

The Sea-Robin or Gurnard Family (Triglid@)......-. 2-222 eee cee cee eee ne eee cee ence

Ss JORDAN: wcciccSiedekaiceee te eee oh eee cee ad ehoeeiecemen
JORDAN. seesscoticiesseaisiciee setacin senee eee ee wenetic’

The Surf-Fish Family (Zmbiolocidw). By Davip 8S. JORDAN ..-....---0. 2-22. eee eee eee ee ee eee

The Moharra Family (Gerrid@) .......--.-

The Surgeon-Fish Family (Acanthuride) . .

The Angel-Fish Family (Chetodontida).....

. The Thread-Fish Family (Polynemid@) ....--.--2 22-0202 - cence ee eee eee ee cee cee ee eee ene ener

166 ANALYSIS.
Page.
L.—THE MACKEREL AND ITS ALLIES ...... 20... 02000ecceececee ce eee cece ce cone conte ce teesererereenerseteese 261
95. The Mackerel (Scomber scombrus) .-.-.. 22-22-02 cee eee c ee cece cence cence en cet eee cone cere cence 281
96. The Chub Mackerel (Scomber colias) ....-------+ 222+ - see ee cone cee e cece cece rene cee ence ee cee eee 303
97. The Frigate Mackerel (Auwis thazard) .... 1-2-2 202 cece en cee eee eee cree eer en eee e ee nee eeeceee recs 305
93. The Spanish Mackerel and its Allies ......---.------ eeeeee cee eee cee cece tee eee rec eee eee eneees 307
99. The Bonito (Sarda mediterranea)... .... 0.2222 ..2 222 eee cee ee cee eee cee rene cree ee cene tate ee sneeee 316
100. The Horse Mackerel, Tunny, or Albicore (Orcynus thynnus) 320
101. The Little Tunny or Albicore (Orcynus alliteratus) ...-..---. saebinewabemea dae eesoeclescsemmenet owes 322
102. The Silver Moon-Fishes -.... 2.222. .0- 022 cece ee eee ee cece cee eens nee e ene eens cnenen ten aee ance tees 322
103. The Cavally, the Scad, and the Jurels.....- 2.022. eens ween en cee ene cone cee e ee een ee tee eee ence cere 323
104. The Pompanos (Trachynotus carolinus, et.) 2.2222 cee eee nen cece ee cece rece cee e teen ee tee neeeenees 326
105. The Pilot Fish (Naucrates ductor) ....-... 222. cece ee cence tee ene cece concen cece en ceee eens senuee 330
106. The Amber Fishes and the Leather Jackets ....-. 2.022225 cee nee cence e cee ee cee cece ee eee cee ees 331
107. The Dolphins (Coryphanid@).... 0.22... .c222e cece ee ce nee cece een eee cece cee eee cerns cee cree 332
108. The Rudder-Fish Family (Stromateida@)..... 022-200-2222 cee cee eee cee cee eee cree teen een eee eee 332
109. The Dory, Hen-Fish, and Opah Families. .....-.. 2-2. 2-2 2202 cone eee cee eee cee cee ee renee nen ee 335
110. The Cutlass Fish (Trichiurus lepturus)-... 2.222022 2202 eee ee ween eee eee renee Sasicceoeeameeset nes. 335
111. The Sword Fish Family (Xiphiid@)....--. 2.2202. 2-- ee eee eee cee eee eee ee ce eee cone e cen e cee eee 336
M.—Tue TILe-FISH FAMILY AND OTHERS .... 022-20 122 eee cence eee cee cee ences cee e cece cane e ce weeeneee 360
112. The Tile-Fish Family (Latilid@) ....---. 002-2. 0-202 2 ce nee cece cece reece Sinueseeeeeledecey mane 360
113. The Red Mullet Family (Mullid@).. 2... 020222 00222 e eee cee eee cee ee ere ene eee cere ne cennee 361
114. The Icosteus Family (Icosteid@) ...-...-2--- 20-- ee cece ee eee cee cee eee neces meee cee e ene ee eeee 361
115. The Beryx Family (Berycid@) .... 2... 222-2222 cece cee ene cece wee cee t ene ne roan mane cece cree nannes 361
N.—Tue DRUM FaMILy ...--.---2 2-02 ------ Jelbidulsielowceaterl aiid parceiead anaee edemoaamaaet sameweeeenae yscnsteecs 362
116. The Squeteague (Cynoscion regale)..-... 0-2-2 senna ce eee cee nen nee cee een ee cece een nee 362
117. The Spotted Squeteague (Cynoscion maculatum) . ....-. 222 222 cee e cece cee eee cement cee e cence eens 365
118. The Silver Squeteague (Cynoscion nothum)..--.- 0-2-2 .2 2-20 cee eee cee cee cen nee eens cee e eee 367
119. The Drum. (Pogonias chromia) ..cnc0c0 scan cave ce ecnass eesicncisscien ase ate sees ooccecsstaseeecene 367
120. The Fresh Water Drum (Haploidonotus grunniens). 370
121. The Spot, or Lafayette (Liostomus xanthurus) -..--2. 02-222 eee ee ne ee ce ne cen teen ee eens 370
» 122. The Red Fish, or Bass of the South (Sciena ocellata) yal
123. The Yellow Tail (Bairdiella chrysura) ....-. 22-220 coon ee cee ce en ee cee ce en ee eee cee eee nee 375
124. The King Fish (Menticirrus nebulosus) .--- 2. 00-22. oe cn eee cee ee cee en cee eee ene ce eeee 375
125. The Whitings (Menticirrus alburnus and M. littoralis)....--.--------- 2-02 eee e ee teen eee eee eee 376
126. The Croaker (Micropogon undulatus) 0.20. 22.2 2202 cece coe ne eee eee eee renee nee ene nne cenees 378
127. The Corvinas and Ronecadors of the Pacific coast. By Davip 8. JORDAN........----------------- 378
O.—SHEEPSHEAD, Bass, BREAM, PERCH, ETC ...-.---. 22-22 - ee ence ee ee ee nee wee eee cane cece ee scenes 381
128. The Sheepshead (Diplodus probatocephalus) ......--.+---22 02-0 ee ee eee eee eee eee Badja, Sede ute eye Sac 381
129. The Scup or Scuppaug (Stenotomus chrysops and S. Gardeni) ...-..- 0.2.20 0-2 eee eee ee eee eee eee 386
130. The Sailors’ Choice (Lagodon rhomboides) ..... 2+. .-- 220 cee nee eee eee een cee eee eee eee eee 393
131... Certain Minor: Sparoids js: 222.22 2rs2dsenereceis cootdicece ice vee oe Raa abe cee mo ciceehas a ceeeemvecahesec 394
132: The: Red and Gray Snappers sc. =< 2+ acicee sancce we acid 14 oSeeaie cei em ou ocertcmmacine 4 ogi sieiicleaiseaounaere 395
133; ‘The: Grunts-or Rig Wishes: jess, tac5ssavesevasende ocie Sais ta oee kein RO MARS aEE S AE aideiwsrs HeeeunesiieG Oe 397
134. The Big-Mouth Black Bass (Micropterus salmoides), and the Small-Mouth Black Bass (M. Dolomiei).. 401
135. The Sun-Fishes and their Allies. By DAVID: SS JORDANS: /c2cecccc0 co icesenieed Se coeesccenaccese 404
136. The Sea Bass (Serranus atrarius).....-..----.------ adee weeeagmanngas Gaede scmissinerdisekareeaesesaGe 407
USTs DHCLGTOUPers’ssccicee wie sok esserechse se aie ews erie bladed andre bys ayolo Sb Sa Gio Sie e elle Rid s bieetel wid Sie Saw ee Benes 410
138. The Serranoid Fishes of the Pacific coast. By Davip §. JORDAN ......--2. 222-022 eee eee cree eee 413
139. The Yellow Perch (Perca americana) ....--....-------- Une oa eEnns we caesg maaan Saisoerqseem wee eek eRe eS 414
140. The Log Perch (Percina caprodes). By DAVID 8. JORDAN ...---2- .2ecee cen n ee ee en ne ce eee e cece eens 417
Jats The Pik ROrChOS ccc 26st h ics Sasa civins oe wacieee Came ee eal en toma Nwune wee aweamenmies Meee ead 417
142. The Striped Bass (Roccus lineatus).. .. 2.2. 222 oe cece cee ce mee cece eens weet ener ee concen ceeeee 425
143. The White Bass (Roccus chrysops) ...-....---------- 22 hh 2a aaa ayo ce Ws taharn a Serenata reo eta ts Sane SIN 428
144. The Yellow Bass (Roccus interruptus). ..2 22. 2.2 eee cee ee nn cece cee ne ween cee nne ance cece 431
145. The White Perch (Roccus americanus) ... 22. 02. 222 ne ween cece ee cee eee cee cone cee cee cone ceeeee 431
146, The Bluefish Family (Pomatomida@) ..---. 0-222. cee cece ee ce eee cece cee cee ween en cee nee encues cece 433
147, The Cobia or Crab-Eater (Blacate canada)... 22. 0-020. enna e eee ween eee cence vee e cone cece eens 444
148. The Triple Tail or Black Perch (Lobotes surinamensia) -....-- 20 0200 cena ee cee ene cece ee wees ceenee nace 444
149. The Moon Fish (Chetodipterus faber) . 0.2.0. 000020 cece cece ee ween cen n cae ene cone cannes teee ence cues 445
150. The Remora Family (Zcheneidid@) ... 22.22.00. cece eee cee ce ween teens ween ne cece ee ceenen ence 446
P.—BARRACOUTA, MULLET, PIKE, AND MUMMICHOGS ....--. 2.202 0 --e- eeeene cece ence RENAE ara ee ee Nee 448
151. The Barraconta Family (Sphyranid@) ...-.. 2.2. eee cee cee ce cee cee eee cece ne cee cenceneee 448
152. The Deal-Fish Family (Trachypterid@) ...2.. 02.2.0 022 ee cee cee we cee ce eee cece ec ecenee aces 449
153. The Mullets (Mugil albula and M. brasiliensis) ..........2.22-0...2-0-- ss aiatn ardelGels aweieaielomiobios wets a 449

ANALYSIS. 167

Page.
P.—BaRRracouta, MULLET, Pixn, AND MumMIcHogs—Continued.
154. The Sand Smelts or Silver Sides (Atherinid@)....... 21-220 see eee cece cee eee cece ee renee eee ce eeee 456
155. The Stickleback Family (Gastirosteid@) ...--.....- e hGeieee auiealatesinmaie siesta Seselse Mele seid emcees: aise 457
156. The Silver Gar-fishes (Belonid@) ...... 222-220. - 2-22 cence eee eee cee eee tence ences cee eee neee 458
157. The Flying-fish Family (Scomberesocid@) ...-....---2 02-220 eee eee cee e ee eee beguecteaieces dasee tees 459
158. "The Pike Family (2socide), 2.2.0:0522sccccsace nce se ses cd semen ec eectbe seeeeeeeiee meaces Meee awES ease 461
159. The Mummichog Family (Cyprinodontid@)...-.. 0.222222 2.2222 cece ee ee cee ee eee eee nee nen eee 466
Q: == THE SALMON TRIBE. c.ccdis's « aoeiue Nisaaiwe neared nte- Sans d sedre-saawmdaunse damelads 1aGSee EGE Me De eee REED 468
160: The: Salmon (Salo BA1G#) oo occ5cueacieamnneere aden node eel tend oemebeedanacs ages ose heed aoeeeureuesk 468
161. The Salmons of the Pacific. By Davip S. JORDAN........ --- 2.222.222 cee eee cee ceed eee eee eee 474
162. The Quinnat or California Salmon (Oncorhynchus chouicha). By LIVINGSTON STONE......-..------ 479
163. The Namaycush or Lake Trout (Salvelinus namaycush) ...... 022022 ceee cece cone eee cece eee ee eee 485
164, The Speckled Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis).......--.-.-2 2-2-2 2-2 e ee cone eee eee ee eee 497
165, The Saibling or Bavarian Char (Salvelinus alpinus) ..-......2... 2222-222 eee ee eee eee cee eee eee 500
166. The Dolly Varden Trout (Salvelinus malma). By Davip S. JORDAN ...--------- 220-202 neces ®.. 504
167. The Grayling (Zhymatlus tricolor) «2265.22.08 pee gees ee sese case ciean sas g hese eee ewew ees Seek sees 505
168. The Lake White-fish (Coregonus clupeiformis). By R. I. GRARE ...-.. 2-2-2. 02-220 eee eee eee eee eee 507
169. The Lesser White-fishes. By Davin 8S. JORDAN...-..--. 222-222 ce ee eee cece ee cee eee cee eee ees 541
170. The Smelt Tribe .......... joists cslavi ctnle olla tele drains! Sieteare Gram avahicialete vigls ale chia OEnts see etemreaccnniewiean 543
171. Families related to the Salmonida...-.- 222-220 -- ee ee ee cee cee ce eee cece cece ne cee eens cone 547
Ric DHE MERRING "TRIBR: ociseies's shew sete bce keinecetsieletdan tig. vee clhe Sa a pesieai Sees so aes eieee Hess! vote e eas 549
172. The Herring (Clupea harengus) .... 1.22.22. 2-20-2222 cece eee eee eee Gaeta eta ernie ear eiste eee 549
173. The Herrings of the Pacific Coast. By Davin 8. JORDAN....-.....2.---- 2-2 eee ee eee cee eee 568
174, The Menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) .....- 22-2 e000 cece cee cee nee cee eee cee nee eee cece eee 569
175. The Gulf Menhaden (Brevoortia patronus)......-.------ 200 ceee cee cee cee cee cece cee eee cence BIH
S.—TuE Swap AND THE ALEWIVES. By MARSHALL MACDONALD .....-.. 2220-220 000 cece cence eee e ee cece ewes 579
176. The River Herrings or Alewives (Clupea estivalis and C. vernalis) ....-.--.2.---- 02-222 ee eee e cee ee 579
177. On the occurrence of the Branch Alewife in certain Lakes of New York. By TARLETON H. BEAN... 588
178. The Inland Alewife or Skipjack (Clupea chrysochloris)...... 0-222 020200 cceeeceececee ceeeee cece ees 594
179. “The. Shad (Clipea.eapidtasima):casacs cosmad sexes s se Paeceanae a i bs uk see bese davetronwes weeeeneek las 594
180. The Hickory Shad or Mattowacca (Clupea mediocris) ..... 2.22200 cece eens cee e cee eee cee eee eee 607
T.— FAMILIES RELATED TO THE CLUPEIDE 222-2. 2202 cece ne cee ee cece cee ene cen eee cence coon cen ceenaee 610
181. The Mud Shad (Dorosoma cepedianum) ....- 2... 22. cece ee cee eee cence ween pee eee cece ee cee cee 610
182, The Tarpum (Megalops thrissoides) ...--. 222.2220 cane cece ee wees cee eee cece coe eee nee cane ce eenee 610
16S. SEhe: Bigeye dl Metring =2.:..5525 aack ses aekec wees aia dea se Sueleee yew ee awde ee ewerieocaiesband.cede cies 611
184. The Anchovies (Lingraulid@) ...-.2 2.22222 cee cee eee en ee ee eee nee ce eee cee eee cnee ance 611
185. The Lady-fish Family (Albulid@) ...22. 02-22. ce 0 cee ence ce cee ween eee cee ee ee eee cee nee wees 612
186. The Moon-eye Family (Hyodontida)...-.. 222-2. 0220. een eee cee ee eee wee cee cee eee cece neee 612
Us=-CARP, SUCKERS, CATFISH, AND EQS) occce xccons Susans eezdedgseses 254555 Ad cccis ree cod eenecmecemee eeemce 614
187. The Sucker Family (Catostomidw). By DAVID S. JORDAN ...... 2.222.020 222 cece ee cece ee cece eee 614
188. The Carp Family (Cyprinide). By Davip 8. JORDAN .... 2.220.222 eee cee ee cee ee cece eee eee eee 616
189. The Carp (Cyprinus carpio). By RUDOLPIL HESSEL ........ 2202 2222 nee cee e cece eee cece cee cence 618
189. The Catfish Family (Siluridw). By Davip 8. JORDAN ........ 0.2222 2222 ee cece e en cee ee nee eee teeees 627
190. The Morays (Murentd@) ooo. 26 wegen esczhsecsiceeseadisees samiee see occas ceeeuace fciarass eS amistad are 629
191. The: Bel CAnguilla-oulgaris) xc. osievecced she eences ones Heaizas SeacEy se sew sees ele. oaccbeeescd even adecss 630
192. The Conger Eel (Leptocephalus conger).. 22. 020-222-2222 cee cee nee cece nee Bene ence eee cece wees cee. 656
V. SrurG@roNS, SKATES, SHARKS, AND LAMPREYS ..2.. 00. cence cece ee cee cee meee eee eee cane cee cee 659
193. ‘The: Bow hnsi( Amid@).sycses ices d eddies acide shares dega Sa eawev ce kecas we doa ceaecSe cae used wana cece 659
194. The Paddle-fishes (Polyodontid@) ...--. 2-220 cece cece cece cece wee eee cee cece cee cee cee c ence naee 660
195. The Sturgeons (Acipenserid@)....-........... 2 dieta miaubes wie merareracalin saya wieis eccreretie. Sie ua Sedibie w areeeva neem 660
196. The Chimera Family (Chim@rid@) 2.22. 0.0020 220 cece cee cee wee ee cone ween ae cece ceee cece ce caus 663
197. The Gar Pikes (Lepidosteid@) 2... 2.22. cc ccne cece cece ne cone cone ence cone cacuer cone ncaa cuca canecuns 663
198. The Torpedoes and Skates (Rai@) 0. 2-2. 2.0. cece eens cee cece cee cence e coc eee caceas cece ecccceace 665
199. The Saw-fish (Pristis pectinatus) .... 222.22. cece eee ee cee ene cee cece nee e cee e cece eecceccceceee 668
200, "The Sharks (Squall) costs sic ov wie es, eoeviscinawin yawwee save weed weceaacoesesseaagaetac Wa aiatiss caten acs 668

201. The Sharks of the Pacific Coast. By Davip S. JORDAN ...----. 0222 ee ence cece cece cece se ececeeees 675
202. The Lampreys ( Petromyzontid@) .....-.- 0.2... cc eee ce ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ne ee ee ee cece eee ccacencee 677
203. The Hag Mishés: (Mytinid@) osc. csvemomuiemacdasentie a icscisaivciacios c0.c0hace ad decece scdeagaccodsmen: GOL
204. The Lancelets (Branchiostomid@) ...... 2.222222 ee ce ne ne ee ce ee ne ee ee ce en ee ce cece cence ececceee 682

THE FILE FISHES, PIPE FISHES, AND ANGLERS. 169

H.—THE FILE FISHES, PIPE FISHES, AND ANGLERS.

Norse.—In preparing the following chapters upon the food-fishes of the United States, the
authors have avoided all technical discussions, all descriptions of form, all digressions of the kind
in which naturalists, even when writing for the general reading public, are so prone to indulge.
We anticipate the criticism that the book is of no use in identifying the different kinds of fish, by
the statement that we expressly desire that it shall not be. We have tried to present in concise
form the information suited to the needs of the fisherman, the fish purchaser, the statistician, and
the general reader. Most of our important species can be identified by reference to the plates.
If greater accuracy of identification be needed, the inquirer is advised to consult Jordan’s Synopsis
of the Fishes of North America, which forms Bulletin No. 16 of the United States National Museum
series.

46. THE OCEAN SUN FISHES—ORTHAGORISCIDZ:.

The family Orthagoriscide is represented in the Western Atlantic by two species.

The common Sun Fish, Orthagoriscus mola, with its compressed, disk-shaped body and its
elongated dorsal and anal fins, is one of the most grotesque of sea animals. This species is found
in all parts of the world in temperate and tropical seas, and has been recorded from the coasts of
Japan and California. It occurs also in the Mediterranean and on both sides of the Atlantic.
On our own eastern coast it may be observed every summer, from the Banks of Newfoundland to
Florida. It has not been seen in the Gulf of Mexico, but there is one instance of its capture at
the Bermudas. It rarely frequents the New England coast except in summer. In the winter of
1874~75 two large specimens were taken at the mouth of the Saint John’s River, Florida.

Sun Fishes attain a length of seven or eight feet and a weight of seven or eight hundred
pounds. They may be seen along our coast on almost any calm summer’s day. As many as ten
or twelve are often met with in the course of a day’s cruise. They float lazily, with one of the
bright sides of the body just at the surface. As they float, the waves ripple and break over them,
and the heavy pectoral fins move slowly to and fro through the air; thus lying, they are very
conspicuous objects, and may be seen at long distances. They spend whole days in this position,
and may very easily be approached and harpooned. From this habit of sunning themselves they
have gained the name of Sun Fishes.

Their food consists of the jelly-fish, or sun-squalls, which are so abundant along the New
England coast in summer. Their jaws, however, are strong, and it would seem probable that they
sometimes seek more substantial food.

Nothing whatever is known of the place or time of their breeding: the young are occasionally
taken in mid-ocean.

Many individuals are harpooned by our fishermen every summer. They are not applied to any
practical use, but are brought to the cities and exhibited as curiosities. The fishermen of Cape Cod
sometimes make oil from the livers. This oil is prized highly as a remedy for sprains and bruises.

In the “Transactions of the Royal Society of London,” 1740, was published a communication
“Concerning the Mola Salu, or Sun Fish, and Glue Made from It,” contributed by the Rev. William
Barlow, in which mention is made of the capture of a specimen near Newfoundland. I am not
aware that the suggestions of this author have ever been further carried out.

As a food-fish the Sun Fish is probably the most worthless species in our waters. The flesh is
thin and hard, and, when cooked, separates into oil and bunches of tough fibers.

On the California coast, according to Jordan, this species is very abundant, especially in the

170 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Santa Barbara Channel in summer, where it may be seen lying near the surface, or even some-
times leaping from the water. It is known to the Italians as the Mola, to the Americans as the
Sun Tish. It seldom appears before June, and disappears in the winter. No use is made of it, as
it is not easily caught, and rarely, if ever, eaten. A specimen weighing 636 pounds was brought
to San Francisco some years ago.

There is a small species, Ranzania truncata, much more elongated in form, which has been
taken in various parts of the Atlantic and Pacific, but never nearer to our shores than the
Bermudas, where an individual of eight inches was captured in 1878.

47. THE PORCUPINE FISHES—DIODONTIDZA.

SWELL FisHEs AND PUFFERS.—There are four species of this family inhabiting the Atlantic
coast, and two on the coast of California. The best known is the Swell Fish of New England,
Chilomycterus geometricus. These fishcs are commonly known by such names as “Burr Fish,”
“Ball Fish,” “Swell Fish,” and “Toad Fish”; while in Southern Florida the names “ Porgy,”
“ Puffer,” and “Puff Fish” are sometimes used.

With their short, thick, spiny bodies, which they have the power of inflating to twice their
ordinary size, and their harlequin-like colors, they are always conspicuous, and are favorite fish
for aquaria. After they have inflated their bellies by swallowing air, they turn upon their backs
and swim at the surface.

They have the power, when handled, of uttering loud grunting sounds.

No practical use is made of them, but their skins are often stuffed and exposed for sale in
the curiosity shops, particularly those at places of popular resort, like Nantucket, Oak Bluffs,
Jacksonville, and Saint Augustine. These fish belong to a tropical family, and are only seen
in summer.

Nothing definite is known about their food or breeding habits.

48. THE BELLOWS-FISH FAMILY—TETRODONTIDZ.

Of this family, which is extremely numerous in warm seas, over sixty species being known,
there are seven species in the waters of the United States, one of them being found on the California
coast. They are summer visitors from a warmer climate, and, like the members of the preceding
family, are chiefly important to curiosity hunters. They are known by such names as “Swell
Fish,” “Bottle Fish,” ‘Bellows Fish,” “Egg Tish,” “Rabbit Fish,” “Globe Fish,” “Swell-toad,”
“ Box Fish,” “Porcupine Fish,” and “Blower.”

One species, the common Swell Fish, or Egg Fish, Tetrodon turgidus, ranges from Cape Cod to
the Gulf of Mexico, being very abundant about the eastern end of Long Island, where a hundred
or more are sometimes taken in one haul of a fyke-net,

The Rabbit Fish, Lagocephalus levigatus, is known in New England waters through the ocea-
sional visits of stragglers. It is quite abundant in the Gulf of Mexico, where it is occasionally
taken with hook and line upon the red-snapper banks. According to Stearns, it breeds about
Pensacola in June and July.

This fish, which attains the length of three feet and the weight of five or six pounds, is used
for food in Ouba, but it is not sufficiently abundant with us to have any commercial value.

49. THE TRUNK FISHES—OSTRACIONTIDA.!

The Trunk Fishes, Ostraciontide, are occasionally taken on our coasts, especially to the south
of Cape Hatteras. We have five species, one of them being Californian. Like the Porcupine and

1See GoopE: A study of the Trunk Fishes (Ostraciontidw), with notes upon the American species of the family.
<Proceedings United States National Museum, ii, 1880, pp. 261-283.

THE TRUNK FISHES. 171

Swell Fishes, which have just been described, great numbers of them are preserved for sale in
curiosity shops.

The Trunk Fishes appear to have been objects of curiosity in the early days of American
exploration, and were evidently among the choicest treasures of the primitive museums of the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Their strange shape naturally attracted the attention of
travelers, while the ease with which their shells could be preserved then, as now, made them
valuable to the curiosity hunters.

No group of tropical fishes is so thoroughly worked out in the writings of the fathers of
Natural History as this one. Over two hundred years ago every species of Trunk Fish now taken
from the Atlantic was known to and described by the naturalists of Northern Europe, and it is a
well-deserved tribute to their discrimination as zodlogists to say that none of the many efforts, which
have since been made to subdivide their species, have been at all successful.

Artedi, in his notes upon the different forms of Ostracion, mentions the various collections in
which he observed specimens. ‘The Nagg’s Head,” ‘White Bear,” and the “Green Dragon in
Stepney,” to which he very often alludes, seeta to have been London taverns where curiosities were
kept. He also speaks of seeing them in the museum of Hans Sloane, which was the nucleus of
the British Museum; also in the collections of D. Seba, in Amsterdam, of Mr. Lillja, in London,
of Mr. (Don) Saltcros, in Chelsey, and of seeing various specimens at Stratford, and “in Spring
Garden.” No other kinds of fishes appear to have been preserved except “the monk- or Angel-fish
Anglis, alias Mermaid-fish,” probably a species of Squatina, which he saw in London at the Nagg’s
Head and in the town of Chelsea. The art of taxidermy was evidently not thoroughly established
in 1738. .

Of Ostracion bicaudalis he remarks, “ Vidi Londini, in the White Bear,” and “Apud D™ Sebam
vidi.” Ostracion trigonus he saw “ Apud Sir Hans Sloane et in Nagg’s Head”; Ostracion triqueter
and 0. quadricornis, “‘Londini in the Nagg’s Head et apud Mr. Lillia.”

These specimens were all said to have come from India.

In the West Indies and in Florida the Trunk Fishes are sometimes baked in their own shells,
and, when cooked in this manner, are considered by many persons to be great delicacies.

There are instances on record of serious cases of poisoning which have resulted from eating
them. These cases occurred in tropical countries, where the flesh of fish often becomes delete-
rious after a few hours’ keeping.

50. THE FILE-FISH FAMILY—BALISTIDZ.

File Fishes, Balistide, are found everywhere in tropical and sub-tropical seas. It is supposed
that they breed in mid-ocean. There are numerous species in this family, of which nine or ten
occur along our Atlantic coast. They belong in warm seas, and only four species are found as far
north as New England. With their strong teeth they are able to break the shells of mollusks,
upon which they feed. They are known to be very injurious to the pear! fisheries in regions where
such fisheries exist. The best known species on our coast is the Orange File Fish, Alutera Schoep/ii,
also called “‘Barnacle-eater” and “Fool Fish,” which is rather common in Southern New England
and in the Gulf of Mexico.

This species is-conspicuous on account of its bright skin, sometimes of an orange and some-
times of a tawny hue. It attains the length of eighteen to twenty inches, and feeds upon many
species of soft marine animals.

There are one or two small species which are of no importance except to the possessors of
aquarium tanks, with whom they are great favorites.

172 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

The Leatherjacket of Pensacola, Balistes capriscus, called “Trigger Fish” in the Carolinas, and
at Key West and the Bermudas known as the “Turbot,” occasionally finds its way as far north as
Massachusetts. It is, however, of no importance north of Florida. In the Bermudas it is con-
sidered a valuable food-fish. According to Mr. Stearns, “it is very common in the Gulf of Mexico
from Key West to the Mississippi River, and lives in deep waters near the coast on the grounds
where Red Snappers and Groupers are caught. It is one of the most abundant species. In regions
where it is not eaten it is regarded as a pest by the fishermen from its habit of stealing bait from
their hooks. Its manner of taking the bait is rather peculiar, I think, for instead of pulling the
line backward or to one side it raises it upward so quietly that the fisherman does not perceive the
motion, and then, by careful nibbling, cleans the hook without injury to itself. Expert fishermen,
however, can tell by the “lifting of the lead,” as it is called, what is going on below, and know what
they have to contend against. The usual remedy is to seek other fishing grounds where Leather-
jackets are not so troublesome. When one of these crafty fish has been hooked there is not much
probability that it can be landed, for its sharp, powerful teeth are almost sure to cut some part of
the gear, enabling it to escape. I have several times known of their biting in two the large red-
snapper hooks on which they were caught. They remain throughout the year on the fishing
grounds, where the water varies from ten to forty fathoms. On these same grounds it is probable
that they spawn.”

Only adult specimens have been seen in West Florida. More could probably be learned of its
spawning habits in the vicinity of Key West, where it occurs in shallow water and quite near to
the shore. At Key West it is known as the Turbot, and is a favorite article of food. It is to be
seen almost daily in the market.

The skin of this species is used for scouring and polishing purposes at Key West and the
Bahama Islands. In the Bermudas also the skin of the Turbot is used by carpenters almost to
the exclusion of sand-paper, the former being better adapted for fine work in polishing wood.

51. THE SEA-HORSE FAMILY—HIPPOCAMPIDA.

There are one or more species of the Sea-horse family on the Atlantic coast, and also one
on that of California. Their strange shapes and interesting habits render them very popular
inmates of aquaria, and dried specimens are frequently sold in the curiosity shops in seaside towns.

The ordinary species of the Western Atlantic is the Hippocampus heptagonus; this also occurs
in Europe. There have been only one or two instances of the capture of this fish north of Cape
Cod; one was seined with a school of mackerel on George’s Bank in August, 1873. Two or three
specimens have been taken at Wood’s Holl during the last ten years, and instances of their capture
in Connecticut and about the mouth of the Hudson are not rare.

A Sea-horse was described many years ago under the name Z. hudsonius, but it seems to be
identical with H. hepitagonus. On the New Jersey coast and south to the Gulf of Mexico it appears
to be very abundant. An excellent account of the habits of this fish may be found in an article
by the Rev. Samuel Lockwood in the “ American Naturalist.”! Three other species occur on our
southern coast. H. ingens, the Californian species, is very large, often attaining the length of
eight to ten inches.

52. THE PIPE-FISH FAMILY—SYNGNATHIDA.

The Pipe Fishes, Syngnathide, which are closely related to the sea-horse, but have small
heads and elongated bodies, so that at first sight they closely resemble small eels, are found
nearly everywhere on our coasts, living among the eel-grass and feeding upon very minute marine

1Lockwoop, SaMUEL. The Sea Horse and its young. <Amer. Naturalist, i, 1867, pp. 225-234.

THE PIPE FISH FAMILY. 173

animals. There are three or four species in Eastern North America, but their relations have not
been definitely learned. I have observed them in Florida spawning in April, and in Southern
New England in July and August. They are of no importance to man except as interesting objects
for the aquarium. They are too hard and fleshless even to serve as food for other fishes.

58. THE DEVIL-FISHES—ANTENNARIIDZ AND MALTHEIDA.

The fishes of this group are very grotesque in form and very remarkable in their habits
Some of them are pelagic and are met with in tropical seas, especially where there are masses of
floating vegetation, whilst others are found in the depths of the ocean. On our coast are several
species, the names and distribution of which are given in the list which accompanies this report.
Although they are among the most interesting of all fishes, they have no commercial value, and
it is therefore inappropriate that they should be discussed in this report. The best known species
are the Marbled Angler, Pterophryne histrio, and the Sea Bat, Malthe vespertilio.

54. THE GOOSE FISHES—LOPHIUS PISCATORIUS.

The Goose Fish or Monk Fish, Lophius piscatorius, is common to the coasts of the North
Atlantic States and of Europe. In the Western Atlantic the species has not been observed
south of latitude 38°, where, according to Uhler and Lugger, it is found in the drains of
Worcester County, Maryland, and along the coast of that region, though there is reason to
believe that stragglers occur at Cape Lookout (latitude 34° 40’), where the jawbones have been
found, and the fishermen claim to know them. It abounds along the coast of New England, and
has been found at depths of three hundred fathoms or more off Newport, Rhode Island, and one
hundred off Halifax. The limits of its northern range are not known, Nova Scotia being the
most northerly point of record. Richardson suggests that the Thutinameg or ‘“ Wind-fish” of

‘Hudson’s Bay, which is said to come to the surface in windy weather only, belongs to this
family; and, indeed, this was thought by Pennant to be Lophius piscatorius. This is at best
extremely doubtful, for its range, as now understood, is limited by the parallel of 50°. It is not
known to occur in Greenland.

Instances are on record of its capture in Iceland,! and it is said very rarely to occur at the
Faroe Islands. It has been found at the North Cape, latitude 71°, and doubtless penetrates to the
White Sea. It is found along the coasts of Scandinavia, south to Spain, and throughout the
Mediterranean, where it is abundant in the Italian waters. Hither this or an allied species occurs
at the Cape of Good Hope. On the American coast it occurs at temperatures of 32° to 60°.
There is some reason to think that south of Cape Cod it retreats to deep water in summer.

The names of the fish are many; that most commonly in use among the Massachusetts fisher-
men is “Goose Fish.” In Maine it is often called ‘“‘ Monk Fish”; in Rhode Island, “Bellows Fish”;
in Eastern Connecticut, “Molligut,” and in North Carolina, “Allmouth.” The Connecticut name
reminds us of the “Greedigut,” a fish, probably the same, mentioned by early colonial writers,
particularly in the poem in Wood’s “‘ New England’s Prospect.”

In England the same names are in use; also, ‘‘Angler,” “Fishing Frog,” “Frog Fish,” ‘“Mer-
maid,” “Round Robin,” “Sea Devil,” “Toad Fish” (Germany), ‘Wide Gut,” and “Wide Gap.”
“Kettlemaw” is like the American “Allmouth.” Scotland has “Keethie,” ‘ Keghie,” and “ Keit-
hok.” The continental languages have at least fifty distinct names in addition.

Goose Fishes are sluggish, slow-moving animals, and are occasionally seen swimming near the
surface, though ordinarily found upon the bottom. They feeds upon other fish—often on large
ones, their swallowing powers being practically unlimited. Mackerel, sculpins, sea ravens, and

1FaBER: Fische Islands, p. 58.

174 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

dog-fish, crabs, squids, and lobsters have been found in their stomachs by observers of the United
States Fish Commission. They often attempt to feed upon each other. The common name refers
to the fact that they have been known to swallow live geese. A fisherman told me he once saw a
struggle in the water, and found that a Goose Fish had swallowed the head and neck of a large

“loon, which had pulled it to the surface and was trying to escape. There is authentic record of
seven wild ducks having been taken from the stomach of one of them. Slyly approaching from
below, they seize birds as they float upon the surface. They annoy the fishermen by swallow-
jng the wooden buoys attached to the lobster pots. Mr. Minot, of Magnolia, Massachusetts,
caught one by using his boat-anchor for a hook.

Although they come thus to the surface to feed, the Goose Fish is emphatically a bottom-loving
species. “It is adapted,” writes the Duke of Argyle, “ for concealment at the bottom of the sea—
for lying perfectly flat on the sand or among the weeds—with its cavernous jaws ready for a snap.
For more perfect concealment, every bit of the creature is imitative both in form and in coloring.
The whole upper surface is mottled and tinted in such close resemblance to stones and gravel
and sea-weeds that it becomes quite undistinguishable among them. In order to complete the
method of concealment, the whole margins of the fish, and the very edge of the lips and jaws, have
loose tags and fringes which wave and sway about amid the currents of water, so as to look exactly
like the smaller alge which move around them and along with them. Even the very ventral fins
of this devouring deception, which are thick, strong, and fleshy, almost like hands, and which
evidently help in a sudden leap, are made like two great clam-shells, while the iris of the eyes is
so colored in lines radiating from the pupil as to look precisely like some species of Patella or
limpet. But this is not all; not only is concealment made perfect to enable the Lophius to catch
the unwary, but there is a bait provided to attract the hungry and the inexperienced. From
the top of the head proceeds a pair, or two pair, of slender elastic rods, like the slender tips of a
fishing-rod, ending in a little membrane or web which glistens in the water and is attractive to other
fish. When they come to bite, or even to look, they are suddenly engulfed, for portals open with a
rush and close again—portals over which the inscription may well be written: ‘Lasciate ogni
speranza, voi ch’ entrate?”

From the time of Aulian every popular essay on the “ Habits of Fish” or ‘Curious Fishes” has
told how the Angler entices its prey with its long tentacles. No one has ever seen the perform-
ance, and, although the theory is not altogether incredible, it seems more probable that the tops
of these organs are intended by their sensitiveness to warn the fish of the approach of its prey
than to act as allurements to attract other fishes.

The Goose Fish spawns in summer, in the sounds and at sea along the coast. The eggs are
very numerous, enclosed in a ribbon-shaped gelatinous mass about a foot in width and thirty or
forty feet long, which floats near the surface. One of these ribbons will weigh perhaps forty pounds,
and is usually partially folded together, and visible a foot or eighteen inches from the top of the
water, its color being brownish purple. The number of eggs in one of them I have estimated at
from forty to fifty thousand. The spawning season on the New England coast isin summer. 1
have observed the floating eggs in July and August, and in the same months young fish two or
thres inches long, and undeveloped eggs in the parent fish. The young have rarely been taken
except at considerable depths. Their growth is rapid. The adult is commonly four feet long,
weighing from thirty-five to forty-five pounds.

The Goose Fish is extensively used for baiting lobster pots. Although not commonly eaten,
its flesh is very palatable. The full-grown fish will yield from ten to fifteen pounds of good meat.
In Italy it is much esteemed as an article of food, and in parts of Great Britain it is also eaten, the
steaks from the neighborhood of the tail being preferred.

THE FLAT FISHES AND FLOUNDERS. 175

1—THE FLAT FISHES AND FLOUNDERS.

55. THE AMERICAN SOLES—SOLEIDA:.

AMERICAN SOLES.—The much-prized Sole of Europe, Solea vulgaris, does not occur in the
Western Atlantic, although attempts have been made to introduce it, and in 1877 two individuals
were set free in Massachusetts Bay by the United States Commission of Fisheries. Its nearest
representative, the American Sole, is found along our coast from Boston and Nahant to the mouth
of the Mississippi River. It occurs in all of the rivers south of the Susquehanna, and is taken in
great numbers in the shad seines. It rarely attains a greater length than six inches, and, though
edible, is never eaten, and it must be regarded as of extremely small importance. There are also
two or three other fishes belonging to this family in our Southern waters which are insignificant
in size and of no importance whatever.

Aphoristia atricauda is a very small species of Sole, the only genuine representative of the
European Sole on our Pacific coast. It reaches a length of six inches, and is occasionally taken
in San Diego Bay. It has no economic value.

TuRBOT AND SoLE In AmeERICA.—A Philadelphia writer has lately tried in the news-
papers to revive the long-obsolete belief that the Turbot and Sole of Europe occur on our coast.
Although he has never seen them himself, and fails to bring forward evidence that any one else
has seen them, he insists that they occur in the greatest abundance in New Jersey, particularly
in the vicinity of Atlantit City, “‘and doubtless all along the Atlantic coast from Portsmouth, N.
H., to Wilmington, S. C.” (sic). He upbraids the American public for their incredulity, though
this does not surprise him so much when he calls to mind that “our Government Fish Commissioner
has actually contemplated sending a steamer to English waters to procure turbot-seed to plant
along our shores.” He would not be surprised if incredulity were to continue longer “‘ under such
official indorsement.” He accounts for the ignorance regarding them by the theory that the
English trawl-net is unknown in America, and that our fishermen would not know how to catch
such fish if they were aware of their presence, and have not become aware of their presence
because they have no means of catching them. He intimates that he is preparing to form a
company for the purpose of developing a turbot fishery upon our coast; an enterprise “in which
but little will be risked, and the results will be a surprise to all.” He closed one of his letters to
a New York journal with the following appeal: “I trust that you will not let this question subside,
but persevere in calling attention to it until we do away with the extraordinary anomaly of this
enlightened nation being within reach of treasure that for more than a century they have been
unaware of, and have remained persistently blind to.”

All this is very entertaining, and furnishes a neat text for a few remarks on the history of
this belief, as well as an opportunity for demonstrating to the public a fact which has for forty years
or more been known to ichthyologists, that the Turbot and the Sole never have been seen on the
western side of the Atlantic, and never will be, unless they are introduced by artificial means.

From the beginning to the end we encounter the well-known sources of confusion—the giving of
old-world names to species which resemble in a general way the old-world species which bear them,
and the unquestioning acceptance of these names as authoritative, by persons who are not trained
to close discrimination.

176 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

When Boston was occupied by the British during the revolutionary war, the officers of the
fleet are said to have been bountifully supplied with Turbot, which was caught in the neighbor-
hood of an outer harbor. This fact is recorded by Dr. J. V. C. Smith, in his “ Natural History of
the Fishes of Massachusetts” (Boston, 1833), on the authority of William Ladd, esq., of Maine.
He also mentions “a statement of Mr. Parker, the conductor of the marine telegraph,” who told
him that “many years before, Admiral Sir Isaac Coffin brought out to this country a trawl-net,
such as is used on the coast of Holland, for taking Sole for the London markets, with which
he succeeded in capturing that delightful fish in Ipswich Bay, which was not before supposed
to exist here.” The fish found in this manner were no doubt the common Flat Fishes of
Massachusetts Bay. The common Flounder, Paralichthys dentatus, taken in Provincetown water,
where it is commonly called “Plaice,” was in 1880 sold in Boston under the name “Turbot.”
Captain Mackinnon, of the Royal Navy, who visited this country in 1850, conceived the idea
that Turbot ought to be found on the shores of the United States, and took pains to search for
them with a trawl-net. The nets which he used had been imported ten years before by Mr.
Nathan Smith, an American gentleman, who had hoped to introduce them, but had never used
them. Captain Mackinnon tried one net at Newport, Rhode Island, and succeeded in taking
a number of different kinds of Flat Fish. He carefully refrains, however, from pronouncing any
one of them to be identical with the Turbot or Sole, though from the vagueness of his language
it is evident that his ichthyological knowledge was very scanty, and that he was not accustomed
to observe the differences between the different species of fishes which somewhat resemble each
other. His experiences are described at length in his book of travels, entitled “Atlantic and
Trans-Atlantic Sketches, Afloat and Ashore” (Harper & Bros., New York, 1852, pp. 166-170).
Capt. C. C. Churchill, U. 8. A., who saw the results of Captain Mackinnon’s experiment, tells
us that the fish taken were the common species of New England flat fishes and flounders.

We fancy that the inspiration of the new advocate of the turbot-in-America question, as well
as the information upon which he bases his conclusions, was drawn from this very same book of
Captain Mackinnon, for he uses many of the same phrases, and he repeats, in almost the same
words, Captain Mackinnon’s statement: ‘The fish markets in America are not at all in keeping
with the size and wealth of the States,” a statement which, however true it may have been thirty
years ago, will be amusing to any one who has recently had opportunity to compare the fish
markets of America and Europe. The Philadelphia gentleman sums up his evidence as follows:

“The Turbot, Sole, and Plaice are, however, in abundance in your deep-water sand banks.
They were caught there in 1812 by English sailors, and in 1880 Turbot have been obtained off
Atlantic City, if the ‘Baltimore American’ is any authority.”

The notion that the introduction of the English trawl in America would be novel and would at
once open up a field for a fishery industry of boundless extent, deserves a word. The trawl] has
been assiduously used by the summer collecting party of the United States Fish Commission for
ten years past, and also by Professor Agassiz upon various exploring trips. The steamers of the
Fish Commission have used it on every portion of the New England coast, and as far north as
Halifax. Professor Agassiz has used it in the Gulf of Mexico and on the coast of Florida, and
during the present summer, while on the Coast-Survey steamer “Bache,” has employed it in
running five lines of research at right angles to the coast from Cape Hatteras, at points nearly
equidistimt between Charleston and Cape Cod, one of them directly out from the eutrance to
Delaware Bay. These lines were carried from near the shore to a depth ot twelve hundred
fathoms or more.

THI: AMERICAN SOLES. ACT

In 1854 Professor Baird made a careful exploration of the coast of New Jersey with a special
reference to the fishes, and since that time every stretch of coast line from Brownsville, Texas, to
Eastport, Maine, has been thoroughly investigated by the officers of the United States Fish Com-
mission. It is true that a new species of fish is occasionally discovered, but the new fishes always
belong to one or two classes. These are either swift-swimming species, members of the West
India fauna, which come upon our northern shores in summer, or they are inhabitants of waters
more than six hundred feet deep, which have never previou8ly been explored. The Turbot and
the Sole are shallow-water species, and, had they occurred in our ‘waters, would have been discov-
ered many years ago.

There are twenty-six species of flat fishes on the east goast of the United States. Four of
these belong to the same family with the Sole, but are utterly worthless as articles of food. The
nearest relative of the Sole is often called the American Sole, Achirus lineatus, and is known on
the coast of New Jersey as the Hog-choker, Cover-clip, or Cover. Of the other flat fishes only
two are positively unfit for food, and these two, strangely enough, are the representatives of the
subfamily Rhombine, to which belong the Turbot and Brill of Burope. One of these, -Lophopsetia
maculata, is sometimes called the Spotted Turbot, and in New Jersey is called Window-pane, or
Daylight, because it is so thin that when held to the light the sun can be seen throng its
translucent flesh.

The most important Flat Fish is the Halibut, which is identical with that of Europe. This
species, and the Pole Flounder, which has recently been brought to light in our waters by
the Fish Commission, are the only two of the number referred to that are found on both sides of
the Atlantic. We have in our waters an abundance of flat fishes, some of which, for instance, the
common Flounder of the New York market, Paralichthys dentatus, are probably fully equal to
the Turbot for food uses. In fact, it may be had in the New York restaurants and hotels under
this name. Another, fish, Platysomatichthys hippoglossoides, resembling the Turbot in flavor, is
sometimes brought to New York in winter. It is found at great depths on the coast of Newfound-
land, and is often called the American or the Newfoundland Turbot. The Pole Flounder is
very similar to the Sole in flavor and in the texture of its flesh, but it unfortunately inhabits some-
what inaccessible localities at great depths, and it is hardly to be expeeted that, with the present
supply of excellent food-fish to be obtained at so much smaller expense, our fishermen will take the
pains to go in search of if. That the popular taste for flat fish is already cultivated is shown by
the fact that, in 1879, 1,796,000 pounds were sold in New York alone.

It is needless to refer to the efforts of the United States Fish Commission to introduce Sole;
they are familiar to all who are interested in the subject. The introduction of the trawl-net has
been for many years under consideration, but this expensive mode of fishing does not seem to be
required at present, since the supply of fine-flavored food-fishes is more than equal to the demand.
With an eye to the interest of the American fishermen, Professor Baird has recently detailed an .
attaché of the Fish Commission, one of the most experienced fishermen of Massachusetts, to sie
the trawl fishery in the German Ocean, and his report will soon bé published.

Finally, it may not be amiss to state that Mr. E. G. Blackford, of Fulton Market, New York,
has for some time been authorized by the Commissioner of Fisheries to pay twenty-five dollars to
any one who should present a true Turbot or a true Sole, caught on this coast. This offer is still
standing. !

1 Forest and Stream, xv, No. 6, September 9, 1880, pp. 103, 104.
12F

178 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

56. THE PLAICE—PARALICHTHYS DENTATUS.

The Plaice, Summer Flounder, or Turbot Flounder, Paralichthys dentatus, is, next to the Hali-
but, the most important flat-fish on the eastern coast. It is a member of a genus not existing in
Europe, though represented on our own Pacific coast, in China and Japan, and in the Indian
Ocean. Its affinities are with the Halibut, which it much resembles in form, and to which it is more
similar in flavor than to the Turbot’and Brill, so well known in transatlantic fish markets. Our
common species was first brought to notice in 1766, when Linneeus received specimens from
South Carolina, sent him by Dr. Garden. It seems at that time to have been of recognized com-
mercial importance, since it was ong of the few received by Linnzeus from Garden which had a
common name. In South Carolina at this time it was called Plaice, and this is a name which is
now accepted in the New York market and about Cape Cod, although it has never been recognized
by those who have written books on American fishes. The fishermen of the Saint John’s River also
use the name Plaice, but whether for this species has not been determined. In Connecticut, North
Carolina, and in Florida, east and west, as well as on other parts of the coast, the names Flounder
and Common Flounder are current. In New York and New England the name Summer Flounder
is also frequently heard. In Rhode Island the names Brail and Puckermouth are used, the former
doubtless a modification of the English name Brill, while on the bills of fare in Boston and New
York hotels it is often called the Deep-sea Flounder, at least since the Pole Flounder has been
brought to notice by the Fish Commission, and has obtained a reputation as a delicious table fish.
Fishermen sometimes mistake them for young Halibut, and they doubtless at times are sold under
the name of “Chicken Halibut.” Turbot Flounder is another name which has been suggested,
but, upon the whole, Plaice seems most desirable for general adoption.

This fish is abundant upon the eastern coast of the United States from Cape Cod to Cape Flor-
ida, and according to Mr. Stearns’ report is also found along the entire Gulf coast. Southward,
its range extends at least as far as Paraguay. To the northward it barely rounds Cape Cod.
Captain Atwood remembers that in the first half of the present century great quantities of Plaice
were found inside the Point at Provincetown. They were so numerous that in one afternoon he
caught two thousand pounds. They are now only occasionally taken, and have not recently been
seen north of Provincetown, though Storer has recorded their occurrence at Wellfleet. Captain
Atwood attributes their disappearance, which was nearly simultaneous with the advent of the blue
fish, to the fact that blue fish destroyed their favorite food, the squid, and rendered it impossible
for them to live longer in these waters. The Plaice has been much less abundant in Cape Cod Bay
within the last thirty years, but there is no evidence of considerable diminution in numbers else-
where. On the eastern coast of Connecticut and Long Island, where the Plaice fishery is most
extensively prosecuted, it is the opinion of experienced fishermen that no change in numbers has.
been perceptible within the last thirty years. The Connecticut fishermen say that they are
frequently so abundant that they have only to throw out and pull in their lines, catching “all
they choose,” while the bottom seems to be carpeted with them.

Like others of its tribe, the Plaice are usually upon the bottom, where their peculiar shape
and color protect them from observation and give them excellent opportunity to capture their prey.
In the north they are usually found at a depth of two to twenty fathoms, and in winter move off
into deeper water. In New J: ersey they occur at lesser depths. Professor Baird records that they
are sometimes taken in large numbers by means of nets in the deep slues along the beach. In
winter they do not run out so far into deep water, and ‘at times,” says Professor Baird, “seem to
be quite torpid on the shallow grounds, suffering themselves to be taken up with oyster-tongs

t

THE PLAICE: HABITS. 179

without making any attempt to escape.” Still farther south they are found in the shallowest of
water. The fishermen of Saint John’s River seine them in the grass along the shores at a depth
of three or four feet. Mr. Stearns writes, speaking of the eastern part of the Gulf of Mexico:
“They are found mostly in the bays and bayous where the bottom is muddy or grassy, but it is
not unusual to find them in shoal water along the sand beaches of the coast and bays. Very shoal
water seems to be particularly attractive, and they are often found at the water’s edge embedded.
in the sand, with only their eyes in view. When alarmed or in pursuit of prey their movements
are very swift, and the quickness with which they bury themselves in the sand is quite wonderful.”

Their habit of ascending Southern rivers is remarkable. They are said to occur in Lake
George and the other lakes at the headwaters of the Saint John’s and the Ocklawaha Rivers. At
Jacksonville they are commonly taken in company with bream, black bass, and other fresh-water
fish, in winter as well as summer.

Although present in the shoal waters of Florida throughout the year, Mr. Stearns states that
they are most abundant in summer. On the Connecticut coast, however, their habit of migrating
seaward is much more pronounced. The Noank fishermen never find them until May. They say
that they never catch them until after they have fished awhile for sea-bass. As early as the first
of October they begin to grow scarce, and none are ordinarily caught after the middle of the
month. I cannot find that they have ever been seen moving in schools, though fish taken in the
same locality at the same time are usually quite uniform in size. They shift their position, prob-
ably in search of food, and where any are found they are plenty. This indicates that they are
gregarious in habit: the abundance of food in special localities sufficiently explains this fact.

The Plaice feed upon small fish, shrimps, crabs and hermit crabs, squid, small species of
shell-bearing mollusks, and certain radiates, such as sand-dollars. They are frequently seen at
the surface, rapidly swimming, and even jumping out of the water, in pursuit of schools of sand-eels
and sand-smelts. They also feed upon dead fish thrown out from the fish-houses. Little is known
of their breeding habits. All the large females observed in July and August, 1874, upon the Con-
necticut coast contained spawn, but this was, evidently, far from maturity. The Fish Commission
has obtained no very small specimens; in fact, none less than eight or nine inches in length,
though the fishermen speak of capturing six-inch individuals. Their average length is from sixteen
to thirty inches, and the weight about two and a half pounds, though it is not unusual to take
individuals weighing seven or eight pounds. At Noank about eighty fish are ordinarily packed
in a barrel, weighing from 160 to 175 pounds. The largest ever brought to Noank weighed
twenty-six pounds. Others, of whose capture I have informed, weighed twenty, seventeen and a
half, and fifteen pounds. In Florida and at Provincetown I have seen them three feet in length.
A one-pound fish measures about fifteen inches; a one and«a quarter pound fish, sixteen or
seventeen; a two-pound fish, seventeen or eighteen; a three-pound fish, about twenty; a four-
pound fish, about twenty-two; an eight-pound fish, about twenty-seven, and a ten-pound fish,
about thirty inches. These proportions are taken from notes relating to a large number weighed
and measured at Noank, Connecticut. The Winter Flounder or Flat Fish spawns in late-
winter and early spring near the shore, and it is possible that the Plaice breeds at about the
same period.

The most extensive fishery for the Plaice is in the waters of Southern New England. Favorite
fishing grounds are on sandy bottoms, at a depth of ten to twenty fathoms, along the Atlantic
side of Block Island, Martha’s Vineyard, and Eastern Long Island, where they are most plentiful..
They are obtained in smaller numbers in the harbors and bays along the south shore of New
England, on Shagwam and Middle Ground Reefs, in Fisher’s Island Sound and Long Island

180 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Sound, and outside of Fisher’s Island. They are also taken in considerable numbers in the
pounds of this region, occasionally five or six hundred at a time. The quantity taken in the weirs
of New England in 1876 was estimated as follows:

Pounds.

Weirs on north side of Cape Cod....---. ---- 22-2 ee ee nee e ee eee cree cee eee cee 436
Weirs on south side of Cape Cod... -.. 02-2. 212 ene cone cone cece nee cee eee eee ween eee 36, 000
Weirs in Vineyard Sound ...-....--. ---- 200-222 eee cone Tice eee yew eoes 326, 620
Weirs in Buzzard’s Bay soca 00 +222 caciniere sinwic saisie ele dace Vedce oiteee Se teie oe dice eetenee 15, 749
Weirs on Block Island, estimated ......-.--..---.---- 2-22 see eee cee eee eee Leesgeeeds 94, 500
Weirs in Fisher’s Island Sound, estimated .... .... .... 2-02 - ceee eee eee eee ee eee eee 4,000
Weirs on east end of Long Island .... 2... 02. 2222 cece cen e cee eee cee tenn cee eee eee 14; 000
‘Traps: in RhodeIsland ..\).2 cacsnce sec caes smoennsercsedaseadmenaanenes Rakwaeaconas 172, 250
663, 555

From other localities...... Sates win ainine ieee View aeapae stalls SGataunisfet eats siete se ey Blarapeyciaiscaisieye seeteand eee 50, 000
"713, 555

Estimated annual catch of Flat Fish.........-.--.----- 2-2-2 eee eee eee eee cee eee 600, 000

1, 313, 555

Value of the above, at four cents a pound, $52,542.

These statistics of the catch in pound-nets include Plaice and Flat Fish, and in the statement
of the total catch no distinction will be made between these two species.

Immense numbers of them are sometimes taken in large seines hauled up on the beach. In
1876 HE. Cleveland seined 128,000 pounds at Menemsha Bight, Massachusetts. By far the greater
quantity, however, is taken by small fishing smacks belonging to and hailing from Noank,
Mystic, and New London, which pursue this special business from May until October. These
vessels are usually absent from port four or five days, and spend two days in fishing. The fish
are shipped in ice from Noank and New London principally to New York, and also to inland
cities in the vicinity. A single smack, with a crew of a man and two boys, usually will obtain
and ship to New York, on an average, about 12 barrels a week, about 160 barrels a year, or
25,000 to 28,000 pounds. Captain Palmer, of Noank, in 1873, caught on one trip of two days
about 1,000 fish, weighing, perhaps, 2,000 pounds. On this trip he used four lines. A good fisher-
man is able to manage two lines, each. carrying two hooks. Menhaden bait is always used by
professional fishermen, though I have caught Plaice to good advantage with lobster bait. A
vessel usually consumes one barrel of menhaden on each trip. The fish strike the hook sharply
as soon as it approaches the bottom, giving little opportunity to the skates, which very seldom
get a chance at a Plaice’s hook. In this respect they are very different from the cod. When the
fish have been hauled to the surface, they are quickly transferred, with as little injury as possible,
to the well of the smack, which is amply large enough to hold a product of two or three days’
fishing. They are thus brought alive to the place of shipment and reach the markets in excellent
-condition, a fact which partially explains their popularity compared with that of other fish of the
same family.

In 1877 there were seven smacks engaged in this fishery—one from Mystic, one from New
‘London, and five from Noank. It was estimated by the owner of one of these vessels that each
vessel made on an average fifteen trips during the summer, and that each trip averaged 800 fish,
-weighing 1? pounds each, making a total of 1,400 pounds toa trip, or 21,000 pounds to the season,
‘thus giving an aggregate of 147,000 pounds as the result of this branch of the fishery.

Captain Atwood states that in 1846 he began catching Plaice for the Boston market, in Prov-
incetown Harbor, anchoring where the keel of the smack would just clear the bottom, and anywhere
near Race Point he could catch them in great numbers, the largest weighing from ten to fifteen

_pounds each. In one afternoon he caught two thousand pounds. These he carried to Boston in the

THE PLAICE: FISHERIES. 181

well of his smack and tried to sell, but was unsuccessful, though they were offered under the name
of Turbot, local prejudice being against them. In 1879 there were seven or eight boats engaged in
the plaice fishery during the month of June, this month being the best for plaice fishing. ‘In the
latter part of July, when I made my observations, all of the winter boats had quitted for the year.

The method in use here is somewhat peculiar, and merits descrijtiona. The fishermen call it
‘“drailing for Plaice.” The boat used is an ordinary cat-boat, managed by one person, and is
allowed to drift with free sheet before the wind, while the fisherman stands in the stern dragging
the line over the bottom, baited with a bit of squid or clam. The boat is kept as nearly as possible
over the places where the flats are deepening most abruptly into the basin of the harbor, and where
the water is from eight to eizhteen fathoms deep. Only very large fish, weighing ten, fifteen, some-
times even twenty pounds, are taken in this manner. The average catch is from eight to twenty
a day. In one day one man reported eight, one fourteen,‘one twenty-three. Some of these fish are
sold in Provincetown, but the greater portion is sent iced to New York, where a price of twelve
cents a pound, wholesale, is easily obtained. In Boston there is no market for them.

On the coast of New Jersey Professor Baird states that in 1854 they were taken in large
numbers, by means of nets, in the deep slues along the beach. Alovg the southern coast they
are occasionally taken by the line fishermen, and a considerable quantity is seined by the river
fishermen. In the Gulf of Mexico they are rarely taken by hook and line, and are usually
speared or jigged at night, by torchlight. '

The Plaice has always been the most popular of our in-shore flat fishes, being exempt in a
certain degree from the prejudice attaching tothe fishes of this family. It seems to have been a
common food-fish in South Carélina as early as 1760, and Schoepf mentions it as one of the food-
fishes of New York in 1776. In 1856, according to Gill, it was found in the New York market in
autumn, but seems to have been Jess in favor than the Flat Fish. At present the Plaice is grow-
ing in favor in New York, and is upon the lists of all good restaurants, though perhaps not so
generally consumed as the Flat Fish, which comes in the winter, when the market is less lavishly
supplied. ,

In Boston, and indeed throughout the greater part of New England, this, with all other
Flounders, is considered unfit to eat, and it is by no means generally popular clong the Southern
coast, though in Florida its flesh is highly prized. The Connecticut fishermen esteem it greatly,
and when preparing it for their own use are accustomed to hang it in the open air for a day or
two “to dry,” as they say. The wholesale price in New York varies from one and a half to six
cents, but is usually three cents a pound. .

Another species of Flounder, closely related to the Plaice, is the common Four-spotted Flounder,
Paralichthys oblongus, which occasionally finds its way to market in company with the Plaice, and
is doubtless sold under the same name. {tis a small species, rarely attainin ga greater length than
twelve inches and a weight of one pound. It may be readily distinguished by the presence upon
the back of four large, dark spots, elliptical in form, but these soon fade out after death.

Its distribution is much more restricted than that of the Plaice; it is most abundant, at a
depth of ten to forty fathoms, off the southern coast of New England; it rarely occurs north of Cape
Cod, though one individual was taken by the Fish Commission at the mouth of Salem Harbor, nor
has it been recorded south of New Ygrk. There are two smaller species upon the Southern coast—
one, Paralichthys quadrocellatus, broader than Paralichthys oblongus, also marked with four dorsil
spots, and known in the South as the Four-spotted Flounder. This species has been observed
as far north as Charleston and Fort Macon, while its western record of limit is Pensacola. Stearns
records it as common from Cedar Keys south to Key West, and pronounces it an excellent foou-fish.

182 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

It cannot at present, however, be considered very important. The other species, Paralichthys
stigmatias, occurs in deep water (seventy-five fathoms) off the coast of South Carolina, and may be
distinguished by the presence of three conspicuous spots upon the upper side of the body.

57. THE BASTARD HALIBUT.

This fish (Paralichthys maculosus Girard), writes Jordan, is known as the Halibut, Bastard
‘Halibut, and Monterey Halibut. South of, San Francisco, where the true Halibut is not found,
the larger individuals, which really greatly resemble the Halibut, are known by that name. the
young being rarely distinguished from other “Soles.” At San Francisco, where the true Halibut
is known, this species is called the Bastard Halibut, and sometimes the Monterey Halibut, as they
are mostly brought from Monterey. It reaches a length of three feet and a weight of sixty pounds;
the largest seen by us weighing fifty-five pounds. A great majority of those taken weigh less than
three pounds, and it is said that large individuals are much less plenty than they formerly were.
Its range is from Tomales Bay to San Diego, and south of Point Concepcion. Itis the commonest
species of its family. Although not rare at San Francisco, it forms no more than four per cent. of
the entire flounder catch. It lives in rather shallow water, the young abounding close to shore,
large ones being taken in the gill-nets. Large ones are more abundant at Monterey than farther
south. It feeds upon fishes and crustacea, and in its habits seems very similar to the Eastern P.
dentatus. It spawns in early summer, like other large fishes. It is subject to the attacks of the
Hag Fish, Bdellostoma Dombeyi.

As a food-fish, it does not rank very high, the large specimens being tough and coarse
compared to the Halibut, while the young are inferior to most of the species termed “Sole.”

, 58. THE FLAT FISH, OR WINTER FLOUNDER.

Next in importance to the Plaice comes the Flat Fish, Pseudopleuronectes americanus, or
Common Flounder, sometimes called the “ Winter llounder,” said to be known in Massachu-
setts Bay as Mud-dab, and occasionally to be sold in New York under the name of Sole. This
fish, like the Plaice, belongs to a genus unknown to Europe, but is closely related to the common
Flounder, or Fluke, of the British coast. Its range is somewhat extensive, and in a certain
degree it replaces the Plaice along our northern coast. It has not been observed south of Chesa-
peake Bay, but northward is commonin the Bay of Fundy, on the eastern shores of Nova Scotia,
and in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, and, as far as observations have been made, upon the coast of
Labrador.

Storer, writing in 1849, remarks: “It is probably the most common Flounder on the southwest
coast of Labrador; we met with it first, though but sparingly, at the Saint Mary’s Island, and
observed it as far easterly as Bras d’Or, where it is to be found in immense numbers, the bottom
being almost alive with them, and of large size.”

Flat Fish are always upon the bottom, feeding chiefly upon minute shells, such as Nucula and
Bulla, wpon young crabs, or whatever they can find among the stones in themud. Their mouths
are very small, and since they would be unable to seize and kill other fish, they never come
to the surface in pursuit of prey, as do the large-mouthed Flounders. They prefer sheltered bays
and harbors, and appear to be equally abundant on the bottgms of the sand, mud, or rock; when
at rest, they are usually partially embedded in the mud or sind at the bottom. I have observed
that, when they come to a stop, they always settle themselves by convulsive motions of the fins
and body, which has the effect of pushing them down into the soft bottom. This species is
probably a more permanent resident of the localities which it inhabits than any otler on our coast,

THE FLAT FISH OR WINTER FLOUNDER: HABITS. 183
@

unless it be the sculpins. There is very little evidence of a tendency to move to and from the
shore with a change of season. Winter and summer, they appear to be equally abundant from
New York to the Bay of Chaleur, where, in the tide-way of Miramichi River, they are caught in
winter through holes in the ice. In Labrador they are described as exceedingly abundant in
summer, but nothing is known of their winter habits. Professor Baird found them scarce in
Southern New Jersey in summer, but learned that they were very abundant in the bays in winter.
Small quantities are brought to Washington in winter from the mouth of the Chesapeake.

The spawning season occurs early in spring, in February and March on the Connecticut coast,
and is thought to be closed by the first part of April. Young fish of half ap inch in length are
found in July in the deeper parts of the bays and sounds, and in August and September, having
attained the length of one and one-half to five inches, occur in great abundance in the coves and
along the sandy shores of the Southern New England coast, in very shallow water. Their growth
is probably rapid, though it would seem most likely that the five-inch specimens, just referred to,
were eighteen, months rather than six months ‘old. The largest that have been discovered were
fifteen inches long, and would weigh from one to one and a half pounds.

The flesh of the Flat Fish is solid, white, and of excellent flavor, and deserves amore general
popularity th&n it has yet attained. It is, and has been for the last century, largely consumed in
New York in winter. Schoepf, writing in 1776, mentions it as occurring in the market in spring;
later, writing in 1818, he states that small numbers were found in the stalls in January and
February, taken with spears while searching for eels. These were not very inviting, owing to
their mangled, appearance and frozen state, but, with the disappearance of ice and the approach of
spring, their numbers increased, and in March the stalls were well filled with them, cheap and fresh
and good. They were only used as pan*fish. Gill wrote, in 1856: “This is the most common species
of flounder that is brought to the city markets in the winter and spring months; it is seldom sold
at a higher price than eight to ten cents per pound. Flounders are chiefly sold by the weight;
occasionally they are strung through the branchial ‘apertures on twigs and nominally sold by the
bunch.” :

The Smooth Flounder, or Christmas Flounder, Pleuronectes glaber, is very similar in habits and
appearance to the Flat Fish, and is still closer to the Flounder of Europe, being a member of the
same genus. It may be distinguished from the former by its smooth skin, which has given to the
species, in some localities, the name “ Hel-back.” Its distribution is extremely limited, it having
been recorded -as only found in Salem, Massachusetts, Portland and Belfast, Maine, or within the
limits of two degrees of latitude. Its range may in the future be extended farther to the north, but
it is certain that at present none occur south of Salem. In Casco Bay they are very abundant in
summer, and the Fish Commission secured great quantities of them in water three or four fathoms
deep in Bluelight Cove. They have never elsewhere been observed, except in winter, about Christ-
mas time, when they come into the harbors to spawn. At Salem they are, on this account, called the
Christmas Fish. Considerable quantities are caught every year by spearing them upon the sand.
At this place they are also called “ Fool Fish,” because, in their anxiety for food, they will bite at
any kind of bait, even at a rag. ‘he spawning season is short, and they soon retire into deeper
water. At Portland, and in the vicinity, considerable numbers are taken in the winter fishery in
company with the Flat Fish, and with them are sent to New York and neighboring markets. In
one instance a quantity was offered for sale in the markets of Washington. The spawning season
on the coast of Maine is slightly earlier than that of Massachusetts, beginning as early as the
middle of December, while in Penobscot Bay they are taken at the very beginning of the month, full
of spawn. In Penobscot Bay they are taken in traps, or “ fliers,” as the fishermen call them, shaped

184 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.
e

something like lobster-traps and baited. The young Smooth Flounder may be taken in summer on
the beaches. The largest females observed weighed twenty-taree ounces, the weight of the spawn
being seven ounces. Too little attention has hitherto been paid to this fish, but it seems more
than probable that in the future it will greatly increase in favor.

59, THE FLAT FISHES AND SOLES OF THE PACIFIC COAST.
By Davib S. JorpDan.
THE STARRY FLOUNDER—PLEURONECTES STELLATUS Pallas.

This species is known, wherever found, as the “Flounder,” all others being considered as Bas-
tard or False Flounders. At San Francisco the name Flounder is rarely used in a generic sense,
but only as a special appellation of this species. It reaches a length of nearly three feet, and a
_ weight of fifteen to twenty pounds, larger indivicaals being found northward than southward along
the coast. The average length in the market is about fifteen inches, and the weight two or three
pounds. Its rate of growth is probably rapid, but we have no certain data in regard to it.

“It ranges from San Luis Obispo to Kamtchatka, and from San Francisco nortaward it is by
far the most abundant species. It probably constitutes half, by weight, of the total annual catch
of Flounders on the Pacific coast. It enters the mouths of rivers, and considerable numbers are
taken in the salmon-nets on the Lower Columbia. It is found in water of moderate depth, and is
taken in seines and gill-nets; and sometimes with the hook.

Its food is crustacea, mollusca, and such fishes as it can swallow, its mouth being compara-
tively small. It spawns in summer. Nothing special is kaown of its breeding habits. It has no
especial enemy that we know of, with the exception of a tetradecapod, known as “ fish-louse,”
which is very frequently found attached to the fins, gill-membranes, and gills of this and other
species of flounders. :

_ As a food-tish this species is held in rather high esteem. The flesh is firm, and although
coarser than in the so-called Soles, is of fair flavor in the young. The very large individuals
(eight to twenty pounds) are sold at a lower price, and are considered poor eating. A considerable
portion of those in the San Francisco market come from Humboldt Bay.

This, according to Dr. Bean, is one of the most widely distributed littoral fish known to exist,
ranging in North America to the mouth of the Colville and Anderson Rivers on the arctic coast.
It enters extensively into the resources of Alaska, being the largest and most abundant of its kind
in that region. ‘

A related species, P. glacialis, is especially abundant in Northern Alaska, occurring plentifully
as far south as Saint Michael’s, Although small, its great abundance and fine flavor make it
important as an article of food. Traveling parties of Eskimos generally have a supply of this fish
in their bidarras. They are usually eaten raw. .

THE RouGH LIMANDA—LIMANDA ASPERA (Pallas) Bean.

This species, according to Dr. Bean, is smaller than its Atlantic relative, Limanda ferruginea,
which it closely resembles, and its range is rather limited. It is found about Unalashka and has
been taken at Sitka, Wrangel, ‘and other localities in the Gulf of Alaska. Its flavor is fine, and it
is used extensively for food by Eskimos and Indians.

THE DIAMOND FLOUNDER. 185

THE DIAMOND FLOUNDER.—HYPSOPSETTA GUTTULATA (Girard) Gill.

In the neighborhood of San Francisco this species is known as the “Turbot,” many of the
dealers stoutly averring that it is identical with the English fish of that name. South of Point
Concepcion the name Diamond Flounder is in use. This refers to the rhombic form of the fish,
and the name seems an appropriate one. It reaches a length of eighteen inches and a weight of
four pounds, but as usually seen in the market its length is about one foot.

The geographic range of this species seems to be from Cape Mendocino to Magdalena Bay.
It seems to be more plentiful in the bays of Tomales and San Diego than elsewhere, apparently
preferring shallow water and sandy bottoms. It is one of the more abundant species, forming
perhaps two per cent. of the catch of Flounders in the neighborhood of San Francisco.

Its food consists mainly of crustacea and small mollusks. Nothing special is known of its
breeding habits. Its enemies are those of all Flounders, and no diseases have been noticed. As
a food-fish it ranks high. It is one of the most firm-fleshed of the Flounders.

THE “SOLES” OF CALIFORNI 4.

LEPIDOPSETTA BILINEATA (Ayres) Gill.

This-species has no other distinctive name than “Sole.” It reaches a Jength of twenty inches
and a weight of five or six pounds. Its average weight in the market is about three pounds. It
ranges from Monterey to Alaska, and its relative abundance steadily increases as we go north-
ward from Monterey to Vancouver's Island. In Puget Sound it makes about thirty per cent. of
the flounder catch; about San Francisco barely two per cent. It lives in rocky places in deep
water, and most of those taken about San Francisco come from the neigh borhood of the Farallones.
It takes the hook more readily than any of the other small-mouthed Flounders, and considerable
numbers are taken by the Chinese on their set-lines, especially at Monterey. They feed chiefly on
crustaceans and small fishes.

Nothing special is known of its breeding habits, and nothing distinctive of enemies or
diseases. It is perhaps more subject to the parasitism of the fish-louse than any of the other
species. , ’

Dr. Bean found this fish abundant in Alaska, and one of the most important of the flat fishes
in that territory.’ It is there regarded as an excellent food-fish. The natives spear it as it hes
entirely concealed in the loose sand along shore, where it comes at eventide to feed on small
crustaceans. ;

PAROPHRYS ISCHYRUS Jordan and Gilbert.

Four specimens only of this species have been seen. These were taken with a seine at Seattle.
It resembles the preceding in appearance, and probably in habits. Those seen were about eighteen
inches long, and weighed about three pounds.

“This is a coarse, rough fish in its general appearance, greatly resembling the Flounder, Pleu-
ronectes stellatus, but differing from it in the ctenoid scales, and in the presence of an accessory
lateral line, characters in-which it agrees with the next species. It has hitherto been found only

in Puget Sound, and reaches a length of about eighteen inches.”—Lockington. :

PAROPHRYS VETULUS Girard.

This species is always called Sole by the fishermen. It is one of the smallest species, reach-
ing a length of about fourteen inches and a weight of about two pounds. Those usually seen in

186 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

market average less than half a pound. It is found from Santa Barbara to Alaska, and from San
Francisco northward is extremely abundant. In number of individuals taken, this species is
exceeded only by Pleuronectes stellatus. In number of pounds it probably ranks below Hippoglos-
soides Jordani. It forms about one-fifth the whole flounder catch of the coast. It lives near the
shore, and is taken in gill-nets and seines. It feeds on crustacea and the like. As a food-fish it
meets with a ready sale, but its flesh is rather poor and tasteless. It spawns in spring. Nothing
further is kno wn of its breeding habits, and nothing of its enemies or diseases. It is often found
in the stomachs of larger predaceous fishes.

Its flesh is softer than that of other Flounders, and it does not make an attractive appearance
in the market. It always readily sells, however, and the quality of the flesh is probably better
than that of some of the other kinds.

<

PAROPHRYS ISOLEPIS (Lockington) Jordan and Gilbert.

’ This species, too, is a Sole to the fishermen. It reaches a length of about fifteen inches and a
weight of about two and a half pounds. Its usual length is about ten inches, with a weight of
half a pound. It ranges from Monterey to Puget Sound, inhabiting rather deep water and
becoming larger in size and more plentiful northward. About San Francisco it is mainly taken
by the paranzelle fishermen, who obtain it in great: numbers, but it forms less than one per cent. of
the flounder catch of the coast. Its food is mainly crustacea and mollusks. It spawns in spring,
at which season the largest catches of it are made.

Large specimens of this species are sold with the best Soles (Psettichthys), which they greatly
resemble. Small ones rank with Glyptocephalus pacificus and the like, and often cannot be sold.

CITHARICHIHYS SORDIDUS (Girard) Gthr.

This species is often known as the “Plaice” in Puget Sound. About San Francisco it
becomes, like the others, a “Sole.” It is one of the smallest species, reaching a length of fifteen
inches, and a weight of two pounds. Its average weight in market is little more than half a
pound. It ranges from San Diego to Puget Sound, being rare south of Point Concepcion, and most
abundant about Monterey. It lives in comparatively deep water, and is considered distinctively
a deep-water species by the fishermen in Puget Sound. It takes the hook very readily, and great
numbers are taken on set-lines by the Chinese, to dry for market. It probably makes about eight
per cent. of the entire flounder catch of the coast. It feeds on small fishes, the anchovy being
one of its special ariicles of food.

PSETTICHTHYS MELANOSTICTUS Girard.

This species is everywhere a Sole, and at San Francisco it is considered to have a better
claim to that title than any other species. It reaches a length of about twenty inches, and a
weight of four or five pounds. Its average length is about fifteen inches. It ranges from Mon-
terey to Wrangel, Alaska. It lives at no great depths, and is about equally abundant the entire
length of the coast. Although never found in large numbers, it is always present in the markets,
and forms some five per cent. of the entire flounder catch of the coast. It feeds upon fishes and
crustacea. ,

Nothing special is known of its breeding habits, enemies, or diseases. As a food-fish it is
considered the best of the family by those who distinguish it from related species.

THE CALIFORNIA “SOLES.” 187

HIPPOGLOSSOIDES JORDANI Lockington.

This species is known universally as the “Sole.” I have also heard the Italian name “Soglia”
applied to it more often than to related species. It reaches a length of eighteen inches, and a
weight of six or eight pounds, the average being about three. It ranges from Monterey to Puget
Sound, being comparatively scarce north of Cape Mendocino, but in Monterey Bay the commonest
species, and forming probably &fteen per cent. of the Flounders in the market of San Francisco.
Great numbers are taken by Chinamen on set-lines baited with anchovies. It lives in water of no
great depth. It feeds upon anchovies, shrimps, and all sorts of small fishes and crustacea. It
spawns in early summer. Nothing especial is known of its breeding habits. Its enemies and
diseases are similar to those of other Flounders.

It is one of the best of the Flounders as a food-fish. Great numbers are dried yearly by the
Chinese, who suspend them by strings on a frame placed on the roofs of the houses, as they are
too fleshy to dry well on tables. Here they rustle in the wind, and, striking together, produce a
sound like the wind among the leaves. ,

“It appears strange,” remarks Lockington, “that this common species should have escaped
the notice of naturalists until last year. In the markets of San Francisco it abounds throughout
every month of the year, and in Monterey Bay it is the most abundant of its tribe. Professor
Jordan informs me that about five hundred pounds’ weight of this fish are taken daily at Monterey
alone by the Chinese, besides large quantities taken by the Italians. An examination of the stock
in trade of the Chinese located near Monterey, proved that over nineteen-twentieths of the fish
that dry on hurdles and flap in the wind around the hovels consisted of this fish; a few sharks,
with Psettichthys melanostictus and Citharichthys sordidus, constituting the remainder.”!

It occasionally reaches sixteen inches or more in length and a weight of five pounds, and is
considered one of the best of its tribe, but is inferior to the Black-dotted Flounder, the Turbot, and
one or two others. It becomes rare northward, yet occurs in Puget Sound; south of Monterey it
is not on 1ecord.

!
HIPPOGLOSSOIDES EXILIS Jordan. and Gilbert.

This species is one of the smallest, reaching a length of about nine inches, and a weight of less
than a pound. It inhabits deep waters on sandy bottoms from San Francisco to Puget Sound.
Tt is taken in the sweep-nets of the paranzelle in spring off Point Reyes in enormous numbers,
sometimes nearly a ton ata time. In Puget Sound it is less common, although frequently taken
in seines. It has not been noticed by naturalists until the present year, and has probably been
rarely taken until the introduction of the paranzelle. It feeds on small fishes, crustaceans, ete.
It spawns in spring, perhaps coming from still deeper water, as in the winter none were noticed in
the markets. Its enemies and diseases are unknown. Most .of those taken by the paranzeile are
thrown overboard. The flesh is soft, and the fish does not sell for enough to pay for bringing it in.

This species is readily distinguished from the preceding by its much more slender form, and
by the large size of the scales, which are very delicately ciliate on their hinder edge. The eyes
are very large, their longitudinal diameter contained about three and one-third times in the length
of the head. The greatest depth is contained about three and a half times in the total length.

In July it was tolerably gommon in the markets of San Francisco, and its previous rarity is
probably occasioned by the fact that it is only taken in tolerably deep water, and is too small to be
considered of much value.

y

1Report, Commissioner of Fisheries State of California, 1880, p. 25.

188 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS. -

The specimens I have seen were from eight to ten inches in length, and three-quarters of a
pound in weight. It occurs in Puget Sound, but is not very common. "

HIPPOGLOSSOIDES ELASSODON Jordan and Gilbert.

This species reaches a length of about fifteen inches, and a weight of two or three pounds at
least. It has been found in Puget Sound, in rather deep water about the wharves of Seattle,
Washington Territory, and New Tacoma. It takes the hook very readily, and affords the boys
considerable amusement. Its value as food is probably similar to that of H. Jordani.

Dr. Bean states that he has specimens from Kodiak, Unalashka, and the Shumagin Islands,
Alaska. It is a food-fish of some importance in these localities.

XYSTREURYS LIOLEPIS Jordan and Gilbert.

This species reaches a length of fourteen inches and a weight of two pounds; ranges from

Point Concepcion southward. It lives in water of moderate depth, usually about the kelp. It

takes the hook readily, spawns in spring, and feeds on crustacea and small fish. It is too scarce
to have any special economic value.

ATHERESTHES STOMIAS Jordan and Gilbert.

This species, so far as known, does not exceed eighteen inches in length and. one and a half
pounds in weight. It is perhaps the slenderest Flounder known. It has only been seen among
fishes taken in the sweep-nets of the paranzelle off Point Reyes, and only about a dozen specimens
are known. It probably inhabits considerable depths, and will doubtless be found to belong to the
Alaskan fauna. - P

THe SLIPPERY SOLE—GLYPTOCEPHALUS PACIFICUS Lockington.

Like various other species, this fish is known as the Sole, wherever found. It reaches a length
of fifteen inches and a weight of two pounds. As usually seen in the market, it is about eight
inches in length and weighs about half a pound. It inhabits*deep or cold waters, and ranges from
Monterey to Vancouver’s Island. In California it is only taken in deep water, and is therefore
rarely brought in except by the paranzelle, who obtain it sometimes in enormous numbers. In
Puget Sound it comes nearer shore, and is often taken in the seines. It has been brought into
the San Francisco market only since the establishment of the paranzelle fishing a few years ago.
Since then, it has rapidly increased in abundance in the market, and now makes about five per
cent. of the Flounders sold in San Francisco. Many pounds of small ones are daily thrown away
in the spring and summer. It feeds on crustacea and the like. _

It spawns in May and June, and probably then comes into shallow water, as the catch is then
greater than in winter. The large ones are considered among the best of the Flounders. The
small ones are little valued. The whole body is excessively slimy when out of water, more so than
in apy other Flounder.

THE LONG-FINNED SOLE—GLYPTOCEPHALUS ZACHIRUS Lockington.

This species is likewise known as a Sole, but occasionally distinguished as long-finned. It
reaches a length of eighteen inches and a weight of about two pounds. The average length is more
than a foot. It has been thus far noticed only in deep water about San Francisco and Monterey.
It is one of the least abundant of the Flounders, rarely more than a dozen coming into the San
Francisco market in a week, and often for long periods none at all. Until the introduction of the
paranzelle, it was unknown at San Francisco.

THE CALIFORNIA “SOLES.” 189

In respect to food, breeding habits, and localities, it agrees entirely with G. pacificus so far as
we know. Its skin is not slimy, and its flesh is very firm and white; and said to be of very superior
flavor, similar to that of the European Sole.

“‘ Up to the present time,” says Lockington, ‘this species is only known from ae markets of
San Francisco, to which it is brought from deep water near Point Reyes, some thirty miles north
of the city. It is comparatively rare; seldom more than three or four are offered for sale on any
one day, and it is not brought in at all in the winter. It attains a length of eighteen inches, and
a weight of about two pounds, and is held in high esteem. Hitherto it is only known to occur in
Monterey Bay and in the vicinity of San Francisco. As its mouth is too small for the hook, and
its habitat too deep for the gill-nets, it is taken chiefly in sweep-nets.”

» The three following species are very similar in size, appearance, habits, and value, and the-same
remarks, except in regard to distribution, will apply tu them all:

PLEURONICHTHYS VERTICALIS Jordan and Gilbert.
PLEURONICHTHYS QUADRITUBERCULATUS (Pallas) Lockington.
PLEURONICHTHYS Ca@Nosus Girard. \

These three species have no distinctive popular names, the fishermen confounding them with
various other species under the name of Turbot and Sole.

As usually seen in the markets, these species average about ten inches in length, P. verticalis
being usually the smallest of the three, and P. quadrituberculatus the largest; all, however, reach
sometimes a length of fifteen inches and a weight of two or three pounds.

P. quadrituberculatus and P. verticalis have been thus far noticed only in Monterey Bay and
about Point Reyes and the Farallones. P. cenosus is found from San Diego to the Aleutian Islands,
and is especially abundant in rocky coves about Puget Sound. All three of them are now
migratory and live in considerable depths of water, being rarely taken near shore except in the
spawning time.

Compared with other Flounders, none of these are ever abundant. Fifteen individuals of the
three species together would be a large proportion in one haul of the gill-net in Monterey Bay,
in the season of their spawning. At other times they rarely-come near enough to shore to enter
a gill-net.

Unlike the other Flounders, these three species feed chiefly or entirely on plants; the stomach
and intestines are always full of alge, and, although they occasionally take the hook, animal food
makes a small portion of their diet.

These species spawn in the spring, chiefly in May and June. Nothing is known of their
breeding habits, further than that they are taken in the gill-nets and in the sweep-nets of the
paranzelle in greater numbers at that season than earlier in the year, and they probably spawn in
sandy places, and otherwise live among the rocks. -

No special enemies are known, other than predatory fish, and no diseases have been observed.
As food-fish, they are not distinguished from related species.

60. THE HALIBUT—-HIPPOGLOSSUS VULGARIS.

The Halibut, Hippog{ossus vulgaris, is widely distributed through the North Atlantic and
North Pacific, both near the shores, in shallow water, and upon the off-shore banks and the edges
of the continental slope down to a depth of two hundred to two hundred and fifty fathoms or more.
In the Western Atlantic the species has not-been observed south of the fortieth parallel, stragglers

190 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

having occasionally been taken off Sandy Hook, Block Island, and Montauk Point, while it ranges
north at least to Cumberland Gulf, latitude 64°, and to Holsteinborg Bank in Davis Strait, and
as far as Disko and Omenak Fiord, latitude 71°, on the coast of Greenland, five or six degrees
within the Arcti¢ Circle. Along the entire west coast of Greenland they exist, abundant about
Iceland and “north to Spitzbergen, in latitude 80°. No one knows to what extent they are
distributed along the European and Asiatic shores of the Arctic Ocean, but they have been
observed on both sides of the North Cape, in East and West Denmark, and from the North Cape,
latitude 71°, south along the entire western line of the Scandinavian Peninsula, in the Skager
Rack and Cattegat, but not, however, so far as I can learn, in'the Baltic. Halibut are occasion-
ally seen in the southern part of the North Sea and in the English Channel: south of latitude 50°
their range in the Eastern Atlantic appears to cease. There is yet some question whether it is
found in Southern Ireland, but some of the largest individuals recorded from Great Britain were
taken in the Irish Sea, off the Isle of Man.

On the Pacitic coast the Halibut, which has been shown by Dr. Bean to be identical with that
of the Atlantic, ranges from the Farallone Islands northward to Bering Straits, becoming more
abundant northward. “Its center of abundance,” says Bean, “is in the Gulf of Alaska, par-
ticularly about Kodiak, the Alexander Archipelago, and the Shumagins. Large halibut are
numerous about the Seal Islands, but the small ones have been killed by the seals. I have
heard from good authority of their capture as far north as Saint Lawrence Bay, near East Cape,
in Siberia. It has several times been reported from off the heads of Marcus Bay, Siberia.” It
is occasionally taken off San Francisco and about Humboldt Bay. In the Straits of Fuca and in
the deeper channels about Puget Sound it is taken in considerable numbers.

A large halibut bank exists in the mouth of the Straits of Fuca, about nine miles from Cape
Flattery in a northwesterly direction, and their capture is an important industry to the Coast
Indians.

The Halibut is emphatically a cold-water species. That it ranges nine or ten degrees farther
south on the American than on the European coast, is quite in accordance with the general law of
the distribution of fish-life in the Atlantic; indeed, it is only in winter that Halibut are known to
approach the shore to the south of Cape Cod, and it is safe to say that the temperature of the
water in which they are at present most frequently taken is never, or rarely, higher than 45°, and
seldom higher than 35°, and often in the neighborhood of 32°. Its geographic range corresponds
closely to that of the codfish, with which it is almost invariably associated, though the cod is less
dependent upon the presence of very cold water, and in the Western Atlantic is found four or five
degrees—in the Eastern Atlantic at least two—nearer the Equator, while the range of the two
species to the north is probably, though not certainly, known to be limited relatively in about the

_8ame degree. In the same manner the Halibut appears to extend its wanderings further out to

sea, and in deeper and colder water than the cod. Although observations on this point, have
necessarily been imperfect, it seems to be a fact that, while cod are very rarely found upon the
edge of the continental slope of North America, beyond the 250-fathom line, Halibut are present
there in abundance.

ComMON NAMES.—The name of this species is quite uniform in the regions where it is known,
though, of course, subject to certain variations in the languages of the different countries, and
its characteristic features are so unmistakable that it is rarely confounded with other species,
the only fish for which it is ever mistaken seeming to be the Turbot of the European coast, with
which it sometimes interchanges names. In Scotland it is said that the Halibut is frequently
called the Turbot, and Yarrell has expressed the opinion that in instances where it had been

THE HALIBUT: COMMON NAMES. 191

claimed that Halibut had been taken in the south of Ireland the Turbot was the species actually
referred to.

“ Halibut” and “Holibut” are words which are as old as the English language. In Germany
it is called “Heilbutt” or “Heiligebutt”; in Sweden, “Hiillefisk” or “Halleflundra,” while in
Holland the name is “ Heilbot.”

In studying these names it should be borne in mind that “ but” or “ bott” is another word for
a flounder or flat fish, and that the English, Dutch, German, and Scandinavian prefixes to either
this word or the equivalent word Flounder are presumably of the same meaning. A false
derivation has been imagined for the name, which is exemplified in the German word “ Heilige-
butt” just mentioned, and also in the English orthography, which is sometimes encountered
“Holybut.” This is without foundation, for the Halibut has never been mentioned more than any
other species of fllat fish, and the derivation is as fanciful as the New England one of ‘“ Haul-a-
boat,” which our fishermen have frequently assured me was the proper name, referring to the size
and strength of the fish. The true derivation of the word is best understood by a study of its
Scandinavian names, from which it appears that the prefix has reference simply to the holes or
deep places at sea in which the fish is found, and that the name simply means ‘“a deep-sea fish,”

r “a deep-sea flounder.” The name “ Flétan” which a species beays in France is not distinctive,
the fish being almost unknown in that country. i

DISTRIBUTION IN THE NORTHWESTERN ATLANTIC.—The general distribution of the Halibut
having been sketched ‘in outline, it seems appropriate to discuss more fully the range and abun-
dance of the fish upon the coast of North America, where they are sought by American fishing
vessels, and in this discussion some of the facts already briefly stated will necessarily be repeated
in part or atlength. Halibut are taken abundantly on Holstein borg Bank, at the southern entrance
to Davis Strait, latitude 67° north.and longitude 54° to 56° west, where several Gloucester
schooners have in past years obtained large cargoes of salted fish. In Etzel’s “Grénland,” the
materials for which were largely derived from Rink’s “Gronland geographisk og statistisk
Beskrevet,” published in 1857, the distribution of the species in this region is quite fully discussed.
It is there stated that Halibut are taken chiefly in the southern part of North Greenland, and
especially on the shoals among the islands in the district of Egedesminde, especially about Agto,
Riskol, and Ikerasak, in latitude 68°, and somewhat less near Disko, in latitude 70°. They are
captured most abundantly in the spring and fall, when the Greenlanders take many in these
localities. They are even taken, at greater depths, as far north as Omenak, in latitude 719. Ina
later work, however, Rink asserts that ‘‘ the Netarnak or larger Halibut is found on the banks, as
well as in different places outside the islands, up to 70° north latitude, in depths of from thirty to
fifty fathoms.” }

In the same later work Rink remarks that Halibut are plentiful in the fall about Egedesminde,
especially about Agto, the southernmost outpost of North Greenland.’

Regarding the occurrence of Halibut in South Greenland, Etzel goes on to state that in July
and August they are taken on the outer coast and among the islands at depths of thirty to fifty
fathoms, while in winter they frequent deeper regions and are but seldom seen, chiefly on the cod-

1BRowN, RoBertT: Danish Greenland | its People and its Products | By | Henry Rink | Knight of the Order of
Dannebrog | Director of the Royal Greenland Board of Trade | Formerly Inspector of South Greenland | Author of Tales
and Traditions of the Eskimoes, etc | (Cut of medal.) | Edited by | Dr. Robert Brown, F.L. 8. F.R.G.S. | Author of
The Races of Mankind, etc | With Illustrations by the Eskimo, and a Map| Henry 8. King & Co., London | 1877.
8vo, pp. xvii, 468, 16 plates, and a map on p. 1 (p. 134).

RINK: Op. cit., pp. 340, 341.

192 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

banks off Holsteinborg and in the sounds farther south.' Rink narrates that “in the year of the
war,” when the Europeans were obliged to supply themselves with provisions from Greenland,
there were taken among the islands off Godthaab (64° 8’ north latitude) two thousand Halibut, and
that in a single half day two boats took over one hundred. This was in 1809. They are rarely
taken in the district of Julianshaab, in latitude 66° 43’ north.

Peter C. Sutherland, writing of Riskol Bank, in 1850, stated that Halibut wefe then very
abundant in that locality, and that the cod-fishing vessels which visited Davis Strait every season
use them to bait their hooks, though the supply far exceeded the demand for this purpose.”

On the return of the Penny Expedition, in 1851, Sutherland narrates that when crossing the
Arctic Circle, in longitude 53°, the sailors put over lines baited with pork and hooked a cod and a
Halibut at the depth of forty fathoms.’

The most northern occurrence of the Halibut on the western side of Davis Strait is that
recorded by Mr. Ludwig Kumlien, naturalist of the Howgate expedition, who saw a large indi-
vidual taken by the Eskimos off the mouth of Davis Strait, near latitude 64° north.

Richardson, in the “Fauna Boreali-Americana,” speaks of the occurrence of the species on the
Greenland coast, but seems to have no authentic information of its having been observed even as
far north as Labrador on the opposite side.

There can be no reasonable doubt that Halibut are found along the entire eastern coast of
Labrador, though there is no other published record of their occurrence north of Red Bay, in the.
Straits of Belle Isle, near latitude 51° 40’ north, where they were observed by Mr. Horatio R.
Storer, several having been taken during his stay at that place in the summer of 1849.*

They are abundant in certain parts of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, especially the island of
Auticosti, and are also found along the entire coasts of Newfoundland and the eastern shores of
Nova Scotia.

In June, 1878, the schooner “G. P. Whitman,” of Gloucester, caught a fare of Halibut in two
to twelve fathoms of water near Green Point, Newfoundland. The crew said that they could see
the fish lying on the bottom in shallow water.

Capt. George Olsen, schooner “Proctor Brothers,” arrived at Gloucester August 2, 1880, with
22,000 pounds’ weight of fresh Halibut, from Anticosti. He reported Halibut plenty then at the
western end of the island close inshore—within half a mile; he saw the Halibut sporting near
and on the surface; he found they would not bite, as on the banks, at Halibut bait, and since fresh
herring or capelin could not be obtained, could get only a partial trip of Halibut. They were good
fish, weighing sixty to eighty pounds.°

According to M. H. Perley they. are found in the Bay of Fundy up to its very head, where
they, are taken in summer in Cumberland Bay, near the light-house off Apple River, and also in
West Bay. He states that they are also found on the south shore of the Bay of Fundy, and
abundantly from Cape Split to Brier Island, as well as in the Annapolis Basin.®

1ETZEL, ANTON VON: Grénland geographisch und statistisch beschrieben. Aus dinischen Quellschriften von
Anton von Etzel. Stuttgart, J. G. Cotta’scher Verlag, 1860. 8vo, pp. xiv, 635 (p. 254).
?SUTHERLAND, PrTER C.: Journal of a Voyage in Baffin’s Bay and Barrow Straits in the years 1850-1851, per-

formed by H. M. Ships ‘‘ Lady Franklin” and ‘‘Sophia” . . . insearch of the missing crews of H. M. Ships ‘‘ Erebus”
and “Terror.” . . . By Peter C. Sutherland, M. D., M.R.C.S.E., Surgeon to the Expedition. In two volumes.
London: . . . 1852. (Vol. i, p, 26.)

3 SUTHERLAND: Op. cit., ii, p. 341.

4SrorEr, HoRATIO RoBINson: Observations on the Fisheries of the Coasts of Nova Scotia and Labrador, with
Descriptions of New Species. <Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vi, 1857, pp. 247-270, pls. vii-viii (p. 267).

5 Statement of A. Howard Clark.

SReports on the Sea and River Fisheries of New Buananibls 1852, pp. 159-163,

THE HALIBUT: DISTRIBUTION. 193

Perley’s report was prepared in 1852, and there is no evidence of a diminution in that region
since the time he wrote.

Mr. J. Matthew Jones tells me that Halibut are occasionally taken at Five Islands in the
Basin of Minas, but that this is of rare occurrence.

I am indebted to Captain Ashby for the following facts about the southern limits of the
distribution of the Halibut:

He has never known them to be found south of Sandy Hook, where large ones are occasion-
ally taken in winter. In May, 1876, the schooner “Cartwright,” fishing ten miles southeast of
Montauk Point, caught many Halibut. In February, 1876, some Noank smacks caught a few Hal-
ibut about eight miles from land, off the southeast point of Block Island. Within the last forty
years one or two Halibut have been taken off the outer shore of Fisher’s Island. He has never
known any to be taken in Long Island Sound. Halibut are sometimes taken in three fathoms of
water among the breakers of Nantucket, in ““blowy weather.” Forty years ago they were abundant
about Gay Head and Noman’s Land. There has been no systematic fishing there lately, but
some Halibut have probably been taken.

The local papers chronicled the capture, on May 1, 1876, off Watch Hill, Rhode Island, of an
eighty-pound Halibut, the first taken in that vicinity for many years.

They are occasionally taken along the shores of Maine and Massachusetts, but so seldom that
a capture of this kind by one of the inshore fishermen is always mentioned in the local papers.

ABUNDANOE.—Half a century ago Halibut were extremely abundant in Massachusetts Bay.
Elsewhere in this essay are given several instances of their great plenty and voracity, as narrated
by some of the early fishermen of Cape Ann. Of late years, however, few are found except in
deep water on the off-shore banks.

The presence of so important a food-fish as the Halibut in America did not long escape the
observations of the early English explorers. Capt. John Smith, in his ‘‘ History of Virginia,” wrote:
“There is a large sized fish called Hallibut, or Turbut: some are taken so bigg that two men have
much a doe to hall them into the boate; but there is such plenty, that the fisher men onely eate
the heads & finnes, and throw away the bodies: such in Paris would yeeld 5. or 6. crownes a
peece: and this is no discommodity.”

S1zE.—The Halibut is surpassed in size by only three of our eastern species—the sword fish,
the tunny, and the tarpum. There is said, by experienced fishermen, to be a great difference in the
size of the two sexes, the females being much the larger; the male is said rarely to exceed fifty
pounds in weight, and to be, ordinarily, in poor condition and less desirable for food. The average
size of a full-grown female is somewhere between one hundred and one hundred and fifty pounds,
though they are sometimes much heavier. Captain Collins, who has had many years’ experience
in the Gloucester halibut fishery, assures me that he has never seen one which would weigh over
two hundred and fifty pounds, and that one weighing over two hundred and fifty pounds is
considered large. There are, however, well-authenticated instances of their attaining greater
dimensions. Captain Atwood, in communication with the Boston Society of Natural History, in
1864, stated that the largest he had ever taken weighed, when dressed, two hundred and thirtv-
seven pounds, and would probably have weighed three hundred pounds as taken from the wats.
In July, 1879, however, the same reliable observer saw at Provincetown two individuals taken
near Race Point, one of which weighed three hundred and fifty-nine pounds (three hunéred and
two pounds when dressed), the other, four hundred and one pounds (three hundred ard twenty-
two pounds when dressed).

13 F

194 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

There is a tradition in Boston that Mr. Authony Holbrook, one of the early fish-dealers
of that city, had in his possession a Halibut, taken at New Ledge, sixty miles southeast of Port-
land, which weighed over six hundred pounds. This story, which is recorded by Storer in his
“Fisheries of Massachusetts,” Captain Atwood believes to be untrue. Halibut, weighing from
three to four hundred pounds, though unusual in comparison with the ordinary size, are by no
means rare. I have before me a record of ten or twelve such, captured on the New England coast
during the past ten years. Nilsson, a Swedish ichthyologist, has mentioned the capture of a Hali-
put on that coast which weighed seven hundred and twenty pounds. There are stories of Halibut
ten feet in length; a fish weighing three hundred and fifty pounds is between seven and eight feet
long and nearly four feet in width. ‘The largest individuals are not considered nearly so good for
table use as those of less than one hundred pounds’ weight. A fat female of eighty pounds is,
by good judges, considered to be in the highest state of perfection. Males are not, however, so
highly esteemed. Small Halibut, known as “Chicken Halibut,” ranging from ten to twenty
pounds, are much sought after by epicures, and bring a high price in the New York and Boston
markets. They are comparatively rare, however, and a Halibut weighing ten pounds or less is
rarely seen; the smallest recorded on our coast was about five inches in length and was taken by
Professor Verrill in a dredge-net in the Strait of Canso.

The Halibut of the Pacific are apparently similar in dimensions to those of New England.
Mr. Anderson, inspector of fisheries for British Columbia, states that they there attain a weight of
200 pounds.

The wholesale dealers of Gloucester, in buying fresh Halibut from the fishermen, recognize
two grades; one, which they call “Grey Halibut,” they consider to be of inferior value, and pay
a lower price for. The Grey Halibut are distinguished by dark cloudings or blotches upon the
under side, which in the most remarkable fishes are pure white. Almost all the largest Halibut
are classed among the Greys. Fishermen claim that there is no actual difference between the gray
and the white fish, and it is a fair question whether they are not right.

MIGRATIONS.—It is useless to attempt to describe here the migrations of the Halibut from
place to place; although much information has been received upon this subject, the problem re-
quires long and careful study. .

The history of the halibut fishery has been a peculiar one. At the beginning of the present
century these fish were exceedingly abundant in Massachusetts Bay. From 1830 to 1850, and
even later, they were extremely abundant on George’s Banks; since 1850 they have partially
disappeared from this region, and the fishermen have since been following them to other banks,
and since 1874 out into deeper and deeper water, and the fisheries are now carried on almost
exclusively in the gullies between the off-shore banks and on the outer edges of the banks in water
one hundred to three hundred and fifty fathoms in depth.

Captain Benjamin Ashby, of Noank, Connecticut, who is familiar with the fisheries south of
Cape Cod, informs me that they frequent the deepest water in the spring and fall, and that they
come up in the shoal water, in sixty or seventy fathoms, in May and June, while in July they begin
to go out again into deep water, and by the latter part of the month are on the way into the gully
on northeast part of George’s Bank.

Captain Collins briefly expresses his views as follows: “Halibut are found in the deep water—
say from one hundred to two hundred and fifty fathoms in depth—on the edge of all the banks from
George’s to the Grand Bank the year round. Sometimes, however, they are found more numerous in
comparatively shallow water in the winter and early spring. This was the case in the winters and
springs of 1875-76 and 187677, as well as in the year preceding. But in 1878 there was no great

THE HALIBUT: MIGRATIONS. 195

catch of Halibut in less than one hundred fathoms on any of the banks. The great schools that
were found in the western part of the Grand Bank in February and March, 1876 and 1877, appear to
be migrating. The fish that were found to the south of latitude 44° north were mostly small-sized
white Halibut. They went off the bank into deep water, and nobody knew what became of them.
Those that were caught to the north of this parallel were mostly large gray fish, and were traced as
far as Saint Peter’s Bank. These are possibly the same fish—they are certainly the same kind of
fish—that struck in on the western coast of Newfoundland in the summer months in pursuit of
capelin.”

Capt. George A. Johnson states that the large Halibut frequent the outer and deeper part
of the banks, while the little “bull fish” lie inside, on shallower ground, and are caught on the inner
end of the trawl lines, but that sometimes the large Halibut come up on the shallow grounds.

On the coast of Newfoundland, Anticosti, and Labrador, Halibut frequently run inshore in
summer after capelin. When in shallow water near the shore they are usually wild and very active.
The fishermen within eight years have extended their fishing much farther out to sea; previous to
that time the greater part of the Halibut were taken on the top of the Grand Bank in thirty to
fifty fathoms of water, but after the beginning of April the fish went elsewhere, and the fishermen
lost sight of them. They soon learned, however, to follow them down the slopes of the banks, but
before 1876 had rarely fished in water deeper than seventy to ninety fathoms. Since that time, as
has already been stated, fishing has been carried into twice or three times that depth. All that can
at present be said in explanation of their movements is that they occur in great schools, and, soon
consuming the available food in any one locality, are obliged to shift their position to some other
place where they can find fresh pastures. It does not seem possible that their migrations can be
caused by conditions of temperature or are in connection with their breeding habits. During the
breeding season the schools sometimes remain for months in one locality, and these places are
generally of limited extent. While spawning but little if any food is found in their stomachs.

Foop.—They are large-mouthed, sharp-toothed, voracious, although adapted for life upon the
bottom, and doubtless feed largely upon crabs and mollusks; they are particularly fond of fish of
all kinds ; these they waylay, lying upon the bottom, invisible by reason of their flat bodies, colored
to correspond with the general color of the sand or mud upon which they rest. When in pursuit
of their prey they are active, and often come quite to the surface, especially when in the summer
they follow the capelin to the shoal water near the land. They feed upon skates, cod, haddock,
menhaden, mackerel, herring, lobsters, flounders, sculpins, grenadiers, turbot, Norway haddock,
bank clams, and anything else that is eatable and can be found in the same waters. Captain Ashby
tells me that common flounders and flat tish are among their most favorite food; they follow them
up on the shoals of George’s and Nantucket; they lie in wait for them on the sand-rips and catch
them as they swim over. He has seen a half bushel of flat fish in the stomach of one; they stow
them away very tightly. He has often seen Halibut chasing flat fish over the surface of the water.
About Cape Sable their favorite food seems to be haddock and cusk. He has seen eight or ten pounds
of haddock and cod taken out of one of them. When they are on the shoals they are sometimes
filled with flat-fish, haddock, cusk, sculpin, and herring, but when in deep water he has found very
little food in them. They eat crabs and other crustaceans, but shells are rarely found in thcir
stomachs, except those of clams and mussels.

Captain Hurlbert tells me that, when the vessels are dressing codfish on the Grand Banks, and
the back-bones and head are thrown overboard, these are frequently found in the stomachs of
Halibut taken in the same locality.

196 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Mr. William H. Wonson, of Gloucester, has seen live lobsters six inches long taken from the
stomach of a Halibut. Captain Marsh states that they feed on whiting, mackerel, and herring.
He remarks: “ Halibut will drive off any kind of fish and take charge of the ground.”

At the meeting of the Boston Society of Natural History, in 1852, Dr. W. O. Ayres stated that
he had seen a block of wood, a cubic foot in dimensions, taken from the stomach of a Halibut, where
it had apparently lain fora long time. Capt. George A. Johnson found an accordion key in one of
them. Olafson, in 1831, studying them on the coast of Greenland, found not only pieces of iron and
wood in them, but in the stomach of one individual a large piece of fioe ice. Captain Collins
has observed that they often kill their prey by blows of the tail, a fact which is quite novel and
interesting. He described to me an instance which occurred on a voyage home from Sable Island
in 1877: “The man at the wheel sang out that he saw a Halibut flapping: its tail about a quarter
of a mile off our starboard quarter. I looked through the spy-glass, and his statement was soon
verified by the second appearance of the tail. We hove out a dory, and two men went in her,
taking with them a pair of gaff-hooks. They soon returned bringing not only the Halibut, which
was a fine one, of about seventy pounds’ weight, but a small codfish which it had been trying to
kill by striking it with its tail. The codfish was quite exhausted by the repeated blows, and did
not attempt to escape after his enemy had been captured. The Halibut was so completely engaged
in the pursuit of the codfish that it paid no attention to the dory, and was easily captured.”

The Halibut, in its turn, is the prey of seals, of the white whale, and of the various large
sharks, especially the ground shark, or sleeping shark, in the stomachs of which they have some-
times been found; their sides, 1 am told by Captain Collins, are often deeply scarred, probably by
the teeth of the sharks, or in their early lives by mouths of larger individuals of their own kind.

SPAWNING.—There is diversity of opinion regarding their spawning. Some fishermen say that
they spawn at Christmas time, in the month of January, when they are on the shoals. Others
~ declare that it is in summer, at the end of June. Capt. George A. Johnson, of the schooner
“ Augusta H. Johnson,” of Gloucester, assures me that Halibut “spawn, just like the human race,
at any time of the year.” In April, 1878, he was fishing on Quereau Bank, and found large and
small Halibut, the large ones full of spawn. In May he was on the Le Have Bank, where he found
only small male fish full of milt; in June be was on Le Have again, fishing in shallow water,
where he found plenty of “small bull fish, with their pockets full of milt”; in July he was again
on Quereau Bank, where he found a school of small and big male and female fish, all, apparently,
spawning, or ready to spawn, “with milt and pees soit”; in August he was on the outer part of
Sable Island, where he found females full of spawn.

Captain Ashby, speaking of the Halibut on George’s Banks, states that roe is always found in
them in May and June. The roes of a large Halibut caught by him in 1848 on the southwest part
of George’s, and which weighed 356 pounds, after it had been dressed and its head removed,
weighed 44 pounds. He states that the Halibut in this region have spawn in them as long as
Connecticut vessels continue to catch them, or until September. He has seen eggs in Halibut
of twenty pounds’ weight, and thinks that they begin to breed at that size. The spawn of the
Halibut is a favorite food of the fishermen of Southern New England, though never eaten by those
of Cape Ann.

Captain Hurlbert, of Gloucester, tells me that on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland the
halibut school used to come up in shoal water, in forty or fifty fathoms, in summer, and that the
spawn was ripest about a fortnight later. In August, 1878, he found many with the spawn already
run out. At that time several Gloucester fishermen reported that the Halibut on Le Have and
Quereau Banks were full of spawn. Captain Collins told me that in July and August, and up

THE HALIBUT: SPAWNING HABITS. 197

to the first of September, they are found here with the ovaries very large, and are often seen with
the ova and milt exuding. The ovaries of a large fish are too heavy to be lifted by a man, without
considerable exertion, being often two feet or more in length. At this time very little food is
found in their stomachs. In September, 1878, the Fish Commission obtained from Captain Collins
the roes of a fish weighing from 190 to 200 pounds, taken by the schooner “Marion” on the 13th
of the month on Quereau Bank. This fish was taken at the depth of 200 fathoms, and the temper-
ature of the water was roughly recorded at 36° F. These ovaries were put into a basket with
ice and brought to the laboratory of the Fish Commission, where they were found to weigh seven-
teen pounds, two ounces. Part of the eggs were nearly ripe, and separated readily, while others
were immature and closely adherent to each other. A portion of the roe, representing a fair aver-
age of the size of the eggs, was weighed, and was found to contain 2,185 eggs; the weight of this
portion was two drams. The total number of eggs was from this estimated to be 2,182,773. It
is not yet known whether the eggs float or rest upon the bottom, nor is it known how long is the
period of incubation, nor what is the rate of growth of the fish. As has already been mentioned,
young fish are very unusual; the smallest ever seen by Captain Ashby in Southern New England
was taken on Nantucket Shoals, and weighed two and a half pounds after it had been eviscerated.

ABNORMAL INDIVIDUALS.—Left-handed Halibut are sometimes taken. Perhaps one out of
five thousand is thus abnormal in its form, having the eyes upon the left rather than upon the
right hand side of the head.

Halibut with dark spots or patches on the under side of the same dark color as the back are
occasionally taken. These are called by the fishermen “Circus Halibut.” They are generally of
medium size, and thick, well-fed fish.

61. THE SAND DAB, OR ROUGH DAB.

The Sand Dab, or Rough Dab, Hippoglossvides platessoides, also sometimes known as the Rusty
Flounder, is taken in winter by the line fishermen of New England, and small quantities are doubt-
less brought to market and sold with other flat fishes without discrimination as to species. It
often attains the length of twenty to twenty-four inches, and the weight of two to five pounds,
and is, in all respects, a desirable food-fish, being highly esteemed on the other side of the Atlantic.
In summer, individuals of this species are to be found only in very deep water, thirty fathoms or
more, on the New England coast, and, though never very abundant in any one locality, might be
taken in considerable quantities, in company with the Pole Flounder, by the use of a trawl-net, or
even by specially devised traw]-lines.

The Rough Dab has not been observed south of Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, but ranges north
to Greenland, is abundant on the English coast, and is a well-known food-fish of Scandinavia. Its
breeding habits in our waters have not been observed, but in Southern Sweden the spawning time
is in Apriland May. Itis a large-mouthed species, feeding upon fish as well as upon Jarge inverte-
brates, such as crustaceans and annelids, and mention has been made of it more on account of its
possible value in the future than for its present importance.

62. THE GREENLAND TURBOT.

The Greenland Turbot, Platysomatichthys hippoglossoides, though never occurring in our inshore
waters, is found on the off-shore banks, as far south as George’s Bank, and a certain quantity of
them is usually brought to New York every winter. It is emphatically an arctic species, being
abundant on the coast of Greenland, often found at Holsteinborg and beyond, and along this
entire coast very eagerly sought by the natives. The Eskimo name is “Kalleraglik,” and the
fish is also known as ‘Little Halibut.” In Giinther’s great work on “The Fishes of the British

198 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Museum,” he has confused this species with the true Halibat, making it appear that only the former
is to be found on the coast of North America. In Northern Greenland the Turbot is found only at
very great depths, and is fished for, in water of three hundred and fifty to three hundred and eighty
fathoms, through holes in the ice, over certain banks in Omenak Fiord and at the mouth of the
Jacob’s-Haven ice-fiord, which is also packed with great ice-floes. It is said to be found only in
the ice-fiords and between the great ice-fields, and there only in the coldest months of the year.

In South Greenland they are taken on the oceanic banks at a depth of sixty to one hundred
and eighty fathoms, though there considered to be not so abundant as in North Greenland. In
Fortune Bay, Newfoundland, according to Captains G. Johnson and A. Leighton, of Gloucester,
they are very abundant in sixty to three hundred fathoms, and are caught chiefly in winter.
They are also obtained by the Gloucester halibut fleet on the outer edge of the oceanic banks, in
two hundred and fifty to three hundred fathoms of water.

Their habits are not at all well understood, but it would appear from the statements of several
experienced fishermen, whom I have questioned, that they occur on the very edge of the conti-
nental slope in deeper water than the true Halibut, in fact in places where the slope is so nearly
perpendicular that the Halibut can hardly hold their places on the bottom. This species is
more symmetrical than any other of the family on our coast, and, moreover, is colored upon both
sides of the body—a fact which indicates that its movements are more like those of the ordinary
symmetrical fishes and that it can rest with the body in a vertical attitude.

It would seem probable that its chosen haunts are along the declivities of the outer slope of
the continental plateau, where abundance of food is known to occur, and where other fishes are
not so well adapted to live. Many hundreds of pounds are caught, every year, on the halibut trawls,
and the fish are frequently iced and brought to market with the Halibut, and frequently eaten by
the fishermen themselves. The greater portion of those brought to New York in winter are, how-
ever, taken on trawl lines at the mouth of Fortune Bay, and brought down by the vessels which go
there to procure cargoes of frozen herring. It is impossible to obtain statistics of the quantities
thus brought in, because the market returns do not discriminate between the different species of
flounders and flat fishes.

The Greenland Turbot is an exceedingly palatable fish, its flesh being firm, white, and less dry
and more delicate in flavor than that of the Halibut. The average weight is from ten to twenty-
five pounds. In Greenland they are perhaps more highly esteemed than any other fish. The
Greenlanders begin fishing as soon as the fiords are frozen over and the white whales, which prey
greedily upon this fish, have left the entrances open. They fish through holes in the ice, and attach
little threads at intervals to their lines, so that they may better see the motion which the nibbling
fish makes. Under favorable circumstances a man may take ten to eighteen of these fishes daily.
The fishery continues from January to the middle of March, sometimes, however, only a week or
two, and usually only about a month. The fish are cut into strips and dried for the consumption
of the Danish colonists. It is said that a very fine oil can be made out of their fat, so that in
hard times the fish serves to warm and light their houses as well as feed their occupants. In South
Greenland they are not so numerous, but are constantly sought for, being taken in company with
the sea perch, or red fish.!

63. THE POLE FLOUNDER, OR CRAIG FLOUNDER.

This fish, Glyptocephalus cynoglossus, often known as the Deep-sea Flounder, was first
observed on this coast in 1877, when numerous specimens were obtained by the United States

1 These facts are taken from Rink’s ‘‘ Greenland.”

THE POLE OR CRAIG FLOUNDER. 199

Fish Commission, in the deepest part of Massachusetts Bay. Specimens have since been obtained
south of Cape Cod, at a depth of one hundred fathoms or more, by the Fish Commission, and by
Professor Agassiz, off the entrance to Delaware Bay, at a depth of three hundred and ninety-five
fathoms. The Pole Flounder appears to be a permanent resident, throughout the whole year, in
the deep basins of Massachusetts Bay and on the edge of the continental slope, and is found
abundant in Bedford Basin, the inner expansion of Halifax Harbor, at a depth of thirty-seven
fathoms. It ranges nearly to Greenland, and is also found on the coast of Northern Europe,
where it is found in the Trondhjem Fjord, in latitude 65°, and south to the coast of Ireland. Its
thermal range appears to be confined by the limits 34° and 45°.

It breeds abundantly in our waters in summer time, numerous individuals, full of spawn, and
young from half an inch upward, having been taken, from July to October, in various localities.

The Pole Flounder has been pronounced, by all who have tasted it, a most delicious food-fish,
resembling more closely than any other species on our coast the English Sole, having a great
quantity of peculiarly flavored mucilaginous tissue about the base of the fins; it has never been
taken by our fishermen, because, on account of its exceedingly small and weak mouth, it could
not hold fast to an ordinary hook and line; and, should it ever come into demand, it will be
necessary for our fishermen to introduce the English trawl-net.

64. THE SPOTTED SAND FLOUNDER.

The Turbot, or Steinbutt, Rhombus maximus, and the Brill, or Glattbutt, do not occur in our
waters, although many attempts have been made to prove that they do. The nearest repre-
sentative of the Turbot is the Spotted Sand Flounder, Lophopsetta maculata, a species found from
Bucksport, Maine,! to Fort Macon, North Carolina, variously known along the coast as Water
Flounder, Window-pane, and Daylight; the latter name refers to the remarkable thinness of the
fish, its flesh being so transparent that, when held to the light, the shadow of an object on the
other side can be seen. Its flavor is good, but the amount of flesh is so small that it is of no
consequence as a food-fish. There are other smaller representatives of the family on the southern
coast, and in deep water from Cape Cod southward, belonging to the genus Citharichthys, which,
although edible, are never eaten.

lAccording to Mr. G. A. Boardman, of Calais, Maine, an individual was taken in Passamaquoddy Bay in September,
1880,

300 NATURAL MISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

J.—THE COD FAMILY AND ITS KINDRED.

The Codfish and its allies constitute, from an economical point of view, the most important of
all the families of fishes, containing, as it does, a large number of species, most of them of consider-
able size, distributed throughout all parts of the northern hemisphere, usually found together in
great numbers, readily captured, and easily preserved for future use.

An elaborate discussion of the geographical distribution of the cod family, and its relations to
fisheries and commerce, by Karl Dambeck, was published in “Gea,” in 1877. A translation of this
paper may be found in the Report of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Part V,
1877, pp. 531-557. This paper is not without value, although it contains many false statements,
the writer appearing to have been but slightly acquainted with the more recent ichthyological dis-
coveries. Inthe translation referred to, the paper has been revised and annotated by Dr. Bean, and
is sufficiently accurate so far as the American species are concerned.

65. THE COD—GADUS MORRHUA.

NAMES OF THE CODFISH.—Mr. J. Carson Brevoort, of New York, contributes the following
interesting sketch of the names applied to the cod family by the different nations of Europe :

“The appellations under which the weather-dried Codfish, split and stretched on a short stick,
is known throughout the civilized world can all be traced to one common root, based upon the
mode of preparation for the market.

«¢ Among the Greeks the large Codfish were called Bacchi, from Bacchus, arod. By the Latins
the fish was named Gadus, from a Sanscrit root cad or gad, arod. We find this root in English in
‘goad,’ and, perhaps, in ‘cat-o’-nine-tails’; in Gaelic gad and godan, signifying a smallrod. By the
Iberians the dried Cod were called Bacalaos, from Baculeum, a small stick.! This points also to
the root of the French Baguette, a rod, Bilboquet, the toy known as cup and ball, really a stick and
ball, and other words. By the Anglo-Saxons it was called the Cod, from the word gad or goad, a
rod. By the Germans it was known as the Stockfisch, from Stock, a stick.

“The Hollanders varied a little from this, and as far back as the year 1400 called it the
Kabeljaauw, which seems to be from the Dutch gabel, a fork. They also called it the Bakkeljauue.

“The French Morue is not from the above root. It may be from the Celtic Mor, the sea. The
French, however, never prepared the Cod by drying it on a stick, but salted it as the Morue verte,
or green Cod. The French Moluwe is merely a change in the liquid consonants.

“When the Cod is dried on the downs it is called Dunfish, from the Gaelic root Duin, a hill.
If dried on the rocks it becomes the Rock Cod, or the Klippfisk of the Norwegians. Among these
last the Cod is called the Dorset, or Torsk, in English Tusk, from the Gothic Diirren, to dry.

“The English ‘Aberdeen fish,’ or French Laberdan, is from the Gaelic Abar, the mouth; Dan,
a river, or fish caught near the river’s mouth.”

These remarks are suggestive in the extreme, since they explain the origin of almost all of
the names now applied to this species both in its fresh and cured condition.”

1The rod held by Mercury was called a Baculeum.

?Skeat in his Etymological Dictionary, recently published, does not confirm the views advanced by Mr. Brevoort,
remarking, ‘‘I suppose that this word cod must be the same as the Middle English codde or cod, a husk, bag, bolster;
though the resemblance of the fish to a bolster is but fanciful. It is obvious that Shakespeare knew nothing of the
Linnean name gadus (Greek yados), nor is the derivation of cod from gadus at all satisfactory.”

THE COD: COMMON NAMES. 201

The name by which this species was known among the Narragansett Indians is indicated by
the following sentence from Roger Williams’ “Key into the Languages of America”:

“Panganaut, tamwock. Cod, Which is the first that comes a little before the Spring.”

In the vicinity of Cape Ann the young Cod, too small to swallow a bait, are sometimes known
to the fishermen as “Pickers,” and throughout all Eastern Massachusetts the name ‘“Scrod,” or
“Serode,” is in common use. In its primary meaning it seems to refer to these small fish slightly
corned, in which condition they are a favorite article of food, but the name is also transferred to
the young fish themselves. The fishermen recognize several varieties of Cod for which they have
different names. Rock Cod are those which are found in shoal water among the reefs and ledges,
and which usually are of a dark color: these fish are often brilliant red in color, owing to the
fact that the small animals upon which they live feed upon the red alge, abundant in those
localities, and from them have absorbed the red coloring matter into their tissues. ‘Rockling”
are probably young Rock Cod. In the vicinity of Scituate, Massachusetts, Rock Cod are also called
“Native Cod.”

Another class of names appears to apply to those fish which live near the shores, but which
are less closely limited to the reefs. These are called “Shoal-water Cod,” ‘ Shore Cod,” ‘Inshore
Cod,” “Worm Cod,” “Clam Cod,” “Black Snappers,” “Black Biters,” “Brown Cod,” ‘Ground
Keepers,” and “Ground Tenders” or “Groupers.”

Still another class of fish is known by such names as ‘“‘Deep-water Cod,” “Bank Cod,” and
“School Cod.”

There are also certain local schools of fish which have names of their own; for instance, the
“Herring Fish” or “ Herring Cod” of Southeastern Maine, and the “Squid School” of Nantucket
and other parts of the coast, the “‘ Pasture School” of Cape Ann, and the so-called ‘Shad School”
which frequented Massachusetts. Bay between 1815 and 1830.

In Southeastern Maine the name “ Pine-tree Cod” is also in use. Itis difficult at present to
determine exactly to what extent these names are used and what their precise meaning may be,
but it is almost certain that each community of fishermen has its own peculiar names by which to
designate local peculiarities of habit and movement.

In the markets the Cod from George’s Bank are usually classed as ‘‘George’s fish,” and are
considered to be of superior value. George’s fish are very fat fish with white “napes.” This name
is becoming a commercial term to describe Codfish of the finest quality. No one of these names,
excepting Rock Cod, or Red Cod, appears to be in use in Great Britain, although there, as here,
there are various names of local significance, which are of little interest, however, to Americans.

‘Bank Cod” and “Shore Cod” are commercial names, used in the same manner as the name
“George’s Cod.”

HISTORY OF THE CODFISH IN AMERICA.—AS early as 1415 A. D., English vessels frequented the
fishing grounds near Iceland, and it is claimed by some authorities that the Banks of Newfoundland
were known to the Basques centuries before the discovery of the American continent. The Banks
of Newfoundland were among the principal inducements which led the English to establish colonies
in this country, and in the records of early voyages are many allusions to the abundance of Cod
along our shores.

In the Appendix may be found an essay, by Mr. Robert S. Rantoul, on “The Cod in Massachu-
setts’ History,” a paper read at a field meeting of the Essex Institute at Gloucester, September 14,
1866. Itis really an epitome of the early history of the cod fisheries of the United States, con-
taining much interesting information upon the use of the Codfish upon the seal of Massachusetts
and upon the colonial coinage.

202 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

A Nova Scotia coin or bank-token has upon it the figure of a Codfish. Upon the obverse is a
plow with the legend “Speed the Plough,” upon the reverse a salted Codfish with the words,
‘‘Suecess to the Fisheries.”

DISTRIBUTION OF THE Cop.—The Codfish is found in the North Atlantic, in the North
Pacific, and in the Polar Ocean, its range extending far beyond the Arctic Circle. It seems
unnecessary to enumerate all the localities in which it has been observed, for its geographical
range may be defined with sufficient accuracy and by a much more comprehensive statement: In the
Western Atlantic the species occurs in the winter in considerable abundance as far south as the
mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, latitude 37°, and stragglers have been observed about Ocracoke
Inlet.!. The southern limit of this species may safely be considered to be Cape Hatteras, in latitude
35° 10’. Along the coast of the Middle States, New England, and British North America, and
upon all the off-shore banks of this region, Cod are found usually in great abundance, during
part of the year at least. They have been observed also in the Gulf of Boothia, latitude 70° to
75°, and in the southeastern part of Baffin’s Land to the northward of Cumberland Sound, and it
is more than probable that they occur in the waters of the Arctic Sea to the north of the American
continent, or away round to Bering Straits.’

The Cod has been observed on the western coast of Greenland. In the North Atlantic the
range of the species extends to Iceland and Spitzbergen, latitude 80°; along the arctic coast of
Europe, as far as Eastern Finmark, and probably round to Siberia; while southward it ranges at
least to Brittany. Its southern limit is probably near the Bay of Biscay, latitude 40°, although
Yarrell states that it is found south to Gibraltar. It does not enter the Mediterranean, but pene-
trates into the Baltic to the coast of Western Russia. Its distribution in the North Pacific is not
so well understood, though it appears to occur in the same abundance on all the off-shore banks of
this region, and also close to the coasts to the north of the Straits of Fuca. According to Jordan,
there is said to be a cod bank outside of the mouth of the Columbia, but the species at present is
of no economic importance south of Alaska. A full discussion of the Alaskan Codfish is given
below by Dr. Bean in the chapter on THE ALASKA CoD-FISHERY.

The Cod enters fresh water upon occasion.’ It is found, according to Canadian authors, well
up the estuary of the Saint Lawrence, though how far up is not definitely stated, probably not
beyond the limits of brackish water. Dr.C. C. Abbott records that on the 23d or 24th of January,
1876, a healthy, strong, active Codfish, weighing nearly four pounds, was taken in a draw-net in
the Delaware River near Trenton, New Jersey; the stomach of the fish showed that it had been in
river-water several days. Many of them had been taken about Philadelphia between 1856 and
1869.+

Mr. George R. Smith, of Millbridge, Maine, states that Cod are found all along the coast, even
entering brackish water at the mouths of rivers.

Mr. Wilson M. Albee, of Mohegan, Maine, affirms that Cod occur in all places along the coast
of that region, even in brackish water.

Mr. A. T. Gamage, of Damariscotta, Maine, says: ‘‘There is not a place of any extent on the
coast of Maine and seaward where Cod are not found. They occur from the edge of the breakers

! The mackerel schooner “ Relenter,” of Gloucester, April 5,1880, caught, on one hand-line, some 600 pounds of
large Cod, with mackerel bait, in twenty fathoms of water, when about eight miles off Cape Charles.—A. H. CLARK.

2? RICHARDSON: Fauna Boreali Americana, p. 243.

3“ Forest and Stream,” December 25, 1873, contains the following astounding statement, which, of course, is
entirely unworthy of credence: ‘‘Three Codfish, weighing six pounds each, were caught in the Saint John’s River,
Florida, near Palatka, last week; the first of the kind ever caught in Southern waters. The ‘Herald,’ says Captain
Vogel, of the steamer ‘ Dictator,’ pronounced them genuine Codfish.”

4American Naturalist, iv, p. 116.

THE COD: GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, 203

out to seventy-five fathoms and up to fifty miles and further, wherever any bank has been discov-
ered. Quite frequently they enter brackish water in pursuit of their natural food.”

Thomas Day, of Parker’s Island, Maine, says that small Cod have been caught in the
Kennebec River.

Mr. M. A. Hanna, of Bowery Beach, says that they are sometimes caught in rivers at some
distance from the sea, where the water at the surface is quite fresh.

These statements are confirmed by several other persons. The New York “Evening Post” of
February 6, 1877, says that a six-pound Codfish was taken on February 1 in the Hudson River
above Peekskill, New York.

THE SCHOOLING OF THE CopFISH.—Before taking into consideration the periodical move-
ments of the Codfish, it seems necessary to study the manner in which they assemble together in
schools. Mr. Earll, who has studied with great thoroughness the habits of the Codfish about
Cape Ann, writes as follows upon this topic:

“Jn examining the Codfish landed from time to time, one cannot but notice the great indi-
vidual variation in the species. But in addition to this seemingly accidental variation, that gives
every gradation to either extreme, there is a more constant difference in both form and color, due
perhaps to the peculiar habits and surroundings of the individual. This difference is so noticeable
that the fishermen can easily distinguish the one from the other, and they have come to call the
one a school fish in distinction from the other, which they call a shore fish or ‘ ground-tender,’

“The school fish are supposed to be constantly on the move, remaining usually in the deep
water, where they are very active in the pursuit of their prey, consuming such quantities as to
keep them in excellent flesh. Such fish are usually very shapely, with small and very distinct dark
spots on a light background, and seem to have the head quite small in proportion to the body. On
the whole, they are just such fish as would be expected from continued activity and good living.
On the other hand, the shore fish, or ‘ ground-tenders,’ live constantly among the rocks and sea-
weeds along the shore, where the water is less pure and the food less abundant. They seem to
lead solitary lives during a greater part of the year, being scattered along different portions of the
coast, living upon the little rocky spots, where they feed upon such animals as they chance to find;
or at times entering the shoaler water among the sea-weeds, where they feed upon the mollusks
and articulates that are often so abundant in such localities. They are generally in poorer flesh
than the school fish, having a relatively larger head in proportion to their bulk, with larger and
less distinct spots on a darker background. In addition to these large fish, that for some reason
seem to prefer the shore as a feeding ground, there are many young and immature that have not
yet joined the school fish in their migrations. These fish are the sole dependence of the boat fish-
ermen in summer, or from June to November, and one must know the grounds pretty thoroughly,
and row about from one feeding spot to another, in order to secure any considerable number of
them. During the months of June, July, and August the fishing is quite limited, being confined
to a few boat fishermen who row, or sail, out daily with hand-lines, returning in the afternoon with
from one hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds, which they usually sell at fair prices to
supply the fresh-fish trade.

‘“¢ Rarly in the fall the spawning instincts of the fish cause them to gradually gather from the
different parts of the shore to special rocky grounds, where they remain until they have deposited
their eggs. At such times, being more numerous in these localities, the fishing becomes more
profitable, so that many small vessels and a larger number of boats frequent these grounds, and
by the middle of October the daily catch reaches about four hundred pounds per man.

“Thus far the catch has been composed almost wholly of the young and shore fish ; but about

204 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

the 1st of November the fall school of spawning fish, known as the ‘ pasture school,’ makes its
appearance. All the smaller vessels and boats are now pressed into service, and the winter
fisheries are soon at their height. The vessels are usually provided with dories, taking from three
to twelve each, according to the size of their crews. Such fishermen as are unable to ship on the
vessels now row or sail out in boats. These often endure great hardships, as the wind may rise
suddenly and drive them out to sea, giving them a hard pull of hours before they can regain the
shore, while an occasional unfortunate fails to return.

“The pasture school is composed of fish averaging probably between twelve and fourteen
pounds, some being much larger, while others are quite small. In the falls of 1877 and 1878 the
fishing was unusually good until the first of January, the average daily catch per man often
reaching eight to nine hundred pounds, while an active fisherman at times caught nearly twice
that quantity.

“At the present time there are but few towns on the north side of the cape extensively
engaged in the shore fisheries, and for this reason little is definitely known about the first appear-
ance of the Ipswich Bay school of Codfish in that locality. We cannot even feel certain of the
month when they reach the grounds, as the fishermen have many and conflicting opinions on the
subject. From the best obtainable information it seems probable that Cod have visited these waters
regularly for many years, and that they were formerly taken in considerable numbers by the boat
fishermen of the section who rowed out from the shore in pleasant weather during the winter
months. But for a number of years these grounds were nearly deserted, and it was not until
1877~'78 that the shore fishermen of Gloucester and Swampscott learned their value.

“Tn January, 1879, after the fish had left ‘the pasture,’ several vessels sailed for Ipswich Bay,
where they found the Cod remarkably plenty, returning in a short time with unusually large fares,
The news spread rapidly, and soon all the shore fleet were in the bay, while vessels of sixty to
seventy tons abandoned the other fisheries and fitted out for this locality. Vessels from other towns
along the shore soon joined the fleet, and by the middle of February 104 sail, with upwards of 600
men, were fishing within a radius of five or six miles, and twenty to twenty-five thousand pounds
of round fish were sometimes taken in a day by the crew of a single schooner.

“The above number of vessels was reached only during the height of the season, and several
causes operated to reduce the fleet so that at times it was quite small. Butallowing an average o¢
45 sail during the entire four months, each vessel carrying six dories, the trawls averaging 800
hooks each, and we have the enormous number of 216,000 baited hooks spread out upon the sandy
bottom to tempt the spawning fish. It is not surprising, therefore, that the catch reached fully
11,250,000 pounds on this little patch of ground between the first of February and the last of May.

“Fishermen are agreed that the individuals composing this school averaged larger than those
of any school that had previously visited the shore. There were almost no small ones among them,
the great bulk being of uniformly large size with a few very large. Of over five thousand, selected
without regard to size at different times during the season, the average weight was 202 pounds.

“Fishing continued good in Ipswich Bay until the first of J une, when the school left the shore,
being perhaps hurried in their movements by a large school of dogfish (Squalus americanus)
that made their appearance in the bay about this time.

“After the school-fish leave the shore in summer the fishermen frequently resort to the outer
grounds, such as Jeffry’s and Stellwagen Banks, when they often secure good fares from what they
suppose to be a new school that visits these grounds for the purpose of feeding. We have had little
opportunity for examining these fish, but there seems a strong probability that they belong to the

THE SCHOOLING OF THE CODFISH. 205

school that has just left the shore, and that they remain on these grounds for a few days or
weeks on their way to deeper water.”

Ihave before me the statements of ninety-four fishermen, most of whom are of the opinion
that the Cod associate together in schools throughout the entire year; many of them, however,
speak of particular schools of very large size which they noticed at particular seasons. Captain
Atwood, on the other hand, makes the assertion that the Cod never school, but that they wander
independently over the bottom in search of food.

It seems most reasonable to suppose that the Codfish, like most other species which habitually
feed on the bottom, are less disposed to wander tozether in great bodies from place to place than
the surface-swimming fishes which usually feed upon substances or animals which are found col-
lected together in one place in great quantity. The Codfish, being habitually bottom-feeders, find
their food, it is probable, with more or less uniformity, over the areas which they frequent, and are
ordinarily met with moving about independently. They are most likely to occur in great numbers
in places where food is particularly abundant. At certain seasons of the year they are brought
together by a common desire for wandering together from place to place in immense bodies, some-
times their object being a united attack upon some special kind of food only to be found at that
season, and in particular places. The capelin and lant schools, known to the fishermen of
Newfoundland, Labrador, and the Grand Banks, are examples of such association, as also is the
herring school observed in the spring in Massachusetts Bay, and the great schools known on
the coast of Norway under the name of Lédde-fisk.

Capt. Epes W. Merchant, of Gloucester, tells me about a remarkable school of Codfish
which frequented Massachusetts Bay between the years 1815 and 1830. ‘This was called the
“shad school.” They continued in the bay from early April until the middle of May. They were
caught with alewives and shad for bait. The fishermen were accustomed to get these fish for
bait as soon as they began to run. The Cod seemed to be waiting for them. The “shad school”
was composed of young, sharp-nosed, bright-eyed school fish of regular size, very different from
the ground-tenders or grubbers.

Professor Baird has made some interesting generalizations concerning the effect upon the
abundance of Cod of the decrease in the shad and alewives off the mouths of our rivers
caused by over-fishing in inland waters.!

Another cause of the assembling of the Codfish together is the reproductive instinct, in obe-
dience to which the fish gather together in localities where the temperature and depth of water are
suitable for the deposition of eggs. A school of this kind is the so-called “pasture school,” already
referred to in the quotation from Mr. Earll, and the great schools—the so-called “ fish-mountains”—
which make their appearance on the coast of Norway in January, February, and March, and which
have been so well described by Professor Sars.? e

The fisheries carried on at this time are called “spawn fisheries” to distinguish them from
those which are carried on later in the spring on the coast of Finmark, the object of which is the
capture of Codfish following schools of bait.

“‘Codfish,” continues Mr. Earll, “are gregarious in their habits, going in schools of greater or
less size, and are governed in their movements by the presence or absence of food, the spawning
instinct, and the temperature of the water. When migrating, the schools are quite dense, though
by no means like schools of menhaden or mackerel. But when they reach the feeding ground they

1 Report United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, pt. ii, 1874, pp. xi-xiv.

*Report of the “Practical and Scientitic Investigations of the Cod Fisheries near the Lofoden Islands,” made
during the years 1864~69 by S. O. Sars; translated by H. Jacobson. Report United States Commission of Fish and
Fisheries, pt. v, 1879, pp. 565-661.

206 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

seem to distribute themselves over a large area, though more or less grouped together in little
bunches. This is particularly noticeable on the shore, when the fish are moving about in search
of food, and the fisherman soon catches up all that chance to be on one patch of rocks, and must
then row to another in order to find anew supply. The same thing is seen on western banks, where
a vessel usually carries dories to distribute her crew over different parts of the grownd, and often,
by setting her trawls in one locality for a day or two, seems to catch up all of the fish, and must
then ‘shift her berth.’ Fishermen also cite many instances where the fishing is excellent on a
few particular, well-defined spots on different parts of the ground, while almost no fish can be
taken in other places.

“During the spawning season this tendency to become scattered is less noticeable, for the
instincts of the fish seem to bring them nearer together, and great numbers are often taken in one
particular locality. Even here, however, the tendency to separate into groups occurs, for some
boats find good fishing, while others, but a few rods away, catch almost nothing; and in trawling,
some parts of the line have a fish on nearly every hook, while other parts take only a scattering
one.

“Tn schooling, both sexes are always found together, whether it be on the spawning or feeding
ground or on the journey; but the relative numbers of each seem to vary greatly, and we have been
able to discover no invariable rule whereby one can predict with certainty the sex that will first
appear, or that which will be most abundant at any given time during the season. The fishermen
have a commonly accepted tradition that in the spawning schools the females always come first and
the males later, but this theory is not supported by facts. Observations were frequently made on
the relative numbers of the two sexes landed by the shore-fishermen between September, 1878, and
July, 1879. The results showed that during the early fall, or before the school fish had made their
appearance, the fish were nearly equally divided between males and females—first the one and then
the other being more abundant. When the school fish first reached the shore early in November
the males were a trifle more plenty than the females for about a week, but from that date until they
left the grounds the females were taken in greater numbers, sometimes in the proportion of two to
one, and at others in nearly equal quantities. In the Ipswich Bay school during the first two or
three days in February there were ten males to one female; by the middle of the month the females
composed about, forty per cent. of the catch, and from this date until the 1st of June the males
numbered two to one. From reliable fishermen we learned that the same was true of the fish on
the off-shore banks, and that, though varying greatly in their relative numbers, both males and
females were always present.

“There is usually a great difference in the size of the individuals taken by the fishermen on
the shore feeding grounds in a single day, for the young and ‘ground-tenders’ remain on these
rocky ledges during thg entire year, and late in the season the school fish come in upon the same
grounds and are naturally taken with them.

“But when the school fish visit a locality not frequented by the young, as they do in Ipswich
Bay, there is a noticeable absence of immature fish, and the catch is composed almost wholly of
individuals of large size. Thus, in the winter of 1878-79 many trips of from twenty-five to forty
thousand pounds were landed with scarcely a small fish among them, while vessels fishing only a
few miles distant found young fish plenty, and there were occasional instances where such vessels
caught only small ones. Again, though the school fish may differ considerably in size, we have
not found one, thought to belong to their number, that had not reached maturity. Indications
strongly favor the idea that the young remain separate from the school fish during the first few
years of their lives, and we are led to believe that, though they are often taken together, the

THE SCHOOLING OF THE CODFISH. : 207

occurrence is accidental and the young will not follow the old in their migrations until they reach
maturity, though after this point is reached they seem to mingle freely without regard to age.

“Codfish are probably governed in their movements by the abundance and migrations of
food, the spawning instinct, and the temperature of the water, though the last named seems to
exert but little influence. It is generally acknowledged by the fishermen that during the feeding
season fish are plenty only where food exists in considerable quantity, and that after ‘cleaning up”
one part of the bank they go to another. They also follow schools of bait for long distances, living
upon them until they are broken up or entirely destroyed. Thus they often follow the capelin
(Mallotus villosus) into the shoal water, and even drive immense numbers of them upon the shore.

“The spawning instinct seems to exert a decided influence upon the movements of the fish,
for we find them visiting the same locality year after year during the spawning season, often
remaining for several months at atime. The fish that visit the waters of Cape Ann during the
winter, doubtless come in for the purpose of spawning rather than for food. This seems clear from
the fact that they do not arrive when bait is most plenty, nor do they follow any species to the
shore. On the contrary, the pasture-school usually arrives about three weeks after the large
herring have left the coast, and remains on the south side of Cape Aun, while sperling are abundant
in Ipswich Bay. The Ipswich school is also the largest after the sperling have been driven away
by the cold weather, and remains on the sand-flats, which supply almost no food. From these
facts we are led to believe that food has little influence upon the movements of the fish during the
spawning season.

“The instinct that leads the spawning fish to seek the shoal water in such great numbers is
certainly a wise one, for they generally select spawning-grounds where the tide runs strong and
the water is rough, and the large number of individuals is absolutely necessary, that the water
may be filled with germs for their successful impregnation. If, instead of schooling in such
numbers during this period, they remained scattered. over a large area, almost no eggs would be
fertilized.

“ Again, while food is not essential to the spawning fish, it is of vital importance to the young,
and it seems a wise provision that these should be brought into being where food is abundant,
rather than that they should be hatched in mid-ocean, where almost no suitable food exists.”

MIGRATIONS AND MOVEMENTS OF THE SCHOOLS.—The causes which influence Codfish to
assemble together in schools also influence their movements from place to place. It seems most
probable that while great numbers of these fish may remain together in the same locality, feeding
upon the same kind of food without it being said that they are schooling, a movement from place
to place is, however, usual, in obedience to some tangible law, and is made simultaneously by
numerous individuals.

The migrations of the Codfish are usually of the class which I have described under the name
“bathic.”}

The Cod, like most of the other species which migrate to and from the shore instead of
northward and southward, is, doubtless, more or less dependent upon temperature conditions than
fishes like the menhaden and the blue-fish, and, as Mr. Harll has suggested,? the abundance of food
doubtless has much more influence upon its movements. We cannot doubt, however, that the Cod
moves periodically to and from the shore as a direct result of the seasonal changes of temperature.
The Cod prefers a temperature of from 35° to 42° F., approximately, and this it secures in a
temperate climate, such as that of Southern New England, by remaining on the off-shore banks in

' Report of United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, pt. v, 1879, p. 51.
2 Op. cit., p. 707.

208 ‘NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

fifteen to thirty fathoms of water, coming into the shallows in winter. On the coasts of Labrador,
Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Eastern Maine, moving to and from the shore from deeper to
shallower water and vice versa to secure at different seasons of the year a temperature environment
best suited to their needs, they are near the shore in summer and in deep water in winter.

In Norway they are caught, to some extent, in the fiords in the summer season, though more
are caught in winter, while in summer great numbers of them still remain on the off-shore banks.
Professor Hind gives this exposition of the movements of the Cod on the Labrador coast.’

“The following tables show the periods of the first arrival and last catch of Cod on the
Newfoundland and Labrador coasts. In framing these tables I have been careful to eliminate
extreme seasons, for the Cod have been known to approach the shore during an exceptionally
early season, a fortnight or three weeks sooner than during the average of years. Early and late
springs occur in the movements of fish just as irregularly as in the movements of migratory birds
or in the leafing and flowering of plants. The salmon and the Cod generally come within a week
of one another, and the Eskimo of Ukkasiksalik have a tradition that the salmon may always be
looked for on the day of the first spring tide after the 16th July. In 1875, a very late season,
Codfish were not taken before the 7th August; this year they came in on the 20th July, and this
accords with the experience on other parts of the coast.

“Table showing the approximate mean date of arrival of Cod, mean date of departure, and mean length
of the fishing season for Cod, in Northeastern Newfoundland, Southern and Northern Labrador.

Mean Mean
Lat. Locality. Poe, bree of) length of
arrival ose of | fishing
* | fisheries.| season.
NEWFOUNDLAND.
a
47 30 | Conception Bay ...-..-.--.----------+--eee ee eee June 1} Nov. 20 |}
48 20 | Bonavista Bay ...---.-.----.-- +--+ +e eeeeee eres June 10 | Nov. 10
48 30 | Notre Dame Bay....-.------- Sdeieisicisisiciecieversetased June 20 | Nov. 10
50 00 | Cape Saint John to Par. Point -...-......------- June 20 | Nov. 1 | }143 days.
49 30 | White Bay. ....---..----------+- 202-2 eee eee eee June 10 | Nov. 1
51 00 | Cape Rouge Harbor.........-..-----------+----+ June 10 | Nov. 1
51 30 | Cape Bauld to Cape Onion ....--.----..--.------ June 20 | Oct. 20
(Over four degrees of latitude.)
SOUTHERN LABRADOR.
52 00 | Chateau Bay.....-..-------------eee eee ee eee eee June 20] Oct. 1
53 24 | Batteaux July 12 | Oct. 10
‘ 87 days.
54 26 | Indian Harbor .......--.----- Rope merd beaiemimiene July 15 | Oct. 1
Ot 8G Rape Barisan 6 .2cscancses ecoesouminaonentomneee July 18 | Oct. 1
(Over three degrees of latitude.)
NORTHERN LABRADOR.
55 14 | Aillik ......-.--.00 2-20 - oe ee eee eee rere ee July 20 | Oct. 1
64 57 | Kypokok ..-...-.--.--- +--+ 2+ sees ence eee e eee eee July 20 | Oct. 1
65 27 | FIOPOGSG scenayeerewens--senswoegs on enwem es sawee July 20 | Oct. 1
53 30 | Double Island Harbor 2+ ..<.020sscscne00 000000 July 22 | Oct. 1
55 52 | Ukkasiksalik ..........--.---- 222-20 eee eee eee ee July 28 | Oct. 1 | ¢61 days.
BO 32 || Noli uivescsaxeeyssssssagieonssasnnumeneexas ears July 28) Oct. 1
57 80 | Okktak .......----2 22-2 reece eects ae eee e enone July 28 | Oct. 1
58 80 | Hebretie. cnssesccenetmisssemevs seesewmaeenenses Aug. 15 | Sept. 25
58 46 | Lampson..........-.--.--- 2202 - scene eee eee eee eee Aug. 15 | Sept. 15
(Over three and a half degrees of latitude.)

“From this table, imperfect as it is, we may deduce the following law: ‘Over an area
extending northerly from Conception Bay for seven hundred miles, the Cod approach the shore
about one week later for every degree of latitude we advance to the north’

1Hinp, H. Y.: The Effect of the Fishery Clauses of the Treaty of Washington upon the Fishermen of British
North America. Halifax, 1877.

HIND ON MIGRATIONS OF THE COD. 209

“The table shows also that for a period of about forty days the cod fishery goes on
simultaneously during August and September, throughout the length of a coast line extending
from latitude 47° to latitude 50° 30’, or more than seven hundred statute miles in one continuous
line. Hence it appears that the migrations of the schools of this fish are merely from deep-water
winter feeding grounds to the nearest coast spawning grounds, and from the coast to the nearest
deep-water feeding grounds again. The coast migrations during the summer months appear to
be of equally limited extent, and schools of Cod frequenting any particular coast may be said to
be indigenous to it.

“On the Labrador, especially in well-known deep bays, such as Hamilton Inlet, the coast
movements of the fish appear to be very regular, and determined to a large degree by the tidal
currents. The caplin generally precede the Cod by a few days, and these fish are known to
approach the coast and enter sandy coves for the purpose of spawning. The same meteorological
influence which guides the movements of the Cod affects also the periods of spawning of the
caplin. I saw numerous schools of this fish spawning in Trinity Bay on the 27th June; a month
later they spawn in Kypokok Bay, and still later further to the north.”!

I have before me the statements of nearly a hundred observers which I hope to discuss more
fully at some future time. These opinions confirm, in a very striking manner, the generalization
just stated. They show that while on the coast of Maine the Cod leave the immediate shores in
the autumn, not reappearing in any considerable numbers until late in the following spring, south of
Cape Cod they approach the shore only in the winter season, while during the summer they
keep out in the cold Labrador current, which extends south to the inside of the current of the
Gulf Stream. In Vineyard Sound, Buzzard’s Bay, and off the shores of Connecticut, New York,
Delaware, New Jersey, and even in Eastern Virginia, there is excellent cod fishing during the
winter season. “A wise provision of nature,” remarks Professor Baird, “in the absence of so
many species that supply food during the suinmer.”

It will probably be found that fishing in deeper water in these same regions in summer will
bring to light an abundance of Cod.

“Tn European seas,” writes Professor Hind, ‘the depth at which the fishermen look for Cod
vari2s with the season of the year, and is a point toward which much attention is paid in Norway
and England. On the Dogger Bank, the smacks fish at the following depths during the months
named:

Fathoms.
December cs s.c sescctecens dais Ge wiscae oe ex gto sa see us Gehdessesees deesntiee sees ce wel d2to Td
I AUALY sinisins swiss S5:sr stoi srctcie eisinie sain stnibime ora e Sie EIR Sas Visia aisle Seisiene wR Rieisicrels Weieieieulenemel 14 to 18
PODTUADY sie cisict oc cdcavsreicla sats cjerb sinters winia's urd is Gis sie a:aiarai cya sie weteie are sinia wteitle ikea cigiahe osreveracieigig 18 to 22
Marelisn ssn ciccetdeeisins secu tenes SeseGe Soreness wis Giaraehdahaiviuiale vate cig latejeteearseereeeueae 10 to 12”

From Professor Hind’s pen the following paragraphs are also taken:

“When the coasts of Finmark are thronged with fishermen catching their fares of the ‘Lodde,’ or
Summer Cod, the shores of Northeast Newfoundland and the shore of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence
are alive with fishermen successfully capturing the same variety of fish in British American waters ;
and when the Russian on the Murmanian coast is laying in his winter stock of Cod, and accumu-
lating a large overplus for a foreign market, the Newfoundlander and the Labradorian are securing
their fares as far as the Moravian Missionary Stations, Okak and Nain. So, also, in the North Sea
and on the coast of the British Isles, around thé Faroe Islands, all along the Icelandic shores, on the
south coast of Greenland, off Arksut Fiord, away up north to Torske Banks, and down the Atlantic

1HIND: op. cit., pt. ii, p. 70.
14 F

210 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

coast of America to over the Grand Banks, and as far as, and even beyond, Saint George’s Shoal,
the Cod is taken simultaneously and in great abundance.

“Local variations of days, and even weeks, occur in a coast line or stretch of shallow sea of
not more than one hundred miles in length; but these arise from the one great leading cause which
guides the Cod in its approach to known feeding grounds on the coast or known banks at sea.
This leading cause is temperature, which determines the movement toward the coast of the various
forms of marine life on which the Cod, inhabiting different waters, is accustomed to feed.

The Cod, caught on each stretch of coast line within variable but tolerably well-defined limits, are
indigenous to the sea area adjacent to the sea-coast which they frequent.

“Thus the winter haunts of the Codfish on the Northern Labrador coast are the slopes of the
great range of outside banks on that coast. The summer haunts of the ‘Winter Cod’ caught on
the coast of Norway during the winter season, are on the slope of the ‘Storegg’ and its continua-
tions which lie seawards from the Norwegian coast, following the edge of the barrier separating
the ‘polar deeps’ from the shallower coastal seas. The seasonal movements of the Cod are reversed
in this case, purposely introduced, but have afforded a beautiful illustration of the principles
adopted and confirmed by Professor Baird and of the influence of marine climate on fish-life.”!

The depth at which Codfish are found varies greatly with the season and locality. Itis stated
by Mr. Earll that they seem to prefer water less than seventy fathoms deep, and that by far the
greater numbers are caught in from eighteen to forty fathoms. This generalization will doubtless
hold true for the whole coast of North America. Many of our correspondents state that they are
occasionally seen in water two or three feet in depth. In the course of the recent explorations by
Professor Agassiz, Cod were found three hundred fathoms below the surface.

“In February, 1879, there was good fishing in three fathoms of water, within a few rods of
shore in Ipswich Bay, while in May of the same year large numbers were taken in one hundred
and ten fathoms from the channel near Clarke’s Bank.”

It would be extremely interesting to know the extent of the migrations of Codfish, from deep
to shallow water and back again, on different parts of the coast. This, however, varies with local
conditions. There have already been many observations made, the study of which will doubtless
aid in the solution of this problem, but it is exceedingly important that there should be systematic
exploration at a distance from the shore both in winter and summer. This is one of the tasks
proposed by the Commissioner of Fisheries for the new sea-going steamer now being constructed.
Mr. Marcus A. Hanna, of Bowery Beach, Maine, states that he knows certain places on the coast
of Maine where Cod are found in mid-winter not more than two miles from land, in water from
forty to fifty fathoms deep, and upon soft bottom. A portion of the Gloucester George’s Bank
fleet continues fishing through the winter months, though at this season the vessels do not, as in
spring and summer, fish upon the shallow parts of the bank, but rather seek the deep waters
around its edge. The fish make their appearance, however, on the bank early in February.

An experimental cruise made in winter by Captain Mar throws some light on the movements
of the Cod in this region: “‘ One winter I started on a cruise before the time for the Cod to come,
which was usually from February 7th to the 10th. I sounded all over the usual ground. None there.
Cruised seventy-five miles to the south’ard, sounding in thirty to one hundred fathoms of water.
Found none—only one Codfish. Got back to the banks and found the Codfish there.” At another
time he was going over the shoal ground of the banks in February, with a load of fish; in sounding,
passing over the shoals in sixteen fathoms of water, he caught six pairs of large fish. He thinks
that they were “solid,” passing over the shoal. It should be borne in mind that these fish were

1 Hind, op. cit., pt. i, pp. 15, 16.

CAPTAIN MAR’S EXPERIMENTAL CRUISE, 211

canght on hooks fastened to the sounding-lead, which was thrown over while the vessel was in
motion.

The remarks made in the previous section regarding the times at which Cod were present and
absent on different parts of the coast should be understood as expressing the facts only in a general
way. It is undoubtedly true that Cod may be found in greater or less numbers within reach of
the land from Block Island to Newfoundland, and perhaps to Labrador, at all seasons of the year.
South of Block Island, Codfish are very rarely noticed in summer, even in the deepest water
frequented by the fishermen, though a few remain on the grounds in the vicinity of the islands
during the whole summer.

In the waters from Cape Cod to Cape Ann, and perhaps a little farther to the north, we find
the district in which the bathic migrations of the Codfish are least apparent, the periodical changes
in depth being but slight from winter to summer—the fish being within easy reach of the fishermen
at all seasons of the year. Even here, however, there is a great increment in their numbers in
winter.

The statements which have been made regarding the periodical movements of the Cod I do
not by any means consider satisfactory or final. These movements are the results of many
influences, and no one yet understands how much weight to attach to the relative importance
of these three influences, ¢. ¢., (1) the direct effect of temperature upon the fish themselves; (2)
the abundance of food, as affected by temperature and other causes; and (3) the direct relations
between temperature and the reproductive habits of the fish. There is no more difficult problem
in ichthyological science.

“The Codfish sometimes make long journeys from one bank to another, and, indeed, from one
region to a very distant one. It is, of course, nearly impossible to trace their movements at such
times, and one can usually only guess at the place from whence they come or the distance traveled.

“During the winter of 1877-78 an unusually large school visited the coast of the United
States. At this time Cod were more plenty along the shores of New England than for many years.
Among the fish captured at Cape Ann and other points were quite a number with peculiar hooks
in their mouths. These hooks gave a clew to the movements of the fish, for they differed from any
in use by the American fishermen, and proved identical with those used by French trawl-fishermen
on the Grand Banks, and indicated that the fish must at some time have been in that locality, as
the hooks probably came from no other place. If the above be granted as proven, the fish must
have traveled a distance of five to eight hundred miles at least, and, as a portion of the school
continued well to the southward, some individuals must have journeyed much farther.

“In moving from one bank to another, where the intervening depth is much greater, it seems
probable that, instead of following the bottom, they swim in a horizontal plane, following a stratum
of nearly uniform density and temperature. The fishermen of Cape Ann have often caught them
with seventy to eighty fathoms of line, between Brown’s and George’s Banks, where the sounding-
line indicated a much greater depth. The finding of pebbles and small stones in their stomachs is
not an uncommon occurrence. The fishermen regard these as an unfailing sign that the fish have
either just arrived or are about to leave the bank. These stones may play no small part in adjust-
ing the specific gravity of the fish to that of the stratum of water in which they are to move.

“There seems to be a tendency for the large fish to remain in deeper water or nearer the
bottom than the small; and usually, beyond a certain depth, the deeper one fishes the larger the fish.
Formerly, in hand-lining from deck on the banks, the vessels often anchored in eighty or even
ninety fathoms, and the catch averaged over two-thirds large; but in hand-lining from dories
they seldom fish in over fifty and usually less than thirty-five fathoms, as they find it difficult to

212 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS

handle so much line, and the catch runs about two-thirds small. The same is true in fishing ati
different depths at the same time and in the same place. Thus, of two men fishing side by side
from the deck of a vessel, the one with his hook on the bottom will catch much larger fish than
the other who lets his line but part way down. Larger fish are also taken on the trawl than on the
hand-line, for the former lies constantly on the bottom, while the latter may pe raised to any
distance above it.””?

Foop.—Codfish feed upon all marine animals smaller than themselves which are found in the
same waters with them and are digestible. It would seem useless to give a catalogue of the species
which have been discovered in their stomachs. For a long period of years, before our naturalists
learned to use the hand-dredge, a favorite place in which to search for the rare invertebrates of the
deep water was the fish-dealer’s store, and from the stomachs of Codfish scores of shells new to
science have been taken. Since the introduction of improved methods of deep-sea research this
mode of collecting has been somewhat less prosperous, but even at the present time many impor-
tant additions to zodlogy are yearly made by the aid of this omnivorous animal. In the Report of
the United States Commission, Part I, pp. 516, 517, may be found a list of the species of mollusks
obtained by Mr. J. Hammond Trumbull from Cod caught near Stonington, Connecticut, and this
includes but a very small percentage of the number that has thus been observed.

Codfish swallow bivalve shells of the largest size, like the great sea clams, which are a favorite
article of food on certain portions of the’coast; for instance, in Ipswich Bay great beds of empty
shells of the sea-clam, Mactra ovalis, may be found upon the bottom. These shells are “nested,”
the smaller inside of the larger, sometimes six or seven in a set, having been packed together in
this compact manner in the stomachs of the Codfish after the soft parts have been digested out. Some
of them had shreds of the mussels remaining in them and were quite fresh, having evidently been
but recently ejected by the fish. In Dana’s “Geology” are mentioned great banks of dead shells
off the island of Grand Manan, which doubtless originated in the same manner. Mr. W. H. Dall
found some similar beds on the coast of Alaska which he attributed to the walrus, but which are more
probably the remains of mollusks eaten by the Codfish. They feed also upon crabs of all kinds,
lobsters and star fish, and have been seen at the surface catching the potato beetles and “June-
bugs” which have drifted out from the shore. It is said that they succeed occasionally in capturing
a duck,? and that they vary their diet by browsing upon carrageen, or Irish moss, which grows on
the ledges near the shore. In searching at the bottom for shells and worms, Codfish often pick
up objects which can hardly be regarded as nutritious. A very amusing catalogue of such objects
might be included in this chapter, in which would be enumerated articles such as scissors, brass
oil-cans, potato parings, corn cobs, and head of a rubber doll. The finding of finger-rings and
fragments of oil-clothing, and the heel of a boot, inside of a large Codfish has suggested the idea
that sometimes they swallow the fishermen.

“A wedding ring which belonged to Pauline Burnam, an English lady who was lost in the
steamship Anglo Saxon, wrecked off Chance Cove, N. F., in 1861, was lately restored to her rela-
tions by a St. Johns (N. F.) fisherman, who found the ring in the entrails of a Codfish. The
lucky fisherman received a present of £50 for restoring the highly prized memento to the lady’s son.”*

Stones of considerable size are often found in their stomachs, and fishermen have a theory
that this is a sign of an approaching storm and that the fish thus take in ballast to enable them

!HARLu: loe. cit.

2The Vineyard Gazette says that Mr. James Osborne took a Codfish on Wednesday, at the “‘South Side,” which
weighed over sixty pounds. On dressing it, two full-grown ducks (old squaws) were found in its entrails, They were
quite fresh, having most of their feathers on.—Gloucester Telegraph, May 6, 1857.

3Boston Journal, July 6, 1871.

FOOD OF THE COD. 213

to remain at the bottom when the waters are troubled. It is more likely that these stones are
swallowed on account of sea-anemones or other edible substances which may be attached to them,
in just the same manner that the shells of mollusks are taken in for the sake of the nutritious
parts which they contain.

It is believed that certain schools of Codfish feed almost entirely at the bottom, while others
prey upon fish. The fishermen claim to be able to distinguish these two classes by their general
appearance, the first being heavier, with shorter heads, blunter noses, and smaller fins, and fre-
quently known as‘ grubbers” or “ ground-keepers,” while fish belonging to what are known as the
squid school, the herring school, and the lant school, which are probably the same fish at different
seasons of the year, are brighter-eyed, slenderer in form, with sharper head, and in every way
better adapted for swift locomotion. On the coast of Labrador, as well as in Scandinavia, Codfish
follow the schools of spawning capelin in to the shore and prey greedily upon them, and elsewhere,
at other seasons, they feed with no less voracity upon other species of fish which may be schooling,
and of which they destroy vast numbers, such as mackerel, menhaden, herring, alewife, salmon,
sculpin, flounders, cunners, and haddock.

In November, 1877, Mr. Vinal N. Edwards found in the stomachs of Cod taken at Noman’s
Land many species of fish, some of which, like Humesogrammus subbifurcatus, are found only at
great depths, and others, like the two-spined stickle-back, Gasteroseus biaculeatus, and the little
file-fish, Monocanthus setifer, must have been taken at the surface or near the shore.

On the Grand Banks, especially in shallow water about the Virgin Rocks, I have been told
that they follow the lant to the surface, pursuing them with great fierceness. Along our northern
coasts they replace, to some extent, the voracious bluefish and bonito of the South. Captain
Atwood remarks that the amount of food which they consume is enormous, when the size of the
fish is taken into account. He has seen them on the coast of Labrador, where the capelin were in
great numbers, with their stomachs filled to the greatest possible extent, and capelin in their
mouths which they were unable to swallow for want of room, and in this condition they were still
biting at the hook. They even feed upon the young of their own kind. They are said to feed
largely upon herring spawn, though they are not seen in great numbers, about the spawning
grounds until the schools of parent fish have departed. The herring, also, is a favorite article of
food, and when these fish approach the shores or are seen on the banks it is a very good sign that
Cod will soon be abundant. Mr. Earll remarks: .

“T am told that in the spring of 1879 an immense school of herring moved closely across
George’s Bank, and that with them came the largest school of Cod that has been seen in that
locality for a long time. The Cod remained constantly among the herring, so that when the latter
had passed the fishing fleet, the vessels were obliged to weigh anchor and follow them in order to
secure the Cod.

“About Provincetown the common squid sometimes appear in great numbers, and they are
most vigorously preyed upon by the Cod.”

The same accurate observer gives the following notes concerning their food while breeding:

“During the spawning season the Codfish cease to search for food, and give less attention to
feeding than at other times, though they will usually take the bait when placed before them. That
they do not search for food is shown by the fact that the pasture school remained within a few
miles of a large school of sperling without being drawn after them; and that the Ipswich Bay
school was largest after the sperling had left the coast, and remained for a number of months on
sandy wastes which supported only three species of invertebrates, Buccinum undatum, Fusus sp.,
and Asterias vulgaris, in any considerable abundance. The examination of the stomachs of several

214 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

hundred individuals showed four-fifths of all to be entirely empty, while a greater part of the
remainder contained only bait picked from the trawls of the fishermen. A small number contained
fish of one or more species that had probably been captured in the locality, while a few scattering
invertebrates were found. Of the species mentioned as abundant on the grounds, not a star-fish
and. but two shells of one species and one of the other were found. But it was clearly shown that
the fish would not refuse food, for often the stomachs were well filled with bait picked from the
trawl before the fish were hooked. From ten to fifteen pieces were frequently found, and in one
case eighteen were counted.

“The females when fully ripe seemed less willing to feed than at other times, and few were
caught with the moving hand-lines; but when the trawl was used, thus leaving the bait motionless
on the bottom for hours at a time, they were induced to bite, and many were taken with the eggs
running from them. Ripe males seemed to bite readily at any time.

“The young fish, as has been remarked, seems to spend the first three or four years of its life
in shoal water, among the rocks and alg. Here its food consists at first of the minutest forms,
and later principally of small crustacea, though it often picks up mollusks and worms, and even
enters the harbors in summer, where it remains about the wharves, picking up bits of refuse thrown
from the fish-houses.”

Capt. R. H. Hurlbert tells me that sometimes a school of Codfish will bite at night; these the
fishermen call ‘Night Cod.”

In 1860 the schooner “OC. C. Davis” caught one entire trip of fish on George’s Bank all in
the night, and there are other instances on record, though, as a rule, these fish feed only in the
daytime.

REPRODUCTION.—Two important papers on the breeding of the Codfish have recently been
printed in the Report of the United States Fish Commission. The first of these is a translation
of a report by Prof. G.O. Sars upon the practical and scientific investigations concerning the Cod-
fish of the Loffoden Islands, Norway, made during the years 186469, in behalf of the Norwegian
Government.’ His observations are full of interest. He tells us how, from year to year, he
observed the movements of the Codfish and studied out their spawning habits.

In 1864 he visited the Loffoden Islands, in January, February, and March. He observed the
coming in of the fish, as they approached the coast, swimming up the fiords in large schools, and
in the latter part of February, and from that time until the end of March, found the eggs in
immense numbers floating at the surface.

In 1865 he reached the islands in the beginning of March and remained until the middle of
May. He gathered the eggs as they floated at the surface, and hatched them out in glass jars.
He also artificially impregnated the eggs and found that the period of incubation lasted eighteen
days. He also observed a few very small young fish at the surface.

In 1866 he was on the ground on the 7th of May, and remained until July. This year he
found great quantities of young Codfish—the largest being about one and a half inches in
length—swimming under the jelly fish (which are so numerous in those northern waters), and
also under other objects floating in the sea.

In 1867 he reached the islands late in July, and remained until the beginning of October, and
succeeded in finding the young fish, two inches or slightly more in length, swimming near the
surface in the “slicks,” and also in the shallow inlets near the shores, in company with the young
pollock, while the stomachs of all the larger Codfish and pollock taken in the neighborhood were
full of them. He also found in the beginning of October many larger young Codfish, upwards

1 United States Fish Commission, pt. v, pp. 565-661.

SARS ON REPRODUCTION OF THE COD. 915

of four inches in length and about seven months old, as estimated, at the bottom, at a depth of
several fathoms.

In 1868 he began his observations in November, and in November and December found young
fish six or seven inches in length at a depth of eight to twelve fathoms, usually in the vicinity of
steep ledges and rocks. This year he remained until March, and in February found great num-
bers of young Codfish, the average length of which was about one foot, at an average of twenty
to thirty fathoms, on sandy bottom. “In the beginning,” he remarks, “I thought that these must
be two-year-old fish, but when I afterwards set my line in shallower places I also collected smaller
fish, so that I soon had all the different grades of size.”

This last visit extended over into the year 1869, and at the time of his departure the schools
of spawning fish were again on the ground. He had thus traced the development of the Codfish
throughout a period of twelve months, and had secured a very complete chain of evidence with
which to bind together the isolated facts regarding the growth and habits of the young fish which
had hitherto been or should hereafter be observed.

From 1870 to 1873 he continued his observations upon the young and adult fish, and in
midsummer found Cod at a distance of twenty to thirty Norwegian miles from the shore, and
at a depth of from one hundred to one hundred and fifty fathoms. These observations, as
has already been remarked, are of the utmost importance, and the reports of Professor Sars are
full of observations of the most suggestive kind concerning the food, the movements, and the
general habits of the fish.

The other paper referred to, which is of equal value, is the report of Mr. R. EB. Earll upon the
natural history and artificial propagation of the Cod, as observed at. the station of the United
States Fish Commission at Gloucester, Massachusetts.! His remarks upon the reproduction of the
Codfish are here quoted in full, with the single observation that no one has so carefully observed
the spawning habits of any other species of fish.

“The Cad is one of the most prolific of the ocean fishes, and we find not only thousands but
millions of eggs in a single female. All members of this family contain large numbers of eggs,
but the Codfish is the most prolific of all.

“The exact number of eggs in a female varies greatly with the individual, being dependent
largely upon its size and age. To ascertain the number for the different sizes, a series of six fish,
representing various stages of growth from twenty-one to seventy-five pounds, was taken, and
the eggs were estimated. Care was exercised that the series should contain only immature
females, so that no egg should have been lost, and that all might be of nearly equal size.
The ovaries were taken from the fish and their weight accurately ascertained; after which small
quantities were taken from different parts of each and weighed on delicately adjusted scales,
the eggs in these portions being carefully counted. The number contained in a given weight
being known, it was easy to ascertain approximately the entire number for each fish.

“The results obtained are given in a table, quoted below, showing a twenty-one-pound fish to
have 2,700,000, and a seventy-five-pound one, 9,100,000. The largest number of eggs found in the
pollock was 4,029,200, and in the haddock 1,840,000.

“When the eggs are first seen in the fish they are so small as to be hardly distinguishable,
but they continue to increase in size until maturity, and, after impregnation, have a diameter,
depending upon the size of the parent, varying from one-nineteenth to one-seventeenth of an inch.
A five to eight pound fish has eggs of the smaller size, while a twenty-five-pound one has them
between an eighteenth and a seventeenth.

1 Report of United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, pt. 6, 1878, pp. 685-740,

216 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“From weighing and measuring known quantities it is found that one pound avoirdupois will
contain 190,000 of the smaller size, or that 1,000,000 eggs well drained will weigh about five
pounds. Again, by assuming one-nineteenth of an inch as the standard, or by precipitating a
known quantity in chromic acid and measuring, we find one quart, or fifty-seven and three-quarters
cubic inches, to contain a little less than 400,000, or that 1,000,000 will measure between two and
a half and three quarts.

““With these facts in mind, it will be an easy matter to estimate the quantity of eggs taken
for hatching purposes during any given season.

“When the little fish first breaks through the shell of the egg that confines it, the fetal curve
or crook is still quite noticeable, but it soon straightens, and is then about five-sixteenths of an
inch inlength. At this time the yelk-sack, situated well forward, is quite large, but so transparent
as to escape the notice of the ordinary observer. This is gradually absorbed, disappearing wholly
in about ten to fifteen days, and the little fish begins to move about with a peculiar serpentine
motion, at times darting quite rapidly, and then remaining motionless, as if resting from its
exertions. It now begins its independent existence, and moves about more frequently, apparently
in search of food. From this date it is impossible to follow the Cod, for none have been confined,
and it is only by catching large numbers at different seasons and carefully recording their weights
and measurements that one is enabled to judge of their growth. The habits of the species, that
cause them to live near the shore for the first few years, furnish excellent opportunities for such
observations, and many were examined during our stay at Cape Ann.

“ At the outset the problem becomes difficult, in that the spawning period, instead of being
limited to a few weeks, as is the case with most species, extends over fully three-fourths of the year,
and the difficulty is greatly increased by other causes that affect the rate of growth of individuals
hatched at the same time.

“The results were what might be expected; for a table of measurements, made late in June,
gave an almost continuous series, with only one or two breaks, that could with certainty be taken
to represent the non-spawning period of the fish. But though the gaps were so completely closed
by the extremes in variation, which seemed to cause even an overlapping, showing the last hatched
of one season to be smaller than the first hatched of the next succeeding, yet there was a tendency for
the greater number of individuals to be thrown into groups at intervals in the series, these seeming
to represent the height of the spawning season for the different years. The breadk was distinct
between the smallest and those of a year earlier, so that, taking the height of the spawning season
on the south side of Cape Ann to be December, the large number of young fry ranging from one
and a half to three inches must have been hatched the previous winter, and were consequently
about six months old. The large number of individuals having a length of nine to thirteen inches
indicated the normal growth of those hatched a year earlier, or fish of eighteen months, to be ten
to eleven inches, and their weight seven to eight ounces. The next group, or the fish thought to
be thirty months old, measured from seventeen to eighteen inches, with an average weight of two
to two and a quarter pounds. The fish now begin to increase more in weight than in length, soon
appearing in the markets as ‘Scrod,’ and by the following summer measure about twenty-two
inches and weigh from four to five pounds.

“Beyond this period nothing can be determined, for the variation, constantly growing greater,
now gives every size and weight, with no indication of breaks in the series.

“But enough has been learned, if the above be correct, to show that the male reaches maturity
at three and the female at four years; for the smallest ripe male noticed during the season of
1878~79 weighed three and a half and the smallest ripe female five pounds.

SPAWNING HABITS OF THE COD. Zt

“Evidence is not wanting to show that a Cod spawns every year, and that it deposits the
entire number of eggs in the ovaries each season. We have examined hundreds of specimens and
have failed to find a single instance where the condition of the ovaries did not clearly indicate
that such was the case. During the first of the season no mature fish were found in which
eggs were not present, though they often varied greatly in development from very small to
nearly ripe. Again, later in the season, no spent fish were seen with any eggs remaining
in the ovaries; and no fish were found during the spawning period in which the condition of the
ovaries did not indicate that the eggs were gradually maturing, and would be deposited before the
close of the season.

“The eggs contained in the ovaries are separated into little irregular conical clusters, each
being connected with the general mass by aslender thread that expands into a delicate membrane
containing minute and diffusely branched blood-vessels. This membrane envelops each of the eggs,
and the blood-vessels supply the nutrition so necessary tu their future growth and development.
As the eggs mature they gradually increase in size, until, when ripe, they become detached from
the membrane, and pass down through secondary channels into the main channel leading to the
genital opening of the female.

“The first ripe female seen during the season of 1878/79 was found in a lot of shore-
fish or ground-tenders landed September 2. The eggs were noticed to be running from this fish as
it lay upon the floor of the fish-house. On opening it, we found that it-had just begun spawning,
for a few eggs only, perhaps five per cent. of the entire number, were transparent, and a small
number of these had separated from the membrane and fallen into the channels leading to the
genital opening, while the great bulk were far less mature and represented almost every stage of
development from green to ripe.

“From this date ripe fish, both males and females, were occasionally taken, though they did
not become abundant until the middle of October. Early in November, when the school-fish made
their appearance on the south side of Cape Ann, the individuals varied greatly in their spawning
condition; some were quite ripe and had already thrown a portion of their eggs, while others were
so green as to indicate that they would not spawn for several months at least, though, in nearly
all, the eggs had begun to enlarge. By the first of December fully fifty per cent. of the catch had
commenced spawning, but when driven away, probably by the unusually heavy storms, in January,
a few were not quite ripe, and the majority had not thrown all their eggs.

“About the first of February the fish in Ipswich Bay were found to average fully ninety per
cent. males, with the spermaries mostly well developed. At this time there was a great variation
in the ovaries of the females; of these not more than one in ten had spawned, while fully sixty
per cent. were still green. By the middle of the month the females numbered about forty per cent.,
though over half had not commeuced spawning. On March 13, three hundred fish from this school
were opened, with the following results: Fourteen per cent. were spent males; fifty-three per cent.
were ripe males; six per cent. were spent females; fourteen per cent. were females in various stages
of spawning; and eleven per cent. were green females. May 10, fully half of the females had not
finished spawning, and an occasional green one was noticed. Even in June, when the fish left the
coast, a very few, though ripe, had not finished throwing their eggs.

“The results of the above observation prove not only interesting, but surprising, for we find
the Codfish spawning through nine consecutive months in the same locality, a period far exceeding
that required by any other species of which we have any knowledge.

“This fact can be more easily understood when we remember that the individuals do not
deposit all their eggs in a single day or week, but probably continue the operation of spawning

2S NATURAL SISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

ever a penad af fally we maniks. Whar tis i: ume dhere cam be Sick dente. for when ihe
Semmales Gosa erie =. drew Ghd coos eelly a Very samll pereemiage ef ide whele mamber are pe.
Tmaijon of imdividdmals im mame 2 ova Sass. a Was feed tha the exes sradeally wate we
Imerense im Site 23 hey rontcc:. amd dag 4: tox 2: thew become Geaacked rem the mernbrume they
yess dowm thoi de chacc-s tw the epepime. amd am exchedied irem ibe badly. osher ai ibe
Will ef the paresi a by iezermal pressere 20s: by the moreaciae Sime of the ees. te make rean
fer oibars. Ti woeld be cleat: far a Sch io remain al, or even a small pari. of “cs exes me oe
reebags wmiil Gh: 22s: ea@ tmmitered, fe the = cea Ges the Gevelapemeni 5s wery creas. and
they would cone w have a bel ereazer tuac the emime Somech cavey of the ih. The pe
pounds amd isc pearly seven rallans. equal 79 ower half of cies the weichi or bel of the 51.

= Anoiber proof thai the Cadi Cocestis ts toe8 ccndhmally cic™5 a kame period cs <<cc im the
Eeca that ®&w cam be jake from the [s: af 3 te. Te -sirippiee ibe Sa a ihe eho
Gloerester. i was found thai oaly ome quart, 2c =: than SUG exes. cophi be wakem five a
weniy-ope pound =: ai a Sesle srippmme. Al v—nr the ovarnes -¢ Dos 3s fe coma 2A
ezes. and the time af Spawning i: be we moniks. the Sch was deposi im tee materal war 3373.
@ pearly a quart, each week.

~Bai by the artifetal meibod. where sear external pressare is applied, many more exes are
Probably scored ai ame tham woaki be materally thrown by the sh. Thess the Sch mos ether
gradeally deposit mare or less ezes each day. during the aniire Sawing Seana, or it mest Gepost
@i imiervals separated by only a day a two ai — ost.

+The schools of Cad move about bet nile durme the spawning seas. excep: whee driven
away by epemies or by Violent Siamms. Afier they reach the waters of Cape Amn. Sshimr conte
‘DSS Im the same localizes. and even upon the same Spots. wniil they eave. The individual. raa,
scam w move about bai litle amenz themselves. When the female bevoanes ripe She remains
quietly near the bottom, while the male, a lle more active. Gem swims bicher ep. This is indi-
cated by the faci thai sresier numbers of spawning emekes are taken with the avi, wheh
les direcily om the bottom, than with the hand-lime a liiale way above if, while the males are waken
@m ome as readily 25 on the other.

Ti may pot be Sees that the exes are feruilimed while Goating about im the water jume
minutes after exclaston, and that the sromz tiles << 7 foand on ibe Spawning creeds ply an
important part im disiibating the serms. thus making the chances of mprezmatine mare Averabk.
Indeed it may be possible, and, if the spawning soe: on sradwally fe sveca months [vas meat
improbable. thai the immediate presence af the oppasite s:xes during the act of spawning bk eet
mecessary, bat rather thai the exes are iriilized mainly by accdental contac. Observathes
Wouki seem i Ssremethen the probabilities of this theary; for if the ish weni im pai they woald
often be taken on adjomming books of the wraw1 or ame on either book of the band-lime. Sach js
pot usaally the case. however. bat, on the conirary, several of the same <x are more fiequeatiy
taken together.

~The ezzs have a specific eravity of 1.(¢%) 7 L025, as indicated by the fact that they deat ie
sali water and sink rapidly in esh. They may be found at the sarfice im common with exes of
the Pollock, Haddock, and probably cther species of the cod family. when the a ©: smooth: bat
When ihe water becomes roach they are cared w a depth of s¢vera! fathoms by the current,
though the tendency is to remain near the surface. The oldest fishermen had met the Sichtest
knowledge of this fact, but beh to the theory that the females deposited their egss on the recks,

THE HATCHING OF THE COD EGGS. 219

where they were visited and impregnated by the males, and left to become the food of the various
animals so abundant ia such localities. They had at times noticed the little transparent globular
bodies in the water, but it had never occurred to them that they were the eggs of any fish.

“There are many ways in which the eggs may be destroyed. The principal loss is probably
the result of non-impreguation, for unless they come in contact with the milt of the male very soon
after being thrown from the parent they lose their vitality. Again, being drifted about by the winds
and tides, they are often carried long distances from the spawning grounds into the little bays and
coves, and are driven in immense numbers upon the shores, or are left dry by the tides, where they
soon die from exposure to the atmosphere, or, during the cold winter weather, are instantly destroyed
by freezing. Ipswich Bay, the most extensive spawning ground in the locality, is especially
unfortunate in this particular, for the heavy storms from the north and east sweep with unbroken
force across its surface, and each breaker as it rolls in upon the beach must carry with it many
millions of eggs.

‘But such impregnated eggs as escape destruction upon the shores are subjected to the ravages
of the myriads of hungry animals living about the rocks and coves. One day in January we placed
a jelly-fish or medusid, having a diameter of but one and a half inches, into a tray of eggs in
the hatching-room, and in less than five minutes it had fastened seventy eggs to his tentacles,
loading some of them so heavily that they were severed from the body by the weight or resistance
of the eggs as they were dragged through the water.

“By the aid of a microscope, numbers of vorticelli were frequently found upon the eggs, in one
case forty-six being counted on a single egg. In addition a peculiar growth, thought to be minute
alge, was often noticed upon them. Just what influence these would exert, or whether they would
occur in the clear water outside the harbor, is not known. Thus, owing to the many different
circumstances that tend to destroy the eggs, probably but a very small number out of a million
are successfully hatched, and of the young fish but few reach maturity.”

In the winters of 1878~79 and 1880~81 the United States Fish Commission successfully carried
on the work of artificial propagation of Codfish. The results of the first winter’s work at Gloucester
will be found detailed in Mr. Earll’s paper, from which quotations have already been so extensively
taken.

In addition to his other observations, Mr. Earll computed the number of eggs in Codfish of
different sizes. The results of his observations are shown in the following table:

Table showing the number of eggs in Codjish of different sizes.

=
; lal || | |tels | 3
4 q|eé Ba | 2 |fe8 | SBE) He ad
a A a E ih Se we? qi ws 2a
a 4 Sa oe Bh a o¢ oars © Eb 8
Number. e om 2 a go | Ae Hom ty 54
3 P=} a=Bs) ea Py Sa Say 29 Aa
% = | & ae gael eos | ‘ge 32
g Gl oO sé 8 3 Be BAe q s 2?
na ° r i=}
4 B E ge | 24 4 A 4 a
Ft.in. | Lbs. | Lbs. oz. Oz. | Lbs. oz.
Tyeeseccis cee cites ceecciociccl eects! 10-75 8 8 6 8 2 7 1,108
AG) ok sien Sucieatocsleiusem tice 70-75 | 8 8 6 8 2 7 1, 132 ; 160 9, 100, 000
B25 se cuprieateaciee stipe 4 24 bl | 7 2 5 6 13 6 1,131 | 1885 | 8,989,094
D iiscurcts ssieoetercicaiesteieins 3 8 30 2 8% 22 2 6 6 1, 341 293. 5 38, 715, 687
Bases sian assis ewes aed 3.5 27 2 93 23 27 7 1, 680 240 4, 095, 000
Dh acinieeiag ciesenpesas ceacios 3 4h 223 2 2B 2 2 OF 6 1, 368 228 38, 229, 388
Civ erede aed neue wegs aes 3 3 21 1 153 13 114 6 1, 249 208.17 2, 732, 237

1 No. 1 (a) represents a second quantity taken from the same ovary the following day, and the greater number
may be partially accounted for by the evaporation of moisture during the night.
2 No. 2 contained a few ripe eggs.

220 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

It is interesting to compare these with the observations made during the last century, refer-
ences to which may be found in all the standard works on natural history. Leuwenhoek is said to
have found in a Cod of middling size 384,000 eggs. Harmer found, in one weighing eighteen or
twenty pounds, between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000 eggs. It was examined December 23, and was
estimated to have 294 eggs to the grain, the ovaries weighing 12,540 grains; the total number,
according to this calculation, is 3,686,760.1

Tue size oF CopFisH.—The result of Mr. Earll’s observations indicates that in June the
fish hatched the previous winter, or about six months old, range from one and a half to three
inches in length; while those from nine to thirteen inches long, and weighing seven or eight
ounces, were eighteen months old; those seventeen to eighteen inches long, and weighing two to
two and a quarter pounds, were supposed to be two years and a half old; those of about twenty-
two inches, which weighed four to five pounds, were three years and a half old. He also concludes
that the male reaches maturity at the age of three, and the female at the age of four years, for the
smallest ripe male noticed during the season of 187879 weighed three and one-half pounds, and
the smallest ripe female five pounds.

On pages 733-734 of Mr. Earll’s report may be found the measurements of a large number
of Codfish of different weights, and with the ovaries and spermaries in different stages of develop-
ment. These measurements are interesting, since they show the relation between the length
and weight of individual fish.

I have before me memoranda relating to a large number of enormous Codfish, taken along
the New England coast at various times from 1830 to 1879. It seems unnecessary to refer to them,
excepting the cases of a few which exceed one hundred pounds in weight.

Capt. King Harding, of Swampscott, tells me that he once caught, on the eastern side of Cape
Cod, a fish weighing 101 pounds as it came from the water.

On the 22d of July, 1873, Miss Fannie Belis, of Saint Louis, while on a fishing excursion off
Eastern Point, on board the yacht “ United States,” caught a Cod which weighed 130 pounds.

Capt. G. H. Martin caught, off Chatham, a Codfish which weighed, dressed, 111 pounds.

Capt. Stephen Mar, of Geucester, saw a Codfish taken on George’s Banks in 1838 which, after
having been eviscerated, weighed 136 pounds.

Captain Atwood says, on the coast of Cape Cod he has never seen a male Codfish, with one
exception, which weighed more than 60 pounds; he once saw one, however, which weighed 160
pounds. This fish was not much larger than an ordinary fish weighing 75 pounds, but was very
thick.

Captain Atwood remarks: “In regard to size, the Cod differs very widely in different localities.
When taken on the Grand Bank it usually requires from thirty to forty to make a quintal when
dried. Those caught in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence with hand-lines are smaller, requiring
seventy to eighty per quintal; in the same locality, however, Cod caught on trawl-lines require
only twenty to twenty-five per quintal, while on the coast of Labrador they are all small, and it
requires about one hundred to one hundred and ten to make a quintal.”

Writing in the summer of 1877, Captain Atwood expressed the opinion that the average
weight of the fish taken about Cape Cod was in the neighborhood of ten pounds; but he informed
me that in the winter of 1877, in two days, thirty thousand pounds of Codfish were landed from
the boats, and that there was not a fish among them small enough to be classed as a market Cod,
a market Cod weighing from six to ten or twelve pounds.

1 Philosophical Transactions, lvii, 1778, p. 287.

SIZE OF THE COD. 221:

I have before me much information concerning the average size of the fish caught at different
seasons of the year by the fishermen at different localities along the coast, but it seems at present
hardly necessary to discuss this subject at greater length.

CONCLUSIONS AS TO DECREASE OF COD FISHERIES ON THE New ENGLAND coAsT.—In
conclusion, it may not be amiss to quote the remarks of Professor Baird concerning the decrease
of Codfish along our coast, and the probable causes for such decrease:

“Of all the various fisheries formerly prosecuted directly off the coast of New England, north of
Cape Cod, the depreciation in that of the Cod appears to be of the greatest economical importance.
Formerly the waters abounded in this fish to such an extent that a large supply could be taken
throughout almost the entire year along the banks, especially in the vicinity of the mouths of the
larger rivers. At that time the tidal streams were almost choked up with the alewives, shad, and
salmon that were struggling for entrance in the spring, and which filled the adjacent waters
throughout a great part of the year.

“As is well known, the erection of impassable dams across the streams, by preventing the
ascent of the species just mentioned to their spawning grounds, produced a very great diminution,
and almost the extermination, of their numbers; so that whereas in former years a large trade
could be carried on during the proper season, now nothing would be gained by the effort.

“Of late the attention of the legislatures of the New England States has been called to this
fact, and to the importance of restoring their fisheries, and a great deal has been already accom-
plished toward that end. Unfortunately, however, the lumbering interest in Maine, and the
manufacturing in New Hampshire and Massachusetts, are so powerful as to render it extremely
difficult to carry out any measures which in any way interfere with their convenience or profits;
and notwithstanding the passage of laws requiring the construction of fishways through the
dams, these have either been neglected altogether, or are of such a character as not to answer
their purpose. The reform, therefore, however imperatively required, has been very slow in its
progress, and many years will probably elapse before efficient measures will be taken to remedy
the evils referred to.

“Tt would, therefore, appear that while the river fisheries have been depreciated or destroyed
by means of dams or by exhaustive fishing, the Codfish have disappeared in equal ratio. This
is not, however, for the same reason, as they are taken only with the line, at a rate more than
compensated by the natural fecundity of the fish. I am well satisfied, however, that there is a
relation of cause and effect between the present and past condition of the two series of fish; and
in this I am supported by the opinion of Capt. U. 8S. Treat, of Eastport, by whom, indeed, the
idea was first suggested to me. Captain Treat is a successful fisherman and dealer in fish on a
very large scale, and at the same time a gentleman of very great intelligence and knowledge of
the many details connected with the natural history of our coast fishes, in this respect worthily
representing Captain Atwood, of Provincetown. It is to Captain Treat that we owe many experi-
ments on the reproduction of alewives in ponds, and the possibility of keeping salmon in fresh
waters for a period of years. The general conclusions which have been reached, as the result of
repeated conversations with Captain Treat and other fishermen on the coast, incline me to believe
that the reduction in the cod and other fisheries, so as to become practically a failure, is due to
the decrease off our coast in the quantity, primarily, of alewives; and, secondarily, of shad and
salmon, more than to any other cause.

“Tt is well known to the old residents of Eastport that from thirty to fifty years ago Cod could
be taken in abundance in Passamaquoddy Bay and off Eastport, where only stragglers are u0w
tobe caught. The same is the case at the mouth of the Penobscot River and at other points along

222 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

the coast, where once the fish came close in to the shore, and were readily captured with the hook
throughout the greater part of the year. That period was before the multiplication of mill-dams,
cutting off the ascent of the alewives, shad, and salmon, especially the former. The Saint Croix
River was choked in the spring with the numbers of these fish, endeavoring to ascend; and the
same may be said of the Little River, the outlet of Boynton’s Lake, about seven miles above East-
port. The lake in question is one of considerable size, and was visited by immense numbers of
alewives, which could be dipped out, to any extent, on their passage upward, while the waters of
the adjacent bay were alive with the young fish on their return.

“The fish themselves enter the waters of the streams in May or June, and return almost
immediately after spawning to the sea. But they may be taken by the drift-nets along the
shores as early as March and April; and, indeed, it is quite probable that the whole period of
their abode in the salt water is spent adjacent to the rivers in which they were born. The young
come down from the ponds in which they are hatched, from August to October, keeping up a
constant stream of the young fish. In this way a supply of alewives was to be met with
throughout the greater part of the year, and nearer the coast they furnished every inducement
for the Cod and other ground fish to come inshore in their pursuit.

“Tt is true that the sea-herring is also an attraction to these fish, and probably but for their
presence our pollock, haddock, and hake fisheries would be greatly diminished. Nevertheless,
the alewife appears to be more attractive as a bait, and furthermore the sea-herring are less
constantly on the coast, especially inshore, occurring as they do at stated intervals, when they
come in from the deep sea to spawn. It is possible, too, that they are less easily captured by the
Cod, since they swim nearer the surface than the alewives. Corroboration of this idea is furnished
in the testimony of Mr. W. B. McLaughlin, of Southern Head, Grand Manan. This gentleman
informs me that the only stream in the island which ever furnished alewives to any extent was
Seal Cove Creek, which discharges to the east of the southern extremity of Grand Manan, and
into which these fish entered in immense numbers in the spring. At that time Cod, Haddock,
and Pollock, as well as halibut, were taken in great abundance in Seal Cove Sound, between
Harwood Cove, on Wood Island, and Indian or Parker’s Point, on the main island. They were
to be met with during the greater part of the year, especially from May to January; and the
fishery in the channel-way within a quarter of a mile of the shore was really more productive
than on the banks much farther out to sea.

“Although still a young man, Mr. McLaughlin recollects the capture of these fish; and,
indeed, as a mere boy, enjoyed the sport within a very short distance of his father’s house. Soon
after that time a dam was built across this stream about two hundred yards above its mouth,
cutting off entirely the upward passage of the alewives, and by a remarkable coincidence, if it
be nothing more, the cod fishery in question diminished very soon after, and in a very few years
ceased almost entirely, so that up to the present time there are not enough Cod in those waters
to repay the experiment of attempting to catch them. A few alewives still find their way up to
the foot of the dam, but in such small numbers as to make it often doubtful whether there are any
there or not.

“The other fishing grounds about Grand Manan are farther out to sea, at the northern end
of the island, where there are no alewives, and where herring appear to be the principal food,
although the variation in the abundance of these in different seasons appears to have an important
bearing upon the number of Hake and Cod.

“Tf these conclusions be correct—and I am quite satisfied of their general validity—we
have, for the efforts made to establish fishways in the rivers of Maine, New Hampshire, and

DECREASE IN ABUNDANCE OF COD. 223

Massachusetts, a much more weighty reason than that of merely enabling a few salmon to enter
the streams in order to permit their capture while on their way.

‘“Whatever may be the importance of increasing the supply of salmon, it is trifling compared
with the restoration of our exhausted cod fisheries; and should these be brought back to their
original condition, we shall find, within a short time, an increase of wealth on our shores, the
amount of which it would be difficult to calculate. Not only would the general prosperity of the
adjacent States be enhanced, but in the increased number of vessels built, in the larger number
of men induced to devote themselves to maritime pursuits, and in the general stimulus to every-
thing connected with the business of the seafaring profession, we should be recovering, in a great
measure, from that loss which has been the source of so much lamentation to political economists
and well-wishers of the country.”

66. THE TOM CODS. MICROGADUS TOMCOD AND M. PROXIMUS.

THE ATLANTIC Tom Cop.—The Atlantic Tom Cod, Microgadus tomeod, is found only in the
Western Atlantic, ranging from New York at the south to Cape Sable at the north. It is
ordinarily known as the Tom Cod, but in the Bay of Fundy, and in various places south of
Cape Cod, it is known as the Frost Fish, owing to the fact that it becomes most abundant in
the early part of the winter, when it approaches the shore and even ascends the rivers and creeks
for the purpose of spawning. Dr. DeKay states, on the authority of Dr. Yates, that Tom Cods
sometimes appear at Albany in abundance, while I am informed by the Rev. Dr. F. Gardiner
that they are taken in winter in the Kennebec, sixty miles from its mouth, and far above the reach
of the tide. They ascend the Charles River to Watertown, where they are taken in dip-nets and
by the hook from the wharves and bridges. Although most abundant near the shores and in the
streams in early winter, they are found along the coast at all seasons of the year. In form the
Tom Cod is the miniature of the Codfish, rarely exceeding ten or twelve inches in length, and
there is much difficulty in distinguishing the young of the two species. The Tom Cod, however,
varies even more in its color than the Cod, and several varieties have been described under
different names. When these fish approach the shores in winter they are taken in great quantities
with nets, and are esteemed in many localities as a great delicacy.

The Tom Cod feeds upon numerous species of crustaceans and mollusks, and also upon the
young of many other kinds of fishes.

THE PacrFic Tom Cop.—Professor Jordan gives the following notes upon the closely related
species, Microgadus proximus, found in California, and there known as the Tom Cod:

“The English at Victoria know this species by the name ‘Whiting.’ Elsewhere on the coast
the name of ‘Tom Cod’ is universally applied to it. In the restaurants at San Francisco, it is
usually served under the name of Smelt. It reaches the length of a foot and a weight of about
half a pound. It ranges from Monterey to Puget Sound and northward, being everywhere very
abundant, and taken in great numbers in seines and sweep-nets, both outside and in the bays. Its
food is small fishes. Nothing special is known of its breeding habits; it is apparently abundant
at all seasons. It is one of the important food fishes of the coast, always abundant and always
meeting a ready sale. Its flesh is, however, watery and tasteless, and cannot be rated high.”

67. THE HADDOCK. MELANOGRAMMUS ZGLEFINUS.

DistRIBUTION.—The Haddock, AMelanogrammus eglefinus, is found only in the Atlantic. Its
wanderings are more limited than those of the Cod. It is not found nearly as far to the north;
while its southern range is no wider. Haddock are probably found in company with Codfish on all

224 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

the northern fishing grounds, as far south, at least, as the Capes of Delaware, though concerning
their occurrence in southern waters there is dearth of information. In winter and spring they are
taken in Fisher’s Island Sound and outside of Fisher’s Island, on the coast of Eastern Connecticut ;
and also in great quantities on Nantucket Shoals by the smacks, and are carried thence with
Cod into New York market. In 1871 it was estimated that the catch of Haddock here was
nearly equal to that of Cod, although the latter usually predominate. They abound north of Cape
Cod, in the Gulf of Maine, and in the Bay of Fundy, in the Basin of Minas, on the coast of Nova
Scotia, in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, and in the Bay of Chaleur. In the Gulf of Saint Lawrence,
according to Captain Atwood, they are not very abundant, but the individuals taken are very large.
They are taken on the western coast of Newfoundland in winter; their northern limit appears to
be marked by the Straits of Belle Isle, latitude 52° N. The researches of Dr. A. S. Packard on
the coast of Labrador failed to bring this species to light, and fishermen of that region told him
that in the course of forty years’ experience thay had never seen a Haddock. In 1863 and 1864
they were found in abundance on the southern border of the Grand Bank. Capt. R. H. Hurlbert
states that he has seen them in great abundance in May at Louisburg, Cape Breton, playing at
the surface among the reefs, but that they are not so frequent on the Grand Bank as on the
Western Bank, and, in turn, less common there than on George’s Bank.

In the Eastern Atlantic the range of the Haddock is somewhat wider, for they are found i in the
seas of Iceland, the whole length of the Scandinavian coast to Hast Finmark and Varanger Fjord,
and on all the shores of Great Britain, and in the North Sea, where they are particularly abundant,
though rarely or never entering the Baltic. There is no evidence that they are found to the south of
the English Channel. De La Blauchére states that they are caught in considerable numbers on the
coast of Manche. In the Eastern Atlantic, then, they are found between the parallels 48° and 66°;
in the Western Atlantic between the parallels 38° and 539.

Names.—The Haddock is often called “‘ Dickie” by Connecticut fishermen. Hadot and Hadou
are old French names for the same fish, though the species is now usually known by the name Kegrefin.
In Scotland the name is said to be pronounced almost in the same way as in France, and is often
varied to Haddie. It is the Schellfisch of Germany. Concerning this fish many of our fishermen
entertain the same idea, which with them can hardly be called a superstition, that the black spots
upon their side are due to the impression of the thumb and finger of Saint Peter when the apostle
took the tribute money out of the mouth of a fish supposed to be of this species, the fisherman’s
mark having been continued among its descendants ever since. This notion is prevalent also in
England, and in Southern Europe is attached.to other fishes, particularly to the John Dory, Zeus
faber. It is needless to say that no member of this family occurs in the Sea of Galilee.

MovEeMENTS.—Haddock are not so active and powerful as the Cod. Dr. Gilpin has expressed
the opinion that on the coast of Nova Scotia they do not retreat so far from the shore in winter as
the Cod, but this does not appear to be true in Massachusetts Bay.

Storer, in 1839, made the assertion, which was repeated in 1867, in another edition of the
“History of the Fishes of Massachusetts,” that in Massachusetts Bay in the warm season about
twelve hundredweight of Haddock are taken to each hundredweight of Codfish, and in the wiater
about twelve hundredweight of Cod to each hundredweight of Haddock; but since the haddock
fishery is of longer duration, the proportion throughout the year averages about three Haddock to
one Cod. They abound in Massachusetts Bay throughout the summer, and itis at this season also
that they are taken in the greatest abundance on the off-shore banks in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.

There is a strange absence of information concerning their movements on the European coast.
On the coast of Hast Friesland the haddock fishery is permitted by law from March to the begin-

MOVEMENTS UF THE HADDOCK. 225,

ning of June, and from October to the middle or end of January, a winter recess being allowed for
the purpose of spawning. It is stated by Dr. Wittmack that during the heat of summer they
retreat from these coasts, with the Cod and the flounder, into the deepest waters, appearing again
towards the end of September. On the coast of Scotland they are said to be most abundant in
winter. In Massachusetts Bay, as it has been said, they are most abundant in summer, coming
in after the cod pass out, though they are also taken in deeper parts of the bay the whole winter
long, and are sought at this season on George’s and other off-shore banks as well as localities
farther to the north.

A study of such data as these is unsatisfactory in the extreme, since it is impossible to draw
from them any conclusions concerning the relation of the movements of the Haddock to the tem-
perature of the water in which it is found. The only movements which are now intelligible are
those which take place at the period of spawning.

ABUNDANCE.—Remarkable variations in the abundance of this fish are upon record; at certain
times they have been exceedingly rare, at others abundant in the extreme. They appear to be
much more gregarious than the Codfish, and to swim together in large schools from place to p.ace.
Storer, writing in 1839, said that they were common about Cape Cod, but that ten years before they
had been rare. An item in the “Gloucester Telegraph,” June 3, 1837, stated that Haddock were
at that time brought in abundantly and sold from the Swampscott boats at a cent apiece.

According to Capt. E. W. Merchant, in the years from 1814 to 1820 there was a great catch in
the vicinity of Nahant, about five miles at sea, east-southeast. So plenty were they that two men
and one boy could catch with hand-lines from one boat 600 to 1,000 in number in one day. This
school of fish came in about the 20th of March and continued until the first of May, then grad-
ually decreased and spread over the fishing banks in Massachusetts Bay. At this time the
majority of the boats belonged to Sandy Bay, now Rockport, and to Gloucester.

Capt. King Harding, of Swampscott, tells me that in 1843 Haddock were so scarce that they
were sold singly. The fishermen received twenty-five cents each for all they could get. A vessel
could not get more than one hundred in the course of a day’s fishing.

At this time Isaac Rich & Co. chartered the schooner “ Harriet,” of Duxbury, to go out on a
special cruise for Haddock, paying $200 toward the venture. She started out with a crew of five
men about the 20th of February, and fished on soft bottom in the deepest water. Her fare was
two hundred and twenty Haddock, and the trip was considered a remarkable success.

In May of the next year great schools of little Haddock came in. They were six or eight
inches long and a great bother to the fishermen. The following year they were about half grown,
or a foot or so in length and very thick. They came in May.

In 1846 they came in earlier, many in March, but mostly in May. They were quite large and
very abundant.

Haddock were also very abundant in 1857. On the 13th of March one hundred Swampscott
fishermen, in twelve vessels, caught in a period of about six hours 160,000 pounds of fish, chiefly
fMaddock.?

In 1877 aud 187° ..¢ Haddock were very large and quite scarce. In the winter of 1877 and
1878 they were larger than for many years. Some were caught near Swampscott which weighed
fifteen and sixteen pounds. Theaverage size is from four to six pounds.

Captain Atwood states that in 1834 Haddock were very scarce on the Grand Bank, and few were
caught anywhere on the coast, but in 1840 they became so numerous about Cape Cod as to interfere
seriously with the cod fishery, devouring the bait before the Cod could reach it, and about 1850

1 Lewis: History of Lynn, p. 450.
15 F

226 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

they had increased so rapidly that the markets were glutted. In 1864 they were caught in great
numbers and were still on the increase. In 1870 the same observer related to the Massachusetts
senate the story of another period of scarcity and abundance. His statements may be found in
the Report of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, part 1, 1873, p. 119. He
elsewhere says:

“If over-fishing were possible, it seems to me that we should see some of its results where great
changes have taken place in the modes of our fisheries of Cod and Haddock in Massachusetts Bay.
What is called ‘trawl fishing’ was first introduced about 1850, and it resulted in the taking of a
vast number of fish of these varieties. In consequence of the competition in the business, the
Swampscott people petitioned the legislature for a law prohibiting trawl-fishing, on the ground
that it would exterminate the Haddock. At that time I proved before the legislature that Had-
dock was much more abundant than it had been at any previous time, and that I was selling
them at thirty-seven and a half cents per hundred pounds. That fishery has been going on ever
since, and the amount taken was greater this last winter than for many years past. A fisher-
man in a dory fifteen feet long has often brought in as much as 1,800 pounds in a single day.
There are eighty boats fishing out of the harbor, and 83,000 pounds have been caught in one day.
This increase has taken place in spite of the constant practice of the new mode of fishing, by
which twice as many are taken in the same time as formerly.” !

Captain Atwood explains the great increase at this time by the introduction of fishing with
long trawl lines, which destroyed many species of fish preying upon haddock spawn. At the
present time Haddock are very abundant; they are caught throughout the summer in great
numbers by the Irish market-boats of Boston, and in winter a large fleet of Gloucester and Port-
land vessels are engaged in catching them upon George’s and other off-shore banks. These
vessels fish with trawl lines, and it has been stated that a single crew has been known to
take nearly 60,000 pounds in a day.’

Foop.—The food of the Haddock resembles that of the Cod, except that they are, if possible,
more omnivorous; their diet consists, however, largely of invertebrates. They are rarely seen
feeding at the surface, though they devour the spawn of other fishes, particularly that of the
herring, with great eagerness. They devour great quantities of shells, many of them of the bur-
rowing species. Professor Verrill has well said that a complete list of the animals devoured by
the Haddock would doubtless include all the mollusks belonging to the fauna of New England.

The Haddock are said to be particularly abundant on clam-banks. From this habit of feeding
on shells has originated the German name for the fish. The difference between the habits of the
Haddock and the Cod is illustrated by the remark of Captain Atwood that Haddock will take a
baited hook as it rests upon the ground, while the Cod will only notice it when it is raised a short
distance from the bottom. Salted menhaden is a favorite bait for Haddock, but not desirable for
Cod, while both Cod and Haddock will readily take stale clams, which are much better for bait
than fresh ones.

REPRODUCTION.—The spawning habits of the Haddock in our waters have been carefully ob-
served by Mr. Earll, whose statements are quoted below: On the German coast the Haddock spawn
on rocky bottoms in February and early March at a depth of twenty-two to twenty-five fathoms ;?

1 Extracts from Captain Atwood’s manuscript biography.

*Bia Happock TRip.—Schooner “E. L. Rowe,” of this port, Capt. Sewell W. Smith, arrived from George’s on
Monday at Boston, with 70,380 pounds of Haddock, the largest trip ever landed. Time absent, five days. The largest
trip previous to this was landed by the same skipper in schooner ‘ Cora E. Smith,” 52,679 pounds, February 13, 1877.
In February of the same year, schooner ‘‘Paul Revere,” Capt. John Bentley, landed 51,700 pounds of Haddock and
2,500 pounds of Codfish as the result of one day’s fishing.—Cape Ann dvertiser, February 21, 1878.

*>Witrmack, L.: Beitriige zur Fischerei-Statistik des Deutschen Reichs, 1875, p, 25.

SPAWNING OF TOE TADDOCE. 997

and according to Yarrow the spawning period is the same on the British coast, the young growing
toa length of six or seven inches before the beginning of September. At the Loffoden Isles, accord-
ing to Sars, the spawning season of the Haddock takes place a little later, beginning toward the
end of February and being at its height late in March.1

Mr. Earll’s observations are as follows:

“The fish usually remain on the off-shore banks till the winter is over, and they do not reach
Cape Ann until just before the spawning season, which for this species begins about the middle
of April and continues during nearly three months, the height of the season being in May.

“In the spring of 1879 it is thought that two schools visited this coast, the first, composed of
fish of large size, arriving early in April and leaving by the middle of May; and the other, com-
posed of smaller individuals, reaching the grounds about the 20th of May and leaving gradually
after the 1st of July, a few remaining during the greater part of the summer. When the fishing first
began the fish were several miles from the shore, but they continued to ‘work in,’ until there was
good fishing at the mouth of the harbor for several days, after which they seemed to move back
again, and toward the close of the season remained on muddy bottom, when trawls were extensively
used in their capture.

“Barly in May Haddock were so plenty that one man caught 1,881 pounds in one day with
hand-lines, and about the same time many different fishermen secured over 1,000 pounds daily.
The males were usually a trifle more abundant, though at times the females composed fully half of
the catch. The latter average larger than the former, and some days there would be a difference
of two pounds in favor of the female.

“The first ripe females were noticed on the 23d of April, and in the middle of July an occa-
sional one had not finished spawning. The first eggs were secured May 5, and others were taken
at intervals to June 2, the total quantity being about 250,000. The method of impregnation was
similar to that used for eggs of the Cod, and the size of the eggs was one-nineteenth of an inch.
Though the number contained in the larger individuals of the species reaches over 1,800,000 (see
table), the quantity obtained for hatching purposes at any one time was quite small as compared
with the number taken from the Cod or the Pollock, and the quantity of milt in the male fish was
very much less than in either of the other species.”

Mr. Earll’s observations confirmed those of Professor Sars, that the spawn of the Haddock
floats at the surface like that of the Cod, and that the spawning process is in every way similar.
The following table gives the result of his enumerations of the number of eggs in Haddock of
different sizes :

Table showing the number of eggs in Haddock of different sizes.

a 3 oe ag : oH
stale la [fe] eel ge |G
4 ic g ga | a be ars Sd sa
a ba 8 Bol eo | we oa ae che
Number. 3 3 3 Se | ‘3 = ey S bi EA
eI . =
€12|4/ 88 | "a |2es| 22 | 28 | 28
a a Hl 8 Ag £ bid So
# |) 3 | 3 | és | 38/583) 32 | 5 g
4 BE Ee | 8 4 |%4 a | 4 a
In. Lbs. Oz Oz. Oz.
fee ee Ee SOO ST Rete eRe AE URE ME ETE 284 | 9% 9 f 88 4| 1,950) 487.5 | 1,839,581
1 PN RE PRE Ene Bere Ae ee aE ACRE EEE 264 | 638 52 3 54 4| 1,479) 369.75 849, 315
26 68, 6k + 6 4| 1,457| 364.25 856, 156
24 48 6} 4 64 5| 1,160! 232 634, 380
22 4 54 3 43 5| 970| 194 403, 132
203 | 3% 54 3 4a 5| 960} 192 398, 976
19s | 28, 28 a 2 5}. 966| 193.2 169, 050

1 Report of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, part 5, 1879, p. 586.

228 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

The average size of the Haddock is probably not far from three or four pounds; many twelve-
pound fish are brought to market, and individuals weighing seventeen pounds are on record.

In 1879 Haddock were successfully hatched, under the supervision of Mr. Earll, at the Glou-
cester station of the United States Fish Commission.

Usres.—The Haddock is now very highly esteemed as a food fish, having grown in favor during
the last twenty years. It is especially desirable for boiling or for making chowders, and is a great
favorite in Boston, while in Philadelphia enormous quantities are yearly consumed. LDeing well
adapted for preservation in ice, great numbers of them are distributed through the interior of the
country, together with the Codfish. The success with which the Scotch method of smoking Had-
dock has been introduced into this country has also greatly increased the demand for them, and
Finland Haddies are manufactured in enormous quantities in Portland and Boston. At Province-
town a Haddock salted and dried after being split is called by the name “Skulljoe,” or “Scoodled
Skulljoe.”

68. THE POLLOCK. POLLACHIUS CARBONARIUS.

The Pollock, Pollachius carbonarius, which is the Coalfish of England, the Kéhler of Germany,
and the Sei of Norway and Sweden, is closely related to the Pollack of Great Britain, Pollachius
virens, from which, however, it is specifically different. It is one of the best-known fishes of North-
ern Europe, as may be inferred from the abundance of its common names. The following names
are in use in different parts of England: Baddoch, Billet, Billard, Black-Pollock, Black-Jack,
Black-Coalsey, Blockan, Blockin, Coal, Coal-fish, Coalsay, Coalsey, Coal-Whitin:, Colemie, Col-
mey, Cooth, Cudden, Cuddy, Dargie, Gilpin, Glassock, Glashan, Glossan, Glossin, Green-Cod,
Green Pollock, Grey-lord, Gull-fish, Harbin, Kuth, Lob, Lob-Keling, Maulrush, Parr, Piltock,
Podley, Poddlie, Podling, Pollack, Prinkle, Rauning Pollack, Rawlin Pollack, Rock Salmon,
Raw Pollock, Saithe, Sethe, Sey, Sey Pollack, Sillock, Skrae-fish, Stenlock, Tibrie.

DISTRIBUTION.—Its geographical] distribution is quite different from that of either the Cod or
Haddock, its northern range, at least in the Eastern Atlantic, being fully as wide as that of the
Cod, the species having been found in the northern part of Spitzbergen, beyond the para!lel of 80°,
and on the arctic coast of Europe. Itrarely enters the Baltic. Bloch records a specimen from
Lubeck, and it is said to occur on the coast of Pomerania.

Concerning the limits of its southern range authorities differ. Giinther places this at latitude
46° in the Bay of Biscay, while others claim that it enters the Mediterranean. Canestrini states
that it has been observed at Taranto.’ It does not appear, however, that the species is abundant
south of the English Channel. It occurs about Iceland and on the west coast of Davis Straits,
where specimens were obtained by Sir Edward Parry on his first voyage. North of Newfound-
land it does not seem to be very abundant, while to the south the limit appears to be in the
vicinity of Nantucket Shoals, where specimens are occasionally taken by the cod smacks.

In Perley’s “Catalogue of the Fishes of Nova Scotia,” he states that he had never seen the
fish in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, nor heard of it except near the Straits of Canso, although it
was found very abundant in the Bay of Fundy and everywhere except in the muddy waters,
such as those of Cumberland Bay and the Basin of Minas.

I have seen large individuals taken in midsummer in the pounds in Vineyard Sound, and
the capture of small individuals in these waters is not unusual. They are often taken, according
to De Kay, off New York, in company with the Cod. In June, 1881, the schooner ‘Edward E.
Webster,” of Gloucester, Solomon Jacobs, captain, returning from a southern mackerel trip, fell in

'CANESTRINI: Fauna d’ Italia. Peschi, 1872, p. 155.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE POLLOCK. 229

with a school of Pollock and captured sixty thousand pounds of them in her purse seine. Its
range, as bow understood, is in the Eastern Atlantic between the parallels 46° and 80°, in the
Western Atlantic between 40° and 70°. That its southeastern limit is as near the equator as the
parallel of 36° seems quite improbable.

HABITS AND FooD.—Unlike the Cod and the Haddock, the Pollock is, to a great extent, a
surface-swimming species. The fishes of this species congregate together in large schools, roaming
from place to place in search of food. To a certain extent they feed at the bottom, like Cod, but
are more often seen at the surface of the water, where they prey upon young fish of all kinds.

Professor Sars gives the following account of the manner iu which they prey upon little
Codfish:

“JT was much interested to see how the Pollock caught the young Codfish. It looked like a
systematic chase, and it certainly looked as if the Pollock were acting with a common and well-
defined purpose. As far as I could observe, the schools of Pollock surrounded the little Codfish
on all sides, making the circle constantly narrower until all the Codfish were gathered in one lump,
which they then, by a quick movement, chased up to the surface of the water. The poor little fish
now found themselves attacked on all sides: below, the voracious Pollock, which in their eagerness
often leaped above the water; and above, hundreds of screeching sea-gulls, which, with wonderful
voracity and precision, pounced down upon the places where the Pollock showed themselves, to
share the spoils with them. The whole chase is carried on so rapidly, and the young fish stay only
so short a time at the surface of the water before they are scattered in all directions with lightning-
like rapidity, that it was not even possible for me to see any, much less to catch any with my
insufficient implements.”!

On the coast of New England they are much disliked by the fishermen, who claim that they
consume great quantities of other fish much more valuable than themselves; in consequence of
this the fishermen have a great prejudice against them and refuse to eat them.

Captain Atwood states that about Cape Cod they do not take to the hook freely; that in other
localities they are exceedingly voracious, and great numbers of them may be caught in Massachu-
setts Bay with a surface bait.

‘When the United States Fish Commission steamer has been stationed north of Cape Cod, a
favorite amusement of the officers has been to catch young Pollock with a fly. The older fish are
less active and remain more at the bottom.

MovEemMENTSs.—Concerning this species, Captain Atwood states that they appear about Cape
Cod in schools in early May, frequently passing round Race Point so closely to the shore as to be
caught with the seine among the “tide-rips.” .

Capt. E. W. Merchant, of Gloucester, tells me that the Pollock were very abundant in Massa-
chusetts Bay early in this century—before the war of 1812. They were especially abundant on
Middle Bank. They were at that time chiefly caught with bait of herring, taken in seines from
the beaches. The fishing boats were of about thirty tons, and carried three men and a boy. Fishing
was carried on chiefly at night, when the vessels would all “fleet up,” and the bait on their hooks
would toll the schools of fish together. The vessels would take about fifty quintals in a night.
There were about thirty fish to the quintal. This abundance of Pollock lasted until about 1820.
These Pollock were salted, and consumed at home or carried to Maine. They sold for about two
dollars a quintal. The oil of their livers was tried out in kettles on the shore. Their roe was
exported largely in those days. It was sold by the bushel, at the rate of about sixty cents.

1Report of the United States Fish Commission, part 5, 1879, p. 593. Another vivid description of the manner in
which the Pollock feed upon the sand-eels, or lant, may be found on pp. 619 and 620.

230 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

My. Earll writes:

“Large Pollock are absent from the waters of Cape Ann from the middle of January till early
in May. the small ones leaving earlier, in the fall, and returning in April.!’ The young may be taken
almost anywhere along the shore, but the large fish seem to confine themselves to definite locali-
ties: and. though not particularly abundant during the summer at Cape Ann, it is a favorite
spawning ground for the species. and during this period large schools visit this shore.

“They begin to grow plenty about the first of October, and by the last of the month are so
numerous as to greatly annoy the cod-fishermen by taking the hook before it can get to the bottom.

“ During this season some of the smaller vessels fish exclusively for Pollock, ‘seizing up’ their
lines a number of fathoms from the bottom. and at times the fish bite as fast as the fishermen can
haul them. Early in November. a crew of four men landed 10,420 pounds, or about 1,100 fish, the
result of less than two days’ fishing. Owing to a foolish prejudice, the price is always low. at times
being less than thirty cents per one hundred pounds. The average weight of the fish is about
nine or ten pounds. and during the spawning season the sexes are taken in about equal numbers.”

Early in May, 1881. two vessels at Chatham caught in one day 35,000 pounds each. The fish
were caught with seines as they schooled at the surface like mackerel.

Perley. writing in 1851, mentioned that he observed that a large number of small fishing
schooners was engaged in the capture of Pollock in the rips. or riplings, off Grand Manan. ‘These
rips are formed by strong currents and the conflict of tides. in which the lively Pollock delight to
play. Here there is found an abundance of small herring for food. For this description of fishing
the vessels are kept in easy sail. the lines attached to poles of seven feet in length, which project
from the sides of the vessel. A round, bright lead is used, about seven inches in length, weighing
from one-half pound to one and one-half pounds; the bait is a piece cut from the under, or bright,
side of the Pollock; it is called the ‘last’; this, being kept in brisk motion by the sailing of the
vessel, closely resembles the living fish darting through the water, and is eagerly chased by the
Pollock. The fishers often take twenty Pollock with a single -last. it being a very tough bait.”

In the Bay of Fundy and along the coast of Maine the capture of young Pollock from the
rocks is a favorite amusement. At Eastport these fish are often called ““Quoddy Salmon.” Hind
states that in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence they are Known as “Sea Salmon”: this name may refer
both to their active and voracious habits. and to the excellence of their fiesh in those localities.

The capture of young Pollock, or mort, on the coast of Norway, is described by Sars in the
paper already referred to.?

REPRODUCTION.—The spawning of the Pollock occurs in the German Ocean, according to
Wittmack, from December to February; in Scotland, according to Parnell, in February, after which
it remains out of condition until May.

About the Lofodens, as indicated by the observations of Sars, the breeding time corresponds
with that of the Codfish, the young Pollock being found in early summer in company with the
young Cod, swimming under the protection of the jelly-fishes.

Mr. Earll found Pollock spawning at Cape Ann in November and December, but he does not
state whether the breeding season continued through the winter and early spring. Concerning the
observations made at the Gloucester station, he writes:

“They seem to spawn while swimming about in the water, and their eggs, being buoyant, are
found at the surface with those of the Cod; but they may easily be distinguished from the latter
by their smaller size. The first ripe female was seen at the fish wharves October 23. November

1Tn 1881 the first Pollock came into Gloucester Harbor May 2.
2See Report of the United States Commissiun Fish and Fisheries, part 5, p. 720.

REPRODUCTION OF THE POLLOCK. 231

11, a few good eggs were taken, and, after impregnation, found to have a diameter of one twenty-
fifth of an inch. They were placed in an aquarium at the hatchery, and within forty-eight hours
the fish could be distinctly seen, though no pigment cells were visible. This proved that the
development of the eggs after leaving the parent was quite rapid, and indicated that they would
hatch in five or six days at most, with water of the ordinary temperature.

“At the time of taking these eggs no suitable apparatus had been arranged, and we did not
succeed in hatching them; and as no others were obtained during the season positive statements
cannot be made; but the eggs were well advanced before they died, and careful observations up
to this point fully convinced us that these eggs are as hardy as those of the Cod, and that they
may be successfully hatched by a similar method.

“The table gives the result of our computation of the number of eggs in individuals of differ-
ent size, from which it will be seen that a twenty-three and one-half pound fish has over 4,000,000
of eggs, while a thirteen-pound one has 2,500,000.”

Table showing the number of eggs in Pollock of different sizes.

Po 2 a ar cd ° bad
| @ | Sygate lee lee) ee.
a 3 os He ©
2/2 /5/F) 3 B.8] fe) By | 8
Number. c=) I a= ge 4 ons 3% 5 & Ba
a e| Ss | s€ | 3 | Shh) 82 | Bs *g
Ep eb eb Bo Ee Pees | @& as ra bo
r=] 3 So Be » 8s Ps 8 g ae
o : mo oO ee Pa td °
4 B Bol @ A ie aa | & a
Ft. In.| Lbs. (Lbs. Oz.| Oz. |Lbs. Oz.
IN Seisictore’siecidiaictevatala'd yeotaeictas biciseie enemies 3 3h 234) 2 2 2 2 0 6) 1,727 287.8 4, 029, 200
2 consaaee ream iy eiescbrndssenciesecems 2 8h 13 1 23 14) 1 «#14 6 2, 043 340.5 2, 569, 753

Captain Atwood states that in Cape Cod Bay they are caught in large numbers about the
10th or 15th of November, when going to spawn. They spawn upon the same rocky ground as the
Cod, and it is only at this time that they dare to take the hook freely. In the vicinity of Prov-
incetown the deposition of eggs takes place in November.

The growth of the Pollock is probably somewhat more rapid than that of the Cod, since
the young fish are so much more voracious, but we have no meaus of determining the length of
time required for them to attain maturity. The average size is probably not far from ten
or twelve pounds, but individuals of twenty, and even of thirty pounds, are by no means
uncommon. .

Usres.—The Pollock is one of those species whose value as an article of, food is very much
underestimated. Many persons, who have investigated the subject accurately, prefer salted
Pollock to salted Codfish, although the flesh is not so white. Its value for use in the fresh state,
we think, deserves the highest commendation. I quote from “Land and Water,” December, 1866,
the following remarks upon the Pollock fisheries of the Orkney Islands, showing how highly they
are esteemed in that region.. The writer signs himself “A. R. D.”:

“Having observed in ‘Land and Water,’ of the 20th October, an article by Mr. Buckland,
on the Merlangus carbonarius, or Saith, it has occurred to me that some additional information as
to the habits and uses, and more especially with respect to the commercial value of that fish,
might be interesting.

“The Saith occurs in great abundance among the Orkney Islands. The fry, called Sillocks, are
first observed in May or June, and are very small. In July and August they are about four or five
inches long, and are caught in great numbers with flies (made with a bit of white feather tied to
the hook), by means of boats, and often from the rocks on the shore. They are much esteemed
as food, and more especially for the oil prepared from the livers. Towards winter they generally

939 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

set in to the Shetland bays in immense and closely congregated shoals, from which they are swept
ashore by nets in enormous quantities, and are often bought by the farmer for the dunghill. At
this season they fall off in quality as an article of food, but are still eagerly purchased by the coun-
try people on account of the oil, which suits better for their cottage lamps than any other kind.
Next year, when nine or ten inches long, they are called Cooths, or Cuths, and are caught with the
fly in the months of May, June, July, and August. In June and July they are in perfection for
eating, and are cooked without taking out the entrails, after being rolled in salt and flour, or oat-
meal, and done on the gridiron; but unless used within an hour or two after being caught, the fine
flavor and curdy quality of the fish quickly disappear. If used next day they are somewhat coarse
eating. It is a singular circumstance that they will not take the fly except an hour before or an
hour after sunset and sunrise. Inthe third summer they become larger, and are called Cuttims, or
Cuddons, in which state they betake themselves to deeper water, and are comparatively seldom
caught. After this, when full grown, they are known by the name of Saith, and become an
important object of fishery. The. fishing commences in May, and continues till September. In
July and August they are in their best state, and are sought after with great assiduity. They
chiefly occur in very rapid tideways, where there is much broken water, and the fishing is not
unattended with danger, several fatal accidents having occurred within my recollection by the
boats having been swept by the current into the breakers. The fish average from fifteen to
twenty pounds, but many specimens are met with weighing much more. When cleaned and
thoroughly dried on the rocks, about seventeen will weigh one hundredweight, and yield three
gallons of oil, which is equivalent to 340 fish and sixty gallons of oil to the ton. The dried article
sells at market for about £12 per ton, when Codfish fetch £20 per ton, but the extra quantity of oil
in the former far more than compensates for the difference in price, and consequently when a
shoal of Saith sets in, the fishermen invariably desert the cod-fishing in favor of the other. Dried
Saith are perfectly well known in the market, and are tolerably good eating, though inferior to
Cod. The oii is chiefly used by tanners, and is in good demand. In the fresh state they are
extremely good eating, firm and curdy, if cooked within an hour or two after being caught, but if
kept some time they lose their flavor and become coarse. The inhabitants of Fairisle, which lies half
way between the Orkney and Shetland groups of islands, pay their rent exclusively by saith-fishing.”

Pollock are more highly prized in New Brunswick than anywhere else on the Western Atlantic
coast, and the pollock fishery was in 1850 pronounced by Perley the most valuable and extensive
of the deep-sea fisheries of the Bay of Fundy.! It is stated by this authority that directly after
the spawning season the fish is lank and almost worthless, but that it becomes in good condition
again in August and improves as the season advances.

The liver of the Pollock yields a great quantity of oil, proportionally much more than that of
the Cod. It is probable that most of the cod-liver oil in the market is more or less adulterated
with pollock-liver oil. Noone has yet demonstrated that its medicinal properties are inferior.
The eggs of the Pollock are very large, and great quantities of them have been in past years
salted and exported to France.

Tur ALASKA POLLACK, Pollachius chalcogrammus (Pallas) J. & G.2The Alaska Pollock is
thus described by Professor Jordan: “This species is known as Pollack to those who have seen

11877. NEW METHOD OF CAPTURING PoOLLOCK.—For some days past the schooner “Matchless,” of Barrington,
has been fishing for Pollock with a purse-seine in the vicinity of Cape Sable, and doing very well at the business,
which is a kind of experiment, as the purse-seine, we believe, has been used hitherto in taking only mackerel, herring,
and such small fish. On Monday of last week the crew of the ‘‘ Matchless” caught at one haul about 130 quintals
of Pollock, an immense catch, which took the men over twenty-fours hours to dress and salt.—Cape Ann Advertiser.
August 17, 1877.

2 Gadus chalcogrammus Pallas. Zodgr. Ross. Asiat., iii, 198. Gadus periscopus, Cope. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., 1870.

THE ALASKA POLLOCK. 2a0

the Atlantic species. It is possibly identical with the ‘Beshow’ of the Makah Indians, the ‘Coal-
fish’ of the English settlers northward, a deep-water fish noted for its rich, fat flesh. It reaches a
length of about two feet. It ranges from Monterey to Behring’s Straits. It is taken with hook
and line in deep water, and is never plentiful south of Cape Flattery. It feeds upon anchovies
and the like. Nothing is known of its breeding habits, enemies, or diseases, and, unless it be the
‘Beshow’ above noticed, it is not sufficiently abundant to attract any notice as an article of food.”

69. THE CUSK—BROSMIUS BROSME.

The Cusk, Brosmius brosme, is a deep-water species, inhabiting rocky ledges in the North
Atlantic. It has not been observed south of Cape Cod, but ranges northward to the banks of
Newfoundland and of Greenland. It occurs in Iceland and Spitzbergen and along the entire length
of the Scandinavian Peninsula, but is not known on the coast of Germany, while Faber states
that it just touches the most northern part of Denmark at the Scaw in Jutland, and that it is occa-
sionally taken in the Frith of Forth and brought to the Edinburgh market. It is also plentiful
about the Faroe Islands. Its range in the Westérn Atlantic is from latitude 42° to latitude 65°,
or beyond ; in the Northeastern Atlantic to latitude 80°, and south to latitude 55°.

The Massachusetts fishermen tell me that these fish are usually found in considerable abun-
dance on newly-discovered ledges, and that great numbers may be taken for a year or two, but
that they are soon all caught. Sometimes, after a lapse of years, they may be found again abun-
dant on a recently-deserted ground. From these facts it has been reasoned that the Cusk is very
local in its habits and rarely changes from one locality to another.

On the “ Broken-ground Ledge” Cusk are said to be abundant at any season, and also on
“ New Ledge,” and Captain Atwood says that they inhabit deep water in rocky localities. not hard,
smooth, rocky bottoms, but large, angular rocks. About Cape Cod they are quite rare; he has
seen a few to the eastward of and near Cape Cod, but they are more commonly found farther
north; at a rocky spot near the eastern portion of the Middle Bank, between Cape Cod and Cape
Ann, large numbers had been taken prior to 1866, and in that year 400 quintals, or probably 60,000
pounds of Cusk, had that year been taken by one Provincetown firm. Off Wells Bay, in Maine,
about Cape Porpoise, and on Cashe’s Ledge, he had also observed them in large quantities.

The food of the Cusk doubtless consist chiefly of mollusks and small crustaceans.

Concerning its spawning habits nothing is known, except that, according to Faber, it spawns
in April and May on the coast of West and South Ireland.

The Cusk is considered a very excellent fish, especially for boiling, but there is a very limited
demand for it, and most of those which are taken are salted. On account of their low prices,
fishermen shun them, and they are hardly in better favor than dogfish. In the spring of 1878
they were worth in Gloucester from twenty to fifty cents per hundred,and in August of the same
year about one dollar per hundred. One of their peculiar habits, eel-like, renders their capture
difficult, and frequently canses the destruction of the fishing-tackle; it is said that after they have
taken the hook they curl their tails round the angles of the rock and cling to them with such
strength that it is impossible to dislodge them. Fishermen say that when they are brought to
the surface the skin rises from the body in great blisters. This they regard as a favorable sign, as
showing that the fish are “thrifty,” or healthy. The name “Tusk,” used for this fish in New-
foundland, is now never used in the United States, although it seems to have been in use a century
ago, a well-known fishing ground in the Gulf of Maine being known as the “Tusk Rock.”

234 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

70. THE HAKES—PHYCIS CHUSS, ETC.

DISTRIBUTION.—We have five species of the genus Phycis. One, P. Chesteri, recently discov-
ered by the Fish Commission, occurs off the coast from Cape Ann to Cape Hatteras, at a depth of
from seventy-five to three hundred fathoms. It has been collected in great numbers with the deep-
sea trawl-nets used by the Fish Commission and the Coast Survey, and appears to be extremely
abundant. It is, at present, of no economic importance. It may be distinguished by its exceed-
ingly long fin-filaments.

Another species, the King Hake, P. regius, occurs in deep water with the preceding, and
has also been found near the shore in the vicinity of Cape Hatteras, in Chesapeake Bay, and at the
eastern end of Long Island. A specimen was obtained many years ago at Halifax, Nova Scotia.
In the Chesapeake, according to Major Ferguson, it is very abundant.

This fish attains the length of twelve to fifteen inches. Concerning its habits little is known,
except that it has the power of communicating strong electric shocks. It may be distinguished
by the low first dorsal fin, unprovided with a filament and black at its tip, and by the peculiar row
of white spots along the lateral line. P. Harllii occurs only on the coast of South Carolina.

The two species which have a commercial value are P. chuss and P. tenuis. These species
are very similar in appearance, and it is with difficulty that they can be distinguished from each
other by the trained eye of the zoologist. The most tangible distinction may be found in the
number of scales, which are much smaller in P. tenuis, there being from one hundred and thirty-
five to one hundred and forty oblique rows between the bronchial opening and the root of the
caudal fin, while there are about twelve rows between the lateral line and the region of the first
dorsal. In P. chuss there are only one hundred rows in the lateral line and nine rows above the
lateral line; in the former the ventral does not ordinarily reach quite to the vent, in the latter it
extends beyond the vent. This character, however, could not always be relied upon.

Our Hakes are all quite different from the Forked Beard, P. blennioides, of Great Britain, some-
times called the Hake’s Dame, which is a member of the same genus.!_ Owing to their great simi-
larity, Phycis chuss and P. tenuis are usually known indifferently by the name “‘ Hake”; the former,
however, is sometimes calied the Old English Hake, and the other, Phycis tenuis, the Squirrel
Hake or White Hake. In the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Bay of Chaleur, and also south of
Cape Cod, they are invariably called Ling. There has been much confusion both in the names
and descriptions applied to them by fishermen and ichthyologists. Their geographical range
appears to be essentially the same. The young of one or both species are frequently taken swim-
ming at the surface, on the southern coast of New England, in midsummer, and numerous
individuals have been found off Block Island and Watch Hill, seeking shelter between the valves
of a large species of scallop, Pecten tenuicostatus ; the majority appear to belong to the species of
P. chuss. About sixty were obtained from a single trawl-full of Pectens taken off Watch Hill,
September, 1874, where they were found in one out of every three or four shells taken. Their
companions in the interior of the shells were a species of Pinnotheres, related to the oyster-crab,
and a species of lump-sucker, Liparis lineatus.

One or both species are frequently taken by the cod-fishermen, on the shoals south of Cape
Cod, but they are there considered to be of but little value. They are more or less abundant in
Massachusetts Bay, in the Bay of Fundy, and in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. Large specimens of
one or both species have been taken at a depth of three hundred fathoms as far south as Virginia.

1The Hake of Europe is a different fish, more closely related to the Silver Hake or Whiting of the New England
coast, Merlucius bilinearis.

HABITS OF THE HAKES. 235

Hasrrs.—Captain Atwood gives this account ot the Hake in Cape Cod Bay: ‘It is a ground
fish, found close to the bottom, and rarely comes to the surface. They are much more inclined to
take the hook by night than by day; are found on muddy bottoms, during the whole summer and
autumn, along the coast of Maine and Massachusetts. They yield a large quantity of oil, which
is used for the same purpose as that of the Pollock and Cod. The autumn finds them in the best
condition, and, if prepared with care, they are a tolerably good table fish.” Captain Atwood has
known them to grow to the size of forty pounds, but the average in summer is only five to ten
pounds. .

Perley remarks that they are taken largely on muddy bottoms, both in the Bay of Fundy and
in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, chiefly during the night, at which time they feed on the smaller
crustacea; their stomachs are then generally found to be filled. Hake are frequently taken, in
the Gulf especially, measuring three feet in length.

The Hakes appear to be bottom-loving fishes, and rarely change locality. They feed on
crustaceans, and occasionally indulge in a fish diet. One taken at Gloucester, in July, 1878, had a
menhaden in its stomach.

It is believed that they spawn throughout the summer, for the young fish are found during
all the summer months, while specimens taken at the depth of thirty-seven fathoms, August 18,
1878, off Ipswich, at a temperature of 41° F., contained well-developed ova, and were apparently
ready to spawn.

UseEs.—An extensive fishery is carried on from Cape Ann for these fish in winter, and there are
sometimes as many as fifty vessels engaged. It was estimated in 1878 that the total quantity
landed at Gloucester was not far from 5,000,000 pounds. The fishing is carried on almost entirely
at night with the use of trawls, which are about the size of those used in the capture of Haddock.

Hake are salted and dried in the same manner as Codfish, and are often sold under the name
of Codfish. Before the introduction of boneless fish it was sometimes difficult to sell them on
account of the difference in appearance, but at the present time great quantities of Hake are put
up in boxes under the trade name of “boneless fish,” the qualifying word “Cod” being usually
omitted from the brands and labels. Hake are rarely eaten fresh.

The air-bladder, or sound, of the Hake is of great commercial value, being used extensively in
the manufacture of isinglass; great quantities of sounds are sent from the British Provinces to
the United States annually, sounds from the Guif of Saint Lawrence being considered much better
than those from farther south. In 1880 New England produced 255,698 pounds of dried sounds,
worth $178,808. Massachusetts had eight isinglass and glue factories, employing one hundred
and eighty-two men and a capital of $315,000, and producing $450,000 worth of ribbon isinglass
and glue in 1879. These sounds were for the most part derived from the Hake.

Capt. Epes W. Merchant gave me the following account of hake-fishing at Gloucester in 1818:
“Hake used to come in September, October, and the first half of November, and then we would
get ready to go haking. Father would say, ‘Go down, get your pork, and put on your squid-jig,’
We were always sure of bait; the boy would catch enough bait for three men; the squid were in
great schools. We used to lay out two nights and get fifteen or twenty quintals of Hake. These
were worth fifteen shillings per quintal, and we sold them in Boston for the West Indies trade.”

71. THE BURBOT—LOTA MACULOSA.

By TARLETON H. BEAN.

NameE.—The first name applied to the American Burbot was Gadus lota. This was used by
Pennant. Walbaum established the name Gadus lacustris for the Mathemeg, or Land Cod of Pen-

236 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

nant. This fish has, however, proved to be a catfish, and the name lacustris is untenable for the
Burbot. In 1817, Le Sueur described a Burbot from Lake Erie under the name of Gadus maculosus,
and another species from Northampton, Connecticut, as Gadus compressus. The name maculosus is
the oldest available specific name for the American species. Jn 1818 Mitchill described a Gadus
lacustris in the “American Monthly Magazine,” evidently not knowing that the same name had
been previously applied by Walbaum. In 1819 Le Sueur redescribed Gadus compressus under the
name Molva Huntia. In 1842 De Kay described Lota inornata from the State cabinet at Albany.
In 1844 D. H. Storer set up the Winnipiseogee Lake Burbot as Lota brosmiana. From this it will
appear that six specific names have been applied to the American Burbot, and that the form from
Hudson’s Bay was considered identical with the European species. AJ] of these names following
Gadus maculosus are considered synonyms of maculosus. The name compressa was retained
longer than any of the others, but it is now known that the compressed form is simply an indi-
vidual variation.

Giinther, in his “Catalogue of Fishes in the British Museum,” volume iv, 1862, places all the
names applied to the American Burbot in the synonymy of Lota vulgaris, believing that we have
only one species, and that identical with the European. Even if his view be correct, he should use
the name Lota maculosa, which, dating from 1817, has priority over vulgaris. The combination
Lota vulgaris was not employed, as far as I know, by any author until Jenyns used it in a Manual
of British Vertebrate Animals in 1835. Jt is not, however, established that the European and
American Burbot represent the same species. The number of vertebra seems to be smaller in the
European. Giinther gives it as twenty-one abdominal and thirty-eight caudal vertebrae. In two
skeletons examined by myself the abdominal vertebre were twenty-two to twenty-three, and the
caudal thirty-eight to thirty-nine. There seems to be no other important difference. For the
present it may be best to consider the European Burbot as varietally distinct from the American,
and we should call it Lota maculosa, variety vulgaris.

POPULAR NAMES.—In the Hudson’s Bay region, according to Pennant, the Burbot is known as
‘““Marthy”; according to Richardson, as “‘Methy.” In Alaska, according to Dall and Turner, it is
known as “Losh”; in Canada, as “la Loche.” In Vermont it is called the “ Hel-pout” (Thompson);
by which name also it is known in Mohawk River, New York, according to Loomis; in Massa-
chusetts (Storer); in Connecticut (Wood), and in Bighorn River, Montana (Brackett). It is
known as the ‘‘ Dogfish” in Lake Erie, according to Le Sueur. Commander L. A. Beardslee says
it is called “ Chub-eel,” also, in Mohawk River, New York. It is known as the “Ling” in Lake
Ontario (Professor Baird), lakes of Western New York (Baird and Blackford), and New York
market (Blackford). It is the “Lawyer” of Lake Michigan, according to Harll; “Lake-cusk” in
Lake Winnipiseogee (Davis); ‘“Fresh-water Cod” (Baird). It is called “Burbot” in New York
(De Kay), and in the Bighorn River, Montana (Brackett). Professor Jordan gives the names
“Aleby-trout” and “ Mother of Eels” as in use in the Upper Great Lake region.

The above list is incomplete, both as to names and geographical range. The name “Bur
bot” is the one which should come into general use. The first four will hardly be adopted by
English-speaking people. ‘“Chub-eel” is a mere off-hand pame given to the species by a fisher-
man who supposed it to be a hybrid between an eel and a catfish ; this name is known to very
few persons. The remaining names, except “Burbot,” are preoccupied and well established for
marine species, as follows: “Hel-pout,” Zoarces anguillaris ; “Ling,” Molva vulgaris; “Lawyer,”
Lutjanus canis; “Cask,” Brosinius brosme; Cod,” Gadus morrhua ; “ Dogfish,” Mustelus canis. The
European variety, Lota maculosa, variety vulgaris, is called “Burbot,” a name which has never
been applied to any other species than the one under consideration, so far as I can learn. This

POPULAR NAMES OF THE BURBOT. Zot

name, therefore, should be retained. In Norfolk, England, ‘‘Cony-fish” is a name given to the
European Burbot, from its habit of skulking in rat-holes and corners under the banks.

SizE.—We are told by J. R. Forster, in Philosophical Transactions, lxiii, 1773, p. 149, that
the weight of the Burbot in the Hudson’s Bay region is from one to eight pounds. According to
Pennant, who derives his information from Forster, the Burbot of the Hudson’s Bay region reaches
a weight of eight pounds. In Alaska, Mr. Dall says that they grow to a very large size, reaching
a length of five feet, and weighing as much as sixty pounds. In the Bighorn and Little Bighorn
Rivers, Moutana, the species reaches an average weight of less than a pound, and does not exceed
eighteen inches in length. Mr. W. Ainsworth, of Cape Vincent, New York, says that the Burbot
in the waters of Lake Ontario and Saint Lawrence River average two and a half pounds in
weight, occasionally reaching four pounds. The United States National Museum has received
from Mr. E. G. Blackford, of New York, numerous individuals from the Great Lake region, aver-
aging certainly not less than five pounds in weight. In the United States National Museum
collection the Burbot from the lakes are, as a rule, larger and plumper than those from rivers.
The exceptions are one from Fort Pierre, Nebraska, and two from the Yukon River. These are
longer but more slender than the lake Burbot. It seems highly probable that river Burbot may
generally be recognized by their slender bodies and small size, which characters we may attribute
to the small amount of food obtainable in the rivers, as compared with the supplies found in lakes.
The Burbot of the Connecticut River, which furnished the type of Lota compressa, is short,but really
less compressed than some from England, Southern Europe, and from our own lakes. Le Sueur’s
type of compressed Burbot may have been the starved or emaciated form known to fishermen as
“Racer,” and it may have been the ordinary little Burbot of the Connecticut already referred to.

RELATION TO THE EUROPEAN BuRBOT.—The American Burbot cannot be distinguished from
its European ally by external characters; in both, the color, the position of the fins, the number of
the fin-rays, the structure and arrangement of the teeth, the situation and size of the eyes, and the
relative proportions being substantially alike. There is less difference between the average Ameri-
can and European types of Burbot than there is between extremes of the former. At one time
I thought that the number of pyloric coca, or the length of the intestines, might be available in
classification, but the amount of individual variation is so great in this respect that no division
can be based thereon. The pyloric ceca in the European specimens which {have studied ranged in
number from 20 to 77; in America from 36 to 138. There is only one example having the latter
number, and that came from the Yukon River. Another individual from the same stream had 102
coeca, aud in all probability a large series would still further reduce the gap. This variation in the
number of ceeca is paralleled in other species, notably in the Cod and the Salmon, Salmo salar.
In the former I have counted 140, 160, 256, 271, 289, and 340 in six individuals. In the Salmon
Mr. J. K. Thacher records a variation between 44 and 70.

Even in the Craig flounder, Glyptocephalus cynoglossus, which has few ceeca, I have counted
9 in one adult and 11in another. The basis of distinction between the European and American
forms of Burbot is solely the smaller number of vertebre in the former. It may be that an exam-
ination of a large series of skeletons will show that the difference is constant, and it is also pos-
sible that other good characters will be found which will entitle the European form to separate
specific rank, or such examination may show a European Burbot with as many vertebre as one
of our American series; in which event it would seem proper to unite the two under the name of
Lota maculosa.

‘Report of United States Fish Commission, part 2, 1874, p. 371.

238 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

DISTRIBUTION.—The United States National Museum has specimens of the Burbot from a
tributary of Hudson’s Bay, Mackenzie’s River, Yukon River and Kodiak (Alaska), Winnipiseogee
Lake, the Connecticut River and Scantic River, Connecticut; Seneca Falls and Madrid, New York;
the Great Lakes, Winnebago Lake and Oshkosh, Wisconsin; Kansas City, Missouri; Fort Pierre,
Nebraska; the Bighorn and Little Bighorn Rivers in Montana, and Great Slave Lake. The
species occurs in the Yellowstone River, the Missouri River, in tributaries of the Ohio, in the
Mohawk River, and has once been obtained in the Susquehanna River, according to Professor
Cope in the report of the Pennsylvania Fish Commission, 1881.

ABUNDANCE.—The Burbot is most abundant in lakes, to wit: The Great Lakes, lakes of New
York, Winnipiseogee Lake, and lakes of Maine and New Brunswick. In general terms, including
under the name “Burbot” both the American and European forms, the species may be said to
inhabit the fresh waters of the northern regions both of Europe and America, being particularly
abundant in the Great Lakes and in all ponds, lakes, and large streams, thence northward to the
Arctic Circle. According to Dall it is exceedingly abundant in the rivers and lakes of Alaska.
The Burbot is not known to enter brackish water at the mouths of rivers. According to Mr. W.
Ainsworth, Burbot are found principally in deep water and on mud, except during the spawning
season, which occurs in March, when they run on rock or hard bottom. This refers to the Lake
Ontario region. Col. A. G. Brackett, U.S. A., states that the fish seem to be quite common in the
Bighorn River, Montana. In the northern rivers, as a rule, the species is very abundant, though
within the limits of the United States, so far as we know, the species is less common in rivers.
Mr. Charles Lanman writes that it is abundant in Lake Timisconti, and also in the Eagle and Saint
Francis Lakes.

REPRODUCTION.—The spawning season of the Burbot is late winter or early spring. It is
probable that the eggs, which are small and numerous, are deposited in deep water. Mr. Dall says
that the eggs of the Burbot are of a creamy-yellow color in Alaskan specimens. The same writer
states that the fish are full of spawn from November to January. He also says that a single
Burbot (Losh) contains millions of eggs.

According to Pennant, the Burbot spawns early in February, and “is unhappily most prolific.
Mr. Hutchins counted in a single fish 671,248 ovaria.” In the Great Lake region it is considered
probable that the Burbot spawns in deep water. Specimens forwarded from that region by Mr. E.
G. Blackford, in the month of November, 1877, were distended with ripe eggs.

According to Mr. Dall, the males are usually much smaller than the females, averaging only
eighteen or twenty inches in length, while the female attains a length of four or five feet. He
states also that the male has a smaller liver and one pyriform gall-bladder on the left side. Some
specimens, however, present the physiological curiosity of having two, or even three, distinct gall-
bladders opening into the same duct, and uniform in size and shape. Mr. Dall has, however, never
seen a double gall bladder in a female Burbot. The only marked feature in reference to these fish
at the spawning season is the greatly increased abundance. The young of this species are not
described in any American work, so far as I know. Richardson found small Burbots in the
stomach of the Lake Trout, Salvelinus namaycush. He states in “Fauna Boreali Americana,”
p. 180, that ‘in the month of March, in latitude 64°, we saw that capacious receptacle [stomach
of Salvelinus namaycush] crammed with the young of the Lota maculosa.”

The development of the European variety is partially illustrated by text and figures in a paper
by Carl J. Sundevall on “The Development of Fishes,” published in the “Proceedings of the
Swedish Academy,” 1862. The text is here in part translated:

“The spawning season of the Burbot commences in January or February. The eggs are laid

REPRODUCTION OF THE BURBOT. 239

separate and loose upon the river or lake bottom. They are very small and numerous. According
to the calculation of Baron C. G. Cederstrém, a medium-sized female contained 160,000 (by esti-
mate, 159,776) eggs. This result nearly coincides with that of a more recent estimate, viz, that
the average female contains 178,000 eggs. (Skand. Fiskar. vid., p.41.) Some eggs are clear, some
yellow, all nearly colorless, and both kinds are capable of development. In some cases the eggs
commence to hatch in three weeks; generally, however, an additional week is required. At the
end of the first day after the eggs have been deposited cleavage of the yolk commences. The eyes
appear in fifteen or sixteen days, and in about two days more small star-like spots may be observed
on the surface of the embryo. At that period, also, the beating of the heart can be plainly dis-
cerned, and I have alternately counted fifteen, thirty, and fifty pulsations in successive minutes.
The evolutions of the embryo are now more distinctly seen, and it will be noticed that the anterior
end of the embryo is the heavier. In many cases the eggs appear to have been prematurely
hatched, and assume the shape of a ring. These move but seldom, and always in a circle. A great
many die early; others are developed. The fish with straight tails are very lively, moving with
a tremor of the body, usually toward the surface of the water, whence they passively fall to the
bottom. When fully developed, the operation of swimming is accomplished by a quick movement
of the pectorals.”

MOoDE OF CAPTURE.—The Burbot is taken on hooks, chiefly at night. It is also captured
largely in pounds and gill-nets. In Lake Winnipiseogee it is caught with the hook through
holes in the ice. At Fort Custer, Montana, it takes the hook freely. In the Yukon River it is
captured in fish-traps.

FoopD AND FEEDING HABITS.—The Burbot is carnivorous and voracious, having a craving and
wonderfully distensible stomach, which makes the fish an efficient dredge in securing bottom fishes.
Through its medium was obtained the rare sculpin-like fish Triglopsis Thomsoni. The Burbot feeds
upon various small fishes and crustacea, frequenting the bottom, and devouring more particularly
fishes with habits like its own.

Forster gives the following notes in the “‘ Philosophical Transactions,” } which were furnished
him by Mr. Andrew Graham: “[The Marthy is] extremely voracious, eating fish, the pike, and the
tickomeg (Salmo), and other fish, carrion, putrefying deer, and even stones. Mr. Graham took a
stone weighing a pound from the stomach of one. . . . It does not masticate its food.”

Pennant says that the Marthy “is so voracious as to feed even on the tyrant pike; will devour
dead deer or any carrion, and even swallow stones to fill its stomach.”

The Burbot seems to feed principally at night. Pennant states that it is caught with hooks
after nine o’clock at night. Charles Lanman states that “in the Saint John River, New Bruns-
wick, some hundreds are taken annually by night-lines, dropped through the ice at the beginning
of winter. Many are thus taken near Fredericton, but the best fishing ground is on the sand-
bars, a little above the mouth of the Oromocto River, where this fish resorts previous to spawn-
ing, which operation takes place in February or March. This fish is not unlike the eel in many of
its habits, concealing its food under stones, waiting and watching for its prey. It feeds principally
at night, and is, therefore, generally taken by night-lines.”

The specimens obtained by the National Museum from the Great Lakes always contained in
abundance the common species associated with itself in that region, such as Perca americana, a
species of Lepomis, &c.

According to Mr. Dall, the Burbot in the rivers of Alaska feed upon whitefish, lampreys, and
other species.

1Vol. Lxiii.

240 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Economic VALUE.—There is a great difference of opinion as to the edible qualities of the Bur-
bot. In the region of the Great Lakes it is usually pronounced worthless, but some few consider
the liver a delicacy; it is held in low esteem as a food-fish, and rarely appears in the markets. It
was formerly thrown away, according to Mr. Milner, although it is a very good edible fish, and
some who know its qualities cook the livers of the larger specimens, considering them very choice.
Mr. Ainsworth, of Cape Vincent, New York, regards the Burbot as a great annoyance to gill net
fishermen. He states that they are a soft fish and unmarketable. I have been told that the Bur.
bot caught through holes in the ice in Winnipiseogee Lake are highly esteemed. In the fur coun-
tries, according to old writers, the roe is an article of food. The liver is eaten in the Yukon River
region, and the flesh is by some regarded as equal to that of whitefish. At Fort Custer, Mon-
tana, Col. A. G. Brackett says, “The soldiers eat all they can get of them.” Indians generally
are fond of them. No doubt the quality of the flesh depends largely upon the habitat, those found
in cold, clear, rapid streams being probably the best.

According to Professor Jordan, there is a popular prejudice against the looks of this fish, and
its flesh is less rich than that of most of the lake fish. From the manuscript of Charles Lanman,
referring to the species in New Brunswick, I quote the following: ‘“‘The flesh of the fresh-water
Cusk is white, firm, and of good flavor. The liver and roe are considered delicacies; when well
bruised and mixed with a little flour, the roe can be baked into very good biscuits, which are used
in the fur countries as tea-bread.”

Forster states that the roe and liver, when fresh, are considered delicacies, but that they turn
rancid in a few days. On the coast of Hudson’s Bay the fish is considered dry and insipid.-

The Burbot, therefore, does not appéar to be a very important fish, commercially speaking,
although when taken in cold streams, where it occurs in abundance, it is freely eaten. In Siberia,
according to Mr. Dall, the skins of the European variety are used as a substitute for glass in
windows.

INFORMATION DESIRED CONCERNING THE BuRBOT.—Information is greatly desired on all of
the points already mentioned concerning the Burbot, and especially on the following particulars:

1. Its oceurrence in rivers and lakes anywhere. Kansas City, Missouri, is the most southern
locality represented in the collections of the United States National Museum.

2. The temperature and depth of the water in which it is captured.

. Its capture in salt water. .

. Its time and mode of spawning in different waters.

. The appearance of the young.

. Its food. Bottom fishes are frequently found in the stomach.
Whether it is eaten.

. How caught.

The Commissioner of Fisheries is desirous of obtaining specimens in alcohol or in the fresh
state from any river or lake, except the Great Lakes and lakes of Western New York.

CAD TP ow

72. THE SILVER HAKE AND THE MERLUCCIO.
THE SILVER HAKE, OR NEW ENGLAND WHITING. MERLUCIUS BILINEARIS.

DISTRIBUTION.—It is the opinion of certain writers, among whom Dr. Giinther is leader,
that the Hake of Europe, Merlucius merlus (or M. vulgaris of recent authors), is identical with
the species of Merlucius occurring in the Western Atlantic. This is, however, a mistake; the
American species may easily be distinguished from that of Europe by the greater number of rays

THE EUROPEAN AND AMERICAN MERLUCIUS. Z41

in the first dorsal (10 to 11 in VM. merlus, 12 to 13 in M. bilinearis), and by the larger size of the
scales (the number in the lateral line being about 150 in M. merlus, 100 to 110 in M. bilinearis).

The general appearance of the two species is very similar, and it requires careful study to
separate them. It is probable that at no very remote period they diverged from a common stock.
The distribution of the two species upon the opposite sides of the Atlantic coincides very closely
with that of other Gadoid fishes, which are specifically identical in Europe and America. The Hake
of Europe is found along the coast from Trondhjem Fjord, latitude 65°, south to 36°, being very
abundant in the Mediterranean; also found on the coast of Portugal and in Western France. In
the English Channel, however, and in the waters of Holland and Germany, it is considered very
unusual. On our coast it ranges from New York to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, where it is
common—especially in the Bay of Chaleur—but it has rarely been observed as far north as the
Straits of Belle Isle. Dr. Packard was told by fishermen that during a period of forty sammers
spent on the coast of Labrador they had taken but one specimen of this fish. This fish has been
found at great depths as far south as latitude 36° and 379,

The name Silver Hake, by which this fish is known in the Bay of Fundy, is much more
appropriate than that of Whiting, though the latter is more frequently heard in New England; its
similarity to the European Hake is very great; while the name Whiting, which is in Europe
applied to a species (Merlangus vulgaris), somewhat resembling the Pollock, has been appropriated
in this country for a fish on the southern coast and belonging to the drum family.

MIGRATIONS AND MOVEMENTS.—The Silver Hake commonly inhabits the middle depths of
ocean, or the outer edge of the continental slope, and comes to the surface to feed. Like the
Pollock, it is a fish of prey; its teeth are sharp, its mouth large and powerful, and its form
lithe, muscular, and adapted to rapid locomotion. It comes to the surface to prey upon the
schools of herring and other small fish, and is frequently caught in the mackerel and bluefish nets.
Its appearance in our waters is irregular, and when seen it is usually in considerable numbers.
Storer, writing in or before 1867, remarked: “‘When my report was published in 1839 I stated
that the Whiting was taken—not, however, in large quantities—in our bay in the summer upon
the cod-fishery grounds; since that period this species has increased very perceptibly in our waters;
it is frequently caught in considerable numbers with the hook upon Crab Ledge, a few miles from
Boston light-house, and has become at Provincetown a serious inconvenience to the fishermen.
Captain Atwood informs me that when the fishermen at the latter place commence the mackerel
fishery with nets, which usually takes place about the 20th of May, the Whiting are scarce and
few are caught. By the 1st of June they become more plenty, and from the middle of June to the
last of the fishery, which closes about the 20th of July, they are exceedingly numerous in parts of
the bay in all depths of water. In such quantities are they taken in nets that frequently eight or ten
hours are required for a man to clear the nets of them. At this season of the year so many of
them are thrown from the boats upon the shore that the board of heaith is sometimes called upon
to interfere and to compel the fishermen to bury them from the fear of sickness being produced
by their decomposition. By visiting this point, the easterly extremity of Cape Cod, in June, 1847,
I saw quite a number of this species strewed along the shore, where they had been left by the tide
while in pursuit of sand-eels and other small fishes. Since that period, the bluefish having been
more common, this species does not exist in as great abundance.”

It is difficult in this case, as in many other similar ones, to decide exactly what dates to
assign to the observations of Dr. Storer—his “ History of the Fishes of Massachusetts,” in its
last edition, having been published at various times from 1863 to 1867—as in some instances he

contented himself with quoting the exact words of his report printed in 1839. It would seem,
16 F

242 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

however, that the statements attributed to Captain Atwood should be dated prior to 1850. The
Cape Cod naturalist, in his address before the senate committee of the Rhode Island legislature
in 1872, stated that in Provincetown Harbor, from a very early period until the ‘“‘horse-mackerel”
(bluefish) made its appearance, the fish called Whiting was immensely abundant; but since the
horse-mackerel had appeared this fish was driven out, and at the time of speaking a specimen
was hardly ever seen. Perley, writing in 1850 and 1852, stated that at Grand Manan these fish
were often taken in herring nets, in which they become entangled while pursuing their prey, and
that he observed the fishermen throwing away these fish by thousands while clearing their nets.

Haxsirs.—They average one foot in length. They are of roving habits, following the shoals of
herring, which they devour in great quantities. Until 1880 little was known concerning the
breeding habits of the Silver Hake, but, in exploring the bottom, at a depth of from one hundred
and fifty to three hundred fathoms, off Newport and in the edge of the Gulf Stream, immense
numbers of young fish, from half an inch to three inches in length, were found at the bottom, and
with them were many adults, twelve to eighteen inches io length, apparently in the act of spawn-
ing; some of them with the ova ripe, or nearly ripe, but not yet shed; others evidently spent fish.
This discovery was exceedingly interesting, since it may serve as a clew to the spawning habits of
other species, like the bluefish and menhaden, which have been supposed to spawn at a distance
from the shore, but have never been detected in the act. The spawning period doubtless extends
over a considerable space of time; some of the eggs from which the largest of the young were
hatched off Newport must have been laid as early as July. In September an adult, obtained at Hal-
ifax, Nova Scotia, had the ova well developed and nearly ready for deposition. It is not known
whether the eggs of the Silver Hake float or sink. Couch states that the spawning season of the
European Hake is from January to April, at which time the fish are caught near the bottom, and
lose the great voracity by which they are characterized at other times, so that multitudes are
caught in trawls, and a few with lines. When pilchards approach the shore the Hake follows
them, continuing in incalculable numbers throughout the winter. Mr. Couch continues:

“Tt rarely happens that pilchards are taken in the seine without many Hakes being inclosed
with them, and thus, when the net remainsin the water for several days, they have an opportunity
of glutting themselves to their hearts’ desire, which is to such an extent as to render themselves
helpless, and I have seen seventeen pilchards taken from the stomach of a Hake of ordinary size.
Their digestion is quick, 80 that they speedily get rid of their load, and fishermen observe that
when hooked the fish evacuates the contents of its stomach to facilitate its escape, so that when
hundreds are taken with a line in the midst of prey, not one will have anything in its stomach.
When near the surface, however, this ejection does not take place until they are dragged on
board.”

In Holland this fish is known as the Stokvisch, and in Germany as the Meerhecht or Little
Stockfisch; the first name signifies sea-pike, this name being the equivalent of the Latin generic
naine.

Usus.—The Hake of Europe is always considered a coarse fish, and though great quantities
are annually salted and dried it is not held in very high esteem. Many of the salted fish are sent
to Spain. They are said to be quite common on the northern shore of the Mediterranean, where
considerable traffic is carried on with them; they are packed with aromatic plants and sent to the
towns remote from the coast.

Storer remarks: “Occasionally this species is brought to market, and when perfectly fresh is
a very sweet fish, boiled, broiled, or fried. It soon becomes soft and is preserved with difficulty.
As it does not appear to be known abroad, and the fishermen consequently have no call for it, it is

USES OF THE SILVER HAKE. 243

not cured, but is considered worthless. In the months of September and October the Whiting is
used somewhat for bait for the dogfish and answers a good purpose.”

Itis, as a rule, hardly worth while to criticise statements in a work so generally unreliable as
J. V. C. Smith’s “ History of the Fishes of Massachusetts,” published in 1843, but since he has been
quoted by De Kay! in a misleading manner, it should here be stated that in discussing this fish this
author had also in mind other fishes belonging to the genus Phycis, which are known by the name
of Hake all along the coast.

THE MERLUCCIO OR CALIFORNIA HAKE. MERLUCIUS PRODUOTUS.

The California Hake, writes Professor Jordan, is most commonly known along the coast by its
Italian name, ‘ Merluccio”, pronounced merlodch. At Soquel and elsewhere it goes by the name
of Horse-mackerel, a name used on our coasts with the greatest carelessness, being applied to Elops
saurus, Anoplopoma fimbria, and Merlucius productus, as well as to various scombroids and caran-
goid fishes. It reaches a length of about thirty inches and a weight of ten pounds, its average
weight being five or six. It is found from the Island of Santa Cruz to Alaska, being very
irregular in its appearance, some years very abundant and at other times wanting altogether.
It is exceedingly voracious, feeding on all sorts of small fishes and squids. The stomach is always
filled almost to bursting.

It spawns in the spring, and its arrival near the coast always precedes the deposition of the
spawn. It probably then retires to deeper water.

Its value as a food-fish is very little. It is scarcely salable in the market of San Francisco.
Its flesh is very soft, and it is always ragged-looking when shipped. Nothing was learned as to the
quality of its flesh, but it probably differs little from M. bilinearis.

73. SEVERAL UNIMPORTANT FAMILIES RELATED TO THE GADIDZ.

THE CONGROGADUS FAMILY (Congrogadide).—This family, which in some respects resembles
the eels and in others the Codfishes, contains, in all, three species: one from Australia, one from
the Red Sea, and the third, a small eel-like fish, of great activity, Scytaliscus cerdalis, which lives
among the rocks on the coast of Washington Territory. ,

THE FIERASFER FAMILY (Fierasferide).—These are never of very large size, and are eel-
like in shape. As far as is known, they live parasitically in the cavities of other marine animals,
especially in the respiratory cavities of star-fish and sea-slugs. Not unfrequently they attempt to
live in animals less suited to their habits, as, for instance, bivalves, and cases have been known
where they have been imprisoned below the mouth of the mollusk or covered over with a layer of
the pearly substance secreted by it. They are perfectly harmless to their host, and merely seek
for themselves a safe habitation, feeding on the animalcules which enter with the water the cavi-
ties inhabited by them.? Three or tour species of this family are known to occur on our Florida
and Gulf coasts.

THE SAND Cusk FAMILY.—The family Ophidiide@ is represented on the Atlantic coast by a fish
so rare as to have no common name, the Ophidium marginatum, which is found burrowing in the sand
banks near Beaufort, North Carolina, occasionally at other places, and on the coasts of our South-
ern and Middle States,? and by several rare deep-sea forms. On the California coast is a similar

2

'New York Fish Fauna, p. 82.

2GUNTHER: Study of Fishes, p. 549.

3We dug two specimens out of the sand near low-water mark (Great Egg Harbor, April, 1871), where they
burrowed to the depth of a foot or more. When placed upon moist sand, they burrowed into it, tail foremost, with
surprising rapidity, disappearing in an instant. The species appears to be rare.—VERRILL: American Naturalist,
vy. 399.

244 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

species, Ophidium Taylori, about a foot in length. This species occurs from San Trancisco to the
Santa Barbara Islands. It is rare, and only brought into the market by accident.

Tue Rep Cusk FAMILY (Brotulide).—This family, which is composed of fishes belonging in
the deeper regions of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, is not represented on our Atlantic coast,
save by certain obscure deep-sea forms. A single species is known in California, the so-called
Red Cusk, Brosmophycis marginatus, known to the Italians of that region by the names Mustét or
Musteta. This fish reaches the length of eighteen inches. It has been noticed only in the neigh-
borbood of San Francisco, where it occurs in waters of considerable depth. On account of its
bright colors, it meets with a ready sale in the San Francisco market, but is too rare to be consid-
ered as of any great econumic importance.

Tur GRENADIER FAMILY (Macruride).—The Grenadiers, or, as the fishermen frequently call
them, on account of the size and shape of their eyes, ‘“Onion-fishes,” inhabit the deep parts of the
ocean. They are particularly abundant in the Western Atlantic. They are occasionally eaten,
but are chiefly important to the fishermen on account of their habit of stealing the bait and taking
possession of the hooks, which would otherwise be free for the capture of nore useful fishes. The
largest species, and the one best known to the fishermen, is Macrurus rupestris, called “ Rat-tail
Fish” as well as “Onion-fish”. Jt is exceedingly abundant on all of our off-shore banks, attaining
a length of three feet and a weight of four or five pounds.

A swnaller species, Macrurus Bairdii, 1s found everywhere along the coast where the depth is
greater than eighty or ninety fathoms. It is probably an important article of food for the larger
fishes of these regions, such as the halibut. At least four species of this family occur on our coast,
all of which have been brought to light by the explorations of the United States Fish Commission
within the past four years.

74. THE LANT, OR SAND-EEL—AMMODYTES AMERICANUS.

HaBits.—Of all the small species of fishes occurring in the North Atlantic there is probably
none more important to man than the Lant—Launce, as it is called in Europe, frequently also the
Sand-eel both in Europe and America, Tobias-fish in Germany, and Smelt in Holland. The
American and European species, though similar, are quite distinct forms.

Although it is never used for food in this country, it is of great economic importance, since it
constitutes one of the chief articles of food for the codfish, the halibut, and other flesh-feeding
species, such as the bonito, bluefish, squeteague, flounder, and mackerel, and in Europe the turbot.

The Lant is a slender species, with a rounded body, the height of which is contained from
eleven to twelve times in its total length; the largest individuals grow to be about sixteen inches
long. but they are usually much smaller. They swim in immense schools at the surface, and fre-
quently imbed themselves in the sand, where they often remain above the low-water mark while
the tide is out. Why they do this is not well understood, for in their habits they are wanderers,
sometimes appearing in immense numbers at certain points upon the coast and disappearing as
rapidly as they came. With their sharp noses and slender muscular bodies they have little diffi-
culty in imbedding themselves in the soft sand several inches deep. I shall never forget my sur-
prise when, many years ago, unfamiliar with the habits of this fish, which, indeed, was at that time
entirely unknown to me, I was digging up shells in one of the sandy beaches in Provincetown
Harbor, when suddenly, as I struck my hoe into the earth, a great section of the beach became
alive with glancing forms of dozens of these agile little fishes.

“On the sands of Portobello, near Edinburgh, and at other places, people take advantage of

HABITS OF THE LANT. 245

this well-known habit, and when it is discovered that a shoal of Sand-eels have hidden themselves
in the sand they sally out, armed with spades, rakes, shovels, and forks, and dig them out. When
extricated from the sand-beds the fish leap about with singular agility, and afford much sport in
capturing them. Perhaps the fun in catching them has originated the saying, ‘As jolly as a sand-
boy.’ M1

They are captured in a similar manner on the coast of Holland. It is Buckland’s idea that
they go into the sand to take refuge from fish which are pursuing them.

Captain Atwood, writing to Dr. Storer during 1847, said: ‘‘On last Friday night they ran
ashore in such quantities in Provincetown Harbor that they covered the ground from one to two
inches deep, and when the water covered the flats the whole bottom looked like an immense sea of
silver.” “When thus situated,” continues Storer, “they are readily devoured by their enemies,
among whom are the cuttle-fish,” or squids.

Various authors have stated that they feed upon the very young fry of other fish and upon
small worms.

Speaking of a closely related species, Ammodytes tobianus, which has not yet been found in the
Western Atlantic, but which may yet very probably be discovered here, and whose habits are doubt-
less very similar, Oliver writes that they follow the young fry of the coalfish, or pollock, into the
harbor, and are frequently caught with the same bait. They swim rapidly and dash at a shoal of
fry with the voracity and swiftness of a pike, and they even feed upon the young of their own kind.

As has already been stated, they constitute a favorite bait for many other species of fish. They
are very conspicuous by reason of their bright silver color, and their swift motion is easily imitated
by trawling them behind the boat in rapid motion. Their form has been imitated in India rubber
and metal for use in.angling. In England they are a favorite bait for the bass. Couch states that
they are frequently followed by mackerel, and that their presence is a sure sign of good fishing.
“On a calm evening itis an interesting sight to see the surface of the water broken by the repeated
plunges of the voracious fishes as they break tipon the little school of Launces from beneath.
Their only certain place of refuge frem these pursuers is the sand.”

Owing to the confusion between the two species of Ammodytes, European naturalists have not.
yet come to a definite decision as to their time of spawning, but the observations of Benecke indi-
cate that this takes place, in the Baltic at least, in May, the fish being most abundant in those
waters from July to September. No one has observed these habits on our own coast.

DISTRIBUTION.—The distribution of the Lant in the Western Atlantic appears to be limited
at the south in the vicinity of Long Island Sound, although it is stated by Uhler and Lugger to
occur on the coast of Maryland. Northward it is found at least as far as Sloop Harbor, Labrador.
On the Scandinavian coast it has not been found north of Trondhjem Fjord, latitude 65°, though
the other species is found up as far as North Cape. It enters the Baltic, occurs everywhere
throughout the British Isles, is abundant in Holland and along the northern coast of France. In
summer they are frequently seen in immense schools on the southern coast of Massachusetts.
Captain Atwood gives the following account of their movements in Cape Cod Bay:

‘Lants are common, and sometimes they are plentiful. Some winters there comes on a cold
Spell, and if the wind is just right they drive ashore, and you may pick up bucketfuls, while
sometimes winters have passed away when I have not noticed but a few. One year, before 1847 I
should think, the Lant came in in immense quantities. The whiting drove the Lant in, and they
began to run ashore at high water, and ran ashore till low water, and they covered the whole
ground so I should think they would be one and a half or two inches deep. There was not a place

1 BUCKLAND: Familiar History of British Fishes, p. 193.

246 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

on the whole inside of the point the next day but was sheeted over with these Lant. On the day
after the wind came on and blew heavy from the westward, and it swept the beach off as clean as
you could sweep a floor. They come in winter and in summer, and are quite common on the coast,
and on the Banks of Newfoundland there are immense numbers of them. I have frequently seen
them in the stomachs of codfish.”

The Lant is found in spring or early summer in the open sea, in the neighborhood of banks
and shoals remote from land, as is also the sprat in Europe and the “brit,” “eyebait,” or small
herring in America. Professor Sars has given a detailed description of the manner in which the
vast schools of young herring to the Norwegian shore in summer not only attract the large cod
and many other fish from the deep sea towards the shore, but also draw the yearling and two-year-
old cod from the shore to meet the incoming schools.

Usrs.—As has already been stated, this fish is not used for food in the United States. Its
importance is well understood by our fishermen who go after cod to Labrador and Newfoundland.
‘They are said to be common in the Edinburgh market in summer, while in Southern En gland they
are salted and dried for winter use. In Edinburgh, too, the other species, called the Horness, or
Horned Eel, is brought to the market in August and sold by the thousand. Parnell states that
this species spawns in September, and that their flesh is wholesome and palatable.

Captain Atwood has also recorded some curious observations concerning the manner in which
these fish, with their sharp snouts, penetrate through the stomach of the codfish which has eaten
them, into the walls of the body, and there become encysted in the flesh, forming hard, black masses
which are very inconvenient to the fishermen, because they dull their knives which they use in
dressing the fish before drying them.

WOLF-FISHES, SCULPINS, AND WRASSES. 247

K.—WOLF-FISHES, SCULPINS, AND WRASSES.
75, THE LYCODES FAMILY—LYCODIDH.

This family is represented on our Atlantic coast by eight or ten species, and on the Pacific coast
by three others. They are large-headed, elongate fishes, with eel-like bodies, covered with a lax,
thick, slimy skin, and for the most part inhabit very deep water, and are seldom seen except by
the naturalist, and by the fisherman, who counts them among the refuse products of his lines.

MUTTON-FISH.—The Mutton-fish, Zources anguillaris, called Congo Eel and Ling, and also
Lawper Eel, especially by the Maine fishermen, is often seen near the shore north of Cape Cod,
and in winter especially is frequently taken with hook and line from the wharves. This species
occasionally attains the length of three feet and the weight of six or seven pounds.

The Mutton-fish feeds upon crustaceans and mollusks, and spawns in July and August in the
deep waters of Massachusetts Bay, its eggs being as large as buckshot and not very numerous.
The young fish are frequently taken in the Fish Commission trawl-nets. This species has been
recorded as far south as Fort Macon, in North Carolina, where Dr. Yarrow claims to have taken
two specimens, fishing from one of the wharves; and H. R. Storer found it in Southern Labrador,
at Bras d’Or, where he observed that it was frequently taken in the herring seines. In Northern
Europe is an allied species, Z. viviparus, which brings forth its young alive, the embryos attaining
a length of four or five centimeters before leaving the mother, and in the Baltic making their
appearance in August or later. Malm records the capture in Southern Sweden, November 17,
1873, of a female with three hundred fully developed young, about forty millimeters long. It is
not yet definitely determined whether or not our species is viviparous, but it seems somewhat
improbable, although one taken in Gloucester Harbor, at a depth of eight fathoms, in a tempera-
ture of 41° F., July 30, 1878, contained eggs which seemed almost mature enough to be deposited.
This is known in Germany as the Aalmutter, or Mother of Eels; in Holland, Puit Aal; in Scot-
land as the Bard or Maroona Kel; in England as the Guffer, Eel-pout, or Green-bone; and in
Southern Sweden as the Aolkussa; the distribution of which is limited on the south by the
English Channel, on the north by the North Cape and Varanger Fjord, latitude 71°. It enters
the Baltic, where it is frequently taken on the Prussian coast, especially about Memel.

The Mutton-fish, like the Wolf-fish, or Sea Catfish, is one of those species which, while possess-
ing excellent qualities as a food-fish, is not generally eaten. Mitchill speaks of having seen them
in considerable numbers in the New York markets in March, 1813, and De Kay in 1842 wrote: “I
have noticed this fish is most abundant in the New York markets in February and March. It is
caught on the coast in company with the common cod. It feeds on various marine shells and
affords a very savory food.”

In Gill’s paper on the “ Fishes of New York Markets,” written in 1856, this fish is not men-
tioned as one of the kinds at that time sent: to New York.

Storer writes: ‘It feeds upon the mollusca and testacea, and the flesh of the young fish is
sweet and very palatable. It is seldom met with in Boston market; occasionally, however, it is
brought in by the cod-fishermen of Massachusetts Bay.”

It is occasionally eaten by the Cape Ann fishermen, by whom it is known as the Mutton-fish,

248 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

the name referring to a supposed resemblance of its flesh to mutton; and I can myself testify to
the delicacy of its flavor. The European species is also on the border-line between food and refuse
fishes. Parnell writes: ‘In the Firth of Forth it exists in great plenty, hiding under sea-weed
in rocky situations. They are even taken with lines in the winter months and brought to market,
where they fetch a ready sale at the rate of three a penny. Some people consider the flesh as very
fine and wholesome, while others, again, announce it as dry and of a disagreeable flavor. The
bones of this fish when boiled assume a green appearance, from which circumstance the fish oft-
times receives the naine of Green-bone.”?!

Mr. Neill says: “Though not a delicate morsel, this fish is often brought to the Edinburgh
market.”

In Holland and Germany they are not often eaten; there is a general impression, however,
that they are edible.

Paciric Lycopips.—This family is represented on the Pacific coast by Lycodopsis paucidens
(Lockington) Jor. & Gilb., and L. microstomus Lockington, small fishes, scarcely a foot in length,
living in rather deep water from San Francisco northward. They have no economic importance,
being only brought into the market when mixed with the tomcod and ‘“soles.”

76. THE WOLF-FISHES OR SEA CATFISHES—ANARRHICHADIDA.

SEA CATFISHES.—The Wolf-fish family is represented on our Atlantic coast by three species—
all large, voracious, and frequently taken by cod and halibut fishermen. The best known, and
in fact the only species definitely ascertained to occur in the Western Atlantic until the other two
were recently brought to light by the labors of the Fish Commission, is the common “Catfish” of
the fishermen, Anarrhicas lupus Linnzeus, and which is found throughout the northern parts of the
Northern Atlantic, ranging upon the New England coast south to the region of the Nantucket Shoals,
where it ever breeds in deep water, young specimens having been obtained by the Fish Commission
at a depth of over one hundred fathoms in the summer of 1880, while in 1874 several specimens
were brought to Noank, caught by the New York smacks on the Nantucket Shoals, the largest four
feet or more in length. De Kay records the capture of a specimen four teet long off Block Island,
and states that they are not unfrequently taken off Rock Beach in company with the common cod.

In the Eastern Atlantic it is found in the German Ocean, on the south coast of Great Britain
and in the Channel, and along the shores of Holland.? According to Richardson it is somewhat
common on the French coast. Though it does not appear to enter the Baltic, it is found on the.
coast of Norway and in the Cattegat. Yarrell records the capture of this fish on the coast of
Yorkshire, in the Frith of Forth, and in the Orkneys. Collet records its presence everywhere
along the Norwegian coast up to the North Cape and Varanger Fjord in Eastern Finmark, while
itis known to occur in Iceland and Greenland and along the entire eastern coast of Northern
North America. This is the best known species, and until recently all others have been con-
founded with it. It is readily distinguished from the others by its general color of gray slate, or
light brown, marked with from nine to twelve transverse bands of darker hue. By many of the
nations of Northern Europe it is called the Catfish; and this name is still in general use among
our own sea-fishermen, although the fishes inost generally known in North America by this name
are fresh-water species of the family Siluride, closely related to the sheet-fish or wels of Europe.
To an untrained observer there is some resemblance between these fishes and the Catfish of the

1There is no evidence that the bones of the American species ever become green. The name Green-bone is also
applied in Europe to the silver gar-fish.
SCHLEGEL: De Dieren van Nederland. Visschen, p. 68.

HABITS OF WOLF-FISHES. 249

sea, to which resemblance they doubtless owe their common name, bestowed upon them by the
early English settlers. They are also called in this country “ Wolf-fish,” this being the common
book-name. In the Orkneys the name is “Swine-fish,” professedly on account of a peculiar
movement of the snout which has been observed; while in Scandinavia the name “Stone-biter” is
also common. Another species, which may be called the Spotted Cat-fish, or the Wolf-fish, is
occasionally obtained by our cod-fishermen on the off-shore banks, and has been taken near the
shore in the Bay of Fundy. In form and general appearance it is similar to the species just
described, but instead of transverse bands of brown or black it is marked with numerous circular
spots and blotches; sometimes several of these are confluent, forming a large, irregular blotch.
This species, Anarrhicas minor, Olafsen, has been observed on the coast of Norway throughout
nearly its whole extent, north of latitude 58°; it occurs in Iceland, whence were received the first
specimens, and on our own coast has been seen in the Bay of Fundy and on several of the banks
north of Georges.

Besides these two, there is the ‘‘ Blue Cat-fish”, A. latifrons, which is much smaller, rarely exceed-
ing three feet in length, with a very soft and flabby body, and of a uniform blue-slate or mouse
color. This is a resident of the deep waters, in two to four hundred fathoms, on the outer edge of
the off-shore banks, and has also been observed in the northern parts of Europe. Dr. Bean has
recently described a species from Alaska somewhat resembling Anarrhicas lupus, but without the
cross bands; the color of the alcoholic specimens is dark brown without bands or spots, and with
belly of light brown or gray clouded with very dark brown. To this he has given the name
Anarrhicas lepturus. The types were obtained at Saint Michaels.

The Wolf- or Cat-fishes are, emphatically, lovers of cold water, their range corresponding
closely to that of the halibut, though perhaps not extending quite so far southward. They are
almost invariably found upon the same feeding-grounds, where the Cat-fish devour the heavy-
shelled crustaceans and mollusks which are too strongly protected to be eaten by other fishes.
According to Fabricius it migrates from the coast to the deep sea in the autumn and returns again
in the spring, being associated in these movements with the common lump-fish.

It is impossible to imagine a more voracious-looking animal than the Sea Cat fish, with its
massive head and long, sinuous, muscular body, its strongly rayed fins and its vise-like jaws,
armed with great pavements of teeth, those in front long, strong, pointed like those of a tiger,
closely studded, re-enforced in the rear by others rounded and molar-like, adapted for crushing the
objects which have been seized by the curved teeth in the front of the jaw. The character of
their food has already been mentioned. Professor Verrill found in the stomach of one of these
fishes over a quart of spiny sea-urchins, and it is believed that upon these and upon hermit-crabs
they depend very largely for food. They are pugnacious in the extreme, and have been known to
attack furiously persons wading at low tide among the rock-pools of Eastport, Maine. When one
is lifted into a fishing-boat, which is a not unfrequent occurrence, it is necessary to kill it at once
to prevent it from injuring the fishermen, by biting or stabbing them with its sharp spines. They
are quickly killed by blows upon the head.

The only record of the spawning time of the Anarrhicas lupus in Europe, which I can at
present find, is in Schlegel’s “Fishes of the Netherlands,” where it is stated that it occurs in May
and June. It is probable that on our own coast the period is approximately the same, since young
fish of one and two inches in length have been several times taken by the fishermen in August
and September. DeKay states that they spawn in May. According to Fabricius, it spawns on
the Greenland coast in May among the largest seaweeds, a short way from the shore. The largest
individuals of this species are six or seven feet in length, and would probably weigh forty pounds.
The specimen mentioned by Richardson, three feet long, weighed twenty pounds.

250 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

It cannot be said that they are at present of great economic importance. Storer, writing in
1867, said: “By many of our fishermen it is considered very delicate; the smallest specimens, from
five to ten pounds, are quite palatable when fried or broiled, the skin having been previously
removed; it is also occasionally split and salted or dried and smoked, and is said to be, when thus
prepared, very good.”!

Parnell wrote: “It is quite common in the rocky parts of the Firth of Forth, and also found
on the haddock lines, and is occasionally taken in the same nets above Queen’s Ferry. About
June the young are about two feet in length, and are sold in the market for sixpence each. The
appearance of this fish is not very prepossessing, and the natives are not aware of its quality as
food; but if properly dressed and disguised by the head being cut off, it is considered equal to
many of the marine fishes.”?

Yarrell says: “According to Mr. Neill, specimens of small size, about two feet in length, are
frequently brought to the Edinboro’ markct; and those who are able to overcome the prejudices
caused by its appearance find it gqod food. Mr. Hoy and Mr. Low have borne their testimony to
the excellence of its flesh, and Mr. Donovan states that it is delicious. It may be observed here
that this is the general character of the flesh of those fishes that feed on crustaceous animals. It
is eaten by the Greenlanders and Norwegians, as well as by most of the inhabitants of the northern
part of Europe, the head and skin being first taken off. The skin is converted into very durable
bags and pockets. Malm writes: “They occur along the whole coast of Bohuslan, and are caught
most frequently of all from March to May.”

Frank Buckland remarks: ‘“ Notwithstanding the ugly appearance of this fish its flesh is said
to be of a very good flavor. It is sometimes seen hung up in the shops of London fish-mongers,
and I can, for the most part, say that it is very good; I can compare it to nothing but a nice veal
chop.” DeKay also bears testimony to their excellence, saying that “when smoked their flesh is
very similar to that of salmon.” Schlegel says they are not eaten on the coast of Holland.

On the Pacific coast there is a fish of a closely-related genus commonly known as the Eel,
Anarrichthys ocellatus. This species is commonly known as the “Eel,” or “ Wolf-eel,” the latter
name probably having been given by some one familiar with the Atlantic Wolf-fish. The name
“ Azia” is given to it by the Dalmatian fishermen on Puget Sound, and that of ‘“ Morina” by the
Italians at Monterey. It reaches a length of cight feet and a weight of about thirty pounds.
The average length is five to six feet. It ranges from Monterey to Puget Sound, lurking among
the rocks, and occasionally left by the falling tide. It is not rare about San Francisco, but
becomes much more abundant northward. It feeds on crustaceans, echinoderms, and fishes. <Ac-
cording to Mr. Lockington the broken shells of Echinarachnius excentricus are often found in its
stomach. Nothing special is known of its breeding habits, enemies, or diseases. As a food-fish
it meets always with a ready sale.

77. THE BLENNY FAMILY—BLENNIIDZ.

The Blenny family is represented on the Atlantic coast of the United States by two species
of insignificant size and absolutely without value. Upon the Pacific coast they are represented
by numerous small fishes, mostly living about the rocks between tide-marks, and often exceedingly
abundant. A few of them live in the kelp, and some of them swim freely in shallow water. Large
individuals are occasionally brought into the markets, especially of Xiphister mucosus, Cebedichthys

1Fishes of Massachusetts, p. 100.
2¥Fishes of the Firth of Forth, p. 240.
3 British Fishes, 1836, vol. 1, p. 248.

THE BLENNY FAMILY. 251

violaceus, and Heterostichus rostratus, often selling as “eels,” at thirty cents per pound. In
general these fishes are, from an economic point of view, entirely insignificant, and probably not a
hundred pounds a year of them are sold on the whole coast. The Lumpenus anguillaris is often
taken in large numbers in the seines, but a prejudice seems to exist against it and no one will eat it.

The following is a list of the Blennioid fishes: Lumpenus anguillaris (Pallas) Gill, from Cape
Mendocino northward; abundant. Apodichthys violaceus (Ayres) Grd.; Xiphister rupestris Jor. &
Gilb.; Xiphister mucosus (Grd.) Jor.; Xiphister chirus Jor. & Gilb.; Aproplarchus atropurpureus (Kitt-
litz) Gill; Apodichthys flavidus Grd.; Apodichthys fucorum Jor. & Gilb.; all these living among
rocks and ranging from Monterey to Alaska; Muranoides ornatus Girard, from Cape Mendocino
northward; Cremnobates integripinnis Rosa Smith; Gibbonsia elegans Cooper, and Hypleurochilus
gentilis (Girard) Gill, among rocks, chiefly from Point Concepcion southward; and finally Neochnus
satiricus Grd., Neoclinus Blanchardi Girard, and Heterostichus rostratus Girard, living in the kelp
along the shore from Monterey to Lower California.

78. THE TOAD-FISH—BATRACHUS TAU.

The Toad-fish, Batrachus tau, called also on the coast of New Jersey and in some parts of the
Southern States ‘“Oyster-fish,” is one of the mest repulsive looking fishes upon our coast, with its
dark, slimy, almost shapeless body and its mud-wallowing habits. In general appearance it resem-
bles a sculpin without prominent spines upon its head or upon its fins. Although it is armed
with by no means insignificant spines, which are capable of inflicting serious cuts, when touched
they show no disposition to bite, but erect their opercular spines in a very threatening manner;
these are so covered by the lax skin that they can scarcely be seen.!

Species of this family inhabit the coasts of nearly all the tropical and temperate regions of the
world. The American species was the first brought to notice, specimens having been sent about
1761 from South Carolina by Dr. Garden to Linnezus, by whom it was described under the name
Gadus tau, the great Swedish naturalist considering it to be a kind of codfish. The name which
he gave it refers to a character not discernible except in dried specimens, the bones of the upper
surface of the scale forming a group of ridges which resemble in shape the Greek letter T.

Our species is found in shallow waters from Cape Cod south at least as far as to the mouth of
the Mississippi River. In the Gulf of Mexico, however, it is found in deep water, and many large
ones are taken on the snapper grounds at a considerable distance from shore. In the South it
would appear to be somewhat more active in its habits, though frequently found on the oyster-
beds, hiding between the valves of empty oyster-shells.

There are at least three distinct forms: (1) The northern variety, rarely exceeding ten, twelve,
and even fifteen inches in length, the general color of which is brown coarsely marbled with darker
marks. (2) The southern variety of Gtinther, which is found on the Florida Keys and in the Gulf,
though often associated with the northern variety, which is similar in color to this, but has the
body and the fins dotted and spotted with white. (3) A form found only in the Gulf, Batrachus
pardus, which is much larger and of 2 light-yellow color spotted and blotched with brown. This
form is known to the fishermen as the ‘ Sarpo” and the “Sea-robin,” the former name being doubt-
less a corruption of the Spanish word sapo, meaning toad. This form is said by Mr. Stearns fre-
quently to attain the length of eighteen inches. The color of these fish usually corresponds very

1A closely related form, Thalassophryne maculosa, which occurs on tho Atlantic side of the isthmus of Panama,
has true poisoning glands at the base of its opercular spines, by means of which it can inflict injurious wounds; this
being almost the only fish which possesses weapons of this character.

252 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

closely to that of the bottom upon which they are resting, and, like many other muddy-water
species, they have the power of changing their color to lighter or darker shades when exposed to
the light in shallow vessels with dark or light-colored bottom. They are very voracious, feeding
upon small fishes of all kinds, especially upon anchovies and sand-smelt, and upon shells, crabs,
shrimps, and marine worms. “It secures its food rather by strategy and stealth than by swiftness
of motion,” writes Mr. Stearns, “hiding under or behind stones, rocks, or weeds, or stealing from
one cover to another it watches its victim until the latter is near by, when it darts forth with a
quickness quite astonishing, considering its usual sluggishness, and back again to its hiding
place, having one or more fish in its stomach and on the alert for others.”

On the south coast of New England it is found chiefly in the shallow bays. ‘The sandy or
muddy bottom of these,” writes Storer, “is overgrown with eel-grass, under cover of which it lives
in security and finds abundant sources of food. Where the coast, on the contrary, is more or less
rocky, we meet with it chiefly under stones. Examining the places where the water is but a few
inches in depth at low tide, we see that under many of the stones and smaller rocks the sand on
one side has been removed, leaving a shallow cavity perhaps a foot in width and extending back
beneath the stone. If we approach this cautiously we shall probably distinguish the head of a
Toad-fish very much in the position of that of a dog as he lies looking out of his kennel. The fish
is at rest, and might be overlooked by a careless observer; a closer attention, however, readily dis-
tinguishes the curve of its broad mouth and delicately laciniated tentacles with which its jaws
and other parts of its head are ornamented. Its eyes, and sometimes the anterior portion of its
body, are truly beautiful. At the slightest alarm it retreats beneath the stone, but presently reap-
pears; itis lying here merely as in a safe resting-place, perhaps on the watch for its prey. But
during the months of June, July, and August we shall in many instances be able to discover
another purpose; it is apparently guarding its eggs or young; we shall then find on the interior
surface of the stone the young Toad-fish adhering, to the number of several hundreds. They will
be in different stages of development, according to the season of our examination. We may see
the eggs not larger than very small shot; a little later they are increased in size, the young fish
plainly visible through their walls; a little later still the young have made their escape, but are
still attached to the stone. The attachment now, however, is accomplished in a different manner;
the yolk not being yet absorbed, occupies a rounded sac protruding by a narrow orifice from the
abutment, and the part of this sac near its outer border being constricted leaves, externally to it,
a disc, by means of which, acting as a sucker, the young fish adheres so firmly as to occasion diffi-
culty in detaching it. They remain thus until they have attained the length of one-half or three-
fourths of an inch, or until the yolk sac is entirely absorbed. During this period the adult fish
occupies the cavity beneath the stone, and if driven from it speedily returns. The fish is in all
cases the mother of the young ones, but that she is there for the purpose of guarding them we
have no means of determining; we can only infer it.”

At Noank, Connecticut, in 1874, I had an opportunity of watching the progress of the spawn-
ing season. July 14, numerous eggs were found clinging to the stones in water one to two feet in
depth; later in the season, July 21, young fish, half an inch long, were plenty, and September 1
these had attained an average length of one inch. Individuals, apparently of the second year’s
growth, were also common, and would average three-fourths of an inch in length.!

1Silas Stearns writes: “In the Gulf of Mexico the Toad-fish spawns in April or May. When ita young have
been hatched, the older fish seem to guard them, and teach them the devices of securing food in much the same
manner that a hen does her chickens. I have spent hours in watching their movements at this time, and was at first
much surprised by the sagacity and patience displayed by the parent fish.”

HABITS OF THE TOAD-FISH. 253

The bottom temperature of the water frequented by these fish would appear to range from
50° I’, to 90° IF. In the more northern regions throughout which they are distributed they appear
to become torpid, or nearly so, in winter; and it is stated by Storer that they are frequently found
in the mud by men spearing eels. They are very hardy, and when taken from the water will lie
for many hours, and soon recover their ordinary activity when restored to the water. When
handled they utter a loud croaking sound.

The Toad-fish is very abundant throughout the whole extent of its range, and is easily captured
with hook and line. In the Gulf of Mexico many are taken in seines. Mr. Stearns states that its
flesh is highly esteemed by many of the Gulf fishermen. Dr. Storer writes: “The Toad-fish is not
commonly employed as an article of food. Its generally repulsive aspect causes it to be looked
upon rather with disgust. That its flesh is delicate and good, however, can scarcely be questioned,
though the small size which it attains and the fact that it never is taken in any large quantities
prevent it from being of any economic value.” Professor Baird also bears testimony to the fact
that its flesh is very sweet and palatable.

The Toad-fish may be regarded as constituting one of the undeveloped resources of our waters,
and it can scarcely be questioned that in future years it will be considered as much more important
than at present. No estimates can be given as to the quantity now yearly entering into consump-
tion, and, since it is almost never offered for sale, no price quotations can be presented. It has still
another, and at present more important, relation to the fisheries than this; on account of its great
abundance and its pertinacity in taking the hook baited for nobler game it is regarded by the
fishermen as one of their worst pests.

The Batrachide are represented on the Pacific coast by the “ Singing-fish,” or “ Toad-fish,”
Porichthys porosissimus. This fish lives on muddy bottoms from Alaska to Panama, and is every-
where extremely abundant. It reaches the length of eighteen inches, but being never used for
food has no economic importance.

The family Trichodontide, which follows Batrachide in the classification of Gill, is represented
on the California coast by the species Trichodon Stelleri, an estray from Alaska, rarely seen. On the
Atlantic coast this family is entirely absent.

79. THE LUMP-SUCKERS: LUMP-FISH AND SEA-SNAILS.

bs Tou Sra SNAILS—LIPARIDID A.

The three families Gobiesocide, Liparidide, and Cyclopteride are represented on our coast
by several species, most of them minute and of no economic value; all of them characterized by
the presence of a peculiar suctorial organ upon the belly, a modification of the ventral fins, by
which they are able to cling to rocks and shells and 1o retain their positions in currents of water.
The Lump-suckers, Liparis lineatus and L. vulgaris, which are found on oyster and scallop beds and
among the roots of the kelp, and along the New England coast, are interesting from the fact that
they are often parasitic, living within the shells of the large scallops, in company with a small
crab resembling the oyster-crab. From the Chesapeake Bay southward, and in the Gulf of
Mexico, allied forms belonging to the genus Gobiesow occur, especially among the oyster-beds, but
these also are of no economic value.

THE LUMP-FISH—CYCLOPTERUS LUMPUS.

To this group belongs a fish which, though of little value, is often seen in our markets, anu
is so conspicuous, on account of its grotesque form and striking colors, that it is worthy of passing

254 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

mention. This is the common Lump-fish, Cyclopterus lumpus, known in England by the names
“Lump-sucker,” “Sea-owl,” “Coek-paddle,” and by numerous local appellations. This fish is widely
distributed throughout the entire North Atlantic, ranging on our coast from the mouth of the Chesa-
peake to the Straits of Belle Isle, abundant in Greenland and Iceland, along the entire western
coast of Scandinavia, from the North Cape to the Cattegat, entering the Baltic, aud not rare along
the shores of East and West Prussia, well known in Holland, Northern France, and everywhere
in the British Isles. The largest English specimen recorded weighed eleven and a half pounds;
the largest on our own coast, as observed by Storer, eighteen and three-quarters pounds.

“The Lump-fish,” writes Benecke, “lives on the bottom of the sea, swims slowly and with difti-
culty, and in May and June comes into shallow water tospawn. The male makes pits in the sand,
between the stones, in which the female deposits its eggs. The male watches over the eggs, and
later over the tender young which cling to its body with their suckers. The number of eggs ranges
from 200,000 to 400,000. It is a voracious species, which preys upon small crustaceans, mollusks,
and fish-spawn.”

Benecke’s observations were made in the southern part of the Baltic; the spawning time is
recorded by him as probably not very different from that in Southern New England. Young speci-
mens from one-fourth to one inch in length are very abundant in Southern Massachusetts and Con-
necticut in July and August, swimming at the surface. They have not yet assumed the ponderous,
unwieldy shape of the adults, and swim much more rapidly and gracefully. In Sweden, according
to Malm, the spawning time is in June; “In England,” says Yarrell, “in April and the beginning
of May ”—dates which correspond precisely to those given by Fabricius for Greenland.

The male Lump-fish is said to be very fierce in defense of its young, and to be able to protect
them from much larger fish than themselves, even from the wolf-fish. It is, in its turn, a favorite
prey for the seals and wolf-fish. At the time of the spawning season the ordinary translucent
green color of the body becomes much brighter, and the under parts of the fish are of a brilliant
red. After spawning, the red disappears and the general color of the body becomes dull. When
in the season of the brightest coloration they are frequently shown in the fish markets, where their
remarkable appearance attracts much attention.

“Tf the authority of Sir Walter Scott is to pass current in gastronomy,” writes Richardson,
“Lump, or Cock-paidle, as it is named in Scotland, is a fish of good quality, for he makes Mr. Old-
buck give the same price for one that he does for the bank-fluke or turbot.”

Parnell states: ‘On the west coast of Scotland sometimes as many as two dozen are taken in
the salmon nets at almost every tide, principally in the month of June, when they seek the saudy
ground to deposit their spawn. The fishermen boil them down with vegetables for their pigs, and
consider them to be fattening food. The flesh, when cooked, is soft and very rich, and is considered
by some of the inhabitants of Edinburgh as a luxury; but there are few stomachs with which it
agrees, in consequence of its oily nature. The males are considered the best for the table.” In
Scotland it is also sometimes eaten in a salted state.

Buckland also has an opinion on record: “So great is the difference between the different
specimens that our fishermen consider them to be distinct species and call them the “Red-lump”
and the ‘“Blue-lump,” but the difference in color and flavor is only the effect of the season. I do
not like the flesh at all myself; it is like a glue pudding.”

It is stated that the Greenlanders eat the flesh either cooked or dried and the skin raw, while
they eat the roe, which is remarkably large, after having reduced it by boiling it to a pulp.

Perley records that “In the spring the Lump-fish approaches the shores of New Brunswick

HABITS OF THE LUMP.FISH. 255

and Nova Scotia to deposit its spawn. It is then taken in considerable numbers near the harbors
at Halifax, the largest weighing about five pounds. They are taken there of two different colors,
the one being a dark blue approaching to black, and the other quite red. Those of a red color
only are used as food; they are considered good by many, although very fat and somewhat oily;
the dark-colored is considered very inferior and is not eaten.”

On the Pacific coast the Gobiesocide are represented by Gobiesox reticulatus (Grd.) J. & G., a
small fish four or five inches long, adhering to rocks by a sucking disk on the breast. It is found
from Monterey northward, and has no economic value. The Cyclopteride are represented by the
rare Cyclopterus orbis occasionally taken in the Straits of Fuca and northward. The Liparidide
are represented by Liparis pulchellus Ayres, and Neoliparis mucosus (Ayres) Steindachner, small
fishes occasionally taken about San Francisco and Monterey, of no economic importance.

80. THE GOBIES—GOBIIDZ.

The Goby family is represented on the Atlantic coast by several species, none of which have
ever been found north of Cape Cod, and none of which are or ever can be of the slightest impor-
tance. Chief among these are the scaleless Goby, Gobosoma alepidotum, which is found between
Cape Cod and Texas; the Chubby Goby, Gobius soporator, common along the Gulf coast, and several
species belonging to the genera Eleotris and Dormitator. They are not even abundant enough to
be worthy of consideration as food tor other fishes. On the Pacific coast there are several small
species, which may be seen lying on the bottoms entering the lagoons. They reach the length of
three to six inches, and are of no economic importance, though the Chinese eat the Long-jawed
Goby, Gillichthys mirabilis, and its flesh is said to be very good. The other species are Gobius
glaucofrenum (Gill) J. & G., in Puget Sound; Lepidogobius gracilis (Girard) Gill, from San
Francisco northward; Hucyclogobius Newberrii (Girard) Gill, rarely seen about San Francisco, and
Gillichthys mirabilis Cooper, found the entire length of the coast, but abundant only from San
Francisco southward. The latter species burrows in the muddy bottoms of the lagoons.

81. THE SEA-ROBIN OR GURNARD FAMILY—TRIGLIDZ.

This family is represented on our Atlantic coast by several species, some of them being quite
abundant. The most striking of them all is the Sea-bat or Flying Gurnard, Dactylopterus volitans,
which is remarkable on account of its enormous spreading fins, larger than those of a tlying-fish—
wings which, however, are not sufficiently powerful to lift the body above the surface of the water,
though useful in maintaining the equilibrium of the heavy-headed body swimming through the
water. The colors of tke body and of the fins are very brilliant, and the fish is often exhibited as a
curiosity. It is found along our entire coast south of Cape Cod, and in the waters of Brazil; also
in the Mediterranean and in the neighboring parts of the Eastern Atlantic.

The genus Prionotus, of which we have five specimens, resembles Dactylopterus in general
form, but the wings are much smaller, while two or three of the lower rays of these fins are devel-
oped into finger-like appendages which are used in stirring up the weeds and sand to rout out the
small animals upon which they feed. In Southern New England there are two large species, P.
palmipes and P. evolans, the latter distinguished by the presence of dark stripes upon its sides.
These attain the length of fifteen to eighteen inches and the weight of one and a quarter to two
pounds. They have excellent food qualities, but are eaten, so far as we have record, only in the
vicinity of Hartford, Connecticut, where they are known as “ Wing-fish.” They are taken in great
quantities in the pound-nets along the Vineyard Sound, especially the unstriped species, the habits

256 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

of which are better understood than those of the allied species. It feeds upon crabs, shrimps, and
small fishes.!

In Vineyard Sound the Sea-robin spawns during the summer months. A specimen obtained
at Wood’s Holl, August 12, 1875, contained eggs nearly ripe. Another, observed at Noank, Con-
necticut, July 11, 1874, was in precisely the same condition. Lyman states that in 1871 the eggs,
which are bright orange, were thrown up in quantities during the last third of May on the beach
on the inner parts of Waquoit Bay, and the females had well developed spawn in them.

The species just mentioned are found as far north as Cape Cod; the web-fingered Sea-robin,
P. palmipes, even north of the cape, two or three specimens having been obtained in the vicinity of
Salem and Lynn. These two species apparently do not occur much to the south of Cape Hatteras,
and on our Southern coast they are replaced by others which are smaller and, at present, of no
economic importance.2 The genus Prionotus does not occur in Europe, the family being there rep-
resented by a very similar form, genus Trigla, which, however, has still smaller wings. Its habits
are much the same. A single specimen of the Red Gurnard of Hurope, Trigla cuculus, is said to
have once been taken at New York. Europe has nine species of Trigla, most of which are highly
esteemed for food; some of these species have been known to attain the length of two feet and the
weight of eleven pounds. These fishes are held in high estimation, and are frequently seen in the
markets.

UsEs.—Parnell writes: “The Red Gurnard occurs on the Devonshire coast in great numbers,
and on some occasions thousands of them may be seen exposed for sale daily, especially in those
small towns where the trawl-boat fishing is carried on. The flesh is firm and well-flavored. The
Tub-fish, T. hirundo, is of frequent occurrence on the west coast of Scotland, and is occasionally
brought to the Edinburgh market. Its flesh is firm and wholesome, and is considered by some to
be superior to the last species, but in general more dry. In the north of Europe it is salted for
keeping. The Gray Gurnard, T. gurnardus, is considered by all fishermen richer and sweeter than
any of the other Gurnards, although in the markets it is less sought after than the Red Gurnard,
which is the drier and worse flavored of the two. It is taken generally with hooks baited with
mussels. These fish are taken in very great numbers in the trawl-nets; they appear to be much
more abundant on the European coast than their cousins, the Sea-robins, with us.”* Their recom-
mendations are quoted here in order to draw attention to this neglected group of fishes, which are
certainly worthy of greater consideration than they have hitherto received:

Mr. J. Carson Brevoort has given the following testimony regarding the food qualities of the
American species: .

“The Gurnard as an edible fish—Among the fish that may be classed as edible, but which
are entirely neglected here, is the Sea-robin, Grunter, or Gurnard. This curious, but rather for-
bidding creature, is, in reality, one of the most delicate morsels that can be laid before an epicure,
the flesh being snow-white, firm, and fully as good as that of the king-fish, or whiting. In fact it
would be hard to distinguish them when placed on the table.

‘““TIn Europe every one of the various kinds of Trigla, or Gurnard family, is sought after eagerly,
and finds a ready sale on the fish-stalls. They have eight or ten kinds of the group there, and we
have but six here; all but one different from the European kinds, though belonging to the same

1 Specimens caught at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, May 29, 1871, contained shrimp, Crangon vulgaris, and a small
flounder. Another, taken May 29, contained a small beach-flea, Anonya, sp., and Crangon vulgaris. Others, dredged in
Vineyard Sound in August, contained crabs, Panopeus Sayi, Cancer irroratus, aud small fishes. Another, taken at
Noank, Connecticut, in July, 1874, contained sand-fleas, Unceola irrorata and Ampelisca sp.

2A single specimen of S. palmipes was taken by Mr. C. H. Gilbert, at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1882.

3 PARNELL, RICHARD: Fishes of the Firth of Forth, 1838, p. 174.

THE GURNARD FAMILY. 257

family. We shall not attempt to describe all these fish, which resemble each other very much in
all but the color. . They all have large heads, sheathed with rough, bony plates, and armed with
many acute points, and their dorsal fin has also several sharp, thorny rays. These prickles are all
erected by the fish when taken alive, and they inflict a painful, though not, as many say, a poison-
ous wound. The broad mouth is furnished with rough, but not sharp, teeth; the pectoral fins in
most of the species are very long, and can be expanded like a fan, whence they are sometimes
called Flying-fish and Butterfly-fish. It is doubtful, however, whether they can actually fly like a
flying-fish, but they have been said to skip from wave to wave, a peculiarity often alluded to
by halieutic poets. They also emit a grunting sound, which can be distinctly heard in still weather
while lying at anchor on a shallow, which they frequent. At such a time the sound resembles the
distant lowing of kine. When freshly taken from the water they grunt quite loudly, whence
their popular name of Grunter, or Cuckoo-fish.

“The Gurnards live on crabs and delicate fresh food, taking all such baits readily, on a clean.
bottom, and they sometimes annoy fishermen hugely by their voracity. They play well on the
hook, and a large one tugging at a rod is often supposed to be a game fish and a prize, till the
ugly Sea-robin, with his spiky helmet, shows himself at the surface. ~

“The Gurnards of our coasts do not reach a large size, at least we have but rarely seen any that
weighed over a pound, while in Europe some of the species, such as the Tub-fish, Trigla hirundo,
have been found weighing eleven pounds, and those of seven or eight are common. The Red Gur-
nard, or Rotchet, 7. cuculus, and the Piper, T. lyra, reach three or four pounds, averaging about
two, while the other European kinds resemble ours as to size.

‘‘Small as our species are, they are not the less delicate when cooked, and we have often veri-
fied this fact. They are sold in England by the number, and not by weight, for their large heads
are inedible, while they add, perhaps, one-quarter to their weight. The English fishermen take
them almost everywhere along the coast in large trawl-nets, constructed for their capture, though
other bottom fish may find their way into the net. These trawls are generally twelve or sixteen
feet wide at the mouth, with a bag proportioned to their beam, which has one or two labyrinths
like a fyke-net inside. The trawl is managed from a large sail-boat, with a block and tackle, and
is hauled in water as deep as eight or ten fathoms. We do not recommend this special fishery to
our coast fishermen, as our Gurnards are small, but wish only to call attention to the edible qual-
ities of this generally despised fish. if ,

“ Piscator (the anonymous author of the ‘ Practical Angler’), in his excellent little treatise
entitled ‘Fish; How to Choose and How to Dress,’ published in 1843, says of the Gurnard that
their flesh is ‘white, excellent, exceedingly firm, and shells out into snowy flakes, and is of a
remarkably agreeable flavor,’ and that ‘they keep well.’ He recommends them to be boiled—that
is, the large ones; while the small ones may be split and fried.

‘We have no popular names for the species that are found in our waters. All are called
Sea-robins, Flying-fish, Grunters, &c.

“‘ Having drawn attention to this first as one that deserves a place on our tables, we leave his
fate hereafter to the tender care of a good cook and a discerning palate.”

Another member of this family is the Peristediwm miniatum Goode, a brilliant red species recently
discovered by the Fish Commission in the deep waters on the coast of Southern New England.

THE AGONUS FAMILY.—Another family closely related to the family Triglide is the family
Agonide, the members of which are remarkable on account of their angular bodies eneased in
spinous, bony plates; it is represented on our east coast by one species. The Aspidophoroides

17 F

258 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

monopterygius—the “ Greenlander,” as it has been christened ‘by the seamen on the Fish Commission
steamer—has been observed as far south as Watch Hill, Rhode Island, and is quite abundant in
deep water north to the polar regions, having been frequently observed on the coast of Greenland.
This fish attains a length of seven or eight inches, and, although it is not much thicker or softer
than an iron spike, is sometimes found in the stomachs of codfish and halibut.

“On the Pacific coast,” writes Professor Jordan, “ the Agonide are represented by numerous
species inhabiting deep waters from Santa Barbara northward. They have no economic importance,
being brought into market only by accident. These species are Leptagonus verrucosus (Locking-
ton), J. & G.; Leptagonus wyosternus, J. & G.; Podothecus acipenserinus (Pallas), J. & G.; Podothecus
vulsus, J. & G.; Odontopyxis trispinosus Lockington; Bothragonus Swani (Steind.), Gill, and Aspi-
dophoroides inermis Gthr. The Triglide are represented by Prionotus stephanophrys Lockington;
rarely seen at San Francisco.”

82. THE SCULPIN TRIBE—COTTIDZ.

SCULPINS OF THE ATLANTIC CoAst.—On our Atlantic coast are found several species of
this family, generally known by the name Sculpin,” and also by such titles as “Grubby,”
“Puffing-grubby,” “Daddy Sculpin,” “ Bullhead,” ‘‘Sea-robin,” “‘Sea-toad,” and “Pig-fish.” Their
economic value is little or nothing, but they are important as scavengers, and are used for lobster
bait. They are often a source of great annoyance to the fishermen by cumbering their hooks and
by stealing their bait. The most abundant species is the Eighteen-spined Sculpin, Cottus octo-
decimspinosus, which frequents shallow and moderately deep waters from Labrador to New York.
It is usuaily associated with a much smaller species, Cottus eneus, which may be called the “ Pigmy
Sculpin,” and which ranges from the Bay of Fundy to New York.

Cottus scorpius, of Europe, is represented on our coasts by C. scorpius subsp. grenlandicus,
which is abundant everywhere from New York to Greenland and Labrador. This subspecies
has been found on the coast of Ireland,' and the typical Cottus scorpius has been shown by
Dr. Bean to occur in Maine. There is also, in addition to several insignificant species seldom
seen except by naturalists, a large, brilliantly colored form, known as the ‘‘Sea-raven,” ‘ Rock
Toad-fish,” or ““Deep-water Sculpin,” which is found as far south as the entrance to Chesapeake
Bay, is abundant throughout New England, and has been discovered off the coast of Nova Scotia.
This fish, Hemitripterus hispidus, or H. americanus, attains the length of two feet, and is conspicuous
by reason of its russet-orange or brick-red colors, its harlequin-like markings, its warted body,
its grotesquely elongated fins, and, above ale by its peculiar habit of swallowing air until its belly
is inflated like a balloon.

These fishes feed upon all bottom animals, mollusks, crustaceans, sea-urchins, and worms,
and may also be found in the harbors devouring any refuse substances which may be lying upon
the bottom. They breed, for the most part, in summer, and certain species, like the Sea-raven
and the Greenland Sculpin, at that time assume very brilliant colors. They are not eaten by our
people, although the Sea-raven is decidedly palatable. Those species which occur in Greenland
are said to be eaten by the natives. As has been remarked, they are a source of annoyance to
fishermen, whose bait they steal and whose hooks, especially the hooks of their trawl-lines, they
encumber. Boys delight to catch them and fix a piece of light wood between their teeth; they
are then unable to swim and struggle vigorously at the top of the water.

About the fish- curin g stations they are very abundant, and exceedingly useful as scavengers,

1 Annals of Natural History, 1841, p. 402.

SCULPINS OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 259

gorging themselves with refuse thrown back into the sea; they care little for the presence of man,
and can hardly be driven away, even when roughly punched with a boat-hook.

In the lakes and streams of the Northern States are numerous species of Uranidea and allied
genera, known in some localities by the English name of “ Miller’s Thumb,” also called “ Bull-heads,”
“Goblins,” “ Blobs,” and “ Muffle-jaws.” They are small and of no importance except as the food
of larger species. :

ScULPINS OF THE PAcIFIC CoAst.—The Cottida, according to Jordan, are represented on
the Pacific coast by about eightecn separate species, known by such names as “Sculpin,” “ Drum-
mer,” “Salpa,” Ry ohnny,” “ Biggy-head,” and “Cabezon.” Only one, of these species, Scorpen-
ichthys marmoratus, has any sort of economic importance; the others may be considered collect-
ively. The names applied to them may be briefly considered. The name Sculpin, of course, is
derived from that in use for the Atlantic species of Cottus. ‘ Drummer” comes from the quivering
noise made by many species when taken alive out of the water. ‘‘Salpa” is a Spanish word for
toad, and applied also to species of Batrachide. ‘ Johnny” is applied only to very little Sculpins
along the shore, notably Oligocottus maculosus. The same name is given in the Ohio Valley to
fishes of precisely similar habits, the Htheostomatine. “ Biggy-head” and its Spanish cognate
“Cabezon” are used by the Italians and Spanish about Monterey, Santa Barbara, and elsewhere,
for different Cottida.

Most of the Cottide feed upon small fishes, and especially crustacea; one species, Hnophrys
bison, being a vegetable feeder. All take the hook readily. The flesh is poor, tough, and dry, and
the waste by the removal of the head, viscera, and skin is so great that even the poorest people
do not use them as food. Various sorts (notably Leptocottus armatus) are dried by the Chinese,
who consider them the poorest of all dried fishes.

The species are: Psychrolutes paradoxus Gthr., found from the Straits of Fuca northward;
Ascelichthys rhodorus Jor. and Gilb., also chiefly northward; Cottus polyacanthocephalus Pallas, one
of the largest species, from Cape Flattery northward; Artedius lateralis Grd., found among the
rocks from Monterey northward; Artedius notospilotus Grd., in the kelp, etc., from Santa Barbara
to San Francisco; Artedius Senestralis Jor. and Gilb., about Vancouver's Island; Artedius quadri-
seriatus Lockington and Artedius megacephalus Lockington, taken in deep water off San Francisco;
Artedius pugettensis Steind., in deep water from Puget Sound nofthward; Hemilepidotus spinosus
Ayres, found chiefly about San Francisco and Monterey, and the large Hemilepidgtus trachurus
(Tilesius), ranging from San Francisco to Alaska; Enophrys bison Grd., a large species, the sole
member of the group feeding exclusively on plants, ranging from San Francisco to Alaska, and
exceedingly abundant in Puget Sound; Scorpwnichthys marmoratus Grd., noticed below ; Leptocottus
armatus Grd., the commonest of all the species, abundant in every bay; Liocottus hirundo Grd., and
Oligocottus analis Grd., two species ranging chiefly southward; Oligocottus globiceps, Grd., and Oligo-
cottus maculosus Grd., small and active inhabitants of the rock pools northward; and, finally, the
curious Blepsias cirrhosus (Pallas) Gthr., Nautichthys oculofasciatus Grd., and Rhamphocottus Rich-
ardsonit Gthr., Alaskan fishes straggling southward to San Francisco. In the fresh waters and.
often running into the sea are Uranidea aspera (Rich.) J. and G., and Uranidea gulosa (Grd.) J. and
G., found in all the streams north of the San Joaquin. Only one of this numerous series merits.
especial consideration, namely the “‘Cabezon,” Scorpenichthys marmoratus (Ayres) Grd. The names
“‘Cabezon,” “Sculpin,” “Scorpion,” “Salpa,” and “ Biggy-head” are applied to this species. The.
latter is heard chiefly among the Italians, who have about Monterey and elsewhere adopted the.
Spanish “ Cabezon,” which appears to be the most distinctive term. The names “Sculpin,” “Scor-.
pion,” and “Salpa” are applied to various other species, and are rather collective than specific names.

260 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

This species reaches a length of more than two feet, and a weight of more than ten pounds,
being by far the largest member of its family on the Pacific coast. It is found from San Diego to
Victoria, but is more abundant about Monterey and San Francisco than either northward or south-
ward. It inhabits moderate depths, and is taken in considerable numbers with gill-nets and hooks.
It feeds upon crustacea and small fish. Its value is very small, the flesh being tough and flavorless,
and it is rarely sent to the market.when good fish are abundant.

83. ROSE-FISH 0R RED PERCH—SEBASTES MARINUS.

Although upon the west coast of North America the fishes of the family (Scorpenide) are among
the most important, there are only four species on the Atlantic coast of North America ; ‘of these,
two have been discovered within the past year, and the others, though well known and very widely
distributed, are not of great importance. The Rose-fish, Sebastes marinus, is conspicuous and unique
among cold-water fishes by its brilliant scarlet color; it is also known as “Red Perch,”! “ Norway
Haddock,” “‘Hemdurgan,” and “Snapper,” as “Bream” in Gloucester, Massachusetts, and called
“John Dory” in Halifax, Nova Scotia. It is found also in Northern Europe, where it has been
recorded as far south as Newcastle, in Northern England, latitude 55°,? and it has also been
found in Aberdeen and Berwick, and in Zetland, where it is called “Bergylt” and “Norway
Haddock.”

On the eastern side of the North Sea the species has not been seen south of Gothenbosg, lati-
tude 58°, but is said to be abundant along the entire western coast of Norway to the North Cape
and Varenger Fjord in East Finmark, while Malmgren records it from Baren Island, and Scoresby
found it at Spitzbergen, latitude 80°. In Iceland it is abundant, and in Davis’ Straits, at least as
far north as Disco, where it is found associated with the halibut, and is said to constitute a liberal —
share of its food. In Eastern Labrador, about Newfoundland, and in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence,
ait is abundant, and also along the shores of Nova Scotia and in the Bayof Fundy. In these
northern regions the Rose-fish prefers shallow water, and may bé taken in the greatest abundance
in the bays and around the wharves in company with the sculpins and the cunner or blue perch.
On the coast of the United States, south of the Bay of Fundy, they are rarely seen near the shore,
but have been found in deep water in all parts of the Gulf of Maine and Massachusetts Bay,
and also abundantly south of Cape Cod. In the fall of 1880 the United States Fish Commission
obtained great quantities of them, young and old. DeKay included this fish in his New York list,
stating, however, that it was very rare in those waters. He remarks that “the coast of New York
is probably its extreme southern limit.”

Of late years none have been taken south of the locality already mentioned, which was in
water from one to three hundred fathoms in depth, at the inner edge of the Gulf Stream, from fifty

sto one hundred miles southwest of Newport, and about the same distance east of Sandy Hook.
_A hundred or two hundred miles farther south it is replaced by a fish resembling it ‘somewhat in
form and color, Scorpena dactyloptera De la Roche, discovered by the Fish Commission during
the past year, and by Scorpena Stearnsi, detected at Pensacola by Silas Stearns, and at Charles:
ton by C. H. Gilbert.

It may fairly be said that the Rose-fish, as a shore species, is not known south of parallel 429,
which is 13° south of its transatlantic limit. When the deep waters of Southern Europe have
been as carefully explored as those of the United States, it is probable that the range of this fish

will be extended considerably farther to the south.

1In distinction from the ‘‘blue perch” or ‘‘cunner” (Ctenolabrus adspersus), which it resembles in form, but not
‘an color.

2GUnTHER; Cat. Fishes Brit. Mus. 2, p. 96.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE ROSE-FISH. 261

The temperature range of the Rose-fish corresponds closely to that of the halibut, and its
limits will, on more careful study, probably be found included between 32° and 50°. It is found
everywhere on the shallow off-shore banks north of Cape Cod, where it attains its greatest size.
A specimen, brought in by one of the Gloucester halibut schooners, was about two feet in length
and weighed about fourteen pounds. Along the Maine coast they are much smaller than this,
rarely exceeding eight or ten inches and the weight of twelve ounces, but occasignally growing to
the weight of one and a half pounds.

In Scandinavia there have been recognized two. species: one, a large, orange-colored form,
inhabiting deep water, known to the Norwegians as the “Red-fish” (Réd-fisk), and considered to °
be 8S. marinus (S. norwegicus); the other, a smaller species of much deeper, color, called the
‘“‘Lysanger,” and described by Kroyer under the name “ S. viviparus,” and by Ekstrém as “S.
regulus.” After the most careful study of all the specimens in the National Museum, we have
been unable to recognize more than one species on our coast, and recent Norwegian ichthyologists,
among them especially Mr. Robert Collet, believe that the two Norwegian forms are not actually
distinct species, but that the smaller one is simply a pigmy race which is especially adapted
to life in the long, shallow fiords of that region. Dr. Liitken, always conservative, is inclined to
believe the two forms distinct, regarding’ the large fish of the deep water as the primitive type
from which the smaller littoral form has been derived by development. According to the last-
mentioned authority, the two forms have very different geographical distribution, 8. viviparus
inhabiting the shallows in the vicinity of the Faroe Islands, Southern Sweden, Norway, and New
England, but unknown to Great Britain, Denmark, Finmark, Iceland, and Greenland ; while &.
marinus is found in Greenland and Iceland and all the length of the Norwegian coast, in Spitzber-
gen, Baren Island, on the coasts of Denmark, and occasionally in the north of England and
Ireland. Possibly, he suggests, it inhabits the deep waters at a distance from shore, off the Faroe
Islands and North America, but that is not yet certainly known. S. viviparus, then, he declares,
is a form less arctic as well as more littoral.) :

This subject is here referred to'in the hope that additional observations may be drawn out
tending to settle the question: whether or not there are two forms of Sebastes on the~American
coast. It seems, however, improbable, since the physical conditions are so different from those
under which they occur on the other side of the Atlantic. :

The food of the Rose-fish consists, like that of its cousins, the Sculpins, of small fish, crusta-
ceans, and, to some extent, of mollusks, although its teeth are not formed for crushing the thick-
shell species. In-.Greenland they are said to feed upon the pole-flounder. A specimen taken off
Eastern Point, Gloucester, in July, 1878, had its throat full of shrimp-like crustaceans (Mysis sp.),
and others, taken at Eastport, were feeding extensively on a larger crustacean (Thysanopoda sp.),
which is also a favorite food of the mackerel. They may be caught with almost any kind of bait,
but are not, like their associates, the cunners, given to feeding upon refuse substances, and, being
also more shy and watchful, cannot be captured in bag-nets. They breed in summer, from June
to September, in deep holes in Massachusetts Bay and off the coast of Southern New England,
where it has not been uncommon for the Fish Commission to obtain thousands of young one,
two, and three inches long, at one set of the trawl-net, and also adults full of spawn. The young
are lighter in color than the adults, and are conspicuously banded with reddish-brown upon a
grayish ground. The young constitute a favorite food of the codfish, while, at all ages, they are
preyed upon by the halibut and other large predaceous fishes of the cold-water districts.

11879. LtTKen, Cur.: Forelébige Meddelelser om nordiske Ulkefiske (Cottoidei). <(Aftryk af Vidensk. Meddel.
naturh. Foren. 1870, pp. 355-388.

262 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Although the Rose-fish is much esteemed as an article of food, and is caught in considerable
numbers all along the coast of Maine and the British Provinces in the season when it frequents the
shallows near the shore, and in winter at Gloucester when flocking in large numbers into the
harbor, the most extensive fisheries are probably on the coast of Greenland, where they are highly
prized by the natives, who feed on the flesh and use the spines of the fins for needles, and in
Massachusetts Bay, where great quantities are taken by the Irish market-fishermen on trawl-
lines. In winter they are occasionally found in the New York markets, and on one or two occa-
sions have been brought in considerable numbers to New Haven, and even to Philadelphia.
’ The’ flesh is firm, rich, and delicate in flavor; the young fish, fried crisp, make an excellent substi-
tute for white-bait.

84, THE ROCK CODS OF THE PACIFIC.

By Davin S. JORDAN.

[On the Pacific coast, as has already been stated, the fishes of this family, known as Rock-cod
and Rock-fish, are of great importance. They are discussed at length by Professor Jordan, who
writes:]

~ One of the most remarkable features of the Califofnian fish fauna is the enormous abundance

'’ both in individuals and in species of the group of Scorpenide. All of them are excellent food-

fishes, and scarcely a boat returns from any kind of fishing in which these fishes do not form a
conspicuous part of the catch. In every fish-market they are found, and from their large size
and brilliant coloration they are everywhere the most conspicuous fishes on the stalls.

These fishes have so many traits in common, that a review of the group as a whole is desira-

. ble before we proceed to the consideration of the several species.

NameEs.—These fishes are ‘universally known by the names of Rock- fish and Rock-cod. The
latter name is the one most commonly heard, the other name being apparently a reaction against
the obvious error of calling these fish “Cod.” The name Rock-fish is an appropriate one, and in
time it will probably supplant that of Rock-cod. ‘The name Cod or Cod-fish is never applied to
them without the accompanying “Rock.” In the southern part of California, the name “Garrupa”
or “Grouper” is in common use, especially for the olivaceous species. This is a Portuguese word,
and belonged originally to the species of Epinephelus and related genera. Different species have
also special names, mostly given by the Portuguese fishermen. These are noticed below.

The average size of the species of the group is about fifteen inches in length, and a weight
of two or three pounds. Some of them reach a len gth of nearly three feel and a weight of twelve
pounds. Nothing is known of their rate of growth.

The greatest abundance both of individuals and of species in this group is to be found from
Santa Barbara to San Francisco, the maximum about Monterey. They occur from Cerros Island,
where they are rather scarce, at least as far as Kodiak, and other species similar are found on the
coasts of Japan, Chili, etc. The individuals are extremely local. Most of the species are found
about rocky reefs, often in considerable depths, and they probably stray-but little from their abodes.
in general, the red species inhabit greater depths than the brown or green ones, and the latter
swim about more freely. Their abundance on certain reefs about Monterey and the Farallones is
doubtless being diminished; elsewhere there has been little danger of overfishing. All are preda-
lory aud voracious, feeding mainly upon other fishes, and sometimes on crustaceans.

All of the species are ovo-viviparous. The eggs are small and exceedingly numerous, and are
hatched within the body. The eggs themselves are bright yellow. In the spring, at a season vary-
ing with the latitude and perhaps with different species, these yellow eggs turn to a grayish color.

THE ROCK CODS OF THE PACIFIC. 263

If then examined, the two eyes of the young fish can be distinctly seen. Later a slender body
appears, with traces of vertical fins, the length then being about one-fourth to one-third of an inch.
They are probably extruded at about the length of one-third of an inch, and in a very slender and
pellucid condition, as I have never seen them in any more advanced stage of development. Noth-
ing is known of the modes of copulation, nor of the circumstances under which the young are
excluded, but the time of breeding is probably for the most part in May. Young fishes of one and
a half to two inches are common in August, and in the fall they are large enough (S. paucispinis,
flavidus) to be taken with hook and line from the wharves. Individuals of less than six or.
eight: inches are rare in the spring, and the fish of that length are probably a year old.

The enemies of these fishes are of course their predatory neighbors, and the larger individ.
uals prey upon the smaller. The hag-fish (Polistotrema) destroys considerable numbers. They are
usually very free from internal parasites.

All the members of this family rank high as food-fishes. The flesh is firm and white, and,
although not very delicate, is of a fair quality. That of Scorpena guttata is probably best; that of
Sebastichthys mystinus brings the lowest price in market, but the prejudice against the latter species
perhaps rests on its color.

ScoRPENE (Scorpena guttata Girard).—This species is known by the names “Scorpene,” “Scor-
pion,” and “ Sculpin.” ‘ Scorpene” (Scorpina), in common use among the Italian fishermen, is,
of course, the name of Scorpena porcus, S. scrofa, and other Mediterranean fishes, transferred to
this very similar North American fish. The wound made by the dorsal spines of this fish is
excessively painful, far more so than the sting of a bee, as though the spines had some venomous
secretion. The name Scorpena is evidently derived from this. This species reaches a length of
something over a foot and a weight of about two pounds. It is found only from Point Concepcion
southward to Ascension Island, living about rocks and kelp, but often entering the bays. It is
generally common, and takes the hook freely. It feeds upon crustacea and small fishes, and spawns
in spring. Nothing distinctive is known of its breeding habits. As a food-fish it ranks with the
best, being superior to the species of Sebastichthys, and it always isin good demand wiere known.

BLACK-BANDED ROOK-FISH (Sebastichthys nigrocinetus (Ayres) Gill).—This species has, so far
as we know, received no distinctive name from the fishermen. It reaches a weight of about four
pounds and a length of eighteen to twenty inches. It ranges from Monterey northward, being
found only in deep water (ten to twenty fathoms). About San Francisco it is exceedingly rare, not
half a dozen usually coming into the markets in a year. In the Straits of Fuca and outside in the
open ocean it is tolerably abundant. The food and the breeding habits, so far as known, differ
little in this family, and the general remarks on the group apply to all the species of Scbastichthys.
As a food-fish this species sells readily on account of its brilliant and attractive colors, second only
in brilliancy to those of the “Spanish Flag.”

TREE-FISH (Sebastichthys serriceps Jor. & Gilb.).—Wherever this species receives a distinctive
name, it is known as the “ Tree-fish,” an appellation originating with the Portuguese at Monterey,
and without obvious application. Southward it is confounded with other species as a Garrupa.
Its size is rather less than that of 8S. nigrocinctus, which it much resembles. It ranges from San
Martin Island to San Francisco, being found in rather deep water among rocks. It is most
common about the Santa Barbara Islands and is rare in the markets of San Francisco. It isa
handsomely-colored species, and therefore sells well in the markets.

SPECKLED GARRUPA (Sebastichthys nebulosus (Ayres) Gill)—This species is known as “Gar-
rupa” and “Rock Cod,” rarely receiving any distinctive name. It reaches a weight of three and
one-half pounds. 1t ranges from Monterey to Puget Sound, being generally common at all points,

264 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

and most abundant northward. It lives in water of moderate depth. It forms about two per
cent. of the total rock-fish catch, and is always readily salable. It is the most attractive in color
of any of the dark-colored species.

BLACK AND YELLOW GARRUPA (Sebastichthys chrysomelas Jor. & Gilb.).—This species also
is confounded under the names “Garrupa” and ‘Rock-cod.” It is one of the smaller species, reach-
ing a weight of about two pounds. It ranges from San Nicolas Island to San Francisco, and is
generally common in water of moderate depth, although not one of the most abundant species.
It is an attractive fish in color and therefore readily salable.

FLESH-COLORED GARRUPA (NSebastichthys carnatus Jor. & Gilb.)—This species reaches a
somewhat larger size than the last, and ranges from Santa Barbara to San Francisco. About San
Francisco it is considerably more abundant, forming nearly seven per cent. of the total rock-
fish catch.

YELLOW-BACKED ROCK-FISH (Sebastichthys maliger Jor. & Gilb.)—We have heard no dis-
tinctive name for this species. It ranges from Monterey to Puget Sound, in rather deep water.
It is not very common about San’ Francisco, but many are caught in the Straits of Fuca. It is one
of ‘the largest of the species, reaching a weight of six or eight pounds. As a food-fish it is not as
good as some of the others.

RED GARRUPA (Sebastichthys caurinus and subsp. vexillaris Jor. & Gilb.).—This species is
known as “Garrupa,” ‘“ Rock-fish,” and “ Rock-cod.” It reaches a length of twenty inches and a
weight of six pounds. It ranges from San Nicolas to Puget Sound, being generally common in
water of moderate depth. It is subject to greater variations than any of the other species in the
different parts of its range. It forms about seven per cent. of the total rock-cod catch. Its flesh
ranks as about average.

Grass Rock-FIsH (Sebastichthys rastrelliger Jor. & Gilb.).—This species, like all those of dusky
color, is known as “Garrupa.” At San Francisco it is often called “Grass Rock-fish,” perhaps
from its color. It reaches a weight of two to four pounds. It lives in water of moderate depth,
and is rather common everywhere from San Nicolas to Humboldt Bay. Its abundance is greatest
south of Point Concepcion. It is said to be the best of all the Rock-fish for the table, and to be
an especial favorite with the Jews.

Brown Rock-FIisH (Sebastichthys auriculatus (Girard) Gill).—This species seldom receives a
distinctive name from the fishermen. It reaches a weight of three or four pounds, although as
usually seen in the markets it is smaller than any other of the species. This is owing to the fact
that its young are caught in seines in the bay, while those of other species are less frequently
taken, and then only in the open ocean. It ranges from San Martin Island to Puget Sound, living
in shallow water and entering all the bays, and being taken with a hook from all the wharves. It
is thus apparently more abundant than any other species, although in actual numbers probably
many of the deep-water forms (S. flavidus, pinniger, rosaceus) far exceed it. As a food-fish it is held
in lower esteem than most of the others.

PESCE VERMIGLIA (Sebastichthys chlorostictus Jor. & Gilb.).—This species is known as “ Pesce
Vermiglia,” or “ Vermilion-fish,” by the Portuguese fishermen at Monterey. It is known only from
Monterey Bay and the Farallones, occurring about the rocks in considerable depths of water and
being taken only with the hook. In its native haunts it is not a rare species. It reaches a weight
of three or‘four pounds, and is excellent food.

FLY-FISH (Sebastichthys rhodochloris J or. & Gilb.).—The inexplicable name of “ Fly-fish” is given
to this species by the fishermen at Monterey. Like the preceding, it is known only from very deep

THE ROCK-FISHES OF CALIFORNIA. 265

water about Monterey and the Farallones. It is one of the smallest species, rarely weighing more
than a pound. ;

CorsarR (Sebastichthys rosaceus (Grd.) Lock).—This species is known to the Portuguese fish-
ermen at Monterey by the name “Corsair,” a name of unknown application transplanted from the

~Azores. It is one of the smallest species, rarely weighing more than a pound and a half. It

ranges from Santa Barbara to San Francisco, in deep water, and, where found, it is the most abun-
dant of the red species. When the weather permits outside fishing with trawl-lines, this is one of
the most abundant species in the San Francisco markets. It ranks high as a food-fish.

SPofTED CoRSAIR (Sebastichthys constellatus Jor. & Gilb.).—In size, distribution, habits, and
value this species agrees with the “Corsair.” It is, however, considerably less abundant, although
not a rare fish in the markets of San Francisco.

YELLOW Rock-FIsH (Sebastichthys umbrosus Jor. & Gilb.).—Two specimens only of this species
are known, both of which are from Santa Barbara.

SPANISH FLAG (Sebastichthys rubrivinctus Jor. & Gilb.).—At Monterey this species is known
by the very appropriate name of “Spanish Flag,” from its broad bands of red, white, and red. It
reaches a weight of about six pounds. It is found in very deep water on rocky reefs about Santa
Barbara and Monterey. It is perhaps the least common in the markets of all the species, except
Sumbrosus. In coloration it is the most brilliant fish on the coast. :

RED Rock-FisH (Sebastichthys ruber (Ayres) Lock.).—This species is usually the “Red Rock-
fish” par excellence. At Monterey it is called by the Portuguese “Tambor,” a name evidently
transferred from some Atlantic species. It probably reaches a larger size than any other species,
attaining a weight of twelve or more pounds. It ranges from Santa Barbara to Puget Sound, its
abundance increasing to the northward. It lives in water of considerable depth. In the markets
of San Francisco it is one of the most common species. Large specimens about Victoria, in the
Straits of Fuca, had the skull above the brain infected by an encysted parasitic worm. Great
numbers of them were seen in the Straits of Fuca, according to Mr. Swan, swimming stupidly near
the surface, so torpid that the Indians killed them with clubs. According to the Indians, they had
been strack by the Thunder-bird, which, with its companion, the Lightning-fish, causes many of
the phenomena in that region. The smaller specimens of this species rank well as food-fishes; the
larger ones are likely to be coarse or tough.

RASHER (Sebastichthys miniatus Jor. & Gilb.).—This species is known to the Portuguese at:
Monterey as the “Rasher,” a name of unknown origin and orthography. It ranges from Santa
Barbara to San Francisco, living in water of moderate depth. It is comparatively common, and is
frequently seen in the markets, though in much less numbers than 8S. ruber and 8. pinniger. In size
and quality it agrees closely with S. pinniger. :

ORANGE ROCK-FISH (Sebastichthys pinniger (Gill) Lock.).—This species is usually called simply
“Red Rock-cod” or “Red Rock-fish” and not distinguished from the two preceding. The Portu-
guese at Monterey know it by the name “Fliaum,” a word of unknown origin. It is one of

- the largest species, reaching a weight of eight or ten pounds. It ranges from Monterey to Puget
Sound, being generally very abundant in deep water, where it is taken on trawl-lines. This
is probably the most abundant of the larger species. At San Francisco individuals are often
found with black discolored areas, looking like ink-blotches, on their sides. No cause for this has
been noticed, and if it be a disease it does not seem to discommode the fish. In the market this-
species grades with 8. ruber, and, like it, is often split and salted.

GREEN GARRUPA (Sebastichthys atrovirens Jor. & Gilb.).—This species is commonly known
as “Garrupa” and “Green Rock-fish,” being rarely distinguished from 8. rastrelliger. It reaches a

266 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

weight of about three pounds. It ranges from San Diego to Monterey, being more southerly in
its distribution than the other species. It lives in rocky places, in rather shallow water, and is gen-
erally common, especially south of Point Concepcion. It is considered excellent food.

REINA (Sebastichthys eléngatus (Ayres) Gill)—This species is known as “ Reina” (Queen) at
Monterey. It is a small fish, reaching a weight of less than two pounds, and lives in deep water
about Monterey and the Farallones. It is never very common in the markets, although frequently
taken in considerable numbers.

Rep Rock-FIsu oF ALASKA (Sebastichthys proriger Jor. & Gilb.).—In habits this species agrees
with S. elongatus. It is usually still smaller, rarely weighing more than a pound. Its range
extends northward to the Aleutian Islands, where it reaches a large size, and is of considerable
importance as a food-fish.

Viuva (Sebastichthys ovalis (Ayres) Lock.).—This species is known at Monterey as “Viuva”
(Widow); the reason not evident. It reaches a weight of three or four pounds. It is found from
Santa Barbara to Monterey, in deep water, and is seldom brought to market.

Sebastichthys entomelas Jor. & Gilb., is a species very similar to the preceding in size and
habits. Thus far it-has been only found in deep water outside of Monterey Bay.

BLACK ROCK-FISH (Sebastichthys mystinus Jor. & Gilb.).—This species, usually called the
“Black Rock-fish,” in Puget Sound is known, with its more abundant relative, Sebastichthys mela-
nops, as the Black Bass.” Tbe Portuguese at Monterey call it “Pesce Prétre,” or Priest-fish, in
allusion to its dark colors, so different from those of most of the other members of the family. It
reaches a weight of five pounds, but as usually seen in the markets varies from two to three. It
ranges from Santa Barbara to Vancouver’s Island, inhabiting water of moderate depths. It is
much more abundant about Monterey and San Francisco than either northward or southward, and
large numbers are taken in Tomales Bay. In the markets of San Francisco it is found, taking the
year through, in greater numbers than any other species. It sells at a lower price than the others,
its color causing a prejudice against it, although the quality of the flesh doubtless differs little
from that of the rest. ,

ALASKA BLACK ROCK-FISH (Sebastichthys ciliatus (Tiles.) Jor. & Gilb.).—Specimens of this
species from the Aleutian Islands are in the National Museum. N othing distinctive is known in
regard to its habits, which probably agree with those of 8S. melanops. ,

SPOTTED BLack Rock-FISH (Sebastichthys melanops (Grd.) Jor. & Gilb.).—This species is
confounded with 8S. mystinus by the fishermen, under the name of “Black Bass” in Puget Sound,
“Black Rock-fish” in San Francisco, and “Pesce Prétre” at Monterey. In size and value it agrees
with S. mystinus. Its range is more northerly, from Monterey to Puget Sound, being not very
common at San Francisco, and one of the most-abundant species in Puget Sound.

YELLOW-TAIL Rock-F1suq, (Sebastichthys flavidus (Ayres) Lock.).—This species is occasionally
called the “Green Rock-fish” or “ Rock-cod” at San Francisco. At Monterey it is always known by
the appropriate name of ‘ Yellow-tail,” the caudal fin being always distinctly yellow. To distinguish
it from the Yellow-tail of farther south we may call it the Yellow-tail Rock-fish. This species reaches
a weight of six or seven pounds, but its usual weight is about two. It ranges from Santa Catalina
Island to Cape Mendocino, and is taken both in deep water and near shore. About Monterey and
San Francisco it is very abundant, and is one of the principal species in the markets. As a food-
fish it is considered as one of the best in the group.

‘ Boccaccto (Sebastodes paucispinis (Ayres) Gill)—About Monterey and San Francisco this
species is known as “ Boccaccio” or ‘Boccae’” (bocatch) to the Italians, and as “Mérou” (méaroo) to
the Portuguese. American fishermen use the name “Jack,” and those who fish for the young from

THE ROCK-FISHES OF CALIFORNIA. 267

the wharves call them “Tom-cod.”. The name “Boccaccio” (Big-mouth) is very appropriate;
“Mérou” is transferred from Atlantic species of Epinephelus ; “Jack” comes from the species of
Esox and Stizostedium which in the Southern States are called by that name. This species is one
of the largest of the group, reaching a weight of twelve to fifteen pounds. Its average size in the
markets is greater than that of any of the others. It ranges from the Santa Barbara Islands to
Cape Mendocino. It inhabits reefs in deep water, only the young coming near the shore. It is
rather more abundant southward than about San Francisco. It is, however, a common market-
fish, and its flesh is considered excellent. It is probably the most voracious of the family.

Five species of the genus Sebastichthys, namely, 8. melanops, 8: caurinus, S. maliger, S. proriger,
and 8. ciliatus, attain to large size and considerable commercial importance in Alaska, and are
discussed by Dr. Bean in his paper on the “SHORE FISHERIES OF ALASKA” j in another section of
this work. 8. melanops is called ‘‘ Black Bass” at Sitka.

85. THE ROCK TROUTS—CHIRIDZ..
By Davip 8. JORDAN.

A family of fish of considerable importance on our Pacific, coast is that of the Chirida, or Rock
Trouts, no representatives of which are known in the Atlantic. One or two species of the family
occur in the Sea of Japan.

BoREGAgA (Hexagrammus Stelleri Tilesius)—This species is known in Puget Sound by the
Italian name of “ Boregata” or “ Boregat’.”. The name “Starling” is applied to some fish, supposed
by us to be this species, in the Straits of Fuca. It reaches a length of fifteen inches and a weight
of three pounds. It ranges from Puget Sound to Kamtschatka. In Puget Sound it is compara-
tively abundant, living about rocks. It spawns in July. It feeds on crustaceans, worms, and
fishes, and apparently gets its food on the bottom in deep water, as the animals taken from
its stomach are often of a kind not seen near shore. Its intestines are very often full of long
tenioid worms, supposed to be parasitic. As a food-fish, it ranks with the other Rock-trout, being
of fair quality, but inferior to Ophiodon and Sebastichthys.

GREEN Rock Trout (Hexagrammus lagocephalus (Pallas) Jor. & Gilb.). _—This species is
confounded with others of this genus under the names.of “ Rock Trout,” “Sea Trout,” “Boregat’,”
and “Bodieron.” At Cape Flattery this fish and the preceding receive the Indian name of
“Tsebarqua.” In size and value it corresponds very closely to the preceding. It ranges from
Monterey to Kamtschatka, being nowhere very abundant, although not a rare fish. Its food is
largely crustacean. Its flesh, like that of Ophiodon, is often colored green.

SPOTTED Rock TRovutT (Hexagrammus decagrammus (Pallas) Jor. & Gilb.).—The name “ Bore-
gata” is applied to this species by the Italians on Puget Sound. Thename “Rock-cod” is also given
toit. From San Francisco southward, the names “‘ Rock Trout” and “Sea Trout? are common.
The Portuguese at Monterey call it “Bodieron.” It reaches a length of fifteen inches and a weight
of two or three pounds. It ranges from San Luis Obispo to Alaska, and is much more generally
common than any of the other species, and large numbers are brought into the market of San
Francisco. It lives ix rocky places at no- great depth. It feeds voraciously on crustacea and
worms. It spawns in July. It dies at once on being taken from the water, and the flesh becomes
_ rigid and does not keep as well as that of the rock-fish. It is a food fish of fair quality, but not
extra. The sexes are very unlike in color, and have been taken for distinct species.

CULTUS CoD (Ophiodon elongatus Girard).—This species is universally called “ Cod-fish”
where the true cod is unknown. About Puget Sound the English call it “Ling.” Among the

268 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Americans the word “cod” is used with some distinctive adjective, as Cultus Cod (“cultus” mean-
ing, in the Chinook jargon, of little worth), “Bastard Cod,” “Buffalo Cod,” ete. The name “Blue
Cod” is also given to it from the color of its flesh. The name “Rock Cod” applied to other Chiroids
and to Sebastichthys, and thence even transferred to Serranus, comes from an appreciation of their
affinity to Ophiodon, and not from any supposed resemblance to the true codfish. The Cultus Cod
reaches a length of five feet, and a weight of fifty or sixty pounds, the largest specimens being
taken in northern waters. Many very small ones come into the San Francisco market, being taken
in the sweep-ncts of the paranzelle. These weigh less than a pound; the average of the large ones
is from six to ten pounds. It ranges from Santa Barbara to Alaska, being very abundant every-
where north of Point Concepcion. It lives about rocky places, and sometimes in considerable
depths, and spawns in summer. It feeds upon fishes and crustacea and is excessively voracious.
It often swallows a red rock-fish when the latter is on the hook, and is thus taken. Like other
large fishes, it is subject to the attacks of the hag-fish (Polistotrema). As a food-fish it holds a
high rank, being considered rather superior to the rock-fish. From its great abundance, it is one
of the most important fishes on the Pacific coast.

Zaniolepis latipinnis Girard.—This species ranges from San Francisco northward in deep
water. It reaches a length of about a foot, and is of no economic value.

Oxylebius pictus Gill.—This bright-colored little fish ranges from Santa Barbara to Vancouver's
Island, living among rocks near shore. It reaches a length of six inches, is rarely taken, and then
used only for bait. _&

Myriolepis zonifer Lock.—The single specimen known was taken at Monterey.

BLACK CANDLE-FISH (Anoplopoma fimbria (Pallas) Gill). —This species is known in Puget
Sound by the name of “Horse-mackerel.” At San Francisco it is usually called “ Candle-fish.”
In the markets it is sometimes fraudulently sold as Spanish mackerel. It reaches a length of
twenty inches and a weight of five pounds. It ranges from Monterey northward to Sitka, in rather
deep water, and is generally common, especially northward. At Seattle it is one of the most
abundant fishes, but in the San Francisco market it is seldom seen in large numbers. It feeds on
crustaceans, worms, and small fishes. As a food-fish it is held in low esteem, the flesh being rather
tough and tasteless.

In the Straits of Fuca it reaches a much larger size than has been noticed elsewhere. It is here.
very highly valued by the Indians, according to Mr. Swan. It is called by the Indians “ Beshow.”

In Alaska, according to Dr. Bean, the most important chiroid fishes are Ophiodon elongatus,
Anoplopoma fimbria, Hexagrammus decagrammus, H. lagocephalus, H. ordinatus, H. asper, and the
“Yellow Fish,” “Striped Fish,” or “Atka Mackerel,” Pleurogrammus monopterygius (Pallas) Gill,
which is the chief of them all. This fish is most abundant about the Aleutian chain and the
Shumagins, its northern limit as now understood being about Kodiak, and its western limit at
Attu. It congregates in immense schools, and can be taken jn purse-seines like the mackerel,

which it strongly resembles in taste after being salted in the same manner.
=

86. THE TAUTOG OR BLACK-FISH—TAUTOGA ONITIS.

Names.—One of the best known shore species of the Atlantic coast is the Tautog or Black-
fish. This fish is now found in greater or less abundance from Saint John, New Brunswick, to
Charleston, South Carolina. East of New York it is usually called Tautog, a name of Indian ori-
gin, which first occurs in Roger Williams’ “ Key to American Language,” printed in 1643, in which
this fish is enumerated among the edible species of Southern New England. “Tautauog” would
consequently seem to be a word from the dialect of the Narragansett Indians. On the coast of New

NAMES OF THE TAUTOG. . .269

York it is called ‘‘ Black-fish”; in New Jersey also “ Black-fish” and “Smooth Black-fish,” “Tautog,”
or “Chub”; on the eastern shore of Virginia ‘Moll,” or ‘“‘ Will George”; at the mouth of the
Chesapeake “Salt-water Chub,” and in North Carolina the ‘“Oyster-fish.” Of all these names
Tautog is by far the most desirable for general use. There are several other species along our
coast called Black-fish, especially the sea-bass, which is often associated with the Tautog. The
names Oyster-fish and Chub are also pre-engaged by other species.

DISTRIBUTION.—Though the present geographical distribution of the Tautog is well understood,
there is reason to believe that its range has been very considerably extended in the present century
by the agency of man. That this species was known in Rhode Island two hundred and thirty
years ago is reasonably certain from the reference by Roger Williams, already referred to, and
in 1776 it was stated by Schoepf that it was very abundant in summer at New York. It is in
greatest abundance between the southern angle of Cape Cod and the Capes of Delaware, which
would indicate that within these limits, at least, the species ‘has always existed. The waters of
Long Island Sound and those immediately adjoining seem especially well adapted for its residence.

Mitchill, writing in 1814, remarked: “The Tautog was not originally known in Massachusetts
Bay; but within a few years he has been carried beyond Cape Cod, and has multiplied so abun-
dantly that the Boston market has now a full supply without-the necessity of importing from
Newport and Providence.” This statement is confirmed in a way by Mr. Isaac Hinckley, of Phila-
delphia, who tells me that in 1824 he saw several individuals from Cohasset Rocks, Jerusalem Road,
Massachusetts, and that the fish was at that time said by the fishermen to be entirely new to them.
Storer, writing about 1867, remarked: ‘Although a few years only have passed since this species
was brought into Massachusetts Bay, it is now taken along a large portion of the coast. At
Plymouth, Nahant, and Lynn, at some seasons, it is found in considerable numbers, and is fre-
quently caught from the bridges leading from Boston. The Boston market is for the most part
supplied by Plymouth and Wellfleet.” As early as 1851 they had spread northward to the Bay of
Fundy, and in that year it is stated that many were sold in the fish market at Saint John, the
largest of which weighed eight pounds: Mr. Lanman wrote that he obtained there in July and
August specimens nineteen inches long and weighing four pounds.

The rocky shores of Cape Ann seem particularly well adapted to its peculiar habits, and large
numbers are annually obtained from the rocks. So long has it beén acclimated and so well
known is it, that the local authorities of that region are inclined to doubt that it is not native,
The “Gloucester Telegraph” of May 5, 1860, challenged the statement that the Tautog was a new
‘fish, declaring that many years ago they were very plenty, and that after a period of scarcity they
reappeared. So abundant had they become in 1836 in the harbor of Wellfleet, Massachusetts, that
three Connecticut smacks were accustomed summer after summer to devote their éntire energies to
their capture in this locality, and this fishery has continued up to the present day. In sandy
localities, like the harbor of Provincetown, they have never secured a firm hold, though large
specimens are sometimes taken under the wharves.

, As to the extension of the range of this species southward we have the statement of Holbrook,
quoted by DeKay, writing in 1842: “Attempts have been made to introduce this fish farther
south, but with limited success. I am informed by my friend, Dr. Holbrook, that General Thomas
Pinckney imported from Rhode Island a smack load of the Tautog and set them adrift in the
harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, where they are to be found to this day. They are still
occasionally caught, weighing from one to two pounds, but never in such quantities as to be
brought to market.” Mr. Earll obtained specimens at Charleston in January, 1880. Certain ich-

270 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

thyologists, among whom is Professor Jordan, express skepticism as to the range having been
thus artificially extended southward.

At Cape Lookout, North Carolina, Jordan records the species, under the name “ Oyster-fish,”
as rather common, the young abundant about the wharves. About Norfolk and in the mouth of
Chesapeake Bay they occur, and also on the coast of Southern New Jersey, where they are taken
in the vicinity of Beasley’s Point, in the channel ways and along the shores, and they are said to be
somewhat common on the banks off Sandy Hook and in the southern bays of Long Island. These
sandy regions, however, are not so much frequented by them as those abounding in rocky beaches
and ledges.

Hapirs.—Although the Tautog appears to thrive in cool water, as has been shown by the rapid
extension of the northern range, they seek refuge from too great cold by retreating in winter to
somewhat deeper water than that preferred in summer. Here they appear to take refuge under
the stones and in crevices of the rocks, if we may judge from their habits as observed in aquaria,
their smooth, slimy skins, with scales protected from abrasion by a thick epidermis, enabling them
to move about among the sharp-pointed rocks unharmed. They are on this account also especially
well suited for confinement in the wells of smacks and in “live-cars,” where it is customary to keep
them living until required for market. They appear to enter upon an actual state of hibernation,
ceasing to feed and the vital functions partially suspended. Itis the opinion of fishermen that during
the hibernating season the vent becomes entirely closed up, as is known to be the case with hiber-
nating mammals. It is certain that they do not retreat far from the shore in winter, and that
very cold weather, especially in connection with a run of low tides, often causes very remarkable
fatalities. There are instances of their death in immense numbers. In February, 1857, after a very
cold season, hundreds of tons drifted upon the beach at Block Island, and along the southern shores
of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, and a similar catastrophe took place in 1841. In March, 1875,
it is stated that as much as a ton was thrown ashore in the drift ice at Cuttyhunk. They were
seen floating by the Hen and Chickens light-ship for three successive days. In Southern New
England they become torpid in November and December. It is stated that they are sometimes
caught as late as Christmas. It is probable that many do not enter upon a state of complete tor-
pidity, but remain in a partially active state in deep holes not far from the shore, and that it is
these, rather than the hibernating individuals, which are especially liable to injury from the cold.
A few are taken in Rhode Island in midwinter both by line and in lobster-pots. North of Cape
Cod they are rarely taken except in summer, while towards the southern limit of their range they
are apparently as abundant in winter as at any other time. Mr. Nathan King, a Rhode Island
fisherman, states that when the sun is very hot the Tautog leaves the clear spots for shelter among
the weeds and rocks. °*

Foop.—As might be inferred from its haunts and from the character of its strong, sharp teeth,
the food of this fish consists of the hard-shelled mollusks and crustaceans which are so abundant
among the rocks. In their stomachs have been found, among other things, lobsters, crabs of va- _
rious species, clams, mollusks, squids, scallops, barnacles, and sand-dollars. Many of the smaller
mollusks they swallow, shells and all, ejecting the hard parts after the flesh has been digested.
The cummon bait for Tautog in the spring is the clam, preferably the soft clam, for at this time the
fishermen say they have tender mouths. In the fall crabs and lobsters are used, the fiddler-crab
and rock-crab being the favorites. They are sometimes taken with a bait of marine worms.

REPRODUCTION.—In Narragansett Bay and vicinity they spawn from the end of April until
August.

1 The first of the season were taken at Gloucester May 13, 1881.

HABITS OF THE TAUTOG. 271

The pound fishermen find them to be full of ripe eggs when they begin to approach the
shore in early summer. Mr. Christopher E. Dyer, of New Bedford, has witnessed the operation
of spawning in Buzzard’s Bay in the middle of June, in water about two fathoms deep. This
was in 1859 or 1860, about two miles east of Seconnet Point. The number of eggs has not yet
been determined, nor is it known how long the period of incubation continues, but young fish are
found abundantly in the eel-grass along the shore in August and September, and have been
observed at various points from Cape Lookout to Monomoy. There can be no question, however,
that there are breeding grounds near Charleston, South Carolina, and north to Cape Cod, since the
species is very local in its habits and does not make long journeys to select spawning beds. . Little
is known of their rate of growth, though it is probably slow. Capt. Benjamin Edwards, of Wood’s
Holl, Massachusetts, kept thousands of small Tautog confined in a pond for five years, and at the
end of that time, when six years old, none weighed more than two and one-half pounds. A half-
pound fish which he confined in a lobster-car, with plenty of room and plenty of food, increased
from one-half to three-quarters of a pound in six months. The average weight of those sent to
market does not exceed twe or three pounds, though individuals weighing ten, twelve, and four-
teen pounds are by no means unusual. The largest on record was obtained near New York in July,
1876, and is preserved in the National Museum—its length thirty-six and one-half inches, its
weight twenty-two and one-half pounds.

ABUNDANCE.—The abundance of this species past and present has been actively discussed
and much interesting testimony on the subject may be found in the report of the United States
Commissioner of Fisheries. This was one of the fish regarding which the claim was made that
it has been almost exterminated in Rhode Island by overfishing: upon this point, however, the
opinions of fishermen and experts are much at variance. In 1870 when, according to general
opinion, Tautog had been almost exterminated in the waters of Narragansett Bay, the records of
Newport fish-markets show that in one day, November 2, eleven men caught about 3,000 pounds
of Tautog with hook and line, besides cod and other fish, while on the following day the catch
of fifteen men was 28,000 pounds, besides codfish caught to the amount of 600 pounds, being an
average of over 2,600 pounds to each man. These catches compare very favorably with that
recorded at Fir Rock Ledge, Wareham, ten years previous, when, on the 9th of October, two men
caught, in three hours, 271 pounds of Tautog, a catch which was pronounced by local authorities
the greatest ever made in those waters... Colonei Lyman, Massachusetts commissioner, writing in
1872, remarked: “Great complaint is made of the scarcity of this valued species north and south
of Cape Cod, but especially near the mouth of Narragansett Bay, where they are said to be not
more than one-eighth as numerous as they were a score of years ago.” Although much testimony
has been printed in the reports of the Fish Commission of the United States and of Rhode Island,
the general tendency of which is to show that old fishermen believe that Tautog and other fish are
much less abundant than in the days of their youth, nothing definite has yet been proved.

The Tautog has always been a favorite table fish, especially in New York, its flesh being
white, dry, and of a delicate flavor. Storer states that they are frequently pickled, and may be
kept in weak brine for a long time, and in this state they are considered by epicures a delicacy.

THE TAUTOG-OR BLACK-FISH FISHERY.—The capture of Tautog is chiefly accomplished by the
line fishermen of Southern Massachusetts and Rhode Island, and the weir fishermen of the saine
district. No one fishes for Tautog alone, and it is consequently more difficult to estimate the

1Barnstable Patriot, October 9, 1860.

272 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

quantity annually taken. About 200,000 pounds were brought to the New York market last year.
Local consumption is considerable, and the total amount annually taken may be estimated at from
400,000 to 450,000 pounds. At least two hundred fishermen are entirely or partly engaged in this
business between Cape Cod and New York. The catch of such fishermen in Narragansett Bay is
estimated at 6,000 pounds each annually. This gives in round numbers 100,000 pounds taken by
hook and line along this stretch of coast. To this should be added 20,000 pounds estimated to be
taken on the coast of New Jersey and southward, and 20,000 more north of Cape Cod. Tautog are
also frequently taken in the weirs and pounds, and the catch of these for the year 1876 was esti.
mated as is shown in the following table:

Pounds
Weirs on north side of Cape Cod ....-.-.-.-.-- anes Peeoe eis 2, 274
Weirs on south side of Cape Cod .........+--- TPs eialcaia ie se a aucie aah 561
Weirs in Vineyard Sound........ ..--- Magis eeas 29, 220
Weir in Buzzatd’s Bayes.c<corcameresdaewceaseeuenabacesed <aus 39, 423
Weirs in Narragansett Bay ...........-.----06- 2 Dry. else peate ake wee 156, 750
Weirs on Block Island... ... 2.2... 2.2220. ee ee cee reese eee -. 83,153
Weirs in Fisher’s Island Sound ...-...--. 0.2.22... - ees eee e eee 14, 000
Weirs on eastern end of Long Island .........--..----------e+-e+ 36, 000

311, 381

At Noank, Connecticut, there is in the fall a season of “black-fishing” which continues from the
middle of October until the snow begins to fall, about the first of December. About twenty-five men
are engaged in this fishery during the season specified, some of whom begin a month or two earlier,
They fish in Fisher’s Island Sound at a depth of six to eight fathoms, using crabs and lobsters for
bait. The average catch of each man for the season is estimated by Captain Ashby at one thou-
sand pounds. The most northerly point where there is a regular fishery for them is, as has already
been mentioned, in Wellfleet harbor. According to DeKay, three smacks were constantly em-
ployed from April to November. These smacks doubtless, then as now, hailed from Connecticut.
In 1879 these vessels were still upon the old ground, one of them hailing from Westport and one
or two from New London. One of the skippers was said to have fished upon this ground every
season for thirty years. I was told in Wellfleet that they ordinarily remained about three weeks
to fill their wells, obtaining in that time from two to four thousand pounds.

Angling for Tautog from rocks is a favorite pursuit of amateur fishermen all along the coast,
particularly about New York, where there are precipitous shores, the anglers standing upon the
rocks. July 12, 1879, Capt. 8. J. Martin caught in this way, at Eastern Point, Gloucester, seven,
two of which weighed twenty-one and a half pounds. In Long Island Sound and other protected
waters they are usually fished for from a boat anchored among the reefs or near wrecked vessels.
Mitchill, writing in 1814, describes the methods of this fishery better than any other subsequent
authority: “‘Rocky shores and bottoms are the haunts of Blackfish. Long experience is required
to find all these places of resort. Nice observations on the landmarks in different directions are
requisite to enable a fishing party to anchor on the proper spot. For example, when a certain rock
and tree range one way, with a barn window appearing over a headland the other way, the boat
lying at the point where two such lines intersect each other, is exactly over some famous rendez-
vous. . . . At some places Black-fish bite best upon the flood. In others they are voracious
during the ebb. Thunder accompanying a shower is an indication that no more of them can be
caught. The appearance of a porpoise infallibly puts an end to the sport. Dull weather with an
easterly wind is generally the omen of ill luck. . . . Some persons who live contiguous to

THE TAUTOG FISHERY. DIS

the shores where are situated the rocks which are frequented by Tautog invite the fish there by
baiting. By this is meant the throwing overboard broken clams or crabs to induce the Black-fish
to renew their visits; and fine sport is procured.”

As has been already stated, the Tautog on the coasts of the United States is extremely sensi-
tive to cold, and at the approach of the time of hibernation the vent becomes sealed, the fish thus
becoming prepared for a minimum consumption of its own fat during its winter sleep.

The subjoined notice of the torpidity of the Tautog and the Scup by Captain Atwood will be
found on page 212-of the Report of the United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for
1871-72.

87. THE CHOGSET 0R CUNNER—CTENOLABRUS ADSPERSUS.

The Chogset or Cunner, Ctenolabrus adspersus, is very similar in appearance to the Tautog,
though much smaller and far less important. Its range is more northerly. I can find no record
of its occurrence south of New York. DeKay remarks: “I am not aware that it is found south of
Delaware Bay.” From New York to the Straits of Canso the species is exceedingly abundant,
being found everywhere in harbors and bays, particularly in the vicinity of fish-houses where offal
is thrown overboard. Cuvier had specimens from Newfoundland, but it abounds on the coast of
Labrador. It is closely related to the “Goldsinny,” Ctenolabrus rupestris, and the “Connor” or
“Gilt-head,” Crenilabrus melops, of Great Britain and adjoining Europe. It has numerous common
names. In Southern New England itis called “Chogset,” a name of Indian origin, sometimes pro-
nounced Cachogset. This name appears to have been in occasional use as far west as New York,
where, in Mitchill’s time, it was also called “Bluefish.” In Maine, the British Provinces, and in
some parts of Massachusetts the name “‘Cunner” is in use, evidently having been brought over by
the English colonists who remembered a very similar fish at home which has this name. In New
York, in revolutionary times, the name “Burgall” was in use, and continued in use at least until
1854, when it is stated by Gill to have been the accepted name in the New York market. This name
also is of English origin, certain species of this family being called “Bergyit” in parts of England.
This name appears to hold in Eastern Long Island at the present time. At Provincetown they
are called ‘“Sea-perch,” and at the Isle of Shoals and occasionally on the adjoining mainland
‘“Blue-perch” and “ Perch,” this also being a reminiscence of English usage. At Salem they are
called “Nippers,” and occasionally here and elsewhere “ Bait-stealers.” Where Cunners are found
at all they are exceedingly abundant, and, though performing a useful duty as scavengers, are a pest
of fishermen, from their habit of nibbling the bait from their hooks. They are the especial detes-
tation of those who fish for tautog, since the two species are ordinarily found together. Their

‘In Brown’s “American Angler’s Guide,” in the article on Tautog or Black-fish, it is remarked: ‘‘The Black-
fish abounds in the vicinity of Long Island, and is a stationary inhabitant of the salt water. He may be kept for a
long time in ponds or cars, and even fatted there. When the cold of winter benumbs him he refuses to eat any more,
and a membrane is observed to form over the vent and close it. He begins to regain appetite with the return of
warmth in the spring.” (P. 178.)

‘Now we know that Tautog hibernate among rocks near the coast and in our rivers, and it has been stated by
Mr. L. Tallman or Mr. Daniel Church that some years ago, after a very cold snap, not only many Tautog were
washed ashore frozen stiff, but afterward quantities were also found dead among rocks off the coast. If, during the
winter, they don’t feed as stated above, and this membrane closes them up, the conclusion must be that they remain
in a state of torpor or sleep during cold weather. Now it happens that the scup, when first taken by traps, are in a
state of torpor; they neither eat nor have any passage. It is probably sealed up like the Tautog, and nothing in the
shape of food is to be found within them. Some say they are blind, and they seem hardly able or willing to move.

“The inference, then, is, that the scup have also been hibernating within a short distance from the coast, in the
same state as the Tautog. This would account for the stray scup mentioned by Mr. Southwick as having been occa-
sionally found in March. A warm day wakes him up, and he visits the shore for a day or so and then returns. To
my mind this is a more reasonable way of accounting for his presence than to assume that he has been left behind.
If these facts are as stated, it is to be presumed that scup are a local fish, and do not leave their localities any more
than Tautog, about the propriety of the classification of which as a local fish there is no question.”— ATWOOD.

18 F

274 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

food is very similar to that of the tautog, except that they cannot swallow large shells. They
feed also upon dead animal matter, and are among the most important scavengers of our harbors.
Numbers of them may be taken by lowering a net containing a piece of meat or fish and quickly
raising it to the surface. Like the tautog, Cunners are local in their habits, only moving from
the shoal water in extreme cold weather, and, though adapted for living in colder water, rarely
retreat except in the severest weather. In winter, however, they rarely are caught with the hook.
The first of the season of 1881 at Gloucester were caught May 8. A very cold season sometimes
destroys them. It is recorded that in January, 1835, great quantities were frozen and thrown up
on the shore between Gloucester and Marblehead! In June and July they spawn on their feeding
grounds in Southern New England, and in July and August young fish three-quarters of an inch
or more are taken abundantly along the shores. They appear to become adult and to breed when
three inches long. The largest I have observed was taken at Wood’s Holl, in July, 1875: its
weight was twelve ounces, its length ten and a half inches, and it was spawning freely. Storer
claims to have seen them fourteen inches long, and I am assured that they sometimes attain a
weight of two pounds. From Eastport, Maine, to the vicinity of Boston, the Cunner is a favorite
article of food. Elsewhere itis rarely eaten and is usually regarded with disgust—a foolish prejudice,
for it is one of the most agreeably flavored small fishes on our coast. Immense quantities are taken
with the hook from the rocks, bridges, and boats, especially in the vicinity of cities like Boston and
Portland. They are also taken in immense quantities in nets. The Irish market-boats of Boston
make a special business of catching them, using circular nets three or four feet in diameter which
are baited and set among the rocks. Dr. Storer records that on the occasion of his visit to Lab-
rador, in 1849, he found them so plentiful in the Gut of Canso that, by sinking a basket with a salt
fish tied therein for bait, he continually caught them by the score, and by putting a few hundreds
in the well of his sloop kept the crew well supplied with fish while at sea on the way to Labrador.
The people of Nova Scotia, like those south of Cape Cod, rarely, if ever, eat the Cunner. Mr. J.
Matthew Jones informs me that in the summer of 1863, when the French fleet was anchored in
Halifax Harbor, the sailors caught them for food in great numbers. About Saint Margaret’s Bay,
according to Mr. Ambrose, they are given as food to pigs: since, however, the pork of these
fish-fed pigs always tastes oily, they are generally fed on some other food for a short time before
being killed, and well dosed with sulphur. It was formerly customary in Boston to keep these fish
alive for market in large cars, described by Storer as three feet deep, twelve to fifteen feet long,
closed beneath and latticed at the sides, and anchored in deep water. Storer states that sometimes
as many as five thousand fish were kept in a single car, and that these cars were replenished every
week or fortnight. It is impossible to estimate with any degree of accuracy the quantity of Cun-
ners annually taken. The catch of the Irish market-boats of Boston cannot fall much short of
300,000 pounds, and that of the other towns and States on the coast of New England is certain to
be from 200,000 to 250,000 pounds.

88. THE PARROT-FISHES AND SOME OF THEIR ALLIES.

Several of the Parrot-fishes occur on the Florida coast, notably the Blue Parrot-fish, Platy-
glossus radiatus (Linn.) Goode, sometimes, according to Jordan, seen in Key West market, and P.
bivittatus, known in Bermuda as “ Slippery Dick,” recorded by Jordan from Charleston market.
They are gorgeous in color, but the flesh is so dry that they are held in slight esteem for table use.

'Gloucester Telegraph, January 14, 1835,

THE PARROT-FISHES AND THEIR ALLIES. 275

THE RED-FISH, OF CALIFORNIA.

This species, Trochocopus pulcher, writes Jordan, is everywhere known as the “ Red-fish”: the
name “ Fat-head” is occasionally used, and it is very rarely called “‘Sheepshead.” It reaches a
weight of twelve to fifteen pounds. It is found from Point Concepcion southward to Cerros Island
in enormous numbers in the kelp. It is taken chiefly with hook and line. It feeds on crustaceans
and mollusks. It is taken chiefly by the Chinese, who salt and dry it. It forms half of the total
catch of the Chinese south of Point Concepcion. It does not rank high as a food-fish, its flesh
being coarse. The fat forehead is said to make excellent chowder.

THE SENORITA-FISH, OF CALIFORNIA.

At Monterey, California, this species, Pseudojulis modestus, is known as, ‘ Pescerey”; south-
ward it is called “Sefiorita.” It reaches a weight of less than halfa pound. It is found in the
kelp from Monterey southward to Cerros Island, and is generally common. It feeds chiefly on
crustacea. It is used chiefly for bait, although the flesh is said to be of excellent quality.

THE KELP-FISH, OF CALIFORNIA.

This species, Platyglossus semicinctus, bears in company with Heterostichus rostratus, and
perhaps others, the name of “Kelp-fish.” It reaches a pound weight, and a length of nearly a
foot. It is found in the kelp about Santa Catalina Island and southward, and is not very abun-
dant. It feeds on crustacea, and spawns in July. Its flesh is said to be of good quality.

THE HoG-FISH—LACHNOLZMUS FALCATUS.

This fish is, according to Mr. Stearns, abundant at Key West and among the Florida coral reefs,
although he has not observed it north of the Gulf of Mexico. It there attains a considerable size,
and a weight of twelve or fifteen pounds, although the average size is not more than one-fourth
that size. In the Key West market it appears almost daily, and is much esteemed for food. This
species occurs throughout the West Indies, and is one of the favorite food-fish of Cuba, although
its sale is forbidden by law, on account of the supposed poisonous nature of its flesh. In the
Bermudas it is one of the most important of the food-fish, attaining sometimes the weight of
twenty pounds. It is caught by line-fishermen among the reefs, at a depth of five to forty fathoms.
Like the other members of this family, it feeds upon small fish and upon bottom crustaceans and
mollusks. Its brilliant red color renders it a conspicuous object in the markets. During the
different stages of growth its species undergoes many changes of form, and has been described
under several different names. The large adult male is remarkable on account of a heavy black.
blotch over the forehead and over the eyes. The name “ Hog-fish” refers to the swine-like appear-
ance of the head, jaws, and teeth. At the entrance to the Great Sound, in Bermuda, is a reef called
Hog-fish Shoal, which is surmounted by a beacon bearing an enormous effigy of a Hog-fish in metal.

89. THE DEMOISELLE AND THE CICHLID FAMILIES.

Among the reefs of Florida two or three species of the family Pomacentride are abundant.
Most prominent among these is the “Sergeant Major,” Glyphidodon saxatilis (L.) C. & V., called:
in Bermuda the “Cow-pilot,” from an alleged habit of being always found in the society of the:
“Cow-fish,” or Ostracion. This fish sometimes attains the length of ten inches and the weight of
a pound or so, but is usually of a smaller size and is not highly esteemed for food. It is found
throughout the tropical waters of the entire world.

276 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

There are several smaller species of this and of allied genera in the Gulf of Mexico, and on
the western side of the Isthmus of Panama and in the Gulf of California. On the California coast
oceurs a species, Pomacentrus rubicundus, conspicuous by reason of its uniformly deep crimson or
orange coloration, which is usually known as the “ Garibaldi” among the Italians. The names
“ Gold-fish” and “Red Perch” are also used, all of them referring to its brilliant orange colorations.
It reaches a weight of three pounds, and a length of less than a foot. It is found about the Santa
Barbara Islands and southward to Lower California. Itlives about rocky places, andis generally
abundant. Its food is largely crustaceous. It is a food-fish of low grade, and has little economic
importance. Another somewhat noteworthy species is known in California, on account of its dusky
colors, as the “ Blacksmith,” Chromis punctipinnis, Cooper.

“This fish,” writes Jordan, “is known as the ‘Blacksmith’ from its dusky colors. It reaches a
weight of about two pounds. It ranges from the Santa Barbara Islands southward, living about
reefs of rock, and is locally abundant. It feeds on shells and crustacea. It is considered as
indifferent food.”

The family Cichlide is large, and is composed chiefly of fresh-water fishes occurring in the
tropical parts of Africa and America. Among its members is a South American species, Geophagus
surinamensis, which is often mentioned by writers on the instincts of animals on account of a
peculiar habit of the males which carry in their mouths the eggs until they are hatched, and
which are even said to allow the young fish to seek refuge within their jaws. We have no repre-
sentatives of the family on our Atlantic coast, though one or two species of the genus Heros occur
in the brackish waters of Texas.

90. THE SURF-FISH FAMILY—EMBIOTOCIDZ.

By Davin S. JORDAN.

This remarkable group of fishes forms the most characteristic feature of the fauna of our Pacific
coast. Of the nineteen species now known, all but one (Ditrema Temmincki of Japan) occur on the
coast of California, and most of them in very great abundance. The species are most of them very
similar in habits and economic value, and the following general remarks are proffered before pro-
ceeding to the discussion of the different species.

NAameEs.—The general name “Perch” is applied to these fishes everywhere along the coast.
This unfortunate misnomer came about from their resemblance to the sun-fishes or “‘ perch” of the
Southern States, and to the ‘‘ white perch,” Roccus americanus, of the East. On the coast of Oregon
the large species (especially Damalichthys argyrosomus) are called ‘“ Pogy” or “ Porgee,” in allusion
to their undoubted resemblance to the scup or porgee of the East. The names “Minny,” “ Sparada,”
and “Moharra” are also applied to the smaller species northward. About San Francisco, the name
“Perch” is given to them all, as well as to Archoplites interruptus, and separate names for the
different species are seldom heard. From Monterey southward, the name “Surf-fish” is in common
use, although the name ‘ Perch” is still more common.

Hazits, &c.—The largest Rhacochilus toxotes, reaches a weight of four pounds; the smallest,
Abeona minima, a length of four or five inches. So far as we are able to judge, the growth of the
young is quite rapid, as the specimens are about half grown the first winter, and probably reach
full size in two and a half to three years—perhaps, in some cases, in the second year.

The center of distribution of this group is from Santa Barbara to Tomales Bay. Northward
the number of species decreases, while the number of individuals is, perhaps, equally great as far
as the Gulf of Georgia. Southward both individuals and species rapidly diminish in number.

HABITS OF THE SURF-FISHES. DTT

Their range probably extends from Cerros Island to Sitka; certainly no farther. Most of them live
in shallow water, on a sandy bottom, both in the open sea and in sheltered bays. <A seine drawn
in the surf will often be filled with the silvery species (Amphistichus: Holconotus), and a seine drawn
in a bay may be equally full of Ditrema laterale, Ditrema Jacksoni, etc. One species is confined
to the fresh waters. Nearly all of them feed chiefly on crustacea, together with such sinall fish as
they can swallow. The species of Abeona are chiefly herbivorous, feeding on seaweed.

The Embiotocoids are all oviparous. The young are fifteen to twenty in number, and are
brought forth in summer: when born, the little fish are from three-fourths of an inch to two and
a half inches in length, according to the species. They are closely packed together in the uterus,
the inner surface of which forms folds partly separating the young from each other. The young
are at first excessively compressed, with the soft parts of the vertical fins excessively elevated. As
their development proceeds they resemble more and more the parent, and when born their form is
quite similar, the body, however, more compressed, the fins higher, and the color usually red.

Impregnation probably takes place in the fall. In January most of the species have the young
half grown as to length, and when the parent fish is caught the young readily slip out from the
ovary. From January to June the fish-stalls where these fishes are sold are littered with these
foetal fish. Little is known of the place of spawning, but I suppose that the young are simply
extruded in the water just outside the breakers and left to shift for themselves. As to the mode
of impregnation, we have made no observations. Dr. Blake thinks that the fleshy thickening on
the anal fin of the male is to give the female something to hold to with the ventral fins, and that
the two sexes approach each other, ventral surfaces together, and with their heads in opposite
directions. They have no special enemies except the larger predatory fishes and the fishermen,
who destroy great numbers at the breeding time. No diseases have been noticed.

The species are all, with the exception of two or three of the smallest, used as food. Their
flesh is watery, flavorless, and much inferior to that of the Scorpenoid, Scienoid, and Percoid
fishes, and only their abundance gives them value. Great quantities of them are consumed by the
Chinese.

ALFIONE Rhacochilus toxotes Agassiz).—This species is called “‘Alfione” at Soquel, “Sprat”
at Santa Cruz; elsewhere it is simply ‘‘Perch.” It reaches a length of eighteen inches and a
weight of five pounds, being much the largest of the group. It ranges from San Pedro to Cape
Mendocino, and is generally common, although not nearly so abundant as some of the others. As
a food-fish it is considered the best of this very indifferent group.

PORGEE (Damalichthys argyrosomus (Girard) J. & G.).—On the coast of Oregon and Wash-
ington this species is known as “Porgee”; elsewhere simply as “ Perch,” or ‘White Perch.” It
reaches a weight of two and a half pounds. It ranges from San Pedro to Vancouver’s Island, its
abundance steadily increasing to the northward so far as traced. At San Francisco it is rather
common, but south of Point Concepcion rather rare. As a food-fish it ranks next to the preceding.

WHITE PERCH (Ditrema furcatum (Grd.) Giinther).—This species occasionally reaches a weight
of a pound, but is usually smaller. 1t ranges from Cape Mendocino to the Mexican line, being
everywhere exceedingly abundant. It lives in sheltered bays. It is always present in the markets
and is held in low esteem.

Ditrema atripes Jor. & Gilb.—This species reaches a weight of one and a half pounds. It
has been noticed only in the Bay of Monterey, where it is generally rather common, being taken
in seines near the shore.

BLUE SuRF-FISH (Ditrema laterale (Agassiz) Giinther).—This species is known as the “Blue
Perch” or “Surf-tish.” It reaches a weight of about two and a half pounds. It ranges from Santa

278 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Barbara to Vancouver's Island, and is everywhere abundant. North of San Francisco it is the
most common of the larger species. It is an important food-fish, although not of very good quality.

BLACK SuRF-FISH (Ditrema Jacksoni (Agassiz) Giinther).—This species is known as ‘‘ Perch,’
“(Surf-fish,” “Black Perch,” etc. About San Diego it is called “Croaker,” which name, however,
belongs properly to the Scienoid fishes. It reaches a weight of two pounds. It ranges from San
Diego to Puget Sound. North of Cape Mendocino it is scarce. From San Francisco southward
it is probably brought into the market in greater numbers than any other species. It is but an
inditterent food-fish.

Hypsurus Caryi (L. Agass.) A. Agass.—This species is known as “ Moharra” to the Portuguese
at Monterey; elsewhere it is a “Perch.” It reaches the weight of a pound. It ranges from
Tomales Bay to Santa Barbara, and is rather common, being sometimes taken in great numbers
in spring. It is used chiefly as bait for rock-fish, the larger individuals only being sent to market.
It is the most brightly colored of its family.

SILVER SURF-FISH (Amphistichus argenteus Agassiz).—This species is known as “ Surf-fish” and
46 White Perch.” It reaches a weight of three pounds. Itranges from Tomales to San Diego, and
is locally often very abundant, especially along sandy beaches.

Rosy SurF-FIsH (Holconotus rhodoterus Agassiz).—This species has no distinctive name with
the fishermen. It reaches a weight of one and a half pounds. It ranges from Cape Mendocino
to Santa Barbara, being often locally abundant, especially at Soquel, but it is not one of the more
common species.

Holconotus Agassizi (Gill) Jor. & Gilb.—This species reaches a weight of but halfa pound. In
distribution and abundance it agrees with the preceding.

WALL-EYE SuRF-FISH (Holconotus argenteus (Gibb.) Jor. & Gilb.).—This species is usually
known as the “‘ Wall-eye,” in allusion to the great size of its eyes. It reaches a weight of half a
_ pound. It ranges from Cape Mendocino to the Mexican line, and is generally abundant, especially
in the surf. It is taken in large quantities, and is little esteemed.

Holconotus analis (A. Agass.) Jor. & Gilb.—This species reaches a weight of a quarter of a
pound. Itis found from San Luis Obispo to San Francisco. It is only locally abundant, and is
not purposely sent to market. At Soquel, where it is abundant, it is used for bait.

Brachyistius rosaceus Jor. & Gilb.—This species weighs less than half a pound. It has been
taken only in deep water off Point Reyes.

Brachyistius frenatus Gill—This species rarely weighs more than a quarter of a pound. It
ranges from Catalina Island to Vancouver’s Island, living in water of moderate depth, and is
locally exceedingly abundant, as at Monterey, Point Reyes, etc. It comes into the market only by
accident, and is used chiefly for bait.

SPARADA (Cymatogaster aggregatus Gibb.).—This fish is usually known as the “Shiner.” On
Puget Sound the Americans call it ‘‘ Minny,” and the Italians “Sparad” or “Sparada.” It is found
from Vancouver's Island to the Mexican line, everywhere in great numbers, and is perhaps the
most abundant species on the coast. It is rarely used except for bait.

Abeona aurora Jor. & Gilb.—This species reaches a weight of nearly half a pound. It is
abundant in rocky places from Monterey to San Francisco, often trequenting rock-pools. It feeds
on plants, and is occasionally sent to market.

SHINER (Abeona minima [Gibbons] Gill.).—This little fish is usually known as the “Shiner.” It
is the smallest of the group, rarely weighing a quarter of a pound. It ranges from Tomales Bay
to San Diego, and is generally common, although not one of the most abundant species. Its
appearance in the market is accidental.

THE SURF-FISH FAMILY. 279

“RIVER PERCH” (Hysterocarpus Traski, Gibbons).—This species very often reaches the weight
of about half a pound. It is confined to the fresh water, being found in the Sacramento and San
Joaquin Rivers, and other streams as far southward at least as San Luis Obispo. It is sent in
small numbers to the markets of San Francisco, and is chiefly eaten by the Chinese.

91. THE MOHARRA FAMILY—GERRIDA,

This family is represented on our eastern coast by four species, all of which are very small
and of little consequence except as food for larger fishes.

Gerres argenteus, first discovered by Professor Baird at Beesley’s Point, New Jersey, appears
to be common from North Carolina to New Jersey, and has been, within two or three years,
observed at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts.

G. harengulus and G. homonymus occur in the Gulf of Mexico. In the Bermudas there are
three species of this genus; these are known by the names “Shad” and ‘Long-boned Shad.”
They are seined in great numbers, and constitute an important article of food.

92. THE THREAD-FISH FAMILY—POLYNEMID/.

The family Polynemide is remarkable by reason of the elongate filaments which are developed
in connection with the pectoral fin. Gtinther has remarked: “Their eyes are large, but generally
obscured by a filmy skin, so that these feelers must be of great use to them in helping them to
find their way to their food. It is evident, from the organization of these fishes, that they live in
thick water or muddy bottoms, such as are found near the mouths of great rivers.”

There are two or three species upon our coast, one of which, the “Thread-fish” of Pensacola,
Polynemus octonemus, is the subject of the following interesting observations by Mr. Stearns:

“The Thread-fish is rather common at Pensacola in summer, and has not been observed else-
where in the Gulf by me. My first specimen was taken at the surface of the water in Pensacola
Bay, May 21, 1878. Later in the season I saw large schools of them in shoal water along the sea-
beach swimming towards the harbor mouth. On June 14a very large school of them came into the
surf near Fort McRae, and large numbers were thrown ashore by the waves, until perfect wind-
rows of dead fish were found upon the sands. Sharks and other fishes were preying upon them in
the water, and vast numbers of sea-birds and buzzards awaited them on land. The individuals
composing this school were of various sizes, the majority being adults. (Several of these were
sent to the National Museum.) They were evidently moving towards the bay. Small schools
were seen during the months of July of that and the follow ing year.”

93. THE SURGEON-FISH FAMILY—ACANTHURIDA.

On the coast of Florida, as well as through the West Indies and in the Bermudas, occur two
‘species of this family, Acanthurus ceruleus and A. nigricans, generally known as ‘ Doctor-tish” or
“Surgeon-fish.” They are distinguished by slight differences of proportion and color. Each side
-of the tail is provided with a sharp, lancet-like spine, which, when at rest, is received into a sheath,
but it may be thrust out at right angles to the body, and used as a weapon of offense; sweeping
the tail from side to side as they swim, they can inflict very serious wounds, and I have seen, in
the Bermudas, large fishes, confined in the same aquarium tank with them, covered with gashes
inflicted in this manner. They are available for food, but are more worthy of consideration on
account of their power of wounding the fishermen. The “ Bone-tish” of Key West, according to
Stearns, belongs to this family and genus. It is quite common about the coral reefs of the South
Florida coast.

280 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

94. THE ANGEL-FISH FAMILY—CHZATODONTIDZ.

This family contains numerous species of fully-formed, beautifully-tinted fishes, usually of
small size, which abound in all tropical seas, especially among the coral reefs. Their teeth are
very small and feeble, and they feed upon minute invertebrates. To this group belong the beau-
tiful “four-eyed fish” of the West Indies; also the Angel-fish, Holacanthus ciliaris, a lovely species,
familiar to the residents of New York, specimens having been brought from the Bermudas at vari-
ous times during the past thirty years for exhibition in the aquaria of that city. This species is
found also along the Florida coast, and as far north as Charleston, South Carolina. It is con-
sidered the most delicious food-fish of the Bermudas.

Stearns writes: “The ‘White Angel-fish, the ‘Yellow Angel-fish,’ and the ‘Black Angel-
fish’ are reported as common about the Florida reefs, the two first as being abundant and the last
as rare. I did not secure a specimen of either.”

The Black Angel-fish is probably the species known under this name in the Bermudas, Hola-
canthus tricolor.

THE MACKEREL AND ITS ALLIES. 281

L—THE MACKEREL AND ITS ALLIES.

95. THE MACKEREL—SCOMBER SCOMBRUS.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—The common Mackerel, Scomber scombrus, is an inhabitant
of the North Atlantic Ocean. On our coast its southern limit is in the neighborhood of Cape Hat-
teras in early spring. The fishing schooners of New England find schools of them in this region
at some distance from the shore, but there is no record of their having been taken in any numbers
in shoal water south of Long Island. A. W. Simpson states that the species has been observed in
the sounds about Cape Hatteras in August, September, and October. R. HE. Harll finds evidence
that stragglers occasionally enter the Chesapeake. Along the coasts of the Middle States and of
New England Mackerel abound throughout the summer months, and are also found in great numn-
bers in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, where, in past years, fishermen of the United States congre-
gated in great numbers to participate in their capture. They are also found on the coast of
Labrador, though there is no evidence that they ordinarily frequent the waters north of the Straits
of Belle Isle.

Captain Atwood! has expressed the opinion that they vis ¢ Northern Labrador only in seasons.
remarkable for the prevalence of westerly winds, and that in other seasons they do not go so far
north.

Professor Hind was told by the residents of Aillik and Kypokok, Labrador, one hundred
and fifty miles northwest of Ha milton Inlet, that Mackerel were abundant there in 1871, and that
a few were caught in cod-seines. While at Double Island harbor, some fifteen miles north ot
Hopedale, a French Canadian resident informed him that there is ‘a scattering of Mackerel” on
that part of the coast.

They appear also at times to have been abundant on the northeastern coast of Newfoundland,
though their appearance there is quite irregular. Mackerel do not occur in Hudson’s Bay nor on
the coast of Greenland. It seems probable that the natural northern limit of the species in the
Western Atlantic is not far from the Straits of Belle Isle. Professor Packard, who visited this
region in 1866, recorded that a few Mackerel are taken in August in Salmon Bay and Red Bay, but.
that the Straits of Belle Isle were evidently the northern limits of the genus, while Fortin, one of
the best Canadian authorities on fisheries, in his annual report for 1864, stated that in summer
they appear in some places, such as Little Mecattina, on the adjoining coast, latitude 505° north,
and even sometimes enter the Straits of Belle Isle.’

1 Proceedings, Boston Society of Natural History, vol. 10, p. 66.

2In 1860 Capt. Peter Avery, of the schooner Alabama, of Provincetown, took 100 barrels of fat Mackerel at Port
au Port, Newfoundland. Captain Atwood, however, has seen them at the Bay of Islands. He has also seen large
schools at Mecattina.

Capt. J. W. Collins writes: ‘As early as 1837 or 1838, Capt. Stephen Rich, of Gloucester, spent almos‘ the entire
mackerel-fishing season on the coast of Labrador in pursuit of Mackerel. He was induced by the reports brought him
by the Labrador cod-fishermen to make this attempt. They had reported seeing Mackerel abundant in the vicinity of
the Straits of Belle Isle, and Captain Rich, being of an adventurous turn, decided to devote one summer to the investi-
gation of the subject, feeling in hopes of obtaining a large catch. My father was one of the crew, and I have often
heard him tell that the trip was entirely unsuccessful, notwithstanding the fact that they cruised all the way from
Mecattina Islands through the Straits of Belle Isle, and on the northwest coast of Newfoundland as far down as the
Bay of Islands. Few or no Mackerel were taken until the vessel returned in the fall to the southern part of the Gulf
of Saint Lawrence, where a small fare was obtained in a few weeks’ fishing.”

a

282 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Perley says that they are rarely known to visit the coast of Labrador. H. R. Storer, after
carefully studying the fauna of Southern Labrador, in 1849, came to the conclusion that they were
sometimes found at Little Mecattina.

In the various reports of the Canadian inspectors of fisheries on the Labrador coast from 1864
to 1870 may be found evidence that Mackerel are rarely taken even on the Labrador coast of the
Gulf of Saint Lawrence.

Professor Verrill, who visited Anticosti aud Mingan in 1861, was unable to find any Mackerel
in the waters of that region, although the best methods of catching them were often used.

Some years ago Mackerel were abundant in the Bay of Fundy, as many as twelve vessels from
Eastport, besides others, being engaged in their capture, chiefly about Digby and Saint Mary’s
Bay. They have now so completely disappeared as not to form an item in the commercial record
of the catch.

The species is found throughout the entire length of the Norwegian coast from the Christiania
Fjord to the North Cape and Varanger Fjord, latitude 71°. It occurs on the south coast of Swe-
den, and, entering the Baltic, is found along the shores of Eastern Denmark and Eastern Prussia,
and also abundantly in the German Ocean and the English Channel, as well as everywhere in all
parts of the British Isles, and southward to the Mediterranean, where it abounds, especially in the
Adriatic. There is no record of its capture in Africa, South America, in the West Indies, the
Gulf of Mexico, or even about the Bermudas.

The Mackerel, then, would appear to be a shore-loving fish, not addicted to wide wanderings

. in the ocean, and with range limited in the Western Atlantic between latitudes 35° and 56°; in
the Eastern Atlantic between 36° and 719.

MIGRATIONS.—The migrations of the Mackerel, the causes of their appearance and disap-
pearance at certain seasons at different points along the coast, the causes of their relative abun-
dance and searcity in different years, have previously been discussed by numerous writers. The
subject has received special attention on account of the disputes between our own and the Canadian
Government concerning the value to our fishermen of the right to participate in the mackerel
fisheries in the Proviucial waters.

Notwithstanding the great amount of paper which has been covered with theories to explain
the various mooted questions, it cannot be said that the habits of the Mackerel are understood at
all better than those of other fishes which have not attracted so much attention. The most volu-
minous writer upon this subject has been Prof. Henry Youle Hind, who devotes many pages of
his book, “The Effect of the Fishery Clauses of the Treaty of Washington on the Fisheries and
Fishermen of British North America,” to the attempt to prove that the Mackerel which. have been
at certain seasons in the past so abundant in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and on the Atlantic coast
of Nova Scotia remain there throughout the year, hibernating in deep waters not very remote from
the shore! I have attempted to show the weakness of bis argument in an essay published in the

‘Mr. Barnet Phillips, in the New York Times, December 31, 1880, thus criticises the theory of Mr. Hind, while
referring to Mr. William H. Rideing’s essay entitled ‘First Families of the Atlantic”:

“In an article entitled ‘First Families of the Atlantic,’ to be found in the January number of Harper’s Magazine,
certain assertions are advanced in regard to the habits of the Mackerel which are entirely of an ex parte character,
and might unintentionally act injuriously to our interests in case future disputes arose between the Provinces and the
United States on the fishery question. The writer states that, ‘seeking a soft muddy or sandy bed at the approach of
winter, it [the Mackerel] buries itself therein, first drawing a scale or film over each eye.’ Ina prior paragraph of
this same article the possibility of the hibernation of the Mackerel is advanced. Now, exactly these two arguments
were presented by Professor Hind, who wished to prove that the Mackerel was a local fish, in favor of the Provinces,
which assertions were entirely refuted by Prof. Spencer I’. Baird, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and by
Prof. G. Brown Goode. The great argument used by the Provincial fish experts was to show that the Mackerel
belonged to their waters, and the ideas of hibernation were therefore represented. If this had been granted, our case

f

MIGRATIONS OF THE MACKEREL SCHOOLS. 283

Fifth Annual Report of the United States Commissioner of Fisheries for the year 1877, pp. 50-70.
It is by no means demonstrated that certain schools of Mackerel do not remain throughout the
year in waters adjacent to the coast of Canada, but the weight of evidence at present seems to rest
with those who believe that the Mackerel are given to extensive migrations north and south along
our coasts. These migrations are believed to be carried on in connection with another kind of
migration which I have called “bathic migration,” and which consists in a movement, at the
approach of cold weather, into the deeper waters of the ocean. The menhaden and many other
fishes have these two kinds of migrations, littoral and bathic. The sea-herring, on the other hand,
has extensive littoral migrations and probably very slight movements of a bathic nature. In some
the latter is most extended, in others the former. Anadromous fishes, like the shad and the ale-
wife, very probably strike directly out to sea without ranging to any great degree northward or
southward, while others, of which the Mackerel is a fair type, undoubtedly make great coastwise
migrations, though their bathic migrations may, without any great inconsis.ency, be as great as
those which range less.

Upon this point I cannot do better than to quote from a manuscript letter from Professor
Baird to the Hon. Hamilton Fish, Secretary of State, dated July 21, 1873. Having expressed
certain views concerning the well-known phenomenon of the migration of the herring and shad,
he continues:

“The fish of the Mackerel family form a marked exception to this rule. While the alewife and
shad generally swim low in the water, their presence not being indicated at the surface, the
Mackerel swim near the surface, sometimes far out to sea, and their movements can be readily
followed. The North American species consist of fish which as certainly, for the most part at
least, have a migration along our coast northward in spring and southward in autumn, as do the
throngs of pleasure-seekers, and their habit of schooling on the surface of the water enables us
to determine this fact with great precision. Whatever may be the theories of others on the sub-
ject, the American mackerel-fisher knows perfectly well that in the spring he may find the schools
of Mackerel off Cape Henry, and that he can follow them northward day by day as they move in
countless myriads on to the coasts of Maine and Nova Scotia.”

The movements of the mackerel schools, like those of the menhaden, appear to be regulated
solely by the temperature of the ocean.

would have had, as far as Mackerel go, little to rest upon. As to hibernation of the Mackerel there are innumerable
reasons to suppose that nothing of the kind exists. In fact, hibernation is one of those ichthyological questions
which require very long research to know anything about. It does seem that sturgeon in Russian waters, and carp
in cold temperatures, take to the mud, and may, perhaps, do something like hibernation, but this habit has no prece-
dent in sea-fish. It may happen that a few individuals of the Scomber family have been inclosed in the winter season
in the waters of the Newfoundland coast. Such cases have undoubtedly happened, for on page 62 of the late report
of the United States Commission the statement is made that in a river of Nova Scotia where a school of Mackerel had
been detained the fish were speared out of the mud. Returning to the numbing effects of cold weather on sea-fish, in
order to show how unusual it must be, the American turbot is taken with hooks in the dead of winter under the floe
ice of North Greeuland at a depth of 300 fathoms. If sea-fish were mummified in the ocean depths by the cold, because
at the deeper strata of the ocean temperatures are fairly uniform, once a fish had hibernated his sleep might continue
on forever. There can be no better proof of the migratory character of the Mackerel than to cite a paragraph from
the ‘Cape Ann Advertiser,’ published this week, where the fact is announced that the mackerel fleet have gone off
Hatteras in hopes of securing Mackerel, and that some time ago ‘vessels reported having sailed through immense
schools for forty miles.’ The film éver the eye of Mackerel Professor Hind plazed great stress on, as he supposed it
was a preparatory step to the hibernating process. Now, this film over the eye, as Mr. Goode shows, is not peculiar
to the scombers, for many fish, such as the shad, the alewife, the menhaden, the bluefish, the mullet, the lake white-
fish, and various cyprinoid fishes, have this membrane, though it never does cover the whole eye. The fact remains
also to be proved that a skin forms over the eye in winter only. The writer of this article has apparently culled his
facts in regard to Mackerel from one side, and has read most superficially the whole of the testimony. ‘Public docu-
ments’ are rarely of an amusing character, but when they happen to be of interest, as were those published as ‘The
Award of the Fisheries Commission,’ it is most unfortunate when false deductions are derived from them.”

284 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

In my essay upon menhaden, which has just been referred to, I have attempted to show, ina
preliminary way, the relations of the movements of the menhaden schools to the temperature of
the water at different stations along the coast in accordance with certain crude observations, which
at present constitute the only material available as a basis for such generalizations. I have there
claimed that menhaden make their appearance near the shore in the spring as soon as the tempera-
ture of the water in the harbors has reached a weekly average of 50°, and that they disappear in
the fall soon after the waters have again cooled down to the same average temperature.

The Mackerel are partial to much colder waters. They range ten to fifteen degrees farther to
the north, and their southern limit is proportionally high. They appear earlier in the spring and
disappear later in the fall, and their presence is nearly synchronous with the time when the water
temperatures of the harbor have reached a weekly average of 45°. It has been remarked that the
presence of the menhaden depends upon a weekly average of the harbor temperature ot 50° or
more. These harbor temperatures are several degrees—it is not known exactly how many—higher
than those of the open ocean at the same latitude, and there can be no question that the menhaden
thrives in water as cold as 45°. Mackerel will remain active and contented in a temperature of
40°, or even less. The normal time of the departure of Mackerel from the coast is, therefore, a
month or two later than that of the menhaden.

There are well recorded instances of the capture of menhaden in Massachusetts Bay as late
as December, and there are also many instances where Mackerel have been taken not only on the
New England coast, but also in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, in midwinter.'

Mr. John Fletcher Wonson tells me that at one time he left Gloucester on a halibut trip
January 1, and January 3 or 4, on George’s Bank, caught a hogshead of herring and seven or eight
Mackerel in a gill-net. Schooner ‘ Shooting Star” took a number of Mackerel on George’s Bank
in March, 1856.”

The fishermen on George’s took Tinkers from the stomachs of codfish in February, 1878, using
them for bait. Sometimes five or six were taken from one fish.

In January, 1868 or 1869, Capt. Warren Brown, of the schooner ‘Charles Frederick,” of
Gloucester, caught thirty Mackerel on a trawl-line set on the Middle Bank.

The “Yarmouth Herald” (Yarmouth, Nova Scotia), January 2, 1879, states that “ two fine,
fat, fresh Mackerel were found among the kelp at Green Cove on Friday, December 28, 1878.”

Basing their arguments upon such occurrences as these, Canadian writers have attempted to
prove that large bodies of Mackerel hibernate along their shores in the winter months. It is still
believed by many fishermen that the Mackerel, at the approach of cold weather, go down into the
mud and there remain in a state of torpidity until the approach of warm weather in spring. All
that can be said regarding this claim is that, although we do not know enough about the subject
to pronounce this impossible, American ichthyologists think they know enough to be of the opinion
that it is very decidedly improbable.

It seems only fair to quote in this connection a letter printed in “Forest and Stream,” a leading
New York journal devoted to field sports and the fisheries, in criticism of views published at the

‘Twenty Mackerel were caught in a gill-net at Provincetown January 17, 1878. Others were taken late in
December. Captain Harding tells me that they sometimes come ashore frozen in cold weather, and are found in the
ice on the beach.

Early in February, 1881, small Mackerel five or six inches in length were found in considerable numbers in the
stomachs of hake and cod, taken on the eastern part of George’s Bank in fifty fathoms, and on the southeastern part
of Le Have in sixty and eighty fathoms of water; sometimes ten, twelve, or fifteen in the stomach of a single fish.
On the 8th and 9th of February, Captain Olsen observed them schooling at the surface on George’s. Gloucester
fishermen had before seen them in winter on George’s, but never so abundant.

2 Gloucester Advertiser,” April, 1856.

MOVEMENTS OF THE MACKEREL SCHOOLS. 285

time in that paper, and also in the Report of the Fish Commission, part v. I feel the utmost
confidence in Dr. Gilpin’s statements as to facts observed, though my interpretation might perhaps
be different:

HALtPAX, June 19, 1878.

Mr. Eprror: In some papers published some time since in the “Torest and Stream” upon
the habits of the Mackerel, it is asserted by Prof. Brown Goode that there is no reliable evidence
of Mackerel being seen upon the coast of Nova Scotia after the 25th of October, quoting me as his
authority. Had he quoted me as giving the 1st of November, 1868, when the fish market at
Halifax was full, I should have felt more complimented, as I should have known he had read my
paper with more attention. In summing up my remarks I stated that Mackerel remain usually all
November on the surface in Nova Scotia, and during mild winters linger to December. This,
Professor Goode says, is not reliable as scientific evidence, because no specific dates are given.
To admit this would be to destroy almost the whole mass of information compiled in the report of
both the Royal and American Commissioners of English and American fisheries. But as I am
certain that Professor Goode’s desire is to have the truth simply, will you allow me a place in your
columns to add to my prévious assertions such specific dates as I may be able now to obtain,
though not admitting his principle?

On May 23, 1875, going into the Halifax fish market, I asked generally how long are Mackerel
in market. I was answered, generally all through November. On asking how long in December
they had known them in market, Mr. Greywire said: “JI recollect them as late as the 10th of
December. We keep our nets out to the 30th of November. Men hire to that time. Mackerel
are seen after that date, but the seas are so boisterous that our nets are destroyed. Some few
parties will keep them out in December in spite of cold and storms.” Mr. White corroborated this.
Mr. Thomas Brackett said he had taken them often in December, and often in weather so cold
that the fish were frozen in removing them from the meshes of the nets, but could remember no
dates. Mr. William Duffy stated he saw one once on the 24th of December. He recollected it
because it was Christmas eve, and on account of its rarity; but he had frequently taken them
during December, though having no dates. The nets used are about two fathoms deep, set near
the shore in about five to ten fathoms of water. My own recollections, but without dates, are
seeing stops made in very cold weather and frozen ground, which must have been late in November.
I think I have now made good my assertion that they linger to December, and that in any future
history of their habits it must be assumed as truth that they remain in numbers during November,
but are found sparingly later on our coasts. _ Where they are during those dates in any intermediate
point from Maine to Virginia, must be left to American observers. When these blanks are filled
and a generalization made their history will be more complete, a task we may well leave in the
hands of the American Commissioners of Fisheries.

In my paper (1865) I speak of their asserted torpidity and the story of their blindness as
needing more proof before they are asserted as facts. I have had nothing to alter my opinion
since. In examining the eyes of many Mackerel on May 23 and 27 and October 27, in different
years, J have found that, as in most fish, the bony orbit is much larger than the base of the eye,
and that the space is filled by gelatinous substance, which may be called cellular membrane, and
adipose deposit to this transparent membrane arising from the outer angle of this orbit and spread-
ing half over the pupil of the eye. It may easily be raised and defined by passing a penknife
between it and the eye. At the inner angle there is also a similar, but much smaller, membrane,
not reaching to the eye. As the Mackerel appear on our coasts about the 15th of May, and these:

286 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

observations were made the 23d, I do not think it can be asserted the eye is closed entirely in
spring; and as the same appearance is found in September, we must admit it to be a permanent
structure. An analogous membrane is found in the Clupeide and doubtless other fish. On asking
Thomas Loyd, our roughest and oldest fisherman: “TI don’t know anything about the scales of the
eyes, but I do know that, curse them, they see too sharp for us, steering clear of our spring nets,”
and doubtless old Tom was right.

On dissecting a Mackerel, May 23, I found the heart first presenting the tricornered ventricle
with its white aorta and deep-red auricle resting upon the fringe of ceca that covered the intes-
tines, sweeping down to the vent. The liver and stomach were both covered by the ceca. The
latter was about three inches long, its upper lobe thick and round, but ending in a narrow tail or
point. The cardiac end of the stomach was prolonged two and a half inches, ending in a point.
The coeca were attached to the gut about an inch below the pylorus. There was but little differ-
ence in appearance and size between stomach and gut. This we may roughly sum up: Stomach
and gut very simple; ceeca usually large and complicated; liver small—all noteworthy facts in the
study of comparative life. The fish being a male one, lobe on either side of ivory-white; milt
reached from gills to vent, slightly adhering to the sides by thin membrane, and covered by a
similar one. They were divided in lobes by shallow lines, the upper lobes slightly fimbriated.
On removing both entrails and milt a dark purple space about an inch wide extended from gills to
vent beneath the back bone. This, when opened, seemed tilled with coagulated blood. It had in
some respects the appearance of the air-bladder in the Salmonide, though wanting in the direct
communication they have with the esophagus. But this communication is also wanting in the
Gadide, where, especially in the hake, the air-bladder assumes its highest form of organization.
I have often found coagulation and reticulated plexi in air-bladders of other fish.

It has been asserted the European Mackerel have no air-bladders, and a new genus proposed,

‘but with more probability they have the same organization as our own, and the difference lies in
the opinion whether or not it is an air-bladder.

The Mackerel appear on the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia, and almost simultaneously on the
Bay of Fundy, about the 15th of May. Nearly all spawners, male and female, perform a somewhat
easterly and northerly route, disappear from the surface in a few weeks and reappear again in
September without spawn and fat, remain in numbers during November, and very sparingly during
December, coming from the eastward, and then disappear. It may be asserted, generalizing from
observation extending over a series of eight or ten years, that they are irregular in their move-
ments as regards localities, though probably not as regards ocean surfaces.

The very great difficulty of accounting how these enormous masses of surface feeders find
food after disappearing from the surface has caused many ingenious theories as to the question in
what state and where they pass that time. These are all pleasant reading, but valuable more or
less as regards the ingenuity aud scientific standing of the writers. In this paper and the one I
inclose (1865) I have stated what I think are facts, and which must be accepted in the future
history of American Mackerel, which I hope soon to see written by that commission which has
already done so much in Atlantic waters.

BERNARD GILPIN.

The appearance of the mackerel schools at the approach of summer in ordinary years has been
noticed somewhere in the neighborhood of the following dates: At sea, off Cape Hatteras, March
20 to April 25; off Norfolk, Virginia, March 2 to April 30; off the Capes of Delaware, April 15 to
May 1; off Barnegat and Sandy Hook, May 5 to May 25, and at the same date along the whole

MOVEMENTS OF THE MACKEREL SCHOOLS. 287

southern coast of New England, and as far east as Southern Nova Scotia, while in the Gulf of Saint
Lawrence they appear late in May, and in abundance early in June.

There appears to be a marked difference between the movements of Mackerel and the menhaden,
for while the menhaden are much more gradual in their approach to the shore, and mach more
dependent upon a small rise of temperature, the Mackerel make their appearance almost simul-
taneously in all the waters from New Jersey to Nova Scotia at about the same time. Stragglers,
of course, appear much earlier than the dates just mentioned; a few Mackerel were observed at
Waquoit, Massachusetts, as early as April 19, 1871.

In the fall the Mackerel disappear as suddenly as they came in the spring, but they have only
in one instance been observed off the Carolina coast, except during the spring run. This is very
probably because no fishing vessels ever visit this region later than June.

The instance referred to is the experience of Mr. Peter Sinclair, a well-known fisherman of
Gloucester, who states that he has frequently taken them in great abundance off Cape Hatteras in
December, where they are not known at all in the summer season. He has found them in the
spring as far south as Charleston, and followed them from Cape Henry to the Bay of Fundy and
the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. ;

The very vagueness of the statements just made is evidence to show how little is actually
known about the movements of these fish. The subject must be studied long and carefully before
it can be understood, and the interests of the American fishermen demand that it should be thus
studied.

“There is,” writes Professor Baird, “no very satisfactory evidence of the occurrence of Mack-
erel in the winter or any other season south of Cape Hatteras, and it is not given by Poey and
other writers as occurring in the West Indies. A few Mackerel are said to be occasionally brought
into the Charleston market, and Mr. Moses Tarr, of Gloucester, thinks that some years ago he saw
in the early part of March, a short distance to the southeast of Key West, a large school of Mack-
erel. He, however, did not capture any, and it is more likely that the fish observed belonged to
some other small species of the mackerel family which occasionally school like the Mackerel itself,
and might easily be mistaken for it. The skip-jack or leather-back may possibly have been the
species referred to.

“‘T have been quite surprised to find the extent of belief among Massachusetts fishermen that
the Mackerel goes into the mud in the winter time. I have, indeed, been assured by trustworthy
parties that they have known Mackerel caught on eel spears when fishing for eels in the mud of
Provincetown harbor.

“A similar belief is referred to by Dr. Gilpin in his paper on the Mackerel in the Transactions
of the Nova Scotia Scientific Association, and it is difficult to refuse assent to the testimony of
otherwise credible observers. There is nothing apparently in the economy of the Mackerel to pre-
vent its following the example of the sand lance, the eel, and other fish. We know that the

'The following letter from the skipper of the schooner ‘‘ Edward E. Webster” is important, in that it gives the
exact positions as well as the dates of some of the earliest captures in 1878, ’79, ’80, and ’81:

New York, April 22, 1881.
Captain CoLLins:

Dear Sir: I have just received your letter of March 14, in which you wanted to know whereabouts I caught my
first Mackerel. The first catch in 1878, April 16, Jat. 36° 10’ N., long. 74° 45’ W.; in 1879, April 12, lat. 36° 35’ N.,
long. 74° 50’ W.; in 1880, April 1, lat. 35° 30’ N., long. 74° 15’ W.; in 1881, March 20, lat. 37° 10’ N., long. 74° 05’
W.; and this trip we got them April 18 in lat. 38° 38’ N., and long. 74° 00’ W. This is our second trip this season.
Ihave seen Mackerel in lat. 35 15’ N. and long. 73° 46 W., which is the farthest south I have ever seen any. I
have been off Cape Lookout many times, but have never seen Mackerel there.

Yours, truly,
SoLomon JAcoss.

288 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

melanora, the tench, and many other fresh-water fish have the burrowing habit, some of them
being imbedded very deep in the.mnd at the bottom of a dried-up pond, to emerge again when the
water is restored.

“The entire disappearance of Mackerel during the winter season is a noteworthy fact, as we can
hardly suppose that if it schooled on the surface in the Gulf Stream during that season it would
not be noticed by the experienced eyes of sea captains, and we can hardly imagine that the fish
would remain in the depths without an occasional rise.

“Tt appears to be a well-established fact that Mackerel are not unfrequently found in the
stomachs of cod, and possibly of halibut, taken on the George’s Banks in the winter season. Per-
haps the number noted would be still larger if fishermen had the time and inclination to examine
more frequently than they do the stomachs of the fish captured by them.

“Another curious fact in relation to the Mackerel is in respect to the membrane, the vertical
edge of which is observed during the summer season on the corner of the eye. This, it is claimed,
during the winter extends over the whole eye, and imparts the appearance of blindness. This the
Mackerel is said to possess on making its first appearance near the coast in the spring, when it
extends over the greater part of the eye, thus preventing the fish from seeing the bait, and it is a
matter of common remark that Mackerel in the spring cannot be taken with the hook, but must be
captured with the net. The membrane appears to recede with the advancing season, and during
a considerable portion of the time of its abode in the north it is scarcely appreciable.”

Mr. Perley, of Saint John, New Brunswick, in his work upon the fishes of the Provinces,
remarks that Mackerel have been taken on cod-hooks in deep water, near Grand Manan, in the
winter season, and there is evidence to show that a few remain on the coast. It is, however,
believed that these cases are exceptional and confined to stragglers, as such instances frequently
oceur with all the migratory fishes.

The Mackerel belongs to what may technically be termed pelagic or wandering fish, as their
movements, something like those of the herring, are apparently more or less capricious, though
probably governed by some definite law, which has not yet been worked out. It moves in large
schools or bands, more or less isolated from each other, which sometimes swim near the surface
and give distinct evidence of their presence, and at others sink down into the depths of the ocean
and are entirely withdrawn from observation. The army of fish, however, moves along with a
very broad front, a portion coming so close to the shore as to be taken in the weirs and traps
along the coast of the Middle States, especially in Vineyard Sound and on Cape Cod; while at the
sane time other schools are met with from twenty to fifty miles, or even more, out to sea. It is,
however, still a question whether the fish that skirt the coast of the United States enter the Bay
of Saint Lawrence, or whether the latter belong to another series, coming directly from the deep
seas off the Newfoundland and Nova Scotia coast. Until lately the former has been the generally
accepted theory, in view of the alleged fact that the fishermen of the Nova Scotia coast always
take the fish coming from the west in the spring and from the east in the fall.

Capt. Hanson B. Joyce, of Swan’s Island, Maine, one of the most expert and observing mack-
erel-fishermen of New England, thinks that the movements of the spring schools of Mackerel are
very much influenced by the direction and force of the prevailing winds while the fish are perform-
ing their northerly migration. He has generally found, he says, that when there has been a con-
tinuance of strong northerly winds about the last of May and early in J une, the season at which the
Mackerel are passing the shoals of Nantucket and George’s Bank, the schools have taken a
southerly track, passing to the southward of George’s Shoals and continuing on in an easterly
direction to the coast of Nova Scotia, and thence to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence,

MOVEMENTS OF THE MACKEREL SCHOOLS. 289

When southerly winds or calms prevail at that season the Mackerel are carried into the
waters of the Gulf of Maine, and in consequence are much plentier off the New England coast
than in the Saint Lawrence Gulf.

On this theory Captain Joyce bases his actions in cruising for Mackerel, always fishing off
the New England shores when southerly winds have predominated in the spring, and going to the
Saint Lawrence if northerly winds have been exceptionally strong and continuous about the last
of May.

The movements of the fish, as already stated, season by season, are quite uncertain, sometimes
being very abundant in one direction and sometimes in another, and occasionally, indeed, they
may disappear almost entirely for several years, subsequently reappearing after a considerable
absence. In some years the fish are very abundant on the coast of the United States, and at others
rare; the same condition applying to the fish of the Bay of Saint Lawrence. It is not certain, of
course, that this indicates an entire absence of the fish from the localities referred to, but they
may, possibly, for some reason, remain in the depth of the sea, or some change in the character of
the animal life in it, which constitutes the food of the fish, may produce the changes referred to.
A notable instance of a somewhat permanent change in the migration of the Mackerel is found in
the entire failure since 1876 of the mackerel fishery in the Bay of Fundy, which, a few years ago,
enabled a merchant of Eastport to employ successfully as many as a dozen vessels, especially in
Digby and Saint Mary’s Bays, but which is now abandoned. There are indeed faint suggestions,
in the early history of the country, of their total absence from the whole coast for several years,
as was also the case with the bluefish.

ABUNDANCE.—The wonderful abundance of Mackerel in our waters has always been a
subject of remark. Francis Higginson, in his ‘‘Journal of his Voyage to New England, 1629,”
speaks of seeing ‘“‘many schools of Mackerel, infinite multitudes on every side of our ship,” off Cape
Ann on the 26th of June; and Richard Mather, in his “journal,” 1635, states that the seamen took
abundance of Mackerel off Menhiggin (Monhegan). In Governor Winthrop’s journal, speaking of
the year 1639, he remarks: “There was such store of exceeding large and fat Mackerel upon our
coast this season as was a great benefit to all our Plantations, since one Boat with three men would
take in a week ten hogsheads, which were sold at Connecticut for £3 12s. 0d. per hogshead.”

Their abundance has varied greatly from year to year, and at times their numbers have been
so few that grave apprehensions have been felt lest they should soon depart altogether.

As early as 1670, laws were passed by the colony of Massachusetts forbidding the use of cer-
tain instruments of capture, and similar ordinances have been passed from time to time ever since.
The first resource of our State governments has always been, in seasons of scarcity, to attempt
to restore fish to their former abundance by protective legislation. It seems to us at the present
day absurd that the Massachusetts people should have supposed that the use of shore-seines was
exterminating the Mackerel on the coast of Massachusetts, but it is a fair question whether their
apprehensions were not as well grounded as those of legislators of the present century who have
endeavored to apply a similar remedy for a similar evil. In connection with the chapter on THE
MACKEREL FISHERY will be shown a diagram, which, by means of curves, exhibits the catch of
Mackerel in New England for a period of seventy-five years.

From a study of this it seems quite evident that the periods of their abundance and scarcity
have alternated with each other without reference to overfishing or any other causes which we are
prepared to understand. In the year 383,5484 barrels of Mackerel were caught by the citizens of
Massachusetts. In 1881 the number of barrels salted was 269,495; to this, however, should be
added 125,000 barrels caught and marketed fresh by the Massachusetts fleet, making an aggregate

19 F

290 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

of 394,495 barrels. The fluctuations in the catch year by year from 1804 to 1881 are shown most
instructively in a plate accompanying this report.

The stories which are told by experienced fishermen of the immense numbers of Mackerel
sometimes seen are almost incredible. Capt. King Harding, of Swampscott, Mass., described to me
a school which he saw in the South Channel in 1848: “It was a windrow of fish,” said he; ‘it was
about half a mile wide, and at least twenty miles long, for vessels not in sight of each other saw it
at about the same time. All the vessels out saw this school the same day.” Ile saw a school off
Block Island, 1877, which he estimated to contain one million barrels. He could see only one edge
of it at a time.

Upon the abundance of Mackerel depends the welfare of many thousands of the citizens of
Massachusetts and Maine. The success of the mackerel fishery is much more uncertain than that
of the cod fishery, for instance, for the supply of cod is quite uniform from year to year. The
prospects of each season are eagerly discussed from week to week in thousands of little circles
along the coast, and are chronicled by the local press. The story of each successful trip is passed
from mouth to mouth, and is a matter of general congratulation in each fishing community. A
review of the results of the American mackerel fishery, and of the movements of the fish in each
part of the season, would be an important contribution to the literature of the American fisheries.
Materials for such a review are before me, but space will not allow that it should be presented here.

Foop oF THE MACKEREL.—The food of the Mackerel consists, for the most part, of small
species of crustaceans, which abound everywhere in the sea, and which they appear to follow in
their migrations. They also feed upon the spawn of other fishes and upon the spawn of lobsters,
and prey greedily upon young fish of all kinds.’ In the stomach of a “Tinker” Mackerel, taken
in Fisher’s Island Sound, November 7, 1877, Dr. Bean found the remains of six kinds of fishes—of
the anchovy, sand-lants, the smelt, the hake, the barracuda, and the silver-sides, besides numerous
shrimps and other crustaceans. Captain Atwood states that when large enough they devour
greedily large numbers of young herring several months old. Specimens taken July 18, 1871,
twenty miles south of Noman’s Land, contained uumerous specimens of the big-eyed shrimps,
Thysanopoda, larval crabs in the zoea and megalops stages, the young of hermit crabs, the young
lady crabs, Platyonichus ocellatus, the young of two undetermined Macrura, numerous Copepoda
and numerous specimens of Spirialis Gouldii, a species of Pteropod. They also feed upon the centers
of floating jelly-fishes (discophores). In Gaspé the fishermen call jelly-fishes “‘mackerel bait.”

The greed with which Mackerel feed upon the chum, or ground menhaden bait, which is
thrown out to them by the fishing-vessels, shows that they are not at all dainty in their diet, and
will swallow without hesitation any kind of floating organic matter.

Large Mackerel often eat smaller ones. Captain Collins has frequently found young Mackerel
three or four inches long in the stomachs of those full grown. This is generally noticeable only in
the fall, and the young fish are probably those which have been hatched in the spring.

In the fall of 1874 the writer made atrip upon a gill-net schooner to the grounds off Portland,
Maine, some distance to sea, for the purpose of studying the food of the Mackerel, and found their
stomachs full of a species of Thysanopoda and of a large copepod crustacean. The greater part of
the food of Mackerel consists, however, of minute crustaceans. Owing to the infinite abundance
of these in the sea, Mackerel probably have very little difficulty in finding food at almost any
portion of the ocean visited by them, whether on the edge of the Gulf Stream or near the shore.

1Near the New London light-house is a small brook which empties into the harbor and abounds with a small
species of fish of which the Mackerel appear to be fond. A few days since the keeper of the light-house, while the
Mackerel were indulging in a meal, caught five hundred at one haul with a scoop-net.—Gloucester Telegraph,
December 3, 1870.

FOOD OF THE MACKEREL. 291

In an interview with Capt. King Harding, of Swampscott, one of the most experienced mackerel
catchers on our coasts, I obtained the following amusing observations: He described one kind
of crustacean Mackerel food which looked like spiders, which were red, and crawled over his hand
when he took them up. They look like little spiders; the Mackerel are especially fond of them.
At Boone Island, Maine, in July, 1850, the water all around the island was red for one hundred
yards from the shore; these crawled up the rock-weed on the shore until it was red. He took the
sprays of rock-weed in his hands and pulled them slowly to him, and the Mackerel, one and a half
pound fish, would follow in quite to the rocks. He killed three with his oar, and tried to catch
some in a basket by tolling them over it, but they were too quick for him. He asked his old
skipper, Capt. Gorham Babson, what they were, and was told that they were “ Boone Island bed-
bugs.” And, said he, “ Young man, when you see this kind of bait, no matter if you don’t see
any fish, never leave; the fish will be there in a few days.”

Then there is another kind, called “snappers.” These are white, and dart rapidly about in *
the water; they are doubtless small crustaceans. He says that sometimes they swim at the sur-
face, where the Mackerel follow them. A few days before he had been standing on the stern of his
vessel, and though he could see nothing under the water he knew the snappers were there about
two feet below the surface, for he could see a school of Mackerel swimming along, opening their
mouths and taking in their food, and then letting the water out through their gills.

When the Mackerel are tolled up from twelve or fifteen fathoms below the surface their
stomachs are often full of bait; so it is certain that these little animals swim at all depths.

Another kind of food is red, and is hot to the hands. This is called “Cayenne”; it spoils
the fish.

Years ago, according to Captain Harding, Mackerel did not school as they do now.

When you see pollock jumping near the shore, it is a pretty good sign that there is plenty of
mackerel food.

The presence of abundance of mackerel food is indicated by the great schools of sea-birds,
particularly by the flocks of phalaropes, or sea-geese, as the fishermen call them, which congregate
together, floating upon the water, and when seen in summer give a sure sign of the presence of
Mackerel also.

The various invertebrate animals preyed upon by Mackerel are known to the fishermen by
such names as “shrimp,” “red-seed,” and ‘ Cayenne.”

“The wide-spread distribution from shore seaward of the Thysanopoda and other minute crus-
tacea, which constitute to so great an extent the food of the Mackerel and herring on our shores,
was proved,” writes Professor Baird, “during a trip of the ‘Speedwell’ from Salem to Halifax in
1877.” At numerous points and at regular intervals on the way across, including the middle of
the route, immense numbers of these shrimp were met’ with and collected by the towing net. They
were found in especial abundance at Le Have Bank. ‘These prove to be specifically identical with
those found in immense quantities in Eastport Harbor at the surface.

“That these same animals occur at least as far east as the Gulf Stream is shown by the list
of the collections made by Professor Smith off the Georges near the edge of the Gulf Stream,
and published in the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. iii,
July, 1874.”

Capt. Stephen Mar, of Gloucester, confirms the statements of Captain Harding regarding
the effects of “‘red-seed” upon Mackerel; he states that when Mackerel are feeding on “ red-seed”
the fishermen have great trouble in keeping them sufficiently long to dress them properly. Their
bellies soften at once. When the weather is good and dogfish are not troublesome, the common

292 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

practice is to allow the fish to lie in the net until they have disposed of the food in their stomachs.
Capt. Henry Willard, of the schooner “Henry Willard,” of Portland, Maine, carries a large net of
coarse twine, which is suspended over the side of the vessel from two long booms. Into this he
turns the fish and leaves them until the seed works out."

Captain Mar states that the “red-seed” is very troublesome to the men engaged in dressing
the fish; it makes their hands very sore, often causing the blood torun. A man can clean twice
as many fish in a given time if he is not annoyed by the ‘“‘red-seed” in their stomachs.

Captain Mar describes another kind of mackerel food, which he calls “ small brit,” which, he
says, resembles young herring, which also rots the fish. This is probably, as he supposes it to be,
“ white-bait” in the young of the sea herring, Clupea harengus. It is known as ‘‘ eye-bait” to the
Canadian fishermen.

Captain Merchant tells me that when Mackerel are found with “red-seed” in their stomachs
fishermen are sure that they are on the right fishing grounds.

I am told by Captain Collins that it is common for many of the American fishermen to con-
sider it a good sign of Mackerel when they see floating seaweed, more especially eel-grass, “chopped
up,” i. ¢., cut into short pieces, which they think is done by these fish. Perhaps there may be a
good reason for this supposition, as the Mackerel, while feeding on the diminutive shells with
which the weeds are covered, may also bite the latter in two. The presence of gannets is also
considered a good sign of Mackerel.

In England the food of the Mackerel is called the “mackerel mint,” and this is said to consist
at certain seasons of the year of the sand-lants and five other fish, especially the herring and the
sprat, while they have also been observed to devour, in the summer months, minute crustaceans,
the swimming larve of tape-worms, and the embryos of the small spiral shell Rissoa, which, in its
adult state, is found in great abundance upon seaweed. It is probably some animal of this kind
which was referred to by Captain Harding in the statement above quoted, concerning the abun-
dance of red-seed about Boone Island. Mr. J. F. Whiteaves has recorded a similar habit for the
Mackerel of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.?

Professor Hind has pointed out certain relations which exist in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence
between the Mackerel and the lant, or sand-eel, which appears to be one of its most important
articles of diet in these waters. I quote here in full his observations upon this subject, and also
his views upon the relations of currents and tides to the presence of mackerel food, and the con-
stant movements of the schools of fish:

“The movements of the Mackerel, like those of the cod, and indeed of most species of fish, are
determined at different seasons of the year by the geographical position of its food; and the first
important kind of food which appears to lure the Mackerel inshore, after spawning in the Gulf of
Saint Lawrence, is the launce or sand-eel.

“The relation of the launce or sand-eel (Ammodytes americanus) to the Mackerel is very much
greater than appears at the first blush, and resembles the relation of the herring to the cod in
general, and in particular the relation of the so-called Norwegian ‘Sull cod, or launce cod, to this
wide-spread and important bait-fish. The approach of the launce to the coast in spring is most
probably the cause why the so-called spring cod fishing suddenly ceases on mauy banks and shoals,
commencing again at different localities two and three weeks later.

“The cod leaves the banks and shoals to meet and to follow the launce as they approach the

\This ‘‘large net of coarse twine” is the mackerel pocket described in the chapter on THE PURSE-SEINE
MACKEREL FISHERY.

2 Report on the Second Deep-sea Dredging Expedition of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, 1872.

HIND. ON THE FOOD OF THE MACKEREL. 293

eoast. In the same manner they meci and follow the eaplin, 73°4=2 no doubt by the peculiar odor
developed by each species at the approach of the spawning season.

~But it is the habit of the sand-cel of burying itself in the sand between the tides, or im sub-
merged sand beaches, thai leads the Mackerel so close inshore.

“There ean be little doubt that a similar ‘~2raizi: and catdranght of Maekerel and other
fish oceur in our waters when the launce leave the deep sea to approach the land, or when they
return to the deep sea again. Unlike many of the shrimps and 127-2: forms on which the Mack-
erel feed, which are drifted « and fro by winds and eurrenis, the launec is Independent of the
wind; ba: it is only in certain favorable localities frequented by thi: fish that the Dur-"=2 process
between tide-marks, from which it derives i7: name, can be easily cifected: hence, these resorts are
not only valuable 2s bait grounds, bat generally noted mackerel grounds, 22" as Seven Islands,
and some parts of Bay of Chaleur, and part of the gulf coast of New Brunswick.

*- This bait-fish approaches the sandy beaches fringing the shores oi the gulf in the early sum-
mer months to spawn; and here the Mackerel are found pursuing them while engaged in deposii-
ing their comparatively '27z= reddish-eolored ova on the sands between high and low water.

these coasts, in pursuit or the launce; and tue best eatches are said io be made during the period
of high tide, for the following reason: In dull, cloudy weather the launce buries itself in the sands
left bare by che ebbinz tides; bat in bright, hot weather it rarely seeks the shelter of the sand,
exeept near low-water mark, probably because the heat of tke sun would be oppressive. The
breadth of sandy ground in ~i:«s the launee buries itself for the brief period between high and
low water marks is thas dependent upon the clearness of the sky.

~ A continuance of cloudy weather is conducive to this kind of close inshore fishery; whereas
a bright sky, and a day with a drying wind, leads the launce to select the narrow bands of sandy
beach near the margin of ebb-tide, which always remain moist. In cloudy weather with a moist
wind, the area in which the launce bury themselves and emerge during the incoming tide is thus
very much greater than in bright. hot weather; and it is not unfrequently found by experience
that the Mackerel caich in such localities is much greater in cloudy weather ~han in bright weather,
because the bait zround is then far more extensive close inshore.

“As the summer advances and the launce retire to deep water the Mackerel feed upon the
free-swimming and floating embryonic forms of crustaceans: among the latter the zoea of differ-
ent forms of crabs are the most common. Adult shrimps of many specie: form also a large portion
of their food, and the infinite numbers of these forms of life which exist in the sea, from the coast
line to a thousand miles from land, may be inferred from the fact that. together with fish, they
form the great staple of food of seals in northern seas.

+ Dr. Robert Brown states that, during the sealing season in Spitzbergen seas, he has taken
out of the stomachs of seals various species of Gammarus (G. Sabini; %. loricatus; G. pinguis; G.
deatatus; G. muiatus, cic.;. collectively known to whalers under the name ‘mountebank shrimps,’
deriving the designation from their peculiar agility in water.

“These small crustaceans are found in countless numbers on the great outlying banks off the
North American coast, and in the Labrador seas they are als» in great profusion.

~- It is of special importance to notice that very many if not all of these free-swimming crea-
tures in the sea, from invisible microscopic forms to the largest shrimp, sink to different zones of
water or rise to the surface with the variations in temperature and changes in the direction and
force of the wind. In fine weather, when the food is at the surface, the Mackerel, the herring, and

1Dr. BR. Brows : On the Seals of Greenland.

294 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

other surface feeders swim open-mouthed against the wind. Dr. Brown states that the right
whale and most of the whale species feed in a similar manner. The right whale feeding swims
leisurely at the rate of about four miles an hour. Mackerel, when feeding, come often by millions,
like a swiftly moving ripple on the water, with eager, staring eyes and mouths distended to entrap
the floating prey. Many of the free-swimming pteropoda are active only during the night-time,
sinking during the day to a certain zone of depth.

“The effect of currents and tides, assisted by winds, is to drive these free-swimming forms
towards the different shores and into land-locked or sheltered bays. On the shores of the open
sea a continued land breeze drives them far out to sea, and the fish following them will be lost to
view. Off the coast of the United States the Mackerel ground is not unfrequently found near the
summer limit of the Gulf Stream where wide-spreading eddies prevail, caused by the meeting of
the great Labrador current flowing in an opposite direction, or the surging up of the arctic under-
flow. In these vast eddies the temperature is greatly reduced by the mixing of almost ice-cold
water from beneath with a warm overlying stratum.

“It is here, too, that the free-swimming mackerel food will congregate, sometimes at the sur-
face, at other times at different depths, dependent upon the temperature of the mixed waters. In
the vicinity of the south edge of the Grand Bank of Newfoundland the line of contact between the
Arctic and the Gulf Streams is sometimes very marked by the local currents which ‘boil and form
strong eddies.’ The line of contact of the two great cold and warm currents is continually chang-
ing for hundreds of miles with the varying seasons, and under the influence of winds; hence, also,
the changes in geographical position and in the depth or zone of the open-sea mackerel grounds.!

“Inshore the floating and free-swimming food is drifted to and fro by winds and tides, and
great accumulations are sometimes thrown up upon the beaches in windrows after storms. This
floating and swimming food gathers in eddies, either near the coast line or at the junction of
opposing tidal waves or currents. Hence, along sheltered and embayed coasts, confronting the
open sea in the vicinity of banks where great tidal currents and eddies are formed, or in the gulf
and estuary of the Saint Lawrence, where two opposite and wholly different tides dragging along the
coast line approach to meet, there will be the mackerel ground of the fishermen, but not necessarily
at the surface.”

The winged pteropods very properly form an important part of the mackerel food, as they
sink and rise with changes of the temperature of the zone or sheet of water in which they are
feeding.

REPRODUCTION.—Although little is actually known concerning the spawning habits of the
Mackerel compared with those of fish which, like the shad and the salmon, have been artificially
propagated, it is perhaps safe to say that the subject is understood in a general way. The testi-
mony of reliable observers among the fishermen of our coast and the coast of the British Provinces
indicates that the spawning takes place in rather deep water all along the shore from the eastern

1There are no mackerel-fishing grounds within 300 miles or more of the Grand Bank, and certainly none nearer
than 400 miles of its southern edge. It is possible that mackerel have occasionally been seen, or stray specimens
captured, nearer the Grand Bank than this, but no mackerel fishermen would think of trying for these fish east of
the west coast of Newfoundland. There are but two instances on record where mackerel fishermen have gone so far
east as that. Whatever influence may be exerted upon other forms of ocean life by the meeting of the Gulf Stream
and the Arctic Current, it can be quite safely asserted that the Mackerel are never found in summer near the junction
of these currents, excepting, perhaps, on the southern edge of George’s Bank and off the south shoal of Nantucket.
These localities are the nearest mackerel-fishing grounds to the Gulf Stream of any on the United States coast. And
even here Mackerel are rarely or never taken nearer than fifty or sixty miles from the northern edge of the stream.—
J. W. CoLtuys.

REPRODUCTION OF THE MACKEREL. 295

end of Long Island to Eastport, Maine, along the coast of Nova Scotia, and in the Gulf of Saint
Lawrence. The spawning season occurs in May in Southern New England, in May and June in
Massachusetts Bay, and in Jane in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, and on the Bradley Banks and
about the Magdalenes early in the month, and, according to Hind, on the northeast coast of New-
foundland toward the end of the month.1

Capt. Benjamin Ashby, of Noank, Connecticut, states that in the spring of 1877 Mackerel
spawned in great numbers in Vineyard Sound and Buzzard’s Bay. Many Mackerel were taken in
the pounds, and the eggs were so ripe that when the fish were thrown from the net to the boat the
eggs escaped to such an extent that in cleaning out the boat afterwards he found at least half a
bushel at the bottom. This was as early as the 2d of May,: nd continued through the month.

Capt. R. H. Hurlbert, of Gloucester, found the spawn running out of Mackerel taken off Kettle
Island, south of Cape Ann, in May and June.

Capt. Henry Webb, who owns a weir on Milk Island, under the shadow of the Thatcher’s
Island lights, obtains many Mackerel every year in his nets. He informs me that when they first
make their appearance, about the first of June, the spawn is running out of them, and many of
them are haif through the process of spawning. The eggs will spurt from a female fish in a stream
six feet long, and there is a large percentage of females in the catch, probably two-thirds of the
whole. The spawn begins to dry up after the first of August, and young fish begin to appear
about the 4th of August. He thinks that it takes Mackerel four or five weeks to spawn; after
that they begin to grow fat, and when they are fat there is no sign of spawn to be seen, the male
and female not being distinguishable.

The growth is rapid, and in about seven weeks the young fish are about four or five inches
long.

Mackerel spawn abundantly in Grover’s Beach at a depth of one and a half to two fathoms.
The eggs are very minute, and the old Mackerel feed upon them greedily.

Captain Fisher, of Portland, Maine, told me, in 1874, that when the Mackerel come in they
are almost empty and have a muddy taste. They first engage in spawning, but toward the last of
June they have finished and begin to grow fat.

?During the entire month of June Mackerel are taken in the Bay of Saint Lawrence with roes fully developed.
Having been engaged in the Mackerel fishery in the Gulf for twenty-two consecutive seasons, ten of which I went to
the Bay early in June, I have therefore had abundant opportunity to learn the spawning season of the Mackerel in
that region. It is my opinion that Mackerel spawn in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence some time between the Ist and the
15th of July. Have caught them in abundance and full of roe as late as the 4th and 5th of July, and it is exceedingly
rare to find spent Mackerel previous to the 20th of June. In the period when hook-and-line fishing was most prosper-.
ous, the fishermen usually planned to leave the Gulf about the first week in July if they had succeeded in getting nearly
a fare of Mackerel previous to that time, since while the fish were spawning, or between the 1st and the 15th of the
month, but little could be done, as the Mackerel would not readily take the hook. The fishermen, therefore, knowing
that they could catch few fish during this period, between “hay and grass,” as they termed it, usually improved the
opportunity thus afforded of making their passage home and refitting for another trip with comparatively little loss
of time. Apparently one of the most favorite breeding grounds for Mackerel in tho Gulf of Saint Lawrence is the
area along the shores of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island (on the north side of the latter) lying inside of a
line drawn from North Cape to Point Miscou. Bank Bradley is also a breeding ground for Mackerel of considerable
importance. The fish seemed to assemble on the grounds mentioned above during June, in a depth varying from
three to forty fathoms. The greater part, however, were found in a depth varying from ten to twenty fathoms. The
spawning season being over, they usually stay on the same grounds, though later in the summer and during autumn
the Mackerel were abundant around the Magdalenes and the bend of Prince Edward Island; when the fall migration
takes place they move farther south. It is probable that large numbers of Mackerel may deposit their spawn around
Magdalene Island, though it is worthy of note that but few or no fish have been taken in that locality on hook and
line during the month of June. Considerable quantities are, however, caught by the gill-net fishermen early in June,
though the catch was small compared with that formerly obtained by hook-and-line fishing in the western part of the
Bay.—J. W. CoLiins.

296 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Captain Hurlbert caught a dozen fish off Camden July 1, 1870, which were half spawned and
had spawn running out of them.

According to Mr. Wilkins, of Two Isles, Grand Manan, the Mackerel spawn there on the
rocks and sand in water from one foot to ten feet or more in depth. This is in the first half of
June. The spawn is in bunches and does not float on the water.

During the spawning season Mackerel are taken in seines, as they will not bite and are then
very poor. They come again in September and October, and are then taken with the hook.

Mr. Hall, of Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, says that Mackerel spawn only once in
seven years in large numbers, this period representing the interval between the successive large
catches. The Mackerel strike in there about the 10th of June. They spawn about the 2d or 3d
of July on the Bradley Bank to the north of Prince Edward Island. At that time they have been
taken with spawn running out of them. They cease to bite for several weeks while spawning.
One of the principal spawning grounds on our coast appears to be on the Nantucket Shoals, where
for a period of three or four weeks after their first appearance the Mackerel hug the bottom and
rarely take the hook. At this time there is a lull in the prosecution of the mackerel fishery,
although before its beginning great quantities are taken in the purse-seines far south along the
coast. After the close of the spawning season the old fish are said to be very poor, but take the
hook greedily along the entire coast, as also before the beginning of the spawning season. Although
the fish first brought to market are sold at a high price on account of their previous scarcity, it is
. not until after the close of the spawning season and the subsequent fattening up of the fish that
they attain their highest excellence as an article of food. Fall Mackerel are well understood to be
by far the best fish. Storer, in his “History of the Fishes of Massachusetts,” remarks: “From the
10th of May to the 15th of June they appear at the entrance to Massachusetts Bay, having been a
few days previous at Nantucket and the Vineyard Sound. Nine-tenths of those first seen are
males, and they are all large but poor, weighing from one pound to one pound and a half. At
their first appearance they will not take the hook, and are therefore captured in seines.”

The contrast between the statements of Storer and Captain Webb should be carefully noted.
The former states that the early fish taken near the end of Cape Cod are mostly males. This
would naturally be the case, as the females at this time are either engaged in spawning or are
perhaps so weak that they would not be likely to come to the surface. At Milk Island, however,
which seems to be in the middle of the spawning region, the majority of the fish are females.

We are indebted to Capt. N. E. Atwood for the most complete series of observations upon the
spawning of the Mackerel which has ever been made, and what he has seen he shall be allowed to
tell in his own words:

“JT have many seasons been engaged in fishing for Mackerel in our bay with gill-nets. I
watched the Mackerel more particularly in regard to their time for spawning. In 1856, owing to
the fact that a measure had passed the Massachusetts legislature authorizing the appointment of
three commissioners to make investigations with regard to the artificial propagation of the fish,
and that I expected to be named one of the commissioners, I went to the upper part of Massachu-
setts Bay, where it is about twenty miles broad, and I found these spawning Mackerel there near
the bottom. This year the Mackerel came in about the middle of May; few at first. On the 20th
I went out for the first time with my drifting-nets all night in the bay; I caught 2,250 Mackerel;
on the following night I caught 3,520. When I first began to catch them I observed that the spawn
had come to its full size, though it was not free to run from them, not being yet fully matured.
On or about the 1st of June we found that some of them were depositing spawn, and as I took them
from the nets the spawn ran freely. On the 5th of June I took the mature eggs as they came from

REPRODUCTION OF THE MACKEREL. 297

the fish and put them in alcohol, marking the date, as I considered this time the middle of the
spawning season. (By the 10th of June the fish had all deposited their spawn, and they then
proceeded to the grounds where they expected to meet with better food in order to fatten and
recruit. The spawning takes place at a depth of from five to fifteen fathoms.) Thirty days after
I went out in the bay and found any quantity of schools of little Mackerel which were, I should
think, about two inches long, though their length might have been a little less. I took a number
of specimens and put them in alcohol, marking the date. Twenty-five days later I procured
another lot of them which had grown to double that size. I don’t mean to imply that they were
twice as long, but twice as heavy. I put them also in alcohol, marking the date. The first time I
subsequently went to Boston I called on Professor Agassiz and gave him the specimens. He said
that he had never before been able to ascertain these facts so clearly and so well, and that he was
very much pleased with them. I watched the growth of these young Mackerel all along, and I
saw them grow considerably from month to month, so much so that the same fall, in the latter
part of October, I caught some of them with a very small mesh net and found they had grown to
a length of six and a half or seven inches. I kept a small quantity of them, split, salted, and
packed them, in accordance with the Massachusetts inspection law, as No. 4’s, and since Mackerel
were then scarce and very high in price, I sold them for as much as $6 a barrel.”

“Much yet remains to be learned in regard to the spawning season of the American Mackerel,”
writes Professor Baird, “and little more is known of this except in regard to the European
variety. It is, however, well established by the researches of Sars that this fish, like the cod, and
many of the flat fish, etc., spawns in the open sea, some times at a great distance from the land, at
others closer inshore. Sars found them on the outer banks of the coast of Norway; and Mr.
Matthias Dunn, of Mevagissey, England, communicates to ‘Land and Water’ his observations
of Mackerel found, with ripe spawn, six miles from the coast.!

“The fish taken in the weirs and pounds on Vineyard Sound and about Cape Cod in the early
spring are filled with ripe spawn; and that the operation of spawning takes place on the Ameri-
ean coast is shown by the immense schools of small fish that are taken throughout the summer, of
various sizes, from a few inches up, and from Buzzard’s Bay to Portland and Penobscot Bay. No
species of young fish is, at times, more abundant throughout the summer season than the Mackerel.

“The egg of the Mackerel is exceedingly minute, not larger than that of the alewife or gaspe-
reau. It appears to be free from an adhesive envelope, such as pertains to the egg of the herring,
and in consequence of which it agglutinates together, and adheres to gravel, the rocks, or the sea-
weed at the bottom. As with the egg of the cod, that of the Mackerel is provided with an oil
globule, which makes it float nearly at the level of the surface.”

I am indebted to Mr. Frederick W. True for an enumeration of the eggs in two Mackerel taken
at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, in May, 1873; one of these contained 363,107, the other 393,887.

Sir: I have been again fortunate in taking a Mackerel alive in the act of spawning, on the night of May 10, about
six miles from land. A better specimen could not possibly be had, and the roe ran freely without assistance. I got
a bucket of sea-water, and allowed the fish to spawn in it; for some time I had a difficulty in finding what became of
it, as the globules would not reflect the light of the candle like the pilchard spawn ; but by running the water into a
clean bottle, and holding it to the light, I found them floating on the surface, but not so buoyant as the pilchard roe.
In this state they continued for about half an hour, and then gradually sank to the bottom; but, unlike the pilchard
spawn, they retained their vitality there for more than twelve hours. With the daylight the globules could scarcely
be discerned by looking directly down into the water; but on holding it towards the light in a bottle they could be seen,
with that healthy, bright silvery hue so peculiar to living ones, each marked witha dark spotinthecenter. Believ-
ing the pilchard spawn would have reached you, I did not send you any of these. AsI sentthat spawn by post, I
suppose the bottle must have been broken in the post-bag.—MatTTHIas DUNN (Mevagissey, Cornwall, May 15, 1871),
Land and Water, May 20, 1871, p. 353.

298 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

The only previous record of the number of eggs yielded by Mackerel is that made by Thomas
Harmer, in 1764, and published in the “Philosophical Transactions” of London, vol. 57, p. 285.
He found in one large Mackerel, weighing one and a quarter pounds, 454,961 eggs; in a second,
of much the same weight, 430,846; and in a third, weighing about one pound two ounces, 546,681.1

RATE OF GROWTH AND sIzE.—The rate of growth of the Mackerel during the first sum-
mer has been quite carefully studied by Captain Atwood; and the same authority has, perhaps
more satisfactorily than any other, interpreted the facts from which may be deduced the conclu-
sions as to their growth year by year.

Referring to the small fish, six and a half or seven inches in length, which he believed to be
the young of the year, caught by him in October, 1856, he says: ‘Fish of this size are sometimes
called ‘Spikes,’ but I do not know their proper name. The next year I think they are the ‘Blinks,’
being one year old; the following year they are the ‘Tinkers,’ two years old, and the year after
they return to us as the second-size, three years old. It is probable that the fish reaches its full
maturity in four years.” He continues: “The first Mackerel that come in are very large and
spawners, but these do not bite at the hook; and you don’t catch them with the seine, because
they don’t show themselves. You would not know of their presence if you did not set nets for
them. When they are taken in nets set anywhere along the coast, at Provincetown, etc., a good
many people imagine that they are the remnant of the Mackerel which were there the year before,
and which have been imbedded in the mud; and when they taste these fish they fancy that
they taste mud. When the next school arrives there appear Mackerel of different sizes, which
take the hook. They are carried to Boston market and are sold fresh in their season. They are
not sold by weight, but are culled, and are denominated as follows: Large ones, second-size, “Tink-
ers,” and “Blinks.” When the large ones are worth twelve cents, the others may sell, second-size,
eight cents; Tinkers, four cents, and Blinks, one and a half cents. These prices may fluctuate
when there occurs a large proportion of one or more of the above-named kinds at the same time.
Any man who is well acquainted with them will make the same culling, as there seems to be a line
of demarkation between the different kinds which stands out prominently.

“Admitting this to be the fact, those that come as Blinks are from the spawn of the year
before, while those which are called ‘:Tinkers” are from the Blinks of the year previous, being the
two-year-old fish; and those that are called second-size are from the Tinkers of the year before;
when they grow up and mix with the bigger ones, I don’t know how they live, or much about
them. This is my opinion about these matters. You will find that fishermen will tell you they
think that Mackerel are six or seven years in getting their growth.”

Mackerel, when full grown, are from seventeen to eighteen inches in length; sometimes they
attain a larger size. In August, 1880, a school of Mackerel was taken in the vicinity of Plymouth;
they weighed from three to three and a half pounds each, and were from nineteen to nineteen and
a half inches long. They were regarded as extraordinarily large, and a barrel of them were sent
to the Fishery Exhibition at Berlin as an illustration of the perfection to which the Mackerel
attains in this country. Although the size just mentioned is unusual at present, in past years
many thousands of barrels have been taken nearly, if not quite, as large. The size varies from
year to year, sometimes very few barrels which can be rated as No. 1’s being found in our waters.

1 . Weight of | Number of | Number to
No: Dato. | Weight. ae “OSes. a grain.
Grains. |
1 | Juno 20, 1764 1,027 : 454, 961 443
2 Juno 29, 1764 949 | 430, 846 454

Tune 18, 1765.-..- 2.0.2. eens eee ne 18 | 1,2234 546, 681 447

SIZE OF THE MACKEREL. 299

A No. 1 Mackerel, according to the Massachusetts inspection laws, measures thirteen inches from
the tip of the snout to the crotch or fork of the caudal fin. The average length from year to year
for the whole coast is probably not far from twelve inches in length, and a weight of twelve to six-
teen ounces. The following quotations from writers of two centuries ago are interesting, since they
show that large Mackerel were known to the early colonists of New England:

“The mackerel, of which there is choicefull plenty all summer long; in the spring they are
ordinarily 18 inches long; afterwards there is none taken but what are smaller.”!

“The Makarels are the baite for the Basse, & these have been chased into the shallow waters,
where so many thousands have shott themselves a shore with the surfe of the Sea that whole
hogges-heads have been taken up on the Sands; & for length they excell any of other parts: they
have bin measured 18. & 19. inches in length and seaven breadth: & are taken with a drayee, (as
boats use to pass to & froe at Sea on business,) in very greate quantities all along the Coaste.

“The Fish is good, salted; for store against the winter, as well as fresh, & to be accounted a
good commodity.”?

ENEMIES OF THE MACKEREL.—The gannet is one of the most destructive enemies of the
Mackerel. These birds are often seen so heavily weighted with these fish that they are unable
to rise on the approach of the vessel until they have disgorged from two to four good-sized Mackerel.
This is so common an occurrence that there are but few fishermen who have not witnessed it.

Porpoises and whales may also be included in the list of enemies of the Mackerel. It is by no
means an unusual sight on the fishing grounds to see hundreds of the former rushing and leaping
among schools of Mackerel, scattering them in every direction.

The shark known to fishermen as the ‘“‘ mackerel shark” is one of the principal enemies of the
Mackerel. I have often seen them chasing Mackerel, and, when jigging was practiced, it was a
common occurrence for sharks to drive off a school from alongside of a vessel.

Dogfish often hover around the outside of large schools of Mackerel, and doubtless feed on
them. Great difficulty is sometimes experienced in saving fish that have been inclosed in a purse-
seine, owing to the immense numbers of dogfish that gather around and, in their efforts to eat the
Mackerel, which they see through the meshes, bite off the twine, making large holes in the seine
through which the inclosed fish escape.

Among the other principal enemies of the Mackerel are the bluefish, mackerel shark, and the
cod. The appearance of a school of bluefish in waters crowded with Mackerel is an almost sure
signal for their disappearance.

The young Mackerel are eaten by squids also. Professor Verrill has recorded the following
account of the maneuvers of the squid known to zoologists by the name Ommastrephes illecebrosus :

“Messrs. 8. I. Smith and Oscar Harger observed it at Provincetown, Massachusetts, among the
wharves, in large numbers, July 28, engaged in capturing and devouring the young Mackerel,
which were swimming about in ‘schools, and at that time were about four or five inches long. In
attacking the Mackerel, they would suddenly dart backward among the fish with the velocity of an
arrow and suddenly turn obliquely to the right or left and seize a fish, which was almost instantly
killed by a bite in the back of the neck with the sharp beaks, The bite was always made in the
same place, cutting out a triangular piece of flesh, and was deep enough to penetrate to the spinal
cord. The attacks were not always successful, and were sometimes repeated a dozen times before
one of these active and wary fishes could be caught. Sometimes after making several unsuccessful
attempts one of the squids would suddenly drop to the bottom, and, resting upon the sand, would

1JOSSELYN, 1675.
2? New England’s Fish, JoMN SMITH, 1622. United States Fish Commission Report, Part I, p. 153.

300 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

change its color to that of the sand so perfectly as to be almost invisible. In this way it would
wait until the fishes came back, and when they were swimming close to or over the ambuscade, the
squid, by a sudden dart, would be pretty sure to secure a fish. Ordinarily when swimming they
were thickly spotted with red and brown, but when darting among the Mackerel they appeared
translucent and pale. The Mackerel, however, seemed to have learned that the shallow water is
the safest for them and would hug the shore as closely as possible, so that in pursuing them many
of the squids became stranded and perished by hundreds, for when they once touch the shore they
begin to pump water from their siphons with great energy, and this usually forces them farther
and farther up the beach. At such times they often discharge their ink in large quantities. The
attacks on the young Mackerel were observed mostly at or near high water, for at other times the
Mackerel were seldom seen, though the squids were seen swimming about at all hours; and these
attacks were observed both in the day and evening.”

The dogfish is doubtless a dangerous foe to the Mackerel weakened by the act of spawning
and remaining near the bottom. An old fisherman has described to me with great animation how
greedily the dogfish devour the Mackerel which have become gilled in the nets, how they follow
them to the surface and linger about the vessel while the process of cleaning is going on, drinking
the blood of the fish as it flows from the scuppers.

STUDIES OF THE MOVEMENTS OF THE MACKEREL SCHOOLS.

HIND ON THE OCAUSES OF IRREGULAR MOVEMENTS.—In closing this chapter upon the
natural history of the Mackerel, it seems appropriate to quote from the writings of Professor Hind
some very important paragraphs in which he has attempted to interpret the irregular movements
of the mackerel schools in our waters, and to explain the causes of the alleged annual variation
of their numbers:

“What is the proper interpretation of the movements of the Mackerel from its first appear-
ance in the spring to its disappearance in the fall? These movements vary with the geographical
position of local schools of this fish. On the coasts of the United States and Nova Scotia, its
annual movements resemble in all particulars those of the same species in European seas where
the schools have a free and unobstructed ocean in which to seek their prey.

“In the spring, at the end of April and May, the Atlantic schools of this fish which have
wintered off the coasts approach the land in separate bodies, full of spawn and poor, coming direct
from winter homes where they have remained in a torpid condition, partially buried in sand or
mud. After spawning, the different schools feed for a short time on the fry of fish, and as the
temperature rises they go out to sea in search of free-swimming crustaceans and larval forms of
food according as they are distributed by wind and tide.

“They pursue this food against the current or tide. They often feed during the night, because
at that period great numbers of free-swimming larval forms approach the surface. This is one
reason why mackerel schools are frequently missed by fishermen, and areas supposed to be deserted
may really abound with this fish, which would be discovered by sink-net fishing. The currents
are constantly changing with the seasons under the influence of temperature and prevailing winds,
hence the course of direction and depth of the food is constantly changing also.

“Sometimes it is carried far off from the land, at other times towards it, and the mackerel
schools following the food move first in one direction, then in another, and range from close inshore
to fifty miles and more seawards, and often, doubtless, at'a considerable depth below the surface.

“The general direction of these movements, when plotted on paper, would be a series of irregu-

HIND ON THE MOVEMENTS OF MACKEREL. 301

lar circles or elongated ellipses, the range of each school or group of schools being opposite and
often adjacent to that part of the coast where they spawn.

“As the fall approaches, owing to the diminution in the supply of their floating food out at
sea, they come more inland.

“ All the free-swimming larval forms of most species of shrimps, crabs, lobsters, sea-urchins,
star-fish, sea-worms, &c., have disappeared in the open sea, after passing through their final trans-
formation. But near the shore there are great numbers of other forms of life, which are developed
later in the year. Coming inshore to feed on these on the Atlantic coast, the Mackerel are found
by American fishermen later and later on their return voyage to the southwest, which gives rise to
the impression that they are following the schools, when they are only meeting with fresh schools
approaching the shore from their feeding grounds. Similar movements occur on the Atlantic coast
of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton. As winter approaches, beginning at Cape Breton in November,
the different schools retire to their winter homes off the coast in deep water later and later from
north to south.

“Tn the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, where land is, as it were, on all sides, the local schools come
from their winter haunts to the banks and beaches of the Magdalens, of Prince Edward Island, in
the Bay Chaleur, etc., to spawn about the first week in June. They retire after spawning to deep
water, and: meet the incoming sand-launce. They follow the sand-launce inshore or on to banks,
and for some weeks feed on these fish. When the sand-launce again retires to deep water, the
season of the small crustaceans has arrived, and these by tidal action, already described, and
winds, are concentrated near the coast lines of Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, the north
and south shore of the estuary and gulf of Saint Lawrence, and the shores of Cape Breton. On
all these coasts the effect of the single and confluent tides, dragging along the coast line and
retarded by it, is to produce eddies, where the free-swimming food concentrates. The course of
direction of the different schools during the summer is thus dependent upon winds and tides, and
their movements would, if correctly plotted, resemble long narrow ellipses adjacent to the coast,
which are doubtless many times repeated.

“At the approach of winter the different schools seek their winter quarters opposite and near
to the places where they spawned in the preceding spring, as is the case of the schools on the
Atlantic coasts. In these particulars their movements resemble those of different species of fish
which feed and move in great schools in directions outlined by circles or ellipses throughout the
period during which they are at the surface.!

1It is a fact well known to all experienced mackerel fishermen that during the month of May and the early part
of June large bodies of Mackerel pass along the shores of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton from west to east, and while
many schools move through the waters of Chedabucto Bay and the Straits of Canso to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence,
another body passes in around the east end of Cape Breton Island, their destination being the same as those fish
taking the shorter route. No better evidence of this migratory habit can be deduced than the fact that at this season
of the year the fishermen along the Nova Scotian coast and about the Strait of Canso are busily employed in catching
Mackerel both in gill-nets and in drag-seines. On some occasions when the season has been exceptionally favorable
the amount of Mackerel so taken has often been very great. This movement of the Mackerel is so regular and so
well-defined that the fishermen rarely fail to tell within a few days, or perhaps even a few hours, of the time when
they will appear on ccrtain portions of the coast. The fall migrations are quite as regular. As the season advances
and the temperature of the water decreases, the Mackerel, instead of simply changing their position into deeper water
near their summer habitat, as has been stated by Professor Hind, move in vast bodies towards the southern part of
the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, frequently striking in a succession of waves, as it were, on the northern shores of Cape
Breton Island, where, deflected from their southern course, they divide into two streams or branches, one passing
through the Strait of Canso, and the other out round the north cape of the island, and by its eastern and southern
sides, and so on up along the south coast of Nova Scotia. The Mackerel which are found about the Magdalene
Islands during the summer and early autumn apparently move in a nearly direct line towards the northeast end of
Cape Breton Island, when they begin their fall migration. I have often had occasion to notice, in a practical way,
these movements, the knowledge of which is of vital importance to the fishermen and of considerable interest to the

302 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“Sars has shown that this form of movement is taken by the herring on the Norwegian coast.!

“The Mackerel are pursued by cod and hake, and these fish gather where offal is thrown
over from vessels on which the Mackerel are cleaned. As a natural consequence the Mackerel
avoid the sea areas where their enemies are congregated, and fishermen attribute the desertion of
the mackerel ground directly to the throwing of offal overboard. Cod, and probably hake, follow
up the scent of offal or food of any description carried by currents with remarkable facility, as
may be witnessed during the process of jigging for cod in calm and clear waters. On looking over
the side of a boat, with a man engaged in jigging at the bow or stern, as soon as a fish is wounded
merely by the jigger and blood flows from the wound, the creature may be seen to dart here and
there in pain. he neighboring fish of the cod tribe are attracted by the scent and follow the
blood ‘tracks’ against the current, hunting their wounded comrade to the death. A fish coming
across the stream of scent immediately follows it up, and it is thus that fish offal or bait thrown
overboard in the open sea, or some distance from shore, gathers the fish on the course of the cur-
rent. In harbors and confined or land-locked bays, where there is no constant strong current to
carry off the results of decomposition, and where the sea-scavengers are not sufficiently numerous
to consume it, the effect cannot fail to be extremely prejudicial to young fry and to fish-spawn.

“The effect of temperature on the local movements of the Mackerel may be recognized in the
process employed by fishermen to ‘raise’ Mackerel by toll bait, and luring them seawards. The
Mackerel follow the bait for some distance from shore, where suddenly they cease to bite and dis-
appear. They probably find long exposure to the warm temperature of the surface waters unsuited
to their habits, and sink to a cooler zone. a

“Hence the reason why a ‘mackerel breeze,’ mixing the heated surface water with the cooler
understratum, is favorable to prolonged mackerel fishing with bait. The mixing produced by
agitation cools the surface and permits the fish to feed for a lengthened period.”

“The Mackerel, like the herring and the cod, seeks cold water for its spawning grounds
wherever the Labrador current exercises its influence. Between Bluck Island and No Man’s

naturalist. On one occasion, in the fall of 1867, an immense body of Mackerel was found along the north shore of
Cape Breton, and on the last day that the fish were seen the schools came near the surface of the water, and I feel safe
in saying, from actual observation, that they moved at a rate of no less than three or four miles per hour in the direc-
tion of the north cape of the island. On another occasion, a body of Mackerel that was found near Amherst Island
(one of the Magdalenes) one day, were met with the following morning about thirty miles distant from the first
locality, in the direction of the north cape of Cape Breton Island, towards which they were moving at the rate of one
or two miles an hour. I have myself seen schools of Mackerel off the Nova Scotian coast, in the fall, moving quite
rapidly in a westerly direction, but all efforts to catch them with a hook failed, since they seemed to pay no regard
whatever to toll bait. All of my own observations, and those of the Nova Scotian fishermen with whom I have been
brought in contact, lead me to believe that Mackerel will not bite the hook to any extent during their fall migrations
along the southern coasts of Nova Scotia. This is all the more remarkable since they seem to take the hook very
eagerly up to the last moment of their stay on their feeding grounds in the gulf. The spring and fall migrations of the
Mackerel on our own coast are carried on with equal regularity and precision. On more than one occasion, in autumn,
I have followed these fish day after day in their progress to the south and west along the shores of Maine and Massa-
chusetts. On one occasion, in the fall of 1862, I caught Mackerel nearly down to the fishing rip on the Nantucket
Shoals. These fish were moving rapidly southward, and the schools could be kept alongside of the vessel only a short
time, and each trial had to be made two or three wiles farther south than the previous one. At another time, in the
fall of 1870, the Mackerel moved in large schools very rapidly from Ipswich Bay across in the direction of Cape Cod.
The schools were at the surface of the water, and it is not an exaggeration to say that their speed was not less than
three or four miles an hour. Each body of fish was separated from the others, perhaps many hundred fathoms, but
all seemed to be impelled by the same motive, and were moving steadily in the same direction. These fish would bite
eagerly at the hook for a few minutes at a time, but so strong was their instinct of migration that it was impossible
to detain them only a short time in their onward movement.—J. W. COLLINS.

18ee chart by Dr. G. O. Sans, in his report for 1874.

2Fisheries of British North America, pp. 20, 21.

3Fisheries of British North America.

HIND ON THE MOVEMENTS OF MACKEREL. 303

Land, where the spawning grounds on the United States coast south of Cape Cod are alleged to
exist, a thin wedge of the Labrador current stretches far into Long Island Sound.

“In Massachusetts Bay, where a mackerel spawning ground also exists, as also in the vicinity
of Stellwagen Bank, the temperature when observed by Dr. Packard in September ranged from
414° to 45°, and the fauna resembled the cold-water species on each side of Jeffrey’s Ledge. On
George’s Shoals the marine life is said by Verrill to be the same as that found in the deeper
muddy parts of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, and indicates a temperature not above 40°, and prob-
ably considerably lower. Bradelle Bank, according to Mr. Whiteaves, presents the phenomenon of
a small stony patch tenanted by an assemblage of marine animals which usually inhabits very
cold water, and are almost entirely surrounded by another series, which are for the most part
prevalent where the bottom is warmer and more affected by surface conditions of temperature.

“Wherever the areas are situated where young Mackerel are found in the summer we find
near at hand a cold-water zone, either existing as a part of the Labrador current at the surface or
brought up from greater depths by banks and shoals. On the coast of Prince Edward Island, and
in the gulf generally, the cold water lies frequently near the shore, because the diurnal tides mix
the strata warmed during the daytime with the cold underlying strata. In the estuary of the
Saint Lawrence Dr. Kelly found the surface temperature 57° F. on the 9th July, but three feet
below the surface it was 44°, having in that short vertical space sunk 13°; at twenty-four feet it
was 40°, or 17° below the surface temperature.”

96. THE CHUB MACKEREL—SCOMBER COLIAS.

The Chub Mackerel, or, as it is also called, the “Thimble-eye,” “Big-eyed Mackerel,” or “Bull
Mackerel,” closely resembles in general appearance the common Mackerel, from which it is distin-
guished chiefly by the presence of an air-bladder, and also by the occurrence of a row of indistinct
circular spots upon the sides below the lateral line. This is the fish which is called “Spanish
Mackerel” in England, and the name was brought to us by the early English fishermen of New
England. It has been found at Pensacola and Charleston, as well as in New England. There is
another fish closely related if not identical with S. colias, which Professor Jordan found to be
abundant in California, which corresponds to the S. pneumatophorus of the Mediterranean,! and
has been described from the Pacific as 8. diego. Professor Jordan considers this to be the S. grew
of various authors, but writes that he is not yet prepared to accept as final the judgment of
Steindachner and Vaillaut that it is the young of S. colias. The lower half of its sides is silvery
and without any gray spots, such as are conspicuous in S. colias. Jordan has specimens of the
unspotted form much larger than his smallest specimens of the true 8. colias.

The history of the Chub Mackerel on our coast is a peculiar one. At the beginning of the
present century it was exceedingly abundant all along the coast of New England and New York.
Mitchill, writing in 1814, remarked of it:

“Comes occasionally in prodigious numbers to the coast of New York in autumn. This was
memorably the case in 1781 and 1813, when the bays, creeks, and coves were literally alive with
them, and the markets full of them.”

DeKay remarks: “In the early part of November, 1828, they were also very abundant, and
many persons were poisoned by eating them.”

Capt. Epes W. Merchant, of Gloucester, a veteran fishing skipper, who has been familiar
with the fisheries of Massachusetts Bay for the past seventy years, told me that the Thimble-eye

1CANESTRINI: Fauna d’ Italia. Pesci, 1872, p. 101.

304 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

were so abundant from 1814 to 1820 that with three men and a boy and a small vessel he could
catch ten barrels of them, or about three thousand fish, in a day. .

The “Fishermen’s Memorial and Record Book,” published in Gloucester, contains the follow-
ing note:

“Yn 1812 a large school of Spanish Mackerel visited this bay, and so plenty and numerous
were they that they would bite readily at the bare hook and seize upon small bits of line hanging
from the vessel. Standing-room boats were then mostly in use, of from fifteen to twenty tons.
These rooms held from fifteen to twenty barrels, and the crews would catch them full in a few
hours. Mr. Timothy Rogers, at Rowe’s Bank, bought most of these Mackerel, fresh, after being
dressed, at two cents per pound, salting them in his buildings, and the business, which lasted two
months, was a lively one. These Mackerel did not continue on this coast but a few years, and have
now almost entirely disappeared. There were a few caught, with the other Mackerel, as late as
1825, since which time it is very rare to see one during the entire season.”

Captain Oakes states that the “‘Thimble-eye Mackerel,” or ‘Mixed Mackerel,” were very
plentiful from 1826 to 1830. In 1826 he went fishing in the schooner “Delegate.” The season’s
catch amounted to fifteen hundred barrels. Perhaps twenty-five barrels of these were “Thimble-
eyes.”

Capt. N. E. Atwood, of Provincetown, wrote, in 1878, that sixty years ago, when he was a
boy, and many years afterwards, they were very abundant in Massachusetts Bay, but that he has
not seen them for nearly thirty years. They went away before the bluefish returned, and before
any weir, trap, pound, or any other engine of wholesale destruction was set in the New England
waters.

Storer, writing in 1846, remarked: “This fish is of late years found more rarely along our
coast than formerly. Captain Blanchard informs me that during some seasons but two or three
individuals are taken by the fishermen. Captain Atwood has seen but a single specimen during
the last four or five years. Many years ago it was abundant at Provincetown, and would run up
the small creeks and be left by the tide.”

J. V. C. Smith, in his “Natural History of the Fishes of Massachusetts,” published in 1843,
remarked that “they abound at New York, but for some reason make their appearance north of
Cape Cod.”

From these testimonies it would appear that between 1840 and 1850 the species, formerly so
abundant, had disappeared along the whole coast line. In an essay by the writer, written in the
spring of 1879, this sentence occurs: “For ten years past the Smithsonian Institution, with its
collectors stationed at various points from Halifax to Galveston, has tried in vain to secure one of
them, and it is probable that no museum in the world possesses a species of this fish, once so
common.”

In the summer of 1879, however, during the stay of the Fish Commission at Provincetown, a
considerable school of these fish came into the harbor and were taken in company with the Tinker
Mackerel. None were observed there in 1880, however, and it remains to be seen whether they
have returned to be again counted among the permanent members of the fauna. This fish, during
the period of its abundance on our coast, was considered an excellent article of food, and was by
many preferred to the common Mackerel. On account of its small size, however, it was not so
much sought after by the fishermen.

Concerning the Mackerel of the Pacific coast, which Professor Jordan considers to be iden-
tical with the Scomber pnewmatophorus of the Eastern Atlantic, this authority writes:

“The Tinker Mackerel, 8. pnewmatophorus, is known as ‘Mackerel, ‘Easter Mackerel,’

THE TINKER MACKEREL OF CALIFORNIA. 305

‘Tinker Mackerel,’ and ‘Little Mackerel’ It reaches a length of about fourteen inches. It
ranges northward to Monterey Bay, appearing in the fall in irregular and often large schools,
usually disappearing in November. Some years few or none are seen. It is a good food-fish, but
little attention is paid to it, on account of its small size and irregular occurrence.”

The following account of the early discovery of Mackerel on the California coast appeared in
the Gloucester “Telegraph” of July 20, 1870:

“Mackerel are reported quite abundant along the coast of California, but the people of that
State have not learned to catch them, and continue to import their Mackerel from the Eastern
States. Only one or two attempts have been made to avail themselves of a supply nearer home.
In 1855 a few San Francisco fishermen made a trip to Santa Barbara Channel, in a small schooner,
and soon filled her with Mackerel, but instead of cleaning them and soaking them out they threw
them into salt without dressing, and when they arrived home their fish were, of course, in bad
order. A more experienced captain in 1858 put up properly a hundred barrels of No. 2 Mackerel
at Santa Barbara, which he disposed of at $16 per barrel. The San Francisco ‘Bulletin’ claims that
enough can be caught there to supply the want of their market, while salt of the best quality for
curing them can be got free from the neighboring salt-water lagoons. It says that the Mackerel
abound there all the year round—which is probably incorrect—but that the months for taking them
in the largest quantities are June, July, and August. ‘If Mackerel are caught before June and
after August,’ says the ‘Bulletin,’ ‘they are too poor to cure to advantage, and deserve the name of
‘“leather-bellies.” And if they are not cleaned and washed in salt water immediately after being
caught, and before salting, they will spoil and become at least inferior food. But with necessary
experience, skill, and judgment on the part of the fishermen, and the encouragement, enterprise,
and outlay on the part of all interested in trade and the development of our home industries,
there are Mackerel enough on our coast of the best quality to supply all the wants of our city and
State.”

97. THE FRIGATE MACKEREL—AUXIS THAZARD.

This species has also lately made its appearance in our waters, none having been observed
before 1880, when they came in almost countless numbers. It is yet to be determined whether this
species is to be a permanent accession to our fauna. It is the “Timberello” of the Adriatic fisher
folk.

The United States Fish Commission obtained numerous specimens, twenty-eight barrels
having been taken in a mackerel seine ten miles east of Block Island on August 3, 1880, by the
schooner “American Eagle,” Capt. Joshua Chase, of Provincetown, Massachusetts.

The Frigate Mackerel resembles, in some particulars, the common Mackerel; in others, the
bonito, the genus Auwis being intermediate in its character between the Scomber and the related
genera Pelamys and Orcynus. It has the two dorsal fins remote from each other as in Scomber,
and the general form of the body is slender, like that of the Mackerel. The body is, however,
somewhat stéuter, and, instead of being covered with small scales of uniform size, has a corselet
of larger scales under and behind the pectoral fins. Instead of the two small keels upon each
side of the tail, which are so noticeable in the Mackerel, it has the single, more prominent keel of
the bonito and the tunny. Its color is grayish-blue, something like that of the pollock, the belly
being lighter than the back. Under the posterior part of the body, above the lateral line, are a
few cloudings or maculations resembling those of the Mackerel. The occurrence of a large school
of this beautiful species in our waters is very noteworthy, for the fish now for the first time
observed are very possibly the precursors of numerous schools yet to follow. It is not many years

20 F

306 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

since the bonito became an inhabitant of our waters, and the distribution and habits of the Frigate
Mackerel are supposed to be very similar to those of the bonito, Sarda pelamys, and the little tunny,
Oreynus thynnus, which also first came on the coast in 1871, and have since been found in
considerable numbers.

The Frigate Mackerel has been observed in the West Indies, and other parts of the tropical
Atlantic, as well as on the coast of Europe. In Great Britain it is called the “Plain Bonito.”
It is not unusual in the Bermudas, where it is. called the “ Frigate Mackerel,” a name not inap-
' propriate for adoption in this country, since its general appearance is more like that of the
Mackerel than the bonito, while in swiftness and strength it is more like the larger members of
this family. :

Since the first appearance of this fish many new observations of its abundance have been”
received. These fish appeared to come in immense schools into the waters between Montauk Point
and George’s Bank; and from Mr. Clark’s statements it appears that they have been observed
in small numbers by fishermen in previous years. Several vessels have come into Newport recently
reporting their presence in immense numbers in the vicinity of Block Island. It will interest
the “ichthyophagists” to know that several persons in Newport have tested the fish, and pro-
nounce it inferior to the bonito. Part of the flesh, that on the posterior part of the body, is
white, but behind the gills it is black and rank, while the meat near the backbone is said to be of
disagreeable, sour flavor.

It is hard to predict what its influence will be upon other fishes already occupying our waters.
Its mouth is small and its teeth feeble, so that it is hardly likely to become a ravager, like the
bonito and the bluefish. There is little probability, on the other hand, that its advent will be of
any special importance from an economical point of view, for its oil does not seem to be very abun-
dant, and it will hardly pay at present to capture it solely for the purpose of using its flesh in the
manufacture of fertilizers.

Mr. A. Howard Clark, at that time in charge of the Fish Commission station at Gloucester,
communicated to Professor Baird interesting statements regarding its abundance. From these
it would also appear that the species has been observed occasionally in past years. He wrote
under date of August 10: “I have received this morning from the schooner ‘Fitz J. Babson,’ just
arrived from Block Island, a fish answering to your description of the Auxis, having a corselet of
scales around the pectoral fin, asin the tunny. The captain of the vessel, Joshua Riggs, reports
that about a week ago we had a hundred barrels in the seine at one time, and saw over twenty
schools of them. He saw them as far east as Sow-and-Pig light-ship. They are very easy to
catch, flip like menhaden, do not rush, and are not frightened at the seine. They go in immense
numbers—he thinks as many as one thousand barrels to a school. The day after the appearance
of these fish the Mackerel disappeared, but he does not know whether the Mackerel were driven
away by them or not. They feed on Mackerel food. Mr. Daniel Hiltz, of the same vessel, says
that he caught one of just the same kind, in February, 1879, on a haddock trawl on the eastern
part of the Middle Bank, in forty fathoms of water. He took it to Boston, where it was called a
young bonito. ;

“Mr. John Henderson, of the schooner ‘Sarah C. Wharf, says that two vessels caught such
fish recently eastward of here. The schooner ‘American Eagle,’ of Provincetown, took a number
of barrels of them into Newport, and sold them for a dollar a barrel. Another Cape Cod vessel
[he does not know her name] took about fifty barrels of them and threw them away: All the
mackerel seiners from Block Island report seeing quantities of this new fish within the past fort-
night. The captain of the schooner ‘Sarah C. Wharf? says he first saw them a fortnight ago, some

MOVEMENTS OF THE FRIGATE MACKEREL. 307

fifteen miles off Block Island. The captain and several of the crew of the ‘Ella M. Johnson,’ of
Newburyport, just arrived from Block Island, state they saw abundance of the Auxis, but did not
know what it was until the reports came from you at Newport. They opened one and found in its
stomach the ordinary red mackerel food. This crew differ with the crew of the schooner ‘Fitz J.
Babson’ with regard to the ease of capturing them; think them rather difficult to take; say they
flip like pogies, and do not rush like Mackerel. They saw ten large schools of them on Saturday
last, when some fifteen miles south of Block Island.”

It is very important that any observations made upon this species in years to come should be
reported to the United States Fish Commission. The length of those I have seen ranges from
twelve to sixteen inches, and their weight from three-quarters of a pound to a pound and a half or
more. Those sent to New York market were part of the lot taken by the schooner ‘ American
Eagle” and brought into Newport, whence they were shipped by Mr. Thompson, a fish-dealer of
that place. It would require from eighty to one hundred of them to fill a barrel; so the estimate
of Captain Riggs, that there are a thousand barrels in one of the schools, shows how exceedingly
abundant they must be. The name “Frigate Mackerel,” used in Bermuda, would seem to be the
best name for use in this country, since the fish resemble the Mackerel more than they do the
bonito or tunny.

Capt. N. E. Atwood, of Provincetown, Massachusetts, the veteran fisherman-ichthyologist, has
examined the specimens, and is satisfied that they belong to the same species with a fish which he
found abundant in the Azores in 1840, when, led by the reports of Cape Cod whalers, he went to
these islands in search of the Mackerel, the mackerel fishing being poor at home. No Mackerel
were found except the Frigate Mackerel.

98. THE SPANISH MACKEREL AND ITS ALLIES.

The genus Scomberomorus, until recently known to naturalists under the name Cybium, is repre-
sented upon our Atlantic coast by three species, and on the coast of California by one. Of the
three eastern species the Spanish Mackerel, 8. maculatus, is the most important, although the
others grow to a larger size. The three species may be distinguished by the following characters:

The Spanish Mackerel, Scomberomorus maculatus, has the teeth somewhat conical and very
pointed. It has seventeen dorsal spines and a black spot upon the first dorsal.

The Cero, Scomberomorus caballa, has fourteen dorsal spines and the first dorsal fin immaculate.
The young fish have the sides of the body marked with roundish yellow spots, which disappear
with age, and the lateral line is very sinuous upon the posterior portion of the body.

The Spotted Cero, or King Cero, Scomberomorus regalis, has seventeen ‘dorsal spines, and upon
the front of the first dorsal, which is white, is a spot of deep blue, which is prolonged far back upon
the upper edge of the fin. The sides are marked with broken longitudinal bands with brown spots..

THE SPANISH MACKEREL—SCOMBEROMORUS MACULATUS.

The Spanish Mackerel is found along our coast from Cape Cod to the eastern part of the Gulf
of Mexico, and has also been observed about Cuba and on the coast of Brazil. A few individuals.
have been seen north of Cape Cod.- Storer records the capture of one at Lynn, July 24, 1841, and
states that specimens were obtained at Provincetown in August, 1847, and by Captain Atwood, at
Monhegan Island, off the coast of Maine. Although abundant in the Gulf of Mexico, the species.
is rarely seen on the coast of Eastern Florida.

The history of this species, like that of several others of the Mackerel tribe, is very interest-.
ing, since it shows that its abundance upon the coast has varied much during the past two cen--

308 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQATIC ANIMALS.

turies. The early chronicles of the colonies do not refer to it under its present name, but it is
possible that this was the ‘Speckled Hound-fish” mentioned by Josselyn in his “New England’s
Rarities Discovered,” published in 1673. Josselyn wrote: ‘Of Blew-fish, or Hound-fish, two kinds,
Speckled Hound-fish and Blew Hound-fish, called Horse-fish.”

The “Blew Hound-fish” can have been nothing other than the common bluefish of our coast,
and it is hard to imagine what fish, except the Spanish Mackerel, can have been described under
the other name. No other allusion to the fish is found in literature before 1815, when the fish was
described by Mitchill in his work on the fishes of New York, under the name Scomber maculatus.
The biographical portion of his notice consisted of two sentences: “A fine and beautiful fish.
Comes in July.”

Even the publication of this description does not seem to have satisfied contemporary ichthy-
ologists of the existence of such a fish, for some of them did not hesitate to express the opinion
that Dr. Mitchill had been deceived by accidental differences of color at different seasons of the
year, and that there were not so many varieties of Mackerel as he imagined.'

11 an essay on the fishes of New York mark: t, published in 1854, Professor Gill referred to
the Spanish Mackerel as a species of slight importance.

In 1878 the quantity sold in the New York market cannot have fallen much below 300,000
pounds, with a retail value of $225,000, while large num!ers were sent away to Baltimore and
other cities. There is, however, need of caution in drawing inferences from marke reports with-
out at the same time keeping in mind the true history cf the fisheries. It is possible that Spanish
Mackerel abounded in our waters long before they began to appear in the markets. Even now the
number taken by the use of hook and line is very small. They are caught chiefly in traps and
weirs, which have come into use since 1845, and many fishermen have expressed their belief that
of late they have been rapidly increasing.

Genio C. Scott wrote, in 1875: “My experience in trolling for Spanish Mackerel off the inlets
of Fire Island has convinced me that the fish is as numerous as the bluefish, and more so than
the striped bass, at certain seasons, and is found a little farther seaward than either of those
fishes. Every year the shoals of Spanish Mackerel become more and more numerous, and more
are taken, but never in sufficient numbers to reduce the average price below sixty cents per pound.
The shoals which I saw when last trolling for them would have formed an area nearly five miles
square, and still the most successful boat did not take more than a dozen in three days. They
will not bite freely at any artificial lure, and though numbers came near leaping on the deck of
our yacht, they treated our lures with an indifference which savored of perverseness.”

Mr. J. M. K. Southwick states that the first Spanish Mackerel taken in the vicinity of New-
port were found in the summer of 1857. No one knew what they were.

The Gloucester “Telegraph” of August 17, 1870, contains the following item: “At Newport
the epicures are in ecstasies over the fact that Spanish Mackerel, the most delicious fish caught in
the sea, are taken there now in seines. It is only by southerly winds that they are tempted so
far north.”? <

1§$mitTu, J. V. C.: Natural History of the Fishes of Massachusetts, 1843, p. 295.

?The Newport ‘‘ Daily News,” August 19, 1872, has this item:

“LARGE HAUL OF SPANISH MACKEREL.—Saturday, Arnold James & Co., of this city, caught 208 Spanish Mack-
erel, weighing 495 pounds. This is the largest haul of this kind of fish that has ever been taken at any one time by
any of our Newport fishermen. They were caught in the West Bay, and subsequently sold to Messrs. Carry Brothers,
of this city.”

And two days later, August 21, the Providence ‘ Press” chronicled a still more remarkable catch:

‘Another haul of Spanish Mackerel was made yesterday. ‘Chis time it was over four hundred fish, averaging
‘about two and a half pounds each. They were sold to a dealer at twenty-five cents a pound.”

MOVEMENTS OF THE SPANISH MACKEREL. 309

Mr. R. E. Earll, who has studied the history of the species on the coast of New Jersey and the
Southern States, writes as follows:

“ Prior to 1850 almost nothing was known of the fish about Sandy Hook. This is shown by
the fact that about this time Mr. Robert Lloyd, a fisherman of Seabright, was engaged in trolling
for bluefish, having a contract with one of the hotels to take his entire catch. He secured quite
a number of Spanish Mackerel (these being the first he had ever seen), which were carried with
the bluefish to the hotel; but the proprietor knew nothing of their value, and even objected to
taking them at the nominal price of twenty-five cents each.

“From this date they were taken more frequently, and soon came to be highly prized as an
article of food. They were caught wholly by trolling, the average daily catch being from ten to
twenty fish to a boat; the fishing being best when the water was a little rough. They continued
to increase in number, or at least came to be more generally noticed by the fishermen, until 1866,
when they were quite plentiful, becoming most abundant between 1870 and 1875. During that
period it is said that they were often nearly as plenty as the bluefish, though comparatively few
were taken, owing to the lack of suitable apparatus, and it was not until the introduction of
properly arranged gill-nets and pound-nets that the fishermen were successful in securing any
considerable quantities.

“Since 1875 it is claimed that their numbers have gradually decreased on the inshore grounds,
- though they are said to be as numerous as formerly eight to ten miles from land, where they
remain beyond the reach of gill-nets and pound-nets.

“Many of the fishermen of Chesapeake Bay never saw the species prior to 1875, though there
are authentic records showing that individuals were occasionally taken in the haul-seines along
the Eastern Shore as early as 1860, and hauls of between one and two hundred are reported by
Dr. J. T. Wilkins in 1866. It is, however, very easy to explain the ignorance of the fishermen as _
to the abundance of the species in that region, for, until recently, the fisheries of the Chesapeake
appear to have been of small commercial importance, having been prosecuted only during the
spring and fall by means of gill-nets and haul-seines. During the summer months, when the
Mackerel are most plenty, no fishing of importance was done. Pound-nets were introduced into
the Chesapeake region in 1875, and it was through their use that the fishermen came to know of
the abundance of the species in these waters.

“On the North Carolina coast most of the fishermen, and, indeed, a majority of the dealers,
are still unacquainted with either the name or the value of the Mackerel, and when, in 1879, several
thousand pounds of them were brought to Wilmington the dealers refused to buy them, supposing
them to be a species of horse-mackerel (Orcynus), which they understood had no value as a food-
fish. As no purchasers could be found for them, they were finally thrown away. Farther south
few have been taken, owiug to the lack of suitable apparatus, as well as to the fact that the fisher-
men seldom fish beyond the inlets. The smack fishermen of Charleston catch a few on troll-lines
during the pleasant weather of the spring and early summer, but they fish only occasionally in
this way.

“Though the fishing is at present limited to certain localities, there is no reason to believe that
the fish are absent from other places; on the contrary, it seems probable that, should proper appa-
ratus be employed, the species could be taken at almost any point along the outer shore where the
menhaden are abundant.

““In the Chesapeake region there seems to be no diminution in the catch; on the contrary, it
has increased rapidly from year to year, until in 1879 it amounted to fully 1,000,000 pounds, and
in 1880 the quantity was increased to 1,609,663 pounds. The average daily catch for the pound-

310 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS,

nets about Cherrystone, Virginia, is fully 500 fish; while as many as 4,000 have been taken at a
single ‘lift’ and hauls of 2,500 are not uncommon during the height of the season. At Sandy
Hook the catch is quite large; in 1879, 3,500 pounds were taken at one haul in a pound-net at
Seabright, and the average stock for the pound-nets in that locality often exceeds $1,000 for
Mackerel alone, while the catch of other species is proportionately large.

“We see no reason for believing that the present enormous catch will have any serious effect
upon the future abundance of the species; for, assuming that the fish are plenty all along the
coast, the catch, though extensive at certain points, must be insignificant in comparison with the
immense number of individuals in the water. As has been shown, however, there is good reason
for believing that the numbers have varied from time to time in the past, and it may be that
natural causes, of which we are still ignorant, and over which we may have no control, may cause
a like variation in the future.”

In 1879 the writer, in preparing an essay upon this fish, remarked: “Mitchill, when he described
the Scomber maculatus, sixty-five years ago, summed up what he knew of its habits in a single sen-
tence: ‘Comes in July,’ and the studies of later naturalists have added but little to this terse story.”

Since that time the studies of Mr. Earll and Mr. Stearns have added so much to our knowledge
of the life and history of this fish that it may be said that its habits are now about as well under.
‘stood as those of any other species on our coast. Instead of weaving the facts which have lately
been recorded into a compact narrative, the statements of different observers will be given as
nearly as possible in their own words.

Mr. Earll thus discusses its movements along the Southern Atlantic coast:

“Spanish Mackerel are gregarious in their habits. They are sometimes seen in enormous
schools, covering several square miles of ocean surface. A single school seen off Long Island a
few years ago was estimated to contain several million individuals. The density of these schools,
however, is very different from that of the schools of menhaden on which they feed. The latter
are usually found in compact masses, often many feet in thickness; while the former are consider-
ably scattered, a large percentage of them being at or near the surface of the water.

“The fish make annual excursions to the coast of the United States in summer; starting from
their home in the warmer waters of the South, or, perhaps, from the deeper waters along the inner
edge of the Gulf Stream, in the early spring, and proceeding northward, or landward, as the season
advances. After remaining for a few weeks, or months at most, they again move southward, or
seaward, and at the approach of cold weather entirely disappear. They seem to prefer water
ranging from 70° to 809 Fahrenheit, and seldom enter that which is colder than 65°.

“Off Charleston, South Carolina, the fish are first seen about the last of March, and late in
April they enter the sounds of the North Carolina coast. By the 20th of May the vanguard
reaches the Chesapeake, and others follow in rapid succession, so that by the middle of June the
capture of Mackerel constitutes the principal occupation of the fishermen. Off Sandy Hook the
first individuals are not seen till late in July,! and from that time they continually increase in
numbers till the middle, or even the last, of August. Their time of arrival at Narragansett Bay
is about the same as that for Sandy Hook. In this northern region they remain till the middle of

1The Canadian fishery report for 1880 contains the following notice of the capture of a Spanish Mackerel at
Prince Edward’s Island, in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, which (if there is no mistake in the identification) extends
by several hundred miles the range of the species. The report says: “An undoubted specimen of the Spanish
Mackerel, male, Cybium maculatum of the United States, was caught by hook at New London, Queen’s County, on
the 7th of September. It is rare to find this fish in so high a latitude.”—Supplement No. 2 to the Eleventh Annual
Report of the Minister of Marine and Fisheries for the year 1880, p. 229.

With all deference to the author of this report, I am unwilling without further evidence to accept this identifica-
tion as accurate.—G. B. G. :

SPANISH MACKEREL IN THE SOUTH. 311

September, after which the number gradually diminishes, and by the first of October the last
individuals have disappeared. A little later they leave the Chesapeake, and few are seen on the
Carolina coast after the Ist of Novem ber.

“Their summer movements are doubtless affected to a considerable extent by the movements
of the menhaden and other small fishes on which they feed, as they are usually most plenty in the
localities where these fish are found. When feeding they remain constantly among these fish,
exhibiting great activity in the capture of. their prey, rushing through the water with great speed,
and often leaping into the air in long and graceful curves. This peculiar leap is characteristic of
the species, and by it the fishermen are enabled to distinguish the Mackerel from their allies, the
bluefish, that, after jumping from the water, fall back upon its surface with,a splash, instead of
cutting it, as is the case with the Mackerel.

“During the spawning season the Mackerel enter the warmer and shoaler water of the bays,
the individuals at this time being more generally disturbed and the schools often considerably
scattered. On entering the Chesapeake, they remain about ‘The Capes’ for some time, but as
the season advances, according to Mr. Sterling, of Crisfield, Maryland, they start for the upper
waters, and distribute themselves over the large spawning grounds of the region. Some weeks
later they reassemble, and proceed down and out of the bay onthe way to their winter quarters.

“In moving along the coast the Mackerel seem to avoid fresh or even brackish water, and for
this reason are seldom taken near the mouth of the larger rivers. This habit is thought to
account for their greater abundance on the eastern than on the western side of the Chesapeake.
Along the last-named shore the saltness of the water is considerably affected by the enormous
quantity of fresh water brought down by the large rivers of the State, while no rivers of impor-
tance occur along the eastern shore, and the water is therefore nearly as salt as the ocean.

“During its stay on our coast, the Spanish Mackerel may properly be styled a surface fish.
It seldom descends to any great depth, but rather remains at or near the surface, and may often
be seen leaping into the air or sporting at the top of the water. On a calm, bright day the sur-
face of the ocean is sometimes broken for miles together by the movements of a large school of
these fish.” :

Concerning its migrations in the Gulf Stearns writes: “The Spanish Mackerel is extremely
abundant on the West Florida coast. They are first seen in March or April, four or five miles from
land, moving along swiftly towards the westward, or playing at the surface with no apparent aim or
course of movement. The time of their arrival is not certainly known, but they are quite sure to
appear some time between the first of March and the last of April. One season, 1877, schools were
seen off the coast in February, and the ‘run’ continued as late that year as usual. It is not an
unusual habit for these early schools to remain at sea several weeks before approaching the land.
During the latter part of April the first schools are seen coming into the Pensacola Bay, and from
this time on through the summer they are continually passing in. Ido not think the tide influences
their movements, as far as entering or leaving the harbor is concerned, for I have seen them swim-
ming against and with the tide. They move at the surface of the water, frequently jumping from
it and splashing conspicuously. By this commotion are attracted many sea-birds, which learn that
there is food for them in the shape of fragments of small fishes upon which the Mackerel prey.
The individuals that make up the schools vary considerably in size; as a rule, the first to arrive
are the largest fish, and measure from twenty to twenty-four inches, while those coming later
measure only about fourteen or fifteen inches. Specimens of thirty-six and forty inches are some-
times caught by the use of trolling-lines, but these large fish are rarely found in the schools. Their
abundance varies with different years, although not toso great an extent as some other migratory

rs

312 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

species. The first few weeks they spend in the bays. They continue playing at the surface, prey-

ing on such schools of small fish or fry as may be present, but at the commencement of July they
are less frequently seen, and after another space of two or three weeks are not seen at all, unless
caught by trolling-lines at sea, or whun a solitary individual leaps from the water in some remote
place. There is a great difference in the movements of the fish which are ready to spawn and
those which have finished spawning: the former keep away from the shore, playing at the surface
with no apparent aim, while the latter swim in shoal water near the shore, underneath the sur-

face, shaping their course with all possible directness “for the harbor mouth. The school, as it
moves along, resembles a compact mass of reddish-brown sea-weed. Santa Rosa Island seems to
possess attractive features for the Spanish Mackerel, for they are very abundant there. This is a
convenient station from which to watch their movements, on account of its narrowness and length.

In August, September, and October small schools of Mackerel are seen following the shore along
to the sea, and on reaching it they are lost to view in deep water. Many, probably, follow the
deep water out of the harbor and are not seen at all, but enough are under observation to signify
when they are ‘running’ and when the majority are gone.”

As has already been remarked, the Spanish Mackerel is but rarely seen on the east coast of
Florida, though abundant in the Gulf of Mexico. I have never seen one in this region, though the
fishermen assure me that a few have been caught, and that small ones are occasionally taken on
the bar at the mouth of the Saint John’s River. Melton & Co., of Jacksonville, received a quantity
from Cedar Keys in 1876, and they were exposed for sale in the city markets, where, however, they
met with no purchasers. In the Indian River region there is a fish called there the Spanish
Mackerel; it perhaps is the Spanish Mackerel, or one of the allied species.

Holbrook wrote in 1860: “But little is known of the habits of this fish; it seems, however,
more solitary than the fishes of this family generally are, as it seldom happens that more than four
or five are taken at the same time. It appears on the coast of Carolina in April and May, but is
rarely seen during the summer months. It feeds on various species of small fish.”

Dr. Yarrow wrote in 1873’ of this species, as observed in the vicinity of Fort Macon, North
Carolina: “They are abundant in the latter part of August and September, and are frequently found
with the bluefish. A favorite locality is near the southern point of Shackelford Banks, where it is
taken with nets and by hook; a great many are also taken near Cape Lookout in September in
gill-nets. Is highly esteemed as food, but is not often eaten fresh, being generally salted. Size
from ten to thirty inches.”

Mr. A. N. Simpson stated in 1874 that the species was caught in small quantities in the shoals
near Cape Hatteras, though seldom seen in the sounds.

Dr. Wilkins, of Hunger’s Wharf, observed in 1880 that the average weight in that vicinity is from
two to three pounds. They arrive about the first of June, and leave about the first of September.
Twenty-five years ago it was a very rare occurrence to catch a Mackerel in the Chesapeake Day,
but now they are very plenty.

Mr. C. R. Moore, of Johnsontown, Virginia, wrote in 1874: “Spanish Mackerel come in Septem-
ber and October and stay until frost. They are most numerous about the mouth of the York River,
where a large number are caught in seines and salted. They bring about $40 a barrel.”

Professor Baird, who was one of the first to speak of the abundance of this species and to
testify to its excellent qualities, wrote in 1854: “But two specimens were taken during my stay at
Beasley’s Point, and the species is scarcely known to the fishermen. It was more abundant at
Greenport, Long Islund; in the Peconic Bay, towards Riverhead, four hundred were caught at one
haul of the seine. The flesh is excellent, having much the flavor of true Mackerel, only a little

USES OF THE SPANISH MACKEREL. ald

richer and softer. The fish bring a high price in the New York market, where it has been but
recently sold at from fifty cents to one dollar a pound, the prices varying with the season. It has
been more abundant off our coast than ever before, and in the lower part of the Potomac numbers
have been taken and salted down. They may frequently be found in this state in the Washington
market, and readily recognized by the round yellow spots on the sides, and also by the size, which
is so much larger than that of the common Mackerel.”

DeKay, in 1842, mentioned that he had seen this species, taken in the seine, in the New York
market, in August and September, nearly two feet long, but that they were not common.

REPRODUTION.—The breeding habits of this fish were never understood until the spring of
1880, when, to everybody’s astonishment, it was found by Mr. Earll that one of the principal
spawning grounds was in the Chesapeake Bay. .

I quote in full the remarks of Mr. Earll upon their reproductive habits:

“ Prior to 1880, nothing was definitely known regarding the spawning habits of the Spanish
Mackerel. Neither the time nor place of spawning had been discovered. Mr. Scott had surmised
that they spawned in the waters-of our Atlantic States in the spring, a8 small ones which he sup-
posed to be the young of the previous year were occasionally seen in June.! Professor Goode, in
his ‘Game Fishes,’ had ventured the assertion that they probably spawned in midwinter, in the
Gulf of Mexico and about the West Indies. These were, as far as we know, the only writers that
had referred to the spawning habits of the Mackerel. During an extended tour of the Atlantic

oast, in company with Col. Marshall McDonald, the writer had an excellent opportunity for exam-
ing the species in different localities, and succeeded in proving that the theory advanced by Mr.
ott was the more nearly correct, and that the Spanish Mackerel spawn along many portions of

the Atlantic coast in midsummer. The investigation of the Southern fisheries began in Florida

inJ anuary, 1880, and when the fisheries in that region had been sufficiently studied, we proceeded
northward, visiting every important.fishing station along the coast of Georgia and the Carolinas,
reaching the Chesapeake early in May. After spending some time at Norfolk, and at the fishing
shore of Capt. W. E. Taylor, at Willoughby, we accepted the invitation of Mr. O. EB. Maltby to
visit his fishing station at New Point, forty miles up the bay. Here we spent a number of days
in examining the spawning condition of the different species taken in the pound-nets of the locality,
and soon discovered that many of the male Mackerel were nearly ripe, while the eggs in the ovaries
of some of the females were well developed. A little later we succeeded in finding thoroughly
ripe males and one or two females from which ripe eggs could be taken. Appreciating the impor

tance of this discovery, we continued our investigation, and soon satisfied ourselves that the
spawning time was near at hand, as the eggs and milt in all of the specimens examined were well
advanced. Later, the writer visited the Eastern Shore of Virginia, including the counties of
Accomack and Northampton, and found ripe eggs and milt in a large number of individuals.
Further investigation proved that the spawning season, as in many migratory species, varied with
the locality, being earliest on the Southern coast, and latest about Long Island. The temperature
of the water seems to have a decided effect upon the spawning time of the Mickerel, and the
ovaries and spermaries do not develop very rapidly until it has risen to upwards of 70° Fahrenheit.
The time of spawning for the Carolinas begins in April, while the season at Long Island commences
by the 20th of August, and continues till the latter part of September. On the arrival of the
species in the Chesapeake, in May, a few of the males are nearly ripe, and the ovaries of the females

1The following is the language of Mr. Scott on this point: ‘‘Both the Spanish Mackerel and Cero are spring-
spawning fishes, and no doubt spawn in our bays, for there are occasionally small ones taken by the anglers in June,
before the large ones visit our shores, and I argue, therefore, that the small half-pounders are of last year’s hatch.”—
Angling in American Waters.

314 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

are very much enlarged. By the 1st of June occasional ripe fish are seen. The spawning season
proper begins about. two weeks later, and continues during the greater part of the summer. The
fishermen report many of the Mackerel to be full-roed when they reach the Sandy Hook region,
and claim that by the last of August the eggs begin to separate and run from the female. From
this date to the close of the season numerous individuals are taken from which eggs or milt will
run freely. ,

“The limits of the spawning grounds have not yet been definitely ascertained, though enough
has been learned to show that the Mackerel spawn at numerous points between Narragansett
Bay and South Carolina, and it seems probable that when a thorough investigation is made the
southern limits will be found to extend as far as Mississippi, and perhaps to Texas. It is certain
that they spawn in some of the sounds of the Carolinas, in Chesapeake Bay, off Sandy Hook, and
along the southern shores of Long Island; the Chesapeake and Sandy Hook regions being visited
by immense numbers of Mackerel for this purpose.

“AS has been said, the spawning season for our coast continues throughout the entire summer,
and, in any particular locality, it lasts from six to upwards of ten weeks. The time of spawning
for individuals of the same school varies considerably, the ovaries of some of the fish being fully
mature while those of others are still quite green. Again, a single individual is a number of weeks
in depositing its eggs, as shown by the fact that when the first are excluded a large percentage are
still small and immature. All of the eggs in the ovaries of a shad, salmon, or whitefish develop
uniformly, and the whole number are deposited at about the same time, so that the spawning
season for the individual lasts only a few days at most. . Up to the winter of 1878~79 it had been
supposed that all fishes were alike in this particular; but our study of the cod at that time proved
that the individuals of that species were several months in depositing their eggs, and the sam: is
found to be true, within smaller limits, of the Spanish Mackerel.

- «The number of eggs varies with the size of the parent fish, that for a one-pound Mackerel
being estimated at 300,000, while that for a six-pound fish can scarcely be less than 1,500,000. To
ascertain definitely the number for the average fish, an immature female, weighing one pound and
thirteen ounces, and measuring eighteen and a half inches, was selected, and the number of eggs
was carefully computed. The ovaries, when placed on accurately adjusted balances, were found
to weigh 34.275 grams. These were then opened, and 100 milligrams, selected from different por-
tions of the roe-bags, so that all sizes might be represented, were weighed out. Wher counted
this mass was found to contain 1,536 eggs. From these data it was found that the ovaries of the
fish should contain 526,464 eggs. This number would be too great, as no allowance was made for
the weight of the ovary walls; allowing for these, the number would be not far from 525,000. It
is thus seen that the species is more prolific than the salmon, shad, or whitefish, though it is
much less so than many of the gadoids, a seventy-five-pound codfish yielding fully 9,000,000.

“The eggs of the Spanish Mackerel are smaller than those of any other species with which we
are familiar. During the early part of the season they can scarcely be distinguished by the unaided
eye, and although they gradually increase in size, when fully ripe they have a diameter—varying
somewhat with the size of the parent and the condition of the eggs when pressed from the ovaries—
of only one twenty-second to one twenty-eighth of an inch. Most of those secured by us were of
the last-named size, and, taking these as a basis, it will be seen that a cubic inch would contain
21,952 eggs, and that 1,267,728 could be placed in a quart cup.

“ After impregnation the eggs have a specific gravity between that of fresh and salt water, as
shown by the fact that they sink in one and float in the other. When thrown from the parent
they rise to the surface and are driven hither and thither by the winds 1nd tides during the earlier
period of development. Many are lost from lack of fertilization, others are destroyed by the
animals of the water, and considerable quantities are doubtless driven upon the shore during

REPRODUCTION OF THE SPANISH MACKEREL. 315

stormy weather, where they soon perish. When first hatched the little Mackerel is very small and

transparent, its length scarcely exceeding one-tenth of an inch, while its diameter, even with the

comparatively large yelk-sac, is 8o small as to allow it to pass through wire-cloth having thirty-two

wires to the inch. For several hours after hatching it remains comparatively quiet at the

surface in an almost helpless condition, a small oil globule attached to the yelk-sac keeping it -
from sinking and causing it to lie belly uppermost. Iter the umbilical sac with its oil globule is

gradually absorbed, and the little fish begins to manifest greater activity, and by vigorous and spas-

modic efforts penetrates to the depth of an inch or so below the surface. In a few hours it finds

little or no difficulty in swimming at various depths, and even lies at the bottom of the vessel in

which it is confined, darting off with surprising rapidity when disturbed.

‘Little is known of the rate of growth. We know of but two instances where iat Mackerel
have been caught or even seen along our shores. The first is that mentioned by Mr. Scott, in
the passage already quoted, of half-pound fish having been taken off the Long Island coast
in June. A second instance was made known to us by Mr. Robert Bosman, superintendent of
a fishing station at New Point, Virginia, who, in a letter dated Norfolk, Virginia, September 25,
1880, says: ‘I have recently noticed large numbers of young Spanish Mackerel, varying from four
to six inches in length.’ Assuming that the fish referred to were the young of the Spanish
Mackerel, there still remains a difficulty in determining the rate of growth. Some species grow
very rapidly, reaching the last-named dimensions in a few months, while others develop more
slowly and would not attain a weight of half a pound for several years. From our limited knowl-
edge of the growth of other species we would suppose that the fish mentioned by Mr. Bosman as
being four to six inches long in September were the fry of the previous year, and were therefore
about fourteen months old, while the half-pounders mentioned by Mr. Scott were probahly nearly
two years old.”

The observations of Mr. Stearns, recorded also in 1880, are exceedingly interesting as confirming
and supplementing those of Mr. Earll:

“When the Spanish Mackerel first appear, late in March and early in April, they contain
spawn in the half-developed state. By July this has become quite full, and it is believed by the
most intelligent fishermen that when they disappear from sight at that time they do so for the
purpose of spawning, and that the spawning-grounds are in the quiet bayous and lagoons, the
places where the old fish are last seen. These views of the fishermen are partly conjectural, and
at first I did not agree with them, but the more I observed the movements of the fish the more
plausible seemed the fishermen’s views. The following facts have led me to adopt them: (1)
The Spanish Mackerel arrive in the spring with spawn and milt and go away without them. (2)
They disappear into out-of-the-way places with nearly ripe spawn, and in a short time reappear
in or about the same places without it. The operation of spawning leaves them somewhat emaci-
ated. They do not, of course, spawn all at one time, and it is not unfrequent that fish with spawn
and those which have deposited it are caught by a fishing-crew on the same day.”

The Spanish Mackerel sometimes attains the weight of eight or nine pounds, though it rarely
exceeds three or four pounds. A specimen taken off Block Island, July 8, 1874, the first of the
season, measured twenty-six and one-fourth inches and weighed three pounds and five ounces.
It is said to be the largest ever taken in this section, and was a female with the ovary spent.
Those taken on the coast of New Jersey apd farther to the eastward are considered much more
delicately flavored than the Chesapeake fish, and command a higher price in the market. In the
Gulf States, according to Mr. Stearns, the Spanish Mackerel are in great demand, though but few
are caught in the Gulf of Mexico, on account of the absence of proper nets.

316 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

This species was ascertained by Professor Jordan to occur abundantly in the Gulf of Cali-
fornia, and south as far as Mexico. It is for some reason not highly valued by the Mexicans.

THE CERO OR KING-FISH—SCOMBEROMORUS CABALLA.

The Cero is a West Indian species which has been recorded from Santo Domingo, Jamaica,
Cuba, Martinique, Porto Rico, and Brazil. A few specimens have been observed as far north as
‘Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts. It is a magnificent fish. It often grows to twenty-five pounds, and
sometimes, it is said, to one hundred pounds in weight. Its habits are probably not. unlike those
of the Spanish Mackerel. The name Cero is commonly accepted in the United States; it is a
corruption of the Spanish sierra, and the Mexicans call the fish by that name.

“The King-fish,” writes Mr. Stearns, “are very abundant in the southern part of the Guif and
common at some places in its northern portion. They live altogether at sea and are caught with
trolling-lines. At Key West they are important as food-fishes, large quantities being sold in the
markets. Two men in a small sail-boat sometimes catch more than a hundred in a day, and I
have seen the market so glutted with them that five cents would buy one of the largest size.”

Professor Jordan states that they are regularly caught with trolling hooks by nearly every
steamer from Savannah to New York.'

THE Kine CERO OR SPOTTED CERO—SCOMBEROMORUS REGALIS.

The King Cero of the Florida Keys grows to be five or six feet long and to twenty or thirty
pounds in weight. This fish also occasionally wanders as far north as the southern shores of Cape
Cod in summer. It is abundant in the West Indies, having been recorded from Cuba, Santo
Domingo, Jamaica, and Barbadoes. Cuvier, moreover, had a specimen from Brazil. It is more
than likely that this and the preceding species are both included by the Key West tishermen
under the name “ King-fish,” the differences in general appearance being so slight that it is hardly
likely that they would be noticed by ordinary observers. -

THE MONTEREY MACKEREL—SCOMBEROMORUS CONCOLOR.

The Pacific species may be called the Monterey Mackerel. It attains a length of about thirty
inches and a weight of about five or eight pounds. It has only been seen in the Monterey Bay,
where from five to forty individuals are taken every fall, most of them at Soquel. They appear
in September and disappear perhaps in November. Nothing further is known of their distribution ,
or habits. They always bring a very high price in the market (30 to 50 cents per pound), the flesh
being similar to that of the Spanish Mackerel of the East, which species this fish closely resembles.

= 99, THE BONITO—SARDA MEDITERRANEA.

This fish is one of those which appear to live for the most part in the open ocean, wandering
hither and thither in large schools, preying upon other pelagic fishes, and approaching land only
when attracted by abundance of acceptable food. Several of the smaller species of the group
of Tunnies, to which it belongs, are known to sailors by the same name. The common Bonito of
England, Oreynus pelamys, is what is here called the “Striped Bonito,” two or three specimens

1 A RARE FISH.—Captain Matthews, of the steamer “Oriental,” who arrived Tuesday from Savannah, brought home
a fine specimen of the King-fish, which was caught in the Gulf Stream on the passage. It was placed on exhibition
in the Quincy market, at stalls 127 and 129, and attracted considerable attention from the fact that it is the first one
of the kind ever seen here. It weighs about forty pounds, and more nearly resembles the Spanish Mackerel in color
and form than any other fish usually seen in this market, although it is much larger. It is a very fat, handsome fish,
and is said to be a nice article for food.—Boston Journal, July 26, 1871.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE BONITO. O17

of which have been detected in our waters since 1876, but the fish which most frequently
and in greatest numbers approaches our shores is the one which is named at the head of this
section. Almost nothing is known of its habits, and it is even impossible to define its geographical
range with any degree of certainty, its distribution being quite unlike that of any other fish with
which we are acquainted. It may be said, however, that it is found only in the Atlantic Ocean.
On our coast itis found in summer between Cape May and Cape Sable, though rarely north of Cape
Ann;' occasionally off Cape Hatteras and the mouth of the Chesapeake and in the Gulf of Mexico.
Specimens have been taken about the Canaries and Madeira, at the Cape of Good Hope and in
the Mediterranean. It has not been observed on the coast of Europe north of Gibraltar, nor at the
Bermudas. ;

This fish does not appear to have been abandant1 in former years: it attracted but little atten-
tion in our waters before 1860, although it was alluded to in 1815 by Mitchill, in 1842 by DeKay,
and in 1856 by Gill; none of these authors, however, seem to have regarded it as at all abundant.

A note from Prof. J. Hammond Trumbull states: “ This fish used to be quite common, in some
years, in the Stonington market. 1 have a note of a considerable number in market July 22, 1842,
their first appearance for the season.”

Storer remarked in 1846: “This species, called by the fishermen in Boston market the ‘Skip-
jack,’ and by those at the extremity of Cape Cod the ‘Bonito,’ is very rarely met with in Massa-
chusetts Bay. It is occasionally taken at Provincetown, andeven at Lynn. At some seasons it is
frequently caught at Martha’s Vineyard with trailing bait.”

During the past ten or fifteen years they have become exceedingly abundant ana Block
Island and the eastern end of Long Island. Fabulous quantities are taken in the pound-nets.

lAugust 6, 1876, Captain Webb, of Milk Island, took seventy-three Bonitos in his weir, and August 7 twenty-
eight more in an eight-inch gill-net.

2The following extracts from the journal of one of the earliest settlers of New England may refer either to this
fish or to one of the smaller species of Tunny: ‘

“1635, JuLy 18 [near Newfoundland]. Saturday, wind northwest, a fair, cool day. We saw this morning a
great many of Bonitoes leaping and playing about,the ship. Bonito is a fish somewhat bigger than a cod, but less
than a porpoise.”—Mather’s Journal. Young’s Chronicles of the First Planters of Massachusetts Bay Colony. Boston:
1846, p. 464.

“1635, JULY 21 [near Newfoundland]. Tuesday morning, a great calm after a hot night. This morning our
seamen took a Bonito and opened him upon the deck; of which, being dressed, our master sent Mathew Michel and
me part, as good fish in eating as could be desired. About noon the wind became northeast, good for our purpose,
so that we went that afternoon nine or ten leagues a watch.”—Mather’s Journal. Young’s Chronicles of the First
Planters of Massachusetts Bay Colony. Boston: 1846, p. 464.

3 Bonira.—We did not say half enough the other day about the new visitor in our bay, the Bonita. If it shall
become plentiful in our waters, as it promises to be, it will become a most valuable article of food. A correspondent,
whose opinion upon matters of this kind is ultimate, writes: ‘‘Your article on the Bonita is every word true; pray,
have your attention turned to fish, the great question (economical) of the day. Last night I had a fish on my table
which they said was a kind of Spanish mackerel; the moment I tasted it I said it was a Bonita, having eaten it thirty
years since, on my first voyage to India, and the taste had never been forgotten. It is the salmon of the sea. Mark
its solidity of flesh, its great weight, its purity of taste, entire absence of the slightly decayed taste all fish has during
warm weather. lt is as nourishing as beef.” The remainder of the note is “‘strictly confidential,” and so was the
basket which accompanied it with the choicest treasure of the sea covered with the greenést leaves of the land. We
certify from actual experiment that Bonita is the worthy rival of the Spanish mackerel, the sheepshead, and the
salmon. We are pleased to quote it in our household market report at the more reasonable price of twenty cents a
pound.—Providence Journal, July, 1871.

The people of Rhode Island are happy in consequence of the appearance in their waters of that excellent fish, the
Bonita, This fish is esteemed superior to the Spanish mackerel, and nearly equal in flavor to the salmon. It has not
been known in Rhode Island waters until recently; now it is so plentiful that it is sold in the Providence fish markets
at twenty cents per pound.—Germantown Telegraph, August 2,1871.

Tue Bonita.—Mr. John Flynn, of the Citizens’ Market, yesterday received another supply of that new and
dainty fish, the Bonita, and those who have not yet tasted of this worthy rival of the Spanish mackerel, the sheeps-
head, and the salmon, will do well to call at his market to-day and obtain one of these rare visitors.—Providence
Journal, 1871.

318 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

In 1877 four smacks were constantly running between Block Island and New York, carrying
each from 4,000 to 8,000 Bonitoes a week, or perhaps 20,000 pounds. The yield of Block Island
alone that summer was probably not less than 2,000,000 pounds. In one haul of the purse-seine
by the schooner “Lilian,” of Noank, 1,500 were taken; and in August, 1874, 1,200 in one pound-net.

They seem first to have attracted the attention of New England authorities about 1865.
Genio ©. Scott, writing in 1875, remarked: “His first arrival along our beaches and in our bays
was about eight years ago, and his shoals have increased remarkably fast ever since his advent.
As a table luxury it ranks, with epicures, below the striped bass and bluefish, but, because of its
comparative rarity, it commands a price rather above either. The numbers of this fish annually
taken about the approaches to our harbors with the troll and in nets has increased so much that
it bids fair to become nearly as numerous as the bluefish.”

Hanis, &c.—In habits the Bonito has much in common with the blue-fish, though it is,

if possible, even more active and more the embodiment of perpetual and insatiable hunger. They
come to and go from the coast together, and are often taken together in the nets. Sometimes two
lines in one boat will fasten at the same time a bluefish and a Bonito. The Bonito, like the
bluefish, appear to be attracted to our waters by the great schools of mackerel and menhaden, upon
which they feed. The Bonito schools create much confusion as they pass through the water, and
their progress is marked by flocks of screaming gulls and terns, which follow them to prey upon the
remnants of their feasts. At the end of summer they disappear entirely. No very young Bonitos
have been found in our waters. Genio C. Scott, however, records the capture of one in Jamaica
Bay in 1874, weighing less than a pound, and which he believes to have been hatched the previous
year. The Fish Commission also has one of the same size taken off Southern New England.
Charles Potter, of Norwalk, Connecticut, states that small specimens, six inches in length, were
from 1870 to 1874 frequently taken late in the fall in the weirs at Fisher’s Island.

S1zE.—A fish weighing ten pounds measures twenty-eight to twenty-nine inches; eight pounds,
twenty-seven to twenty-eight inches; seven pounds, twenty-six to twenty-seven inches; six pounds,
twenty-five to twenty-six inches; four pounds, twenty-two to twenty-three inches. There have not
yet been found in the adults any traces of mature spawn, though one taken off Norwalk, J a 23,
1874, had the eggs well formed though not nearly mature.

Tur FISHERY.—In 1875 the earliest Bonito was taken in the Robinson’s Hole weir July 7, and
two more came along July 24. They were not abundant until August, when many more were taken
in Vineyard ‘Sound by Oak Bluffs boats, trolling. The fishermen then believed that they were
gradually increasing in numbers and importance and taking the place of the squeteague which
were dying out. August 7 the weir at Cedar Tree Neck had taken nothing but Bonitoes, while
those farther west at Menemsha Bight had taken only squeteague.

Bonitos are caught in the vicinity of Block Island with trolling-hooks. They bite sharply, like
bluefish. The best bait is an ordinary bluefish hook with a petticoat of red and white flannel,
though the fish will also take any bluefish lure.

On the eastern shore of Virginia Bonito are caught by harpooning, says Mr. C. R. Moore, and
also with the hook. They are most numerous about the mouth of the York River. They come in
in June and leave in September. It is quite possible, however, that the Bonito referred to by Mr.
Moore is quite another fish—the Cobia, Hlacate atlantica.

_ UsEs.—Tested side by side with the bluefish, at the same table, the Bonito seems not much
inferior, though the flesh is somewhat softer and more perishable.

The Bonito may. be ranked among the many excellent food-fishes of our coast, and, in any

USES OF THE BONITO, 319

country not so abundantly supplied with finely-flavored fishes, it would be considered of the
highest value. Their vitality is so great and their supply of blood so abundant that unless bled.
immediately after capture their flesh, especially in warm weather, is apt to deteriorate. Great
quantities of them are taken to New York, and there, as well as in Rhode Island and Connecticut,
they are sold extensively under the name of ‘“ Spanish mackerel,” at prices ranging from thirty five
to fifty cents a pound. This was the common practice in 1874, and has continued since. The state-
ment made by Scott in 1875, viz, that on account of their rarity they were preferred to the bluetish
and striped bass, would not now be true; his prediction that they would in time become as
abundant as the bluefish seems, however, during some years to have been almost verified.
The dealers, by the change of name in the market above referred to, are able to obtain a high
price for a fish which, under its own name, would. be looked upon with suspicion. An absurd
report that the Bonito was poisonous was current in 1874, probably owing to the fact that similar
fish taken in warm climates are sometimes deleterious.

In 1874 the ordinary price in New York was one cent apiece, though in the wholesale markets
they commanded the same price as bluefish, and many were sold, as has been stated, at the high
rates of Spanish mackerel. The market was so glutted that many of the vessels could not dispose
of their cargoes.

According to Stearns, our Bonito occurs also in the Gulf of Mexico, where it is everywhere
abundant, and is found in the bays on the Florida coast. It usually moves, according to the same
authority, at the surface of the water in-small schools. At sea it is found throughout the year,
and along the shore only in the summer. Small schools are sometimes taken in drag-seines in
shallow water. Its market value at Pensacola is not great, although it has become an article of
food. |

THE PaocrFric BoniTo.—On the California coast occurs a closely related species, Sarda chilensis,
which is thus described by Professor Jordan:

“This fish is everywhere known as the Bonito. The names ‘Spanish Mackerel,’ ‘Skipjack,’ and
‘Tuna’ are also sometimes applied to it. Itreaehes an average weight of about twelve pounds, but
the body is considerably longer and more slender than that of an Albicore of the same weight.
It ranges from San Francisco southward to Chili, being abundant in Monterey Bay and about the
Santa Barbara Islands in the summer and fall. It approaches to within half a mile of the shore,
where, in company with the barracuda, it is taken in great numbers by trolling. Itspawnsin August
or September. Its arrival is in early summer and its departure in the fall, at which season the
young are said to be found abundantly in the kelp. It feeds chiefly on anchovies and squids. As
a food-fish itis not held in high esteem, the flesh being coarse. Great numbers are salted and dried,
and are in that state considered far inferior to the barracuda and yellow-tail.”

THE SrripeD BoniTo.—The Striped Bonito, already mentioned, is distinguished from other
species by the presence of four dark lines, which begin at the pectoral fin and run along the side
of the belly to the tail, the sides of the common Bonito being of a silvery white. This species, the
Striped Bonito, is occasionally taken on the European coast, but rarely entering the Mediter-
ranean. It is found in the Pacific on the coast of China and Japan, and is the species most
commonly known to mariners as the Bonito, or Albicore, of the activity and voracity of which, as
observed from the decks of vessels at sea, so many descriptions have been written. The first
individual noticed on our coast was taken by Mr. J. H. Blake at Provincetown in J uly, 1877.
Others have since been observed at Wood’s Holl and in the New York markets.

One of the American men-of-war of Revolutionary times was named “Bonetta,” after the
fishes of this group. :

320 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Tur Lirtte Tunnies.—In addition to the Striped Bonito, which is, properly, a Tunny, there
are two other small Tunnies—the Long-finned Tunny, Orcynus alalonga, and the Silver-spotted
Tunny, Orcynus argentivittatus—which have since 1877 been added to the fauna of the United
States.

The former of these two occurs in considerable abundance on the coast of California, and is
there also known as the Albicore. Concerning it Professor Jordan writes: “This fish reaches
a weight of about twelve pounds, and is much shorter and deeper than the Bonito of the Pacific.
It is found from San Francisco southward, but is abundant only in the channels about the Santa
Barbara Islands. It seldom comes within six miles of the shore, and it is taken by trolling. It
spawns about the middle of August, its arrival on the coast being determined by the spawning
season. It usually is present in June and July and disappears in the fall. It feeds chiefly on
anchovies and squid, and various deep-water fishes (Merlucius, Sudis, Myctophum) are found in
its stomach. As a food-fish it is even less valued than the Bonito, rarely selling for more than
twenty to twenty-five cents. It is abundant, but of little economic importance, being usually
fished for by sportsmen.”

100. THE HORSE MACKEREL, TUNNY, OR ALBICORE.

The most important of the Tunnies is the so-called Horse Mackerel, or Albicore, Orcynus
thynnus, the “Ton” or “Tuna” of the Mediterranean, and the “Tunny” of English-speaking people.

The distribution of this fish corresponds more closely with that of the ordinary species of the
Atlantic, since it occurs not only in the Mediterranean and the Western Atlantic north to the Gulf
of Saint Lawrence, but also on the coast of Europe to the Loffoden Islands, latitude 69°.

The following account of this species is for the most part from the notes of Professor Baird:

Of this fish, as found in American waters, our naturalists have not much to say, the species,
although abundant at certain seasons of the year off particular parts of the coast, being not a
very familiar one to our writers. They seem to be rather a northern fish, and are said by Storer
to make their first appearance on our shores about Provincetown early in June, remaining until
October. Of late years they seem to be increasing in abundance northward, becoming more and
more common during the summer season at Newfoundland.

In 1878, Capt. Henry Webb, of Milk Island, near Gloucester, harpooned and killed thirty of
these monsters, weighing in the aggregate at least thirty thousand pounds. They had entered his
pound in pursuit of small fish, cutting without difficulty through the netting. One had his
stomach full of small mackerel.

According to Captain Atwood, on their first appearance in Massachusetts Bay they are very
poor, but by the beginning of September become quite fat and are very much hunted for the oil,
the head and belly especially furnishing sometimes as many as twenty gallons. They are har-
pooned on the surface of the water, much like the Sword-fish.

The early traditions of this fish in Massachusetts Bay speak of them as being sometimes so
tame as to take food from the hand; but they have long since given up this engaging habit.
Their flesh is not esteemed in the United States, being rarely, if ever, eaten, although much used
for mackerel bait. It is, however, more in favor in the Provinces. This species attains a very
great size. One specimen, taken in 1838 off Cape Ann, measured, according to Dr. Storer, fifteen
feet in length, and weighed one thousand pounds, while still larger individuals than this are on
record.

Their food while in our waters consists, it is said, mainly of menhaden, of which they destroy
a vast‘number. Their inclosure in the fishermen’s nets is not much desired, as they are apt to

HABITS OF THE HORSE MACKEREL. jal

become entangled in them and to do much injury in their efforts to escape. They are pursued by
the killer whales, before which they flee in great terror.

Strange to say, although highly prized in the Old World from the time of the ancient Romans
to the present day, they are seldom, if ever, used for food in this country. Although occurring
in large numbers and of remarkable size, no effort is made toward their capture; and though
not unfrequently taken in weirs and pounds along the coast, they are always allowed to rot on
the shore. Occasionally a portion of the flesh may be used as food for chickens, but seldom, if ever,
for human consumption.

In the Mediterranean the Tunny is taken in large nets, known as madragues similar in many
respects to the so-called “traps” of Seconnet River in Rhode Island. The fish are used partly fresh
and partly salted, and they are put up in oil to a considerable extent and largely consumed in all
the Latin countries of Europe. Considerable quantities are salted and canned, and canned Tunny
of European manufacture is imported to New York in small quantities. The flesh is dark and not
usually attractive, although wholesome. They appears to attain a greater size in America
than in Europe, one of five hundred pounds in the Mediterranean being considered rather a
monster, while in America their weight is not unfrequently given at from twelve to fifteen hundred
pounds.

Nothing definite is known in regard to their mode of reproduction. The eggs are said to be
deposited early in June, and the young at hatching, according to Yarrell, weigh an ounce and a
half, reaching a weight of four ounces by August, and thirty ounces by October.

Mr. Matthew Jones, of Halifax, Nova Scotia, writes: “The Tunny is very common on the eastern
coast of Nova Scotia in summer, and is known to fishermen and others as the ‘Albicore’ The Rev.
J. Ambrose informs me that it regularly visits St. Margaret’s Bay every summer, several specimens
being taken and rendered down for oil. They were particularly abundant in 1876. They are
never seen in the Basin of Minas.”

Captain Atwood contributes the following note on Horse-Mackerel in Cape Cod Bay:

“They don’t come till the weather gets warm. We don’t see them at first when we begin
setting mackerel nets, but about June they are liable to appear, and we find holes in the nets.
Sometimes in September they gill them for the sake of their oil. My brother had forty-seven holes
through one eighty-yard net in one night. When they strike a net they go right through it, and
when they go through it the hole immediately becomes round. It looks as if you could put a half
bushel through it. I said in my Lowell Institute lectures that a shark in going through a net
would roll himself up in it, but the Horse-Mackerel get right through, and the hole that they cut
could be mended in five minutes. The fishermen don’t dread them much because they do the
nets so little injury. They remain with us through the summer and early autumn, when they are
killed for the oil. When they are here they feed upon any small fish, and when menhaden were
here I have seen them drive the harbor full of them. I have seen the Horse-Mackerel swallow
dogtish whole weighing eight pounds. As fast as we got out the livers of the dogfish they would
catch them and eat them. There was a great deal of whiting here at that time. They have
almost totally disappeared. The Horse-Mackerel seems to be the enemy of all kinds of fish. There

1 Orcynus thynnus.—According to Dr. Fortin, the Horse-Mackerel is quite abundant in the Gulf of Saint Law-
rence, especially in the bay of Chaleur and of Gaspé, and also in the Straits of Belle Isle and Blancs Sablon Bay. It
is taken in inereasimg numbers in the Gulf, partly by spearing and partly by baiting. For this latter purpose strong
steel hooks are used tied to solid lines and baited with herring. This fishing is prosecuted more particularly in the
Bay of Chaleur and off Caraquette, where in 1863 over one hundred were captured. The fishing is quite exciting,
although tiresome and requiring a good deal of skill, as in the efforts of the fishes to escape they pull with such violence
as to endanger the lives of the fishermen by dragging them overboard.—Canadian Fishery Report for 1863, 62.

21 F

322 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

is nothing to trouble the Horse-Mackerel until the killer comes, and then they know it, I tell you.
Then the Horse-Mackerel willrun! Some fishermen say that they have seen a killer poke his head
out of the water with a Horse-Mackerel in his mouth. I have known a Horse-Mackerel to yield
twenty-three gallons of oil. The average size is about eight feet in length.”'

101. THE LITTLE TUNNY OR ALBICORE.

This fish, Oreynus alliteratus, known in the Gulf of Mexico, where it is confounded by the fisher-
men with other similar species, as the “ Bonito,” and in the Mediterranean by the names “Tonnina’
(Trieste), “Carcane” (Venice), and “Tauna” (Nice), has a geographical range very similar to that of
the Bonito, except that it is found in the Pacific on the east coast of Japan, and in the Malay Archi-
pelago. Ithas also been recorded from Cuba, Brazil, and the Bermudas. This active species, which
attains the weight of from thirty to forty pounds, first made its appearance in our waters in 1871,
when several large schools were observed by the Fish Commission in Buzzard’s Bay and the Vineyard
Sound. Nearly every year since, they have been seen in greater or less numbers, but, as they are
of little value for food, no effort has been made to capture them, nor are they often brought to the
markets. This species, known at the Bermudas as the ‘“ Mackerel,” is frequently seen in the
markets at Hamilton and Saint Georges.

In the Mediterranean its flesh is considered to be very excellent. My own experiments with
it are hardly confirmatory of this statement, but in Southern Europe all the fishes of this family
are very highly esteemed, and that it is not appreciated with us is perhaps due to the fact that
we do not know how to cook them. I find the following note by Professor Baird: “Flesh, when
cooked, dark brown all around the backbone, elsewhere quite dark, precisely like horse-mackerel.
Flesh very firm, compact, and sweet.”

Stearns records its frequent occurrence in the Gulf of Mexico, where he has observed indi-
vidual specimens at Pensacola and Key West. "

The habits of this fish have not been specially studied, but there is no reason to doubt that
they correspond closely with those of others of the same family.

THE CARANGOID FISHES.

The members of the family Carangide, which is closely allied to the mackerel family, are dis-
tinguished chiefly by the form of the mouth, and by the fact that they have uniformly but twenty-
four vertebre, ten abdominal and fourteen caudal, while the mackerel have uniformly more, both
abdominal and caudal. They are carnivorous fishes, abounding everywhere in temperate and
tropical seas. On our own eastern coast there are at least twenty-five species, all of them eatable,
but none of them of much importance except the Pompanoes. On the California coast there are
two or three species of this family, of small commercial importance.

102. THE SILVER MOON-FISHES.

THE BLUNT-NOSED SHINER—SELENE SETIPINNIS.

This fish, known on some parts.of the coast as the ‘ Horse-fish,” in North Carolina as the
«‘ Moonfish” or “Sunfish,” and in Cuba by the name “ Jorobado,” was called by DeKay “Blunt-nosed
Shiner,” and since this name, sometimes varied to ‘“Pug-nosed Shiner,” is in common use in the
New York market and in Narragansett Bay, while the other names are shared by other species,

1 HorsE-MACKEREL.—One weighing three hundred pounds was harpooned at Minot’s Ledge August 10, 1859, by
a seaman on the United States steamer ‘‘Granite.” Another, nine feet in length and weighing six hundred and four-
teen pounds, in Marblehead Bay about the same time.

THE BLUNT-NOSED SHINER. 323

similar and dissimilar, it seems the most suitable for general adoption. The fish is found every-
where throughout the West Indies, as well as in ‘Northern Brazil and in the Gulf of Guinea, the
Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of California, and southward along the coast to Panama, but has not
been found in Europe. In Eastern Florida it is not very unusual, being frequently taken in the
Lower Saint John’s, and sometimes driven up as far as Jacksonville by easterly storms. Here and
in the Indian River it is known as the “Moonfish.” It is a frequent summer visitor all along the
coast as far north as Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, where it has a peculiar name, the people there
calling it the “Hump-backed Butterfish.” The species attains the length of ten or twelve inches,
and is esteemed an excellent article of food. Considerable numbers are brought yearly to New
York, but elsewhere it rarely appears in the markets. Young from three inches in length
upwards are found, but we have no definite knowledge as to its breeding habits.

THE SILVER MOooNn-FISH—SELENE ARGENTEA.

This species is almost certain to be confused by fishermen with the one last described, which
it resembles and is often spoken of under the same names. It occurs abundantly on our coast as
far north as Wood's Holl, and is found in the West Indies, in Brazil, and in the Gulf of Mexico,
as well as in the Pacific, from the Gulf of California to Panama.

The young of the Silver Moon-fish is abundant in our waters, and has been frequently taken
in Massachusetts Bay, and, in one or two instances, as far north as Halifax, Nova Scotia. Their
bodies are so thin that they can be dried in the sun without the use of any preservatives, without
loss of form and color. They are, consequently, of no importance for food. In the Chesapeake
this fish is often called by the names “ Horse-head” and ‘“‘ Look-down.”

103. THE CAVALLY, THE SCAD, AND THE JURELS.
THEm CAVALLY—CARANX HIPPOS.

The Cavally of the Gulf of Mexico and Eastern Florida—the “ Horse Crevallé” of South Caro-
lina—occurs abundantly on our Southern coast, and has been recorded by Professor Poey from
Cuba and by Cope from St. Christopher and St. Croix. It is generally distributed throughout the
West Indies, and is found along the Pacific coast from the Gulf of California to Panama. The
species was originally described from specimens sent from South Carolina by Garden to Linnezus.
The name of this fish is usually written and printed ‘“Crevallé,” but the form in common use among
the fishermen of the South, ‘‘Cavally,” is nearer to the Spanish and Portuguese names, Cavalha
and Caballa, meaning “horse.” The name as used in South Carolina is a curious reduplication,
being a combination of the English and Spanish names for “horse.” It should be carefully remem-
bered that in South Carolina the name Crevallé is most generally applied to quite another fish, the
Pompano. °

The Cavally, as it seems most appropriate to call Caranx hippos, though in individual cases
occurring as far north as Cape Cod, and even, in one instance, at Lynn, Massachusetts, is not
commonly known in the United States north of Florida. Storer remarks: ‘This fish is so
seldom seen in the waters of South Carolina that we are unacquainted with its habits.” I
observed a specimen in the Jacksonville market in April, 1874. Concerning the Cavally of
Southern Florida, which is either this or a closely allied species, Mr. H. S. Williams writes:

“Tu the Indian River this is one of the best of the larger varieties. Its season is from the 1st
of May to November. It ranges in weight from three to twenty pounds, being larger and more
numerous to the southward toward the Mosquito Inlet. The south end of Merritt’s Island and
the inlets opposite old Fort Capron seem to be a sort of headquarters for the Cavalli. When in

324 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

pursuit of prey they are very ravenous and move with the rapidity of lightning. They readily
take a troll either with bait or rag. The favorite mode of capturing them, as well as all other
large fish that feed in shallow water or near the shore, is with a rifle. The high, rocky shores
afford an excellent opportunity for this sport, though the rapid movements of the fish render
them very difficult targets.”

Mr. Stearns writes: “The Crevallé is common on the Gulf coast. In West Florida it appears
in May and remains until late in the fall, and is equally abundant in the bays and at sea. In the
bays it is noticeable from the manner in which it preys upon fish smaller than itself, the Gulf
menhaden and mullet being the most common victims. On arrival it contains spawn which it
probably deposits in the salt-water bayous, for in the fall schools of young are seen coming out of
those places on their way to the sea. These young are then of about one pound weight, appearing
to the casual observer like pompano, and I ain told that they equal it for edible purposes. They
are caught accidentally by seines and trolling-lines. Large ones are not considered choice food, the
flesh being dark and almost tasteless. The average weight is twelve pounds; occasionally they
attain the size of twenty pounds.”

Professor Jordan found this species abundant in Lake Ponchartrain.

THE GOGGLER—CARANX CRUMENOPHTHALMUS.

This fish, called in the Bermudas, where it is of some importance as a food-fish, the “Goggler,”
or “ Goggle-eyed Jack,” and in Cuba the “Cicharra,” occurs in the West Indies and along the
Atlantic coast of the United States north to the Vineyard Sound. It is also found at Panama and
in the Gulf of California, and in the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, and off the coast of Guinea, while,
as has been remarked, it is abundant in the Bermudas. Its large, protrudin g eyes are very notice-
able features, and the Bermuda name seems appropriate for adoption, since the fish has with us
never received a distinctive name. In form it somewhat resembles the species last discussed, with
which it is probably often confused.

Stearns speaks of a fish, common at Key West, which is known as the “ Horse-eyed Jack,” and
this may prove to be the same species.

THE JUREL—CARANX PISQUETUS.

This fish, known about Pensacola as the “Jurel,” “‘Cojinua,” and “Hard-tail”; along the
Florida coast as “Jack-fish” and “‘Skipjack”; in the Bermudas as the “Jack” or ‘Buffalo Jack”;
‘in South Carolina as the “Horse Crevallé”; at Fort Macon as the “ Horse-Mackerel”; about New
York and on the coast of New Jersey as the “ Yellow Mackerel,” is found in the Western Atlantic
-from Brazil, Cuba, and Hayti to Halifax, Nova Scotia, where specimens were secured by the United
‘States Fish Commission in 1877. It is one of the commonest summer visitants of the West Indian
fauna along the whole coast of Southern New England and the Middle States, being especially
abundant in the Gulf of Mexico, and one of the commonest fishes in the Bermudas. This fish is
occasionally brought to the New York market, but is of no special importance as an article of food
north of the Gulf of Mexico. Concerning its habits in those waters, Mr. Stearns has contributed
a very interesting series of notes. They are especially entertaining, since nothing has previously
been known of its life-history: : ;

“Tt is extremely abundant everywhere on the Gulf coast of Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi.
At Pensacola it is one of the important fishes of trade, and is highly prized for food. It is one of
the class of migratory fishes of this coast, like the pompano, mullet, Spanish mackerel, and red-

‘fish, having certain seasons for appearing and disappearing on the coast, and also has habits during
these seasons that are peculiar to themselves or their class. It appears on the coast in April, in

THE JUREL OR HARD-TAIL. 825

small schools that swim in shoal water near the beach dyring pleasant weather, when there is little
or no surf, in eight or ten feet of water, and in stormy weather some little distance from the break-
ers. Their movement is from the eastward to the westward. As they seldom swim at the surface,
their movements can be watched only when in shoal water. The schools ‘running’ in April and
first of May are usually smaller than those of a few weeks later, but the individuals of the first are
somewhat larger. The mass, or largest ‘run,’ comes in May, and it is on the arrival of these that
schools are first seen coming in the inlets.

“ A noticeable peculiarity of the Hard-tail compared with some other common migratory fishes.
is that the first schools do not stay about the mouths of an inlet and along the beach weeks before
coming inside as those of the latter do, but continue their westward movement, without seeming
to stop to feed or play, until the time has come for a general movement towards the bays. In this
way they must be distributed along the coast, with no unequal accumulation at any one point.
When once inside, the numerous schools break up into smaller ones of a dozen or two fish, which
are found in all parts of the bay during the summer. On their arrival the larger fish contain
spawn, which in July and August becomes quite full, after which none are seen but the young fish
of about ten inches in length, until there is a general movement towards the sea. It is believed
that the adult fish spawn in the bays, but the only evidence to support that: belief is that they come
inside with spawn, go away without it, and that very young fish are found there. In October and
November small Hard-tails are caught in Santa Rosa Sound, measuring five and six inches in
length.

“The smallest of the spring run are nine or ten inches long. Adult fish measure twelve, four.
teen, and fifteen inches in length, very rarely more than the last. During the months of October
and November Hard-tails leave the bays, formed in small schools and swimming below the surface.
in deep water. The only time that they can then be seen is when they cross the ‘bars’ at the inlet.
or sandy shoals in the bay. A few stragglers remain in Pensacola Bay and Santa Rosa Sound
all winter, which are taken now and then with hook and line. I have found them in abun-.
dance in winter on the South Florida coast, where, owing to less variable conditions of the water,
their habits are decidedly different. The Hard-tail is a most voracious fish, waging active war
upon the schools of small fish. Its movements are rapid, and sometimes in its eagerness it will
jump high out of the water. It has its enemies also, for I have seen whole schools driven ashore
by sharks and porpoises; a great many are destroyed in this way. Hard-tails are caught for the.
market in seines.”

THE CUBA JUREL—CARANX FALLAX.

The occurrence of this species on our coast was first announced by a drawing made by Mr. J.
H. Richard of a fish taken in South Carolina. Upon this drawing Holbrook founded his species,
C. Richardii. Caranxz fallax occurs abundantly throughout the West Indies and along the Gulf
coast of the United States, and it is by no means impossible that stragglers should have
found their way to Charleston. According to Professor Poey, this fish has been prohibited from
sale in Cuba from time immemorial, and with good reason, since many disastrous cases of sickness
have followed its use as food. This species occurs, according to Jordan, from the Gulf of California
to Panama, and also in the East Indies.

THE RounD ROBIN—DECAPTERUS PUNCTATUS.

The Round Robin, or, as it is called at Pensacola, the “ Cigar-fish,” occurs in the Bermudas,
where it is an important food-fish; it occurs also in the West Indies and along the coast of the
United States north as far as Wood’s Holl.

326 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

A closely related species, Decapterus macarellus, is found also in the West Indies and along
the eastern coast of the United States. According to Stearns, individuals of this species are rather
rare in the northern part of the Gulf, but more common along the South Florida coast. They live
in shallow water and in harbors, usually moving about in small schools. At Key West they are
caught in seines, and are eaten.

THE SCADS—TRACHURUS SAURUS, ETC.

The Scads, known in England as the ‘ Horse-Mackerels,” appear to occur in all temperate
and tropical waters. The distribution is given by Giinther as follows: “From the coasts of the
temperate parts of Europe, along the coasts of Africa, round the Cape of Good Hope into the
East Indian seas, to the coasts of New Zealand and West America.” As has been shown by
Liitken, Steindachner, and Jordan and Gilbert, three distinct species are confounded by Giinther
under the name Trachurus trachurus.

In Europe our Scad ranges north to the Trondhjem Fjord, latitude 65°, and is said to occur
as far south as Portugal. On the coast of Holland it is known as the ‘“ Marse Banker,” or ‘ Hors.”
It is interesting to American ichthyologists, since the similarity of its habits to those of the men-
haden, so important in our waters, caused the latter fish to be called among the early Dutch colon-
ists of New York by the same name. Jiuropean writers describe the Scads as occurring upon those
coasts in schools of immense numbers, and it would seem that although their manner of swimming
resembles that of the menhaden, in their other habits they more closely resemble our own bluefish.
They are considered to be food-fishes of fair quality, and attain the length of about twelve inches.
They are supposed to spawn about the same time as the mackerel. Only three specimens of this
species have ever been taken in the United States, one by the Fish Commission in Southern New
England in 1878, and subsequently two others by Jordan and Stearns, at Pensacola. In Califor-
nia, according to Jordan, the allied species T. pictuwratus occurs and is known as the ‘“ Horse-
Mackerel.” He continues: “It reaches a length of about a foot and a weight of less than a pound.
It ranges from Monterey southward to Chili, appearing in California in the summer, remaining in
the spawning season, and disappearing before December. It arrives at Santa Barbara in July, and
at Monterey in August. In late summer it is exceedingly abundant. It forms part of the food of
larger fishes, and great numbers are salted for bait. As a food-fish it is held in low esteem, but
whether this is due entirely to its small size we do not know. It is identical with the well-known
Mediterranean species.”

THE THREAD-FISH—BLEPHARIS CRINITUS.

This fish, also known as the “Shoemaker-fish,” is found along our coast from Cape Cod to the
Caribbean Sea, as also on the Pacific coast of tropical America. It possesses no importance in
our Atlantic waters, but on account of its strange shape and the long thread-like appendages to
its fins, which float behind it to the distance of five or six times its own length, it is often brought
to the markets as a curiosity. “It is not found in California,” writes J ordan, “but in Western
Mexico it attains the length of two or three feet, and is brought to the markets for food.”

104, THE POMPANOS—TRACHYNOTUS CAROLINUS, ETC.

There are four species of Pompano in the Western Atlantic, very similar to each other in
general appearance, but easily distinguished by differences in proportion and in- the number of
fin-rays.

The commonest and by far the most important species, the Carolina Pompano, Trachynotus
carolinus, has the height of the body contained two to two and two-thirds times in the total length;
the length of the head five to five and one-third times; one of the caudal lobes four times. It has

CHARAUCTERISTICS OF THE POMPANOES. B27

twenty-four to twenty-five rays in the second dorsal, while the anterior rays of the dorsal and
anal fins, if laid backward, reach to the middle of the fin.

The Round Pompano (T. ovatus) has the height of the body contained two to two and one-third
times in the total length; the length of the head five to five and one-fourth times; one of the
caudal lobes three and a half to four times. In the second dorsal are from eighteen to twenty-one
rays, in the second anal from sixteen to nineteen, while in the Carolina Pompano there are twenty-
one to twenty-two.

The African Pompano (7. goreensis) resembles in general form the Round Pompano, though
somewhat more elongate, while the head is larger, being contained four and a half times in the
total length. The anterior rays of the dorsal and anal extend beyond the middle of the fin, if laid
backward. In the number of the fin-rays it corresponds most closely with the Round Pompano.

The Banner Pompano (T. glaucus) has a somewhat elongate body and a small head. It is
much thinner than either of the other species. Its silvery sides are marked with four blackish
vertical streaks; the best distinguishing mark is in the length of the first rays of the dorsal and
anal, which extend back nearly to the tip of the caudal fin. The name Pompano, applied in this
country to all of these fishes, is a Spanish word, one of the meanings of which is “grape-leaf.”
This name is applied in Western Europe to a very different fish.

THE ComMMON POMPANO—TRACHYNOTUS CAROLINUS.

The Common Pompano or Carolina Pompano occurs in both the Atlantic and Pacific waters
of the United States. On our eastern coast it ranges north to Cape Cod, south to Jamaica, east
to the Bermudas, and west in the Gulf of Mexico, at least as far as the mouth of the Mississippi
River. In the Pacific it is rare, and as yet known only from the Gulf of California, where it has
recently been observed by Mr. C. H. Gilbert.

In our New England and Middle States it is a summer visitor, appearing in June and July,
and departing in September. Although it is at present impossible to ascertain the lower limit of
its temperature range, it is probable that it corresponds very nearly to that indicated by a harbor
temperature of 60° to 65° Fahrenheit.

This species was described at an early day by Linnezus from South Carolina, and never had
been observed in any numbers north of Cape Hatteras until the summer of 1854, when Professor
Baird discovered them near Great Egg Harbor. In his “Report on the Fishes of New Jersey” he
states that he had seen them taken by thousands in the sandy coves on the outer beach of Beas-
ley’s Point. These, however, were young fish, few of them weighing more than half a pound.
In 1863 he obtained both species in Southern Massachusetts, where in subsequent years they
have been frequently captured.

“My first acquaintance with the Pompano in New England,” writes Professor Baird, ‘was in
1863, during a residence at Wood’s Holl, where I not unfrequently caught young ones of a few
inches in length. I was more fortunate in the summer of 1871, which I also spent at Wood’s Holl;
then the Pompano was taken occasionally, especially in Captain Spindle’s pound, and I received
at different times as many as twenty or thirty, weighing about one and one-half or two pounds
each. Quite a number were caught in Buzzard’s Bay and Vineyard Sound in 1872.”

It is « fair question whether the Pompano has recently found its way into northern waters, or
whether its presence was unknown because nobody had found the way to capture it. When
Mitchill wrote on the fishes of New York in 1842 he had access to a single specimen which had
been taken off Sandy Hook about the year 1820.

The spawning times and breeding grounds of these fishes are not well known. Mr. S. C.

328 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Clarke states that in the Indian River they spawn in March, in the open sea near New Smyrna,
Florida. It is supposed that those visiting our northern coasts breed at a distance from the shore.
The eggs, like those of the mackerel, being lighter than the water, float at or near the surface.
The Pompanoes may, however, be truly migratory, seeking the waters near the equator in winter
and following along a coastwise migration, north and south, in summer. They are rapid, power-
ful swimmers; their food consists of mollusks, the softer kinds of crustaceans, and probably the
young of other fishes. 8. C. Clarke remarks that they have been known to bite at a clam bait.
Genio Scott remarks: “It is mullet-mouthed; never takes a bait except by mistake.” Their teeth
are very small and disappear with age. As seen in the New York market they rarely exceed five
or six pounds in weight. I quote in full the observations of Mr. Stearns:

“The common Pompano is abundant on the Gulf coast from the Mississippi River to Key
West, and, as far as I can learn, is rare beyond this western limit until the Yucatan coastis reached,
where it is common. It is considered the choicest fish of the Gulf of Mexico, and has great com-
mercial demand, which is fully supplied but a few weeks in the year, namely, when it arrives in
spring. The Pompano is a migratory fish in the Pensacola region, but I think its habits ou the
South Florida coast are such that it cannot properly be so classed.

“At Pensacola it comes in to the coast in spring and goes away from it in fall, while in South
Florida it is found throughout the year. In the former section it appears on the coast in March in
schools varying in numbers of individuals from fifty to three or four thousand, which continue to
‘run’ until the latter part of May, when it is supposed that they are all inside. Their movement
is from the eastward, and they swim as near to the shore as the state of the water will permit, very
seldom at the surface so as to ripple or break the water, although sometimes while playing in shoal
water they will jump into the air.

“Before any schools enter the bays certain ones will remain for days, or even weeks, in a
neighborhood, coming to the beach during the flood-tide to feed on the shell-fish that abound there
and returning again to deeper water on the ebb-tide. The holes or gullies in the sand along the
beach are their favorite feeding-grounds on these occasions. Sharks and porpoises pursue the
Pompano incessantly, doubtless destroying many. The largest numbers come in April, and some-
times during that month the first schools are seen entering the inlets, others following almost
every day, until about June 1, when the spring run is said to be over. Every year they appear in
this way at Pensacola and adjoining bays, although there are many more some years than others.
As the abundance is judged by the quantity caught I think that the difference may lie more in
the number of fishing days (pleasant ones) than in the real numbers of fish present. The sizes of
Pompano that make up these schools are large or adult fish averaging twelve or fourteen inches
in length, and small fish (probably one year old) averaging eight inches in length. The largest
Pompano that I have seen measured nineteen and a half inches in length, and weighed six and a
quarter pounds, the extremely large fish called Pompano of two or three times that size probably
being another species. After entering the bays the schools of Pompano break up and the fish
scatter to all parts where the water is salt and there are good feeding grounds. Except single
individuals that are taken now and then, nothing is seen of Pompano until late in the fall, when
they are bound seaward. In regard to its spawning habits nothing very definite has been learned.
It has spawn half developed when it arrives and has none when it leaves the bays. Large quan-
tities of the fry are seen in the bays all summer, which is some proof of its spawning inside. In
June, 1878, I caught specimens of the fry varying in size from three-quarters of an inch to three
inches in length. Very many schools of these sizes were also observed in July and August of the
same and following years of 1879-80.

HABITS OF THE CAROLINA POMPANO. S20)

“The schools of fry go to sea in August and September. The older or.adult fish leave the
coast in September and October in small schools, that are only seen and caught at the inlets where
they happen to cross shoals or follow the beach. These Pompano of the fall are very fat and in
every way superior to those caught in the spring. As before mentioned, the Pompano is found on
the South Florida coast all the year. The sea-beach from Tampa Bay to Charlotte’s Harbor seems
to be its favorite feeding-ground owing to the quantity of shell-fish that occur there. It does not
form in large schools as in the Pensacola region, and therefore is not taken in such large quantities
by seine fishermen. ,

“Smacks from Mobile and Pensacola sometimes go to Tampa Bay for them. I have been told
that Pompano are caught at Key West in considerable quantities by hook and line, and [I have
known of a few being taken in that manner at Pensacola. It feeds entirely upon small shell-fish,
which are crushed between the bones of its pharyngeal arch.”

THE ROUND POMPANO—TRACHYNOTUS OVATUS.

The Round Pompano, in the South sometimes called the “Shore Pompano,” is known in the
Bermudas by the name “Alewife.” This fish is very often confused by market-men with the Caro-
lina Pompano, and I have seen them sold together in the Charleston market under the same name,
just as I have seen the young of four species of the herring family sold indiscriminately in New
York.

The Round Pompano is cosmopolitan in its distribution, occurring in the North and South
Atlantic, and in various parts of the Indian Ocean. The young have been obtained in the harbor
of Vineyard Haven, Massachusetts, and at Beaufort, South Carolina. It is probable that the
species is far more abundant in our waters than we now suppose it to be. About the Bermudas
they are sometimes very abundant, and in 1875 a school of them, numbering six or seven hundred,
was seined on the south shore of the islands. They are there highly esteemed for table use.

THE AFRICAN POMPANO—TRACHYNOTUS GOREENSIS.

This species, originally described trom the Island of Gorea, on the west coast of Africa,
was observed by the writer at the Bermudas in 1876, and in 1877 was discovered in Florida. It
is the largest of the Pompanos. Two or three specimens, weighing from fifteen to twenty pounds
each, have been sent from Florida to the New York market. One of these, taken at Jupiter Inlet,
was sent by Mr. Blackford to the National Museum. In the Gulf of Mexico it is not unusual,
being known at Key West as the “‘ Permit.”

Stearns remarks: ‘This fish is rather common along the lower end of the Florida Peninsula,
specimens being caught quite often in seines at Cedar Keys, and at the muliet fisheries of Sarasota
and Charlotte’s Harbor, and also Key West. It is said to attain a considerable size—fitteen or
twenty pound specimens being common. It is not a choice food-fish when so large, and even
smaller ones are comparatively dry and tasteless. I have not found it north or west of Cedar Keys.”

THE BANNER POMPANO—TRACHYNOTUS GLAUCUS.

This species is a member of the West Indian fauna, and occasionally occurs at the Bermudas.
Stearns remarks that it is obtained frequently at Pensacola with the other species, but is never
very common, is seen only in the spring, and is not valued as a food-fish. Professor Jordan
writes: “Along the Carolina and Gulf coasts it is not rare. At Pensacola it is known as the
‘ Gaff-topsail Pompano,’ and is held in low esteem.” An allied species, Trachynotus fasciatus, has
lately been noticed by Jordan and Gilbert on the Pacific side of the Isthmus of Panama.

330 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

105. THE PILOT-FISH—NAUCRATES DUCTOR.

&

The Pilot-fish, though of little or no economic importance, deserves passing mention, since it is
so frequently referred to in literature. It is occasionally taken on our coast. Captain Atwood
mentions a specimen which was taken in a mackerel net in Provincetown Harbor, in October,
1858. A whale-ship had come in a few days before, and he supposes that the Pilot-fish had fol-
lowed it into the harbor.

“The Pilot-fish (NV. ductor) is a truly pelagic fish, known in all tropical and temperate seas.
Its name is derived from its habit of keeping company with ships and large fish, especially sharks.
It is the Pompilus of the ancients, who describe it as pointing out the way to dubious or embar-
rassed sailors, and as announcing the vicinity of land by its sudden disappearance. It was there-
tore regarded as a sacred fish. The connection between the shark and the Pilot-fish has received
various interpretations, some observers having, perhaps, added more sentiment than is warranted
by the actual facts. It was stated that the shark never seized the Pilot-fish; that the latter was
of great use to its big companion in conducting it and showing it the way to its food. Dr. Meyer,
in his ‘Reise um die Erde,’ states: ‘The Pilot swims constantly in front of the shark; we ourselves
have seen three instances in which the shark was led by the Pilot. When the shark neared the
ship the Pilot swam close to the snout, or near one of the pectoral fins of the animal. Sometimes
he darted rapidly forwards or sidewards, as if looking for something, and constantly went back
again to the shark. When we threw overboard a piece of bacon fastened on a great hook, the
shark was about twenty paces from the ship. With the quickness of lightning the Pilot came up,
smelt at the dainty, and instantly swam back again to the shark, swimming many times round his
snout and splashing as if to give him exact information as to the bacon. The shark now began to
put himself in motion, the Pilot showing him the way, and in a moment he was fast upon the
hook. Upon a later occasion we observed two Pilots in sedulous attendance on a blue shark
which we caught in the Chinese Sea. It seems probable that the Pilot feeds on the shark’s excre-
ments, keeps his company for that purpose, and directs his operations solely from this selfish
view.’ We believe that Dr. Meyer’s opinion, as expressed in his last words, is perfectly correct.
The Pilot obtains a great part of his food directly from the shark, in feeding on the parasitic crus-
taceans with which sharks and other large fish are infested, and on the smaller pieces of flesh
which are left unnoticed by the shark when it tears its prey. The Pilot, also, being a small fish,
obtains greater security when in company of a shark, which would keep at a distance all other
fishes of prey that would be likely to prove dangerous to the Pilot. Therefore, in accompanying
the shark, the Pilot is led by the same instinct which makes it follow.a ship.

“With regard to the statement that the Pilot itself is never attacked by the shark, all observ-
ers agree as to its truth; but this may be accounted for in the same way as the impunity of the
swallow from the hawk, the Pilot-fish being too nimble for the unwieldy shark.

‘‘The Pilot-fish does not always leave the vessels on their approach to land. In summer,
when the temperature of the sea-water is several degrees above the average, Pilots will follow
ships to the south coast of England into the harbor, where they are generally speedily caught.
Pilot-fish attain a length of twelve inches only. When very young their appearance differs so
much from the mature fish that they have been described as a distinct genus, Nauclerus. This fry
is exceedingly common in the open ocean, and constantly obtained in the tow-net ; therefore the
Pilot-fish retains its pelagic habits also during the spawning season, and some of the spawn found
by voyagers floating on the surface is, without doubt, derived from this species.”?

1In this instance one may entertain reasonable doubts as to the usefulness of the Pilot to the shark.
2GUnTHER: Study of Fishes, p. 414.

HABITS OF THE PILOT-FISH. 331

The Pilot-fish has been observed in one or two instances about New York, and has also been
recorded from South Carolina. It is, however, rare in the Western Atlantic, and our museums have
very few specimens.

106. THE AMBER-FISHES AND THE LEATHER-JACKETS.

THE AMBER-FISH—SERIOLA CAROLINENSIS.

Mr. Silas Stearns writes concerning the habits of this fish in the Gulf of Mexico:

“The Amber-fish is quite common off the West Florida coast, occurring in from ten to thirty
fathoms of water on or near the ‘snapper banks’ throughout the year. It is a very active fish,
swimming just below the water’s surface, preying upon schools of small fish. It is rather shy of
a baited hook, and but few are caught. It is a good food-fish. It attains a size of forty inches
length and fifteen pounds weight. Its average size but little more than half that.” It is also,
according to Jordan, rather common on the Carolina coast, where it is known as the ‘‘Jack-fish.”

THE PENSACOLA Rock SALMON—SERIOLA FALCATA.

The “Rock Salmon” of Pensacola, Seriola falcata, is recorded by Stearns as occasionally
occurring near Pensacola in company with the preceding species, which it resembles in habits. It
is caught with hook and line and is eaten; in his opinion, it attains a larger size than the Amber-
fish. There is a third species of Amber-fish of which the National Museum has received a single
specimen from South Florida. It is closely related to the fish described by Cuvier under the name
Seriola Lalandii. The same species is sometimes sent to the New Orleans market, where an
example was seen by Professor Jordan.

THE CALIFORNIA YELLOW-TAIL—SERIOLA DORSALIS.

Another closely allied species, Seriola dorsalis, occurs on the coast of California, where, accord-
ing to Jordan, it is known under the names “ Yellow-tail,” “ White Salmon,” and “Cavasina.”

Of the “Yellow-tail,” Professor Jordan says: ‘It reaches a length of four to five feet, and a
weight of thirty to forty pounds, and individuals of less than fifteen pounds weight are rarely seen.
It ranges from Cape San Lucas northward to the Santa Barbara and Coronados Islands, where
itis found in great abundance in the spawning season, arriving in July, and departing in early
fall. It spawns about August 18. It is caught chiefly by trolling. It feeds on squid and such
fish as the anchovy and sardine. As a fresh fish it ranks high, although large individuals are
sometimes coarse and tough. When salted and dried it is inferior to none on the coast, ranking
with the white-fish and barracuda.”

THE BANDED RUDDER-FISH—SERIOLA ZONATA.

This species has been observed as far north as Salem and Beverly, Massachusetts. Several
specimens have been taken north of Cape Cod during the past forty years. It is a small fish,
rarely exceeding six or eight inches in length, conspicuous by reason of its brilliant and beautiful
colors, and good to eat, though rarely saved by the fishermen who accidentally capture it. It is
called in Southern New England the ‘“‘Rudder-fish” on account of its resemblance to the Rudder-
fish of the ocean, Naucrates ductor.

Tort MEDREGAL—SERIOLA FASCIATA.

This fish, called in Cuba the “ Medregal” and in Bermuda the “ Bonito”, has been observed in
South Florida and along the coasts of the Carolinas. It is apparently exceedingly rare in the

332 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

waters of the United States. In Bermuda it attains a length of two feet or more, and is highly
esteemed as a food-fish.

Tue LYATHER-JACKET—OLIGOPLITES SAURUS.

This fish, which is found throughout the West Indies and south as far as Bahia, and on the
Pacific coast of Mexico and Central America, has since 1875 been several times observed between
Florida and Newport, Rhode Island. It is known to fishermen as the “Skipjack,” sharing this
name with a number of other scombroid fishes which leap from the water as they pursue their
prey. Itis one of the most beautiful and graceful fishes in our waters, but at present is of no
economic importance, its flesh being hard and dry.

THE RUNNER—ELAGATIS PINNULATUS.

This West Indian fish, known at Key West as “Skipjack” or “Runner,” and at Pensacola as
“Yellow-tail” or “ Shoemaker,” is, according to Stearns, “‘abundant on the western and southern
coasts of Florida. At Pensacola it spawns in spring; the young fish are seen in July and August.
It is found in the bays and along the sea-beaches, seeming to prefer clear, salt water, swift currents,
and sandy bottoms. It usually moves in small schools of a dozen or two individuals. It feeds
upon small fishes and crustaceans. When pursued by larger fish it jumps repeatedly from the
water, very much in the same manner as the flying fish, only its flights are much shorter and
oftener repeated. This habit has given it the names of ‘Skipjack’ and ‘Runner’ at Key West,
where it may be seen at almost any time. It is sometimes eaten at Key West, and at Havana is
quite an important fish in the markets, being also exposed for sale at stands on the streets, cooked
and ready for use.”

107. THE DOLPHINS—CORYPHANIDZ.

The Dolphins are found usually in mid-ocean, where they feed upon other pelagic fishes, such
as the flying-fish. They are strong, rapid swimmers, and are widely distributed throughout all
temperate and tropical waters. The name Dolphin is wrongly applied to them, being the peculiar
property of a group of small cetaceans. They are often caught by sailors at sea, and are considered
most excellent food. It is an almost universal custom before eating them to test the flesh by
putting a piece of silver into the vessel in which they have been cooked, it being a common belief
that if the flesh is poisonous the silver will turn dark. Narratives of ocean voyages abound in
descriptions of the beautiful colors of the Dolphin and the brilliant changes of hue exhibited by
the dying fish. There are in the Atlantic two species of Dolphins, though the number was,
until lately, supposed to be very much greater. But one of these, Coryphena hippurus, is definitely
known from our shores.

The young, less than two feet in length, are beautifully marked with numerous small circular
spots, and have, until lately, been considered by many writers to belong to a distinct genus and
species. Dolphins are abundant also, it is said, in the Gulf of Mexico.

THE STROMATHOID FISHES.

108. THE RUDDER-FISH FAMILY—STROMATEIDZ.

The family Stromateide is represented ou the east coast by three species, two of which are
important food-fishes, and in our Pacific waters by one species, the so-called “California Pom-
pano.” The family is a small one, and is widely distributed throughout the warm seas.

THE BUTTER-FISH OR DOLLAR-FISH. 333

THE BUTTER-FISH—STROMATEUS TRIACANTHUS.

The “ Butter-fish” of Massachusetts and New York, sometimes known in New Jersey as the
“ Harvest-fish,” in Maine as the “ Dollar-fish,” about Cape Cod as the “Sheepshead” and “‘Skip-
jack,” in Connecticut as the “Pumpkin-seed,” and at Norfolk as the “Star-fish,” is common
between Cape Cod and Cape Henry. It has been observed south to South Carolina and north to
Maine. It has been found in some abundance along the north side of Cape Cod in nets with
bass and mackerel. It is a summer visitor, appearing in our waters in company with the mackerel
and disappearing about the same time. It appears to breed in the sounds and in the open ocean
jn June and July, and the young are found in great abundance in July, August, and September,
swimming about in company with certain species of jelly-fish. During these months several large
species of jelly-tish, or sun-squalls, are found abundantly floating about in waters near the shore,
and each one of these is almost invariably accompanied by ten or twelve, or more, young Butter-
fishes, which seem to seek shelter under their disks, and which, perhaps, may obtain a supply of
food from among the numerous soft-bodied invertebrates which are constantly becoming attached
to the floating streamers of their protectors. The young fish, thus protected, range from two to
two and a half inches in length. I have seen fifteen, and more, sheltered under an individual of
Cyanea arctica not more than three inches in diameter. This refuge is not always safe for the
little fishes, for they sometimes are destroyed by the tentacles of their protector, which are provided,
as every one knows, with powerful lasso cells. The little fish seem to rise at the approach of
danger and seek refuge among the lobes of the actinostome. They are, of course, thus safe from
the attacks of many kinds of larger fishes which prey upon them, but they themselves often fall
victims to the stinging power of the jelly-fish and are devoured. The habit of thus seeking shelter
is very much like that of the rudder-fish. The Butter-fish attains an average size of seven or eight
inches in length, and is very often taken in the pounds. The fishermen of Noank, Connecticut, tell
me that often a barrelful of them is taken in one haul of a pound-net. They are much valued for
food at New Bedford. When sent to New York they command a good price, and the poundmen
at Lobsterville sometimes eat them and consider them better than scup. ‘Their flavor is excellent,
resembling that of the mackerel, though less oily; it is very palatable when nicely broiled. At
many places, for instance, Noank and Wood’s Holl, they are thrown away. Storer stated that they
were extensively used as manure in certain parts of Massachusetts. No observations have been
made upon their food, though, since their mouths are nearly toothless, it seems probable that they
subsist, for the most part, upon minute vertebrates. These fishes are remarkable on account of
their brilliant, iridescent colors, which, in freshly caught individuals, are as beautiful as those of
a dolphin.

THE HARVEST-FISH—STROMATEUS ALEPIDOTUS.

This species has not been observed north of New York. Mitchill referred to it in his work on
the fishes of New York, published in 1815, saying that it derived its common name, “ Harvest-fish,”
from the fact that it usually appeared during harvest time. DeKay, too, mentions having had
several specimens in his possession. It is somewhat abundant at the mouth of the Chesapeake
and along the Southern coast. In the Gulf of Mexico it is rather rare; occasionally it is taken
in seines at Pensacola. Dr. Giinther, in his “‘Catalogue of the Fishes of the British Museum,” makes
the astounding statement that he has seen specimens from Lake Champlain. The species ranges
south to Bahia, Brazil. It is not commercially valuable except at Norfolk, Virginia, where it is
consumed for food in large quantities, its market name being “‘ Whiting.”

334 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Tur CALIFORNIA POMPANO—STROMATEUS SIMILLIMUS.

The California Pompano, Stromateus simillimus, is thus described by Professor Jordan:

‘“‘This species, known here as the Pompano, reaches a length of eight inches and a weight of
rather less than half a pound. It occurs along the entire coast of California and Oregon, being
most abundant about Santa Barbara and Soquel, and is not known from farther south than San
Diego. It appears in schools chiefly in the summer and fall; occasionally, also, during the winter,
its times of arrival and departure being quite variable. It is said that it was an extremely rare
visitant till about 1870, and that its abundance since then has steadily increased, it being now
often found in greater quantities than can be readily sold. It feeds on worms, small crustacea, &c.
Nothing special is known of its breeding habits. As a food-fish it is held in the highest repute,
the price of individual fish ranging from two to four for a ‘quarter. Its flesh is fat, rich, and
excellent.”

THE BLACK RUDDER-FISH—LIRUS PERCIFORMIS.

This fish is also called by the fishermen ‘‘Log-fish” and “ Barrel-fish.” It has been observed
at various points along our coast from New Jersey to Nova Scotia, where schools of them were
several times observed off Halifax in 1877. It has hitherto been considered very rare north of
Cape Cod. I cannot doubt that it will be hereafter found at least as far south as Cape Hatteras
and probably along the whole length of our Atlantic coast. The habits of this fish are peculiar in
the extreme. They are almost always found in the vicinity of floating barrels and spars, some-
times inside of the barrels; hence the fishermen often call them “Barrel-fish,” though the most
usual name is “‘Rudder-fish.” They are occasionally taken in lobster-pots. When cruising in the
Fish Commission yacht “ Mollie,” off Noman’s Land, July 13, 1875, we observed numerous specimens
swimming under floating spars and planks. Sometimes as many as from fifty to seventy-five were
observed under a single spar, a cloud of shadowy black forms being plainly visible from the deck.
We went out to them in a row-boat and succeeded in taking thirteen of them in the course of a
day. After the first thrusts of the dip-net they grew shy and sought refuge under the boat, under
which they would sink far below our reach. A lull of a few moments would bring them back to
the log under which they had clustered until disturbed again. When the boat was rowed away
they followed in a close-swimming school until we gained full speed, when they suddenly turned, as
if by one impulse, and swam back to the log or spar. Once they followed us about two hundred
yards from the spar, and then leaving us retreated to their old shelter, reaching it some time before
we could turn the boat and row back to it. I had before this supposed them to be quite unusual,
but on this one day we must have seen two hundred or two hundred and fifty at the lowest com-
putation. They doubtless have gained the name of Rudder-fish from the sailors who have seen
them swimming about the sterns of becalmed vessels.

When the Fish Commission steamer has been dredging off Halifax, I have several times
noticed schools of them hovering around her sides. They doubtless gather around the logs for the
purpose of feeding upon the bydroids and minute crustaceans and perhaps mollusca which
accumulate areund them. Their stomachs were found to contain amphipod crustaceans, hydroids,
and young squids. They are doubtless to some degree protected by the spars under which they
congregate, in the same manner as their kindred, the Butter-fish, which swim under the disk of the
jelly-fish. Their colors undergo considerable change from time to time, possibly at the will of
the fish.

The Rudder-fish attains the length of ten or twelve inches, and is excellent eating. DeKay
states that the fishermen of New York, in 1842, called this PPRCSs the “Snip-nosed Mullet,” but
this name does not appear to have become permanent.

THE DORY, HEN-FISH, AND OPAH FAMILIES. 335

109. THE DORY, HEN-FISH, AND OPAH FAMILIES.
THE Dory FAMILY—ZENID &.

The fishes of this family are found in all temperate and tropical seas. The Boar-fish and the
John Dory, both somewhat important species in Great Britain, are members of this and related
families. A single specimen, recorded by Storer and Gill, the species which is peculiar to America
and described under the name Zenopsis ocellatus, was taken off Provincetown.

THE HEN-FISH FAMILY—BRAMID &.

The only member of this family of interest to us is the Brama Raii, called “Pomfret” in
Bermuda, where a few individuals were observed by the writer in 1876. In 1880 an individual
was obtained on the Grand Bank of Newfoundland, and more recently the species has been found
to be somewhat abundant on the coast of Washington Territory and Vancouver’s Island. This
species was described from the coast of South America under the name Brama chilensis.

THEr OpaAH FAMILY—LAMPRIDID 2%.

This family is represented in the Atlantic by a single species, Lampris guttatus, a pelagic fish,
which appears to be more abundant in the deep waters of northern seas than elsewhere. It has
been observed at many points upon the Norwegian coast, about Iceland and Madeira, as well as in
the Mediterranean, but is of unusual occurrence everywhere, except perhaps about Madeira. On
the coast of England it is one of the great rarities, and is much sought for by collectors on
account of its beauty. It is said to be one of the most brilliantly colored fishes known—“‘red
and green, with tints of purple and gold dotted over with silvery round spots. Iris of the eye is
scarlet, and fins of lively red.” A specimen was obtained years ago near Sable Island, Nova Scotia,
and the species will doubtless be found still nearer our shores. It is said that no young speci-'
mens have yet been seen. The species attains the length of four feet and more, and is said to be
very excellent for eating.

110. THE CUTLASS-FISH—TRICHIURUS LEPTURUS.

This fish is unfortunately known in Eastern Florida and at Pensacola as the “Sword-fish”; at
New Orleans, in the Saint John’s River, and at Brunswick, Georgia, it is known as the “ Silver
Eel,” on the coast of Texas as “Sabre-fish,” while in the Indian River region it is called the
“Skipjack.” No one of these names is particularly applicable, and the latter being preoccupied,
it would seem advantageous to use in this country the name “ Cutlass-fish,” which is current for
the same species in the British West Indies.

Its appearance is very remarkeble on account of its long, compressed form and its glistening
silvery color. The name “Scabbard-fish,” which has been given to an allied species in Europe,
would be very proper also for this species, for in shape and general appearance it looks very like the
metallic scabbard of the sword. It attains the length of four or five feet, though ordinarily not
exceeding twenty-five or thirty inches. This species is found in the tropical Atlantic, on the coast
of Brazil, in the Gulf of California, the West Indies, the Gulf of Mexico, and north to Wood’s Holl,
Massachusetts, where, during the past ten years, specimens have occasionally been taken. In
1845 one was found at Wellfleet, Massachusetts; and in the Essex Institute is a specimen which
is said to have been found in Salem Harbor. The species occurs also on the coast of Europe, two
specimens having been found on the shores of the Moray Frith many years ago, and during the past
decade it has become somewhat abundant in Southern England. It does not, however, enter the
Mediterranean. Some writers believe the allied species, Trichiurus haumela, found in the Indian

°

336 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Ocean and Archipelago and in various parts of the Pacific, to be specificaliy the same. The
Cutlass-fish is abundant in the Saint John’s River, Florida, in the Indian River region, and in the
Gulf of Mexico. Several instances were related to me in which these fish had thrown themselves
from the water into row-boats, a feat which might be very easily performed by a lithe, active
species like the Trichiurus. A small one fell into a boat crossing the mouth of the Arlington
River, where the water is nearly fresh.’

Many individuals of the same species are taken every year at the mouth of the Saint John’s
River, at Mayport. Stearns states that they are caught in the deep waters of the bays about
Pensacola, swimming nearly at the surface, but chiefly with hooks and lines from the wharves.
He has known them to strike at the oars of the boat and at the end of the ropes that trailed in the
water. At Pensacola they reach a length of twenty to thirty inches, and are considered good food-
fish. Richard Hill states that at Jamaica this species is much esteemed, and is fished for assidu-
ously in a “hole,” as it is called, that is,a deep portion of the waters off Fort Augusta. This is
the best fishing place for the Cutlass-fish, Trichiurus. The fishing takes place before day; all
lines are pulled in as fast as they are thrown out, with the certainty that the Cutlass has been
hooked. As many as ninety boats have been counted on this fishing ground at day-break during
the season. All carry on this kind of uninterrupted hauling in of fish.

A closely allied species, Lepidopus caudatus, is the “Scabbard-fish” of Europe, which also occurs
in the Gulf of California. In New Zealand it is called the “ Frost-fish,” and is considered the most
delicious food-tish of the colony.

111. THE SWORD-FISH FAMILY—XIPHIIDZ.

Although it may not seem desirable at present to accept in full the views of Dr. Litken
regarding the specific unity of the Spear-fishes and the Sail-fishes of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans,
it is convenient in discussing their geographical distribution to group the different species in the
manner he has suggested.

The Sword-fish, Xiphias gladius, ranges along the Atlantic coast of America from Jamiaca,
latitude 18° N., Cuba, and the Bermudas, to Cape Breton, latitude 47°. It has not been seen at
Greenland, Iceland, or Spitzbergen, but occurs according to Collet, at the North Cape, latitude 71°.
It is abundant along the coasts of Western Europe, entering the Baltic and the Mediterranean. I can
find no record of the species on the west coast of Africa south of the Cape Verdes, though Liitken,
who may have access to facts unknown to me, states that they occur clear down to the Cape of
Good Hope, South Atlantic in mid-ocean, west coast of South America and north to Southern
California, latitude 34°, New Zealand, and in the Indian Ocean off Mauritius. Good authorities
state that sperm-whales, though constantly passing Cape Horn, never round the Cape of Good
Hope. Can this be true in the case of the Sword-fish ?

The Sail-fish, Histiophorus gladius (with H. americanus and H. orientalis, questionable species,
and H. pulchellus and H. immaculatus, young), ovcurs in the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Malay Archi-
pelago, and south at least as far as the Cape of Good Hope, latitude 35° §.; in the Atlantic on
the coast of Brazil, latitude 30° 8. to the equator, and north to Southern New England, latitude
42° N.; in the Pacific to Southwestern Japan, latitude 30° to 10° N. In a general way the range
may be said to be in tropical and temperate seas, between latitude 30° S. and 40. N., and in the
western parts of those seas.

The Bill-fish or Spear-fish, Tetrapturus indicus (with various related forms, which may or may not
be specifically identical, occurs in the Western Atlantic from the West Indies, latitude 10° to 20° N.,

'Exsiliens ex aquis swpe in cymmbam.—LINNzUs.

RANGE OF TUE SPEAR.-FISH. pat

to Southern New England, latitude 42° N.; in the Eastern Atlantic, from Gibraltar, latitude 45° N.,
to the Cape of Good Hope, latitude 30° 8.; in the Indian Ocean, the Malay Archipelago, New
Zealand, latitude 40° S., and on the west coast of Chili and Peru. In a general way, the range is
between latitude 40° N. and latitude 40° S.

The species of Tetrapturus which we have been accustomed to call 7. albidus, abundant about
Cuba, is not very unusual on the coast of Southern New England. Several are taken every year
by the Sword-fish fishermen. I have not known of their capture along the Southern Atlantic
coast of the United States. All I have known about were taken between Sandy Hook and the
eastern part of George’s Banks.

The Mediterranean Spear-fish, Tetrapturus belone, appears to be a land-locked form, never
passing west of the Straits of Gibraltar.

NAMES OF THE SwWORD-FISH.—The names all have reference to its most prominent feature,
the prolonged snout. The “Sword-fish” of our own tongue, the “Zwaard-jis” of the Hollander,
the Italian “ Sifio” and “ Pesce-spada,” the Spaniard’s “Espada,” ‘“Lspadarte,” and varied by “Pez
de spada” in Cuba, and the French “ Espadon,” “Dard,” and Epée de Mer,” are simply variations
of one theme, repetitions of the “Gladius” of ancient Italy, and “Yiphias,” the name by which
Aristotle, the father of zoology, called the same fish twenty-three hundred years ago. The French
“EHmpereur,” and the “Imperador” and ‘Ocean King-fish” of the Spanish and French West Indies,
carry out the same idea; the Roman emperor was always represented holding a drawn sword in
his hand. The Portuguese names are “Agulha” and “Agulhao,” meaning “needle” or “needle-fish.”

This species has been particularly fortunate in escaping the numerous redescriptions to which
almost all widely distributed forms have been subjected. By the writers of antiquity it was spoken
of under its Aristotelian name, and in the tenth edition of his Systema Nature, at the very
inception of binomial nomenclature, Linneus called it Xiphias gladius. By this name it has been
known ever since, and only one additional name is included in its synonymy, Xiphias Rondeletii,
Leach.

The Sword-fish has been so long and so well known that its right to its peculiar name has
seldom been infringed upon. The various species of Tetrapturus have sometimes shared its title,
and this is not to be wondered at, since they closely resemble Xiphias gladius, and the appellative
has frequently been applied to the family Xiphiide—the Sword. fish family—which includes them all.

The name “ Bill-fish,” usually applied to the Tetrapturus albidus, a fish of the Sword-fish family
often taken on our coast, and described below, is objectionable, since it is in many districts used for
the various species of Belonide, the “ gar-fishes” or “green-bones” (Belone truncata and others),
which are members of the same fauna. “Spear-fish” is a much better name.

The “Sail-fish,” Histiophorus americanus, is called by sailors in the south the “Boohoo” or
“Woohoo.” This is evidently a corrupted form of “Guebucu,” a name, apparently of Indian origin,
given to the same fish in Brazil. It is possible that the Tetrapturus is also called ‘“ Boohoo,” since
the two genera are not sufficiently unlike to impress sailors with their differences. Bleeker states
that in Sumaha the Malays call the related species H. gladius by the name “Joohoo” (Juhu), a
curious coincidence. The names may have been carried from the Malay Archipelago to South
America, or vice versa, by neighbors.

In Cuba the Spear-fishes are called “Aguja” and “ Aguja de Palada”; the Sail-fish, “Aguja,
Prieta” or “Aguja Voladora”; Tetrapturus albidus is specially known as the “Aguja Blanca,”
T. albidus as the ‘‘Agujade Casta.”

In the West Indies and Florida the scabbard-fish or silvery hair-tail, Trichiurus lepturus, a
form allied to the Xiphias, though not resembling it closely in external appearance, is often called

22 F

*

338 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS. °

“ Sword-fish.” The body of this fish is shaped like the blade of a saber, and its skin has a bright
metallic luster like that of polished steel; hence the name.

The various species of sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus and Pygosteus pungitius, are known
as “Little Sword-fish” by the boys of Portland, Maine, and vicinity. The spines, damaging in the
extreme to small fingers of tyro fish-gatherers, give reason to the name.

Sail-fish appear to occur throughout the tropical and southern parts of the Atlantic and the
Indian Ocean. Its names, wherever it may be found, point to the most striking characters. In
Marcgrave’s time the Portuguese of Brazil called it ‘“Bicuda,” referring to its snout, and Rochefort,
in his “History of the West Indies,” calls it ‘“Bécasse de Mer”; a bécasse being a long snouted bird
like a woodcock or a suipe, while in the Malay Archipelago the Dutch call it “ Zee-snip” or “Sea-
snipe.” The Malays of Amboyna called it the “ Ikan-lzyer” or Fan-fish, in allusion to the fan-like
movements of its dorsal fin, while those of Sumatra called it “ Ikanjegan” or “Sail-fish.” The
French “ Voilier” and the Dutch “ Zeyl-fisch” and “ Bezaan fisch” mean the same; a bezaan being the
sail upon the mizzen mast of a ship. The family name is “‘Myl-meen,” signifying “ Peacock-fish.”
The names “Boohoo” and ‘‘Woohoo” have already been referred to.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND MOVEMENTS.—The Sword-fish was known to Pliny, who
wrote: “The Sword-fish, called in Greeke Xiphias, that is to say in Latin Gladius, a sword, hath
a beake or bill sharp pointed, wherewith he will drive through the sides and plankes of a ship,
and bouge them so, that they shall sinke withall. The experience whereof is scene in the ocean,
neare to a place in Mauritania called Gotta, which is not far from the river Lixos,”!

Many other classical and medieval writers made curious allusions to the Sword-fish. The
summary of their views is given by Bloch, and is quoted below. This summary is very satisfactory
though the skepticism of this author is sometimes a little excessive:

“This fish is found in the North Sea and the Baltic, but is rare in those waters. In the Med-
iterranean, however, it is very abundant. It lives for the most part in the Atlantic, where in
winter it is found in mid-ocean. In spring it appears on the coast of Sicily, where its eggs are
deposited on the bottom in great numbers. However, according to what I have been told by the
illustrious Chevalier Hamilton, it is never seen in that region more than three or four feet long.
The larger ones, often weighing four or five hundred pounds, and eighteen to twenty feet long, are
found on the coast of Calabria, where they appear in June and July. Pliny remarked that they
often exceed the dolphin in size.

“Various writers have spoken of the <Braperor of the Sea’ as occurring in the Baltic. Olea-
rius and Schelhammer record its capture near Holstein; Schoneveld mentions one from Mecklen-
burg; Walbaum one from the vicinity of Liibeck; Hanover and Klein one from the vicinity of
Danzig; Hartmann one from near Pillau, and Wolf another taken near Kénigsberg.

“One mentioned by Schoneveld as taken near Mecklenburg was so large that it required two
strong horses to draw it from the water. The body, without the sword, was eleven feet long, the
sword three. The eyes were as large as hens’ eggs, and the tail was two feet broad. Of four seen
by Professor Koelpin during his stay at Greifswald, one measured more than three and one-half
feet in circumference.

“These fish, according to the story of the Chevalier Hainilton, aly ey S$ appear in pairs as they
approach Messina, a female and a male together.

“This fish lives upon marine plants and fish. It has such a terrible defensive weapon that
other voracious fishes do not dare to attack it. According to Aristotle, it is, like the tunny, tor-
mented by an insect, and in its fury leaps out of the sea and even into vessels. According to

1 Holland’s Pliny, ii, p. 428.

BLOCH ON THE SWORD-FISH. 339

Statius Miiller, the skin is phosphorescent at night. Although such large fishes are not usually
well flavored, this one is considered palatable. Pieces of the belly and the tail are especially
esteemed, and hence they are expensive. The fins are salted and sold under the name ‘callo’. .

“ Alian errs in saying that it enters fresh water, and in cataloguing it among the fishes of the
Danube.”

ALLUSIONS TO THE SWORD-FISH IN AMERICA BY EARLY WRITERS.—The ancient city of
Siena, secluded and almost forgotten among the hills of Northern Italy, should have a peculiar
interest for Americans. Here Christopher Columbus was educated, and here, in the height of his
triumphs as a discoverer, he chose to deposit a memento of his first voyage across the seas. His
votive offering hangs over the portal of the vld collegiate church, closed for many years, and rarely
visited save by enterprising American tourists. It consists of the helmet and armor worn by the
discoverer when he first planted his feet on New World earth, his weapons, and the weapon of a
warrior killed by his party when approaching the American coast—the sword of a Sword-fish.'

It is not probable that Columbus, or some of his crew, seafaring men of the Mediterranean,
had never seen the Sword-fish. Still, its sword was treasured up by them, and has formed for
more than four centuries and a half a striking feature in the best preserved monument of the
discoverer of America.

The earliest allusion in literature to the existence of the Sword-fish in the Western Atlantic
seems to occur in Josselyn’s “Account of Two Voyages to New England,” printed in 1674, in the
following passage:

First Voyage:—“The Twentieth day, we saw a great number of Sea-bats, or Owles, called
also flying fish, they are about the bigness of a Whiting, with four tinsel wings, with which they
fly as long as they are wet, when pursued by other fishés. Here likewise we saw many Grand
pisces, or Herring-hogs, hunting the scholes of Herrings, in the afternoon we saw a great fish
called the Vehuella or Sword-fish, having a long, strong and sharp finn like a Sword-blade on the
top of his head, with which he pierced our Ship, and broke it off with striving to get loose, one of
our Sailors dived and brought it aboard.”

A half century later I find a reference in Catesby’s work.’

Pennant, though aware of the statement made by Catesby, refuses the species a place in his
“List of the Fishes of North America,”*? supposing him to refer to the orca or high-finned killer-
whale: ‘I am not certaia whether Catesby does not mean the high-finned Cachalot by his Sword-
fish; yet, as it is found in most seas, even to those of Ceylon (Mr. Sotur), I give it a place here.”

Catesby’s testimony was soon confirmed by Dr. Alexander Garden. This enthusiastic col-
lector, through whose correspondence with Liunzeus so many of our Southern plants and animals
were first brought to knowledge and named, writes to John Ellis, from Charleston, South Carolina,
March 25, 1755: “I have sent you one of the rostrums of a fish found on the Florida coast, which
I take to bea species of the Ziphias rostr. apice ensiforme, pinnis ventralibus nullis I have been
told that they are frequently found on the Carolina coast, though I have never seen any of them,
and I have been all along the coast to the Florida shore.”* (Vol. i, p. 353.)

1 For this fact, which I do not remember to have ever seen on record, I am indebted to Col. N. D. Wilkins, of
the Detroit Free Press, who visited the locality in 1879.

2 Historia Naturalis Caroline, &c., 1731.

3 Arctic Zoology, iii, 1784, p. 364.

4The name by which this fish was designated in the earlier editions of Linnzus’s writings.

5A Selection of the Currespoudence of Linnzus and other Naturalists, from the original manuscripts. By Sir
James Edward Smith, M.D., F. 1. S., &¢., prsident of the Linnwan Society. In two volumes London. Printed
for Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown, Paternoster Row, 1821.

340 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Another allusion occurs in a communication by Tor. S. I. Mitchill, of New York, to the
“American Monthly Magazine”:

“An individual of this species was taken off Sandy Hoos, by means of a harpoon, on the
19th June, 1817. The next day it was brought to New York market and cut up like halibut and
sturgeon for food. The length was about twelve feet, and girth, by estimation, five. . . . The
stomach contained seven or eight mackerel. The flesh was remarkably firm; it was purchased at
a quarter of a dollar the pound. I tasted a chop of it, broiled, and found it savory and excellent.
It resembled the best sturgeon, without its strong and oily flavor. While I ate it I thought of
veal cutlet. . . . Ihave been informed by my friend John Renny that a Sword-fish sixteen
feet long was exhibited at New York in the year 1791.”

DISTRIBUTION IN THE EASTERN ATLANTIC.—The Sword-fish is abundant in the Mediterra-
nean? even as far east as Constantinople. lian said that it was frequent in the Black Sea,
entering the Danube. Unfortunately, this is neither confirmed nor contradicted by any later
writer whose works I have seen. lian says that this species, with several others, is frequently
taken in the Danube at the breaking up of the ice in spring. This is so contrary to the known
habits of the fish that it throws discredit on the whole story, for the present at least. From the
entrance to the Mediterranean they range south to Cape Town. Berthelot saw great numbers of |
them off the Canaries. They have been frequently noticed on the coasts of Spain and France.
They occur sparingly in summer in the British waters, even to the Orkneys and the Hebrides.
They occasionally reach Sweden and Norway, where Linnzus observed them, and, according to
Liitken, have been taken on the coast of Finmark. They are kuown to have occurred in Danish
waters and to have found their way into the Baltic, thus gaining a place in the fauna of Russia.
A number of instances of the occurrence $f Sword-fish in the Baltic have been recorded.

DISTRIBUTION ON THE COAST OF THE UNITED STATES.—Allusion has been made to the
early accounts of the Sword-fish on the coast of the United States both in the work of Catesby and
the letters of Garden to Ellis and Linnzus; also, to Mitchill’s account of it in 1818. Though it is
strange that this very conspicuous species was not recorded more frequently by early American
authors, it is still more remarkable that its right to a place in the fauna of the Western Atlantic
was either denied or questioned, as late as 1836, by such well-informed authors as Sir John Rich-
ardson and MM. Cuvier and Valenciennes.

Storer’s “Report on the Ichthyology and Herpetology of Massachusetts,” published in 1839,
was the first American faunal list, after Catesby’s, in which the Sword-fish was mentioned among
the American fish.

The range of the species on the eastern coast of America can now be defined with some
accuracy. Northward and eastward these fish have been seen as far as Cape Breton and Sable
Island Banks.

Captain Rowe states that during a trip to George’s Banks he has seen them off Chebucto
Head, near Halifax, where the fishermen claim occasionally to have taken them with seines.

Capt. Daniel O’Brien, of the schooner “Ossipee,” took five Sword-fish on his halibut trawl, in
two hundred fathoms of water, between La Have and Brown’s Banks, in August, 1877.

Capt. Jerome B. Smith, of the schooner “ Hattie Lewis,” of Gloucester, killed a Sword-fish off
Cape Smoke, near Sidney, Cape Breton.

1 American Monthly Magazine, ii, 1818, p. 242.
? Risso, Cuvier and Valenciennes, Guichenot, ete.
8Capt. R. H. Hulbert.

RANGE OF SWORD-FISH IN WESTERN ATLANTIC. 341

Mr. J. Matthew Jones, of Halifax, Nova Scotia, writes, in 1877: “The Sword-fish is by no
means common on our, coast, and only makes its appearance at intervals in our harbors and bays.
One was taken in 1864 in Bedford Basin, at the head of Halifax Harbor. September 6, 1866, an
individual weighing two hundred pounds was taken in a net at Devil’s Island. November 12,
1866, the Rev. J. Ambrose sent me a sword, three feet and six inches long, from a fish taken at
Dover, Nova Scotia, a few days previously.”

On the coasts of Maine, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island they abound in the summer months.
Southward they are less frequently seen, though their occurrence off New York is not unusual. I
have never known one to be taken off New Jersey, and in our southern waters they do not appear
to remain. Uhler and Lugger vaguely state that they sometimes enter the Chesapeake Bay.’
This is apparently traditionary evidence.

Dr. Yarrow obtained reliable information of their occasional appearance near Cape Lookout,
North Carolina.”

Mr. A. W. Simpson states, in a letter to Professor Baird, that Sword-fish are sometimes seen
at sea off Cape Hatteras, in November and December, in large quantities. They sometimes find
their way into the sounds.

An item went the rounds of the newspapers in 1876 to the effect that a Sword-fish four feet
long had been captured in the Saint John’s River, near Jacksonville. After personal inquiry in
Jacksonville, I am satisfied that this was simply a scabbard-fish or silvery hair-tail (Trichiurus
lepturus).

Professor Poey states that the fishermen of Cuba sometimes capture the Pez de Espada when
in pursuit of Agujas or Spear-fishes.2 They have also been seen in Jamaica.

Liitken gives instances of the capture of young Sword-fish at various points in the open
Atlantic, as follows:

(1) Latitude 32° 50/ N., longitude 74° 19’ W. (about 150 miles southeast of Cape Hatteras).

(2) Latitude 23° W., longitude 55° W. (about 500 miles northeast of the island of Antigua).

(3) Latitude 20° N., longitude 31° W. (about 150 miles northwest of Teneriffe, and 250
southwest of Madeira).

(4) On the equator, longitude 29° (about 500 miles northeast of Cape St. Roque).

(5) Latitude 25° 4’ S., longitude 27° 26’ W. (about 500 miles south of the island of Trinidad,
South Atlantic).

OCCURRENCE IN THE PACIFIC AND INDIAN OcEANS.—We have no record of their occurrence
on the eastern coast of South America, but the species is found on the Pacific coast of the same
continent, and north to California.

Professor Jordan writes: ‘Occasionally seen about Santa Catalina and the Coronados, but
never taken, the fishermen having no suitable tackle. One seen by us off Santa Monica, in 1880,
about eight feet in length.”

Mr. Willard Nye, of New Bedford, Massachusetts, kindly communicates the following notes:
Captain Dyer, of this port, says that Sword-fish are plentiful off the Peruvian coast, a number
being often in sight at one time. The largest he ever saw was one caught by himself about 150
miles from the shore, and which he estimates to have weighed 900 to 1,000 pounds; the ship’s
crew subsisted on it for several days and then salted 400 pounds.

1 List of the Fishes of Maryland. By P. R. Uhler and Otto Lugger, in Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries of
Maryland, January, 1876, p. 90.

2 Notes on the Natural History of Fort Macon, North Carolina, and vicinity (No. 3). BY H. C. Yarrow, in Pro-
ceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1877, p. 207.

38ynopsis Piscium Cubensium, Catélogo razonado de los Peces de la Isla de Cuba, in Repertorio fisico-nataral
de la Isla de Cuba, ii, 1868, p. 379.

342 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Captain Allen also states that while cruising in the Pacific for whales he has found the
Sword-fish very abundant on the coasts of Peru and Chili, from the immediate coast 300 miles
out, though outside of that limit they are seldom seen. They are most plenty during the month
of January, when they are feeding on the common mackerel, with which those waters at that
time abound. The largest he ever caught weighed about 600 pounds.

Both Captain Allen and Captain Dyer have made several voyages as masters of whaling
ships, and are perfectly familiar with Sword-fish on our coast ; both speak of seeing plenty of
Bill-fish in the Pacific, but they never had taken the trouble to catch them. Giinther mentions
them in his book on the “Fishes of the South Sea.”

In 1874 Dr. Hector discovered a sword-fish snout in the museum at Auckland, New Zealand,
and his announcement of the discovery was followed by the publication of two other instances
of its occurrence in this region.!

SWORD-FISH ENTERING RIVERS.—Sword-fish have been known to enter the rivers of Europe.
We have no record of such a habit in those frequenting our waters.’

Blian’s improbable story that they were taken in the Danube in winter has been mentioned.
Southey and others relate that a man was killed while bathing in the Severn, near Worcester, by
one of these fishes, which was afterwards caught.

Couch states that a Sword-fish, supposed to weigh nearly three hundred pounds, was caught
in the river Parret, near Bridgewater, in July, 1834.3

According to De la Blanchere, one of them was taken, in the ninth year of the French
Republic, in the river of Vannes, on the Bay of Biscay.*

In the great hall of the Rathhaus in the city of Bremen hangs a large painting of a Sword-
fish which was taken in the river Weser by some Bremen fishermen some time in the eighteenth
century.

Underneath it is painted the following inscription:

“ANNO. 1696. DEN. 18. JULI. IST. DIESER.
FISCH. EIN. SCHWERTFISCH. GENANNT. VON. DIESER.
STADT. FISCHERN. IN. DER. WESER. GEFANGEN.
UND. DEM. 20, EJUSDEM. ANHERO. NAEHER.
BREMEN. GEBRACHT. WORDEN. SEINE. GANZE.
LENGTE. WAR. 10. FUSS. DAS. SCHWERT. WAR.
74. VIRTEL. LANG. UND. 3. ZOLL. BREIT.”

PERIODICAL MOVEMENTS OF THE SWORD-FISH—TIMES OF ARRIVAL AND DEPARTURE.—
Before entering upon a discussion of the movements of the Sword-fish and their causes, it

1HeEcTOR: Trans. New Zealand Inst., vii (1874), 1875, p. 246. Hotton: Ibid., viii (1875), 1876, p. 211.
CHEESEMAN: Ibid., p. 219.

2 They sometimes approach very near the shore, however, as is shown by the following extract from a Cape Cod
paper :

“4 Sword-fish in close quarters.—Monday afternoon, while Mr, A. McKenzie, the boat-builder on J. 8. Atwood’s
wharf, was busily at work, his attention was attracted by a splashing of water under his workshop, as if a score of
boys were swimming and making all the noise they possibly could by beating the water with their feet and hands.
After this had been kept up awhile his curiosity became excited, and upon investigating the cause of the disturb-
ance discovered a Sword-fish among the piles, where, in his attempts to escape, he had become bewildered and
imprisoned. Quickly getting a harpoon, Mr. McKeuzie fastened the fish, and with the aid of bystanders drew it
alive upon the wharf, where it was visited by many spectators, and subs-quently dressed and sold. It measured ten
feet from the end of its sword to the tip of the tail—the sword itself being three feet in length. It is the first
instance known of one of these fish being so near the shore, and why it should have been there at the time described
is not easily explained.”—Provincetown. Advocate, September 29, 1875.

3 History of British Fishes, ii, p. 148.
4Dictionnaire Général des Péches.

PERIODICAL MOVEMENTS OF THE SWORD-FISH. 343

seems desirable*to bring together the facts which have been learned, by conversation with fisher-
men and otherwise, in one group. Mach man’s views are given in his own style, and as nearly as
possible in his own words. There is no attempt at a classification of the facts. This will be made
subsequently.

An old sword-fish tisherman at New York informed Mr. Blackford that the season opens in the
neighborhood of Sandy Hook about the first of June and continues along the coast as far east as
Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket Shoals until about the middle of September. He has heard of
their being caught as far east as Cape Sable. At the first cold winds of September they disap-
pear. They are, like the mackerel, at first very poor and lean, but as the season advances they
grow fatter.

Mr. John H. Thomson, of New Bedford, who kindly interviewed some of the local fishermen,
writes: “The Sword-fish appear on our coast, south of Block Island. about May 25 to June 1.
They appear to come from the southwest, or just inside the track of the Gulf Stream. They
gradually approach the Vineyard Sound and vicinity during June, and until July 10 or 15, then
appear to leave, working to the southeast, and are to be found to the southeast of Crab Ledge
about the middle of July. This school is composed of comparatively small fish, averaging about
one hundred and fifty pounds gross, or about one hundred pounds without head and tail, as they
are delivered in the market. The smallest are four feet long, including the sword, and weigh from
thirty to forty pounds; the largest eight and a half feet long, with sword, and weighing three
hundred pounds gross. These fish are of a light plumbeous hue, darker on the back and white on
the belly.

“ Of late years another school has appeared southeast of Cape Cod and George’s Banks about
the 1st of August. These fish are altogether different, being much larger, weighing from three to
eight hundred pounds gross, and are entirely black. Ihave this week conversed with an old smack-
man, M. C. Tripp, who has all his life been a fisherman, and has this year (1874) captured about
ninety fish, and his opinion is that they are not the same school. They appear to be of about the
same abundance in average years, the catch depending on weather, fogs, etc. They come and leave
in a general school, not in close schools like other fish, but distributed over the surface of the water,
the whole being called by the fishermen the ‘annual school,’ though it cannot strictly be so
named.”

According to Mr. Willard Nye, Sword-fish appear on the coast of Massachusetts from the 8th
to the 20th of June, and are first seen southwest of Block Island. They begin to leave in August,
but stray ones are sometimes seen as late as the last of October. The usual explanation of their
movements is that they are following their food—mackerel and menhaden—which swarm our
waters in the season named, and which are of course driven off by the approach of winter and
rough weather.

Capt. R. H. Hurlbert took a very large Sword-fish on George’s Banks, in November, 1875, in
a@ snow-storm.

The first Sword-fish of the season of 1875 was taken June 20, southwest of Montauk Point;
its weight was one hundred and eighty-five pounds.

One taken off Noman’s Land, July 20, 1875, weighed when dressed one hundred and twenty
pounds, and measured seven feet. A cast was taken (No. 360), which was exhibited in the Gov-
ernment Building at Philadelphia.

Capt. Benjamin Ashby, of Noank, Connecticut, tells me that the New London and Noank
vessels leave home on their sword-fishing cruise about the 6th of July. Through July they fish
between Block Island and Noman’s Land; in August between Noman’s Land and the South

344 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

«

Shoals light-ship. The fish “strike in” to Block Island and Montauk Point every year about the -
Ist of July. They are first seen twenty to twenty-five miles southeast of Montauk. At the end
of August they are most abundant in the South Channel. Captain Ashby never saw them at any
time so abundant as August 15, 1859. He was cruising between George’s Banks and the South
Shoals. It was a calm day, after a fog. He could at any time see twenty-five or thirty from the
mast-head. They turn south when snow comes. ;

Capt. George H. Martin, of East Gloucester, tells me that the Gloucester vessels employed in
this fishery expect to be on the fishing grounds south of George’s Banks by the 10th of June.
They almost always find the fish there on their arrival, following the schools of mackerel. They
“tend on soundings,” like the mackerel. The first Sword-fish of 1877 was taken June 10; the
first of 1878, June 14.

The statements already quoted, and numerous conversations with fishermen not here recorded,
lead me to believe that Sword-fish are most abundant on the shoals near the shore and on the
banks during the months of July and August; that they make their appearance on the frequented
cruising grounds between Montauk Point and the eastern part of George’s Banks some time
between the 25th of May and the 20th of June, and that they remain until the approach of cold
weather in October or early in November. The dates of the capture of the first fish on the cruis-
ing ground referred to are recorded for three years, and are reasonably reliable: 1875, June 20;
1877, June 10; 1878, June 14.

South of the cruising ground the dates of arrival and departure are doubtless farther apart;
north and east the season being shorter. There are no means of obtaining information, since the
men engaged in this fishery are the only ones likely to remember the dates when the fish are seen.

REASONS OF THE COMING OF SWORD-FISH UPON OUR COoAST.—The Sword-fish comes into
our waters in pursuit of its food. At least this is the most probable explanation of their move-
ments, since the duties of reproduction appear to be performed elsewhere. Like the tunny, the
blue-fish, the bonito, and the squeteague, they pursue and prey upon the schools of menhaden and
mackerel which are so abundant in the summer months. “When you see Sword-fish, you may
know that mackerel are about,” said an old fisherman tome. ‘ Where you see the fin-back whale
following food, there you find Sword-fish,” said another. The Sword-fish also feeds upon squid,
which are at times abundant on our banks.

TUE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE UPON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE SwoRD-FISH.—To what
extent this fish is amenable to the influences of temperature is an unsolved problem. We are
met at the outset by the fact that they are frequently taken on trawl-lines which are set at the
depth of one hundred fathoms or more, on the off-shore banks. We know that the temperature of
the water at those localities and at that depth is sure to be Jess than 40° Fahrenheit. How is this
fact to be reconciled with the known habits of the fish, that it prefers the warmest weather of
summer and swims at the surface in water of temperature ranging from 55° to 70°, sinking when
cool winds blow? The case seemed clear enough until this inconvenient discovery was made, that
Sword-fish are taken on bottom trawl-lines. In other respects their habits agree closely with
those of the mackerel tribe, all the members of which seem sensitive to slight changes in tempera-
ture, and which, as a rule, prefer temperature in the neighborhood of 50° or more.

There is one theory by which this difficulty may be avoided. We may suppose that the
Sword-fish take the hooks on their way down to the bottom; that in their struggles they get
entangled in the line and hooks, and when exhausted sink to the bottom. This is not improbable.
A conversation with some fishermen who have caught them in this way develops the fact that the”
fish are usually much tangled in the line, and are nearly lifeless when they are brought to the

RELATIONS OF THE SWORD-FISH TO TEMPERATURE. 345

surface. A confirmation is found in the observations of Captain Baker, of the schooner “ Peter
D. Smith,” of Gloucester, who tells me that they often are taken on the hand-lines of the cod-fisher-
men on George’s Banks. His observations lead him to believe that they only take the hook when
the tide is running very swiftly and the lines are trailing out in the tideway at a considerable
distance from the bottom, and that the Sword-fish strike for the bottom as soon as they are
hooked. This theory is not improbable, as I have already remarked, but I do not at present
advocate it very strongly. I want more facts before making up my own mind. At present the
relation of the Sword-fish to temperature must be left without being understood.

The appearance of the fish at the surface depends apparently upon temperature. They are
seen only upon quiet summer days, in the morning before ten or eleven o’clock, and in the after-
noon about four. o’clock. Old fishermen say that they rise when the mackerel rise, and when the
mackerel go down they go down also.

PROBABLE WINTER HABITAT OF THE SwORD-FISH.—Regarding the winter abode of the
Sword-fish conjecture is useless. I have already discussed this question at length with reference
to the menhaden and mackerel. With the Sword-fish the conditions are very different. The
former are known to spawn in our waters, and the schools of young ones follow the old ones in
toward the shores. The latter do not spawn in our waters. We cannot well believe that they
hibernate, nor is the hypothesis of a sojourn in the middle strata of mid-ocean exactly tenable.
Perhaps they migrate to some distant region, where they spawn. But then the spawning time of
this species in the Mediterranean, as is related in a subsequent paragraph, appears to occur in
the summer months, at the very time when Sword-fish are most abundant in our own waters,
apparently feeling no responsibility for the perpetuation of their species.

MOVEMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL SWORD-FISHES.—A Sword-fish when swimming near the surface
usually allows its dorsal fir and the upper lobe of its caudal fin to be visible, projecting out of the
water several inches. It is this habit which enables the fisherman to detect the presence of the
fish. It swims slowly along, and the fishing schooner with a light breeze finds no difficulty in
overtaking it. When excited its motions are very rapid and nervous. Sword-fish are sometimes
seen to leap entirely out of the water. Early writers attributed this habit to the tormenting pres-
ence of parasites, but this theory seems hardly necessary, knowing what we do of its violent
exertions at other times. The pointed head, the fins of the back and abdomen snugly fitting into
grooves, the absence of ventrals, the long, lithe, muscular body, sloping slowly to the tail, fit it
for the most rapid and forcible movement through the water. Prof. Richard Owen, testifying in
an English court in regard to its power, said:

“Tt strikes with the accumulated force of fifteen double-handed hammers. Its velocity is
equal to that of a swivel-shot, and is as dangerous in its effects as a heavy artillery projectile.”

Many very curious instances are on record of the encounters of this fish with other fishes, or
of their attacks upon ships. What can be the inducement for it to attack objects so much larger
than itself it is hard to surmise. Many are familiar with the couplet from Oppian:

Nature her bounty to his mouth confined,
Gave him a sword, but left unarmed his mind.

It surely seems as if a temporary insanity sometimes takes possession of the fish. It is not
strange that, when harpooned, it should retaliate by attacking its assailant. An old sword-fish
fisherman told Mr. Blackford that his vessel had been struck twenty times. There are, however,
many instances of entirely unprovoked assault on vessels at sea. Many of these are recounted in
a later portion of this memoir. Their movements when feeding are discussed below, as well as
their alleged peculiarities of movement during the breeding season.

346 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

It is the universal testimony of our fishermen that two are never seen swimming close
together. Captain Ashby says that they are always distant from each other at least thirty or
forty feet.

MAXIMUM AND AVERAGE SIZE OF AMERICAN SWORD-FISH.—The only individual of which
we have the exact measurements was taken off Seaconnet, Rhode Island, July 23,1874. This was
seven fect seven inches long, weighing 113 pounds. Another, taken off Noman’s Land, July 20,
1875, and cast in plaster for the collection of the National Museum, weighed 120 pounds, and meas-
ured about seven feet. Another, taken off Portland, August 15, 1878, was 3,999 millimeters long,
and weighed about 600 pounds. Many of these fish doubtless attain the weight of 400 and 500
pounds, and some, perhaps, grow to 600; but after this limit is reached, I am inclined to believe
larger fish are exceptional. Newspapers are fond of recording the occurrence of giant fish, weigh-
ing 1,500 pounds and upwards, and old sailors will in good faith describe the enormous fish which
they saw at sea, but could not capture; but one well-authenticated instance of accurate weighing
is much more valuable. The largest one ever taken by Capt. Benjamin Ashby, for twenty years a
sword-fish fisherman, was killed on the shoals back of Edgartown, Massachusetts. When salted it
weighed 639 pounds. Its live weight must have been as much as 750 or 800.. Its sword measured
nearly six feet. This was an extraordinary fish among the three hundred or more taken by
Captain Ashby in his long experience. He considers the average size to be about 250 pounds
dressed, or 325 alive. Captain Martin, of Gloucester, estimates the average size at 300 to 400
pounds. The largest known to Captain Michaux weighed 625. The average about Block Island
he considers to be 200 pounds.

There are other stories of large fish. Capt. R. H. Hurlbert, of Gloucester, killed one on
George’s Banks, in September, 1876, which weighed when dressed 480 pounds. Capt. John Rowe,
of the same port, salted one whieh filled two and one-half barrels. This probably weighed 600
pounds when alive. I have been told that a Sword-fish loses one-third of its weight in dressing,
but I should think that one-fourth would be nearer to the truth. Captain Baker, of the schooner
“Peter D. Smith,” of Gloucester, assures me that he killed, in the summer of 1874, off Portland,
a Sword-fish which weighed 750 pounds.

Mitchill and DeKay state that in 1791 a Sword-fish sixteen feet in length was exhibited in
New York. It is questionable whether they often exceed this measurement. My own observa-
tions have been made on specimens from seven to twelve feet long. A stuffed specimen in the
United States National Museum measures about ten feet, and this seems to be very nearly the
average size.

MINIMUM SIZE OF AMERICAN SworRD-FIsu.—The size of the smallest Sword-fishes taken on
our coast is a subject of much deeper interest, for it throws light on the time and place of breed-
ing. There is some difference of testimony regarding the average size, but all fishermen with
whom I have talked agree that very small ones do not find their way into our waters. I have col-
lected several instances from the experiences of men long wonted to this fishery.

Capt. John Rowe has seen one which did not weigh more than 75 pounds when taken out of the
water.

Capt. R. H. Hurlbert killed, near Block Island, in July, 1877, one which weighed 50 pounds,
and measured about two feet without its sword.

Captain Ashby’s smallest weighed about 25 pounds when dressed; this he killed off Noman’s
Land. He never killed another which weighed less than 100. He tells me that a Bridgeport smack
had one weighing 16 pounds (or probably 24 when alive), and measuring eighteen inches without
its sword.

YOUNG SWORD-FISH IN THE WESTERN ATLANTIC. 347

In August, 1878, a small specimen of the mackerel shark, Lamna cornubica, was captured at
the mouth of Gloucester Harbor. In its nostril was sticking the sword, about three inches long,
of a young Sword-fish. When this was pulled out the blood flowed freely, indicating that the
wound was recent. The fish to which this sword belonged cannot have exceeded ten or twelve
inches in length. Whether the small Sword-fish met with its misfortune in our waters, or whether
the shark brought this trophy from beyond the sea, is a question I cannot answer.

Liitken speaks of a very young individual taken in the Atlantic, latitude 32° 50’ N., longitude
74° 19’ W. This must be about 150 miles southeast of Cape Hatteras.

SIzE IN THE MEDITERRANEAN.—In the Mediterranean, near Sicily and Genoa, young fish,
ranging in weight from half a pound to twelve pounds, are said to be abundant between November
and March.

About La Ciotat and Martigues, in the south of France, many are taken too small to injure
the fishing-nets, and very rarely reaching the weight of 100 pounds.

From the statements of Bloch and later writers it appears that large Sword-fish also are
abundant in the Mediterranean. Late Italian fishery reports state that the average weight of
those taken on the coast of Italy is 50 kilograms (110 pounds).

Of the coasts of Spain and Portugal Steindachner remarks: “More abundant on the southern
coasts of Spain than on the northern, western, and eastern sides of the Iberian Peninsula. We
saw quite large examples in the fish-markets at Gibraltar, Cadiz, Lisbon, La Coruiia, and Barcelona,
and at Santa Cruz, Teneriffe. The largest of three specimens in my possession is forty-three
inches long, another twenty-four inches.” !

RATE OF GROWTH.—Little is known about the rate of growth. The young fish taken in
winter in the Mediterranean, ranging in weight from half a pound to twelve pounds, are thought
to have been hatched during the previous summer. Those of a larger size, ranging from twenty-
four to sixty pounds, taken on the New England coast in the summer, may perhaps be the young
of the previous year. Beyond this, even conjecture is fruitless. As in other species, the rate of
growth depends directly upon the quantity of food consumed. It is to be presumed that a summer
passed in feasting among the crowding schools of menhaden and mackerel in our waters would
bring about a considerable increase in weight. That this is the case is clearly shown by the
testimony of the fishermen, who say that in the spring Sword-fish are thin, growing fatter and
heavier as the season goes on.

Dr. Liitken and Dr. Giinther have lately made some exceedingly interesting observations
upon the young of the Sword-fish and of the Spear-fish and Sail-fish.

Dr. Giinther’s studies were made upon very small specimens of undetermined species,
belonging to either Tetrapturus, Histiophorus, or both. In his latest work, ‘The Study of Fishes,”
he summarizes the facts observed by him as follows:

“The Sword-fishes with ventral fins (Histiophorus) belong to the Teleosteans of the largest
size. In young individuals, nine millimeters long, both jaws are produced and armed with pointed
teeth, the supraorbital margin is ciliated, the parietal and preoperculum are prolonged into long
spines, the dorsal and anal fins are a long fringe, and the ventrals make their appearance as a pair
of short buds. When fourteen millimeters long the young fish has still the same armature of the
head, but the dorsal fin has become much higher, and the ventral filaments have grown to a great
length. At the uext stage, when the fish has attained to a length of sixty millimeters, the upper
jaw is considerably prolonged beyond the lower, losing its teeth, the spines of the head are
shortened, and the fins assume nearly the shape which they retain in mature individuals.

{Sitzungsb. d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch., Wein, Lo6x, p. 396.

348 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“Young Sword-fishes without ventral fins (Xiphias) undergo similar changes, and, besides,
their skin is covered with small, rough excrescences, longitudinally arranged, which continue to be
visible after the young fish has attained the form of the mature in other respects.”

Dr. Liitken’s description of the young Sword-fishes is an exceedingly valuable contribution to
knowledge.

LI have collected together, in the plates which accompany this paper, the various published
figures of young Sword-fishes, and have had them redrawn as nearly as possible to a uniform
scale.

Of the Sword-fish, Xiphias gladius, two figures are given. One, taken from Liitken’s “Spolia
Atlantiea,” is thirty-seven millimeters long; the other is a reproduction of the often-copied figure in
Cuvier and Valenciennes’ “Histoire Naturelle des Poissons,” twelve to eighteen inches long.
Liitken had a similar specimen, ten millimeters long, but it was too poorly preserved to be figured.

Of the various species of Tetrapturus and Histiophorus, six figures are given. The smallest
is that from “Spolia Atlantica,” and is of a fish five and one-half millimeters long. Liitken
remarks that he has a series from five and one-half to twelve millimeters long which differ
very little from each other. The next in size is copied from Giinther, and is probably about ten
millimeters long; the third, also from Giinther, is fourteen millimeters long. Liitken has another
link in the series, a specimen twenty-one millimeters long, which he has not figured. The fourth
stage is from Giinther, a specimen sixty millimeters long; the fifth, from Cuvier and Valenciennes,
their Histiophorus pulchellus, about four hundred and ten millimeters long; the sixth, from Riippell,
a copy of his figure of H. immaculatus, said to be about eighteen hundred millimeters long.
These illustrations show the development in a very satisfactory manner.

ABUNDANCE A’ PRESENT.—For many years from three to six thousand of these fish have
been taken annually on the New England coast. It is not unusual for twenty-five or more to
be seen in the course of a single day’s cruising, and sometimes as many as this are visible from
the mast-head at one time. Captain Ashby saw twenty at one time, in August, 1839, between
George’s Banks and the South Shoals. One Gloucester schooner, the “Midnight,” Capt. Alfred
Wixon, took fourteen in one day on George’s Banks, in 1877.

Capt. John Rowe obtained twenty barrels, or four thousand pounds, of salt fish on one trip to
George’s Banks; this amount represents twenty fish or more.

Captain Ashby has killed one hundred and eight Sword-fish in one year; Capt. M. C. Tripp
killed about ninety in 1874.

Such instances as these indicate in a general way the abundance of the Sword-fish. A vessel
cruising within fifty miles of our coast, between Cape May and Cape Sable, during the months
of June, July, August, and September, cannot fail, on a favorable day, to come in sight of several
of them. Mr. Harll states that the fishermen of Portland never knew them more abundant than
in 1879. This is probably, in part, due to the fact that the fishery there is of very recent origin.

ABUNDANCE IN THE PAST AND PROBABILITY OF FUTURE DECREASE.—There is no evidence
of any change in their abundance, either increase or decrease. Fishermen agree that they are as
plenty as ever, nor can any change be anticipated. The present mode of fishing does not destroy
them in any considerable numbers, each individual fish being the object of special pursuit. The
solitary habits of the species will always protect them from wholesale capture, so destructive to
schooling fish. Even if this were not the case, the evidence proves that spawning Sword-fish do
not frequent our waters. When a female shad is killed, thousands of possible young die also,
The Sword-fish taken by our fishermen carry no such precious burden.

EFFECTS OF OVERFISHING IN THE MEDITERRANEAN.—A very different tale was once told of

PRESENT ABUNDANCE OF SWORD-FISH. 349

the winter fishery in the Mediterranean. Meunier quotes this testimony by Spallanzani: “TI took
part many times in this fishery, and I dare not tell how many young fish are its victims; being of
no value they are thrown back into the sea, mutilated or already dead from the rubbing of the net-
meshes. I write denouncing this destructive method, and I urge forcibly the harm which results
from it. They tell me it is true that there is a law of Genoa which forbids its use, or rather its
abuse, but this does not do away with the fact that each year there sail from the Gulf of Spezzia
three or four pairs of fishing boats which go to the sea to carry on this fishing. Still more, the
governor of the place, who should carry out this law, is the first to favor, by means of a gift of
silver, the abuse which it is intended to prevent.”

This, however, was a century ago. I have met with no complaints of decrease in the works of
later writers, though in Targioni-Tozzetti’s report, published in 1880, it is stated that there is much
opposition to the capture of small fish.

NATURE OF FOOD.—Dr. Fleming found the remains of Sepias in its stomach, and also small
fishes. Oppian stated that it eagerly devours the Hippuris (probably Coryphena).

A specimen taken off Seaconnet, July 22, 1875, had in its stomach the remains of small fish,
perhaps Stromateus triacanthus, and jaws of a squid, perhaps Loligo Pealii.

Their food in the Western Atlantic consists for the most part of the common schooling species
of fishes.

They feed on menhaden, mackerel, bonitoes, bluefish, and other species which swim in close
schools. Their habits of feeding have often been described to me by old fishermen. They are said
to rise beneath the school of small fish, striking to the right and left with their swords until they
have killed a number, which they thea proceed to devour. Menhaden have been seen floating at
the surface which have been cut nearly in twain by a blow of a sword. Mr. John H. Thomson
remarks that he has seen them apparently throw the fish in the air, catching them on the fall.

Capt. Benjamin Ashby says that they feed on mackerel, herring, whiting, and menhaden. He
has found half a bucketful of small fish of these kinds in the stomach of one Sword-fish. He has
seen them in the act of feeding. They rise perpendicularly out of the water until the sword and
two-thirds of the remainder of the body are exposed to view. He has seen a school of herring
crowding together at the surface on George’s Banks as closely as they could be packed. A Sword-
fish came up through the dense mass and fell flat over on its side, striking many fish with the
sides of its sword. He has at one time picked up as much as a bushel of herrings thus killed by a
Sword-fish on George’s Banks.

REPRODUCTION.—But little is known regarding their time and place of breeding. They are
said to deposit their eggs in large quantities on the coasts of Sicily, and European writers give
their spawning time as occurring the latter part of spring and the beginning of summer. In the
Mediterranean they occur of all sizes from four hundred pounds down, and the young are so
plentiful as to become a common article of food. Except in this region the young are never taken; on
our own coast, plentiful as they are, they are never seen less than three feet, and are usually much
larger. M. Raynaud, who brought to Cuvier a specimen of Histiophorus four inches long, taken in
January, 1829, in the Atlantic, between the Cape of Good Hope and France, reported that there
were good numbers of young Sail-fish in the place where this was taken.!

Old fishermen who have taken and dressed them by the hundred assure me that they have
never seen traces of spawn in them. The absence of young fish and spawning females on the
coast of North America would indicate that they do not breed with us. Judging from the locations
where young fish have been taken, it seems probable that they breed in the open ocean.

1CuvieR & VALENCIENNES: Hist. Nat. Poiss., viii, p. 305.

350 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Meunier,’ quoting Spallanzani, states that the Sword-fish does not approach the coast of
Sicily except in the season of reproduction; the males are then seen pursuing the females. It is a
good time to capture them, for when the female has been taken the male lingers near and is easily
approached. The fish are abundant in the Straits of Messina from the middle of April to the
middle of September; early in the season they hug the Calabrian shore, approaching from the
north ; after the end of June they are most abundant on the Sicilian shore, approaching from the
south.

From other circumstances, it seems certain that there are spawning grounds in the sea near
Sicily and Genoa, for from November to the 1st of March young ones are taken in the Straits of
Messina, ranging in weight from half a pound to twelve pounds.

ABSENCE OF ORDINARY HABITS OF BREEDING SEASON AMONG OUR SWORD-FISH.—In the
Mediterranean, as has been already stated, the very young fish are found from November to March,
and here from July to the middle of September the male fish are seen pursuing the female over
the shoals, and at this time the males are easily taken. ‘Old sword-fish fishermen, Captain Ashby
and Captain Kirby, assure me that on our coast, out of thousands of specimens they have taken,
they have never seen one containing eggs. I have myself dissected several males, none of which
were near breeding time. In the European waters they are said often to be seen swimming in
pairs, male and female. Many sentimental stories were current, especially among the older writers,
concerning the conjugal affection and unselfish devotion of the Sword-fish, but these seem to have
originated in the imaginative brain of the naturalist rather than in his perceptive faculties. It is
said that when the female fish is taken the male seems devoid of fear, approaches the boat, and
allows himself easily to be taken; but, if this be true, it appears to be the case only in the height.
of the breeding season, and is easily understood. JI cannot learn that two Sword-fish have ever
been seen associated together in our waters, though I have made frequent and diligent inquiry.

There is no inherent improbability, however, in this story regarding the Sword-fish in Europe,
for the same thing is stated by Professor Poey as the result of his studies upon the habits of
Tetrapturus.

A curious fancy was prevalent in former days regarding an anatomical character of the Sword-
fish. In an article by Mr. Dale in “Philosophical Transactions” (abridged edition, ii, p. 835), he
remarks: ‘I cannot concede it to be consonant to that Care and Industry of Nature, in providing
convenient Receptacles for preserving the Fetus; neither is it agreeable to Reason to believe, that
when Nature had provided an Uterus in all Animals, not only the Viviparous, and such as only
cherish the Embryo in Utero, but in the Oviparous also and Insects, the Hel and the Xiphia, or
Sword-fish, should be the only Animals without it.”

ENEMIES AND FATALITIES: PuGNAcCITY.—The pugnacity of the Sword-fish has become a
by-word. Without any special effort on my part the following instances of their attacks upon
vessels have in the last six years found their way into the pigeon-hole labeled “ Sword-fish.”

Afelian says (b. xxxii, c. 6) that the Sword-fish has a sharp-pointed snout, with which it is
able to pierce the sides of a ship and send it to the bottom, instances of which have been known
near a place in Mauritania known as Cotte, not far from the river Lixus, on the African side of the
Mediterranean. He describes the sword as like the beak uf the ship known as the trireme, which
was rowed with three banks of oars.

One of the earliest accounts is that given in the second part of vol. i, lib. ii, p. 89, 1615, of
“Purchas his Pilgrimes”:

“The sixth Circum-Navigation, by William Cornelison Schovten of Horne; who Sovthwards

1Les Grandes Péches, p. 142.

BREEDING HABITS OF SWORD-FISH. 351

from the Straights of Magelan in Tierra-Delfvogo, fovnd and discovered a new passage through
the great Sovth-Sea, and that way sailed rovnd about the World,” ete.

Off the coast of Sierra Leone:

“The fift of October we were vnder foure degrees seuen and twentie minutes, the same day
about noone, there was such a noyse in the Bough of our Shippe, that the master, being behind in
the Gallerie, thought that one of the men had fallen out of the Fore-ship, or from the Boe-sprit
into the sea, but as hee looked out over the side of the Ship hee saw the Sea all red, as if great
store of bloud had beene powred into it, whereat hee wondred, knowing not what it meant, but
afterward hee found, that a great Fish or a Sea monster having a horne had therewith stricken
against the ship with most great strength. For when we were in Porto Desire where we set the
Ship on the Strand to make it cleane, about seven foot under water, before in the Ship, wee found
a Horne sticking in the Ship, much like for thicknesse and fashion to a common Elephants tooth,
not hollow, but full, very strong hard Bone, which had entered into three Plankes of the Ship,
that is two thicke Plankes of greene aud one of Oken wood, and so into a Rib, where it turned
upward, to our great good fortune, for if it had entered between the Ribbes, it would happily have
made a greater Hole and have brought both Ship and men in danger to be lost. It strucke at
least halfe a foote deepe into the Ship and about half a foote without, where, with great force it
was broken off, by reason whereof the great monster bled so much.”

More than a century later C. Mortimer, M. D., records this experience :

‘Mr. Bankley shewed ine the Horn of a Fish that had penetrated above 8 inches into the
Timber of a Ship and gave me the following Relation of it: ‘His Maszsry’s Ship Leopard, having
been at the West Indies and on the Coast of Guiney, was ordered by Warrant from the Honourable
Navy-Board, dated Aug. 18, 1725, to be cleaned and refitted at Portsmout for Channel-Service:
Pursuant thereto, she was put into the great Stone-dock; and, in stripping off her Sheathing, the
Shipwrights found something that was uncommon in her Bottom, about 8 Feet from her Keel, just
before the Fore Mast; which they searching into, found the Bone or Part of the Horn of a Fish of
the Figure here described; the Outside Rough not unlike Seal-Skin; and the End, where it was
broken off shewed itself like coarse Ivory. The Fish is supposed to have followed the Ship, when
under Sail, because the Sharp End of the Horn pointed toward the Bow: It penetrated with that
Swiftness or Strength that it went through the Sheathing 1 Inch thick, the Plank 3 Inches thick,
and into the Timber, 44 inches.’”!

Don Joseph Cornide, in his “Ensayo de una Historia de los Peces de la Costa de Galicia,”
1787: .

“This fish is taken in the seas of Galicia, where it is more common toward the Rio de Vigo,
where it is well known that the ‘Balandia’ (a small fishing vessel), of S. M. le Ardilla, was pierced in
its side and sunk by the arm of one of these fishes, which is preserved in the Royal Cabinet of
Natural History.”

The following statement is from the note book of Professor Baird :

In 1871 the little yacht “Redhot,” of New Bedford, was out sword-fish fishing, and a Sword-fish
had been hauled in to be Janced, and it attacked the vessel and pierced the side so as to sink the
vessel. She was repaired and used in the service of the Commission at Wood’s Holl.

Couch quotes the personal statement of a gentleman, who says:

“We have had the pleasure of inspecting a piece of wood cut out of one of the fore planks of
a vessel (the ‘Priscilla,’ from Pernambuco) through which was struck about eighteen inches of

--1 An acecuunt of the horn of a Fish struck several Inches into the side of a Ship, by C. Mortiner, M. D., F. R. 8.
Philos. Trans., xl, No. 461, p. 062, 1741. Abr. ed., ix, p. 72.

352 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

the bony weapon of the Sword-fish. The force with which it must have been driven in affords a
striking exemplification of the power and ferocity of the fish. The ‘Priscilla’ is quite a new
vessel. Captain Taylor, her commander, states that when near the Azores, as he was walking the
quarter-deck at night, a shock was felt which brought all hands from below, under the impression
that the ship had touched upon some rock. This was, no doubt, when the occurrence took place.”

The New York Herald of May 11, 1871, states:

“The English ship ‘Queensberry’ has been struck by a Sword.-fish, which penetrated to a
depth of thirty inches, causing a leak which necessitated the discharge of the cargo.”

The “London Daily News of December” 11, 1868, contained the following paragraph, which
emanated, I suspect, from the pen of Prof. R. A. Proctor:

“Last Wednesday the court of common pleas—rather a strange place, by the by, for inquiring
into the natural history of fishes—was engaged for several hours in trying to determine under
what circumstances a Sword-fish might be able to escape scot-free after thrusting his snout into
the side of aship. The gallant ship ‘Dreadnought,’ thoroughly repaired and classed Al at Lloyd’s,
had been insured for £3,000 against all the risks of the seas. She sailed on March 10, 1864, from
Colombo, for London. Three days later the crew, while fishing, hooked a Sword-fish. Xiphias,
however, broke the line, and a few moments after leaped half out of the water, with the object, it
should seem, of taking a look at his persecutor, the ‘Dreadnought.’ Probably he satisfied himself
that the enemy was some abnormally large cetacean, which it was his natural duty to attack forth-
with. Be this asit may, the attack was made, and at four o’clock the next morning the captain was
awakened with the unwelcome intelligence that the ship had sprung a leak. She was taken back
to Colombo, and thence to Cochin, where she was ‘hove down. Near the keel was found a round
hole, an inch in diameter, running completely through the copper sheathing and planking.

“‘As attacks by Sword-fish are included among sea-risks, the insurance company was willing
to pay the damages claimed by the owners of the ship if only it could be proved that the hole had
really been made by a Sword-fish. No instance had ever been recorded in which a Sword-fish had
been able to withdraw his sword after attacking a ship. A defense was founded on the possibility
that the hole had been made in some other way. Professor Owen and Mr. Frank Buckland gave
their evidence, but neither of them could state quite positively whether a Sword-fish which had
passed its beak through three inches of stout planking could withdraw without the loss of its
sword. Mr. Buckland said that fish have no power of ‘backing,’ and expressed his belief that he
could hold a Sword-fish by the beak; but then he admitted that the fish had considerable latera]
power, and might so ‘wriggle its sword out of the hole.’ And so the insurance company will have
to pay nearly £600 because an ill-tempered fish objected to be hooked, and took it srevenge by
running full tilt against copper sheathing and oak planking.”

“The Gloucester schooner ‘Wyoming,’ on a last trip to George’s Banks,” records the ‘New York
World’ of August 31, 1875, “was attacked by a Sword-fish in the night-time. He assailed the vessel
with great force, and succeeded in putting his sword through one of her planks some two feet, and,
after making fearful struggles to extricate himself, broke his sword off, leaving it hard and fast in
the plank, and made a speedy departure. Fortunate was it that he did not succeed in drawing
out his sword, as the aperture would undoubtedly have made a leak sufficient to sink the vessel.
As it was, she leaked badly, requiring pretty lively pumping to keep her free.”

Another instance of a similar nature is this, which was recorded in the “Liverpool Mercury”
about the year 1876:

“Mr. J. J. Harwood, master of the British brigantine ‘Fortunate,’ in dock at Liverpool, reports
that whilst on his passage from the Rio Grande, when in latitude 20° 12’ north and longitude 479

DESTRUCTIVENESS OF THE SWORD-FISH. 353

9’ west, this ship was struck by a large fish, which made the vessel shake very much. Thinking the
ship had been merely struck by the tail of some sea-monster, he took no further notice of the
matter; but, after discharging cargo at Runcorn, and coming into the Canada half-tide dock, he
found one of the plank ends in the stern split, and on closer examination he discovered that a
Sword-fish had driven his sword completely through the plank, four inches in thickness, leaving
the point of the sword nearly eight inches through the plank. The fish in its struggle broke the
sword off level with the outside of the vessel, and by its attack upon the ship lost nearly a foot
length of the very dangerous weapon with which it was armed. There is no doubt that this some-
what singular occurrence took place when the vessel was struck as Captain Harwood describes.”

In “Forest and Stream” of June 24, 1875, was recorded the following incident:

“On Wednesday of last week a Sword-fish attacked the fishing-boat of Capt. D. D. Thurlow
while he was hauling mackerel-nets off Fire Island, thrust its sword clear through the bottom, and
stuck fast, while the fishermen took several half-hitches around its body and so secured it. It was
afterwards brought to Fulton Market, and found to weigh three hundred and ninety pounds. Its
sword measured three feet and seven inches, and its entire length was over eleven feet. The
stuffed skin will adorn the Central Park Musuem.”

In the “Landmark,” of Norfolk, Virginia, February, 1876, was mentioned a similar occurrence:

“The brig ‘P. M. Tinker,’ Captain Bernard, previously mentioned as having arrived here from
Richmond, leaking, for repairs, has been hauled up on the ways at Graves’ ship-yard. On exami-.
nation it was discovered that the leak was caused by a Sword-fish. the sword being found broken
off forward the bands, about sixteen feet abaft the forefoot. The fish, in striking the vessel, must
have come with great force, as the sword penetrated the copper sheathing, a four-inch birch
plank, and through the timbers about six inches—in all about ten inches. It occurred on the
morning of the 23d of December, when the brig was eighteen days out from Rio, and in the neigh-
borhood of Cape Saint Roque. She was pumped about four o’clock in the morning, and found
free of water. About six o’clock the same morning she was again pumped, when water was
obtained, and on examination it was found that she had made ten inches of water. The men were
kept steady at the pumps until her arrival at Richmond, and while there, and on her trip here.”

Mr. Willard Nye, of New Bedford, Massachusetts, sends the following note:

“A few years ago Captain Dyer, of New Bedford, struck a Sword-fish, from a thirty-foot boat,
forty miles southwest of Noman’s Land, threw overboard the keg, tacked, and stood by to the
windward of it. When nearly abreast of it the man at the mast-head called out, ‘Why, here he is,
right alongside.” The fish was then about ten feet from the boat, and swimming in the same direc-
tion, but when he got where he could see the splash of water around the bow he turned and struck
the boat about two feet from the stern and just below the water-line. The sword went through the
planking, which was of cedar an inch and three-quarters thick, into a lot of loose iron ballast,
breaking off short at the fish’s head. A number of boats, large and small, have been ‘stove’ by
Sword-fish on our coast, but always after the fish bad been struck.”

A nameless writer in “Harper’s Weekly,” October 25, 1879, narrates these instances, for which
I am unable to give the original authority:

“In a calm day in the summer of 1832, on the coast of Massachusetts, a pilot was rowing his
little skiff leisurely along, when he was suddenly roused from his seat by a thrust from below by a
Sword-fish, who drove his sharp instrument more than three feet up through the bottom. With rare
presence of mind, with the butt of an oar he broke it off level with the floor before the fish had
time to withdraw it. Fortunately, the thrust was not directly upward. -Had it been so, the frail
boat would bave been destroyed.

23 F

3504 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“<A Boston ship hauled up on the ways for repair, a few years since, presented the shank of a
Sword-fish’s dagger, which had been driven ‘considerably far into the solid oak plank. A more
curious affair was brought to light in 1725 in overhauling His Majesty’s ship ‘Leopard,’ from the
coast of Africa. The sword of this marine spearsman had pierced the sheathing one inch, next it
went through a three-inch plank, and beyond that three inches and a half into the firm timber.
It was the opinion of the mechanics that it would have required nine strokes of a hammer weigh-
ing twenty-five pounds to drive an iron bolt of the same dimensions to the same depth in the hull.
Yet the fish drove it at a single thrust.

“On the return of the whale-ship ‘Fortune’ to Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1827, the stump
of a sword blade of this fish was noticed projecting like a cog outside, which, on being traced, had
been driven through the copper sheathing, an inch board undersheathing, a three-inch plank of
hard wood, the solid white-oak timber twelve inches thick, then through another two and a half
inch hard-oak ceiling, and lastly penetrated the head of an oil-cask, where it stuck, not a drop ot
the oil having escaped.”

Such instances could be found by the score, if one had the time and patience to search. The
thing happens many times a year, and nearly as often affords a text for some paragrapher or local
editor.

ENEMIES.—Such a large animal as the Sword-fish can have but few antagonists whose attacks

-would be disastrous. The tunny or horse-mackerel, Orcynus thynnus, other Sword-fishes, and
sharks are its only peers in size, and of these the sharks are probably its worst foes.

Capt. N. E. Atwood exhibited to the Boston Society of Natural History, December 7, 1864,
the lower jaw of a large shark, taken at Provincetown, Massachusetts, in whose stomach nearly-
the whole of a large Sword-fish was found. Some ten or twelve wounds were noticed in the skin
of the shark, giving an idea of the conflict. The shark was doubtless Galeocerdo tigrinus.

Couch was told by a sailor that he had watched with interest the anxious motions of one as it
was followed closely and rapidly in all its turnings by a blue shark. Twice did it leap above the
surface to escape the near approach of its pursuer, but with what success at last the observer had
no opportunity of knowing.

Mr. John H. Thomson states that the Bill-fish (probably Tetrapturus albidus) is their especial
enemy. Bill fish, six to twelve feet long, appear about the last of the season, and their appear-
ance is a signal that the Sword-fish are about leaving.

INVERTEBRATE PARASITES OF THE SWORD-FISH.—Aristotle thus explains the leaping move-
ments of the fish: “The tunny and the Xiphias suffer from the estrus at the rising of the dog:-star,
for both these fish at this season have beneath their fins a little worm which is called cestrus,
which resembles a scorpion, and is about the size of a spider; they suffer so much from this
torment that the Xiphias leaps out of the sea as high as the dolphin, and in this manner fre-
quently falls upon our ships.”

This description of the parasite is somewhat vague; yet it is evident that allusion is made to
one of the Lerneans or gill-lice, little crustaceans remotely resembling crabs and lobsters, which
attach themselves to the gills and skin of many kinds of fishes, sucking the blood from their veins,
and often causing death; dreadful to their victims as was their namesake, the fabled Lernean
Hydra, to the Argives of old, and not to be destroyed by any piscine Hercules and Iolaus.

In one of the early volumes of the “ Philosophical Transactions” is an account by 8. Paulo
Boccone of “an extraordinary Sanguisuga, or Leech, found sometimes sticking fast in the Fish
called Xiphias or Sword-jish.” It is described as “about four Inches long, the Belly of it white,
cartilaginous and transparent, without Eyes or Head, but instead of a Head it had a hollow Snout,

PARASITES OF THE SWORD-FISH. 355

encompassed with a very hard Membrane; which Snout it thrusts whole into the Body of the
Fish, as strongly as an Augre is wound into a piece of Wood, and fills it full of Blood into the
very Orifice.” He names it “ Hirudo” or “ Acus cauda utrinque pennata.”!

A specimen taken off Seaconnet, July 22, 1875, had fluke-worms in the external coat of the
stomach and in the air-bladder.

The Sword-fish is infested by many species of invertebrate parasites. Some hang on the gills,
others fasten themselves to different parts of the alimentary canal—the esophagus, the stomach,
and the intestines; and others still bore into the flesh. Several species, as might be expected
from the size of the fish, are among the giants of their races. All undoubtedly cause more or
less pain to their host, but especially those which attach themselves to the gills, disturbing their
action and destroying their substance.

The parasites of the Sword-fish, for convenience, may be classified in two groups, the worm-
like parasites (Helminthes) and the crustacean parasites.

FIsH-PARASITES—THE SUCKERS OR REMORAS.—Several species of “stay-ships” or ““remoras”
occur on our coast. The ordinary kinds, such as Leheneis naucrates, the one with a black stripe
down its side and white corners to its caudal fin, appears to choose companionship with the
sharks, while the oceanic species, Remora squalipeta, is most often found clinging to ships.

A third species, Remora brachyptera, is the particular parasite of the Sword-fish. I have
several times identified specimens found attached to the fish, and have never known this species
to be found on any other member of the family. Jt has never come to us, moreover, from locality
and season which would be inconsistent with a theory that it had been brought near shore by a
Sword-fish.

Still another, Rhombochirus osteochir, seems equally inseparable from Tetrapturus albidus.
This fact is known to the Cuban fishermen, who call it by the name Pega de las Agujas—the
parasite of the Spear-fish.

Perhaps the two species are not so steadfist in their likings that they will not change from
Xiphias to Tetrapturus. My friend Professor Giglioli, of Florence, who speaks of R. brachyptera
as a fish new to the Mediterranean, obtained from Taranto a specimen said to have been taken
from the gills (operculum?) of Tetrapturus belone.

These parasites probably prefer to cling with their curious suckers to the hard exterior surface
of the opercular flap of the Sword-fish.

SWORD-FISH AS AN ARTICLE OF FOOD.—“ The small Sword-fish is very good meat,” remarked
Josselyn, in writing of the fishes of New England in the seventeenth century. Since Josselyn
probably never saw a young Sword-fish, unless at some time he had visited the Mediterranean,
it is fair to suppose that his information was derived from some Italian writer.

It is, however, a fact that the flesh of the Sword-fish, though somewhat oily, is a very accept-
able article of food. Its texture is coarse; the thick, fleshy, muscular layers cause it to resemble
that of the halibut in consistency. Its flavor is by many considered fine, and is not unlike that of
the bluefish. Its color is gray. The meat of the young fish is highly prized on the Mediterranean,
and is said to be perfectly white, compact, and of delicate flavor.2- Sword-fish are usually cut up
into steaks, thick slices across the body, and may be broiled or boiled.

! Philosophical Transactions, Vol. II, p. 821.

*The flesh, which is much esteemed by the better classes at Palermo, is dressed in almost as many modes as that
of the tunny, and fetches a higher price. During our sojourn there it was as two to one, the price of the first.
averaging fourpence per rovolo, while the poroua: of the latter were disposed of at twopence or twopence-half-
penny. The fiber is invitingly white, and the round segments look, as they lie in rows along the stalls, like so many
fillets of veal. Four to six feet is the usual run of those taken off the Trinzrian coast and displayed in the fish-
markets of Sicily.—BapHaM.

356 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Considerable quantities of Sword-fish are annually salted in barrels in Portland, Gloucester,
Boston, New Bedford, and New London. Sword-fish pickled in brine is in considerable demand
in certain sections of the country, and particularly in Lower Connecticut Valley, where a barrel
may be found in almost every grocery store. By many persons it is considered much more
palatable than salted mackerel.

THE SAIL-FISH—HISTIOPHORUS AMERICANUS.

Strange as it may seem, the American species of Histiophorus has never been studied by an
ichthyologist, and no attempt has ever been made to describe it or to compare it carefully with
the similar species occurring in the Indian Ocean. The identity of the two has been assumed
by Dr. Giinther,! but since no American specimens have ever been seen by this authority, I hesi-
tate for the present to follow his lead.

The history of the Sail-fish in ichthyological literature is as follows:

The first allusion to the genus occurs in Piso’s “Historia Naturalis Brasiliw,” printed at °
Amsterdam in 1648. In this book? may be found an identifiable though rough figure of the
American species, accompanied by a few lines of description, which, though good, when the fact
that they were written in the seventeenth century is brought to mind, are of no value for critical
comparison.

The name given to the Brazilian Sail-fish by Marcgrave, the talented young German who
described the fishes in the book referred to, and who afterward sacrificed his life in exploring the
unknown fields of American zoology, was Guebucu brasiliensibus. The use of the name Guebucu is
interesting, since it gives a clew to the derivation of the name “ Boohoo,” by which this fish, and
probably the Spear-fishes, are known to English-speaking sailors in the tropical Atlantic.

Sail-fishes were observed in the East Indies by Renard and Valentijn, explorers of that region
from 1680 to 1720, and by other eastern voyagers. No species of the genus was, however, sys-
tematically described until 1786, when a stuffed specimen from the Indian Ocean, eight feet long,
was taken to London, where it still remains in the collections of the British Museum. From this
specimen M. Broussonet prepared a description, giving it the name Scomber gladius, rightly
regarding it as a species allied to the mackerel.

In 1803 Lacépéde established the genus Histiophorus for the reception of this species.

When Cuvier and Valenciennes published the eighth volume of their Natural History of
Fishes, they ignored the name gladius, which had been given to the East Indian fish by Brous-
sonet, redescribing it under the name Histiophorus indicus. At the same time they founded
another species upon the figure in Piso’s Natural History of Brazil, already mentioned. This they
called Histiophorus americanus.

'Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum, ii, 1860, p. 513.

21648, Piso and MARCGRAVE:

Historia Naturalis | Brasiliw, | Auspicio et Beneficio | Illustrisa. | Mauritii Com. Nassau | illius Provincie et
Maris summi Prefecti Adornata: | In qua | Non tantum Plants et Animalia, sed et In- | digenarum morbi, ingenia et
mores describuntur et | Iconibus qungentus illustrantur | (Elaborate engraved title-page, upon which the preceding
inscription is inserted upon a scroll, the following upon a shell.) Lygdvn Batauorum, | Apud Franciscum Hackium, |
et | Amstelodami, | Apud Lud. Elzevirium. 1648. | 1 pp. (12), 122, (2), (8), 298, (7).

Second title.

Guilielmi Pisonis, M. D. | Lugduno-Batavi, | de Medicina Brasiliensi | Libri Quatuor: | I. De Aére, Aquis &
Locis | II. De Morbis Endemiis. | III. Venenatis & Antidotis. | IV. De Facultatibus Simplicium | et Georgi Marc-
gravi de Liebstad, | Misnici Germani, | Historia Rerum Naturalium | Brasilie | Libri octo: | Quorum | Tres priores
agunt de Plantis. | Quartus de Piscibus. | Quintus de Avibus. | Sextus de Quadrupedibus & Serpentibus. | Septimus de
Insectis. | Octavus de Ipsa Regione, & Tlius Incolis. | Cum | Appendice de Tapuyis, et Chilensibus. | Ioannes de
Let, | Antwerpianus, | In ordinem digessit & Annotationes addidit, & varies ab Auctore | Omissa supplevit &
Lustravit.

THE SAIL-FISH. BDL

In a paper printed in 1833, Dr. Nardo, of Venice, proposed the establishment of a new genus
allied to Tetrapturus and Xiphias, to be called Skeponopodus. In this he included the fish described
by Marcgrave under the name Skeponopodus guebucu, and also a form observed by him in the
Adriatic in 1829, which he called 8S. typus. Iam not aware that ichthyologists have yet learned
what this may have been.!

From the time of Marcgrave until 1872 it does not appear that any zoologist had any oppor-
tunity to study a Sail-fish from America, or even from the Atlantic; yet in Giinther’s “Catalogue”
the name H. americanus is discarded and the species of America is assumed to be identical with
that of the Indian Ocean.?

Giinther restores Lacépéde’s name, H. gladius, for the Indian species. Possibly, indeed
probably, this name will be found to include the Sail-fish of our own coast. At present, however,
it seems desirable to retain a separate name. To unite species from widely distant localities
without ever having seen them is very disastrous to a proper understanding of the problems of
geographical distribution.

The materials in the National Museum consist of a skeleton and a painted plaster cast of the
specimen taken near Newport, Rhode Island, in 1872, and a drawing made of the same, while fresh,
by Mr. J. H. Blake.

The occurrence of the Sail-fish is, as has been already stated, very unusual. Maregrave saw
it in Brazil as early as 1648. Sagra and Poey mention that it has been seen about Cuba, and
Schomburg includes it in his Barbados list. The specimen in the United States National Museum
was taken off Newport, Rhode Island, in August, 1872, and given to Professor Baird by Mr. Samuel
Powell, of Newport. No others were observed in our waters until March, 1878, when, according
to Mr. Neyle Habersham, of Savannah, Georgia, two were taken by a vessel between Savannah
and Indian River, Florida, and were brought to Savannah, where they attracted much attention
in the market. In 1873, according to Mr. E. G. Blackford, a specimen in a very mutilated condi-
tion was brought from Key West to New York City.

MOVEMENTS OF SAIL-FISHES.—No observations have been made in this country, and recourse
must be had to the statements of observers in the other hemisphere.

In the life of Sir Stamford Raffles there is the following account from Singapore, under date of
November 30, 1822:

“The only amusing discovery we have recently made is that of a sailing fish, called by the
natives Ikan layer, of about ten or twelve feet long, which hoists a mainsail, and often sails in the
manner of a native boat, and with considerable swiftness. I have sent a set of the sails home, as
they are beautifully cut and form a model for a fast-sailing boat. When a school of these are
under sail together they are frequently mistaken for a fleet of native boats.”

The fish referred to is in all likelihood Histiophorus gladius, a species very closely related to,
if not identical with, our own.

THE SPEAR-FISH—TETRAPTURUS ALBIDUS.

This species appears to be limited to the waters of the Mediterranean. It was not noticed by
Linnzeus, or indeed by any of the binomial writers before Schneider. In his posthumous edition
of the writings of Bloch, the latter has made reference to a figure and description in Duhamel,
and has given to a fish, which he figures in Plate XXI of this work, the mame Xiphias imperator.

1 Isis, 1833, Heft iv, pp. 415-419.
*The specimens in the British Museum are catalogued as follows: a. Eight feet long; stuffed. Indian Ocean.

Type of the species. 6. Seven feet long; stuffed. Cape of Good Hope. c. Dorsal fin. N. §. Wales (?). Presented
by Dr. G. Bennett. d. Snout; dried. .

SS Neo T a SSA Oe Aa rs NS

Tus Tame wis meemeh av acer Geis kouman 24. minh ais qt deem cece IY mer
Tore lbeems wm me ocean that DS Loctie? las perhaps anintencemally. set roure “opel
- axpreel tie genet Gifensatii umes of Tatrapeerea Ov ore iors ~ her cavers
wee Ue

Te pesStUtaF le waies: OV -vartne amedal. anila” Qe eters To Ge afsence ot The +
amt ot paves. Wile 2° Tome ami Ty cmpibeaen cn us ies en be aimibs Tae trssenee ae
eu Ins Sls tose CL te aw SS foe sk nose a re ak ce ir-+ of Tomee—char oo

mae. NE SaMMte.

T iape vitor 3S ssi 7 Joie Ae eo me Se eee ae ane ee me Qomeirest ami
ani peumis Tt re ores aged co Te Sour: of Weseme wr “ic earpeem Jur neous
Qaumeside SS “2D eT SET le se OT Rm en a i am, Wie tS codow-
2. te fbinim met ro2sts.. men Tuer rT hem Tf os oniimeiv so nn mes hue amt
Mie 7) ee i hey ic; cen item on eget vosier 6 Tie tes cs whi, Gen ot pene
Thay wel tect 42 Wessno ios sleet > tumnia weperaie” | Covter ami ueaeteanes..

Teo ees Ins pen ieeecbel Ge 2oer om cae. Je at wie, 7 alii. + 2ee Imeum-
Twn me SSuome see Uf Die Ciel So-+ | Liisa Ss Soe si 2 cemmier them Oech tie
Tea wih tae 7 aiews Te. ni tf ReMS WT De Tae “ers OS a NT Teaswm “ur foun Tus os fae
TI eeiet ie Sl-csms af ie 2 cance ami Init Qeeamy is lis deen Jemoeady done
Ov al wrress mm eer

Sino ura S oe SESE EET ea Ov Se Swords Isaermen af Mew fou. amd thee
Bs Dement” Gmi er wage i oe rairenitee davis Ge as,

WRIVEMESTS IF 222.5 SIs —Phe feec 2-2 Mm mrt Wes (ss Sad ov Ge Tuernen @
Teme le Pv TSBs Et Os muvements ami Imminer eins) |6~Preeeur Poes ooso-s tar
Wt Te Tar Seses SVM a & Ted Uf ome omurei Gums ami Wes Journey on guy
< Ger quuse quwari ie ‘Sait of Westee. Se females rene tol af ee (On niuite ae
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aot 2". Ew Whecier Tie wintif THies 7ITI IT ae sme tou Wen Se dso lus swalloweL
Tae Jue To 2S-S Tr ae SImiee. MEM orwous leameamiccings: Ac Tas chs imicoeP wu
Te Jen. Sere VO & Jeo. Ind Geese go deo Gedire cos dade om Dwar Sid Tuo
Slee Wour LET VE De Soeur DN SMe Rees UE Gre wud, ice-via che dsiernan:
ToVmcne dm wt os etbie weepem, Mie Isa lesumes curmous af Sle appeamime af SlOCsS,
Wey He ths manor avemre s Ther sagige Gb Tien MER. am wie time Secuc ku 8
FOULS, a ie Dberman Ss Ine ti ated Dewees ici, woumis fhm ese aera.

+ lam gu Warmer ar sticis ELIS _o. Mirhoios Pte. amber or + So moa Bem
Ties” Gb Gn Gime I aS a roy feser es tie dboirs 16 & veces ot Tetrepteres
WOPTSTA TD hae “ama Se ES RE Ter hive ae oI af Desc Turecty om Te Sutin oo
eain Weer. V1 Sis die ans Laboectog is seis | Ties ane taiee Ee deep vader writ
threrk tint “me. ar sien Wet dem “le surtwe. Hee sv ocu-tsu. When iekedor wears deg
Tiss UG Tie Dean. Sistas Sememioms “eames In tle ap. ami i sare os mig Geen they will jump oor
Tle Iwas TW De steic oserncun Gf me Tuecnea, is pieree dhe Quucs with, their rls
Mie BRS 121.7 Geet on me Worms. de tesa 2etut af 2 Seimon-coler near “ie ~ereore:
Tawar Low? OS i aint tics coarse Jeet The s7eeies icuuus & acme Sue. ame lo cos Deen ae
MARIOS TT ee,

EVGYAl0ITT IF THe Seeagse—The Sei ds STS ees TO Te Shine naamer is Re
Tvrriaisa. 1 im coeonet 2 Cant. Wali Sones of Noank. Conmeeivet. cee is mute:

~W> Wiltam Tivior. of Mesce. 5 mam = -entaie years ol, wae vic in the sak - Sver
0” Cape Jom Aapiemain. wis me chic tev simak om Wesce. Qedder LSE. un 8 Tsui

THE SPEAR-FISH. 359

voyage to Key West, in company with the smack ‘Morning Star,’ Captain Rowland. On the 12th
they were off Cape Hatteras, the wind blowing heavily from the northeast, and the smack under
double-reefed sails. At ten o’clock in the evening they were struck by a ‘Wobho’ (sic), which
shocked the vessel all over. The smack was leaking badly, and they made a signal to the
‘Morning Star’ to keep close by them. The next morning they found the leak, and both smacks
kept off to Charleston. On arrival they took out the ballast, hove her out, and found that the
sword had gone through the planking, timber, and ceiling. The plank was two inches thick, the
timber five inches, and the ceiling one and a half inches white oak. The sword projected two
inches through the ceiling, on the inside of the ‘after-run.’! It struck close by a butt on the
outside, which caused the leak. They took out and replaced a piece of the plank, and proceeded
on their voyage.”

J. Matthew Jones, esq., of Halifax, Nova Scotia, in his delightful little book “‘The Naturalist
in Bermuda,” records the case of the Bermudian schooner “Earl Dundonald,” arrived in the
port of Hamilton, which was pierced by one of these formidable fish off the coast of British
Guiana.

In the museum of Charleston College, Charleston, South Carolina, is preserved a fragment of
the snout of a Spear-fish, apparently Tetrapturus albidus. By the kindness of the curator, Dr.
G. E. Manigault, I was allowed to examine it and copy the label, which reads as follows: “The
brig ‘Amsterdam,’ bound to Charleston, owned by F. C. Bray, was struck in the Gulf Stream by
a monster or Sword-fish, which caused the vessel to leak considerably. By great exertion she was
kept free, and gained the port in safety.”

Messrs. Foster, Waterman & Co., of Boston, presented to the Boston Society of Natural
History, in 1869, a plank of Southern pine, from the side of the ship “Pocahontas,” owned by
them, perforated by and containing a portion of the sword of a “Sword-fish,” probably a species of
Histiophorus.?

14 hold under the cabin.
8Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., xiii, 1869, p. 64.

360 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIO ANIMALS.

M—THE TILE-FISH FAMILY, AND OTHERS.
112, THE TILE-FISH FAMILY—LATILIDZ.

This family, which has some relations both with the perch-like fishes and with those of the
mackerel tribe, although until within a few years not Known to occur within the territory of the
United States, is now coming into considerable prominence, and there is every reason to believe
that some of its members will yet grow into such favor and be found so abundant as to rank
among the important food-fishes of the United States. The most important is the Tile-fish,
Lopholatilus chameleonticeps, a form discovered on a hitherto unexplored ground, eighty miles
southeast of Noman’s Land, Massachusetts, in 1879, and in 1880 demonstrated by the explorations
of the Fish Commission to be exceedingly abundant everywhere on the coast of Southern New
England, at a depth of eighty to two hundred and fifty fathoms. This fish, which is one of the most
brilliantly colored species known outside the tropics, is very remarkable by reasen of the presence
of a soft dorsal fin, resembling that of the salmon, which is placed upon the neck in advance of
the regular dorsal fin, instead of behind it, as in the salmon family. Numerous specimens have
been obtained, varying from ten to fifty pounds, and, although there has been no opportunity to
study the breeding habits, there is every reason to believe that it is resident in our waters in
precisely the same manner as the codfish. Its abundance is very great. Captain Kirby, of
Gloucester, who was the first to obtain specimens of this fish, caught in a few hours several hundred,
which he salted down like codfish. In September, 1880, a small boat, sent out from the Fish Com-
mission steamer while it was dredging upon the “ Tile-fish Ground,” caught twelve large individuals
on one short line, the aggregate weight of which cannot have been less than two hundred and fifty
pounds. They were tasted at the ward-room table and the flesh was found to be fine-grained and
delicate in flavor, resembling in some respects that of the cod, in others, that of the striped bass.

The habits and food of this fish are probably very similar to those of the codfish, and the
ground upon which they are taken has been ascertained to be very richly supplied with all the
forms of small marine life which occur on the best cod banks. In time these fish cannot fail to be
the object of a popular demand, and the proximity of the grounds they inhabit to several large
cities will greatly enhance the importance of the Tile-fish.

In the Gulf of Mexico there is a related species which has as yet no popular name, but which
has been described under the binomial Cauwlolatilus microps, and which is occasionally taken on
the snapper banks. This was first observed by Mr. Silas Stearns, who sent specimens to the
National Museum. As yet only five specimens have been brought into Pensacola, all in March
and April, 1879, these having been taken with hook and line in thirty-five fathoms of water off
Pensacola. These fish range in weight from six to ten pounds. It is not yet known whether they
are sufficiently abundant to be of commercial importance, though there can be no question
regarding their edibility.

Another species, Caulolatilus chrysops (C. & V.) Gill, occurs in the Caribbean Sea and on the
coast of Brazil, while other related forms are known in China and Japan and on the west coast of
South America.

THE TILE-FISHES. 361

“Tn California,” writes Pr fessor Jordan, “there is a species, Caulolatilus anomalus (Cooper),
Gill, very similar to that of the Gulf of Mexico, and of some prominence as a food-fish, and known
as the ‘White-fish’ or ‘Blanquillo” It reaches a length of about thirty inches and a weight of
ten or fifteen pounds, though its average weight is four or five pounds. It ranges from Monterey
southward to Mexico, being very abundant about the Santa Barbara Islands. It lives about rocks
in water of considerable depth and takes the hook freely. Its food consists of crustaceans and
fishes; it is considered to be afish of fair but not excellent quality when fresh. When salted and
dried it is graded as first quality with the barracuda and the yellow-tail. South of Point
Concepcion it is one of the most important food-fishes, but is rarely sent to the market of San
Francisco.”

An allied form is Bathymaster signatus Cope, the ‘‘Ronchil,” found in deep water trom Puget
Sound northward.

113. THE RED MULLET FAMILY—MULLIDZ.

This family is represented in our waters by a single species, Upeneus flavovittatus, which
has been observed in two or three instances on the coast of Southern New England, and is doubt-
less an estray from the West Indies. It has not yet been brought to light on the Gulf coast of
the United States. A closely related species is the Mullet or Surmullet of Europe, the Mullus of
the ancient Romans, highly prized by them. This fish was brought living into the banquet-hall
that the guests might admire the brilliant changes of color exhibited in its expiring struggles.

Another species of this family is occasionally taken at Pensacola, but is not sufficiently abun-
dant to possess any considerable economic importance.

114. THE ICOSTEUS FAMILY.

This family consists of two small fishes, peculiar to our California coast, which live in
considerable depths of water: Icichthys Lockingtoni J. & G., only one specimen of which is known;
and Icosteus enigmaticus Lockington, likewise rarely taken, and only in deep water.

In the last, two species the skeleton is scarcely ossified, and the body is as limp as a rag.

115. THE BERYX FAMILY—BERYCIDA.

Of this family, which is widely distributed throughout the temperate and tropical seas, and
which has many representatives in the deeper parts of the ocean, only one species here appropriate
to be mentioned occurs upon our coast, viz, the Bermuda “ Squirrel-fish,” Holocentrum pentacan-
thum. This fish ranges south to Brazil, east to the Bermudas, and is very abundant in the West
Indies. Professor Gill has recorded the capture of a specimen at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1873.
It is abundant on the Florida coast south of Cedar Keys, a few being found, as stragglers, north
aud west of that limit. It is caught with hook and line in all the channels and on the reefs.
Stearns obtained several specimens at Pensacola Bay in 1876 and in 1882. Fle testifies that he has
eaten them frequently and that they are as good a pan-fish as any on the coast. They attain a
length of twelve to fifteen inches. About the Bermudas they are very abundant, and are conspicuous
on account of their brilliant red hue and their habit of skulking in holes about the reefs. They

‘feed upon small fishes and breed abundantly, apparently spawning in the summer season. At
Cuba this fish is called the “ Matajuelo.”

362 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

N—THE DRUM FAMILY.

The family Sciwnide is distributed along the coasts of temperate and tropical countries the
world over, though most abundant in the Western Atlantic, the Eastern Pacific, and Indian
Oceans, and in the Mediterranean Sea. Many of the species are most abundant about the mouths
of rivers, and there are several species, such as the fresh-water Drum, Haploidonotus grunniens,
of the Mississippi Valley, which are found only in fresh water. In general form many of the
members of this family are not unlike the salmon, and are sometimes mistaken for this fish.
They are, however, true spiny-rayed fishes. The Drum and its congeners may be distinguished
from all others by the presence of the comparatively short, spiny dorsal fin, and a very long,
soft-rayed fin upon the posterior portion of the back.

Many of them are ground-loving species, and are provided with barbels by which they feel
their way over the bottom, and with strong, pavement-like teeth for crushing shell-fish and strong
shelled crustaceans. To this group belong the fresh-water Drum, the King-fish, and others.

Another group, typified by the Squeteagues, are without the barbels and possess long, sharp
teeth, being surface feeders, rapid swimmers, and voracious.

The Red Drum of our coast, Scicena ocellata, resembles in some respects both of these groups.
Nearly all the members of this family have the power of uttering loud sounds. This, as has been
demonstrated by M. Dufossé, is accomplished through a peculiar structure of the air-bladder.

116. THE SQUETEAGUE—CYNOSCION REGALE.

NAMES.—This well-known fish is one of those which bear a great variety of names. About Cape
Cod they are called “Drummers”; about Buzzard’s Bay and in the vicinity the largest are known
as “Yellow-fins”; in New York and in New Jersey, ‘‘ Weak-fish”; from Southern New Jersey to
Virginia, “Bluefish.” The name “ Squeteague” is of Indian origin, and “Squit,” ‘“Succoteague,”
“Squitee,” and ‘Chickwit” are doubtless variations of this name in different ancient and modern
dialects. In the Southern Atlantic States it is called “Grey Trout,” “Sun Trout,” and “Shad
Trout,” and with the other members of the genus is spoken of under the name “Sea Trout” and
“ Salt-water Trout,” though, of course, distinct from the “trout” of the fresh waters of the South,
the large-mouth Black Bass. The name “Squeteague,” since it is the aboriginal Indian name,
seems most characteristic, and is well worthy of being permanently retained.

ABUNDANCE.—The Squeteague is found on the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod to Eastern
Florida, where I observed it sparingly in 1878. Its extreme southern distribution has not yet been
indicated. Some writers have claimed that it occurs at New Orleans, but Mr. Stearns did not
succeed in finding it in the Gulf, and Professor Jordan writes that it is certainly not found in the
Gulf of Mexico, unless as a stray.

The Squeteague is abundant throughout the above range, except in the regions where its.
productiveness is interfered with by the bluefish. In Massachusetts Bay, according to Dr. Storer,
it is very rare, but scattering individuals have been found as far north as the Bay of Fundy. The
early annals of New England make frequent mention of this fish and of its variations in number
with that of the bluefish. Thus, according to Dr. Storer, it was very abundant in the Vineyard
Sound in the early part of the present century, but gradually became more scarce, until about

ABUNDANCE OF THE SQUETEAGUE. 363

1870, when it was no longer to be met with, and for several years it was entirely unknown in these
waters; so much so, indeed, that fishermen of many years’ experience were totally unacquainted
with its characteristics. In 1867 or 1868, however, scattering individuals were taken on the south
coast of Massachusetts, and in 1870 they were quite abundant and have since held their own.!

This variation in their numbers is ascribed by writers generally to the action of the bluefish,
which, by its constant attacks, is supposed to influence their abundance. Some cause or other
produced a similar influence upon the bluefish, which became scarce in turn; thus the Squeteague
was enabled to recover its ground, and to resume its place in the food economy of the coast. To
what extent this disappearance or reappearance of the Squeteague is actually connected with that
of the bluefish, it is impossible at present to state. It is quite likely that other causes, at least,
are cuncerned, with which we are now unacquainted.

We have intimations, in the writings of the early historians of New England, of the disap-
pearauces and returns of the Weak-fish, like those referred to in the present century.

The Squeteague, as well as the bluefish, varies in size with the locality. While on the coast of
New Jersey they do not average much over one pound, they are stated to occasionally attain the
weight of from six to ten pounds, and have even been known to weigh thirty.

Although essentially a coast and still-water fish, they occasionally run up tidal waters, and
are thought on the coast of New Jersey to prefer the vicinity of the mouths of fresh-water streams,
where they can find a mixture of fresh water. In the vicinity of Beasley’s Point, where at times,
in consequence of drought, there is more fresh water brought down into Egg Harbor than usual,
they are known to move to a considerable distance up towards the headwaters, and to leave, to a
great measure, their ordinary grounds more seaward.

The Squeteague in the South is a resident fish, although said by Holbrook to be most abun-

1A GREAT CATCH OF FISH—WHAT THREE STEAM SMACKS CAUGHT OFF Rockaway.—A great catch of Weak-fish
was made yesterday about two miles off Rockaway Beach, by the s'eam smacks ‘“‘E. T. De Blois,” Capt. J. A. Keene;
“Leonard Brightman,” Capt. Elijah Powers, and ‘‘ J. W. Hawkins,” Capt. J. W. Hawkins. These smacks are engaged
in the menbaden or ‘‘ moss-bunker” fishery for the oil-rendering and fish-scrap works on Barren Island, and were
cruising off Rockaway yesterday in search of schools. About noon a vas‘ school of what the fishermen supposed at
first to be menhaden was discovered stretching along the coast for miles. To borrow their language, ‘‘The water was
red with the fish, but they didn’« break the surface as menhaden always do.” The boats were lowered, the seines
spread, and then it was discovered that the school was of Weak-fish and not menhaden. ‘‘T have been in the business
for twenty years,” said the nate of the Brightman, ‘‘and I never saw anything like it before.” The fish varied in
length from one and a half to three feet, and in weight from three to seven pounds. The ‘De Blois” took over 200
barrels, th “Hawkins” 150 barrels, and the ‘ Brightman” 350 barrels. The entire catch was estimated at something
over 200,000 pounds, which, at the ordinary market price for Weak-fish—s ven cents a pound—would amount to
$14,000. But, of course, the market price could not. be maintained in the presence of such a catch as this, and it was
said ye.terday afternoon that a strong effort was being made by the wholesale fish-dealers of Fulton Market to prevent
the greater part of the fish from being put on sale. The captain of the “Hawkins,” which landed at Pier No. 22
East River, foot of Fulton stzeet, obtained a promise from a Fulton Market dealer to take part of his catch, and then
made «vertures to Mr. Eugene G. Blackford, of E. G. Blackford & Co., Beekman street, to sell the remainder. As
soon, however, as the Fulton Market dealer learned of the offer to Mr. Blackford, he refused to take any of the fish.
The captain of the “Brightman,” however, had better luck. H. M. Rogers & Co., of No. 11 Fulton Market, engaged
to take his entire catch of 350 barrels, and immediately put two men in charge of the boat. The ‘‘De Blois” meanwhile
had made fast against the bulkhead at the foot of Beckman street, and ‘ aptain Keene failing to come to terms with
the Fulton Market dealers, engaged P. Owens, of No. 104 South street, who manages the peddling trade for the Fulton
Market dealers, to dispose of his fish. A crowd speedily gathered about the boat, and the fish sold almost as fast as
they could be handled at twenty-five cents a pair. The pressure of the crowd became so great at one time that pylive
assistance was invoked, and Officer William Brown, of the steamboat squad, was detailed to stay on the boat. While
Owen was selling the fish at twenty-five cents a pair, an attempt to break the price was made by two well-known
“longshore” characters, Jack Sullivan, the shark-catcher, and T. Long, alias ‘“‘Blindy,” who bought one thousand
pounds of the fish at one cent per pound, and stood on the street retailing them at twenty cents per pair.
Fish-dealers say that there will be no difficulty in selling all the fish this morning at from one to three cents per
pound. Friday morning, they say, is the best in the week for the sale of fish. Tons of ice were cracked last evening
and put on the fish to keep them fresh until to-day.—New York Times, 1881.

364 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

dant and largest in the autumnal months, when, in his opinion, they come trom the north. It is
not satisfactorily asccrtained, however, whether these fishes, leaving the northern coast during
winter time, migrate southward or move towards the warm waters of the Gulf Stream. They
return to the coast of the Middle and Northern States early in the spring, the first being taken
in May, and are most abundant from June to September.

They are common in summer in Eastern markets, but do not bring high prices, the flesh bein.
soft and flabby, and of little value except when fresh from the water.

According to the report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Fishes of Narragansett Bay,
the Squeteague was ten times as abundant.in 187V as in 1869, and was first noticed there, aiter a
long absence, about 1866. It is said that when they appear off the coast of New Jersey, about the
middle of June, they are found to be filled with spawn, but this statement requires confirmation.
Thousands of individuals have been examined by the Fish Commission naturalists at different
times in the summer, and it is but rare that traces of spawn have been found. The precise period
of spawning along the coast and the localities where the eggs are laid, as well as the habits of the
fish during that period, are but little known, and are well worthy of careful investigation.

At Beasley’s Point, the young fish of the year have in Angust attained a length of about
four inches, and differ from the adults in lacking entirely the characteristic spots, these being
replaced by broad, vertical bands, which, together with their more compressed form, render their
appearance very unlike that of the adult.

The sport of catching the Squeteague is very great, and is highly enjoyed by our coast fisher-
men on account of the great number that can be taken in a very short time. They usually move
about in schools of greater or less size, swimming near to the surface, and requiring a line but
little leaded. They take almost any kind of bait, especially clams, soft crabs, or pieces of fish.
They bite with a snap, rarely condescending to nibble, and in consequence of the extreme tender-
ness of the mouth it requires constant vigilance to fasten them, and great care to haul them
successfully out of the water.

During the flood tide they occupy the channel-ways of the bays, and during the ebb they
generally settle down in some deep hole, where they remain until the next flood brings them out
again.

In the night the Squeteague run up the creeks in the salt meadows, where they are sometimes
taken in great numbers by interposing between them and the sea, just before the period of high
water. This experiment is not a very satisfactory one, however, on the New Jersey coast, in
consequence of the great abundance of crabs that accompany the fish: the smallir fish become
entangled in the meshes of the nets, thus inviting the attack of the crabs, which cut the nets to
pieces, sometimes ruining them altogether in the course of a single night. When taken, the
Squeteague makes a peculiar croaking, audible at a considerable distance; and it is said that this
is not unfrequently heard from a boat when passing over a school of them in the water beneath.

In the North, as has been already stated, this species is but little esteemed, but in the South
it ranks very high. In the Chesapeake they usually average from one to one and a half pounds
in weight, though they sometimes attain the weight of twelve pounds. They make their appear-
amee about the 1st of May and remain until cold weather. They are very abundant, and immense
quantities of them are salted for winter use.

The Sea Trout, or Deep.water Trout, of Charleston, described by Holbrook under the name
Otolithus thalassinus, is without much question identical with the Northern Squeteague, although
that author states that it differs from this fish entirely in its habits, since it is only found in the

THE CHARLESTON SQUETEAGUE. 365

ocean and deep water, and never approaches the bays and inlets along the coast, while it is a
larger animal.

The few specimens which he had seen were taken off Charleston Bar, at about twenty miles
from land and in about fifteen or twenty fathoms of water. The very peculiarities which he men-
tioned are characteristic of the adult Squeteague.

117. THE SPOTTED SQUETEAGUE—CYNOSCION MACULATUM.

Associated with the Squeteague in the waters off the coast of New Jersey and on the eastern
shore of Virginia is a species belonging to the same genus, but somewhat different, being char-
acterized by the presence of well-defined dark spots. It becomes more abundant as we proceed
southward, until off the coast of North Carolina and Georgia, where it is one of the most abundant
food-fishes. Owing to its shape and the presence of well-marked spots on the sides it is usually
known on the Southern coast as the “Salmon” or “Spotted Trout,” and there are not wanting
sportsmen in the Southern States who maintain with dogmatic earnestness the existence of the
true Salmon Trout in the waters of their coast. This fish is of course in every respect very unlike
a trout, and the name “Spotted Squeteague” has been proposed for it. It is difficult, however,
to bring about a change in a name which has been in use for several generations, and it is
probable that the name “Sea Trout” will always be used. Genio Scott proposed the name
“Spotted Silver-sides,” which is not particularly appropriate, and which no one but himself has
ever used.

The history of American fishes contains very little respecting the habits of this species,
although it is so important an element of food to the inhabitants of the Southern coast. We have,
however, been favored by Dr. H. C. Yarrow with notes made at Fort Macon, North Carolina, in
which many of the deficiencies in our information are supplied. According to his account, the
Spotted Trout is not found in that locality during the winter, or only in small numbers, making
its first appearance in February on its way from the south, and attaining its greatest abundance
about the middle of April.

Little is known of its rate of growth, although, according to some observers, this increase
amounts to about six inches per annum; so that a fish of average size, or eighteen inches, may be
considered as three years old. There is no perceptible difference in the sexes as to rate of growth
or general appearance, excepting in the fuller belly of the female.

Dr. Yarrow states that they come from the south in the spring and pass through the inlets
on the flood tide, the date of their first appearance varying with that of the opening of spring.
They remain in the vicinity of the inlets and sounds on the coast of North Carolina until about
May, when they gradually proceed northward, extending their journey as far as the shores of Long
Island, where a few only are taken, although, perhaps, their number may be considerable. They
reappear on the coast of North Carolina in September, and thence proceed south, following the
same course as that by which they came, but leaving on the ebb instead of the flood tide. They
are found in the winter as far south as Saint Augustine, and possibly below this point, although
we have no positive assurance of this fact.

At present they are thought to be more abundant than any other fish on the Carolina coast,
with the exception of the mullet, having increased in numbers very largely (at least twofold)
within the last ten years, possibly in consequence of the intermission of capture during the war.
The average length is about eighteen inches, with a weight of two pounds, although they are not
unfrequently found threé feet in length and ten pounds’ weight. They are often found outside of

366 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

the beach in great numbers in January, coming in to the shore when the water is warm, about
February, as stated. School follows school at intervals of about four or five days, when they seem
to go northward and to be absent from the Southern coast for several months. On their return
in September, after a short stay, they gradually leave the coast until they finally disappear for the
season. Their return season by season is very regular and definite, being relied upon with much
confidence. The successive “runs” do not seem to be classified in any particular way, large and
small fish of both sexes coming in together. The colder the weather the less tendency they appear
to exhibit to come towards the shore.

At their first appearance in the spring the spawn is not appreciable, nor, according to Dr.
Yarrow, do they have any development of the ovaries during their stay on that coast; and he
is under the impression that they breed during their autumnal and winter stay farther south.
This, however, is scarcely probable, it being more likely that their spawning ground is more to
the north, perhaps off the coast of Virginia.

They are said never to take the hook, and to be captured entirely by nets. Their presence is
generally made known by the schools of porpoises which follow and feed upon them. Swimming
low in the water, they make no ripple on the surface, as is the case with mulets. The time of their
capture is usually on the young flood, as in their movements along the shore they come in on the
rising tide and depart on the ebb.

Like their representatives in the north, these fishes are fond of penetrating, for a short distance
at least, into the mouths of rivers, remaining, however, only about a week; this, according tu Di.
Yarrow, is their habit on the coast of North Carolina, before leaving for the North.

They prefer sandy and grassy bottoms, and are particularly fond of shallow water, four or five
feet deep, especially in still water and eddies. Their favorite food is small mullet and other dimin-
utive fish, as well as still more largely shrimps and small crustaceans; while, on the other hand,
they are eaten voraciously by Weak-fish, bluefish, Drum, porpoises, ete.

As already stated, this fish is seldom if ever taken with the hook, at least for purposes of the
market, nets being generally employed, some few being occasionally speared. They are taken in
seines, usually having a mesh of about one and one-half inches, made of No. 8 cutton twine, about
one hundred yards long and ten feet deep. When the fish first begin to make their appearance
the fishermen establish themselves in their boats, just outside the surf, and watch along the crest
ot the breakers. When the fish are seen the net is paid out from the stern of the boat, one man
leaping overboard with a rope attached to one end of the net, while a man in the boat pulls rapidly
around the schovl so as to inclose it. The net is then drawn carefully to the shore. The average
catch of two men for a day may be set at about three hundred pounds, although a much greater
amount than this could be taken if desirable.

They are used when fresh, and sént up into the small towns in the interior in large numbers.
The flesh is of an excellent quality, much superior to that of the Weak-fish, being firm, white, and
flaky, and will keep well for three or four days, unless the weather be too warm. It is sometimes
salted down for home use by the inhabitants along the coast, and much esteemed. Dr. Yarrow
estimates that about two hundred barrels were salted during the season of 1871 by the fishermen
in his vicinity. The fish bring about $3 per hundred at wholesale, and $5 at retail, this being equal
to the average for the last ten years.

Mr. Silas Stearns has recently prepared the following notes regarding the habits of the
Spotted Squeteague as observed by him in the Gulf of Mexico:

“The Spotted Trout is abundant from Key West to Mexico. In the Pensacola region it is
present all the year, although most abundant in summer. It prefers to remain in shoal waters

THE SPOTTED SQUETEAGUE. OU7

on grassy bottom, where it finds small fish and shrimps in abundance for food. It breeds in inside
waters in July or August. Quantities of the fry are seen in Angust and September. They do not
often form in schools in the bays, but in some places are so plentiful that it is not unusual to catch
five or eight barrels at one drag of a seine. One man fishing with hook and line sometimes catches
one hundred in less thanaday. The Trout is an excellent food-fish, and of considerable importance
to the fish trade. The demand for it would be much greater if it was not so hard to preserve in
this climate.”

118. THE SILVER SQUETEAGUE—CYNOSCION NOTHUM.

The Silver Squeteague, Cynoscion nothum, called at Charleston the “ Bastard Trout,” while
resembling in shape the two species already described, is easily distinguished from them, being of
an uniform silvery hue, the back being slightly darker than the rest of the body.

One or two individuals have been taken in Chesapeake Bay, but it has rarely been observed north
of South Carolina, whence Holbrook obtained the specimens from which the original description was
made. I have obtained one or two individuals from the mouth of the Saint John’s River, where
they are not distinguished by the fishermen from the Shad Trout, or Northern Squeteague. In the
Gulf of Mexico, according to Stearns, it is common in company with the Spotted Squeteague, and,
as far as has been observed, its habits are similar. It is, however, according to Jordan, less abun-
dant, and is not to be found at all seasons. It is most abundant in September and October, but no
spawning fish or young have been seen. The ‘‘ White Trout,” as it is called in Pensacola, is
is caught with hook and line in company with the Spotted Trout.

119. THE DRUM—POGONIAS CHROMIS.

Next to the sword-fish, tunny, Jew-fish, and halibut, the Drum is perhaps the largest of the
food-fishes of our coast. It is most abundant in the Gulf of Mexico and in the Southern Atlantic
States, though nearly every summer a few specimens appear on the south coast of New England.
In one or two instances individuals have been observed as far north as Provincetown, Massa-
chusetts. In the Gulf it is common everywhere, even to the southern boundary of Texas;
how much farther south it goes there is at present no means of determining. Ichthyologists
formerly supposed that there were two species, one of which, of small size and conspicuously
banded with brown and white, was called the “Banded Drum,” P. fasciatus, or ‘Little Drum.”
This is now well known to be the young of the P. chromis. It seems curious that the changes
of color in relation to age, although known to Cuvier forty years ago, should have been over-
looked by American naturalists, and that the species P. fasciatus should have stood as valid until
1873.

My own observations upon the Drum have been made chiefly in Florida. Specimens of
ten and fifteen inches are abundant in the Lower Saint John, and are frequently taken at Jack-
sonville, even as high up the river as Doctor’s Lake. Large ones are seldom known to pass the
bar at Mayport. The young are very dissimilar to the adult fish, though the fishermen recognize
the actual relations. In this respect they are more discriminating than the ichthyologist Hol-
brook, who described them as distinct species. The adult is known as the “Black Drum,” the
young as the “Striped Drum.” In addition to the marked differences in color, the young has a
much more shapely body than the adult, much higher in proportion to its length. The full-grown
fish sometimes weigh eighty pounds, though the average is perhaps not more than one-quarter as
large. They are sluggish swimmers, and are especially adapted to life on the bottom, where their

368 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

long, sensitive barbels aid them in their search for buried treasures of food. They feed upon all
bottom-dwelling invertebrates. Their teeth are extremely heavy and pavement-like; their jaws
are provided with very powerful muscles, by means of which they can crush with great ease the
shells of the most strongly protected invertebrates.

It is claimed by oyster-planters that the Drum is very destructive! to the oyster-beds. Mr.
Stearns writes: “Oysters are their favorite food on the Gulf coast, and they destroyed a great
many at Apalachicola, Saint Andrew’s, Mobile, and Galveston Bays. The Mobile oyster-planters
attribute the bulk of their losses to Drums. At Pensacola I have known a boat-load of oysters,
fifty barrels, that were thrown overboard to be preserved, to be entirely consumed in eight or ten
days by them, leaving but a heap of broken shells.”

While it is probable that the Drum feeds upon oysters as well as upon crabs or shrimps, it is
probable that the extent of their destructiveness has been somewhat exaggerated; for instance,
it was claimed a few years ago that oysters in New York Bay to the value of hundreds of thou-
sands of dollars were destroyed by Drums. This seems quite unlikely, since the Drum is by no
means a common fish so far north as New York.

The name “ Drum,” as every one knows, alludes to the loud drumming noise which is heard,
especially:in the breeding season, and is doubtless the signal by which the fish call to their mates.
This habit of drumming is shared by many fishes of this family, but appears to be most highly
developed in the Drum, and in a European species known as the Maigre, Sciena aquila. M.
Dufossé has investigated very thoroughly the physiological causes of these sounds, which appear
to depend largely upon the action of the air-bladder.

Mr. 8. C. Clarke has made some interesting communications regarding their breeding habits.
Lhe male is the larger, and is more brightly colored, particularly at the breeding season. The
male drums very loud, the female in a softer tone. Fish under twenty pounds in weight do not
breed. About the Halifax Inlet, Southern Florida, they spawn in March in the salt-water rivers.
The ova sink to the bottom. They are as large as B-shot, dark brown in color, and are often
seen to run from the parent fish when it is captured. In a large fish the roe sometimes weighs six
or seven pounds. In the northern part of the Gulf of Mexico, according to Silas Stearns, they
spawn in April and May in inside waters.

The northern limit of the species appears to be defined by Cape Cod. In 1873 Mr. James H.
Blake captured one at Provincetown. Another, of twenty-five pounds’ weight, was secured by
Vinal Fdwards for the Fish Commission from Rogers’ Pound, Quissett, Massachusetts, July, 1874;
another large individual, of sixty pounds’ weight, was taken near Noank, Connecticut, July 10,
1874, the third instance of its capture known to the fishermen of that vicinity.

Schoepf, writing about the year 1786, says that they were at that time very rare about New
York, though he had occasionally seen them at the city market, where they met with sale, though
their flesh was none of the hardest.

The Drums captured north of Sandy Hook have been, so far as I can learn, large adult fish
Professor Baird found the young fish of this species very abundant in August in the small bays
along the shores of Beasley’s Point, New Jersey, though few were seen in the rivers.

North of Maryland the fish is of little economical importance. In the Chesapeake region,
according to Uhler and Lugger,? its flesh is much esteemed, and its roe is a great delicacy; consid-
erable numbers are brought to the Baltimore markets in spring and fall.

1 New York fishermen say that a school of these fish destroyed seven thousand barrels of oysters in Prince’s Bay
in two days some years ago.—F RED. MaTHER, Chicago Field, September 13, 1879, p. 67.
?Rep. Com. Fish. Maryland, reference 76, p. 99.

USES OF THE DRUM. 369

In the Carolinas, according to a statement of a correspondent, the roe is considered very
delicious, and it is customary for the residents of the coast to salt and dry them and send them
“up country” to their friends as a very acceptable present.

They are sometimes cauzht in seines in great numbers and retained Jiving in the seines until
disposed of. Their flesh is coarse, but tender, and it is thought to compare favorably with any of
the salt-water fish of the region. Drum-fishing with hook and line is one of the most exciting
exploits of the sportsmen of this region. In the Nassau River large Drum are taken with hook and
line in the spring, and are sold at Fernandina.

~The young Drum are often taken in seines in the Saint John’s River and sold in the Jackson-
ville market, and are excellent pan-fish, as my own experience testifies. The large fish are often
eaten, but are not so much sought after; perhaps the cause of this is that they are liable to be
infested by parasitic worms. A Drum of sixty pounds, taken at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts,
1864, was completely riddled by nematode worms, neatly encysted among the layers of muscle.
Some of them were two feet long, with heads larger than large buck-shot.

In the Indian River, according to Mr. Clarke, Drum are caught with hooks and crab bait, and
with cast-nets. In summer they are caught in the open ocean; in the winter, in the bays and
inlets. Four or five a day is considered good fishing luck. Tides do not affect the fishing. Their
flesh is not greatly esteemed. They are sometimes salted, but are chiefly used for compost. ‘In
the Gulf of Mexico,” says Stearns, “the Drum is often caught in seines and gill-nets, but is very
rarely eaten, as the flesh is dry and tasteless. It attains a large size; specimens weighing thirty-
five or forty pounds are taken.”

The scales of the Drum are extensively used in the manufacture of the sprays of flowers and
other articles of fancy work which are sold, especially in Florida, under the name of “fish-scale
jewelry.” They are large and silvery, and so hard that it is necessary to remove them from the
fish with an axe or hatchet. .

The Drum is interesting to the fishery economists less on account of any intrinsic value in
itself, than because of its destructive influence upon the oyster-beds. Concerning its relation to
the oyster-culturist, I cannot do better than to quote the words of Mr. Ernest Ingersoll: ‘Knowing
the carnivorous propensity of the fish, one can easily imagine how an inroad of such a host must
affect an oyster-ground. They co not seem to make any trouble, however, north of New York City,
and rarely along the south side of Long Island. At Staten Island and Keyport they come in every
‘few years and devastate thousands of dollars’ worth of property. Such a memorable visitation
happened about 1850, in July. The following summer the planters in Prince’s Bay, fearing a repe-
tition of the onslaught, anchored shingles and pieces of waste tin on their beds, scattering them
at short intervals, in the hope that their dancing, glittering surfaces might act as ‘scare-crows’ to
frighten the fish away. Whether as an effect of this, or because of a general absence, no more
Drums appeared. In New York Bay, off Caven Point, where the old ‘Black Tom Reef? is now
converted into an island, one planter of Keyport lost his whole summer’s work—material and
labor—in a single September week, through an attack by Drums. A City Island planter reported
to me a loss of $10,000 in one season a few years ago; but the East River is about the northern
limit of the Drums, at least as a nuisance to oyster-culture, so far as I can learn. The vexation of
it is, too, that the Drum does not seem to eat half of what he destroys; but, on the contrary, a
great school of them will go over a bed, wantonly crushing hundreds of oysters and dropping them
untasted, but in fragments, on the bottom.”'

1 The great schools in which these fish go are illustrated by the following records from contemporary newspapers:
On Monday last John Earle and sons caught, at one draught, in Bristol Ferry, 719 Drum-fish, weighing upwards
ef fifty pounds each. Niles’ Weekly Register, July, 1833, also says: ‘‘Some days ago a haul was made in Great Egg

24 F

370 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

120. THE FRESH-WATER DRUM—HAPLOIDONOTUS GRUNNIENS.
By Davin 8. JoRDAN.

This species is in the Great Lakes always known by the name of Sheepshead. In the Ohio
River it is usually called “White Perch” or “Gray Perch,” often simply “Perch.” In the lakes
of Northern Indiana it is called “‘Crocus,” evidently a corruption of ‘“Croaker.” In the South-
ern States the name “ Drum” predominates; that of ‘‘Thunder-pumper,” also used for the bittern,
Botaurus lentiginosus, is heard along the Mississippi River. Southwestward, in Louisiana, Texas,
and Arkansas, it is always known as the “Gaspergou.” These names, “Croaker,” “Drum,”
“Thunder-pumper,” ete., refer to the croaking or grunting noise made by this species in common
with most Sciznoids. This noise is thought to be made in the air-bladder by forcing the air from
one compartment to another. Another name used in the southwest is ‘ Jewel-head.”

This Drum is very abundant in all large bodies of water throughout the Western States, from
the Great Lakes to the Rio Grande. It seldom enters small streams. It feeds largely upon crus-
taceaus and mollusks, but sometimes swallows other fishes. It is rather a bottom fish than
otherwise. Its value as a food-fish depends on the water and food, and, unlike most fishes, its
quality seems to improve to the southward. Although from its size and abundance it becomes an
important market fish, it cannot at best be considered one of high quality. Its flesh is tough and
coarse in fiber, and often of a disagreeable shark-like odor, particularly in the Great Lakes, where
itis never eaten. The flesh of partly grown specimens is better than that of the adult.

This fish reaches a length of four feet and a weight of forty to sixty pounds. Those usually
seen in market are much smaller.

Nothing special is recorded concerning its breeding habits. It is apparently not at all
migratory.

This species in the Lakes often contains numerous parasitic worms.

121. THE SPOT, OR LAFAYETTE—LIOSTOMUS XANTHURUS.

The Lafayette, or “ Spot,” Liostomus canthurus, is found along our coast from New York to the
Gulf of Mexico, and is known in New York and elsewhere as the “Spot,” on the coast of New
Jersey as the “Goody” and sometimes as the “Cape May Goody,” in the Chesapeake region also
as the “Spot” and the “ Roach,” at Charleston, South Carolina, as the ‘ Chub,” in the Saint John’s
River, Florida, as the ‘‘ Masooka”—this name being probably a corruption of a Portuguese name,
“Bezuga”—and at Pensacola as the “Spot” and “ Chopa blanca.” The name “Lafayette” was
formerly used for this fish in New York, though seldom heard at the present day.

Although they sometimes enter the large fresh waters of the South (such as the Saint John’s,
which they ascend as far as Jacksonville), Giinther is by no means justified in his remarkable
statement that this is ‘a fresh-water fish inhabiting the rivers of North America.”

Like the other bottom-feeding members of this family, their food consists chiefly of the smaller
mollusks and crustaceans. Little is known about their breeding habits in the North. Mr. 8. C.
Clarke states that at New Smyrna, Florida, they spawn in the bays and inlets in November and
December, while Stearns remarks that they spawn in the lower bays and inlets about Pensacola

Harbor Bay, near Beasley’s Point, Cape May, at which 218 Drum-fish were caught, their entire weight being from
8,000 to 9,000 pounds. This is said to be the largest haul of that description of fish ever made in that bay.”

Another still larger, noticed as a great haul of Drum-fish: “On Wednesday, June 5, 1804,” says the postmaster of
Oyster Ponds, Long Island, ‘‘one seine drew on shore at (his place at a single haul 12,250 fish, the average weight of
which was found to be thirty-three pounds, making in the aggregate 202 tons 250 pounds. This undoubtedly is the
greatest haul of this kind ever known in this country. A hundred witnesses are ready to attest the truth of the
above statement. They are used for manure.” (The fish, I suppose, and not the witnesses.—INGERSOLL. )

THE SPJT OR LAFAYETTE. 371

late in the fall, while the young of all sizes are very abundant in the spring. Concerning this
species Professor Baird writes:

“Of the smaller pan-fish of our coast, in excellence of flavor none is considered superior to
that known as the ‘Lafayette. Its precise eastern range is not well ascertained, although it is
occasionally taken in great numbers off Long Island and the coast of New Jersey. It is most
plentiful off the coast of Virginia. The name of Lafayette was given to it by the New York fisher-
men in consequence of one of its periodical reappearances in large numbers in that region having
been coincident with the arrival of Lafayette in this country in 1834. It had been known before
that time, but only in scattering numbers.

“ According to Dr. Holbrook, it is not much esteemed for food at Charleston, owing to a want
of flavor. In the case of this species, as in many others, it is probable that the colder waters of
the North impart a superior flavor and excellence to the flesh. This is well known to be the case
with the sheepshead, as well as many other species.

“ At Beasley’s Point, New Jersey, where I have had an opportunity of studying its habits, it
makes its appearance in large numbers in August, the first school being composed of small fish,
larger ones following them. A short time later they ascend the creeks in great numbers and are
taken there in company with the white perch. Their usual size in New Jersey is about six inches,
although occasionally measuring ten inches. They do not make their appearance in the New York
markets in any abundance until towards the 1st of September, and remain until the end of October,
when they disappear. I did not succeed in finding any very young fish, and am unable to state
whether they actually spawn on the New Jersey coast, or whether the supply found there and
farther north consists of a ‘run’ from the more southern waters of fish migrating northward,
perhaps to escape the increased heat of the southern coast.”

The Spot is abundant at Mayport, Florida, in spring and summer. In the Gulf of Mexico,
according to Stearns, it is present in the bays all the year, living in shoal water, feeding upon the
bottom upon small invertebrate animals, and taken with hook and line and seine. It is extremely
abundant, and is considered a good food-fish.

There is a rare species which has been recorded only from Charleston, South Carolina, and
Saint George’s Island, Texas, known by naturalists under the name Stelliferus lanceolatus. It is
found in deep water, and is not sufficiently abundant to have acquired a common name.

122, THE RED FISH, OR BASS OF THE SOUTH—SCIEZNA OCELLATA.

The following biography of the Red Drum, Scicena ocellata, is quoted in full from the text pre-
pared by the writer for the illustrated work on “The Game Fishes of the United States,” recently
published by Charles Scribner’s Sons, of New York:

The Southern Red Fish is among the important species upon the coast of the United States:
from the Chesapeake to the Mexican boundary. Abundant as it is in the Carolinas, in Florida,
and in the Gulf of Mexico, the limits of its range appear to be very sharply defined, there being
little tendency on the part of individuals to stray away from their wonted pastures. Although
the species is often found in the Chesapeake, I am unable to find any record of its capture north of
Cape Charles. Mitchill and DeKay refer to it in their treatise on the fishes of New York, but their
descriptions are based upon market specimens, probably brought from more southern localities.
Professor Baird did not obtain any specimens when he explored the New Jersey coast in 1854, nor
are they to be found in Professor Webster’s collections from the Atlantic side of the east shore of
Virginia. Its range to the south seems to terminate with equal abruptness. Mr. Silas Stearns
gives the result of his observations in 1880: ‘From Tampa Bay and northward to the Mississippi
River it is one of the most common edible fishes, while west of the Mississippi River it is more

372 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

abundant than any other sea-fish, evidently increasing in numbers as the Texas coast is approxi-
mated.” On the Texas coast it is taken in greater quantity than all other species combined.
West of the mouth of the Rio Grande the species has not been recorded, chiefly, no doubt, for
the reason that no explorations have been made along the shores of Mexico. The fish fauna
of the Caribbean coast of Panama has, however, been carefully studied, and this fish has not been
found. Itis, therefore, probable that its range is as abruptly limited at the south, perhaps by the
peninsula of Yucatan, as it is in its northward extension. It is a noteworthy fact that Sciena
does not wander more; for every other species, I think without exception, which is abundant north
of Cape Hatteras, is occasionally met with in Buzzard’s and Narragansett Bays, these two great
pockets in the coast-line of Southern New England in which are lodged so many of the straying
Southern marine animals.

“This fish is very much in need of a characteristic name of its own. Its local names are all
preoccupied by other more widely distributed or better-known forms which seem to have substan-
tial claims of priority. In the Chesapeake, and south to below Cape Hatteras, it is called the
‘Drum’; but its kinsman, Pogonias chromis, is known by the same name throughout its whole
range from Provincetown to Texas, and is the possessor of a much larger and more resonant
musical organ. Some of the old writers coined names for it like ‘Branded Drum,’ referring to the
brand-like spots upon the tail, and ‘Beardless Drum’; but these are valueless for common use,
like most other ‘book-names.’ In the Carolinas, Florida, and the Gulf, we meet with the names
‘Bass,’ and its variations, ‘Spotted Bass,’ ‘Red Bass,’ ‘Sea Bass,’ ‘Reef Bass,’ and ‘Channel Bass.’
Many persons suppose ‘Channel Bass’ to be a characteristic name, but this is a mistake, for the
term is applied properly only to large individuals which are taken in the channels of streams and
sounds; wherever this name is used, the smaller fish of the species are called simply ‘Bass,’ or
‘School Bass’; even if the word ‘Bass’ could be so qualified as to be applicable to the species,
there is an insuperable objection to its use for any fish of this family. It is a modification of an
old Saxon word, Bears, or Baers; also found in German under the forms Bars and Barsch, from
which ‘Perch’ and ‘ Bass’ are both evident developments. This name should evidently be retained
for the spiny-formed fishes of the perch tribe. I find in my note-book references to thirty-eight
distinct kinds of fish called by the name ‘Bass,’ with various prefixes, all of which are justly
entitled to bear this name.

““¢Spot’ is another name erroneously applied to this fish, and which is the property of a much
smaller species of the same family, otherwise known as ‘Lafayette,’ or ‘Cape May Goody.’

“Winally, we have the ‘Red Fish’ and ‘Red Horse’ of Florida and the Gulf States, the ‘ Poisson
Rouge’ of the Louisiana Creoles, and ‘Pez Colorado’ of the Mexicans. Although this name is
occasionally applied to a much redder fish, the Norway haddock, or red perch of the north, and
to the big labroid Trochocopus in California, it is perhaps the most characteristic one and
that most suitable for general use, especially if modified into ‘Southern Red Fish” The chief
objection is that the fish is not always red; in the young there is not a suggestion of this color,
while in the adult it is more a tint, an evanescent, metallic reflection of claret from the scales,
which is often absent, and at all events soon disappears after life is gone. The number of spots on
the tail is variable; sometimes there is one, sometimes eight or ten, and their arrangement is a
matter of chance; occasionally they are absent.

“The Red Fish grows to a length of four or five feet and a weight of forty pounds or more. In
April, 1877, those to be seen in the markets of Jacksonville, Florida, ranged from one to four feet.
In the markets of Washington and New York strings of small ones are often seen. The average
size is perhaps ten pounds,

FOOD OF THE RED FISH. ole

The food is similar to that of the striped bass, which it seems to resemble in habits. It preys
upon small fish and the crustaceans with which Southern waters are filled. They swim in scattered
schools at times, probably in the spawning season, and may be heard spring above the surface
while feeding. At this time the fish are taken in large gill-nets, which are set around them by the
fishermen. This species undoubtedly gathers much food from the bottom, although it cannot be
so much of a grubber as many other members of the same family, better provided for this kind of
foraging by the tactile organs under the chin, and a set of grinding teeth with which to liberate
the shells of muscles and barnacles. An accurate observer describes them as swimming along
close to the bottom, with head down and body obliquely upward, wriggling through the water,
rooting up the weeds and grass, among which it finds quantities of shrimps and crabs. Their
enemies are sharks, porpoises, and saw-fish. The power of uttering sounds is also shared by this
fish, but probably not to any very great degree. No one has reported observations upon this
point.

The movements and breeding habits of this fish have not been sufficiently studied to warrant
the framing of a generalized statement of their character. There is need of a careful investigation
of this question at different stations along the coast. 1 cannot here do better than to quote the
observations, as yet unpublished, of two excellent observers, one upon the east, the other upon the
west coast of the Florida Peninsula: “In the spring,” writes Mr. Stearns, ‘they are seen in large
numbers in the Gulf, swimming in shoal water near the coast. This is usually in March and
April, though the weather and the temperature of the water seem to influence the time of their
arrival, Arriving at the entrance of a bay, their migratory movement ceases, and for days and
weeks they may be seen in shoal water near the inlet swimming lazily about in search of food, or
lying quite still in deep holes between shoals, where there is comparatively little current and few
enemies can reach them. Some seasons immense numbers of Red Fish gather about the inlets before
any are noticed inside or coming in, while in other seasons there is but slight accumulation, the
schools working in as fast as they arrive. By the 1st of June the ‘run’ is over, and the fish are
believed to have all come in. When once inside the schools break up into small squads, which
proceed to the weedy bottoms of the bayous and to the heads of the bays. About the river mouths,
where the water is brackish, and even in fresh water, they are found through the summer. ‘While
at sea their color is light, and they are so thin in flesh that they are far from desirable as food. In
the bays they become very fat and their colors are much darker. In September spawn is found in
them in a half-developed state. In October and November they again form in schools and are
observed moving out of the inlets to the sea. They do not leave the coast immediately, but follow
the beach for some days. At this time they contain spawn which I should think to be three-
fourths developed. Many reliable fishermen here have observed that the Red Fish go to sea with
spawn in them.”

I have never found the young in the north less than ten inches long, but in Pensacola Bay
Jordan and Stearns secured numerous young in the seine in April, the smallest measuring two and
a half inches. Jordan supposes that they spawn in water of no great depth.

Mr. 8. C. Clarke, however, tells the following story about Bass in the Indian River region:
‘They enter the rivers and creeks from the sea. The young fish are here all the time. The
adults leave the shore in a body when done spawning. They are first seen off the coast in
January and February, and remain in the rivers until late in the spring. The males and females
swim together, frequenting localities on shoals and sand-banks, where the water is from one to four
feet deep and warm. After spawning they scatter. They begin to breed in August and Sep-
tember in the shallow bays and inlets, at which time both sexes are poor and unfit for food. The

374 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

spawn is small, brown, about as large as number five shot, and floats. The young are found
abundantly in the creeks and bays.’

The fishermen of the Saint John’s River told me that in November, when schooling begins,
the fish are full-roed, but that in December the eggs have all been spent.

Little need be said here about their commercial value except that they are taken with gill-
nets and spears and by the use of bottom-lines, baited with pieces of fish or shrimps. They are
much esteemed for food all through the South, resembling the striped bass or rock-fish in flavor
and flesh-texture, though possibly somewhat inferior. They enter largely into local consumption,
though a few thousand pounds are sent every year to New York and other cities of the North.

In discussing the rank of this species as a game-fish, I cannot do better’ than quote the
words of Mr. H. S. Williams, regarding his experiences in the Indian River region: “I have seen
them swimming in shallow water by the hundreds, sometimes ten and twenty, almost, moving
with all the regularity of solid columns of infantry; all apparently of the same size. The Red Fish
are in season at all times, but best from the Ist of April until January 1. In size they run up to
forty, and even fifty, pounds. They readily take mullet bait, and when securely hooked furnish
fine sport, for the Red Fish is emphatically a game-fish. I shall never forget my first experience in
this line, a day or two before the full of the moon in November. I concluded to try a new hook
just sent me by a distant friend. Just at dusk I went down to the river, and baiting my hook with
a half mullet, I walked out on a shelving coquina rock, and swinging the hook around my head a
few times sent it out into the river to the full length of the line; then filling and lighting my pipe I
took a seat and quietly awaited results. The moon, nearly full, was half an hour or more high,
not a cloud obscuring its brightness, and it made a highway of silver across the broad river, now
calm and smooth as glass. Scarcely a breath of air stirred the leaves of the huge live-oaks above
my head, and everything was so still that I could distinctly hear the fish in shallow water a mile
away as the small-fry dashed and jumped in their frantic endeavors to escape from the ravenous
jaws of their pursuers; in fact, everything was so still that I remember to have heard the sound
of a cow-bell, two miles away, as its low, mellow notes were borne over the broad expanse of
water. I had occasionally taken a whiff or two at my pipe and watched the fleecy clouds of smoke
float slowly upward and dissolve into space, before something sent an electric message to my finger
from the other end of the line. It was a faint message, scarcely felt, but distinct enough to tell
me what was there. A moment’s pause and then it was repeated; this time it was emphatic, for
the fish picked up the bait in its mouth as daintily as a neatly-gloved lady would pick up an
orange, and then let it fall again. Aha! my boy. You are an old hand at the business, and know
by past experience that sometimes even the most tempting morsels are dangerous. A moment
more it is picked up again, and yet again, and then it is carried a couple of yards or so before it is
dropped; and then back again; then further off. Our fish is playing with the bait as a coquette
with hearts. The very moment a novice would think that he was going to take it, ’tis dropped
and he is gone again. No, not gone, only swimming around in circles, keeping one eye on the
prize and keeping away all such intruders as sharks and cat-fish.

“Now for it. The bait is picked up, seized with a vim, as though he meant business, and
away he starts with it. Here the inexperienced would jerk the line and perhaps lose the fish, or
at least have the whole formula to go over again. But wait; the successful sportsman must
practice patience. Again the bait is dropped, but not for long. In a moment it is seized, and this
time there is no feint about it. He darts off, the line is drawn tight, then a sudden jerk and a
wild plunge tell that the game is safely hooked. And now commences the struggle for life.
Away he goes up the stream for fifty yards or more, straining every nerve to get free; then down,

CAPTURE OF THE RED FISH. 375

then back again, while the line is pulled just hard enough to draw him in a little nearer the shore;
then up and down, each time a still shorter distance. At each effort I feel his powers give way,
and then as he makes a turn we pull his head toward the shore and keep it there. Now is the
critical period; now, if at all, the line will part or the hook break. I haul the line in rapidly,
hand over hand, keeping it taut, for the least slack or a failure to grasp the line firmly would
perhaps lose the game. Swerving to and fro, I draw him rapidly in, and with such force does he
come that far up the shelving rocks we land our prize, a thirty-pound Bass, a magnificent fellow,
his scales glistening like burnished silver in the moonlight.”!

123. THE YELLOW-TAIL—BAIRDIELLA CHRYSURA.

The Yellow-tail, known as “Silver Perch” on the coast of New Jersey, is quite an important
food-fish in the Southern States. But little has been written regarding it, and its excellent
qualities are not yet thoroughly appreciated. In fact, it has been confused with other species by
both Holbrook and Giinther. This fish has not been observed north of New York, where it was
recorded by Mitchill and DeKay, the latter of whom stated that it was not uncommon in the
summer season.

Professor Baird found the young very abundant about Beasley’s Point in 1854, though the
adults were unknown to the fishermen Uhler and Lugger, who, following the mistaken nomen-
clature of Holbrook, confusing this with a species of Liostomus, state that it is common in the
Chesapeake and Lower Potomac. It is also abundant about Beaufort, North Carolina, and in the
vicinity of Charleston.

According to many observers, Yellow-tails are highly esteemed for food at Saint Simon’s
Island, New Brunswick, Georgia, and in the Lower Saint John’s River. They probably never
ascend the river much above Jacksonville, though in 1877 great quantities were taken in the
month of April at the mouth of the Arlington River. In 1878 the water was so fresh at this point
that none could be taken there, though I saw them at Yellow Bluffs in water not perceptibly
brackish to the taste. A large majority of those observed at Mayport on April 7, 1875, were full
grown and taken at the point of spawning. Others taken by fishermen at Mayport, April 15, 1878,
had the spawn running freely from them. ‘The largest adult did not exceed eight inches in length.

On the Florida coast of the Gulf of Mexico, according to Mr. Stearns, they are very common.
They were found by Jordan to be very abundant along the shores of Louisiana and Texas. At
Pensacola they are known by the name “Mademoiselle.” They are present throughout the year,
but most plenty from May until November, and are found in company with the Trout and the
Spot on the grassy shoals of the bays where they feed and spawn. The time for spawning is in
June and July. They feed chiefly upon small fishes and shrimps. They do not school, but swim
singly or in pairs. Their extreme length does not exceed ten or eleven inches, the average being
about eight. They are regarded as excellent pan-fish.

124. THE KING-FISH—MENTICIRRUS NEBULOSUS.

The King-fish, also known as the “‘ Hake” on the coast of New Jersey and Delaware, and as
the “Tom-cod” on the coast of Connecticut, the “Black Mullet” in the Chesapeake, the “Sea
Mink” in North Carolina, and sometimes also in the South as the ‘ Whiting,” ranges from Cape
Ann south at least as far as the mouth of the Saint John’s River, Florida, although in the southern
part of its range it is frequently confused with the Whiting. It has been obtained by Jordan
and Stearns at Pensacola; it is, however, rare in the Gulf. It is discussed as follows by Pro-
fessor Baird in an unpublished manuscript:

'The Semi-Tropical, iii, 1877, p. 663.

376 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS,

“This species, well worthy of the name which has been given it, and the estimation in which
it is held by New York epicures, as it is certainly savory when taken fresh from the water, leaves
nothing to be desired in the way of a fish diet. It is quite abundant off the Middle States, but
is rare much to the eastward. A few specimens are occasionally taken in Buzzard’s Bay and
Vineyard Sound, and Dr. Storer mentions four as having been captured in Massachusetts Bay.
It is almost as capricious in its occurrence in the more northern waters as the Lafayette, sometimes
being scarcely met with for several successive summers, and then suddenly reappearing, as if
migrating from more southern waters. At Beasley’s Point, New Jersey, where I have had most
opportunity of studying its habits, it appears quite early in the spring with the Squeteague, and
is found a good deal in company with it, like that fish seeming to prefer a slight mixture of fresh
water, as shown by its keeping in the mouths of rivers and running farther up during the dry
season. It takes bait readily and affords excellent sport to the fishermen, although not caught in
anything like the same number in a given time as the Squeteague, thirty or forty at a single tide
being considered an excellent catch for one boat.

“Nothing has been recorded in regard to the precise time of their spawning or the places
where they lay their eggs. The young were met with at Beasley’s Point in immense numbers on
the sandy bottom as well as in the surf. The smallest were about an inch long. I have taken
the young also in considerable number in Vineyard Sound at a time when the old fish were
scarcely known. They occasionally run to a considerable distance up the rivers, as I have caught
young fish of this species at Sing Sing, on the Hudson, where the water is scarcely brackish.
The King-fish run much in schools, and keep on or near a hard, sandy bottom, preferring the edge
of channels and the vicinity of sand bars; and they congregate about oyster-beds, especially when
the oysters are being taken up, and may be seen under the boats, fighting for the worms and
crustaceans dislodged in the operation. They bite readily at hard or soft clams, or even pieces of
fish, and are taken most successfully on the young flood. Like the Squeteague, they: will occasion-
ally run up the salt creeks at night, and may be captured in gill-nets as the water recedes. This,
however, is not so common a habit with them as it is with its associate.

“The price of this fish varies at different seasons of the year, but it is always well maintained,
and it is generally valued at nearly as high a figure as the Spanish mackerel. The European
analogue of this species (Umbrina cirrhosa) is somewhat similar in general appearance, and its
flesh is highly esteemed. This feeds on small fishes, mollusks, and, according to Yarrow, on sea-
weed, sometimes obtaining a weight of forty pounds. This magnitude I have not seen approxi-
mated by our species, although it is possible that it may occasionally reach a large size. Of its
distribution southward I can find no satisfactory account.”

In 1879 numerous small individuals of this species appeared in the harbor of Provincetown,
Massachusetts; they seemed, however, to be out of their proper habitat, and many were chilled by
the coldness of the water and cast up on the beach. In 1880 and 1881, the species is said to have
been particularly abundant on the coast of New Jersey, and to have afforded much sport to anglers
of that vicinity, many of whom had not been familiar with it in previous years.

125. THE WHITINGS—MENTICIRRUS ALBURNUS AND M. LITTORALIS.

The Whiting, one of the favorite food-fishes of the Southern coast, is a species very closely
allied in its general character to the King-fish of more northern waters. It is said to occur abun-
dantly from Cape Fear River, North Carolina, to the Rio Grande, in Texas. Uhler and Lugger claim
that it inhabits the salt water of the Chesapeake Bay and its estuaries, but it is not probable that
it is at all abundant. On the coast of South Carolina, according to Dr. Holbrook, “the Whiting

DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITINGS. SUT

remains all the year round, and although few are taken in December and January, yet they
are sufficient to prove themselves constant residents. Near Charleston in the spring and summer
months they are very abundant; they enter the mouths of bays and rivers, and are captured in
great numbers. They take the hook readily; their favorite bait is the Drum, and being a strong,
lively, and active animal, they afford great sport to the fishermen. They prefer deep and running
waters, and seldom approach so near the shore as to be taken in seines. Their ordinary food seems
to be various species of a small shell-fish,” ete.

Speaking of the “Surf Whiting” of Charleston, Holbrook remarks: “This species makes its
appearance on the coast of Carolina in the month of April, and continues with us during the
entire summer, though very few are taken in July or August. [tis only found in shallow water
where the bottom is hard and sandy, often forming, when the tide is out, an extensive beach. Its
favorite resort is in the neighborhood of the shore where the surf can roll over it from the ocean
and bring with it doubtless the animals on which it feeds. In such localities many are captured
with the seine and are sold in the market under the name ‘Surf Whiting,’ in contradistinction to
the other species which is called the ‘Deep-water Whiting.’ Its food seems to be similar to that
of the Deep-water Whiting, judging from the contents of its stomach, and yet it is seldom taken
with the hook. Hitherto I have only seen this fish in the immediate neighborhood of Charleston.
This fish is very commonly supposed to be the adult male of the common Whiting, approaching the
shoal water to deposit its spawn. I believed it, from common report, to be such, until frequent
dissections proved to me that there are both males and females among them. The flesh of this
species is good, but by no means so finely flavored as that of the Deep-water Whiting.”

At Mayport, Florida, the Whiting is abundant, and also at the mouth of the Saint John’s. The
largest observed by me measured ten inches, and in the first week of April was within two or
three weeks of spawning. A few are taken in the Saint John’s as high up as Arlington. They
are abundant in the Indian River. About New Smyrna, Florida, according to Mr. 8. C. Clarke,
it is called “Whiting,” ‘ King-fish,” “Barb,” and ‘“Bull-head Whiting.” They occur in the
winter and spring, though seldom in summer. The largest reached the weight of one and a half
pounds. They average three-quarters of a pound, the female being usually the larger. They
appear about the last of November, and spend the winter in bays and still rivers. They bite in
strong currents, not in slackwater. They prefer deep channels and sandy bottoms. They are
found in the deepest water and prefer cold water. Their food consists of crabs, shrimps, and small
crustaceans, and they feed at the bottom. MHalf-grown to full-grown fish contain spawn. They
spawn in the seain May. They are taken with a hook by the use of mullet or clam bait at half-
tide. They bite best in a strong current in winter and spring. In the Gulf of Mexico, according
to Stearns, they are abundant from Key West to the Rio Grande, and are known as the
“Whiting,” though at Pensacola the name “Ground Mullet” is in use. He writes:

“There are two varieties, which, if they have no specific differences, have at least different
habits. One variety lives exclusively in very shoal water along the sandy beaches, appearing to
take pleasure from the action of the surf, and swimming in small schools. The other inhabits
deeper waters; is found singly, and is of much darker coloring. The former selcom leaves the
sea-water, while the latter are often found in brackish and fresh water. I have found ripe spawn
in the surf variety in April, and believe they deposit it on the sea-beach. Large specimens of the
dark variety were taken in September, 1879, in the Apalachicola River, where the water is fresh.
The Whiting is an excellent food-fish.”

The two varieties thus referred to by Stearns have been identified by Jordon as the two species
A. alburnus and M. littoralis, the latter being the surf-loving species first mentioned.

378 C- NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

The Whiting is a delicious pan-fish, sweet and hard, though soon losing its delicate flavor.
In Charleston it is regarded as a special dainty. According to Colonel Lyman, when Charleston
was closely blockaded and fishing was a hazardous occupation, the commandant of the garrison,
who was a bon vivant, gave $100 of Confederate money for a string of Whiting.

Some of the early writers called this fish the ‘Bermuda Whiting,” for what reason it is
difficult to understand, for the Whiting of Bermuda at the present day is a tish very unlike that
of our Southern coast

The “Surf Whiting,” according to Jordan, is not rare at Charleston, and in the Gulf of Mexico
is as common as the other species, but is chiefly found in the surf, and hence is less frequently
brought into the markets.

126. THE CROAKER—MICROPOGON UNDULATUS.

The Croaker, Micropogon undulatus, ranges from New York at least to the Gulf of Mexico,
although rarely seen north of Delaware. It occurs also in some of the West Indian islands and
south of Brazil. Its name refers to the peculiar grunting sound which it utters, but in the
Chesapeake this name has been corrupted into “Crocus.” In Texas it is called ‘ Ronco.”

At Beaufort, North Carolina, according to Jordan, it is very abundant, and, uext to the mullet
and the Spot, is the commonest food-fish of the region. Holbrook states that the Croaker
makes its appearance off Charleston in the month of May, but becomes common in shallow water
in June and July, and is most abundant and attains its largest size in October and November. It
is not much esteemed as food, and is only used as a pan-fish.

It is abundant and highly esteemed at Brunswick, Georgia, and everywhere in Eastern
Florida, in company with the Spot, ascending the Saint John’s as far as Jacksonville.

Stearns writes: “In the Gulf of Mexico it is very common. Is found everywhere in the bays
and bayous throughout the year. Lives mostly in shoal water or grassy bottoms. Feeds upon
crustaceous animals. Breeds in the bays in November and December. The young are seen in the
spring, having grown to a size of two and three inches in length. Is caught with hook and line
and seine. Sells with other pan-fish for a low price. It is an excellent food-fish; average length
ten inches. At Sarasota Bay, December 8, 1879, I caught two specimens of spawning Croakers
that were each fully eighteen inches long—the largest that I have ever seen.”

An allied species is Larimus fasciatus, which is called “Chub” in Charleston.

127. THE CORVINAS AND RONCADORS OF THE PACIFIC COAST.
By Davin S. JORDAN.
THE WHITE SEA BASS—CYNOSCION NOBILE.

This species is everywhere known as the “Sea Bass” (‘Sea Trout”), sometimes as “ White
Sea Bass,” to distinguish it from the Black Sea Bass, or Jew-fish. The young, while yet banded,
are known as “Sea Trout,” and generally considered a distinct species, and both are frequently
called “Corvina” and ‘“Caravina.”

It reaches a length of four to six feet and a weight of fifty to seventy-five pounds, perhaps
more. Those usually seen in market average about, fifteen.

It ranges from Cape Mendocino southward to below San Diego, being especially abundant
from Santa Barbara to Monterey in spring and summer. It is not often seen in winter. Only
adults are taken in spring, and it probably comes to the shore from deeper water for the purpose
of spawning. It goes in small schools, and its movements are irregular. Its food consists of
crustaceans and fishes. It spawns in June or July. It is one of the most important food-fishes

THE CALIFORNIA WHITE SEA BASS. 379

of the coast. Its flesh is excellent, firm and well flavored, and its great size renders it a very
valuable species. In the firmness of 1ts flesh it differs strikingly from most of the other species of
the genus.

THE CORVINA—CYNOSCION PARVIPINNE.

This species is usnally known as the “Corvina” or ‘“Caravina.” It is also occasionally called
Bluefish. It reaches a length of about two feet, and a weight of eight pounds. It is found from
San Pedro southward to the Gulf of California, rarely straying to the north. In San Diego Bay
it is abundant. It feeds on crustacea, and especially on small fishes, as anchovies and sardines,
and is very voracious. It spawns in July or August. Its flesh is tender, being very similar to
that of the weak-fish (C. regale). It softens soon, but when fresh is of a fine, delicate quality, and
scarcely surpassed by any fish on the coast. Several other species of this genus occur southward
along the Mexican coast, where they are among the most important of the food-fishes.

THE RED RONCADOR—CORVINA SATURNA.

This fish is known where found as the “Red Roncador,” less commonly as “ Black Roncador”
or “Croaker.” It reaches a length of sixteen inches and a weight of three or four pounds. It is
found from Point Concepcion southward in moderate abundance. It feeds largely on crustaceans
and spawns in July. It is a food-fish of good quality.

THE RONCADOR—RONCADOR STEARNSI.

This species is generally known as the “ Roncador” (snorer, from the Spanish roncar, to snore),
and is always considered as the genuine Roncador, the other Scienoids being to the fishermen
bastards. The name “Croaker” is often applied to it. It makes a very distinct grunting noise,
probably with its air-bladder, on being taken from the water. It reaches a length of over two
feet, and a weight of six to eight pounds. It is found from Santa Barbara southward, usually in
abundance. It feeds on crustacea and spawns in July. It is a food-fish of excellent quality.

Tue LITTLE RONCADOR—GENYONEMUS LINEATUS.

This species is known about San Francisco as the Little Bass. Southward it is called the
Little Roncador. The name “Cognard,” said by Dr. Ayers to be given to it in San Francisco, is
unknown to us. It reaches a weight of little over a pound, and a length of one foot; it is found
from Tomales to San Diego, being most abundant from Santa Barbara to San Francisco. It often
comes into the markets in large numbers; it feeds chiefly on crustacea and spawns in July. Itisa
food-fish of good quality when fresh, but its flesh becomes soft in the market sooner than that of
most species. Many are dried by the Chinese.

THE YELLOW-FINNED RONCADOR—UMBRINA RONCADOR.

This fish is generally known as the ‘‘ Yellow-tailed” or “‘ Yellow-finned Roncador.” It reaches a
length of more than a foot, and a weight of two or three pounds. It is found from Santa Barbara
southward, and is generally abundant, especially in summer. It feeds on crustacea and spawns in
July. It is a food-fish of good quality. Many are split and salted.

THE BAGRE—MENTICIRRUS UNDULATUS.

This fish is known as the “Bagre” or “Sucker.” It reaches a length of twenty inches, and a
weight of four or five pounds. It is found close to shore from Point Concepcion southward to
Cerros Island, and is generally abundant. It feeds on crustacea, spawns in July, and is a food-fish

380 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

of fair quality. In appearance and in value it approaches closely to the Surf Whiting of the
Atlantic, M. littoralis.

THE QUEEN-FISH—SERIPHUS POLITUS.

This species is known as “ King-fish” or “Queen fish.” It reaches alength of eight inches, and
a weight of half a pound. It ranges from Tomales Bay southward, and is abundant in summer,
when it is found in great numbers in the surf along sandy shores. Enormous numbers of them
are sometimes taken in seines, especially at Santa Barbara and Soquel. It is not often brought
into the San Francisco market. It feeds on small fishes, crustaceans, etc. It spawns in summer,
It is a food-fish of excellent quality, but it is too small to possess much economic value.

THE SHEEPSHEAD FAMILY. 381

O.—SHEEPSHEAD, BASS, BREAM, PERCH, ETC.
THE SHEEPSHEAD FAMILY—SPARIDZ.

The members of this family are especially characterized by their heavy, rather compressed
bodies, and by their large heads, strong jaws and teeth, for cutting or crushing the hard-shelled
marine animals upon which they feed. They are usually sedentary in their habits, living close to
the bottom and browsing among the rocks and piles. Their colors are usually inconspicuous and
their motions sluggish. Representatives of this family are found throughout the world in temperate
and tropical waters.

128. THE SHEEPSHEAD—DIPLODUS PROBATOCEPHALUS.

The Sheepshead is one of the choicest fishes of our coast. It derives its name from the
resemblance of its profile and teeth to those of a sheep, and also from its browsing habits. Unlike
most of those fishes which are widely distributed along our seaboard, it has only this one name
by which it is known from Cape Cod to the Mexican border. The negroes of the South, however,
frequently drop the “s” out of the middle of the word and call it ‘“‘Sheephead.”

This. fish has never been: known to pass to the north of the sandy arm of Cape Cod, and its
northern range is at present somewhat more limited than it was eighty years ago. In the records
of Wareham, Massachusetts, they are referred to as being somewhat abundant in 1803, and in
Narragansett Bay there is a tradition that they began to disappear in 1793, when the scuppaug
commenced to increase in abundance. In 1871, Mr. E. Taylor, of Newport, testified before Professor
Baird that his father caught Sheepshead in abundance forty-five or fifty years previous. In 1870
and 1871 the species was again coming into notice in this region, though not at that time nor since
has it appeared abundantly. On the south shore of Long Island it is quite abundant, and in New
York Harbor and its various approaches, at times, may be taken in considerable numbers. On the
coast of New Jersey it is also abundant, and between Cape May and Montauk Point the species is
said to attain its greatest perfection as a food-fish. Lugger states that it frequents the oyster
localities of all parts of the Chesapeake Bay, but is now more common among the southeastern
counties of Virginia, where it comes in considerable numbers to feed upon the animals which live
on the oyster bars. It is found about wrecks of old vessels, on which barnacles and shells abound.
About Bedford, North Carolina, it is also abundant, and also along the entire coast of the Atlantic
and Gulf States, where it frequently ascends, especially in Florida, high up the fresh-water rivers.
In the Gulf, according to Stearns, it is abundant on the coast from Southern Florida to Mexico.

The Sheepshead is a bottom-loving species, quiet in its habits, and little given to wandering.
North of Charleston it is absent from the inshore waters during the winter season, but it is probable
that its wanderings do not extend very far. Holbrook records that it has been taken in Port Royal
Sound as early as January, while in Charleston it makes it appearance in April and continues
until November. Dr. Mitchill, whose observations of this species in the vicinity of New York,
made sixty years ago, are perhaps as satisfactory as any which have been made, remarked that
its term of continuance was from the beginning of June to the middle of September. He
had, however, known it to stay later, for one of the most numerous collections of Sheeps-

382 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

head he ever saw was on the 4th of October, 1814; he had observed it as late as the 17th of
October.

In Florida the Sheepshead is abundant along the shores throughout the entire year, and this
is also the case throughout the Gulf of Mexico.

It is curious to see how much at variance were the statements of early observers concerning
its habit of entering fresh-water streams. Mitchill states explicitly: ‘(He confines himself strictly
to the salt water, never having been seen in the fresh rivers.” Holbrook, speaking of the vicinity
of Charleston, says: “It enters shallow inlets and mouths of rivers, but never leaves the salt for
fresh water.” In the Saint John’s and other rivers of Florida the Sheepshead becomes almost a
fresh-water species, the young especially being constantly taken in seines in company with Bass,
Perch, and suckers, far above the limits of perceptibly brackish water. It is not yet possible to
infer with any certainty what the temperature limits of this species may be, but it would seem
probable that they never willingly encounter water colder than 60°, except perhaps in fall, when
they are reluctant to leave their feeding grounds.

The statement just made, however, requires a certain qualification. No one knows whether
the Sheepshead of our Northern waters go south in winter or whether they simply become torpid
and remain through the season in deep holes near their summer haunts, their presence unsus-
pected. Perhaps it would be wiser to say that they are not actually engaged in feeding when the
temperature is lower than 60°, and that their winter habits are entirely unknown. Where the
water is throughout the year warmer than 60° they are constantly active. The Sheepshead feeds
almost exclusively upon hard-shelled animals, mollusks and barnacles, and particularly on young
oysters as they grow attached to stones and sticks of wood. With its strong cutting and grinding
teeth and powerful jaws it can easily rip off thick bunches of shells and grind them to pieces.
The ordinary bait for it in the North is the soft-shelled clam, while in the South it is caught
frequently by the use of shrimps and crabs.

In discussing the habits of this species I cannot do better than to quote quite fully the obser-
vations of several writers ou fish and angling, many of whom have taken a special interest in the
study of its haunts and movements.

Mitchill wrote in 1814: “This noble fish visits the neighborhood of Long Island annually,
emerging from the depths of the ocean. He feeds in the recesses and inlets upon the clams and
mussels, which are abundant, and on which he loves to feed. He confines himself strictly to the
salt water, never having been seen in the fresh rivers. His term of continuance is only during the
warmest season; that is, from the beginning of June to the middle of September. He then
disappears to the unknown depths of the Atlantic, and is seen no more until the ensuing summer.
The Sheepshead swims in shoals, and is sometimes surrounded in great numbers by the seine;
several hundreds have often been taken at a single haul with the long sweeping nets in use near
Rayner Town, Babylon, and Fire Island. They even tell of a thousand brought to land at a
draught. He also bites at the hook, and several are not unfrequently thus caught in succession.
The outfitting of a Sheepshead party is always an occasion of considerable excitement and high
expectation, as I have often experienced. Whenever a Sheepshead is brought on board the boat
more joy is manifested than by the possession of any other kind of fish. The sportsmen view the
exercises so much above common fishing that the capture of the Sheepshead is the most desirable
combination of luck and skill; and the feats of hooking and landing him safely in the boat furnish
abundant materials for the most pleasing and hyperbolical stories. The Sheepshead is a very
stout fish, and the hooks and lines are strong in proportion; yet he frequently breaks them and
makes his escape. Sheepshead have been caught with such fishing-tackle fastened to their jaws.

MITCHILL ON THE SHEEPSHEAD. 383

When the line or hook gives way, the accident makes a serious impression on the company. As
the possession of the Sheepshead is a grand prize, so his escape is felt as a distressing loss. I
know an ancient fisherman who used to record in a book the time, place, and circumstances of
every Sheepshead he had caught. This fish is sometimes speared by torchlight in the wide and
shallow bays of Queens County and Suffolk.” Dr. Mitchill concludes his naive remarks by the
mournful words: “It is to be regretted that the Sheepshead too often corrupt for want of ice.”

Schoepf, writing of the same region forty years before, states that during the period of the
Revolutionary war the Sheepshead was very abundant in the summer months and was a very
highly prized species. Some unknown writer contributed to Brown’s “American Angler,” in
1846, the following memorandum:

“These noble fish have become quite scarce in our harbor. The writer has taken them
repeatedly near Governor’s Island, opposite the Battery, but this was in days long since gone by.
Still, they are still taken, occasionally, at Caving Point and at the Signal Poles, at the Narrows,
also at Pelham Bridge and Little Hell Gate.”!

Scott gives the following advice to the Sheepshead angler: “If a resident of New York, you
will find Canarsie on the Old Mill, near East New York, the most convenient place from which to
take a sail-boat; a boat is generally at hand at either place. Sail down the channel above the
inlet toward Near Rockaway, about a mile below Remson’s Hotel; feel by sounding for a mussel-
bed (they are numerous for a mile along shore), about two hundred yards from which, when found,
cast anchor far enough away so that, when the boat toles round from the tide toward the feeding-
ground, the cast required for dropping your anchor will be about fifty feet. The water should be
about seven feet deep at low tide, and it rises there from four to six feet. The best time is during
the period between high and low tides when the water is slack, and until it runs at the rate of five
miles an hour, or one hour after it begins to run; for when the tide runs out it is then considered
that Sheepshead seek some still-water ground and wait four a moderate motion of the waters. At
the right times of tide the location of the mussel-beds is plainly indicated by a fleet of fifteen to
twenty sail-boats or hand-line fishermen. Many of them are farmers, who, residing near the shore
of Jamaica Bay, employ the interregnum between hay and grass, uniting their profits, and earning
from $3 to $10 a day, by fishing for Sheepshead.

“There are many places along our shores better than Jamaica Bay. The Hand-line Com-
mittee makes it pay at Fire Island, and there are many superior feeding places in the South Bay;
about the wreck of the ‘Black Warrior,’ near the Narrows, is celebrated for great numbers of them;
in truth, our whole coast south of Long Island is rendered inviting by this delicious fish.”

Norris wrote: ‘In fishing for Sheepshead it is a common practice in Lower Virginia and
other waters to drive down stout stakes forming an inclosure; to these different species of mol-
lusks will attach themselves in a few months and entice the Sheepshead; when they have made
it a place of resort the fisherman ties his boat to a single stake on either side at a convenient dis-
tance and throws his bait towards the pen.”

Holbrook wrote, in 1860: “At present the best fishing-grounds for the Sheepshead in South
Carolina is the breakwater at Sullivan’s Island, or the Foundation Rocks at Fort Sumter, at the
entrance to Charleston Harbor.

The Hon. William Elliott, in his ‘Carolina Sports,” gives the following account of the
peculiar methods employed in catching Sheepshead in Port Royal Sound, South Carolina:

“They are exceedingly choice in their feeding, taking no other bait but shell-fish. Their
favorite food is the young oyster, which, under the form of barnacle, they crush with their strong

1American Angler’s Guide, fifth edition, p. 198.

384 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

teeth. Of course they frequent those shores that abound with fallen trees. On the Florida coast
they are taken in great quantities among the mangrove trees, whose roots, growing in the salt
water, are covered with barnacles. Formerly they were taken in considerable numbers among our
various inlets. Wherever there were steep bluffs, from which large trees had fallen in the water,
there they might confidently be sought. But as these lands have been cleared for the culture of
sea-island cotton, the trees have disappeared, and with them the fish; and it has been found
necessary to renew their feeding-grounds by artificial means. Logs of pine or oak are cut and
framed into a sort of hut without a roof. It is floored and built up five or six feet high, then
floated to the place desired, and sunk in eight feet of water by casting stones or live-oak timber
within. As soon as the barnacles are formed, which will happen in a few weeks, the fish will begin
to resort to the ground. It is sometimes requisite to do more before you can succeed in your
wishes. The greatest enemies of this fish are the sharks and porpoises, which pursue them
incessantly and destroy them, unless they can find secure hiding-places to which to retreat. Two
of these pens, near each other, will furnish this protection; and when that course is not adopted,
piles driven near each other, quite surrounding the pen, will have the same effect. Your work
complete, build a light staging by driving down four upright posts at a distance of fifteen feet
from the pen, and then take your station on it, provided with a light, flexible, and strong cane
reed, of twenty feet length, with fourteen feet of line attached, a strong hook and a light lead.
Instead of dropping your line directly down and poising it occasionally from bottom, I prefer to
throw the line out beyond the perpendicular and let the lead lie on the bottom. The Sheepshead
is a shy fish, and takes the bait more confidently if it lies on the bottom. When he bites you
perceive your rod dipping for the water; give a short, quick jerk, and then play him at your
leisure. If the fish is large, and your jerk too violent, the rod will snap at the fulerum—the grasp
of your left hand. Jt has happened that, at one of these artificial grounds, I have taken sixteen
Sheepshead at one fishing. What was unusual was, that they were taken in February, when no
one thinks of fishing for these or any other sea-fish within the inlets. I ascertained, from the
continued experiments of several years, that they could always be taken at this season, and
frequently in January also. The difficulty is to find bait, for neither shrimps nor crabs are then in
season. In the case referred to the difficulty was thus removed: The lines were rigged with two
hooks; upon one was placed an oyster taken fresh trom the shell, on the other an oyster boiled.
The scent of the first attracted the fish, but so little tenacity was found in it that, before the fish
had taken hold of the hook, the oyster was detached; but when, encouraged by the taste of the
first, the fish advanced to the second, that having acquired toughness from boiling, would adhere
until the hook was fairly taken into the fish’s mouth. They clearly prefer the uncooked to the
cooked oyster, but the latter was more to the fisherman’s purpose. Their fondness for this food
suggested the expedient of breaking up the live oysters in the shell and scattering them in the
vicinity of the ground; also that of letting down the broken oysters in a wicker basket. Each
plan is found effectual in attracting the fish.

“The blufts, in their primitive state, in which trees enough are found fallen to give the fish
both food and protection against their enemies, are only to be met with now among the Hunting
Islands, where the barrenness of the land had secured them against cultivation. On two occasions
[have enjoyed excellent sport at such places. On one I took twenty-three to my own rod; on
another, twenty-four, and desisted from fatique and satiety. They are never taken in such num-
bers when fishing from a boat with a drop-line on the rocks. It is very rare that as many as
twenty are taken in one boat.”?! :

‘ExiioTr, WILLIAM: Carolina Sports by Land and Water. New York, 1859, pp. 145-149.

HABITS OF THE SHEEPSHEAD. 385

Mr. 8. T. Walker writes: “In regard to the consumption of moss, etc., by the Sheepshead, I
must say that I can hardly answer intelligently. At high tide, when the flats are overflowed, I
have often observed the Sheepshead standing on end, tail up and often out of the water, grub-
bing at the roots of a coarse, rough grass that grows on the flats. When engaged in this way it
is easy to capture from two to six at a single throw of the casting-net. I have often observed a
yellowish-green vegetable matter among the broken shell in their intestines, but imagined it was
swallowed accidentally with the shell-fish, or was possibly attachicd to the shells themselves.”

In the Saint John’s River Sheepshead are abundant as far up as the lakes, and about
Jacksonville are always associated with the sailor’s choice, Lagodon rhomboides. They are never
seen of large size; individuals of eight inches and less were taken around the piles and river at
Arlington and Mayport. ‘In the Indian River region,” says Mr. Williams, “the season for
Sheepshead begins the 1st of May. They range in weight from three to seven pounds. Half-
grown specimens, which can be taken along the rocks with cast-net or spear, are good pan-fish.
They do not take mullet bait readily, hence are seldom taken with the hook. Hundreds of a
larger size may be seen in shallow water on the east side of the river, or in calm water, on
barnacles attached to sunken logs, or rocks under water.”

Mr. S. C. Clarke, writing from New Smyrna, Florida, states that they occur throughout the
year and are most abundant from December to March, having decreased in numbers perhaps
one-fourth during the past ten years. They winter in the deep water of the inlets and rivers, are
regular in their appearance, take the hook at most times, come and go with the tide, swim low,
except in the spawning season, when they come inshore and prefer warm and muddy water with
shelly bottom. .They feed about rocks and logs on clams, shrimps, barnacles, crabs, and oysters,
and are best taken in the latter part of the ebb and young flood, and during the season of plenty,
from November to March, twenty-five fish may be considered the average result of a day’s fishing
with hook and line. They are taken with cast-nets and with hooks, using crabs, clams, mussels,
and shrimps for bait. They are highly prized, fresh and salt, though they are mostly consumed
in the fresh state.

Mr. Clarke also gives some important information regarding the spawning of this fish. He
says: “Before spawning they go in schools, but afterwards they scatter. They spawn at the
mouths of rivers and inlets in March and April, the sexes mixing together in schools. The eggs
are deposited in shallow water near the shore, and are about the size of mustard seed, and dark.
At the spawning season the fish play near the surface and become thin and unfit for food. The
young fish are abundant in shallow water among the rocks.”

Finally, I append in full the statement of Mr. Stearns, which is especially important since it
contains an account of their spawning. He writes:

“The habits of the Sheepshead depend somewhat on the nature of the feeding-grounds in
those localities where the fish occurs. At such places as Saint Mark’s River, Cedar Keys,
Homassassa River, and the Mangrove Islands, farther south, it is present throughout the year,
in about the same abundance, whether it will take the hook or not; while at Apalachicola, Saint
Andrew’s, Pensacola and Mobile Bays, and the Louisiana marshes, its habits are those of a
migratory fish, which, in a body, at a certain season, approaches, and, later on, leaves the coast.
At the latter-mentioned places it is found to a limited extent during the spring and summer.
At these same places large schools of Sheepshead appear on the coast during the months of
September, October, and November, finally entering the harbors. This is as important and
noticeable 2 movement as the ‘runs’ of pompano, Spanish mackerel, or hard-tails in the spring,
and it is the only time when large quantities are caught. The fish composing the ‘run’ are very

25 F

386 NATURAL HISTORY OF EQUATIC ANIMALS.

thin in form and hardly marketable, but after a few days’ rest and refreshment in the bays they
become fat and desirable for food. The schools having entered the harbors, become somewhat.
scattered and go to the feeding-grounds, where they are largely taken with hook and line and
seine. Any movement seaward to balance this must be gradual, and takes place, I think, in
summer, for it is not noticeable.

“The Sheepshead spawns in April and May, in the bays. On June 18, 1878, and in June,
1879, I caught young Sheepshea-, measuring a quarter of an inch, in Pensacola Bay. It lives
about wharves, rock-piles, old wrecks, oyster-reefs, and, in South Florida, about the roots of the
mangrove tree, feeding upon the barnacles that grow in such places. It is caught with hook and
line, in fall and winter, at which seasons ié is in its best condition. Its average weight is three or
four pounds, and its maximum twenty pounds.”

When the Sheepshead first appear on our northern coast it is stated by several writers that
they are always thin and unfit for food ; it would seem from this as if their spawning season was
just ended. No one, however, has made any careful observations upon this point north of Florida.

In the South, Sheepshead are usually small, rarely exceeding two pounds in weight. This is
also the case in Florida, although large individuals are occasionally seen. About New York Harbor
they sometimes weigh from twelve to fifteen pounds, though the average size is not more than half
this weight. All authorities agree that the Sheepshead is one of the very finest food-fishes in our
waters, many persons preferring it to the salmon, while others compare it to the English turbot, to
which, however, it is doubtless much inferior.

In the North the Sheepshead is almost always boiled, but the smaller fish, more commonly
taken in the South, are well suited for frying or broiling.

Tur PIN-FISH—~DIPLODUS HOLBROOKII.

This fish, which is abundant at Charleston and about Beaufort, North Carolina, was first
scientifically described by Dr. Bean from specimens obtained in Charleston market, in Match,
1878. Jordan found it abundant everywhere near the shores of Beaufort, North Carolina, in
which region it reaches but a small size, and is not used as food. It is confounded by the fisher-
men with the Sailor’s Choice.

129. THE SCUP OR SCUPPAUG—STENOTOMUS VERSICOLOR AND S. GARDENI.

Until very recently only one species of the genus Stenotomus was known to occur in our waters.
Dr. Bean has recently shown that there are two on the Atlantic coast of the United States, in
addition to the unimportant species, 8. caprinus, recently described from the Gulf of Mexico.

The “Scup” of the North, Stenotomus versicolor, is by far the most important, though the
Southera species, S. Gardeni, has considerable commercial value. The former, which is distin-
guished by its larger teeth and more abrupt profile, is abundant between Cape Cod and Cape Hat-
teras, the latter has its metropolis on the Carolina coast, but has been found sparingly as far north
as Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts.

The Scup, which in many respects resembles the Sheepshead, is often known in New England
as the “Scuppaug,” this word being an abbreviation of Mishcuppauog, the name applied to it by
the Narragansett Indians. It is to be regretted that it has been corrupted to form two others,
neither of which is euphonious or significant. In New England it is generally called “ Scup,”
while about New York the second syllable of the abbreviated Indian name has been lengthened
into “Paugy” or “Porgy.” The latter name is particularly objectionable because it belongs to the

NAMES OF THE SCUP. 387

English fish, and its proper etymology as a fish name is very different. Another Indian word,
“ poghaden,” a corrupted form of the Abnaki name for the menhaden, or moss-bunker, has been
changed to “pogy” and “ porgy,” thus leading to much confusion. ‘Scuppaug” is an excellent
-name for the fish, and its claims for general adoption will be recognized by all who wish to see
preserved the name of the aboriginal languages of America.

On the Virginia coast the Southern Scup is known as the “Fair Maid.” The name “Porgy”
is in use about Charleston, South Carolina, but is usually applied to other members of the same
family. Their range is much more limited to the south and extends farther to the north than that
of the Sheepshead. Holbrook wrote in 1860: ‘The Porgy is found along our coasts at all seasons
of the year, though most abundant in June and July.” He further states that its southern limit
on the Atlantic border is Cape Florida, a statement probably not susceptible of proof.

The Northern Scup rarely passes the boundary of Cape Cod; in 1878, however, thirty-seven
were taken at the Milk Island weir off Thatcher’s Island, Cape Ann, Massachusetts, and they
appear to be increasing in abundance.

This species does not appear to be indigenous north of Cape Cod. Storer gives the following
account of its introduction: “Mr. James Newcomb, fishmonger in the Boston market, informs me
that in the year 1831 or 1832 a smack-load of Scapaugs arrived in Boston Harbor. A portion of
them were purchased by subscription among the fishermen in the market and thrown into the
harbor. The next season two specimens were caught from our wharves; in the summer of 1835,
one individual was taken at Nahant, and was considered a very strange fish, no specimen having
been known to have been seen there before; in 1836, still another was captured at Nahant. As no
specimen had ever been taken so far north before, and as the few taken would lead to the inference
that those which had been transplanted from Buzzard’s Bay had not bred in the cold waters of
this portion of Massachusetts Bay, we are led to believe that the individuals taken immediately
around Boston were of the number originally brought from the South. In the year 1834 or 1835,
Capt. William Downes, of Holmes’ Hole, carried a smack-load of this species from Vineyard Sound
and threw them overboard in Plymouth Harbor.” Storer, writing in 1867, says that “within a few
years small numbers have appeared north of Cape Cod and are yearly captured at Wellfleet and
Sandwich.”

Judging from the rare occurrenve of the species thus introduced, it can hardly be considered
to have become naturalized; the few which have been taken were doubtless summer stragglers.
In the Boston Society’s museum is a specimen taken at Swampscott, June 29, 1860, by J. Phillips.
In the Salem Museum is another taken in Salem Harbor, July 23, 1860, by C. A. Putnam. Scup
become abundant on the south side of Cape Cod from the 5th to the 12th of May, which would
allow ample time for the appearance of a part of the school off the eastern coast of Massachusetts
as early as the dates recorded.

Mr. Hinckley, president of, the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad, informs us
that in the winter of 1833 he found a dead Scuppaug on the Cohasset shore; this was its first
occurrence in that locality, and none of the fishermen knew it.

In 1856, Captain Atwood recorded the Scup as very rare at Provincetown.

“Sometimes,” says Captain Atwood, “TI have seen a dozen of these fish. The Scup were never
here at all abundantly; only scattering individuals have been taken from. year to year. Since
1842, when the mackerel nets were first set in the outside of the harbor, Scup were first seen, and
a few have been seen since.”

The history of this species, like that of the bluefish, has been very carefully worked out by

388 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Professor Baird;! and from this article and an unpublished essay written in 1877 the remainder
of this section is made up. Professor Baird writes:

“Tt makes its appearance, at least in considerable quantity, on the coast of New England
about the middle of May, although the advance-guard of very large fish arrive sometimes as early
as the middle of April; and it is most abundant toward the 1st of June, and arrives in successive
detachments or ‘runs’ differing in size, the smallest fish coming last. The first run on the sonth-
ern coast of New England, as stated, takes place about the beginning of May and consists of
large breeding fish, weighing from two to four pounds, and measuring up to eighteen inches or
more in length. The spawn is quite well developed at that time, and is said to be at first red, but
gradually to become light yellow as it matures. The particular time and place, however, of laying
the eggs is not yet known, although it is probable that this occurs early in June, since the schools
are said to break up about the middle of that month, and the fish to scatter. It is-thought prob-
able that the spawning takes place in the eel-grass which covers the shoal waters of Narragansett
Bay and Vineyard Sound.

‘According to the fishermen generally, the Scup on first coming into the shores do not take
the hook readily, being apparently too much occupied in the business of reproduction, and two
weeks usually elapse before they can be caught in this way. They present themselves in large
schools of immense extent, and moving very slowly, at about the rate of thre2 miles an hour.
From the testimony presented before the committee of investigation of the Rhode Island legisla.
ture, they appear to come from the south and west, as when they enter Narragansett Bay they
strike the western shore and move up along its edge. They are said, however, to drift slowly
backward and forward with the tide, especially at the entrance of this bay. At this time they are
very sluggish, and are said sometimes to appear as if blind, and can frequently be taken with the
hand, or a very short scoop-net.

“According to Captain Edwards, of Wood’s Holl, in proceeding to their breoding-grounds, on
the coast of New England, they are taken at Montauk Point three weeks earlier than at Wood’s
Holl, and a week earlier at Wood’s Holl than at Hyannis, still farther east.

“The Scup feed upon a great variety of marine animals, such as worms, small crustaceans,
mollusks, etc., and take the hook very freely during the greater part of their stay; in fact, the
smaller ones become veritable nuisances to the fishermen, from the readiness with which they
pounce upon the baited hook whenever thrown overboard.

“The flesh of the Scup is very much prized by most persons, as it is firm and flaky, and usually
sweet, although occasionally a bitter flavor detracts from its palatability. Since the settlement of
the coast by the whites, it has been by far the most important food-fish of Fisher’s Island and
Vineyard Sounds, Narragansett Bay, and of Buzzard’s Bay; and the rapid diminution in number
has caused the greatest solicitude.

“Of their abundance on the south coast of New England in former times, almost incredible
accounts are given. They swarmed to such a degree that their capture ceased to be a matter of
sport. The line when thrown overboard could be immediately withdrawn with the assurance of
having a fish on each one of two hooks. Any number of fishermen from boats could take five
hundred to one thousand pounds a day without the slightest difficulty, the limits of the catch
being simply the ability to find a sale.

“In flavor the flesh of this fish is surpassed by very few others on the coast, although its
superabundance caused it to be undervalued. The period of greatest development in number of

‘Report U. 8. Commission Fish and Fisheries, part i, pp. 228-235.

USES OF THE SCUP. 389

this fish coincided with that of the absence of the bluefish, and since the return of the latter to
the coast of New England the Scup has become scarce, although still a very important object of
pursuit.

“Tmmense numbers are caught in the pounds and traps in Rhode Island and Massachusetts,
and for several weeks the market is usually glutted, a barrelful being frequently sold for twenty-
five to fifty cents, or a small fraction of a cent a pound. It is extremely doubtful whether any
part of the more northern coast of North America can furnish, within three miles of the shore, as
large a weight of fish in mackerel, herring, and cod as has been furnished by the Scup, sea-bass,
and tautog alone in the waters of-Rhode Island and Massachusetts. Mr. William Davol, of Rhode
Island, with his ‘gang,’ caught 2,400 barrels of Scup, valued at $1,200, at Seconnet, in May, 1860.
Fish were purchased by Messrs. Reynolds, Young & Co., of Fall River, and shipped to Philadelphia.!

“The Scup isa fish that grows with rapidity, and at two years is almost of sufficient size to be
marketable. Throughout the summer young fish of the spring spawning are to be seen floating
around in the eel-grass and over the sandy bottoms, having attained a length of from two and a
half to three and a quarter inches by the 1st of October. When these fish reappear the next
season, thus completing one year of existence, they measure about six inches, six to eight or nine
weighing a pound; and by the 1st of September attain an average length of eight inches, includ-
ing the tail, and a breadth of three inches. (Twelve individuals, measured on the 31st of August,
measured from 7.75 to 9 inches in length, and from 2.75 to 3.25 inches in breadth, not including
the dorsal and anal fins.) On the 8th of September twenty-five of this age weighed four and three-
quarter pounds, or an average of little over three ounces each. In the third year of existence, or
at the age of two years, they have increased considerably, though not so rapidly as was once
supposed, measuring, on their reappearance, about ten inches, with an average weight of one-half
pound. Six weighed in New Bedford, October 9, averaged but little over five ounces each, while
the average of those on the stalls in New York, October 17, was a little over eight ounces. After
this they grow more quickly. One hundred and ninety-nine, presumed to be three years’ fish,
weighed on the 6th of September, averaged one and a half pounds each, and measured about
twelve inches in length by four and a half inches in width, some individuals being larger and some
smaller. The female fish of the second year not unfrequently contains mature eggs. It is in the
fifth year, or after the lapse of four years from birth, that the Scup presents its finest development;
specimens believed to be of this age measured fourteen or fifteen inches by five to six inches or
more, with a weight of two and a half to three pounds. They, however, still continue to grow,
specimens being not unfrequently met with eighteen inches long, and weighing four pounds and
even more. The dimensions may belong to fish of six or more years of age; more probably, however,
of five years. Itis, of course, impossible to do more than give average estimates of the weight and
size of fish of the same age, the differences probably depending on the fact whether they were
spawned by old or young fish, and the period when the eggs were laid, this extending over a con-
siderable length of time in each locality, although the great majority of fish undoubtedly spawn
at nearly the same season.

“Abundant as the Scup has been during the greater part of the present century, there
appears to be good evidence to show that prior to the year 1800 there was at least one period, if
not more, when it was extremely rare. According to Mr. Southwick (page 11), there is a tradition
that they first occurred at Newport about 1793, the sheepshead disappearing about the same time.
Mr. Lyman, in an article on the possible exhaustion of the sea fisheries, written in 1871, also

1Fall River News, 1860.

390 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

quotes some negative evidence of the absence of this fish at Compton, Rhode Island, from 1794 to
1803, the ‘sheepshead’ (more probably the tautog is meant) being spoken of as common, and the
Scup not mentioned.

“Mr, John C. Parker, an octogenarian of Falmouth, Massachusetts, states that the Scup were
observed there, according to his father’s statement, some time after 1790, and had become quite
abundant by 1814. On the other hand, however, in 1621, again quoting from Mr. Lyman, Massa.
soit entertained his half-famished Puritan visitors with ‘fishes like bream, but three times so big,
and better meat’; this fact, with the description, being applicable to no other fish than the Scup.
The European sea-bream is very similar to the Scup, and would readily be referred to the same
species by the unobservant traveler.

“Again, Roger Williams, in his ‘Key to the Language of the Indians,’ speaking of the Scup,
says ‘mushcup, the bream. ‘Of this fish there is abundance, which the natives dry in the sun
and smoke, and some English begin to salt. Both ways they keep all the year, and it is hoped
they may be as well accepted as cod at market, and better if once known.’ We find no reference
to the occurrence of the fish from this date, 1642, up to 1794.

“The time of the arrival of the Scup on the coast varies with the locality. The young proba-
bly spend the winter in our southern waters or out in the Gulf Stream, but in the spring commence
their migration either along the coast or from the deep seas toward the waters on the south coast
of New England. The latter supposition is the more probable, as no Scup are taken on the
southern coast of anything like the size of the breeders that visit New England, making their
appearance at once in a huge body, extending, apparently, from Block Island to Martha’s Vineyard.

“The western division of this army appears to strike first at Watch Hill, to the west of Point
Judith, and to make its way slowly along eastward, the smaller or eastern division moving through
Vineyard Sound. According to Captain Luce, the Menemsha pounds take the Scup three days or
a week earlier than the pounds at Lombard’s Cove, and nearly two weeks earlier than at the
guano-works at Wood’s Holl. The progress of this fish is at first very slow, scarcely exceeding a
few miles a day, and its movements appear to be largely regulated by the flow of the tide, going
forward with the flood, and partly retrograding with the ebb. According to Mr. Whalley (page
24), of Narragansett Pier, it occupies about four tides, or two days, in moving from Point Judith
to Seconnet Point.

“The precise period of their reaching the coast varies with the season, although their abun-
dance generally occurs from the 5th to the 12th of May. In 1871 the fish appeared much earlier
than usual, and were on the shore before traps were down in readiness for their capture. Their
occurrence was about the 15th to the 25th of April. Breeding Scup were taken at Hyannis the
same year on the 27th of April, at least two weeks earlier than usual. They were taken in the
fish-pound at Wood’s Holl on the 27th of April, but were most abundant on the 8th of May. In
1872 the season was late, and a few scattering Scup were taken at Wood’s Holl from the 10th to
the 13th of May, but were most abundant at a later date. On the 17th of May ten barrels were
taken, and one hundred and fifty barrels on the 9th of June. Some of those captured in the
middle of May were of unusual size, weighing four pounds and over. At Newport they were most
abundant on the 15th of May, or two days earlier than at Wood’s Holl. Here, too, the number of
mature fish was less than usual, but the average size greater. Over one thousand barrels were
taken in Luce’s pound, at Menemsha Bight. It is mentioned as an unusual occurrence that in
the spring of 1872 large fish were caught in purse-nets five or ten miles off the shore of Newport,
mostly with spawn, although very poor and thin.

“ According to Capt. Thomas Hinckley, after passing Seaconnet Point and entering Buzzard’s

MIGRATIONS OF THE SCUP. 391

Bay, the Scup keep along the northern shore and make almost the entire circuit. of the bay before
appearing at Quissett Harbor and Wood’s Holl, their appearance being always later there than at
the head of the bay or about New Bedford. Whether it is the fish alone that belong to Buzzard’s
Bay that enter it, or whether others pass directly between the Elizabeth Islands and Martha’s
Vineyard, is not yet satisfactorily ascertained. We know, however, that they reached Waquoit,
the first pound on the north side of Vineyard Sound, in 1871, as early as April 25, but that the
largest numbers were taken from the 10th to the 13th of May. This gives about a week’s differ-
ence between this point and Newport.

“On the south of Vineyard Sound the fish are netted at Menemsha Bight, where there are
several large and effective pounds, three days or a week earlier than at Lombard’s Cove, and
nearly two weeks earlier than at the Wood’s Holl pound.

“ According to Mr. Luce, breeding fish enter the tidal ponds on the north side of Martha’s
Vineyard (formerly in large numbers), where they spawn, accomplishing this operation by the end
of June, the ponds being filled with young in August. As soon as frost comes these fish leave for
their winter abode.

“A new point was made in the capture of Scup by the fishermen of Block Island during the
spring of 1877. Heretofore Scup have been taken in quantities only in the vicinity of the shores,
being captured in immense numbers in traps at Seconnet River and by pounds elsewhere, and
sometimes by seines. The capture by hand-lines is the more common, and may be carried on at
some distance from the shore; but it has never been taken very far from the land. On the occasion
referred to, some fishermen, while engaged in capturing mackerel off Block Island, saw what they
supposed to be a school and put their purse-seine around it. To their surprise they found their
net. to contain Scup exclusively. Of these they took at one haul six hundred barrels of one
hundred and eighty pounds each, all of marketable size and bringing a good price in the New
York market.

“ As a general rule, in their movement along the coast the Scup are not found in water shal-
lower than a few fathoms; and it sometimes happens, in the course of heavy storms, that in con-
sequence of the discoloration of the water near the shore the fish move farther out to sea, and on
such occasions measurably escape falling into the traps.

“The Scup is very largely a bottom feeder, and depends very much upon mollusks or shell-
fish for subsistence. I have been informed by the fishermen that they may frequently be seen
feeding upon small bivalves of different species, rooting them out of the sand or mud. The
stomachs of about two hundred one and one-half pound Scup were examined at one time in the
beginning of September. These almost exclusively contained shells of various genera, with some
worms and a few amphipods. Its especial food appears to be small shells, crabs, shrimp, and
possibly small fish. The abundance of such food on the south coast of New England must be
prodigious to support the swarms that even now are found there. It is in regard to this species
that a close time is desirable, so that access to the spawning-grounds and freedom from disturb-
ance may be enjoyed by a sufficient number to maintain the species.

“Like all other small fish, they are devoured by their more rapacious fellows, and very largely
by bluefish, notwithstanding a general impression to the contrary. The extent to which this
takes place will be considered under the head of the bluefish. Halibut, cod, sharks, and other
ground-feeders likewise use them up in great numbers.

“As already remarked, the breeding fish do not appear to feed on their first arrival, being
then too much occupied in carrying out the reproductive function. As, however, they can be taken
with the hook about the 1st of June, we may infer that this is about the time they begin to feed

392 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

for themselves. The younger fish probably feed as soon as they reach the shores. No remains of
fish have hitherto been found in the stomachs of Scup, and we may conclude that they are not
piscivorous.

“Although the period and the general region where the eggs are deposited has been pretty
well ascertained, I regret that nothing is known of the peculiar method by which this is accom-
plished. I have been informed (page 47) that, on hauling up of anchors of boats that have been
lying overnight in two fathoms of water, the rope is frequently found coated with spawn sticking
upon it. The eggs are doubtless fertilized as discharged, and probably adhere to the gravel, grass,
and other objects at the bottom; but as to the precise period of development, nothing is known.

“INCREASING ABUNDANCE OF Scup.—According to Captain Ashby, of Noank, the young
Scup have been extremely abundant in Buzzard’s Bay during the summer of 1877, he himself
having turned out 2,500 barrels from a small pound worked by him at the Wepeckets, opposite
Naushon. He estimates that at least 25,000 barrels have been thus liberated from the various
pounds in Buzzard’s Bay. In 1880 immense numbers of young Scuppaug were noticed in Narra-
gansett Bay.

“The Scup, like other shore fish, not unfrequently suffer from changes of weather. Mr. South-
wick informed me that he has evidence to show that in the early part of May in 1809, 1818, and
1838, after a cold spell in each of those years, large numbers were thrown on the shore. On the
29th of November, 1871, there was a fall of snow at Wood’s Holl, and the next day Scup and sea-
bass came ashore in considerable numbers, generally, according to Mr. Edwards, about ten Scup
to every yard along the shore for a considerable distance. They were, however, all small fish.
While Scup were in greatest abundance, the other fish observed were sea-bass, butter-fish, mullet,
etc. Similar facts have been observed in regard to tautog, which indeed seemed to suffer very
much more than Scup from this agency.

““As may be inferred from what has already been said, the market at the present time is sup-
plied with Scup from the spring traps and pounds, the capture by these means having become
almost entirely exclusive. Formerly, however, they could be taken with the hook from the latter
end of May until the end of October, and in any desired abundance. There is no fish on the
American coast that bites so freely when abundant, and which can be captured with so much ease.

“Y am informed by Mr. Dunham that in the deep holes of the pond at Nantucket, where he
has been with his boat, he has sometimes thrown a stone overboard so as to give the Seup a start
toward the shore, and then following and throwing his dog overboard, he has driven the fish clear
out of the water upon the beach, and has taken as many as five hundred in this way at one time.
A similar mode of capture was reported to me as having taken place in the pond at Menemsha
Bight.

“The value of the Scup as a marketable fish varies, of course, with the supply; and while
they have been sold in early times as low as from ten to twenty-five cents a barrel, and were used
as a manure, they are now too scarce for any such purpose. They were worth in 1871 from six to
eight cents a pound at Newport, and about two cents at Hyannis. At New Bedford they generally
brought ten cents as a maximum price.

“On the coast of Carolina they are said to prefer deep, clear water, with rocky bottom,
although they may be taken in almost any locality in the region of their occurrence.

“The Scup remain along the northern coast until about the middle of October, when the
larger ones, at least, begin to leave the shores and move out into deeper water. Mr. Vinal
Edwards has, however, taken young fish at Wood’s Holl as late as the 10th of December, and
Capt. John Rogers, of Noank, states that, in fishing for cod on Nantucket Shoals late in Novem-

WINTER ABODE OF THE SOUP. 393

ber, their stomachs are occasionally filled with small Seup, which drop out of their mouths when
hauled on deck, found to be to the extent of five or six ata time. It is quite possible that they,
as well as other fish, seek in winter that portion of the Gulf Stream that corresponds in temper-
ature to that of their summer abode; and as the mean summer temperature of the waters of
Southern Massachusetts and Rhode Island amounts to about 63° Fahrenheit, they must go nearly
to the latitude of Norfolk, Virginia, before they can find that same temperature in the winter
season.

The European analogue of our American Scup or Porgy is the Sparus auratus, the braize or
becker, sometimes bream, of the fishermen. These come on to the European coast in the summer
time, and are said to have much the same habits as the American species.”

A species closely related to the Scup is the “Goat’s-head Porgy” of the Gulf of Mexico, Ste-
notomus caprinus.

Sparus pagrus is rather common at Charleston and Pensacola, and is found also in the south
of Europe. There are also in our southern waters various species of the genus Pagellus, which
resemble in a general way the “Scup.”

130. THE SAILOR'S CHOICE—LAGODON RHOMBOIDES.

This species, which bears considerable resemblance in its form to the scuppaug, is found in
great abundance from Cape Hatteras south, and around the Gulf coast; also occasionally north of
Cape Hatteras; it is known in the lower parts of the Chesapeake Bay, and two or three stragglers
have recently been taken at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts. It is not uncommon in the Bermudas.
It may readily be recognized by the longitudinal stripes of iridescent color upon the sides, and by
the peculiar character of the teeth, each having a prominent notch on either edge.

The “Sailor’s Choice,” as it is called in the Saint John’s River, at Brunswick, Georgia, and
about Key West, bears several other names, being known about Cape Hatteras as the “ Robin”
and “Pin-fish,” at Charleston as the “‘Salt-water Bream,” at Brunswick, Georgia, as the “‘Squirrel-
fish” and “‘Sailor’s Choice,” in the Saint John’s River as the “Sailor’s Choice” and “Porgy,” in
the Indian River region as the “Sailor’s Choice,” ‘“Scup,” and “ Yellow-tail,” at Cedar Keys as
the “Porgy” and “Shiner,” and at Pensacola as the ‘‘ Chopa Spina.”

South of Cape Hatteras this fish is exceedingly abundant, and is usually found in company
with the sheepshead, which it much resembles in habits. Its jaws, however, are not so strong as
those of the sheepshead, by reason of which it is debarred from feeding upon the stronger shelled
mollusks and crustaceans, which constitute the principal diet of the latter.

On the Atlantic coast the largest individuals rarely exceed ten inches in length, the ordinary
size in Eastern Florida being six or eight inches, with the weight of five or six ounces.

The Sailor’s Choice is one of the most deliciously-flavored fishes of our coast, being preferred
to the young sheepshead by many of those who are familiar with its good qualities. Lugger
states that it enters the drains of the ocean coast of Maryland, and is occasionally caught in the
lower part of the Chesapeake Bay. According to Jordan they are excessively abundant every-
where in the harbor of Beaufort, North Carolina, where they are taken by the thousand by boys
with hook and line from the wharves, but are seldom used for food, and are found equally numer-
ous through the Gulf States coast.

At Charleston, according to Holbrook, this fish is taken at all seasons of the year, though
most plentiful in May and June. No reference is made by this author to its value as an article
of food. At Brunswick, Georgia, the Sailor’s Choice is highly esteemed; in the Saint John’s
it is very abundant, and is taken in company with the sheepshead far up the river. It is easily

394 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

captured with hooks baited with shrimp, and is considered to be a very superior pan-fish, its flesh
resembling that of the scuppaug, though much sweeter and harder.

In the Indian River region, according to Mr. 8. C. Clarke, this fish is resident all the year, and
is very abundant. The weight of the largest observed by him was one pound. The average
weight is about five ounces. They are found in the deep water, or salt water, feeding upon
minnows, small crabs, and shrimps. The spawn is pale blue, and of the size of mustard-seed.
Young fish are seen in great abundance. They are taken by hook with mullet or clam bait, and
also in cast-nets and seines. One hundred are often taken by a fisherman in aday. They are
highly prized for food, and are occasionally salted. They are sometimes sent in ice to Savannah
and Charleston. “On the Gulf coast,” writes Mr. Stearns, “they are very abundant, living and
breeding in the bays and bayous. They spawn in winter or early spring, and the young of dif-
ferent sizes may be seen in May and June. The adult fish live in deep water, while the young
remain near the shore. Many are caught by hook and line, and with the seine.”

131. CERTAIN MINOR SPAROIDS.
THE MARGATE-FISH.

This species is known only in the Gulf of Mexico. Stearns writes that it is abundant off the
Florida coast, and is found throughout the year in all the gulches, and commonly on the snapper
banks in water from ten to thirty fathoms deep. About Pensacola, where it is called the “Porgy,”
it is seldom eaten, being regarded by the fishermen as a nuisance, for it steals their baits and
interferes generally with their fishing. It is, however, used to some extent as bait for red snap-
pers. At Key West it is brought to market in well-boats, and sells readily. The small ones are
there called ‘“‘Porgies” and the large ones ‘“‘ Margate-fish” and ‘Market-fish.”

In West Florida Stearns states that he has often found spawn in them in April. At Cedar
Keys, October 28, 1879, he obtained a specimen, seven inches in length, with a gill-net. The largest
one he has seen measured fifteen or sixteen inches in length.

THE PORGIES OF THE GULF.

A fish known as the “Sheepshead Porgy” is said by Stearns to be common about the Florida
Reefs. It is caught with hook and line, and is sold in the markets of Key West. There are other
species, known by the name “Porgy,” which are found in this region, such as Calamus bajonado,
common also at Charleston, where it is called the “‘White-boned Porgy,” C. megacephalus, C. are-
tifrons, and CU. macrops.

THE BERMUDA CHUB—CYPHOSUS Boscr.

This fish, which is one of the most important of the food species of Bermuda, occurring also
in the West Indies and east to Madeira, has but recently been found on our coast. Stearns has
observed it in the Gulf of Mexico, where the fishermen call it the “Bream,” and individuals have
also been taken at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts. It is a most delicious food-fish, and it is hoped
that the few which have been seen on our coasts are the precursors of large schools to follow.

CALIFORNIAN SPAROIDS.

California has two important species belonging to this family, concerning which Professor
Jordan has communicated the following information:

“The ‘Bluefish,’ Girella nigricans, inappropriately so called, reaches a length of about fourteen
inches, and a weight of three or four pounds. It ranges from Monterey southward, and is very,
abundant about the Santa Barbara Islands. The young of this species are common inhabitants

THE CALIFORNIAN BLUEFISH. 395

of the rock-pools. The ‘Bluefish’ is entirely herbivorous. It is a food-fish of good quality, but the
flesh softens sooner after death than is usually the case with related fishes. It is very tenacious
of life.

“The ‘Half-moon,’ more commonly known by its Spanish name, ‘Medialuna,’ Scorpis califor-
niensis, reaches a length of more than a foot, and a weight of three or four pounds. It ranges
from Point Concepcion southward, chiefly about the Santa Barbara Islands, where it is exceed-
ingly abundant, and, in the winter, forms the greater part of the catch at San Pedro. It feeds
chiefly upon crustaceans, but is, to some extent, herbivorous. It takes the hook readily, is an
excellent food-fish, and, in the Los Angeles market, is second only to the barracuda in impor-
tance.”

THE SNAPPER FAMILY—PRISTIPOMATID.

182. THE RED AND GRAY SNAPPERS.

THE RED SNAPPER—LUTJANUS BLACKFORDII.

The Red Snapper, although it has been for many years a favorite food-fish of the Gulf of
Mexico and Eastern Florida, has but recently become known in Northern markets. About 1874
individuals of this species were occasionally seen in New York and Washington, and shortly after
they began to come into notice in the cities of the Mississippi Valley. It was not even described
and named until 1877, when Messrs. Goode and Bean, having determined that it was distinct from
the West Indian form, which it resembles, described it under the name Lutjanus Blackfordii, in
honor of Mr. Eugene G. Blackford, of New York City, who has for many years been prominent in
all matters relating to fish culture and the fish trade. By reason of its bright crimson color it is
the most conspicuous fish ever seen in our markets.

Three years ago the geographical range of this species was supposed to be limited at the north
by Savannah Bank, but during the summer of 1880 several specimens were taken along the coast of
the Middle States; one, nine and a half pounds in weight, off Port Monmouth, New Jersey, October
5; another, about August 10, near Block Island. This northern extension of its range is quite
unexpected, and the fact that even stragglers find their way into our northern waters suggests
great possibilities for the future in the way of their artificial propagation and introduction along
the coast of the Middle States. In the South it is found associated on the same grounds with the
sea-bass, Serranus atrarius, which it resembles in habits and manner of feeding. The sea-bass
is abundant as far north as Cape Cod, and it is hard to understand why the banks, which are
favorite haunts of this fish, should not also be shared by the Red Snapper. In the Gulf of Mexico
the Red Snapper is exceedingly abundant in suitable localities from Key West to the Rio Grande.

“About the Florida reefs and as far north as Temple Bay, where there are reefs and rocks,
they live in holes and gullies where all kinds of marine animals and fish are most abundant, and
sometimes, as I have noticed, off Charlotte Harbor numbers of them will congregate about a soli-
tary ledge protruding over a level bottom of white sand. Throughout this southern district the
fishing spots are small, but very numerous; and away trom the reefs, where the bottom is chiefly
sand, it is only necessary to find rocks or a rocky bottom to find Red Snappers. Since it is
impracticable to make use of bearings by which to find the fishing grounds, the fishermen sail
about, throwing the lead continually until it indicates the proper bottom. Along the coast from
Temple Bay to Texas the bottom declines very gradually to the hundred-fathom curve, forming
vast, almost level, plains of sand. In these barren wastes there are gullies of variable size, having
rocky bottoms and teeming with animal and vegetable life. These gullies occur at a depth of
from twelve to forty-five fathoms, the water in them being several fathoms deeper than the sur-

396 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIO ANIMALS,

rounding bottom, and more rocky, and in the deepest parts richer in animal life. Red Snappers
are exceedingly abundant in these places, which are the so-called ‘snapper banks.” From Temple
Bay to Cedar Keys the gullies are numerous in sixteen, eighteen, and twenty fathoms; from
Cedar Keys to Saint Mark’s, in fifteen and sixteen fathoms. Off Saint Mark’s and Dog Island
there are a few in five and ten fathoms. From Cape San Blas to the mouths of the Mississippi
River occur the best fishing grounds in the Gulf, so far as is now known; gullies in ten and
fifteen fathoms of water especially abundant from the cape, fifty miles to the west. West of the
Mississippi, on the Texas coast, there are a few which are in twelve and fifteen fathoms. These
grounds are found by the use of the sounding-lead, which shows every position by the sudden
increase in the depth of the water. Red Snappers live in such places all the year, except, perhaps,
in some of the five and ten fathom ones, which are nearly deserted in winter. Off Pensacola there
seems to be quite a movement inshore in spring and offshore in fall. In South Florida they are
usually associated with the groupers, which occur in the proportion of about three to one, while
in West Florida the case is reversed; not more than one fish in ten of those caught is a grouper.”!

Red Snappers are also known to be abundant on the Savannah Bank and on the Saint John’s
Bank, off Eastern Georgia and Florida.

The Red Snappers are strictly carnivorous, feeding upon small fish, crabs, and prawns. The
temperature of the water in which they live probably rarely falls below 50°. They have no enemies
except sharks and two or three enormous spiny-rayed fishes, such as the jew-fish or warsaw (Guasa).
The only reliable observations upon their breeding habits have been made by Mr. Stearns, who states
that they spawn in May and June in the bays and at sea. In June, July, and August they are
found in some of the bays of the Northern Gulf, about wrecks and rock-piles, in considerable
numbers, and none are taken but the larger adults and the young from one to eight inches long.
The spawning season probably extends over a period of several months, Mr. Stearns having found
well-developed ovaries in them from April to July. Nothing is known of their rate of growth.
They attain the size of forty pounds. In East Florida, however, the average is much less. Mr.
Stearns remarks that in the Gulf of Mexico they very seldom exceed thirty pounds’ weight,
though he has seen several of that size, while the average is eight or nine pounds, and in a large
lot may usually be found individuals weighing from two and a half to twenty pounds.

Red Snappers from Florida are frequently quoted in the New York market returns. In 1879
about 12,000 pounds were there sold. They are also shipped to New York, Washington, and
Baltimore in winter, the supply in these cities being derived chiefly from Pensacola. Mobile and
New Orleans consume considerable quantities, and from these ports they are shipped up the
Mississippi River to the principal cities along its line, where the fish is growing to be a staple of
much importance. In Saint Louis it is already one of the most highly esteemed food-fishes. The
price in New York in 1879 ranged from twenty to twenty-four cents per pound, but they are now
less expensive.

THE PENSACOLA SNAPPER.

The Red Snapper belongs to a genus which is found everywhere in tropical waters; fish
resembling it occur everywhere throughout the West Indies. There is a kind of Red Snapper
which is abundant on the Bahama Banks and in South Florida. This is L. campechianus Poey,
perhaps also acccompanied by L. torridus Cope. Two other brilliant red species occur with L.
Blackfordii in the Gulf of Mexico—the Pensacola Snapper, L. Stearnsti, and the Mangrove Snapper,
Rhomboplites aurorubens, the former of which might easily be mistaken for the L. Blackfordit,

'Silas Stearns, MS.

HABITS OF THE PENSACOLA SNAPPER. 397

although its color is somewhat less vivid. Concerning this species, Mr. Stearns, whose name it
bears, writes: “It is abundant on the Gulf coast, and lives in the bays all the year. In summer
it is to be found about stone-heaps, wharves, and old wrecks, where it obtains crustaceous food in
abundance. In winter it returns to the deeper places in search of food, and to escape from the
cold surface water. During a cold snap in 1876 a groat many of these fish were benumbed and
floated at the surface, until the sun appeared and warmed them, when they revived and sought
the bottom. They spawn in May and June, They are very cunning, and will not readily take the
hook. Those commonly seen in the bays are quite small, averaging ten inches in length, while
those taken with the Red Snappers at sea are from twenty to twenty-four inches long. It is an
excellent food-fish, generally thought to be superior in flavor to the Red Snapper.” This fish has as
yet been found only on the Gulf coasts of the United States, where it is known as the “Mangrove
Snapper.” Since this name is used on the Atlantic coast for another species, and has been so used
since the time of Catesby, it seems desirable to designate Zutjanus Stearnsti by another name, and
“Pensacola Snapper” has been suggested.

THE MANGROVE SNAPPER—RHOMBOPLITES. AURORUBENS.

The “Mangrove Snapper” of Charleston, called at Pensacola the ‘‘ Bastard Snapper,” is a much
more slender and elegantly formed fish than either of the Snappers already described. Its color
is less vivid, being somewhat more russet, and is enlivened by the presence of narrow, oblique
lines, with gold and yellow upon the sides. It is a swift-swimming fish, probably less given to
feeding on the bottom, and more partial to a diet of living fish. It has been found at Jamaica, and
as far north as Charleston, South Carolina.

“In the Pensacola region,” writes Stearns, “‘it is a well-known, but not common, species.”
Single individuals are occasionally brought in from the sea with the Red Snappers and groupers.
It is caught at all depths, from ten to thirty-five fathoms, and seldom exceeds eighteen inches in
length. As a food-fish it is equal to the Red Snapper. The Bermuda Red Snapper, abundant and
much esteemed in those islands, is a small but very brilliantly colored species, not yet described,
which is to be called Lutjanus autolycus.

THE GRAY SNAPPER—LUTJANUS CAXIS.

Another snapper, similar in form to these others, but not red in color, which is called the ‘Gray
Snapper’ at South Florida, and the ‘Black Snapper’ at Pensacola, DL. caxis, is abundant about
the Bermudas, and has been found on the east coast of Florida, in tropical South America, in
Western Africa, and about the Bermudas, where it attains the enormous size of sixty to eighty
pounds, and is known as the ‘Gray Snapper, and also, on account of its sly, cunning habits,
the ‘Sea Lawyer” Mr. Stearns writes: “It is most abundant in South Florida, living in deep
channels, on rocky bottoms, about old wrecks, stone-heaps and wharves; it is considered the most
cunning fish on the coast, and is extremely difficult to catch. The young may be seen about the
wharves, and the breeding-ground is probably near by. Those usually observed are from ten to
twelve inches in length, but I think I have seen specimens which would measure two feet.”

133, THE GRUNTS OR PIG-FISHES,

In the inshore waters of the Southern Atlantic and Gulf States occur several species of small
fish belonging to the genus Diabasis. They are closely related to the snappers, which they
resemble in form, and have remote affinities with the perch, the bass, and the porgy and sheeps-
head. Their colors are usually striking, and they, without exception, are distinguished by the
brilliant red color of the inside of the mouth and throat, from which they have sometimes been

398 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

called Red Mouths, or Flannel Mouths. From their habit of uttering a loud, rather melodious sound
when taken from the water they. have acquired the name of “Grunt” and “Pig-fish.” In some
localities they are also called “Squirrel-fish,” in allusion to the same habit. They are, for the
most part, bottom feeders, preying chiefly upon crustaceans and small fish. In fact, they are, in
most respects, miniature counterparts of the red snapper. In many localities they are in high
favor as a food-fish. They have not yet been very carefully studied, but so far as they are now
understood the following species are known to occur in sufficient numbers to prove of commercial
importance:

THE BLACK GRUNT—DIABASIS PLUMIERI.

This species has a brownish body, lighter upon the sides, and has the sides of the head
ornamented with numerous horizontal stripes of bright blue, while the posterior half of the lower
lip is red. It occurs as far north as Charleston, and Dr. Yarrow claims to have seen it at Beaufort,
North Carolina, though there is some question whether this species was not mistaken for another.
Holbrook records that it has been observed on the Atlantic borders of South Carolina, Georgia,
and Florida. I noticed several small individuals in the markets of Saint Augustine in March, 1877.
Stearns mentions the Black Grunt as abundant at Key West among the reefs, and as frequently
seen in the markets.

THE RED-MOUTH GRUNT—DIABASIS AUROLINEATUS.

The Red-mouth Grunt, Diabasis aurolineatus, is probably the Flannel-mouthed Porgy,
familiar to Florida fishermen, and often taken on the Saint John’s Bar. It has also been
recently found to be common in Charleston in summer. This species was mentioned in
Catesby’s great work, published in 1743, under the name of “Margate-fish.” When alive its
color is bright silvery, but it soon becomes, when taken from the water, of a dull amber-
brown, with a slight brazen tint along the back and sides, though the belly remains white. The
upper jaw within is white; the palate is salmon-colored; the lower jaw and mouth below are also
white in their interior third; the posterior two-thirds, both within and without, are red, and the
mouth below; the tongue and fauces are of a similar color.! This fish occurs in Northern Brazil
and throughout the West Indies, and specimens are recorded from Jamaica, Trinidad, and the
Bahamas; it is found in the Bermudas and on our coast at least as far north as Charleston. Stearns
writes: “It is quite common on the Gulf coast of Florida from Pensacola to Key West. It is
caught with hook and line, and is eaten asa pan-fish. I took an extremely large specimen from
the snapper ground between Cedar Keys and Saint Mark’s in fifteen fathoms of water. It is not
found in the vicinity of Pensacola.” Holbrook writes: ‘‘The Red-mouthed Grunt is occasionally
taken in our waters at all seasons of the year, but is never abundant, as seldom more than a dozen
or two are met with in the market at one time. Itis not highly esteemed for food, since its flesh
lacks both firmness and flavor.”

Uhler and Lugger say that it occurs occasionally in the lower part of the Chesapeake Bay,
where it is not considered to possess great economical value. The occurrence of this species 50
far north needs confirmation.

THE PIG-FISH—POMODASYS FULVOMACULATUS,

A species belonging to a closely related genus is the Hog-fish, or Grunt, of the Chesapeake,
called also “ Pig-fish” or “Grunt” in the Gulf of Mexico, Pomodasys fulvomaculatus, and known
in South Carolina as well as in Bermuda under the name of “Sailor’s Choice.” Its color is thus

' Description by Holbrook.

THE PIG-FISH OR GRUNT. 399

described by Holbrook: “Body above, pale brown; belly, silvery; sides marked with numerous
orange-colored or yellow spots; those above the lateral line disposed in irregular oblique lines,
those below it in horizontal rows. Dorsal, anal, and caudal fins with similar spots; sides of the
head pale bluish with a silvery tint and marked with yellow spots; lower jaw, orange at the
angle of the mouth; internal surface of the gill membrane, bright orange.”!

Mr. 8. C. Clarke has communicated a full account of a species which is either identical or closely
related to this. “The common Pig-fish or Grunt of the Indian River region: This fish, answer-
ing the same description, occurs at the mouth of Saint Johns River, and is probably the same.”
Mr. Clarke states that in the Indian River region they spawn in April in deep salt-water rivers,
the spawn being very small and of a brown color. The young fish are not abundant, nor are the
adults very numerous, though the number has increased of late years. In 1872 and 1873, three or
four might be taken in a day, while in 1874 twenty or thirty were taken by one line ona tide. The
largest weight is one and a half pounds; the average fish weighs three-quarters of a pound. The
Pig-fish come from the sea into the salt-water rivers in December. Their appearance is regular,
though they vary in abundance from year to year. They swim low, and prefer to live in deep
water with shell bottom. They go out to sea soon after spawning in April; they feed upon small
fish, crab, and shrimp. They are captured by hook, with mullet, clam, and shrimp bait; never
with nets. They are much prized for food; the best of table fish, rich and delicate.

This species was first described by Mitchill from a specimen taken in the bay of New York.
The National Museum has many specimens from various parts of the Southern coast and the Gulf
of Mexico. ‘In New York,” wrote DeKay in 1842, “this is a rare fish, but occasionally appearing,
as I am informed, in our harbor in considerable numbers. It is a very savory food.” Professor
Baird did not find it on the coast of New Jersey in 1854. Uhler and Lugger state that it occurs
in the salt water of the lower part of the Chesapeake Bay, and is much esteemed for food.

A correspondent, at Hunger’s Wharf, Virginia, writes: ‘In my estimation it is the finest fish
that swims. It grows to the size of about one pound, and is now rather scarce. When I was a boy,
about forty years ago, they were very plentiful, and I have known three hundred pounds caught
at one haul of the seine. They have since gradually become scarcer, and a few years ago we rarely
caught one during the season. In 1879 and 1880 they are coming in plenty, especially in 1880, and
I believe that in a few years we will have them in plenty again. They come about the Ist of July
and remain until November.”

At Beaufort, North Carolina, where it is also called “Hog-fish,” according to Jordan, it is
extremely common everywhere in the harbor. Holbrook wrote about 1860: “The ‘Sailor’s Choice’
makes its appearance in our waters about the month of April and continues with us until Novem-
ber, when the largest are taken. I have found in the stomach of this animal only the remains of
smaller fish, and yet it takes the hook readily when baited with shrimps and clams. It is found
along the coast from Georgia to Virginia, where it is called “ Hog-fish,” and is held in great
estimation by epicures.”

“In the Gulf coast,” writes Stearns, ‘it is common everywhere and throughout the year. It
lives in shallow water among the grass, feeding upon small and crustaceous animals. It spawns
in April and May and is a choice food-fish. The average length is about ten inches.” Stearns
also refers to three species known respectively as the “‘ White,” “ Yellow,’ and “Black” Grunt,
which are found at Key West and upon the neighboring reefs in great abundance. He states that

1The colors of the fishes of this group are thus minutely described in order to aid observers in discriminating
between the different kinds of these fish which so closely resemble each other. In most cases this has been thought
unnecessary, since the plates and the reference to Jordan’s ‘‘ Synopsis” are thought to be sufficient.

400 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“they are taken with hook and line and are brought daily into the market. Before the poisoned
water visited that neighborhood the Grunt was the most important as well as the favorite food-
fish in the market, but since then they have been scarce, and other fish, to a great extent, have

taken their place.”

CALIFORNIAN GRUNTS.

On the California coast occur two species of this family; one, known to the fishermen by the
name “Sargo,” Pristipoma Davidsoni, is found from San Pedro southward to Cerros Island, chiefly
about the islands, and is nowhere common. It feeds on crustaceans and is a good pan-fish, but is
too scarce to have much economic value. It reaches a length of about fifteen inches. Still another,
Xenistius californiensis Steindachner, occurs from San Diego to Cape San Lucas. It is too scarce
to be of any importance for food.

THE BLACK BASS FAMILY. 401

THE BLACK BASS FAMILY CENTRARCHIDA.

134. THE BIG-MOUTH BLACK BASS—MICROPTERUS SALMOIDES, AND THE SMALL-MOUTH
BLACK BASS—M. DOLOMIEI.

Professor Gill’s paper, in which he defines the differences between the two species of Black
Bass, was published in 1873 in the “Proceedings of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science”; but since this volume is not easily accessible, the most important differences are
mentioned here. In the Large-mouth the upper jaw extends far behind the eyes, in the other to a
point below it. The Large-mouth has from sixty-five to seventy rows between the gill-opening and
the base of the tail, instead of seventy-two or more, while on the cheek there are about ten oblique
rows instead of seventeen. There are other distinctions, such as the absence in the Large-mouth
of scales on the bases of the dorsal and anal fins, the smaller number of rays in the pectoral fins
(there being thirteen or fourteen instead of sixteen or seventeen), and the lesser height of the
spinous dorsal.!

Numerous as have been the zoological names, they are outnumbered by the popular names
still in use in different localities. Charlevoix, a Jesuit missionary who explored Canada in 1721,
mentions a fish called ‘“‘Achigan,” which is thought to have. been the Large-mouth. An earlier
allusion to this species, which in the Southern States is still called “Trout,” occurs in the
writings of René de Laudonniére, who describes the incidents of the first Huguenot expedition to
Florida in 1652, under the command of Jean Ribault. The Large-mouth is known in the Great Lake
region, especially in Northern New York, as the “‘Oswego Bass.” This name should not be con-
founded with “Otsego Bass,” a local name for the common whitefish. In Kentucky it is called
“Jumper”; in Indiana, ‘“‘Moss Bass”; in the Southern States, generally, “Trout,” though on the
Tar River of North Carolina it is called “‘Chub,” and on the Neuse “Welshman.”

The Small-mouth shares with the Large mouth in the Southern States the names “Jumper,”
“Perch,” and “Trout,” and in Alabama, according to Professor Jordan, it is called the “Mountain
Trout.”

Both species are very widely distributed over the Atlantic slope of the continent east of the
Rocky Mountains, and their range is probably much wider than is now supposed, for many of our
northern and western waters are unexplored. The Large-mouth and the Small-mouth dwell
together in the Great Lakes, and in the upper parts of the Saint Lawrence and Mississippi basins.
The Small-mouth is found north to latitude 47° and west to Wisconsin, while southward it ranges
to latitude 33°, where Professor Jordan found it in the headwaters of the Chattahoochee and
Ocmulgee Rivers, the latter being the only instance of its presence in a stream emptying east of
the Alleghanies into which it is not known to have been introduced by man. . The Large-mouth
ranges farther to the west and north, occurring in the Red River of the North, perhaps as far as
Manitoba, in latitude 50°. It abounds in all the rivers of the Southern States, from the James
to the Saint John, and in the lower reaches of the streams and bayous connected with the Gulf of
Mexico, around to Texas, in latitude 279.

1For fuller information upon this and every other point connected with the species now under discussion the
reader is referred to Dr. J. A. Henshall’s elaborate and exhaustive illustrated treatise, entitled ‘‘Book of the Black
Bass,” published in 1881 by Robert Clarke & Co., of Cincinnati.
26 F

402 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

To the waters of New England and the eastern part of the Middle States they are not native.
The Small-mouths found their way into the Hudson in 1825 or soon after, through the newly-opened
Erie Canal, and they have since been introduced by man into hundreds of eastern lakes and rivers.
Many circumstances suggest the idea that in early days, before the various drainage systems were
connected by canals, the distribution limits of the two species were much more sharply defined,
the Large-mouth inhabiting, perhaps, the upper part of the basin of the Great Lakes and Saint
Lawrence and the rivers of the southern seaboard, while the Small-mouth was found chiefly in the
northern part of the Mississippi basin. This theory can never be demonstrated, however, for the
early ichthyologists had not adopted the accurate methods of study now in use, and their descrip-
tions of the fish they saw are scarcely good enough to guess by. The mingling of the two forms
might have been accomplished in an incredibly short time. A few young Bass will multiply so
rapidly as to stock a large lake in five years. The Potomac and its tributaries swarmed with them
ten years after their first introduction.

Gill states that the two forms of Micropterus were represented in waters of the cismontane
slope of the United States, except those of the New England States and the Atlantic seaboard
of the Middle States. But one, the Small-mouth, appears to have been an original inhabitant
of the hydrographic basin of the Ohio River.

The Bass do not seem to depend closely on temperature. Having no opportunity of avoiding
the cold, they sink to the deepest part of their watery domain at the approach of winter, and if
the chill penetrates to their retreats their vitality is diminished, their blood flows more slowly,
they feel no need of food, and forthwith enter into a state of hybernation. Mr. Fred. Mather kept
one in his aquarium nearly all of one winter. It ate nothing, and seldom moved any member except
its eyes. In deep lakes, however, they can sink below the reach of surface chills, and here they
are sometimes caught with a hook through the ice. In the South their activity never ceases. Any
one who has seen Black Bass feeding must have been impressed with their immense power of
movement. They soon become masters of the waters in which they are placed. Sunfish, perch,
trout, young salmon, and even the ravenous pickerel, are devoured. They feed at the surface on
moths, flies, and frogs; they turn over stones in search of crawfish and insect larve. Rats and
snakes have been seen in their stomachs. A correspondent of “Forest and Stream” relates that
once, while fishing in the Chicago River, one of the small frogs used for bait escaped and perched
on a portion of an old wreck above the water. A Black Bass came along, and, lifting his head from
the water, picked off the frog, and descended to the depths below. The angler finds them at the
proper seasons equally eager for fly-hook, trolling-spoon, or still-bait, and always ready for a strug-
gle which puts his rod and line to a severe test. Their leaps are almost as powerful as those of the
salmon. The negro fishermen of Florida often surround a body of Large-mouths with a seine, but
as the lines are hauled in and the are grows smaller the dark forms of the “Trout” begin to appear,
springing over the cork-line and returning, with a splash and a jet of spray, to liberty. I have
seen them rise five or six feet above the water. They are said to be taken best at night, or when
the river is high and the water muddy. Otherwise they leap over the seine. Expert seiners coil
their nets in such a manner as to prevent the escape of part of the school. The Small-mouths are
said, generally, to prefer deep or swift, cool waters, while the Large-mouths live in muddy, black
pools, or in the shelter of old stumps and ledges. In Florida they lurk among the lily-pads and
aquatic plants in shallow, dark streams, where they feed on a grub called the “bonnet-worm,”
which burrows in the flower-buds of the “bonnets” or yellow water-lilies (Nuphar advena).

The spawning season occurs on the approach of warm weather. Its date does not vary much
with latitude. In Florida, in Virginia, and in Wisconsin they build their nests in May and June.

SPAWNING OF THE BLACK BASSES. 403

The oldest fish, we are told, sometimes anticipate the ordinary season, while many late spawners
are occupied with family cares until the last of July, and some young fish are not ready until
October and November.' After the spawning is over the Bass are “in season.” They take the
hook eagerly from July till November. In the winter they are lank and black, though in season
till the ice comes.

Concerning their spawning habits, Mr. Hallock, of the Blooming Grove Association, wrote in
1875: “Four years ago one hundred and thirteen Black Bass from Lake Erie were placed in
Lake Giles, and their progeny has increased so fast as to insure good sport to the angler at
any time. The late spawners are now (early July) in their gravel beds, in the shallow waters
along shore, protecting either their spawn or their newly-hatched fry, as the case may be.
It is interesting to note the pertinacity with which they guard their precious charges, and the
vigor with which they drive away depredators and intruders of all kinds. They will frequently
allow a boat to pass over them, scarcely six inches above their backs, and obstinately keep their
ground. Sunfish and such are impelled to keep their distance. There are hundreds of these
bowl-shaped excavations, eighteen inches or so in diameter, all along the sandy shallow shores of
this lake, which is very clear, and in the center some seventy feet deep, fed by bottom springs.”?

The eggs are much smaller than those of a trout, and, being heavier than the water, rest on
the bottom within the limits of the nest. The only estimate of their number with which I am
familiar is that made by Mr. E. L. Sturtevant, who found about seventeen thousand in a Large-
mouth weighing two and one-half pounds. The rate of growth is easily determined by experience
in artificial ponds. In Granby, Connecticut, four-pound fish were taken in 1874, the progeny of
two hundred and fifty fish placed in the pond in 1868. The eggs require two or three weeks to
hatch. The parents watch them. In September the young are about two inches long; when-well
fed they grow to four inches the first seasun. At two years of age they weigh about a pound, few
caught in the North weighing more than four pounds. Leaving the egg in June, they grow to two or
tbree inches before cold weather begins—trim, sprightly little darters, with black bands across the
bases of their tails. Another twelvemonth finds them in the garb of maturity, eight or nine inches
long, and with their organs swelling in preparation for the act of spawning, which they are said to
undertake at the age of two years, and when less than a foot long. The ordinary size of the adult
fish is two and one-half to three pounds, though they are sometimes taken in the North weighing
six or seven pounds. In Florida the Large-mouths grow larger. A seven or eight pounder is not.
unusual in the Saint John’s; and I was told that in March, 1875, a fish weighing nineteen and one-
half pounds was caught in the lake at Gainesville, Florida.

Fish-culturists have made many efforts to hatch the eggs of the Black Bass, and have never
succeeded. One reason for their failure, perhaps, lies in the fact that while in the shad and.
salmon the eggs fall from the ovaries into an abdominal cavity, whence they are easily expressed,
in the Bass and other spiny-rayed fishes they are retained until the parent fish are ready to deposit.
them. ‘This failure is the less to be regretted since the young Bass may easily be transported
from place to place in barrels of cool water, and, when once introduced, they soon multiply, if
protected, to any desired number.

Black Bass are very tenacious of life. The ‘“‘Germantown Telegraph” mentions some taken at.

1Mr. Small records the capture of Black Bass containing milt and spawn in November, in the Potomac (Forest.
and Stream, iii, p. 212). ‘‘Sculls,” in the same paper, October 30, states that there are in the Schuylkill Bass with
unripe spawn; othersin July. ‘‘R. M. T.” speaks of having seen a Bass of half a pound guarding a nest July 10, in
the Housatonic (Forest and Stream, iii, p. 292).
2Forest and Stream, iv, 357.

404 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

10 o’clock a. m., sold and wrapped in paper, left in a warm room till 5 p. m., when they were
found to be alive and well.)

The first experiment in their transportation seems to have been that mentioned by A. M. Val-
entine, who states that a pond near Janesville, Wisconsin, was stocked with Black Bass about 1847.2
In 1850, Mr. 8. T. Tisdale carried twenty-seven Large-mouths from Saratoga Lake, New York, to
Flax Pond, in Agawam, Massachusetts. The manner in which the Potomac was stocked with
Small-mouths is also well known. It was in 1853, soon after the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad
was finished, that General W. W. Shriver, of Wheeling, carried a number of young fish from the
Ohio to Cumberland, Maryland, in the water-tank of a locomotive engine. These he placed in
the basin of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, whence they soon penetrated to all parts of the
Potomac Basin, and as far down the river as Mount Vernon.’ The custom of stocking streams
soon became popular, and through private enterprise and the labors of State fish commissioners
nearly every available body of water in New England and the Middle States has been filled with
these fish. This movement has not met with universal approval, for by the ill-advised enthusiasm
of some of its advocates a number of trout streams have been destroyed, and complaints are
heard that the fisheries of certain rivers have been injured by them. The results have been on the
whole very beneficial. The Bass never will become the food of the millions. The New York
market receives probably less than ten thousand pounds of them annually, and they are nowhere
very numerous. Yet hundreds of bodies of waste water are now stocked with them in sufficient
numbers to afford pleasant sport and considerable quantities of excellent food.

135. THE SUN-FISHES AND THEIR ALLIES.

By Davip 8. JORDAN.
THE Rock BASS—AMBLOPLITES RUPESTRIS Gill.

This species is known by the names of “ Rock Bass,” “Goggle-eye,” and “Red-eye.” All these
names are in general use; the first most common in the Lake region, the last farther south. It is
everywhere abundant in lakes, ponds, and larger streams throughout the Great Lake region and
the Mississippi Valley. It prefers clear waters, and is not often found in muddy bayous. It isa
hardy and gamy fish, and takes the hook readily. It is a good pan-fish, but not large, its weight
seldom exceeding one and a half pounds. Like other “Sun-fishes,” it spawns in early summer.

1 Forest and Stream, i, p. 410.

2 Forest and Stream, ii, p. 341.

3’ THE BLack Bass or THE PoTOMac.—The Cumberland Daily News cJaims for Mr. W. W. Shriver, of Wheeling,
West Virginia, the credit of originating and executing the plan of transferring the Black Bass, now so abundant in
our waters, from the Ohio to the Potomac. The Daily News is no doubt correct. The performance was one to be
proud of, and proper credit should be given to the right man. It has been well said that he is a public benefactor
who ‘ makes two blades of grass grow where only one grew before.” How much more is he a public benefactor who
fills a river with food-fishes where there were none before. A letter from Mr. Shriver, written in 1860, is republished
in support of the claim for him in this matter, in which he says:

‘The enterprise or experiment was contemplated by me long before the completion of the Baltimore and
Ohio Railroad to the Ohio River at Wheeling, but no satisfactory mode of transportation presented itself until the
completion of that great work (in, I believe, the year 1853), and in the following year J made my first trip, although
I made several afterwards in the same year, carrying with me my first lot of fish, in a large tin bucket, perforated,
and which I had made to fit the opening in the water tank attached to the locomotive, which was supplied with
fresh water at the regular water stations along the line of the road, and thereby succeeded well in keeping the fish
(which were young and small, having been selected for the purpose) alive, fresh, and sound.”

Mr. Shriver made several other similar excursions, and on each occasion put the young fish into the basin of the
‘Chesapewke and Ohio Canal, at Cumberland, Maryland, where they had free egress and ingress into the Potomac
River and its tributaries. The stock originally transferred, some seventeen years ago, has increased prodigiously,
and to-day they abound in the Potomac and all its tributaries. They are of good size, frequently being caught to
weigh as much as from three to four and a half or five pounds.—Balltimore Sun, April 28, 1871.

THE HABITS OF THE ROCK BASS. 405

Rock Bass spawn about the same time as Black Bass. They keep much about sunken logs,
roots, etc.
THE MuD BAss—ACANTHARCHUS POMOTIS.

This species is found only in the coastwise streams of the lowlands from New Jersey to North
Carolina. Its habits are similar to those of the Warmouth, but it is smaller in size, and has little
value as a food-fish.

THE SACRAMENTO PERCH—ARCHOPLITES INTERRUPTUS.

This species is known only by the name of “Perch,” a name applied in the San Francisco
markets to many very different fishes. It has been thus far found only in the Sacramento and
San Joaquin Rivers and tributaries. It is abundant in the lower parts of these rivers, large
numbers being shipped to the market in San Francisco. It is there bought and consumed mainly
by the Chinese, who value it highly, paying for it more than for any other fish which they consume.
Although it is an excellent pan-fish, very similar to the Black Bass, we have never seen any of
them bought by Americans. It reaches a weight of little more than one pound. Nothing distinct-
ive is known of its habits.

THE WARMOUTH—CHZANOBRYTTUS GULOSUS.

This species is known throughout the South by the name of ““Warmouth.” The names
“Perch,” “Sun-fish,” “Goggle-eye,” and “Red-eye” it shares with others of its relatives. It is
found in all the lowland streams from Virginia to Texas, in all the Southern States, and is gener-
ally abundant. In habits, food, size, and value it agrees closely with the Rock Bass.

THE BLACK WARMOUTH—CHZNOBRYTTUS ANTISTIUS.

This species, known as “ Warmouth,” “ Big-mouth,” “Sun-fish,” “Goggle-eye,” etc., abounds
in the tributaries of the Upper Mississippi, and is often taken in Lake Michigan. In Illinois it is
an important food-fish. In size, habits, and value it is sufficiently similar to the Rock Bass.

Common SUN-FISH—LEPOMIS GIBBOSUS.

This is the common “Sun-fish,” “ Pumpkin-seed,” or “Sunny” of the brooks of New York and
New England. It is everywhere abundant in the Great Lake region and in the coastwise streams
from Maine to Georgia. It is never found in the Mississippi Valley except in its northernmost part,
its distribution being precisely like that of the Perch. It reaches, in the Lakes, a weight of about
one and a half pounds, and as usually taken is of not over a pound weight. Its flesh is of good
quality, similar to that of other Sun-fish of the same size, and is graded as superior to that of the
Perch, but inferior to the Black Bass and White Bass. It takes the hook freely, and to the small
boy is the perfection of a game-fish. Its breeding habits are thus described by Dr. Kirtland:

“This fish prefers still and clear waters. In the spring of the year the female prepares herself
a circular nest by removing all reeds or other dead aquatic plants from a chosen spot of a foot or
more in diameter, so as to leave bare the clean gravel or sand; this she excavates to the depth of
three or four inches and then deposits her spawn, which she watches with the greatest vigilance;
-and it is curious to see how carefully she guards this nest against all intruders; in every fish, even
those of her own species, she sees only an enemy, and is restless and uneasy until she has driven
it away from her nursery. We often find groups of these nests placed near each other along the
margin of the pond or river that the fish inhabits, but always in very shallow water; hence they
are liable to be left dry in times of great drought. These curious nests are most frequently encir-

406 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

cled by aquatic plants, forming a curtain around them, but a large space is invariably left open
for the admission of light.”!

So far as known, the breeding habits of the other species of Sun-fishes agree with those of
Lepomis gibbosus. ,

Tor LONG-EARED SUN-FISH—LEPOMIS AURITUS.

This species, like its relatives, receives the general name of “ Sun-fish,” “Brim” (Bream), and
“Pearch” (Perch). It is found in all the coastwise streams from Maine to Louisiana, but does not
penetrate far into the interior. It seldom reaches a weight of much over a pound, but from its
abundance becomes in the rivers of the South a food-fish of some importance. Like the others, it
feeds on worms, crustacea, and small fishes, and spawns in early summer.

THE BLUE SUN-FISH—LEPOMIS PALLIDUS.

This fish is known as the “Blue Bream,” “Blue Sun-fish,” ‘‘Copper-nosed Bream,” etc., and in
Kentucky sometimes as the “Dollardee.” This is the most widely distributed of our Sun-fish,
ranging from New Jersey and the Great Lakes to Florida and Mexico. It reaches a weight of one
and one-half to two pounds, and forms an important market fish in some places. Its habits adapt
it especially for cultivation in ponds.

LEPOMIS CYANELLUS Raf., L. MEGALOTIS Raf., L. MINIATUS Jordan, L. PUNCTATUS (Cuv. & Val.)
Jor., L. NoTATUS (Ag.) Cope, AND L. HOLBROOKII (C. & V.) McKay.

The small Sun-fishes, and several others of similar size, abound in the fresh waters of the
Mississippi Valley, and are known as “Sun-fish,” “Bream,” and “Perch.” JL. cyanellus and
L. megalotis are universally abundant both North and South; the others are chiefly Southern.
All take the hook readily and are good pan-fish, but from their small size they have no economic
importance, and are valued chiefly by urchins and negroes.

CENTRARCHUS MACROPTERUS Jor.

We have never heard for this species any name more distinctive than “Sun-fish” or “Perch.”
It is found throughout the lowland streams of the South, from North Carolina to Florida, Southern
Tllinois, and Texas, preferring generally rather deep, clear waters. It is rarely seen in upland
streams. It isa fish of good quality, but small, rarely weighing more than half a pound. Little
distinctive is known of its habits.

THE CALICO BASS—POMOXYS SPAROIDES.

This species is known by a variety of names, some of the principal of which are the following:
In Lake Erie, and in Ohio generally, it is the “Strawberry Bass,” or “Grass Bass.” The names
“Bitter Head” and “Lamplighter” are also ascribed to it by Mr. Klippart, and “Bank Lick Bass”
by Dr. Kirtland. In Lake Michigan, the name “ Bar-fish” is in general use, giving place in Illinois
to the name “Calico Bass.” The latter is the most appropriate of these designations, having allu-
sion to the variegated coloration. In the South, like Ambloplites rupestris, it becomes a “Goggle-
eye” or “Goggle-eyed Perch.” The Calico Bass is found in abundance in all the lakes and ponds
of the Great Lake region and the Upper Mississippi. It is also diffused throughout the Missis-
sippi Valley, and appears in the streams of the Carolinas and Georgia east of the mountains. Its
preference is for quiet, clear waters, with a bottom covered with grass; and in the muddy sloughs
and bayous, where the Crappie is abundant, it is rarely seen. It is an excellent pan-fish, reaching

HABITS OF THE CALICO BASS. 407

sometimes a weight of two pounds, although not usually weighing more than one pound. It is,
like its relatives, gamy, but it is not so voracious as most of them. The following notes on its
habits and value are from the pen of Professor Kirtland:

“The ‘Grass Bass’ has not hitherto been deemed worthy of consideration by fish-culturists ;
yet, from a long and intimate acquaintance with its merits, I hesitate not to pronounce it the jish
Jor the million. It is a native of our Western rivers and lakes, where it usually resorts to deep
and sluggish waters; yet in several instances, where it has found its way into cold and rapid
streams, and even small-sized brooks, by means of the constructing of canals or by the hand of
man, it has adapted itself to the change, and in two or three years stocked to overflowing these
new locations. As a pan-fish, for the table, it is surpassed by few other fresh-water species. For
endurance and rapidity of increase it is unequaled. . . . The Grass Bass is perfectly adapted
to stocking ponds. It wil! thrive without care in very small ponds of sufficient depth. . . . It
will in nowise interfere with the cultivation of any number of species, large or small, in the same
waters. It will live harmoniously with all others, and while its structure and disposition restrain
it from attacking any other but very small fry, its formidable armature of spinous rays in the
dorsal and abdominal fins will guard it against attacks of even the voracious pike.””!

THE CRAPPIE—POMOXYS ANNULARIS.

This species is commonly called “Crappie” in the valley of the Mississippi. Other names
are “‘ Bachelor” in the Ohio Valley, “New Light” and “Campbellite” in Kentucky and Indiana,
“Sac-a-lait” and ‘Chinquapin Perch” in the Lower Mississippi. Itis also often confounded with
the preceding species, and some of the names of the two are interchangeable. This species is not
often seen in the Great Lake region, but throughout the Lower Mississippi and its tributaries it
is very abundant. Its young swarm in all the muddy bayous along the rivers, and great numbers
of them are destroyed in the fall when these bodies of water dry up. With the exception of its
predilection for muddy waters, we know little in its habits distinctive from those of the Calico
Bass, and like the latter it is said to be an excellent fish for ponds. Both take the hook, feed
upon small fishes, crustaceans, etc., and both spawn in spring.

136, THE SEA BASS—SERRANUS ATRARIUS.

The members of the Sea Bass family Serranide, are similar in form and habits to the Perches,
from which they are distinguished by certain anatomical characters, scarcely tangible to persons
not experts in ichthyology. The family contains a very large number of species, some of which
are to be found in every part of the tropical and temperate seas. On our Atlantic coast there
are some twenty species, while in California there are four at least which are of economic
importance. Certain European members of this family are hermaphrodite, but there is as yet no
evidence that any American species is thus peculiar.

The Sea Bass, Serranus atrarius, known south of Cape Hatteras as the “Blackfish,” is the
most important species on our coast. In the Middle States the Sea Bass is called “Black Will,”
“Black Harry,” and “Hannahills”; about Newport and New Bedford, “Bluefish,” and at New
Bedford also “Rock Bass.” Curiously enough, the Southern name, “Blackfish,” is also in use
at Oak Bluff, Martha’s Vineyard, and, it is said, also in New Jersey. In Gill’s “Catalogue of the
Fishes of the East Coast” it is stated that the name “Black Bass” is also used for the fish, but
this usage has not yet fallen under my observation.

Storer, in his “Fishes of Massachusetts,” makes the statement that it is known as the “ Black

1American Sportsman, February 28, 1874, quoted by Klippart, Report Ohio Fish Comm. for 1875~76, p. 78.

408 NATURAL HISTORY OF aQUATIC ANIMALS.

Bass” and “Black Fish.” If this was true at the time of Storer’s writing, the usage has since then
undergone a very considerable change. The species should be carefully distinguished from the
Black-fish of Long Island Sound, which is the tautog, a member of a very different family.

It is claimed by some writers that the Black-fish of the South is distinct from the Sea Bass of
the North. This seems improbable, but is worthy of investigation. The chief advocate of this
idea was Holbrook, in whose “Ichthyology of South Carolina” may be found a statement of the
supposed difterences.!

The geographical range of the Sea Bass, as at present understood, is as follows: It is at home
in all the waters between the Vineyard Sound and the eastern part of the Gulf of Mexico. Stearns
writes that it is rather abundant at a few places on the Gulf coast of Florida, where there are
rocks and rocky bottoms. In Pensacola Bay they are seen round the piles of stone ballast that
lie in shoal water, and also at sea on the fishing grounds near the entrance. They occur in some
places in Saint Andrew’s, Saint Joseph’s, and Apalachicola Bay. South of these places there is
more or less rocky bottom, showing either in reefs or in channel-beds, on which Sea Bass are found
in abundance. In the vicinity of Saint Mark’s, Cedar Keys, and Saint Martin’s Reef are some of
the best localities. “It is rarely or never,” says Jordan, “seen on the sandy coast of Texas.”
This species has already been recently discovered north of Cape Cod. Previous to 1878 there
were on record only four instances of its occurrence east of Monomoy, but in the summer of
1878 several were taken in the Milk Island weir, off Gloucester. There is reason to believe
that fifty years ago the Sea Bass was much less abundant in Southern New England than it is
now. In Linsley’s catalogue of the fishes of Connecticut, published in 1842, the species is described
as a great novelty. It is curious, however, that some time between 1830 and 1840 there were,
according to Storer, fifty or sixty vessels fishing for Sea Bass in the Vineyard Sound.

In 1787, if Schoepf is to be believed, they were rarely seen in the New York market. A
diligent search through the works of the early writers on the fisheries of New England fails to bring
to light any allusion to them. It would be interesting to know whether there has actually been
an increase in their abundance, or whether this increase has been, as it seems to have been in the
case of the Spanish mackerel, due to the introduction of new modes of fishing or the discovery of
new fishing grounds. Sea Bass live among the rocky. ledges and “spots of ground” which
abound along the entire outer coast from Cape Cod to Cape Florida, and in the North it is also
found in the large bays and sounds, like Long Island Sound. In the North the best bass grounds
are in seven to twelve fathoms of water; off Charleston they are at a depth of twenty to forty
fathoms, though throughout this whole region the fish are found also close to shore, and at all
intermediate depths where suitable feeding grounds occur. In the Gulf of Mexico, on the other
hand, they are found, for the most part, in shoal water; indeed all along the Southern coast the
young fish are found close in to the shore, and I have seen a great many taken with hook and line
from the sea-wall at Saint Augustine. The temperature of the water affected by this species and
by the red snapper corresponds very closely, and in most instances is probably not less than 50°,
though in the case of the banks of Connecticut and New York it may be slightly lower.

The Sea Bass is a bottom-feeding and a bottom-loving fish, and rarely comes to the surface.’
Whether or not those occurring in northern waters migrate southward in winter, or merely go into
deeper water, is not yet ascertained. According to Captain Edwards and Captain Spindle, they

' HOLBROOK: Ichthyology of South Carolina, page 49.

2 An exception to this has been recorded by Mr. Charles Hallock, who writes: ‘‘Although the Sea Bass is a bottom
fish, yet once on an outward-bound voyage to the southward of the Gulf Stream we made fast to a ship’s lower mast,
found drifting on the surface, which was covered with clams and barnacles and surrounded with Sea Bass. We
caught all that we wanted and cut loose. They weighed from five to twelve pounds each, and were all male fish.”

MOVEMENTS OF THE SEA BASS. 409

make their appearance in the Vineyard Sound from the 1st to the 20th of May up to the 10th of
June. Captain Spindle states that no stragglers are ever seen in April. Captain Edwaids
declares, on the other hand, that they are found in that region in the winter. A careful study of
their habits would form an important contribution to zoology.

Bass are somewhat sluggish in their habits The temperature of the body is low, being very
nearly that of the surrounding water and the digestion is slow. Although very voracious at times,
they seem very much less fat than bluefish of the same size, and their growth is less rapid.
They seldoin Jeave the bottom, and there is as yet no evidence that cold weather drives them far
from their summer haunts. They retreat, in all probability, into water of greater depth, where
they pass the winter in a somewhat torpid state. Like the tautog, they appear to have a habit
of lying under loose stones and in vavities among the rocks. I liave observed this habit in the
tanks of the New York Aquarium. The food of this species, as of its associates upon the same
grounds, consists of crabs, shrimps, squids, and small fish. It is stated that the intestines of
mackerel and the stomach of menhaden are considered the best bait about Wood’s Holi, Massa-
chusetts, while farther south shrimps and pieces of the flesh of fishes, such as small sharks, are
frequently used. They are voracious feeders and easily taken on the hook, and their mouths are
tough and leathery, so that when once taken they are not easily lost.

Scott states that their feeding time is during the iull of the waters between the turn of the
tides, when they are easily taken by the angler. In the North the Sea Bass occupies its feeding
grounds in company with the scuppaug or porgy, the flounder, and the tautog, while in the South
its associates are the red snapper and the various species of grunt, and on the inshore grounds,
among the rocks, it occurs in company with the sheepshead and the king-fish.

The breeding-time is believed to occur in July and August. Mr. Dyer, of Naushon, states
that the Sea Bass, when they come into the pounds in the spring, are full of spawn, ready to
shoot. Young fish, one or two inches long, are abundant among the eel-grass along the shores of
Southern New England. “In the Gulf of Mexico,” according to Stearns, “they spawn in early
summer, and the young are caught in July and August.”

The average size of the fish in New England is about one and one-half pounds. A Sea Bass
nine inches long weighs about five ounces; ten inches long, seven to ten ounces; eleven inches
long, nine to twelve ounces; twelve inches long, ten to sixteen ounces; while the length of a

“three-pound fish varies from eighteen to twenty inches. They oceasiovally attain the weight of
four or five pounds, but this is unusual. In the South they are, as a rule, much smaller than
in the North. This is especially the case in the Gulf of Mexico. In these waters, and along the
southern part of the South Atlantic coast, they rarely exceed a pound in weight. Large male fish
are remarkable on account of the presence of a large hump upon the top of the head. This is
particularly prominent during the breeding season, and at this time the colors of the whole body
are much brighter. The colored plate of this species, drawn by Mr. Kilburn for Seribner’s “Game
Fishes of the United States,” represents a large male at the breeding season, the only picture of
this kind that has ever yet been made.

The Sea Bass is of interest to fish-culturists as being the first marine fish upon which the
experiment of artificial propagation was tried in this country. This was in June, 1874, when
Mr. Mather fertilized a number of eggs at the station of the United States Fish Commission, at
Noank, Connecticut. These eggs were placed in shad boxes and were watched for several days
as they passed through the early stages of segmentation. A storm interfered with the completion
of the experiment.

The Sea Bass is considered one of our most available food-fishes, being especially excelleut

410 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

for use in chowders; in this respect a rival of the haddock, its flesh being very sweet, flaky, and
firm. By reason of the hardness of its flesh it is especially adapted to packing and shipment in
ice, and in summer is probably one of the most desirable fishes to be obtained in the city markets,
The principal commercial fisheries are located in the Vineyard and Fisher’s Island Sound and the
vicinity, carried on by Noank and New London smacks off the mouth of the Delaware Bay, and
off Charleston, South Caroliua. As has already been stated, its distributiun is very wide all along
the coast, and it is probable that its importance as a food-fish will increase in years to come.

There is a small species (Serranus trifurcus) resembling tbe Sea Bass whivh has been found
only in the vicinity of Charleston, South Carolina, and Pensacola, Florida, where it is called the
“Rock Black-fish”; it occasionally finds its way to the Charleston markets.

TuHE SQUIRREL-FISH—SERRANUS FASCICULARIS.

The Squirrel-fish is usually to be seen in the markets of Charleston, north of which it has
never been discovered. The following paragraph from Holbrook’s “Ichthyology of South Caro-
lina” coutains all that has been observed regarding its habits:

“Little can be said of the habits of this fish. It however appears in our waters in May and
June and remains until November. It is occasionally taken with the hook on the black-fish
grounds, but is never abundant. Southward it ranges at least to Brazil.”

137. THE GROUPERS.

THr RED GROUPER—EPINEPHELUS MORIO.

Next in importance to the Sea Bass are the various species of Grouper, members of the genus
Epinephelus. The “Red Grouper,” as it is called in Florida, and in New York markets Epinephe-
lus morio, is a large species, sometimes attaining the weight of forty or fifty pounds. There is uo
certain record of its having been captured north of Florida, where it is called the “Brown Snap-
per,” or “Red-bellied Snapper.” DeKay, writing in 1842, stated that it was not unusual in the
New York market in June and July, where it was culled by the fishermen ‘Groper,’ or ‘Red Groper’;
that it is a Southern species and is brought from the reefs of Florida, but that he bad been
informed by Indian fishermen that it is occasionally, but very rarely, taken off the coast of New
York; he added that Dr. Holbrook informed him that it was brought into the Charleston markets
from Florida in the months of January, February, and March.

Holbrook wrote: “The Grouper is so seldom seen on our coast that nothing can at this time
be said of its habits; but in confinement, as it is brought to us from Key West, it appears very
voracious and bold, taking food even from the hand when offercd, and always injuring such other
species of fish as may be its fellow-captives.”

It is very abundant in the Gulf of Mexico and about the Florida Keys, and is said also to be
abundant along the whole coast of East Florida, and is often taken on the Saint John’s bar. Mr.
5. C. Clarke writes that it occurs in the vicinity of New Smyrna, Florida, where it spawns in bays
and inlets in the months of May and June, as does also the Black Grouper. The only reliable
study of its habits which has been made we owe to Mr. Silas Stearns, whose biographical sketch of
this species may here be quoted in full:

“The Red Grouper is extremely abundant in the Gulf of Mexico in company with the red
snapper. It is most abundant on the South Florida coast, and is found throughout the year on the
‘grounds’ at sea and in summer in some of the bays. It probably spawns in both places, and in
June and July. The young are often caught in Pensacola Bay. In June, 1880, I obtained a young

HABITS OF THE RED GROUPER. 411

one about one inch in length. The Grouper is more of a bottom fish than the red snapper, for it
swims much more slowly and very seldom rises to the surface. It is very voracious, consuming,
as is shown by an examination of the contents of its stomach, enormous quantities of crustaceans
and small fish. Large horny crabs in almost perfect condition are often found inside of it. Its
movements are rather slow, and when hooked it is hauled up more like a dead-weight than like a
line-fish. In South Florida it is extensively eaten when procurable, and at Key West it is partic-
warly important, since a large fleet of smacks is coustautly employed in carrying fares of Groupers
to Cuba. In West Florida, where red snappers are more abundant, Groupers are not in demand
aud have but a small market value. After being taken from the water, the Grouper is remarkably
tenacious of life, and will live several hours, even though exposed to considerable heat. This is
one reason why the Key West fleet prefer Groupers for transportation to Cuba, since they are
obliged to go a long way to market and through warm water, and no other fish of the kind would
bear crowding and chafing in the wells of the smacks. The Grouper attains the weight of forty
pounds, and is an excellent food-fish.”

In Cuba this fish is called by the Spanish name “Cherna.” The name “Grouper” is a corrup-
tion of ‘‘Garoupa,” a name given by the Portuguese to similar species. In DeKay’s time, as has
been remarked, this fish was not unusual in the New York market, where it sold for from six to
twelve cents a pound, though its flesh was considered tough and not very highly esteemed. Gill,
writing of the same market in 1856, states: “This species is sometimes sent to our market from
Key West and the reefs of Florida in May and the summer months. I have never seen more than
two or three exposed for sale at a single time; it appears to be considerably esteemed, and is sold
at from twelve to fifteen cents a pound.”

Genio Scott writes: ‘The Grouper is an excellent dinuer-fish, and when boiled and served
with drawn butter and shrimp or lobster sauce is said to fully equal the turbot.”

THE BLACK GROUPER—EPINEPHELUS NIGRITUS.

The Black Grouper, Epinephelus nigritus, called in Florida and Texas the ‘“Jew-fish,” is at
Pensacola known by the name “ Warsaw,” evidently a corruption of the Spanish name “ Guasa.”
It was first brought to notice by Holbrook, who had received one specimen from the vicinity of
Charleston; north of that point it had not yet been observed, though it appears to be abundant
along the coast of East Florida and in the Gulf of Mexico. Mr. 8. C. Clarke has observed it in
the Indian River region, and has communicated the following notes to Professor Baird:

‘‘The Black Grouper is resident all the year, though not abundant. The greatest size
attained is about fifteen pounds; the average, three pounds. They pass the winter in the salt-
water rivers, living in holes in the rocks and under roots and snags and about piles. They are
solitary in their habits. They feed on small fish, particularly mullet, and on crustaceans, and
breed in vhe salt rivers in May aud June. Their spawn is very small, and pale yellow. They are
taken with hook and line by the use of mullet and crab bait, and are seldom seen except when
- thus captured. They are much esteemed as fvod.”

Mr. Stearns remarks that it is a common fish at sea along the Gulf coast, living chiefly on the
same spots with snappers and Groupers. At some places it is found in abundance in the bays,
and lives on the bottom, feeding upon small fishes, crabs, etc. On the fishing grounds where fish
are b.ing caught rapidly it not unusually occurs.

A very large Jew-fish will follow and finally swallow a hooked fish, usually a red snapper,
with hooks, lead, line and all. If the line does not then break the fish may be hauled in with gaffs.
The Jew-fish attains an enormous size, and specimens weighing from eighty to one hundred pounds

412 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

have been caught. The smaller fish’are quite-choice, but large ones are too coarse and tough to
be salable.

There is another fish which is also called “Jew-fish,” or “ Warsaw,” and “Black Grouper,” of
which only enormously large specimens have been obtained, and which is entered upon our cata-
logues under the name Promicrops guasa. It is a fair question whether this great fish be not the
adult of the common Black Grouper or some closely allied species, the appearance of which has
become somewhat changed with age. A large specimen, weighing about three hundred pounds,
was taken near the Saint John’s bar in March or April, 1874, by James Arnold. It was shipped by
Mr. Hudson, a fish-dealer in Savannah, to Mr. Blackford, who presented it to the Smithsouian In-
stitution. A fine cast of this specimen in papier-maché graces the cast-rooin of the National
Museum. Professor Poey, by whom this species was named, states that in Cuba it attains to the
weight of six hundred pounds. An old Connecticut fisherman, who was for many years engaged
in the Savannah market fishery, states that the Savannah smacks often catch Jew-fish. They are
so voracious that when put into the well with the Groupers they would do much damage. The
fishermen have therefore found it necessary to sew their jaws together before placing them with
other fish.

Tur SPoTTED HIND—EPINEPHELUS DRUMMOND-HAYI.

The Spotted Hind of the Gulf of Mexico, Epinephelus Drummond-Hayi, has been but recently
discovered, and has been observed only in the Gulf of Mexico and at the Bermudas. It was
observed at the Bermudas in 1851 by Col. H. M. Drummond-Hay, of the British army. Specimens
were sent to the National Museum in 1876 and 1877 by Mr. Blackford and Mr. Stearns. It is one
of the many important species which have been brought to notice by the labors of the United
States Fish Commission. Although it is an excellent food-fish, it iseven now not well appreciated.

Mr. Stearns records the following facts concerning its habits: “The Spotted Hind is common
in company with the Grouper and the Jew-fish, and is most abundant in South Florida about the
reefs. Off Pensacola it lives in the deep fishing grounds, in scventeen, nineteen, and twenty-two
fathoms. It swims close to the bottom, and is of sluggish movements. I have not known of its
occurrence in the bays, and believe that it spawus at sea. Specimens weighing fifty pounds have
been caught, but that is fully four times the average size. It is seen daily in the Key West
market and sells readily, but at Pensacola, Mobile, and New Orleaus it is hardly marketable. Its
color varies very considerably with tbe ditferent colored bottoms on which it lives.”

The Coney, Epinephelus apua, of Key West, the Hind of Bermuda, is an important food-
fish which occurs throughout the West Indies. Specimens have been sent by Mr. Stearns, who
recorded that itis common in South Florida among the reefs, and is often seen in the Key West
market, where it is readily sold.

THE BANDED GROUPER—EPINEPHULUS STRIATUS AND OTHERS.

The common Grouper of Bermuda, Epinephelus striatus, one of the most important food-fishes
of these islands, is sure to be found in the vicinity of Key West, and will probably prove to be
one of the important fishes of our own southern coasts. About Key West and in the Gulf there
are several species of the sub-genus Myeteroperca, which may be grouped together under the name
“Rock-fish,” the name by which all fishes of this genus are also known in Bermuda. They are
large fishes of excellent food quality, similar in habits to the others of the family which have
already been discussed. The material at present on hand is not sufficient to admit of satisfactory
identification of all the species. The “ Blick Grouper” of Pensacola, which has been variously

GROUPERS OF THE GULF OF MEXICO. 413

named Mycteroperca brunnea, M. inicrolepis, and M. stomias, is said by Mr. Stearns to be common
in company with the Red Grouper, although not so abundant. It spawns in June and July, at
seu and in the inlets. As a food-fish it is considered superior to the Red Grouper, although it is
not more readily sold. It attains a weight of fifty pounds. Professor Jordan is of the opinion that
the form recently described by Goode and Bean as M. stomias is the adult of that previously char-
acterized by them under the name Mf. microlepis.

The Rock-fish of Key West, which has not yet been identified, is said by Mr. Stearns to be
very common, and is sold almost every day in the market. The average weight is four or five
pounds, the maximum twenty-five to thirty. There appear to be, from Mr. Stearns’ notes, at Key
‘West, as well as in Bermuda, various local forms closely related to this, one of which is known by
the name “Gag”; another fish of this genus, Mycteroperca falcata, is called at Pensacola by the
name “Scamp.” It is common off the Florida coast, living near the bottom in company with the
other species of Groupers. It is found on the coast all the year round, and is caught with hook
and line. It seldom exceeds the weight of twenty pounds, and the average size is muth smaller.
It is considered an excellent table fish.

Several of these fishes, whose relations have not yet been determined, have been taken along
the Atlantic coast, particularly at the mouth of the Chesapeake and at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts.

There are several other species belonging to this family which have been observed, none of
which, however, are of any economic importance.

188. THE SERRANOID FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST.
By Davip S. JoRDAN.

THE JEW-FISH—STEREOLEPIS GIGAS.

This species is everywhere known as the “Jew-fish.” It is also sometimes called the “Black
Sea Bass.” It reaches a weight of five hundred pounds, being the largest food-fish on the coast.
Jt ranges from the Farallones to below San Diego, and is generally abundant in deep water about
the islands, but from its great size is seldom taken. It feeds upon smaller fishes, and is voracious.
Jt is often taken by swallowing a white-fish when the latter is on the hook. Its flesh is of excellent
quality, and those small enough to be available always bring a very high price in the market.

THE CABRILLA—SERRANUS CLATHRATUS.

This species is called at Monterey, where it is not common, the “ Kelp Salmon”; farther South
it is known to the “Americans” usually as “Rock Bass,” and to the Italians and Spaniards as
“Cabrilla,” a name applied to other species of Serranus in the Mediterranean. The Chinese call
it “Lockee Cod” ( Rock Cod). It reaches a length of eighteen inches and a weight of about five
pounds. It ranges from San Francisco to Cerros Island, being very abundant about the Santa
Barbara Islands, where it is taken in large numbers. It lives in water of no great depth, chiefly
about the rocks. It feeds on squid, crustacea, and small fishes. It is an excellent food-fish, similar
in quality to the related Atlantic species.

THE JOHNNY VERDE—SERRANUS NEBULIFER (Grd.) Steind.

This species receives the name ‘‘Rock Bass” and ‘‘Cabrilla” with the other species. The
distinctive Spanish name of “Johnny (Juan) Verde” is also in frequent use, especially at San
Pedro. It reaches a length of twelve to twenty inches and a weight of about five pounds. Most
individuals seen are, however, small, not averaging two pounds. It has been taken at Monterey,
but it is common only from San Pedro southward to Magdalena Bay. So far as known to us, it
agrees in habits and value with the preceding.

414 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

THe SPOTTED CABRILLA—SERRANUS MACULOFASCIATUS Steindachner.

This species receives the same names, ‘Rock Bass” and ‘“Cabrilla,” as the others. It agrees
with the preceding in value, distribution, and habits, so far as known. Its a rather smaller size.
It is au excellent food-fish, and from its great abundance about San Diego it may become of
considerable economic importance. Its range extends southward to Mazatlan, it being one of the
very few California fishes which extend their range to the south of the Tropic of Cancer.

139. THE YELLOW PERCH—PERCA AMERICANA.

“Wherever found,” writes Jordan, ‘this species is the Perch par excellence,” the name Perch
being elsewhere wrongly applied to various Serranoid, Scienoid, Centrarchoid, and Embiotocoid
fishes. The descriptive names “Yellow Perch” and “Ringed Perch” are in common use. The
Perch is found throughout the Great Lake region, the rivers of New England and of the States
east of the Alleghany Mountains as far south as Georgia. It occurs in some tributaries of the Ohio
in the northern parts of Ohio and Indiana, and of the Mississippi in Wisconsin and Minnesota, but
throughout the lower basin of the Mississippi and the west slope of the Alleghanies it is entirely
absent. The Perch is one of the common market fish of the North and East. Its usual length is
about a foot, and its weight generally less than two pounds. It is a fish of fair but not excellent
quality. It is a carnivorous fish, feeding on minnows, ete., and usually freely taking the hook. It
spawus in spring. Dr. Steindachner, of Vienna, has recently attempted to demonstrate the
identity of the American Perch with the similar species in Europe, but this I cannot admit, for
they are no more alike than various of our species of Lepomis, Amiurus, ete. It is true enough
that the distinctive characters noticed by Steindachner are unreliable, but, so far as I have seen,
they differ strongly in gill-rakers, pseudobranchie, position of first dorsal, etc. Of course, no sane
man doubts their community of origin, but different “species” they are now, or at least sub-species.”

The following observations with regard to the abundance of the Yellow Perch, in the Great
Lakes have been made by Mr. Ludwig Kumlien and others:

On the eastern shore of Minnesota, and especially about Duluth and vicinity, these fish are
common. On the southern shore of Lake Superior, cs far east as Keeweenaw Point, and about
the islands included—such as the Apostle Islands, Sand, York, and Rock Islands—they are also
common. In this region they have been on the increase for the last ten years, being quite rare as
lately as 1870. They are, however, never shipped to the large markets, being used for home con-
sumption. In the small bays running southeast from Keweenaw Point Yellow Perch are very
abundant; in this locality they are not found plentifully at a great distance from shore. In
Marquette Harbor a few are taken in the herring seines, but none are caught in the pound-nets.
The yellow-perch fishery is of no importance between this point and Sauk’s Head.

At the north end of Green Bay Yellow Perch are not abundant. They are found chiefly in
the mouths of the small bays included in Green Bay, and are said to be rare about the islands;
they are not taken in the pound-nets at least. Toward Cedar River this fish is not plentiful,
being taken almost entirely in the shoal-nets. A little farther south, about the mouth of Menom-
onee River, there is a greater abundance of them; here also they are taken in some quantities in
the inshore nets. They are shipped from here with the dory,” but complaint is made by the dealers
if there is too large a proportion of Perch. When shipped separate they command a low price.
Writing on September 24, 1880, Mr. Kumlien remarks: ‘TI have seen a good many that were taken
near Menomonee River within the last few days and was surprised at their small and uniform size;
few of them would exceed eight inches. The fishermen inform me that there has been a run of
these small Perch since last winter in excess of anything ever known in previous years.”

YELLOW PERCH IN THE GREAT LAKES. 415

The fishermen are under the impression that Perch instead of white-fish were hatched ont and
deposited here by the State Fish Commission.

Between the Menomonee River and Oconto Bay this fish is common, but of little importance.
It brings alow price and isnot sought after. It is caught inshore in the sloughs. At the southern
extre:nity of Green Bay the Yellow Perch is abundant. All along the eastern shore of Green Bay
it is very plentiful; there has been a greater abundance of it during the past year (1880) than
ever before.

Along the western shore of Lake Michigan, as far as Manitowoc, the Yellow Perch is extremely
rare, except about Two Rivers and Manitowoc, at which two points it iscommon and meets with a
ready sale. Between Manitowoc and Port Washington the Yellow Perch occurs very sparingly,
especially in the vicinity of Cedar Grove. The other fishing grounds between the above-named
points are White Fish Bay, and Sheboygan.

In the vicinity of Milwaukee this fish is extraordinarily abundant, and was especially so during
1879. In less than ten fathoms they are sometimes caught in the gill-net; the majority, however,
are taken on hooks. They are of considerable importance in this locality and meet with a ready
sale. At Racine a great many, and of a large size, are caught. At Waukegan, a little farther
south, they are especially abundant in June and July. They were more plentiful in 1879 than
they had ever been before.

At the southern end of Lake Michigan, about New Buffalo and Michigan City, they are
abundant, being caught on hooks and sold in large numbers to the ruilway baggage-men, who
peddle them on the cars. They have been more abundant this year (1880) than ever before. The
finest specimens are caught as far out from shore as fifteen miles, but the smaller ones do not go
out so far. Many are shipped to the Chicago market.

Around the docks of Saint Joseph, at the southern end of Lake Michigan, the yellow perch
fry fairly swarms. In the summer of 1880, two hundred hooks were set. two miles out from shore;
each book had a Perch, some weighing as high as two pounds. From Saint Joseph Yellow Perch
are often shipped with white-fish and trout. They are chiefly caught in gill-nets, several miles
from shore.

On the eastern shore of Lake Michigan, about Ludington and Manistee, they were as plentiful
as ever before in 1880; some years they are less common, and then come on again. At Grand
Haven they were less abundant than usual, and are seldom taken at this point at any great distance
from shore. About Little and Great Traverse Bays and the Tox Islands they are generally
common, but were less plentiful in 1880 than ever before. They are occasionally taken in the
pound. nets, and even iu the gill-nets, but are of no commercial importance.

The Yellow Perch is reported as common at the northeast end of Lake Michigan, through the
Straits of Mackinaw, and down the western shore of Lake Huron to Thunder Bay. Captain
Dingman, who appears to be well informed as to the fisheries of that region, says they are not
one-tenth as numerous as they were in 1879. If this be true of the northeastern shore of Lake
Michigan, it may account for their being unusually numerous on the opposite (western) shore of
that lake. Near the Les Cheneaux Islands a large variety is reported as having been caught.
Yellow Perch are more common about these islands than generally along the shore. They are not
often taken in the deep pounds but are quite abundant in shallow water and in the small lakes.

In Thunder Bay Yellow Perch are abundant, and are taken principally in the pound-nets in
spring. Mr. Case thinks they are increasing. Very few are shipped from this point; during 1879
not over tive hundred, iu which year the run was very large.

In the rivers running into Saginaw Bay Yellow Perch are abundant, but not so much so as

416 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

formerly. Mr. Riker thinks they have left the rivers for the bay, during the last few years, to a
great extent. From places on this bay they are shipped as soft fish. Down from Saginaw Bay
to Port Iuron, the remainder of the western shore of Lake Huron, Yellow Perch are very abun-
dant, as also in the Saint Clair River; Mr. Canham thinks that they are on the steady increase.
From this region few are shipped, the demand being principally local, but outside markets are
springing up. A good many are taken on the lake shore in the bait-nets.

On the fishing grounds at the west end of Lake Erie, from Toledo to the mouth of the Detroit
River, including the pound fisheries of the last named locality, Yellow Perch are said to be very
abundant and on the increase. They are usually dressed (skinned) and sent to inland towns.
There is a great: demand for them by the peddlers who supply the farms.

About the vicinity of Maumee Bay and Toledo, and in Maumee Bay, Yellow Perch are very
abundant at all times. In late autumn and winter a few are shipped to New York City. East of
Port Clinton the pounds do not catch any, though they are very abundant in the Sandusky River
and small bays adjacent. About Toussaint and Locust Point a few are caught in spring in the
pounds, but are thrown overboard.

In Sandusky Bay, Upper and Lower, and in the lake between Ottawa City, on Catawba Island,
and the Huron fisheries, Yellow Perch are very abundant in early spring and late fall. At San-
dusky they are very abundant, and it is thought that the offal thrown into the lake helps
to keep them in that locality. They are usually counted as “rough” fish and sold with the
herring, but are sometimes counted as “soft” fish early in the season. <A very large variety is
taken outside of Sandusky Bay in the lake, and Mr. Stoll, one of the authorities of that district,
affirms that the lake and marsh varieties are distinct. About the islands of this region Yellow
Perch are common, and, according to Mr. Anthony, from five to ten tous have been caught there,
several years ago, at one lift.

In the fishing grounds at Huron, Ohio, on the south shore of Lake Erie, this species is abun-
dant. Six or seven years ago few were taken in the lake pounds in comparison with the numbers
taken in them at the present day. About nine-tenths of those now taken are thrown away. A
few are shipped to New York City in late autumn, and a few are frozen. Yellow Perch, in this
locality, are not even graded as a soft fish, and seldom bring more than do the sheepsheads.

Yellow Perch are very abundant at Vermillion, Ohio. Ten tons bave been caught in a day
and set at liberty for lack of demand. A few tons of the late autumn catch is generally frozen.
Here they do not even count as a soft fish, but sell separately, and rarely for a higher price than
the sheepshead. The Yellow Perch are here of a. uniform size, averaging about three-fourths of
a pound apiece.

At Black River and Amherst this species is very common; they are classed as soft fish, but
are not considered a “good” soft fish. They are most abundant in the spring—usually in April—
but unimportant. At these points the Yellow Perch average a large size.

This species is very abundant during some years at Cleveland and Dover Bay, Ohio, and
again for some time but few are taken. They are most plentiful in spring, during which season
of the year as high as two or three hundred pounds are taken in a day. When abundant, they
have a poor sale, but when a few only are in the Cleveland market they command a fair price.
They are of uniform size, and average about three-quarters of a pound.

At Conneaut and Ashtabula Yellow Perch are abundant and quite important. They are
taken in gill-nets in winter as far as eight miles from shore. In May, when they spawn, few are
caught over a mile from shore. At Painesville Yellow Pereb are not so common as east and west
of that place. At Dunkirk and Barcelona, New York, this species is very abundant, and especially

YELLOW PERCH IN THE GREAT LAKES. 417

so at Erie, Pennsylvania, where it is considered as of great importance. Off Erie Bay a very
large grade of this fish occurs. Many are taken in gill-nets. At Oswego, Port Ontario, Lake Vin-
cent, Chaumont, and Sacket’s Harbor, and other points on the southern and eastern shores of
Lake Ontario, Yellow Perch are very abundant. At Port Ontario they are of some commercial
importance and are more highly prized as a food-fish than is usual, as is also the case at Lake
Vincent, where they are more highly prized than the sun-fish. From Chaumont they are shipped
in spring and winter as “Perch.” At Lake Vincent they are known as “Striped Perch.” At
Sacket’s Harbor they are of no special importance.

Mr. Eveland says he has frequently caught Yellow Perch weighing two pounds. They are
seldom found in water deeper than from twenty-five to thirty feet. It is a prevalent belief among
fishermen that Yellow Perch are very destructive of white-fish. Mr. Hatch thinks that the
decrease of the latter may be to some extent due to increase of the former. Perch caught in the
Lakes are much larger than those caught in the rivers running into them.

140. THE LOG PERCH—PERCINA CAPRODES (RAF.) GRD.
By Davip S. JORDAN.

This species is known as the “ Rock-fish,” “‘Hog-fish,” or “Log Perch.” It is the largest of a
large group of little perch-like fishes known as “Darters” or Htheostomatide. These fishes may
be described as little perch, reduced in size and compacted, thus fitted for a life in rocky brooks
where the water is too shallow, swift, and sterile to support larger fish. All the Darters are
brilliantly colored, and all have a way of lying quiescent on the bottoms, resting on their large fins,
and then suddenly darting away for a short distance when disturbed. They are carnivorous,
feeding chiefly on insects and crustaceans. Only one of them (Percina caprodes) is large enough
to take the hook. This one is often found on the urchin’s string, but it cannot be said to have
any economic value. The others are too small for the urchin even, and although, according to
Rafinesque, ‘‘they are good to eat fried,” few people think it worth while to cook them. Darters
are found in all fresh waters of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, but all the species
are peculiar to America.

141. THE PIKE PERCHES.

In the interior of North America occur two species of the genus Stizostediwm, the Wall-eyed
Pike, 8. vitreum (Mitch.), J. & G., and S. canadense (Smith) Jordan. Both of these occur in the
Great Lake region and the Upper Mississippi, and the valley of the Ohio and the Tennessee; the
. former penetrating northward to the fur countries, and into some of the Atlantic streams south of
New England.

“ §. vitreum,” according to Jordan, ‘may be readily known from S. canadense by the presence
of a single black spot on the posterior part of the spinous dorsal, instead of one or two rows of
smaller spots on the middle part of the fin.”

THE WALL-EYED PIKE OR DORY—STIZOSTEDIUM VITREUM.

“Stizostedium vitreum,” writes Jordan, “‘is most commonly called the ‘Wall-eyed Pike.’ In
the Upper Lakes, where the true Pike (Hsow lucius) is known as ‘Pickerel,’ the Wall-eyed Pike
becomes simply ‘Pike.’ The names ‘Glass-eye’ and ‘Yellow Pike’ are sometimes heard, and
the name ‘Blue Pike’ is applied to a local variety. The name ‘Pike Perch,’ a translation of
Incioperca, a name given by Cuvier to the genus Stizostedium, is often used in books, but has
never taken root among fishermen. Among the French about Lake Michigan and in Canada

27 F

418 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIO ANIMALS.

the name ‘Dory’ is in common use. Southward the name ‘Jack’ is applied to this species as
well as tothe Pike. The most unfortunate misnomer of ‘Salmon’ is also common in the South, and
the names ‘Okow,’ ‘Blow-fish,’ “Green Pike,” and ‘Jack Salmon’ are also current in various
localities. This species is very abundant throughout the Great Lake region and the Upper Mis-
sissippi and Missouri. It has also an extensive but not well-known distribution through the larger
streams of the Southern States, at least of the upland portion. It feeds upon other fishes, and is
a voracious and gamy species. It reaches a length of three feet or more, and a weight of fifteen to
twenty-five pounds or more. Those seen in market are generally much smaller. This is one of the
best of our food-fishes, with firm, white flesh of good flavor. In the markets supplied from the
Great Lakes it ranks in importance below the white-fish and lake trout only. It is the most
valuable of our fresh-water percoids.”

Jordan recognizes two varieties of this species, namely, var. vitreum and var. salmonewm; the
latter, known as the “Blue Pike,” is a local variety in Ohio and southward; it is bluer in color,
and is smaller, besides having the body shorter and deeper.

The abundance of the Wall eyed Pike, Stizostedium vitreum, in the region of the Great Lakes
has been recorded by Mr. Kumlien as follows:

“At the western extremity of Lake Superior, at the head of Saint Louis Bay, Wall-eyed Pike
are abundant. They are there taken extensively with seines. Off the Wisconsin coast of Lake
Superior, and, passing east, as far as Ontonagon, Michigan, Pike have, within the last two years,
become abundant. Four years ago the fishermen could scarcely find sufficient for their own tables,
while in 1879 there was an immense “run” of Pike. They are most abundant in Squaw and Siscourt
Bays and are of larger size than in Keweenaw Bay. The sudden appearance of Pike is a deep
puzzle to the fishermen.

“At Portage Entry and L’Anse, Pike are abundant; they are common, however, all along the
shore from Ontonagon to Huron Bay, between which two points they rank third, and would take
the second place (i. ¢., that of lake trout) if the “runs” of Pike were as continuous as those of
trout—which latter can be caught at all times. Pike are here taken principally in the pounds.
They average a smaller size than in the Lower Lakes. At Portage Entry the fishermen used to
keep the Pike in a pond until required for shipment. They are here called “Yellow Pike.”

On the fishing grounds between Grand Island and Sauk’s Head, including Ontario Bay,
Sucker Bay, Laughing-fish Point, Short Point, Marquette and Big Presque Isle, Pike are taken
to some extent, but are not abundant enough to be of much importance. Twelve years ago they
were quite rare; they have siuce that time been increasing steadily. They are taken in the pound-
nets to some extent, but rarely in the gill-nets. Some pounds do not get half a dozen to a lift. In
this region they are known as “Yellow Pike,” as also at White-fish Point, where they are some-
times taken at the rate of two or three hundred pounds at a lift, but are not plentiful.

At the north end of Green Bay the name “Doré” is given to this species. In this locality,
including the fishing grounds of Escanaba, Chippewa Point, Summer Island, Saint Martin’s
Island, and Point aux Barques, they are equally abundant, and grow to a large size, occasionally
weighing twenty pounds. They here rank third in importance, and are taken in gill-nets, except
in winter and spring. Of late years they have been salted to some extent.

Along the shore of Green Bay, between the mouths of Cedar River and Peshtego River, they
rank third in importance, the white-fish taking tLe first place and the sturgeon the second. They
are taken more plentifully in the fall than in the spring, the reverse being the case at the head of
the bay, where they spawn in great numbers. When shipped fresh they are not dressed at all.
In spring they are, to some extent, salted, and are sold as ‘Salt Pickerel.” This business of

WALL-EYED PIKE IN THE GREAT LAKES. 419

salting was carried on during the summer of 1880 along the whole western shore ot Lake Michigan.
In spring they are taken quite extensively on rocks in the Menomonee River, where they go to
spawn. At this season many are taken with spears also, especially for home consumption. One
man says he took five barrels in a night. They are prized very highly by the fishermen. In the
deep-water nets a very large grade is caught. In this region they are known as “ Dory.”

Between Peshtego Point and Longtail Point they are called ‘‘ Wall-eyed Pike” and “Dory,”
are of much importance, and greatly sought for. In this division of the western shore of Green
Bay they are principally taken in gill-nets, but do not enter a pound-net well. The chief ship-
ments of these fish salted take place between the 1st of April and the 15th of June, when they are
shipped as “Salt Pickerel” to the Western markets; during the rest of the year they are shipped
fresh, on ice. In 1878 one was taken at Oconto weighing nineteen pounds. They spawn early in
spring, and are considered destructive to young fish and spawn. In scaling the fish a common
curry-comb is used. This fish and the White Bass are the two most important kinds taken at the
Green Bay City fisheries, where the former is called “ Dory.”

Along the eastern shore of Green Bay the Pike is not, as on the western shore, abundant.
About Little Sturgeon Bay two and three a week are considered the average number taken. One
kind only is recognized between Bay Settlement and the island of Saint Martin. Between Port
des Morts and Manitowoc, on the western shore of Lake Michigan, Pike are rare, and the few
caught are taken in the spring. Mr. Kirtland took three packages of Pike at Jacksonport in 1879.
At Two Rivers they only occur as stragglers. At Manitowoc the name “Pike” alone is used,
“Dory” being unknown. They likewise only occur as stragglers at the fishing grounds between
Manitowoc and White-fish Bay.

In the vicinity of Milwaukee they are by no means abundant; they are caught, when occurring,
in pound-nets, but never in gill-nets. In the small inland lakes they are pronounced to be quite
common. South of Milwaukee, as far as Evanstown, Illinois, they are far from abundant, but were
formerly quite plentiful about Racine, though now nearly exterminated at that point. When
shipped they are packed with the white-fish. In this region they are called “Yellow Pike.” At
the extreme south of Lake Michigan, including the New Buffalo and Michigan City fisheries, this
species is called “‘Wall-eyed” Pike. It is rare, but taken at all seasons of the year. Three or
four at a lift of the pound-net is the average. When shipped South it is called “Salmon.” The
size attained is large, probably averaging fully ten pounds.

At the Saugatuck, South Haven, and Saint Joseph fisheries, on the east shore of Lake
Michigan, ‘ Wall-eyed Pike” (as the species is there designated) are becoming more common of
late. It is thought that they have, to a great extent, replaced the pickerel in the small lakes and
river bayous. They are not yet of sufficient abundance to be of any commercial importance.
Individuals of this species are here taken chiefly with hooks, and occur but sparingly in the lake.

At Ludington, Point Sable, Grand Haven, and other fishing towns, between Saugatuck and
Glen Haven, Lebanon County, Pike are by no means abundant, being most plentiful in August
at Ludington and Manistee. White Hall is an exceptional place, wagon-loads being sometimes
exposed on the streets for sale. At Grand Haven not more than half a dozen a year are caught
in the lake, but in the Grand River they are not at all rare.

On the fishing grounds of Little and Grand Traverse Bays, and about Fox Islands, Pike are
extremely rare. They are occasionally found in Grand Traverse Bay, but are scarcely at all known
by the fish authorities of that region. In the fishing grounds comprised between Little Traverse
Bay (passing north and east through the Straits of Mackinaw as far down the western shore of
Lake Huron as Hammond’s Bay) and Adams Point the name “ Pickerel” is given to this species,

420 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

except by the French fishermen, who call it “Dory.” Throughout this region this fish is common,
but principally in the rivers and bayous. Mr. Bennett reports thirteen hundred pounds from one
pound-net in two nights in Hammond Bay. This fish is by far the most plentiful in spring. It is
much sought for because of its good keeping qualities. About Mud Lake and in the Sault Ste.
Marie River this species is quite extensively fished for and is sold separately. In the outer pounds
in the lake (Huron) not many are caught. The majority of fishermen salt them and sell as “Salted
Pickerel”; the proportion of this fish to white-fish is about as one to one hundred.

At Alpena, Thunder Bay, Pike, usually here called “Yellow Pike,” form quite an important
fishery during May and June, after which but few are taken until September. The largest lift
known here was in 1874, when three thousaud were taken from one net in a single lift. During
September very few of any other kind than Pike are taken in the pound-nets. In comparison with
Saginaw Bay, but few are taken at Alpena.

In Saginaw Bay this species, known as “Yellow Pike,” “ Pickerel,” and ‘“ Wall-eyed Pike,”
is thus spoken of in a circular by Riker & Kelbourn: “Saginaw Bay produces more fish yearly
than any equal extent of inland water in the United States, and of as good quality, and in one
notable exception a good deal better. This is the Yellow Pike, or what are termed South ‘Lake
Salmon,’ and on Lake Erie are known as ‘ Pickerel.’ They are a harder, firmer, fish, and will bear
transportation better, and keep longer, than pickerel caught in the Lower Lakes. Because of these
qualities, and their superior adaptation for the use of the table, they are regarded South and West
as the fish first of all desired. This immense catch of fish is prepared for shipment, in parcels
to suit customers, to the East, South, and West, embracing several States.”

The “Pickerel” is the most abundant and important fish in Saginaw Bay. Besides those taken
in the pounds and with seines, large quantities are speared in winter through the ice. In spring
they are taken till July, and then very few are caught again till the latter part of August. It is
presumed they go into deep water during the warmest weather. In spearing them through the ice
a decoy fish is used to lure them within reach ; they are very rarely taken in the gill nets. There
seems to be no very alarming decrease among then, yet it is readily admitted that they have been
more plenty than they are at present. Spawn in the bay during April.

From Point aux Barques to Port Huron, Pike are very abundant, and are the most important
fish in the Saint Clair River on the Canada side, where they are of great commercial value. They
are here known as “Yellow Pickerel.” It is an interesting question why they should be more
abundant on the Canadian than on the American side. Saginaw Bay is the hot-bed for this
species, and from there they seem to strike across the lake to the Canada shore, entirely avoiding
the east shore of the peninsula from Point aux Barques to Port Huron. When they come into
the Saint Clair River they follow close to the Canada shore, and return the same way.

Between Toledo and the mouth of Detroit River, Pike, called “ Yellow Pickerel” in this region,
are not abundant. Unlike Maumee Bay, they do not seem to delight in this western shore of Lake
Erie. The runs occur in places in the spring irregularly, and no dependence is placed on a fair
supply at any time. It is not considered one of the important fish.

In Maumee Bay Pike are very abundant. Early in the season large quantities come from the
bay and river of the same name. They rank second in importance, and are exclusively salted,
being then known as “Salmon,” otherwise as “Yellow Pike.” In autumn few are taken in com-
parison with the number caught in the spring. Pike, or ‘‘ Yellow Pike,” here called, strike on the
south shore of Lake Erie, around Port Clinton, about April 1, and stay only a few days. They
rank about fourth at that place. At Locust Point they are caught in considerable numbers in
spring, and some in fall also. Here they rank third in importance.

WALL-EYED PIKE IN LAKE HURON. 421

At all the fishing points between Ottawa City, on Catawba Island, and the Huron fisheries,
with the neighboring islands, the greater part of the ‘Pickerel” are called ‘Gray Pickerel,” and
many say that they are totally different from the “Yellow” or “Blue” Pickerel. In Sandusky
Bay they are particularly abundant; also about the islands and in the harbors. They have exten-
sive spawning grounds at Cedar Point, Marblehead, Spit Island, East and West Harbors, Mouse
Island, Sugar Bluff, Moose’s Point, North and Middle Bass Islands, Put-in Bay, and Kelley’s
Island. They are sold as hard fish, and usually run large. When less than a pound they are sold
with the “Saugers.”

Connected with the Huron (Ohio) fisheries, the Pike, here called “Yellow Pike,” are considered
quite important, but not so abundant as farther west. They are caught principally in the spring.
and are thought to work westward toward Maumee Bay about their spawning time. They rank
about fourth in importance. The general impression among fishermen here is that the true Yellow
Pike is not caught at all here—by which they mean the Yellow Pike of Saginaw Bay. Many call
this fish the “Gray Pike,” and yet consider it an entirely different fish from the “Blue Pike.”

At Vermillion, Ohio, there is caught, early in the spring, what is termed the “Spawn Pike,”
running from twenty to thirty pounds. Later the runs average much smaller—one to five pounds—
and these are supposed not to spawn. Pike here are not abundant, and it is only in the spring
that they are regarded as important.

A little farther east, including the fisheries of Black River, Amherst, and Brownhelm Bay,
“Yellow Pike,” so called in this section, are not abundant. They are taken early in spring. On
account of their fewness they are of but little importance. There is said to be too much waste in
dressing to make them a salable fish among the poorer classes. The markets are never glutted
with this fish. None are salted. At Cleveland and Dover, Ohio, this species is known as “ Yellow
Pickerel” and “Pickerel.” At the Dover Bay fisheries they are not abundant, in the largest lifts
not over one hundred and fifty to two hundred pounds being taken. They are caught principally
in early spring, and range from one to five pounds. Until the last six years this fish was unknown
here. Farther east, at Conneaut and Ashtabula, “Yellow Pike,” as they are there called, do not
seem to be common; a few large ones (from ten to twelve pounds) are taken every season. About
Painesville, Fairport, and Willoughby this species is known as “Yellow Pickerel.” They are not
very common; some are taken in spring. In 1879 not over two tons were taken in sixteen nets.
They are much more common farther west. Years ago they were abundant and one of the most
important of fish, but since the dynamite explosion at Fairport (the port of Painesville, three miles
from the city, on the lake shore), about eight years ago, they have been rare, and the fishermen
think the explosion—which was so strong that it broke window-lights in Cleveland and Butfalo—
drove them away. A decrease in other species was noticeable for some time afterwards. Those
taken at Painesville are remarkably dark colored, much darker than those taken at the islands.

When pound-nets were used in the fisheries of Dunkirk and Barcelona, New York, Erie, Penn-
sylvania, and Mill’s Grove, Ohio, a good many Pike were taken; even now a few are taken in the
gill-nets. At the above places they are called “‘ Wall-eyed Pike.”

Concerning the Lake Ontario pike fishery, we learn that at Oswego they are fairly common
and rank third in importance. At Port Ontario they are known as “Yellow Pike.” They were
formerly abundant at this point, but of late years few have been taken. Since pound-net fishing
began they have gradually grown Jess abundant—been “caught out.” A few are yet taken in the
seines.

At Cape Vincent Pike are abundant. The fish of one variety, with a longer and more pointed
head than the Upper Lake fish, are called “‘Spike-noses.” They rank second in commercial impor-

422 NATURAL UISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS

tance. They are brought over from Canada to a great extent, but the bulk that is shipped from
Cape Vincent is caught in American waters. They are common everywhere. At Chaumont they
rank first in commercial importance. The largest runs occur in the bay in early spring. Pike do
not come as near shore as formerly. At Sacket’s Harbor they rank first in importance, and are
caught in the spring as soon as the ice is out, and in fall till winter sets in. During the winter
they are brought from Canada. It is thought that they have increased since the alewives came
here, and that the average weight now is one-third greater than ten years ago.

It is said that Yellow Pike, Stizostedium vitreum, can be confined in a small pond much more
successfully than most species. They are said to prefer the vicinity of river mouths, and not to
go far out into the lakes.

The following facts concerning the abundance of the Blue Pike, identified as Stizostedium
vitreum var. salmoneum, in the region of the Great Lakes, were gathered by Mr. Kumlien:

In the fishing grounds of the west end of Lake Erie ‘-Blue Pickerel” are known only as rare
stragglers. In the vicinity of Toledo and Maumee Bay Blue Pike are very seldom seen. Atsome
of the principal fisheries not more than one in a year is taken. This fish is generally not recognized
by the local fishermen. On the south coast also, at Port Clinton and Locust Point, this fish is a
great rarity, and only appears as a straggler. It is of no importance whatever.

About Upper and Lower Sandusky Bay, and all the fishing grounds between Ottawa City and
Catawba Island to the Huron fisheries, the Blue Pike are abundant from May till June 5, the
largest runs occurring from the 20th of May until June. They rank in this region about fifth in
importance. They are sold fresh, frozen and salted, about half the catch being salted and sold as
‘Medium Pickerel.” It is somewhat improbable that individuals exceed one and a half or two
pounds in weight. They are less abundant around the islands, among which may be named Spit
Island, Mouse Island, North Bass Island, Middle Bass Island, and Kelley’s Island. The “Gray,”
“Yellow,” and ‘‘Blue” Pike grade into each other in this locality in such a manner that it is hard
to draw the limiting line. Mr. Kumlien thinks that all of these represented as “Gray” and some
“Blue” were 8. vitrewm, but that the bulk of those called “Blue” are readily distinguishable from
S. vitreum.

In the Huron (Ohio) fisheries Blue Pike are extraordinarily abundant, in fact too much so.
Such quantities are sometimes caught that not one-quarter can be made use of. The largest runs
come on late when the market is already full, consequently a very low price is realized for them.
A few are taken in early spring, as soon as the fishing begins, but the bulk are caught from the
12th to the 20th of May. As high as one hundred and fifty tons have been brought to Huron in
aday. They are largely salted. The average weight is about a pound, though some are taken in
early spring weighing ten to fifteen pounds. The direction of the movement made by the Blue
Pike is supposed to be easterly in the spring, when they start from the vicinity of the islands,
returning (westward) in the fall. Between Cedar Point (east side entrance to Sandusky Bay) and
Black River they occur in greater numbers than at any other point in Lake Erie. Some are caught
in autumn, but the-catch then is nothing as compared with that of late spring.

At Vermillion, Ohio, the Blue Pike are more abundant than any other species, and rank second
in importance. They are taken as soon as the fishing commences, but from the 24th of May till
June 1 to 6 they come in such myriads that it is impossible to take care of them , and tons upon tons
are let out of the nets. The average weight is about a pound, but specimens weighing as high as
fifteen pounds are said to be taken early in spring among the spawning Yellow Pike. ‘This fish was
formerly graded as “hard,” but of late years they have been classed “soft,” principally on account
of their numbers, but also because in flavor they are far inferior to the Yellow Pike. They come into

WALL-EYED PIKE IN LAKE HURON. 423

the nets in such quantities, and at a season when the market is already full, that they are often sold
for the freight charges only. Mr. McGraw thinks there is an appreciable increase in their numbers
each year. In 1879 as high as four tons were taken from one pound at a single lift. When salted
they are called ‘‘Medium” and “No. 2 Pickerel.” The reason so few are salted in proportion to the
amount caughtis on account of the low price realized for them, coming, as they do, into competition
with more valuable kinds. From the following it will be seen that the profits to the fishermen are
very small:

Cost of packing 100 pounds salt fish ready for market: Half barrel, 35 cents; dressing fish,
12 cents; salt, 15 cents; salting, 10 cents; inspection, 25 cents; total, 97 cents. Then add cost of
from 160 to 175 pounds of undressed fish, and sell for $1.50 per half barrel, and the profits are
very small. /

At Black River, Amherst, and Brownhelm, Ohio, the most important fish is the Blue Pike. The
largest runs occur in May and October. Mr. Freund thinks that they spawn in June or the latter
days of May. The general impression amongst the fishermen is that they do not spawn, as none
of them have seen the spawn in the fish. Such quantities are sometimes taken that it is very
difficult to take care of them all. They are used fresh, and are also salted.

At Cleveland and the Dover Bay fisheries the Blue Pike is the principal fish and very
abundant. They are taken as soon as the fishermen get their nets in, but more plentifully at the
end of spring and fall than at the beginning of those t'vo seasons. It often happens that such
quantities are taken that they cannot be disposed of. They appear to be increasing every year;
as high as twenty tons are reported from four nets in one day. About one-fourth of the catch is
salted; the fishermen say that the early-caught fish do not salt so well as those taken later. The
average weight is about one pound, those coming on first in spring averaging, perhaps, less than
this weight, but the late runs are larger. It is said that specimens have been caught among the
islands at the west end of the lake weighing fifteen pounds. AJ the fishermen say they never saw
one with ripe spawn. Formerly they were classed as “hard fish,” but now they sell as “soft.”

At Oswego this species is called “Gray Pike,” is quite common, and unusually silvery in
appearance. At Cape Vincent they are known only as stragglers. At Chaumont they are very
rare, and at Sacket’s Harbor very few are caught.

The “ Jack” on the Ohio River, as described by Jordan in the lately published report on the
fishes of Ohio, reaches occasionally forty pounds. “It possesses great activity and strength, and
is a ravenous destroyer of Perch and other species. Were it not so superior in every way to
ethers, this habit might condemn it; as it is, we regard it as one of the best species we possess.
In the South it is eagerly bought, and forms the principal table fish for the various places of resort,
where it can be obtained.”! “The ‘Blue Pike,” says Jordan, “is said to frequent only bayous
and inlets, not being taken in the deeper waters of the Lakes, where S. vitreym especially abound.
It also reaches a smaller size, according to Mr. Klippart, who asks, ‘Why does the Blue Pike
frequent the bayous and get to be no more than twelve to fifteen inches in length, and to weigh not
to exceed two or three pounds, if it is identical with the Wall-eyed Pike which frequents the deep
waters of the lake and attains a length of three feet and a weight of eighteen to twenty pounds?’
This species, according to Mr. Klippart, is at the Lake Erie fisheries split and salted with the
Sauger, 8. canadense, the two together being known to the commercial world as ‘Pickerel No. 2,
and bringing about two-thirds the price of Pickerel No. 1, which is 8. vitreum.’”

1Corz, Rept. Comm. Fish Penn., i881, 128,
$ Geological Survey of Ohio, iv, part i, p. 64.

424 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Tort SAUGER.—STIZOSTEDIUM CANADENSE.

The “ Sanger,” known also as the “Gray Pike,” “Sand Pike,” “Ground Pike,” “Pickering,”
‘Pickerel,” and ‘Horse-fish,” has its habitat, according to Jordan, in the Saint Lawrence River,
Great Lake region, Upper Mississippi, and Upper Missouri Rivers, also in the Ohio, where, accord-
ing to the fishermen, it has been introduced from the Lakes through the canals.

“The different form and coloration, particularly the markings of the dorsal fin,” writes
Jordan,” distinguish this species at once from Stizostedium vitreum. This species has, moreover,
always fewer dorsal rays, more scaly cheeks, and permanent armature of the operculum.

‘In comparing Saugers from widely separated localities certain differences appear, which are
perhaps sufficiently constant to indicate distinct varieties. Of these, three are perhaps worthy to
be designated by name. The common Sauger or Sand Pike of the Lakes (Lucioperca grisea DeKay)
should bear the name of Stizostedium canadense, var. grisea. The Sauger or Pickering of the Saint
Lawrence was the original Lucioperca canadensis of Col. C. H. Smith. It should, therefore, be the
typical variety, canadensis. Its head is rougher and more closely scaled, and the number of
spinous points on the opercle is greater. The ‘Sand Pike’ of the Upper Missouri averages rather
slender, with a long, slender nose and more flattened and snake-like head. This is the Lucioperca
borea of Dr. Girard, and may be called var. borewm, if the difference here noted prove at all con-
stant.

“The Sauger never reaches a large size, the largest 1 have seen being from fifteen to eighteen
inches in length. It is abundant everywhere in the Great Lakes, and is valued as food, although
less highly rated than its relative, the Pike Perch.

“Tt is plentiful in the Ohio River, where it is probably indigenous, although some claim that it
has been introduced there through the canals.”

Mr. Kumlien has collected many interesting notes concerning this as well as the preceding
species. These will be printed at a future time.

THE STRIPED BASS FAMILY.

Fishes of this family are common on both sides of the North Atlantic. The Bass of Europe,
Rocecus labrax, is one of the favorite food-fishes of that region, and is found from Tromsoe, in
Norway, latitude 70°, south to the Mediterranean, where it is abundant. A very closely related
species is our own Striped Bass, or Rock-fish, Roccus saxatilis, which is found from the Gulf of Saint
Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico. These two species are very similar in form, although the colors
are different, the American Bass being conspicuously striped, while that of Europe is silvery
gray. They are both strong, active, and voracious fishes, and both ascend rivers, although the
American Bass seems to be much more addicted to life in fresh water than its transatlantic
relative, probably owing to the fact that our rivers are more numerous, larger, and much more
plentifully stocked with the fish upon which the Bass rely for food. They ascend the Potomac to
the Little Falls, the Hudson to Albany, the Connecticut to Hartford, and the Saint Lawrence to
Quebec. Before the erection of dams in the Susquehanna individuals were taken as high up
as Luzerne. Europe has two other species, which it is unnecessary to discuss here, and North
America has three—the White Bass or Striped Lake Bass, Roccus chrysops; the Brassy Bass of
the Lower Mississippi Valley, Roccus interruptus; and the White Perch of the Atlantic coast,
Roccus americanus. All of these are of considerable economic importance, though the Striped Bass
is beyond comparison more valuable than all the others together.

THE STRIPED BASS FAMILY. 425

142, THE STRIPED BASS—ROCCUS LINEATUS.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—The Striped Bass, as has been already stated, occurs in
all the waters of our coast from latitude 50° to latitude 30°. In the North it is called the
“Striped Bass,” in the South the “ Rock-fish” or the “Rock.” The neutral territory where both
these names are in use appears to be New Jersey. The fishermen of the Delaware use the latter
name, those of the sea-coast the former. Large sea-going individuals are sometimes known in
New England by the names “Green-head” and “Squid-hound.” There is still some uncertainty
regarding the southern limits of the distribution of this species. In the Saint John’s River,
Florida, they are very unusual. Though familiar in the fisheries of that region since 1873, I have
only known of the capture of two individuals. Mr. Stearns has obtained one or two specimens in
the Gulf of Mexico, and gives an account of the degree of their abundance in those waters. He
writes: “They are occasionally caught on the northern shores of the Gulf, and are evidently more
common about the mouths of the Mississippi River than elsewhere, since they are taken in this
region only in seines, and in shallow water their abundance cannot be correctly determined. The
earliest account I have been able to obtain of the capture of Striped Bass in Pensacola Bay is that
of Capt. John Washington, of Mystic, Connecticut, who states that in 1850, while seine-fishing from
the smack ‘Francis Parkes,’ he surrounded with his seine a large school of fish, which were quite
unmanageable; a few of them were saved, and proved to be large Striped Bass, weighing from
fifteen to forty pounds. At long intervals since solitary individuals have been taken at various
points on the coast. At New Orleans it is found in the market quite often. An eighteen-pound
specimen was sold there in March, 1880.”

In Hallock’s “Sportsman’s Gazetteer” the following statement occurs: “It is constantly seen
in rivers of fresh water at great distances from the ocean, even as far up the Mississippi as Saint
Louis, and it is common in White River, Arkansas, and in all the rivers of the Southern States.”

While there can be no question that straggling individuals of this species have been taken in
the Gulf of Mexico, it seems probable that both Mr. Stearns and Mr. Hallock have been mistaken
by the resemblance of this species to the Brassy Bass, Roccus interruptus, which abounds through-
out the Lower Mississippi Valley.

Canadian authorities inform us that, though the Bass still occur along the New Brunswick and
Nova Scotia shores of the Gulf, they are much less abundant and of smaller size than formerly.
They have been known to ascend the Saint Lawrence as far as Quebec, and Mr. Roosevelt has
seen a specimen, a female fish, which was taken in the Niagara River, near Lewiston. The Bass
is most abundant in the bays and inlets about Cape Hatteras, in the Chesapeake and Delaware
Bay region, and in the protected waters of Long Island and Southern New England. In winter
they occur in considerable numbers in the Altamaha River, and are not unusual in the markets
of Charleston, South Carolina.

Haxzits.—The Striped Bass is not migratory, being found along our coast in winter as well as
in summer, and in our markets in every month of the year. Great quantities are taken in winter
in the rivers tributary to the Chesapeake, and in the rivers of New Brunswick quantities of them
are speared through holes in the ice. During the past four years I have known of their capture in
Long Island and Block Island Sounds and in the Merrimac River in December, and in Martha’s
Vineyard Sound and the lower part of the Hudson River in January. Though ‘they appear to
avoid a temperature higher than 65° or 70° they are not sensitive to cold, and there is good
evidence that they frequently, when detained throughout the winter in shallow places, enter upon
a state of torpidity.

Foop.—They are very voracious feeders. Entering the rivers, they prey upon small fishes.

426 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

They are particularly abundant at the time of the spring runs of the shad and herring, and at this
season are particularly plump and well fed, doubtless owing to the ease with which they can obtain
food. They also frequent the rocky shores of the bays and sounds at high tide in search of crabs,
shrimps, and squids; and they are said to feed upon clams and mussels, which they obtain by
delving with their snouts.

REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH.—They spawn in the late spring and early summer, some of
them in the rivers, others probably at sea, although this has not been definitely ascertained. The
European Bass are said to deposit their spawn near the mouths of rivers in the summer months,
From North Carolina to New Jersey the spawning time appears to be in May; in New Brunswick
in June. Dr. Blanding, many years ago, estimated the number of eggs at 2,248,000. Their rate
of growth is very rapid. Dr. C. C. Abbott, for five successive years, found in the Delaware River
young an inch long in the second week in June. About the middle of October these had grown
to the length of four and a half inches. The young fish—five to nine inches in length—which are
taken in such quantities in the Potomac in February and March, are supposed to be the young of
the previous year. Captain Gavitt, of Westerly, Rhode Island, has caught Bass in June that
weighed from one-half to one pound, put them into a pond and taken them out in the following
October, when they weighed six pounds. The average size of this fish probably does not exceed
twenty pounds. In the Potomac, Hudson, and Connecticut Rivers the largest seldom exceed
thirty or forty pounds, though in the Potomac fifty-pound fish are not unusual. The Fish Commis-
sion has for several years had a standing offer of a reward for a sixty-pound fish from the Potomac,
but none has been forthcoming as yet. The largest Striped Bass on record was one weighing one
hundred and twelve pounds, taken at Orleans, Massachusetts, in the town cove. Such a fish would
be at least six feet in length. A fairly proportioned Bass thirty-six inches long would weigh at
least eighteen pounds.

UsEs.—The Striped Bass is one of the most valuable of our food-fishes, its flesh bei’.g firm, finely
flavored, and hard enough to bear exposure to the air for some time without injury. It is also the
most popular game-fish, next to the salmon. Those in the markets are chiefly obtained in seines
and traps set at various points along the coast from the south side of Cape Cod to New Jersey.
Great quantities are also taken in shad seines in the spring. They may be readily taken, also,
by heaving and hauling in the surf with menhaden bait, the fish being tolled by the use of great
quantities of menhaden ground into small bits, and in fresh or brackish water by the use of the
artificial fly. At various points on the coast of Southern New England are club-houses supported
by wealthy amateurs for the purpose of carrying on these sports.’

' Messrs. Christian, Austin, Haight, McKeel, Van Nort Brothers, and about forty others from Peekskill and Ver-
planck’s Point, have about four hundred nets fishin g on tho ice between Gees Point and Warnor’s Island, and from the
way they are shipping the Striped Bass to New York and Peekskill they must be doing quite a business. On the 14th
and 15th instant {hey shipped about €00 pounds each day, and on the 16th they shipped about 1,200 pounds, and on
the 18th they had over 1,000 pounds. They sell them at wholesale for nine and ten cents per pound, and at retail for
twelve cents. They use nets about twelve feet square, with two and a quarter inch meshes, to which they attach lines
and heavy weights, and sink them about furty feet below the ice. The average weight of the Bass is about one and
a half pounds, but a large number have been caught that weigh from twelve to fifteen pounds. They lift their nets
at the ebb and flood tides, but are usually caugnt, on the flood tide. The river being clear of ice from this point all
the way to New York accounts for their coming from down the river to this place to fish.—Springfield Republican,
May 24, 18738.

*“The Island of Cuttyhunk is about sixteen miles from New Bedford, at the extreme southwesterly boundary of
Buzzard’s Bay, whose foaming billows wash its northern shore, while the ocean itself beats upon the south, and near
Penekese, the island school of Professor Agassiz. The Cuttyhunk Club own about three hundred acres of land, and
have the exclusive right to fish on the shores and in the ponds of the island. When the club was first formed they
stocked one of the ponds on the island with Black Bass, and these have multiplied so plentifully that they are now
caught in large numbers. No fishing was allowed for three years from the time the pond was stocked. Perch and
trout are also plenty in ponds on the island. Twenty-six fishing stands have been built at Cuttyhunk, and they

ABUNDANCE OF STRIPED BASS. 427

It has already been stated that the Striped Bass are believed to be less abundant in the Gulf
of Saint Lawrence than in former years; similar complaints are heard from the Bay of Fundy and
from Cape Cod, where the period of diminution is believed to, date from the last advent of the
Bluefish, about 1850. The bass fishery in Cape Cod Bay was formerly of great importance, but
the capture of this fish is now of rare occurrence.' The early settlers of New England seem to
have been more impressed by the abundance of Bass than by any other circumstance connected
with the fisheries, and the early chronicles are full of allusions to their exceeding plenty and
excellence. Capt. John Smith saw so many in one river that he declares that he thinks he might
have walked across on their backs dry-shod. While there can be no doubt that north of Cape
Cod their numbers have decreased, there is no reason to believe that elsewhere on our coast the
fisheries have had any special effect upon them. A Hessian officer, writing in 1777, declared that
enormous numbers were at that time brought to New York, and the same might be said at the
present day. Three fishing gangs at Bridgehampton, New York, took over 8,000 in less than a
week, in December, 1874. Capt. Charles Ludlow secured at one set of his seine 1,672 Bass, or
about three and a half tons; shortly afterwards a New London fisherman brought in 419 Bass,
185 of which had been caught with a hook in three hours. Near Norfolk, Virginia, 1,500 have
been taken with a single set of the seine. A few years ago, it is stated on credible authority, that
600 were once taken, the average weight of which was eighty pounds. In the first half of June,
1879, one fisherman near Fire Island, New York, caught and sent to New York the following
quantities of Bass:

June
June
June
June
‘June
June

extend completely round the island. These stands are built upon prominent rocks, and are supported above the
breakers by iron rods. Foot bridges, supported in the same way, are built from the shore to the stands. The stands
are all named or numbered, and are drawn for every night by the members of the club. A member drawing a stand
can fish from it the next day, or it can be used by any one else by his permission. The stands bear such names as
‘Nashawena Point,’ ‘Canepitset,’ ‘Old Water Line,’ ‘Cove Point,’ ‘Little Bass,’ ‘Big Bass,’ and ‘Guff Rocks.’ The
stands are all removed after the season is over, to be put up again the next year. ‘Central Park’ seats have this
season been placed on the bluffs round the island at convenient points, from which to watch the fishing at each stand,
so that members who are not lucky enough to secure favorite stands can sit with ease and enjoy the sport of their
fellow-members. The favorite fishing is for Striped Bass, and, during the best of the season, the sport is commenced
as early as three o’clock in the morning. A record is kept at the club house of the daily catch, by whom caught,
where taken, on what station, the number of fish, weight, and date. Some members of the Cuttyhunk Club also
belong to the West Island Club, which controls only five acres of land. The West Island Club is limited to thirty
members, with an admission fee of $1,000.” (Correspondent.)

!The harbor and contiguous waters were, in early times, as is well known, richly supplied with great varieties
of fish. Bass were abundant many years, so that generally three hundred quintals were ready for market in a single
season; few, comparatively, of these are now taken. Wesay few in comparison with former days. They arestill taken
in goodly numbers, and the way of bass-fishing at Race Point affordsa finely athletic exercise for chest andlimbs. The
fisherman stands on the beach and throws out the line with sinker attached as far as strength will permit, and then
hauls in, dragging a bouncing fish, if the throw be a good one.—History of Cape Cod (Freeman), ii, 1862, p. 623.

Three hundred Bass, of good size, were taken at one haul with a seine on Yarmouth Flats on Tuesday last.
These fish are taken in abundance in our harbor at this season of the year. Many of them are packed in ice and sent
to the Boston market, where they bring a good price. ‘Going a-bassing,” as it is termed, is both a pleasant and
profitable amusement.—Barnstable Journal, July 30, 1829.

Capt. Sam. T. Soper, Provincetown, took seven hundred Bass last Saturday. Fish were seined. Mr. Stephen
A. Mayor also caught three hundred Bluefish off the harbor one day last week at one haul.—Barnstable Patriot,
October 19, 1858.

Wood, writing in 1634, remarked: ‘The Bass continue at Lynn from the middle of April to Michaelmas” (Sep-
tember 29),

428 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIO ANIMALS.

Allen Look, of Tisbury, Massachusetts, testified before the fishery committee of the Massa-
chusetts legislature, in 1870, that in 1845 he caught twenty-seven tons, or about 17,000 Striped
Bass, in Tisbury Great Pond, and that the largest catch within the pond from 1865 to 1870 was
one hundred, taken in December, 1869.!

The following extract from a Newport (Rhode Island) paper for 1861 shows how abundant
these fish have been in past years in Narragansett Bay:

“As an evidence that fish are not scarce in our waters, the recent haul of Bass by hook and
line is evidence. Within a week the market has been more than supplied, as the following will
show:

‘“‘ Purchased by Samuel Albro: Of Nason & Tenant, 1,339 pounds; William James, 960 pounds;
W. A. Munroe, 429 pounds; Dunwell & Gladding, 1,500 pounds; James Hazard, 357 pounds.

“Purchased by Carry & Co.: Of George Crabb, 950 pounds; John Heath, 130 pounds; James
Read, 300 pounds; Edward Smith, 60 pounds; G. Dunwell, 50 pounds.

“Henry Gladding & Co. shipped to New York 1,100 pounds. Making a total of 7,175 pounds
for one week, and these were all taken from the rocks at the south end of the city.”

The Rock-fish has been propagated artificially by the United States Fish Commission, the
first experiment having been made by Mr. Holton in 1873, supplemented by more satisfactory
operations in 1879, under the direction of Major Ferguson, when about 400,000 eggs were hatched
out and turned loose in Salmon Creek, North Carolina, The species was introduced into Califor-
nia some years ago, and Jordan reported in 1880 that several specimens had been captured along
the coast.

143. THE WHITE BASS—ROCCUS CHRYSOPS (Raf.) Gill.

This species is generally known by the name of “White Bass”; occasionally as “Striped
Bass.” Its greatest abundance is in the Great Lake region, although it has a wide distribution in
the Ohio and upper tributaries of the Mississippi, and is found in many streams farther south. It
frequents chiefly the lakes and ponds and the deeper parts of the rivers. It feeds upon minnows
and the like, usually taking the hook readily, and is considered gamy by the angler. As a food-
fish it ranks high, being little inferior to the Black Bass. Its usual weight is from one to three
pounds. The White Bass is said to be an excellent fish for cultivation in artificial ponds. Like
most of its relatives, this species spawns in late spring.

“It is frequently taken in the Ohio River,” writes Jordan, “and frequents chiefly deep or still
waters, seldom ascending small streams. It is said to thrive well in ponds.”

This is doubtless the Silver Bass of Canada (le Silver Bass du Canada), the details of whose
introduction into France, and successful propagation by M. Carbonnier, from 1877 to 1879, are
recorded by that experimenter in the “Bulletin of the Society of Acclimation for 1881.”?

The following notes upon the abundance of the White Bass, Roccus chrysops, in the Great
Lakes and bays adjacent have been made by Mr. Kumlien:

Two instances only of the presence of this species at and in the vicinity of the Apostle Islands
are known to Mr. Bantin. Some of the other fishing points of that region are as follows: Sand
Island, York and Rock Islands, Magdalen Island, Chequamegan Point, and Siscourt and Fry Bays.

Four hundred Bass were taken at a single haul in Tisbury Great Pond, Martha's Vineyard, on one day last week,
and shipped to New York.—Gloucester Telegraph, November 23, 1870.

A cargo of four hundred and nineteen Striped Bass, one of which weighed more than fifty pounds, was brought
into New London by an old fisherman afew days since. One hundred and eighty-five of them were caught with a
hook and line in three hours.—New York Evening Post, December 1, 1874.

*Bulletin Mensuel de la Société d’Acclimation, viii, No. 2, p. 10.

THE WHITE BASS IN THE GREAT LAKES. 429

In all other parts of Lake Superior this fish is not recorded as being known. In the fishing
grounds at the north end of Green Bay, White Bass are known only as stragglers. Farther down
the bay, about Cedar River, they are rare, but are more common on the shoals between Menom-
onee and Peshtego. They are taken principally in September, are important, and command a
ready sale. They do not frequent deep water. Between Peshtego and Longtail Point, including
the fishing points at Maple Bend, Pensaukee, Gail’s Point, and Oconto Bay, White Bass are rather
common, and important during August and September; at other times they are seldom taken.
They are caught in the pound-nets, are much sought for early in autumn, and are shipped princi-
pally to Saint Louis.

The White Bass is a beautiful, clean-looking fish, presenting a fine appearance and bearing
shipment well. At Green Bay City, the southern extremity of Green Bay, this species is abundant.
On the eastern shore of Green Bay, bordering upon the counties of Door and Kewaunee, and
as far north as Saint Martin’s Island, they are taken in small quantities in autumn, but are not
abundant enough to be shipped.

At Jacksonport, on the western shore of Lake Michigan, a few White Bass are taken in autumn.
At Two Rivers they are not rare in September. A couple of dozen may be found among one or
two thousand pounds of fish, and then may be entirely absent for a long time. At Manitowoc
they are often taken in some numbers in September, when large runs sometimes occur, and then
none are taken, perhaps, for two or three years. During the last three years very few have been
taken. Mr. Patterson, of that district, thinks the bass family is increasing in the vicinity of
Manitowoc.

At Milwaukee White Bass used to be so abundant that they were largely caught on hooks off
the piers, but now only a few are taken in the pound-nets. At the south end of Lake Michigan
White Bass come in great numbers in April and September, entering the river, but not being
taken to any extent in the pound-nets. The principal fisheries of that region are those of New
Buffalo and Michigan City. Here they run small, and are of no commercial importance.

White Bass are abundant on the eastern shore of Lake Michigan, between New Buffalo and
Saugatuck, making their first appearance during the warm days of May or June. At this time they
strike in from the lake in great numbers. They remain about the mouth of Saint Joseph’s River
till September, and sometimes October, and even ascend the river several miles. After September
they work out into the lake again. They associate with the Black Bass in schools. They are not
sufficiently abundant, however, to be of any commercial importance, as no seining is done; if that
kind of fishing were carried on, almost any number might be taken. The White Bass is considered
one of the “ game” fish. Specimens have been taken weighing over three pounds. When coming
in from the lake to the river they are very light in color, but become darker during their stay.
Mr. Hatch has put specimens in his fish ponds, the bottom of which is of black muck, and these
have become black on the back.

Along the eastern shore of Lake Michigan, from Allegan County to Leelenaw County, they are
reported as quite common, especially about Manistee, Ludington, and Point au Sable, but as
having been less abundant this year (1880) than usual. At Grand Haven they are plentiful and
of a large size. About and in Grand Traverse Bay, Little Traverse Bay, and Fox Islands, they
must be of great rarity, the first instance of their occurrence known to Miller, in this region, having
been in Little Traverse Bay during the summer of 1880. Off the shores of Emmet, Cheboygan,
and Presque Isle Counties, Michigan, which coast line includes the northeast portion of Lake
Michigan, the Straits of Mackinaw, and the northwest portion of Lake Huron, White Bass are by
all pronounced rare. Captain Coats reports the capture of three in 1880, and thinks they are

430 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

decreasing in abundance; and Captain Dingman says he has not taken half a dozen in fifteen
years’ fishing. Some report them as more plentiful about river mouths and bayous. At Alpena,
Thunder Bay, Mr. Case knows of but four or five White Bass having been caught.

On the fishing grounds of Saginaw Bay, including also those of Charity Islands, a very few
White Bass are occasionally taken in May and the first part of June. They were never abundant
in this region. South of Saginaw Bay, on the western shore of Lake Huron as far as Port Huron,
White Bass are not at all abundant, and are now far less abundant than formerly. Those now
taken are captured principally in the Saint Clair River, though they occur, sparingly, however, on
both the American and Canadian shores of the lake between Point aux Barques and Port Huron.
From Toledo to the mouth of the Detroit River, Lake Erie, they are now rather rare, so much so
as to render them of no commercial value. Formerly they were plenty. In Lake Erie, about the
mouth of Maumee Bay, White Bass are not so abundant, as they once were. They now occur
principally in the bay, ascending the Maumee River until prevented by obstructions. At present
they are not taken in sufficient numbers to be of any commercial value. No reason can be
assigned for their sudden decrease in this locality. In 1865 a catch of from ten to thirty tons was
an event of no rare occurrence, and now it is seldom that more than one to two hundred pounds
are taken at a lift.

On the fishing grounds of Ottawa City, Toussaint, and Locust Point, White Bass are now quite
rare and of no importance. Formerly they were very abundant. On the reefs off Port Clinton
they are still taken in some quantities with the Black Bass. On these reefs no driving is possible,
but the leads are buoyed up across the reefs, and the heart and pot stakes are set in the mud oft
the rocks.

In the vicinity of the Huron fisheries and Sandusky Bay, White Bass have decreased very
much within a few years, and in fact are now rather scarce. At present, in early fall and late
spring a few are taken; some years, almost none. They occur at all the fisheries, without any
apparent choice of locality. They are a good market fish, but do not keep well during warm
weather; are sold fresh, if possible, but a good many are salted. Rank higher than the herring.
This species is now almost extinct on the same grounds where they were once fairly swarming.
The following is said to be true, and many prominent men of Sandusky offer to corroborate it,
unlikely as it sounds: In May, 1855, off Marble Head light-house, with a twenty-two-foot net,
sixty rods leader and old-fashioned funnel, were taken out, at one lift, forty tons of White Bass!
This was at that time the only pound between Huron and Marble Head. On the same ground,
from March 28 to May 4, twelve hundred dollars’ worth were taken in one net. For many years
they were considered the most abundant fish in the vicinity of Sandusky. It is also thought that
they were the most destructive of all fish to the whitefish. Mr. Anthony says he saw in 1848, on
the Ottawa beach, the white-fish eggs driven up on the shore inches deep after a heavy gale, and
it was well known to the fishermen that in spring the White Bass swarmed on the spawning
grounds of the white-fish for the purpose of devouring the young fish. No one seems to have any
theory about their sudden and mysterious decrease. It is also remarked that simultaneous with
the disappearance of the White Bass the herring and blue pike increased. The fishermen
consider them so destructive to other fish that their decrease is welcomed with satisfaction.

The white-bass fishery was very important at Huron, Ohio, some years ago, but the fish
have decreased, and now the catch is almost nominal. At Vermillion, Ohio, White Bass are not
very abundant; they are caught principally early in spring and during the first few days of autumn
fishing. They average less than one pound in weight. Formerly they were more abundant and
of a larger size. A few are salted. Between the mouth of Black River and Brownhelm Bay

THE WHITE BASS FISHERY OF OHIO. 431

White Bass are taken in considerable numbers in the small pounds, close inshore; most of the
pound-nets are set in water too deep for this fish. Until two years ago they were abundant, and
after that time (1878) few were taken until the fall of 1879, when they again appeared in consider-
able numbers. The average weight in these localities is about one pound. They are graded as
“soft” fish, but have an excellent sale, and if sold separately bring a higher price than soft fish.
They are said to spawn close inshore during the latter days of May. Between Black River and
Vermillion there are now only three nets set in water shallow enough to take them in abundance.

At the Cleveland and Dover Bay fisheries White Bass are quite plentiful, much more so than
the Black Bass. There is a great difference in the average size in different years, although in those
years when they are small they are none the less numerous. The “runs” occur early in spring.
They are classed as “soft” fish. At Conneaut and Ashtabula they are considered a rare fish.
They do not frequent deep water, and consequently are not taken in the gill-nets. On the Lake
Erie shore of Lake County, Ohio, White Bass are quite common. About five tons were caught at
Painesville in the autumn of 1879. They are generally large fish, and are caught at all seasons
during calm weather, but strike for deep water during wind storms. Off Erie, Pennsylvania, Mr.
Olds says he has known of the occurrence of one very large school, but they are generally consid-
ered quite rare.

At the principal points on the New York shore of Lake Ontario the occurrence of White Bass
is thus noted: At Oswego they are not abundant. They occur principally in the lake, but are also
found in the river. At Port Ontario only one or two specimens have been known. At Cape
Vincent they are rarely caught, and are of no commercial importance. Those consumed are
brought, for the most part, from Canada. At Chaumont a very few are occasionally caught; the
fish here are of no importance. At Sacket’s Harbor very few occur. They have slightly increased,
rather than the reverse, in abundance.

144, THE YELLOW BASS—ROCCUS INTERRUPTUS.

This species is, so far a8 known to us, always known as the Yellow Bass. It is found through-
out the lower course of the Mississippi, ascending the tributaries which are deep and sluggish, but
not running past rapids or into the upper courses of the rivers. Jordan states that its range
extends up the Ohio to the mouth of the Wabash or beyond, though it does not seem to be common
anywhere except in the Lower Mississippi. It probably enters salt water, but of that we have no
certain information. It is taken in considerable numbers in the regions where found, and is graded
with the White Bass, which it much resembles in size and color. Little is known in regard to its
habits. The criterion by which it may be distinguished from the White Bass is the low membrane
connecting the two dorsal fins. Its color is yellow, not silvery, and the black stripes are very
prominent.

145. THE WHITE PERCH—ROCCUS AMERICANUS.

Next in importance to the Striped Bass is the so-called White Perch, Roccus americanus. This
fish occurs in brackish water in the mouths of rivers, and even, in many instances, in fresh-water
ponds, where it had become land-locked, and all along the coast from Georgetown, South Carolina,
to Nova Scotia. Dr. Yarrow states that it abounds in the Tar and Neuse Rivers, North Carolina.
In the Chesapeake and tributary streams it is exceedingly abundant. It also abounds in the
lakes and streams of the Saint John River, New Brunswick, and in the vicinity of Halifax, Nova
Scotia. It has been claimed by certain observers in Florida that White Perch were formerly
abundant in that region, and the market-men of New Orleans state that they were common in Lake

432 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Pontchartrain until the ‘Bonnet Carré crevasse” changed the water from salt to fresh. Mr. Stearns,
having investigated the subject, is of the opinion that they are mistaken.! The habits of this fish
have been but little observed; in fact, it has been the custom of nearly all writers on our fishes to
speaks lightingly of it. It found an earnest advocate in Mr. Thaddeus Norris, who, after protest-
ing strenuously against the statement of various writers that it is rarely brought to market for
food, that it is only fit for chowder, that it is not of sufficient importance to merit particular notice,
and so on, goes on to state, what is undoubtedly true, that in season the White Perch is the pan-
fish, excelled by none of the Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, Norfolk, and Richmond markets;
and he might have added, had he been writing at the present time, of the New York market also,
for there is, probably, no fish of its size which is more universally popular throughout the Eastern
States than the White Perch. In a single paragraph Mr. Norris, who, though he made no profes-
sions of scientific skill, has been one of our best observers of fishes, has given almost the only
reliable information which has ever been collected regarding this species. ‘Its most natural
habitat is in fresh tidal rivers, where it is found on flat clay and muddy bottoms, and in shallow
water. It is frequently found far above the terminus of the tide, and is often more abundant in
fresh than in brackish water in the season of the year when sought for by anglers. This fish, when
found in salt-water creeks, is darker in color, but there is no specific difference. The White Perch
is a congener of the magnificent Rock-fish, and is frequently found feeding in the same place and in
his company. Its average length is eight or nine inches; it is not often more than twelve, though
in rare instances it is found fourteen inches long.

“White Perch hibernate in the deep waters of our bays, and ascend the fresh tidal rivers soon
after the ice and snow-water have run off. They feed greedily on the spawn of other fish, particu-
larly that of the shad; on insects, crabs, minnows, and on the migratory schools of young eels
which are found in the months of April and May in great numbers at any rapid or dam obstruct-
ing the upward flow of the tide. Perch usually spawn in May and then resort to deeper waters to
recuperate, and all summer long are found by the angler ever swimming around the deep-sunk
pier or the timbers of the rickety old bridge, snapping at shrimps or chasing the minnows; at
flood tide high up amongst the water-lilies, and never refusing a bait, if of the right sort and prop-
erly presented.”?

Dr. C. C. Abbott has added some important observations. He found female fish heavy with
apparently ripe ova as late as June 10. The largest specimens of White Perch taken in the Del-
aware weighed, respectively, one pound nine ounces, one pound thirteen ounces, and two pounds
one ounce. These were caught in a shad net in May, 1865, at the fishery opposite Trenton. The
average adult fish may be said to measure eight inches and weigh from seven to nine ounces. He
continues: ‘TI believe, for reasons to be given, that the growth of the young is very rapid, and
that the August Perch are young hatched late in the preceding May and April; in June these
August Perch measuring about two and a half to three inches in length. . . . I should judge
that spawning occurred between May 10 and June 10, usually nearer the former than the latter
date. This is based on the fact of having gathered very young fish, the age of which I guessed
from the general condition and amount of development of the specimens. After the middle of
June the White Perch are found in localities widely different; even waters with a dense growth of
lily and river weed are found to contain them in apparent health and vigor—spots where the Rock-
fish could not live a day. Still later in the summer, as the young Perch become quite strong and

Certainly the Bonnet Carré crevasse never drove the White Perch out of Lake Pontchartrain. That lake now
contains small Sharks, Trygon, Pogonias Bairdiella, and hosts of fish of salt-water habits, with less liking for fresh
water than the White Perch.—D. S. JoRDAN.

?American Angler’s Book, p. 90.

HABITS Of THE WHITE PERCH. 433

of some size, the river, although in and above tide-water, fairly teems with them. At this season
they go in schools, sometimes of large size. I have known of twelve, fifteen, and twenty dozen
August Perch being taken with a line in as short a time as from three to five hours. Fishing. in
this way a line with half a dozen hooks is used, and worms, sturgeon spawn, or live minnows are
used as bait. These schools of small Perch I supposed to be broods of the preceding May, and .
that they kept together until late in November. They pass down to the salt water and there
separate. Larger adult fish are not as restless as these smaller ones, and are found in deeper
water, and usually in the tide-waters. In their feeding habits the White Perch agree very closely
with the rock-fish. In all their habits, in fact, the two fish are much alike, and in the Delaware
they are always associated, the most noticeable difference in their habits being the ability of the
Perch to remain and thrive in warmer waters than the Rock-fish is ever found frequenting.”!
So much has been said by the standard authorities in past years regarding the inferior quality
of this fish as an article of food that it seems worth while to recur to this point, and to state that
at the present time there is no fish found in the markets of our seaboard towns which is more
generally a favorite for frying, or, as the phrase goes, as a pan-fish, than the White Perch.

146. THE BLUEFISH FAMILY—POMATOMIDZ.

THE BLUEFIS :—POMATOMUS SALTATRIX.

Names.—This fish, which on the coast of New England and the Middle States is called
the Bluefish, is also known in Rhode Island as the ‘‘ Horse Mackerel”; south of Cape Hatteras as
the “Skipjack”; in North Carolina, Virginia, and Maryland it is said to be called the “Green-fish.”
Young Bluefish are in some parts of New England called “‘Snapping Mackerel” or “Snappers”;
about New Bedford “Blue Snappers”; to distinguish them from the Sea Bass they are sometimes
spoken of as the “Bluefish.” About New York they are called “Skip Mackerel,” and higher up
the Hudson River “ White-fish.” In the Gulf of Mexico the name “Bluefish” is in general use.

DISTRIBUTION.—This species is widely distributed—in the Malay Archipelago, Australia, at
the Cape of Good Hope, at Natal and about Madagascar; in the Mediterranean, where it is a
well-known and highly-prized food-fish in the markets of Algiers, though rare on the Italian side.
It has been seen at Malta, at Alexandria and on the coast of Syria, and about the Canaries. It has
never been seen on the Atlantic coast of Europe, and, strangely enough, never in the waters of the
Bermudas or any of the Western Islands. On our coast it ranges from Central Brazil and the
Guianas through the Gulf of Mexico and north to Nova Scotia, though never seen in the Bay of
Fundy. From Cape Florida to Penobscot Bay, Bluefish are abundant at all seasons when the
temperature of the water is propitious. It is not yet known what limits of temperature are the
most favorable to their welfare, but it would appear, from the study of the dates of their appear-
ance during a period of years in connection with the ocean temperature, that they prefer to avoid
water which is much colder than 40°. It is possible that the presence of their favorite food, the
menhaden, has as much influence upon their movements as water temperature. It is certain that
few Bluefish are found on our Middle and Southern coast when the menhaden are absent; on the
other hand, the Bluefish do not venture in great numbers into the Gulf of Maine at the time when
menhaden are schooling and are at their greatest abundance. Their favorite summer haunts are
in the partially protected waters of the Middle States, from May to October, with an average tem-
perature of 60° to 75°. The menhaden, or certain schools of them, affect a cooler climate and
thrive in the waters of Western and Central Maine in the months when the harbor temperatures
are little above 50° and 55°, and that of the ocean considerably lower.

Professor Baird has published in the First Report of the United States Fish Commission an

‘Report U. S. Fish Commis., part iv, 1878, p. 375.

28 F

434 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS,

exhaustive account of the habits of the Bluefish which will be quoted from freely in this chapter.
The presence of quotation marks will be sufficient to indicate the source of the paragraphs taken
from his essay without further reference to his name.

‘* MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS.—The Bluefish is pre-eminently a pelagic or wandering fish,
and like many others, especially of the Scombride, is apparently capricious in its movements,
varyi»g in numbers at particular localities with the year, and sometimes disappearing from certain
regions for a large fraction of a century, again to return as before. The cause of this variation it
is impossible to explain, being due in some instances, probably, to the disappearance of its favorite
food in consequence of its own voracity, or for other undetermined reasons.

“They occur during the summer throughout the-entire range indicated for the United States,
but are much larger in size and in greatest abundance from the coast of New Jersey northward.
From New Jersey southward, in the season mentioned, with the exception of an occasional
wandering school, they are generally only about eight to twelve inches in length, representing,
therefore, in all probability, individuals of the second year’s growth.

“They appear to have a regular migration along our coast, presenting themselves later and
later in the spring, the farther they are found to the north, and disappearing in the inverse order
from the same regions in the autumn. Tirst noticed on the Carolina coast as early as March and
April, immense schools of them, bound eastward, are seen off the coast of the Middle States from
the middle of May to the middle of June,! and in October similar bodies, perhaps embracing fewer
individuals, pass to the southward. It is possible, however, that in the autumn some schools
move well out to sea, and are, therefore, less likely to be observed. They leave the northern coast
about the middle of October, and about the middle of November appear in vast numbers off the
coast of North Carolina, where, from Nag’s Head, in Currituck County, to Cape Lookout, there is
a very extensive fishery prosecuted, which furnishes Bluefish for the Northern markets. It is
estimated that at least one hundred and fifty crews are engaged in this fall fishing, which lasts
generally until late in December. At this time individuals may be taken weighing fifteen to
eighteen pounds, although their average size is abont ten.

“Their occurrence in autumn off the coast of North Carolina is preceded and first indicated
by the vast schools of menhaden, which they follow in, several miles from the sea, and by the
usual accompaniment of flocks of gulls attending them to take a share in the feast. Of the par-
ticular mode of fishing in this neighborhood we shall take occasion to speak hereafter.

“According to Dr. Yarrow, the Bluefish are first seen in spring on the North Carolina coast
(the smaller ones first) in March or April, when, however, they are much less in size than the
specimens referred to as occurring in the fall. The precise time of their appearance at most of the
points farther north has not yet been ascertained. Whether they actually migrate from south to
north, aud vice versa, or merely come in from the outer seas in regular order, as is believed to be the
case with the shad, ete., has not been settled, although the former supposition appears the more
probable. They reach the New Jersey coast some time in the early part of May, and usually
appear at Newport and in Vineyard Sound (the time varying with the season) from the middle of
May to the first week in June. They are expected at Edgartown from the 25th to the 30th of May;
but I am informed that, on their first arrival, they feed at the bottom, and sometimes for a while
are not seen at the surface at all, seldom being taken with the hook, but canght in large numbers
in pounds and with the gill-net, usually along the lower edge of the net. According to Dr. Yarrow,

1In the Chesapeake, according to Dr. Wilkins, at Hunger’s Wharf, Virginia, the Taylor is one of the most
abundant fish, as many as four thousand being caught at one lift of the pound. The average size is about three
pounds. They come about the first of June and leave early in October. .

MIGRATIONS OF THE BLUEFISI. 435

they are not taken with the hook about Beaufort until about the 1st of July. They do not bite,
however, in Vineyard Sound until from the 10th to tbe 15th of June, when they appear on the
surface, and are caught in large numbers in the usual manner.”

In the first week of May, 1878, about a thousand Bluefish, weighing four pounds each, were
eanght off Long Island at Canarsie and West Hampton. This is about two months earlier than is
usual for them to be taken in any considerable numbers.

“ PERIODICITY.—Great interest attaches to this fish in consequence of the changes in its
abundance, and even its actual occurrence on our coast, within the historic period. The precise
nature and extent of the variation has not been established, nor whether it extended along the
entire coast or not. Its earliest mention for our waters is in the work of Josselyn (‘New England
Rarities Displayed,’ 1672), where, on page 96, he mentions the ‘blew-fish, or horse,’ as being
common in New England (his residence was on the New Hampshire coast, or near by in Maine,)
and ‘esteemed the best of sort of fish next to rock-eod.” He says: ‘It is usually as big as the
Salmon, and a better meat by far” He also, on page 24, catalogues two kinds of ‘Blew-fish’ or
‘Houndfish’; the ‘Speckeled Houndfish’ and the ‘Blew Houndfish, called Horsefish.’ There
appears to be no species to which this reference could apply excepting the subject of our present
article, this being the opinion of Mr. J. Hammond Trumbull, who has devoted much research to
determining the modern equivalents of ancient Indian names of animals, and to whom I am
indebted for the hint. Mr. Trumbull also remarks that in a manuscript vocabulary obtained by
President Stiles, in 1762, from a Pequod Indian at Groton, Connecticut, there is mentioned the
‘Aquaandunt or Blue-fish,’ clearly the same as what now bears that name, which shows that this
fish was found in Fisher’s Island Sound in 1762.

“Again, according to Zaccheus Macy,' the Bluefish were very abundant about Nantucket
from the first settlement of the English on the island, in 1659, to 1763, and were taken in immense
numbers from the 1st of June to the middle of September. They all disappeared, however, in
1764, a period of great mortality among the Indians of that island. It has been suggested that
the disease which attacked the Indians may have been in consequence of an epidemic in the fish
upon which they fed, or else that it invaded both fish and Indians simultaneously, resulting in
almost their entire extermination.”

“ According to Dr. Mitchill, this fish was entirely unknown about New York prior to 1810;
bnt they began to be taken in small numbers about the wharves in 1817, and were abundant in
1825. Immense numbers were caught at the Highlands in 1841. The doctor remarks, as has been
done repeatedly by others, that as the Bluefish increased, the squeteague or weak-fish diminished
in about the same ratio.

“ According to Mr. Smith, of Newport (Rhode Island), his father used to catch Bluefiish some
time about the year 1800, when they were very abundant and of large size, weighing from sixteen
to eighteen pounds.

“Capt. Francis Pease, of Edgartown, also testified that his father spoke of large Bluefish at
the end of the preceding century, some of them weighing forty pounds. This leaves an interval
between 1764 and toward the end of the century in which no mention is made of the Bluefish, and
which may probably indicate its absence, as during that time there were many works published.

'Collections Massachusetts Historical Society for 1794, iii, 1810.

2 From the first coming of the English to Nantucket (1659) a large fal-fish, called the blue-fish, thirty of which
would fill a barrel, was caught in great plenty all round the island from the 1st of the sixth month (June) till the
middle of the ninth month (September). But it is remarkable that in the year 1764 . . . they all disappeared,.
and that none have ever been taken since, This has been a great loss to us.”—Ibid., 1792, p. 159. Zaccheus Macy’s.
Account of Nautucket.”

436 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

relating to the local history and domestic economy of New England, and which would doubtless
have taken note of so conspicuous a fish had it been present.

“Whether they existed uninterruptedly during the century intervening between Josselyn’s
time, 1672 (or even 1659, according to Macy), and 1764, I am at present unable to say. According
to Captain Pease, they were known about Edgartown at the end of the last century.’ As already
stated, Dr. Mitchill speaks of their first making their appearance about New York in 1810. They
are noted as having been seen in Vineyard Sound again as early as 1820. It would therefore appear
that they were in such small numbers about New York in 1810 that the young only were noticed
flocking about the wharves, and that in ten years they were observed as far east as Nantucket,
where the specimens seen from 1824 to 1826 were very small, not over four inches. The next year
they measured seven, and the third year ten inches, according to the testimony of one witness,
although this does not represent, in all probability, the rate of growth.

“ According to Captain Burgess, of Monument, Massachusetts, they were caught about Nan-
tucket in 1825, and were very abundant in 1830. Dr. Storer states the first Bluefish recorded
as having been noticed in the present century north of Cape Cod was captured on the 25th of
October, 1837. Captain Atwood remarks that in 1838 he saw Bluefish for the first time about
Provincetown. These were very small, the largest weighing only two pounds. In a few years,
however, they became larger and more numerous, and finally increased to such an extent as to
exercise a very marked influence upon the fisheries. According to the captain (Proceedings of
Boston Society of Natural History, 1863, p. 189), they arrive in Massachusetts Bay in a body,
coming at once, so as to almost fill the harbor at Provincetown. In one year they came in on the
22d of June, and although the day before eight thousand mackerel were taken, the day after not
one was seen or captured. He says that they leave about the last of September, with the first cold
northeasterly storm, although stragglers are taken as late as December at Provincetown.

“‘ According to Messrs. Marchant and Peter Sinclair, of Gloucester (October, 1872), Bluefish
made their first appearance in numbers about Cape Ann twenty-five years ago, coming in great
force and driving out all other fish. They are now much scarcer than twenty years ago; about the
Same as tautog; some seasons scarcely noticed. :

“Mr. J. OC. Parker, an aged gentleman of Falmouth, says the first Bluefish seen at Wood’s
Holl in this century was taken in July, 1831; but his father informed him that they were abundant
in the preceding century, about 1780 or 1790, at which time they disappeared; and that when the
Bluefish left, the seup first made their appearance. They are also noted as having shown them-
Selves at the head of Buzzard’s Bay in 1830 and 1831, and, although numerous, were of small size,
measuring about a foot in length.

“To sum up the evidence, therefore, in regard to the periodical appearance of the Bluefish,
we find notice of its occurrence in 1672, or even 1659, and up to 1764. How long it existed in the
waters prior to that date cannot now be determined. The oral testimony of Mr. Parker refers to
its occurrence at Wood’s Holl in 1780 or 1790; and it is mentioned by Mr. Smith as being at
Newport in 1800, and at Edgartown, Massachusetts, about the same time by Captain Pease.
Mitchill testifies to its occurrence in New York, of very small size, in 1810; and it is recorded as
existing again at Nantucket in 1820, and about Wood’s Holl and Buzzard’s Bay in 1830 to 1831;
and a little later at Hyannis. In 1830 it had become abundant about Nantucket, and in the fall

1 President Dwight hears witness to the fact that Bluefish were abundant in the Narragansett Bay region as late
as 1780. ‘The Horse Mackerel formerly frequented this coast in immense numbers, and in the season were constantly
to be found in the market. But about the close of the Revolutionary war they forsook our waters and have not made
their appearance since. They were esteemed a great delicacy, and are the largest of the mackerel species.—Note on
Fishes of Newport, Rhode Island. Dwight’s Travels, iii, 1822, p. 50.

PERIODICITY OF THE BLUEFISH. 437

of 1837 it was first noticed in Massachusetts Bay; and then year by year it became more and more
numerous, until now it is very abundant. Several accounts agree in reference to the very large
size (even to forty or fifty pounds) of those taken in the last century.

“ Further research into ancient records may tend to throw more light on the early history of
the Bluefish, and even materially to change the conclusions already reached. It will be observed
that the references to its occurrence, from L780 to 1800, are on the testimony of aged persons who
have heard their fathers speak of it, although J find no printed records anywhere in reference to
it between 1764 and 1810. The rate of progression to the north otf Cape Cod I have at present no
means of indicating, although they probably gradually extended farther and farther north, and
may possibly occur much farther east than we have any mention of at present.

‘<During the present century the maximum of abundance of these fish off the middle coast of
the United States appears to have been reached from 1850 to 1860. The testimony elicited from
various parties, as well as from printed records, indicates a decrease since that period much greater
in some localities than others. About New York they are said to have been unusually plenty in
the summer of 1871, but farther East the diminution which had been observed in previous years
appeared to continue.”

Since the writing of the above, in 1871, there has been no special change in the abundance of
Bluetish. They are quite sufficient in number to supply the demand for them and to make great
inroads upon the other fishes, some of which, like the menhaden and mackerel, would perhaps, if
undisturbed by the Bluefish, be more valuable than they are at present. They have now been
with us for fifty years. Their numbers are subject to periodical variation, of the cause of which
we are ignorant. It is to be regretted that there are no records of it in the South Atlantic States.
If such existed, we might, perhaps, learn from them that the Bluefish remained in those waters
while absent from the northern coasts. Only one statement is to be found which covers this
period, although Lawson, in his ‘“ History of North Carolina,” published in 1709, and Catesby, in
his “‘ Natural History of the Carolinas,” published in 1743, refer to its presence. In “ Bartram’s
Travels,” published in 1791, “‘Skipjack” is mentioned as one of the most abundant fish at the
mouth of the Saint John’s River. When Bluefish again became abundant their presence was first
noticed at the South, and they seem to have made their inroads from that direction. The Bluefish
was unknown to Schoepf, if we may judge from his work on the “ Fisheries of New York,” published
in 1787. Dr. Mitchill recorded their frequent capture about New York in 1814, though before 1810
they are said to be unknown in that locality. In 1825 they were abundant here, and in 1841
immense numbers were captured in the Vineyard Sound, and about Nantucket they were on the
increase from 1820 to 1830. It is certain that they had not reappeared in 1822 in Narragansett
Bay, for in “‘ Bertram’s Travels” it is stated that, though formerly abundant, they had not been
seen in that region since the time of the Revolution.

The first one which was noticed north of Cape Cod was captured in October, 1837, while we
have no record of their appearance about Cape Ann before 1847.

Foop AND voraciry.—The Bluefish is a carnivorous animal of the most pronounced type,
feeding solely upon other fish. In this connection it cannot be out of place to reprint Professor
Baird’s remarks upon this subject, which have been so often quoted during the past ten years:

“There is no parallel in point of destructiveness to the Bluefish among tie marine species on
our coast, whatever may be the case among some of the carnivorous fish of the South American
waters. The Bluefish has been well likened to an animated chopping-machine, the business of
which is to cut to pieces and otherwise destroy as many fish as possible in a given space of time.
All writers are unanimous in regard to the destructiveness of the Bluefish. Going in large schools,

438 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

in pursuit of fish not much inferior to themselves in size, they move along like a pack of hungry
wolves, destroying everything before them. Their trail is marked by fragments of fish and by the
stain of blood in the sea, as, where the fish is too large to be swallowed entire, the hinder portion
will be bitten off and the anterior part allowed to float away or sink. It is even maintained, with
great earnestness that such is the gluttony of the fish, that when the stomach becomes full the
coutents are disgorged and then again filled. It is certain that it kills many more fish than it
requires for its own support.

“The youngest fish, equally with the older, perform this function of destruction, and altbough
they occasionally devour crabs, worms, ete., the bulk of their sustenance throughout the greater
part of the year is derived from other fish. Nothing is more common than to find & small Bluefish
of six or eight inches in length under a school of minnows making continual dashes and captures
among them. The stomachs of the Bluefish of all sizes, with rare exceptions, are found loaded with
the other fish, sometimes to the number of thirty or forty, either entire or in fragments.

‘‘As already referred to, it must also be borne in mind that it is not merely the small fry that
are thus devoured, and which it is expected will fall a prey to other animals, but that the food of
the Bluefish consists very largely of individuals which have already passed a large percentage of
the chances against their attaining maturity, many of them, indeed, having arrived at the period
of spawniny. To make the case more clear, let us realize for a moment the number of Bluefish
that exist on our coast in the summer season. As far as I can ascertain by the statistics obtained
at the fishing stations on the New England coast, as also from the records of the New York
markets, kindly furnished by Middleton & Carman, of the Fulton Market, the capture of Bluefish,
from New Jersey to Monomoy, during the season, amounts to not less than one million individuals,
averaging five or six pounds each. Those, however, who have seen the Bluefish in his native
‘waters, and realized the immense number there existing, will be quite willing to admit that prob-
ably not one fish in a thousand is ever taken by man. If, therefore, we have an actual capture of
one million, we may allow one thousand millions as occurring in the extent of our coasts referred
‘to, even neglecting the smaller ones, which, perhaps, should also be taken into the account.

“An allowance of ten fish per day to each Bluefish is not excessive, according to the testimony
-elicited from the fishermen and substantiated by the stomachs of those examined; this gives ten
thousand millions of fish destroyed per day. And as the period of the stay of the Bluefish on the
New England coast is at least one hundred and twenty days, we have in round numbers twelve
hundred million millions of fish devoured in the course of a season. Again, if each Bluefish,
averaging five pounds, devours or destroys even half its own weight of other fish per day (and I
am not sure that the estimate of some witnesses of twice this weight is not more nearly correct),
we will have, during the same period, a daily loss of twenty-five hundred million pounds, equal to
three hundred thousand millions for the season.

‘This estimate applies to three or four year old fish, of at least three to five pounds in weight.
We must, however, allow for those of smaller size, and a hundred-fold or more in number, all
engaged simultaneously in the butchery referred to.

“We can scarcely conceive of a number so vast; and however much we may diminish, within
reason, the estimate of the number of Bluefish and the average of their captures, there still remains
an appalling aggregate of destruction. While the smallest Bluefish feed upon the diminutive fry,
those of which we have taken account capture fish of large size, many of them, if not capable of
reproduction, being witbin at least one or two years of that period.

“It is estimated by very good authority that of the spawn deposited by any fish at a given
time not more than thirty per cent. are hatched, and that less than ten per cent. attain an

GROWTH OF THE BLUEFISH. 439

age when they are able to take care of themselves. As their age increases, the chances of reaching
maturity become greater and greater. It is among thesmall residuum of this class that the agency
of the Bluefish is exercised, and whatever reasonable reduction may be made in our estimate, we
cannot doubt that they exert a material influence.

“The rate of growth of the Bluefish is also an evidence of the immense amount of food they
must consume. The young fish which first appear along the shores of Vineyard Sound, about the
middle of August, are about five inches in length. By the beginning of September, however, they
have reached six or seven inches, and on their reappearance in the second year they measure
about twelve or fifteen inches. After this they increase in a still more rapid ratio. A fish which
passes eastward from Vineyard Sound in the spring, weighing five pounds, is represented, accord-
ing to the general impression, by the ten to fifteen pound fish of the autumn. If this be the fact,
the fish of three or four pounds which pass along the coast of North Carolina in March return to
it in October weighing ten to fifteen pounds.

“As already explained, the relationship of these fish to the other inhabitants of the sea is
that of an unmitigated butcher; and it is able to contend successfully with any other species not
superior to itself in size. It is not known whether an entire school ever unite in an attack upon
a particular object of prey, as is said to be the case with the ferocious fishes of the South American
rivers ; should they do so, no animal, however large, could withstand their onslaught.

“They appear to eat anything that swims of suitable size—fish of all kinds, but perhaps more
especially the menhaden, which they seem to follow along the coast, and which they attack with
such ferocity as to drive them on the shore, where they are sometimes piled up in windrows to the
depth of a foot or more. .

“The amount of food they destroy, even if the whole of it be not actually consumed, is almost
incredible. Mr. Westgate (page 33) estimates it at twice the weight of the fish in a day, and this
is perhaps quite reasonable. Captain Spindle goes so far as to say that it will destroy a thousand
fish ina day. This gentleman is also of the opinion that they do much more harm to the fishes
of the coast than is caused by the pounds. They will generally swallow a fish of a very large size
in proportion to their own, sometimes taking it down bodily; at others, only the posterior half.
The peculiar armor of certain fish prevents their being taken entire; and it is not uncommon to
find the head of a sculpin or other fish, whose body has evidently been cut off by the Bluefish.
In the summer time the young are quite apt to establish themselves singly in a favorite locality,
and, indeed, to accompany the fry of other fishes, usually playing below them, and every now and
then darting upward and capturing an -unlucky individual, while the rest dash away in every
direction. In this manner they attend upon the young mullet, atherinas, etc. They are very fond
ot squid, which may very frequently be detected in their stomachs. In August, 1870, about Fire
Island, Mr. 8. I. Smith found their stomachs filled with marine worms, a species ot Heteronereis,
which, though usually burrowing in the mud, at that season swims freely toward the surface
in connection with the operation of reproduction. This, like the squid, is a favorite bait for the
Bluefish ; and they appear to care for little else when these are to be had. This fact probably
explains the reason why, at certain seasons, no matter how abundant the fish may be, they cannot
be taken with the drail or squid boat.’

1The following extract from the ‘' Gloucester Telegraph” of June 4, 1870, gives an idea of their influence upon other
fishes:

“ABUNDANCE OF FISH IN New JERSEY—1870.—Accounts from New Jersey say that the Bluefish came in at Barne-
gat Inlet last week, sweeping through the bay, over flats as well as through the channel, driving millions of bushels of
bunkers before them and iilling the coves, creeks, ditches, and ponds in the weadows full. At Little Eyg Harbor
Inlet they drove shad on shore so that people gathered them up by wagon-loads. Fish lie in creeks, ponds, etc., along

440 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

The Bluefish are believed to have had a very important influence upon the abundance of
other species on some parts of the coast. This has been noticed especially on the north side of
Cape Cod. South of Cape Cod the small fish occur in such enormous abundance that even the
voracity of millions of Bluefish could hardly produce any effect upon them. Captain Atwood has
recorded his belief that the advent of the Bluefish drove away the plaice or iarge flounder from
those waters, not so much by their direct attacks upon them as by destroying the squid upon
which the latter formerly subsisted. He is also of the opinion that the mackerel once, for a time,
were affected by them. The mackerel have since returned to those waters in their wonted
numbers, but the Bluefish are not now sufficientiy plenty north of Cape Cod to interfere with them.
The flight of the mackerel was not an unmitigated evil, however, since, as Captain Atwood pointed
out, the number of lobsters for a time was very considerably increased. The mackerel fed upon
their eggs, and when they were driven away by the Bluefish the lobsters had a better chance to
multiply.

“The Bluefish sometimes make their way up the rivers to a considerable distance, the adults,
however, apparently never entering the perfectly fresh water. They are found in the Potomac as
far north as Aquia Creek, and also far up the Hudson; indeed, the young of the year are taken
as high as Sing Sing on the Hudson and other tidal rivers, where the water is entirely fresh.”

REPRODUCTION, —“ Little is known of their reproduction. Dr. Yarrow does not give any facts
in regard to this subject, at Fort Macon, except that spawn was seen to run out of a small
female caught July 14. Dr. Holbrook is also silent on this head. Mr. Genio C. Scott says the
spawning beds are visited by the parent in June, and consist of quiet nooks or bays. Mr. R. B.
Roosevelt states that very diminutive young occur in immense numbers along the coast at the end
of September or beginning of October (‘Game Fish of America,’ 1862, 159). I found the young
fish at Carson’s Inlet, Beasley’s Point, New Jersey, in July, 1854, two or three inches in length,
and more compressed than the adult; but farther east, on Vineyard Sound, although diligent
search was conducted, between the middle of June and the first of October, with most efficient
apparatus in the way of fine-meshed nets, I met with nothing excepting fish that made their
appearance all at once along the edge of the bay and harbor.

“According to Captain Edwards, of Wood’s Holl, a very accurate observer, they have no
spawn in them when im Vineyard Sound. This statement is corroborated by Captain Hinckley;
and Captain Hallett, of Hyannis, ‘does not know where they spawn,’ ‘The only positive evidence
on this subject is that of Captain Pease, who states it as the general impression about Edgar-
town that they spawn about the last of July or the first of August. He has seen them when he
thought they were spawning on the sand, having caught them a short time vefore, full of spawn,
and finding them afterward for a time thin and weak. He thinks their spawning ground is on
the white sandy bottom to the eastward of Martha’s Vineyard, toward Muskeeget. While not
discrediting the statement of Mr. Pease, it seems a little remarkable that so few persons on the
eastern coast have noticed the spawning in summer of the Bluefish; and, although there may be
exceptions to the fact, it is not impossible that the spawning ground is in very early spring, or
even in winter, off New Jersey and Long Island or farther south. It is not impossible that, at a

the meadows two feet deep, so that one can tuke « common fork and pitch them into a boat or throw them on the
bank. In some places they lie in windrows on the meadows where the tide has taken them, so they take large wood-
scows alongside and load them.”

1857.—“‘ Bluefish were very plenty off our shores in the early part of autumn. They are great enemies to the
menhaden ; and for several days such a war raged that the beaches were strewn with dead fish, chiefly of the latter
species. Mr. Lewis, the historian, said that in two tides he picked up nine bushels and buried them in his garden for
manure.—LEWIS AND NEWHALL, p. 452. History of Lynn.,

MOVEMENTS OF YOUNG BLUEFISH. 441

suitable period after spawning, the young, in obedience to their migratory instinct, may move
northward along the coast, growing rapidly as they proceed. This explains the almost sudden
appearance of fish of five inches about Wood’s Holl.

‘We have the statement of Dr. Yarrow that vast schools of small Bluefish were met with in
Beaufort Harbor during the last week in December, 1871. These were in company with small
schools of young menhaden and yellow-tail shad, and were apparently working their way toward
the sea by the route of the inlet. When observed, they were coming from the southward through
the sound, moving very slowly, at times nearly leaving it, and then returning. The largest were
about four inches in length, and others were much smaller; and as many as twenty schools were
observed from the wharf at Fort Macon, each of them occupying an area of from sixty to eighty
feet square, and apparently from four to six feet in depth. I would not be much surprised if these
fish should prove to have been spawned late in the year off the southern coast.”

Diligent research by numerous inquirers during a period of ten years has failed to add any-
thing of importance to what Professor Baird has already stated in the paragraph above quoted,
and it may be regarded as almost certain that Bluefish do not spawn in our inshore waters. The
only important contribution to our knowledge on this subject is found in the notes of Mr. Silas
Stearns, who believes that he has abundant evidence of their spawning in the Gulf of Mexico.
His remarks are quoted in full below. The Hon. Robert B. Roosevelt records that he observed
the bluefish fry less than an inch in length in the inlet of Far Rockaway, New York, on the 10th
of July.

SizzE.—‘The size varies considerably with season and locality, those spending the summer
on the southern coast, according to good authority, rarely exceeding two or three pounds in
weight, and being generally considerably less. The largest summer specimens are those found
farther to the eastward, where they are not unfrequently met with weighing from ten to fifteen
pounds, although this latter weight is quite unusual. Mr. Snow, however (page 44), mentions
having seen one of twenty-two pounds, and others give as their maximum from fourteen to
twenty. The average size of the schools in Vineyard Sound, during the early season, is from five
to seven pounds. The schools, however, that make their appearance in October embrace many
individuals of from ten to fifteen pounds. It is, therefore, not improbable that the difference
between the first-mentioned average and the last represents the increase by their summer feeding.
As already remarked, Bluefish in the last century sometimes attained a weight of forty or fifty
pounds in Vineyard Sound; according to Zaccheus Macy, thirty of them would fill a barrel.”

“Forest and Stream,” June 25, 1874, states that L. Hathaway, esq., a veteran fisherman, while
fishing from the bridge at Cohasset Narrows, Massachusetts, with rod and reel, captured a Blue-
fish weighing twenty-five pounds. The largest previously caught weighed seventeen pounds.

“On getting back to the Carolina coast in the early part of November, according to Dr. Yar-
row’s statement, they are from three to five feet in length and weigh from ten to twenty pounds.
What becomes of these large fish, that so few of them are seen in the early spring, it is impossible
to say. If it be really true that they are much scarcer than in the fall, we may infer that their
increased size makes them a more ready prey to the larger fish and cetaceans, or that they have
accomplished their ordinary period of life; possibly that they have broken up into smaller parties,
less conspicuous to observation, or that they have materially changed their locality. The average
length of the fish that appear in the spring off the coast of Virginia and the southern part of New
Jersey, according to Dr. Coues, Dr. Yarrow, and my own observations, is about one foot, being
probably about one year old. As a general rule, those of the smaller size keep close to the shore
and can always be met with, while the larger ones go in schools and remain farther outside.

442 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“JT was unable to obtain any very young fish about Wood’s Holl in 1871, the smallest found
making their appearance quite suddenly along the coast, especially in the little bays, about the
middle of August, and then measuring about five by one and one-fifth inches. By the end of
September, however, these had reached a length of seven or eight inches, and at the age of about
a year they probably constitute the twelve or fourteen inch fish referred to as occurring along the
southern coast. The fish of the third year, or those two years old, are possibly the three-pound
fish, while the five to seven pound fish may be considered a year older still. Accurate observa-
tions are wanting, however, to determine these facts; as also whether they require two years, or
three or more, to attain sufficient maturity for breeding. As far as I kuow, there 1s no appreciable
ditterence between the sexes in their rate of growth or weight, excepting that the female is likely
to be a little deeper in the body.”

A Bluefish weighing one pound measures about fourteen inches; two pounds, seventeen
inches; three pounds, twenty-one inches; four pounds, twenty-four inches; five pounds, twenty-
six inches; six pounds, twenty-six to twenty-seven inches, and eight pounds, twenty-nine inches.

STEARNS ON BLUEFISH IN THE GULF OF MExIcO.—Mr. Stearns’ notes on the occurrence
of the Bluefish in the Gulf of Mexico are so important that they are quoted here in full:

“The Bluefish is abundant in West Florida and as far west as the Mississippi River, but is
rare or not found at all in other parts of the Gulf. At Pensacola and vicinity it is at certain
seasons one of the most important fishes of trade. Here it is caught only in seines and when
migrating, during the months of April, May, June, November, and December. It usually appears
on the coast in April—sometimes a little sooner—and comes from the southeast, swimming directly
in trom deep water, or parallel to the land, according to the condition of the sea. It sometimes
swims near the surface, either to sport or prey upon smaller surface-swimming fishes, but more
commonly at some depth in shoal water along the beach. Many schools are observed through the
months of April, May, and June approaching the land from the eastward, and it is supposed that
there are several distinct ‘runs’ in that period. These ‘runs’ take place every year, although
much larger some years than others. It is usually the case that the fish arriving in the spring are
small, averaging two and a half pounds weight, and that those caught in the fall are larger, aver-
aging four pounds or more. A few very large individuals are found in both seasons.

“In May and June Bluetish enter the bays. They remain for some days in the swift tide-
ways when inside, and then disappear almost entirely from observation. A few are taken through
the summer with hook and line in the bays and at sea. Excepting the smallest ones, all the
Bluefish contain spawn when they arrive in the spring. With the larger fish the spawn is nearly
ripe, and with the small and intermediate size is found in nearly all stages. April 29, 1879, I
examined two female Bluefish, weighing seven and eight pounds, and found spawn almost ripe
enough to flow from the oviduct. The same day others, smaller ones, were examined, in which
the ovaries were scarcely visible. The spawning season of the Bluefish includes several months,
I think, which are May, June, July, and August.

“There can be no doubt of its spawning in the bays, sounds, and bayous, as all evidence
gained goes so far to prove it. On June 18, 1878, and August 9, 1878, I caught young Bluefish of
about three-quarters of an inch in length in Pensacola Bay. These fry were very active and gave
me no little trouble in capturing them. Their color was a brilliant green, which faded consider-
ably when placed in alcohol. These, with others, were sent to the National Museum with my
collections of that year. Many other specimens of about that size were seen in August, but
escaped my net. During the months of November and December many small schools of Bluefish
are seen to pass out of the inlets, and, if there is not much surf, to follow along the beach eastward.

BLUEFISH IN THE GULF OF MEXICO. 443

Bluefish of all sizes may be seen at this time, the smaller ones measuring in length three to five
inches, the intermediate sizes ten, twelve, and fifteen inches, and the large ones from the last-men-
tioned size to a size weighing fifteen or eighteen pounds. Ten pounds is not an unusual weight
for large Bluefish, but those of eighteen pounds are rare. Bluefish are said to be more abundant
on this coast than formerly, and any change in the last five years has tended to an increase rather
than a decrease. It is an exceedingly voracious fish, preying upon any kind of fish through which
its teeth can cut and which its jaws can surround. I think its migratory movement on this coast
is caused more on account of its food becoming scarcer in cold weather than on account of its
being influenced by the change of the temperature of the water, for on the coldest days of the year
(in December) Bluefish are sometimes caught in shoal water in great abundance as well as at any
other time. The Bluefish is one of the choicest food-fishes of this coast, and is much used, both
fresh and salted.”

EARLL ON THE BLUEFISH IN NoRTH CAROLINA.—Below is given an outline of the winter
Bluefish fisheries of the Southern coast as gathered from notes made during the visit of Mr. R. KH.
Earll to that region:

The large fish are taken in two localities—first, a few miles off Cape May, and again on the
Carolina coast between Cape Henry and Ocracoke Inlet. They are most abundant between Cape
Hatteras and New Inlet. Small fish frequently enter the sounds during the summer months, and
have long been taken by the residents. The larger ones seldom enter the inlets, but remain near
the outer shore, where they feed upon the menhaden, shad, and alewives, during the season of their
migrations to and from the larger sounds in fall and spring.

Apparently, the first that was known of the presence of large Bluefish in this region was in
1842, when a quantity was taken in a haul-seine near New Inlet. Gill-nets were first used for the
capture of the species in this locality in 1847, though they were not generally adopted till several
years later. The first vessel visited the region in 1866, and from that date to 1879 six to twelve
sail came regularly to the locality. The fishery reached its height between 1870 and 1876, when in
addition to the vessels fully one hundred crews of five men each fished along the shores. The
catch varies greatly from time to time, as the fish are constantly on the move and often go beyond
reach of the seines and gill-nets. Some seasons each boat’s crew has averaged four or five thou-
sand fish weighing ten to fifteen pounds each, and again they have taken almost nothing. Fre-
quently the bulk of the catch of an entire season is taken in three or four days.

Since the winter of 1877 and 1878 the fish are said to have been much less abundant and of
smaller size. In the winter of 1879 and 1880 about seventy-five crews were engaged in the fishery
from the first of November till Christmas. The total catch did not exceed fifty thousand fish
averaging six pounds each. The small number taken is partially accounted for by the fact that
many of the fish were so small as to readily pass through the meshes without being caught.

During my visit in May, 1880, large schools of Bluefish were reported along the shore, and a
considerable number of shad and other species were found upon the beach where they had been
driven by their pursuers. A good many Bluefish were also stranded while in pursuit of their prey.
It seemed that there is no reason to believe that the fish have permanently left the coast, or that
they are even so scarce as is at present claimed, for the men have fished with little regularity, and
have gone only a short distance from the shore, while the bulk of the Bluetish may have been
farther out.

Usrs.—This is one of the most important of our food-fishes, and surpassed in public estima-
tion only by the Spanish mackerel and the pompano. It may be said to furnish a large part of
the supply to the middle and Northern States. It is a standard fish in New York, Boston, and

444 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

other seaports, and is carried in great numbers into the interior. Its flesh is very sweet and
savory, but it does not keep very well. In the Vineyard Sound the fishermen are in the habit of
crimping their fish, or killing them, by cutting their throats in such a manner that they bleed
freely. Every one who has opportunities for observing admits that fish thus treated are far supe-
rior to any others. Great quantities of Bluefish are frozen in New York for winter consumption.
They are still considered unfit for food on our Southern coast, and even in the markets of Washing-
ton, District of Columbia. I have frequently been stopped by fish-dealers who asked me to assure
their customers that Bluefish were eatable. They are growing into favor everywhere, however,
just as they did in Boston. Captain Atwood tells me that.in 1865 but very few were sold in Boston,
and that the demand has been increasing ever since. When he first went to Boston with a load
of Bluefish he got two cents a pound for them; the second year they were scarcer and he got two
and one-half cents, and the year afterwards three cents.

147. THE COBIA OR CRAB-EATER—ELACATE CANADA.

This fish, known in the Chesapeake Bay as the ‘ Bonito” and “ Coal-fish,” and as the “Sergeant-
fish” in Southern and Eastern Florida, and in Western Florida as the “Ling” or ‘‘Snooks,” is con-
sidered one of the most important food-fishes of Maryland and Virginia, though it is but little
known elsewhere. Like the Bluefish, it is cosmopolitan in its distribution, having been recorded in
the seas of China and Japan, in Southeastern Hindostan, in the Malay Archipelago, on the coast
of Brazil, in the West Indies and the Bermudas, where it is called the ‘“ Cubby-yew,” and along
our own shores from the Gulf of Mexico to Cape Cod. DeKay speaks of the capture of a single
individual in Boston Harbor. The species was originally described by Linnzus from a specimen
sent to him from South Carolina by Dr. Garden. The name “ Sergeant-fish” refers to its peculiar
coloration, several stripes of brown and gray being visible on the sides ot the body. The name
“Crab-eater” appears to have been ascribed to the fish by Dr. Mitchill. What is known of its habits
may be very shortly told. Holbrook remarks: ‘The Crab-eater is a solitary fish; it prefers deep
and clear water and is only taken singly with a hook. It lives op the coast of Carolina late in
May, and is occasionally captured until September, when it is no longer seen in our waters. It is
exceedingly voracious, and destroys many smaller fish, which make its ordinary food, though it
does not reject crustaceous animals.”

Mitchill cut up a specimen which he obtained in New York market in June, 1815, which had
been caught in the bay. He found its stomach distended with food of various sorts, including
twenty spotted sand-crabs and several young flounders. DeKay tells us that the specimen from
which his description was taken was captured in a seine in the harbor of Boston and placed in a
car with other fish. It was soon discovered that he had destroyed and eaten every fish in the
car. These fish were chiefly sculpins or porgies. Mr. 8S. C. Clarke, speaking of the fish fauna of
Florida, remarks: ‘This fish I have never seen except in the Indian River, where it is a common
species, lying under the mangrove bushes in wait for prey like a pike, which it much resembles in
form and in the long under jaw full of sharp teeth.” The size is from two to three feet. It attains
the length of five feet and the weight of fifteen or twenty pounds. Stearns writes: “It is said by
Maj. E. B. Staples, of Sarasota, to be quite common in South Florida.”

The Cobia breeds in the Chesapeake Bay, where in 1880 Mr. RB. E. Earll succeeded in artificially
fertilizing the eggs. Dr. Mitchill speaks of its availability as a food-fish in the highest terms.

148. THE TRIPLE-TAIL OR BLACK PERCH—LOBOTES SURINAMENSIS.

The Triple-tail of the New York market, Lobotes swrinamensis, known in South Carolina as
the “Black Perch,” and to the fishermen of Saint John’s River as the “Grouper,” is also called

THE TRIPLE-TAIL OR BLACK PERCH. 445

by various authors the “Black Triple-tail,” and in 1856, according to Gill, was called in New York
market the “Flasher.” It is remarkable on account of its extraordinarily wide range, having been
found in China, the Malay Archipelago, at Sunda and Molucca, in the Bay of Bengal, and in the
Mediterranean about Sicily; at Ceylon, in the West Indies about Cuba and Jamaica, on the coast of
South America, from Surinam, whence the first specimen was derived and from which locality the
species takes its scientific name, and along the coast of the United States from Saint John’s River
to Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts. The Triple-tail is a short, thick, heavily built fish. The dorsal and
anal fins project backwards towards the base of the caudal so prominently as to give origin to the
common name. When alive it is avery beantiful species, silvery and gray in color, but after death
it soon becomes dingy—so dingy, in fact, that many of the common names are prefixed by the
adjective “black.” I saw four specimens at Jacksonville, Florida, on the 5th of April, 1875. The
largest weighed about ten pounds and measured nearly two feet in length. The species is abundant
about Charleston, where, according to Holbrook, it appears in June and remains until September.
It feeds upon small fishes and mussels, and is said to take the hook readily when baited with clams
or with shrimps. It is occasionally taken in the lower part of the Chesapeake Bay, and Professor
Baird obtained specimens about three inches long in August among the eel-grass on Tuckahoe
River in New Jersey. Stragglers have been taken at New York, and even as far north as Wood’s
Holl, Massachusetts. They are occasionally brought to the New York market, where they are
highly esteemed. Gill, writing in 1856, said: “‘I saw a single specimen of this species in Fulton
Market last year, which remained exposed on the stall from August 30 to September 6. It did
not seem to be known. It was about fifteen inches in length, and one dollar was demanded for it.”
By the fishermen of Saint John’s River, Florida, it is considered one of the finest food-fishes, and its
large silver scales command a high price at the fancy shops, where they are sold to be used in the
manufacture of scale works.

149, THE MOON-FISH—CHZATODIPTERUS FABER.

The Moon-fish is one of the rarer species on our coast, and has recently come so much into
favor in New York that among connoisseurs it: is one of the most highly esteemed food-fishes. It
is also highly esteemed by residents of Washington who know it, being abundant in the markets
of that city in summer. In the northern parts of the Gulf of Mexico it is called the “Spade-fish”;
from Florida to Charleston the “ Angel-fish,” a name which, according to Schoepf, appears to
have been current during the last century at Beaufort, North Carolina, where it is called the
“Porgee” or “ Pogy,” and at New York, where it is stated to be found in summer. “Three-tail
Sheepshead” and *‘Three-tail Porgee” are names which are said to have been formerly in use
among the New York fishermen.

The range of this species along our coast is very wide. It has been found in Guatemala, and
perhaps farther south, and the British Museum has specimens from Texas, Santo Domingo, and
Jamaica. It is said to be somewhat abundant on the coast of South Carolina, and not uncommon
at the entrance to the Chesapeake Bay. They are occasionally taken about New York, and several
individuals have been obtained by the Fish Commission at Woods’ Holl. It is occasionally taken
in Southern California, about San Diego. It attains the length of eighteen inches and the weight
of several pounds. The large adult specimens have a peculiar globular bone in the head, unlike
anything which has been found in any other fish. Two species have been recognized by American
ichthyologists. It seems probable that these represent different ages of the same fish. The only
study of its habits in existence is the following, which is quoted from Mr. Stearns’ manuscript:

“The Spade-fish, Chetodipterus fabcr, is common on the West Florida, Alabama, and Louisiana

446 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

coasts. I have not observed it in South Florida. It is found throughout the summer and fall in
the bays, about wharves, rock-piles, and old wrecks, where crustaceous animals are abundant. In
October and November large schools are seen along the sea-beaches, evidently leaving the coast
for warmer waters, at which time many are caught by seine fishermen. It spawns in early summer,
and the young are seen until October. Ihave seen specimens of Spade-fish fifteen inches long;
but the average size is not more than eight inches. It is an excellent pan-fish, selling readily in
market.”

This species is known to the fishermen of the Saint John’s and Indian Rivers, Florida, under
the name “ Angel-fish.”. Holbrook states that it appears on the shores of South Carolina in May
and June, and is then taken in considerable numbers with the seine. Jordan states that it is
common at Beaufort, North Carolina, where it is used as a food-fish. Lugger remarks that it is
not uncommon in the salt-water region near the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, but is seldom, if
ever, brought to the Baltimore markets. DeKay remarks that in the waters of New York it only
appears periodically, and occasionally in great numbers during the summer months. About 1822
they were caught here in seines in great numbers, and exposed in the markets for sale. I am not
aware that any such incursion has since been observed. On the coast of California, where,
according to Jordan, it is occasionally taken about San Diego in the kelp, it is too rare to be of
commercial importance.

150. THE REMORA FAMILY—ECHENEIDIDZ.

This family is represented on onr coast by five species, which are generally known as “Suck-
ers” or ‘“Sucking-fishes.” They are among the most remarkable of fishes, the first dorsal fin having
become transformed into a sucking organ, by means of which the fish can attach themselves very
firmly to the sides of vessels or to the gill-covers or sides of larger species of fish. One or two of
the species, such as the H. naucrates, are frequently found adhering to the sides of vessels. Others
attach themselves to sharks, and are carried by them from place to place. Since they are them-
selves excellent swimmers, the purpose of this peculiar habit is hard to understand. It appears to
be more for the purpose of following the larger fishes in order that they may share the fragments
of their feasts. Very often, especially in the case of sharks, the fish to which the Suckers attach
themselves become very much emaciated and exhausted by the effort of swimming under this
impediment. The common sword-fish is frequently accompanied by one of the Sucking-fishes, which
has been called the ‘“Sword-fish Sucker,” Remoropsis brachyptera. It has not been known to attach
itself to any other fish. The “Billfish,” Tetrapturus, has another species of sucker peculiar to
itself, the Cuban “Pega de las Agujas” Rhombochirus osteochir.

Mr. Stearns states that in the Gulf of Mexico, when on the snapper banks fishing, he has seen
these fish leave sharks that were in the vicinity and remain about the vessel as long as it staid
there for the purpose of securing the bait that had been thrown overboard. He noticed some that
were four or five feet in length. These “Sucking-fish” are never eaten, and are interesting chiefly
as enemies of other more important species.

The Remora was one of the first fishes observed by the early discoverers of North America. In
Ogilby’s “America” is the following description of the manner in which the Indians used these
fishes as aids in the capture of other larger species. The incident seems to have occurred about
the West Indian islands:

“Columbus from hence (from Cuba) proceeding on further Westward, discover’d a fruitful
Coast, verging the Mouth of a River, whose Water runs Boyling into the Sea. Somewhat further
he saw very strange Fishes, especially of the Guaican, not unlike an Eel, but with an extraordinary

THE GUIACAN DESCRIBED BY COLUMBUS. 447

great Head, over which hangs a Skin like a Bag. This Fish is the Natives Fisher; for having a
Line or handsom Cord fastned about him, so soon as a Turtel, or any other of his Prey, comes
above Water, they give him Line; whereupon the Guaican, like an Arrow out of a Bowe, shoots
toward the other Fish, and then gathering the Mouth of the Bag on his Head like a Purse-net
holds them so fast, that he lets not loose till hal’d up out of the Water.”!

1\Narrative of Voyage of Columbus, in Ogilby’s ‘‘ America,” 1671, p. 49 (with very curious picture of Indian
fishing).

448 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS,

P.—BARRACOUTA, MULLET, PIKE, AND MUMMICHOGS.

151. THE BARRACOUTA FAMILY—SPHYRENIDA.

This family is represented on our Atlantic coast by several species, none of which appear to
be at all abundant north of Florida, except one species, which has recently appeared in consid-
erable numbers on the coast of Southern Massachusetts, and which is recorded by Jordan as
abundant in its young state in Beaufort Harbor, North Carolina. This species, called by DeKay
Sphyrena borealis, is closely related to, if not identical with, 8. spet of the Mediterranean. No
specimens of greater length than ten or twelve inches have ever been taken, and individuals of
this size are very unusual, though smaller ones, ranging from two to six inches, are occasionally
found in large schools about the western end of Martha’s Vineyard and about Wood’s Holl,
Massachusetts. It seems incredible that the young should occur so abundantly in these waters
and the full-grown individuals should be absent. This is, possibly, because we do not yet know
how to capture them. The common Barracouta, or “ Barracuda,” of the West Indies, Sphyrena
pieuda, occasionally finds its way into our northern waters, and one or two specimens of them and
other West Indian species have been taken at Wood’s Holl.

8. pieuda is the common Barracouta of Key West and the southern coast. It is caught with
hook and line, and appears occasionally in the markets. Mr. Stearns states that it is only of
average merit as a food-fish. He records the capture of several very small specimens belonging to
this genus in Pensacola and Choctawhatchee Bays in June, 1880. In the West Indies this, or
some closely-related species, grows to the enormous iength of eight feet and the weight of forty
pounds, and is as much dreaded as the large sharks.

Although to some extent used as food, this is one of the forbidden fishes of the Cuban markets,
there having been instances of severe sickness caused by eating its flesh. Since, however, a large
part of the best food-fishes of the West Indian waters are tabooed by Cuban law, this is hardly to
be regarded as a fair criterion. In the Bermudas both Sphyrena picuda, called “ Sennet,” and 8.
spet, which is called the “ Barracuda,” are highly esteemed for food and meet with ready sale.

On the California coast occurs another species, Sphyreena argentea, which is everywhere known
as the ‘Barracuda,’ or ‘Barracuta’; this species reaches 0 length of about three feet and a
weight of twelve pounds.

Professor Jordan remarks concerning it as follows: “It is abundant in summer from San Fran-
cisco southward, great numbers having been taken everywhere from Santa Cruz sou“hward. It is
found mainly at a distance of three miles or more from the shore. In open water it wiil sometimes
take a still hook, but near the shore it must be trolled for. It arrives in late spring or summer,
at different times in different places, the main ‘runs,’ about the Santa Barbara Islands, being in
July; farther north, somewhat later. It spawns at San Pedro about the Ist of August. In Sep-
tember it usually disappears, but the young often remain in the south and are taken with the seine
in the winter. It is not known whether it retreats to the south or to deep water. It feeds upon
anchovies and other fishes. As a food-fish it is one of the best and most important on the coast.
It is highly esteemed when dried and salted, and, like the white-fish and yellow-tail, then sells at
a price higher than that received for the Alaska codfish.”

THE SEA SERPENTS. 449

152. THE DEAL-FISH FAMILY—TRACHYPTERIDZ.

The members of this family are found in the deep parts of the sea in various parts of the
world, though none have yet been found on our Atlantic coast. They are eel-shaped fishes of
great length and brilliant colors, and have even been described under the name of ‘“Sea-serpent.”
It is probable that most of the stories regarding the “‘sea-serpent” have had reference to some
member of this family, and to this family most of the descriptions of large marine animals of a
serpent-like nature are very applicable. Several individuals of the species known as the ‘“Oar-
fish,” Regalecus Banksti, have been cast up on the British coast, the largest in Yorkshire, in 1845,
twenty-four feet in length. In 1860, an individual, eighteen feet in length, ran ashore at the
Bermudas, but none have been found in the more western portions of the Atlantic, although
descriptions which have been given by various observers would indicate that they occasionally
appear near our shores. On the Pacific coast there is a species which is sometimes cast ashore by
the storms, Trachypterus altivelis; it is considered by the Makah Indians to be the King of the
salmons, and they will permit no one to eat the flesh upon any condition, for fear the salmon will
never return. It is curious that a similar tradition exists on the coast of Norway regarding a
related species which is called the “Sillkung,” or “King of the herring.” “The same notion,” says
Jordan, “is commemorated in the generic name Regalecus.” }

153. THE MULLETS—MUGIL ALBULA AND MUGIL BRASILIENSIS.

NAmES.—There are,upon our coast two species of Mullet, the differences between which are
sometimes, though not always, recognized by fishermen. The most usual species is the Striped
Mullet, Mugil albula; the other is the so-called “ White Mullet,” Mugil brasiliensis. The former is
the larger, and has eight instead of nine rays in the anal fin, and forty-two instead of thirty-eight
scales between the gill openings and the base of the caudal fin. There has been so much confusion
among writers regarding the species of this family upon our coast that it has until very recently
been impossible to define precisely their geographical range. The Striped Mullet occurs in the
West Indies, the Gulf, and from Southern California to Chili, the other species from Southern
Massachusetts to the West Indies, and from Lower California to Peru. A single specimen of IM.
brasiliensis, was taken at Provincetown, in November, 1851. North of New Jersey the capture of
a large individual is very unusual. In July great numbers of them, about an inch in length, have
been observed on the Connecticut coast, especially in the vicinity of Noank; the fishermen there
call them by the name of “Bluefish Mummichog.” On various parts of the coast they have
special names, which, however, do not appear to refer to special peculiarities. About Cape
Hatteras the names “Jumping Mullet” and ‘Sand Mullet” occur; in Northampton County,
Virginia, “ Fat-back,” and in Southeastern Florida “Silver Mullet” and “Big-eyed Muliet.”
The name “ Fat-back” is also in use, but whether this name is used for Mullets in general, or simply
for those in particularly good condition, I have been unable to learn. In the Gulf of Mexico the
Striped Mullet is known simply as the “‘Mullet”; the other species as the “Silver Mullet.”

GENERAL HABITS.—There are seventy or more species of Mullets, one or more of which are
found on every stretch of coast line in the world in the temperate and tropical zones. They live
in the sea, and in the brackish waters near the mouths of rivers. They, like the menhaden,
though indeed to a still greater degree, subsist on the organic substances which are mingled with
the mud and sand on the bottom.

“In order to prevent the larger bodies from passing into the stomach, or substances from

1 Rec—haleo=King of Herring.
29 F .

450 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

passing through the gill openings, they have the organs of the pharynx modified into a filtering
apparatus. They take in a quantity of sand and mud, and after having worked it for some time
between the pharyngeal bones, they eject the roughest and most indigestible portion of it. Each
branchial arch is provided on each side, in its whole length, with a series of closely set gill-rakers,
which are laterally bent downward, each series closely fitting into the series of the adjoining arch;
they constitute together a sieve, admirably adapted to permit a transit for the water, retaining, at
the same time, every other substance in the cavity of the pharynx. The intestinal tract is no less
peculiar, and the stomach, like that of the menhaden, resembles the gizzard of a bird. The
intestines make a great number of circumvolutions, and are seven feet long in a specimen thirteen
inches in length.”!

ABUNDANCE.—Although Mullets are abundant almost everywhere, it is probable that no
stretches of sea-coast in the world are so bountifully supplied with them as those of our own South-
ern Atlantic and Gulf States, with their broad margin of partially or entirely land-locked brackish
water and the numerous estuaries and broad river mouths. The Mullet is probably the most gener-
ally popular and the most abundant fish of our whole southern seaboard. Like the menhaden, it
utilizes food inaccessible to other fishes, groping in the bottom mud, which it swallows in large
quantities. Like the menhaden, it is not only caught extensively by man, but is the main article
of food for all the larger fishes, and is the best bait fish of the regions in which it occurs. In the
discussion of the habits of the Mullet, when it is not otherwise stated, the Striped Mullet, which is
in our waters by far the most important species, is kept chiefly in mind.

Since the time of Capt. John Smith every observer has remarked upon the great abundance of
Mullets. Numerous correspondents of the Fish Commission, from Wilmington south, agree that
the Mullet is far more abundant than any other species, except Mr. Simpson, who thinks that at
Cape Hatteras they are less numerous than the tailors or bluefish, and about as numerous as the
fat-backs or menhaden.

In 1875 circulars were sent out by the United States Fish Commission asking information
concerning the habits of the Mullet. The replies, although suggestive, were not sufficiently
numerous to afford the data necessary for a complete biography of this species. In fact its habits
are so peculiar that in order to understand them it will be necessary for some naturalist to
devote a considerable period of time to study them throughout the whole extent of their range.
At present, therefore, I propose to present first the results of my own observations upon this fish,
as it occurs in Eastern Florida, supplementing them by the observations of three or four other
observers upon the Atlantic coast, and the excellent study of the Gulf Mullet from the pen of Mr.
Stearns.

MULLET IN EASTERN FLORIDA.—They abound in the Saint John’s River, sometimes running
up to the lakes, and along the coast in all the inland bays, or “salt-water rivers”. It is probably
incorrect to call them anadromous. They appear to ascend the rivers to feed, and the relative
saltness of the water is a matter of small importance. Small Mullet are abundant all the year
round, and so are scattered individuals of a larger size. Cast-nets at Mayport take them through-
out the year. I have taken quantities of small fish, from one to five inches long, in the Saint John’s
River at Arlington. They begin to assemble in schools in midsummer. This is probably prepara-
tory to spawning, for at this time the ova are beginning to mature. In midsummer they swim at
the surface, pursued by enemies in the water and the air, and are an easy prey to the fisherman.
They prefer to swim against the wind, and, I am told, school best with a northeast wind. They
also prefer to run against the tide. The spawning season appears to continue from the middle of

1This description of the anatomy of the Mullet is derived from Gtinther’s ‘‘Study of Fishes.”

MULLET IN EASTERN FLORIDA. 451

November to the middle of January, and the weight of evidence tends to show that they spawn in
brackish or salt water. Some of the fishermen say that they go on the mud-flats and oyster-beds
at the mouth of the river to deposit their eggs. What becomes of them after this no one seems to
know, but it is probable that they spread themselves throughout all the adjacent rivers, bays,
and sounds, in such a manner as not to be perceptible to the fishermen, who make no effort at this
time to secure the spent, lean fish. Many of them probably find their way to the lakes, and others
remain wherever they find good feeding ground, gathering flesh and recruiting strength for the
great strain of the next spawning season. There is no evidence of any northern or southern coast-
wise migration, the habits of the species apparently being very local.

The fisherman recognizes three distinct periods of schooling or separate runs of Mullet. To
what extent these are founded on tradition, or upon the necessity of change in the size of the mesh
of their nets, it is impossible to say. The ‘‘June Mullet” average about five to the pound; the
“Fat Mullet,” which are taken from August 20 to October 1, weigh about two pounds; these have,
the fishermen say, a ‘‘roe of fat” on each side as thick as a man’s thumb. The “Roe Mullet”
weigh about two and a half pounds, and are caught in November and until Christmas. Between
the seasons of “Fat Mullet” and “Roe Mullet” there is an intermission of two or three weeks in the
fishing. How to interpret these curious statements is surely a difficult problem, and one which
can be solved only by careful study of the fishes themselves at these seasons. The fishermen insist
that these schools come successively down the river and proceed directly out to sea. They will not
believe that the ““Fat Mullet” and the “Roe Mullet” are the same schools under different circum-
stances. I would hazard the suggestion that the “Fat Mullet” of September are the breeding fish
of November, with roes in an immature state, the ova not having become fully differentiated.

The largest fish appear rarely to exceed six pounds. This is exceptional, however. Mr. W.
H. Tate, of Melton & Co., Jacksonville, tells me that he never saw one exceeding seven pounds,
though he had heard of one weighing fourteen. He showed me on the floor of the fish-market a
line indicating the length of a very large one; this measured twenty-nine inches. At Mayport
none had been seen exceeding six pounds in weight. At the mouth of the Saint John’s cast-nets
of ten feet in diameter are used, but most Mullet are taken in gill-nets, which are swept around
the school, the fish being easily visible at the surface.'! These nets are from seventy to ninety
fathoms long and forty meshes deep. The size of the mesh varies with the season. Very few are
used from December to July, but where they are used the mesh two and one-half to two and
three-quarters inches is preferred; from August 1 to October 1, for “Fat Mullet,” the mesh is three
and one-half to three and three-quarters inches, and in late October, November, and December, for
“Roe Mullet,” four inches—at least so said my informant, an intelligent negro fisherman. At
Mayport there are two sweep-seines, seventy-five fathoms long and thirty feet deep, belonging to
Kemp, Mead & Smith, used in the mullet fishery.

There is a large trade in fresh Mullet iced, of the extent of which I could gain but little idea:
they are shipped chiefly to Central Florida and Georgia. Some have been sent in ice to Atlanta.
About twenty thousand are shipped from Yellow Blufts, by way of Jacksonville.

It is the general opinion of the fishermen that the Mullet have greatly diminished in abundance
of late years, and that they are not one-third as plenty as they were ten years ago. This falling off
is attributed to the presence of steamers, to the chances of the seasons, and, most of all, to the use
of small-meshed seines, which catch the young fish in great numbers, and to the constant fishing by
numerous nets, which destroys a large proportion of the mother-fish from year to year. Mr. Isaac

1Roe Mullet” are often taken in a drift gill-net. When the net is being set it is customary to drum with the
oars on the gunwale of the boat to make the fish “gill” better.

452 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Balsam, of New Berlin, told me that ten or twelve years ago a man with a cast-net could easily
take four or five hundred Mullet in a day, while now it is difficult to get any; this is due in part
to their shyness, Mullet were comparatively scarce in the Saint John’s in 1877, though plenty in
1876. The fishermen with whom I have talked favor the passage of laws prohibiting the use of
gill-nets with a smaller mesh than three inches, and thus to allow the escape of the young fish,
and of a close time during which fishing shall cease—for instance, from Saturday night to Monday
morning. And then they say, with a regretful shake of the head, that the Mullet always run best
on Sunday. There are probably one hundred or more mullet nets on the Saint John’s, yielding
an average of perhaps five thousand Mullet each annually. The fisheries are chiefly carried
on by negroes in small boats, dug-outs, and skiffs, although every resident fishes for Mullet in
summer when there is nothing else to do, and when the Mullet is the best food and the easiest
obtained. There is no salting business of commercial importance in East Florida, though consid-
erable quantities are put up for domestic consumption. Salt Mullet sell at the rate of eight or ten
dollars a barrel, or five or six fish for twenty-five cents. I had an opportunity of tasting some
salted by a negro at Mill Cove, and can bear testimony to their excellence. Their flavor is more
like that of a salted salmon than of a mackerel, and they are hard, toothsome, and not at all
“muddy” in taste, this last being the usual charge made against the Mullet. Usually only the
“Fat Mullet” are salted, the “Roe Mullet” coming later in the season, when they can easily be
shipped.

To prepare a Mullet for salting, the head is first cut off, then a cut is made on each side of the
back-bone, down the back, and the bone is removed; the fish may then be spread out flat and
packed in a barrel. In packing, the flesh side is carefully placed up, the skin down. The fish are
spread out flat upon the skin side and are laid in tiers across the bottom of the barrel, each tier
being covered with salt. Care is taken to have the direction of the bodies in the different tiers at
right angles to each other. When the Mullet are scaled before packing they command a some-
what higher price. Mullet roes, though usually eaten fresh, are sometimes salted and dried in the
sun. In this condition they are eaten raw, like dried beef, or are fried. Large ones sell for ten
cents a pair. Fishermen often boil the heads to extract the oil, which they use to lubricate their
guns.

“In the Lower Saint John’s,” according to Capt. David Kemps, an experienced Connecticut
fisherman who has lived and fished for twelve years at Yellow Bluffs, “the Mullet are resident
throughout the year, though most abundant in September and October. The fishing season begins
in July and August and continues until December. They are three times more abundant than any
other species, though not half as abundant as they were ten years ago. The decrease in numbers is
due in part to the fisheries, but chiefly to the great number of steamers. The largest Mullet weigh
eleven pounds and are twenty-three inches long; this, however, is above the average size, which
measures thirteen inches and weighs two and a half pounds. They attain their growth in four
years, each year adding half a pound to their weight. They school best in casterly weather, the
schools being largest toward the end of the season. They swim at the surface, and usually against
the wind. The “Fat Mullet” come down the river in August and September, and rapidly increase
in size, becoming “Roe Mullet” in October and November. They feed by suction and on blind
mosquitoes. They run out into salt and. brackish water to spawn. They are supposed to spawn
in November, on the shallows near the mouth of the river, in warm and brackish water. When
they are caught in the gill-nets the spawn runs out of them; it is of the size of No. 3 shot, and
red; it floats at the surface until it is hatched, which takes place in about three days. They spawn
at about four years of age, the fish mixing indiscriminately in the schools. Cat-fish and eels prey

MULLET IN EASTERN FLORIDA. 453

upon the eggs. They are caught chiefly on the flood-tides with gill-nets and seines. A gill-net
seventy-five fathoms long will take ten thousand in a season. They are eaten fresh, commanding
a price of one to five cents a pound, and are salted largely. About seventy-five boats and one
hundred and fifty men are employed in the Lower Saint John’s.”

IN THE SAINT MARy’s RIVER.—‘‘ At the mouth of the Saint Mary’s,” according to Mr. W. E.
Myers, “the Mullet is resident and more abundant than any other fish, especially in August, Septem-
ber, October, and November. The general abundance is not apparently changed, though the supply
varies. The average “Finger Mullet” is about four and a half inches long, while the “Sea Mullet”
ranges from eight to eighteen inches, weighing from eight ouncestotwo pounds. They never leavethis
region, but spend the whole time in the salt-water bayous along the coast. They frequently run up
into brackish or almost fresh water, probably for the purpose of feeding. Fishes of all sizes and
ages mingle together in the schools. Their favorite haunts are on the shallow mud-flats and up
little creeks or “‘rivers.” At high water they feed among the black rushes or marsh grass. The
shallows which they frequent are warmer than the off-shore water. After spawning they are
generally found in small schools. They are preyed upon by porpoises, sharks, fish-hawks, cranes,
and gulls. They feed on bottom mud and floating scum, also on shrimps. They spawn around
their feeding-grounds in August and September, and young Mullets are always found in abundance
in company with the old. Fish-lice are found in their gills. At Saint Mary’s they are caught exclu-
sively in cast-nets—the Spanish and American kinds—at all seasons, but chiefly in August and
the fall months. They are usually caught in the last quarter of the ebb and first quarter of the
flood tide. They are caught only in small quantities for home consumption, and are more in
demand than any other fish, selling for about eight cents per pound. Very few are salted.”

In SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA.—At Saint Augustine, according to Mr. Peter Masters, Mullet
are resident, but most abundant in September and October. They are thought to have dimin-
ished, “owing,” says Mr. Masters, “to the gill-nets on the Saint John’s.” They move in and
out of the harbor, over the Saint John’s and Smyrna Bars. They run into fresh water three months
in the year. They spawn in deep water in November and December. Thirty or forty men with
small boats are engaged in the fishery, using gill and cast nets. The Mullet is the favorite food-
fish, commanding a price of three or four cents per pound. Very few are salted.

About New Smyrna, says Mr. S. C. Clarke, the “Silver or Big-eyed Mullet,” though resident,
are most plenty in November, December, and January, and have for years retained their abundance,
which is much greater than that of any other fish. The average size is three pounds, though they
sometimes weigh four or five; the female is the larger. They are always to be found in shoal water
with muddy bottoms, spending the winter in the creeks and bays. They run into fresh water to
feed. They swim in schools, assorted in uniform sizes, rippling the surface and thus attracting
predatory birds of all kinds, and followed by predatory fishes. The schools break up after the
spawning season. They feed upon mud and floating scum. They spawn in large schools, in strong
currents, in January and February; the eggs, which are yellow and about the size of mustard seed,
floating at the surface in the currents and hatching within ten days. They prefer warm water for
spawning. The roe often runs from the fish when caught. They spawn at the age of three
years, and after spawning are thin and unfit for food. Young fish are seen in great abundance in
shallow water near the shore; they are preyed upon by every fish and by every predatory bird.
Mullet are taken with nets of all kinds, usually at low water. Some hundreds of barrels are put
up yearly for shipment, commanding the price of six to eight dollars. They are also used for oil
manufacture, and for manure.

Mr. H.S. Williams states that in the Indian River the Mullet season lasts from May until the

454 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

last of December, and during the whole time they are so numerous that scarcely a day passes in
which some cannot be taken with proper exertion. In September they usually commence schooling,
the schools increasing in size until the last of December, when they go outside to spawn, returning
in January, February, and March, poor and tasteless. In November, 1876, he relates, he took one
hundred and twenty-five from a single school with a cast-net in less than an hour’s time, taking
twenty-six large ones at a single throw. During the dark nights in October, November, and
December, the Mullet swarm along the shore, feeding on the minute animals found in the sand and
attached to the rocks, where they can be taken in great numbers, often thirty to fifty in a few
minutes’ time. They are preyed upon by all larger fish, from cat-fish to sharks, while porpoises,
ospreys, eagles, and pelicans consume enormous quantities. The Mullet is here thought very fine
either stewed, baked, or as a pan-fish. From the first of November to the end of the season they
take salt: as well as mackerel, and every resident family is accustomed to cure a barrel or two for
private use.

STEARNS ON MULLET IN THE GULF OF MExico.—This chapter will be closed by quoting in
full the observations of Mr. Silas Stearns:

‘The Mullet is one of the most abundant and valuable food-fishes of the Gulf coast. It is
present on the coast and in the estuaries of the Gulf throughout the year, and in most places is
pursued by fishermen at all seasons, yet, for so common and important a fish, its habits seem to
be but little known or understood. Intelligent fishermen of long experience at particular points
have learned many details regarding their local movements, which may disagree in many respects
with those at some other point a hundred miles or so away. A few months spent on the southern
part of the Florida coast has led me to believe that there is a less migratory movement of Mullet
in that section than along the northern Gulf coast. It is probable that in each bay or section or
coast Mullet have peculiar habits as to time and manner of arrival, time and place of spawning,
and the general habits of old fish after spawning and young after hatching. It is also likely that
their manner of spawning, feeding, etc., is the same everywhere. My own observations have been
chiefly made in Pensacola and Choctawhatchee Bays and Santa Rosa Sound, which take in fifty
miles of coast line. In this section, which I have called the Pensacola region, there is a spring
‘run’ of Mullet composed of various sizes of young which are in part, no doubt, of the previous
year’s hatching. The first school of this run appears on the coast in April or in the first part of
May, and they continue to come for two or three weeks, when they are all inside and scattered
about the bay shores. These fish are very thin on their arrival, but rapidly fatten and grow on
the feeding grounds. Some of these contain spawn at first, and in some it is developed during
the summer.

“In September and October there is a ‘run’ of large fish, which comes, as the young one does,
from the eastward, swimming at the surface of the water and making considerable commotion. Some
years there is but one large school in the ‘run’ and at others many small schools, and it is thought
that the fish are more abundant when they come in the latter form. At Choctawhatchee Inlet,
when the spawning grounds are near by, the fish come in with the flood tide and go out again with
the ebb tide; and at the Pensacola Inlet, when the spawning grounds are far away, they come into
the bay and stay until the operation of spawning is over. The spawn in this fall ‘run’ is fully
developed, and is deposited in October and November. The spawning grounds are in fresh or
brackish water at the heads of bayous, in rivers or heads of bays. The many bayous of Choctaw-
hatchee Bay are almost blocked up with spawning Mullet in October, and they are very abundant
at the head of Pensacola Bay near the mouths of fresh-water rivers at that time. Although I have
been in the bayous when Mullet were supposed to be spawning, | have not witnessed the operation,

MULLET IN THE GULF OF MEXICO. 455

nor seen any person who has. In such places the bottom is grassy, sandy, and muddy, the water
varying with the tide from fresh to brackish, and of a temperature varying from 70° to 75° Fah-
renheit. It is supposed that the spawn is deposited upon the bottom. If they have been spawn-
ing at the times when I have been present, I would say that the operation was a general one.
That they do spawn at or near these places is quite certain, for they go to them with spawn and
come away without it, and the young fry first appear near the same places. Crabs and alligator-
gars are abundant in such places, and they doubtless destroy great quantities of the eggs and fry.
Before spawning Mullet are very fat, but after the operation are extremely thin and almost worth-
less for food. Their colors also undergo some changes, at sea being bright blue on the back, which
deepens to a light brown in the bays and to a dark brown in fresh water. By these character-
istics it is not difficult to determine the locality where a lot of Mullet are caught.

“Some persons of this coast agree that Mullet, or any other sea-fish, will not bear sudden
change from salt to fresh water, and to meet this argument I made an experiment with Mullet in
1879. I took a dozen or more medium-sized Mullet from the warm shoal water of the bay and
placed them in cool, fresh spring water. They swam around very rapidly for about half an hour,
then sank to the bottom of the spring, where they remained, apparently comfortable, for twelve
hours. Before leaving the spring I returned them to their native waters, seemingly in as good
condition as when first caught. The bay water was at that time 77° Fahrenheit and the spring
water 719° Fahrenheit, a difference of 6° and a change from pure salt to pure fresh water.

“After spawning, in October and November, the Mullet leave these bays in small schools,
going directly to deep water if the weather is stormy, and following the beach along if there is not
much surf. Those that have been in the bays all the summer leave also at about this time, many
of them having spawned at the same time with the full ‘run.’ A few of these, having just reached
maturity, are found with spawn nearly all winter; also, some young stragglers. In February,
March, and April, young Mullet, varying from one to two and a half inches long, are found in
great abundance along the bay shores. Mullet grow to about eight inches in length the first year,
to twelve or thirteen inches the second year, when they are mature. The average size of adults is
twelve inches in length, weight about one and a quarter pounds. The largest I have seen meas-
ured twenty inches long and weighed four and a half pounds. It was caught at Charlotte Harbor,
Florida. Mullet of that size are extremely rare in West Florida. Those of South Florida are
much larger, as a rule, than those found farther north. There they are also far more abundant
than on the coasts of West Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas.

“In October, Charlotte Harbor, Sarasota and Palmasola Bays, seem to be the headquarters of
all the Mullet of the Gulf. Tampa Bay, Anclote River, Homosassa River anu vicinity, are also
favorite spawning places. During the fall they move in such immense schools that the noise of
their splashing in the water resembles distant thunder; and to persons living near the river or bay,
their noise, kept up day and night, becomes very annoying. These schools are followed by large
numbers of sharks, porpoises, and other destructive fishes, as well as pelicans and like sea-birds,
all of which eat of the Mullet until they can eat no more, and have to make way for fresh arrivals.
In spite of these enemies and those of the eggs and fry, Mullet are as plentiful as formerly,
according to the general opinion of the fishermen of the coast.

“The Mullet is a bottom-feeding fish, prefers still, shoal water with grassy and sandy bottom.
It swims along the bottom, head down, now and then taking a mouthful of earth, which is
partially culled over in the mouth, the microscopic particles of animal matter or vegetable matter
retained, and the refuse expelled. When one fish finds a spot rich in their desired food, its
companions immediately flock around in a manner that reminds one of barn-yard fowls feeding
from one dish. The Mullet eats very little compared with other fish of its size. It preys on no

456 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

other fish, and is preyed upon by nearly all other common fishes larger than itself. It does not
readily take the hook, but can sometimes be caught with a bait of banana, or one manufactured
from cotton and flour. It is the most widely distributed fish of the Gulf of Mexico, being found
on the sea-beach everywhere, in all the bays and sounds, and even far up fresh-water rivers and
in fresh-water lakes that have outlets.”

Concerning the other species of Mullet, Mugil brasiliensis, as occurring in the Gulf, Mr. Stearns
writes:

“It is common, and is found in company with the Mugil albula and usually considered with it,
and the old fishermen of Pensacola distinguished it and have given it the above name. I have
found spawn in them in May and June. On the southern coast they are very abundant, and
appear in Key West almost daily in the fall and winter.”

MULLET IN CALIFORNIA.—“ On the California coast occurs Mugil albula,” writes Professor
Jordan, ‘which is commonly known as the ‘Mullet.’ It reaches a length of about fifteen inches.
It is very abundant about San Diego, and thence south to Mazatlan, and it ranges occasion-
ally northward as far as Monterey. It enters creeks and lagoons, ascending as far as the
brackish water extends, in the winter, and thus is often land-locked in great numbers, which aro
then destroyed by the sea-birds, especially by the pelicans, and a few are taken in seines. It swims
in schools in the bays, and its presence is made known by its frequent leaps from the water. It is
said that the Mullet has long been known at San Diego, but that it first made its appearance at
San Pedro in 1877. It is not well known either at Santa Barbara or Soquel, although now occa-
sionally taken at both places. Those fishermen who have given the matter any attention assert
that the Mullet is gradually extending its range northward. It feeds on mud and minute organ-
isms contained init. It is considered a good food-fish when taken from the ocean. In the muddy
lagoons it acquires in summer a rank flavor.”

154. THE SAND SMELTS OR SILVER SIDES—ATHERINIDZ.

The “Sand Smelts” or “Silver Sides” are small carnivorous fishes which occur everywhere
along the coasts of temperate and tropical regions. They are found in almost countless numbers
in brackish water and at the mouths of rivers, living, for the most part, within a few yards of the
shore, where they prey upon other small fish, upon crustaceans, and upon refuse organic matter,
and are in their turn the prey of other fish, particularly the young of the larger fishes of prey
which create so much havoc farther out at sea; for instance, young bluefish, squeteague, and
mackerel. In general appearance they resemble the smelt, and at various places are called ‘Sand
Smelts” and “Green Smelts.”” They may be readily distinguished from the true smelt by the
absence of the adipose second dorsal fin, which occurs in all members of the salmon tribe, and by
the presence of the small spinous dorsal. The most important species on the Atlantic side is the
Green Smelt of the Connecticut coast, Menidia notata, also called in some parts of New England
the “ Friar,” by the boys about Boston the “Capelin,” about New York the “Sand Smelt” and
“Anchovy,” and about Watch Hill the “ Merit-fish.” In Beaufort Harbor, according to Jordan, two
other species of the genus are very abundant in company with a species of Engraulis, and are
known as “Sardines.”

The range of this species extends from Maine atleast to North Carolina. They spawn all along
our sandy shores, where at any time in summer tens of thousands of them may be gathered in an
hour with a small seine. In the shallow sandy bays the young fish, about an inch in length, were
found in schools, while in more exposed localities, such as the Napeague Harbor, Watch Hill
Beach, and the north part of Montauk Point, the largest schools of adult fishes were found,
though large individuals were also frequently found in the more protected coves. They swim in

HABITS OF THE SILVER SIDES. 457

immense schools, generally those of the same size together; they vary in length from half an
inch to seven inches. They apparently breed throughout the hot season. Individuals two and
a half inches long, taken in the Little Harbor, Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, July 2, 1875, were full
of ripe spawn and milt which they yielded freely.

Capt. John B. Smith, of New Bedford, furnishes an interesting account of the spawning of
this fish, Menidia notata, as witnessed by him during a visit to the head of Buzzard’s Bay, on the
13th of June, 1872. He observed great numbers of the fish in the sedge grass, in the afternoon of
that, day, when the falling tide was about one-fourth down. The fish came in a body into shallow
water, within three feet of the shore, then darted among the grass, and rolled over from one side
to the other, struggling with all their strength, some of them jumping entirely out of the water
while in the operation. The eggs were then to be seen fastened in sheets and in masses to the
grass, like frogs’ eggs in a mill-pond. These were about the size of No. 9 shot. During the
operation of spawning, which lasted about a minute, the fish were very sluggish, and could readily
be taken with the hand. The number of fish engaged in spawning was so great that the water
was quite whitened with the milt, and the grass was so full of the eggs that they could be taken
up by the handful. Eels and small fishes of various kinds were attracted there in great: numbers,
helping themselves to the dainty repast.

In addition to consuming great quantities of food such as has been described, it was found that
they were very destruetive to the eggs of other fishes. Although not generally eaten, they are finely
flavored and an excellent article of food, not very greatly inferior to smelt. Uhler and Lugger are
quite mistaken in their opinion that this species is the gudgeon of Maryland and Virginia, which
is in fact a fresh-water fish, Hybo gnathus regius, together with one or two other species which are
apparently often included under the same name.

In Florida this fish is replaced by two or three others belonging to the same family, which,
though very abundant, are of no special importance except as food for other fishes.

On the California coast this family is of much greater importance, two of the species being in
high favor as food. These are the so-called “California Smelt” and “Little Smelt.” Of the former
Jordan writes: “This species, the California Smelt, Atherinopsis californiensis, is everywhere
known as the ‘Smelt.’ It reaches a length of about eighteen inches, and the average size as seen
in the markets is not much below this. It ranges from Cape Mendocino to Magdalena Bay,
inhabiting especially rocky bays sheltered from the waves. It occurs in great schools, and is
extremely abundant. Itis non-migratory. Its food consists chiefly of worms and small crusta-
ceans. It is a fish of fine, firm flesh and good flavor, although a little dry. From its great abund-
ance it is one of the most important food-fishes on the coast, being never absent from the markets.
It is often used as bait, especially for the rock-fish.”

Of the Little Smelt he writes as follows: “The Little Smelt, Atherinops affinis, or Petite Smelt,
reaches a length of about a foot. It associates with the ‘California Smelt,’ being scarcely less
ebundant. It is, however, more often found in sheltered, sandy bays and lagoons than the other
species, and is sometimes found in brackish water. As a food-fish it is equal to the California
Smelt, but from its smaller size is of less value, Both species are greedily devoured by the larger
predatory fishes.”

155. THE STICKLEBACK FAMILY—GASTEROSTEIDA.

The Sticklebacks are represented on our Atlantic coast by three species: The four-spined
Stickleback, Apeltes quadracus, which is found in brackish water from Cape Ann southward at
least to New Jersey; the ten-spined Stickleback, Gasterosteus pungitius, associated with the
preceding, and found also in fresh water; the two-spined Stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus,

458 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

oceuring as far north as Newfoundland and south to New York. The latter species also occurs on
the coast of California north to San Francisco. The Sticklebacks are great favorites with persons
who own aquaria on account of the skillful manner in which they build their nests. The two-
spined Stickleback attains a length of four or five inches. Schools of them are sometimes found
swimming in the open sounds in midsummer. On the California coast, in addition to the two-
spined Stickleback, there occurs another species, G. microcephalus, along the whole length of the
coast from Southern California to Puget Sound. In Puget Sound, according to Jordan, the two-
spined Stickleback is abundant, and forms an important part of the food of the salmon and trout.
The stomach of Salvelinus malma, particularly, is often full of them. The name “Salmon-killer” is °
applied to them about Seattle, but whether the wounds are inflicted by their sharp spines in the
stomach of the salmon is not known. Ducks catch and swallow the Stickleback, and are often
killed by them. Excepting as food for other fishes they have no value, though on the Prussian
coast, near Dantzig, where they abound, they are said to be used for feeding ducks, fattening pigs,
and in the manufacture of oil.

156. THE SILVER GAR-FISHES—BELONIDZ.

The family Belonide occurs in temperate and tropical waters all over the world, at least fifty
species being known. Its members are easily recognized by their long, lithe bodies and by the
shape of their jaws, which are prolonged into a long, slender beak, provided with numerous sharp,
conical teeth.

“ Swimming along the surface of the water, the Gar-pike seize with these long jaws small fish
as a bird would seize them with its beak; but their gullet is narrow, so that they can swallow small
fish only. They swim with an undulating motion of the body. Although they are in general
active, their progress through the water is much slower than that of the mackerel, the shoals of
which appear simultaneously with them on our coast. Young specimens are frequently met with
in the open ocean. When they are young their jaws are not prolonged, and during the growth the
lower jaw is much in advance of the upper, so that these young fishes resemble a Hemiramphus.”!

The name “Gar” is said to be derived from a Saxon word meaning “needle,” and in the
Gulf of Mexico they are commonly known as “Needle-fish.” On the Atlantic coast, however, the
usual appellative is “Gar-fish.” In Great Britain there are several names, such as “‘Sea-pike,”
‘“‘Mackerel-guide,” ‘“‘Green-bone,” ‘Sea-needle,” and “Garrick.” They are also here called “Gray
Pikes,” but this name should be avoided in America, having been appropriated for the species of
Lepidosteus, with bony scales, inhabiting the rivers of the South and West. The name ‘‘Sea-snipe”
is said to be also occasionally in use, as well as “Bill-fish,” which is also applied by our fishermen
to the slender species of the sword-fish family. On our Atlantic coast are at least four species, the
most common of which is Tylosurus longirostris which is found in Massachusetts Bay and south to
the Gulf of Mexico and the northern parts of Central America, occurring also in the West Indies.
This species attains a length of two feet, and ascends the rivers for great distances, having been
found in the Connecticut as high as Hartford, in the Susquehanna at Columbia, and in the Potomac
above Washington. They are also frequently seen in the harbors along the coast, but are rarely suf-
ficiently abundant to be used for food. DeKay states that this species is highly prized by epicures.

Little attention has been paid to its habits by our naturalists, and we are again obliged to
rely upon Mr. Stearns for our information. He writes: “It is common on all points of the Gulf
coast. At present it is found at Pensacola only in the summer (about eight months), but on the.
more southern coast all the year. It is a surface-swimming fish that preys largely upon small fish
that move in schools. It seems to be rather dull of observation, and I have often watched small

1Giinther’s ‘‘Study of Fishes,” p. 620.

HABITS OF THE GAR-FISHES. 459

schools of minnows, that perhaps know the failing, elude it for a long time by huddling together
directly above or below, when, if they moved to either side, the Needle-fish would be sure to see
them, and they quite certain to lose some of their number. Its movements are very rapid and its
aims most sure. I haveseena Needle-fish of fifteen or twenty inches length seize mullet and other
fish fully one-third of its own size, which often prove more than it can manage. They are some-
times washed ashore dead, with some spiny fish that was a little too large fixed in their throats.
The Needle-fish spawns in the bays in May and June. It is very seldom eaten on this coast, yet
it is an excellent food-fish, which I prefer to many others.”

Tylosurus hians is a species recently discovered on our coast and abundant throughout the West
Indies.

Tylosurus caribbeus is a giant species, of which one or two specimens have been found at Wood’s
Holl, and which is common about Cuba. A species resembling that last mentioned, Tylosurus
Jonesti, is abundant about Bermuda, and is emphatically the game fish of those islands, where it
is known as the ‘Hound-fish.” Individuals attain the length of five or six feet. They are fished
for with salmon rods and artificial flies by the British officers in the garrison.

A related species, Tylosurus vulgaris, abounds on the coast of Northern Europe, and is usually
found in company with the mackerel, ranging north to North Cape, and occurring in considerable
numbers in the Baltic, but apparently not often found south of the English Channel. Great num-
bers are caught on the coast of Holland, where they are used for bait, and in many other parts of
Europe they are said to be prized for food. The Germans prepare them by smoking or drying.

“In the autumn months,” writes Buckland, ‘‘Gar-fish are very plentiful on the Cornish coast.
In the autumn of 1867 scarcely two thousand were taken in the seines at Mevagissey, which
fetched good prices, as they are much eaten by the Jews. One of the advantages of railway
communication may be seen in the fact that before the opening of the Cornwall Railway the
fishermen would not spend time by catching sea-fish, for which there was no dlemand, so that what
were caught were used for manure. Mr. Hinkston, of Mevagissey, inclosed at one time in a seine-
net one thousand at one time. They were at first thought to be mackerel, but, proving to be
Gar-fish, the seine-net was opened and they were allowed to escape. That number would now
comand the sum of £90. In by-gone days they were not esteemed by the Cornish people as an
article of food, but are now eaten with the greatest avidity.”

The peculiar green color of the bones is said to prejudice many people against them. I have
myself tasted the American Gar-fish and fuund it exceedingly palatable; and I cannot doubt that
at some future time they will be highly prized by our people, as they richly deserve to be.

A species commonly known as the “ Needle-fish,” Tylosurus ewilis, exists on the California coast.
It reaches a length of about two and a half feet and a weight of little more than two pounds. It
is found from Santa Barbara southward, and is rather common in the bays, its habits being similar
to those of the Atlantic Gar-fish. It spawnsin August. It feeds upon anchovies and similar fishes.
It is a food-fish of good quality, but is not sufficiently common to be of much economic importance.

157. THE FLYING-FISH FAMILY—SCOMBERESOCIDZ.

THE FLYING-FISHES.

This group is represented on the Atlantic coast by several species, the most abundant being
probably the common Ezocetus Rondeletii. They are usually seen quite a distance out at sea,
and sometimes fly on board of passing vessels. They are considered excellent food, but are so
rarely taken as to require no notice here.

Professor Jordan says: “The California Flying-fish, Hwocetus californiensis, known to the

460 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS,

Italians and Spaniards of the Pacific coast as the ‘ Volator,’ reaches a length of eighteen inches
and a weight of one and a half pounds, being one of the largest of the Flying-fishes. It is found
only about Santa Barbara and the Coronados Islands, where it is excessively abundant in the
summer, appearing in June and disappearing probably in September. This fish flies for a distance
sometimes of nearly a quarter of a mile, usually not rising more than three or four feet. Its
motions in the water are extremely rapid, and its motive power is certainly the movement of its
powerful tail in the water. On rising from the water the movements of the tail are continued for
some seconds, until the whole body is out of the water. While the tail is in motion the pectorals
are in a state of very rapid vibration, and the ventrals are folded. When the action of the tail
ceases, the pectorals and ventrals are spread, and, as far as we can see, held at rest. When the
fish begins to fall, the tail touches the water and the motion of the pectorals recommences, and it
is enabled to resume its flight, which it finally finishes by falling into the water with a splash.
When on the wing it resembles a large dragon-fly. The motion is very swift; at first it isin a
straight line, but this becomes deflected to a curve, the pectoral on the inner side of the arc being
bent downward. It is able to some extent to turn its course to shy off from a vessel. The motion
seems to have no reference to the direction of the wind; and we observed it best from the bow of
a steamer off Santa Catalina Island in early morning, when both air and water were free from
motion.”

Two other species of Scomberesocide occur on the Pacific coast. Hemirhamphus Rose, J.& G.,
inhabiting San Diego and San Pedro Bays, is too small and too scarce to be of any value as a
food-fish. Scomberesox brevirostris Peters is found from Tomales to Monterey, and is sent to
market when taken. It is, however, extremely rare and only one was seen by Jordan.

THE SKIPJACK—SCOMBERESOX SAURUS.

The Skipjack, although in general appearance very dissimilar to the Flying-fish, is a member
of the same family. It is quite similar in form to the silver gar-fish, Tylosurus, from which it differs
in the long beak-like jaws, slender and flexible, and in having finlets behind the dorsal and apal
fins. In England it is known as the “Skipper,” “Skopster”; also in the books as the “Saury,”
or the “Egypt Herring,” and by the Scotch as the “ Gawnook.”

This species is probably found in all parts of the Atlantic, although it has not yet been recorded
from South America. On our coast it is abundant at times from the Gulf of Mexico to the Banks
of Newfoundland. In the Eastern Atlantic it ranges from the Loffoden Isles, latitude 69°, to the
Cape of Good Hope, specimens having also been observed about Saint Helena; it does not, how-
ever, occur in the Mediterranean, where it is replaced by an allied species, Sayrus Camperii, which
is distinguished from it by the absence of the air-bladder. On the New England coast large
schools are occasionally seen in autumn, and this is the only part of our Atlantic seaboard
where they are of any special importance. Codfish feed upon them voraciously, and they are
sometimes eaten by bluefish. Storer remarks: “Large quantities are yearly thrown upon the shore
at Provincetown, but are considered worthless, while by the inhabitants of the other towns of
Cape Cod it is taken in immense numbers and considered by many of them very nutritious food.”

DeKay supposed New York to be the extreme limit of the southern range of this species, but it
has been observed at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, and at Bedford, North Carolina, by Jordan.

Neill states that it is not an uncommon fish in the Frith of Forth. Numbers run up with the
flood-tide in the autumn; they do not, like other fishes, retire from the shoals at the ebb of tho
tide, but are then found by hundreds, having their long noses stuck in the slush, and are picked
up by people from Kincardine, Alloway, and other places. The fullest account of their habits
is the following, from the pen of Mr. Couch:

HABITS OF THE SKIPJAOK. 461

“The Skipper is, more strictly than the gar-pike, a migratory fish, never being seen in the
channel until the month of June, and it commonly departs before the end of autumn. It does not
swim deep in the water, and in its harmless manners resembles the flying-fish, as well as in the
persecutions it suffers from the ravenous inhabitants of the ocean. The methods it adopts to escape
from their pursuit are peculiar. It is sometimes seen to rise to the surface in large schools and fly
over a considerable space. But the most interesting spectacle, and that which best displays their
great agility, is when they are followed by a large company of porpoises, or their still more active
and oppressive enemies, the tunny and bonito. Multitudes then mount to the surface and crowd on
each other as they press forward. When still more closely pursued they spring to the height of
several feet, leap over each other in singular confusion, and again sink beneath. Still further
urged, they mount again and rush along the surface by repeated starts for more than one hundred
feet, without once dipping beneath, or scarcely seeming to touch the water. At last the pursuer
springs after them, usually across their course, and again they all disappear together. Amidst
such multitudes—for more than twenty thousand have been judged to be out of the water together—
some must fall a prey to the enemy; but so many hunting in company, it must be long before the
pursuers abandon. From inspection we could scarcely judge the fish to be capable of such flights,
for the fins, though numerous, are small, and the pectoral far from large, though the angle of their
articulation is well adapted to raise the fish by the direction of their motions to the surface. Its
power of springing, therefore, must be chiefly ascribed to the tail and the finlets. It rarely takes
bait, and when this has happened the boat has been under sail, the men fishing with a ‘lash’ or
slice of mackerel made to imitate the living body. The Skipper has not been commonly taken since
drift-fishermen began the practice of sinking their nets a fathom or two below the surface, a cir-
cumstance which marks the depth to which they swim; but before this it was usual to take them,
sometimes to the amount of a few hundred, at almost evey shoot of the pilchard nets.”

This description of their habits is doubtless very applicable to those of the same species in
the Western Atlantic. I have frequently seen them in schools springing above the surface, but
have never had an opportunity to study their movements closely. The Skipjack probably feeds,
for the most part, on soft pelagic animals, the teeth in their jaws being very minute. Giinther
states that the young, having the beak is still undeveloped, are met with everywhere in the open
ocean, in the Atlantic as well as in the Pacific.

THE HALF-BEAK—HEMIRAMPHUS UNIFASOIATUS.

Species of this genus are abundant all over the world, and are particularly numerous in the
West Indies, where they are sometimes known by the Indian name “ Balahoo.” They are closely
related to the Skipjack, but have the upper jaw short and the lower jaw prolonged into a long,
slender beak. Our own species ranges in abundance from Cape Hatteras, through the West
Indies, to Rio Janeiro; stragglers have been taken at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, and a single
specimen at Danvers, Massachusetts. Stearns writes that it is a common fish along the Florida
coast, living in shoal water, and although so different in appearance is confused with the silver
gar-fish, Tylosurus. On some parts of the coast it remains all the year; in others, only in warm
weather. It swims in small schools, and it is probable that it spawns in the fall.

158. THE PIKE FAMILY.

THe PiIKE—Esox LUCIUS.

The Pike, Hsox lucius, is one of the very few species of fish which is found on both sides of
the Atlantic, and is equally familiar to the inland fishermen and anglers of North America, Europe,

462 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

and Northern Asia. Notwithstanding its broad distribution in the Old World, however, the genus
Esox may be claimed by Americans as pre-eminently American, since all the known species occur
in North America, while only one of them is found in Europe. The Pike—the “Hecht” of Ger-
many; the ‘“Brochet” of France; the “Luccio,” or “Iuzzo,” of Italy, and the “Ga&dda” of
Sweden—is easily distinguished from the allied species in the United States by its coloration,
which is uniform brown, green, or black, with numerous elongate white blotches upon the sides.
It is further distinguished from the Muskellunge, Hsox nobilior, by the fact that the cheek in front
ef the fore operculum is covered with scales, while in the latter the lower half of the cheek is
entirely naked.

It is sometimes known as the “Great Lake Pike.” The name “Pickerel,” which in England
is used as a diminutive, and applicable to the young Pike, has in this country been appropriated
to represent a smaller species of the same genus, Esow reticulatus, etc.; but our fishermen are not
usually so skilled in ichthyology as to be able to distinguish infallibly between a small Pike and
a large Pickerel: consequently there is frequent confusion of nomenclature, nor is this lack of
precision altogether absent from the writings of our early ichthyologists.

The earliest biography of the Pike, written with reference to its American habitat, is that of
Richardson, in the “‘Fauna Boreali Americana.” He states that “by the Cree Indians it is called
‘Hithinyoo-cannoosheoo.’ As it takes a bait set, under the ice more rapidly than any other fish of
the same districts, it forms an important resource to the Indian hunter in the depth of winter,
when the chase fails him. In the summer it is occasionally shot while basking in shallow waters,
but, except in very urgent cases, powder and ball are of too high value in the fur countries to be
thus expended. No quadruped, bird, or fish that the Pike can capture seems to be secure from its
voracity, and even the spring perch is an acceptable prey to this water tyrant. The Pike rarely
weighs more than twelve pounds in the northern parts of America. One specimen, taken in Lake
Huron, was submitted to Cuvier’s inspection, and it has also been carefully compared with English
Pike without any specific differences having been detected.” !

Richardson further remarks that the Pike was not mentioned by Fabricius as a native of
Greenland, and has not been found on the islands of the Polar Sea. It has, however, been recently
discovered by Dr. Bean in a collection received from the island of Kodiak, Alaska.

The Pike, almost universally despised, and generally, on account of its predacious habits,
regarded by the fishermen of our Great Lakes as a pest, is in Europe considered one of the most im-
portant of game fishes. Walton devotes to it an entire chapter, concluding with directions how to
“roast him when he is caught,” and declaring that “when thus prepared he is ‘choicely good’—
too good for any but anglers or honest men.” Mr. Chalmondeley-Pennell, a well-known English
writer on angling, has published a work, of considerable size, entitled “The Book of the Pike.”

HABITS OF THE PIKE IN EUROPE.—So few have been the observations in this country, and so
_ much has Esox lucius been confused with the other species of the genus, that it seems impracticable
to compile from American authorities a satisfactory account of its life history, and in default thereof
is here presented a synopsis of what has been written concerning the habits of the species in
Europe, by Dr. L. Wittmack, director of the Agricultural Museum of Germany. It is not proba-
ble that the habits of the fish in America differ materially from those here described: still the
European investigations cannot fail to be interesting and suggestive to those who may hereafter
have the opportunity to study the fish in our own Great Lakes.

The Pike occurs from Northern Asia to North America, and from Scandinavia to Italy. It
appears, according to Kroyer, to be absent from the Spanish Peninsula. It is found in all parts of

1 Fauna Boreali Americana, p. 124.

HABITS OF THE PIKE IN EUROPE. .463

Germany, not only in the high mountain regions, but along the sea-coast of Northern Germany,
and even close to the shores of the Baltic. The highest vertical distribution of the Pike occurs on
the northern side of the Alps, in Tyrol, in various lakes, from that of Tristac, 2,670 feet, to that
of Halden, 3,618 feet. On the south side of the Alps it occurs in certain lakes of the Tyrol, and
in the Lake of Reschen, 4,637 feet, which is apparently the loftiest point of its distribution. In
Switzerland, according to Tschudi, it ranges to the height of 3,398 feet.”

The spawning time of the Pike, as is shown in an elaburate table presented by Wittmack,
often begins in the latter part of February, and lasts, depending somewhat upon temperature and
the weather, into March and April, sometimes even into May. It deposits its eggs upon water-
plants, especially rushes and grasses. Examples one-third of a meter long are capable of repro-
ducing their kind.

The predacious nature of the Pike is proverbial. It eats nearly all other kinds of fishes,
sparing not even its own species, and also devours frogs, mice, rats, and even young ducks.
Although it is voracious in its attacks upon its prey, it remains generally in quiet and seems to
prefer quiet and slow-flowing waters rather than swift streams.

Wittmack gives a number of statements from authorities in different parts of Germany
showing the annual rate of growth of the Pike, which appears to vary from two to three pounds,
the maximum size attained being from forty-five to seventy pounds. He cites one instance in
which, in two summers, a few individuals, liberated in a pond full of a species of carp, grew from
the weight of one and three-quarters to that of about ten pounds.

BENECKE ON THE SPAWNING OF THE PIKE.—The breeding habits of the Pike are still fur-
ther described as follows by Professor Benecke, of K6nigsberg:

“The Pike inhabits all of our waters with the exception of shallow and rapid brooks. It
prefers clear, quiet water with clean bottom; is usually active at night and quiet in the daytime;
lurks among plants in convenient corners, whence it rushes forth with arrow-like velocity. It lives
a hermit life, only consorting in pairs during the spawning season. The pairs of fish then resort
to shallow places upon meadows and banks which bave been overflowed, and, rubbing violently
upon each otner, deposit their spawn in the midst of powerful blows of their tails. The female
deposits generally about 100,000 yellowish eggs, about three millimeters in diameter, out of which
in the course of fourteen days the young with their great umbilical sacs escape. The spawning
time occurs in Eastern Prussia in the months of February to April, and occasionally the spawning
of the first Pikes occurs before the departure of the ice. When well nourished the Pike grows
very rapidly, and in the first year often reaches the length of more than a foot, and sometimes
eventually the length of seven or eight feet. Only the young, rapidly growing Pikes are eatable,
the old ones being dry and tasteless.”

PIKE IN THE GREAT LAKES.—In his excursion around the Great Lakes for the purpose of
gathering fishery statistics, Mr. Kumlien obtained the following notes upon the abundance of the
Pike:

“On the western shore of Lake Michigan it appears to be resident in those portions of the
lake off Racine, and is very rarely taken in gill-nets. It is, however, not known to Waukegan or
Kenosha fishermen. At the west end of Lake Erie individuals are at rare intervals taken in
pound-nets set in the deepest water. About Sandusky and vicinity, like the Muskellunge, they
are said to be rather rare, though a few taken in winter around Put-in Bay Island are there
regarded as residents of cold, deep water. Above Cleveland they are not known to the fishermen,
but in the vicinity of Ashtabula considerable numbers are sometimes taken in spring—one or two
hundred pounds at a haul of a pound-net. On the south shore of Lake Erie very few are taken in

464 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

pounds, and it is there thought that they keep constantly in deep water and seldom approach the
shore. They are very salable and much sought after, but apparently nowhere abundant.”

THE COMMON PICKEREL—ESOX RETICULATUS.

This fish is known in the North always by the name of ‘‘ Pickerel”; in the Southern States it
is usually the “Jack.” It is found chiefly in the streams along the Atlantic coast, from Maine to
Alabama, it being generally abundant, especially in clear, grassy streams and ponds. It is not
found in the Lake region, nor west of the Alleghanies. It sometimes reaches a weight of seven
or eight pounds, but is usually much smaller. As a food-fish its rank is rather high; its flesh is
white and well flavored, but is rather dry and not very tender. Itis, however, a very undesirable
fish for propagation, from its inordinate voracity. They are ‘‘mere machines for the assimilation
of other organisms.”

THE BRooK PICKERELS—ESOX AMERICANUS AND ESOX UMBROSUS.

These two small Pickerel are very abundant, the former in the coastwise streams east of the
Alleghanies, the latter in the Mississippi Basin. Neither reaches a length of much over a foot.
These have, therefore, little economic value, and from their voracity are undesirable inmates of
streams and ponds.

THE MUSKELLUNGE—ESOX NOBILIOR.

The following facts regarding the abundance of Muskellunge, Esox nobilior, in the Great Lakes
have been ascertained by Mr. Kumlien:

Among the islands dotting the southwestern part of Lake Superior, including the Apostle
Islands, Sand, York, and Rock Islands, and others, this fish is caught in small quantities in the
pound-nets. The Muskellunge is occasionally caught in the small bays indenting the shore south
of Keweeuaw Point as far as Huron Bay, and with it a large and much lighter-colored fish that
may possibly be Hsox lucius. This latter is not well known among the fishermen, but Mr. Edgerton

_ says he has often noticed it, and has remarked that the general aspect was different from that of
the Muskellunge. On the fishing grounds at the north end of Green Bay this is a rare fish, only
half a dozen or so being taken each year. When it occurs it is found at any and at no particular
point. Not a single specimen of this fish was taken by Mr. Nelson in ten years’ fishing in the
Cedar River district, and Mr. Everland in thirty-six years has not taken half a dozen. They are
reported of occasional occurrence in the Menomonee River, but are not found in deep nets far out
in the bay.

Lower down on the west coast of Green Bay, from Longtail Point to Peshtego Point, this fish
occurs everywhere, but nowhere in abundance. A specimen was taken at Washington Island in
1866 that weighed forty-four pounds. The fishermen of this stretch of coast-line pronounce it
Musk-ka-long. At Green Bay City this fish is caught frequently weighing forty pounds. It is
common at this point, é. e. the southern end of Green Bay. Ascending the eastern shore of Green
Bay as far as Saint Martin’s Island the Muskellunge is very rare, being known by name only to
a great many of the fishermen. Following the western shore of Lake Michigan southward from
Porte des Mortes on the north as far south as Manitowoc this fish is rare. At Jacksonport two
have been taken in seven years. At Two Rivers only one has ever been recorded, viz., in 1878.
At Manitowoc it is less scarce, being caught sometimes in pound-nets and more frequently in the
river. At Milwaukee the Muskellunge occurs in the lake but rarely; it is never caught in gill-
nets. In 1868 Mr. Schultz took one in a small seine, in the old harbor, weighing one hundred
pounds. This is believed by Mr. Kumlien to be a fact, having been testified to, as he says, ‘by so
many reliable persons.” He adds: “Formerly, fish of this kind weighing eighty pounds were far
from rare.”

THE MUSKELLUNGE IN LAKE HURON. 465

On the 9th of April a fish of this species four feet in length was taken at Racine; head to
operculum, ten inches; to eye, four inches; greatest circumference, twenty and one-half inches;
over eye, eighteen inches; at gills, eighteen inches; weight, forty-five pounds. These fish are
never here taken in the gill-nets; they are resident in the lake about Racine in winter. A very few
have been known to occur at Waukegan. On the southeastern shore of Lake Michigan, including
the fisheries of Saugatuck, South Haven, and Saint Joseph, this fish is reported as always being
of a large size. At Ludington, farther north, only one instance of capture is on record; it is also
said to be very rare at Grand Haven.

But little has been reported regarding the occurrence of the Muskellunge upon the numerous
fishing grounds along the north shore of the southern peninsula of Michigan between Little
Traverse Bay and Thunder Bay. It is generally rare through the Straits of Mackinaw,
only about half a dozen being taken each season; and most abundant of all at Les Cheneaux
Islands. Captain Coats caught one here, in 1874, weighing sixty-two pounds. These fish are
rarely taken in pound-nets, and are chiefly caught with hook and line about the Les Cheneaux and
Drummond Islands. Captain Dingman has caught only one in his pound-net in the past fifteen
years. All caught, of which he has heard, have been large. In Thunder Bay about a dozen, on
an average, are taken in twelve months. In Saginaw Bay they are taken in about the same num-
bers as in Thunder Bay. Here too they are always large fish. A few are taken in seines along the
coast between Port aux Barques and Port Huron. A few also are taken annually in the Saint Clair
River; perhaps a dozen or two altogether in this region during a year. Between Toledo and
Detroit River, Lake Erie, a specimen of this fish is taken now and then in the pound-nets. When
taken, it is always large. The same remark will apply to the vicinity of Toledo and Maumee Bay.!

MUSKELLUNGE IN LAKE ErieE.—About Locust Point a few are taken in the fall. Twenty
years ago, in this region, including the fisheries of Ottawa, Port Clinton, Toussaint, and Locust
Point, Musquellunge were taken weighing sixty and seventy pounds. In Sandusky Bay speci-
mens are cuught of forty-five pounds weight, and at Kelley’s Island one was caught weighing
fifty-seven pounds, and another sixty-two pounds.

In connection with the Huron (Ohio) fisheries, it is reported that about one hundred and fifty
fish of this species were taken in seventy-five nets during the year 1879. They are here generally
large, and are always taken in pairs. Three or four represent a year’s catch of this fish at Ver-
million, Ohio. About Black River, Lorain County, Ohio, Amherst, and Brownhelm Bay, it is
very scarce, few being caught in nets; all that are taken are large. Of this fish, in connec-
tion with the Cleveland and Dover Bay fisheries, it may be said that it is very rare, and is becom-
ing more so each year. Mr. Sadler says he took one weighing eighty pounds. The fishermen say
they are always found in pairs.

The Muskellunge is taken at Conneaut at the rate of half a dozen in ten years. Only one
specimen was taken in the Painesville pounds in 1879. At Fairport and Willoughby, Ohio, no
mention is made of its occurrence. Erie Bay, especially at Dunkirk and Barcelona, New York,
Erie, Pennsylvania, and Mills’ Grove, Ohio, is famous for its Muskellunge fishing; this past
season over sixty were caught, weighing from twenty to forty-five pounds. They are caught
by trawling. Fancy prices are paid for them; about twenty-five cents per pound retail in the
city and twelve and a half cents when shipped. More were caught during the season of 1879
than ever before.

MUSKELLUNGE IN LAKE ONTARIO.—The following notes relate to the fishery in Lake Ontario:
At Oswego the fish is very rare on the American side; at Port Ontario one is occasionally caught;

:Mr, Fred. Alvord states that he procured a Muskellunge from Maumee Bay, in 1864, weighing eighty-five pounds,
30 F

466 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

at Cape Vincent they are common, especially in the Saint Lawrence. Nine have been brought
in in one day, the smallest of which weighed thirty-two pounds. They are not now, however, so
plentiful here as formerly... At Chaumont very few are caught. Seven years ago oue was
captured here weighing sixty-five pounds. At Sacket’s Harbor very few Muskellunge are caught.

159. THE MUMMICHOG FAMILY—CYPRINODONTIDZ.

In the brackish waters along our coast and near the mouths of rivers, as well as in many of
our fresh-water streams and lakes, are found members of the family Cyprinodontide. These are all
small fishes, the size of adults, rarely exceeding four inches, never exceeding six or eight in the
largest of them, Fundulus majalis. In New England they are usually known by the Indian name
*Mummichog”; farther south by the name “ Brook-fish” or ‘‘ Killifish,” a legacy from the early
Dutch colonists, and in other localities, especially in the interior, less correctly known as ‘“ Min-
now.”

There are some twenty species in North America, none commonly used for food, but all of
much more importance as food for larger fish, and frequently used for bait. The vommon species
of the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, Fundulus grandis, is known at Pensacola -by the name
“Sac-a-lait,” an unexplained French name also applied to a species of Pomowxys at New Orleans.
The brackish-water species breed in summer, and young are found in immense schools among
the eel-grass and on the sandy beaches in company with the sand smelt, Menidia notatum, and the
allied species.

The Cyprinodontide are represented in California by Fundulus parvipinnis Gir., a little fish
very abundant in brackish waters from Santa Barbara southward, and by Cyprinodon califor-
niensis Gir., a small species once found at San Diego.

These fishes are particularly interesting to the physiologist, from the fact that many of
them are viviparous, and that the anal fin of the adult male is modified into a copulatory organ.
The two sexes of the species thus modified are usually very different in appearance, and might be
mistaken for members of different genera. Those members of the family belonging to the genera
Cyprinodon and Fundulus are carnivorous, while Pecilia and Mollienesia feed upon mud.

The famous “ Blind Fish” of the Mammoth Cave, Amblyopsis speleus, and its allies, are closely
allied to the Cyprinodon, though belonging to another family, Amblyopside. These fish are useless
economically, but are regarded as great curiosities, and often sold for considerable sums.

THE BLACKFISO OF ALASKA—DALLIA PECTORALIS, Bean.
By E. W. NELSON.

This species, known as the “E-ruang-uk” to the Eskimo of the Lower Yukon and adjoining
region; “H-lo-ki-nik” to the Malemut Eskimo in Kotzebue Sound region; “‘Chorruy Ryba” to the
Russian fur-traders; and “Blackfish” to American fur-traders, though insignificant in size, exists
in such numbers in all the grass-grown, sluggish fresh-water streams and shallow lakes from the
vicinity of Kotzebue Sound on the north to the mouth of the Kuskoquim River on the south, and
up the Yukon to the mouth of the Tanana River, and for some distance up the Lower Kuskoquim,
that it forms a very important source of food supply to the natives within these limits. In the low
country between the Lower Yukon and Kuskoquim Rivers these fish exist in greatest abun-
dance, and here, also, is found the most dense Eskimo population in Alaska. In this region alone

1 By the north shore Indians this fish was called ‘“‘Noscononge.” A very old man, the first white child born on
Prince Edward’s Island, told Mr. McPherson that when he was a boy, fifty years ago, the name was an Indian one,
and that our modern word “ Muskellunge ” is but a corruption of the old Indian word ‘ Noscononge.”

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE BLACKFISH. 467

a population of nearly three thousand Eskimos rely upon this fish for one of their most abundant
and certain sources of food supply. The fish is caught in wicker-work traps set in its haunts—a
wicker-work or brush fence leading into the funnel-shaped mouth of the trap from each side. In
many of the muddy streams and ponds the water fairly swarms with these “Blackfish.” Every
fall, especially after the ice forms, great quantities are taken and packed in grass bags holding
from forty to one hundred pounds each. These bags of fish freeze into a solid mass, and are then
stored either in turf-covered pits, or upon platforms erected upon four posts, and thus kept for
future consumption. They are eaten either raw or boiled by the natives, and are chopped up and
fed frozen to the dogs.

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE BLACKFISH.—It is difficult to estimate the amount of these fish
used annually. It is well within the limits, however, to state that during October, November, and
December at least 1,500 pounds per day are taken in the roughly triangular region between the
Lower Yukon and Kuskoquim Rivers. This amounts to 138,000 pounds, or 69 tons. During the
remainder of the year they are fished with varying success, owing to different causes, and for this
period it is fair to allow one-half the amount just mentioned, thus giving 103.5 tons for the annual
estimated catch in this region. Over the remainder of the territory where this fish occurs my
data are very meager, but by a rough estimate I would allow about one-half the preceding amount,
or 51.7 tons, raising the entire estimated amount of these fish used to 155.2 tons per annum. I
have been very cautious in making the estimate small, but I am satisfied that careful observation
over this region will raise the amount to perhaps double that given.

The Vega expedition under the command of Baron Nordenskjéld obtained numerous spec-
imens of this fish, and it has since been redescribed by Professor F. A. Schmidt, of the University
of Christiana, under the name Dallia delicatissima. There can be little doubt that Nordenskjéld’s
specimens belong to the species above described.

468 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Q—THE SALMON TRIBE.

In Dr. Suckley’s “ Monograph of the Genus Salmo,” printed in 1873, forty-three species of
Trout and Salmon were enumerated as members of the fauna of North America. In the course of
the extensive revisions of our ichthyology which have recently been made, this group has been
sedulously studied. Only eighteen species are retained upon the list as amended by Professors
Gill and Jordan. While the number of species has been lessened, several new genera have been
proposed, and many changes in nomenclature necessitated.

According to the latest system, the old genus Salmo, which in the standard works on angling
includes everything called by the names “Trout” and “Salmon,” has been divided into groups.
The first, for which the name Salmo is retained, includes the Atlantic Salmon and the black-spotted
species of the west, the Rainbow Trout of the Pacific slope, Salmo irideus, the Rio Grande Trout,
S. spilurus, with the two closely-related forms, more w‘dely distributed through the Rocky Mount-
ain region, and regarded as subspecies of this type, also the Steel Head of the Columbia, S.
Gairdneri, and the common Black-spotted Trout, 8. Clarkii, which occurs in the Upper Missouri,
in Utah, in the Columbia River, and numerous other districts of the Northwest. In this same
group are included the Quinnat, or California Salmon, and its allies, which will be discussed here-
after. These have been placed in the genus Oncorhynchus.

The second group includes the Chars, or Red-spotted Trout, and the gray-spotted species
known as Salmon Trout, or Lake Trout. These are assigned to the genus Salvelinus.

160. THE SALMON—SALMO SALAR.!

“In Aquitania the River Salmon surpasseth all the fishes of the sea,” wrote Pliny, eighteen
hundred years ago. This was the Salmon’s christening, and though nearly one hundred species of
the family Salmonide are now known to naturalists, one has always stood pre-eminent, like a Scot-
tish chieftain, needing no other name than that of his clan. The luxurious Romans prized highly
the salmon streams in their Gallic and British provinces, if we may trust Pliny and Ausonius, and
that this fish was well known to the early English is evinced by the many Saxon names, such as
“Parr,” “Peal,” “Smolt,” “Grilse,” “ Kipper,” and “ Baggit,” given it in different stages of growth
in Great Britain and America. The Normans brought over the name of Latin origin, which they
applied to the perfect adult fish, ready for the banquets of the conqueror. When Cabot discovered
Newfoundland, in 1497, he found Salmon in its waters, but the red men had long before this known
the art of killing them with torches and wooden spears.

DISTRIBUTION.—Salmon inhabit the North Atlantic and its affluents. No one knows how
far beyond the Arctic Circle they range, though their occurrence in Greenland, Iceland, Northern
Scandinavia, and Middle Labrador is well established. They occur in Norway, Sweden, Denmark,
entering the Baltic and the waters of Russia, and, according to some authorities, the White Sea.
‘They abound in all the British Islands, where they are protected and fostered with great success,
and are more or less plenty in France, Belgium, Holland, and Prussia, ascending the Rhine as far
as Basle. The southern limit of their occurrence is in Galicia, the northwestern province of Spain,

1This chapter is based upon the essay on the Salmon in “The Game Fishes of North America,” by G. Brown
Goode, published by Charles Scribner’s Sons.

DISTRIBUTION OF SALMON. 469

in latitude 43°, ‘There is a river in Macedon,” says Fluellen, in “King Henry the Fifth,” “and
_there is also moreover a river at Monmouth: it is called Wye, at Monmouth; but it is out of my
prains, what is the name of the other river; but ’tis all one,’tis so like as my fingers is to my
fingers, and there is salmons in both.” Fluellen was in the wrong, for there are no Salmon in any
part of the Mediterranean water system.

On our own side of the Atlantic, their presence in Hudson’s Bay and on the arctic coast of
America is doubtful, yet probable. They range far north on the eastern shores of Labrador, and in
the waters of the Great Lake system up to Niagara.

Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Maine have many salmon rivers; New Hampshire, Massa-
chusetts, and Connecticut, a few very good ones. The natural limit of the southward range of the
Salmon appears to be in latitude 41°, near the Connecticut River, where they were once extremely
abundant, but many stragglers have been taken in the Housatonic and Hudson. Much effort has
been made iu trying to prove that the Salmon, of which Hendrick Hudson saw ‘great store” in
1609, when sailing up the river which bears his name, were weak-fish, or some equally remote
species. Surely weak-fish do not go up the river to the Highlands. Salmon have from time to
time been seen in the Delaware, it is said, and, if this be true, it renders the story of Hudson still
more credible.

ABUNDANCE.— Wonderful things are said about their abundance in colonial days. Every one
has heard of the epicurean apprentices of Connecticut who would eat Salmon no oftener than twice
in the week.* Like many other good ones, this story seems to be prehistoric, and was doubtless told
of some other fish in the times when our Aryan ancestors dwelt on the plains of Central Asia. You
may find it in Fuller’s “ Worthies of England,” where it has the same archaic and indefinite flavor
which is so evident now two centuries later. ‘Plenty of them in this country,” wrote Fuller,
“though not in such abundance as in Scotland, where servants (they say) indent with their masters
not to be fed therewith above twice a week.” There can be no doubt that one hundred years ago
salmon fishery was an important food resource in Southern New England. Many Connecticut
people remember hearing their grandfathers say that when they went to the river to buy shad the
fishermen used to stipulate that they should also buy a specified number of Salmon. At the
beginning of this century they began rapidly to diminish. Mitchill stated, in 1814, that in
former days the supply to the New York market usually came from Connecticut River, but of late
years from the Kennebec, covered with ice. Rev. David Dudley Field, writing in 1819, stated that
Salmon had scarcely been seen in the Connecticut for fifteen or twenty years. The circumstances
of their extermination in the Connecticut are well known, and the same story, names and date
changed, serves equally well for other rivers.

In 1798 a corporation, known as the “Upper Locks and Canals Company,” built a dam sixteen
feet high at Miller’s River, one hundred miles from the mouth of the Connecticut. For two
or three years fish were observed in great abundance below the dam, and for perhaps ten years
they continued to appear, vaiuly striving to reach their spawning grounds; but soon the work of
extermination was complete.?, When, in 1872, a solitary Salmon made its appearance, the Saybrook
fishermen did not know what it was.

Hasits.—At least half of the Salmon’s life is spent in the ocean. ‘He is ever bred in the fresh
rivers,” said Walton, ‘and never grows big but in the sea.” ‘He has (like some persons of honour

1 The shad, bass, and Salmon more than half support the province. From the number of seines employed to catch
the fish passing up the lakes one might be led to suppose that the whole must be stopped, yet in six months’ time they
return to the sea with such multitudes of young ones as to fill the Connecticut River for many days, and no finite
being can number them.”—PETERS: History of Connecticut, 1783.

2? MITCHILL and FIELD.

470 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

and riches, which have both their winter and summer houses) this fresh water for summer and the
salt water for winter to spend his life in.”! Most of his tribe, however, are peculiarly fresh-water.
fishes, though several share his sea-dwelling habit, and others, like the Brook-trout, descend into salt
water, when not prevented by barriers of temperature.’ All of the family run into very shoal water,
and usually to the sources of streams, to deposit their eggs, and all of them seek food and cool tem-
peratures in the largest and deepest bodies of water accessible. I am inclined to the view that
the natural habitat of the Salmon is in the fresh waters, the more so since there are so many
instances—such as that of the Stormonttield Ponds in England—where it has been confined for years
in lakes without apparent detriment. The “Land-locked” or ‘‘Fresh-water” Salmon, known also in
the Saguenay region as ‘ Winninish,” in the Shubenacadie and other rivers of Western Nova Scotia
as the “Grayling,” and in different parts of Maine as “Schoodic Trout,” “Sebago Trout,” or “ Dwarf
Salmon,” probably never visit salt water, finding ample food and exercise in the lakes and large
rivers. In someregions in Maine and New Brunswick their access to salt water is cut off by dams,
and some investigators have claimed that Land-locked Salmon did not exist there until these
obstructions were built, some fifty years ago. This hypothesis, however, is not necessary, for
ain the Saguenay the Winninish have easy, unobstructed access to the sea. The Salmon of Lake
Ontario and its tributaries are not thought to enter salt water, and there are similar instances of
land-locking in the lakes of Northern Sweden. In the Maine lakes Salmon feed on minnows
and other small fishes. The Salmon while it remains in the sea or in the brackish estuaries
takes particular delight in feeding on crustaceans and their eggs, small shrimps, and young crabs.
‘When in the rivers they eat but little, though they are at times eager enough for food, as testify
their voracious rushes at the angler’s fly-hook. The absenteeism of the Salmon is due principally
‘to the dearth of desirable food in the rivers. The young fish stay in fresh water for one, and
frequently two, years. When they pass down to the sea they weigh but afew ounces. They find
‘congenial food and begin to grow rapidly. The broad world of ocean affords them new opportu-
nities for adventure and self-advancement, and it is only when summoned by the duties of family
life that they return within the narrow limits of the old home. When Salmon live in the lakes
they prey upon minnows and other small fishes, but those of the sea delight also in small crusta-
ceans and their eggs, to which they owe the vivid color of their flesh. The habits of successive
generations become hereditary traits, and the differences in their life-histories seem to justify the
claim of the Land-locked Salmon to be regarded as a variety of Salmo salar, though it is hardly to
be distinguished except by its lesser size and some slight peculiarities in coloration. It is to be
designated as Salmo salar, variety sebago. Although both originated in the same primitive stock,
it is not probable that one changes to the other except after many generations, under the influence
ot forced changes in their environment.

REPRODUCTION.—Although, like the Trout, and unlike shad, Salmon spawn on a falling tem-
perature, not depositing their eggs until the water is at least as cold as 50°, yet they seem to
enter the rivers on a rising temperature. Yarrell remarked that English rivers issuing from large
Jakes afford early Salmon, while rivers swollen by melting snows m the spring months are later in
their season of producing fish, and yield their supply when the lake rivers are beginning to fail.
In America the Southern streams seem to yield the earliest fish. In the Connecticut ihey appear
in April and May, in the Merrimack in May and June, in the Penobscot most abundantly in June

1WaLTON: Compleat Angler.

2The notion of marking Salmon is not a new one. Walton, writing two hundred and twenty-five years ago, speaks
of observations made by tying ribbons in the tails of some number of young Salmon which were taken subsequently
at the same place, “which hath inclined many to think t'.at every Salmon usually returns to the same river in
which it was bred, as young pigeons taken out of the same dove-cote have also been observed to do.”

SPAWNING HABITS OF THE SALMON. 471

and July, though some come as early as April, and in the Miramichi from the middle of June to
October. I can only account for this seeming paradox by the theory that, while Salmon are not
harmed by extreme variation of temperature, they may be averse to sudden changes, and though
strongly impelled to seek the spawning grounds are prevented by the cold. I have ascertained
that the cod possess very little animal warmth. The temperature of the blood of a number of
individuals caught in twenty-five fathoms of water was 47° Fahrenheit, precisely that of the water
at the bottom whence they were lifted. Mackerel swimming at the surface registered 59° or 609,
while the temperature of the water was 589°, thus indicating that they possess a trifling amount of
animal heat. The Salmon unquestionably changes its temperature with that of the surrounding
water in much the same way, and if, as is probable, rivers rising in the mountains are colder in
early spring than the ocean strata frequented by the Salmon, here is a possible solution of the
problem. It is stated that in the English rivers, which are always open, there are no regular
seasons of ascent, the fish constantly passing in and out; indeed, Mr. Atkins thinks it pretty
certain that large Salmon in prime condition are running into the Penobscot from the sea every
month in the year. It is likely, also, that the warmth of the rivers is an important factor in accel-
erating the vegetative growth of the eggs in the ovaries of the mother fish.

The movements of the Salmon are not so intimately related to the temperature of the water
as those of many other species. They are not sensitive to sudden changes, and are capable of
enduring a range of at least forty-five degrees. In this they resemble less the migratory fishes
than the permanent residents of our fresh waters; indeed, it is quite allowable to speak of them
as resident, for a large proportion of the whole colony belonging in one river may be found in it at
any season. This proportion cannot fall much below two-thirds, if we consider that the fish less
than a year old would make up at least half its number, and that the breeding fish are in the
rivers six or seven months after the breeding. The breeding fish remain during the season of
greatest heat and greatest cold, though their stay after they have deposited their eggs is no
doubt chiefly because their vitality is diminished and their circulation retarded by the falling tem-
perature, depriving them alike of the craving for food and the power to seek it. Those which
spawn early are believed to return at once to the sea; the more tardy ones often remain all
winter, and are carried out by the spring freshets. Salmon eggs are not injured by freezing, and
the fish are unquestionably quite as hardy. English fish-culturists claim that their Salmon will not
thrive where the water is warmer than 60°, or at most 65° in the summer, but Mr. Atkins kept fish
in his ponds at Bucksport, Maine, with the water at the bottom as warm as 74° at midday, the
means of bottom and surface temperature for June, July, August, September, and October, 1872,
being 60°.6, 65°.9, 699.8, 599, 509.3, and 729.9, 739.1, 739.6, 629.2, 549.3, respectively. In the Gaspé
salmon streams, where the fish are in the perfection of activity, the temperature of the pools in
July ranges from 404° to 599°.

KELTs.—At the approach of the spawning season their trim shapes and bright colors disappear.
They grow lank and misshapen, the fins grow thick and fleshy, and the skin, which becomes thick
and slimy, is blotched and mottled with brown, green or blue, and vermilion or scarlet. These
changes are chiefly apparent in the males, whose jaws now become curved so that they touch only
at the tips, the lower one developing a large, powerful hook, which is his weapon in the savage
combats with his rivals in which he at this period engages. When in this condition, and after
spawning, when they retrace their course to the sea, they are known as ‘ Kelts.”

Having entered a river, they press on to its headwaters, where the earliest of them arrive two
or three months before spawning time. As soon as the water is cool enough they proceed to deposit
their eggs, in deep furrows which they plow up in the sandy or gravelly bottom of the stream,

472 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

usually near the verge of a rapid. European observers state that the furrows are shaped by the
noses of the two parent fish, every nest being filled with eggs before the next one is made, and the
first covered up by the sand which is loosened in digging the second, chiefly by the acticn of the
current. Mr. Atkins observed a female Land-locked Salmon excavating a nest by turning on her
side and flopping violently against the bottom with her tail, while the male was engaged in driving
away rivals aud predaceous foes. Spawning is not accomplished at once, but the eggs are deposited
by installments, as fast as they mature, during a period of from five to twelve days. ‘* When the
furrow is made, the male and the female retire to a little distance, one to the one side, the other
to the other side of the furrow; they then throw themselves on their sides, again come together,
and rubbing together both shed their spawn into the furrow at the same time.” This is the
observation of Mr. Ellis on the European Salmon, and a similar habit has beeu observed by Mr.
Whitcher in Canada. In the tributaries of the Saint Lawrence spawning begins by the middle of
October; in Maine, with both Land-locked and Sea Salmon, a week or two later, and it is presumable
that in the Connecticut it will be found to occur well along towards December. In Great Britain
and in the Rhine the season begins in October or November, continuing in some rivers till February.

Salmon eggs are about one-quarter of an inch in diameter, and of a bright reddish or yellowish
hue. English fish-culturists estimate the number of eggs yielded by a large fish at 1,000 to each
pound of her weight; experiments in the Penobscot indicate a yield of not more than 5,000 or 6,000
for a fish of eight pounds, and about 15,000 for one of forty pounds. In the Scotch streams the
eggs come to maturity in one hundred to one hundred and forty days, but in our colder waters, at a
temperature of 33° through winter and spring, the period of incubation is supposed to extend over
six or seven months, the young fish not appearing until May. In the hatching-houses the period
varies greatly, eggs having been hatched in fifty-four days with a temperature of 55°, and in one
hundred and fourteen at 36°.

YounG FIsH.—The newly hatched Salmon measures about three-quarters of an inch, and has
the yolk-sac adherent from four to six weeks. When this is absorbed it begins to feed, rising
greedily to seize any minute floating object. In two months the fry has grown to an inch and a
half, and begins to assume the vermilion spots and transverse bars or finger marks which entitle
it to be called a “Parr,” and which it retains while remaining in fresh water, sometimes until it is
seven or eight inches long. It continues a “ Parr” until the second or third spring, when, in prep-
aration for, or perhaps in consequence of, a descent toward the sea, a uniform bright silvery coat
is assumed, and the Parr becomes a “Smolt.” After remaining from four to twenty-eight months
in the salt water it again seeks its native river, having become either a ‘‘Grilse” or a “Salmon.”
The “Grilse” is the adolescent Salmon; it weighs from two to six pounds, and is more slender and
graceful than the mature fish, with smaller head, thinner scales, more forked tail, and spots
rounder, more numerous, and bluish rather than jetty black. The two may easily be distinguished
even though both should be of the same size, as not unfrequently happens. The male Grilse is
sexually mature, but not the female, in America; in Europe the same is claimed for the male Parr
and the female Grilse. “There is nothing in the water,” says Norris, “that surpasses.a Grilse in
its symmetrical beauty, its brilliancy, its agility, and its pluck. I have had one of four pounds to
leap from the water ten times, and higher and farther than a Salmon. Woe to the angler who
attempts, without giving line, to hold one even of three pounds; he does it at the risk of his
casting line, or his agile opponent tears a piece from its jaw or snout in its desperate effort to
escape.”

Mr. Atkins calls attention to the fact that the great run of Grilse which is so prominent a
feature in Canada and Europe is almost entirely absent in the rivers of the United States, the fish

THE SALMON IN LAKE ONTARIO. 473

not returning until they have become adult. In rivers where Grilse are found, the Salmon always
precede them in their ascent, for they do not enter fresh water until toward the end of summer.

Who can wonder at the angler’s enthusiasm over ‘a Salmon fresh run in love and glory from
the sea?” Hear Christopher North’s praise of a perfect fish: “She bas literally no head; but her
snout is in her shoulders. That is the beauty of a fish, high and round shoulders, short waisted,
no loins, bué all body and not long of terminating—the shorter still the better—in a tail sharp and
pointed as Diana’s, when she is crescent in the sky.” Mr. Kilbourne’s painting in Scribner’s
“Game Fishes of North America” represeuts a thirty-pound fish drawn to a scale of one-fourth.
The largest on record was one of eighty-three pounds, brought to London in 1821; the Seotch
fish rarely exceed twenty-five pounds. Perley speaks of a sixty-pounder taken long ago in the
Restigouche; in 1852 many of forty, and one of forty-seven, pounds were caught in the Casca-
pediac. Mr. Frederick Curtis’ score for York River, Canada, July 7, 1871, shows nine fish
ranging from seventeen to thirty-four and averaging twenty-six and a quarter pounds. Another,
for the same locality, July, 1876, shows one hundred and ten fish, averaging more than twenty-two
pounds. This was by Mr. Thomas Reynolds, who caught in the same river a fish of forty-seven
pounds, the largest ever killed in Gaspé with a fly. In the Penobscot forty-pounders have occa-
sionally been taken, but not more than one out of a thousand weighs thirty, and the common
size is from ten to twelve pounds. A fish two feet long would weigh about six pounds; one of
thirty inches, nine or ten; one of three feet, sixteen to seventeen; and one four feet long, nearly
fifty. A score of twenty-two days’ fishing, with four rods, in the Godbout, in June and July, 1865,
foots up four hundred and seventy-eight fish, averaging nine and three-quarters pounds.!

SaLMon IN LAKE OnTARIO.—The following notes by Mr. Kumlien on Salmon in Lake On-
tario possess much interest: “At Oswego they were formerly very abundant aud very important;
they used to go up the river (Uswego) to the falls. In the last, eighteen years they have gradually
decreased till now they are caught only as stragglers. Forty have been speared by one man in
a day. Navigation and various kinds of mill refuse have driven them away. <A few years after
the dams were built they ye® came in abundance, and tons of them were speared from the dams,
but they have gradually grown less till now only an occasional straggler is caught.

“At Port Ontario,” Mr. Harrington says, “in 1879 only a very few were caught in the seines.
For the last three or four years have been scarce in the river. I think it is because the mills and fac-
tories—especially the book-board mill at Pulaski—throw the refuse into the river. They have not
been plenty in the river as far up as Pulaski since 1875. It is currently reported that considerable
numbers were caught in the river five or six years ago, and disposed of on the sly. They seem
to have turned their course from this river. Of late years a few weighing eighteen to twenty
pounds have been taken; we used to consider twelve pounds an average. Some weighing thirty
pounds have been taken.”

“At Pulaski, Mr. J. A. Mathewson & Bro. (Mathewson has fished here the last fifty-five years)
report as follows on the salmon fisheries: “In October, 1836, two men took two hundred and thirty
Salmon between 8 p.m. and 12, with spears and fire-jacks, and after 12 till morning two other men
in the same skiff took two hundred odd, the average weight of the entire lot being fourteen and
three-quarters pounds. We have had fifteen hundred fresh Salmon in the fish-house at one time.
When a freshet occured in June a few would always come up, and sometimes a few early in the spring.
Any time from June till winter when there was a freshet they were sure to come. The principal
time, however, was in fall, during September, October, and November. Twelve skiffs in one night

INornris: American Angler, p. 117.

474 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

have taken an average of three hundred Salmon each. For the last twenty years the catch has
been nothing to what it used to be, though some are taken even now. The gill-uets stretched
across the mouth of river assisted to a large extent in causing the decrease. The fish used to run
up to the falls, ten miles above Pulaski; now there are two dams in the way. They never could go
above the falls, as they are one hundred and eight feet in perpendicular height. I thiuk the mills
(factories), tanneries, etc., are prolific causes of the disappearance of Salmon. Lime is one of the
worst things thrown into the river; vats of refuse lime have been emptied when the river was fall
of fish, and upon the next they were gone. Lime, tan-bark, sawdust, and gill-nets have driven
the Salmon from our river.

“There were formerly three salmon streams in this vicinity—Grindstone Creek, Deer Creek,
and Salmon River—and each stream had a different type of fish. An experienced fisherman could
readily tell from which stream a fish was caught, though they are but four miles apart. In Deer
Creek the fish were long and slim, in Grindstone short and chubby, and in Salmon River large and
heavy.

“The largest specimen ever caught here weighed forty-four and three-quarters pounds. Some
have been taken as small as one pound. A few will come up now as soon as there is a freshet.
There is a fish-way here on the lower dam, but its construction is so defective that very few if apy
of the fish are able to get over it; they were seen to try last fall and fail. They are caught (and
always were) with a large three-tined spear from a skiff with a jack-lantern. Two thousand have
been landed at the bridge in one night.”

“Mr. Cross says: ‘They often went over the dam before the apron was put in, but now they
must jump along a twenty-foot apron besides the height of the dam (eight feet). The way it is
now, a few manage to get as far as the first pocket and tben fall back again. Forty years ago
the salmon fisheries on this river brought more money to the people than all the machinery now
on the river,’

‘¢ At Cape Vincent they were formerly taken on the Jake shore during the migrations. Never
went up the Chaumont Bay. No rivers here to spawn in. Never Seemed abundant in the Saint
Lawrence only as they passed by. Even now one is occasionally taken in the gill-nets in the
lake.—(McPherson.)

“At Chaumont four were caught in 1879; were formerly common during their migrations.—
(Dewy.)

“At Sacket’s Harbor very rarely taken now; used to get them at Phillips Point as they were
passing by.”—(Clark.)

161. THE SALMONS OF THE PACIFIC.
By Davip S. JoRDAN.
THE STEEL-HEAD—SALMO GAIRDNERI.

This species is everywhere known as the “Steel-head.” The name “Hard-head” is some-
times applied to it, and it is known to the Russians as ‘“Seomga.” The name “Mykiss” is said
to have been formerly applied to it in Kamtchatka. Large individuals are often called ‘Salmon
Trout.” The Indian name ‘“ Humaana” is said to be given to it on the Upper Columbia. Itreaches
a weight of twenty-two pounds, the average weight when fully grown being about sixteen. Young
specimens are very scarce in our experience. It is found from Monterey to Kamtschatka, always
close to the coast. In the Columbia and Frazer Rivers it occurs in abundance in the spring at
the time of the salmon run. None have yet been noticed to the eastward of the Cascade Range,

THE RAINBOW AND BLACK SPOTTED TROUTS. 475

and so far as appearances go it is a permanent inhabitant of river mouths. It probably spawns
late in the fall or in the winter, as wany of those taken at the first run of the Salmon are spent
fish, with the flesh white and worthless.

The history of this species is still obscure. According to Pallas, it migrates singly, from
Juue to September; some remaining all the year in the rivers, returning to the sea in May. It
feeds in the fresh waters on any living thing. ence, unlike the other Trout, which during the
ascent of the rivers grow lean with fasting, breeding, aud exertion, this species is plump and well
fed, and, with S&S. alvelinus malma only, does not perish in the winter. Elsewhere than in the
Columbia this species is highly valued as a food-fish. When taken in the Columbia in spring little
or no use is made of it. Its flesh is pale, aud its bones too firm for it to be used in canning, and
at that season the old individuals taken are usually spent and worthless. In the Sacramento it is
not very common.

Tur RaInBow TRoUt1—SALMO IRIDEUS.

This species is generally known as the “Brook Trout,” ‘‘Mountain Trout,” “Speckled Trout,”
“Golden Trout,” and other evanescent names are also sometimes applied to it. It does not reach
a weight of more than five or six pounds, so far as we know, and most of them as taken are finger-
lings ranging from four inches toa foot inlength. It is found throughout California in all streains
of the mountains. It is said to occur in the northern part of Lower California. The southernmost
seen by us were from San Luis Rey River. We have seen but few specimens of this species from
salt water. These weighed from three to five pounds each. It may probably run into the sea
from streams in which the Jower waters are clear. Specimens referred to this species from the
north of Mount Shasta are perhaps the young of S. Gairdneri. It feeds on worms, larvee, and the
like. For a Trout, it is a fish of little ‘““gaminess” or activity. It is not often brought into the
markets of San Francisco, and at present has little economic importance, although of course a
good table-fish. It has been rather extensively introduced into the waters of the Eastern United
States.

THE BLACK SPOTTED TROUT—SALMO PURPURATUS.

This fish is known as the “Trout,” “Mountain Trout,” ‘Spotted Trout,” ‘+ Black Trout,”
“Silver Trout,” etc., in the mountains, but when in the ocean, full grown, as ‘Salmon Trout” or
“Steel-head.” The Indian uame “ Preestl” is also ascribed to it on the Upper Columnbia. It
reaches a weight of thirty pounds under the most favorable circumstances, but may be found in
any stream or lake of any length from two inches up to two or three feet. Unlike S. Gairdneri, the
young are very common, and it probably begins breeding in mountain streams at a length of less
than a foot. It is universally distributed through the Rocky Mountain region, chiefly east of the
Sierra southward, but reaching the sea from Mount Shasta northward. It occurs in every lake of
New Mexico, Utah, Western Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington.
Every stream throughout the most of this region abounds in them, and in Puget Sound the young
of every size ocvur in the salt water in abundance. Individuals are occasionally taken along the
California coast. Local variations occur in abundance. Specimens fiom Seattle have the scales
notably larger than those irom Victoria and Astoria, which agree with Utah Lake specimens in
this respect. Those that live in the deptis of shady lakes are almost black, while others are pale.
Those in the sea are silvery and only faintly spotted. Only in Lake Tahoe do the variations
assume any marked importance (var. Henshawi). Individuals intermediate between this species
and S. Gairdneri are not rare, and there is no doubt that the latter is simply an offshoot from this
general stock, as are S. irideus and S. stomias. It feeds on any living thing it finds nearit. In the

476 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

mountain lakes it spawns in the spring, runuing into the rivers for that purpose. Its great
enemies at that season are the various species of suckers and chubs, which feed, the former upon
its eggs, the latter upon the young Trout. So very destructive are the former in many trout lakes,
as Utah Lake, that the destruction or diminution of the suckers ought to be accomplished by law.

A parasitic tape-worm, Dibothriwm cordiceps, Leidy, is said to frequently infest this species, so
as to render its flesh uneatable in the summer, in the Yellowstone Lakes. (Yarrow.)

As a tood-fish this Trout is excellent. Large numbers of the variety Henshaii are shipped to
the market of San Francisco. Attempts have been made to cultivate it in parts of California, I
believe with success. A small hatchery has been established at Tahoe City for the purpose of
keeping stocked a small branch of the lake in which summer visitors may fish.

In the opinion of the writer this species is likely to prove much more valuable for introduction
into Eastern waters than the Rainbow Trout. It is more active, more gamy, reaches a larger size,
and thrives in a greater variety of waters.

THE Rio GRANDE TROUT—SALMO SPILURUTS.

This species is abundant in the headwaters of the Rio Grande, Rio Colorado, and their tribu-
taries, being the finest food-fish in New Mexico and Western Colorado. It has also been taken in
Bear River, and probably is found in most of the mountain streams of Utah, being in general
rather southern in its distribution. It probably inhabits all streams within the circle of its distri-
bution, without regard to the direction in which they may flow. We have not seen this species in
life, and little distinctive is known of its habits. It is probably a comparatively recent offshoot
from 8. purpuratus. As in other species, considerable variation is shown in specimens from differ-
ent localities. Its usual size is larger than that of S. purpuratus.

THE DoG SALMON—ONCORHYNCHUS KETA.

This species, duriug the period of its run in the fall, generally goes by the name of “Dog
Salmon,” under which name the males of the Silver Salmon, and even of the Quinnat, are often con-
founded with it. The Russians now, as in the time of Pennant, Pallas, and Walbaun, call it
‘ Kayko,” the name “ Keta” (whale) being no longer in use. On Frazer River the name (Musquam)
is now “Qualoch,” at Seattle (Nisqually) “Ktla-why,” and in the Chinnook jargon ‘ Le-Kai.”
This species is very uniform in its size, and averages ten to twelve pounds. It ranges from the
Sacramento River to Bering Strait, where it seems to be especially abundant; it being the only
Salmon brought from there in a recent cruise of the revenue-cutter Corwin. It is seldom or never
seen in the rivers in spring.

THE HUMP-BACKED SALMON—ONCORHYNCHUS GORBUSCHA (Walb.) Gill & Jor.

This species is known to the Russians still, as in the time of Pennant and Pallas, by the name.
of ‘“Gorbuscha,” gorb meaning hump. The English-speaking people call it generally the “ Hump-
back Salmon,” and often the “Dog Salmon.” Ou Frazer River it is known as “ Holia” or “Hone”
Salmon, and on Puget Sound as the “ Haddoh.” This is one of the smallest Salmon, not averaging
over four or five pounds, and probably never exceeding ten. It ranges from the Sacramento ! iver
to Alaska and Kamtchatka. In the Sacramento and Columbia it is only au estray, on the latter
river being sometimes called “Lost Salmon.” In Puget Sound it runs in large numbers in late
summer and fall, like the eta or Dog Salmon, ascending every little stream. Its run-in Puget
Sound takes place on alternate years, a fact which seems to be well established. It was very plenty
in 1879. None were noticed in 1880, but stragglers are occasionally taken during the year of

THE SILVER AND BLUE-BLACK SALMONS. ATT

scarcity. A few were seen by us on the Columbia and Sacramento. We are told that this species
runs every year in Alaska. During its run in Puget Sound the females are canned, and the
males are thrown away or given to the Indians. The flesh is then pale, and the canned product is
inferior in quality. In economic value the Hump-back Salmon is far inferior to the Quinnat, the
Blue-back, and the Silver Salmon, and, like the Dog Salmon, is mainly useful in furnishing a winter
supply of food to the Indians.

THE SILVER SALMON—ONCORHYNCHUS KISUTCH.

This species is almost everywhere known by the name of “Silver Salmon.” It has also a
series of local names. In Kamtchatka it is still known by the name “ Kisutch,” in use in Pen-
nant’s time, a hundred years ago. The name “Bielaya Ryba,” or “ White-fish,” is also ascribed to
it. On Frazer River it is known by the Musquam name of “Coho”; at Seattle, by the Nisqually
name of “Skowitz”; about Cape Flattery by the Makah name of ‘Hoopid”; on the Columbia
it is called “Silver Salmon” or “White Salmon,” and southward the same names prevail. It
reaches a weight of twenty pounds, the usual range being from seven to ten. The Silver Salmon
enters all the rivers from the Sacramento to Kamtchatka. In the fall it is abundant in probably
all the rivers. Few or none, however, are seen in the spring. They are often taken with seines
in Puget Sound at all seasons. Like the other fall-running Salmon, it seldom ascends the rivers
to any great distance.

THE BLUE-BACK SALMON—ONCORHYNCHUS NERKA.

This species is known as the “Red-fish” to the English-speaking inhabitants of Alaska and
Kamtchatka, and to the Russians, now as in the time of Pennant and Pallas, as ‘“‘Krasnaya Ryba,”
which signifies red-fish, the name having reference to the color of the flesh. It is not unlikely
that other species are occasionally confounded under this name, but there is little doubt that the
present species is the one to which it is chiefly applied. On Frazer River, where this species is the
most important Salmon, it is known as the “Suk-kegh.” Elsewhere in Puget Sound it is rarely seen.
In the Lower Columbia it is known by the appropriate name of “ Blue-back”; in the Upper Colum-
bia as “Red-fish.” Its average weight does not exceed eight pounds, and its extreme weight is
probably not above fifteen. Its range is from the Columbia River to Japan and Kamtchatka.
It runs in considerable numbers in the Columbia, and in much greater abundance in Frazer River,
where it 1s the principal spring Salmon. We have no information as to its occurrence in California,
or as to its entrance into any of the streams south of the Columbia. Like the Quinnat Salmon, it
is attracted in early spring into all those streams which are fed by the melting snows, and into no
others. Its run in spring on the Columbia is, so far as we know, contemporaneous with that of
the Quinnat Salmon. The numbers are, however, much less, and I think that its run is over
earlier in the fall. On Frazer River it runs with the Quinnat, or a little earlier in the spring, the
run mostly ceasing in midsummer, while that of the Quinnat continues on through the fall months.
This species and the Quinnat run early and go far up the streams, where, after spawning, they all
die. In Puget Sound this species is not known to the fishermen, only stray individuals being
taken there. It does not accompany the Silver Salmon and Dog Salmon in their ascent of the
Dwamish, Puyallup, and other small streams; neither is it caught near the shore when out of the
spawning season, as the other species are. In Alaska and Kamtchatka we are told that the Red-
fish (nerka) and King Salmon (chawytcha) run in spring and early summer, while the other species
run in late summer and fall, the Silver Salmon last.

The Blue-back is the most graceful of the Salmons and the most elegant in color. Its flesh is
very similar to that of the Quinnat, but less firm and more watery, and it is not quite so rich when

478 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

canned. Next to the Quinnat, it is the most valuable of the different species, and its inferiority is
mainly that of size. At the canneries four Blue-backs are taken as one Quinnat. A very few of
the Columbia River canneries refuse this species, in order to be able to say that they can the Chin-
nook Salmon only.

BENDIRE ON THE RED-FISH.—This is the Red-tish of Idaho, the identity of which was first
determined by Capt. Charles Bendire, United States Army, whose field-notes upon its appearance
and habits, published in the Proceedings of the National Museum,! are here reproduced:

“The females are much more uniforinly colored. The head is considerably tinged with steel
blue, and the red tint on the sides is more or less clouded with blue and bronze. Females after
spawning show considerable amount of red, only after spawning I noticed that the red coloring
matter deposited in the skin appears to be drawn from the flesh, and I find that in proportion to
the bright coloring of the skin of the fish the flesh loses this tint. In some instances it is barely
pink-colored or almost white. After the spawning of these fish they are brightest outside and
palest inside (as far as the flesh is concerned). The average size of a number of males by actual
weight is only five pounds, and of females only three and three-quarters pounds. After death,
within half an hour the color of these fish rapidly changes about the head and becomes a dark
olive green with bluish reflections, in some instances almost bluish-black. Among any number of
fish there is almost an endless variation in color, caused, perhaps, by some remaining a longer
time in the lake than others. Wallowa Lake is about four and one-quarter miles in length by one
and a half to two miles wide. It deepens very rapidly out a few feet from the shore, and is said
to be four hundred feet deep, and more than that in places. Two small streams flow into the
lake, and these form the spawning ground proper for these fish; and as there are falls about two
miles above the mouth of these streams over which the fish caunot leap, they are restricted to
rather limited quarters for spawning. The only place I saw any of these fish was on the bar near
the head of the lake, and there most of them are caught. They can be seen in schools of one
hundred or more at almost any time during the month of August and later. This year the run
has been very light, and fishing had to a great extent stopped when | arrived at the lake on the
last day of August. Four fisheries had been in operation, and these had put up about twenty
thousand pounds of fish. I believe two or three years ago it had been the practice to obstruct
the entrances to the small streams at the head of the lake to prevent the fish from ranning up
these streams. This year this was not done, and a nuwber of the settlers about the lake seem to
be anxious to have the fish properly protected, and it is not at all too soon to do it, either. The
placing of obstructions in the above-inentioned streams, and perhaps this year of gill-nets on the
bar, has no doubt something to do with the scarcity of these fish. But the most abominable
things of all which I saw personally in use are several clusters of hooks tied together, so that they
form a circle with a radius of about three inches. Just above these hooks a lump of Red-fish eggs
is laid. These are covered with mosquito-netting, and by this contrivance thousands of young
Red-fish (the settlers call them ‘“Shiners,” others call them “Trout,” but I am satisfied that it will
be found that they are yearling Red-fish)? are caught and salted as well as the full-grown ones.
Now, these fish are only about four inches long, and for every one caught two are crippled and
die. So it can readily be seen that an immense number are destroyed yearly, as some parties
inake it a business to salt these down as well as mature fish.

“T examined all these modes of fishing, and when I hooked with a single hook about one out
of three in some other part of the body than the head, it can readily be understood how murderous

‘Vol. iv, pp. 82-84. 2No doubt of it.—D. 8. J.

THE QUINNAT SALMON. 479

such a contrivance as the above must be, and how many young fish can be destroyed by a sing’e
person ina day. They bait them first, and when they become plenty use their grappling hooks.

“The fishermen at the lake complain that the Indians destroy the fish, but from personal
observation I can’t at all agree with them. It is true that numbers of Ludiaus come from various
parts of the country to Wallowa Lake yearly to: fish, and they catch a good many. While I was
camped at the lake I examined the catch of every Indian that passed wy camp, and | looked at as
many as fifty Indians a day; each one had from six to twelve fish usually tied on his horse, and I
found that there was about one female to ten males, and most of these were spent fish which had
already spawned. They are not at all particular about this, and a fish which may be all bruised
up and skinned is apparently just as well relished by them as a perfectly sound one, and even
these Indians appreciated the fact that it would not do to catch too many females; at any rate they
told me that as a rule they let the females go, and this is a good deal more than most of our white
fishermen are willing to do. Mostly every one out here now concedes that the Red-fish is not a
resident of the lakes wherein it is found, and I am perfectly satisfied that they are anadromous and
not land-locked. The only thing as yet which I can’t understand is, how do they get rid of the
hooked nose and the hump after going back to salt water? They surely cau’t all die afler spawning,
and sometimes one that weighs as much as ten pounds is caught, and this fish is certainly older
than a five-pounder; and it would not be presuming too much to assert that a Salmon of that size
must have made more than one trip to sea. While in the lake they do not appear to eat anything,
and the stomachs of several which I examined were entirely empty. I cannot understand how
they get rid of their long hooked nose and hump.”

162. THE QUINNAT OR CALIFORNIA SALMON—ONCORHYNCHUS CHOUICHA.
By LivinGston STONE.

“In Alaska and Kamtchatka,” writes Jordan, “this species is known as the ‘King Salmon,’ and
as ‘Choweecha’ or ‘Tchawytcha,’ a name easier to pronounce than to spell, to the Russians. In
Frazer River it is called by the Musquam name of ‘Sah-Kwey’; in Puget Sound it is called the
‘Columbia River Salmon,’ or in the Chinnook jargon ‘Tyee’ On the Columbia River the name
‘Chinnook Salmon’ is in universal use. Farther south the name ‘Salmon’ is applied to this species,
while the others receive specially distinctive names. The Quinnat Salmon reaches a weight of sixty
to ninety pounds, being the largest of the salmon family. The average weight is, however, much
less. On the Columbia River the average is twenty-two pounds each; on the Sacramento River,
about sixteen. It is probable that the individuals of about twenty pounds’ weight are four years
old, and the larger ones occasionally taken are older, having probably lived through one or more
spawning seasons. Those which enter the river late in the fall cannot ascend far before the
necessity for spawning comes, and such may be able to return to the sea, and thus escape the
death which overtakes all that spawn far inland.

“Tn all streams having their rise in the snows this species begins running as early as March,
and the run continues with various interruptions until the spawning time in the fall. Whena
freshet occurs in spring, the run for a time after is much increased. In regard to this species and
the ‘Blue-back,’ it would appear that they, when adult, enter the streams whenever cold fresh
water comes in contact with them in the sea. After entering fresh water they do not feed, and
they continue their ascent until the season for spawning actually overtakes them. Often they
ascend hundreds of miles, until they are almost worn out, and after the spawning act all that have
thus ascended die. Those streams which do not have their source in the melting snows have no
spring run of Salmon, and in them the Quinnat runs only after the fall rains have set in.

480 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“The distribution of the Quinnat is from Ventura River, where individuals occasionally run in
the winter, to Kamtchatka. It also occurs in the rivers of the corresponding latitude in Asia
The abundance of this species has probably not vet materially diminished in the Columbia. More
than a million and a half have been canned on the Lower Columbia dming the present season
(April, May, June, July, 1880), a greater number than has ever been taken before. In the
Sacramento the numbers have doubtless been reduced by overfishing, and a systematic process
of keeping up the supply in the Columbia by means of hatcheries will very soon be necessary.

“The Salmon take no food in fresh water. In the headwaters of the rivers, in the clear water,
they (at least the males) will sometimes take an artificial fly. In the ocean they take a trolling
bait readily. They then feed on anchovies, herring, smelts, sand launces, shrimps, and in general
on any living object. Even at the time of first entering the rivers in spring the stomach is found
empty and contracted.

“The enemies of the Salmon are, when very young, the chubs, suckers, and other small fishes,
which prey upon the eggs and young fish. In the ocean their chief enemies are the seals of
different species, who bite out their throats and destroy very great numbers of them all along the
coast. No diseases were noticed by us, except those produced by the accidents and great exertions
accompanying the spawning season.

“The economic value of this species at present exceeds that ot’ all others on the Pacific coast
combined. It is brought fresh to the markets of all the cities, and the flesh is canned for export:
to the East and to other countries, especially to England.”

Names.—The first scientitic name by which this fish was commonly known was Salmo quinnat.
This name is generally reputed to be derived from a river, called the Quinnault, where a partic-
ularly good variety of this Salmon was found. This the writer is quite positive is an error. The
common name of the Salmon, at least among the Columbia River Indians that lived near the month
of the Willamette, was “Quinnault,” of which Quinnat is a coriuption, and the scientific name was
undoubtedly taken directly from the Indian name of the fish. The river might have been named
after the fish, but it is not likely that the fish was named after the river.

Not long ago Professor Jordan, after a critical examination of the fish, pronounced it to be
not correctly a Salmon, but an Oncorhynchus, and rechristened the fish Oncorhynchus quinnat,
which name it held till last summer (1880), when Professor Jordan discovered that the fish
had probably been described by Walbaum, in 1792, under the name of Salmo chouicha, and
yielding to prior authority restored its original name, by calling it Oncorhynchus chouicha,
which name it will now probably retain until a more captivating successor presents itself. The
smnall fish which were called by Girard, Suckley, Jordan, and Copeland by the appellations Fario
argyreus, Salmo argyreus, and Salmo Warreni were without doubt the young of the Oncorhynchus
chouicha, and the names will now be given up.

DISTRIBUTION.—The distribution of this Salmon is quite limited, being at present restricted
to the Pacific slope of North America, between the neighborhood of the bay of Monterey and the
Alaska. border, although if it is the same as the “King Salmon” of the Yukon and the Alaska
Rivers its range extends as far north as the Arctic Ocean.

The California Salmon is taken in the largest quantities in the Sacramento and Columbia
Rivers, these being the largest rivers on the coast, but is also found in considerable numbers in
the smaller rivers of California, Oregon, Washington Territory, and British Columbia, notably in
the Eel, Russian, Klamath, Rogue, and Frazer Rivers.

The adult fish vary widely in size. The smallest mature fish on record was caught in the
McCloud River, California, and weighed about four pounds. The largest on record was caught in

HABITS OF YOUNG CALIFORNIA SALMON. 481

the Columbia River, and weighed eighty-three pounds. The writer has seen one on the Columbia
that weighed sixty-seven pounds.

The California Salmon is easily caught with hook and line in the fresh-water tributaries,
where it goes to deposit its eggs. It does not readily take a fly, but becomes an easy victim when
tempted with salmon roe, which is the most effective of all baits for catching this fish, When
prime it very much resembles in appearance the well-known Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) in the
same condition, with this exception, that it has on its back and sides nearly black, star-like spots,
while the Atlantic Salmon has none, when fresh from the ocean.

The California Salmon is a remarkable fish, and has had an extraordinary career. Fifty
years ago it was hardly known, except to students of natural history. Now it is known and eaten
almosi all over the world, for there is hardly a port in the worid where ships have not carried the
canned Salmon of the Columbia, which is the same fish under a different name; and not only has
this fish, in the form of food, traveled nearly all over the world, but the living embryos of the
California Salmon have been transported to England, France, Germany, Belgium, Denmark,
Russia, Australia, and New Zealand, so that there is probably no one fish inhabiting a limited
locality which is known over the world in so many different places as the California Salmon.

This magnificent fish is deserving of its career. If splendid proportions, of unsurpassed vigor
and spirit, it has no equal in external attractiveness among the race of fishes, except its own cousins
of the Atlantic and other oceans, while as regards the quality of its flesh and its marvelous aban-
dance in its habitat, it has but few equals in the world. As to the quality of its flesh, it closely
resembles the highly-prized Salmon, Salmo salar, of Great Britain and the Atlantic coast of
North America, which has no superior, and as to its abundance I need only say that nearly two
hundred million pounds have been caught in the Columbia River alone during the last six years,
without producing, according to the most recent testimony of the Columbia fishermen, any serious
diminution of the river’s stock. eee

DEVELOPMENT.—The Salmon begins life as a bird does, in anegg. When the egg first leaves
the parent fish it is about one-fourth of an inch in diameter and of an orange tint. In a few days
there can be seen in the egg a fine dark line, which is the first visible beginning of the future
salmon. In nineteen days, in water at 55° Fahrenheit, the black pigment of the eye begins to show
through the translucent shell. In thirty-five days in the same water the young Salmon is hatched.
When it first emerges from the shell it is about an inch long, and carries under its body in a little
round sac the yolk of the egg it came from, on which it lives by absorption for about a month
longer, till its mouth is sufficiently completed to take food and its other organs to dispose of the
food it takes. When it first hatches it is a clumsy-looking and an awkwardly-moving object,
being about as graceful and efficient in its attempts to swim like a fish as a human beginner’s
attempts are to ride a bicycle. After it has lived in its sac a week or two it develops a disposition
to dive and hide under something, which it does with a pertinacity which is both characteristic of
the full-grown Salmon and prophetic of the tenacity of purpose it will show in ascending its
breeding rivers to spawn. This irresistible instinct to dive and hide takes it still deeper under
the gravel and rocks in the bed of the river which formed its birth-place, and it stays here in the
crevices of the rocks and gravel, as snug as possible, until the sac of food which nature
started it in life with is gone, and it is obliged to work for a living or starve. It would not be safe
for the little helpless creature now to venture out of the rocks and gravel where it was born, for it
would undoubtedly pay for its rashness by becoming food, while yet alone, for the larger fishes
above. So like the early Christians in the catacombs, it spends a large portion, if not all, of its

earlier life in or close by the under-world where it was born. As it gets larger it ventures out and
ol F

ry

482 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS,

takes its chances for life in the world of waters above it, usually, I think, going up some brook or
keeping near some rocks, or close insnore where it can quickly retreat to a place of safety when
alarmed. It feeds now voraciously on whatever it can find in the way of smaller fishes and insects
and other animal life in the water, and in a few months, probably not over six or seven, it joins
the host of its comrades, of about the same size, which are preparing to go to sea, and forming a
school which, without doubt, gathers myriads of recruits as it proceeds, it hastens with all its
might down the stream. It is now a beautiful silvery fish from four to six inches long, and in a
few days finds itself in the midst of the allurements and dangers of the great unknown ocean
which it was so eager Lo seek.

Strange as it m:y seem, very little, almost nothing in fact, is known of its ocean history.
We know that the Salmon leave the mouths of the rivers at stated times and return to their rivers
at other stated times, but where they go, or how they fare, or what motives guide their course in
their mysterious ocean sojourns, no one knows. From analogies derived from our knowledge of
the history of the Atlantic Salmon, we suppose that they go into deep water when they leave the
rivers, and seek the best feeding places they can find, but that is about all one can say of their
ocean history. The few facts that we know of this portion of their existence are pretty much
confined to the following:

They are found to have deep-sea fish in their stomachs when they first make their appearance

near enough to the mouths of the rivers to be captured, which points to the deep sea as their ocean
feeding ground. They are also caught by the fishermen at Monterey Bay, which shows that they
go as far south as Monterey, but does not show, what some claim, that the course of their migration
is southward, for there may be hundreds of unknown places to the north where they could be
caught if the fishermen were there. It only proves that some California Salmon go south to
Monterey. One thing more is known about their ocean life, and that is that they are often caught
with marks of seals’ and sea-lions’ teeth upon them, which shows that they are preyed upon in the
sea by these enemies, though, perhaps, it is only in their journey to the rivers’ mouths that they
have torun the gauntlet of seals and sea-lions, for they probably have a capacity for standing
deeper water than their just mentioned enemies.
' ‘THE RIVER ASCENT.—But if their ocean history is little known, their inland career, if I may
use the expression, is interesting enough to make up for it. From the moment the Salmon enters
the river, which it is sure to seek once in one or two years, its progress is one of interest. It first
proceeds, at its leisure, to the head of tide-water. Here it stops awhile and seems to play about
between the fresh and salt water. Whether it shrinks from encountering the sudden change from
salt water to fresh, which is probably the cause of its dallying, or for other causes, it usually spends
two weeks or more hovering about the border line between sea water and river water. When it
has overcome its apparent repugnance to making the change to fresh water, it makes a rapid
charge up the river for the clear gravelly streams which its instinct or sixth sense tells it to seek.
Now, paradoxical or unreasonable as it may seem, it stops eating. If it is caught a short distance
above the head of the tide, the undigested remains of what it ate in the salt sea water are some-
times found in its stomach, but after that nothiug, absolutely nothing, is ever found inside of the
California Salmon to show that it has eaten a particle of food in fresh water. As a proof of this
statement I may mention that out of a great many thousand specimens that have been examined
no food has been in the stomachs of any.

After the Salmon cross over the line into the fresh water above them they begin a strange and
almost inexplicable journey. In the case at least of the Salmon that go up the McCloud River,
they begin a journey which is a long fast, and ends only in death. If they could be credited with

SPAWNING HABITS OF THE CALIFORNIA SALMON. 483

a knowledge of what lies before them, none of the martyrs of Christendom could claim greater
merit than these devoted Salmon that march on unflinchingly to inevitable death. From the time
the Salmon leave the border land, so to speak, of tide water, they pursue their upward course
towards the rivers’ sources with an inflexible pertinacity. Nothing can now check their upward
career, except an obstacle positively insurmountable, and nothing whatever can make them turn
back. They steadily pursue their way through the deeper and stiller waters of the lower portions
of the rivers. They dash furiously up the rapids, halting awhile usually before they enter them
to recruit their strength, and continue to rush on and on through the swiftest, shallowest, and
roughest waters until they reach suitable places for depositing their spawn. The earliest runs,
that is, those that enter the rivers first, usually go farthest up the stream. Those that come in next
seem to take their places below them, and so on down the river, so that there is a series of sets of
spawning fishes, extending from the head of the river down as far as suitable spawning grounds
are to be found; the set highest up the river spawning first, and so on dow» the river in regular
order. If the Salmon on their way up a river meet with anything that frightens them, like a
bridge for instance, they usually stop and cautiously examine it until they are satisfied that they
can risk the venture, and then they all together, as if by a given signal, make a swift rush past it.
When they come to a fall they show more perseverance than Robert Bruce’s famous spider, for
they try innumerable times to jump it, and never give it up until they have found it to be a
hopeless case and are completely worn out with the exertion.

I said nothing can turn them back. When thoroughly frightened and panicked, however,
they act like stampeded cattle and can be driven down the river in droves. The Indians take
advantage of this weakness of the Salmon in one of their methods of capturing them. They
build a trap nearly across a river that is not too deep for the purpose, and then great numbers of
them wading into the stream a mile or two above the traps form a line across the river, and with
. Sticks, poles, and branches of trees, use their utmost exertions to frighten the Salmon, till at last
the fish, too astounded and panic-stricken to know what they are about, turn around, and heading
down the river, rush with all their speed into the traps that are waiting for them.

In their course up the river it does not discourage them if the water is shallow. They will
push on where the water does not cover their backs, and crowd together in doing so, till, as some
one has jokingly remarked, they hardly leave room for the water.

There is something amazing about these pilgrimages of theirs up the rivers. The wonder is
not so much that the Salmon go without food for so long a time—the black bass does the
same—nor that they make such great exertions in getting up the rivers, for other creatures
make greater exertions in getting their food, but the marvel is in the combination of these two
facts, viz, in their making these exhausting efforts without taking any food to keep up their
strength. It seems incredibly contradictory to nature’s laws of life and offersya puzzling problem
to biologists to discover where the fuel comes from which does this immense amount of work,
accomplished by the migratory Salmon between leaving tide water and completing the season’s
spawning.

SPEED OF ASCENT.—Their rate of progress up the rivers varies between very wide limits.
The earlier runs are the longest time on their way up the river. The latest runs make the journey
most quickly. The fish seem to regulate their speed according to the forwardness of their eggs.
When their eggs are very small or almost wholly undeveloped, as is the case with the earliest
_ Tuns—that is, those that enter the mouth of the rivers first—they seem to be in no hurry, but
loiter along as they please, and probably spend a great deal of time between the ocean and the
fresh-water line; but when their eggs are nearly ripe, as is the case with the later runs, they

484 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

advance as if they had no time to lose, as indeed they have not, and hasten, apparently at the top
of their speed, to their spawning destinations. This is illustrated by the fact that it is six or seven
months before the early runs of the Sacramento Salmon, which enter the Golden Gate in November
and December, reach the sources of the river at Mount Shasta, four hundred miles from the river’s
mouth, while the later runs, which reach Rio Vista about the 1st of August, arrive at the McCloud
River, two hundred and fifty miles distant, in ten or twelve days.

When they have reached the vicinity of their spawning grounds they seem to rest two or
three weeks in deep holes and eddies of the river, until they are just ready to build their nests,
and then they emerge from their holes and literally cover the rapids for miles, in the clear shallow
water of which they can be seen from the river banks by hundreds. They now, comparatively
speaking, lose their fear of danger, and will not leave the places they have selected unless very
closely approached, and then they will persistently return again and again unless actually driven
off and kept off. Here comes in once more very noticeably the marvel of their living without
food, for they now for many days stem the force of powerful currents every moment, day and
night, not only without partaking of food, but in many instances without having taken any food
for months. A copious rain starts a movement along the whole line from the river sources to tide
water, except where the fish are actually engaged in spawning, and during the rain the river
currents seem to be full of Salmon eagerly striving to reach higher portions of the stream.

SPAWNING HABITS.—After the Salmon have occupied the rapids a short time, they pro-
ceed to build their nests and deposit their eggs. They scoop away the gravel from a selected
spot with their noses and sweep it off with their tails, until they have made clear a spot a few
feet in diameter, usually about circular in shape, and depressed towards the center, not unlike in
form a common hen’s nest. The eggs and milt having been deposited, the nest is covered over
again with gravel by the parent fish, which use their noses and tails as before to move the gravel.
This being done, they seem, at least on the upper tributaries, to act as if they realized that their
life-work was ended. They do not hasten back to the ocean, where, if they reached it, they would
regain their pristine health and vigor, but they hover about the vicinity of their spawning ground,
growing weaker, more emaciated and diseased every day, till death comes to their relief.

Having briefly traced the Salmon’s career from the ocean to the final stages of its journey
and its life, let us look for a moment at the various changes which gradually transform it from the
healthy and magnificent creature of the ocean to the pitiable emaciated object calmly awaiting
its final summons at the river’s source.

When the Salmon come into the rivers from the ocean they are royal creatures wearing a
beautiful silvery coat and possessing rare symmetry and immense vitality and muscular vigor. As
long as they stay in tide water, there is saltness enough in it to keep up their appetites, and they
are usually sufficiently successful in their foraging to hold their own. But the moment they cross
the line into the fresh water of the rivers above them they lose their appetite, they take no more
food, and from that day they fall off in symmetry, beauty, and vitality. This physical deterioration
always bears a constant ratio to the proximity of their time of spawning, and regularly increases
as this time approaches. As this spawning season occurs at different periods at different locations,
no specific time can be named for their successive stages of deterioration, but taking the salmon-
breeding station of the United States Fish Commission on the McCloud River as a point of obser-
vation, it is noticed here that the Salmon which pass the station in March and April are very much
like the tide water fish. In May and June they are still in their prime. In July they change rapidly
for the worse, and by the end of that month their silvery look is gone and they are of an olive-
green color. The males are deeper and the females are broader. ‘Their scales are nearly absorbed

THE LAKE TROUT. 485

into the skin, which has become smooth and slimy. The heads of the females have not changed
much, but the heads of the males have become more or less pointed, their jaws have developed
rows of large white teeth, and the whole expression of their face has become ferocious and repulsive
in the extreme. They are now fast losing their marks of nobility with which nature had so richly
endowed them in their broad ocean domains. They begin to spawn at the McCloud station the
latter part of August, and from that time to the end, which soon comes, their downward progress
is rapid. They grow less comely in appearance, more slimy to the touch, more unsymmetrical in
form; parasites collect by thousands in their gills and under their fins; their tails and fins fray off;
a white and loathsome fungus gathers over all parts of them, frequently destroying their eyesight ;
and swarms of suckers—the carrion-birds among fishes—wait about them to feed upon their
lifeless bodies when they die. For some unknown and strange reason, the Salmon in the higher
tributaries do not hasten back to the salt water which would clean their bodies of the parasites
and fungus and restore their appetite and with it their health and vigor, but they linger, with a
strange indifference to their fate, around the spots where they have deposited their eggs, waiting
patiently for the only possible relief from their wretchedness, which is death.

Some uninformed persons, who have never seen these fish in their natural habits, have
expressed some incredulity in regard to their all dying after they have spawned. Under this
head, I will only say that it is probably true that those that spawn near the ocean return to the
ocean and recover their vitality, but those that pass the United States station on the McCloud
River in the summer never do. In order to make sure whether I was mistaken in my views about
it, I took the testimony, a year ago, of all the white men who have lived or worked on the river,
and of all the Indians I could reach. It was the unanimous testimony of all that the Salmon which
pass the McCloud hatching station in the summer, on their way up the river to spawn, die in the
river and never return to the ocean.

In conctusion I will say that the Quinnat Salmon has been a favored object of artificial
culture. It was among the first of the fishes to receive attention from Professor Baird, the
United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, who, in 1872, deputized the writer td go to
the Pacific coast to collect and distribute its eggs. Since that time over fifty million Quinnat
Salmon eggs have been distributed over the world, or hatched for the benefit of the Sacramento
River. Professor Baird has in some instances sent them as far as Denmark, Germany, Russia,
New Zealand, and Australia.

163. THE NAMAYCUSH OR LAKE TROUT—SALVELINUS NAMAYCUSH.

The Lake Trout, or Salmon Trout, is a non-migratory species inhabiting the chain of Great
Lakes from Superior to Ontario, as well as Lake Champlain and many other smaller lakes of the
United States and of British America. With the exception of the doubtful species known as the
“Siscowet,” its nearest relative is the Brook Trout of the Eastern States, Salvelinus fontinalis. The
Lake Trout is, in fact, a member of the same group of the salmon family with the Chars. Gill
and Jordan were the first to point out that the true relations of the Lake Trout are with the Chars
rather than with the Salmon. The Lake Trout is peculiar to North America and its inland seas,
though the Char and the Black-spotted Trout are very similar to European forms. Every one is
familiar with the phenomenon of the Land-locked Salmon, these fish being true Salmon for a time
debarred from access to the sea, assuming a peculiar coloration, and with habits modified by con-
finement within narrower bounds than those of others of the same species which are free to range
between river and ocean.

The Lake Trout appears to have undergone somewhat similar modifications. It is a Char,
not land-locked, but placed under conditions directly opposite to those connected with those which

486 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

are land-locked. Certain modifications of structure have resulted from access to nutritious food
in almost unlimited quantity and from existence for many generations in extensive bodies of water.

S1zE.—The most striking of these is the greater size. It sometimes attains the weight of
one hundred and twenty pounds, while our common Char, Salvelinus fontinalis, even under
similar conditions, never exceeds fourteen or fifteen. This is due, perhaps, to the greater ease
with which, for hundreds of generations, the Lake Trout have obtained their food. They are
almost always found in the same lakes with one or more kinds of white-fish, whose slow, helpless
movements render them an easy prey, and upon whose tender, luscious flesh the Lake Trout
feeds voraciously. From abundant food and slight exertion results bulk of body. This becomes
hereditary. Even the eggs in time are larger, just as in the Land-locked Salmon they are smaller,
than in the parent species, and the young fish begins its career with an advantage. As the
nascent species gains in magnitude the scales, always small like those of the Char, increase
in number, that the growing body may be covered. In like manner an additional ray or two may
be developed to re-enforce the dozen supporters of the dorsal fin. The change in dentition is a
result of the change of habits. Feeding upon large, strong-scaled fish, instead of insects and min-
nows, natural selection provides the Lake Trout with more and stronger teeth. It would perhaps
seem like a hasty generalization to point to Salvelinus fontinalis as the form from which the Lake
Trout has been developed, but one may fairly take into consideration the fact that this species
alone, of all the Salmo group, is usually associated with the fish under consideration, occupying the
streanis which flow into the lakes of Northeastern America, and frequently entering these lakes.
That 8. fontinalis, even when retaining its predilection for the streamlets, shows a tendency to
extraordinary growth when ample waters, like the lakes of Maine or the lower stretches of the
Nepigon, are accessible, is also known.

VARIATIONS.—The Brook Trout shares with the Lake Trout its tendency to variations in size,
shape, and color. Every lake of Northern New York and New England has its own variety, which
the local angler stoutly maintains to be a different species from that found in the next township.
Sonie are as black as a tautog, some brown with crimson spots, some gray, with delicate reticula-
tions like those of a pickerel. The usual type to be found in the Great Lakes is brown or gray,
dappled with lighter shades of the same general tint. Naturalists have been sadly misled by their
Protean modifications. The “Namaycush” of the North, the “Togue” or “Tuladi” of the Maine
and New Brunswick Indians and lumbermen, the “Siscowet” or ‘‘Siskawitz” of Lake Superior,
the “Trout” of Winnipiseogee, and that of the Adirondack lakes, have each been honored with a
distinct binomial.

The angling authorities still refuse to admit that the Lake Trout of the East is identical with
the Mackinaw Trout, or Namaycush, supporting their views by accounts of their very different
habits. A careful study of the dead fish is sufficient, however, to convince a trained observer that
there are no structural characters by which these different forms may be separated into species.
The local variations should undoubtedly be taken into consideration, and when these are better
understood it is probable that zoologists and anglers will compromise by agreeing to consider the
most strongly marked types as races, or breeds, such as are now recognized among dogs, pigeons,
and other domesticated animals. Having never seen the fish called the “Siscowet,” Salvelinus
siscowet, I cannot express an opinion as to its distinctness from the Mackinaw Trout, but good
ichthyologists assure me that its peculiarities are very slight, consisting chiefly in the smaller head-
teeth, and fins, and the stouter body. Since, however, it is always distinguished from the Namay-
cush by the Indians and fishermen of Lake Superior, who often see them side by side, it seems
probable that it may claim at least sub-specific rank. The matter of land-locking is one which

VARIATIONS OF THE LAKE TROUT. 487

deserves more attention than it has hitherto received. From what we know of the influence of
environment upon animals, it need not surprise us to discover that the fishes of éach separate lake
possess distinctive characters, rising, perhaps, to sub-specific value. No definite proof can be
gathered, however, until large series of specimens from each body of water have been examined
and compared.

LAKE TROUT IN THE GREAT LAKES.—The Lake Trout reaches its greatest perfection in the
northern parts of lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior, where it is quite generally known as
the “Mackinaw Trout.” In the lakes of Northern New York the same species occurs, being known
by the names ‘Lake Salmon,” “Lake Trout,” and “Salmon Trout.” This form, which is consid-
erably smaller than that of the northern lakes, was described by DeKay under the name Salmo
confinis, and was observed by this author as far south as Silver Lake, in Northern Pennsylvania.
Still another form is recognized by sportsmen, which, although undoubtedly specifically identical
with that of the Great Lakes, has been described under various names, such as Salmo toma and
Salmo symmetrica.

“This fish,” writes Lanman,! “is found in all the great lakes of New Brunswick, and in very
many of those of Maine, but it is believed not to exist in the lakes of Nova Scotia. It is called by the
lumbermen the ‘Togue’; the Indians designate it by a name equivalent to ‘Fresh-water Cod? It
is found in great numbers and of large size in the Eagle Lakes, at the head of Fish River, in the
Saint Francis lakes, from which it follows the river of that name, and in the Matapediac Lake,
which discharges itself into the Restigouche, and in the Miramichi Lake, at the head of that river.
In Lake Temiscouata this fish has been taken of the weight of twenty-one pounds. It is there
called the ‘Tuladi.’ It is often taken of the weight of twelve pounds and upwards in the Cheput-
necticook lakes, at the head of the eastern branch of the Saint Croix. It has been found of late
years that. this species of fish exists in considerable numbers in Loch Lomond, twelve miles from
the city of Saint John.”

Hamlin writes:? “This Trout inhabits many of the great lakes and deep mountain torrents of
Maine and New Brunswick, but it is believed not to exist in those of Eastern New Brunswick,
which singular hiatus in its distribution, perhaps, may be explained by the absence of deep waters
in that country. It haunts the deepest waters, where the cold or the repose to which it leads
favors that development and conservation of fat which is indeed a characteristic, and it steals forth
in quiet at the approach of twilight or at early morn to the shoals and the shores in quest of its
prey.”

The Winnipiseogee Trout,’ somewhat abundant in Lake Winnipiseogee and supposed to occur
in Lake George, is also a form of this species, closely related to the Togue.

The popular and scientific names which have been given to this species are due to the wonder:
ful tendency of variation in size, shape, and coloration which this species, like the Brook Trout,
exhibits. Every lake in which they occur has its own varieties, which local authorities believe to
be quite peculiar. Some are black, some brown, with crimson spots, some gray, with delicate
reticulations like those of a pickerel. The usual type to be found in the Great Lakes is brown or
gray dappled with lighter shades of the same general tint. Throughout Lakes Superior, Michigan,
and Huron the fishermen are generally of the opinion that there are at least two kinds of Lake
Trout. It seems probable, however, that they are led by superficial characters, finding it con-

1 Report United States Fish Commission, part 2, p. 220.

2 Tbid., p. 356.

3 Salmo symmetrica, Prescott: Silliman’s Journal, 2d serios, ii, p. 340. Report United States Fish Commis-
sion, Pt. 2, p. 257.

488 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

venient to give names to the extremes of development in different directions, and neglect to take
into account the forms intermediate between these extremes. Mr. Kumlien studied the subject in
different localities in the summer of 1880, and the results of his observations are here presented.

In the vicinity of Green Bay those having salmon-colored flesh were called ‘Black Trout,”
while others, with white flesh, were known as “ Lake Trout.” On the eastern shore of Green Bay,
on the east shore of Lake Michigan, two species of ‘“‘Mackinaw Trout” are recognized by the fisher-
men. About Grand Traverse Bay, Lake Michigan, two varieties are also recognized, one being long,
slim, and coarse-meated, taken in shallow water, and are known as “Reef Trout,” or when very
large are called “Racers”; they are supposed to follow the schools of white-fish, among which they
are always taken; those of the other form are called “Pot-bellies,” being short and chubby, and
invariably taken in deep water. In the vicinity of Two Rivers, Wisconsin, two forms are recog-
nized, one known as “Reef Trout,” corresponding to the one just mentioned, large and lank, with
tough and coarse flesh, while the other, which is much more highly prized, is taken in deep water.
At the south end of Lake Michigan two forms are known: one, which is darker-colored and has
red flesh, being considered by far the more valuable. At Grand Haven there are two forms of
Mackinaw Trout, known as the “Shoal-water Trout” and the “ Deep-water Trout.” In the vicinity
of Thunder Bay, Lake Huron, the name “Buckskin” is applied to one variety, which is held in
very slight esteem, while another form is known by the name of “ Racer.”

The angling authorities as well as the fishermen refuse to be convinced that ichthyologists are
right in including all the Lake Trouts in one species; the former are especially dissatisfied that
the Lake Trout of the East should be thought identical with the Mackinaw Trout of the North-
western and Great Lakes, and they support their views by reference to their very different habits.
Local variations should, undoubtedly, be taken into consideration, and when these are better
understood it is probable that zoologists and anglers will compromise by agreeing to consider the
most strongly marked types as races or breeds, such as are now recognized among dogs, pigeons,
and other domesticated animals.

Names.—In addition to the names which have already been mentioned, the Lake Trout has
other appellatives, such as “Lunge,” in Canada; “Tyrant of the Lake,” “Laker,” “Red Trout,”
“Gray Trout,” “Black Lunge,” “Silver Lunge,” “Racer Lunge,” ‘Black Salmon,” and “Lake
Salmon.” The name “Tuladi” is said to be derived from Lake Toledi at the head of the Saint
John River, of New Brunswick.

ImportTANcE.—“The Trout of the Great Lakes,” writes Milner, “is one of the three most
numerous fishes, and, except the sturgeon, attains the greatest weight of any of the Lake species.
It is captured almost exclusively in gill-nets, and in some portions of the Lakes they take them in
pound-nets during the spawning season. In winter a great many are taken in the bays through
holes cut in the ice.”

Spawninc.—In the spawning season they approach the shore, but do not ascend the rivers,
and although they are known to exist in a few inland lakes, connected with the main lakes by
rapids, there is no record of their having been seen or taken in the outlets.

The observations of Mr. Kumlien concerning the relative abundance of this species in different
parts of the Great Lake region, and the periodicity of their movements, are deemed of sufficient
importance to be recounted somewhat at length below. The whole subject of their movements is,
however, so closely connected with their habits during the spawning season that it is perhaps
desirable to discuss first their breeding habits. The spawning season in Lakes Michigan and
Superior occurs in October. Their habits at this time have not been studied by any zoologists,
the visits of Milner and Kumlien to their haunts having been made at other seasons of the year.

SPAWNING GROUNDS OF THE LAKE TROUT. 489

They spawn late in October, coming up to the rocky shoals and reefs in from seventy to ninety
feet depth of water. They are said to spawn close to the projections and edges of cavernous rocks,
the eggs settling into the depressions, where they doubtless remain until hatched. The young fish
make their entry into the world in late winter or early spring, though in a hatching house, with
water at an average temperature of 47° Fahrenheit, they have been known to hatch the last weck
in January.

Milner remarks: “The universal testimony is that the spawn is found running from the
females in the latter part of the month of October, the fish coming to the spawning grounds a
week or more earlier. At Detour, at the head of Lake Huron, on the 16th of October, I saw a large
lift of Trout brought in from the spawning grounds; the ova were large and separated, but were
still entirely retained in the folds of the ovaries, and the fishermen said that they had not found
them running from this fish as yet.

“The localities selected by the Trout for their spawning ground are usually rock bottoms in
from fifteen fathoms to seven feet of depth. The Trout are said to settle close to the projections
and edges of the honey-combed cavities of the rock, and that frequently, when a loose fragment
of the rock is drawn up by the nets, the cells are found to contain numbers of the eggs.”

Mr. Milner counted the eggs of a Mackinaw Trout, of twenty-four pounds’ weight, and found
that there were 14,943. The average weight of these fish as taken in the gill-nets was about five
pounds, though fish of fifteen pounds are frequently seen. Mr. Milner obtained authentic accounts
of one, taken at Mackinaw in 1870, which weighed eighty pounds. The species is the largest,
except the sturgeon, occurring in the Great Lakes.

“The knowledge of the time at which the young fish make their appearance is limited to the
experience of the few fish-culturists in the country who have hatched the eggs. In water of an
average temperature of 47°, they are found to hatch about the last week of January. At the
lower temperatures of the water, in a state of nature, their development would be retarded for
several weeks.

“Of the habits of the young Trout I am entirely destitute of information. I have seen one of
eight inches in length, and learn of rare instances in which the fishermen have seen small ones.”

The principal spawning grounds of fhe Lake Trout are the following:

I. The north shore of Lake Superior, from Duluth northward to the vicinity of Isle Royale,
comprising the whole lake coast of Minnesota, and in all the small bays of the region.

II. In the vicinity of the Apostle Islands, in the western part of Lake Superior, especially
about Gull Island.

IIT. Very extensive spawning grounds in the vicinity of Huron Bay, Michigan, particularly
near L’Anse and Béte-Grise Bay, and on a reef about four miles from Porte Gentre.

IV. Very extensive spawning grounds in the southeastern part of. Lake Superior, at Big
Presque Isle, Laughing Fish Island, Sharp Point, and Sauk’s Head, Michigan.

V. On the west shore of Lake Michigan, from Racine northward, particularly upon a reef about
forty miles off Milwaukee, and on a smaller reef about six miles from the same town. On this
ground, according to Milner, a large type of Trout has been taken for many years, also on certain
shoals in the vicinity of Green Island in Green Bay.

VI. On the eastern shore of Lake Michigan, from Saint Josephs northward.

VII. In the vicinity of Detour, at the head of Lake Huron. At this point, according to Milner
(also according to Kumlien, along the islands off Thunder Bay and Harrisville), the spawning
ground was so close to the shore that the tips of the floats of the nets set upon it were visible
above water.

490 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

VIIi. On the Canadian shore of Lake Ontario.

“Their usual home at other seasons than the spawning period,” remarks Milner, “igs in
deep water. <A few stragglers approach the shore and are taken in the pound-nets or with the
hook from the piers extending into the lakes. In the northern portions of Michigan they are taken
in fifteen fathoms in some numbers with the gill-nets, and more plentifully through holes cut in the
ice in the winter time, though a depth of over thirty fathoms is more favorable for their capture.”

Milner made the following remark: ‘Pound-nets have not made extensive inroads upon their
numbers, and none but mature fishes are taken.”

In Green Bay alone does it appear that small-meshed gill-nets have interfered with the
abundance of the fish by capturing their young. ,

The best study of the habits of this species, as an inhabitant of the Great Lakes, was that
made by Milner, in 1871. He observed that in Lake Michigan, except in the spawning season,
they remain in the deepest parts of the lake. In their autumnal migrations they do not ascend
the rivers, and although they are known to exist in a few small inland lakes, connected with the
main lakes by rapids, there is no knowledge that they have ever been seen or taken in the outlets.
In the northern parts of Lake Michigan they are caught in depths of fifteen fathoms in small
numbers by the gill-nets, and more plentifully through the ice in winter, chiefly at a depth of more
than thirty fathoms.

Foop.—They are ravenous feeders. In Lake Michigan, where a careful investigation into the
nature of their food was made, it was found that they were preying upon the cisco (Coregonus
Hoyt), a well-known fish closely resembling the white-fish. Mr. Milner was inclined to combat the
generally accepted theory of the fishermen that they are large consumers of young white fish,
stating that for a great part of the year they live in much deeper water than is resorted to by the
young white-fish, though Trout straying into shoal water, or migrating upon shallow spawning
grounds, would undoubtedly prey upon the smaller white-fish as readily as they would upon any
other species.

It is not uncommon for a Trout to swallow a fish nearly as large as itself. One measuring
twenty-three inches was brought ashore at Two Rivers, Wisconsin, from the mouth of which some
three inches of the tail of a fish (Zota maculosa) projected. The “lawyer,” when taken from the
Trout, measured about seventeen inches. “Their exceeding voracity,” writes Mr. Milner, “induces
them to fill their maws with singular articles of food. Where the steamers or vessels pass, the
refuse of the table is eagerly seized upon, and I have taken from the stomach a raw peeled potato
and a piece of sliced liver, and it is not unusual to find pieces of corn-cobs, in the green-corn
season.”

Kumlien’s observations led him to believe that large Trout feed, to some extent, upon white-
fish, while the smaller ones capture the herring. In Green Bay the fishermen say that the Trout
leave the white-fish spawning beds in autumn before the spawning season begins, but that they
are not accused of being troublesome spawn-eaters, though otherwise extremely voracious, and
especially hurtful to the white-fish and herring. The fishermen of Port Huron informed him that
it was no unvsual occurrence to obtain white-fish two or thr. e pounds in weight from the stomachs
of large Trout. Captain Dingman, of Beaver Island, informed him that the Trout do not come
upon the white-fish reefs during the spawning season, and that they do ot trouble the white-fish at.
that time. In that vicinity they are thought to prefer herring to any other kind of fish. A twenty-
pound Trout was caught off Beaver Islands which had in its stomach thirteen herrings and was
caught biting at the fourteenth. They are as omniverous as codfish, and among the articles which

ENEMIES OF THE LAKE TROUT. 491

have been found in their stomachs may be mentioned an open jack-knife, seven inches long, which
had been lost by a fisherman a year before at a locality thirty miles distant, tin cans, rags, raw
potatoes, chicken and ham bones, salt pork, corn-cobs, spoons, silver dollars, a watch and chain,
and, in one instance, a piece of tarred rope two feet long. In the spring wild pigeons are often
found in their stomachs. It is thought that these birds frequently become bewildered in their
flight over the lakes, settle on the water, and become the prey of the Trout.

In the review of localities already given mention has been made of many large individuals ;
the only estimate of average accessible is that by Milner, who remarks: “The smaliest ones that
are taken in any numbers are fifteen to eighteen inches in length, and these are not very numerous.
The average weight of the Lake Trout taken in the gill-nets is nearly five pounds. It is claimed
that in years past they averaged much higher. They are quite frequently taken weighing fifteen
pounds. A specimen of a female was obtained last summer at Shoal Island, Lake Superior,
weighing twenty-four pounds. One taken at Grand Haven, Michigan, in the mcnth of June, 1871—
a female—weighed thirty-six pounds and one-half. After the gills and entrails were removed it
weighed twenty-nine pounds. It measured three feet six and one-half inches in length.

“The tradition of the largest Trout taken is preserved at each locality, ranging from fifty to
ninety pounds. One that I am satisfied was authentic, from having taken the testimony of those
who saw it weighed, and having the story confirmed by Father Peret, of Mackinaw, was taken at
that place in 1870, and weighed eighty pounds.” !

ENEMIES.—‘‘ There are no species of fishes in the lakes,” writes Milner, “sufficiently formidable
to be considered enemies of the Trout after they mature. The spawn and fry probably suffer to
some extent from the same causes that the ova and young white-fish do. They are troubled with a
few parasites, especially a tape-worm that is found very numerous in the intestines of some of them.
Solitary individuals, known among the fishermen as ‘ Racers,’ are found in the summer time
swimming sluggishly at the surface. They are easily taken with the gaff-hook, and bite readily at
any bait thrown to them. They are always very thin in flesh. Dissection of the few that I have
taken failed to find any adequate cause for their condition. The parasites were generally present,
but not in any larger number than in healthy fish. The fishermen on the north shore of Lake
Michigan generally keep a few hogs. The offal of the white fish is fed to them freely, but they are
very careful to allow no trout offal to be thrown in their way, asserting that the hogs, after eating
Trout, frequently become crazy and die. The only plausible explanation of this fact, if it is a fact,
is that some entozoon of the Mackinaw Trout passes through one stage of its development in the
hog, and occasions disturbance of the brain, having much the same habit as the cystic Cenurus
does in the sheep. Dr. Bannister informs me that the opinion prevailed among some of the
Russian residents of Alaska that a tape-worm was occasionally produced in the human subject by
eating the Chaiwicha, Salmo orientalis Pal., the largest species of Salmon common in that country.
The fact that it was quite a common practice to eat fish frozen, or dried, or salted, without cooking,
would favor the introduction of any parasite existing in the body of the fish.”

The livers of Lake Trout are thought by the fishermen to be poisonous. Mr. James Patterson,
of Manitowoc, Wisconsin, cites an instance, which occurred not many years ago, where all the mem-
bers of a family were poisoned by eating trout livers, and were a long time in recovering from
the effects.

CuLtTuRE.—“The Lake Trout has for years been the subject of attention on the part of the
New York State commissioners, and their agent, Seth Green, who every autumn collects millions

MILNER: Fisheries of the Great Lakes.

492 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

of eggs from the fisheries on the Canadian side of Lake Ontario to be hatched at Caledonia, New
York, for distribution to the lakes in the interior of New York. The experiment has lately been
made of planting the young fish in running water, as the Susquehanna, etc.; but it yet remains
_to be seen how they will thrive. The Lake Trout is eminently worthy the attention of States
along the Great Lakes, since, with the white-fish, it constitutes by far the most important element:
in the great fisheries.” !

In the fall of 1857 and 1858 a large number of eggs of Salmon Trout were obtained for Salton-
stall Lake, in Connecticut, from Lake Ontario. A considerable number of this species, obtained ia
Lake Ontario, was introduced into Newfound Lake, New Hampshire, in 1871, by the State com-
missioner. The enterprise is referred to more fully in the report of the United States Fish Com-
mission.?

A minor experiment in hatching Salmon Trout, or Mackinaw Trout (Salmo namaycush), was
made by Mr. Samuel Wilmot, of Newcastle, Canada, in 1868. He also obtained a hybrid between
a male Salmo salar and a female S. namaycush. The next published records we have of experi-
ments are by Seth Green and by N. W. Clark in 1870. Mr. Clark’s was with but a few eggs. In
an address before the legislature of Michigan he refers to the fact of having young Salmon Trout.
on exhibition. The quantity of eggs taken by Seth Green that year and hatched was very large,
and the fish proving to be a great favorite among the people of the State he has continued to breed
it on a large scale, and it has been widely distributed throughout the State. The greatest draw-
back in the culture of this species is the difficulty and danger attending the procuring of the eggs.
The spawning places of the fish in the region of the hatching houses are in the open lake, and
the time when the ova are ripe is in October, when there are frequent storms, so that going out in
an open boat to the nets is a task of hardship and danger, and has resulted, in a late instance, in
the loss of six men, one of them Marcellus Holton, an accomplished fish-culturist and the inventor
of the Holton hatching-box. There are, however, points on the lakes accessible by steamcr, though
not contiguous to the breeding establishments, where the salmon-trout spawning grounds are near
the shore, and even entirely land-locked from wind and sea.”

Neither the Mackinaw Trout por the Siscowet are game fishes in high esteem, though the
latter is taken by trolling with a bright-colored fly, with a minnow bait, or a spoon-hook. It does
not rise like the Brook Trout, and its play is likely to be sluggish and sulky. It is also taken with
a bottom line on grounds which have been previously baited. The Indians of the Sault Ste. Marie
display great skill in spearing the Mackinaw Trout through the ice, luring them within reach by
meaps of decoy fishes of wood or lead. By far the largest quantities are taken in pounds and gill-
nets in the Great Lakes.

In Lake Superior Lake Trout are caught principally in September, October, and November in
pounds and gill-nets. Formerly they were fished for with hooks only, but of late years this
practice has been abandoned by professional fishermen. In the Green Bay region large Trout are
caught principally with hooks, though in the western part of the bay and in Oconto Bay many are
taken in gill and pound nets in deep water. Those captured in the gill-nets are thought by the
fishermen to be meshed, for the most part, while these nets are being lifted; the Trout dart after
the other fish which have been gilled and thus become entangled. In Lake Huron they are
caught entirely with gill-nets. They may be taken with hooks baited in the ordinary way, but
can hardly be said to afford sport to the angler, since they allow themselves to be pulled to the
surface as easily as codfish do.

'Professor BAIRD: Report, United States Fish Commission, part ii, p. Ixxii.
*Report, U. 8. Fish Commission, part ii, p. 534.

HABITS OF THE LAKE TROUT. 493

The Togue or Lunge of our northeastern boundary is held in much higher favor by the angler.
Hallock states that the young fish rise freely to trout-flies in rapid water, while the adults are
extremely voracious, particularly in May and June, when they can be taken near the surface.

Prof. Arthur L. Adams, in “Field and Forest Rambles,” gives a vivid picture of the habits of
this peculiar type: “It repairs to shallows to feed on Trouts, smelts, and the like; indeed, the last.
named fish would appear to constitute its favorite winter subsistence. It preys extensively, also,
on eels and cyprinids, and is in fact a tyrant with an appetite so voracious that quantities of twigs,
leaves, and fragments of wood are constantly found in its stomach. The great monster will some-
times rise to spinning tackle, but in so sluggish and undemonstrative a manner that the troller
may fancy he has caught a water-logged pine or stone. In this way I had my line checked in
Schoodic Lake, when, striking gently, I found I had missed a large Togue, whose trenchant teeth
had made a series of deep furrows in the chub with which the hook was baited. It is naturally
sluggish and inert, and apparently much of a bottom feeder. As we glided along the shore of one
of the islets, composed more or less of granitic bowlders, our attention was directed by the guide
to a large black object on the bottom, among a mass of stones. This he asserted was a monster
Togue, which, if such was the case, must have exceeded three feet in length; moreover, he showed
us two notches on the side of his canoe, representing the dimensions of an enormous individual
which an Indian had speared in the same waters during the spawning season, the admeasurement
being no less than four feet five inches.”

TROUT IN THE GREAT LAKES.—The following facts concerning the abundance of the Lake
Trout in different parts of the Great Lakes were gathered by Mr. Kumlien in 1880:

“In the western part of Lake Superior, according to common testimony, the Lake Trout is
second in importance to the white-fish; they constitute about one-half of the catch of the gill-nets.

“In the vicinity of Whitefish Point the Lake Trout is more abundant than any other species.
The average size is from ten to sixteen pounds. About the Apostle Islands they are abundant at
all times and in all places; one was caught at Oak Island weighing fifty-seven and one-half pounds
when dressed. In the fall the best fishing grounds are off Isle Royale, and nearly all the gill-nets
are fishing there; it is not unusual for a single net to take one or two barrels at a setting. In
Huron Bay and vicinity Lake Trout are abundant. everywhere, except in the most shallow bays,
especially about Stanard’s Rock. On this reef, in 1880, one Mr. Egerton caught with one hook
enough Trout to weigh, after dressing, six hundred pounds. In the winter of 1878 one specimen
was caught through the ice, in a gill-net, at Porte Gentre, that weighed seventy-four pounds.
Thirty-five and forty pound fish are common on the off-shore shoals. On the southern shore of
Lake Superior, from Grand Island to Sauk’s Head, this species is more abundant than any other.
They are caught principally in September, October, and November. In the vicinity of Grand
Island, in the opinion of Mr. Parker, a local authority, there has been no marked decrease in
numbers during the past fifteen years. Individuals weighing from forty to fifty pounds are by no
means unusual, and much larger ones are reported.

“In Green Bay, Lake Trout are reported to be far less common than formerly. In the
southern part of this bay, in the vicinity of Bay City, they are now rare; somewhat more
abundant from Oconto to Peshtigo, though not taken to any considerable extent, and north of
Menomonee they are less plentiful than about Oconto. Seven.to ten years ago, at Washington
Island, it was not an unusual thing for men trolling for Trout to fill their boat in a short time, but
this cannot now be done. The decrease is accounted for, by local observers, by the injudicious
use of small-meshed pound-nets, which are supposed to capture great quantities of young Trout.

494 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

The largest individuals on record from this locality relate to one specimen, caught in 1864 at
Grand Haven, which weighed eighty-eight pounds, and one taken at Oconto in 1876 weighing
forty-five pounds. At the north end of Green Bay they are reported as very abundant at all
seasons, though less common than the white-fish. They are most common about Saint Martin’s
and Gull Islands. In the fall and spring they are less abundant towards the heads of the bays.
About Milwaukee they are abundant, particularly at the spawning season, thongh not so plentiful
as formerly. A little farther north, in the vicinity of Manitowoc, they are plentiful. In 1855 Mr.
Patterson caught one that weighed fifty-seven and a half pounds, dressed. Capt. J. Gagnon says
that he has often taken a dozen at a single lift which would average twenty-five to thirty pounds
in weight ; these were taken in ninety fathoms of water, about fifteen miles from shore, off Two
Rivers. The “Salmon-fleshed” and “ White-fleshed” Trout are both found, but the former is far
the more abundant and sells much more readily. At Racine they are very abundant and of con-
siderable importance. During spawning time they are taken plentifully on a reef a short distance
north of the city, but it is thought that they are decreasing in numbers. At Waukegan they
are abundant in June and July and in the fall months, but, since the pound-nets are taken up in
September, few are caught late in the fall. The fishermen claim to be able to tell from which
locality any fish has been obtained, those from the clay bottom being short, thick, and fat, resem-
bling the Siscowet. Individuals have here been caught which weighed sixty-five pounds. The
common weight for a “ Racer” is twenty-five pounds, and from this up to forty pounds.

“Tn the vicinity of Chicago, according to Nelson, Lake Trout are common in spring and fall.
They commence running in the middle of April, and are taken at that time with set lines at a short
distance out from the shore. ‘They are taken most plentifully in spring,” continues Kumlien,
‘““when the fishing first begins and before the runs of white-fish come on; at this time they are
caught in from twelve to sixteen fathoms. Later they retreat into the lake, where, at a distance
out from seven to nine miles from shore, they are found at all seasons.”

“At New Buffalo and vicinity the Trout make up about one-fourth of the entire amount of fish
taken. Fourteen years ago fish of from fourteen to twenty pounds’ weight were obtained at every
lift of the nets, but now they are much smaller. The largest ever known here weighed sixty-two
pounds dressed.

“On the eastern shore of Lake Michigan, the Lake Trout is next in importance to the white-fish.
At Ludington, Manistee County, they are very abundant. The runs begin early in May, but they
decrease in number until July, after which none are taken until October. Gill-net fishermen
obtain them throughout the winter in deep water. At Grand Haven they are said to be equally
common all the year round, possibly because there are no spawning grounds in the vicinity.

“In the vicinity of the Straits of Mackinaw, in the northern part of Lakes Huron and Michigan,
Mackinaw Trout is considered, next to the white-fish, the most important species. There is, how-
ever, a general opinion among the fishermen that they are much too numerous, for they are thought to
be very destructive to young white-fish. As many as nine thousand pounds have been packed for
shipment at Mackinaw in one day. They were formerly bought by the “count,” as they ran, at three
cents apiece. On Spectacle Reef, according to Captain Ketchum, two men lifting their nets every
two hours, have caught thirty-six hundred pounds in one night. In the vicinity of Spectacle
Reef Captain Coats reports them as even more abundant than the white-fish, though he thinks
that at least eight times as many white-fish as Trout are shipped from Mackinaw. It is believed
by the fishermen of Grand Traverse Bay that, when the moon is full, the Trout are much more
abundant than white-fish.

ABUNDANCE OF LAKE TROUT. 495

“On the Michigan shore of Lake Huron, about Thunder Bay, Lake Trout are very abundant
in August, and especially about Thunder Bay Island, where the men employed at the life-saving
station gained quite a revenue by fishing for them. The best and most productive grounds in this
vicinity are near Harrisonville and southward along the coast for a few miles. There are some
fishing grounds north of North Point where all the Trout are said to be very large. In the vicinity
of Saginaw Bay they are abundant, but will not rank commercially higher ‘than fourth or fifth.
Not many are taken in the pounds in Saginaw Bay, but the deep-water pounds, especially those
about the Charity Islands, obtain a few. In April few fish other than Trout are taken in the gill-
nets. In the vicinity of Port Huron they are very abundant, and it is the prevailing opinion
among the fishermen that they are increasing in numbers, more being taken now than ever before.
Very few enter the Detroit River. In the western part of Lake Erie, about Toledo, they are
exceedingly rare, and unknown to many of the fishermen at Port Clinton. No instance of their
capture is on record, and at Locust Point they occur only very rarely. About the islands off
Sandusky they have in two or three instances been captured, and at the other fisheries in this
vicinity local authorities do not think that more than five or six are taken in the course of a year.
About Huron and Vermillion, Ohio, they are also very rare. It sometimes happens that one or two
are taken in the course of a year’s fishing; those which are here taken are always small, scrawny,
and sickly. The same statements are made concerning Black River and Cleveland. Some are
taken at Cleveland, but never more than three or four in a year. About fourteen years ago four
were taken in Brownhelm Bay, but none since. They have never been taken at Black River; a man
who has fished there for twenty-five years has never seen one. In the vicinity of Conneaut, Ohio,
a few are occasionally taken in the spring. At Painesville, Ohio, they are rare. In 1869 only a
single specimen was taken, and in 1878 only six. The wandering gill-netters who fish off Paines-
ville sometimes capture a few in deep water. The only locality in Iake Erie where they are
at all abundant is at Barcelona, New York, where there is said to be an extensive spawning
ground five or six miles long, and about three miles from the shore. Some years ago the fisher-
men used to load their boats with Trout, sometimes as many as eighteen hundred pounds of
dressed fish being taken with a small gang of nets. At Conneaut a few are taken in the spring.
In the eastern end of Lake Erie they are caught to some extent, especially in the very deep water
off Erie Bay, though they are not very plentiful. Off Dunkirk they are much more common, and
in 1866 a specimen four and one-half feet in length, weighing seventy pounds, was captured. The
fish dealers of Erie, Pennsylvania, claim that the Trout here taken are very different from those
of Lake Superior; as a rule, only those with white meat are found.

“Tn Lake Ontario, especially in its eastern portion, about Cape Vincent, they are very abund-
ant, and in the headwaters of the Saint Lawrence, as far down as Alexandria Bay ; they enter the
river only in winter and for the purpose of feeding. In abundance they rank far below the white-
fish, three times as many white-fish as Trout being usually taken. In Chaumont Bay they are
becoming less common, and at the present time are not very abundant, ranking sixth in importance,
while at Cape Vincent they are third. The Trout handled at Chaumont are almost entirely from
Canada, and the dealers do not depend upon the supply from American waters. At Oswego they
are caught in the lake, though not entering the Oswego River. They are not plentiful at Port
Ontario, although they have been in some seasons past. Since alewives came few Trout have been
caught. The alewives are now so abundant that the Trout do not come near the shore to seek for
food. In 1860 thirteen hundred pounds were caught in one night on five hundred hooks.”

496 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMATS.

THE SISCOWET—SALVELINUS NAMAYCUSH VAR. SISCOWET.

The Siscowet, or “Siskawitz,” is a form of Lake Trout which, according to many authorities,
is a distinct species, and which has been observed only in Lake Superior. Having never seen the
fish in a fresh condition, I cannot express an opinion as to its distinctness from the Lake Trout, but
good ichthyologists assure me that its peculiarities are very slight, consisting chiefly in the smaller
size of the head, teeth, and fins, and in its having a stouter body. Since, however, it is always
distinguished from the Lake Trout by the Indians and fishermen of Lake Superior, who often see
them side by side, it seems possible that it may claim a sub-specific rank. Jt was first described
in 1850, in Agassiz’s “Lake Superior,”! under the name Salmo siscowet. Herbert, in his “Fish and
Fishing,” p. 17, gives the following description of its peculiarities:

“This fish, like the former species, came frequently under my eye during my late northern
tour; and I rejoice in the possession of a barrel of him in his pickled state, which I procured at
the Sault Ste. Marie, on the strength of which I can recommend him to all lovers of good eating
as the very best salt fish that exists in the world. He is so fat and rich that when eaten fresh he
is unsufferably rank and oily, but when salted and broiled, after being steeped for forty-eight
hours in cold water, he is not surpassed or equaled by any fish with which I am acquainted. Since
my return he has been tasted by very many gentlemen of my acquaintance, and by no one of them
has he been pronounced anything less than superlative. His habits closely resemble those of the
‘Namaycush,’ and, like him, I cannot learn that he ever takes the fly or is ever taken by trolling.
I do not, however, believe that either of these methods is often resorted to for his capture,
although there are many scientific fly-fishers about the Sault, and the Brook Trout of those waters
‘are principally taken with large and gaudy lake-flies. The average weight of the ‘Siskawitz’ does
not exceed four or five pounds, though he is taken up to seventeen. His excellence is so perfectly
understood and acknowledged in the lake country that he fetches double the price per barrel of
his coarser big brother, the ‘Namaycush’; and he is so greedily sought for there that it is difficult
to procure him, even at Detroit, and impossible almost at Buffalo.”

Milner states that the Siscowet lives at depths greater than forty fathoms, and feeds chiefly
upon a species of fresh-water sculpin. It spawns in September in deep water. The average size is
about four and one-half pounds. Two five-pound fish yielded respectively 2,796 and 3,120 eggs.
This species, like the Lake Trout, is for the most part taken in gill-nets.

Mr. George Barnston, of Montreal, Canada, formerly of the Hudson Bay Company, who made
an extensive natural-history collection on Lake Superior, claims that there is a third species of
Lake Trout, different from the Siscowet, on the south shore of Lake Superior, called the “ Mucqua”
or “Bear Trout.” ;

Mr. Robert Ormsby Sweeny, chairman of the Minnesota fish commission, in a letter dated
Saint Paul, Minnesota, October 19, 1880, conveys the following information concerning the Sisco-
wet, which is more precise and comprehensive than anything hitherto published:

“T have not only examined the Siskowet carefully myself and compared them with Agassiz’s
formulas, but asked and consulted with traders, voyagers, Indians and half-bloods, and fishermen,
in regard to their habits, size, color, weight, etc., and all come to the same conclusion. They are
not possibly a ‘Namaycush’ and should never be considered the same fish. The name ‘Sis-ko-wet’
is an Ojibewa word, and means literally ‘cooks itself’ It, is so fat that you can set fire to it and
cook it by itself. The fish when fresh is most deliciously rich, tasting like the belly of a mackerel,
and with salt and potatoes to the hungry fisherman or hunter is a complete menu. The ‘Namay-

1P, 333, plate 1, fig. 3.

SWEENY ON THE SISCOWET. 497

‘

cush’ is dry and lacks delicacy, and cannot be even fried without pork-fat or lard. Some years
ago I spent a winter at the head of Lake Superior, ard our diet most of the time was fish and pota-
toes; only twice during the winter did we have fresh beef. At almost every meal and every day
we had fish in some of its numberless styles of preparation, and you may be sure I became quite
familiar not only with the taste, but the appearance of both Namaycush and Siscowet. As an
edible [fish] the two are no nearer alike than fresh mackerel and sucker, but, of course, that would
not be conclusive if there were no other differences.

“The amateur is likely to confound the Namaycush with the Siscowet, but when the differences
are once pointed out, no confusion of the two again arises. The fishermen recognize them before
taken from the water when hauling in the nets; even the Indian children know them at a glance.
The head of the Siscowet is shorter and broader in proportion, eyes nearer the end of nose and are
wider apart; the whole osseous structure of the head lighter, more delicate and flexible, particularly
the sub-maxillaries, which in the Namaycush are heavy, rigid, and rounded. I intended to send you
some Namaycush heads for comparison, but all of those procurable have had tongues and gills
removed, so that the heads are in consequence unnaturally compressed and their characteristic
appearance altered. The only variation from Agassiz’s description that I find is in the lingual
teeth; sometimes there is a furrow or a groove in the tongue, and between the ‘pair of lateral
rows’ a V-shaped row is found, but this is so inconstant in occurrence as to be the exception. The
coloring varies in different specimens considerably, according to locality from whence taken. The
spots or markings are unlike those of the Namaycush, more even in size and shape, and more
decided and stronger in color, and I can clearly see in some specimens that the spots are compound or
an indistinct quincunx arrangement. The Namaycush spawn only in the fall, beginning in October.
We have just taken half a million eggs. The Siscowet, I am told by the fishermen and Indians,
are always spawning, or that ripe females are taken at all times of the year. At first I thought this
an exaggeration, but I find it so very universally reported and by reliable men that I give it
credence. They are very rarely found at the lower parts of the lake. They begin to be more
plentiful as La Pointe is reached and most plentiful along the north shores and Isle Royale, but
still they are a rare fish, comparatively. If one barrel of Siscowet to fifteen Namaycush are caught,
they are said to be very abundant. They are so much prized that they bring a higher price, and
itis rare that we get them here unless in winter time, when they are frozen and brought down
fresh. A peculiarity I have noticed is, in winter when pulled out on the ice they puff up like a
pouter pigeon full of air around the pectoral region, and when frozen can be instantly distinguished
ata glance. They rarely exceed thirty pounds in weight and thirty-six inches in length, I am told
by those very familiar with the fishes of the lake. On the same authority I learn that Namaycush’
reach ninety pounds’ weight and six feet in length sometimes. I have just had a talk with a man
from the lake, and he says this season they are catching about five Siscowet to the one hundred
Namaycush only. Another fact: Siscowet are never caught alone, but always among Namaycush;
but sometimes no Siscowet are seen or caught for weeks, and then they appear and disappear
without disturbing the movements of Namaycush. You will find it impossible to keep Siscowet in
alcohol, but I think the camphor water and glycerine will doit. I have succeeded with salmon
thus, although in alcohol they fall to pieces as if they had been boiled.”

164, THE SPECKLED TROUT—SALVELINUS FONTINALIS.

The following chapter is a reprintof Mr. Goode’s essay upon the Speckled Trout, in Scribner’s
“Game Fishes of the United States”: r

The Speckled Trout must have been discovered at a very early day by the first settlers of
32 F

498 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

North America, yet, strangely enough, the only allusion to it in colonial times is in the ‘Remon-
strance of New Netherland,’ addressed by that colony to the States General in 1649. It was first
brought before the world of science in 1814, when Professor Mitchill named it Salmo fontinalis, a
name which has become almost classical, and will be regretfully set aside for the more recent one,
Salvelinus fontinalis. ;

DISTRIBUTION.—The Speckled Trout has its home between latitudes 324° and 55°, in the lakes
and streams of the Atlantic watershed, near the sources of a few rivers flowing into the Mississippi
and the Gulf of Mexico, and in some of the southern affluents ot Hudson’s Bay. Its range is limited
by the western foothills of the Alleghanies, and nowhere extends more than three hundred miles
from the coast, except about the Great Lakes, in the northern tributaries of which Trout abound.
At the south they inhabit the headwaters of the Chattahoochee, in the southern spurs of the Georgia
Alleghanies, and tributaries of the Catawba in North Carolina. They also occur in the great
islands in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence—Anticosti, Prince Edward’s, Cape Breton, and Newfound-
land. Temperature is of course the chief factor in determining the distribution of the species, and
since few observations have een made in the field, our conclusions must needs rest on a study of
the species in domestication, an instructive though not entirely reliable method. The experience
ot Messrs. Green, Stone, and Ainsworth, indicates that Trout cannot thrive in water warmer than
68° Fahrenheit, though they have been known to live in swift-running water at 75°. Jishes hatched
in artificial ponds may probably be inured to greater warmth than wild fishes can endure, and it is
doubtful whether tbe latter are often found in water warmer than 60° or 65°. At the Oquossoe
and Cold Spring hatching establishments the water ranges from 45° to 49° throughout the year.
Below 36° Trout are torpid and refuse to feed, and instances are on record of their reviving after
being frozen stiff. The remarkable variations in the habits of Trout in different regions are easier
to understand in the light of these facts. The identity of the Canadian Sea Trout and the Brook
Trout is still denied by many, though the decision of competent authorities has settled the question
beyond doubt. This being admitted, let us compare the habits of the Sea Trout and the Salmon.
Both inhabit the ocean a part of the year; both ascend rivers to spawn; both change their sea-
garb of silvery gray for the rorgeous crimsons, purples, and bronzes of the pairing season. Some
Salmon, detained by barriers or by their own preference, become permanent denizens of fresh.
water, where they reproduce their kind, relinquishing their gray coloration, and assuming a brighter
dress peculiar to themselves. Does not the analogy still hold out, and do not our Brook Trout
correspond with the Land-locked Salmon? In the Long Island region Trout live in salt water in
the coldest months, when its temperature is below 50°. North of the Bay of Fundy, at the
entrance to which the water barely registers 50° in midsummer, they inhabit the ocean abundantly,
except at the spawning time. South of New York the coast reaches of the rivers appear to present
a barrier of warm water which the Salmon do not seek to penetrate from without, and which
immures the Trout in their homes in the hill country as closely as would a mountain wall.

When Trout have’ no access to the sea they still contrive to avoid a change of temperature
with the seasons. In midsummer they lie in the bottoms of lakes cooled by springs, in the chan-
nels of streams, or in deep pools, lurking behind rocks and among roots. In spring and early
summer they feed industriously among the rapids. At the approach of cold weather in autumn
they hasten to the clear shallow water near the heads of the streamJets. It is at this time that
they deposit their eggs in little nests in the gravel which the mother-fish have shaped with careful
industry, fanning out the finer particles with their tails, and carrying the large ones in their
mouths. After the eggs are laid, the parent fish covers them with gravel, and proceeds to exca-
vate another nest. The same nests are said to be revisited by the schools year after year.

SPAWNING OF THE BROOK TROUT. 499

SPAWNING HABITS.—Of the Trout Mr. Milner writes: “His whole wooing is the most
polite attention and the gentlest of persuasions. He moves continually to and fro before his mate,
parading his bright colors, while she rests quietly, with her head up stream, vibrating her fins
just sufficiently to keep her from floating down. At Waterville, Wisconsin, 1 had the opportunity
of watching their habits. A pair of large Trout had selected a spot near the bank of the stream,
where the water was about ten inches deep. The female had fanned the gravel with her tail and
anal fin until it was clean and white, and had succeeded in excavating a cavity. They were fright-
ened away as I came to the edge of the bank. Concealing myself behind a willow bush, I watched
their movements. The male returved first, reconnoitering the vicinity, and, satisfying himself
that the coast was clear, spent a half hour in endeavoring to coax the female to enter the nest.
She, resting half concealed in the weeds, a few feet away, seemed unwilling to be convinced that
the danger was gone; and he, in his full, bright colors, sailed backward and forward from the nest
to his mate, rubbing himself against her, and swimming off again in a wide circle close along the
bank, as if to show her how far he could venture without finding danger. She finally entered the
nest.”

The spawning season begins in New England in October, continuing from three to six
months, and during this period the fish should be protected by stringent laws. Mr. Livingston
Stone observed that in his ponds at Charlestown, New Hampshire, spawning began October 12,
and ended early in December; at Seth Green’s establishment, near Rochester, New York, it began
on the same day, and continued until March. At the former station spring water, with a uniform
temperature of 47°, was in use, while at Caledonia the eggs were kept in brook water, which is
colder in midwinter, retarding development.

Trout eggs are usually three-sixteentbs of an inch in diameter, although varying greatly, and
are colorlesg, red, or orange-hued. The quantity yielded by a fish is in direct proportion to its
size, the average being from tour to six hundred. Mr. Stone took sixty from a half-ounce fish, and
eighteen hundred from one which weighed a pound. The eggs having been ‘laid, their time of
development depends strictly on the temperature of the water. According to Mr. Ainsworth, they
will hatch in ove hundred and sixty five days with the mercury at 37°, one hundred and three at
41°, eighty-one at 449, fifty-six at 48°, forty-seven at 50°, thirty-two at 54°, etc. Seth Green’s rule
is that at 50° they hatch in fifty days, every degree warmer or colder making a difference of five
days. After the eggs are hatched the yolk sac is absorbed in from thirty to eighty days, and the
young fish begin to lead an independent life. Now the rate of growth is determined by the amount
of food consumed. Some two-year-old fish weigh a pound, some half an ounee, as Mr. Stone’s
experiments show. In domestication growth is more even. Mr. Ainsworth’s estimate allows an
average of two ounces for yearlings, a quarter of a pound for two-year-olds, half a pound for three-
year-olds, and a pound for four-year-olds. Wild fish often grow much faster. One of a large
number of Rangely Trout, tagged by Mr. George Shepard Page in 1871, and caught in 1873, was.
found to have grown in two years from half a pound to two pounds and one-quarter. All two-
year-old Trout and some yearlings can reproduce their kind. <

‘SizE.—The size attained varies in different regions. Brook Trout seldom exceed two or
three pounds, and a five-pounder is thought a monster. Saint Lawrence Sea Trout usually weigh
two and one-half pounds, though they are not seldom caught weighing six or eight. A famous
jocality for large fish is the headwaters of the Androscoggin River in Northwestern Maine. Pro-
fessor Agassiz in 1860 obtained one of them which weighed eleven pounds. The well-known speci-
men taken by Mr. George Shepard Page in 1867, in Rangely Lake, weighed ten pounds after three

500 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

days’ captivity, and was thought by experts to have lost a pound and a half in transit from Maine
to New Jersey, where it died. Its length was thirty inches, and its circumference eighteen.
Another, from Mooselucmaguntic, weighed eight and one-half pounds, and measured twenty-five
inches. The Nepigon River claims still heavier fish. Hallock mentions one said to have weighed
seventeen pounds.

VARIATION.—There are many local races of Trout; the same stream often contains dissimilar
forms, and those bred in different hatcheries may easily be distinguished. Whoever has seen the
display at the April opening of the trout season at Mr. Blackford’s, in Fulton Market, New York,
can understand the possibility of almost infinite variety in form and tint within the limits of one
species. Fish inhabiting swift streams have lithe, trim bodies and long, powerful fins; those in
quiet lakes are stout, short-finned, and often overgrown. In cool, limpid brooks, with sunlight,
much oxygen, and stimulating food, their skins are transparent and their hues vivid; in dark, slug-
gish pools they are somber and slimy, and are called “Black Trout.” Agassiz noticed that those of
the same river varied accordingly as they haunted its sunny or shady side. They have the power
of changing their tint at will. The influence of the nerves over color was neatly demonstrated by
M. Pouchet, who produced a white side in a Trout by destroying the eye of that side. In the sea,
for reasons unexplained, both Trout and Salmon lose their gay colors and become uniform silvery
gray, with black spots. In the sea, too, the flesh assumes a reddish color, due no doubt to the
absorption of the pigments of crabs and shrimps eaten by the fish. Red flesh is also found in
some inland races.

CHARACTERISTICS.—Our Trout are strong feeders, but are dainty rather than greedy. They
consume moderate quantities of food, and it suits their capricious appetites to seize their prey
while living. They take objects at the surface with an upward leap instead of downward from
above like the Salmon. Of all foods they prefer the worms washed out of ‘the bank, then gayly
colored flies, water insects, little fishes, larvae, and the eggs of fishes. Those in domestication are
usually fed on the heart, liver, and lungs of animals killed for the market.

Their daintiness, shyness, cunning, and mettle render them favorites of the angler, who lures
them into his creel by many sly devices. The most skillful fisherman is he who places before them
least obtrusively the bait which their momentary whims demand, or a clever imitation thereof.
Trout are always in season from April to August, and in some States for a longer period.

CULTURE.—They have always been the pets of fish-culturists; indeed, the experiments of Dr.
Garlick and Professor Ackley, who inaugurated in 1853 the practice of this art in America, were
made with this fish. They become thoroughly domesticated, and are as much under the control
of their owner as his horses and cattle. They have been acclimatized in England since 1868, and
are always on exhibition in Frank Buckland’s museum of fish-culture at South Kensington. The
“Domesticated Trout,” by Livingston Stone, and “Trout Culture,” by Seth Green, are books which
-give full information concerning the practical details of trout-breeding.

The Trout can scarcely be considered a market fish; still, about five thousand pounds of

‘them, mostly domesticated, are brought to New York market each year, principally in April and
May.

165. THE SAIBLING, OR BAVARIAN CHAR—SALVELINUS ALPINUS.

Like the Red-spotted Trout of North America, the Saibling belongs to the division of the same
family known to the English as “Chars,” a group confined, for the most part, to fresh-water lakes
and streams, and distinguished from the true Salmons by a peculiar arrangement of teeth on the

THE SAIBLING. 501

little triangular bone in the roof of the mouth known to anatomists as the “vomer,” trom its:
resemblance in shape to a plowshare.

The Chars are also distinguished from the Salmon by their very small scales, and usually by
numerous crimson or orange-colored spots, which are especially conspicuous in the breeding season.
The Saibling is, in its habits, perhaps more similar to the well-known Blue-backed Trout or Oquassa
Trout of Rangely Lake, Maine, than to our Brook Trout. The Chars of Europe are, as a rule, lake
fishes like the Saibling. On the other hand, the Chars of North America are usually found in
Streams and rivers, although the Oquassa Trout, just mentioned, and the Lake or Mackinaw Trout,
which is apparently nothing but a giant Char, together with the closely related form the ‘“Sisco-
wet,” resemble in their habits the Chars of Europe.

VARIATION.—There is probably no group of fishes in which individual specimens and commu-
nities inhabiting certain areas of water show more tendency to variation in color and form than they
do in the salmon family. Dr. Giinther has very justly remarked: “We know of no other group of
fishes which offers so many difficulties to the ichthyologist with regard to the distinction of the
species as well as to certain points in their life-history. Although this may be partly due to the
unusual attention which has been given to their study, it has revealed rather a greater amount of
unexplained fact than a satisfactory solution of the questions raised. The almost infinite varia-
tions of these fishes are dependent upon the age, sex, and sexual development, food, and the
properties of the water.” |

No one who has ever seen the remarkable display of Brook Trout at the annual trout opening
at Blackford’s in New York can fail to have been impressed by the wonderful differences which
exist between individuals of the same species from different localities—differences which lead an
untrained observer, or even an ichthyologist who has had no experience in the study of this group,,
to decide at once that several species were represented among. the hundreds of specimens lying om
the marble slabs.

The tendency of modern ichthyology, with its more exact. methods, and with access to
better and more comprehensive material for research than was formerly available, has led to the
rejection of many of the nominal species formerly recognized. Out of the forty-thiee species of
Salmon ten years ago believed to exist in North America, only thirteen or fourteen are now
recognized. In Giinther’s catalogue of “‘The Fishes in the British Museum,” published in 1866,.
thirty-one species of Chars were mentioned, while in his lately published “Study of Fishes” the
same author ventures to enumerate only thirteen, all others being regarded as insufficiently
characterized. In his treatment of the Chars of Europe, Giinther is, notwithstanding, one of
the most conservative writers, for he catalogues eight species of these fish, while most other
European students, following the lead of the great German ichthyologist, von Siebold, regarded
them as members of one polymorphic species. As for American ichthyologists, our sympathies are
naturally with the school of von Siebold. It is difficult to believe, in the light of our own obser-
vations upon the salmon family in America, that every little lake or group of lakes in Europe
possesses a well-characterized species of fish, and for the present it seems safer to consider the
Chars of Europe to be of a single well-marked species which undergoes numerous variations
under the influence of changes in temperature, elevation, food, and light, and that the Saibling of
Bavaria and Austria is one and the same thing with the “Ombre Chevalier” of France and
Switzerland, “Salmarino” of Northern Italy, the “Torgoch” of Wales, the fresh-water “Herring”
of Ireland, the Char” of England and Scotland, the “‘Réding” of Sweden, and the “Kulmund”
of Norway. OS

502 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

DISTRIBUTION.—This fish, whether it be regarded as a single species or several related species,
is distributed over all of Northwestern Europe, and possibly also over a portion of Asia, although,
since the Asiatic representatives of the genus have not been sufficiently studied, it is impossible
yet to make this generalization. They are, emphatically, cold-water fishes, thriving at a temper-
ature little above the freezing point, and in their period of greatest vigor and perfection at the
approach of winter, as is indicated by the fact that at this time their spawning takes place.
No fish of any kind has ever been found pearer to the North Pole than the Char, a species, Salve-
linus arcturus, having heen discovered by the last English polar expedition in 12° north of the
Arctic Circle. In the south of Europe its range is limited by the Alps, and in this region its study
has brought to light a very curious fact whicn confirms still more strongly the idea just spoken of,
that the fish thrive the best in a very cold climate. In the extreme north and in the extreme south
this fish reaches its greatest perfection. The northern species, found everywhere in the lakes of
the Scandinavian Peninsula and Scotland, is a fish sometimes, it is said, attaining a length of four
feet. In England and France and in the lower lakes of Switzerland it is comparatively insignifi-
cant, while in the deep, cold Alpine lakes it often grows to two feet or more in length, and
weigh ten or twelve, and even, in exceptional cases, twenty-four pounds. The highest development,
however, seems to be attained in the largest lakes—like that of Geneva—while in the shallower

.lakes; higher up among the mountains, they are smaller. A similar phenomenon is exhibited by
certain sub-arctic plants, which thrive in the extreme north and upon the summits of the Alps,
becoming dwarfed or almost extinct in the lowlands between.

It is interesting, too, to compare the effect of temperature, and secondarily of elevation, upon
the Saibling and upon our own Red-spotted Trout. This species has its home between latitudé 324°
and 559, in the lakes and streams of the Atlantic watershed, in the mountain sources of a few
rivers flowing into the Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico, and in some of the southern affluents of
Hudson’s Bay. In the north, for instance in the valley of the Saint Lawrence, it is common in the
lowland streams and estuaries, and even in the adjoining parts of the ocean, and here it attains
its greatest development. As we proceed farther south, in accordance with the limitations of
temperature, its range becomes more restricted, and in Southern New England it is only at certain
seasons of the year—at the approach of winter—that they find their way into the lowland streams
which are in summer too warm to be endurable, and at other times they are found near their
sources among the hills. On Long Island, however, they are still found in the meadows, and to some
extent in the estuaries. Passing to the southward of New York, the natural southern limit of the
Salmon, the range of the Trout becomes more and more restricted to the highlands: and although
they are found as far south as latitude 329, in the western districts of the Carolinas and the extreme
northern part of Georgia, they there occur only at great elevations among the mountains of the
Alleghany chain. South of New York they are effectually land-locked by the prevailing high
temperature of the lowland streams, and are never able to gain access to salt or brackish water.
Their supply of food is, consequently, limited, and they are coufined to brooklets among the mount-
ains. Although the temperature of this region is usually very favorable, other requisites for high
development are lacking, and the species is represented throughout the southern part of its range
by diminutive individuals. A similar phenomenon is met with in those instances where the Euro-
pean Char exists in the high and comparatively shallow mountain lakes of the Swiss and Austrian
Alps. ‘

In the southern part of its habitat the American Brook Trout finds its environment unfavor-
able to its perfect development; on the other hand, the European Char meets, in the Alpine

DISTRIBUTION OF THE EUROPEAN CHARS. 503

lakes, conditions precisely similar to those of the lakes of Norway and of Scotland, and under
these favorable conditions has survived in a state of great perfection.

We have in the Great Lakes of North America a fish closely allied to the Chars, which, under
remarkably favorable circumstances, with plenty of room and an immense supply of rich and easily
attainable food, has developed into one of great size and commercial importance, the Lake Trout,
and its cousin, the Siscowet.

RELATIONSHIPS.—The various Lake Trouts of Maine and Eastern Canada, found in tbe
smaller lakes of those regions, are very similar to the European Char. The American species
which, however, bears the closest: resem'Jance to the European Char is, as has been stated, the
Blue-backed Trout, or Oquassa Trout, of Rangely Lake, the Red-spotted Trout of the Pacific coast,
Salvelinus malma, known also as the “ Dolly Varden,” being very similar in habits to the Brook
Trouts of the East.

The resemblances between the Saibling and the Oquassa are as follows :

1. They inhabit the deepest waters of their lake home, and are never seen except at their
spawning season.

2. They spawn late in the fall.

3. At the spawning season they come into shallow water near the shores, or in the months
of streams, and may be taken with the greatest of ease.

4. They never willingly inhabit streams of running water.

These peculiarities the two species have in common, and, excepting the habit of autumn
spawning; they share them with no other members of the family. The Saibling, however, is a
much larger and finer species than the Oquassa, and it is hoped that it may be adapted for
cultivation in many of the smaller lakes i in which our Great Lake Trout is not likely to thrive.
It is regarded as a very excellent food-fish, and is doubtless more delicate in flavor than the Lake
Trout, sharing most of the excellent qualities of the Brook Trout.

Hapirs.—The Saibling, which through the courtesy of the German Government is now being
introduced into the United States, is the European Char in its highest state of perfection. The

' following account of its habits is translated from a sketch by Dr. Wittmack, of Berlin:

“The Saibling varies much in form, size, and color, according to its age, sex, and habitat.
‘Those which come from the highest Alpine lakes are always small, but those in the lakes of Switzer-
land and Savoy have higher bodies, larger scales, and also a clearer color—yellowish-white, with red
belly. This form was formerly considered distinct, and was known as the ‘Ritter’ or ‘Knight’
among the river Trout, the species which is found at the greatest height above the sea. In Swit-
zerland, according to Tschudi, it is found at a height of 4,400 feet; in Bavaria, according to von
Siebold, in the Green Lake, at the height of 5,000 feet; in the Tyrol, in the Gaislacher Sea, at the
height of 7,000 feet, and in the Pleuderle Sea, at the height of 7,603 feet. In the Green Lake, as
well as in other Alpine lakes, this is the only species of fish which occurs. It seems certain that
‘it is found at greater heights in the eastern than in the western Alps, and is also more abundant.
The breeding season occurs in the months of October, November, and December, and continues
until February; for example, in certain lakes in Steiermark. In Lake Fuessen it occurs in
October and November; in Lake Messkirch, where they are artificially propagated, in February
and March; in the lakes at Saltzberg they spawn from November to January, and apparently also
in February; and, in spite of the extensive fishery during the spawning time, there is no evidence
of a decrease in their numbers. “They feed upon small fish, and also, when at liberty, upon the
small crustaceans, daphnids, and cyclopids. In the Alpine lakes these constitute their only food.

504 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIO ANIMALS.

In Germany and in Austria it has been found that the Saibling is one of the most expensive fish
to propagate artificially, on account of its food. The ordinary size of the Saibling is from eleven
to twelve inches, and its weight from one-half to one pound. In the highest lakes they are, as has
been mentioned, smaller, while when they are moved from such lakes into those that are deeper
they increase rapidly in size. In the Saltzberg lakes, where they are taken upon certain spawning
grounds from November to January, it takes about five of them to make a pound, but large speci-
mens of three to twelve pounds are taken in August and September. In the Lake of Zug, which,
according to Hoch, yields more Saibling than any other lake in Switzerland, it takes five or six,
often eight or nine, to make a pound. In the Lake of Geneva they are often taken weighing
twenty to twenty-four pounds. Herr Hoch himself saw one weighing seventeen pounds.”

To this may be added a paragraph from Millet’s “La Culture de Eau.” “Itis very voracious,
and, like the Trout, very swift and active in its movements. It habitually feeds upon small fishes,
upon crustaceans, upon mollusks and insects, and in two or three years, under favorable circum-
stances, attains the length of fifteen to twenty inches. Its flesh is very delicate and savory, and
it is preferred about Lake Leman to any other fish.”

‘CULTURE.—The Saibling has been propagated by German fish-culturists for a period of ten
years or more, and thrives magnificently in captivity. The hatchery at Oussee, in Germany, pro-
duces yearly three or four hundred thousand of artificially-brooded Saibling, and plants them in the
neighboring lakes. In the tanks at the late International Fishery Exhibition in Berlin were ex-
hibited many superb specimens of this fish, some of them over two feet in length, and one of these
was sent to the National Museum by Herr von Behr, president of the Deutscher Fischerei Verein.
It is as large as the famous Rangely Lake Trout caught by Mr. George Shepard Page, which
everybody has seen at Blackford’s in Fulton Market.

In selecting a place in which to deposit the saibling eggs just received, the Commissioner of
Fisheries has endeavored to find a lake as similar as possible in depth and temperature to the
larger Swiss lakes, and he has, therefore, sent them to Lake Winnipiseogee, N. H. Here the
whole sixty thousand were planted, with the hope that by placing so large a number together in
a lake of moderate size the experiment of introduction may be a success. It is aquestion of some
interest which of the many European names of this fish should be adopted in the United States
should the experiment of acclimation be a success.

It would seem most appropriate that, since the fish acquires its greatest perfection in Germany,
the German name should be adopted, particularly since the German fish-culturists, who have so
kindly made this gift to the people of the United States, will regard as a compliment the adoption
of the German name of one of the favorite fishes of Germany.

166. THE DOLLY VARDEN TROUT—SALVELINUS MALMA.
By Davip 8S. JorRDAN.

This species is known in the mountains as “ Lake Trout,” “Bull Trout,” “Speckled Trout,” and
“Red-spotted Trout.” In the ocean, where it is found in large numbers, it is the “Salmon Trout.”
In the Sacramento the name “Dolly Varden” was given to it by the landlady at a hotel, and this
name it still retains in that region. As noue of the other names are distinctive, this one may well
be adopted. In Siberia it was formerly known as the‘ Malma” or “Golet.” The Indian name
“Chewagh” is ascribed to it in British Columbia. In size this species reaches a weight of fourteen
pounds. ‘The largest I have seen weighed twelve pounds, which weight is not uncommon in the

,

JORDAN ON THE DOLLY VARDEN. 505

ocean. In the lakes it averages smaller, and in the mountain streams it breeds at a length of six
or eight inches. In all these peculiarities it agrees with its near relative, the common Brook
Trout of the Atlantic coast. It ranges from the upper waters of the Sacramento to Kamtchatka.
on the west side of the Rocky Mountain chain, and for the most part in and west of the Cascade
range. From Puget Sound northward it is generally abundant. It feeds voraciously in the salt
water on smelt of various sorts, young Trout, sand lances, shrimps, anchovies, herrings, and even
sticklebacks. In fresh waters it probably eats whatever living thing it can get. Nothing is cer-
tainly known of their breeding habits. They probably spawn late in the fall in the rivers, and
therefore those which are in the sea must be to some extent migratory. They are taken in Frazer
River at the time of the eulachon run, but they probably then ascend the river to feed upon the
eulachon, and not for spawning purposes. As a food-fish this beautiful species ranks high.!

167. THE GRAYLING—THYMALLUS TRICOLOR.

The following essay upon the Grayling is quoted, in a modified form, from Goode’s Game
Fishes of the United States.

DIscovVERY.—The discovery of Grayliug in Michigan and Montana was a surprise to Amer-
ican naturalists, though the areas to which this distribution is restricted are so small that one
can hardly wonder at the delay in finding them out. The credit of discovering them is di-
vided between Surgeon J. F. Head, United States Army, who found in 1860, in the head-
waters of the Missouri, specimens of the form described by Milner in 1874, under the name
Thymallus montanus, and Prof. Marly Miles, of Lansing, Michigan, whose specimens from the
Michigan Peninsula were sent, in 1864, to Professor Cope, and described by him as Thymatlus
tricolor. A third species occurs in Alaska, and in the rivers emptying into the Arctic Ocean. This
was first found by Capt. John Franklin’s expedition toward the North Pole, in 1819, and called
Thymallus signifer, by Sir John Richardson, who thus describes its discovery: ‘“‘This very beautiful
fish abounds in the rocky streams that flow through the primitive country lying north of the sixty-
second parallel of latitude between Mackenzie’s River and the Welcome. Its highly appropriate
Esquimaux name (‘ Hewlook-Powak,’) denoting ‘ wing-like,’ alludes to its magnificent dorsal, and
it was in reference to the same feature that I bestowed upon it the specific appellation of Signifer,
or the ‘standard-bearer,’ intending also to advert to the :ank of my companion, Captain Back,
then a midshipman, who took the first specimen that we saw with the artificial fly. It is found
only in clear waters, and seems to delight in the most rapid parts of the mountain streams.” As is
implied in these remarks, this species is remarkable for its immense dorsal fin, which is nearly
twice as high as the body of the fish.

It is, however, the Michigan Grayling which is at present most interesting to the angler,
the others being so remote as to be thoroughly inaccessible. Piofessor Cope’s description was.
printed in 1865, but being expressed in technical terms, and published in the proceedings of a
scieutific society not generally read by sportsmen, it attracted little attention. Popular interest
was first excited in 1873, by the discussions in “lorest and Stream,” and by a letter from Professur
Agassiz, published extensively in the daily papers, acknowledging the receipt of two specimens
sent to him from New York through the agency of Mr Hallock, who had received them from
Michigan. The subject was then taken up by the newspapers, aud the Grayling was soon well
known. A name closely associated with the study of the Grayling is the honored one of the late
James W. Miluer. In 1871, Mr. Milner, in company with Mr. D. H. litzhugh, of Bay City, Michigan,
visited the Jordan River for the purpose of procuring specimens of this fish; but, although many

1 For Pallas’s account, sce Giinther vi, 144.

506 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

were seen in the clear cold waters, they could not be induced to take the hook during the day spent
on the river. In 1873 he again visited this region, and subsequently published several popular
articles on the subject of ‘ Graylings of North America,” which constitute one of the very few
memoirs finished by him out of the many which were planned, and interrupted by his untimely death.

DISTRIBUTION.—His description of the habitat of the Grayling is excellent: “In the center
of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan is a wide, elevated plateau, a sandy region, with a soil containing
a very small per cent. of organic matter, and covered with a forest of pines, generally the Norway
pine, Pinus resinosa, Linn., growing in grand dimensions, the long, limbless shafts inaking wide
boards, free from knots, yet but little utilized, while immense forests of the favorite lumber
material, white pine, Pinus strobus, are yet uncut. From this plateau arise several large streams
and rivers, flowing each way into Lakes Huron and Michigan. Among these are three rivers of
note, the Muskegon, the Manistee, emptying into Lake Michigan, and the Ausable, entering into
Lake Huron. Among the minor streams are the Cheboygan, Thunder Bay, and Rifle, tributary
to Lake Huron, and the Jordan, emptying through Pine Lake into the Traverse Bays of Lake
Michigan. A few branches and streams, spring-fed, are formed, in which the water has a uniform
degree of coldness throughout the summer, seldom rising above 52°. The rivers Rifle, Ausable,
Jordan, Mersey branch of the Muskegon, and the headwaters of Manistee, all have this character,
and in all of these, and only in this limited locality, short of the Yellowstone region, is found the
already famous Michigan Grayling.”

The town of Grayling, Michigan, formerly called Crawford, is in the midst of this district,
and the headquarters of Grayling fishermen. The Grayling is said to live also in Portage Lake,
in the extreme northern part of the State. These streams seem to be remarkably cold, being fed by
pumerous springs. Milner found the Ausable to vary between 45° and 49°, morning and evening,
in September; and Mr. Fitzhugh has remarked that the south branch of this river, which rises in
a swampy lake, contains no Grayling except near its mouth, where its volume is swelled by large
springs, and its water becomes elear and cold.

The Grayling of Europe, Thymallus vulgaris, is also restricted to cold streams, and appears to
be found within limited areas. It is found in Norway, Sweden, Lapland, and the Orcades, in
Switzerland and Hungary, and southward to lakes Constance and Leman, and Bavaria. A
Grayling, possibly of different species, occurs in Lake Maggiore, and others have been recognized
from Russia and Siberia. It is constantly being discovered in new localities. In England the
species was formerly known as the “Umber.” “And in this river be Umbers, otherwise called
Grailings,” wrote Holinshed, in “The Description of Britaine,” A. D. 1577. The German name,
‘« Aesche,” has been thought to refer, like « Grayling,” to its color. The European and
American fishes are so similar that only a trained ichthyologist can distinguish them, and their
habits are very much the same. Our Grayling spawns in Aprilin the Ausable, that of Europe in
March and April, and sometimes, it is said, in May. Ours rarely grows to the length of sixteen
inches, and the largest Milner could find weighed less than two pounds, the average length being
ten or eleven inches, with a weight of half a pound. The European fish is said to grow to eighteen
inches long, and the weight of four pounds and one-half. Milner remarks: “Like the Brook
Trout, their natural food consists of the insects that light or fall upon the surface of the stream.
Their stomachs were found to contain broken and partially digested specimens of coleoptera,
neuroptera, as well as the larve of species of the dragon-flies. There were also found in their
stomachs the leaves of the white cedar, Thuja occidentalis, which drop coutinually on the surface
of the stream, and are probably taken because the fish in their quick darts to the surface mistake

THE MICHIGAN GRAYLING. 507

them for insects falling upon the water.” In France they are said also to devour little mollusks
and the eggs of fishes. :

CULTURE.—The propagation of the Michigan Grayling was attempted as soon as its existence
was known. Mr. Fred. Mather and Mr. Seth Green, always pioneers in such énterprises, were the
first to attempt it, and they were soon followed by others. Mr. Mather was first on the field,
visiting the Ausable between March 25 and April 3, 1874; but he was too early, for the fish were
not ready for him. Mr. Green followed on April 28, but he was too late, the fish having finished
spawning. Not to be daunted, he dug over one hundred fertilized eggs out of the gravel where
the fish had left them, and took them home to his hatching-house. In 1875 Mr. Mather visited the
river between April 6 and 12, and obtained eight thousand eggs, which were successfully hatched.
Young fish have been introduced into various streams in Michigan and Western New York.
Frank Buckland tried many years ago to introduce the English Grayling into the Thames by
transplanting its ova, but this experiment was a failure, and we have yet to learn that his Ameri-
can associates have been more successful in their efforts. An interesting fact observed in the
course of these experiments is that the Michigan Grayling is much more prolific than the Brook
Trout, yielding between three and four thousand eggs.

There has been much discussion over the claims of the Grayling as a game-fish, and also its
excellence for food. It has many ardent admirers and detractors. The enthusiasm with which it
was greeted ten years ago has somewhat subsided, and it seems doubtful whether a vote of the
guild of American anglers would now place it in the first rank of noble fishes.

“There is no species sought for by anglers that surpasses the Grayling in beauty. They are
more elegantly formed and more graceful than, the Trout, and their great dorsal fin is a superb
mark of loveliness. When the well-lids were lifted, and the sun’s rays admitted, lighting up the
delicate olive-brown tints of the back and sides, the bluish-white of the abdomen, and the mingling

“ of tints of rose, pale blue, and purplish-pink on the fins, they displayed a combination of colors
equaled by no fish outside of the tropics.”

Mr. Mather describes the colors of the Grayling as follows: ‘His pectorals are olive-brown,
with a bluish tint at the end; the ventrals are striped with alternate streaks of brown and
pink; the anal is plain brown; the caudal is very forked and plain, while the crowning glory is the
immense dorsal. This fin rises forward of the middle of the back, and in a fish a foot long it is
nearly three inches in length and two high, dotted with large, brilliant-red or bluish-purple spots,
surrounded with a splendid emerald green, which fades after death—the changeable shade of
green seen in the tail of the peacock.”

168. THE LAKE WHITE-FISH—COREGONUS CLUPEIFORMIS.

From Notes oF LUDWIG KUMLIEN AND ,OTHERS—By R. 1. GEARE.

NAMES.—With the exception of the local name “ Otsego Bass,” said to be applied to this fish
about Otsego Lake, New York, we have never heard any other name for it than “ White-fish.” It
is found in all the Great Lakes, as well as in several of the smaller lakes tributary to them, and in
lakes of British America northward, perhaps as far as the Arctic Ocean. It is very abundant,
and is the most important food-fish of the Great Lake region. In quality of flesh it stands pre-
eminent among our fresh-water fishes. The flesh is white, tender, and juicy, and, unlike the flesh
of the Salmon, it does not produce satiety.

S1zzE.—The largest specimens of White-fish are found in Lake Superior, one having been
taken at Whitefish Point weighing twenty-three pounds, and at the same place out of seventy-
four half-barrels there was not one under six pounds in weight. At Duluth, White-fish weighing

508 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

from twelve to sixteen pounds are occasionally taken. Their average at the extreme west end of
the lake is less than at the Apostle Islands, where some very large fish are caught. At Grand
Island the fish average fourteen pounds, few being taken weighing less than ten pounds. In
Green Bay, Lake Michigan, it is no uncommon occurrence to catch with deep nets fish from four
to seven pounds, and in one lift there were twenty that exceeded five pounds, and some weighed
eight pounds. About ten years ago a White-fish weighing nineteen and three-quarters pounds
was taken near Menomonee. The Cisco, a variety of White-fish, in Green Bay attains a weight of
three pounds; this is sometimes called the ‘‘ Menomonee White-fish.”

Next, in respect to the size of its White-fish, is Lake Michigan. On the west shore, where
large fish are usually taken, in the vicinity of Manitowoc, a White-fish weighing twenty-two
pounds was taken in 1880. At the south point of Lake Michigan, the average weight is a pound
and ahalf. Thirty-three hundred of that, average were taken out of thirty gill-nets at one lift.
The largest specimen ever taken here weighed fourteen pounds dressed. At Grand Haven, on
the east shore of Lake Michigan, White-fish average about two pounds. Higher up on the east
shore they are again larger, and average about ten pounds each in weight,

Lake Erie contains White-fish weighing as much as fourteen pounds. In the vicinity of Maumee
they are larger than at any other point on the lake. In 1876 a seventeen-pound fish was taken
at Vermillion, Lake Erie; and in 1879 one weighing sixteen pounds was captured. They are often
taken weighing ten and twelve pounds. Farther east the average size becomes smaller, the sea-
son’s average weight for White-fish at Ashtabula, Ohio, being not more than two pounds and a
half. Farther to the east they are smaller still, and in the Detroit River they do not exceed a
pound and threv-quarters average weight.

In Lake Ontario White-fish average two and a half pounds for those taken in gill-nets, while
those taken in seines will not exceed two pounds.

In order to ascertain the rate of the growth of the White-fish, Mr. George Clark tried an
experiment to which he called the attention of the Detroit fishermen in the following words:

“ATTENTION, FISHERMEN.”

“The 14th of May last 1 marked a number of White-fish with brass tags and put them into
the Detroit River. The tags were a piece of brass about the size of a ten-cent piece, and a ring
about the same size, aud a similar ring linking these two together. The largest ring I put in the
smali fin on the back of the fish near the tail, each fish weighing about a pound and a half, the
object being to ascertain the growth of the fish.

“Fishermen, one and all, if you catvh any of these fish, will you please state when and where
caught, weigh and measure length, and*send them with the tags to Crowel & Co., 8. John and
Buck, of Toledo; the Paxtons, of Monroe; James Craig, A. M. Campau, C. Hurlburt and J. P.
Clark, of Detroit; B. Reaume, of Springwells; George Clark, of Ecorse; Mr. Reaume, of Grosse Isle.

“T hope the fishermen on the Canadian shore will take an interest in this matter, and, if they
catch any of these fish will please send them with the abovesaid specifications to the aforesaid
parties, or to Davis & Co., and Merrill, fish dealer, in Detroit, or George Clark & Co.’s fish house,
Detroit. .

“If the fish cannot be sent, please send the exact weight and length of the fish, with the tag,
by mail, to any of the above parties. ;

“GEORGE CLARK.

“HCORSE, October 9, 1872.”

Mr. Clark never heard anything from these marked fishes.

GROWTH OF LAKE WHITE-FISH. 509

On the same point Mr. Clark, writing to Professor Baird in March, 1872, says: “In June,
1868, I made a sweep with a seine, eighteen miles from the outlet of Lake Huron, on the shore of
the lake, and caught at one sweep fish from three or four inches to twenty inches in length. Some
of the largest fish weighed fifteen pounds. I concluded that they would increase in weight from
three-fourths of a pound to a pound each year, which would require ten or fifteen years for the
fish to get its growth. . . . He [speaking of Mr. Wilmot of the Wilmot Fishery Company at
Newcastle, Ontario, Canada] has some White-fish two and a half years old last November, from
some eggs which he procured here. The largest would weigh one and a half pounds. From this
we judge the fish will gain in weight from one-half to three-quarters of a pound each year.”

MIGRATIONS.—Relative to the movements of the White-fish in Lake Superior, Mr. George
Barnston is of the opinion that the young and immature White-fish confine their range entirely to
shallow waters near the shore. The pound-nets, set in twenty to forty-five feet of water, catch
great numbers of small fish—seven or eight inches long and weighing only a few ounces. The
gill-nets, usually employed in water not less than seventy to ninety feet,deep, capture very few
of these small White-fish. In a tour of Lake Michigan not one case of such small fish being
captured in a gill-net—scarcely any under one pound—occurred. Again, a pound-net set on a
thirty-six-foot shoal, six miles from land, at Bay de Noquet, contained only Nos. 1 and 2 fish. It
might be urged that the small fish escape through the meshes of the gill-net; yet it is more than
likely that occasional ones, entangled about the body and fins, would be taken, it being conceded
that the head of the White-fish is to a slight extent better guarded against entanglement in the
mesh than that of its congeners, the Lake Herrin gand the Cisco. Again, itis a significant fact
that no young White-fish are found in the stomachs of the Lake Trout. The range of the Trout in
summer is in deep water, and, if the young White-fish were there also, the Trout would surely feed
onthem. The conclusion of Mr. George Barnston, then, is that White-fish do not migrate at all
into deep water until they have attained a weight of one and one-fourth pounds. He also corrobo-
rates Major Long’s statement, that White-fish ascend Michipicoten River, Lake Superior, to spawn;
“but,” he says, “they cannot and do not run up far, for very high falls and long sweeps of raging
rapids obstruct their course in both the main river and its tributary, not far from the Great Lake.
Half a mile above the station I have assisted in seining White-fish at the spawning season, and
succeeded occasionally in making a good haul. These fish must have come from the bay or lake,
for they could never have descended the falls in safety, and the native fishermen (in all such cases
good judges) consider them lake fish.”

The line of migration followed by this fish in Lake Michigan is unerring and sure, and it is
more apparent at the south end of Lake Michigan than at any other point on the lake; in the spring
they always come down the east shoré, and in the fall the west shore. About Point au Sable the
runs begin in June and finish by the end of J uly, commencing again in September and continuing
more or less throu ghout the winter.

During the last six years the White-fish are supposed to have changed their route of migration
in the vicinity of Vermillion, Lake Erie. The spring run here comes in May and the fall run in
October. ‘The runs of the White-fish by no means occur simultaneously at all fishing points on
Lake Erie, for the fishermen, at different points, are fishing for them as soon as the ice disappears in
the spring, and continue until the ice comes again. The height of the runs may generally be con-
sidered as occurring during May and the fore part of June. Thence on until the end of July may
be called the slack time, after which the fishing again becomes good, and continues to be so until
the end of September.

In the spring the fish work from the west end of the lake and hunt for a certain depth of

510 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

water, remaining at their chosen spot until August, when they strike shorewards.’ Off Erie, Lake
Erie, the water is shallow, and the fishermen are obliged to go out six to fifteen miles for White-
fish ; but off Dunkirk and Barcelona the water is deeper, and consequently shorter trips from land
will suffice for fishing. This tends to show that White-fish are lovers of deep water.

In Lake Ontario, about Port Ontario, it is probable that the White-fish migrate from the Cana-
dian shore to the American shore regularly. In 1870 they were more plentiful on the American
shore; ten years before that, again, the reverse was the case. In 1880, following the rule, they have
been scarce on the American shore, but will probably in a few years migrate again to this side of the
lake. At Kingston Harbor they occur regularly. They have been known to run twenty miles up
the river at this point; this is, however, unusual. Sometimes all the ‘Gray Backs” are found on
the Canadian shore just before the regular spring run of the White-fish comes on. They are
nowhere abundant on the American shore.

Mr. Peter Kiel, fishery overseer, Lake Ontario, says that White-fish are caught in early spring
at a considerable distance from the shore in about two hundred feet of water, but about the 1st of
June they approach the shore, and are then caught in great numbers on their favorite feeding
grounds, a sort of honey-combed rock, in about thirty feet of water. About the Ist of August they
retreat hastily toward the deeper and cooler portions of the Jake, where they are found in their best
condition. About the middle of October they again swim shoreward for the purpose of spawning,
arriving at the proper locality from the middle of November to the Ist of December, depending
upon the severity or mildness of the season, for they do not deposit their spawn until the water
has attained a temperature of about 40° F. After spawning they again retire to the deep water,
remaining there until the next spring.

Mr. Milner has contributed the following facts regarding the movements of the White fish in the
Great Lakes. From his observations it will appear that the migration shoreward is dependent
upon the locality; depth of water, temperature, etc., are points which must be taken into
consideration. Thus, in Lake Michigan, the summer migration into shoal water seems to be almost
universal, while in Lake Erie, where the temperature is high in summer, the shoreward summer
migration is unknown.

“The assertion was sometimes made among the fishermen that the scarcity of White-fish at
any one locality was no reliable indication that the number had decreased, but that the schools
had probably migrated to some other region.

“At Waukegan, Illinois, the White-fish come into shallow water in the greatest abundance in
the months of June and July. The same habit is observed in various localities on the lakes,
though by vo means at all points. Several points on the shores of Lake Michigan, in the south
half of the lake, the vicinity of the Apostle Islands, Lake Superior, and at the Thunder Bay
Islands of Lake Huron, may be referred to as localities where the July migration occurs. George
Keith, esq., a factor of the Hudson Bay Company at Michipicoten, in 1840, affords Sir Jobn
Richardson the same information upon the habits of a species of the Coregonus. It was for a long
time a difficult matter to discover the reason for this summer run on the shore, if indeed it has
been correctly accounted for. The contents of the stomach were found to be the same as at other
seasons of the year. It was not probable that the White-fish was an exception to all its congeners
of the salmonoid family, and preferred the warmer temperature of shallow water to the colder
waters outside. Besides, the schools of White-fish were always found to leave a region where wide
areas of shoal water existed as the heat of summer advanced. The theory adopted to account for
~ this summer visit to the shore was that the calm, quiet weather of the summer months, from the
slight disturbance of the surface, prevented the amount of aération to the water that occurred at

MIGRATION OF. THE WHITE-IISH. oll

other seasons of the year, and the fish sought the shore where the splashing on the beach and
sand-bars supplied the water with the requisite amount of air, just as other species of this family
of fishes delight in rapids and falls, because the breaking up of the wasses of water supplies it
with a large amount of respiratory gases.

“In waters like Lake Erie, where, according to the Lake Survey, the temperature attains as
high as 75°, the White-fish seek the cooler deep waters in the summer, and | have not learned of
a migration upon the shore at any point, they, perhaps, preferring a less amount of aération to a
high degree of heat.

“The fact that in the month of August the White-fish of the Sault Ste. Marie Rapids leave
the river entirely, and do not return until in September, weakens the force of the theory that the
aération of the water is the necessity that brings them to the shore of the lake in the summer.

“Professor Agassiz, in his tour of the north shore of Lake Superior in 1849, found the White-
fish scarce along the shore and at the rapids in the month of August. Among the Apostle
Islands, Lake Superior, and in most of the deeper portions of the lakes, no scarcity is observed at
this season of the year. At the rapids, they so entirely abandon the locality in August that the
supply of fish for the hotels has to be obtained from Point Detonr, at the head of Lake Huron.

“It was a disputed point among the Waukegan fishermen whether the migration was directly
in from deep water or along the shore. The fact that, in some instances, the schools of fish struck
the nets at one point, and afterwards entered the nets iu succession along the line of the shore,
was thought by many to prove a littoral migration. But the fact was that, in all likelihood, the
advance portion of a school would touch the shore at some point and then move in either direction
along its line.

“The presence of large White-fishes in numbers at certain localities on the north shore of
Lake Michigan, of a size that are never taken at other parts of the. lake, would indicate a local
habit, with no disposition to range through long distances. Another observation sustaining the
probability of this is the fact that there are many localities on the Lakes where the pound-nets, a
few years ago, found prosperous fishing, and in the first few years took the White-fish in great
abundance, but found afterwards a decrease from year to year until the locality was abandoned,
while fifty miles away the business still continued successful. The well-known local instincts of
the Salmon would, to a slight extent, confirm the probability of like instincts in its related genera.
The fact that certain types of the White-fish are peculiar to particular localities, as the north
shore of Lake Michigan, the Sault Ste. Marie Rapids, Bachewauna Bay, on Lake Superior, indicates
a local habit through many generations until certain characters of a race have become established.
The same fact has been stated for the shad on the Atlantic coasts. Some observations, made in
1871, perhaps indicate the opposite of all the foregoing statements.

“In the early part of the season there had been very few fish caught on the west shore of Lake
Michigan, between Chicago and the Door Islands. South of Chicago, at the mouth of the Calumet
River, the run of White-fish was in excess of anything had for years. But, about the 15th of J une,
the schools of fish left Calumet, and a few days later there was a decided, improvement in the
catch at Evanston. About June 22, the lifts at Waukegan began to be heavier than they had
been before. During the first week of July the fishing was observed to improve at Milwaukee,
Manitowoc, and Bailey’s Harbor, and, a little later, at the Door Islands. The coincidence in dates
rather indicated a probability that the same schools of fish that clogged the nets at Calumet
during six or seven weeks had ranged northward along two hundred and sixty miles of coast.
Still, the effect on the fishing would have been the same if it had been the mizrations of schools
of fish from deep water at these points in to the shore. In order to obtain a definite knowledge of

512 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

their habits in this particular, metal tags, with numbers indicating the locality, were distributed
to fishermen at twenty points along the lake, to be fastened to the fins of live fish, which were
then to be released. Instructions were at the same time sent-to all fishermen to report the capture
of fish bearing these marks, and the distances from where they were taken to the point of departure
would indicate the extent of their migrations. It is thought that but few of them were used. A
similar proceeding was afterward carried out by Mr. George Clark, of Ecorse, on the Detroit
River, but none of the fish were ever heard from.

“Some of the fishermen of the west shore assert that, after severe storms encroaching on the
shore, and making the water muddy for a long distance out, when the storm subsides there is a
heavy deposit of mud on the bottom, and that the White-fish abandon the locaiity for a time,
because, as they surmise, their food is buried in the sediment. On the contrary, after ordinary
storms, there is generally an improvement in the catch of fish, probably for the reason that the
great aération of the water renders them lively and incites them to move about. The migration
from the southern portion of Lake Michigan is of yearly occurrence, about the middle of June, and
is, without doubt, occasioned by the large extent of shoal water becoming heated. The same thing
occurs in Green Bay, and in the shoal regions of the western end of Lake Erie. The migrations
into shallow water, and up certain streams, in the fall of the year, for the purpose of spawning,
will be considered further on. This migration, and the summer visit to the shore, are the general
migrations peculiar to the White-fish, while the departure from shoal regions in summer, and from
certain localities in August, are local peculiarities.”

ENEMIES.—This section of the natural history has been fully worked up by Mr. Milner in his
“Report on the Fishes of the Great Lakes,” from which the following extracts are made:

“The largest percentage of destruction the White-fish suffers is without doubt in the ova
stage. The spawn-eaters of the Lakes are a numerous and widely distributed list of animals,
including fishes, amphibians, and, it is claimed, divers and ducks. The destruction of the spawn
hy these methods is immense, and far exceeds the losses while in the stage of fry. The most
wholesale devourer of the eggs is undoubtedly the Lake Herring. On opening the stomachs of
the Herring from the ponds in Detroit River, in November, they were found to contain the eggs of
White-fish. At first it was considered possible that, as they were confined in the ponds, their
eating spawn might be a matter of necessity; but later, at Sandusky, their stomachs were found
gorged with the ova. The Herring, the most nuincrous species inhabiting the spawning grounds
of the White-fish, are without doubt the principal agents in keeping in check the increasing
numbers supplied from the fertilized ova. The suckers, sturgeon, and smaller bottom-feeding
fishes are found with spawn in the stomach.

“The so-called ‘water-lizard,’ Menobranchus lateralis, Say, is very numerous in some of the
streams and portions of the lake shore. Mr. George Clark, of Ecorse, Michigan, had a minnow-
seine fitted to the bag of a sweep-seine, and at one haul took two thousand of the ‘ water-lizards.’
Estimating the extent that the net had passed over, hé calculated the average number of lizards
to each square rod to be four. He says, further, in one of the Detroit papers, ‘The lizards were
so gorged with White-fish spawn that when they were thrown on the shore hundreds of eggs
would fly out of their mouths. . . . Some of the larger lizards would devour the whole spawn-
ing of a White-fish in a day or two; and when we consider that these reptiles are feeding upon
eggs from November till April, some idea may be formed of their vast capacity for destruction.’

“Mr. Browne, of Grand Haven, Michigan, states that some three years ago an epidemic
seemed to prevail among the Menobranchi in Grand River in the month of June, and that their
dead carcasses were washed ashore by hundreds, so that they lined the banks of the river, and

ENEMIES OF THE WHITE-FISH. 5138

the millmen were obliged-to throw the bodies off into the current, to be carried down stream to
prevent the offensive stench that was wafted into the mills from the decaying remains.

“A fisherman at Evanston, Illinois, a few years ago had nine hundred hooks set in the lake,
and in one day took from these five hundred lizards, removing them all himself, as his men,
sharing the popular notion on the Lakes, believed them to be poisonous, and preferred to cut away
hook and all to taking hold of the slimy amphibian. They are, of course, entirely harmless in
this particular, and make no more attempt to bite than a frog does. A full series of this species
was this season collected from Detroit River, from the length of one and one-fourth inch to thir-
teen inches. Later, about the middle of the moni!: of July, Mr. George Clark collected a quantity
of their eggs, proving this month to be the sp: wning season of the animal.

“The sturgeon are very generally believed to be spawn-eaters. Though the ova of the White-
fish and the perch have been observed among the stomach contents of this fish, the principal food
has always been found to be snails, the fresh-water genera being generally represented, the
weaker shells crushed into fragments, and the stronger ones of the Paludinide and even Limneas
remaining unbroken. Dr. EB. Sterling, of Cleveland, who examined the stomachs of a large number
of sturgeon in the vicinity of the Sandusky fisheries, made the same observation. There are few
of the bottom-feeding fishes but whose stomachs will not generally be found to contain a few eggs,
though in company with other food in greater quantity.

In the fry stage they must suffer to some extent from the piscivorous fishes. The most numer-
ous and voracious of their enemies is likely to be the wall-eyed pike, Stizostedion americana, numer-
ous in the shoal waters of the lakes and comparatively rare on the deeper shores. The perch, Perca
flavescens, are very generally distributed and quite numerous; the contents of their stomachs are
generally found to be vertebrate forms. The black bass, Mieropterus nigricans, is plentiful in Lake
Erie, but as its ordinary food is the crawfish, where these are numerous its depredations on the
schools of young fish would be of comparatively little importance. The white bass, Roccus chry-
sops, the muskellunge, Hsox nobilior, and the lake pike, Hsow lucius, do not inhabit the Lakes in suf-
ficient numbers to be very troublesome to the White-fishes. It is the prevailing idea on the Lakes
that the Mackinaw or Salmon Trout feeds largely on the White-fish. Here as everywhere civilized
man disturbs the balance of nature, and becomes the great enemy to all forms of life that do not
conform to his artificial methods for their protection. Not only by the hundreds of artifices for the
capture of the White-fish, but in the foul drainage from the cities, smelting-works and manufacto-
ries, and in the quantities of sawdust from the mills, they are driven from their favorite haunts and
spawning grounds, and their food destroyed by waters tainted with fatal chemical combinations.”

Mr. Milner mentions the natural casualties of storms, deposits of sediment smothering the
eggs, the vegetable growth found to be so fatal in the hatching troughs, as causes of destruction
to immense quantities of White-fish spawn.

Mr. Lanman, speaking of the enemies of the White-fish, says that the great Gray Trout (Salmo
Jerox) follows the White-fish to the shore and preys upon it. While the nets are set for White-
fish, the fishers, with torch and spear, attack and capture the Salmo ferox, frequently of large
size; and hence this latter fish has acquired the name of Tuladi from the river to which it is
attracted by its favorite prey.

Foop.—Mr. Milner, in his ‘“ Report upon the Fisheries of the Great Lakes,” wrote the follow-
ing paragraphs on the White-fish:

“The food of the White-fish has been a problem inciting numerous conjectures among
fishermen, sportsmen, and fish-culturists, and baffling the investigation of a few naturalists

for a number of years past. To Dr. P. R. Hoy, of Racine, we think, belongs the credit of first
33 F

514 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

discovering correctly the character of their food. On opening the stomachs of numerous White-
fish he at first failed to determine the character of the stomach contents, until, after wash-
ing the half-digested mass in a basin of water, he found the sediment to be full of small Crus.
tacea, whose existence in the lake had never before been suspected. My examination and pre-
servation of the stomach contents from all quarters of the Lakes confirmed Dr. Hoy’s observa-
tions, and discovered a few other small forms of life as the food of White-fish. The invertebrates
found were of crustaceans: species of the families Gammaride and Myside ; of the mollusks:
species of the genus Pisidium ; and certain insect larve. A few fish-ova were frequently found
in the stomach, and it was not unusual to find a little gravel.

“Tn the greater portion of the lake the Gammaride constituted the principal food. In shallow
regions small Conchifers were more numerous. At Point aux Barques, on the north shore of Lake
Michigan, where a very large type of the White-fish was found, the stomach contents were entirely
of the Mysis relicta Loven. In the Sault Ste. Marie Rapids, in July, a mass of small chrysalides
was found in the stomachs of a number of White-fish. In October, from the same locality, the
larve of the caddis-fly were found in the stomachs, apparently carefully separated from their
artificial coverings. Stomachs opened in Lake Superior contain principally the Myside. At
Rocky Island, in the northwestern part of Lake Michigan, a vessel with a cargo of wheat was lost
afew years ago. The fishermen say that White-fish were taken in that vicinity for several years
afterward with wheat in their stomachs.

“Rarely White-fish will take a bait. The breakwater protecting the [linois Central Railway
at Chicago was formerly a favorite fishing place, and in early summer was often lined with a row
of boys and men fishing for perch. There was seldom a day passed but that a few White-fish
were taken. Mr. Trompe, of Sault Ste. Marie, has frequently taken them in that locality with
a hook baited with a May-fly, Ephemeride. Ata fishing dock on Sand Island, one of the group of
the Apostle Islands, Lake Superior, there were a few taken this season with a worm bait.

“The leech, Ichthyobdella punctata, Smith, parasitic on the White-fish, and numerous in some
localities, was in no instance found in the stomach. This corroborates Dr. Hoy’s observations,
A similar fact was noticed afterward at Detroit River. A parasitic crustacean, a Lernea, was
found adhering to the White-fish in numbers, and, though many stomachs were examined, in no
instance were any of the parasites found in the contents. Both the Lernea and the Ichthyobdella
are related to species made use of as food by the White-fish, as near in the one instance as being
in the same class, and the other in the same order. The mouth is constructed for nibbling along
the bottom, the opening being directed nearly downward, and they gather in the small life of the
bottom and the gravel as they move slowly along.

“Dredging in the lake at different localities and examination of stomach contents at numerous
points prove that the crustaceans and the mollusk constituting the principal food of the White-
fish are distributed throughout the lake bottom, in all localities, and at all depths over about
twenty fathoms. In Torch Lake, a deep inland lake in the Grand Traverse region, Michigan,
where a large type of White-fish is found, the dredge brought up the same species of crustaceans
and mollusks as were found in Lake Michigan. The failure to find food in the stomachs of White-
fish has frequently resulted from the fact that the fish examined were taken from the pound-nets,
where they had remained long enough to digest the contents of the stomach before they were
taken from the water. Fish from the gill-nets have generally the food in the stomach only
partially digested, while a hundred fish in succession from the pound-nets may be opened and
every stomach found empty.

It is frequently asserted that aquatic vegetation afforded sustenance to the White-fish. The

THE FOOD OF THE WHITE-FISH. 515

investigations in the past two years did not result in any confirmation of this notion, and it would
not accord with the habits of any species of the family of fishes to which the lake White-fish belongs.”

A list of the precise contents of the stomachs of individuals examined by Mr. Milner is now
appended:

“Specimens from Outer Island, Lake Superior, contained great quantities of Mysis relicta,
Pontoporeia Hoyi, and Pisidium abditum, var. abyssorum ; and with these were a few specimens
of dipterous larve of the genus Chironomus, a small worm (Lumbricus lacustris), Daphnia
galeata, D. pellucida, and a small species of Planorbis.

“From Sand Island, Lake Superior, Pontoporeia Hoyi; larve and pups of Chironomus ;
Valvata sincera, and Gyraulus parvus.

“ From Sault Ste. Marie, one lot contained scarcely anything but small shells. Among these,
Valvata tricarinata, V. sincera, var. striatella, Amnicola generosa, A. palida (2), Gyraulus parvus,
and a species of Limnea were in abundance; while there were fewer specimens of Goniobasis
livescens, Physa vinosa (2), young, Spherium striatinum, and Pisidium compressum.

“Other specimens contained nothing but the remains of insects, among which were the
imagos of two species of Diptera; larve and pup of Chironomus; larve and pupe of some
specimens of Hphemeride; great numbers of the larve, pups, and subimagos of a species of
Hydropsyche, and the larvee of a species of some other genus of Phryganeide.

“From Ecorse, Michigan, specimens contained a species of Hydrachna, the leg and the scales
from the wing of some lepidopterous insect, and a species of Limnea.

“ White-fish which I examined at Isle Royale, in August, 1871, contained scarcely anything
but Mysis relicta and Pontoporeia Hoyt.

“Ecorse, Michigan—remains of a small fish and several specimens of a species of water-
boatmen (Corixa).

“Specimens of Coregonus quadrilateralis from Madeline Island, Lake Superior, contained a
number of specimens of a leech (Nephelis fervida) and a neuropterous larva allied to Perla.

“These few observations are sufficient to show that the White-fish, like the different species
of Trout, feeds on a large number of species belonging to very different groups of animals. In
this brief enumeration, twenty-five species are mentioned—nine of insects, four of crustacea, one
worm, and eleven of mollusks; and these are undoubtedly only a small part of the species upon
which the White-fish really feeds.”

Much difficulty was experienced by Mr. Milner in his attempts to discover the food required
for the sustenance of some young White-fish which had been sent to him. His experiments,
together with a letter written to him by Mr. Briggs, editor of the “Lens,” Chicago, with regard to
the contents of the stomachs of embryo White-fish, are here reproduced:

“ Food of embryonic White-fish.—The young fish reached Waukegan in safety, and were placed
in five-quart glass jars, and an experiment begun in attempting to supply them with suitable food.
A numbered label was pasted on each jar, so as to keep them distinct. Knowing that the larger
White-fish fed largely on crustaceans, an attempt to feed them on food of this character was
thought worth a trial. A few crawfish were procured and pounded to a paste, and small portions
put into jar No. 1; the young fish ate it readily. They were fed at night, and the next morning
every one of them was found to be dead. Jar No. 2 was supplied with bread-crumbs, and the fish
were seen to take small particles in their mouths; they did not die so suddenly. Jar No. 3 was
supplied with sweet cream, but no evidence was afforded that the occupants fed upon it. A
quantity of rain-water was exposed to the rays of the sun for the purpose of generating minute
forms of life, and a teaspoonful was poured into jar No. 4, morning and evening, in hopes that

516 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

their proper food was of this character. In jar No. 5 a variety of food was provided, dry fresh
beef, milk, boiled potato, and bread. The crumbs of bread and the scrapings from the beef
were all that the fish were seen to take into their mouths. They died, one after another, very
rapidly, and in a few days all were dead.

“There were other things unfavorable to them, in these experiments, besides the lack of their
natural nourishment. To conduct these experiments favurably, they should be placed in a large
vessel, and a stream of fresh water should be supplied constantly so that the water should
continue pure and the production of conferve be avoided. This difficulty of procuring a suita-
ble food for the young White-fish has been the experience of the few fish-culturists who have
hatched them.

“A set of specimens, representing young fish from the Detroit River, from the troughs at
Clarkston, and from the jars, were preserved in alcohol and submitted to Mr. 8. A. Briggs, editor
of the ‘Lens,’ Chicago.

“A letter from Mr. Briggs contained the following:

“CHICAGO, May 28, 1872.

“My Dear Sir: The four vials containing C. albus came duly to hand, and have, with the
alcohol and water in which the specimens were preserved, been carefully examined.

‘“‘The intestines of specimens Nos. 77 and 78 from Clarkston were entirely destitute of organic
matter recognizable under a power of 400 linear, which ought to be ample for the purpose. Those
of specimens 76 and 79, from Detroit River, contained numerous specimens of two species of
Diatomacee, viz, Fragilaria capucina and Stephanodiscus Niagarw. The former is a filamentous
form which grows very abundantly in our lake inlets attached to stems of lilies. The latter is a
large form which, from its peculiar build, contains considerable nutritious material.

“Very sincerely, yours,
“S, A. BRIGGS.”

Two statements of a more general character are made regarding the food of the White-fish
in Lakes Erie and Ontario; the one, an extract from a letter by Mr. John W. Kerr, Hamilton,
Ontario, the other by Mr. Peter Kiel, of Wolfe Bay:

“The White-fish at this season of the year, fall and winter, feed on small shell-fish. This you
can ascertain yourself by analyzing the contents of their stomach. In spring and summer they
feed on a kind of shrimp-like insect; and from my knowledge and experience I have never known
them to change to any other kind of food than those two kinds now described to you by me.”

“The White-fish is of a fine organism, and, being entirely destitute of teeth, is neither preda-
ceous nor yet very voracious in its nature, but lives on the most simple fare, which consists princi-
pally of small worms and insects that abound in great numbers among the plants and porous
rocks on the bottom.”

SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT.—The most elaborated discussion of (7) the habits of the White-
fish at the spawning season (noted day by day in the journal of the author), concluding with a
table showing the relative weight of ovaries and number of eggs in proportion to the weight of the
fish, (ii) the development of eggs and embryo, and (iid) the rate of the young White-fish’s growth,
has been written by Mr. Milner in his ‘Report on the Fisheries of the Great Lakes,” and is here
given in full:

(i) The habits at spawning season.—“The White-fishes throughout the larger portion of the
Lakes, come into shallow water to deposit their spawn about the middle of November, just at
the time when the Salmon Trout has finished spawning and is returning to deep water. At this

SPAWNING OF THE WHITE-FISH. 517

season they come in from deeper water in vast schools, and are taken in large quantities by the
nets. A notion, prevalent among the fishermen in some localities, that the female fishes arrived
first, and were followed, a few days later, by the male, was not confirmed by my observation. The
bottoms on the spawning grounds vary in character in different localities; rock, sand, clay, and
mud being used indifferently for the spawning beds. The depths at which they spawn range from
eight feet to fifteen fathoms; the larger number probably spawning in depths of about eight or
ten fathoms. In the Sault Ste. Marie liver, and in the Detroit River, in the fall of the year, they
congregate in great numbers, for the purpose of spawning. Ina number of rivers emptying into
Green Bay the White-fish was formerly taken in abundance in the spawning season. Saw-mills
are numerous on all of these streams at the present day, and the great quantity of sawdust in
the streams is offensive to the fish, and has caused them to abandon them. In one or two rivers
of the north shore of Lake Michigan they are still found in the autumn.

“The Michipicoten River of Lake Superior, on the authority of Major Long, who commanded an
expedition to this region in 1823, and George Barnston, esq., of Montreal, Canada, formerly of the
Hudson Bay Company, is a favorite spawning ground of the White-fish. The Nepigon River,
which our steamcr entered while returning from the north shore of Lake Superior, about the
middle of October, was said to contain schools of White-fish, which had probably entered the
river for the purpose of spawning.

“There is a probability that there was a time when the White-fish ascended many of the clear
rivers of the Northern Lakes, though that this was a universal habit is not probable, at any rate
since the white man has been in the country.

“The fishermen, with their gill-nets, follow inshore the migration of the White-fish in the
month of October, and a few days before the middle of November the spawn is ripe in a few fishes,
and by the middle of the month is running freely, so that boats and nets are covered with the
spawn and milt. Just at the time the ova are beginning to ripen, the Lake Trout, Salmo namay-
cush, has finished spawning, and is leaving for deep water. The White-fish continue to spawn
until the last week of November or the first week of December, when they, too, leave the shore
and seek deeper water.

“Tn the Detroit River, where there were fine opportunities for observing the fish at this period,
owing to the advantages afforded by Mr..George Clark, of Ecorse, we found that the fish ascended
the river about the last week of September, usually following the same course among the islands
year after year. Mr. Clark’s observations on the migration of the White-fishes had discovered
that they ascended much farther years ago than they do now. They are still taken as high up as
Cottrelville, twelve miles up the Saint Clair River. None have been caught above this point for
many years. It is a singular fact that the White-fish are not known to descend from Lake Huron
into the Saint Clair River. This is established by abundant evidence from continued fishing at
Fort Gratiot, where Mr. Clark, between the years 1830 and 1842, took large quantities of the wall-
eyed pike, Stizostedion americana, taking frequently one thousand barrels ina year. The catch of
White-fish amounted to an occasional supply for his own table, except after long-continued storms
from the northward, when the fish sometimes entered the river in schools. They were never found
in this portion of the river in the spawning season.

“The same fact is claimed by the Indians in the Sault Ste. Marie River, that the White-
fishes of the lake above never descend the rapids, while the White-fishes of the river, it is also
asserted, never ascend to Lake Superior. There is not as good evidence for the truth in this
locality as at Fort Gratiot; still, it may be the case.

518 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“‘Examining the fish on the 30th of October, it was found that the spawn of the White-fish was
hard and firm, with rarely a fish approaching ripeness. On the 1st of November, in the picketed
pond, where the fishes are inclosed, numbers of fish were seen jumping from the water, principally
the Herring, who take delight in this exercise at different seasons of the year. Occasionally a
White-fish threw its bulkier form above the surface. On the 8th of the month Mr. Clark and I
were out on the piling surrounding the pond, and found the White-fish jumping in numbers, so
that there was a continual splashing of the water. They almost uniformly jumped in pairs, and
we could see quantities of spawn in the water immediately afterwards, which rapidly sank. Mr.
Clark and I both succeeded in capturing a pair in the act of leaving the water, and found male
and female with milt and spawn running freely. Mr. Clark made use of a fine wire scoop as the
pairs of fish disappeared from the surface, and almost invariably took a quantity of spawn from
the water. The males were uniformly smaller than the females. I succeeded in catching a pair in
which the female weighed seven pounds, and the male, who escaped before he was weighed, did
not exceed one and a half pounds.

“November 9.—I again saw the White-fish jumping from the water in the evening, almost uni-
formly in pairs. Rarely there were three leaped together, one female and two males. In the pairs
there was always a large one, evidently a gravid female, and a smaller one, the male. At this sea-
son of the year it is easy to detect the difference in sex, the abdomen of the female being swollen
and rounded, while the males are leaner and angular in the abdominal lines. I saw by long watch-
ing that the males were worrying the females. They seemed possessed of strong sexual ardor, and
followed the female with persistence, keeping close against her and with the head about even with
the pectoral fin. Driven by the persistent attention of the male, the female arose vertically, he fol-
lowing, and she making a convulsive effort to escape, the water being from three to ten feet deep,
they threw themselves together above the surface, and the spawn and milt were emitted at the
time when, from their position, their vents were approximated. The spasmodic fluttering and
effort observed suggested a sexual orgasm. At times I saw them moving rapidly beneath the
water in the same close contact, and the male with his snout even with the pectoral fin of the
female, often turning together with the white of the belly upward as she turned and twisted to
escape him. Often as they came out of the water they would fall apart in different directions, but
the male invariably turned immediately in pursuit, so that I was led to think they were monog-
amous, as is the fact with their relatives the Salmon and the Speckled Trout.

“November 10.—The White-fish jumping in great numbers toward sunset. In most instances,
when near by, I observed a quantity of eggs, perhaps three hundred or five hundred, emitted at
once. The milt of the male did not discolor the water. The same actions occurred as before
observed, springing vertically from the water with a spasmodic, fluttering effort, the male’s head
opposite the pectoral fin of the female, turning together beneath the water until both abdomens
showed upwards. Occasionally three sprang above the surface together. Sometimes the pair
fluttered along the surface together for a long distance.

‘November 14 and 15.—Went out to the pond at midnight, and again at 1 o’clock a. m., and
found the White-fish jumping. The fact that they are quiet in the daytime, previous to four or
five o’clock in the afternoon, indicates a parallel habit to that observed by Seth Green, of New
York, in the shad, they, as he asserts, spawning principally in the night, though, unlike what was
the case with the shad, we had no difficulty in finding spawners in the forenoon with the seine.

“November 18.—The fishing stopped all along the river. Visited the island. Cold, strong
wind from the southwest. Thermometer 26°. No White-fish to be seen in the pond. A few
Herring coursing around the piling.

SPAWNING OF THE WHITE-FISH. 519

“November 19.—Same as yesterday; no White-fish to be seen. Caught some of the herring
with the dip-net; found their spawn still hard and small; their stomachs were full of White-fish
spawn. Mr. Clark and I took a boat with two men and dredged in the river, obtaining a quantity
of White-fish eggs. Nearly all were dead. Afterwards dipped a quantity from the pond, nearly
all of which were dead.

“November 20.—Made another visit to the island. No White-fish seen in the pond. Cold,
freezing weather.

“On the 24th and 25th of the month, while at Sandusky, Ohio, numbers of White-fish were
found with the spawn in different stages of ripeness, though a majority of them had spawned.

“After spawning, the abdomen of the female fish is somewhat flabby and wrinkled, and the
fish is undoubtedly relaxed and weak; but not to the extent that the Salmon, as well as certain
other species of the Coregoni, are said to be reduced. The male shows but little indication of
weakness.

“A series of ovaries were preserved from fishes of different sizes, and a count made by weigh-
ing the entire ovaries and then counting the eggs of a definite fraction, and calculating from it the
number of the whole. Accurate scales were used for this work, and the table may be relied upon
as correct:

Weight of fish. eee
Ounces.
2, POUNAS ye scncersmescnveaecese ewe 53 21, 229
OF MOUNGS winie2rcasassmeencceccieia coe Th 28, 500
4: POUNIS ic2 cvcccearsee seisees sansa 16 48, 000
7H POUDASs essen saree. wend neeemis set 25 66, 606

“This makes an average of about ten thousand increase for every additional pound weight in
the fish, which is precisely Mr. Seth Green’s estimate, from his observations in spawning White-
fish. Considerable variation in the weight of an equal number of eggs was observed, depending
upon the stage of development at which they had arrived in the ovaries. During the spawning
season, the fish from the river were found to have very little in their stomachs.

(it) Development of eggs and embryo.—“It has been proven by repeated observations by fish-
culturists that the higher the temperature of the water in which the eggs are placed the more
rapidly the embryo fish develops within the egg, and the sooner it escapes from its inclosure in the
shell. The temperature of the succeeding months after the spawning period probably regulates
to a considerable extent the time of hatching of the White-fish in the Lakes.

“On the 11th day of April, at Ecorse, on the Detroit River, I visited Grassy Island in company
with Mr. George Clark. The inside of the bag of a seine was lined with millinet and dragged in
the river, bringing ashore a great quantity of mud and the small forms of life inhabiting the
bottom. Sifting and washing out the mud resulted in finding one little worm-like fish-embryo,
one-half inch in length, which I at once suspected to be the specimen sought after. Other
attempts with the seine failed entirely of taking any more. Mr. Clark then proposed that we
take a boat and search carefully on the surface for the young fish. Taking a pail and dipper, we
shoved off our boat, and Mr. Clark pulling very slowly with the oars, I hung over the gunwale, and
in a very few minutes found a little, active fish swimming with his head at the surface, and captured
him with the dipper. He proved to be identical with the one taken with the seine. In the course
of half an hour we captured forty, all of the same size and state of development. Most of them

520 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

were taken within five or six inches of the surface, though they were frequently seen coming up
from as far below as they were visible. They were nearly white, with a pair of large, black eyes,
were very active, moving continually, propelling themselves with a constant motion of the tail,
and swimming with the head up and the body depending at an inclination of about 50°. They
seemed apprehensive of danger, and turned quickly from the dipper when it came near them,
occasionully escaping. They had no gregarious instinct whatever, and though occasionally taken
in pairs it was probably an accidental circumstance.

“On April 14 we again visited the island and caught a number more of the young fish.

“A few days later Mr. Clark and I visited the breeding-house of Mr. N. W. Clark, of Clarks-
ton. He had put down a large quantity of White-fish ova in November, and had taken the water
flowing over the eggs from a pond that had remained frozen over nearly all the winter. The
temperature of the water had remaiued at 34° or 35°, and the young fish had begun to hatch out
on the 1st of April, and about the 9th or 10th were all out of the shell. This temperature is prob-
ably much the same as Detroit River at Ecorse, sixty-eight miles below Lake Huron, the current
flowing at the rate of two miles per hour.

“The appearance of the umbilical sac in the specimens from both places made it evident that
they were of about the same age, and indicated the fact that in waters that are frozen over
throughout the winter the young White-fish escape from the egg about the first week of April.

“The temperature of Lake Michigan, Huron, or Superior probably does not descend below
about 40° or 43° in ordinary winters, and the young fish would be likely to make their appearance
a week or two earlier.

“The young fish lived in the glass jar of water two days, were then transferred to an eight-
ounce bottle, and carried over thirty hours by rail and steamer, and did not arrive at their desti-
nation, Waukegan, Illinois, until thirty-six hours after they left Ecorse, Michigan. They were all
in good condition, and were placed in a quart jar of fresh water. There were thirteen of them
altogether.

“April 19.—The young White-fish are very vigorous, and are in continual motion. The water
has been changed once. Although the yelk sac has not diminished, they act as if seeking food in
their movements around the jar. They open their mouths very wide. Occasionally they take in
dust masses and eject them again as if they were unpalatable.

“April 21.—Umbilical sac in one individual diminishing.

“A pril 22.—Umbilical sacs reducing rapidly.

“April 23.—Yelk sacs being rapidly absorbed. The membrane on the anterior part of dorsal
line is also slightly diminished.

“April 24.—The umbilical sacs becoming minute. The fin-membrane anterior to position of
dorsal becoming absorbed. At the center of the anterior ventral section of fin-membrane a slightly
opaque white spot is apparent. In front of the anus, and on lower half of caudal, are similar ones.
The color of the head is assuming a greenish tinge.

“April 25.—The globule in anterior part of yelk sac has become divided up into numerous
smaller globules, scattered like beads, or more like a row of bubbles, through the length of the sac.
When they open their mouths the gill-arches show quite distinctly. Excrement voided by some
of them.

“April 28.—Umbilical sac entirely absorbed. First dorsal fin becoming well defined. Pos-
terior section of dorsal membrane contracting. Furcation of caudal shghtly indicated.

“After an absence from home of six days, I returned on May 6 to find only one alive. A

DEVELOPMENT OF THE WHITE-FISH. 521

brown confervoid growth had developed in the water, and the young fish attempting to swallow
it always got it entangled in its gills and soon died.

“In my absence I visited Clarkston and purchased for private parties from Mr. N. W. Clark
one thousand young Trout, which I brought safely to a brook two miles north of Waukegan, Illinois.
Mr. Clark gave me one hundred and fifty young White-fish, most of them with the yelk sac only
partially absorbed. The difference in temperature evidently made some difference in the rapidity
with which the umbilical sac disappeared, as the young fish I had carried home were in the same
stage of development, April 14, as when I had visited Clarkston previously. Now, May 1, the fish
in Mr. Clark’s troughs still retained considerable of the sac, while on the 28th of April the young
fish in the jar had lost it entirely. The jar had been kept in a moderately warm room, with a
temperature of about 65°, while the water in the troughs at Clarkston flowed from a pond that had
been covered with ice until within a few days previous.

_ (ttt) Rate of Growth.—“ Further research for the young fish was unavoidably delayed until the1st
of July. Towards the end of June, from a seine-haul at Waukegan, a specimen of Coregonus albus,
measuring eight and three-tenths inches in length, one of C. quadrilateralis, measuring seven and
four-tenths, and one of Coregonus harengus, measuring three and four-tenths inches, were obtained.

“At Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, on July 2, with an Indian in a birch canoe, the vicinity both
above and below the rapids was explored in the current and in the still water and along the shores,
to find the smallest grade of White-fishes that were to be had. Along the shore, in the sharp
current, schools were found of which the smallest taken measured four inches and nine-tenths,
and the largest six inches and one-tenth. It was quite evident that they had all been batched the
same season. Another excursion in the birch resulted in nothing materially different. ‘The
minimum measurement of the next grade taken was eight inches and three-tenths.

“At Shoal Island, one of the Apostle Islands of Lake Superior, a White-tish was taken from
the pound-net about the middle of August measuring six inches in length, and another measuring
six and one-half inches.

“On the 3d of December, at Point Edward, Canada, at the outlet of Lake Huron, two speci-
mens of Coregonus albus were obtained from a seine, one measuring six inches and eight-tenths,
and the other seven inches and seven-tenths.

“Tt is very probable that the Shoal Island fishes of August and the Point Edward ones of
December 3 were the larger-grown individuals of the same generation as those taken at Sault Ste.
Marie in July. The difficult point to decide was in what year the beginning of this generation
should be placed.

“The only positive data with reference to the growth of White-fish are found in the observa-
tions of Mr. Samuel Wilmot, of Newcastle, Ontario, in charge of the government hatching house of
Canada. Mr. Wilmot reports that in November, 1868, he placed a quantity of spawn in the hatch-
ing troughs for an experiment, and in the following March and April a large number of young fry
made their appearance. He failed in finding food adapted to the young fish, but a number that
escaped through the screens were carried down to a small pond, where they seemed to thrive
and soon became well-developed young fish. In the month of September they were exhibited at
a fair in London, Canada. They were then about five inches long. In December the young fish
had attained the length of seven inches.

“Mr, N. W. Clark, of Clarkston, Michigan, visited Wilmot’s hatching-house in 1871, and in an
address before the house of representatives of Michigan said: ‘Enough is known, from the success
of Samuel Wilmot, esq., of Canada, to sustain us in the assertion that they (the White-fish) in-

-

522 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

crease in weight about three-quarters of a pound a year, as those he had when we saw them, last
January, we judged to have weighed about one and a quarter pounds, being then about eighteen
months old.’ These are the only records of observations of the growth of the White-fish, and
evidences of this character are the only ones of any value of the rate of growth.

‘An attempt was made several times from large lifts of fish lying in the fish shanties to arrange
the different sizes of White-fish in series, with the hope that some evidence of the rate of growth
per year would result. It was always found that the row of fishes, from the larger to the smaller,
assumed the form of a spire-like pyramid, and a ‘straight-edge’ laid at their heads would have
touched the noses of every one in the series, and on the opposite end it would have touched every
tail, so perfectly regular was the gradation. It was difficult to believe that the White-fishes, of
from nearly five inches to six or seven, had attained these dimensions in three months from the
little half-inch embryos of April and May, though none of less size were found with the most
diligent search.

“Mr. Wilmot’s young fish measured about five inches in September when four months old.
Experience has proved that there is a more rapid growth of the young Trout and Salmon afterward
than during the first two months. The observation on the development of the young White-fish
from April to the first week of May showed the slightest perceptible difference of length and bulk.
If we assume them to be the fish of this season, then they had increased ten times in length in two
months, precluding the possibility of a more rapid growth afterward.

“Tt is altogether probable that the fish measuring from four to seven inches in July were those
of the previous season’s hatching, and about sixteen months old. It is equally probable that the
Point Edward fish of seven inches are those of the same season, as the five months intervening the
Ist of July and the 3d of December should have produced considerable growth. To confirm this
opinion we have Mr. Wilmot’s statement that his White-fish had attained the length of seven
inches in December. These evidences of the rate of growth are the only conclusions we have been
enabled to adopt with reference to the size attained at different ages. Nor does this decide the
average size of the growth of the White-fishes the first and second seasons.”

The act of spawning, with the accompanying movements, is thus detailed by Mr. Peter Kiel,
of Wolfe Bay:

“From thirty years’ experience as a fisherman, and after obtaining all the information pos-
sible from others on the habits of White-fish, I beg leave to remark that during the month of
November the White-fish are known to unite, or join in pairs, male and female, and that they
approach the shore for the purpose of spawning. Should the weather be very cold they move
more rapidly and arrive at their destination about the 15th. Their favorite place is a sheltered or
land-locked bay or inlet having a sandy or gravelly bottom. "When in from ten to twenty feet of
water the female, endowed with an instinctive knowledge that her time has come for depositing a
part of her spawn, selects a spot and commences to dig vigorously with her head, at the same time
moving the tail rapidly to stir the sand or gravel; in a short time she forms a nest about two
inches deep; the male, staying close by, seems to be attentively watching her movements. When
the nest is satisfactorily arranged she ejects a quantity of spawn into it. The male immediately
darts alongside of her and impregnates it with the milt. He then moves off a little way while she
covers it partly over with her nose and tail. They remain near the spot two or three days, until
all the eggs are deposited in the same nest, when they return to the deep in search of food, leaving
the eggs and young fish, when hatched out, to shift for themselves. In the mean time the spawn,
being heavier than water, remains on the bottom, which it would do even if not partly covered

SPAWNING ACT OF THE WHITE-FISH. 523

over, nature having provided an adhesive substance which fastens it to the sand or gravel. It
remains about one hundred days, when the young fish emerge into life. While they were exposed
for so long a time, we cannot fail to admire the beautiful and mysterious laws of nature manifested
in their protection from the severity of the weather, from predaceous wild fowl, from voracious
fish, and from reptiles, which during the winter are in a semi-dormant state. As soon as the young
fish are strong enough to move off they gradually work out into the deep, where they remain three
or four years, when they attain their full or average size, and move round periodically with the
parent fish to their various feeding and spawning grounds.

“White-fish are very prolific, and would multiply very rapidly if not destroyed by a reckless
mode of fishing. Many valuable fishing grounds have been rendered useless by hauling seines
during the breeding season, since, in such case, the parent fish are not only destroyed, but the
spawn is disturbed by the seines dragging along the bottom so that it will not hatch. Another
destructive mode of fishing is to set gill-nets across the mouths of bays or inlets, where the fish,
in accordance with their habit, enter in periodically; these nets turn their course some other way,
and it will be clearly understood that they are so social in their nature that in whatever direction
the main body of them incline the others are sure to follow. Our fishery laws have done much,
already, toward the prevention of such abuses.”

Mr. John W. Kerr, overseer of the Hamilton district, Ontario, Canada, wrote the following
paragraph in a letter to Professor Baird, on the spawning of the White-fish in Lakes Erie and
Ontario:

“The White-fish spawn, both in Lakes Erie and Ontario, on the reefs and rocks, during the
month of November. The eggs dropping into the crevices of the rocks are protected from suckers,
a fish always on the alert at this season of the year to devour the eggs. The two specimens sent
herewith you will please find by examination differ from each other in many respects. This you
will be able to find out to be the case only by close study and observation. The Lake Ontario fish
you will find to be a finer and superior fish than the Lake Erie White-fish, both in delicious deli-
cacy of flavor and taste, and the whiteness and richness of the flesh. Still, as regards the food for
this fish, in both lakes, I have in every instance and on all occasions found it the same. The fish
live by suction.

“There is an observable difference in the shape of the White-fish of Lake Ontario as compared
with the shape of the White-fish of Lake Erie. Thus you will please find that the Lake Ontario
White-fish are rounder and broader on the back, while the Lake Erie White-fish are flatter and
sharper on the back.”

ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION.—At so early a date as November, 1857, according to Mr.
Milner, the first attempt placed on record was made by Mr. Carl Muller, of New York, and Mr.
Henry Brown, of New Haven, to propagate the White-fish artificially. The lake which it was
proposed should be first stocked was Lake Saltonstall, near the city of New Haven. Eggs were
procured and impregnated artificially. The knowledge of the art was, however, crude, pisciculture
being in its infancy, and the experiment was but partially successful. The eggs were packed in
moist sand and placed in the bed of the stream on their arrival, the White-fish eggs on a sandy
shoal of less than three feet in depth. The presence of young fish in great numbers in the following
March and April was believed to result from the eggs, although the exceedingly common error on
the Great Lakes of mistaking the schools of small cyprinoids for young White-fish (which they very
much resemble except in the absence of the adipose dorsal), may have been repeated here. In the
fall of 1858 the experiment was renewed. There has been no reference made to any permanent
results from this experiment in the reports of the State commissioners.

524 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“A more successful series of tests were begun in 1868 by Seth Green and Samuel Wilmot in
applying artificial culture to this species, and in the succeeding year by Mr. N. W. Olark, of
Clarkston, Michigan. They were found to be very delicate and difficult to hatch in the first few
years of experimenting, but methods were perfected that made their production as certain and
with losses nearly as small as in other species. The necessity of production of immense numbers
in attempting to multiply the market species of fishes established the fact that the apparatus used
in trout-hatching had to be extended over a wide area to accommodate them. The culture of the
White-fish and the Salmon Trout induced modifications of apparatus at the New York State hatch-
ing establishment.”?!

On page 548 of the same report Mr. Milner continues his observations:

“A few extracts from a letter of Mr. Clark, to the board of fish commissioners of the State of
Michigan, will advance his arguments in favor of brook or surface waters in preference to spring
water. Mr. Clark began his experiments with White-fish in 1869, hatching a small percentage of
the eggs he procured:

“¢In November, 1870, I started again for Ecorse for the purpose of procuring more spawn.
Mr. George Clark, at his fishery, very kindly rendered me all the aid in his power, furnishing the
parent fish for the purpose of trying further experiments in this new enterprise. I succeeded in
obtaining all the spawn needed for further trial, but he was so anxious to make it a success that
he sent his man to me with an extra lot which he thought might be in better condition. I
succeeded in hatching a much larger proportion of them than the year before, but raising them
with artificial food was attended with no better success. This second effort and failure led me to
investigate the cause, and after much thought I came to the conclusion that, if we ever succeeded
in making this branch of pisciculture a success, we must study the principles of nature more than
had ever been done before. I became fully satisfied that by arranging so as to use water taken
from a pond or lake entirely frozen over, it would retard the development of the eggs to the time
required by nature, which proved by subsequent experience to be about April 1. I then consulted
Messrs. George Clark and John P. Clark, and made known to them my convictions, and so strongly
were they convinced that I had struck the key-note to insure ultimate success that they proposed
to furnish all the necessary materials and a portion of the labor to enable me to go on and erect
a large hatching establishment. This was located about eighty rods below the spring where we
had been experimenting the two years previous with the unsatisfactory results above stated.
This location was supposed to be a sufficient distance below the main spring, so that by damming
the water and raising a pond it would freeze over and remain so during the period of incubation.
Our views proved to be correct, as the 500,000 of eggs which we placed in the hatching boxes
November 15 of that year were preserved in fair condition, and with one-quarter less labor in
caring for them than formerly. They did not commence to hatch until April 1, and it was estimated
that we succeeded in hatching at least fifty per cent. of the eggs we had taken four and one-half
months previously at the fishery of George Clark. Of these young fry, some 100,000 of them
were put in Detroit River, at or near his fishery place, and no doubt at this time they are thriving
finely in the waters of Lake Erie, which abounds with abundant natural food for them, and in a
year or two more they will doubtless return to the same place where they were deposited. The
balance of them we placed in three small lakes in Oakland County, some of which have been
seen within the last few months, doing finely.

“<This experiment proved so great a success that again, the next November, 1872, through

Milner in Report of Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, Part II, p. 545.

ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF THE WHITE-FISH. 525

the encouragement of the Messrs. Clark and the United States Fish Commissioner, I doubled the
capacity of this hatching house and procured 1,000,000 of the ova from the same grounds, and
proceeded as before with some improvements I made in the modus operandi of hatching, about
February 20. Mr. Milner, deputy United States commissioner, arrived at this place for the pur-
pose of aiding me in packing and shipping a lot of the ova, which were then in an advanced stage
of incubation. We estimated from actual count that sixty-six per cent. were in such an advanced
state that they were secure from any further mortality. "We then shipped to San Francisco 216,000
in the most perfect condition. About March 10 I received an order from the Commissioner at
Washington to send the same number again to the same place, which I should have done, but from
the fact that the eggs had become so far advanced that I felt quite confident they could not be
transported so great a distance successfully, and only sent 116,000, which I am most happy to
have heard arrived in excellent condition. Soon after this the weather became much warmer and
the ice all thawed from the pond, and by the 20th of the month the eggs then remaining in the
troughs commenced hatching. The water had then risen to a temperature of 45°, which sudden
change caused the eggs to turn white, and soon all were worthless. Quite a large number had
already hatched out, and I removed part of them to the same lake where Mr. George Clark and
myself had put in a large number the year before, and placed about 25,000 in a small lake at
Clarkston Village.

“¢This sudden change in the condition of these eggs I cannot account for, only from the fact
of the change in the temperature of the water at this late stage of their development. I am fully
satisfied that if the ice had remained in the pond as late as the previous year I should not have
lost two per cent. from the time I made the last San Francisco shipment. This experience satis-
fied me that spring water, although it may not be used until it advances a long way down from its
source, is not the place to hatch White-fish. Although this pond was clear from ice March 15, the
ice remained in our lakes in this region until May 1.

«This species of eggs, and especially those not good and not perfectly impregnated, placed in
spring water at a temperature of 46° (which is about the same as all good springs) in winter, will
start out a growth of vegetable fungi more than four times faster than if placed in water at 33°,
which is the temperature of ice-water, and it is next to impossible to employ help enough to pick
out the dead eggs (when in spring water) when you have over a million, as I had the last two
seasons. Even in ice-water last winter, which preserved the eggs much longer than in spring
water, it required from eight to ten persons to keep them in fair condition, and then sometimes
they were necessarily left too long in an unfavorable condition.

“These facts are conclusive proof to my mind that the ova of White-fish should be kept
entirely away from the influence of spring water, or any water which will be liable to change
during incubation, and all houses where White-fish are to be hatched should be constructed upon
some lake or pond that freezes over early and does not thaw out until April 1. It is stated as a
reason why spring water is better for hatching fish eggs than lake water, that it is generally more
free from sediment, some kinds of which are highly detrimental to the successful hatching of the
fish ova. Whereas our inland lakes freeze over early in the fall, and are not free from ice until
late in the spring, this ice is perfect protection against any agitation of the water, and gives an
opportunity for any sediment that may be in it to settle to the bottom, where it must remain until
spring, and until the eggs are hatched and distributed. Consequently the water in all of our
inland lakes is, during winter, as clear as crystal.

“You also wish me to give my views in reference to using Detroit River water. To this I will

526 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

frankly say that I should much prefer it to any spring water in this or any other State for hatching
White-fish. But there are some objections which arise in my mind even to this water. I am
aware that this species of fish are natives of our great lakes and rivers, and consequently it would
be supposed that this water must agree with them, and that success would be certain if this water
was used. But has it not occurred to all persons who have given this subject much thought that
much the largest proportion of these fish run to the shoals of those lakes during spawning season
to deposit their ova? These shoals are the first to freeze over in the fall and the last to thaw in
the spring. This keeps at nearly the same temperature during incubation. Although it may be
said that during their migration from Lake Erie to Lake Saint Clair some deposit their spawn in
the rivers, it is not very probable that much of it is hatched. I am aware that many hatch in and
about the ponds where the fishermen preserve their fish for winter use. This tends to prove that
the shoals are the place where they hatch most largely, as the ice remains in these ponds much
longer in the spring than in the strong current in Detroit River. If water is used from this
river it must change in temperature many times during the winter, as it is well known that the
ice leaves the river quite often during the four and a half months of the period of incubation. No
one can gainsay the fact that in the hatching of fish ova, if the water is of a perfectly even tem-
perature, it will be attended with more favorable results than when frequently changing, from any
cause, even if such change is not more than two or three degrees. Is it not also a fact that the ice
frequently leaves the lower part of Lake Saint Clair early in March? If so, would not the westerly
winds roll the water in the upper part of the river? This sediment would be deposited on the
eggs, and, in consequence of its fine, clammy nature, would be injurious to them. I noticed this
was the case in a little experimental arrangement of A. M. Campau, some two years since, where
this water was used. J examined these eggs several times during this process, and found a fine
clammy substance accumulating on them. They were gradually dying, and I do not think any
were hatched. These eggs were taken from our hatching boxes, and were in perfect condition, as
they were so far advanced in development that the embryo fish could be plainly seen with the
naked eye. For these reasons I am forced to the conclusion that there is more suitable water for
hatching this species of fish eggs than the Detroit River.

“In conclusion, the advantages afforded American fish-culture from the cultivation of the
White-fish, as they have just been enumerated: These are, (1) more careful and perfect methods,
resulting from the experience in the culture of the most delicate and difficult species whose propa-
gation has been attempted by culturists; (2) the perfection of three forms of apparatus for
hatching fish eggs, embodying the important improvements of facility in handling the eggs and
removing sediment and conferve, and greatly economizing space; (3) the contrivance of a
superior case for the carriage of eggs; and, besides, a possibly successful, entirely new method in
the hatching of eggs and the discussion of and practical tests of conditions of water suitable to
the eggs of a species that we are not (at any rate thus far) able to supply with food.”

“These experiments,” wrote Mr. Milner, referring to those made by Mr. N. W. Clark,
“were all attended with considerable success, though the large percentage of loss, compared
with that, in trout and salmon hatching, was anything but encouraging. The screens in the
troughs, in most instances, were the same as those used for the Trout, and the embryo White-
fishes, being smaller, escaped and ran over into the waste troughs and down into the ponds
below. This was in some measure a fortunate circumstance, at Mr. Wilmot’s establishment, for
the young fish, finding their natural food in the ponds, grew and thrived, and attorded the only
positive data there are of their rate of growth. In the succeeding year (1870) Mr. Green and Mr.

CULTURE OF THE WHITE-FISH. 527

Clark made additional experiments, and from the experience of the preceding year, having learned
the necessity of immediate attention to the White-fish eggs after they were placed in the troughs,
began the work of removing the unimpregnated eggs within two or three days’ time, and, giving
them close attention, during the season hatched out a much larger percentage of eggs. Mr.
Green, in 1869, distributed a quantity of the White-fish spawn to numerous applicants who
responded to an advertisement offering it for distribution. Some packages of spawn from this
supply were sent by steamer to Mr. Frank Buckland, inspector of salmon fisheries for Great
Britain. In referring to the condition of the eggs on their arrival in London, he says, ‘A good
proportion of the White-fish eggs were alive and well.’

“Some temporary troughs were put up in Detroit, Michigaz, and supplied with the ova,
under the direction of Mr. A. M. Compeau, Mr. J. P. Clark, Mr. George Clark, and Mr. James
Craig.

“Experiments were again made by Mr. Green, Mr. Clark, and Mr. Wilmot, in 1870. More
than a million of ova were supplied by the liberality of Mr. J. P. Clark and George Clark, without
expense, from their ponds in Detroit River. Mr. Green also made experiments in the breeding of
Salmon Trout and Lake Herring, with some success.

“Tn 1871 these gentlemen just referred to, from Detroit and vicinity, failing to arouse the
interest of the State authorities in the matter of fish propagation to the extent they desired, fur-
nished Mr. N. W. Clark, of Clarkston, with the necessary funds for the erection of a building,
sixty-four feet in length by twenty in width, in which were put up twenty-six troughs, sixteen feet
long and one foot wide. The entire building was devoted to the hatching of White-fish, and the
number of eggs laid down estimated at about one million. The experience of the previous years
aided Mr. N. W. Clark to a most complete success, and by the Ist of April the fish began hatching,
and before the 13th of the month the troughs were swarming with young White-fishes. Between
the 20th and the 30th of April these were all distributed by Mr. Clark in a number of inland lakes
in Oakland County, Michigan, and into the Detroit River. Mr. Wilmot again procured about one-
half million of White-fish eggs, which were handled with improved success.

“Mr. Green gave less space to white-fish eggs this season, and laid down large quantities of
salmon-trout ova, with the purpose of distributing the Trout in the inland waters of the State.

“Tn 1872 an employé of Mr. Green devised a new apparatus for hatching fish, that economized
space to a great extent and afforded him room for a large supply of both salmon-trout and white-
fish ova. Visiting his establishment in January last, we found them hatched out in large quan-
tities, and orders arriving daily for the fry, to stock the waters of inland lakes in all parts of the
State. Mr. Wilmot obtained a supply of white-fish spawn at Sandwich, on the Canadian side of
the Detroit River.”

The employé of Mr. Green above referred to was a Mr. M. ©. Holton, whose invention is thus
more fully described : :

“Instead of placing a single layer of eggs in a long, narrow trough, he has prepared a can or
box, of perhaps a foot square and several feet in height. This is filled with shallow trays of about
half an inch in depth, with wire-gauze bottoms, on which the eggs are placed, so that with twelve
trays, having a surface of one square foot each, he accommodates twelve times as many eggs as
by the ordinary method. The box is so arranged that a current of water is carried by a covered
pipe down the side of the can to the bottom and allowed to enter at that point. The current in
its overflow passes from the bottom to the top, and the water circulates freely over the eggs. This
arrangement has the additional advantage that once a day, or oftener if necessary, the trays can
be taken out singly, and any diseased or defective eggs removed, thus improving the entire mass.”

528 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

In 1873, a device to accomplish like results was made by Mr. N. W. Clark, of Clarkston,
Micnigan, and patented in 1874.!

This arrangement employed the troughs, but divided them into compartments by means of
water-tight partitions or bulkheads; into each compartment a box containing a series of trays
filled with eggs is placed and covered with a pan of perforated tin, upon which the water falls
and descends through the perforations upon the screens and eggs beneath, passing through all
and escaping at the bottom, afterward flowing over the partition upon the cover of the next box,
and so throughout the series of compartments until it escapes through the waste-way at the end
of the trough. By this arrangement a very small quantity of water is required for a very large
number of eggs, and all the advantages of handling and removal of sediment and considerable
economy of space are afforded.

Another combination of the trough and tray methods is in use in California, devised by Mr.
John Williamson, of the California Acclimatizing Society. This is very similar to the one just
described, except that the flow of water through the screens and eggs is from below instead of
from the top. This model was not the result uf work in white-fish hatching, as in the case with
the two first named.

An experiment was made by Mr. N. W. Clark in the hatching of white-fish eggs, which were
laid in single layers of woolen cloth stretched on very thin frames of wood, packed in a box
imbedded in sphagnum moss within a refrigerator, and the whole kept at a temperature a little
above the freezing point by ice. The eggs are left entirely undisturbed after they are first
arranged, and the only care on the part of the attendant is to keep the temperature above
the freezing point. The presence of dead eggs does not seem to contaminate the living
ones in this condition, and very little confervoid growth appears. A quantity of eggs carried
forward in this manner through the winter appeared to be in excellent condition, development
progressing slowly, and a few, taken from the cloths and placed in spring water, hatched out
within a short time as well-developed embryos. If this method, after full and thorough trial,
should prove successful, it would make the work of hatching a matter of neither effort, care, nor
expense. It has been a matter of too short experience and of experiment on too small a scale to
warrant its positive success.

An improved case for the carriage of eggs long distances by railroad is another device
perfected by Mr. N. W. Clark in 1872. It is a modification of the ordinary case containing
circular cups, the cups being square, and in this form economizing space very much. The cups of
tinned iron, about four inches square and two inches high, rest in trays, with low partitions forming
low compartments that retain the bottom of each cup and hold it solidly in place. The trays are
set within a square tin box, in which they fit with moderate tightness, and are placed, when
containing the cups, eight or ten in the box, one above the other; this box is set within another
box of tin large enough to leave an open space on all sides, to be filled with sawdust; a tube is
inserted through the bottom of the inner box, piercing the bottom of the outer one, so as to permit
communication with the air on the outside. The whole is then placed for protection within a strong
wooden box, in the bottom of which is a frame resting upon stiff springs which relieve the eggs
from heavy jarring; rubber or cloth bumpers on the sides of the box prevent lateral swaying and
jolting. A cover is fitted to the inner box, which may then be covered with sawdust to the level
of the higher outer one, when the cover of this is to be shut down.- The outside wooden box is

! Report U. 8. Fish Commission, part vi, p. 546.

.

CULTURE OF THE WHITE-FISH. 529

fitted with handles and with a tight lid on hinges, which may be locked. Small auger-holes are
bored through the outer or packing box, and air may be admitted to the whole interior of the
egg case through the tube referred to in the bottom, the cups being pierced with small holes, so
that when in place they are directly over circular openings in the trays, and a communication of
air is established throughout. The eggs may be packed in moss, in the ordinary manner, in the
cups which experience seems to prove to be the best manner for long journeys.

The method of Mr. Atkins in shipping salmon-eggs packed in moss, but with pieces of mos-
quito-netting laid above and below the eggs, is a great convenience in unpacking them, and could
just as well be applied in the cups. This, though less simple than the ordinary egg-carrier, is suf-
ficiently simple for practical purposes, and possesses most important advantages for carrying eggs
long distances and over rough roads, the small area of surface within the boxes preventing any
tendency of the eggs to slide together at one side. The square boxes resting in trays are put to-
. gether in much more compact form than the cylindrical boxes embedded in moss, and the springs
beneath the boxes of eggs are of course an important addition. Mr. Clark believes the hatching
apparatus in the refrigerator to be as well adapted for the carriage of eggs as for hatching them.

The use of surface or brook water in any permanent establishment seems to have been first
employed by Mr. Samuel Wilmot, of Newcastle, Canada, the greater number of hatching estab-
lishments using spring water.

In the hatching of White fish, Mr. Clark has contended for the use of brook water in preference,
because of its lower and evener temperature throughout the winter, and the consequent retarda-
tion of the hatching of the fish which he has contended is an essential provision in nature to their
welfare, and that hatching them two months.or more previous to the natural time uader artifi-
cial conditions is a mistaken method that will not result in the maturing of any considerable num-
bers in the cold waters in which they are released. Although this view has not been established
by practical observation, yet it raises a question of considerable importance, and one which merits
a full discussion, in view of its bearing on the practical work of fish culture.

Mr. Milner’s account of the further progress made in this branch of fish culture is resumed in
another place, as follows :

«November 11, 1872, I met Mr. N. W. Clark at Ecorse, and in company with Mr. George Clark
we visited Grassy Island for the purpose of obtaining white-fish spawn. The box which Mr. N.
W. Clark has devised for carrying ova is constructed so as to carry a greater quantity of eggs,
with easier carriage, than any in present use. It is a large square can, of zinc, about thirteen.
inches square and twenty-two inches deep. This, for protection, is set inside of a strong wooden
box, with a light frame in the bottom, supported on stiff springs. Strong handles are fastened to
the box, for convenience in handling, and to prevent any necessity for throwing it out of level
while carrying it. The zinc can contains ten trays, each of which carries fifty-four small boxes, two
inches square and two inches deep, set in compartments, each compartment having an inch hole
cut in the center. The partitions between the compartments are just high enough (about five-
eighths of an inch) to inclose the bottom of a box and hold it firmly in its place. No covers are
provided for the boxes, but a large cover can be fitted to the zinc can, and a lid, with a good lock,
is fitted to the outside box. The bottoms of all the little boxes are perforated, the position of the
holes being directly over the circular hole in the compartment of the tray. The zinc can has also
holes in the bottom, and the wooden box has three-quarter inch holes bored on each side, near
the bottom, so that there is drainage for the surplus water of all the boxes, and a free circulation
of air throughout, which is deemed important by some of the fish-culturists.

“At the island the most perfect arrangements were provided by Mr. George Clark for obtain-
34 F

530 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

ing the spawn. Two tanks of about five feet diameter were placed at the edge of the shore and
partly filled with water. As soon as the bag of the seine was on the beach the men picked up
the White-fish and put them immediately into the tanks. The pans for impregnation were close
at hand, and as one man lifted the fish above the water in a dip-net, another took it from the net,
and with his right hand over the head of the fish and his left around the tail he held it over the
pan, standing at the left of the operator. The left hand of the operator was put against the back
of the fish and the right hand used in manipulating the abdomen. It was found that to induce
the eggs to flow freely from a fully ripe female, all that was necessary was to apply a gentle press-
ure just behind the pectoral fins, just where the nudging and bunting of the head of the male
fish is applied while racing her through the water. Not until the greater part of the free eggs had
fallen into the pan was it necessary to slide the hand along the abdomen. The free eggs came
away in a steady, liquid stream, but from a fish partially ripe their extrusion was slow, and in
masses comparatively dry that did not freely disengage themselves from the fish and fall into
the pan.

“The female exhibited the most indications of pain when the pressure was applied in the
vicinity of the ovipore. The milt from the male will flow in from one to three jets by pressure in
the vicinity of the anus.

“The method employed by Mr. N. W. Clark was that which was original with Mr. Seth
Green, using the smallest quantity of water possible. The eggs, after falling into the pan, and
the milt, having been stirred up with the water, were allowed to stand about half an hour, when
the milt, and water were poured off and the eggs carefully rinsed through several changes of
water. A small quantity of water was left with the eggs when they were perfectly clean. By
repeated actual counts, and by arranging on a plate in a true square, it was found that a large
tablespoon, moderately heaped up, contained about q thousand eggs. Hight ripe white-fish eggs
will lie entirely within the space of an inch, and the ninth will lie partially across the line.

“A pat of moss was then put into the cups, and a piece of canton flannel, cut into the form of
the Swiss cross, after thorough saturation with water, was pressed lightly down into the cup, and
a tablespoonful of eggs poured upon it. The canton flannel was used to line the sides of the
boxes, because it was found that the contact of the zinc was fatal to the eggs, probably from the
poisonous elements of the oxide. The patch of canton flannel proved to be a great convenience in
taking out the eggs, as all that was necessary was to take the edges lightly in the fingers and
remove it from the box, and dipping the cloth with the eggs into a pan of water, they were
rinsed off with a few quick motions, without any tedious picking and rinsing the eggs free from
particles of moss. In arranging the eggs for transportation for a short distance, the use of the
cloth patches is undoubtedly a good method. After filling the boxes they were placed in the
trays, and the trays adjusted within the zine can, when water was poured on until the whole con-
tents were thoroughly saturated, when the lid was closed and locked and the case was ready for
transportation to the hatching house. A small fee to the baggage-master excites considerable
interest in the safe-handling of the box. ;

“Two trips were made from Hcorse to the hatching house at Clarkston, and about 1,330,000
eggs were put into the troughs, Mr. Clark having increased the number of troughs to fifty for the
purpose of receiving the extra supply of eggs. One half of the eggs were the property of the
commission, the other half to be controlled by Mr. J..P. Clark, of Detroit, Mr. George Clark, of
Ecorse, and Mr. N. W. Clark, of Clarkston. The eggs received attention from the second day
after they were placed in the troughs until about the middle of January, the eyes of the embryo
then showing distinctly, and the subsequent loss being very small.

CULTURE OF THE WHITE-FISH. 531

“Upon receipt of the instructions to ship a quantity of eggs to the State commissioners of
California, a case similar to Mr. Clark’s was made, substituting a good quality of tin for the zine,
and adding a second square can, large enough to contain the can with the trays and cups, and.
leave the space of an inch on all sides. ‘

“Arriving at Clarkston on the 18th of January, the ies was considered too severe to hazard
the shipment of the eggs at the time, and it was delayed until the 20th. The thick covering of
frozen snow and ice prevented the possibility of obtaining moss, and a good quality of sponge was.
substituted. This was prepared first by whipping out the calcareous dust that it contained, and,
after being cut in thin slices, was thoroughly washed through several changes of warm water.
Pieces were then fitted to the bottom of the cups, and while standing in a pan of water a half
tablespoonful of eggs was poured in, a thin slice of sponge, fitting the inside of the cup, laid
lightly over the eggs, and the remainder of the spoonful poured in, when a third piece of sponge
was put over them to cover them. The tray, with the cups, was then put into the inner can,
which was placed within the second can,.with one inch of sawdust filling the vacant space on the
sides, bottom, and top. A piece of burlaps was tied over the top, and the whole placed upon the
springs, within the packing-box, and the lid fastened down. The packing-box had two half-inch
holes bored near the bottom to admit the air. The filling of sawdust was considered as a neces-
sary safeguard against the cold weather of the time. :

“The case was put in charge of the baggage-master, and I accompanied it as far as Omaha,
Nebraska, attending to its transfer from one train to another, and regulating its position in the
car. At Omaha it was given in charge of the express company, and the messenger instructed as
to the effect of heat and cold upon the eggs, and a letter containing full instructions sent with the
box to be delivered to the messenger at Ogden, where the box was transferred to his care, there
being no further change of messenger between that and San Francisco, California. On two sides.
of the box, in distinct letters, was printed the caution, ‘Fish-eggs; must not be jolted or allowed
to freeze.”

“The weather continued cold throughout the time the eggs were on thé way, and they
arrived at their destination in very bad condition. Mr. Stone attributed the damage to the use of
sponge, and the sawdust packing preventing ventilation. Mr. Rudolph Hessel, an experienced
fish-culturist of Offenburg, Germany, while visiting Washington, informed me that be had used
sponge for packing eggs for long distances with entire success. The lack of ventilation is a more
probable cause, though the description given by Mr. Buckland of the method of packing the eggs
received from Seth Green’s establishment in January, 1870, was similar in the fact that the cups
containing the moss and eggs were buried in the sawdust. A small quantity, received from Mr.
N. W. Clark at the Smithsonian Institution this winter, was packed in the same manner, using
sponge and burying the cups in a pail of sawdust, and. they were found to be all alive after a fifty”
hours’ journey. : .

“The necessity of a certain supply of oxygen to the eggs has been very thoroughly proven by
the researches of W. H. Ransom, M. D., of Nottin gham, England, published in the first volume of
the ‘Journal of Anatomy and Physiology.” The experiments were made while investigating the
nature of the rhythmic contractions of the yelk, known to occur in the living eggs of fishes.
Among several experiments, in which by ingenious methods the oxygen of the atmosphere was
kept from contact with the eggs, those of the stickleback being employed, he relates as follows :.

‘““<T therefore made a series of suffocative experiments on impregnated and unimpregnatedt
eggs, using aérated distilled water in célls, all of the capacity of .05 cubic inch, sealing the covers:
with hot wax, and varying the number of eggs in each cell. Five observations were made with

x

532 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

unimpregnated eggs, having, respectively, thirty-five, thirty, eighteen, nine, and seven eggs in a
cell; and although, in consequence of the accidental loosening of the wax, and the entrance of a
little bubble of air, the duration of the contractions was not in all cases inversely as the number
of ova in the cells, yet the general result was rhythmic contraction, and the pseudo cleavage con-
tinued longer in the cells containing the smaller number of ova, the eggs which lay nearest to the
air-bubble always being the last to cease to move; the accidental failure of the luting affording
thus additional evidence of the importance of oxygen. In all the cells the contraction ceased in
from twenty-three to thirty hours, or one-fourth of the time they continued in aérated water and
unlimited space. Five similar observations were made on impregnated eggs, with forty-eight,
thirty-eight, seventeen, ten, and seven eggs in each cell, with similar but more marked results;
the yelk contractions ceasing earlier than in the unimpregnated ova. The cleavage was more
rapidly checked than the pseudo cleavage, and still more so than the yelk contractions. Seven
experiments were then made to ascertain the relative dependence upon the presence of oxygen of
the movements which result in cell multiplication and differentiation, and of the muscular contrac-
tions of the embryo compared with the yelk contractions. Two healthy developing ova were
sealed in similar cells at seventy-six, one hundred and one, one hundred and twenty-seven, one
hundred and fifty, and one hundred and seventy-four hours each, after impregnation, and two free
embryos at twenty-four and forty-eight hours after hatching. Although the proportion of active
organic matter to the medium was so very much less than in the previous experiments with recently
impregnated eggs, yet the process of development ceased in all in about seven hours, and the yelk
contractions did not continue more than eighteen hours. The movements of the heart continued
about the same time, those of the trunk ceasing before the heart. The embryos in the later stages
of development more quickly ceased to move than those in the earlier. The inference is, I think,
not to be resisted, that oxygen in the surrounding medium is an essential condition of the exercise
of the property of rhythmic contractility possessed by the food yelk, as well as of the fissile con-
tractility of the formative yelk.’

“Though Dr. Ransom admits that the quantity of oxygen consumed in these movements
appears to be very minute, yet it indicates that a large quantity of eggs, confined, in a small,
air-tight space, would consume the oxygen to an injurious extent, during a long journey,
and sufficient ventilation is to be considered as one of the necessities in packing eggs for
transportation. The sawdust that filled the space around the inner can, in the California
shipment, was crowded down with a piece of board, and may have, in consequence, rendered the
package more completely air-tight than in the shipments referred to similarly packed. A later
Shipment arrived in most excellent condition. The cups in the cases were made four by four
inches square, by two deep, with no packing between the cans, and the eggs packed in moss.
‘The most ample ventilation was provided for in the egg-cases. The oxygen given off by live moss
is probably the principal reason for its special adaptation in packing eggs for shipment.

“ Dr. Ransom’s experiments on the effect of heat have also a practical value in the trea:ment
of fish ova, both in transportation and in the troughs. Hesays: ‘Some eggs on the stage of active
contraction were cooled until the thermometer placed on the cell stood at 32° F. They all became
still, and their yelks globular. They were not frozen; and I do not doubt that their temperature
was higher than that indicated by the thermometer.” The contractions were afterwards restored
by a weak galvanic current. In another observation, ‘I froze the water in which the eggs were
placed, so that some of them were completely, and others incompletely, frozen. The frozen eggs
were all more or less opaque, and had their inner sacs ruptured and emptied of yelk in various
degrees, and their formative yelks lobulated and darkly granular. Those which were least frozen

CULTURE OF THE WHITE-FISH. Jao

were slightly opalescent only, and when allowed to thaw they contracted as before, ultimately
going ov. to cleave in an irregular manner, the ruptures in their sacs having healed. Slighter
reductions of temperatures to 40° I’. and 48° F. retarded without destroying the contractions. In
such cases the commencement of cleavage was delayed. By raising the temperature moderately
the movements were accelerated ; but at about 80° F. (it is difficult to speak with certainty of the
temperature actually obtained by the object) the contractions were arrested, the yelk-ball
becoming globular, and the oil-globules being scattered. Such eggs, however, soon recovered
themselves when left at 58° F., and cleft in even less time than eggs did which had not been
warmed. In other eggs, heated in a chamber at 102 F., the cleavage was retarded to three times.
the usual period, and when it took place was wanting in symmetry. The yelk began to become
opalescent at about 103° F.; but a true coagulation of the albumen did not take place, the yelk
being fluid and opaque. Thus a temperature too low or too much elevated retards or arrests
the contractions, but they are not destroyed before commencing physical and chemical changes
set in’

“Whether the point at which the contractions of the yelk ceased was the point at which
vitality left the egg, might or might not have been the fact, but it is quite evident that the egg
was, at the temperatures stated, in an abnormal state, and the necessity of sustaining a tempera-
ture around the eggs of fishes between these extremes is apparent, if they are to be kept in their
most favorable condition.

“Mr. Green and Mr. WiJmot both procured eggs this season from the Detroit River. Mr.
Green made use of a newly devised apparatus for hatching, that proved to be a most excellent '
contrivance, both for the economy of space and the facility for caring for the eggs. By this
method he will be enabled to hatch five or six times the quantity of eggs in the same building,
The young fishes were distributed in accor dance with the excellent plan adopted by the New York
commissioners for supplying demands from all parts of the State, without expense, on application.

“The success attained by these persevering experiments is now complete, and the White-fish
may be restored by artificial propagation, to the same extent as the Salmon, or the Brook-Trout, or
the shad. As has been shown, the White-fish has advantages in this particular that the other
species have not. The obstruction of streams is no obstacle in the way of their multiplication,
because they have no necessity of ascending them, and, unlike the Trout and the Salmon, they
cannot be suspected of eating each other. :

- “Attempts at feeding the young fishes have all been failures, and the only natural focd that
has been found in their intestines is the species of Diatomaceew reported by Mr. Briggs. But as
they are more vigorous and strong in the earlier stages of growth, there is not the same necessity
of caring for them until they are partly grown, and they should be-put into the waters they are
to inhabit soon after the ovisac is absorbed, and allowed to find their natural food for themselves,
just as the young shad are treated when hatched artificially.

“Artificial propagation affords advantages that compensate for all the overfishing and losses
that the fish faune suffer from man and natural causes. The great numbers of eggs found in the
ovaries of fishes in reality afford little evidence of their capacity for populating the waters. It is
a fact, illustrated in nearly if not all branches of the animal kingdom, that the most fecund species
do not, by any means, increase the fastest in numbers, but from the greater evils they are subject
to, and the greater number of enemies they encounter, there is such a fatality during the earlier
stages of growth that the losses balance the numbers produced, and less fecund species, by being
better protected, equal them in numbers. The most perfect illustrations of this fact may be found
among our lake fishes. The muskellunge, Hsox nobilior, has a very large number of eggs. A cast

.

534 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

of the ovaries of a large female specimen, made by Dr. E. Sterling, of Cleveland, Ohio, is in the
possession of the Smithsonian Institution. The ovaries measure over two feet in length, and the
eggs are about the same diameter as those of the White-fish; they contain at least five times
' as many eggs as a pound White-fish, and yet, as regards numbers, the muskellunge is a compara-
tively rare fish. There are, undoubtedly, exigencies attending the egg stage of this fish that will
account for this fact.

“In the case of the White-fishes, though annually depositing millions of eggs, the delicate
nature of the embryo, and the numerous spawn-eaters, effect a certain balance of numbers with
relation to the general faunz of the lakes, so that, up to the time of the early settlement of the
Lake region, the fish were found in great abundance. The nets now came in as an additional agent
in preventing the increase, the pound-net, particularly, killing a large percentage of the fishes that
had not matured sufficiently to assist the increase by depositing spawn, and in consequence the
“numbers of fishes were rapidly reduced.

“The care of the eggs in the hatching troughs has proved, beyond question, the frail nature
“of the eggs of the White-fish. They are smaller, and have a much thinner investing membrane, or
shell, and have not the same enduring vitality that the ova of the Trout and Salmon have. So that
in the open water of the lakes and rivers by far the greater number are lost because of the
‘disturbance of the bottom by the autumn storms and the deposit of sediment from the muddy
-water, the failure of many of the eggs to come in contact with the milt of the male fish, the
myriads devoured by the army of spawn-eaters, and the additional evils of pollution of the waters
from the drainage of cities, manufactories, and saw-mills, and the dragging of seines over the
spawning beds.

“A quantity of White-fish eggs taken from the bottom of the Detroit River, a very extensive
spawning ground, while dredging in company with Mr. George Clark, at the close of the spawning
season, were found to be dead and white, or so coated and stained with the black ooze that they
could vot have survived. In the pond on Grassy Island, where as many as ten thousand female
White-fish deposit their spawn in a season, we succeeded in taking between fifty and sixty embryo
fishes, by drawing a seine lined with millinet, and a diligent search through several hours at the
surface in the month of April.

“Tn obviating all of these evils, artificial propagation asserts its advantage, and though the
number of eggs that may be handled is exceedingly small compared with the millions sown by the
fishes, yet the number of fishes produced may really exceed the present production in a state of
nature. This assertion has ample proof in the restoration of fishes in regions where they have
been nearly exterminated, and even where no change was made in the restrictions upon the fishing
that might have assisted the increase.

“The experience of the past few years has proved entirely the possibility of increasing the
numbers of the White-fish by artificial propagation. The running water in the troughs supplies
the conditions required by the eggs; the fertilization of the ova in the pan brings every egg in
contact with the milt; they lie undisturbed and free from injurious sediment or filthy water; the
spawn-eaters have no access to them whatever, and the dead eggs are immediately removed from
‘contact with the living ones; the young fish are under control in the troughs until the ovisac is
absorbed, when they are ready to be placed in their natural home, the cold waters of the Northern
Lakes. ,

“The experiments of Mr. Seth Green and Mr. N. W. Clark have reduced the loss of the eggs
to an inconsiderable number, and with a small outlay of money this fish may be restored with a
success equal to that of the shad in the rivers of the Atlantic coast.

CULTURE OF THE WHITE-FISH. 535

“The losses in the fry stage merit consideration, though there is every evidence to believe
that they are very small. One great advantage in favor of the young White-fish is its strength
and vigor almost from the time it leaves the egg, and its disposition to seek the surface, as
observed in the troughs and where they were seen in their natural condition in Detroit River.”

DIsEASES.—Nothing definite has been ascertained regarding the-diseases to which White-
fish are liable. A roughness, however, on the scales may be observed from about November 15
to November 20. This roughness has the appearance of small tubercles, and is most apparent on
the sides toward the vent. The male fish is said to exhibit this possible symptom of disease the
more plainly.

Mr. Milner’s observations on the White-fish, with regard to its being infested with parasites,
led him to write: 1

“The White-fish, as far as my observations have extended, is infested with two external and
two intestinal parasites. The external ones are a crustacean, a Lernea, and an annelid, the Ichthy-
obdella punctata. The lernean was found only in the Detroit River, adhering to the fish on the
dorsal region, and with its bell-shaped sucker buried in. the epidermal sheath of the scales. On
the White-fish swimming in schools near the surface around the edge of the pond in Detroit River,
it could be detected by close examination fastened to the fish. There were seldom more than four
on one fish. The Lake Herring, confined in the same pond, swam in close contact with the White-
fish, but in no instance, although careful observations were made repeatedly of the Herring while
in the water and after capture, was the lernean found upon them. In Lake Superior they are
found to be numerous on the siscowet.

“The Ichthyobdella, a leech of three-fourths of an inch Tong, grayish-white in color, with
brown tesselated markings, was seen in great numbers in the month of April, while the fishermen
were lifting their nets from about fifty fathoms some fifteen miles out from Kenosha, Wisconsin.
They covered the nets and fishes of all species, and fell in such numbers on the deck that it became
slippery, and an old coat was thrown down for the man who was lifting the gang to stand upon.
They were very tenacious of life, living for a long time on the deck, and for several days in the
bilge-water of the fish-boats. They were in such numbers that it was difficult to decide whether
they had a preference for any species, and were found filled with blood both in the gills and while
attached to the body, though it was difficult to imagine that they could fill themselves with blood
from the epidermal sheath of the scales. They were thought to be most numerous on the White-
fislies, as they were in greater numbers on them than on the Trout, the Lawyer, or the Cisco, the
only other fishes taken. ;

“A prevailing but mistaken opinion in the vicinity was that the White-fish fed upon the leech.
Dr. Hoy’s investigations disproved the notion, and all examinations of stomach contents confirmed
this fact. One of the intestinal parasites resembled the leech somewhat in form. The other was
an Echinorhynchus. They were never found within the stomach, but always in the duodenal
portion of the intestine near the mouths of the cecal tubes.” .

METHODS OF CAPTURE.—The methods employed whereby the largest numbers of this fish
may be taken varies in different localities. At Whitefish Point, Lake Superior, the greater
part of the catch is made with pound-nets. About the Apostle Islands the gill-net is used
at all times. The best grounds are along the shore from Ashland to Ontondgon. From Grand
to Sauk’s Island the catch of White-fish is made with pound-nets in the spring and gill-nets in
the fall. At the south end of Lake Michigan there are no pound-nets; the fish, consequently, are
of large size. The White-fish fishery of Saint Joseph is carried on far out in the lake, formerly
nearer shore. About Little and Grand Traverse Bays all the pounds were blown away on

536 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

October 26, 1880. They were reset and were again destroyed at the end of November. From
Bay View to Evanston pound-nets are used exclusively.

Across the northern end of Lake Huron, from the Straits of Mackinac to the Detour Passage,
the White-fish are followed by the fishermen with pound-nets as far as twelve or more miles from
shore, and with gill-nets fifteen to twenty miles. At Port Ontario, Lake Ontario, gill-nets are
extensively used in the capture of White-fish, and at Wolfe Bay it is remarked by Mr. Peter Kiel
that they cannot be caught with hook and line at any season of the year. Mr. Lanman says
that they are occasionally taken along Madawaska River, and that he has caught them with rod
and line below the falls of that river, at its confluence with the Saint John, in the early part of the
summer. The same writer states that in Eagle Lakes the White-fish is caught abundantly by torch-
light with dip-nets. Of its capture in the Grand Lake, Mr. Lanman writes: ;

“Some years since this fish was abundant in the Grand Lake, where the writer, in the month
of May, saw great numbers taken out of gill-nets set for gaspereau, and thrown away by the fish-
ermen as worthless. At the same time, the writer caught a number of them with rod and line, in
one of those small pieces of water connected with the Grand Lake, usually called ‘key-holes. It
is occasionally taken in the Saint John, throughout its whole extent. In the harbor of Saint J ohn,
in spring, it has been often caught in the seines and weirs with the gaspereau, and salted with
that fish, because its value was not known.” ,

The White-fish caught in Green Bay, Lake Michigan, are thus prepared for shipment, if as
fresh fish: the gills and viscera are removed and the fish carefully washed.

Referring to the west shore of Lake Michigan, down as far as Manitowoc, Wisconsin, Kumlien
_ thus writes in 1880 in regard to the White-fish market: “The demand for No. 1 White-fish is steadily
increasing, and as high as seven and eight cents are often realized when the supply is not abun-
dant. The average price for the whole season Mr. Niquette estimates will be a trifle over four
cents per pound, three and a half being paid to the fishermen. The demand for fresh fish is such,
and the facilities for shipping so good, that very few White-fish are salted now. In 1870 there
were about 3,000 packages sent from Two Rivers, while in 1867 there were above 6,300, and for
1879 there were not over 1,000; but a much larger amount of fresh fish has been shipped. The
vicinity of Two Rivers has long been a noted White-fish ground, and still keeps up its reputation ;
but only a few miles to the south, off Manitowoc, it no longer pays to fish for White-fish.”

At Waukegan, Lake Michigan, White-fish are largely smoked. At Oswego and vicinity, Lake
Ontario, no White-fish have been salted fon five years. Of those shipped from Port Clinton’ and
vicinity, at least two-thirds to three-fourths come from Canada. Five years ago not more than
one-half were received for shipment from Canada. At the present time more are being sent from
this place than ever. This business has steadily increased since 1855, the increase being the most
striking since 1865. “At the falls, ou the Madawaska River,” writes Mr. Lanman, “the inhabitants
take about forty barrels every autumn, which are cured in pickle for winter use.”

ABUNDANCE.—The following observations on the abundance of White-fish in the. Great
Lakes were made by Mr. Kumlien: -

At Duluth, at the extreme west end of Lake Superior, and in this vicinity, the White-fish
ranks first in importance. Mr. McClau thinks that their numbers have not decreased since 1870,
but that the fishing must be carried on in deeper water than was then necessary.

Three reasons are assigned for the decrease of White-fish in Huron Bay, south of Keweenaw,
Lake Superior, and vicinity, during the past fifteen years: sawdust, navigation, and overfishing.
The fish are here placed in a “live-box” until required for shipping. As many as seventy-two

ABUNDANCE OF WHITE-FISH. 537

half barrels have been taken in one pound-net at one lift (net thirty-five feet). They here rank
first in importance, are abundant and very large.

Along the shore of Lake Superior, from Ashland to Ontonagon, White-fish rank first in impor-
tance. In the vicinity of Marquette the decrease of this fish, according to Parker, has been very
great within the last fifteen years, and especially since 1877. At White-fish Point this species
ranks first in importance.

Down Green Bay White-fish are becoming-more abundant, at Guamico the proportion as com-
pared with the abundance of Herring being about one half barrel of White-fish to fifty of Herring.
Ten years ago White-fish were the most important, but have been driven from their spawning beds
in the rivers by saw-dust.and other causes. The largest hauls here are made by gill-nets through
the ice in winter. The appearance of this fish here is very irregular, often absenting itself for
several years from hitherto favorite localities. In June, 1877, Mr. Levellé, of Pensaukee, caught in
one pound-net seven hundred half barrels, besides shipping a large quantity fresh. They were all
No.1 fish. As high a number as fifty barrels were taken from the net in one morning; other nets,
which were set on either side of his, took nag fish. Mr. Levellé chose a ledge of rock, having a
light coating of mud, for the spot on which to set his net. One of the fish which he caught weighed
eleven pounds; since this large catch many other attempts have been made to catch fish in the
same place, but without any great success.

The most important fish on the west coast of Green Bay is the White-fish. In 1843 the prin-
cipal spawning beds for this fish were in the rivers. In 1863 thirty-six barrels were taken at one
lift of a pound-net; now, five hundred pounds are regarded as a very good catch. In 1878 the
largest catch on record was eight hundred and fifty pounds. In 1850 the most profitable grounds
of this region were in the Menomonee River, where they were taken in racks on their return from
spawuing. Six hundred barrels were often taken on one rack during the autumn; now, not one
example has been caught in the river for twelve years. The same cause is assigned for their dis-
appearance as from other grounds already spoken of. About 1859, and a few years previous to the
introduction of the pound-net, the greater part of the White-fish was taken in seines close inshore,
usually having a warp of only thirty rods. In July and August of 1879 there were large runs of
small White-fish—five or six inches in length—on Peshtigo Bar; one fisherman took out several
boat-loads, and, on account of their small size, was obliged to throw them away. It was thought
by the fishermen that these fish had been artificially hatched by the Wisconsin State fish com-
mission. A more sensible plan on the part of the fishermen would have been to replace them in
the water to grow, finding them too small for market.

The temperature of the water is supposed to have a great influence upon the movements of
this fish, especially at the time of their arrival upon the feeding grounds in spring. ‘In winter,”
says Mr. Eveland, “they seek deep water and live upon the ‘winter feed’—the so-called ‘ White-
fish worm,’ which they seek upon a muddy bottom; but about the middle of June, on an average,
the water becoming warm enough, they strike inshore on sandy or on slightly gravelly shoals
and bars and entirely change the character of thefr food; at this time feeding on the ‘shell feed’
(small mollusks).”

Towards Cedar River the White-fish are more plentiful than between Peshtigo Point and Me-
nomonee. They alone are taken almost exclusively in deep-water pound-nets.

At and near Green Bay City the White-fish has been for years past the most abundant species
of fish. It is now, according to the fisherman’s language, “ played out.”

This fish is first in importance in the waters at the north end of Green Bay. The principal runs
occur during the spawning season. There are a great many spawning grounds in this section, espe-

7

538 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

cially about the islands. After spawning they retire to the deep water in the lake. In 1879 there
was an increase in the catch of White-fish in these waters. A point opposite the mouth of Esca-
naba River is regarded as having very superior advantages for the profitable establishment of a
hatchery. In 1879, near the mouth of Manistigue River, a specimen weighing twenty-nine pounds
was caught. ;

Between Manitowoc and Whitefish Bay the White-fish is of the first importance. At nearly
all the fisheries the best runs occur during August and September. A very few are taken in the
spring in the pound-nets at Cedar Grove. A great many small White-fish are taken in the vicinity
of Milwaukee. The White-fish ranks first in importance in this section. In 1860 the average catch
was one hundred to the net; it is now not more than one-eighth of that number. Overfishing and
the capture of the spawning fish are assigned as reasons for this decrease. Their size has also ot
late diminished, many being so small that, were the meshes of the nets not stiff from being tarred,
the fish could easily escape. In this vicinity there are no spawning grounds of note.

At the south end of Lake Michigan two varieties or grades are recognized, viz, the “ shore”
and the “‘outside” fish. The latter are firmer than the “ shore” grade and bear shipment with less
loss. .The “outside” fish are taken in gill-nets, and the others in pound-nets. The “outside” fish,
moreover, has a smaller head and reddish fins. There are no spawning grounds on this coast,
and no White-fish, consequently, are taken in autumn.

Between Glen Haven and Saugatuck the White-fish ranks first in importance. Capt. J. J.
Brown says that at least three-fourths of the fish taken here are White-fish. He recognizes no
different varieties, and knows nothing of the “ blood-fish.”

There has been a decrease during the last ten years in the waters between the Straits of
Mackinac and the Detour Passage; the principal cause being, probably, that the fish have been
disturbed there on their spawning grounds. Captain Bennett is of the opinion that fishermen
should be prohibited by law from taking White-fish after the first of November. This gentleman
asserts positively that some of the once most famous spawning grounds are now entirely abandoned,
and he assigns the above as the cause for this desertion. Too small fish are taken by reason of
the use of fine-meshed seines. North Point, Thunder Bay, is considered the best spot in that
locality for the capture of the White-fish—where it ranks first in importance—and one of the best
points of all the lake region. A few are caught in gill-nets in early spring, but the bulk is taken
from the latter part of September until winter, the height of runs being from the 10th to the 15th of
November, at which time they are spawning. It is thought that the number of nets has doubled
during the last two years, and that the fish have decreased fully two-thirds since 1865. Formerly
a “rig” consisted of about one hundred twelve-rod nets: now, of two hundred and fifty forty-five-
rod nets. One rig has salted twelve hundred barrels in one season. Mill-refuse thrown into the
streams is supposed to be a prolific cause of the decrease in abundance of this fish.

The White-fish ranks first in importance in Saginaw Bay. Mr. Fitzgerald, however, says that
they are annually decreasing in the river seines, estimating the yearly diminution for each seine
at about fifty barrels. In 1878 three thousand White-fish were taken in the river, and in 1879, he
thinks, not one dozen. Seining for White-fish in the river was formerly a very profitable business.
It is still profitable outside the bay, in the lake. The best grounds are off Point Aux Barques and
eastward. Here the whole fleet of Lake Huron tugs congregate at certain seasons of the year.
They seem at this point to spawn more abundantly on the Gabatan than on the American shore.
Comparatively few are taken here during early spring, the principal season being from May to
September. It is thought that the greatly increased navigation in the river has driven the White-
fish out into the lake; and even there they are not as abundant as they were formerly.

ABUNDANCE OF WHITE-FISH. 539

About the Charity Islands, Lake Huron, White-fish rank about third in importance. The best
time for fishing is in October; some are taken in May and June. Gill nets take them all the
summer. About Point Sable are the most profitable fishing grounds. The deeper the water, the
more abundant the White-fish appear to be. They spawn in large numbers about the islands
and at Gravelly Point. It is thought by old fishermen of this region that since 1865 the decrease
of this fish has been fully one-half.

In Maumee Bay, Lake Erie, the White-fish are thought to be as abundant as they ever were,
though the facilities for capture are better and more exiensively used than ever before. Within the
last two years a steady increase has been marked, due, it is thought, to artificial propagation.
About Toledo great numbers have been planted during the last few years, and the universal verdict
of the fishermen is that the White-fish are on the increase in that region. In 1875 forty tons were
in one day brought into the Toledo market. The spring catch is considered as of little importance.

Between the mouth of the Detroit River and Toledo, Ohio, the White-fish ranks first in impor-
tance. On this shore they are all said to be good-sized, mature fish. It is not thought.that they
are on the decrease to any perceptible extent. From Ottawa City westward to Port Clinton the
spring catch of White-fish is very light. The fall run usually commences about the tirst of October.
Around the Sister Islands and on innumerable reefs are excellent spawning grounds, where they
are caught in small numbers by wandering gill-netters. The catch about Port Clinton for the last
five years is said to have been very poor. Gill-net fishing during their spawning season and over-
fishing generally are assigned as the reasons for this falling off. In 1876, Matthews & Bell, of Port
Clinton, had on their warehouse floor forty-seven tons of White-fish at one time, and the next day
thirty tons more. At Locust Point and Toussaint the White-fish are reported as scarce in spring.
They there rank about fifth in importance at that season. The runs are very irregular, some years
being fairly abundant and others very scarce.

Since 1870, in the vicinity of the Upper and Lower Sandusky Bays, the decrease of White-fish
has been alarming. Its decrease, however, has been irregular, for in 1874 there was quite a large
catch. Since then the decline has been greater every year.

It is thought that the spawn is now. deposited in places where it becomes a prey to larger fish.
Some of the best spawning grounds at present are on the reefs off North Bass and north and east
of Kelley’s Island ; the principal portion of the reefs are in Canadian waters.

In 1846 Mr. Anthony was hired by Dr. Ackley, of Cleveland, to convey a party of students to
the famous Toussaint marshes for a hunting and fishing expedition. To their surprise, they hauled
up in their seine some White-fish. Further attempts were made by Mr. Anthony, aided by two
Frenchmen, and in the morning, after a whole night’s work, he had taken nearly fifteen hundred
fine White-fish. They had never been caught on this ground before. The fish were taken to San-
dusky, but the people would not believe that they had been taken near their city. In the next

year a forty-rod seine was fitted out, and with it White-fish amounting to twenty-five hundred
barrels when salted were vaught; this was repeated the next year with a similar success. In 1849
the first pound (twelve feet deep) was set, and the result was so successful that the seine was dis-
carded. After four years’ successful fishing they moved to the south point of Bass Island and set
in thirty feet of water; this attempt was successful. At that time the season lasted from Septem-
ber 15 to winter; now, at the same place, it only lasts for a few days in spring. .

During the best fishing days of the season—in the fall—in the vicinity of Huron, Ohio, a ton
of White-fish is sometimes taken from ten nets; this is above the average. They are thought to
have decreased fifty per cent. since 1875. Before 1868 they appeared to be on the increase; after
that year their decrease has been continuous to the present time. The diminution in their

540 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

abundance is attributed to over fishing. In heavy weather these fish leave for deep water. In
the vicinity of Vermillion, Ohio, the White-fish have no spawning grounds. A great decrease in
their abundance has taken place during the past few years. In 1879 thirteen nets succeeded in
taking but three tons of this fish.

In Brownhelm Bay, Lake Erie, and at and in the vicinity of the mouth of Black River, White-
fish rank fourth in importance. They were more abundant in 1877 than during many previous
years. Between Black River and Dover Bay is a small spawning ground, on a rocky-bottomed
reef.’ During spawning time no White-fish are taken at Black River or Brownhelm Bay. They
are most abundant in this part of Lake Erie during southwest winds, when—on their way from the
shore to deep water—they are caught in the pounds. At Brownhelm Bay a great number are taken
in the spring at a point just above Beaver Creek. "At Black River but few can be taken, because
the nets can be set but a short distance out from the shore; farther to the westward, however, the
nets can be set at a greater distance from the shore, by which means the catch is greatly increased.

In the neighborhood of Cleveland, Ohio, and in Dover Bay the White-fish are not very
abundant, ranking about fourth in importance. The runs are irregular, the largest ones occurring
in the spring, that of 1879 being the most abundant ever known up to that time. The fishermen
there say that on approach of a wind storm they will run into deep water; if they are frightened
when feeding or spawning they will not return to their grounds for a long while. They are taken
only in mild weather. In the waters off Conneaut and Ashtabula, Lake Erie, it is supposed that
White-fish are not one-third as abundant as in 1870, but since 1876 the annual decrease has not
been perceptible. Near Painesville, Ohio, no spawning or feeding grounds for the White-fish have
been found; but on a shoal—some miles to the east—the gill-netters take a great many during the
spawning season.

Toward the east end of Lake Erie, around Dunkirk, New York, the first run of White-fish
takes place early in the spring. In June, July, and the early part of August also, large hauls of
these fish are made; the best time is, however, from the latter part of September until November,
when a larger grade of fish, and one which is preferred for freezing, is taken. Lately (in 1880) six
thousand pounds from forty nets and thirty-five hundred pounds from twenty-five nets are reported.
The largest haul in 1879 was nineteen hundred pounds from one gang of nets.

At Port Ontario, on Lake Ontario, White-fish rank first in importance. Near Oswego this fish is
far from being common, and never enters the river. White-fish, up to the year 1867, have been on
the increase since 1855 in the vicinity of Port Clinton, especially so during the years 1865, 1866,
and 1867. Since that time they have decreased in numbers to a small extent. This decrease is
largely merely a supposition, arising from ignorance regarding the movements of this fish, and the
application of the latest and best methods in,fishing. Probably it is true that the decrease is in
the number that is caught, not in the uumber that might be taken. In 1859, forty-nine thousand
White-fish are said to have been taken at one haul; many were small and young; fully a half of
this catch were thrown away before the net could be hauled in. At Stonington Beach it is claimed
. that seventy-five thousand fish have been taken ashore by one haul of the seine. At Chaumont,
where the White-fish ranks second commercially, there has been a great decrease during the
past twenty years. Now, there are no spawning grounds in the bay, the fishing necessarily being
carried on outside in the lake. Formerly, in this locality, sixty to seventy men, taking three to
five tons.a day, were engaged in this fishery; now, sufficient fish cannot be caught to pay the men
for their time and labor.

An alarming decrease is reported from Sacket’s Harbor, where they are taken inside only
during their spawning season. The fish caught here are usually large. In 1876 an immense
school of small ones came into the harbor.

THE LESSER WHITE-FISHES. 541

169. THE LESSER WHITE-FISHES.
By Davin S. JORDAN.

THE MusQquaw RIVER WHITE-FISH—COREGONUS LABRADORICUS.

The name “Whiting” is said by Prescott to be applied to this fish in New Hampshire. It
occurs throughout the lakes of Northern New England and Northern New York, and in the Great
Lakes. It is, however, not generally abundant except in the Great Lakes. It attains a smaller
size than the White-fish, those seen by us rarely weighing more than a pound.

x

THE MOON-EYE OR CISCO—COREGONUS HOYI.

The Moon-eye or “Cisco” of Lake Michigan has thus far been noticed only in Lakes Michigan,
Erie, and Ontario. It is the smallest of our White-fish, rarely weighing over half a pound, and
it is seldom taken in shallow water. It has, from its small size and rare occurrence, little economic
value. Nothing distinctive is known of its food or breeding habits.

THE LAKE HERRING—COREGONUS ARTEDI.

This species is almost universally known as the “Lake Herring.” The name “Cisco” is also
often applied to it, especially about the smaller lakes, and in many regions also the name “ Michi-
gan Herring.” The Lake Herring is one of the most abundant fishes of the Great Lake region,
probably second only to the White-fish in importance as a food-fish. It goes in large schools, and
is taken in great numbers in comparatively shallow waters. It occurs also in the lakes of British
America, and probably in Northern New England and New York. Its usual length is little more
than a foot. Its mouth is much larger than that of the White-fish, and its range of food is doubt-
less greater. It spawns in November and December, coming into shallow water for the purpose.
It exists in most of the small lakes of Northern Indiana and Eastern Wisconsin (Tippecanoe,
Geneva, Oconomowoc, etc.), where it is known as the “Cisco.” In these lakes it usually remains
in deep water until the spawning season, when great numbers come near shore to spawn. Asa
food-fish the Lake Herring ranks high, although considerably inferior to the White-fish.

THE BLUE-FIN—COREGONUS NIGRIPINNIS.

This species is known as the “ Blue-fin” or “Black-fin.” It has thus far been taken only in
the deeper waters of Lake Michigan. At times it comes in considerable numbers to the Chicago
market, but it is in general a rare species. It reaches a much larger size than the Lake Herring,
which species it very closely resembles. Nothing distinctive is known of its food or breeding
habits.

THE MONGREL WHITE-FISH—COREGONUS TULLIBEE.

This species is occasionally taken in the Upper Great Lakes, where it is generally considered
a hybrid between a White-fish and a Lake Herring, hence the name of “Mongrel White-fish.” It
is a rare fish in collections, and nothing distinctive is known of its habits. Its range is probably
to the northward.

THE MENOMONEE WHITE-FISH—COREGONUS QUADRILATERALIS.

The only name which I have heard applied to this fish is that of “Menomonee White-fish.” The
name of “Round-fish” is given to it by Richardson, and that of “Shad Waiter” (Winnipiseogee
Lake) by Prescott. It is found in the lakes of New Hampshire, Northern New York, the Great
Lakes, and northward to the Arctic Seas. In the Great Lakes it is much less abundant than the

‘

542 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

® :
common White-fish. Its size is less than that of the White-fish. I know nothing of its com-
parative value as food. The stomach of one specimen examined by me contained small Limnea-
like shells. Nothing definite is known of its breeding habits.

Rocky MountTAIN WHITE-FISH—COREGONUS WILLIAMSONI.

This species is usually known as. the White-fish; in Utah as the “Mountain Herring.” It
reaches a length of a little more than a foot, and a weight of about a pound. It is found through-
out the Rocky Mountain region, in cold, clear lakes. Itis abundant in Utah Lake, Lake Tahoe,
and in most of the lakes of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. It is frequent in the market of
Salt Lake City, and sometimes comes into the San Francisco market. It spawns in October and
November, running from the lakes into the small streams for this purpose. As a food-fish it ranks
high, being similar to its Eastern relative, C. quadrilateralis.

THE CHIEF MOUNTAIN WHITE-FISH—PROSOPION COUESII.

“ A specimen of a White-fish was taken in Chief Mountain Lake, writes Milner, at the eastern
edge of the Rocky Mountains, by Dr. Elliott Cones, U.S. A., surgeon and naturalist of the
Northern Boundary Commission. This specimen is very different in its type of form from any
Species hitherto described from this continent. In Giinther’s arrangement of the species of Core-
gonus, it would be placed in group (a), with the upper jaw produced into a cutaneous appendage.
In this particular it resembles Coregonus oxyrhynchus Lin. and C. Lloydii Giinth. Unlike these
species, it is an elongate fish, the proportion of height to length being much the same as in C.
Williamsoni Gir. and OC. quadrilateralis Rich.; it also resembles this tvpe of form in the narrow
supplementary bone of the maxillary, and the former species in the shape of the maxillary.

“The only previous reference to a fish supposed to be of this genus, from the Saskatchewan
River, is in some remarks appended to the description of C. labradoricus in the ‘‘ Histoire Naturelle
des Poissons.” Valenciennes refers, in the most undecided manner possible, to a fish which he
believes to be a salmonoid, and makes his diagnosis from a drawing. There is, in fact, no direct
evidence in what he says to prove that the specimen was in his possession. He adwits that he is
“not able to determine with certainty the genus”; and, after stating that “my first impression
was to make it a Coregonus, since I have placed the design by the side of the other species of the
same genus,” ends this most uncertain and undecided effort to determine its relationship, with the
question, “Could one name it Coregonus angusticeps?”

“Tt may be that the specimen at hand is a fish of the species indicated in the above name, the
ascribed locality heightening this possibility; but there can be no consideration of the matter that
will decide it, and the name is consequently passed over. The character given of fifty-five scales
in the lateral line is very far from agreeing with Dr. Coues’s specimen, and, in fact, with any
description of a Coregonus we have seen, and may indicate that the author was right in his hesi-
taney to decide upon the genus.

“The most marked feature is the extensive prolongation of the snout, which protrudes far
beyond the opening of the mouth... The head narrows regularly toward the anterior of the frontals,
where two strong angles are found narrowing the head abruptly at the point where the short
supraorbitals join, and the frontals and nasals continue forward in a narrow, blade-like extension.
The supraorbitals form a bold prominence at the anterior of the orbit. The maxillary is short,
dilated at its posterior portion, and has a narrow supplementary bone. The premaxillaries are
somewhat retroverted, and have very little width, making the muzzle thin and narrow, as it is in
C. quadrilateralis and C. Williamsoni. The adipose fin is large, attached to the body almost to the
posterior extremity, and is ensheathed in scales for a considerable distance from the dorsal line.

THE CHIEF MOUNTAIN WHITE-FISH. 548.

The greatest height of body is equal to the length of the head. The gash heehE of tail is
equal to the length of the snout. The lengths of the caudal peduncle, of the snout, and of the
mandible are equal to each other. The width of the interorbital area is equal to the length of the
maxillary.

170. THE SMELT FAMILY—MICROSTOMIDZ.
THE SMELT—OSMERUS MORDAX.

The Smelt is found along our Atlantic coast from the Raritan River, latitude 40° 30’, to the
Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The northern limit of its range has not been precisely defined, although
it is known to be extremely abundant along the northern shores of New Brunswick. It is also
found in many of the fresh-water lakes of Maine, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, where they
have become land-locked, and in.some instances, as in Belgrade Lake, Maine, seem to have rather
_ been improved by the change from salt to fresh water.

The European Smelt, O. eperlanus, which, though very similar in form to our own, differs from
it in the size of its scales, is found in Southern Sweden, as far north as Christiania Fjord district,
latitude 62°, and south as far as the entrance to the river Loire, latitude 479, ascending the Seine as
high as Rouen. It is the “Stint” and the “Spearling” of Germany, the “Smelt” or “Sparling”
of England, and the ‘‘Spiering” or “Spearling” of Holland. It is found in the Baltic, and,
entering the Gulf of Finland, beedmes a member of the fauna of Russia, and is found land-locked
in cool lakes, especially those of Norway, and also in many of the lakes of Northern Germany,
and even as far south as Bavaria.

The Smelt enters our rivers and brackish bays during the winter months for the purpose of
spawning, and at this period is caught in immense quantities in nets and by hook and line John
Smith wrote in 1622: “Of Smelts there is such abundance, that the Salvages doe take them up the
rivers with baskets, like sives”; while Josselyn, fifty-five years afterward, remarked: “The Frost-
Jisk (O. mordax) is little bigger than a Gudgeon, and are taken in fresh brooks; when the waters are
frozen they make a hole in the Ice, about half a yard or yard wide, to which the fish repair in great
numbers, where, with small nets bound to a hoop about the bigness of a firkin-hoop, with a staff
fastened to it, they take them out of the hole.”

It is to bo regretted that no one has made careful observations upon the beginning and close
of the breeding season of this species at different points along the coast, but the spawn appears
to be deposited, generally, late in the winter and early in the spring. The smelt fishery is increas-
ing yearly in importance, owing to the greater facilities for the transportation of fish in ice. As
long ago as 1853, Storer stated that in Watertown, Massachusetts, alone, about 750,000 dozen were
annually taken in, scoop-nets from the 1st of March to the 1st of June. Perley, writing in 1852,
stated that on the Gulf coast of N ewsBrunswick large quantities were used every season aS manure,
while at the fishing stations in the Bay of Chaleur it was taken in the seine and used as bait for
cod. At the present time, however, there is an enormous shipment of Smelt from this region to
the United States, forty car-loads sometimes being received in New York in the course of one
winter. As early as 1864, according to a note from Mr. J. Matthew Jones, quantities of Smelt were
packed at Halifax for shipment to the United States.

The Smelt feeds, for the most part, on shrimps and other small crustaceans.

Althdugh on account of their great abundance they sell in the markets at a low price, they
are among the very choicest of all our food-fishes. The “green” Smelts, as they are called, or
those which have never been frozen, are much the more highly esteemed, especially those which
come from the Raritan Bay and other voints in the neighborhood of New York.

544 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

THE CALIFORNIA SMELT—OSMERUS THALEICHTHYS.

“This species,” writes Jordan, ‘is known as Smelt, especially in those parts of the coast where
the Atherinopsis or California Smelt is unknown. It reaches a length of six to eight inches. It
ranges from Monterey to British Columbia. It does not occur in such abundance as the Surf
Smelt and the Eulachon, and it has not been noticed in fresh water. Nothing is known to us of its
breeding habits. It is the prey of the various predatory fish, the larger flounders, salmon, ete. It
is not brought into the market in large quantities, and, being a soft-bodied fish, is not in good
condition when kept long. It has, therefore, little economic value.

THE ALASKA SMELT—OSMERUS DENTEX.

This species, according to Bean, occurs around the shores of Kamtschatka, and has been ob-
served by him at Port Clarence, and by Messrs. Turner and*Nelson at Port Clarence. It is similar
in size and appearance to the Atlantic Smelt. It is of much importance to the Eskimos, and is
dried in great quantities for use in their boat voyages. A similar species, perhaps identical, is
that described by Pallas under the name Osmerus spirinchus. This, it is thought by Dr. Bean,
may prove to be an emaciated form of O. dentew.

THE SURF SMELT—HYPOMESUS OLIDUS.

“This species is known as the ‘Smelt,’” writes Jordan, ‘and sometimes as the ‘Surf Smelt.’
It reaches a length of about a foot. Itranges from the Bay of Monterey to Alaska, being especially
abundant in Puget Sound and not common about San Francisco, although occasionally brought into
the markets. They feed upon worms and small crustacea, and are eaten by all the large flounders
and other predatory fish. They are found at all seasons, but in the month of August they go in
great schools near the shore. They spawn in the surf along the shore. The females are thought
to come first, and then the males. As a pan-fish this fine oily species is unsurpassed.”

Tur CAPELIN—MALLOTUS VILLOSUS.

DISTRIBUTION.—This species inhabits the North Atlantic and North Pacific. It does not occur
much south of Halifax, Nova Scotia, and never approaches near the shores of New England, but is,
notwithstanding, of great importance to New England fishermen. It abounds on the shores of New-
foundland and on the coasts of Labrador, and during the month of July occurs in great numbers
near the Virgin Rocks, the only portion of the Grand Banks above water. It is found, also, near
Greenland, and about Iceladn and Spitzbergen, and the entire length of the Scandinavian coast,
from Varanger Fjord south to Christiania Fjord, latitude 58°; the species touches Denmark, but does
not appear to have been observed around the British Isles. It is the ‘‘ Lodde” of Norway, where it
bears so important a relation to the cod fishery. According to Richardson, it has been found very
far up in Carnation Gulf and Bathurst Inlet, latitude 70° north, longitude 125° west. It occurs on
the arctic coast of North America, and it seems probable that its range extends also into the icy
sea of Siberia, completing the circuit of the Arctic Seas.

“The first voyager who takes notice of them,” writes Pennant, ‘is Master Anthony Parkhurst,
who visited that island (Newfoundland) in 1578, and gives a very facetious account to his ship-
mates of his art in charming these, and another fish he calls ‘a squid, into his power. I refer to
Mr. Hackluyt, vol. iii, p. 133, for the account.”

Parkhurst observes that this fish, which is like a Smelt, and is called by the rer “An-
chovas,” and by the Portuguese “Capelinas,” “commeth also in the night, but chiefly in the day
being forced by the cod that would devour him, and therefore for feare comming so near the shore,

HABITS OF THE CAPELIN. 545

is driven drie by the surge of the sea on the pibble and sands. Of this, beingsas good as a smelt,
you can take up with a shove-net as plentiful as you do wheate in a shovell sufficient in three or
four hours for a whole citie.”

In 1880 Dr. Bean found this fish abundant and in immense schools on the cod grounds of the
North Pacific, and found forty individuals in the stomach of one cod of ten pounds weight.

The abundance of this fish in northern waters, and the voracity with which schools of cod
follow them, have been described by many writers, by none perhaps better than by Anspach, who
thus describes the appearance of Conception Bay about the year 1818:

“Tt is impossible to conceive. much more to describe, the splendid appearance of Conception
Bay and its harbors on such a night, at the time of what is there called the Capelin Skull. Then
its vast surface is completely covered with myriads of fishes of various kinds and sizes, all actively
engaged either in pursuing or avoiding each other; the whales alternately rising and plunging,
throwing into the air spouts of water; the codfish bounding above the waves and reflecting the
light of the moon from their silvery surface; the Capelins hurrying away in immense shoals to seek
a refuge on the shore, where each retiring wave leaves countless multitudes skipping upon the
sand, an easy prey to the women and children who stand there with barrows and baskets ready to
seize upon the precious and plentiful booty; while the fishermen in their skiffs, with nets made for
that purpose, are industriously employed in securing a sufficient quantity of the valuable bait for
their fishery.”

“ The manner in which the Capelin deposits its spawn is one of the most curious circumstances
attending its natural history. The male fishes are somewhat larger than the female, and are pro-
vided with a sort of ridge projecting on each side of their backbones, similar to the eaves of a
house, in which the female Capelin is deficient. The latter, on approaching the beach to deposit
its spawn, is attended by two male fishes, who huddle the female betwee: them, until the whole
body is concealed under the projecting ridges, and her head only is visible. In this position all
three run together, with great swiftness, upon the sands, when the males, by some inherent
imperceptible power, compress the body of the female between their own, so as to expel the spawn
from the orifice and the tail. Having thus accomplished its delivery, the three Capelins separate,
and, paddling with their whole force through the shallow water of the beach, generally succeed in
regaining once more the bosom of the deep, although many fail to do so, and are cast upon the
shore, especially if the surf be at all heavy. Like the common Smelt, the Capelin possesses the
cucumber smell; but it differs from the Smelt in never entering fresh-water streams.”?

“Instances are common of vast numbers of Capelin being found dead, or in a dying state,
where the schools come inshore to spawn. The sandy bottom of the sloping beach is not unfre-
quently strewed with dead fish, and dying Capelin may be seen wandering about and spasmodically
gasping in the water from which millions of the species had abstracted the oxygen necessary for
their existence.

“The Capelin spawn, as is well known, on sandy, sloping beaches, but they also spawn in waters
of different depths where the bottom is composed of sand. The fishermen take Capelin with their
casting-nets in from fifteen to thirty fathoms, and probably also in water of much greater depth,
the needed condition being a smooth, sandy bottom over which the trio engaged in spawning may
‘run’ touching the bottom. In the neighborhood of Baccalieu Tickle, Mr. Jabez Tilly relates
that in 1864 the fishermen took Capelin for a month, from the third week in June to the third week
in July, in water varying from fifteen to thirty fathoms, with the casting-net. In the second week

'Page 305.
?LANMAN: Report United States Commission Fish and Fisheries, part II, 1874, p. 225.
30 F

5A6 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

of July capelin spawn was brought up from the bottom in twenty-seven fathoms of water. The
spawn is said by fishermen to require about fifteen to eighteen days to arrive at maturity. The
young fish leave the egg after that period. They are found near the coast until about the end of
December, according to the season, and the contents of the stomachs of murrs and puffins, accord-
ing to Mr. Jabez Tilly, are often full of young Capelin at that season.

‘‘ At the Fishot Islands, in 1876, the Capelin were taken in deep water about the 20th of June,
before they ‘came in.” The appearance of schools of Capelin coming in to spawn in May, June,
or July, according to the latitude of the place, has always excited astonishment at their numbers,
and often, in the present day, in Conception Bay and some other noted spawning grounds, remark-
able scenes may be witnessed; an idea may thus be formed of the extraordinary number of fry,
serving as food, which swarm even now in the Newfoundland seas. Nor is it less easy to conceive
how greatly these innumerable hosts have contributed to the drawing inshore of the deep-sea fish;
first the adult fish forming the attraction, next the spawn, then the young fry, and thus continuing
to the approach of winter. So great has been the importance attached to the preservation of the
Capelin that legal enactments have passed the legislature of Newfoundland prohibiting the use of
this fish as manure, and the public documents abound with remonstrances against this palpable
abuse of one of the most important means for preserving the Newfoundland fisheries.”!

MIGRATIONS.—In the opinion of Professor Hind the Capelin winter with the cod in the
deener portions of the bays of Newfoundland and Labrador, though in different zones of water.
Cod taken through the ice in January, 1852, in Saint Mary’s Bay, had undigested Capelin in their
stomachs. Professor Hind remarks that an impression prevails among the fishermen that the
Capelin are moving north, and that the cod are following them, but this opinion is not shared by
the fishermen who have occupied the coast of Labrador for a century. They have known the
Capelin as far north as Nain for many years. On the Admiralty chart of Fort Manvers, latitnde
57°, longitude 62° 7’, thirty miles north of Nain, and published in 1871, Capelin Bay is the name
given to an anchorage, from which it is manifest that Capelin were seen there half a century
before the fishermen passed Aullik Bay, or even Cape Harrison, nearly two hundred miles to
the south. The Capelin, however, is not known to the officers of the Hudson Bay Company, or
to the missionaries beyond Cape Mumford.?

IMPORTANCE.—The Capelin are consumed in great quantities by halibut, and also by whales.
In Finmark the cod fishery is divided into two seasons, the fishery which takes place early in the
spawning season, and the Lodde or Capelin fishery, which occurs later, and which, when the
Capelin is abundant, is of great importance.*

The Labrador cod fishery, at one time of considerable importance to Provincetown, Marble-
head, Newburyport, and other fishing towns of Massachusetts, like the Lodde fishery of Finmark,
depended entirely upon the presence of Capelin.

The Capelin is extensively used for bait in the Grand Bank fishery, especially by the French,
by whom it is stated that sixty thousand hogsheads are annually taken about Newfoundland for
this purpose. In Greenland the Capelin forms so important an article of food that it has been
termed the “daily bread” of the natives. In Newfoundland they are dried in large quantities
and exported to London, where they are sold principally in the oyster shops.‘

1Hinp: Fishery Clauses of the Treaty of Washington, 1877, p. 134.
2HIND: Ibid., part ii, p. 70.

3 Report United States Commission Fish and Fisheries, part v, 1879, p. 709.
4LanmAN: Ibid.

THE EULACHON. 547

THE EULACHON—THALEICHTHYS PACIFICUS (Richardson) Girard.

This species, common in the North Pacific, resembles the Capelin, and is usually known by the
Indian name “ Eulachon,” or “ Oulachan,” more commonly pronounced ‘“ hoolakins” by the English
at Victoria. Those salted and sent south are commonly called “ Candle-fish” by the trade. In the
Columbia River and elsewhere southward it is known as ‘“‘Smelt,” being confounded with the other
species. ltreaches a length of less than a foot. It ranges from Oregon northward to Kamtchatka.
It occurs in some abundance in the Columbia River, where little notice is taken of it. In Frazer
River and streams to the northward it runs in enormous numbers in spring. The Eulachon run
up the rivers and deposit their spawn on gravel beds at no great distance from the mouth of the
stream, probably not above thirty miles. Their run is from the last of March to the middle of May,
probably varying in different streams. During the 1un they are beset by all sorts of enemies—
halibut, sharks, sea-birds, Indians, porpoises, and all manner of predatory fish, some of which
chase them in the ocean only; others pursue them up the rivers. Even the sturgeons and the rays
have their stomachs full of them.

The Eulachon is greatly valued on account of the oil which permeates its flesh. As a pan-
fish it has no superior. A factory has been established on the Noss River for the manufacture
of eulachon oil, which is intended to be used as a substitute for cod-liver oil. It has the drawback
of becoming solid and lard-like at ordinary temperatures.

“Nature,” the chief London journal of science, stated, May 12, 1881: “A new medicinal
oil has just been introduced into this country by Messrs. Burgoyne & Burbridge, the well-known
chemists of Coleman street. It is known as Oolachian oil, and is said to be scarcely distinguishable
from cod-liver oil. It is obtained from a fish called by the North American Indians ‘Oolachan,’
or ‘Candle-fish,’ from the fact that when dried the fish itself can be used as a candle, on account
of the large quantity of oleaginous matter it contains. . . . In America the oil has already a
great reputation as a valuable and efficient substitute for cod-liver oil, and there is every prob-
ability, as it becomes known in th's country, of its taking a prominent place as an important
mnedicine.” Diligent inquiry fails to bring to light evidences of any extensive use of this oil as
yet in the United States.

171. FAMILIES RELATED TO THE SALMONIDZ.
THE SCOPELUS FAMILY—SCOPELIDA.

The species of this family are small and pelagic, and are found throughout all the temperate:
and tropical seas. They are so numerous that the surface net, when used in a night of moderate.
weather, in mid-ocean, scarcely ever fails to inclose some specimens. They come to the surface at.
night only; during the day, in very rough weather, they descend to depths where they are safe:
from sunlight and from the agitation of the water.!

In the Western Atlantic there are five or six species, which are catalogued in the check-list.
In California there is only one, Myctophum crenulare, a single specimen of which was taken from.
the stomach of an albicore at Santa Barbara.

THE HANDSAW FISH FAMILY—ALEPIDOSAURIDZA.

The fishes of this family inhabit very deep water, and are never seen at the surface. The
Handsaw Fish of the Pacific, Alepidosaurus borealis, is occasionally found along the coast from

‘GUNTHER: Study of Fishes, p. 585.

548° NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Monterey to Kamtchatka. The Atlantic species, A. ferox, very closely allied to, if not identical
with, its ally in the Pacific, is found in great numbers on the off-shore banks, being frequently
brought up on the lines of the halibut trawl fishermen from a depth of one hundred and fifty to
three hundred fathoms. It is one of the largest and most ferocious looking of the deep-sea fishes,
growing to a length of six feet, its mouth provided with double rows of sharp, lancet-shaped teeth,
a half to three-quarters of an inch in length. They are very slender and lithe in form, and are the
personification of voracity. Giinther states that from the stomach of one example have been
taken several cuttle-fishes, crustaceans, and sea-squirts, a young Brama, twelve young boar-fishes,
a horse-mackerel, and one young of its own species. Nothing is known of its breeding habits. Its
only importance to the fisheries lies in the fact that it cumbers the hooks of the fishermen.

THE ALEPOCEPHALUS FAMILY—ALEPOCEPHALID A.

This family is represented in the deep water of the Western Atlantic by two species,
Alepocephalus Bairdii and A. Agassizti, of each of which single specimens have been obtained on
the off-shore banks, a magnificent fish, attaining the length of at least three feet, shaped like a
salmon, covered with thin silvery scales. Only one other species of the genus is known—a rare
fish from the Mediterranean.

THE PARALEPIS FAMILY—PARALEPIDZ&.

These are small, pelagic fishes, occurring in the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and Pacific. In our
waters there are three species: In the Atlantic, Paralepis borealis, a Greenland form, of which we
have seen one specimen from the Gulf of Saint Lawrence; in the Pacific there are two, each
known from a single specimen, Sudis ringens, from the Santa Barbara Channel, and Paralepis
coruscans, from the Straits of Fuca.

THE SNAKE-FISH FAMILY—SYNODONTID ZA.

The family is represented on our Atlantic coast by three species, on the Pacific by one, Synodus
lucioceps, which is closely related to the Atlantic species, S. fatens. The Pacific species occurs
from San Francisco southward, and is occasionally eaten. The Atlantic forms occur in the West
Indies and range north to Cape Cod, but are of no economic importance.

R.—THE HERRING TRIBE.
172. THE HERRING—CLUPEA HARENGUS.

ABUNDANCE AND IMPORTANCE.—The Herring is beyond question the most important of
food-fishes. Distributed, as it is, throughout the whole of the North Atlantic, it affords occupa-
tion, during a portion of the year at least, for immense fleets of fishing boats, and, according to the
estimate of Professor Huxley, the number taken every year out of the North Sea and Atlantic is
at least 3,000,000,000, with a weight of at least 1,500,000,000 pounds. This estimate is perhaps
more likely to be too low than too high. According to the statement of Carl Dambeck, given in
the United States Fish Commission Report, volume 3, page. 21, the average yield of Herring in
Norway from 1850 to 1870 amounted to 1,452,000,000 pounds. Widegren! estimates that the total
yield of Herring on the Swedish coast of the Baltic amounts to 300,000,000 pounds. Holdsworth
placed the yield of Scotland in 1873 at 188,000,000 pounds, their capture requiring 15,095 boats
with crews of 45,494 men. In the same period in the English fisheries he states that 15,331 boats
were used. He gives no estimate of the yield, but it is probably not very different from that of
Scotland. France, Ireland, and Belgium have also herring fisheries of considerable extent, and
Germany in a less degree. In 1874, according to compilation and estimates of Professor Hind,
200,000,000 pounds of Herring were taken in the waters of British North America, ard in 1880
nearly 43,000,000 pounds were obtained on the east coast of the United States.2, Summing up the
aggregate of these statements and estimates, and allowing to Ireland, Belgium, Germany, and
France a product equal to that cited of Scotland, we have an aggregate of 250,000,000 pounds.
This total is not presented as an item of statistical information, but simply to emphasize by way of
illustration the statement made at the beginning of this paragraph.

Commenting upon the supposed injurious effect of the fisheries upon the abundance of this.
fish, Professor Huxley in his well-known lecture npon the Herring, delivered at the International
Fishery Exhibition at Norwich in 1881, remarked as follows:

“It is said that 2,500,000,000, or thereabout, of Herrings are every year taken out of the North
Sea and the Atlantic. Suppose we assume the number to be 3,000,000,000, so as to be quite safe.
It is a large number, undoubtedly, but what does it come to? Not more than that of the Herrings

1United States Fish Commission Report, part iii, p. 33.

*The Herring appears to have been one of the most conspicuous fishes in the Western Atlantic at the time of the
discovery and early exploration of America, as the following extracts from the voyages of early navigators will show:

Josselyn wrote in 1675: ‘‘The Herrin, which are numerous, they take of them all summer long. In Anno Dom.
1670, they were driven back into Black-Point Harbour by other great fish that prey upon them so near the shore
that they threw themselves (it being high water) upon dry Jand in such infinite numbers that we might have gone
up half-way the leg amongst them for near a quarter of a mile. We used to qualifie a pickled Herrin by boiling of
him in wilk.”

Jobn Smith, in 1631, remarked: ‘Herring, if any desire them, I have taken many out of the bellies of Cods,
some in nets; but the Saluages compare their store in the sea, to the haires of their heads: & surely there are an
incredible abundance upon this Coast.” And again: “Of Herrings, there is great store, fat, and fair; & (to my
minde) as good as any as I have seene, & these may be preserved, and made a good commodity at the Canaries.’

549

550 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

which may be contained in one shoal, if it covers half a dozen square miles, aud shoals of much
larger size are on record. Itis safe to say that, scattered through the North Sea and the Atlantic,
at one and the same time, there must be scores of shoals, any one of which would go a long way
toward supplying the whole of man’s consumption of Herrings.”

Namu.—So well known was the Herring from the earliest days to the inhabitants of Northern
Europe and to their descendants who migrated to the western shores of the Atlantic, that one
name serves to designate the fish in the languages of a majority of the peoples to whom it is
known. Its name in English, German, and Dutch, though differently spelled, is pronounced in
exactly the same way. To the Scandinavian tribes it is known by the name “Sill.” France in
the name Clupée employs a form of the Latin name for fishes of this group by which the same
fish is known to these nations when described in the language of their men of science. There are
certain local names for the Herring which are used not to replace the general one, but to designate
certain conditions and ages. To this class belongs the name “Sperling,” employed by our own
fishermen of Cape Ann to denote the young Herrings. Corresponding to this name the word
“ Strémming” is used in Sweden. British fishermen, according to Huxley, distinguish four states
of the Herring: (1) “Fry,” or “Sill,” for the young fish when not larger than sprats; (2) ‘‘ Maties,”
a name which is a corruption of the Dutch word for a maiden; Herrings in this class are larger
than fry, but with undeveloped roe or milt; (3) “Full,” fish with larger developed roe or milt;
and (4) “Spent” or “Shotten,” fish which have recently spawned. ‘ Maties,” when gorged with
their favorite food, small crustaceans, are called by the Scotch fishermen ‘Gut-pock” Herrings.
In Sweden, according to Widegren, the following names are known in the trade: ‘Norwegian
Herring,” “Graben Herring,” “Fat Herring,” “‘Gottenburg” or “ Bohuslin” Herring, “Kulla
Herring,” “Bleking Herring,” ‘Small Herring,” “‘ Anchovies,” ““Skarp Herring,” ‘Spiced Herring,”
ete}

These names are cited to indicate how many variations are customarily made upon the well-
known name of Herring. In the United States there are few trade names for this fish, though a
large portion of our Herring pass from producer to consumer under a name which is intentionally
deceptive, that of “French Sardine,” and a few are canned in spices and sold under the still more
imaginative name of “brook” and “sea” trout. ‘ Bloater,” “Digby Chicken,” and “ Hard
Herring” are other trade names used on this side of the Atlantic, the significance of which will be
explained in the paragraph relating to “economic uses.”

Small Herring are frequently called “Brit” by the fishermen of Eastern New England.
“ Anchovy” is another name for these small fish—still in use among our fishermen—and had its
origin in one of the devices of trade.

By far the most confusing congeries of names, however, is to be found in the literature pro--
duced in such lavish quantities during the past twenty years by the Scandinavian naturalists who
have been attempting to reconcile with fact the theories prevalent among fishermen and others
in Northern Europe concerning the movements of the different schools of Herring and the race
characteristics and habits which were supposed to characterize them.

Tn the “Preliminary Report for 1873/74 on the Herring and the Herring Fisheries of the
West Coast of Sweden,” by A. V. Ljungman,? are given numerous names of this sort, Such as
“Boundary Herring,” “Grass Herring,” “Great Herring,” “Norwegian Winter Herring,” “Nor-
wegian Fall Herring,” “Old Herring,” “Real Sea Herring,” “Cattegat Herring,” “Sea Herring,”

1United States Fish Commission Report, part vi, p. 124.
2Translation in United States Fish Commission Report, part iii, 1876, pp. 123-167.

NAMES OF THE HERRING. 551

“Fjord Herring,” “Scotch Dutch Herring,” “ Lard Herring,” “ Half Herring,” and * Tender
Herring.” In this report Mr. Ljungman attempted to distinguish and described at least four varie-
ties, and in so doing was much more conservative than his predecessor, Professor Nilsson, (?) who
in the year 1832 described, under binomial names, as distinct species cight of the forms known in
his country under separate popular names. In a later report on the salt-water fisheries of Bohus-
lan, published in 1878,' Mr. Ljungman, who ‘had, in the six years intervening between this date
and the writing of his first essay, devoted much time to the study of the subject, appears to have
abandoned his early idea, since he makes no attempt to distinguish the races, and simply
announces himself as maintaining that “more than one race of Herrings may be found in one and
the same place.”

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—The Herring is found in the temperate and colder parts of
the North Atlantic. On the west its range extends sovth to Sandy Hook, at the entrance of New
York Harbor, where they are found occasionally in midwinter, and on the north as far as Northern
Labrador, diminishing in numbers perhaps toward the northern extreme. On the east its southern
limit is in the vicinity of the Bay of Biscay, while northward it is found in the White Sea and on
the southern shores of Spitzbergen. It of course does not enter the Mediterranean, though it is
abundant in the North Sea and in the Baltic. Huxley hazards the conjecture that it perhaps
inhabits some parts of the North Sea, and states that there is a very similar, if not identical,
species in the North Pacific. His surmise as to the identity of the Pacific Herring with that of
the Atlantic is not confirmed by the recent careful explorations of Dr. Bean in that region.
The fish which he had in mind is probably C. mirabilis.

On our own coast Herring are not known to enter water which is in the least degree brackish,
except occasionally in the spawning season in Saint Andrew’s Bay, where the admixture of fresh
water is but slight. According to Professor Huxley, Herrings spawn freely not only in the nar-
rows of the Baltic, such as the Great Belt, in which the water is not half as salt as it is in the
North Sea and in the Atlantic, but even in such long inlets as the Schlei in Schleswig, the water
of which is quite drinkable and is inhabited by fresh-water fish.

Ljungman? cites instances in which Herrings are said to have ascended rivers in Sweden and
Germany to a distance of several miles. The same author, however, seems inclined to believe that
the Herring is far from having a predilection for fresh water, and that the few instances in which
they have been observed spawning in brackish waters have been purely incidental and induced
by the fact that suitable spawning places could not be found in waters of an ordinary degree of
‘saltness.

The temperature preferred by the Herring has been more carefully determined in Europe than
here. The observations of the Scotch and Dutch meteorological societies have demonstrated that
the temperature of the water most favorable to the summer herring fisheries of their respective
countries is about 55°.4 F., though during the Scotch winter fisheries the temperature ranges
from 40°.1 F. to 419.9 F., and during the Norwegian spring herring fisheries it ranges from 379.4
F. to 39°.2 F. Commenting upon these figures, Ljungman remarks:

‘There is good reason to suppose that the Herrings prefer a certain even temperature of the
water, and that they consequently avoid too warm or too cold water. This degree of temperature,
however, differs greatly according to the different locations, fisheries, and races of Herrings. The
fishing for spawning Herrings is, for example, on the east coast of Scotland, going on at a season of

1Translation in United States Figh Commission Report, part vi, pp. 143-220.
*Report United States Fish Commission, part vi, p. 177.

552 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

the year when the temperature of the water is very high (from the middle of July till the middle
of September), or very low (January to March). The observations of the Scotch and Dutch mete.
orological societies made during the Scotch and Dutch summer herring fisheries have shown that
the temperature of the water most favorable to these fisheries is about 13° C. (559.4 F.). During the
Scotch winter fisheries, however, the temperature of the water ranges from 49.5 C. to 5°.5 C. (409.1
F. to 41°.9 F.), and during the Norwegian spring herring fisheries it only ranged from 3° C. to
4° ©, (379.4 F. to 399.2 F.). But our observations are still so incomplete, and relate so exclusively
to the spawning Herrings, that it is impossible to say anything with absolute certainty excepting
the fact that the Herrings, when the temperature of the surface waters is either too high or too low,
go to deeper waters.”

The theory advanced by Ljungman in this last sentence is perhaps a little premature. Is
it not supposable that local races of Herring exist and perform the various functions of life in
totally different scales of temperature? This is undoubtedly the case with sedentary fresh-water
species, such as the black bass, which, in its extreme northern range in North America, lives in
waters which in midsummer are colder than those which southern fish ever experience even in
winter. This view is not presented as a new one, but simply for the sake of introducing the
illustration.

MIGRATIONS AND MOVEMENTS.—In Ljungman’s report on the fisheries of Bohuslan, already
quoted from, is given the following recapitulation of the different scientific theories that have been
in the past and are now heard concerning the migrations of the Herrings:

“Tn briefly recapitulating the different scientific theories regarding the migrations of the
Herrings, it will be found that they may all be arranged under the following heads:

“a. The theory of a central race of Herrings, according to which all Herrings which are in the
world belong to one great central race, from which all kinds of Herrings, both great and small,
come. This theory is varied as follows:

“1. This central race of Herrings is supposed to live in the northern Polar Sea, from which
large schools emigrate every year to those coasts where herring fisheries are carried on (Anderson,
Pennant, and others).

“2. This central race of Herrings is constantly moving through the Northern Atlantic Ocean
in a circle, whose extent is regulated by the declination of the sun (Gilpin).

“3, Besides this great central race of Herrings living in the Northern Atlantic Ocean, causing
the great herring fisheries, smaller local races having separated in course of time, causing the
smaller coast fisheries (Lundbeck).

“ According to the first two of these three theories there would be no regular migrations, whilst
such would take place according to the third.

“Db, The theory of separate races of Herrings, according to which the different fisheries are
caused by separate races of Herrings, each having its own locality. This theory is varied as follows:

“1, The theory of a coast race of Herrings, considering the Herring exclusively as a bottom
fish. This may again be subdivided:

“a, Some suppose that there is only one local race of Herrings in every place, which, if not
driven away by human agencies, always stays near the coast. There is consequently no difference
between coast Herrings and sea Herrings, and there are no regular migrations (Nilsson).

“b>, Others think that more than one race of Herrings may occur in one and the same place.
There is consequently a difference between coast Herrings and sea Herrings, and there are regular

1 Report, United States Fish Commission, part vi, p. 218.

MOVEMENTS OF THE HERRING. 553

migrations; but the proper homes even of the sea Herrings are the deep valleys on the bottom of
the sea near the coast (Axel Boeck).

“2. The theory of a sea race of Herrings, considering the Herring as a surface fish. This
theory is also subdivided:

““q, Some deny the occurrence of more than one race of Herrings in one and the same place,
the difference between coast Herrings and sea Herrings (littoral and pelagian Herrings) and regular
migrations (G. O. Sars).

“b>. Others maintain that there is a relative difference between coast Herrings and sea Her-
rings, that more than one race of Herrings may be found in one and the same place, and that the
great schools of Herrings migrate regularly (A. V. Ljungman).”!

This table is quoted as an illustration of the uncertainty which even to the present time exists
concerning the migrations of this fish—an uncertainty which in all probability will never be
removed. It is safe, however, to say that the theories enumerated in catalogue a had been long
since abandoned by all scientific thinkers. The views of Sars aud Ljungman that the Herring is
practically a surface fish, not usually descending to great depth, perhaps never more than one
hundred fathoms below the surface, are supported by mauy arguments of analogy; at any rate,
they agree with what many investigators believe to be true concerning certain fish with some
similar habits, such as the mackerel and menhaden. On the other hand, Herrings are known to
occur off the Newfoundland coast, according to Mr. Earll, at a depth of fully one hundred fathoms,
and there is no reason why they may not descend to still greater depths.

“If you read,” writes Professor Huxley, ‘any old and some new books on the natural history
of the Herring, you will find a wonderful story about the movements of these shoals: how they
start from their home in the Polar Seas, and march south as a great armada which splits into
minor divisions—one destined to spawn on the Scandinavian and one on our own shores; and
how, having achieved this spawning raid, the spent fish make their way as fast as they can back
to their arctic refuge, there to repair their exhausted frames in domestic security. This story
was started in the last century, and was unfortunately adopted and disseminated by our country-
man Pennant. But there is not the least proof that anything of the kind takes place, and the
probabiiities are wholly against it. It is, for example, quite irreconcilable with the fact that
Herring are found in cods’ stomachs all the year around. And the circumstance to which I have
already adverted, that practiced eyes distinguish local breeds of Herrings, though it does not
actually negative the migration hypothesis, 1s very much against it. The supposition that the
Herring spawn in the north in the early spring, and in the south in the autumn, fitted very well
into the notion that the vanguard of the migrating body of Herrings occupied the first spawning
ground it reached, and obliged the rest of the horde to pass on. But, as a matter of fact, the
northern Herrings, like the southern, have two spawning times; or perhaps it would be more
correct to say that the spawning time extends from autumn to spring, and has two maxima—one
in August-September and one in February-March.”

Discussing the causes of the movements of the Herring schools, Professor Baird in 1877 wrote
as follows:

“Although the movements of the Herring appear to be very capricious, they are doubtless
governed as much by well-defined laws as any other portion of creation, although we are yet tar
from understanding fully the conditions which control their actions. They sometimes frequent a
portion of the European coast tor many successive years, and then abandon it gradually or sud-
denly, preseuting themselves usually at the same season in some far remote locality. Sometimes

1Report United States Fish Commission, part iv, p. 178.

bb4 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

a wind blowing on shore will favor their inward migration; at other times it appears to have a
directly opposite effect. Even when they reach the portion of the coast for which they are bound,
the facilities of their capture depend upon meteorological conditions; and the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society has been engaged for several years in ascertaining what these are, and how they
may be best applied by the fishermen?

'* The inquiry was restricted at first to the east coast of Scotland, and to pond-fishing districts therein, viz, Wick,
Buckie, Peterhead, and Eyemouth, the last including the fishing ports of Dunbar and Eyemouth, Berwick and North
Sunderland. Copies of the weekly returus sent to the fishery board from these districts during July to September,
the season for the herring fishing for that part of Great Britain, for six years, begiuning with 1867 and ending with
1872, giving the catch per week, the number of boats out in each district, were cxtracted from the reports, and an
average of these six years calculated at several of the stations. These were finally compared day by day with two
series of sea temperatures; one taken off Harris, and the other near Edinburgh.

“The temperature of the sea was found to rise very rapidly about the middle of July, and to keep oscillating
slightly about a uniform temperature of 56° until the 13th of August, when it rapidly rose to the annual maximum,
namely, 57°.2, aud ranged relatively high until the first of September. This period of highest annual temperature,
namely, from the middle of July to the first of September, was found to be coincident with the fishing s-ason in the
northern districts of Scotland; and the veriod when the temperature rises to the absolute maximum is farther coin-
cident with the date of the largest catches during the fishing season. The committee, however, consider it prema’ ure
to lay great stress on the striking coexistence of these facts, since it is impossible, without further statistics, to say
whether these rela ions are of a permanent character. The fishing season did not begin until the sea temperature
had risen to about 554° in July, nor did it continue after it had fallen below 554° in September.

‘‘An important omission in these tables is, that they do not show whether they indicate the surface or bottom
temperature of the sea, the difterence in this respect being very appreciable. Another omission is, as to the relation
between the spawning season of the Herring and their shoreward movement. Along the coast of the United States,
the great spawning ground of the sea Herring is off the southern end of Grand Manan, where the surface and bottom
temperaturcs sometimes differ at the spawning season by as many as five or six degrees.

“An important relation was also observed by the committee between the exceptional atmospheric temperatures
and the migrations of the Herring, the fishing season beginning much later in the year, when the summer temper-
atures are low, than when they are high. As regards the relation between barometric observations and the fisherics,
it appears that during the periods when good or heavy catches were taken, in a great majority of cases the barometer
was high and steady, the winds light or moderate, and electrical phenomena wanting; when the captures were light,
the observations often indicated a low barometer, strong winds, unsettled weather, and thunder and lightning.

“Tn conclusion, the committee recommend that, in further elucidation of the subject, steps should be taken to
obtain information which may lead to the solution of the following queries:

“1. What determines the time of the commencement of the fishing?

“2. What determines the fluctuations in the catches of Herring in-different districts, or in the same district on
different days?

“3. What causes the absence of Herring during some seasons from certain districts of the coast?

“4, What determines the ending of the fishing season ?

‘The information required demands—

‘‘1, An extension of the area examined, so as to include the Moray Firth, the Shetland, Orkney, and Hebrides
Islands, and the west coast of Scotland.

“2. Daily returns of the number of boats fishing and the catch.

“3, The erection of self-registering sea thermometers at different points on the coast, similar to those now in
operation at Peterhead Harbor.

“4, Thermometric observations taken by the fishermen themselves over the grounds fished ; as it is only by the
observations of numerous thermometers in continuous immersion that we can hope to obtain accurate information
regarding those currents of cold and warm water round our coasts which are often found to interpenetrate each
other, and which are supposed, with apparently good reason, to influence greatly the migration of the Herring. It
is said that the Dutch fishermen derive valuable practical advantages from a system of this kind, and there can be no
doubt that favorable results might confidently be looked for if a similar system were generally adopted by our
fishermen.

“Tt is an interesting fact in the natural history of the Herring that, while the season for their capture is quite
definite and generally uniform at any one point, it varies on different parts of the coast; thus, on the east of Great
Britain, from Shetland in the north to Flamborough Head in the south, it occurs in July, August, and September,
and a little earlier in the north than in the south. At Yarmouth the Herring season is in October and November; off
the Kentish coast, in November and December; along the south coast of England, from October to December; off
Cornwal}, in August and September ; in the North Channel, in June and July; and in the Hebrides, May and June.

“Tt is suggested by the Scottish committee in their report that when the periods of migration on all parts of the
British sea-coast will have been calculated as closely as in Scotland, these will be found to bear a critical relation to
the annual epochs of the temperature of the sea. This gives a renewed importance to the inquiries undertaken by

MIGRATIONS OF THE HERRING. 555

“In reference to the capture of Herrings far out at sea, Holdsworth refers to the fact
that the Lowstoft herring fishery commences early in the spring, fifty to sixty miles from the
coast, when the fish are poor and the roe very little prominent. The fishermen, however, accom-
pany the schools in their slow progress to the coast; and when they get within a few miles the
fish will be fattened up and the roe is in a much more advanced condition.”

In his latest report, already several times quoted, Ljungman discusses the annual migrations
of the herring schools and their causes:

“Tt has been mentioned before that the young Herrings begin to wander about at an
early age, chiefly to seek food or shelter from their enemies, or possibly more agreeable places of
sojourn. It has frequently been observed that the young Herrings, as they grow up, leave the
shallow waters near the coast and go into deeper waters farther out towards the ocean, whence,
after a while, they return to the coast in company with the older Herrings. The knowledge of the
details of these migrations is, like our knowledge of their physical and biological causes, so limited
that very little can be said regarding them.

“ Regarding the coming of the Herrings from the sea to the coast, we only know that during
the spawning season they generally approach the spawning places in dense schools, coming from
the north, and that when visiting the coast for other purposes the schools are smaller and more
scattered, extending over a larger stretch of coast, and come both from the north and the south.
Those Herrings which come to seek food generally remain for some time in the outer waters before
they come near the coast, and their visits are neither as regular nor as long as when they come to
spawn. But even the great mass of Herrings does, during the spawning season, not remain near
the coast longer than one or two months, exceptions from this rule being rare indeed. Herrings
which have thus remained near the coast over their regular time become almost entirely worthless.
During the last great Bohuslan herring fisheries this seems to have occurred more frequently.

“In approaching the coast the Herrings generally begin at a certain point, spreading from it
either to the left or right, or in both directions, influenced in this by the weather, the currents of
the sea, and the nature of the bottom. The Herrings do not like to visit the place where they
have spawned a second time. It has also been noticed that the large Herrings do not go as high
up the fiords as the small ones, and that when the spawning season comes in winter or spring the
large Herrings spawn before the small ones, whilst when the spawning season comes in summer
or autumn the small or younger Herrings spawn before the larger and older ones. After spawning,
the Herrings have often been observed to go nearer the coast than before spawning; fishing with
drag-nets may therefore be carried on long after fishing with stationary nets has ceased, as the
‘empty’ fish (those that have spawned) do not easily enter a stationary net.

the United States Signal Service and the Fish Commission, on the American coast, in the way of determining of the
sea temperature, etc., as connected with a very important branch of our domestic industries.

“In this connection we may state that the spawning season of the Herring, and the time of its catch, vary
remarkably in different portions of our vwn coast. Thus, in parts of the Bay of Fundy and in the Gulf of Saint Law-
rence it takes place in May and Juue, as in the Hebrides; at the Southern Head of Grand Manan, the great spawning
ground, it occurs in September, commencing possibly in August, and extending into October; taking place later and
later in the season as we proceed south. At the most southern point at which the Herring is positively known to
spawn, namely, off Noman’s Land and possibly Block Island, this does not occur until December and January.

“Froin this we may draw tire inference that u certain minimum of temperature, rather than a maximum, is
needed for the operation in question; and this occurring in the autumn, that the proper temperature is reacbed later
and later as we proceed southward.

“It is to be hoped that the temperature observations now being made by the United States Fish Commission and
by the Signal Service may enable us to solve these problems and to co-operate with our Scottish scientific brethren in
getting at the true relation between physical conditions and the movements of such important food-fishes as the
Herring, mackerel, cod, ete.—Leport of the Scottish Meteorological Society.

556 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“The going out of the Herrings is generally:a much quicker process than their coming in, and
as it is more difficult to catch Herrings whilst they are leaving the coast we know very little about
it. After the Herrings have left the coast they donot stay outside any length of time, but imme-
diately go out to sea to seek food and enjoy the greater protection which the deeper water affords.
When the Herrings have been to the coast for the purpose of spawning they generally leave the
coast in a northerly direction.

‘With regard to the extent of the annual migrations of the Herrings I have already mentioned
the different opinions, and I will only add here that the larger a school of Herrings is the greater
will be the extent of territory where they must seek their food, and the farther from the coast must
they exteud their migrations. Itis not known from direct observations how far the largest schools
of Herrings extend their migrations, but certainly much farther than Macculloch, Nilsson, Boeck,
and their followers assert.

“The annual migrations of the Herrinugs may be influenced by physical causes both as regards
their time and their direction. It is well known that favorable, mild weather accelerates, whilst
bad weather retards, the approach of the Herrings to the coast, and that wind and current may
bring a much greater number of Herrings to one part of the coast than to another near it. The
general rule, however, is that the Herrings, when coming in to spawn, visit the place where they
were born. When the Herrings come in to seek food they will generally go to those waters where
they have been accustomed to find food in the greatest abundance; those physical causes, therefore,
which have an influence on the occurrence of food will also influence the direction of the Herring’s
migrations, as I have had occasion to remark before.

“The annual migrations of the Herrings are chiefly caused by the desire to propagate the
species and to seek food. For spawning, the Herrings need a suitable bottom for depositing their
eggs, a bottom which also must contain a sufficient quantity of food for the young Herrings and
afford shelter for them. All these requirements are only met near a coast. Even if Herrings, as
has sometimes been said, not without a show of reason, spawn on the Dogger Bank, or other still
more distant banks in the North Sea, this does not disprove our assertion, for it is doubtless only
the greater ease with which the young fish can reach the coast from these banks which has made
it possible for the Herrings to spawn there.

“The grown Herrings must again go to the ocean to seek their food, which they chiefly find
in the currents and those waters which come from the Polar Sea. In some places, however, they
find the required food during some part of the year near the coast; and thus there may be fishing
towards the end of summer and the beginning of autumn, as on the western coast of Norway, or
during autumn and winter, as on the coast of Bohuslan. The influence which the desire for food
exercises on the annual migrations of the Herrings has sometimes been overrated, so that it has
occasionally been considered as the chief cause, even in cases when the desire to propagate was
undoubtedly the principal cause.

“As the spawning Herrings, on account of their being packed more closely together and on
account of the steady course which they pursue, are more exposed to the persecutions of their
enemies, and as this danger of course increases the nearer they get to the coast, they generally go
into deep water immediately after having spawned, in order to find the necessary shelter, and
leave the coast much quicker than they came. The larger Herrings seem likewi e to thrive better
in the open sea than near the coast, and consequently do not stay there longer than is absolutely
necessary. Neucrantz, however, goes too far when he supposes that the Herrings leave the coast
only to escape unpleasant physical conditions; for instance, cold or violently agitated water. It
has already been mentioned that want of space or the persecutions of enemies have in former

PERIODS OF ABUNDANCKE. 5a7

times by some been considered as the chief causes of the annual migrations and regular coast
visits of the Herrings. Such opinions are, however, no longer entertained, and therefore cannot
claim our attention.”

PERIODICITY OF THE ABUNDANCE OF HERRINGS ON THE EUROPEAN COAST.—So far as is
known, the abundance of Herrings in the Western Atlantic has been constant during the past two
centuries; at the same time so little is our fishing population dependent on the herring fisheries
when compared with that of Northern Europe that variations in abundance not being regarded as
national disasters would, except, perhaps, in the case of Newfoundland, scarcely have been placed
definitely upon record. Concerning the periodicity of the herring supply in Northern Europe
Professor Baird writes:

“ Among the various problems of interest in Northern Europe there are few of more econcm-
ical importance than that connected with the movements of the Herring, a fish which in some
years furnishes a supply of almost millions of barrels, and in others a few thousand are all that
can be secured. While the cod always maintains its numbers and comes with unerring regularity
in winter to spawn in the Loffoden Islands, and is found in moderate numbers on the coast
throughout the rest of the year, the Herring appears and disappears without any, at present,
intelligible cause. This variation in abundance is by some ascribed to a total disappearance from
the coast, while others believe that it remains within a hundred miles of the Scandinavian shore,
far out in the deep water between the banks of the North Sea and the coast of Norway, but that,
owing to some peculiarity of temperature, currents, or possibly tainting of the water by the abun-
dance of the so-called gurry, or offal, from the herring and cod fisheries, it is kept away. Down to
a late period of the preceding century the Herring appeared in immense numbers with tolerable
regularity, then left the coast, and did not return till 1808—a lapse of twenty years. For sixty-
two years after that it presented itself with unfailing certainty, so much so that. all fears of a
possible diminution were banished; but since 1871 it has almost disappeared from the usual
fishing stations, a few thousand barrels being the maximum catch where a million or more was
the rule. This is what is known as the spring herring. The so-called ‘great’ Herring fishery has
since 1870 attained a considerable importance at a distance of from five hundred to seven hundred
miles from the spring herring locality. This diminution of the spring herring fishery of Scan-
dinavia was for a few years of considerable advantage to the American fishery interest.”

The following memoranda, communicated in 1878 by Mr. Joshua Lindahl, will serve to show
the periodicity in the movements of the Herring in Europe:

“Before the sixteenth century no records were kept of the fisheries. As, however, both king
and church had some income from taxation aud tithe on the Herring, it has been possible to ascer-
tain that such fisheries have existed periodically ever since the beginning of the eleventh century.
Before that time the archipelago was hardly inhabited, and the fishing seems not to have been of
any importance but to the scanty population on the fiords, who had too primitive implements for
capturing large quantities of fish, and no means of preparing the article for a distant market. The
foliowing is a list of the herring periods of which we have any knowledge:

“1. About the year 1020.

“2, In the latter part of the twelfth century.

“3. From about 1260 to about 1341, thus lasting more than eighty years.

“4, About the middle of the fifteenth century.

“5, From 1556 to 1590, thus lasting for thirty-five years; interval to next period, sixty-
nine years.

»
558 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“6. From 1660 to 1680, thus lasting for twenty-one years; interval to next period, sixty-
six years.

“7, From 1747 to 1808, thus lasting for sixty-two years; interval to next period, sixty-
eight years.

“8, From November, 1877, to February, 1878.

“The most important period was the above No. 7, especially during the last twenty years of
the last century. It has been calculated that in some years during that time the annual quantity
of Herring fished in Bohuslan amounted to at least 1,500,000 barrels.

“During the six weeks January 1 to February 15, this present year, about 160,000 barrels of
fresh and salt Herring were shipped from the archipelago of Bohuslan to neighboring markets.
The fishermen and merchants are preparing largely for making big hauls when the Herring will
return in the fall, as is expected.”

As early as the middle of the last century one of the periods of scarcity was foretold by Prof.
Hans Strém, of Norway, who observed that the Herrings during the period they visited the coast
of Sondmor (1736-1756) came later and later every year, and predicted, in accordance with an old
tradition and the experience had at Stit, that the Herring fisheries of Sondmor would come to au
end. This really took place in Bohuslan, where it had been observed already towards the middle
of the last great fishery period that the Herrings came to the coast later and later every year,
which led people to fear that, as in times of old, the Herrings might again gradually leave the
Swedish coast. Somewhat later (1782) Stré6m compared the Bohuslan fisheries with those of
Norway, and, basing his opinion on their evident similarity, predicted that the end of the Bohus-
lan fisheries was near at hand.

About ten years later Lybecker expresses himself more distinctly, as follows: “If with pro-
phetic eye we could see the future and predict the fate of the fisheries, we might say with a great
degree of probability that a change will take place soon. We know from history that when
Herrings or other fish of passage arrive near the coast later and later, and at the same time keep
farther and farther away from the coast, this means a change in the migrations of the Herrings,
and may even point to their leaving the coast entirely. This has been the course of the Norwegian
herring fisheries, and even of the Swedish herring fisheries during their older periods, and in fact
with all those fisheries where fish of passage are the principal object, with the only exception of
the Scotch and English fisheries. . . . If we take into consideration the roving nature of the
Herrings and the examples from olden times, it is highly probable that the Herrings will come
later every year, and finally leave our coast altogether.”

It had frequently been maintained that too much fishing and fishing with destructive appa-
ratus were the proper causes of the growing tardiness of the arrival of the Herrings and might even
lead to the complete cessation of the fisheries; and people therefore made futile attempts to obviate
this danger by legislation. As the ominous predictions regarding the herring fisheries were, how-
ever, not immediately fulfilled, they were almost forgotten; but when the herring fisheries came to
an end in the year 1808, people imagined that the Herrings arriving later and later every year fully
proved the assertion that they had been driven away by the imprudent actions of the fishermen.
It was said that refuse thrown into the water, and noise, had prevented the Herriugs from coming
near to the coast, and they had spawned in the open sea, and had then, in consequence of the
languor and weakness following the spawning, been driven towards the coast by storms.

During the more recently closed Norwegian spring herring fisheries, it was, according to
Loberg, noticed, not without anxious forebodings, that the Herrings, which in the beginning of
the fishing period did not come near the coast till early in February, gradually came earlier and

SPAWNING OF THE HERRING. 559

earlier, so that finally the fisheries commenced before New Years; and that this change was followed
by another, the Herrings coming later and later, till the fisheries did not commence before Feb-
ruary. This peculiarity, however, was thought to be a consequence of the inregularity with which
the Herrings visited the same places on the coast. It was not till Axel Boeck began to investigate
the matter that this whole question was treated from a more scientific standpoint. He showed
that the coming of the herrings to the coast at different times during the period was subject to
certain rules, and that this regularity in the movements of the Herrings was observed not only
during the Norwegian spring herring fisheries of the seventeenth aud eighteenth centuries, but
also during those herring fisheries which were going on on the coast of Bohuslan during the
second half of the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. This peculiar phenomenon has therefore
become far more important than it was thought to be in former times; and it may well be said to
contain the key to the question of the periodicity of the great Scandinavian herring fisheries.
Boeck was not able 1o assign any cause for these entirely regular changes in the time of the
Herrings’ visits to the coast. This has been attempted, however, by G. O. Sars and myself, and
an account of these attempts will be given below.

In a paper entitled ‘The Great Bohuslan Herring Fishery,”! A. N. Ljungman gives a very
interesting account of the periods of abundance of Herring in Sweden and of the herring fisheries
of that region from 1000 A. D. to the present date.

REPRODUCTION.—There are several interesting series of observations upon the spawning
habits of the Herring, the hatching of the egg, and the development of the young; all of which
may be found in the later volumes of the Report of the United States Commissioner of Fisheries.

In his lecture on the Herring, Professor Huxley describes in a very concise and lucid way
their spawning habits. He remarks: ‘We have hitherto met with no case of full or spawning
Herrings being found, in any locality, during what may be termed the solstitial months, namely,
June and December; and it would appear that such Herrings are never (or very rarely) taken in
May, or the early part of July, in the latter part of November, or the early part of January. But
a spring spawning certainly occurs in the latter part of January, in February, in March, and in
April; and an autumn spawning in the latter part of July, in August, September, October, and
even as late as November. Taking all parts of the British coast together, February and March
are the great months for the spring spawning, and August and September for the autumn
spawning. It is not at all likely that the same fish spawn twice in the year; on the contrary, the
spring and the autumn shoals are probably perfectly distinct; and if the Herring, according to
the hypothesis advanced above, come to maturity in a year, the shoals of each spawning season
would be the fry of the twelvemouth before. However, no direct evidence can be adduced in
favor of this supposition, and it would be extremely difficult to obtain such evidence.

“T believe that these conclusions, confirmatory of those of previous careful observers, are fully
supported by all the evidence which has been collected; and the fact that this species of fish has
two spawning seasons, one in the hottest and one in the coldest month of the year, is very curious.

“ Another singular circumstance with the spawning of the Herring is the great variety of the
conditions, apart from temperature, to which the fish adapts itself in performing this function. On
our own coast, Herrings spawn in water of from ten to twenty fathoms, and even at greater depths,
and in a sea of full oceanic saltness. Nevertheless, Herrings spawn just as freely not only in the
narrows of the Baltic, such as the Great Belt, in which the water is not half as salt as it is in the
North Sea and in the Atlantic, but even in such long inlets as the Schlei in Schleswig, the water

1A translation of which is published in United States Fish Commission Report, part vi; pp. 221-239.

560 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

of which is quite drinkable and is inhabited by fresh-water fish. Here the Herrings deposit their
eggs in two or three feet of water; and they are found, along with the eggs of fresh-water fish,
sticking in abundance to such fresh-water plants as Potamogeton.

“Nature seems thus to offer us a hint as to the way in which a fish like the shad, which is so
closely allied to the Herring, has acquired the habit of ascending rivers to deposit its eggs in
purely fresh water.

“Tf a full female Herring is gently squeezed over a vessel of sea-water, the eggs will rapidly
pour out and sink to the bottom, to which they immediately adhere with so much tenacity that, in
half an hour, the vessel may be inverted without their dropping out. When spawning takes place
naturally, the eggs fall to the bottom and attach themselves in a similar fashion, but at this time
the assembled fish dart wildly about, and the water becomes cloudy with the shed fluid of the milt.
The eggs become thus fecundated as they fall, and the development of the young within the ova
sticking to the bottom commences at once.

“The first definite and conclusive evidence as tu the manner in which herring-spawn is attached
and becomes developed that I know of was obtained by Professor Allman and Dr. Macbain in 1862,
in the Frith of Forth. By dredging in localities in which spent Herring were observed on the 1st
of March, Professor Allman brought up spawn in abundance at a depth of fourteen to twenty-one
fathoms. It was deposited on the surface of the stone, shingle, and gravel, and on old shells and
coarse shell-sand, and even on the shells of small living crabs and other crustacea, adhering tena-
ciously to whatever it had fallen on. No spawn was found in any other part of the Forth; but it
continued to be abundant on both the east and the west sides of the Isle of May up to the 13th of
March, at which time the incubation of the ovum was found to be completed in a great portion of
the spawn, and the embryos had become free. On the 25th scarcely a trace of spawn could be
detected, and nearly the whole of the adult fish had left the Forth.

‘Professor Allman draws attention to the fact that ‘the deposit of spawn, as evidenced by the
appearance of spent Herrings, did not take place till about sixty-five days after the appearance of
the Herring in the Frith,’ and arrives at the conclusion that ‘the incubation probably continues
during a period of between twenty-five to thirty days, adding, however, that the estimate must,
for the present, be regarded as only approximative. It was on this and other evidence that we
based our conclusion that the eggs of the Herring ‘are hatched in at most from two to three weeks
after deposition.’

“ Within the last few years a clear light has been thrown upon this question by the labors of
the West Baltic Fishery Commission, to which I have so often had occasion to refer. It has been
found that. artificial fecundation is easily practiced, and that the young fish nay be kept in
aquaria for as long as five months. Thus a great body of accurate information, some of it of a
very unexpected character, has been obtained respecting the development of the eggs and the
early condition of the young Herring.

“Tt turns out that, as is the case with other fishes, the period of incubation is closely depend-
ent upon warmth. When the water has a temperature of 53° F, the eggs of the Herring hatch
in from six to eight days, the average being seven days. And this is a very interesting fact when
we bear in mind the conclusion to which the inquiries of the Dutch meteorologists, and, more
lately, those of the Scottish Meteorological Society, appear to tend, namely, that the shoals prefer
water of about 55° F. At 50° F. the period of incubation is lengthened to eleven days; at 46°
F. to fifteen days; at 38° IF. it lasts forty days. As the Forth is usually tolerably cool in the
month of March, it is probable that Professor Allman’s estimate comes very near the truth for the
particular case which he investigated.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE HERRING. 561

“The young, when they emerge from the egg, are from one-fifth to one-third of an inch in
length, and so extremely unlike the adult Herring that they may properly be termed ‘larvex.’
They have enormous eyes and an exceedingly slender body, with a yelk-bag protruding from its
fore part. The skeleton is in a very rudimentary condition; there are no ventral fins; and, instead
of separate dorsal, caudal, and anal fins, there is one continuous fin, extending from the head
along the back, round the tail, and then forward to the yelk-bag. The intestine is a simple tube,
ciliated internally; there is no air-bladder, and no branchiew are yet developed. The heart is a
mere contractile vessel, and the blood is a clear fluid without corpuscles. At first the larve do
not feed, but merely grow at the expense of the yelk, which gradually diminishes.

‘Within three or four days after hatching, the length has increased by about half the original
dimensions, the yelk has disappeared, the cartilaginous skeleton appears, and the heart becomes
divided into its chambers; but the young fish attains nearly doub'e its first length before, blood-
corpuscles are visible.

“ By the time the larva is two-thirds of an inch long (a length which ic attains one month
after hatching), the primitive median fin is separated into dorsal, caudal, and anal divisions, but
the ventral fins have not appeared. About this period the young animal begins to feed on small
crustacea; and it grows so rapidly that at two months it is one and a quarter inches long, and at
three months has attained a length of about two inches.

‘Nearly up to this stage the elongated, scaleless little fish retains its larval proportions; but
in the latter part of the third month the body rapidly deepens, the scales begin to appear, and
the larva passes into the ‘imago’ state, that is, assumes the forms and proportions of the adult,
though it is not more than two inches long. After this, it goes on growing at the same rate
(eleven millimeters, or nearly balf an inch) per month, so that at six months old it is as large as
a moderate-sized sprat.

“The well-known ‘Whitebait’ of the Thames consists, so far as I have seen, almost exclusively
of Herrings under six months old, and as the average size of Whitebait increases from March
and April onward until they become suspiciously like sprats in the late summer, it may be con-
cluded that they are the progeny of Hérrings which spawned early in the year in the neighborhood
of the estuary of the Thames, up which these dainty little fish have wandered. Whether it is the
general habit of young Herring, even of those which are spawned in deep water, to inigrate into
the shallow parts of the sea, or even into completely fresh waters, when such are accessible, is
unknown.

“In the ‘Report on Trawling’ (1863) we observe: ‘It is extremely difficult to obtain any sat-
isfactory evidence as to the length of time which the Herring requires to pass from the embryonic
to the adult or full condition. Of the fishermen who gave any opinion on this subject, some con-
sidered that a Herring takes three, and others that it requires seven, years to attain the full or
spawning condition; others frankly admitted that they knew nothing about the matter; and it
was not difficult, by a little cross-examination, to satisfy ourselves that they were all really in this
condition, however strongly they might hold by their triennial or septennial theories. Mr. Yarrell
and Mr. Mitchill suppose with more reason that Herring attain to full size and maturity in about
eighteen months. It does not appear, however, that there is any good evidence against the sup-
position that the Herring reaches its spawning condition in one year. There is much reason to
believe that the eggs are hatched in, at most, from two to three weeks after deposition, and that
in six toseven weeks more (that is, at most, ten weeks from the time of laying the eggs) the young
have attained three inches in length. Now, it has been ascertained that a young smolt may leave

a river and return to it again in a couple of months increased in bulk eight or ten fold, and as a
36 F

562 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Herring lives on very much the same food as a smolt, it appears possible that it should increase
in the same rapid ratio. Under these circumstances nine months would be ample time for it to
enlarge from three to ten or eleven inches in length. It may be fairly argued, however, that it is
not very safe to reason analogically from the rate of growth of one species of fish to that of
another; and it may be well to leave the question whether the Herring attains its maturity in
twelve, fifteen, or sixteen months open, in the tolerably firm assurance that the period last named
is the maximum,

“On comparing these conclusions with the results of the careful observations of the Baltic
commissioners, it appears that we somewhat overestimated the rate of growth of the young
Herring, and that the view taken by Yarrell and Mitchill is more nearly correct. For, supposing
that the rate of growth after six months continues the same as before, a Herring twelve months
old will be nearly six inches long, and at eighteen months eight or nine inches. But full Herrings
may be met with little more than seven inches long, and they are very commonly found not more
than nine inches in length.

“Herrings which have attained maturity, and are distended by the greatly enlarged milt or
roe, are ready to shed the contents of these organs, or, as it is said, to spawn. In 1862 we found
a great diversity of opinion prevailed as to the time at which this operation takes place, and we
took a great deal of trouble to settle the question, with the result which is thus stated in our
report: ‘We have obtained a very large body of valuable evidence on this subject, derived partly
from the examination of fishermen and of others conversant with the herring fishery; partly from
the inspection of the accurate records kept by the fishery officers at different stations, and partly
from other sources; and our clear conclusion from all this evidence is, that the Herring spawns at
two seasons of the year, in the spring and in the autumn,’

“The milt and roe ave elongated organs attached beneath the air-bladder, which lie one on
each side of, the abdominal cavity, and open behind the vent by an aperture common to the two.
The spermatic fluid of the male is developed in the milt and the eggs of the female im the roe.
These eggs, when fully formed, measure from one-sixteenth to one twenty-fifth of an inch in
diameter; and as, in the ripe female, the two roes or ovaries stretch from one end of the abd minal
cavity to the other, occupying all the space left by the other organs, and distending the cavity,
the number of eggs which ‘they contain must be very great; probably ten thousand is an under-
estimate of the number of ripe eggs shed in spawning by a moderate-sized female ‘Herring. ButI
think it is safer than the thirty thousand of some estimates, which appear to me to be made in
forgetfulness of the very simple anatomical considerations that the roe consists of an extensive
vascular framework as well as of eggs; and, moreover, that a vast number of the eggs which it
contains remain immature and are not shed at the time of spawning.”!

Professor Baird, in 1877, wrote as follows concerning the Bpawuing habits of the Herring on
our own coast:

“In the Bay of Saint Lawrence they appear to spawn in the spring, especially in the vicinity
of the Magdalen Islands, the fishes there taken being ripe with eggs. At that time they come so
close to the land as to permit their capture in immense numbers in seines. It is also thought that
a so called school spawns in the spring in the Bay of Fundy, from the head to the mouth. Such

a Spawning ground is believed to exist in the Bay of Saint Andrew’s, and in certain portions of

1 The observations of Mr. Earll at Eastport indicate that in his opinion none of the Herrings used in the sardine
lustories are old enough to show any traces of developing spawn, although there can be no doubt that they are not
less than a year old. The fish upon which his observations were made were taken in September, ‘and must have been
hatched as early as the September of the preceding year.

FOOD OF THE HERRING. 563

Passamaquoddy Bay. One principal spawning ground of the Herring in the Bay of Fundy, is
near the southern head of Grand Menan; and by a very wise provision of the New Brunswick
Government, a close time was many years ago enacted, extending from the 15th of June to the 15th
of September, during which the capture of these fish was forbidden. They now resort to that
portion of the coast in considerable numbers, and the quantity of eggs deposited is said to be
something almost inconceivable.

“The spawning season, tuo, appears to be later and later as we proceed we8tward from Maine.
Thus, allowing it to be at its height there in the beginning of August,! it occurs in September off
the coast of Maine, and in October off Eastern Massachusetis; in November at Cape Cod, and in
December at Noman’s Land and Block Island; possibly still later farther south.

“The eggs are minute, less in size than those of the shad, and adhere when discharged to
rocks, seaweed, etc., being scattered singly or in bunches over a vast extent of sea bottom. I
have frequently brought them up at various depths and at a considerable distance from the shore,
off Grand Menan.”? _

ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF THE HERRING.—In the spring of .1873 the first successful
experiments in the artificial propagation of Herring were carried on in Germany by Dr. H
A. Meyer, of the Commission for Scientific Investigation of the German Seas at Kiel, and in
the fall of the same year by Mr. R. E. Earll, of the United States Fish Commission, at Glouces-
ter.’ A translation of Dr. Meyer’s paper may be found in part vi, United States Fish Com-
mission Report, pp. 629-638, and a brief summation of Mr. Earll’s experiments in the same
volume, pp. 727-729. !

Foop.—Much has been written upon the tood of the Herring, but the following translation
from an article in “Die Natur,” No. 47, 1869, gives in a very satisfactory manner recent views
of European authorities upon the subject:

“Of the various fishes that inhabit the waters, few have, perhaps, more direct bearing
upon the prosperity of the maritime people of the north than the sea Herring; the shores of
both hemispheres being visited regularly by countless myriads that furnish an inexhaustible
source of food. It is, therefore, not to be wondered at that the attention of, fishermen, as
well as statesmen and political economists, has been directed to the different questions von-
nected with the migrations and preservation of these fish, and that much research should have
been expended in determining various points connected with their history. Until quite

‘A large school of Herrings appears annually in the vicinity of Boisbobert Island, in Eastern Maine, off Millbridge,
where they spawn on the rocky bottom.—R. E. EaR.u,

' 2A visit in 1872 to the Southern Head of Grand Menan, during the spawning season of the Herriug, enabled
my assistant, Dr. Palmer, to obtain a very interesting series of eggs and young by using the dredge, the eggs being
found at low. water, from near the shore, out to a distance of several miles.

Over an extended area, whenever any gravel, stones, or sea-weed were brought up with the dradige they were.
found to be thickly dotted over with these eggs, sometimes single, at others in clusters.

It would appear that in the operation of exclusion, the eggs fall away into the water in masses varying in
size, although in no instance was the entire spawning of any one fish observed in a single mass. The largest aggre-
gationg consisted of masses of the size of a hazel-nut. Sometimes these heat up and separate entirely. The eggs
were very minute, not larger than No. 7 shot, and when taken up nearly all the eggs contained embryos, of which the
eyes were very Jarge and distinct. The eggs appear to sink to the bottom if not, laid there originaAy, and to adhere
at once to adjacent objects. A careful straining of the sarface-water and down to a considerable depth with the
towing-net, or hand gauge-net, brought up no floating eggs.

A large number of eggs were brought over to Eastport in salt water and a considerable number of these hatched
out on the way, during an interval of a few hours, and many others became developed soon after they were brought
ashore. All ihe embryos had left their envelopes by the next morning. The young could be distinctly seen inside of
the egg, and when this was ruptured they were extremely active in their movements through the water, springing
up and down and crosswise, wriggling precisely like the larve of a dipterous insect. ‘heir length at oe time was
about thirty one-hundredths of an inch, some few being larger and others rather smaller.

564 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

recently, however, one important element of their biography has been unsolved, namely, the
precise nature of the food upon which they subsist, at least during the time when they come
into the vicinity of the shore, although their varying degree of excellence throughout the year
is believed to depend largely upon what they find to eat in the different months.

“Intimately connected with this same subject of the food of the Herring is the fact that
at times it is found almost impossible to preserve the fish after being caught, since, notwith-
standing the prompt use of salt, decomposition ensues and spoils the entire catch. Indeed,
at certain seasons of the year, it is said that Herrings cannot be preserved at all except’ by
taking the precaution of retaining them alive in the net for a period of from three to ten days.

“ A very important communication on the food of the Herring has lately been published
by a Danish author, Mr. Axel Boeck, from which we learn that the herring food, or ‘ meat,’ con-
sisting almost entirely of minute invertebrate animals, is divided by the northern fishermen into
three classes; the ‘red,’ the ‘yellow,’ and the ‘black,’ the names being derived from the color of
this food when living, or else from its appearance when in the fish’s stomach. The red meat
(Rédaat) is the most common and best known, and occurs along the entire coast of N orway and in
the mouths of the bays (but more sparingly in the bays themselves), and in the open sea, dimin-
ishing in amount, apparently, with the depth. At certain periods of summer, however, it appears.
in such immense abundance that the sea is colored red by it. When floating in this way upon the
surface, it attracts innumerable schools of mackerel, as well as of Herrings, which are then much
less shy than usual, and the scene is one of impressive activity, owing to the number of boats
and nets employed in fishing. On a careful examination this substance was found to consist
almost entirely of small crustaceans, Copepod, the largest, scarcely the thirtieth of an inch in
length and barely distinguishable by the naked eye. :

“It can hardly be believed that such minute and almost microscopic animals can be of
so much importance to the welfare of a nation; but in reality the mackerel and the autumnal
Herrings owe their fatness to them, the microscope revealing through their thin shells the fat
lying in distinct strips between the muscles and intestines.

“These same crustaceans occur also off Spitzbergen in such abundance as to furnish food
to innumerable water fowl; and even the whales feed upon them to a great extent.

“If, now, the Herring has taken in a large quantity of this ‘red food,’ and is then cap-
tured and killed without its having been fully digested, the animal matter in the stomach
of the fish begins to spoil before it can be reached by the salt, and the stomach thus becomes
putrid, as well as the large bloodvessel which lies under the back, the coloring matter of
the blood imparting a reddish tinge to the flesh alongthe backbone. For this reason it is
required by law to keep Herrings three days in the nets, in order that all the contents of
the stomach may be completely digested, while the fish is prevented from taking in a fresh
supply. Sometimes, however, the winds drift this herring food into the nets, and furnish to
the Herrings an opportunity, which they eagerly embrace, rendering them again liable to the
difficulty just mentioned.

“When a Herring, on being squeezed, discharges a yellow pulp, this is known as ‘yellow
meat, or Gulaat. This is not so abundant as the other, but appears, like the ‘red meat,’ to
be composed in part of transparent Copepods, together with the larve of tapeworms and other
annelids which occur on the Norwegian coast in immense numbers. It is stated that the
surface of the sea is sometimes seen to be completely covered with little worms of about the
twenty-fourth of an inch in length, swimming actively about by means of certain hairs which
encircle their bodies like a girdle. These animals were sufficiently developed to permit their

CAPTURE OF HERRING. 565

identification as the young of Lewcodore ciliata. Herring and mackerel feed largely upon
these animals, so that the ‘yellow meat’ consists in greater part of the fine hairs which cover
the exterior of the larve in question. This kind of food is considered to interfere less with
the proper curing of the Herring, as it is much more quickly digested.

“The most objectionable kind of herring food, however, is that which is known as the ‘black
meat,’ or Svartaat, sometimes called Krutaat, and occurring on the surface of the sea in the form of
little granules moving freely about, but which sink on being touched. This is said to be most
abundant in rainy seasons when there is a short interval of fine and clear weather. Herring that
have fed on this substance are considered to. be entirely unfit for salting, even when kept in the
nets for a much longer time than that already mentioned. The salted fish has an extremely disa-
greeable smell, even after the stomach with its contents has been removed. A microscopic exam-
ination of this matter showed that it consists entirely of the larval young of small shells found
among the sea-weed and belonging to the genus Rissoa. These swim by means of two flippers,
covered with hairs, which are protruded from a transparent shell having from three to seven turns
or windings. They are about one-tenth of an inch in length, and on being touched draw within
the shell and sink to the bottom. When full grown, these mollusks lose their flippers and creep
about the sea-weed by means of a large foot. Thus, it is easy to understand why this ‘black
meat’ is more dangerous than the other kinds. While the shells of the animals forming the ‘red
meat’ are quite thin and the bodies of the ‘yellow meat’ are very soft, those of the ‘black meat,’
on the contrary, being inclosed in hard shells, are not so readily reached by the digestive fluid, so
that while the exterior parts, namely, the swimming flippers, are quickly digested the rest of the
body within the shell becomes decomposed. On this account the flesh of the Herring after feeding
upon these mollusks soon becomes tainted by their decomposition and gives out a disagreeable
smell, notwithstanding the application of salt.

“Tt may be asked why the summer and autumnal Herrings feed upon this food and not the
spring Herring, nor those taken in the open sea, both the latter being capable of preservation
without any detention in the nets. The reason of this seems to ke that the spring and open-sea
Herrings are captured when under the stimulus of the spawning season and in the search for a
suitable place for the development of their young. At this time the question of food is reduced
to zero or near it, and a careful examination of the stomachs of Herrings taken under such circum-
stances shows comparatively little animal matter. Summer and autumn Herrings, on the other
hand, are specially engaged iu seeking for food, and bringing up their flesh, and that at a time
when the larve ofthe lower animals are found swimming freely about in large quantity upon the
surface of the sea.”?}

CAPTURE AND USES.—The methods of capture of the Herring are fully described in the
chapter by Mr. Earll upon the herring fisheries of the United States (to be printed in a subse-
quent portion of this report).

“It is not a little remarkable,” writes Professor Baird, “that while with most fish the spawning

'Professor Mébius found that almost the sole food of the Herring taken in Kiel Bay, in the winter and spring of
1872, when they were captured in immense quantities, consisted of a minute crustaceous animal, nearly allied to the
common fresh-water cyclops, and but little larger. The apparatus, which enables the Herring to feed on these
minute creatures, is described by Professor Mébius as a sort of basket or ‘‘lobster-pot,” formed by the arches of the
gills, each of which is furnished with a close-set fringe of teeth, while each of the latter bears two rows of minute
spines, The interlacing of these teeth and spines produces a narrow lattice-work, through which the water can
readily pass, while the little swimming animals contained in it are left behind in the mouth of the fish and gradually
pass down into its stomach. Some notion of the number of little crustaceans consumed by the Herring may be formed
from the fact that Professor Mébius reckons 10,000 as the average number to be found in a Herring’s stomach, and in
one instance no fewer than 61,000 were found. The sprat,'the mackerel, and some other tishes, are provided with an
«pparatus more or less resembling that of the Herring.—Annals of Natural History.

566 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

season is considered an undesirable period for their capture, with the Clupeide, such as the shad,
the alewife, and the sea Herring, they are then thought to be in the greatest perfection; indeed,
females, full of partially developed eggs, are esteemed a great delicacy, both in regard to the fish
and the roe. Nearly all the Iuropean fisheries, especially those on the coast of Scotland, are
carried on when the fish is in full roe, when the taking of fish is considered very prejudicial to the
perpetuation of the species. The number taken, however, does not appear to affect the abundance
of the Herring, and, indeed, with the enormous yield of eggs, a very small percentage of adults
will keep up the supply. k

“There appears to be as much uncertainty in Europe as there is in this country in regard to
the exact period of the growth of the Herring, Ljungman! remarking that the spring Herring
spawned in March attain a length of two and a half to three and a half inches by the end of the
year, and that in the following May, or at the age of one year, their average length is four inches.
He states that the two-year-old fish range from five and a half to six inches in length, and that
those of three years are six or seven inches long, having the sexual apparatus complete but not
highly developed. The eight-inch fish are four years old, while those larger are of still greater age.”

In Europe the ways in which Herrivgs are prepared for use as food are very numerous and
varied, there being many ways of salting them, many ways of smoking them, and many ways of
preserving them in spices. The day is probably not distant when Europe will follow the example
of the United States and employ them extensively in the manufacture of sardines. The European
fishery reports are full of codes of instruction for preparin g the different grades of Herrings for expor-
tation and local consumption; but, as a rule, these preparations are not congenial to the American
palate, and need not here be particularly described. Our supply of other excellent food fishes is so
great that but little attention is paid by American fishermen to the capture of Hlerrings for food.
Many cargoes of frozen Herrings are brought from Newfoundland and the Bay of Fundy to Boston,
New York, and Philadelphia to serve for the food of the poorer classes during the Lenten season.
A limited quantity of pickled Herrings is also imported from the British Provinces. Smoked Her-
rings are produced to the amount of 370,615 boxes in Eastern Maine, and large quantities are
imported from Néw Brunswick and Nova Scotia, which are sent chiefly to the West and South,
though small quantities are consumed in the rural districts of New England. Before the rebellion
Eastern Maine engaged largely in herring-smoking for the purpose of supplying the demand of
the slave-owning States, and many cargoes.of fish slightly pickled for smoking were brought from
the Magdalen Islands. This business was broken up by the war, and most of the smoke-houses
remain abandoned to ‘this day. Considerable quantities of smoked Herrings are now put up in
small packages with skin and bones removed, under the trade name of “boneless Herring.” By
far the greatest consumption of Herrings for food is in the shape of so-called sardines, packed
for the most part in cotton-seed oil, and in cans made in imitation of those imported from France.
This industry began in 1875 and increased yearly until 1880, when the production amounted to
2,377,152 one-pound cans, worth $772,176.

Fresh Herrings and salted Herrings are used extensively for bait in the halibut and cod fish-
eries, and a special night fishery with torches for young Herrings, or Sperling, is carried on in the
fall months about Cape Aun, Massachusetts, for the supply of the shore fishermen.

THE ALLEGED DESTRUCTIVENESS OF THE HERRING FISHERY.—As has already been
remarked, the Herring fishery is not at present of sufficient importance upon our coast to have
provoked the protection of the law, although the only place in the world where the spawning
Herrings are protected by the law is at the southern end of Grand Manan, within twenty-five miles

1 United States Fish Commission Report, p. 144.

DESTRUCTION OF HERRINGS. 567

y

from the western boundary of the United States. The question of the protection of the Herring
is not likely soon to come up in our legislatures. It has, however, for many years been deeply
agitated in Europe, and in Great Britain especially has occupied the attention of learned com-
missions for periods extending over many months. In 1862 and 1865 special commissions were
engaged in the investigation of the influence of the trawl-net fishery, particularly with reference to
its connection with the herring fishery. And it is a matter of considergble interest to be able to
quote in a few paragraphs the conclusions reached by Professor Huxley, who was a member of each
of these commissions, not because, as already suggested, the question of protecting the herring
fishery is likely to be agitated. in the United States, but because the same class of facts and the
same train of reasoning will apply with almost equal force to the problem of the protection of the’
mackerel, menhaden, and other similar fisheries. He spoke as follows in 1881 in the lecture already
referred to:

“T do not believe that all the herring fleets taken together destroy five per cent. of the total
number of Herrings in the sea in any year, and I see uo reason to swerve from the conviction my-
colleagues and I expressed in our report, that their destructive operations are totally insignificant
when compared with those which, as a simple calculation shows, must regularly and normally
go on.

“ Suppose that every mature female Herring lays 10,000 eggs, that the fish are not interfered
with by man, and that their numbers remain approximately the same year after year, it follows
that 9,998 of the progeny of every female must be destroyed before they reach maturity. For, if
more than two out of the 10,000 escape destruction, the number of Herrings will be proportion-
ately increased. Or, in other words, if the. average strength of the shoals which visit a given
locality is to remain the same year by year, many thousand times the number contained in those
shoals must be annually destroyed. And how this enormous amount of destruction is effected
will be obvious to any one who considers the operations of the fin-whales, the porpoises,. the
gannets, the gulls, the codfish, and the dog-fish, which accompany the shoals and perennially feast
upon them; to say nothing of the flat-fish, which prey upon the newly-deposited spawn; or of the
mackerel and the innumerable smaller enemies which devour the fry in all stages of their develop-
ment. Itis no uncommon thing to find five ér six—nay, even ten or twelve—Herrings in the
stomach of a codfish, and in 1863 we calculated that the whole take of the great Scotch herring
fisheries is less than the number of Herrings which would in all probability have been consumed
by the codfish captured in the same waters if they had been left in the sea. Man, in fact, is but
one of a vast co-operative society of. herring catchers, and the larger the share he takes the less
there is for the rest of the company. If man took none, the other shareholders would have a
larger dividend, and would thrive and multiply in proportion, but it would come to pretty much
the same thing to the Herrings. ;

“As long as the records of history give us information, Herrings appear to have abounded on
the east coast of the British Islands, and there is nothing to show, so far as I am aware, that,
taking an average of years, they were ever either more or less numerous than they are at present.
But, in remarkable contrast with this constancy, the shoals of Herrings have elsewhere exhibited
a strange capriciousness—visiting a given locality tor many years in great numbers, and then sud-
denly disappearing. Several well-marked examples of this fickleness are recorded on the west
coast of Scotland; but the most remarkable is that furnished by the fisheries of Bohuslan, a
province which lies on the southwestern shore of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Here a variety
known as the ‘old’ or ‘great’ Herring, after being so extremely abundant, for about sixty years,

~

568 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC -ANIMALS.

as to give rise to a great industry, disappeared in the year 1808, as suddenly as they made their
appearance, and have not since been seen in any number.

“The desertion of their ordinary grounds by the Herring has been attributed to all imaginable
causes, from fishing on a Sunday to the offense caused to the fish by the decomposing carcasses of
their brethren, dropped upon the bottom out of the nets. The truth is, that absolutely nothing is
known on the subject, and that little is likely to be known until careful and long-continued
meteorological and zoological observations have furnished definite information respecting the
changes which take place in the temperature of the sea, and the distribution of the pelagic
crustacea which constitute the chief food of the herring shoals. The institution of systematic
observations of this kind is an object of international importance, toward the attainment of which
the British, Scandinavian, Dutch, and French Governments might wisely make a combined effort.

“A great fuss has been made about trawlers working over the spawning grounds of the
Herring. ‘It stands to reason,’ we were told, ‘that they must destroy ap immense quantity of the
spawn.’ Indeed, this looked so reasonable that we inquired very particularly into a case of the
alleged malpractice which was complained of on the east coast of Scotland, near Pittenweem:
Off this place there is a famous spawning ground known as the Traith Hole, and we were told
that the trawlers worked vigorously over the spot immediately after the Herring had deposited
their spawn. Of course our first proceeding was to ask the trawlers why they took the trouble of
doing what looked like wanton mischief. And their answer was reasonable enough. It was to
catch the prodigious abundance of flat-fish which were to be found on the Traith at that time.
Well, then, why did the flat-fish congregate there? Simply to feed on herring eggs, which seem
to be a sort of flat-fishes’ caviare. The stomachs of the flat-fish brought up by the trawl were, in
fact, crammed with masses of herring eggs. Thus every flat-fish caught by the trawl was an
energetic destroyer of Herring arrested in his career. And the trawling, instead of injuring the
Herring, captured and removed hosts of their worst enemies. That is how ‘it stood to reason’
when one got to the bottom of the matter. —

“T do not think that any one who looks carefully into the subject will arrive at any other
conclusion than that reached by my colleagues and myself, namely, that the best thing for govern-
ments to do in relation to the herring fisheries isto let them alone, except in so far as the police
of the sea is concerned. With this proviso, let people fish how they like, as they like, and when
they like. At present, I must repeat the conviction we expressed so many years ago, that there
is not a particle of evidence that anything man does has an appreciable influence on the stock of
Herrings. It will be time to meddle when any satisfactory evidence that mischief is being done
is produced.”

173. THE HERRINGS OF THE PACIFIC COAST.
THE CALIFORNIA HERRING—CLUPEA ‘MIRABILIS.

“This species,” writes Professor Jordan, ‘is universally known as the Herring. It indeed
scarcely differs in size, appearance, or qualities from the Herring of the Atlantic. It reaches a
length of about a foot. It is found for the entire length of the coast, being exceedingly abundant
northward. All the bay sand outlets of Puget Sound are filled with them in the summer. South
of Point Concepcion they are seldom seen except in winter. At San Diego they spawn in the bay
in January. Farther north their spawning season comes later. They are so abundant in San
Francisco Bay in the spring that eighty pounds can often be bought for twenty cents. They are
fattest, and bring the best price in early winter. The Herrings are smoked and dried, or salted, or

THE NAMES OF THE MENHADEN. 569

sent fresh to the markets. Sometimes herring oil is expressed from them. The principal herring-
curing establishment is at Port Madison, on Puget Sound.”

THE CALIFORNIA SARDINE—CLUPEA SAGAX.

“This species,” writes Professor Jordan, “is everywhere known as the Sardine, or by the
Italians as ‘Sardina.’ It is, in fact, almost exactly identical with the Sardine of Europe. It
reaches a length of a little less than afoot. It ranges from Cape Mendocino to Chili, and is
extremely abundant southward, especially in the winter, when it fills all the bays. In the
summer it is generally scarce southward, although still taken uorthward. The young are,
however, seen in San Diego in the summer. It is probably to some extent migratory along the
coast, but as little attention is paid to it, no definite data can be given. It is brought into the
markets when taken, and is sold with the Herring. The question of the possibility of canning it
in oil, like the Sardine, has been considerably discussed. It would probably prove unprofitable,
from the high price of labor and the uncertain supply of fish.”

174. THE MENHADEN—BREVOORTIA TYRANNUS.!

Names.—The Menhaden has at least thirty popular names, most of them limited in their use
within narrow geographical boundaries. To this circumstance may be. attributed the prevailing
ignorance regarding its habits and migrations, among our fishermen, which has perhaps pre-
vented the more extensive utilization of this fish, particularly in the South.

North of Cape Cod the name “ Pogy” is almost universally in use, while in Southern New
England the fish is known only as the “Menhaden.” These two names are derived from two
Indian words of the same meaning; the first being the Abnaki name “ Pookagan,” or “ Pog-
haden,” which means “fertilizer,” while the latter is the modification of a word which in the
Narragansett dialect meant “that which enriches the earth.” About Cape Ann, “ Pogy” is par-
tially replaced by “ Hard-head,” or ‘ Hard-head Shad,” and in Eastern Connecticut by “ Bony
Fish.” In Western Connecticut the species is usually known as the « White-fish,” while in New
York the usage of two centuries is in favor of “Mossbunker.” This name is a relic.of the Dutch
colony of New Amsterdam, having evidently been transferred from the “Scad,” or ‘“ Horse
Mackerel,” Trachurus lacerta, a tish which visits the shores of Northern Europe in immense schools,
swimming at the surface in much the same manner as our Menhaden, and known to the Hol-
landers as the “ Marshbanker.” New Jersey uses the New York name with its local variations,
such as “Bunker” and “Marshbanker.” In Delaware Bay, the Potomac, and the Chesapeake, we
meet with the “Alewife,” ‘‘ Bay Alewife,” ‘ Pilcher” (Pilchard), and “ Green-tail.” Virginia gives
us “ Bug-fish,” “ Bug-head,” and “ Bug-shad,” referring to the parasitic crustacean found in the
mouths of all Southern Menhaden. In North Carolina occurs the name “ Fat-back,” which
prevails as far south as Florida, and refers to the oiliness of the flesh. In this vicinity, too,

“the names “ Yellow-tail” and ‘“Yellow-tailed Shad” are occasionally heard, while in Soutbern
Florida the fish is called “ Shiner” and “Herring.” In South America, among the Portuguese,
the name ““Savega” is in use. On the Saint John’s River, and wherever northern fishermen are
found, “Menhaden” is preferred, and it is to be hoped that this name will in time be generally
adopted. A number of trade names are employed by the manufacturers in New Jersey who can
this fish for food; these are “American Sardine,” “American Club-fish,” Shadine,” and “ Ocean
Trout.” :

In 1815 the species was described by Mitchill. of New York, under the name Clupea menhaden,

1¥or a fuller account of this fish, see an elaborate memoir in part v of the Report of the Commissioner of Fisheries.

'
\

570 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

which has-since been commonly accepted. A prior description by Latrobe, in 1802, long lost
sight of, renders it necessary, as I have elsewhere demonstrated, to adopt the specific name
tyrannus. The genus Brevoortia, of which this species is the type, was established by Gill iv 1861.

DISTRIBUTION.—The geographical range of Brevoortia tyrannus varies from year to year. In
1877 it was, so far as it is definable in words, as follows: The wanderings of the species are bounded
by the parallels of north latitude 25° and 45°; on the continental side by the line of brackish
water; ou the east by the inner boundary of the Gulf Stream. In the summer it,occurs in the
coastal waters of all the Atlantic States from Maine to Florida, in winter only south of Oape
Hatteras. The limits of its winter migration oceanwards cannot be defined, though it is demon-
strated that the species does not occur about the Bermudas or Cuba, nor presumably in the Ca-
ribbean Sea. In Brazilian waters occurs a geographical race of the same species, Brevoortia
tyrannus, subspecies aurea (the Clupanodon aureus of Agassiz and Spix); on the coast of Paraguay
and Patagonia by Brevoortia pectinata ; in the Gulf of Mexico by Brevoortia patronus.

MoVEMENTS.— With the advance of spring Menhaden appear near our coasts in company with,
and usually slightly in advance of, the other non-resident species, such as as the Shad, Alewife,
Bluefish, and Squeteague. The following general conclusions regarding their movements are
deduced from the statements of about two hundred observers at different points on the coasts from
Florida to Nova Scotia.

At the approach of settled warm weather they make their appearance in the inshore waters.
It is manifestly impracticable to indicate the periods of their movements except in an approximate
way. The comparison of two localities distant apart one or two hundred miles will indicate very
little. When wider ranges are compared there becomes perceptible a certain proportion in the
relations of the general averages. There is always a balance in favor of earlier arrivals in the more
southern localities; thus it becomes apparent that the first schools appear in Chesapeake Bay in
March and April; on the coast of New Jersey in April and early May ;' on the south coast of New
England in late April and May; off Cape Ann about the middle of May, and in the Gulf of Maine
in the latter part of May and the first of June. Returning, they leave Maine late in September
or in October; Massachusetts in October, November, and December, the latest departures being
those of fish which have been detained in the narrow bays and creeks; Long Island Sound and
vicinity in November and December; Chesapeake Bay in December, and Cape Hatteras in
January. Farther to the south they appear to remain more or less constantly throughout the year.

It is a strange fact that their northern range has become considerably restricted within the
past twenty-five years. Perley, writing in 1852, stated that they were sometimes caught in con-
siderable numbers about Saint J ohn’s, New Brunswick, and thére is abundance of other testimony
to the fact that they formerly frequented the Bay of Fundy in its lower parts; at present the east-
ward wanderings of the schools do not extend beyond Isle au Haut and Great Duck Island, about
forty miles west of the boundaries of Maine and New Brunswick. They have not been known to
pass these limits for ten or fifteen years. They have this year hardly passed north of Cape Cod,
and forty or more steamers, which have usually reaped an extensive harvest on the coast of
Maine, have been obliged to return to the fishing grounds of Southern New England, where Men-
haden are found as abundantly as ever.

I have elsewhere shown the arrival of the Menhaden schools to be closely synchronous with
the period at which the weekly average of the surface temperatures of the harbors rises to 51° F.,
that they do not enter waters in which, as about Eastport, Maine, the midsummer surface tem-

1The first catch of Menhaden by the fleet in 1881 was off Long Branch, May 6, when Gallup & Holmes’ steamer
took eight hundred bushels.

MOVEMENTS OF MENHADEN. 571

peratures, as indicated by monthly averages, fall below 51° F., and that their departure in the
autumn is closely connected witb the fall of the thermometer to 51° F. and below. In 1877 a cold
summer seemed to threaten the success of the Maine Menhaden fisheries. In September and
October, however, the temperatures were higher than in the corresponding months of the previous
year, and the scarcity of the early part of the season was amply amended for.

The season of 1878 in Maine was fairly successful, the three summer months being warmer
than in 1877, but cooler than in 1876. The absence of the Menhaden schools north of Cape Cod
in 1879 is also easily explained by the study of temperatures of the water of the Gulf of Maine, as
indicated by the observations made in Portland Harbor. The averages for the three summer
months are as follows, the numerator of the fraction being the average surface temperature, the
denominator that of the bottom: 1876, 62°.5-57°.9; 1877, 58°.5-56°.7; 1878, 619.5-58°.1; 1879,
569.1-54°.6. '

The average for the three summer months of 1879 is less than that of June, 1876.

This may perhaps be explained by a study of ocean temperatures. In August, 1878, there
was a very rapid fall in the temperature of the surface in the Gulf of Maine, so that the average
temperature of that month was less than that of July, instead of being higher, as is usual. This
may have had the effect of driving the fish into the warmer water of the bays and estuaries. The
monthly averages for 1876, 1877, 1878, and 1879 are as follows:

1876—June, 56°.9-549; July, 66°.7-599.4; August, 63°.9-60°.4,
1877—June, 54°.9-53°.3; July, 58°.1-56°.3; August, 62°.4-60°.6,
1878—June, 56°,8-55°.2; July, 66°.9-59°.3; August, 60°.7-59°.9.
1879—June, 52°.9-51°.7; July, 55°.9-54°.1; August, 59°.6-58°,

The arrival of the Menhaden is announced by their appearance at the top of the water. They
swim in immense schools, their heads close to the surface, packed side by side, and often tier
above tier, almost as closely as sardines in a box. A gentle ripple indicates their position, and
this may be seen at a distance of nearly a mile by the lookout at the masthead of a fishing vessel,
and is of great assistance to the seiners in setting their nets. At the slightest alarm the school
sinks toward the bottom, often escaping its pursuers. Sailing over a body of Menhaden swimming
at a short distance below the surface, one may see their glittering backs beneath, and the boat
seems to be gliding over a floor inlaid with blocks of silver. At night they are phosphorescent.
The:r motions seem capricious and without a definite purpose; at times they swim around and
aroufd in circles; at other times they sink and rise. While they remain thus at the surface, after
the appzarance of a vanguard they rapidly increase in abundance until the sea appears to be alive
with them. They delight to play in inlets and bays, such as the Chesapeake, Peconic, and Narra-
gansett Bays, and the narrow fiords of Maine. They seem particularly fond of shallow waters
protected from the wind, in which, if not molested, they will remain throughout the season,
drifting in and out with the tide. Brackish water attracts them, and they abound at the mouth
of streams, especially on the Southern coast. They ascend the Saint John’s River more than
thirty miles; the Saint Mary’s, the Neuse, the York, the Rappahannock, the Potomac nearly to
Washington, and the Pawtuxent to Marlborough. They come in with or before the Shad, and are
very troublesome to the fishermen by clogging their nets. I am not aware that this difficulty
occurs in Northern rivers, though they are found in the summer in the Hudson and its tributaries,
the Housatonic, Mystic, Thames, and Providence Rivers, in the creeks of Cape Cod, and at the
mouth of the Merrimack. A curious instance of capriciousness in the movements occurred on the
coast of Maine, where much alarm was felt, because their habits were thought to have been

Fhe NWATTEAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIWALS.

me

ehanged throuzh the inffuenee of seinins. The shore fishermen coud ebtsin none for bait, and
vessels followed them far oct to seu. eapturing them Mm immense quin—ties ferty mifes from and.
The fisheries had produced no such eifect sourh of Cape Cod. and = was jie inexplicable -nur
their habits should have been 36 modified tm the north. In 157s. hewever, after en years or more.
they resumed their former habits of Scrzicz the shores. and the Wenhaden fishery of Wame was
earried on, for the most part. Im the rivers.

Why the schools swim at the sartice 4) comspieneus 2 prey to men. Bois. amd ocher fishes is
net known. It i.es noc appear co be for the purpese of feeding: perhaps che fishermam -. 7) zh
when he deelares that they are piiying.

An old mackerel fisherman tics Jeser.zes the differemee im the 21cics ef the mackerel and
Menhaden: -Pozies scnool diferencly from maekerel; the Pogy slaps with is wail. amdé in
moderate weather you ean hear the sccrzt of &@ s'27¢: of them, is ticst one and <he5 anetker
strikes the water. The mackerel 2) alonz -riins. 1030 By polucte the sides ef them 2-10: eat
of the water as they sv.=. The Pogies make 1 flapping scand: the mackerel a rushing =:md_
Sometimes in ealm and tircy weather you can hear 2 scccci of maekerel miles away” They dp
not attrach smii birds as de che schools of predaeeous fish. The fish-hawk often be--rs above
them, and some of the larger zulis oeeasioually follow them (1 questef ameal Abdoat taupe Cod
one of the zulls. perhaps Larus argenwitus, ‘= ealled -- Pory Gul.”

On warm, scl. sammy days the fish may always be seen af the scctice. bat eekd or ring
weather and prevailing nertherly or easterly winds quiekly cause them <: disappear. When it is
rough they are not sco oftem seen. Thoazh scoce.s ef them frequently appear when the <e1 (x 710
hizh fer tstermec to set their nets. The best days for menhaden-tishing are when the wind -s
northwesterly in the mirtinz. ivins emt im the middle cf the day, amd springing ap izuin im che
afternoon from the southwest, with : dear sky. At the ehange ot the wind om <2.2 a day they
come toe the surfee Im irre Comoers.

A comparison of the cifect of the weather pom the Menhaden and che Herrimz Friis wae
curious results. The latter is a cold-water species. With the advaree of Summer i> seeks the
Borth, recurains to our yuters with the approach efeold. The Menhaden preiers the temperature
of 60° F. or more; the Herring. 53° Fl and icss. When the Menhadem Jesert the Gulf ef Mame
they are replaced by the Herring. Cold weather drives the former te the warmer sui. while
brings the Latter to the -crtice. The conditions most favorable on our 'uisc for the appearanee of
Herring on the sartace. and whieh vorrespeod precisely with these whieh have been made eat or
the coast of Enrope, are leust so for the Menhaden. as
' Their winter habitat, like that of the other cold-water .bsentees. Lis never been determined.

The most plausible Bypucthesis sappeses that .ostcid of migratime towards the trepies or hirber-

‘owe

nating near the shore. is Lis beem elaimed by many. they sv m oat to +i until they ind a
stratum of water vorrespoadinz to that frequented by them during their summer scjourn en the
“Oust.

This is rendered probable by the tollowing vousiderations: L. That the number of Menhaden in
southern waters is not iim inish-d im seusens of their abandanee on the nertherm coust. ner Ineremed
ip those of their absence from the Latter rezieu. 2. That there are loeal varie tes of the species, dis-
tinguished by povs.cu. characters almost ot specitic value, by differemees im habits. and im the cuse
af the southern seaools by the universal presence in the mouth ef a crustacean parasite. which &
rever found m the specimens cuuzht nerth of Cape Mav. & That the same scnoos usaally reap-
pear in the same waters Im stevessive years. +. That their very prompt arrival im the spemmr
Saczests their preseoc’e Im witers near at hand. 5. That their cinness whem they ics: appear

REPRODUCTION OF THE MENHADEN. 573

renders it evident that they have had no food since leaving the coast in autumn. The latter con-
sideration, since they are bottom-feeders, is the strongest confirmation of the bélief that their win-
ter home is in the midoceanic substrata.

ABUNDANCE.—As i+ indicated by the testimony of many observers, whose statements are else-
where reviewed at Jength, the Menhaden is by far the most abundant species of fish on the eastern
coast of the United States. Several hundred thousand are frequently taken in a single draft of a
purse-seine. A firm in Milford, Connecticut, captured, in 1870, 8,800,000; in 1871, 8,000,000; in
1372, 10,000,000; in 1373, 12,000,000. In 13:7, three sloops from New London seined 13,000,000.
In 1877, an unprofitable year, the Pemaquid Oil Company took 20,000,000, and the town of Booth
Bay alone 50,000,000. There is no evidence whatever of any decrease in their numbers, though
there can be in the nature of the case absolutely no data for comparison of their abundance in
successive years. Since spawning Menhaden are never taken in the nets, no one can reasonably
predict a decrease in the future.

Foop.—The nature of their food has been closely investigated. Hundreds of specimens
have been dissected, and every stomach examined by me has been found fall of dark greenish or
brownish mud or silt, such as occurs near the mouths of rivers and on the bottoms of still bays
and estuaries. When this mad is allowed to stand fora time in clear water, this becomes slightly
tinged with green, indicating the presence of chlorophyl, perhaps derived from the algz, so
common on muddy bottoms. In addition to particles of fine mud the microscope reveals a few
common forms of diatoms.

There are no teeth in the mouth of the Menhaden, their place being supplied by about fifteen
bundred thread-like bristles, from one-third to three-quarters of an inch long, which are attached
to the gill-arches, and may be so adjusted as to form a very effective strainer. The stomach is
globular, pear-shaped, with thick, muscular walls, resembling the gizzard of a fowl, while the
length of the coiled intestine is five or six times that of the body of the fish. The plain inference .
from these facts, taken in connection with what is known of the habits of the Menhaden, seems to
be that their food consists in large part of the sediment, containing much organic matter, which
gathers upon the bottoms of still, protected bays, and also of the vegetation that grows in such
localities. They also, as was demonstrated by Mr. Rathbun in 1880, feed very extensively upon
the minute crustaceans, Copepoda, etc., which are found in great quantities swimming near the sur-
face in the sammer months all along our coast.

Their rapid increase in size and fatness, which commences as soon as they approach our
shores, indicates that they find an abundant sapply of some kind of food. The oil manufactarers
report that in the spring a barrel of fish often yields less than three quarts of oil, while late in the
fall it is not uncommon to obtain five or six gallons. !

REPRODUcCTION.—There is a mystery about their breeding. Thousands of specimens have been
dissected since 1871 without the discovery of mature ova. In early summer the genitalia are quite
undeveloped, but as the season advances they slowly increase in size and vascularity. Among the
October fish a few ovaries were noticed in which the eggs could be seen with the naked exe A
school of large fish driven ashore in November, in Delaware Bay, by the bluefish, contained spawn
nearly ripe, and others taken at Christmas time, in Provincetown Harbor, evidently stragglers acci-
dentally delayed, contained eggs quite mature. Young Menhaden from one to three inches in
length and upward are common in summer south of New York, and those of five to eight inches
in late sammer and aatumn in the southern part of New England. These are in schools, aud make
their appearance suddenly from the open ocean like the adalt fish, Menhaden have never been
observed spawning on the Southern coast, and the egg-bearing individuals when observed are

574 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

always heading out to sea. These considerations appear to warrant the theory that their breedin g
grounds are on the off-shore shoals which skirt the coast from George’s Banks to the Florida Keys.
There are indications, too, that a small school of Menhaden possibly spawn at the east end of
Loug Island in the very early spring.

The fecundity of the Menhaden is very great, much surpassing that of ihe Shad and Herring.
The ovaries of a fish taken in Narragansett Bay, November 1, 1879, contained at least 150,000 eggs.

ENEMIES. —Among its enemies may be counted every predaceous animal which swims in
the same waters. Whales and dolphins follow the schools and consume them by the hogshead.
Sharks of all kinds prey upon them largely; one hundred have been taken from the stomach of
one shark. Ali the large carnivorous fishes feed upon them. The tunny is the most destructive.
“T have often,” writes a gentleman in Maine, “watched their antics from the masthead of my
vessel—rushing and thrashing like demons among a school of fish; darting with ‘almost lightning
swiftness, scattering them in every direction, and throwing hundreds of them in the air with their
tails.” The pollock, the whiting, the striped bass, the cod, the squeteague, and the gar-fish are
savage foes. The sword-fish and the bayonet-fish destroy many, rushing through the schools and
striking right and left with their powerful swords. The bluefish and bonito are, however, the
most destructive enemies, not even excepting man; these corsairs of the sea, not content with
what they eat, which is of itself an enormous quantity, rush ravenously through the closely crowded
schools, cutting and tearing the living fish as they go, and leaving in their wake the mangled
fragments. Traces of their carnage remain for weeks in the great “slicks” of oi! so commonly
seen on smooth water in summer. Professor Baird, in his well-known and often-quoted estimates
of food annually consumed by the bluefish, states that probably ten thousand million fish, or tweaty-
five million pounds, daily, or twelve hundred million million fish and three hundred thousand
million pounds are much below the real figures. This estimate is for the period of four months
in the middle of the summer and fall, and for the coast of New England only.

Such estimates are professedly only approximations, but are legitimate in their way, since
they enable us tu appreciate more clearly the luxuriance of marine life. Applying similar methods,
of calculation to the Menhaden, I estimate the total number destroyed annually on our coast by
predaceous animals at a million million of millions; in comparison with which the quantities
destroyed by man, yearly, sink into insignificance.

It is not hard to surmise the Menhaden’s place in nature; swarming our waters in countless
myriads, swimming in closely packed, unwieldy masses, helpless as flocks of sheep, near to the
surface and at the mercy of every enemy, destitute of means of defense and offense, their mission
is unmistakably to be eaten. ,

In the economy of nature certain orders of terrestrial animals, feeding entirely upon vegetable
substances, seem intended for one purpose—to elaborate simple materials into the nitrogenous
tissues necessary for the food of other animals, which are wholly or in part carnivorous in their —
diet; so the Menhaden feeding upon otherwise unutilized organic matter is pre-eminently a meat-
producing agent. Man takes from the water every year eight or nine hundred millions of these
fish, weighing from two hundred to three hundred thousand tons, but his indebtedness does not
end here; when he brings upon his table bluefish, bonitoes, weak-fish, sword-fish, or bass, he has
before him usually Menhaden flesh in another form.

UsEs.—The commercial importance of the Menhaden has only lately been rightly appreciated.
Twenty-five years ago and before, it was thought to be of very small value. A few millions were
taken every year in Massachusetts Bay, Long Island Sound, and the inlets of New Jersey. A small
portion of these were used for bait; a few barrels occasionally salted in Massachusetts to be
exported to the West Indies. Large quantities were plowed into the soil of the farms along the

THE MENHADEN OF THE GULF OF MEXICO. 5TD

shores, stimulating the crops for a time, but in the end filling the soil with oil, parching it and
making it unfit for tillage. Since that time manifold uses have been found. As a bait-fish this
excels all others; for many years much the greater share of our mackerel was caught by its aid,
while the cod and halibut fleet use it rather than any other fish when it can be procured. The
total consumption of Menhaden for bait in 1877, did not fall below 80,000 barrels, or 26,000,000
fish, valued at $500,000. ' Ten years before, when the entire mackerel fleet was fishing with hooks,
the consumption was much greater. The Dominion mackerel fleet buy Menhaden bait in quantity,
and its value has been thought an important element in framing treaties between our government
and that of Great Britain.

As a food resource it is found to have great possibilities. Many hundreds of barrels are sold
in the West Indies, while thousands of barrels are salted down for domestic use by families living
near the shore. In many sections they are sold fresh in the market. Within six years there has
sprung up an important industry, which consists in packing these fish in oil, after the manner of
sardines, for home and foreign consumption. In 1874 the production of canned fish did not fall
below 500,000 boxes.

The discovery made by Mr. S. L. Goodale, that from these fish may be extracted, for the cost
of carefully boiling them, a substance possessing all the properties of Liebig’s ‘Extract of beef,”
opens up a vast field for future development. As a food for the domestic animals in the form of
“fish meal,” there seems also to be a broad opening. As a source of oil, the menhaden is of more
importance than any other marine animal. Its annual yield usually exceeds that of the whale
(from the American fisheries) by about 200,000 gallons, and in 1874 did not fall far short of the
aggregate of all the whale, seal, and cod oil made in America. In 1878 the menhaden oil and
guano industry employed capital to the amount of $2,350,000, 3,337 men, 64 steamers, 279 sailing
vessels, and consumed 777,000,000 fish; there were 56 factories, which produced 1,392,644 gallons
of oil, valued at $450,000, and 55,154 tons of crude guano, valued at $600,000; this was a poor
year. In 1874 the number of gallons produced was 3,373,000 ; in 1875, 2,681,000 ; in 1876, 2,992,000;
in 1877, 2,427,000. In 1878 the total value of manufactured products was $1,050,000 ; in 1874 this
was $1,809,000; in 1875, $1,582,000 ; in 1876, $1,671,000; in 1877, $1,608,000. It should be stated
that in these reports only four-fifths of the whole number of factories were included. In 1880 the
number of persons employed in the entire industry was placed at 3,635, the amount of ca) ital
invested $2,362,841, the value of products $2,116,787, including 2,066,396 gallons of oil, worth
$733,424, and 68,904 tons of guano, worth $1,301,217. The refuse of the oil factories supplies a
material of much value for manures. As a base for nitrogen it enters largely into the composition
of most of the manufactured fertilizers. The amount of nitrogen derived from this source in 1875
was estimated to be equivalent to that contained in 60,000,000 pounds of Peruvian guano, the gold
value of which would not have been far from $1,920,000. The yield of the menhaden fishery in
pounds is probably triple that of any other carried on by the fishermen of the United States.

In estimating the importance of the Menhaden to the United States, it should be borne in
mind that its absence from our waters would probably reduce all our other sea-fisheries to at least
one-fourth their present extent.

175. THE GULF MENHADEN—BREVOORTIA PATRONUS.

In addition to the common Menhaden, a second North American species has recently been
discovered.! This species has been reported only from the Gulf of Mexico, where the following
observations were made by Mr. Silas Stearns:

‘See Report United States Commission Fish and Fisheries, part v, pp. 17 and 26, and Proceedings of the United
States National Museum, vol. i.

576 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

PoPULAR NAMES.—The Gulf Menhaden has several vernacular names. At Key West it is
called ‘Sardine,’ in common with other fish of the same general appearance. At Apalachicola,
Pensacola, and Mobile it is called ‘Alewife’; at New Orleans the names ‘Sardine’ and ‘Alewife’
are both in use, the latter perhaps more generally. On the Texan coast itis known as ‘ Herring,’
‘Alewife,’ ‘Sardine,’ and ‘Shad,’ each locality having its peculiar name.

“T have observed the Gulf Menhaden from Key West to the Texan coast, and am told that its
range extends along the Mexican coast. It seems to be most abundant along the coast between
Cedar Keys and New Orleans. On other parts it is only an ordinarily common fish or an occasional
visitor. My observations have been made at Pensacola, where their movements are as follows:
On the first calm, warm days of April many small schools appear in the bays and sounds. From
the first appearance of these schools they can be seen at all times in fine weather until late in the
summer, when they disappear. They remain in these bays utftil late in November and December,
but keep to deeper waters, and are seen, after the close of summer, only when taken in nets.

MovEMENTS.—“The first which arrive measure only five to six inches. In June they average
seven inches, and schools have been observed composed of fish of different sizes, as five, six, seven,
and eight inches long. In July the average size is about eight inches, and in August, September, and
October the individuals composing the schools measure seven, eight, nine, and ten inches in length.
Those fish caught in October and November in nets are eleven, twelve, and thirteen inches long,
and are probably full-grown. In fine weather they are first seen approaching the coast in large
schools, but if windy and cold they are not seen until they have entered the bay and the weather
has become pleasant. When once inside the large schools are broken up into many small schools,
which swim at the surface, rippling the water as they go. Their movements seem not to be affected
by the tide. Their favorite feeding or playing grounds are in quiet bayous, creeks, and nooks in
the bay, where they are unmolested by larger fishes of prey. Brackish water is also much sought
by them, and I think most, if not all, of them visit it some time during the season. A person sta-
tioned at the mouth of a fresh-water stream or river, in August or September, will see little schools
of these fish swimming round and round at the surface, just where the two kinds of water meet.
As they become accustomed to the fresh water they enter the stream and move upwards until they
reach a quiet creek or bayou. How long they stay in the river I cannot determine, for I havo
noticed as many moving down as up stream. Late in September and October very few or none
are seen at the surface of the water, but I have caught many in the river and at its mouth at that
season, proving that they are still present. About the first of November I have known of a few
being taken in gill-nets in or about the rivers. During the months September and October they
are rarely seen in salt water, but come to notice again in November, by being taken in small quan-
tities in seines along the outside beaches with other fish, such as bluefish, channel bass, and sheeps-
head. After a few catches in November and December we see or hear nothing more of them until
the following spring; but from this we cannot safely conclude that they have left these waters,
for the proper nets (gill-nets) in which to catch them in deep water are but little used in this
vicinity, and if they remained they would not be observed. :

MussmarEs.—‘ When the Gulf Menhaden arrive in spring, each one has a parasite in its mouth,
a crustacean called Cymothoa pregustator. This animal is found always in one position, clinging
with its hooked claws to the roof of the fish’s mouth, with its head looking outward and very near :
to the jaw of the fish. These parasites remain with the Menhaden as long as the latter is in salt
water; in brackish water they are less frequently observed, disappearing altogether in fresh water.
With all the fall fish of this species which I have examined there were no parasites. The fish do

FOOD OF THE GULF MENHADEN. avai

not seem to suffer physically from the company of this parasite, but I have fancied that it was to
get rid of them that the fish visit fresh water. JI have noticed no other parasites upon them.

Repropuction.— The first traces of spawn are found in May. By July it has become sufii-
ciently developed to be noticed by any person unaccustomed to the examination of such objects.
In the latter part of September or first of October, at which time they are last seen in abund-
ance, the ovaries are sufficiently grown to distend the fish’s abdomen, yet not fully ripe. When
they are next caught, in November and December, on the sea-beach, they are without ovaries
and show signs of having spawned. af

Foov.— The Gulf Menhaden are bottom-feeding fish, as their stomachs always contain soft
brown mud, from which I suppose it extracts microscopic animal or vegetable matter. Some
believe that it gains its nourishment in the shape of animalcule from the water, as it swims along
with its mouth open, straining water through its gills. It is not a food-fish. A few trials have
been made to use them as bait for deep-sea fish, such as red snappers, groupers, etc. Such
experiments have proved successful.”

37 F

S. THE SHAD AND THE ALEWIVES.

By MARSHALL McDONALD.
176. THE RIVER HERRINGS, OR ALEWIVES—CLUPEA ASTIVALIS AND C. VERNALIS.

HISTORY AND NOMENCLATURE.—Early writers on American fishes, especially Mitchill and
De Kay, seem to have experienced great difficulty in differentiating into species the various forms
of river Herring or Alewives in our waters. These early writers were, however, apparently more
discriminating than some of their successors, for they recognized differences which have been
ignored by subsequent writers. They were as much at fault, however, in making too many species
as were Storer and Gill in uniting all the forms under one specific name. Mitchill recognized
seven. species, to wit, the “New York” Herring, Clupea halec; the “Tiny” Herring, C. pusilla;
the “Little” Herring, C. parvula; the “Sprat” Herring of New York, C. indigena; the “Spring”
Herring or “Alewife,” C. vernalis; the “‘Summer” Herring of New York, C. estivalis; and the
“Blue” Herring, C. cerulea; all of which are apparently founded upon hasty studies of individuals
of different ages and varying proportions, and in reality belong to the two species named in the
heading of this article. The work of Mitchill is valuable, since by him were well defined the
two.species which we recognize at the present time under the names now accepted by us, the
“Spring” and “Summer” Herrings, respectively C. vernalis and C. estivalis. These are described
in such terms that they cannot be mistaken. It is not worth while to attempt an identification of
the other species, most of which are evidently based upon very small individuals.

De Kay took up and discussed under the same or different names most of the forms enumerated
by Mitchill, and, taking advantage of his more accurate methods of description, we are able to
form a very satisfactory idea of what was intended under each name. The Alosa tyrannus of
De Kay corresponds to the C. vernalis of Mitchill, while the C. vernalis of De Kay, in the synonym
of which he cites Mitchill’s C. halec, is without much doubt the summer Herring of Mitcbill,
although De Kay loses sight of Mitchill’s name C. estivalis. The C. fasciata of De Kay, to which
he, without hesitation, refers Mitchill’s 0. pusilla, is probably the young of the summer Herring.

It is useless to attempt to trace throughout the entire literature on the subject the various
errors in the identification of the river Herrings. Storer, in his “History of the Fishes of Massa-
chusetts,” distinguishes the two species under the names Alosa cyanonoton and A. tyrannus, and
supplies figures of each. These are not, however, sufficiently characteristic to be serviceable in
identification. The name tyrannus, which was used by both De Kay and Storer for the spring
Herring, belongs by rights to the Menhaden, as has been elsewhere demonstrated.

Douglass in his ‘North America,” Boston and London, 1740, remarks, in speaking of New
England :

“ Alewives by some of the country people are called Herrings. They are of the Herring tribe,
but somewhat Jarger than the true Herring. They are very mean, dry, and insipid fish. Some of
them are cured in the manner of white Herrings, and sent to the sugar islands for the slaves, but
because of their bad quality they are not in request ; in some places they are used to manure land.

They are very plenty, and come up the rivers and brooks into ponds in the spring. Having
579

580 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

spawned, they return to the sea. They never take the hook. Many fish go up the rivers into
ponds earlier or later in the spring to spawn, viz, salmon, Shad, Alewives, tomcod, smelts, ete.,
and many good laws have been made in New England to prevent the obstruction of their passage
by weirs, ete., as they are of great benefit to the inhabitants near these rivers and ponds.”

From 1861 until 1880 nearly all American zoologists were contented to consider the various
kinds of river Herrings as members of a single species, which was designated Pomolobus pseudo-
harengus, the specific name pseudo-harengus having originated in Wilson’s article in volume ix of
the American edition of Rees’ Encyclopedia. There is no positive evidence to prove that this
volume was published prior to Mitchill’s work on the “Fish of New York,” which appeared in
1815, and in which the names now accepted by us were first proposed. The American edition is
said by Allibone to have been in course of publication from 1809 to 1820. There is, however, no
date upon the title-page of volume ix, and consequently the priority of the name pseudo-harengus
over the others is doubtful. At any rate, the description given by Wilson is-so vague that it
cannot well be assigned to one species in preference to the others.! If it is to be assigned to
either, it most assuredly belongs to the species which Mitchill calls C. vernalis, and which is cha-
racterized by its long head, large eye, and high fin. Wilson, however, did not distinguish the two
species, and his intention was evidently to include them both under one name. The only specific
characteristic given is the date of its advent, which, according to him, precedes that of the Shad
by about three weeks. Since there is no statement of the locality where this occurs, this also is
quite indefinite. Taking into consideration also the fact that Wilson’s article was published
anonymously in a book without date, I think we can safely set aside the name pseudo-harengus and
consider that the two names used by Mitchill in the discussion of his spring and summer Herrings
are definitely assigned to these two species.

The attention of the zoologists of the Fish Commission was first called to the probable exist-
ence of two species by the persistent opinions of the fishermen of the Potomac, who recognized
two forms—differing in habit and in general appearance—which they called the “Branch” Herring
and the “Glut” Herring respectively. The late Mr. Milner, in the course of his river work, as
early as 1876, came to the conclusion that the two forms were specifically distinct, but the problem
was not definitely worked out until 1879. The announcement of the discovery of the two species
and a definition of their characters were first published in the report of the Virginia Fish Com-
mission for 1879.

These species may easily be distinguished from each other by the following characters: C.
estivalis is more elongate in form, has a lower body, less elevated fins, and smaller eyes than C.
vernalis. The proportions of the bones of the head in C. estivalis differ from those in C. vernalis,
as also does the coloration of the lining of the abdomen, which in C. estivalis is black, and in C.
vernalis gray.

The popular names applied to these fishes differ in almost every river along the coast. C.
vernalis is known aloug the Potomac River as the “Branch” Herring; on the Albemarle River as
the “Big-eyed” Herring and the “Wall-eyed” Herring; in Canada it is known as the ‘“Gaspe-
reau” or “Gasperét.” It is preeminently the ‘“Alewife” of New England; the “Ellwife” or
“Ellwhop” of the Connecticut River. The other species, C. estivalis, undoubtedly occurs occa-
sionally in its company, but is probably not common in the Connecticut and Housatonic Rivers,
and in mavy parts of Massachusetts is distinguished by another name,

1 Pseudo-harengus (American Herring). Body above ash-color, inclining to dull greenish-blue; sides and belly
silvery; no spots on the sides; head small, tapering; under jaw little longer; ascends our rivers from the sea with the
Shad lo deposit their eggs in shallow water; they are about three weeks in advance of the Shad; well tasted either
fresh or salted, but not so fat as Europ: an Herring.”

ALEWLVES IN NEW ENGLAND. 581

From the “Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1816,”! are taken the following
physiological and historical notes on the occurrence of the Alewife at Wareham, Massachusetts:

“Of the Alewife there are evidently two kinds, not only in size but habit, which annually
visit the brooks passing to the sea at Wareham. The larger, which set in some days earlier,
invariably seek the Weweantitt sources. These, it is said, are preferred for present use, perhaps
because they are earliest. The second, less in size, and usually called ‘Black backs,’ equally
true to instinct, as invariably seek the Agawam. These are genera ly barreled for exportation.
In the sea, at the outlet of these streams, not far asunder, these fish must for weeks swim in com-
mon, yet each selects its own and peculiar stream. Hence an opinion prevails on the spot that
these fish seek the particular lake where they were spawned.

“Another popular anecdote is as follows: Alewives had ceased to visit a pond in Weymouth,
which they had formerly frequented. The municipal authorities took the usual measures, by
opening the sluiceways in the spring at mill-dams, and also procured live Alewives freim other
ponds, placing them in this, where they spawned, and sought the sea. No Alewives, however,
appeared here until the third year; hence three years have been assumed by some as the period of
growth of this fish.

“These popular opinions, at either place, may or may not agree with the laws of the natural
history of migratory fish.

“The young Alewives we have noticed to descend about the 20th of June and before, con-
tinuing so to do some time, when they are about two inches long, their full growth being from
twelve to fifteen inches. We have imbibed an opinion that this fish attains its size in a year, but
if asked for proof we cannot produce it.

“These fish, it is said, do not visit our brooks in such numbers as in former days. The com-
plaint is of old date. Thus, in 1753, Douglass remarks on migratory fishes: ‘The people living
upon the banks of Merrimack observe, that several species of fish, such as salmon, Shad, and Ale-
wives, are not so plenty in their seasons as formerly; perhaps from disturbance, or some other
disgust, as it happens with Herrings in the several friths of Scotland.” Again, speaking of Her-
rings, he says: ‘They seem to be variable or whimsical as to their ground.’ It is a fact, too, that
where they most abound, on the coast of Norway and Sweden, their occasional disappearance is a
subject of remark.

“The Herring is essentially different from the Alewife in size (much smaller) and in habit. It
continues, we believe, in the open sea, and does not seek pond-heads. Attempts are sometimes
made, by artificial cuts, to induce them to visit ponds which had not before a natural outlet. These
little cuts, flowing in the morning, become intermittent at noon, as the spring and summer advance.
Evaporation, therefore, which is very great from the surface of the pond, should, probably, be
considered in the experiment, making the canal as low as the midsummer level of the pond, other-
wise it may be that the fish perish in the passage. This may, in other respects, have its incon-
veniences, at seasons when the ponds are full.

“The town of Plymouth, for a series of years, annually voted from one thousand to five hun-
dred ard two hundred barrels of Alewives to be taken at all their brooks, in former years.

“In the year 1730, the inhabitants were ordered not to take more than four barrels each; a

1Vol. iv, second geries, pp. 294-296.

2This anecdote was related in a circle of the members of the general court at Boston, when a member from
Maine remarked that a similar event had occurred in his vicinity.

3 Previous to 1752 the Herrings had entirely disappeared seventy-two years on the coast of Sweden; and yet, in
1782, 139,000 barrels were cured by salt at the mouth of the Gothela, near Gottenburg.—Stupies oF NaTuRE.

582 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

large individual supply indeed, compared with the present period (1815), when it is difficult for an
householder to obtain two hundred Alewives, seldom so many.

“Tn 1762, at a vendue the surplus appears to have been sold in twenty-five barrel lots, which
sold at 3s. 7d. and 4s. the barrel. In 1763, Plymouth and Wareham took one hundred and fifty
barrels at the Agawam brook;! two hundred barrels was the usual vote, down to a modern date,
perhaps 1776. Menhaden were also taken in quantity at Wareham, and barreled for exportation,
in former years.”

The C. estivalis is the “Glut” Herring of the Albemarle and the Chesapeake, and the “English”
Herring of the Ogeechee River. In the Saint John’s River, Florida, it is known simply as the
“Herring.” On the coast of Massachusetts it is called the ‘‘Blue-back,” a name which is common
to the late runs of the same species of the Rappahannock. Around the Gulf of Maine this species
is also known by the names “Kyack” or ‘“Kyauk,” “Saw-belly,” and ‘Cat-thrasher.” Although
the coast fishermen of Massachusetts and Maine claim to distinguish the two species, the “Blue-
backs” and the “Alewives,” their judgment is by no means infallible, for I have frequently had
them sort out into two piles the fishes which they distinguish under these names, and found that
their discrimination was not at all reliable. The features to which they mainly trusted in the deter-
mination of C. estivalis are the bluer color of the back and the greater serration upon the ventral-
ridge. The other species, when the scales on its back are rubbed off, is as blue as this, and the
serration of the belly is dependent entirely upon the extent to which the back has become stiffened
in the death struggle and the consequent degree of arching of the ventral ridge. The young of
one or both species are sold in the Boston markets under the name “Sprats,” and in New York
they make up a large proportion of the so-called “‘Whitebait.” In the report of the Massachusetts
Commissioner of Fisheries for 1869, Col. Theodore Lyman called attention to the probable occur-
rence of two species in Massachusetts, but his diagnostic characters seem hardly well chosen. The
form which he calls the ‘“‘Gray-back” is undoubtedly C. vernalis, and the “ Black-bellies,” which he
is inclined to believe distinct, would appear to be another run of the same species. The river Her-
ring, which he speaks of as a large variety, not much esteemed, and supposed to spawn in tidal
water, may possibly be the same as C. estivalis. The Black-bellies, if their habits are properly
described, have much in common with C. estivalis. There is, however, much to be learned con-
cerning all the fishes of this group, and it is more than probable that careful study will reveal facts
of which we are at present entirely ignorant.

ABUNDANCE.—The Alewife is by far the most abundant of our river fishes, and throughout
the whole Southern region where they are caught, together with the Shad, the number of individuals
is not far from ten to twenty times as great as that of the Shad. For instance, in the Albemarle re-
gion, in 1879, 750,000 Shad were taken and upwards of 20,000,000 Alewives. Again, in 1880, about
600,000 Shad were taken from the Potomac, and 11,000,000 Alewives. By far the greatest num-
ber of the Alewives thus taken were “Glut Herring,” C. estivalis ; but, since the two species are
sold together, without discrimination, no accurate statement of proportional numbers can be made.
In the Northern rivers they are not taken in any great numbers, owing to the fact that the meshes
of the nets used in the capture of the Shad are too large to retain the fish. In the Connecticut
and other rivers a large mesh is required by law, but throughout this entire region the abundance
of valuable sea-fishes is so great that there could be but little gain in capturing the Alewives.
There is on Cape Cod an extensive alewife fishery, described in another chapter. This has for
more than a century been regulated by law, and the fish are allowed during stated periods to
swim without interruption to their spawning beds. The streams in which they are taken are 80

1Plymouth retains a fishing privilege in this brook within Wareham. The Alewives, arewe told, were more
numerous in 1815 than for some years.

FORMER ABUNDANOE OF ALEWIVES. 583

small, and the fish in their ascent so crowded together, that they appear to be extremely abun-
dant, although the aggregate catch for the entire Cape is not perhaps much greater than the
yield of many single seines in the South. Here, however, there has been no great decrease in
abundance, while in the South the herring fishery is much less productive than in former years.
Even now, however, the great seines of the Potomac and Albemarle regions could not be operated
without the herring fishery, and hauls are yearly made which seem incredible to those who have
not seen them. In 1879, at Wood’s fishery, on the Albemarle, three hundred thousand Alewives
were landed at a single haul of the seine. Hauls of half a million, and even more, were not
unfrequent prior to the late war. Considerable quantities of these fish are taken yearly in the
weirs on the south coast of New England, and form an important element in the bait supply of
the Massachusetts fishing fleet. In the report of the Massachusetts Commissioner of Fisheries
for 1872 are given the statistics of the catch of the Waquoit weir for seven years, from 1865 to 1871,
inclusive, the yearly average being 105,000. The annual product of two streams emptying into
the head of Buzzard’s Bay is given in the same place,! one for fifteen, the other fur seven years;
the average annual yield of the first was 539,000, that of the second 366,000. In 1864 the yield
was 804,000. Numerous details of a similar character may be found by those who are interested
in the statistical part of this report.

South of Cape Fear River the Alewife occurs in all the Atlantic streams in considerable
quantities, but as yet their capture is apparently not of such importance to the fishermen as to
cause the formation of a special alewife fishery between that point and the great fisheries of
the Albemarle.

In the works of early writers occur allusions to the Alewives of our Eastern coast, which
appear, in almost every instance, to refer to all the fishes known under that name. In Josselyn’s
“ Account of Two Voyages to New England,” 1675, he remarks:

“The Alewife is like a Herrin, but has a bigger bellie; therefore, called an Alewife; they come
in the end of April into fresh Rivers and Ponds; there hath been taken in two hours’ time by two
men without any Weyre at all, saving a few stones to stop the passage of the River, above ten
thousand.”

Captain John Smith, in his “‘ Advertisements for the Inexperienced Planters of New England,”
London, 1631,? remarked:

“The seven and thirty passengers miscarrying twice upon the coast of England, came so ill-
provided, they onley relyed upon the poore company they found, that had lived two yeares by their
naked industry, and what the country naturally afforded; it is true, at first there hath been taken
a thousand Bayses at a draught, and more than twelve hogsheads of Herrings in a night; of other
fish when and what they would, when they had meanes; but wanting most necessaries for fishing
and fowling, it is a wonder how they could subsist, fortifie themselves, resist their enemies, and
plant their plants.”

Thomas Morton, in his ‘New England Canaan,” London, 1632, remarks:

“Of Herrings, there is a great store, fat, and faire; & (to my minde) as good as any I have
seene, & these may be preserved, and made a good commodity at the Canaries.”

Mr. Higginson, in his “New England’s Plantation,” 1630, refers to the great abundance of
Herring in the waters of New England.

In the “Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers of the Colony of Plymouth,” from 1692 to 1725,
speaking of Town Brook, Plymouth, Massachusetts, it is stated that before the brook was so much
impeded by dams vast quantities of Alewives passed up through it annually to Billington Sea.

1Page 30, 2Page 19.

584 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

William Wood, in his ‘‘ New England’s Prospects,” London, 1634, remarks:

“The Herrings be much like them that be caught on the Hnglish coast. Alewives be a kind
of fish which is much like a Herring, which in the latter end of Aprill come up to the fresh Rivers
to spawne, in such multitudes as is almost incredible, pressing up in such shallow waters as will
scarce permit them to swimme, having likewise such longing desire after the fresh water ponds,
that no beating with poles, or forcive agitations by other devices, will cause them to returne to
the sea, till they have cast their spawne.”

The same writer makes mention of the fact that in the spring, when the Alewives pass up the
rivers, abundance of bass may be caught in the rivers.

Wood, writing in 1633, states that a little below the fall in Charles River the inhabitants of
Watertown had built a wear to catch fish, wherein they took great store of Shads and Alewives.
“Jn two tides they have gotten 200,000 of these fishes.”

Schoepf, in his “‘ Fishes of New York,” 1788, refers to the American Herring under the name
C. harengus, stating that it is similar to that of Europe, but that the body has scales which are
more easily detached. The back is glistening blue, the belly white, widely carinate, and provided
with saw-like scutes. The fish which he has in mind is undoubtedly one of the river Herrings,
since he states tbat it appears in May and June on the coast of New York, later than the Shad
and not in such great numbers.

Pennant, in his “Arctic Zoology,” states that “ Herrings leave the salt water in March and
run up the rivers and shallow streams of Carolina in such numbers that the inhabitants fling them
ashore by shovels full. Passengers trample them under foot fording the rivers. They are not so
large as the ‘ English,’ but exceed them in flavor when pickled.”

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—The geographical distribution of the two species has not
been thoroughly worked out, but as now understood may be stated as follows: The “ Blue-back,”
or “Glut” Herring, C. wstivalis, Mitchill, occurs in the Saint John’s River, Florida, and in all the
coast waters of the Eastern United States to the Gulf of Maine. On the coast of Maine this
species rarely enters rivers, but is found abundantly at sea. It is probably the “Spring” Herring
referred to by Col. Theodore Lyman as occurring below the dams in the rivers of Massachusetts.
{ts area of greatest abundance is in the Albemarle and Chesapeake regions. The name of “Glut”
Herring is derived from the fact that it makes its appearance in great schools, and all at once
becomes so abundant as to glut the markets. The forme: appears later than the “Spring” Herring,
or ‘‘Gaspereau,” and some time after the Shad. Its advent is much less gradual than that of the
“Spring” Herring. Its peculiar movements are due to certain conditions of temperature, which
will be discussed below.

At present, as the latest investigations show, the river range of this species in the Southern
States does not extend far beyond tide water. In early days, before obstructions were placed in the
James River, they are said to have ascended as far as Lexington; now they do not reach the vicinity
of Richmond, although there are no obstructions below that city. The “Spring” Herring, or
Gaspereau, C. vernalis, Mitchill, is more northerly in its range. Until discovered by Colonel
McDonald in the Neuse River of North Carolina, in the spring of 1880, it had not been definitely
recorded south of the Chesapeake Bay. Although in that year this species was particularly
abundant in the Albemarle and Chesapeake regions, constituting a considerable portion of the
entire catch, it is ordinarily much less numerous, and the area of its greatest abundance is in the
region from the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to Cape May. As has already been stated, the Alewives
of the Connecticut River are chiefly of this species, as also is the Herring of the Hudson and of
the streams emptying into Cape Cod. In the Chesapeake region this species is from three to four

WINTER HABITS OF THE ALEWIFE. 585

weeks earlier than the other, reaching the maximum of its abundance and beginning to decline in
numbers before the other comes. The approach of the latter is more gradual, and unlike the
other species, it makes its way into the small streams and branches; hence the name “Branch”
Herring. In the rivers of Massachusetts the “Branch” Herring ascends much farther toward
the headwaters than the other species, and in some streams is found to the exclusion of the
other—facts which will be discussed below when considering the influences of temperature.
Perley states that the Gaspereau appears in the harbor of Saint John’s in April, but the main body
does not enter the river before May 10; that the fish is abundant in the Bay of Fundy, but that
the species is less plentiful and smaller in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. He also states that in the
Bay of Chaleur it has never been noticed, and that, as in the case of Shad, the Bay of Merrimachi
would appear to be its extreme northern limit. It ascends the river of the same name to its source,
spawning in the Merrimachi Lake. In the Saint John’s River, New Brunswick, it ascends to Dar-
ling’s Lake (Kennebecasis), Douglas Lake (Nerepis), the Washademoac Lake, the Ocnabog Lake,
the Grand Lake, and the Oromocto River, and in company with the Shad deposits its spawn. Its
abundance in the harbor of Saint John, New Brunswick, may be inferred from the fact that the
catch varies from twelve to sixteen thousand barrels each season, sometimes reaching twenty
thousand. This statement was made in 1852.

A very remarkable phenomenon, recently observed, has been the appearance of this species in
immense numbers in Lake Ontario and lakes of New York. Dr. T. H. Bean has collected a large
number of facts upon this point, which are recorded in an essay at the end of this chapter.

MIGRATIONS AND MOVEMENTS.—Like the Shad, the Alewives are anadromous in habit. The
dates of their first appearance in any given river may be very closely determined by an examina-
tion of the tables which show the movements of the Shad. The Gaspereau or “Spring” Herring
usually precedes the Shad by a period of several weeks, while the run of the “ Blue-back” or
“Glut” Herring occurs in the middle of the shad season.

In 1879 the first Shad made their appearance in the markets of Washington March 25, preceded
four weeks by the Menhaden, a little more than three weeks by the Branch Herring, and about
four weeks in advance of the “Glut” Herring. Colonel Lyman, in his report for 1872, already
referred to, gives the dates of the appearance of the Alewives, Menhaden, and bluefish at Waquoit
weir for thirteen years, from 1859 to 1871 inclusive. The Alewives always came first, from
March 24 to April 7; the scup from a month to forty days later; the Menhaden about the same
time with the scup, though usually two or three days later; and the bluefish from ten days to two
weeks after the Menhaden. !

Concerning the time of their departure from the river as little is known as in the case of the
Shad. Their winter habitat has yet to be found. I am convinced, after several years of
study, that in mild winters they remain about the mouths of the rivers, ascending them in the
spring. Late in December, 1879, he captured numerous specimens of- both species in gill-nets,
at Yorktown, in company with Menhaden, and it is my opinion that they might be taken in a
similar manner in Pamlico Sound. Thus, also, it is possible that many Shad winter in Long
Island Sound and New York Bay, but we know that in the fall they are found in abundance forty
or fifty miles at sea in the Gulf of Maine. The Branch Herrings ascend the river probably as far
as the Shad, and are believed to penetrate small streams to a much greater distance, entering
many waters in which the Shad never occur. The “Blue-back” or “Glut” Herring, however,
does not go far above tide water, and the area of reproduction seems to be confined to the large
streams or to their tidal tributaries.

1Report of Massachusetts Commissioner of Inland Fisheries, January, 1874, p. 64.

586 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Foop.—As in the case of the Shad, very little is known concerning the food of the river
Alewives in their salt-water habitats. It is, however, supposed that they, like other similar
species, exist largely upon swimming crustaceans. When in the rivers they do not feed to any
considerable extent, although they have been known in many instances to take the fly.

REPRODUCTION.—The eggs of the Alewife are adhesive, like those of the sea Herring, though
to a much less degree. The number of eggs varies from sixty thousand to one hundred thousand,
in accordance with the size of the individual. They are deposited upon the bottom in shoal water,
or on whatever object they may come in contact with. The time for spawning, after the fish have
entered the river, depends, as in the case of the Shad, entirely on the temperature of the water.
The spawning of the “Glut” Herring takes place under ordinary conditions at a temperature of
70° to 75° F.; that of the “Branch” Herring, when the water is as low as 55° to 60° F. The
period of development varies directly with the temperature.

The seasou of incubation with the ‘“‘Glut” Herring is about the same as with the Shad—that
is, about three or four days. With the “ Branch” Herring the spawning takes place when the water
is colder, for which reason the period of incubation is doubtless longer. The young Alewife before
winter attains a length of two to three inches, and the period of growth continues, probably, as in
the Shad, for three or four years.

“There seems to be,” remarks Professor Baird,! “a difference of opinion as to the age at which
Alewives first return from the sea, some fixing it at two and others at three or more years. Captain
Treat, of Eastport, however, many years ago transported several hundred pairs of breeding fish
to a small sheet of water, known as Keene’s Pond, situated some five or six miles from Robinston,
Maine, and having its outlet into the Calais River just below Red Beach. The level of the lake is
several hundred feet above that of the river, and the outlet is very precipitous, consisting of
several falls entirely impassable to fish from below. No Alewives had ever been known in this
pond at the time of their introduction by Captain Treat. The young fish were seen i: the pond in
the course of the summer in myriads, all of them disappearing, however, after a heavy rain in the
autumn, which swelled the waters to produce a sufficient discharge. Due examination was made
for successive years, but not until the expiration of the fourth were they seen, when the outlet was
observed to be almost choked up by a solid mass of Alewives, struggling to make their way back
again to the place of their birth.”

During past years the Alewife has frequently been artificially introduced into new waters or
over dams by the transportation of fish of considerable size. This is constantly done on Cape Cod
in the restocking of the herring streams which have been exhausted, and was successfully accom-
plished by General N. L. Lincoln, in Maine, as long ago as 1750. Colonel Lyman, in his report
for 1870,? describes the experiment by Mr. E. 8S. Haddoway in restocking Eel Liver, Town Brook,
Plymouth, in 1865. The crop sown by him in that year came up in 1869 in the shape of a good
run of fish, chiefly males full grown.

Herring eggs have frequently been artificially impregnated by men engaged in shad culture.
The young fish artificially hatched have in some instances been transported, In 1882 two million
were sent to Texas by the United States Fish Commission and deposited in the Colorado River.
Artificial hatching would seem less necessary in the case of the Alewife than in that of the Shad,
since with the former, owing to its peculiar spawning habits, the eggs stand a better chance of
hatching out, and very slight protection of the fish duriug spawning season will be sufficient to
keep up the supply. The present law of the District of Columbia, by which pound-nets are kept

1Report, United States Fish Commission, part ii, 1874, p. 1xi. 2Page 7.

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE ALEWIFE. 587

out of the water after June 1, will doubtless have a very important effect in keeping up the supply
of Alewives in the Potomac.

Sizz.— According to the ordinary mode of estimating the weight of River Herring in the
Potomac three make a pound, and the maximum weight per individual does not exceed half a
pound.

UsEs.—The Herrings, or Alewives, taken in the great fisheries of the South, are almost
without exception salted for local consumption, though early in the season they are shipped fresh
from the Albemarle region to Philadelphia, New York, and Baltimore, and are sold in the
markets at a low price. There is of course a considerable consumption in the fresh state in the
region of the fisheries, immense quantities being taken by peddlers and carried by wagons inland
from the rivers of the South, as well as from the Hudson, Connecticut, and smaller rivers of
Massachusetts. Great numbers are smoked in North Carolina for local consumption; in fact,
almost all which are used in the vicinity of the fisheries are taken out of the brine (after having
been saturated with the salt, or “struck” or corned”) and hung up for a few days in the smoke-
houses belonging to the purchasers who intend them for their own use.

When intended for shipment into the interior they are treated in several ways: (i) They may
be taken out of the first pickle and packed in dry salt; in that case they are called ‘‘salt Herring.”
(ii) The roe Alewives may be selected, the heads and entrails removed and salted down in dry salt
and sent to market as roe Alewives, of which there are several grades. (iii) They may be packed
as split Alewives. In this operaticn the heads and entrails are removed by a single cut and twist
of the knife, with surprising rapidity and packed in dry salt, or smoked. The heading and
evisceration are done by a single stroke, and an expert operator will prepare forty to fifty per
minute. This work is done by negro women. In Washington a superior brand of smoked
Alewives is prepared and sold as ‘‘Potomac Roe Herring.” These are highly esteemed by judges
of smoked fish, and command a price of three or four cents each in the city markets. They are
equal to the finest Labrador Herring. Small quantities are prepared after the German fashion —
Biickling.

In conclusion, we quote from Professor Baird’s second report as Commissioner of Fisheries
the following remarks upon the uses and importance of this fish:

“T am inclined to think, for various reasons, that too little has been done in our waters
towards the restoration to their primitive abundance of the Alewife (Pomolobus mediocris), the
Herring of our Southern and Middle States, not to be confounded with the sea Herring (Clupea
elongata).

“The Alewife in many respects is superior, in commercial and economical value, to the Her-
ring, being a much larger and sweeter fish, and more like the true Shad in this respect. Of all
American fish none are so easily propagated as the Alewife, and waters from which it has been
driven by the erection of impassable dams can be fully restocked in the course of a few years,
simply by transporting a sufficient number of the mature fish taken at the mouth of the stream to
a point above the dams, or placing them in ponds or lakes. Here they will spawn and return to
the sea after a short interval, making their way over dams which carry any flow. The young
Alewives, after a season, descend, and return, if not prevented, at the end of their period of imma-
turity, to the place where they were spawned.

“In addition to the value of the Alewife as an article of food, it is of much service in ponds
and rivers as nutriment for trout, salmon, and other valuable fishes. The young derive their sus-
tenance from minute crustaceans and other objects too diminutive for the larger fish, and in their
great abundance are greedily devoured by the other species around them. In waters inhabited

588 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

by both pickerel and trout these fish find in the young Alewives sufficient food to prevent their
preying upon each other. They are also, for the same reason, serviceable in ponds containing
black bass.

“As a cheap and very abundant food for other fishes, the young Alewives can be placed in
waters that have no connection with the sea by merely transferring from any convenient locality
a sufficient number of the living mature parents, taken at the approach of the spawning season;
they will remain for several months, and, indeed, can often be easily penned up by a suitable dam
and kept throughout the year.

“Tt is in another still more important connection that we should consider the Alewife. It is
well known that within the last thirty or forty years the fisheries of cod, haddock, and hake along
our coast have measurably diminished, and in some places ceased entirely. Enough may be taken
for local consumption, but localities which formerly furnished the material for an extensive com-
merce in dried fish have been entirely abandoned. Various causes have been assigned for this
condition of things, and among others the alleged diminution of the sea Herring. After a careful
consideration of the subject, however, I am strongly inclined to believe that it is due to the dimi-
nution, and in many instances to the extermination, of the Alewives. As already remarked, before
the construction of dams in the tidal rivers the Alewife was found in incredible numbers along our
coast, probably remaining not far from shore, excepting when moving up into the fresh water, and
at any rate spending a considerable interval off the mouths of the rivers either at the time of their
journey upward or on their return. The young, too, after returning from the ocean, usually
swarmed in the same localities, and thus furnished for the larger species a bait such as is not
supplied at present by any other fish, the sea Herring not excepted. We know that the Alewife
is particularly attractive as a bait to other fisl:es, especially for cod and mackerel. Alewives
enter the streams on the south coast of New England before the arrival of the bluetish; but the
latter devote themselves with great assiduity to the capture of the young as they come out from
their breeding ponds. The outlet of an alewife pond is always a capital place for the bluefish,
and, as they come very near the shore in such localities, they can be caught there with the line by
what is called ‘heaving and hauling,’ or throwing a squid from the shore and hauling it in with
the utmost rapidity.

“The coincidence, at least, in the erection of the dams, and the enormous diminution in the
number of the Alewives, and the decadence of the inshore cod fishery, is certainly very remarka-
ble. It is probable, also, that the mackerel fisheries have suffered in the same way, as these fish
find in the young Menhaden and Alewives an attractive bait.

“The same remarks as to the agency of the Alewife in attracting the deep-sea fishes to the
shores, and especially near the mouths of rivers, apply in a proportional degree to the Shad and
salmon.” ;

177. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE BRANCH ALEWIFE IN CERTAIN LAKES OF NEW YORK.
By TARLETON H. BEAN.

The Branch Alewife, C. vernalis, Mitchill, has of late years attracted considerable attention
in Cayuga and Seneca Lakes, New York, and in Lake Ontario. The United States National
Museum has received a great many individuals from each of these lakes, and upon examination
they were all found to be the species above named. This would be expected from the well-known
habits of the Branch Alewife, which ascends far up the streams and pushes its way into the inte-
rior, while, on the other hand, its relative, the Glut Alewife, appears never to penetrate far beyond

ALEWIVES IN THE SAINT LAWRENCE. 589

the limits of tidal waters. The United States Commissioner has received many letters concerning
this Alewife from persons living on the shores of Lake Ontario and in the vicinity of Lakes
Cayuga and Seneca. Some thought that these fish were Shad; others, however, recognized the
fact of their disagreement from that fish, and spoke of them as a species of Herring. It is note-
worthy that the Alewife, so far as we know, did not appear in Lake Ontario until after the intro-
duction of Shad into that lake by the Fish Commissioner of New York. We have been unable to
obtain any evidence of its occurrence in that lake before the Shad was introduced. Again, Lakes
Seneca and Cayuga are separated from Lake Ontario by obstructions which could not well be over-
come by spawning fish. The only theory on which the fact of the presence of this fish in these
New York lakes can be explained would appear to be either that young Herring have been intro-
duced by the employés of the New York Fish Commission when instructed to place shad eggs in
the lakes, or that young Herring have been taken out of the cans in the act of changing the
water upon the shad spawn prior to their transportation to these waters. It is a significant
fact that these broods of young Herring have been found only in the lakes in which Shad have
been introduced.

We are in possession of information which seems to establish conclusively that the Alewife
does not occur in the lower waters of the Saint Lawrence River, nor was there any evidence of its
presence at Montreal until within the last nine years.

The name which is most universally applied to this species wherever it is known along the
Saint Lawrence River is ‘‘Gaspereau.” In the vicinity of Cayuga Lake it sometimes receives the
name ‘Cayuga Lake Shad.”

“The Alewife is known to exist in Lakes Seneca and Cayuga, and in Lake Ontario, specimens
from all these waters being amongst the collections of the National Museum. It is said to occur
also in the headwaters of the river Saint Lawrence, and the probability of its presence there is
strengthened by the following extract from a communication to ‘Forest and Stream,” August 13,
1878, by a gentleman who writes under the pseudonym “ Piscator”:

“ ,. . . a.lively little visitor which came to us in shoals a few weeks ago, and disappeared
again. The visitor in question was a little, silvery fish, very similar to a Herring, but having its
belly (as I found to my cost in taking it off my flies) serrated or edged with sharp spines. I pre-
sume it is the same fish which has appeared in such abundance in the Upper Saint Lawrence and
Lake Ontario.”

Mr. Fred. Mather, in a letter dated July 22, 1878, says: “I have heard of their being taken
with a fly at Quebec (where they are called Gaspereaux), and also above there-on the Saint
Lawrence.” .

They appear to be little known, however, in the Province of Quebec, for Mr. J. F. Whiteaves,
of Montreal, in a letter dated July 26, 1878, writes: “So far as I know, the Gaspereau, or Alewife,
is not found at all in the waters of the Province of Quebec. I have never seen a living or recently
caught specimen.”

ScaRCITY OF ALEWIVES IN THE SAINT LAWRENCE.—Professor J. W. Dawson, writing from
Little Metis, Province of Quebec, July 30, 1878, states as follows: “The species is quite abundant
in the Northumberland Strait and the Bay de Chaleur and rivers entering these, but so far as I can
learn rare in the river Saint Lawrence. . . . At this place (Metis, which you will find on the
south side of the Saint Lawrence a little below Father Point), I am told that Gaspereaux are mere
stragglers, appearing only very rarely and in small numbers; but that they are more plentiful at
Matane, thirty miles farther east. I do not know of their occurrence on the north shore opposite
this place, but have no positive information. I have never heard of the occurrence of the Gaspe-
reau at Montreal, though the Shad ascends the river to that place, and far up the Ottawa.”

590 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

The above extracts concerning the appearance of the Alewife in the Saint Lawrence tend to
prove that, at least until a very recent period, it has been almost unknown in the lower waters of
that river.

Specimens of the Alewife, obtained by Prof. 8. F. Baird, from Croton River, sing Sing, New
York, are in the collections of the United States National Museum.

Prof. Hamilton L. Smith, Geneva, New York, furnishes the following information, obtained
from an old angler, concerning the appearance of Alewives in the vicinity of Seneca Lake: “Their
first appearance in the neighborhood of Seneca Lake was in the dam below the rapids at Waterloo,
near Geneva, in June, 1868. In the spring of 1869 the surface of the water in the lake here was
covered with them.” The species. was known in Cayuga Lake as early as 1868.

According to Mr. E. Tyler, of Henderson, New York, it was first noticed in Lake Ontario in June,
1873, when large quantities were taken in pounds and trap-nets.

Mr. W. Ainsworth, of Cape Vincent, New York, wrote on August 13, 1878: “This fish (the
Alewife) first appeared in Lake Ontario and the river Saint Lawrence at Cape Vincent, in 1873, in
large quantities.”

THE ORIGIN OF THE ALEWIFE IN LAKE ONTARIO AND THE NEW YORK LAKES.—As already
stated, there seems to be no reasonable doubt that the Branch Alewife was introduced into Lake
Ontario with Shad, prior to whose introduction no evidence of its occurrence in that lake appears.
It is an undecided point whether Alewives go down the Saint Lawrence to the ocean in the fall
and return in the spring, as they do upon the Atlantic slope, or whether they spend the winter in
the deeper waters of the lake. We have not the specimens at hand to enable us to establish the
facts concerning the migrations of this species through the Saint Lawrence. It is noteworthy,
however, that when they appear in the waters which they frequent, they come in immense schools,
and at the time of, or a sbort time prior to, their spawning season. The first schools that appear
seem to consist of large, adult fish. ‘Tt may be that the schools descend the Saint Lawrence in the
fall and ascend in spring. However this may be, we are justified in believing that Alewives were
artificially introduced into Lake Ontario; and this is a more reasonable view of the case than to
admit a total change in their habits, such as would be involved by their sudden departure from
their accustomed waters into new and untried regions.

As to their presence in Cayuga and Seneca Lakes, New York, we have grounds for believing
that they have, of their own accord, penetrated thus far into the interior of New York State. Mr.
Fred. Mather writes that he has seen Alewives go up the canal locks at West Troy, and Prof. H.
L. Smith, of Geneva, who first noticed them in the neighborhood of Seneca Lake in June, 1868,
states that the canal was opened about that time, and thinks that they might have come into the
New York lakes from the Chesapeake or Delaware Bays through Elmira and Painted Post.

We learn from Prof. Hamilton L. Smith that Alewives obtained near Geneva, New York, in
June, 1868, were eight to nine inches long. He also sent to the National Museum specimens from
Seneca Lake, four of which were, respectively, three and two-fifths, four and four-fifths, four and
nine-tenths, and six and one-fifth inches in length. One specimen, forwarded by Prof. D. 8.
Jordan from Cayuga Lake, measured five and three-tenths inches. Two spent females, received
from Horton Brothers & Ainsworth, and obtained by them in Lake Ontario, ranged from eight to
nine and a half inches in length. Nearly all the specimens received froin the interior lakes of New
York are small—considerably smaller than those from Lake Ontario, and present a somewhat
starved appearance. This characteristic was specially noticeable in the individuals which were
found dead in immense numbers. The specimens from Lake Ontario are, on an average, equal in
length to those which enter streams on the Atlantic coast. Mr. Ainsworth says that those cap-

MOVEMENTS OF THE BRANCH ALEWIFE. 591

tured at Cape Vincent vary in length from one and a quarter to eight inches. He never saw one
that would weigh over half a pound. Mr. E. Tyler writes that the largest individuals are about
nine inches long.

Reference has already been made, in another place, to the statement of Prof. H. L. Smith con-
cerning the abundance of this fish in Seneca Lake, New York, near Geneva.

Mr. Ainsworth says that they were present at Cape Vincent in large shoals in 1873, and that
they increased in numbers until, in 1878, immense quantities were taken throughout the waters of
the lake and in the headwaters of the Saint Lawrence. He also states that he knew one fisherman
to take fifteen barrels of Alewives from a small pound-net at one time. Mr. Tyler corroborates
the statement of their abundance in June, 1873, and in a letter dated July 27, 1878, adds: ““Now
our waters are literally filled with them. In hauling seines they are often a terrible nuisance.
Such countless millions are hauled ashore at times, that it becomes necessary to lift the seine and
let them run out; it could never be got ashore with safety.”

Messrs. Clark & Robbins, in a letter dated December 19, 1879, state that “they [Alewives]
interfere with pound and trap net fishing, as they fill the nets to the exclusion of other fish.”

Mr. George Burn, of the Exchange Bank of Canada, Montreal, says, in a letter dated August
20, 1878, that the Alewives come into the Saint Lawrence in great shoals at first, “the water being
fairly alive with them.”

MovemMENTS.—It will be observed, from what has already been said, that the Branch Ale.
wife is found in the waters under consideration, just as in the coast streams, at or near the
surface of the water in immense schools. Mr. W. Ainsworth, in a letter previously quoted from,
writes: ‘‘They swim in large schools and rise to the surface, and, when the water is still, they cause
aripple upon it similar to that produced by a school of mackerel.”

Mr. George Burn, it will be remembered, has stated that in the Saint Lawrence River they
appear in great shoals at first.

It would seem that the disappearance of the Alewife from these waters is as sudden as its
appearance. Mr. E. Tyler, under date of September 1, 1878, remarks: .‘‘ If possible for you to wait
until October, I will be able to give you every grade from three inches in length to full-grown fish.
The pound-nets at that time will be hauling, and barrels of them are taken at each haul. We can
get the large ones at any time with cisco gill-nets.”. Mr. Tyler was, however, unable to secure
specimens for us at the time when he supposed they would be abundant, and on January 20,
1879, he wrote: ‘‘We set to work every kind of device to get the Alewives. Our cisco fishermen
could get none in their gill-nets here, and I went to Sacket’s Harbor, a distance of nine miles,
and made arrangements with the fish-dealers to notify all the pound-net fishermen to save some;
but only one was caught in Chaumont Bay during the fall. I also went once, and sent twice, up
the shore towards Oswego, seven miles, where an immense seine is hauled, and where, in the
summer, these Alewives are so abundant that it is impossible to get the net ashore at times; I
certainly thought I could not fail there; but only one was taken during the.fall. Our cisco nets
are often in one hundred feet of water, and no Alewives are gilled after the 1st of September.

Mr. George Burn has observed the sudden disappearance of the Alewife at Montreal, but he
believes that they sometimes reappear after their first disappearance. It would seem from the
above statements that different schools of Alewives are present at various times during the
sumnier, and that all of them Jeave late in September or early in October. It seems also as if
they go into the deeper water of the lake, and are sometimes caught in gill-nets. Mr. E. Tyler,
writing from Henderson, New York, October 5, 1879, makes the following statement: “The

592 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Alewives left us, as usual, about August 10, and the Shad also; at least none have been caught
since.”

In a letter dated June 14, 1879, he says: “Since about August 25 [1878] no Alewives were
seen in these waters until the first of May last [1879]. . . . This spring [1879] I made arrange-
ments with the owner of the seines (six miles south of Henderson) to send me the first ones taken,
and he brought me five on May 14. . . . I drove over next day, but not one could be found in
the net; but in a short time there was an abundance here, but all of one size. The first that came
appeared to be large. . . . In answer to your question as to the route by which they come, I
can only reply that the first seen of them was the last of April [1879]; the trout taken at the
mouth of Saint Lawrence were filled with them. From the best information obtainable, they come
here from the ocean with the Shad, and return with them in the fall to the same place.”

Mr. W. Ainsworth, whom we have frequently quoted, writes that the spawning season for the
Alewife in Lake Ontario is in June.

Mr. N. H. Lytle, of Ogdensburg, New York, wrote, September 26, 1879, concerning the Ale-
wife as follows: ‘In June, 1878, a fisherman came into the ‘Journal’ office with several of these
fish. He was not able to give them a name. I had frequently seen Shad on the butchers’ stalls,
and was of the opinion that they also were Shad. . . . I opened the fish and found them full
of eggs and almost ready to spawn. A few days later they came up the Oswegatchie River in
thousands as far as the dam, and many were caught by the boys. They were then from seven to
ten inches in length. . . . This year they made their appearance again in the latter part of
June, and came up the Oswegatchie River. They were noticed at many points on the Saint Law-
rence and in Lake Ontario. Steamers passing up and down the river reported seeing them in
schools of millions.”

The following note was sent by a correspondent, “‘H. W. P.,” at Waddington, May 31, 1878,
to the Ogdensburg Journal, and forwarded to us by Mr. Lytle: “A colony of . . . Shad
appeared here yesterday in full spawning order. John Stark caught thirteen, measuring eight
inches and under.” It is evident from the size of these fish and their spawning condition that
they must have been Alewives. Two large females, received from Horton Brothers & Ainsworth,
who collected them in Lake Ontario September 17, 1877, were spent.

ENEMIES AND FATALITIES.—According to the statements of persons living on the shores of
Lake Ontario, Alewives are largely consumed by lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush), pike (Esox
lucius), pickerel (Esow reticulatus), muskellunge (Hsox nobilior), black bass (Micropterus salmoides
and M. dolomiei). There is no doubt that other predatory fishes destroy large numbers of the
Alewives, the wall-eyed pike (Stizestedium) and burbot (Lota maculosa) doubtless proving very
destructive to this species. The yellow perch (Perca americana), species of Lepomis, Ambloplites,
and other centrarchids doubtless kill vast numbers of the young.

According to the testimony of those who are familiar with the fisheries of the lakes, incredible
numbers of Alewives are destroyed by the use of fishing implements intended for the capture of
edible fish. Vast quantities of dead Alewives have been observed upon the shores of Seneca and
other lakes of New York. Examples of such fish have been received by the United States
National Museum from Seneca Lake, whence they were forwarded by Prof. Hamilton L. Smith.
An examination of some of these specimens shows that the air-bladder is abnormally distended,
filling the major portion of the abdominal cavity. What may have been the cause of this disten-
sion is of course unknown, but it will account for the presence of the dying fish at the surface.

Appended are two extracts (the one from the “‘ Utica Herald” and the other from the “ Rochester
Union”), which may throw some light upon this subject:

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE ALEWIVE. 593

“The cause [of the sudden death of vast numbers of fish] is the explosion of dynamite. Fish-
ermen deposit crabs and other bait to attract particular species of fish, and when they [the fish]
are supposed to be collected, they [the fishermen] drop a cartridge, charged with dynamite, to
which is attached a fuse, and the explosion of which will kill every fish within a radius of sixty to
eighty feet, and shock those at a greater distance, which, though they do not immediately rise to
the surface, in their gasping, weakened condition, take into their gills the sand set free by the
explosion, which ultimately produces death. By this means thousands of fish, not large enough
for profitable sale or use, are destroyed; and, if the practice be continued, it will neutralize all
efforts of our Fish Commission to stock our lakes and rivers. The quantity of black bass and
other choice fish of Lake Erie and Niagara River daily exposed for sale in the fish markets has
been and is suspicious, and led me to make diligent inquiry as to their mode of wholesale capture
and destruction.”

The second extract reads thus:

“Although ‘Game Constable’ Swartz succeeded in cleaning all the nets out of Irondiquoit Bay
he has continued to observe that fish were brought from that locality and sold in larger quantities
than could be taken in a legitimate manner. At an early hour this morning he set out for the Sea
Breeze, arriving there about three o’clock. Nobody was seen fishing; but all along the shore of
the sand-bar, about two hundred yards east of the Sea Breeze House, were found quantities of
dead fish of all kinds, in some places piled three or four deep, and covering a considerable space
of ground. These fish, consisting chiefly of bass, perch, bull-heads, and sun-fish, were all small.
On cutting open and examining a number of them, their air-bladders were found to have burst, as is
always the case when fish are killed by means of nitro-glycerine cartridges exploded in the water.
The conclusion is, therefore, irresistible that the fish were killed in this way. When they come
to the surface they are ali scooped up and taken ashore, where the big ones are sorted out, and
the little ones left on the sand. The deadly explosive kills every living thing, old and young,
within reach of it.”

CapTURE.—Specimens have been dredged, by Prof. B. G. Wilder, in Cayuga Lake. Vast
numbers, too, are taken about the foot of Lake Ontario in pounds, traps, and seines. Small
numbers are caught in gill-nets, even in the cisco nets, which are set in very deep water. Mr.
E. Tyler writes that at Henderson, New York, Alewives take a fly quite readily. Mr. Fred.
Mather writes that he has heard of their having been taken with a fly at and above Quebec
on the Saint Lawrence. Mr. George Burn, of Montreal, states that he has caught Alewives with
artificial flies at that place.

Inquiries have been made as to the methods of utilizing Alewives as the basis of fertilizers,
but we do not know that anything has yet been attempted in that direction. Mr. W. Ains-
worth writes under date of August 13, 1878, as follows: ‘They furnish excellent food for salmon,
trout, pike, pickerel, and black bass. They have increased the quantity, as well as improved
the quality of these fish.”

Mr. E. Tyler wrote on July 27, 1878: “So far I consider them a blessing. They supply
all our edible fishes with an abundance of food, so that the young fry of bass, trout, pike,
pickerel, and muskellunge are not destroyed as formerly, but are allowed to mature, and to-day
all the above fishes are more plentiful than for many years past.”

There can be no doubt that the Alewife would prove useful as food and bait for other
fishes. The annoyance which it causes by filling the seines and pounds will, undoubtedly,
be offset by its usefulness in the fisheries of the future.

38 F

594 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

178. THE INLAND ALEWIFE OR SKIPJACK—CLUPEA CHRYSOCHLORIS.

This fish, which is found in many parts of the Mississippi Valley, has recently been found by
Mr. Silas Stearns in the salt water off Pensacola—a surprising circumstance, since the species was
thought to be an inhabitant of fresh water exclusively. “It is known to most inland fishermen as
the ‘Skipjack,’” writes Professor Jordan, ‘‘in allusion to its habit of leaping from the water. It is
also sometimes called ‘Shad’ and ‘Herring.’ It is abundant throughout the Mississippi Valley in
all the larger streams. In the neighborhood of the ocean it descends to the Gulf, but in the upper
courses it is permanently resident. It has also entered Lake Michigan and Lake Erie since the
construction of the canals. It reaches a length of a little more than a foot. It feeds on small
crustaceans, worms, and the like, rarely taking the hook. As a food-fish it is regarded as wholly
worthless, its flesh being poor and dry, and full of innumerable small bones.”

179. THE SHAD—CLUPEA SAPIDISSIMA.
By MARSHALL McDonaLp.

NameEs.—The following notes on the names of the Shad are taken from an unpublished man-
uscript by Mr. Goode upon the fisheries of Florida. The Shad appears to have been considered
by early American writers on fish identical with the Shad of England, Clupea jfinta. The first to
give to it a distinctive name was Alexander Wilson in the American edition of Rees’ Encyclo-
pedia.! I quote his description in full, since it was claimed by Rafinesque, whose remark has
been since frequently quoted, that Clupea sapidissima was “catalogued, not described,” by Wilson:

‘“Clupea sapidissima (AMERICAN SHAD).—No spots on the sides; snout entire (not bifid as
in the European); from eighteen inches to two and a half feet in length; weighs from six to
ten and twelve pounds. Scales large, deciduous, and of a silver color, most delicious. They are
for six months about the capes or mouths of large rivers, then run into the sea. During March,
April, and May, they ascend these rivers to the freshes, and thence toward their sources, in
order to deposit their eggs in shallow water, where, hatching, the young fry descends in the
latter part of the summer and autumn to the tide waters, and thence down to the salts; and
the adults return likewise to the sea, thin, emaciated, and weak.”

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—The Shad is found along the whole Atlantic coast of the
United States, and its capture constitutes one of the most important fisheries in all the streams
draining into the Atlantic between the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Saint John’s River, Florida.
Its northern limit is thus defined by Charles Lanman in the “Report of the United States Fish
Commission,” part ii:*

“The Shad is but rarely seen on the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia. It is found in the Gulf of
Saint Lawrence, the various rivers of which.it ascends as far north as the Miramichi, which seems
to be its limit in that direction, none having been seen in the Bay of Chaleur.”

Throughout this entire range the Shad is found in sufficient quantities to give rise to fisheries
of great commercial value. There is no run of Shad into any of the rivers draining into the Gulf
of Mexico, although the capture of isolated individuals of this species has been reported from the

1The Cyclopedia or Universal Dictionary of Arts, Science and Literature. By Abraham Rees . . . First
American edition in forty-one volumes. Philadelphia. [The American edition is said by Allibone to have been in
course of publication from 1809 to 1820. Dr. Gill tells me that he has evidence to show that vol. ix was pub-
lished prior to 1814. ]

?Page 461.

SHAD IN THE ALABAMA RIVER. 595

Alabama River and from several tributaries of the Mississippi prior to any steps towards the arti-
ficial propagation of Shad in these waters by the United States Fish Commission. It is, however,
probable that many of the so-called “White” Shad were but large specimens of the “Golden”
Shad of the Mississippi Basin. Unquestionably, however, Professor Baird was referring to the
capture of a genuine Clupea sapidissima in the waters tributary to the Gulf of Mexico when he wrote:!
“T have already referred to the discovery of Shad in the Alabama River, whether the result of
Dr. Daniel’s experiments already detailed or not; and I am assured by reliable testimony that
they are found at the present time in other streams of Alabama. Of this I am well satisfied,
having actually received a specimen from Mr. W. Penn Yonge, of Springville, Alabama, taken at
Elba, Alabama, and preserved in alcohol, and distinguishable in not the slightest particular from
the Shad of the eastern coast. I have also the assurance of Dr. Lawrence of their capture at the
Hot Springs of the Ouachita; of Dr. Middleton Goldsmith, at the Falls of the Ohio, near Louis-
ville; and of Dr. Turner, in the Wabash River of Indiana and Illinois, and in the Neosho River of
Kansas.”

If the occasional presence of individuals of this species in the waters tributary to the Gulf of
Mexico be admitted, it seems unaccountable that, since no fisheries have there been established for
its capture, that the natural increase should not have been such as to cause at least as abundant
a run into the rivers emptying into the Gulf as into those on the Atlantic coast.

If, moreover, assuming that this species has been present in these waters in sufficient numbers
for effective reproduction, natural causes have not combined to establish a run of this fish in the
tributaries of the Gulf, it can scarcely be hoped that any measures of artificial reproduction would,
if resorted to, accomplish the desired result. Nor does existing proof appear sufficiently positive,
as yet, to establish more than the occasional oceurrence of isolated specimens in these waters
under conditions simply natural. It is probable that where true Shad bave been found in the
tributaries of the Gulf of Mexico explanation may thus be made: Occasional individuals have
strayed beyond their natural geographical range, around the Florida peninsula, and, once in the
Gulf, they have entered the rivers under the impulse of reproduction, but never in sufficient quan-
tities to maintain themselves.

In January, 1879, by direction of Prof. G. B. Goode, the writer was requested to proceed
to the Alabama River to investigate the question of the natural occurrence that White Shad in
this river. The report then made gives probably all the facts on this subject that have yet been
obtained. They are as follows:

‘“‘There is no doubt that ‘White Shad,’ to the number of two or three thousand, were taken in
the Alabama River and its principal tributary, the Coosa, in the seasons of 1878 and 1879, and of
inferior size and in smaller numbers in the season of 1877. Whether these runs of Shad were
the result entirely of the government ‘plants,’ beginning in 1875, or were due in part to previous
plants made by individual enterprise, are the questions to the solution of which I have directed.
my investigation. I have not sought to determine the question whether the ‘White Shad,’ Clupea.
sapidissima, is indigenous to the Alabama River. This has been stated again and again. Judge
Phelan, in a letter to the ‘Montgomery Advertiser’ of April 11, 1878, claims to have eaten ‘White
Shad’ at Centreville, Alabama, not later than 1848. They were taken in traps at the Falls of the.
Cahaba, and were pronounced ‘White Shad’ by Mr. Samuel Jamison, an old North Carolina fish-
erman. Judge Phelan further states that some claimed that they were only Hickory Shad,

“No amount of such evidence can ever settle this question. There is always the possibility

1Report United States Fish Commission, part ii, p. 55.

596 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

of mistake on the part of those making the assertion, and since the presumed or actual introduc-
tion of Shad into these waters, we cannot settle the question by actual identification of specimens.

“Tf the true Clupea sapidissima is natural to the waters of the Alabama, or if the plants in the
Coosa in 1848, and the plant in Conley Creek, near Montgomery, in 1856, were successful, then
there must exist in the waters of the Alabama certain conditions which are unfavorable to natural
increase, and all the efforts of the United States Commission to establish an annual run of Shad
in the Alabama River by artificial plantings will prove abortive.

“On the other hand, if the planting operations of the United States Commission are success-
ful in establishing a run of Shad in this river, the result will prove that the Shad are not indigenous
to these waters and that previous plants were unsuccessful. Two or three years will settle this
question.

“There seems to be nothing in the conditions presented by the Alabama River to prevent the
establishment of a run of Shad in that river, unless the low temperature of the river during the
running season of the fish prevents maturity of the ova.”

The geographical range of the Shad, as already stated, was confined to the Atlantic coast of
the United States until, by the operations of the United States Fish Commission, its limits were
vastly extended. Runs of Shad, sufficiently large to be of commercial value, have been estab-
lished in several of the tributaries of the Mississippi River, notably the Ohio River; and the
several plants made from time to time in the Sacramento River, on the Pacific coast, have resulted
in the colonization of this species in all the rivers of the Pacific slope, from the Sacramento to
Puget Sound.

MiGRATIoNS.—It is doubtful whether there is any géneral coastwise movement of the
Shad. That there is an occasional migration of this kind is evidenced by the following facts:
The Shad of the rivers of the South Atlantic coast, as a rule, have black-tipped caudal and
dorsal fins, which distinctive marks of coloration are absent in the Shad of more northern rivers;
and yet occasionally these southern Shad are caught as far north as the tributaries of the
Chesapeake and Delaware Bays. These fish have undoubtedly been born and bred in southern
waters, and their appearance so far north would indicate that occasionally this southern variety
strays beyond its normal range.’ At one time? it was imagined that the whole body of American
Shad, having wintered in the south, started northward with the new year, and as each river mouth
was reached a detachment would leave the entire mass for the purpose of ascending the river, the
Jast remaining portion of the immense school entering the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.

At a later date it was thought more reasonable to suppose that the young fish, hatched out in
any particular stream, went out into the sea and remained within a moderate distance of the coast
until the period again occurred for their upward river migration. Their appearance, first in the

‘extreme southern river of the coast, the Saint John’s, and at later dates successively in the more
northern rivers, was thought to confirm this view. It will be seen, in the discussion of the relation
of the movements of the Shad to the water temperature, that this order of appearance when
preserved may be reasonably accounted for; there are, however, exceptions. For instance, the
-Edisto River is many miles north of the Savannah, and yet the run of Shad in the former is
wsually coincident with that in the latter. This leads us to believe that the Shad are generally
distributed along the coast at all times, entering the rivers as soon as the temperature of the

1 Report United States Fish Commission, part ii, p. 48. :
2It may here be mentioned that there are probably several well-defined hydrographical areas along the Atlantic
coast beyond each of which Shad indigenous to that area rarely stray. Each race has its own peculiar characteristics.

CAUSES INFLUENCING MIGRATIONS. 597

water is suitable. It is but natural that the waters of a creek or short stream, not having its
source in the mountains, should in the spring become warm long before those of a large river
whose headwaters are far up among the mountains; for which reason we may expect to find, in
the case of two rivers, the most southerly of which has a longer water-course than the other, that
the Shad will first enter the more northerly, yet shorter, and consequently, at a given date, warmer
stream. The question, therefore, appears to be rather one of temperature than of geographical
location.

The greater portion of the life of the Shad being spent in salt water, the possibility of close
observation as to their food, habits, or precise habitat is precluded. The young fry, hatched out.
in the rivers in spring and early summer, remain there until the following fall, when, the temper-
ature of the waters having fallen below 60°, they leave for the ocean. Nothing more is seen of
them until they return to the rivers as mature fish for the purpose of spawning. In these upward
migrations the schools of mature fish ascend the rivers cither until obstructed by impassable falls
or dams, or until the volume of water becomes very inconsiderable. Before artificial impediments
were placed in the rivers, the limit of this movement was the natural and insurmountable falls
to be found at the head of almost all of our principal streams. “For example, in the Savannah
River the Shad used to ascend to the Falls of Tallula, at the very source of the river in the
northern part of Georgia. In the Potomac they ascend as high as the Great Falls. In the
Susquehanna River, in which there exist no natural obstructions, their migrations extended up.
into the State of New York, a distance of several hundred miles above the present limit. On
the Hudson River they ascended to Glens Falls. On the Connecticut at one time they went as
high as Bellows Falls, but recent obstructions in this river have materially reduced the extent of’
their range.

The present limit of the upward movement of the Shad in our rivers, the natural limit before.
obstructions were interposed, and the extension of the natural limit which may be obtained by
overcoming these natural and artificial obstructions now existing, are shown in the accompanying:
chart. It will be seen from this that the breeding area has been diminished from one-half to one-
fourth its original extent, involving a corresponding reduction in the productive capacity of these
streams.!

HEREDITARY INSTINCT OF LOCALITY.—The annual migration of the Shad in the spring of
the year into the fresh waters of cur rivers has been explained by various theories. In regard to
the salmon, which has been long known and observed in European waters, the fact seems to have
been established that the same individual will return year after year to the same stream for the
purpose of spawning, and that young fish bred in a certain stream usually come back to the same
upon their return from the ocean as mature fish. This habit has not been conclusively established
in regard to any other family of anadromous fishes, but it is generally believed that all salt-water
species which spawn in fresh water return for this purpose to those streams in which they them-
selves were deposited. An examination of the literature of fish culture will make it evident that
this opinion has been held very generally, and, indeed, has furnished to a great extent the argument.
for the prosecution of the work of artificial reproduction. It is a common belief, too, among fish-
culturists that the mature individuals of all anadromous species, including the Shad, are led back
to the waters in which they were spawued by a conscious wish on their part to return to those very
localities in which they spent their young life. Important exceptions to this rule are, however,

See Chart of the River Basins of the Atlantic Slope.

598 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

well established by recent observations. Tor instance, it is well established that the runs of Shad
into the Susquehanna and Potomac Rivers are characterized by alternations of abundance; that
is to say, an excessively large yield for any given season in the one involves a corresponding dimi-
nution in the yield for the same season in the other, thus precluding the possibility of each
individual returning annually to its native stream. Again, it was confidently expected that all
the young Atlantic Shad which were transferred to and planted in the Sacramento River would,
on their return from the Pacific Ocean as mature fish, find their way back to this stream. This
was not, however, the case, for, to the utter astonishment of many fish-culturists, a considerable
number of these now mature fish made their appearance in many streams of the Pacific lying far
north of the Sacramento River—streams to which Shad had never been indigenous and in which
none had ever been planted.

These facts go a long way to disprove the theory of instinct of locality, and indicate that the
river movements of the Shad are regulated by involuntary and extraneous influences. The migra-
tion and colonization of this fish northward along the Pacific coast has been so general that at the
present day new generations of a single plant are found in every stream on the Pacific from the
Sacramento River to Puget Sound.

THE “FEEL” OF THE RIVERS.—Some writers, notably Mr. Charles G. Atkins, have suggested
the idea that the upward river migration of the anadromous fishes is directed by an instinct which
impels them to swim against the current. Itis supposed by him that in their coastwise movement
the Shad, when opposite the mouths of the rivers, feel the outflowing current and, responding to
the invitation, immediately turn to and stem it and are thus led into and up the stream. The
conclusive reply to this supposition is that in the wide estuaries of our North Atlantic streams there
is no sensible current, excepting that produced by the tidal ebb and flow, which is far too indeter-
minate to be the directing cause of the migrations of those vast schools of Shad, Alewives, and other
Species which annually enter our rivers. Even if the fish were attracted up stream by the gratifi-
cation of that presumed impulse or desire to swim against the current, how can we account for
their migration down stream, at the appropriate season, this movement being as regular and as
aniversal as the upward migration?

CHANGE OF SALINITY.—It has been suggested that Shad may be sensibie of the decreasing
‘salinity of the water as they enter and ascend the rivers, and that they may be led into continental
waters in order to enjoy a more congenial habitat; but in this event it is necessary to explain
why they do not remain in the rivers altogether.

WATER TEMPERATURES.—Prior to the last decade, very little attention was paid to the water
temperatures in connection with the migrations of fish. We have on record but few series of
observations of water temperature during the season of our river fisheries. Since the inauguration
of the United States Fish Commission, however, and the establishment of hatcbing stations on the
rivers, it has become possible to make a closer study of this subject. It will, however, require a
connected series of such observations, made during several seasons and at many stations, in order
to obtain sufficient data for a satisfactory discussion of “the relation of the movements of fish to
the water temperatures.” Up to the present time the drift of investigation goes to prove that the
movements of fish, anadromous and otherwise, are controlled largely, if not entirely, by the tem-
perature of the medium in which they live.

In the case of “‘ bottom-feeders,” their movements are dependent, no doubt, principally upon the

SHAD IN THE SAINT JOHN’S RIVER. 599

migrations of their prey; but here again it is probable that the movements of the latter are influ-
enced by temperature.

In the case of Menhaden and Shad, which species feed as they swim, the temperature of the
water is probably the main factor in determining their movements. It is a fact, for example, that
the disappearance of Menhaden from the coast of Maine! was, and has each year since been, co-
incident with a uniformly lower temperature of the water along that coast during the menhaden
season.

The causal relations of the migrations of the sea Herring to water temperatures is a matter
recognized by the pisciculturists and fishermen of the North European Atlantic region; but their
observations, as with our Shad, have not been sufficientiy extensive to enable them to define accu-
rately the relations of the one to the other.

In regard to the Shad, and presumptively to other fishes also, it is believed to be true that
there is a certain temperature of the water in which these fish prefer to live; in other words,
that they aim to occupy a hydrothermal area of certain temperature; and, further, that their
migrations are determined by the shifting of this area.

To state this theory somewhat differently, it is believed that all migratory fish have a normal
range of temperature in which they seek to remain. As before stated, observations on this point
are not as yet extensive, and therefore the limiting hydro-isothermals within which a given species
may at any time be found cannot yet be absolutely defined.

So far as this matter has been examined with regard to the Shad, the following conclusion
has been reached, namely, that they occupy an hydro-isothermal belt, or area, limited by the tem-
perature of 60° F. to 70° F.; that they move with this belt, i. ¢., as the season advances, into and
up the rivers. This movement, at least in the case of the Shad and Herring, takes place at the
time when they have nearly matured their spawn, and just at that important crisis, by means of
that exact balance and adjustment which nature everywhere provides, the fish are brought by
influences of which they are entirely unconscious into such relations and under such conditions
as make reproduction possible. But, although the operation of spawning is mainly that for
which the fitness of relations and conditions has been ordained, the following statements will show
that the fish in moving up the rivers are not always actuated by the immediate desire to deposit
their spawn.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE SAINT JOHN’S RIVER, FLORIDA.—In the Saint John’s River, Florida,
the Shad appear in the river several months before the spawning time, and, although this season in
the Upper Saint John’s is not largely in advance of the same season in rivers as far north as certain
tributaries of the Chesapeake, yet by reason of their early presence in the Saint John’s the shad
fisheries, as has before been noted, are there prosecuted during the entire winter. They do not
enter the river at this time for the purpose of spawning. By reference to tables giving the tempera-
tures of the Saint John’s River at Jacksonville for twelve months beginning March 1, 1877, and
ending February 28, 1878, it will be seen that in the Saint John’s River the temperature of the
water gradually descends, reaching 60° I. at Jacksonville about the last of November. This date
is coincident with the first appearance of Shad in the Saint John’s.

' This commenced in 1879, and they have not yet reappeared to any extent.

600

NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Table of temperatures, Saint John’s River, Jacksonville, Florida.

RECORD OF DAILY OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT 3 P.M.

(Data furnished by Prof. G. Brown Goode.]

Location of thermometer. Location of thermometer. Location of thermometer.
Date. Date. Date. :
Air. Surface. | Bottom. Air. Surface. | Bottom. Air. Surface. | Bottom.
oF: oF oF
90 83 83
92 84 83.5
90 85 85
95 85 85
80 85 85
96 84 83
85 82 82
83 81 81.5
87 82 82
83 83 83
85 83 82.5
85 80 80
87 82 81
89 82 82
89 81 81
88 80 80
87 82 81
80 82 82
90 82 82
81 79 79
84 81 80
80 8i 81
87 82 81
89 82 81
88 82 82
91 82 82
91 84 84
92 84 84
97 85 84
98 84 84
87 84 84
86 83 82
85 82 82
90 83 83
90 83 83
90 85 85
92 87 87
95 86 86
92 86 86
91 83 83
94 83 83
90 84 84
90 83 82
92 84 83
81 83 83
87 82 82
92 83 82
88 83 83
78 79 79
81 79 9
83 79 7a
84 80 80
78 79 79
81 79 79
87 80 80
80 19 79
82 78 78
86 79 78
85 79 78
87 79 78
90 80 79
90 80 80
EXTREME AND MEAN TEMPERATURES, BY MONTHS.
Air. Surface. | Bottom. Air. Surface. | Bottom
March: oF, oF, oF, | June: oF, oF oF,
Maximum, ois cies cece cee seeecscsece 81.0 66. 0 66.0 Maximus: ccasasietevedascmantas 98. 0 85.0 85. 0
MiniUNY)-ssiccits omnes saisicare oe Saison 51.0 58. 0 57.0 Minimo... «0 sie2-5sscccseasesens se 77.0 71.0 70. 0
69.1 62. 6 62.2 MGaD wn seseeceascseccesieseesex 87.4 | 79. 4 | 79.2
July
85.0 72.0 71.0 MAXIMUM oe osseecasacdaneaieecen 98. 0 85. 0 85.0
61.0 60. 0 60.0 Minimum: «4262606 dened cacsescies 81.0 79. 0 79.0
76.0 65.7 65.1 PMG AM oats cic sigieiwivicie cin isin geet) 87.0 82.5 82.4
August:
95.0 77.0 77.0 PXIMA UM joi Sn sia lccesine eaten te 95. 0 87.0 87. 0
71.0 68.0 68. 0 Minimum .........-...2.--- 2-202 81.0 79.0 78.0
78.7 74.3 71.0 Medins.2scsnd0seexereencedenes 87.0 | 81.7 | 81.4

TEMPERATURE OF THE SAINT JOHN’S RIVER.

601

Table of temperatures, Saint John’s River, Jacksonville, Florida—Continued

RECORD OF DAILY OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT 3 P. M.

(Data furnished by Prof. G. Brown Goode.)

Location of thermometer.

Location of thormometer.

Location of thermometer.

Date. Date. Date.
Air. Surface. | Bottom. Air. Surface. | Bottom. Air Surface. | Bottom.
oF. oF, oF,
Jan. 56 56 56
58 65.5 55
60 56 56
58 56 56
48 54 54
48 52 51.5
48 52 52
48 52 52
62 52 51.5
52 52 51.5
60 52 51
60 52 51
70 53 53
60 53 53
51 52 52
54 52 52
59 53 52
63 54 53
70 55 54
73 56 56
67 56 56
62 56 56
62 56 56
65 51 56
66 56 56
67 57 56
71 58 58
65 58 58
63 58 58
65 59 59
61 59 58.5
Feb. 1 62 58 58
72 59 59
56 58 57.5
50 57 57
52 56 56
56 56 56
71 58 57
71 58 58
67 58 57
65 58 57
55 57 57
52 56 65
61 55.5 55
70 57 56
68 57 57
62 58 58
69 58 58
69 58 58
61 58 58
67 59 59
68 59 59
12 60 60
66 61 61
val 63 63
63 61 61
55 60 60
55 59 59
67 60. 5 59.5
EXTREME AND MEAN TEMPERATURES, BY MONTHS—Continued.
Air. Surface. | Bottom. Air. Surface. | Bottom.
September: oF, oF, oF. December: oF. oF, oF.
MNO crn axangs dananeereomnes 94.0 82.0 82.0 Mex iMUMiwccacnasacedaanesasncnan 73.0 61.0 61.0
PEIN csc esnciincmnciae naacean 73.0 74.0 74.0 Minimum is sie isssiotess sicicis crereerare cece 51.0 51.0 51.0
Mean sxaase tezndesscasimesyesd 85.2 80.1 | 79.9 Mean. ......--+0eeeeeeeeee eee 62.1 | 57.4 57.3
October: January:
MASINI, vececnccecanarnonnuscacas 84.0 74.0 74.0 Maximum ses os sccnsccisccccsaeccces 73.0 59.0 59. 0
DEI cacncs veioanaiour wa-cnnien ou 70.0 70.0 69.0 Mini mom sciceicie sectgnecncieenice 48.0 52.0 51.0
!
Means sn cscineesesarversrareees 117 70.8 707 MOAD, os cutee veneer aewaeeds 60.4 | 548 | 54.5
ss ————
November: February:
Maximum ......-....-......2000005 83.0 71.0 71.0 Maximtim 72.0 63.0 63.0
BDH oo ck enavesnmedanaxmenis cud 46.0 56.0 56. 0 Minimum 50. 0 55.5 55.0
Meth itdcunivexsecexexsaeectenes 68.4 63.6 63.5 MEAN: 2 s52005 cas dememewnas owes 63.3 | 48.3 | 58.0

602 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Now, in all other streams on the Atlantic coast, the fish appear to wait until the temperature
of the river has risen above that of the salt-water area into which the river empties, before they
ascend in the spring. The migration of the Shad into the Saint John’s River is clearly not for the
immediate purpose of spawning, as that operation is not performed for months, but in order that
they may keep within the limits of the hydro-isothermal area appropriate to them. We must
suppose that the temperature of the ocean waters, on the continental plateau outside the coast
line, is higher than 60° F., and although uncongenial to the fish, yet they must necessarily
remain in that temperature until the waters of the Saint John’s, cooling as winter advances, have
fallen below the temperature of the outside waters. As soon, therefore, as water of a lower tem
perature than that in which they are commingles with the ocean water, it serves as an incentive—
as it were the signal—for their migration into the estuary of the Saint John’s.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE PoTOMAC RIVER IN 1881.—In 1881 the writer, then in charge of the
shad-hatching operations on the Potomac River, collected full statistics of the catch of Shad and
Alewives from four of the seine fisheries occupying that section of the river lying between Indian
Head and Mount Vernon. From these statistics the fluctuations in the run of the Shad up the
river have been closely approximated, and at the close of this paragraph general deductions rela-
tive to the same will be made. Through the courtesy of the Light-House Board and the United
States Signal Office, observations on the water temperature at Winter Quarter Shoals and at
Norfolk, Virginia, have been obtained. The former point is a light-house in the Atlantic, lying
about fifteen miles from the Virginia coast, and situated, it is believed, on the inner edge of the
cold arctic current that flows down the coast inside of the Gulf Stream. The observations
taken there represent the temperature of the water on the continental plateau between Cape
Charles and Cape Henry. The records taken at Norfolk serve as an index of the temperature
of the waters of the Chesapeake Bay, but are subject to inaccuracies, Elizabeth River being hardly
more than a tidal estuary, and the temperature of its waters being influenced very materially by
local meteorological conditions.

A graphical representation of the temperatures at these two points, as also of the corre-
sponding temperatures at the Potomac hatching station, is given in the accompanying diagram,
which serves to illustrate the influence of hydrothermals in determining the direction of the move-
ments of the Shad and Alewives and in limiting their range. In the diagram are also presented
the fluctuations of the run of these fish in the fishing season, as deduced from the records of
“catch,” furnished by the four seine fisheries already alluded to.!

By reference to the diagram it will be seen that during the first seventeen days of April (1)
the temperature of the water in the Potomac was occasionally lower than at Winter Quarter Shoals
during the same period of time; (2) that the water ot the Chesapeake Bay was warmer than that
of the ocean between Cape Charles and Cape Henry, and also warmer than the water in the
Potomac River, and that (3) during that time the temperature was in none of those waters above
50° I’. As soon as with the advancing season the water in the river became warmer than in the
bay the Shad commenced to ascend the Potomac, and when the temperature of the river rose to
60° I. the upward run attained its maximum; the main body of Shad and Herring ascended the
river when its temperature ranged from 56° F. to 66° F'.; and, further, that when the temperature
of the river passed above 66° F. the run of Shad and Herring rapidly diminished. It may be
Seen also that in general the fluctuations in the run of the Herring closely followed that of the

1 Although the data obtained from those four shores do not by any means represent the total catch for the whole
river, yet, covering as they do a complete section of the river, they furnish figures from which the fluctuations in the
upward migrations of the Shad and Alewife for the whole river can be approximated. _

MOVEMENTS OF YOUNG SHAD. 603

Shad. The run of Alewives indicated by the diagram in the early part of the season at low
temperature was undoubtedly C. vernalis, or the Branch Herring, which makes its run on a tem-
perature several degrees lower than suitable to the Shad or the Glut Herring. The fact that the
Shad commence running into the Potomac when the temperature of the river is 56° F. or less,
does not antagonize the theory here stated, that the hydro-isothermal area which they prefer to
occupy is that having the temperature of about 60° I’. If, as is probably the case, there is ocean-
wards a limiting wall of low temperature for the Shad occupying the Chesapeake area,' then
at all seasons of the year the Shad must be found at some point within that area, be the tempera-
ture exactly what they prefer or not. In other words, the Shad in their migrations travel on
temperature paths, the direction being always towards 60° F.

Shad ready to deposit their spawn seem to prefer waters of a warmer temperature than 60° F.
Therefore, when the mature Shad, intent on reproduction, leave the hydrothermal area of 60°
F, and ascend the rivers into waters of 65° F. to 70° F. and upwards, they are unaccompanied by
the half-grown Shad, the latter ceasing to ascend as soon as they encounter a temperature of more
than 60°F. In 1882, however, when the temperature of the water was below 60° I’. for the greater
portion of the season, the spawning had to take place in water colder than the fish would have
preferred, and therefore mature and young Shad were found together on the spawning grounds.

Observations made during that season show that large numbers of young Shad were taken,
which would not have been the case had the temperature of the river waters risen above 60° F.
Inasmuch as the fishing operations are conducted with a view to obtain mature fish, and in most
years the young do not accompany the full-grown fish up to the fishing grounds, it would certainly
appear as though this was a special provision of nature to secure the continuance of the species,
providing against the capture of the young Shad during the fishing season.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOVEMENTS OF YOUNG SHAD IN THE PoToMAc.—The young Shad
which are hatched out during May and June remain in their native streams until the temperature
of the water falls below 60° F. They then move down the rivers as the temperature falls, passing
into the salt water as soon as the cooler weather has reduced the river temperature below the
degree congenial to them, and, as a rule, return no more to the fresh waters until they are full-
grown fish. This statement is borne out by observations made in 1881 by Mr. W. E. Stuart and
Mr. Gwynn Harris, inspectors of marine products. These gentlemen, who have been largely
engaged for many years in the Potomac fisheries, whose interest is always manifested in connec-
tion with all matters relating to the fisheries, undertook, at the instance of Professor Baird, United
States Fish Commissioner, to observe the movements of the young Shad in the Potomac in front
of the city of Washington. Their observations show that on November 16, when the thermometer
showed the temperature of the water to be 68° F., young Shad were present in the Potomac at
Washington in large numbers. From this date the temperature of the water gradually fell, co-
incident with which the numbers of young Shad decreased until on November 23 the fish had
entirely disappeared, the thermometer then showing 58° F. The disappearance of these fish can
be referred only to the fact that the water had fallen below 60° F., for as long as that temperature
was preserved the fish remained in the portion of the river under observation. The lowering of
the temperature of the water seems to present the only variable factor in the conditions which
surrounded them, and to this we may reasonably refer their disappearance.

THE PERIOD OF RIVER LIFE.—The deposit of the eggs of the mature Shad in fresh waters
seems to be a necessary condition for their development. The idea has prevailed to some

1The Chesapeake area includes the Potomac River, the Chesapeake Bay and its tributary streams, and the
ocean between Cape Henry and Cape Charles.

604 WATUBAL HISTORY OF AQUATHW ASNTIWALS

exieci thai + Soni amber cera Gremmtimes Spawe Wm si = brackneh wacers. Exper
mins have. however, cect made wo very RE sappesumee. bei have proved wmeereessiell
Whiki imprezeaiioe weder sock comiisnems 1: beer Shov™ w be pesstblle, and @:-clepemems Inez
Peoteaded co 3 coradm pict. yei besere i:- heanchime iwok plare ihe dewelopeness of the en nye
toke dowm. The ammmal mizraigems af the Stpi cue (ot Sreims are mode apparessiy fer
aie sale pepe ¢ reprodecion. ewepiimg m the 557i Joke's River, Flere. where ther oe
TMWEEDeT fen the iwer s-cs 7 be aiaef lhl: we am leaimeme other tha ha above mescied_
The tame af tks: micracems imio ihe rivers Tares wok the seetraphical pesciom ef ihe river, As
& Peperal roe. 5 is weseally bver os we proeeed Gariber i the marth. theach we med seme eurep-
waoms, Ta may Se sted cicerh 7 cag this migraine (hc-s place as sccc a: dee commimemcl
warers have bewoun: warmer tham the salt-water i<i: mio Whek they Gseeharr:. Vhe shook of
fish having eagered i= sareams. ance wel they have reached saiable spawemeg sreunds. Tie
Gepost ami geriiiveioe 3 ibe errs having bees eewenplst) tear developmen: commences. and
im a few days. ice perked Varyimg With the temperaire. 3+ young moh. bersiimg (hear she, woke
ther appearances, These remaim im Tbe Fivers. eeiing and growime all sewer. and leave bee i
ee eat ee ne tee ee ee ee ee ee ee The = Bistery ec ie: Skad irom
Ts iim = uphkmewn wows 6 Te youms fish, 250-5 Dsitteursi. do mea agam cee wader er
ebservainem ezail they reierm 1: magere —=* 7: depen thar pave.

The moive o@f the = 7277 ime = nivers beme for pares of repreciciwe. we weld
ete a ae ee ee
This % the cemeral innpeesskm amore Gshermen. and may be izwe i: a Semeral fect. bet there are
imsaamees o& record where a [2 "- cow 3? m@ ged Gomdimem has beem takes mm car rivers ee
aiver the scaw i7 Seas 1s over, aad ever hie im anime One of ihe ervest Seed I have ever
soot irom dee Poo mae was take im the aoc “Hy of the White Hoase & the month of November.
Te ike ase of 158%. I believe, several Soo +> Sead Wer taken below Holyeie Dam @@ the
eet These miaares weeld vem ite Iniaraie thai
caller ceraaim comdiiae —: the 32 may Tremaim im oer nivers during the whei= sea.

The appearance of the spemi Gh. or 15: which have depasived thar ezes. euables ibe asber-
men 10 recoersinze them ai vere. and Warboms games have beem given 7: them «From the fect ch
they are supposed yo be — ime down ihe Seam whee thes. they are called — Dewn-remmers,.”
aed from their lean. Sie appearance. ther are alka called - Racers”

The Shad — ie their rst appearance im the Su! Jehws River about the midd’e of Never
ber, the height of them <-av=itr S208 im tbat river beme about the ist of Apel Im the
SatTiiz: River they appear early im Jaweary. and im che Sease River ai a peried pet mack ber
Tac im ite Savactiat. Im ithe Albemarle the important Shad seme dsheries begin early im March.
ber doabiless the 2s) ame im the S:-- i 3c time bedowe thar 2icc: net. however, mz members
Sais@eat vo jesiiiy <= evreai -52e2ss 2itemdani upoe the operation Gf hes: bree eines. In the
Chesapeake Bay they make their appearance mm Febraary. alibuagh the boghi of ithe fiche
semsel it fis wales cs Foot: April and May. iad ai a dace scmewhs: heer im the mor perth
iibatares. Im the Delaware, Commeciicai. Merrimac, and Siit: John Neva Sec Eivers. Sil
are Grsi sc ai periods sc scscv-iy lamer is we prweed farther morth. YVhe date of their fist
appearance im amy of (=<: wavers. however, varies fram seasom to season. the limit ¢2 sock varia
tien being from three io four weeks.

Ties: imerclarcies im the time of the rem imjo oar rivers. which case 3 mach perplessiy
and discourazemeni to the fishermen, are. however, readily explained when we keep im view what

REPRODUCTION OF THE SHAD. 605

has been already said in regard to the influences of temperature in determining the movements of
these fishes.

CAUSES INFLUENCING THE RATE OF MOVEMENT UP RIVERS.—The rate and duration of the
movement of Shad in our rivers are influenced by various causes. If, in consequence of warm
rains at the river’s source, the temperature of the water becomes suitable to the Shad at an earlier
date than usual, then their upward movement takes place very rapidly, and, we may say, tumult-
uously, the great schools of fish crowding in and moving up all at once, so as to produce what is
termed a “glut.” If, however, the temperature of the river rises by insensible degrees with the
advance of the season, then the upward movement begins when the water temperature of the river
has passed above that of the sea, and takes place gradually, the rate of movement in such cases
being slow and the period prolonged. Again, when the Shad have entered the rivers, the temper-
ature conditions being such as to determine a rapid upward movement, yet should the fish en-
counter floods and consequent muddy waters, their upward movement is arrested, the schools back
down before the flood, and if this condition be prolonged, may be driven entirely out of the river.
In short, fluctuations in the river temperature have corresponding influences upon the shad move-
ments; any sudden change, whether to a higher or lower temperature, apparently arresting their
upward course for a time, and sometimes even determining a retrograde movement.

Many of the anomalies which perplex fishermen in the course of their work may be explained
by the varying movements of the fish, as controlled by the water temperature in the rivers. We
find, for exampie, that while at a particular seine-shore, during one season, a very large catch
is made, yet in the following season, although the general run of. fish in the river has not dimin-
ished, the fishery in the same locality may prove a failure. If we suppose a seine to sweep the
flats at the mouth of such a stream as the Occoquan Creek,’ and if we further suppose that the
river waters in the channel are colder than, or as cold as, the waters of the Chesapeake Bay, the
Shad in their movement up the river would avoid the main current, and would slowly work their
way up along the shores and over the flats, where the temperature of the waters will be found to
be, under such circumstances, several degrees warmer than in the channel. Such a season would
be profitable to a seine sweeping the flats. Again, if the waters in the main channel of the river
were of suitable temperature, then the upward movement of the Shad would take place in the
channel and not along the flats. Under such circumstances a “channel seine,” e. g., that of the
“White House,” would make a very large catch, whilst a seine hauled over the flats, as on the
Pamunkey shore, would probably find very indifferent fishing.

REPRODUCTION.—The age at which the Shad reaches maturity and becomes capable of repro-
ducing is not definitely determined; it is generally held by fish-culturists, however, that the female
Shad attains this condition when three or four years old. The period of maturity for the male, if
the relative size of the two sexes be taken as an indication, is much earlier than for the female.
Males, or “ Buck Shad,” weighing less than one and a half pounds (numbers of which always accom-
pany tbe schools of larger fish), are found to be milters, and at the sbad-hatching stations—
especially during the earlier part of the season—the spawn-takers are frequently compelled to have
recourse to these fish in order to get the milt necessary for the fertilization of the eggs. These fish
cannot be more than two years of age. It appears that the first part of the run of fish up the rivers
cousists almost entirely of males, which precede the females by several days. The records of the
fishing shores agree with this statement, their main catch in the earlier part of the season being
composed of ‘‘ bucks,” with a very sparing intermixture of “roe Shad,” which latter, in their turn,

14 tributary of the Potomac River.

606 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

increase in proportion as the season advances, ‘he favorite spawning grounds of the Shad, or
“Shad Wallows,” as they are termed by the fishermen, are on the sandy flats which border the
streams, and the sand-bars which are found at intervals higher up the river. When the fish have
reached suitable spawning grounds and are ready to cast their eggs, they move up to the flats
seemingly in pairs. The time of this movement is usually between sundown and 11 p.m. When
in the act of coition they swim close together and near the surface, their back fins projecting above
the water. The rapid, vigorous, spasmodic movements which accompany this operation produce
a splashing in the water which can be plainly heard from the shore, and which the fishermen
characterize as “ washing.”

The eggs are spun out by the female while in rapid motion. The male, swimming close to
her, ejects his milt at the same time, and the contact of egg and milt, and the consequent impreg-
nation of the egg, is coincident with or immediately subsequent to the ejection of the ova from the
female. The specific gravity of the egg being slightly greater than that of water, it sinks to the
bottom, and, under favorable conditions, develops and hatckes out. Large numbers of these eggs
are, of course, destroyed by the predaceous fishes that have learned to frequent the spawning
grounds of the Shad. A sudden Jowering in the temperature of the water may, and frequently
does, produce a large destruction of eggs. Floods, too, bring down mud which may smother and
destroy vast numbers. But, escaping these casualties, they hatch out in a period of from three to
eight days. Unlike the Salmonide, although with a sac relatively as large, the new-born Shad
swim vigorously as soon as they break the shell, and, according to Mr. Seth Green, make their
way immediately to the middle of the stream, where they are too small to be an object of prey to
the larger fishes, and where the smaller ones dare not come after them.

The number of eggs in the ovary of a Shad, as in all other fish, bears a certain relation to the
size and weight of the fish. As the result of experience in the artificial propagation of the Shad we
conclude that a ripe roe Shad weighing four or five pounds contains from 20,000 to 40,000 eggs, the
average number being about 25,000. A much larger number, however, has been obtained from
some individuals. In the seasun of 1881 we obtained from a single Shad, weighing about six
pounds, over 60,000 impregnated eggs; again, in 1880, on the Potomac River, the yield of eggs from
a single Shad was over 100,000. These were full-sized, thoroughly impregnated, and were hatched
out with a loss of hardly one per cent.

Sizz.—A female Shad of a certain age is always larger than a male of corresponding age. A
general average for both sexes along the whole coast would be about four pounds, the extremes—
for males—being from one and a half to six pounds, and for females trom three and a half to eight
pounds, the latter representing a maximum weight for Shad at the present time; although, in the
early history of the fisheries, there are records of the capture of fish weighing eleven, twelve, and
as much as fourteen pounds. These extreme figures, of course, are for fish which, in consequence
of the imperfections of the ordinary kinds of fishery apparatus, the want of skill on the part of the
fishermen, or the accidents of fortune have escaped for a long period the fate which befel their less
happy companions and have returned to the rivers year after year.

Foop.—The shad fry, which spend the first six months in our rvers, must of necessity find their
food therein. From examinations made of the stomachs of these young fish, they have been
found to feed upon certain species of crustacea and insect larvee, common to the fresh waters
of our rivers. During the spring of 1882 some young fry, which were hatched out at Central
station, were confined by Dr. John A. Ryder ina glass aquarium, through which the circulation
of the water was maintained, and fed with Copepoda, obtained in large quantities from the
United States carp ponds. In about seven days after hatching some of the young fry were

THE HICKORY SHAD. 607

observed to eat, and a few days later they were all vigorously engaged in pursuit of food.
While the ratio of mortality was large, some of the fish survived for six weeks, the last specimen
having attained a length of considerably more than an inch, and a weight many times greater
than that at birth.

From these experiments we deem it altogether probable that under natural conditions the
Copepoda, which are abundant.in the Potomac in places frequented by the young Shad, are their
natural food during the early stages of their existence. Although we are able to obtain from the
river late in the season young Shad which are two and ahalf to three and a half inches in
length, I am not aware that such examinations have been made upon the contents of their
stomachs as to show the character of their food. In order to take observations upon the food
of the Shad at the stages indicated above, I procured from the Potomac a number of young
Shad, two to three inches in length, which were placed in the basin under the dome of the United
States National Museum. These were tempted with various kinds of food; oysters, liver, stur-
geon, and beef finely chopped were offered successively to them, but they declined to take the food.
In some cases they would seize particles, which having held for an instant they would eject
from their mouths with evident expression of disgust. I then tried them with the white of hard-
boiled eggs. This, much to my gratification, they devoured readily. As soon as the particles
reached the surface of the water, the fish rose vigorously and seized them as they sank through
the water, but, strange to say, in no case did I observe them take the food after it had touched
the bottom. This would seem to show that their food under natural circumstances is taken
swimming, and consists probably of swimming crustaceans, or allied forms of life found in salt
water. Later in the season, in consequence of my absence from the city, these fish were neg-
lected and fed irregularly. By way of experiment, I-had also placed in this basin a number of
young California salmon, and, to my surprise, I discovered that. the young Shad were pursuing
and eating them. In several cases I noticed the Shad with the salmon in their mouths half
swallowed. Finally the salmon disappeared, and the presumption was that they had ali been
eaten by the young Shad. It is possible, therefore, that Shad in their early lives vary their
food with minnows and the young of other species of fish. Indeed, from the stomach of a Shad,
taken in ore of the pounds at Saybrook, I found an undigested minnow two or three inches in
length. In the fresh-water life of the mature Shad, the fish do not seem to take food at all.
Repeated observations of the contents of the stomach show no food whatever. Occasionally,
however, they can be induced to rise to a fly dexterously cast on the water. This fact is pre-
sumptive evidence that the desire for food, although subordinated to the impulse of reproduction
(which brings them into the river), is not wholly lost.

180. THE HICKORY SHAD, 0R MATTOWACCA—CLUPEA MEDIOCRIS.
By MARSHALL MCDONALD.

Names.—This fish, 0. mediocris, Mitchill, was first brought to notice in 1815 in Mitchill’s paper
on the fishes of New York, wherein it was described under two names, being called the “Staten*
Island” Herring, C. mediocris, and the ‘Long Island” Herring, C. mattowacca. The latter name
was adopted by Storer for the species, but more recent authorities, guided by a rather question-
able interpretation of the rules of priority, have substituted the name C. mediocris, because it was.
printed on the page preceding the other. Mitchill stated that the “Long Island” Herring ocecu-
pied a middle station between the Shad and the “Staten Island” Herring, but it seems strange
that so accomplished an ichthyologist should not have at once perceived the identity of the two.
The name “mediocris” was founded upon small specimens. The names given this species are as

608 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

varied as those of the river Herrings. The name “Mattowacca” is of Indian origin, and is per-
haps to be preferred. It is said by De Kay to have been derived from the Indian name for Long
Island, Mattowaka or Mattowax. De Kay also gives the names of “Fall” Herring and “Shad”
Herring, and states that in the Connecticut River they are called “ Weesick,” a name which from
personal knowledge we can state as having been long in disuse in that locality. The name “Hick-
ory” Shad is applied to this species on all parts of the coast from Cape Cod to Florida. It is used
in the Chesapeake and in the Albemarle regions, and on the Ogeechee, Savannah, and Altamaha
Rivers, where it is familiarly called “Hicks.” Inthe Saint John’s River the name “ Hickory” Shad
is also used, and in the Alabama River it is applied to this or to some closely related species. The
derivation of the name “ Hickory” Shad cannot easily be traced. It may be that the word “ Hick-
ory” is used ina derogatory sense, but a more reasonable explanation is that it refers to the
striped markings on the fish, which resemble those upon the coarse cotton fabric linown in the
South as “ Hickory,” and frequently used by the fishermen.

In the. Potomac the species is called the “Tailor Shad,” or the “Fresh-water Tailor,” in con-
tradistinction to the bluefish, which is called the “Salt-water Tailor.” The comparison between the
bluefish and this species is doubtless due to a fancied resemblance between their jaws, those of
the “Tailor Shad” being very long and strong. The “Tailor Shad” may be distinguished from the
common Shad and from the river Herrings by the extreme projection and thickness of the lower
jaw. This species is in some rivers called a “Forerunner,” from the fact that it makes its appear-
ance shortly before the Shad.

It is the opinion of Mr. Perley! that the so-called *‘ Quoddy” Herring, taken in Passamaquoddy
Bay and vicinity, belongs to this species—a rather questionable decision and one which needs
confirmation.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—The “Hickory Shad” is most abundant in the region
between the Chesapeake Bay and Altamaha River and intermediate waters, ascending the rivers
as high as the Shad. In the Saint John’s River it is somewhat abundant, making its appearance
the first or second week in November, and shortly before the Shad. North of New York it has
uot been observed to enter the rivers in any great numbers, and there is no record north of Cape
Cod of its having been seen in fresh water. In the fall small schools of them occasionally enter
the brackish estuaries and tideways of Cape Cod. Hickory Shad are taken to some extent by
the mackerel gill-net fishermen of Maine, together with young Shad and Blue-Back Herring, and are
doubtless found off the mouth of the Bay of Fundy; although, as has already been stated, their
identity with the “Quoddy” Herring is by no means proven. There is no record of their presence
in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.

ABUNDANCE.—In the Altamaha River, Georgia, the catch of ‘ Hickory” Shad is equal to that
of “Common” or “ White” Shad, and in the markets they sell for more than one-half as much. In
the Saint John’s River they are not exceedingly abundant, and two “Hickory” Shad are equal in
value to one “ White” Shad. In the Ogeechee and Savannah Rivers the proportion of the catch
of the “ Hickory” to that of “ White” Shad is about one to four. All taken here are used for local
consumption, and are sold at prices equal to about one-half of the White Shad. In the Albemarle
they are less abundant than farther south and are of less value. Here they are sold with the her-
ring for local consumption, two of them counting for one herring, or are used for manure. In the
Chesapeake region they are not highly esteemed, although great quantities are sold by hawkers,
especially in the cities, where people are not well informed, under the name of “Shad.” At the

1 Fisheries of New Brunswick, 1852, p. 209.

THE HICKORY SHAD. 609

beginning of the season hundreds of men may be seen going about the city of Washington with
strings of these fish, which they cry for Shad, and which with great insolence they press upon such
would-be purchasers as are inclined to question their genuineness. Inthe pound-nets of the Ches-
apeake in the beginning of the season they are caught in immense numbers, and are shipped to
the markets with the true Shad until their price falls below three cents apiece, after which they are
sold with the Herring, one counting as two Herrings. The “Hickory” Shad are occasionally seen
in the fall and winter in the New York market. Mitchill, writing in 1814, remarks: “Some call
this fish the ‘Shad’ Herring and some the ‘Fall’ Shad. He is reckoned to be almost equal to the
Shad as an article of food.” Storer states that in Massachusetts it is a lean fish, and not used for
food.

Concerning the “Quoddy” Herring, Perley writes that in flavor and excellence it ranks only
second to the best Shad of the Petitcodiak.

S1zE.—Mitchill states that the length of this fish is frequently twenty to twenty-four inches,
its depth is often four and a half to six inches, and that it sometimes attains a weight of four or
five pounds. At the present time, however, the size of the fish is much less than that described
by Mitchill. The largest full-roed specimen observed by Colonel McDonald cannot have exceeded
three to three and a half pounds in weight.

REPRODUCTION.—No observations have been made on the breeding habits of this fish, but it
is almost certain that it spawns in spring, like the other members of the family, but whether in
salt or fresh water has not been ascertained. It seems more than probable, however, that it
spawns in fresh water under the same conditions as the Shad, at a little earlier period.

39 F

T—FAMILIES RELATED TO THE CLUPHIDS..
181, THE MUD-SHAD—DOROSOMA CEPEDIANUM.

The family Dorosomatide is represented on our Atlantic coast by a single species, the “Mud-
Shad,” Dorosoma cepedianum, which is abundant in brackish waters along the coast from Delaware
Bay southward to Mexico. In the Chesapeake region it is known as the “Mud-Shad,” “ Winter
Shad,” or “Stink Shad”; in North Carolina as the “ Hairy-back” or the “Thread Herring”; in the
Saint John’s River as the “Gizzard Shad,” “ Stink Shad,” or ‘“‘ White-eyed Shad.”

The names “Gizzard Shad” or “Hickory Shad” refer to the peculiar muscular stomach, which
is of about the size of a hickory-nut and is shaped like the gizzard of a fowl. The fish is found in
brackish waters, or in the sea, for the whole length of our coast. It enters all streams after
becoming land-locked in ponds, and throughout the whole Mississippi Valley it is permanently
resident in large numbers in the larger streams and reservoirs. Since the construction of the
canals it has appeared in force in Lake Erie and Lake Michigan.

This fish is extremely abundant in many localities, particularly in the Saint John’s River,
Florida, where it becomes an annoyance to the fishermen by getting into their nets, several hundred
bushels being sometimes taken in a shad net. They are also sometimes annoying to fishermen
using gill-nets for catching mullet. In the Potomac they are abundant and attain a maximum
size and weight. Their flesh is coarse and not delicate in flavor, but they are by no means
unpalatable, and on the tributaries of the Chesapeake they are extensively eaten by the negroes.
In the Saint John’s River they are made into guano. A factory for this purpose was in existence
in 1874 at Black Point, above Palatka. They breed in summer, and are supposed to feed, like the
Menhaden, to a great extent upon the bottom mud, from which, after swallowing, they separate
the organic contents.

In the Great Lake regions the Gizzard Shad is sometimes split and salted as “‘ Lake Shad,” but
it probably meets with little sale, owing to the inferior quality of the flesh and the presence of the
vast number of small bones that make up the skeleton. It is usually thrown away by the fisher-
men, and when brought to market it is only bought by the poor or the ignorant. It is not infre-
quently seen in the markets of Washington in spring. In the West it is sometimes seined by
farmers in winter in still places in the rivers and peddled about the towns.

182. THE TARPUM—MEGALOPS THRISSOIDES.

In our waters the most important member of this family is the Tarpum, Megalops thrissoides,
an immense herring-like fish, which occurs in the Western Atlantic and in the Gulf of Mexico,
ranging north to Cape Cod and south at least to Northern Brazil. It is somewhat abundant in the
West Indies, and stragglers have been taken as far to the eastward as the Bermudas. This
species attains the length of five or six feet, and is covered with enormous circular scales of one
inch to two inches and a half in diameter, the exposed portions of which are covered with a
silvery epidermis. The fish, when alive, presents a very brilliant metallic appearance, and the
scales are much prized by curiosity hunters and for fancy work in the Florida curiosity shops.
They are a staple article of trade, selling for from ten to twenty-five cents each, the price paid to

the fishermen being about fifty cents per dozen.
610

THE ANCHOVIES. 611

The sailors’ name for this fish, by which same name it is also known at Key West, Bermuda,
Brunswick, Georgia, and elsewhere, is “Tarpum” or “Tarpon.” In Georgia and Florida it is com-
monly called the “Jew-fish,” a name also applied by the fishermen of South Florida to a species
of percoid which has already been discussed. It is the “Silver-fish” of Pensacola, the “ Grande-
Ecaille” (Large-scale fish), or ““Grandykye,” as it is pronounced and sometimes spelled, and the
“Savanilla” of Texas.

The species can hardly be said to be common on our Atlantic coasts, though from fifty to one
hundred specimens are doubtless taken every year between Florida and Cape Cod. In 1874 and
1875 none were caught in the Saint John’s River, though several had been brought in during the
previous winter. In the Indian River region these fish are sometimes harpooned.

Mr. Stearns contributes the following notes upon the fish, as observed by him:

“The Silver-fish, or Grande Ficaille, is common everywhere on the Gulf coast. It is an im-
mense and active fish, preying eagerly upon schools of young fry, or any small fish that it is able
to receive into its mouth, and in pursuit of which it ascends fresh-water rivers quite a long distance.
During September, 1879, I saw large numbers of Silver-fish eight or ten miles up. the Apalachicola
River, and am told that that was not an unusual occurrence. They go up the Homosassa River in
Florida, and several of the Texas rivers, so I have subsequently learned. The Tarpum will take
a baited hook, but it is difficult to handle and seldom landed. The Pensacola seine fishermen
dread it while dragging their seines, for they have known of persons having been killed or severely
injured by its leaping against them from the seine in which it was inclosed. Even when it does
not jump over the cork-line of a seine, it is quite likely to break through the netting before landed.
I have secured several specimens, the smallest of which weighed thirty pounds and the largest
about seventy-five pounds.”

The Tarpum is sometimes eaten, and is said to be very palatable.’

183. THE BIG-EYED HERRING.

The “Big-eyed Herring” or “Ten-pounder,” Elops sawrus, was described by Linnzus from a
Carolina specimen sent to him by Garden. It occurs all along the coast from Martha’s Vineyard
southward, but only in the summer in the northern part of its range. It is cosmopolitan in its
distribution, occurring throughout the West Indies, on the coast of South America, on both coasts
of Mexico, at the Cape of Good Hope, iu East Africa, Arabia, and China. At Fort Macon it is
known as the “Horse Mackerel.” It is rarely or never eaten in the United States, its flesh being
said to be dry and bony.

184. THE ANCHOVIES—ENGRAULIDZ.

A species of Anchovy, Stolephorus Browni, is extremely common about Fort Macon, where it
is known as the “ Sardine” and occurs in large schools. Specimens of this and of an allied species
(8. Mitchilli) are occasionally taken in the vicinity of Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, and in greater
abundance in New Jersey.

The presence of a true Anchovy in America was first announced by Professor Baird in 1854.
A species was noticed by Mitchill, but its relations to the Anchovy of Europe were not recognized.
In his Report on the Fish of the New Jersey Coast, Professor Baird remarked of S. Browni: “The
Anchovy made its appearance early in August in the shallow waters along the beach, though of
very small size; it subsequently became more abundant, and towards the end of the month, while
hauling a large net in the surf, many were taken, measuring over six inches in length; as the

1See statement of W.H. Burrall, Forest and Stream, ii, 1874, p. 324.

612 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

meshes of the net were large, a great portion escaped, but with a seine properly constructed
enough could be secured to supply the American market. I procured several specimens of this
fish in 1847 at the residence of Mr. Audubon, on the Hudson River above New York.”

There is little reason to doubt that this species of Anchovy might be prepared in salt or in
paste, like that of Europe, and that the results would be equally satisfactory; as an actual fact,
however, most of the Anchovies put up in Europe do not belong to this genus at all, but are
simply pilchards or sprats preserved in a peculiar manner, the name “Anchovy” having come to
be descriptive of a peculiar method of preparation rather than of the fish which is prepared.
Our Anchovy has recently been sold in considerable numbers in New York under the name
“Whitebait,” although the fishermen distinguish it from the true ‘‘ Whitebait,” the young of the
herring, calling it ‘““Spearing.”!

CALIFORNIA ANCHOVY—STOLEPHORUS RINGENS.

The Anchovy of the Pacific coast is reported by Jordan to be of little economic value. The
commonest form is what he calls the California Anchovy, Stolephorus ringens, and which is thus
described by him:

“This species is everywhere known as the Anchovy. It reaches a length of about six inches.
It ranges from British Columbia to Chili, and is probably found on the coast of Asia also. It is
found in sheltered bays, and is everywhere extremely common, but rather more abundant south of
San Francisco than northward. It serves as food for the larger species to a greater extent than
any other single species. The salmon, bonito, mackerel of all sorts, barracuda, sea-bass, the
larger flounders, and, in fact, a majority of the larger fishes make a large percentage of their food
of Anchovy. At San Francisco it is occasionally brought into the market. Some attempts have
been made to pickle them with spices for the trade, but this amounts to little as yet. A great
many are salted by the Chinese, who use them as bait for the flounders and rock-fish. Two
other species of Anchovies, Stolephorus compressus (Grd.) and Stolephorus delicatissimus (Girard),
abound south of Point Concepcion. They have no economic value.”

185.—_THE LADY-FISH FAMILY—ALBULIDZ.

The Lady-fish, Albula vulpes, occurs in the West Indies, in the Gulf of Mexico, on the Atlantic
and Pacific coasts of North and South America, and stragglers have been found in the Western
Atlantic as far north as Cape Cod. It is also found about the Bermudas and Cape Verde Islands,
in the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, and on the coast of Japan. With us it is usually called the
“TLady-fish”; in the Bermudas the “Bone-fish,” or “Grubber.” At the Bermudas large schools
are taken, and there considered most excellent food-fish. From personal observation I can testify
that their reputation is by no means a false one. The “Lady-fish” doubtless occurs about Key
West, although the National Museum has as yet received no specimen from that locality. The
species is found in some numbers in San Diego Bay, on the coast of California, where it is taken
with the mullet. On account of its beautiful color it sells readily, but is not especially esteemed
as a table fish.

186.—THE MOON-EYE FAMILY—HYODONTIDZE.

Three species of this family are known by the names of “‘Moon-eye,” Hyodon tergisus Le Sueur,
“Toothed Herring,” Hyodon alosoides (Raf.) J. & G., and “Silver Bass,” Hyodon selenops Jor. &
Bean. The first-named species is abundant throughout the Lake region and the larger tributaries

1J. C. Brevoort states that while trolling in August, 1873, near New York light-ship, every bluefish captured was.
gorged with the American Anchovy. Tbe Anchovy is preserved by salting or by grinding intv fine paste with salt.
They may be caught with fine purse-nets.

THE MOON-EYE. 613

of the Mississippi; the second is found in the Ohio Valley and northward to the Upper Missouri
and Saskatchewan; the third is confined to the rivers of the Southern States. None of the
species occur east of the Alleghanies. They are little valued as food.

THE Moon-EYE—HYODON TERGISUS.

The Moon-eye is a handsome and gamy fish, taking the hook readily, and feeding upon minnows,
crustaceans, and insects. It reaches a weight of one to two pounds. In Lake Pepin, according to
Dr. D. C. Estes, “in some seasons they seem to be quite plenty, and at others but very few are
seen. On the whole, I have always regarded it as arare fish. They are vigorous biters, and are
as gamy as the striped bass (Roccus sawatilis). They take freely the minnow or fly, and are one of
the smartest of fishes. They will come up, taste of a fly, let go and be gone before the angler has
time to strike. Therefore, to be a ‘Moon-eye’ fly-fisher, one must be very sharp and not read a
book while casting, as I once knew a man to do. As to his being a food-fish there is not a single
doubt. I ate one this very morning for my breakfast, and it was excellent, the bones being far
less in number and of larger size than in the herring.”

U—CARP, SUCKERS, CATFISH, AND EELS.

187. THE SUCKER FAMILY—CATOSTOMIDZ.
By Davin 8. JORDAN.

The members of this family, known as “Suckers,” “‘ Mullets,” “Red Horse,” “ Buffalo fish,” ete.,
are extremely abundant in all fresh waters of the United States, no stream or pond containing
fish at all being without them. As all of them reach a length of more than a foot, and are found
in the markets, all must be considered as food-fishes. In all of them the flesh is coarse and flavor-
less, and the number of small bones is provokingly great. They are therefore always the cheapest
of fish-food, while from their great numbers they form a large percentage of the food supply of
the country. Their value is no more than the cost of catching, and often less. The Suckers feed
on mollusks, insects, entomostracans, fish-spawn, and some of them chiefly on mud. They rarely
catch other fishes. Like the Cyprinidae, they form a large part of the food of the larger carnivorous
fishes. The Suckers spawn in spring, many of the species ascending small streams for that purpose.
At this season great numbers of them are speared or snared on shallow rapids. The distribution
of the different species can be ascertained by reference to the check-list, and only a few of the most
important need be mentioned here.

THE RABBIT-MOUTH SUCKER—QUASSILABIA LACERA.

The ‘‘Rabbit-mouth,” “ Hare-lip,” “Split-mouth,” or ‘‘May Sucker” is found in abundance in
many rivers of Tennessee and in some streams in Ohio. It reaches a length of about eighteen
inches, being one of the smaller species, but its qualities as a food-fish are said to be better than
usual in this family.

THe RED HorRsSE—MoOxosTOMA MACROLEPIDOTUM.

The common “Red Horse” or “Mullet” abounds in most streams westward and southward of
New York. It reaches a length of two feet, and is a market fish of importance. Its coloration is
attractive, but its flesh is tasteless and coarse. Numerous other species closely related to the Red
Horse, belonging to the genera of Moxostoma, Minytrema, and Placopharyna, are found in the waters
of the West and South, all going by the general names of Red Horse, White Sucker, and Mullet.
All are alike poor as food-fishes.

THE CHUB SUCKER—ERIMYZON SUCETTA.

The “Chub Sucker,” “Sweet Sucker,” or “Creek-fish” is one of the most abundant and widely
diffused of the Suckers, being found from Maine to Texas. It is one of the smallest species, reach-
ing a length of little more than a foot. It is not essentially different from the rest as food. A
closely related species (#. Goodet) abounds in Florida.

Tur Common SuCKER—CATOSTOMUS COMMERSONI.

The common “Brook Sucker” is the most familiar and generally abundant of the group. It

inhabits all bodies of water, large and small, from New England to Colorado. In the Great Lakes
614

THE SUCKERS. 615

it reaches a length of two feet or more. In small brooks it is mature at eight or ten inches. It is
a soft, poor fish. It varies much in size, color, and form in the different streams. It bites at a
small hook baited with a worm, and is one of the numerous tribe of boy’s fish which may be found
on every urchin’s string.

All the lakes and rivers of the Rocky Mountain region-and the Pacific slope are inhabited
by one or more species of this genus, or of the allied genera Chasmistes and Pantosteus. In Utah
Lake, said to be the ‘greatest Sucker-pond in the world,” are found Catostomus fecundus and
ardens, Chasmistes liorus and Pantosteus platyrhynchus, all in abundance. In Lake Tahoe, Cato-
stomus tahoénsis; in the Sacramento C. occidentalis; in the Columbia C. macrochilus; in Klamath
Lake, Chasmistes luxatus and Ch. brevirostris, abound, while in the Great Lakes and all waters
thence to Alaska and the Arctic Ocean C. longirostris is an important food-fish. The Stone-
roller or Hammer-head Sucker, Catostomus nigricans, abounds in most waters from the Great Lakes
southward. The Stone-roller is extremely abundant in every running stream in the North and
West, where its singular, almost comical form is familiar to every school-boy. It delights in rapids
and shoals, preferring cold and clear water. Its powerful pectorals render it a swifter swimmer
than any other of its family. Its habit is to rest motionless on the bottom, where its mottled
colors render it difficult to distinguish from the stones among which it lies. When disturbed it
darts away very quickly, after the manner of the etheostomoids. They often go in small schools.
I have never found this fish in really muddy water, and when placed in the aquarium it is the first
fish to die as the water becomes foul. Although called the “Mud Sucker” in the books, it is most
characteristically a fish of the running streams. This species reaches a length of about two feet,
and is often caught in its spawning season by means of a spear or snare. It is, like C. Commersont,
a“boy’s fish,” and not worth the eating.

THE BLACK HORSE—CYCLEPTUS ELONGATUS (Le 8.) Ag.

The “Black Horse,” “‘Gourd-seed Sucker,” “Missouri Sucker,” or “Suckerel” is found chiefly
in the river channels of the Ohio and Mississippi. It reaches a considerable size, weighing five to
twelve pounds, and is said to be a much finer fish in flesh than any other of its family. The writer
has had no opportunity of testing this.

THE CARP SUCKER—CARPIODES CYPRINUS.

The different species (Ictiobus cyprinus, carpio, ete.) known as “Carp,” “Carp Suckers,”
“ Spear-fish,” “ Sail-fish,” “ Quill-back,” etc., abound in all the larger bodies of water south and
west of New York as far as the Rio Grande. The species are probably but two in number, very
similar. They reach a weight of four or five pounds, and form an abundant but not excellent food.

THE BUFFALO-FISHES.

The three species known as “ Buffalo-fishes” (Ictiobus bubalus, wrus, and cyprinella) are found
mainly in the river channels of the Mississippi and its tributaries. They are the largest of the
Suckers, reaching a weight of fifteen pounds or more. In the Mississippi and Ohio Valleys they
form a large percentage of the food-fish consumed. They usually bring a better price than the
smaller Suckers, excepting the Black Horse, but at the best they are coarse, poor fishes, the flesh
being full of small bones and scarcely worth the trouble of picking. The Buffalo-fishes are found
by Professor Forbes to feed on small crustaceans more than do the other Suckers, and less on
mollusks.

616 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

188. THE CARP FAMILY—CYPRINIDZ.

By Davin 8. JoRDAN.

The species of this family known as ‘‘Minnows,” ‘Chubs,” “Shiners,” and “Dace” literally
swarm in all of the fresh waters of the United States, as in those of Europe and Africa. Most of
them reach a length of less than six inches. Such have of course no value as food. They are,
however, important as furnishing the greater part of the food of all our carnivorous fresh-water
fishes—the bass, perch, trout, pike, etc. A few of our species reach a considerable size, especially
in the Sierra Nevada region. Some of these becomé food-fish of importance. The flesh in all is,
however, deficient in flavor and full of small bones. Not one of our native species has any high
money value, and only the Carp (Cyprinus carpio), of all the family, can be compared as a food-fish
with the percoids and salmonoids.

Most of the Cyprinide are carnivorous, the smaller species feeding upon insects, fish-spawn,
etc. Many large individuals are quite voracious, some of them being very destructive to young
trout. All of them spawn in spring, some of them running up small brooks for that purpose.

Some of the more important of our Cyprinide are the following:

THE GOLDEN SHINER—NOTEMIGONUS CHRYSOLEUCUS.

This fish, the American representative of the European Bream, abounds in most rivers east of
the Great Plains. Itis a sluggish fish, frequenting ponds, bayous, and cut-offs, preferring those
in which the bottom is covered with aquatic plants. It reaches a length of nearly a foot, and is
sometimes brought to market.

Tur CHUB OF UTAH LAKE—SQUALIUS RHOMALEUS.

This species is excessively abundant in Utah Lake, and as it ascends the streams to spawn
almost simultaneously with the trout (Salmo purpuratus), it is extremely destructive to the young
of the latter. It is taken in considerable numbers in seines, and is sold in the markets of Salt
Lake City and other towns. It reaches a length of nearly a foot.

Numerous other species, belonging to the same genus and similar in size and habits, abound
in the region between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, and are used as food by the
Indians and by the white settlers. Among these are 8S. niger, S. purpureus, S. obesus, S. pan-
dora, etc. Species very similar abound in Europe and Asia.

SQUALIUS GIBBOSUS.

The “Chub” of the San Francisco markets abounds in the Sacramento River, and is taken
in great numbers. It reaches a length of about a foot, and is eaten chiefly by the Chinese.

GILA ELEGANS.

The various species of Gila abound in the basin of the Rio Colorado and Rio Gila, and are
used as food in New Mexico and Arizona. They reach a length of about eighteen inches. Gila
elegans, robusta, and Grahami are the principal species.

THE SACRAMENTO “PIKE”—PTYCHOCHILUS OREGONENSIS.

This species abounds in the Columbia and Sacramento Rivers and their tributaries, where it
is usually known as the “Pike.” It reaches a length of three or four feet at least, a size much
greater than that of any other of our representatives of this family. A great many are brought
into the markets of Sau Francisco in the winter. Its flesh is of course not much esteemed. A

THE CARP FAMILY. 617

second species (Ptychochilus Harfordi) accompanies P. oregonensis in the Sacramento, and is brought
with it to the markets. <A third species (Ptychochilus lucius) occurs in the lower course of the Rio
Colorado, and is said to reach a still larger size—a length of five or six feet.

MYLOPHARODON CONOCEPHALUS.

This species occurs with Ptychochilus oregonensis in the Sacramento, and is brought with it
into the markets. It reaches a size scarcely less than that of P. oregonensis, but is less plentiful.

.

MYLOCHILUS CAURINUS.

This species abounds from California to Puget Sound in all the streams of Oregon, Washing-
ton, and Idaho, and often enters the sea. It reaches a length of little more than a foot, and is
little used for food where trout and other better fishes abound. Its great numbers, however, give
it a special claim to notice.

THE SPLIT-TAIL—POGONICHTHYS MACROLEPIDOTUS.

The “Split-tail” is very common in the Sacramento, and is brought in considerable numbers to
the San Francisco market. It reaches a length of about eighteen inches.

THE FALL-FISH—SEMOTILUS BULLARIS.

The “ Fall-fish,” “Chub,” “Roach,” or “Dace” is abundant in the streams of the Eastern and
Middle States east of the Alleghanies. It reaches a length of eighteen inches, being the largest
of the Cyprinide east of the Rocky Mountains. It has no special importance as a food-fish,
although often taken with hook and line. According to Thoreau, the Chub is a soft fish and
tastes like brown paper salted.

THE HORNED DACE—SEMOTILUS CORPORALIS.

This species abounds in all small streams and ponds from Western Massachusetts to Nebraska
and southward. It reaches a length of about a foot, and is par excellence a small-boy’s fish. Large
specimens are often found in streams which the boy can step across, and a small hook baited with
an angle-worm will draw the fish from its lurking place. The “horns” in this and other Minnows
and Chubs are dermal excrescnces developed on the males in the breeding season.

THE HORNY-HEAD—CERATICHTHYS BIGUTTATUS.

The “ Horny-head,” “‘ River Chub,” or “‘ Jerker” is one of the most widely-diffused of fresh-
water fishes, occurring from New York to Utah and Alabama. It reaches a length of ten or
twelve inches. It inhabits larger streams than the Horned Dace, which delights in little brooks.
It takes the hook readily, and throughout the Southwest forms a source of satisfaction to the
juvenile angler. The flesh of this and other small Cyprinide is very palatable when fried crisp
soon after being taken from the water.

PLATYGOBIO GRACILIS.

Toward the Northwest this Chub takes the place of the preceding, and reaches a somewhat
larger size.
THE SHINER—MINNILUS CORNUTUS.

The “Shiner,” “ Red-fin,” or “Red Dace” abounds in all streams trom New England to Kansas
and Alabama, being in most waters more numerous than any other species. In clear, cool
lakes it is often found in great schools. At the mouths of small rivers in Lake Michigan

618 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

hundreds of them can be taken in a short time on a small hook baited with worms or flies. This
species reaches a length of about ten inches. It assists to swell the urchin’s string, but has no
tangible importance as a food-fish. Its flesh spoils very quickly after the fish is taken from the
water, hence the name “ Rot-gut Minnow,” applied to it in Alabama. A large part of the food of
the black bass, trout, and other predatory fish is contributed by the Shiner and by its numerous
congeners.

THE CUT-LIPS—EXOGLOSSUM MAXILLINGUA.

The “Cut-lips,” “Day Chub,” or “‘Nigger Chub,” has but a narrow distribution, being found in
abundance only in the basin of the Susquehanna. It reaches a length of six or eight inches, and
has no economic importance.

LAVINIA EXILICAUDA.

This species is found in some abundance in most streams of California, and comes occasionally
into the markets. It reaches a length of about fifteen inches.

ORTHODON MICROLEPIDOTUS.

This species occurs in most streams of California in considerable abundance. A good many
are sent to the market of San Francisco, where they are eaten by: the Chinese. It reaches alength
of about eighteen inches.

HARD-MOUTH—ACROCHILUS ALUTACEUS.

The Hard-mouth Chub is found in the rivers of Washington and Oregon. It reaches a length
of about a foot but is only rarely eaten.

189. THE CARP—CYPRINUS CARPIO.
By RupoLrH HESsEt.!

THE RACES OF CARP—THEIR HISTORY AND HABITS.—The Carp, Cyprinus carpio, of the
family Cyprinidae, has a toothless mouth, thick lips, and four barbels on the upper jaw. In place
of the usual teeth of the mouth there are a number of stout teeth on the pharyngeal bones, which
are arranged in three rows. It has one single dorsal, which is longer than the anal. Both these
fins have at their origin, on the anterior edge, a strong ray, which is serrated in a downward
direction. The caudal is of semicircular shape, and the natatory bladder is divided into two
sections, with connecting air-passage. The scales have an entire edge, and the body is compressed
on the sides. The general color of the back and sides is a dark olive-brown, the abdomen often
of a whitish-yellow or orange tint. The coloring depends, as with all fishes, partly upon the age
and season, partly upon the water, the soil, and also upon the food of the fish. ~ ce

Be it remarked that the Carp, which has occasionally been compared to the buffalo-fish, has
no resemblance to it, with the exception of the similarity of their coat of scales; neither does the
flesh of the buffalo-fish ever come up to the excellence of that of the Carp.

The Carp was, in all probability, originally introduced into Europe from Central Asia many
centuries ago, and is now common in most of the large rivers. In some parts of Europe, princi-
pally in Bohemia, Austria, Southern, Central, and Northern Germany, it has become domesti-
cated.

The Carp is alleged to have been imported into England in the year 1504. In Austria, which
possesses the most extensive carp fisheries in Europe, the culture of the Carp can be traced as
far back as the year 1227. The Emperor Charles IV of Germany, by granting sundry privileges,

1 Extract from Report of United States Fish Commission, part iv, 187576, pp. 865-876.

VARIETIES OF THE CARP. 619

favored the establishment of ponds in his dominions, and the monks were especially assiduous in
the culture of fish in ponds. As early as the first half of the fourteenth century, Bohemia had its
first large carp pord, and the culture of this fish progressed in that country, as also in Poland,.
and that district which now comprises German Austria; also in Upper Lusatia, Saxony, Silesia
and Bavaria. A celebrated establishment for carp-culture, with large, extensive ponds, was
located, as early as the fourteenth century, near the town of Wittingau, in Bohemia, Austria. The
first beginning of it may be traced back to the year 1367. At that time the lords of Rosenberg
called into existence and maintained for centuries these establishments on a scale so extensive
that to this day they are the adwiration of the visitor, the main parts having survived, while the
race of the Rosenbergs has long been extinct.

The manor of Wittingau suffered greatly from the calamities of the Thirty Years’ War, and
with it, in consequence, its fish-culture. The latter only recovered the effects of it after passing,.
together with the large estate of a rich monastery of the same name, in the year 1670, into pos-
session of the princes of Schwarzenberg, their present owners. The extent which carp-culture
has reached on these princely domains will be seen from the circumstance that their artificial ponds
comprise an area of no less than twenty thousand acres. The proceeds amount to about five hundred
thousand pounds of Carp per annum. The ponds of the princes of Schwarzenberg are probably
the most extensive of the kind on the globe. They are usually situated in some undulating low-
land country, where small valleys have been closed in by gigantic dams for the purpose of forming
reservoirs. Similar establishments, though not equally extensive, are found in the provinces of
Silesia and Brandenburg; as, for instance, near Breslau and Cottbus, in Peitz and Pleitz, which I
visited last year. In Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, Oldenburg, Mecklenburg, and Holstein there are also
many hundreds of ponds, none of them covering more than a few acres, but almost every large:
farm possessing at least one of them.

It will be easily understood that after such an exclusive culture in ponds, continued through
centuries, as also an existence in open water, where the Cyprinide were left more to themselves, a
number of varieties or rather genuine species Cyprinus carpio, showing striking differences from
the races, were developed: these races, though derived directly from the original type, just as with
our domestic animals. They are divided into three chief groups:

1. Cyprinus carpio communis, the “Scale Carp”; with regular, concentrically arranged scales,
being, in fact, the original species improved.

2. Cyprinus carpio specularis, the “Mirror Carp”; thus named on account of the extraordinarily
large scales which run along the sides of the body in three or four rows, the rest of the body being
bare.

_ 3. Cyprinus carpio coriaceus, sive nudus, the “Leather Carp”; which has on the back either
only a few scales or none at all, and possesses a thick, soft skin, which feels velvety to the touch.

The two last named are distinguished from the original form by a somewhat shorter and
stouter but more fleshy body. It is rather difficult to decide which of these three species is the
most suitable for culture. There are some districts where only Scale Carp are bred and Mirror
Carp are not valued, as there is no demand for any but the former in the market, as, for instance,
in Bohemia, in the above-mentioned domain of Wittingau. Again, in other districts, as in parts of
Bavaria and Saxony, etc., for the same reason, Mirror Carp or Leather Carp only are bred. There
is, in fact, nu sufficient reason for making any distinction among these three varieties, for if they
are genuine types of their respective species, they are indeed excellent and desirable fish.

The assertion which has been made at times that the Scale Carp is better adapted for trans-
portation than either the Mirror or Leather Carp by reason of its coat of scales, which would pro-

620 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

tect it more efficiently from the accidents incidental to transfer, as also against inimical or hurtful
attacks in the ponds (the Mirror Carp having very few and the Leather Carp no scales), is not
correct. In transportation scales are not only inefficient for protection, but they frequently cause
the death of the fish, especially in transporting the so-called breeding fish; for if a scale be torn off
in part only ulceration will ensue, and the fish, of course, will die. Again, should any scale be lost,
the bare spot will very soon begin to fester, or develop a confervaceous growth, and the conse-
quences will be the same. On the contrary, the Leather Carp, which oddly enough, like the frog,
is destitute of covering, will bear a great deal more ill-usage and injury, whether young or old,
than the Scale Carp. The smooth, slippery skin of the Leather Carp suffers much less from frie-
tion during transportation than the Seale Carp, and any slight wound will beal up much more
easily, as the epithelium will cover it immediately and the formation of a new skin can progress
under its protection. I have often had the opportunity of seeing such scars upon the skin of the
Mirror Carp, and even more so on that of the Leather Carp. They are the effects of injury
from the sharp edges of the heron’s bill, the bite of a pike, or some other hurt, and I never saw
anything of the kind on a Scale Carp, for if one of these be wounded it almost invariably dies.

The Carp will sometimes cross with some related species of the Cyprinidae, for instance, Caras-
sius vulgaris ; and, in consequence, hybrids have been engendered which sometimes resemble the
genuine Carp so much that it is often difficult for the student as well as for the professed culturist
and experienced fisherman to immediately recognize them. Such fishes are valueless as food, on
account of their bad and very bony flesh. One of the hybrids mentioned is the Carpio Kollarti—
Cyprinus striatus, which was formerly regarded as a separate species. It is a cross between the
Carp and Carassius vulgaris (crucian Carp), a very poor and bony fish, which, in Germany, is some-
times called ‘‘Poor man’s Carp.” Some varieties exist of this common fish. The latter has even
been dignified by a specific name of its own, Carassius gibelio.

The spawning seasons of the crucian and the true Carp coincide, and, where kept together,
hybrid races may readily be formed; that period including the time from the month of May until
August.

In order to determine this question, I myself managed to bring about such crosses by placing
(1) female common Carp with male crucian Carp, and (2) female crucian Carp with male common
Carp, in small tanks, constructed with this end in view; (3) I also put together female Carpio Kol-
larii with male common Carp; this for the sole purpose of testing the capability of propagation of
the C. Kollarii, which had been doubted. In the two former cases I obtained forms analogous to
the Carpio Kollarii sometimes approaching in appearance the true Carp, at others the crucian
Carp. In the third case, however, having placed ripe Carpio Kollarti together with Cyprinus
carpio, I obtained a product with difficulty to be distinguished from the genuine Carp. I took
the trouble to feed tnem for three years, in order to try their fitness for the table, but their flesh
was exceedingly poor and very bony, and could not be compared by any means to that of the
common Carp.

Considering, then, the whole extensive tract of country devoted t9 fish-culture in Central
Europe, where crucian Carp are to be found from Italy to Sweden and Norway, from France to the
boundary of Eastern Siberia, considering the many who cultivate on a small scale and the owners
of badly stocked ponds, with their different doubtful productions, how often do we find in the
markets or ponds very nice crosses which have been propagated through from three to ten gen-
erations and which are sold for Carp! There are many small sheets of water in Germany, France,
Austria, Italy, Holland, and Belgium, and probably also in England, the proprietors of which
imagine, in good faith, that they have stocked their ponds with good, genuine Carp, which in

HABITS OF THE CARP. 621

reality, through careless selection or ignorance, are hybrids which may even have been cultivated
for two or three generations. In some ponds in Switzerland, near the lake of Constance, some
crosses of Abramis brama were found as late as twenty years ago.

Haszits.—The Carp is partial to stagnant waters, or such as have a not too swift current, with
a loamy, muddy bottom and deep places covered with vegetation. It inhabits now most of the
larger and smaller rivers of Europe, particularly the Elbe, Weser, Rhine, Danube, Po, Rhone,
Garonne, Loire, then the Bavarian and Swiss lakes, the lake of Constance, etc.; even salt water
seems to agree with it very well. I have taken it in the Black Sea, where its weight often amounts
to from fifteen to twenty pounds. It is also found in the Caspian Sea in great numbers, and is
known there by the name of Sassan.

It is an advantage that the Carp is able to live in water where other fishes could not possibly
exist; for instance, in the pools of bog meadows or sloughs. However, it is not by any means to
be inferred from this that the best locality for carp ponds of a superior kind could be in such sit-
uations. The presence of too much humic acid is unfavorable to the well-being of the Carp, as we
shall see presently in the chapter upon the establishing of fish-ponds.!

The Carp lives upon vegetable food as well as upon worms and larve of aquatic insects, which
it turns up from the mud with the head. It is very easily satisfied, and will not refuse the offal of
the kitchen, slaughter-houses, and breweries, or even the excrement of cattle and pigs. I propose
to enter further upon the subject of feeding it when I speak of its culture in ponds.

In the moderate zone, that is to say in Central Europe, the Carp will, at the beginning of the
cold season, seek deeper water to pass that period in a kind of sleep. This will sometimes occur
as early as the beginning of November, if the winter should set in early; and it is to be remarked
that they will retire at an earlier period in ponds than in rivers. They do so always in groups of
from fifty to one hundred and more. They make a cavity in the muddy ground, called a “kettle”;
in this they pass the time until spring, huddled together in concentric circles with their heads
together, the posterior part of the body raised and held immovably, scarcely lifting the gills for
the process of breathing, and without taking a particle of food. They do not take any food from
the beginning of October, and continue to abstain from it, in some countries, until the end of
March, and in colder districts even somewhat later. It will not answer, however, to depend on
this habit when transporting them for propagation in the spring or winter time, more especially
young Carp one or two years old. The fish will arrive in a worn and hungry condition, and must
be kept in a tank constructed on purpose for observation, where it has no chance to bury itself in
the mud; here it will sometimes take a little food. At such times I generally make use of boiled
barley, or rye flour converted into a kind of tough paste by the addition of hot water, and with
this I mix a little loam and dry bread; but I continue the feeding only until I can judge from the
looks of the fish that they have recovered. This method I followed with the Carp which I imported
from Europe for the purpose of breeding in the winter of 1876-77. It is a most striking fact that
the Carp, though it does not take any food during this winter sleep in its natural retreat, does not
diminish in weight, while, in the so-called “‘ winter chambers,” it does so to a remarkable degree.
These “winter chambers” are large tanks, one thousand to five thousand square feet in size or
less; they are sometimes walled in with masonry, sometimes they are constructed of wood. Fishes
intended for sale are kept in them for a few weeks or months during the winter.

The Carp does not grow in the winter. Warmth alone seems to exercise a favorable influence
upon it and to promote growth. It only grows in the months of May, June, July, and August,
and does not appear to continue doing so in September. This slight increase in weight which

1Report United States Fish Commissioner, pt. iv, p. 876 et seq.

622 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

takes place during the latter month seems to grow out of an accumulation of fat which is being
deposited around the entrails. In ponds which contain plenty of food and healthy water, in an
ordinary year, the growth and increase of weight in the year will be represented in figures as

follows:
Per cent. of
original Percent of
weight. & ig
B60: 2 ee ee 10-15 13
SRDS): 3225 ta cwaise agoadise soSaiies wee eeee soot Seder Hueeeee Sagas eee 33 31
DULY esseseesne tee Gesess +2 tee edseueeencueos tegen is vege eses cate ced 36 34
PATI BSE ceeme sr ancasea caer ioe deyasiacaiomsiigeknaisme rears aeeoeeasiaee 20 18
September accczcracisseetducwa oan dese ceevces see ave emietaaseam alscens 6 4
Bo fall ezeh gl Ma wed lyadtlh CU miss eeae ua uenee i oacesnacaees 110 | 100 |
t

If the weather in the month of May be mild and warm from the beginning, a better growth
may be expected, amounting, as in June, to about thirty per centum. This month (May) is decid-
edly of great: importance for the growth of the fish during the current year, for, in proportion as
‘the fish has grown in the short space of one-month, it will take more food in the following ones, as
the increase of its growth and consequent wants will demand. Culturists, therefore, consider the
month of May as being the most important of the whole period of the Carp’s growth. The above-
given calculations, of course, are limited to ponds in which no artificial feeding is resorted to, but
in which there is sufficient food by reason of the good quality of the water and soil which pro-
duces it.

In small ponds, situated in parks or gardens, which possess favorable soil and river water, the
increase of weight will be even a little greater if feeding is had recourse to, for such small ponds
(covering only half an acre) cannot produce sufficient food themselves. On the whole, feeding is
a makeshift, as will be seen presently, and which in very large ponds of more than from twenty
to one thousand acres should not be made use of.

The above calculations are only admissible for Central Europe, from the Adriatic to the Baltic
and the North Sea. In countries farther north, as in Sweden, the growth of the Carp is less, as,
-on the contrary, in more southern countries than Central Europe, for instance in Illyria, Dalmatia,
Southern Italy, Southern Spain, and partly, also, Southern France, the result is more favorable
still. There a milder and warmer climate, an early spring, a very warm summer and autumn, and
a late winter, which, in addition, is mild and short, combine to exercise a favorable influence upon
the thriving condition of the fishes. In these warm climates the fish becomes lively at a much
earlier season, if it does at all pass the winter in that lethargic state, without taking any food,
than it does in the countries of the northern parts of Central Europe.

REPRODUCTION.—The pond Carp of Central Europe generally leaves its winter retreat when
‘the rays of the spring sun have warmed the water thoroughly, while at the same time it begins to
seek for food at a somewhat earlier period in rivers and lakes. At the beginning of the month of
March the eggs have developed themselves considerably in the body of the fish, and it only needs
a few weeks of warm weather to bring about the spawning season. This commences in the middle
of May in such lakes and ponds of Central and Northern France, Southern Germany and Austria,
as have a warm situation and are sheltered from the cold winds. It continues in some localities
throughout June and July, and sometimes, in more elevated situations, until August, as, for
instauce, in Franconia and Upper Bavaria. The spawn of so late a season, however, is scarcely
fit for breeding purposes, as the fish cannot grow much more during the short space of warm
weather. It remains very small and suffers greatly from the ensuing winter weather, and is easily

REPRODUCTION OF THE CARP. 623

dwarfed at that time. The spawning of the individual fish does not take place all at once. Days
and weeks may pass before it will have left the last egg to the care of nature. At times, upon the
setting in of rainy, cool weather during this period, it will be interrupted, but reassumed as soou
as the temperature grows warmer again. Culturists altogether dislike cold weather at this time,
as not only the eggs but the young fry also suffer much from it. Wet, cold summers are no more
profitable to the culturists of Carp than to the agriculturist. In the southern part of Europe the
spawning season commences at an earlier date than in Central Europe. In Sicily, in the neigh-
borhood of Palermo, where there are some private ponds, the Carp begins to spawn at the com-
mencement of the month of April. This is said to be the case also in the French province of Con-
stantine, Algeria, Africa.

The abundance of eggs in the Carp is very great, and it is this circumstance which will
explain its extraordinary increase in the natural waters. A fish weighing from four to five pounds
contains, on an average, 400,000 to 500,000 eggs. Other statements figure still higher. I not only
made calculations myself formerly, repeating them in 1876 on a female Mirror Carp, which I
obtained from the environs of Gunzenhausen, Bavaria, and which, curiously enough, at the end
of November, was entirely ripe, but I also obtained statements from culturists on whom I could
depend. The calculation I made in the following manner: After freeing the eggs from all the fat
and the inclosing membrane, and after having washed them in alcohol, I counted off exactly 1,000
of them; these I weighed, and according to the result 1 deduced the number of the whole. In
the somewhat longer-bodied Scale Carp, I generally found comparatively more eggs than in a
Mirror or Leather Carp, though all were of equal age and weight.

During the spawning season an appreciable change takes place in the male, protuberances,
like warts, appearing on the skin of the head and back, and disappearing upon the expiration of
that period. This is a peculiarity with most of the cyprinoids. Some time before the spawning
season sets in, the falling out of the pharyngeal teeth takes place; these grow anew every year.

Some days before spawning the fish show an increased vivacity; they rise more often from
the depths below to the surface. Two or three or more of the male fish keep near the female; the
latter swims more swiftly on a warm, sunny morning, keeping mostly close to the surface, followed
by the males. This is called “ streichen” =running-spawning, and is more frequent in warm than
in windy and rainy weather. The female prefers spots which are overgrown with grasses and other
kinds of aquatic plants, such as Utricularia, Nymphea, and Alisma. The male fishes follow close
to the very water’s edge, as far as the diminished depth will allow them. They lose all their timid-
ity and precaution, so that they may be taken quite easily. They lash the water in a lively way,
twisting the posterior portion of the body energetically, and shooting through the water near its
surface with short, tremulous movements of the fins. They do so in groups of two or three males
to one female fish, and forming an almost compact mass. This is the moment when the female
drops the eggs, which immediately are impregnated by the milter. As this process is repeated
several times, the female drops probably only from four hundred to five hundred eggs at a time, in
order to gain resting time, so that it will require days and weeks before it has given up the
last egg. ,

The eggs of the Carp are adhesive, not detached, like those of the Salmonida, these latter
lying loosely on the ground, while the former adhere in Jumps to the object upon which they have
fallen. As soon as the egg has left the body of the fish it swells up a little, the mucus, which
surrounds it, serving as a means to fasten itself upon some aquatic plant, stone, or brush-wood.
Those eggs which have no such object to cling to are lost. I found numerous eggs on the reverse
sides of the leaves of the Nymphacea and their stems, the Phellandrium and Utricularia, but the

624 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

greater number of them I discovered on the Festuca fluitans, which among fishermen is known
generally by the name of “water-grass.” Its narrow, long, strap-sbaped, thin leaves spread softly
over the water’s surface, as also its numerous branches in the water afford to the fish the sought-
for opportunity to deposit its eggs upon its tender leaves. The seeds of this grass are an excellent
food for the Carp. This may be regarded as a useful indication to be acted upon in the construc-
tion of ponds.

The eggs will develope themselves quickly if assisted by warm weather. As early as the fifth
or sixth day the first traces of dusky spots, the eyes, will be visible, and toward the twelfth, or at
the latest the sixteenth day the little embryo fish will break through its envelope. This rapid
development takes place only in shallow, thoroughly-warmed ponds, or in such as were expressly
constructed for hatching, and called breeding ponds. If these ponds are deep, and consequently
their water is colder, the hatching process may require as many as twenty days. In from three to
five days the young fish has absorbed the yolks, and seeks its food. If the breeding pond be pro-
ductive enough to furnish the necessary food for so many young fishes, these will grow very rap-
idly. I shall return to this subject hereafter.

I remarked above that the Carp preferg stagnant or slowly-running water with a muddy bot-
tom, and that it lives upon vegetable as well as animal food, aquatic plants, seeds, worms, and
larve of water insects; it is therefore no fish of prey. It does not attack other fishes, and has no
teeth in its mouth, but only in the throat, and is, on account of its harmlessness, an excellent fish
for the culturist, as well as for stocking large lakes and rivers in general.

GROWTH AND SIZE.—Its growth differs, according as the fish inhabits cold or warm water, a
river, lake, or pond, finding plentiful food therein, or teing fed. An additional factor is the quality
of the soil, whether muddy or stony. In cold water, or such as has a stony ground, the Carp will
not progress favorably. For this reason, the statements concerning its normal size, attained to
in a certain given time, differ widely. Very naturally, it will exercise an extremely great influence
upon the thriving of the fishes whether the pond contains a great number or only a few of them;
whether itis overstocked, as culturists term it, or whether there are only a proportionate number
of fishes in it, according to its capability of producing food. Other considerations remain to be
mentioned, namely, Is the pond provided with supplies from brooks falling into it, or are the fishes
to be fed? The latter course is almost indispensable in the culture of trout. The expenses
incurred in this case diminish the income of the culturist; if not resorted to, the result will be the
same, as the value of the fish will be smaller. This feeding is needless with the Carp, if it be cul-
tivated judiciously in suitable ponds, and for this reason alone the culture of the Carp is prefcrable
to that of the trout.

In rivers and lakes it grows larger, although the same fish; for the reason, probably, that in
a larger space, which at the same time yields more sheltered retreats, it escapes from the pursuit
of man more easily than in regular artificial ponds, and finds more plentiful supplies of food.

The question of the species, or I would rather say the race, is of great moment, particularly in
respect to carp-culture in ponds.

A favorable result may be expected from the culture of this fish wherever the necessary water
is to be found, be it in the north or south, and that, too, as well in ponds as in open lakes and
rivers.

The normal weight which a Carp may attain to in three years, whether it be Scale Carp,
Mirror Carp, or Leather Carp, is an average of from three to three and one-fourth pounds; that
is, a fish which has lived two summers, consequently is eighteen months old, will weigh two and
three-fourths to three and one-fourth pounds the year following. The growth may turn out to be

SIZE AND WEIGHT OF THE CARP. 625

even more favorable in a warm year, or if only a few fishes have been placed in a pond, as we
shall see farther on, in the chapter treating of pond-culture and the operations of the culturist.!

Carps may reach a very advanced age, aS specimens are to be found in Austria over one
hundred and forty years old. The increase in length only continues up to a certain age, but its
circumference will increase up to its thirty-fifth year.

I have seen some common Carp in the southern parts of Europe—in the lowlands of Hungary,
Servia, Croatia, Wallachia, as also in Moldavia and the Buckowina—which weighed from thirty to
forty pounds and more, measuring nearly three and one-half feet in length by two and three-fourths
feet in circumference.

Old men, whose credibility and truthfulness could not be doubted, assured me and gave the
most detailed accounts of the capture of this species of fish in former years, giants, which weighed
from fifty to sixty pounds, and which they had seen themselves. During the Crimean war in 1853,
a French engineer officer, stationed at Widdin, on the Danube, in Turkey, killed a Carp by a bullet-
shot, some distance below the city; this fish weighed sixty-seven pounds. I had some of its scales
in my possession, of which each had a diameter of two and one-half inches. Their structure indi-
cated to a certainty that the age of this fish could be no more than twenty-four years at the most.
It is a well-known fact that two large Carps, weighing from forty-two to fifty-five pounds, were
taken several years ago on one of the Grand Duke of Oldenburg’s domains in Northern Germany.
hey have been kept in some particularly favorable water, productive of plentiful food, and had
been used as breeding fishes. These two specimens might, from their size, be calculated to be
comparatively very aged fishes; it was proved that they were only fifteen years old. If we may
credit the chronicles kept centuries ago by old families, and especially by the monks, who had
taken possession of all the best localities along the banks of the beautiful blue Danube, then still
greater giants had been caught, and that in the waters of the Danube itself. A chronicle of the
monastery of Mélk, in Austria, refers to a Carp weighing seventy-eight pounds, which had been
captured on Ascension Day in 1520. Another record speaks of a Carp which had been taken in
the third decennium of the present century in the lake of Zug, in Switzerland, and which weighed
ninety pounds. These giants are certainly only wonderful exceptions, and have become celebrated
through the scarcity of such occurrences, but still these facts are encouraging illustrations that it
is possible for such large specimens to grow up in favorable waters. All the countries where
these large fishes have been found, and which are situated between the Black, the North, and the
Baltic Seas, are pretty nearly such as have a late spring and a long, cold winter. Near Widdin
the Danube has been frozen repeatedly. There the Carp passes from five to seven months in its
winter sleep, during which it does not grow. If this fish thrives so well in the countries which
have such a very cold winter (on an average they have the same winter temperature as Boston,
Chicago, Milwaukee, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, New York, Baltimore and Saint Louis); where the
rivers have not enough food for these fishes by far, their level being regulated by dams, which are
a subject of constant complaint to the fishermen, how much more would they thrive in the waters
of this country with their great riches of food? But if we take into account the rivers of the mild
South and Southwest of the United States, what success may not be expected for this fish in those
regions?

If the Carp finds food in superfluity it will grow much more rapidly than the above statement
indicates. This gives an increase of from three to three and one-fourth pounds in one year and six
months; but this is only the normal one, the food consumed being of an average amount. If the
fish obtain food very plentifully it will grow more rapidly. In this case, again, it is to be consid-

40 1 Report of the United States Fish Commision, pt. iv, p. 876 et seq.
¥F

626 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

ered that the waters of the milder climates of this country possess this advantage, scarcely to be
judged of or estimated at its proper value as yet, that the fish may be able during three-quarters
of the year, or even the whole year round, to take food, and will omit the lethargic winter sleep
conditioned by the cold winter. There is scarcely a comparison to be made, so far as the Carp is
concerned, between the rivers of this country, so richly supplied with food, which it will not
be compelled to seek under a constant strife for existence, and the much poorer waters of the
Rhine, Elbe, Rhone, ctc. In the waters of its native country, in Central Europe, after its first
awakening from the long winter sleep, it seeks most diligently the contents of the seeds of
the Nuphar lutewm and Nympheea alba (the yellow and white water-lily), the Phellandrium aqua-
ticum, Festuca fluitans, etc. The waters of the United States abound in all these plants and
numerous others the seeds of which will serve the fish as food; for instance, the wild rice (Zizania
aquatica and Z. flwitans), the well known Tuscarora rice or “‘water-oats” with its great riches of
seeds, and many others, which will yield food profusely, and which European waters do not possess,
thus giving a great advantage to the American carp culturist. And then there is the culture of
fish in ponds. There are culturists in Central Europe who, wishing to see the fish grow more rap-
idly, take the trouble to feed them with soaked barley, which they occasionally throw out in differ-
ent places, and by doing so they have had a very full success, the fish growing larger, that is, more
quickly than when not thus fed. By introducing the above-named wild or natural water plants
in carp ponds they will be perpetuated, and the grains which have fallen to the bottom of the
water will form an ample article of food for the first spring days, if we do not prefer to give them
the almost worthless offal of the slaughter-houses. Ido not advocate the so-called artificial feeding
of this fish where the ponds themselves yield food in ample abundance, a consummation toward
which the Tuscarora rice will largely contribute.

Let us once more consider the fact of its extraordinary increase of weight of about one
hundred and ten per centum in the exceedingly short space of four months, for during the cold
winter time, when ice thickly covers rivers and lakes, nature banishes it into its temporary tomb
which it chooses and digs for itself, to hold its winter sleep in. This fish needs from fifteen to
eighteen months of growth to gain, according to a low estimation, the weight of three pounds
without being fed. But much more satisfactory results are frequently arrived at when favorable
circumstances combine and when it will reach a greater weight. There are some culturists who
obtain in the same space of time fishes of four pounds’ weight; of course they possess warmly situ-
ated ponds which thaw very early in spring, and perhaps they assist nature in some degree by
feeding the fishes. I have done so myself in two successive years, which were exceptionally warm,
when I fed the fishes with the almost worthless malt refuse or ‘‘ grains.” They increased visibly
and attained to the above-mentioned weight in the same space of time.

This fifteen to eighteen months of the actual time of growth transpires during a period of three
years and six months, as intervening months of winter sleep are to be included, during which the
growth is interrupted.

I will not recur to what this fish promises to become in the milder regions of the South, where
neither ice-bound water nor cold temperatures force upon it the lethargy of the winter sleep, where
it will have the longer space of from eight to ten months, or may be the whole year, including the
mild winter, for the most vigorous and rapid development, not, as in Europe, the sparingly allotted
four or five months. It is not to be doubted that the Carp will arrive at the weight of from twe
and three-fourths to four poundsin one year in those warm climates, when in colder regions it
requires two years and six months. I do not think that I am mistaken in this; I am ready to
stand by this assertion, which the future will surely verify.

40 F

CATFISH FAMILY. 627

For a full account of the methods of culture the inquirer is referred to the Report of the
United States Commission of Fisheries, part iv, 1875-76, pp. 876-900, and to other papers in the
subsequent reports. At the time of the publication of this volume the progeny of the three
hundred and forty-five young Carp brought over from Germany in May, 1877, have been dis-
tributed to all parts of the United States, and the Carp is almost as familiar to our people as is
any other kind of domesticated animal.

“The Carp,” writes Jordan, “has been extensively introduced into California and Oregon, and
it has thriven admirably. In many parts of California there are now carp ponds, but they are
most numerous, and perhaps most profitable, in Sonoma County.”

189. THE CATFISH FAMILY—SILURIDZ.

By Davin 8. JoRDAN.

The Catfishes abound in all the fresh waters of the United States east of the Rocky Mount-
ains. The species of the three genera, Ictalurus, Amivrus, and Leptops, which constitute the bulk
of the family as represented in North America, all reach a length of from one to five feet, and are
all food-fishes of more or less importance. One of the Catfishes, Ictalurus ponderosus, is our
largest fresh-water fish, weighing upwards of one hundred and fifty pounds, and two of the others,
Leptops olivaris and Ictalurus nigricans, reach a very considerable size.

The Catfishes are voracious and indiscriminate feeders, any kind of animal substance, living or
dead, being greedily swallowed bythem. They are also (especially the species of Amiurus) extremely
tenacious of life, living for a long time out of water, and being able to resist impurities in the
water better than any other of our food-fishes. They spawn in spring, and the female fish keeps a
watch over the school of young, much asa hen takes care of chickens. The Catfishes are especially
adapted for stocking ponds and sluggish streams with muddy bottoms, or which become partly
dry in summer, bodies of water not suited for the more aristocratic trout and bass.

The species of the genus Ictalurus—known as “Channel Cats” are much less hardy than the
other Catfishes, and do not thrive well except in river channels. Any water which does not dry
up absolutely to the bottom in summer will suffice to nurture the common small Catfishes.

The flesh of all the Catfishes is of fair quality, not delicate nor tender, but of good flavor.
The Channel Cats have whiter meat than the ordinary small Catfish, but the flesh is drier, and the
latter are usually preferred.

THE COMMON CHANNEL CAT—ICTALURUS PUNCTATUS.

The Channel Cat or Blue Cat abounds in all the larger Western and Southern streams, living
in the river channels. It reaches a weight of five to ten pounds and is readily salable, but its
flesh is not better than that of its less attractive relatives. It takes the hook readily. This species
is abundant in the Saint John’s River, Florida. In 1878 many were taken near the bar at Mayport
in brackish water. For table use they are much more highly esteemed than the Mud Catfish.

GREAT MISSISSIPPI CAT—ICTALURUS PONDEROSUS.

This species, the largest of our Catfish, is found in the Mississippi, and probably in its larger
tributaries, where it reaches a weight of about one hundred and fifty pounds. Little distinctive
is known of its habits, which probably agree with those of the next species.

628 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Tue GREAT LAKE CATFISH; FLANNEL-MOUTH CAT (the young)—ICTALURUS NIGRICANS.

This species, the most abundant of the large Catfishes, abounds in the Great Lakes and in
the larger streams of the West and South as far as Florida. It reaches a weight of fifty to one
hundred pounds, perhaps more. In all the markets of the region where found it is one of the
most important species, and its flesh, which can be cut in “steaks” like halibut, is generally
esteemed. Nothing distinctive is known of its breeding habits or rate of growth. Professor Goode
remarks: “I have ebserved frequently enormous specimens of this species in the Saint John’s River,
where they are called Mud Cats.”

THE CHANNEL CAT OF THE POTOMAC—ICTALURUS ALBIDUS.

The White Catfish of the tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay is very abundant in the Susque-
hanna and Potomac Rivers, and forms an important part of the fish supply of the Washington
market. It reaches a weight of two to five pounds, being much smaller than the preceding species,
which it resembles.

Tok HoRNED PouT—AMIURUS NEBULOSUS.

The common “Horned Pout,” “Bull-head,” “Bull-pout,” or “Minister” of the Northern and
Eastern States is the most generally abundant and familiar representative of this family. It
reaches a length of about eighteen inches and rarely exceeds three or four pounds in weight, while
the majority of those seen in the markets are still smaller. It is probably the hardiest of all our
fresh-water fishes, thriving in any waters, but preferring those which are quiet and shaded.
Numerous other species very similar to this occur in our fresh waters.

The Bull-head has been introduced from the Schuylkill into the Sacramento and San Joaquin
Rivers in California. It has there very rapidly multiplied, and is now common in all the sloughs
and bayous of the lower courses of these rivers. As a food-fish it is not very highly valued by
the Californians, most of those brought to market being taken by the Chinese.

THE Mup CaTt—LEPTOPS OLIVARIS.

The “Mud Cat,” “Yellow Cat,” “Goujon,” or ‘‘ Bashaw” is found in all the large rivers of the
West and South. It reaches a weight of at least fifty pounds. It is found only in the larger
streams, Swimming near the bottom. It is less attractive in its appearance than the other Cat-
fishes, but we are not aware that its flesh is inferior to that of the others. This species, and other
of the larger Catfishes, are often caught by “jugging,” the bait being attached to a jug filled with
air, which will in time tire out the fish and bring it to the surface.

THE STONE CAT—NOTURUS FLAVUS.

This species reaches a length of about a foot; the other Stone Cats (Noturus) are still smaller,
and none of them can be considered as food-fishes.

\

THE GAFF-TOPSAIL CATFISH—ASLURICHTHYS MARINUS.

This species, which ranges from Cape Cod to Florida, is found chiefly in brackish water. It is
not uncommonly taken at Arlington, Florida, and Empire Point. It is known here and at Pensa-
cola as the “Sea Cat,” and at Brunswick, Georgia, as “Gaff-topsail,” in allusion to the shape of
the first dorsal fin. According to Mr. H. 8. Williams, it is abundant in the Indian River. It is
common also along the Gulf Coast, but is nowhere valued as food. Many of the fishermen believe
this species to be viviparous. Mr. 8. C. Clarke, writing from New Smyrna March 31, 1874,
remarks: ‘They have eggs in them as large as cherries.”

THE CALIFORNIA CONGER EEL. 629

THE SALT-WATER CATFISH—ARIUS FELIS.

The Salt-water Catfish is found along the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico to as far north as Cape
Hatteras. In the first volume of the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, p. 278,
is an interesting account of its breeding habits, as observed by Prof. N. T. Lupton. The species
spawns there in July, and the parent (sex not stated) carries the eggs inits mouth. Silas Stearns
says of this fish:

“The Salt-water Catfish is very abundant everywhere on the Gulf coast. It is found on the
sea-beaches, the shores and bottoms of bays and bayous, and even some distance up fresh-water
streams. It is a bottom-loving fish, feeding upon worms and small crustaceans chiefly, but will
readily eat anything else—fish, flesh, or fowl, dead or alive. As the pest of these waters, it is ever
present and never welcome. It breeds in the summer, in June, July, and August. The spawn is
deposited in the depression in the sand and impregnated with the milt. One of the parent fish
then takes the eggs in his mouth and by some movement fixes them against the gills, or between
the leaves of the gills. The eggs are carried in this position until the embryo fish are hatched and
have become perfect and able to care for themselves. The eggs when full size resemble white
grapes; they are large and clear. Sometimes the parent fish’s jaws are much distended by the
eggs and young inside and its appearance is comical.

“The Catfish emits a grunting noise (similar, although louder, to several fishes of this coast—
the grunt, drum, mademoiselle, croaker, etc.), which comes, I believe, from the swimming bladder.
This noise, when there are many fish present and all else is still, isvery annoying, and I have passed
more than one wakeful night from hearing it on the Southern coast, where the fish were swimming
under my boat. The Catfish will always take the hook, and is not at all particular as to the kind
of bait; attains a weight of ten or twelve pounds, though the average is much less. Itis seldom
eaten except as a last resort for fresh food; it is, however, quite palatable. When caught it is
almost invariably mangled and consequently thrown away.”

190. THE MORAYS—MURZENIDA.

On our Southern coasts are several species of eel-like fishes belonging to this family. On
account of their sharp teeth and strong jaws they are rather dreaded by the fishermen, who fear
their bites. Some species, however, are here, asin various parts of the West Indies, in considerable
demand for food. The most important species is the Speckled Moray, Sidera ocellata, which is occa-
sionally brought to the Key West markets.

CALIFORNIA CONGER EEL—SIDERA MORDAX.

“This species,” writes Jordan, “is always known as ‘Conger Hel’ or ‘Congeree? It reaches
a length of five feet and a weight of fifteen or twenty pounds. It is found among rocks about
the Santa Barbara Islands, and southward along the coast of Lower California. About the islands
it is quite common. It is remarkable for its ferocious disposition. When captured it shows fight
and bites savagely, striking like a snake. Its flesh is very fat, resembling that of Anguilla, and
is very palatable when fried. The skin is said by the fishermen to be ‘very pizen.’ This species
is brought into the Los Angeles market, where it meets with a ready sale. Considerable numbers
are salted and dried by the Chinese.”

The Sea-snakes (Ophichthys ocellatus, O. chrysops, etc.) are occasionally seen on the fishing-
smacks in the Gulf of Mexico, having been obtained from the stomachs of large groupers and
snappers, with which it is a favorite food. Stearns has obtained specimens at Pensacola caught
with hook and line on the snapper banks, sixty miles east of that port.

630 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

191. THE EEL—ANGUILLA VULGARIS.

CLASSIFICATION.—There is no group of fishes concerning the classification and history of
which there is so much doubt as the Eel family; an infinite number have been described, but
most are so badly characterized or founded on individual or so trivial characters that the majority
of ichthyologists will reject them.’

In his “Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum” Dr. Giinther has claimed to retain
those as species which are distinguished by such characters that they may be recognized, though
he remarks that he is by no means certain whether really specific value should be attached to
them, remarking that the snout, the form of the eyes, the width of the bands of teeth, ete., are
evidently subject to much variation. In his more recent work he remarks, “Some twenty-five
species of Eels are known from the coast waters of the temperate and tropical zones.”

Other recent writers have cut the knot by combining all of the Eels into three or four, or
even into one, species, and it seems as if no other course were really practicable, since the different
forms merge into one another with almost imperceptible gradations. In his monograph of the
family of anguilliform fishes,? M. C. M. Dareste remarks:

“Dr. Giinther has recently published a monograph of the apodal fishes in which he begins
the work of reducing the number of specific types. The study of the ichthyological collection
of the Paris Museum, which contains nearly all of Kaup’s types, has given me the opportunity
of completing the work begun by Dr. Giinther, and of striking from the catalogue a large number
of nominal species which are founded solely upon individual peculiarities.

“ How are we to distinguish individual peculiarities from the true specific characters? In
this matter I have followed the suggestions made with such great force by M. Siebold in his
‘History of the Fresh-water Fishes of Central Europe’ This accomplished naturalist has shown
that the relative proportions of the different parts of the body and the head vary considerably
in fishes of the same species, in accordance with certain physiological conditions, and that conse-
quently they are far from having the importance which has usually been attributed to them in the
determination of specific characters.

“The study of a very large number of individuals of the genera Conger and Anguilla has
fully convinced me of the justice of this observation of Siebold; for the extreme variability of
proportions forbids us to consider them as furnishing true specific characters.

“T also think, with Siebold, that albinism and melanism, that is to say, the diminution or
augmentation of the number of chromatophores, are only individual anomalies and cannot be
ranked as specific characters. Risso long since separated the black Congers ‘under the name
Murena nigra. Kaup described as distinct species many black Anguillas. These species should
be suppressed. I have elsewhere proved the frequent occurrence of melanism and albinism more
or less complete in nearly all the types of fishes belonging to this family, a fact especially interest-
ing since albinism has hitherto been regarded as a very exceptional phenomenon in the group of
fishes. This also occurs in the Symbranchidaw. I have recently shown it in a specimen of Monop-
terus from Cochin China presented to the museum by M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire.

“T must also signalize a new cause of multiplication of species; it is partial or total absence
of ossification in certain individuals. This phenomenon, which may be explained as a kind of
rachitis (rickets), has not to my knowledge been noticed, yet I have found it in a large number of
specimens. I had prepared the skeleton of a Conger of medium size, the bones of which are

1GUNTHER: Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum, viii, p. 24.
+Comptes-rendus of the Academy of Sciences, Paris. .

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE EEL. 631

flexible and have remained in an entirely cartilaginous state. Still it is not necessary to prepare
the skeleton to determine the absence of ossification, for we can establish this easily in unskinned
specimens by the flexibility of the jaws. It is very remarkable that this modification of the
skeleton is not incompatible with healthy existence, and that it does not prevent the fish in which
it is found from attaining a very large size.

“Those fishes in which ossification is absent are remarkable by reason of the great reduction
of the number of teeth, which, although the only parts which become hard by the deposit of cal-
careous salts, remain however much smaller than in individuals whose skeletons are completely
ossified.

“We can thus understand how such specimens could present characters apparently specific,
and that they should have been considered by Kaup as types of new species. These considera-
tions have led me to reduce, on an extensive scale, the number of species in the family.

“So, in the genus Anguilla, I find but four species: Anguilla vulgaris, occurring throughout
the northern hemisphere, in the New World as well as the Old; Anguilla marmorata and A. mowa
of the Indian Ocean, and Anguilla megalostoma of Oceanica.

“There are at least four distinct types, resulting from the combination of a certain number of
characters; but the study of a very large number of specimens belonging .to these four specific
types has convinced me that each of these characters may vary independently, and that conse-
quently certain individuals exhibit a combination of characters belonging to two distinct types. It
is therefore impossible to establish clearly defined barriers separating these four types.

“The genus Anguilla exhibits, then, a phenomenon which is also found in many other genera,
and even in the genus Homo itself, and which can be explained in only two ways: Hither these
four forms have had a common origin and are merely races, not species, or else they are distinct
in origin, and are true species, but have been more or less intermingled, and have produced by
their mingling intermediate forms which coexist with those which were primitive. Science is not
in the position to decide positively between these alternatives.”

It is the disposition of American ichthyologists, at least, to accept the views of Dareste, and
to consider all the Eels of the northern hemisphere as members of one polymorphic species.
Giinther is inclined to recognize three species in North America: one the common Eel of Europe,
Anguilla vulgaris; one the common American Eel, Anguilla bostoniensis (rostrata), which he finds
also in Japan and China; and the third, Anguilla texana, described and illustrated by Girard, in the
“Report of the United States and Mexican Boundary Survey,” under the name of A. texana, which,
he remarks, is scarcely specifically distinct from A. bostoniensis, from which it differs only in the
greater development of the lips, a distinction which seems to be imaginary. The distinction
between A. bostoniensis and A. vulgaris, as stated by him, consists chiefly in the fact that the dorsal
fin is situated a little farther back upon the body, so that in the former the distance between the
commencement of the dorsal and anal fin is shorter than the head, while in the latter it is equal
to or somewhat longer than it. This character does not appear to be at all constant.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—Assuming the specific identity of the Eels of the Old and the
New World, the distribution of the common Eel may be defined somewhat as follows: In the rivers
and along the ocean shores of Eastern North America, south to Texas and Mexico, and north at
least to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, but absent in the waters tributary to Hudson Bay, the Arctic

‘These conclusions of Dareste have a very medieval ring. ‘‘Science” is certainly in the position to say that
neither of these hypotheses can be true. From the stand point of modern zoology, the common origin of the species
of Anguilla admits of no reasonable doubt. Between the four “species” of Dareste and their less sharply defined
Taces, no permanent difference exists. The name “species” certainly cannot be refused to forms having supposably
a common origin.—J.

632 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Sea and the Pacific; present in Southern Greenland (?) and Iceland, latitude 65° north; on the
entire coast of Norway, from the North Cape, latitude 71°, southward; abundant in the Baltic,
and in the rivers of Russia and Germany which are its tributaries, and along the entire western
and Mediterranean coasts of Europe, though not present in the Black Sea, in the Danube or any
of its other tributaries, or in the Caspian; occurring also off Japan and China and Formosa; also
in various islands of the Atlantic, Grenada, Dominica, the Bermudas, Madeira, and the Azores.

Hapits.—The habits of the Eel are very different from those of any other fish, and are as yet
but little understood.

“This, so far as we know,” writes Professor Baird, ‘is the only fish the young of which ascend
from the sea to attain maturity, instead of descending from the fresh to the salt water. Its
natural history has been a matter of considerable inquiry within a few years, although even now
we are far from having that information concerning it that would be desirable, in view of its
enormous abundance and its great value as a food-tish.

“The eggs of the Fel are for the most part laid in the sea, and in the early spring, the period
varying with the latitude, the young fish may be seen ascending the rivers in vast numbers, and
when arrested by an apparently impassable barrier, natural or artificial, they will leave the water
and make their way above the obstruction, in endeavoring to reach the point at which they aim.
Here they bury themselves in the mud and feed on any kind of animal substance, the spawn of
fish, the roes of shad, small fish, ete. At the end of their sojourn in the ponds or streams they
return to the sea, and are then captured in immense numbers in many rivers in what are called
fish-baskets. A V-shaped fence is made, with the opening down-stream into the basket, into
which the Eels fall, and from which they cannot easily escape. This same device, it may be
incidentally stated, captures also great numbers of other fish, such as shad, salmon, and other
anadromous fish, to their grievous destruction.

“As might be expected, however, the Falls of Niagara constitute an impassable barrier to their
ascent. The fish is very abundant in Lake Ontario, and until artificially introduced was unknown
in Lake Erie. At the present time, in the spring and summer, the visitor who enters under the
sheet of waier at the foot of the falls will be astonished at the enormous numbers of young Eels
crawling over the slippery rocks and squirming in the seething whirlpools. An estimate of hun-
dreds of wagon-loads, as seen in the course of the perilous journey referred to, would hardly be
considered excessive by those who have visited the spot at a suitable season of the year.

‘The economical value of the Eel as a food-fish has been well established, and it is now
greatly sought after for introduction into the localities where, for some physical or other reason, it
is unknown. The advantages, as summed up by a German writer, are, first, that an Eel will live
and grow in any water, however warm, and whatever be the general character of the bottom,
though it prefers the latter when muddy and boggy; second, the Eel requires no special food, but
devours anything living or dead; it is an excellent scavenger, feeding upon dead fish, crabs, etc.,
as well as upon any living prey it can secure; third, but few conditions can interfere with its
development, while it grows with very great rapidity, being marketable at the age of three years;
fourth, the young, on account of their hardiness, can be transported in a crowded condition, and
to any distance, with very little risk of destruction. These considerations are, in the main, well
established, and there is no question but that the Eel can be introduced in many waters to
advantage, supplementing the earlier inhabitants. It has been planted in the waters of the
Upper Lakes and the Mississippi River; in the latter they have reached an advanced development.
It is, however, a very undesirable inmate of rivers in which fish are taken by means of gill-nets,
the destruction of shad and herring in the waters of the Susquehanna and others farther south

HABITS OF THE EEL. 633

being enormous. It is not unfrequent that, when a gill-net is hauled up, the greater part of the
catch consists simply of heads and backbones, the remainder being devoured by myriads of Eels
in the short time the net is left out. The spawning shad are considered by them a special delicacy,
and are found emptied at the vent and completely gutted of the ovaries. Sometimes a shad,
apparently full, is found to contain several Eels of considerable size. They do not seem to be
very destructive of living fish of any magnitude, although ihe young fry are devoured with
gusto.” !

In describing the geographical distribution of the Eel it was stated that it occurs in the rivers
and along the ocean shores of North America, This being the case, as might be supposed, there
are many inland lakes and streams of the United States in which this fish does not occur; for
instance, the chain of the Great Lakes above Niagara Falls, and the upper waters of other
streams in which there are considerable obstructions. The cutting of canals in various parts of
the country has, however, produced a great change in their distribution; for instance, it is stated
by Mitchill? that Eels were unknown in the Passaic above the Great Falls until a canal was cut
at Paterson, since which time they have become plentiful in the upper branches of that river.
They have also been placed in many new localities by the agency of man. Concerning this Mr.
Milner remarks :

“The Hel (Anguilla bostoniensis), appreciated in some localities and much vilified in others, is
another species that has been frequently transplanted. Itis pretty evident that it never existed
naturally in the chain of Great Lakes any higher up than Niagara Falls, although specimens have
been taken in Lakes Erie and Michigan. Their existence there is with little doubt traceable to
artificial transportation.

“A captain of a lake vessel informed me that it was quite a common thing some years ago to
carry a quantity of live Eels in a tub on the deck of a vessel while on Lake Ontario, and they
were often taken in this manner through the Welland Canal. He said that it was a frequent
occurrence on his vessel when they had become tired of them, or had procured better fishes, to
turn the remainder alive into the waters of Lake Erie.

“Tn 1871 Mr. A. Booth, a large dealer of Chicago, had an Eel of four pounds’ weight sent him
from the south end of Lake Michigan, and a few weeks afterward a fisherman of Ahnapee,
Wisconsin, nearly two hundred miles to the northward, wrote him that he had taken a few Eels
at that point. It was a matter of interest to account for their presence, and a long time afterward
we learned that some parties at Eaton Rapids, Michigan, on a tributary of the lake, had imported
a number of Eels and put them in the stream at that place, from which they had doubtiess made
their way to the points where they were taken. The unfortunate aquarium-car in June, 1873, by
means of the accident that occurred at Elkhorn River, released a number of Eels into that stream,
and about four thousand were placed by the United States Commission in the Calumet River at
South Chicago, Illinois, two hundred in Dead River, Waukegan, Illinois, and thirty-eight hundred
in Fox River, Wisconsin.” 3

They have since been successfully introduced into California.

LIFE HISTORY.—Concerning the life history of the Eel much has been written, and there have
been many disputes even so late as 1880. In the article upon ichthyology, contributed to the
Encyclopedia Britannica, Giinther writes:

“Their mode of propagation is still unknown. So much only is certain, that they do not

1MS. note by Professor Baird.
2Transactions Literary and Philosophical Society New York, i, p. 48.
3Report United States Fish Commission, part ii, 1874, 526.

634 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

spawn in fresh water; that many full-grown individuals, but not all, descend rivers during the
winter months, and that some of them at least must spawn in brackish water or in deep water in
the sea; for in the course of the summer young individuals from three to five inches long ascend
rivers in incredible numbers, overcoming all obstacles, ascending vertical walls or flood-gates,
entering every larger and swollen tributary, and making their way even over terra firma to waters
shut off from all communication with rivers. Such emigrations have long been known by the
name ‘Hel-fairs’ The majority of the Eels which migrate to the sea appear to return to fresh
water, but not in a body, but irregularly, and throughout the warmer part of the year. No
naturalist has ever observed these fishes in the act of spawning, or found mature ova; and the
organs of reproduction in individuals caught in fresh water are so little developed and so much
alike, that the female organ can be distinguished from the male only with the aid of a microscope.”

MIGRATIONS OF EELS.—In attempting to review this subject I am sure I cannot do better
than to translate at length a communication just received from my friend Dr. Berthold Benecke,
professor in the University of Konigsberg:

“The coloration of Eels varies greatly not only in different localities, but in the very same
places: the back may be dark blue or greenish black; the sides, lighter blue or green; the belly,
white; sometimes the back is only slightly darker than the sides; sometimes there are olive-green
individuals with a golden-yellow band upon their back, sometimes they are entirely golden-yellow,
and, very rarely, entirely white. The Eel lives in deep, quiet waters with muddy bottom; it
burrows out holes and tunnels in which it rests quietly during the day, while at night it comes
out in search of food. From the deck of a steamer passing through rivers or canals one may see
upon the banks, which are laid bare by the waves produced by the motion of the vessels, numerous
Eels with half of their bodies projecting from their lurking holes.

“The Hel feeds upon all kinds of small water animals, and may be found on the spawning
places of other fish in great troops, going there for the purpose of feeding upon the eggs. They
feed also upon crabs at the period when they are shedding their shells; and have in many localities
in Germany completely exterminated them. Since the Eel is everywhere known as a greedy
robber, many accounts have been given of their wanderings, in which they have made their way
into the pea-patches to feed upon pease. The oldest reference of this kind is that of Albertus
Magnus, who remarks in his book of animals, published at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1545: ‘The Eel
also comes out of the water in the night-time into the fields, where he can find pease, beans, or lentils.’
This statement was contradicted in 1666 by Baldner,! who writes concerning the Eel: ‘They eat
fish, do not come on the land, and do not eat pease, but remain in the water always, and are
nocturnal animals.’

“Forthwith, new statements were made which tended to show the actuality of the wanderings
of the Eels in the pea-patches. For instance, Bach, in his ‘ Natural History of East and West Prus-
sia, published in 1784, maintained that Eels frequently were caught in the pea-patches in the
vicinity of the water, where they fed upon the leaves, or, according to other accounts, upon the
pease themselves, and continues: ‘These movements explain the paradoxical fact that in Prussia
and Pomerania fish have been caught upon dry land by the use of the plow, for the peasants,
in warm nights when the Eels are in search of the pease, towards morning when it is not yet day
make furrows with the plow between them and the water, and these are the nets in which the

1Recht nattirliche Beschreibung und Abmahlung der Wasser-Végel, Fischen, vierfiissigen Thier, Insecten und
Gewirm, so bey Strassburg in den Wassern sind, die ich selber geschossen und die Fisch gefangen, auch alles in meiner
Hand gehabt. Leonhard Baldner, Fischer und Hagmeister in Strassburg gefertigt worden 1666. Manuscript. (Cited
by von Siebold, ‘‘Siisswasserfische von Mitteleuropa,” Leipzig, 1863.)

| REPRODUCTION OF THE EEL. 635

Eels are caught. Since the Eel moves with ease only upon the grass, its return to the water is cut
off by the soil which has been thrown up. The peasants consider it as a sign of approaching
stormy weather when the Eels come out of the water upon dry land.’!

‘“‘A person writes to me from Lyck: ‘In storms they come out into the pea-patches, and at this
time people spread sand or ashes around, and thus prevent their return.’ Such tales are even now
numerous in the newspapers.

“The smnall size of the gill-opening makes it possible for the Eel to live for a long time out of the
water, and it is possible that in their wanderings over moist meadows they may find places in which
there are snails and other desirable food. The explanation of their supposed wanderings over the
pea-patches is, that the Eels, which have been found at different times in the fields or meadows,
have been lost by poachers, who threw them away in their flight. Many times dead Eels have
been found upon meadows over which they have swam, the meadows being flooded, and, in spite
of the nearness of the water, have afterwards been unable to return to it.

“Although the activity and tendency among the young Hels to wander is very great, yet we can-
not believe in the wandering of adult Eels over wide stretches of land. According to Spallanzani,
in Comacchio, where for many centuries an eel fishery of immense extent has been carried on,
although these fish are found in numerous ponds and lagoons, the fishermen have never yet seen
an Eel wandering over the land; and once when, on account of the drying up of the water, the
Eels died by the thousand, not one of them made the attempt to escape by a short journey over-
land into the neighboring Jake or into the river Po.

“The Eel occurs in all our waters, with the exception of small rapid brooks. The fishermen
distinguish many varieties based upon the differences in the form of the head or color and the
varying proportions in the length of the body and tail; and the older ichthyologists have followed
their opinions without sufficient reason.

“By rapid growth the Eel attains the length of twenty-four to thirty inches, and often a greater
size. On account of their fat, which is very highly flavored, and the absence of bones, they are
everywhere valued, and are caught in various ways. The most profitable method of capture is in
eel-weirs and eel-baskets, and in traps by the use of nets, and on hooks they are also caught in
great quantities. In winter many Eels are taken with spears on the shelving shores where they
lie buried in the mud in a state of torpidity. In this fishery very often more are wounded than
captured, and, in addition to the large Eels, great quantities of small ones are taken.”

ANCIENT BELIEFS CONCERNING THE REPRODUCTION OF THE BEL.—The reproduction of the
Eel, continues Benecke, has been an unsolved riddle since the time of Aristotle, and has given rise
to the most wonderful conjectures and assertions. Leaving out of question the old theories that the
Eels are generated from slime, from dew, from horsehair, from the skins of the old Eels, or from
those of snakes, and the question as to whether they are produced by the female of the Eel or by
that of some other species of fish, it has for centuries been a question of dispute whether the Eel is
an egg-laying animal or whether it produces its young alive; although the fishermen believe that
they can tell the male and female Eels by the form of the snout. A hundred years ago no man
had ever found the sexual organs in the Eel.

Jacoby has remarked that the Eel was from the earliest times a riddle to the Greeks; while ages
ago it was known by them at what periods all other kinds of fishes laid their eggs, such discoveries
were never made with reference to the Eel, although thousands upon thousands were yearly applied
to culinary uses. The Greek poets, following the usage of their day, which was to attribute to

1A live and active Kel, a few days since, was dug out from a depth of five feet in the soil of Exeter, New
Hampshire.—Gloucester Telegraph, October 26, 1870.

636 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIO ANIMALS.

Jupiter all children whose paternity was doubtful, were accustomed to say that Jupiter was also
progenitor of the Bel.

““ When we bear in mind,” writes Jacoby, ‘‘ the veneration in which Aristotle was held in ancient
times, and still more throughout the Middle Ages—a period of nearly two thousand years—it could
not be otherwise than that this wonderful statement should be believed, and that it should be
embellished by numerous additional legends and amplifications, many of which have held their
own in the popular mind until the present day. There is no animal concerning whose origin and
existence there is such a number of false beliefs and ridiculous fables. Some of these may be put
aside as fabrications ; others were, probably, more or less true, but all the opinions concerning the
propagation of the Eel may be grouped together as errors into three classes :

“J, The beliefs which, in accordance with the description of Aristotle, account for the origin of
the Eel on the basis of its development not from the mud of the earth, but from slimy masses which
are found where the Eels rub their bodies against each other. This opinion was advanced by Pliny,
by Athenzus, and by Oppian, and in the sixteenth century was again advocated by Rondelet and
reiterated by Conrad Gessner.

“TI, Other authorities base their claims upon the occasional discovery of worm-like animals
in the intestines of the Eels, which they described, with more or less zealous belief, as the young
Eels, claiming that the Eel should be considered as an animal which brought forth its young alive,
although Aristotle in his day had pronounced this belief erroneous, and very rightly had stated
that these objects were probably intestinal worms. Those who discovered them anew had no
hesitation in pronouncing them young Eels which were to be born alive. This opinion was first
brought up in the Middle Ages in the writings of Albertus Magnus, and in the following centuries
by the zoologists Leeuwenhoek, Elsner, Redi, and Fahlberg; even Linnzus assented to this belief
and stated that the Eel was viviparous. It is but natural that unskilled observers, when they
open an Hel and find inside of it a greater or smaller number of living creatures with elongated
bodies, should be satisfied, without further observation, that these are the young of the Hel. It
may be distinctly stated, however, that in all cases where Hels of this sort have been scientifically
investigated, they have been found to be intestinal worms.!

“TTI. The last group of errors includes the various suppositions that Eels are born not from
Eels, but from other fishes, and even from animals which do not belong at all to the class of fishes.
Absurd as this supposition, which in fact was contradicted by Aristotle, may seem, it is found
at the present day among the eel-catchers in many parts of the world.

“On the coast of Germany a fish related to the cod, Zoarces viviparus, which brings its young
living into the world, owes to this circumstance its name Aalmutter, or Eel Mother, and similar
names are found on the coast of Scandinavia.”

“Tn the lagoon of Comacchio,” continues J acoby, “I have again convinced myself of the
ineradicable belief among the fishermen that the Eel is born of other fishes; they. point to special
differences in color, and especially in the common mullet, Mugil -ephalus, as the causes of varia-
tions in color and form among Eels. It is a very ancient belief, widely prevalent to the present
day, that Eels pair with water-snakes. In Sardinia the fishermen cling to the belief that a certain
beetle, the so-called water-beetle, Dytiscus Roeselii, is the progenitor of Eels, and they therefore
call this ‘Mother of Eels.’”

1TIt is very strange that an observer so careful as Dr. Jacoby should denounce in this connection the well-
known error of Dr. Eberhard, of Rostock, who mistook « species of Zoarces for an Eel, and described the young,
which he found alive within the body of its mother, as the embryo of the Eel. In Jacoby’s essay, p. 24, he states
that the animal described by Eberhard was simply an intestinal worm, an error which will be manifest to all who
will take the pains to examine the figure.

THE FEMALE EEL. 637

DISCOVERY OF THE FEMALE EEL.—A scientific investigation into the generation of Eels
could only begin when, at the end of the Middle Ages, the prohibition which the veneration for
Aristotle had thrown over the investigations of learned men was thrown aside. With the revival
of the natural sciences in the sixteenth century we find that investigators turned themselves with
great zeal to this special question. There are treatises upon the generation of the Hel written by
the most renowned investigators of that period, such as Rondelet, Salviani, and Aldrovandi.
Nevertheless, this, like the following century, was burdened with the memory of the numerous
past opinions upon the eel question, and with the supposed finding of young inside the body of
the Eel.

The principal supporters of the theory that the Eel was viviparous were Albertus Magnus,
‘Leeuwenhoek, Elsner, Redi, and Fahlberg. The naturalists Franz Redi and Christian Franz
Paullini, who lived in the seventeenth century, must be mentioned as the first who were of the
opinion, founded, however, upon no special observations, that the generation of the Eel wasin no
respect different from that of other fishes.

In the eighteenth century it was for the first time maintained that the female organs of the Eel
could certainly be recognized. It is interesting that the lake of Comacchio was the starting
point for this conclusion as well as for many of the errors which had preceded it. The learned
surgeon Sancassini, of Comacchio, visiting an eel fishery at that place in 1707, found an Hel
with its belly conspicuously enlarged; he opened it and found an organ resembling an ovary, and,
as it appeared to him, ripe eggs. Thereupon he sent his find, properly preserved, to his friend, the
celebrated naturalist Vallisneri, professor in the University of Padua, who examined it carefully,
and finally, to his own great delight, became satisfied that he had found the ovaries of the Eel.
He prepared an elaborate communication upon the subject, which he sent to the Academy at
Bologna.!

At the very beginning there were grave questions raised as to the correctness of this dis-
covery. The principal anatomical authority at Bologna, Professor Valsalva, appears to have
shared these doubts, especially since shortly after that a second specimen of Eel, which presented
the same appearance as that which was described by Vallisneri, was sent from Comacchio to
Bologna. The discussion coutinued, and it soon came to be regarded by the scientific men of
Bologna as a matter of extreme importance to find the true ovaries of the Eel. Pietro Molinelli
offered to the fishermen of Comacchio a valuable reward if they would bring him a gravid Eel.
In 1752 he received from a fisherman a living Eel with its belly much distended, which, when
opened in the presence of a friend, he found to be filled with eggs. Unfortunately the joyful
hopes which had been excited by this fortunate discovery were bitterly disappointed when it was
shown that the Eel had been cunningly opened by the fisherman and filled with the eggs of
another fish. The cel question came up again with somewhat more satisfactory results when, in
the year 1777, another Eel was taken at Comacchio which showed the same appearance as the
two which had preceded it. This Eel was received by Prof. Gaetano Monti, who, being indisposed
and unable to carry on the investigation alone, invited a number of his favorite pupils, among
whom was the celebrated Camillo Galvani, the discoverer of galvanism, to a council at his
house. This Hel was examined by them all, and pronounced to be precisely similar to the one
which had been described by Vallisneri seventy years before. It was unanimously decided that
this precious specimen should be sent for exhaustive examination to the naturalist Mondini, who

1J fail to find any record of the publication of this paper, except that given by Jacoby, who states that it was
printed at Venice in 1710, with a plate, and subsequently, in 1712, under the title “‘De ovario Anguillarnm,” in the
Proceedings of the Leopold Academy.

638 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

applied himself with great zeal to the task, the results of which were published in May, 1777.
The paper is entitled “De Anguille ovariis,’ and was published six years later in the Trans-
actions of the Bologna Academy.! Mondini was satisfied that the supposed fish which Vallisneri
described was nothing but the swimming bladder of the Hel in a diseased state, and that the
bodies supposed to be eggs were simply pustules in this diseased tissue. In connection with this
opinion, however, Mondini gave, and illustrated by magnificent plates, a good description and
demonstration of the true ovaries of the Eel, as found by himself. This work, which in its
beautiful plates illustrates also the eggs iu a magnified fold of the ovary, must be regarded as
classical work, and it is an act of historic justice to state that neither O. F. Miiller nor Rathke,
but really Carlo Mondini, was the first discoverer, describer, and demonstrator of the female
organs of the Eel, which had been sought for so many centuries.’

Three years later, entirely independent of Mondini, the celebrated zoologist Otto Friedrich
Miiller published his discovery of the ovary of the Eel in the “Proceedings of the Society of
Naturalists” at Berlin.’

The discovery of Mondini was next specially brought into prominence through Lazzaro
Spallanzani. This renowned investigator, in October, 1792, went from Pavia to the lagoons of
the Po, near Comacchio, for the sole purpose of there studying the eel question. He remained
at Comacchio through the autumn; he was, however, unable to find anything that was new
regarding the question, but in the report upon his journey of investigation he entirely threw
aside the discovery of Mondini, and announced that the ovaries discovered by this authority were
simply fatty folds of the lining of the stomach.‘

“Tt was without doubt this absolute negative statement of such a skilled investigator as
Spallanzani which for a long time discouraged further investigations on the eel question, and
allowed what had already been discovered to be regarded as doubtful, and finally to be forgotten.
So when Professor Rathke, of Kénigsberg, in his assiduous labors upon the reproductive organs
of fishes, in the year 1824, described the ovaries of the Eel as two cuff-and-collar shaped organs
on both sides of the backbone, and in the year 1838 described them as new, he was everywhere
in Germany (and to a large extent to the present day) regarded as the discoverer. The first
picture of the ovary after that of Mondini, and the first microscopical plate of the egg of the Eel,

1De Bononiensi Scientiarum et Artium Instituto atque Academia Commentarii. Tomus VI. Bononis, 1783, pp.
406 et seq.

2Prof. G. B. Ercolani, of Bologna, and also Crivelli and Maggi, in their essays published in 1872, have rightly
stated that Mondini’s priority of discovery has been overlooked in Germany. Neither Rathke nor Hohnbaum-
Hornschech nor Schliiser have mentioned his work. 8. Nillson, in his ‘‘Skandinavisk Fauna,” 1855, says nothing of
Mondini- He mentioned as the first discoverer of the ovaries O. I’. Miiller, while Cuvier, in his ‘‘ Histoire Naturelle
des Poissons,” assigns the honor rather to Rathke. Th. von Siebold is the first to announce in his work, published
in 1863, ‘‘Die Siisswasserfische von Mitteleuropa,” page 349, that Mondini, almost contemporaneously with O. F.
Miiller and independently of him, discovered the ovaries of the Eel. The error, as was discovered by Italian zoologists
later than by those of Germany, arose from the fact that the announcement of Miiller’s discovery was printed in 1780,
while that of Mondini’s, which was made in 1777, was first printed in 1783.

30, F. MULLER: Bemiihungen bei den Intestinal-wiirmern. Schriften, Berlin. Gesellschaft, i, 1780, p. 204.

4“‘Rathke, who first, since Mondini, has in detail described (1824, 1838, and 1850) the ovaries of the Eel, is con-
sidered by some to have recognized them; but this, however, is not true, the additions made by him to Mondini’s
description being to a great extent erroneous. It is not true that the transverse leaflets are wanting in the ovaries
of the Eel, as he asserts in his last work, contrary io his former description, which was probably based on the law
of analogy, and that thereby they are distinguished from those of the salmon and sturgeon. It is not true, what
Rathke likewise asserts, that the genital opening of the Eel consists of two small canals, for I have invariably only
found one, which opens in the urethra. Rathke has certainly described the eggs quite exactly, distinguishing the
larger whitish ones, having a diameter of about one-fifteenth of a Jine, and the smaller transparent ones, with the
germinal vesicle inside; but Mondini likewise says: ‘‘innumeras spherulas minimas, equales, pellucidas, divisas tamen,
quaein centre maculam ostendebant, ecc. vidi,” thus showing the true nature of the ovaries and the eggs, and contrasting
them with the fatty formation and with the ovaries and eggs of other osseous fish.” —SYRSKI.

THE MALE EEL. 639

Hohnbaum-Hornschuch presented in a dissertation published in 1842—a paper which should be
rightly considered as of great importance in the literature of this question. The questions
concerning the ovaries of the Eel may be regarded as having been brought to a distinct con-
clusion by Rathke, who, in the year 1850, published an article describing a gravid female
Kel, the first and only gravid specimen which had, up to that time, come into the hands of an
investigator.’

DISCOVERY OF THE MALE EEL BY Syrsk1.—The history of the search for the female of the
Eel having been given, for the most part, in a translation of the work of Dr. Jacoby, it seems ap-
propriate to quote the same author concerning the search for the male Eel, which, though much
shorter, is none the less interesting.

In the dissertation of Hohnbaum-Hornschuch, published in 1842, the opinion was expressed
that certain cells found by the author in the ovaries, which differed from the egg cells by their form
and contents, should be regarded as the spermary cells of the Eel, and that the Eel should be
regarded as hermaphrodite. Six years later Schliiser presented an interesting dissertation upon
the sexes of Lampreys and Eels in which he pronounced these opinions of Hohnbaum- Hornschuch
to be erroneous, and expressed the opinion that the male Eel must be extremely rare, or that it
was different, perhaps, from the female. From this time up to the beginning of 1870, a male Eel
was never seen, nor do we find any opinions expressed concerning the form of the male of the Eel
or its reproductive organs.”

According to Robin, in 1846 George Louis Duvernoy (Cuvier, Anatomie comparée, éd. 2, 1848,
tome viii, p. 117) described the ruffle-tube type of the testis of the Lampreys and Eels, with the
free margin festooned in lobules, shorter to the right than to the left, like the ovaries, etc. He
added: “At the breeding season we perceive in it an innumerable quantity of granulations, or
small spermatic capsules, the rounded form of which has often led to their being confounded with
the ovules, at least in the Hels, in which, in reality, these capsules are nearly of the same size
as the ovules, but the latter are distinguished by their oval form.” The ovules are spherical, and
not oval; but the other facts are fundamentally correct. It is also in error that Duvernoy adds
(p. 133): “The Eels and the Lampreys have no deferent canal, any more than an oviduct. Like
the ova, the semen ruptures the capsules in which it has collected and diffuses itself in the abdom-
inal cavity, whence it is expelled in the same way as in the ova.”

By some droll coincidence the University of Bologna, and soon after that of Pavia, were
again prominent participants in the eel tournament. At the meeting of the Bologna Academy,
December 28, 1871, Prof. G. B. Ercolani read a paper upon the perfect hermaphroditism in the
Eel.?

Fourteen days later Prof. Balsamo Crivelli and L. Maggi read a detailed and elaborate paper
upon the “true organs of generation in Eels.” These investigators, without concerted action, had
all at once brought up the celebrated issue of the previous century; this time, however, having
specially in view the male organs of the Eel. All were convinced that they had reached a
final result by their investigations. The results were certainly very peculiar. In the paper of
Ercolani it was claimed that the snake-like folds of fat, which had formerly been noticed near the
ovarium, were nothing else than the spermaries of the Eel, and that upon the left side of the animal

‘Jacoby. Der Fischfang in der Laguns von Comacchio. Berlin, 1880, pp. 23-30.

2 Robin, Comptes rendus, 1981, p. 383,

3 Jacoby states that in a paper by Rathke, published in 1838 in the Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, he remarked: ‘1
expect soon to be able to say something concerning the male organs of the Eel.” It would be very interesting to
know whether in the papers left by this skillful investigator there may not have been recorded some valuable obser-
vations concerning the male Eel.

640 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

this organ developed into a true testicle, while the one upon the right side shrank up and became
functionless. In the work of Crivelli and Maggi, on the other hand, the folds of fat next to the
ovary were also considered to be the male organs of the Eel, while the one on the right-hand side
of the animal was considered without any doubt to be the male reproductive organ. The last-
named authorities described the spermatozoa which they had seen in this stripe of fat upon the
right side. Since these stripes of fat were universally found in all Eels, and always in connection
with the former, the investigators could come to no other conclusion than that the Hels were
complete hermaphrodites.

The male organ of the Eel, as described by Ercolani, as also by Crivelli and Maggi, shows
how carefully investigations may be expended upon things which are not in the least equivocal,
since there was not the slightest trace of structure like that of a spermary. The cells of this body
in the lining of the stomach next to the ovary are simply fat cells, with all the characteristic
peculiarities, just as they are given in all the manuals of histiology. Professor Rauber, of Leipsic,
has examined these fat cells carefully, and they have also been investigated in many Eels by the
writer, Dr. Jacoby. Never has anything but fat cells and blood-vessels been found in them. The
so-called spermatozoa, described in the work of Maggi and Crivelli, proved to be microscopic fat
particles or crystalline bodies, such as are commonly found in fat cells.’

In the mean time, at Trieste, the question concerning the male organs of the Eel was making
avery important advance. Darwin had already expressed the opinion that among nearly all fishes
the female was larger than the male. He states that Dr. Giinther had assured him that there was
not a single instance among fishes in which the male was naturally larger than the female. This
opinion may, perhaps, have induced Dr. Syrski, director of the Museum of Natural History at
Trieste, now professor in the University of Lemberg, when he undertook, at the request of the
marine officials of Trieste, the determination of the spawning time of the tish which were caught
in that region, and was obliged to take up the eel question, to devote his attention especially to
the smaller Hels. Dr. Hermes, in behalf of Dr. Syrski, protests against this idea, stating, on the
authority of the latter, that the published opinions of Gtinther and Darwin were unknown to him
prior to the publication of Jacoby’s paper. Up to that time every investigator had chosen for
investigation the largest and fattest of Eels, thinking that the largest and oldest specimens must
have the most highly developed organs of generation. On November 29, 1873, Syrski found in the
second specimen which he investigated—an individual fifteen inches long, which is now preserved
in the museum at Trieste—a completely new organ, which had never before been seen within the
Eel by any former investigator, although tens of thousands of Hels had been zealously studied.
Syrski published his discovery in the April number of the Proceedings of the Imperial Academy
of Sciences, Vienna, in 1874.3 The most important point of the discovery was stated to be that,
in all the specimens of Eels in which the Syrskian organ was found, the well-known collar-and-
cuff shaped ovary, the female organ of generation, was entirely wanting. It was evident from
this that Eels were not hermaphrodites. The question now arose, is the newly discovered organ

1In a microscopic investigation of fatty tissues it is very easy for the so-called Brownian molecular movements to
be mistaken for moving spermatozoa, especially in fishes, whose spermatozoa, if not very much magnified, show only
the head and appear like little bodies globular in form.

2“T commenced my investi gations,” writes Syrski, “on the 29th of November last year (1873), and already in the
second Eel which I dissected on that day I found the testicles, and therefore a male individual of the Eel. I sent in
March of the following year (1874) to the Academy of Sciences in Vienna a preliminary communication, which was
read at the public session held the 15th April, and printed in the reports of the academy.”

3 In 1575, Professor von Siebold found male Eels in the Baltic at Wismar, although this discovery was not at that
time made known to the public. They have since been found in the German Ocean, in the Atlantic, and in the
Mediterranean.

INTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SEXES. 641

in the Eel, in its external form, as well as inner structure, so different from the ovary that it
could be considered as a partially developed or peculiarly shrunken ovary? According to all
researches which have up to this time been made there is the highest kind of probability that
this newly discovered structure is actually the long-sought male organ of generation. The inves-
tigator cannot, however, answer this question with complete certainty, since the thing which is
most necessary to the solution of this question, namely, the finding and the recognition of the
spermatozoa, has not yet been accomplished.

In February, 1879, Professor Packard announced the discovery of spermatozoa in Eels from
‘Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, but soon after declared that this was a mistake, and that he had
been deceived by molecular movements among the yolk nuclei in the female organs. The discovery
of spermatozoa in the spermaries of the Conger Eel, recently announced by Dr. Hermes, of Berlin,
is, however, sufficient to demonstrate fully the correctness of Syrski’s theory. The confirmation
in the case of the common Eel is solely a matter of time.

INTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MALE AND FEMALE EnrLs.—The differences between the
organs of sex in the Eel are well described by Benecke. The ovaries of the Eel are two yellowish
or reddish-white elongate organs as broad as one’s finger, situated alongside of the backbone,
arranged in numerous transverse folds, extending through the entire length of the abdominal
cavity. They have no special opening to the outside of the body, and their contents must be
discharged into the abdominal cavity and must find exit through the very small opening situated
behind the anus. These two bodies, on account of their great size, are of course not easily over-
looked, but they contain such a great quantity of fatty cells and the eggs imbedded in them are so
small and delicate that one might easily believe, even after a superficial microscopic examination,
that the whole organ consists only of fat. While the eggs of other fishes measure from one to three
millimeters in diameter, and sometimes are much larger, still the eggs in the ovary of the Eel have,
on an average, a diameter of about one-tenth millimeter, and are so closely surrounded by fatty
cells with outlines much more strongly marked that it requires great skill to prepare a microscopic
slide in which they shall be as plainly visible as they are in the accompanying illustration, in
which they are magnified one hundred and fifty diameters. When a person has a microscope
which magnifies only one hundred diameters, it is best to put a portion of the ovary in water when
dissecting it, in order that the eggs may be easily found. It is much easier to find the eggs in
young Hels, seven or eight inches in length, than in adult fish, since in the former, although the
ovaries and the eggs are smaller, the fat cells have not made their appearance, and the eggs are,
therefore, plainly visible at the first glance through the microscope. The number of eggs is extra-
ordinarily large, amounting to many millions. The eggs of larger size which sometimes are found
in great quantities in Eels that have been cut up, and have been considered to be eel eggs, have
always proved to be the eggs of other fish which they have swallowed, and in the course of cutting
them up have been found in the Eel’s belly.

The male Eels, which are found only in the sea and in the brackish water, are much smaller
than the females, rarely exceeding fifteen or sixteen inches in length; in them, in the place of
the ovaries in the female, are found spermaries, which differ in appearance in the manner shown
in the illustration. These consist of two tubes which stretch the whole length of the body cavity,
situated close to each other, and provided with numerous sacculations. Ripe spermatozoa are
as rarely found in these organs as eggs ready to be laid have been found in the ovaries of the
female. According to many accounts the male Eels, which later were found also by von Siebold
in ane pale Sea at Wismar, differ from the females in the possession of a proportionally sharper

642 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

snout, less conspicuous dorsal fins, darker coloration of the back, a more prominent and metallic
luster upon the sides, the clean white coloration of the belly, and the larger size of the eyes. I
propose to reproduce here the original descriptions and figures of Syrski, the discoverer of the
male Eel.

Having met, writes Syrski, with many errors regarding the female organs of reproduction
in the descriptions hitherto given of them, I intend to commence
by describing these organs, first with the view of rectifying and
completing the details, and also for the purpose of comparison
with the male organs.

THE OVARIES OF THE EEL.—The organs (Fig. 1) two in num-
ber, are ribbon-shaped, with leatiets on their outer face, and with
transverse folds. In the natural position of the live fish, the
one extends to the left and the other to the right of the aliment-
ary tube, following most of its angles nearly the whole length of
the abdominal cavity to the place where the dorsal parietes are
confluent with the lateral.

The right ovary commences at a point nearly corresponding
to that where on the outside the right pectoral fin ends, and the
left ovary commences about two centimeters and ends three to
four centimeters behind the former. They extend three to six
centimeters back of the anus, into the caudal part of the animal’s
body; they do not, however, unite in a single body, as some
have asserted, but both are toward the end inclosed in a perito-
neal membrane, and are separated from each other by the union
of these membranes, having each on their inner face an accessory
ovary (pars recurrens ovarii). In rare cases is such an accessory
ovary wanting either on the right or on the left side.

The ovaries in fwly grown Eels are in the middle about two
centimeters larger, and posteriorly terminate in a thread-like
form. They are not smooth on both sides, but have, as was said
above, on their outer side numerous transverse folds (Fig. 2) full
of eggs (Fig. 3).

It is another of Rathke’s erroneous assertions, likewise main-
tained by others, that the genital opening through which the
eggs pass out from the abdominal cavity is formed by two holes,

Fic. 1.—Female Eel, longitudinal section of the

“ailomens natural sie. a right one and a left one. I have invariably found in all speci-
a. Right ovary. , z é é ‘
b. Leftovaryy mens examined a simple hole, which communicates with the right
ce. Accessory part of right ovary. r 3 he
d. ae epecoaney att and left half of the abdominal cavity by means of a transverse
4 earl ae hae fissure between the straight intestine and the urinary bladder
. Fat on the right sid 1 ° alt : .

taken for the testicles by some. (fissura recto-vesicalis) and opens in the urethra (Fig. 4).
Come It is generally admitted that the eggs, when 1 d from
4. Fat on the left side. e eggs, when loosene
k. Stomach.
Oe ten the ovaries, fall indiscriminately into the abdominal cavity, but it
Drei is not said which way they take in order to go out through the

genital aperture. As I haveinvariably found that the fully developed ovaries lean with their outer
surface against the side of the abdominal cavity, and approach with their free edges the lower
portion of this side, forming, so to speak, a furrow, I must conclude that the loosened eggs

OVARIES OF THE EEL. 643

descend between the abdominal partition and the folds and leaflets of the ovary in the above-men-
tioned furrow, and from it pass to the genital aperture without scattering in the abdominal cavity.

Fic. 2.—Piece of the ovary, twice its natural size, with
ovarian leaflets arranged in transversal rows,

on its surface. Fic. 3.—Picce of a somewhat developed ovary, one hun-

The shorter border attached to the dorsal wall dred times the natural size, shuwing the trans-
of the abdominal cavity; the longer being parent eggs with the germinative vesicles and
free. the germinative dots.

As to the development which the ovaries undergo, I have observed from the end of November

till the beginning of March, in many adult Eels, of the length of 530 millimeters and more, that

des g the ovaries were of the breadth of fifteen to twenty-five

ae. millimeters, and of a yellowish and sometimes reddish-

white color, produced by the development of adipose tissues

and of the blood-vessels and not by the eggs filled with

little globules of fat; the genital aperture and the jfissura
recto-vesicalis were open.

In other Eels, of a length sometimes of 600 millimeters

and more, I found the ovaries less broad, with but little fat,

Fic. 4,—Anal part of a female Bel, twice thenatural size. and of a mucous and almost glassy appearance, so that I
a. Straight intestine.

a could discern the so-called vesicles and germinative dots
Zz Partition. (nuclei and nucleoli); the genital aperture and the fissura

Ff. Urogenital opening. é a
g. Outlet of the genital opening in the urethra. recto-vesicalis were closed.

The ovaries of young Eels, of the length of about 500 millimeters, contained invariably
but little fat, and the eggs were without globules. The gradual growth and enlargement of
the ovaries go on simultaneously with the opening of the genital orifice. According to the quan-
tity of fat contained in the ovaries, they have a mucous and glassy, or more or less opaque or
white, appearance, or have small shining dots. From the end of March till October I found in the
majority of Eels which I examined, measuring 600 to 700 millimeters in length, that the ovaries
were scarcely white, and that the genital aperture was closed. The number of eggs contained in
both developed ovaries reaches, according to my calculation, five millions. The larger eggs
measured by me had a diameter of one-fourth to one-fifth millimeter, while the eggs of an adult
‘Grongo’ (Conger) had, according to my measurements, a diameter of one-third of a millimeter,
and those of the ‘Murena’ (Murena helena) almost one millimeter, which explains to me why the
ovaries of the two last-mentioned species of fish have long since become known.

In an Kel measuring 590 millimeters, examined on the 6th July, the left ovary was entirely
wanting, and replaced by a mass of fat.

THE SPERMATIC ORGANS.—The position of these organs (Fig. 5), which are not ribbon-
shaped like the ovaries, but represent two longitudinal rows, each with about fifty lobules (Fig. 6),
of the width at most of three millimeters, and found only in Eels not more than 430 milli-
meters long, corresponds entirely with that of the ovaries. In these organs are likewise found

644 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

toward the posterior end, the spermatic organs (partes recurrentes), which, however, as is the case
with the ovaries, are sometimes wanting.
The spermatic organs can be distinguished at the first
glance from the ovaries of the adult Eels and those of the
young Eels, not only by their lobular form, but also by their
shining, glassy appearance, by the surface of the individuai
lobes, which is smooth and without leaflets, and by the much
greater density of the tissue, so that with a pair of pincers one
can take off a large portion of the organ, which could not
possibly be done with a more developed ovary whose tissue
is as tender as a cobweb, and is composed of small vessels
formed of a thin membrane and filled with eggs and fat.

The fibrous tissue of the spermatic organs is composed
of vascular compartments with thicker partitions, inclosing,
according to the development of the organ, granular
globules (Fig. 7).

These compartments are joined toward the inside and
the base of the lobes, which are united to a tube (vas deferens),
which, cecal at the commencement, runs along the entire
length of the abdominal cavity, and opens near the straight
intestine (rectwm) in a triangular pouch, which likewise con-
taius a vas deferens starting from the caudal part of the
spermatic organ. This pouch has its outlet in the general
orifice, which opens in the urethra (Fig. 8).

As regards the development of the spermatic organs, I

Fic. 5.—Male Fel (natural size).
. Right testicle.

a.

b. Left testicle. Fic. 6.—Three lobes of the right testicle, with the deferent canal (enlarged ten times).

c. Right accessory part. a. Lobes, seen from their outer surface.

d. Left accessory part. b. Lobe, seen from its inner surface.

e. Dividing membrane. ce. Deterent canal.

Ff. Deferent canal. d. Anterior part of the same.

en

i Trinary blaader covered to. great extent have observed that the lobes of these organs in young Eels,
k. Faton the right side, measuring not more than 200 to 300 millimeters in length,
k’. Similar fat covering the stomach. ea ‘ ‘ 4 . ¢

1. "Eat on the left side. are not yet very distinct, forming two thin ribbons differing
m™m. omach,

n, Pylorus. ; but little from ovaries of the female in their average size. In
o. Liver, turned up to show the inner surface

adhering to the esophagus and the Wels measuring about 400 millimetersin length, the testicles

z Il-bladder. f rae a A
Pai eres fins. can easily be distinguished from the ovaries. The former,

much straighter, and with tissue, as has been already remarked, much more solid, are provided
with a much more developed net-work of vessels; their lobes are very distinct and the deferent
canals are usually open, while the ovaries present the appearance of two continuous ribbons,
have a more delicate tissue, and an almost mucous appearance, and contain the eggs with the
germinative vesicles.

EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SEXES. 645

The deferent canals and the genital orifice are closed in young Eels of the male sex, and open
simultaneously with the development of the lobes.

In the male Eels examined by me from March to October I have found individuals, of 400
millimeters and more in length, whose genital orifice and deferent canals were invariably open,
while in some of the smaller ones they were closed and in others open.

t
a c b cod.

Fic. 8.—Anal part of the male Bel, enlarged twice.
a. Straight intestine.
b. Fissura recto-vesicalis, covered by the out-

Fic. 7.—Piece of the testicle (one hundred and sixty times enlarged), side wall of the seminal pouch

; . c,c, Outlet of the anterior and posterior part
showing the vascular tissue and the small granules. : of the deferent canal in the pouch.

d. Urinary bladder.

Of the 258 Hels examined by me, the males and females were in about even proportion; the
greatest length of the former was about 430 millimeters, while the latter were of all sizes up to
1,050 millimeters, which shows that the males are smaller than the females.

EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS.—The external differences presented by living Eels (remarks
Jacoby), corresponding to the presence of an ovary and the supposed male organ, are very inter-
esting.

The most important, writes Jacoby, is (1) the difference in the size and length of the animal.
Syrski states that the largest Eels found by him with the supposed male organ measured about
17 inches (430™™). I have, however, found specimens with this organ at Trieste and in Comacchio
which measured 17 to 19 inches (450 millimeters to 480 millimeters). All the Eels which exceeded this
size, for instance those which were over three feet in length (one millimeter) many of them growing to
the thickness of the arm of a strong man, have been hitherto found to be females. The other recog-
nizable external characters in the female are (2) a much broader tip of the snout in comparison
with the small, either attenuated or short and sharply pointed, snout of the Eel with the supposed
male organ; also, (3) a clearer coloration in the female, usually of a greenish hue on the back, and
yellowish or yellow upon the belly, while the others have a deep darkish-green, or often a very
deep black upon the back and always a more perceptible metallic luster upon the sides (I, once in
a while, found Eels covered all over with a brownish tint, always possessing the organ of Syrski),
usually exhibiting also a white color upon the belly. In addition (4) there is an important external
character in the height of the dorsal fin; all females have these fins much higher and broader
than the Eels of the same size which possess the supposed male organ. Finally, (5) there is a
character, which is not always a safe one, in the greater diameter of the eye in the Hels with the
supposed male organ. Eels with quite small eyes are almost always found to be females; Eels
with the organ of Syrski usually have comparatively large eyes, yet female Eels with quite large
eyes are not unusual.

The following proportional measurements, the average results of the study of a great number
of Eels measured by me, will be of general interest. Column a gives the total length of the Eel;
b the breadth of the snout between the nostrils; ¢ the breadth of the snout between the eyes; d
the length ‘of the snout from the center of the eye to its tip; e the average measurement of the

646 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

eyes; f the length of the head to the gill-opening; g the height of the dorsal fins, all the measure-
ments being given in millimeters.

A. Eels with supposed male organ. B. Female eels.

a. b. c. d. G f. g- Ww b. C d. e f. g-
I| 480) 6 13.5 | 15 8 52] 5 480 | 8.5 | 12 17 5 62 9 i
II} 470] 6 16.5 | 12 7 54 | 6 475 | 7.5 | 14.5 | 16 8 9.5 II
DOT} 445, 5 11 12 6 47 | 6 440 | 8 12 14 5 56 ZS) ITIL
Iv | 411] 4 9 2 | 35 47| 6 410 | 8 12.5 | 13 7.5 | 51 a IV
V| 38] 45) 9 12 5.5 46) 4 378 | 7.5 | 11 12 5 49 7.5 Vv
VI| 370) 3.5] 7 10.5 | 5 49) 6 369 | 7.5 | 11 13 6.5 | 51.5] 7 VI
VIL | 344) 4 7.5 | 10 4.5 40] 5 342 | 6 8 11 4.5 | 44 6.5) VII
VII | 319) 4 HA 10 5 40| 4.5} 313] 5.5] 8 10.5} 3.5 | 41 6 Vill

According to the distinguishing marks which have been given, special reference having been
paid to the height and narrowness of the dorsal fin, much success has been met with in picking
out, in the fish-market of Trieste, the Hels which possessed the organ of Syrski; absolute certainty
in recognizing them cannot, however, be guaranteed. If one is searching among living Eels with
no characters in mind with the exception of the first—that of length—he will find in every ten
Eels, on an average, eight females, and two with the supposed male organ; but, if the selection is
made with a careful reference to all these marks of difference, the proportion changes, and out of
every ten examples about eight will be found with the supposed male organ.'

For another excellent discussion with figures of the characters of male and female Eels, the
reader is referred to a translation of an article by S. Th. Cattie, in the Proceedings of the United
States National Museum, vol. ili, pp. 280-284.

EELS SUPPOSED TO BE VIVIPAROUS.—The discovery of the two sexes has not, however, writes
Benecke, settled the question whether the Eel lays eggs or brings its young alive into the world.
There has always been a strong disposition to adopt the latter hypothesis, and there are many peo-
ple at the present day who claim to have been present at the birth of young Hels, or to have found a
quantity of young Eels in adult Eels which have been cut open. Frequently ichthyologists hear
accounts of occurrences of this kind, and receive specimens of supposed little Eels, from one to two
inches in length, which have been kept alive for several days in a glass of water. These are usually
thread-worms, Ascaris labiata, which live by the hundred in the intestinal cavity of the Hel, and
which may be easily distinguished from the Eels of the same size by the sharp ends of the body, the
absence of fins, of eyes and mouth, and by the sluggishness of their motions. The smallest Eels,
less than an inch in length, have already the complete form of the adult, and are also transparent,
so that with a magnifying glass one may perceive the pulsations of the heart, and see behind it the
brownish-red liver; the mouth, the pectoral, dorsal, anal, and caudal fins, are easily seen, and the
black eyes cannot be overlooked. In addition to the intestinal worms, the young of a fish of another
family, Zoarces viviparus, have given opportunity to the ignorant for many discoveries; for instance,
Dr. Eberhard, in No. 4 of the “Gartenlaube” for 1874, described and illustrated an “embryo of the
Fel,” which, in company with about a thousand similar embryos, had been cut out of the belly of
an Eel. This tolerably good drawing at first sight is seen to represent the embryo of Zoarces,
which is almost ready for birth, since it still possesses a very minute umbilical sac. It is very
evident that the minute egg of the Eel could hardly produce a great embryo with an umbilical sac
which exceeds by more than a hundred times in size the whole egg. It is also evident that the
imagination of the writer had exaggerated the two or three hundred young in the Zoarces to a
thousand.

1JacoBy: Der Fischfang in der Lagune von Comacchio,

YOUNG EELS. 647

SEARCH FOR YOUNG EELS.—AS8 might have been foreseen, remarks Jacoby, Syrski’s discovery
drew attention anew to the solution of the eel problem. In the spring and summer of 1877 the
German and Austrian papers and journals were full of articles and paragraphs upon this subject.
Among others the following announcement made the rounds of the press: “‘ Hitherto, in spite of all
efforts, science has not succeeded in discovering the secret of the reproduction of the Eel. The
German Fischerei -Verein in Berlin offers a premium of fifty marks to the person who shall first find
a gravid Hel which shall be sufficiently developed to enable Professor Virchow in Berlin to dissipate
the doubts concerning the propagation of the Hel.” Herr Dallmer, of Schleswig, inspector of fisheries
in that province, offered to transmit communications to Berlin, and in 1878, in the January number
of the “German Fishery Gazette,” he published a detailed and very interesting report of his proceed-
ings. He wrote, among other things, that it was quite beyond his expectation that this announce-
ment would have found its way into nearly all the German journals between the Rhine and the
Weichsel and from the Alps to the sea. The number of letters which he received first rejoiced
him, then surprised him, finally terrified him, so that at last he was obliged to refuse to attend to
the communications. He had learned at Berlin that an equal number of communications from ali
parts of Germany had been received, sent directly to the address of Professor Virchow. Objects
which were said to be young Eels cut out of the parents, but which were really thread-worms,
were sent to him by dozens; the most incredible stories, usually from women, about great thick
eggs which they had found in Eels, were received by him. A witty Berliner communicated to him
in a packet sent by express the information that the eel problem was now happily solved, since a
lady Eel in Berlin had given birth to twins. Finally Herr Dallmer found himself compelled to
insert the following notice in the ‘““Schleswiger Nachrichten”: “Since the German Fischerei-Verein
has offered a premium for the first gravid Eel, the desire to obtain the prize, curiosity, or the
desire for knowledge has created so lively an interest upon this point that it might almost be
called a revolution. I at one time offered, when necessary, to serve as an agent for communica-
tions, but since business has compelled me to be absent from home a great part of the time, I
would urgently request that hereafter packages should be sent direct to Professor Virchow in
Berlin. I feel myself obliged to inform the public upon certain special points. The premium is
offered for a gravid Eel, not for the contents of such an Eel, since if only these were sent it would
be uncertain whether they were actually taken from an Eel. The Eel must always be sent alone;
the majority of senders have hitherto sent me only the intestines or the supposed young of the
Eel, which were generally intestinal worms; the Eel itself they have eaten; nevertheless the prize
of fifty marks has been expected by nearly all senders,” ete. By this transfer of the responsibilities
the inspector of fisheries has rendered a very unthankful service to Professor Virchow; he was
obliged to publish a notice in the papers in which he urgently stated that he wished to be excused
from receiving any more packages, for he would hardly know what to do with them. The comic
papers of Berlin now circulated the suggestion that hereafter the Hel should be sent to the inves-
tigators only in a smoked state. This amusing episode is interesting in showing how remarkable
an interest the whole world was beginning to take in the eel problem.)

NoRMAL REPRODUCTIVE HABITS.—“It may be assumed with the greatest safety,” writes
Benecke, “that the Hel lays its eggs like most other fish, and that, like the Lamprey, it only spawns
once and then dies. All the eggs of a female Eel show the same degree of maturity, while in the
fish which spawn every year, besides the large eggs which are ready to be deposited at the next
spawning period, there exist very many of much smaller size, which are destined to mature here-

1Zoologischer Anzeiger, No, 26, p. 193; American Naturalist, xiii, p. 125; and Jacoby, p. 44.

648 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

after, and to be deposited in other years. It is very hard to understand how young Eels could
find room in the body of their mother if they were retained until they had gained any considera-
ble size. The eel embryo can live and grow for a very long time supported by tie little yolk, but
when this is gone it can only obtain food outside of the body of its mother. The following circum-
stances lead us to believe that the spawning of the Eel takes place only in the sea: (1) that the
male Eel is found only in the sea or brackish water, while female Eels yearly undertake a pilgrim-
age from the inland waters to the sea, a circumstance which has been known since the time of
Aristotle, and upon the knowledge of which the principal capture of Eels by the use of fixed
apparatus is dependent; (2) that the young Eels with the greatest regularity ascend from the sea
into the rivers and lakes.

All statements in opposition to this theory are untenable, since the young Eels never find
their way into land-locked ponds in the course of their wanderings, while Eels planted in such
isolated bodies of water thrive and grow rapidly but never increase in numbers. Another still
more convincing argument is the fact that in lakes which formerly contained many Eels, but
which by the erection of impassable weirs have been cut off from the sea, the supply of Eels
has diminished, and after a time only scattering individuals, old and of great size, are taken in
them. An instance of this sort occurred in Lake Miiskendorf, in West Prussia. If an instance
of the reproduction of the Eel in fresh water could be found, such occurrences as these would be
quite inexplicable.

In the upper stretches of long rivers the migration of the Eels begins in April or May; in their
lower stretches and shorter streams later in the season. In all running waters the eel fishery
depends upon the downward migrations. The Eels press up the streams with occasional halts,
remaining here and there for short periods, but always make their way above. They appear to
make the most progress during dark nights when the water is troubled and stormy, for at this
time they are captured in the greatest numbers. It is probable that after the Eels have once
returned to the sea, and there deposited their spawn, they never can return into fresh water, but
remain there to die. A great migration of grown Eels in spring or summer has never been reported,
and it appears certain that all the female Eels which have once found their way to the sea are
lost to the fisherman. In No. 8 of the German “Fischerei Zeitung” for 1878, Dr. Schock published
certain statements sent to him by Dr. Jacoby. It is remarked in this paper, among other things,
that after the deposition of the spawn the female Eel dies a physiological death, and that occasion-
ally the sea in the neighborhood of the mouths of rivers has been found covered with dead Nels
whose ovaries were empty. When, where, and by whom this observation was made, and ~ho
pronounced upon the empty ovaries in these dead fish, is unfortunately not mentioned.

A great number of the Eels remain in inland waters while others proceed to the sea, either
because their eggs are at. this time not sufficiently ripe, or perhaps because they are sterile. It
would seem probable that the increase in the size of the eggs in the wandering Eels begins to be
very rapid after August and September, while in the earlier months of the year, in all Eels of
moderate size, the eggs were at the utmost but about 0.09 millimeters in diameter. In Septem-
ber of the same year, I found (as an average of numerous measurements) a diameter of 0.10; in
October, 0.16; in November, 0.18 to 0.23, while the eggs showed other characters connected with
approaching maturity which earlier in the season were not to be seen. All the Eels which were
captured later—in December and in January—part of which came from rivers and harbors, part
from the harbor of Putzig (Putziger Wiek), had eggs measuring from 0.09 to 0.16 millimeters,
although among the fish examined were some which measured three feet in length.

MIGRATIONS OF THE EEL. 649

Do MALE EELS LEAVE THE SEA AND ENTER FRESH WATER ?—This problem is one of great
interest, both to the biologist and the fish-culturist; it is, in fact, the one disputed point still remain-
ing to be solved. Upon its solution appears to depend the final decision of the question, still so
warmly debated both in Europe and America, “Do Eels breed in fresh water only, in salt water
only, or in both fresh and salt water?” As has already been stated, the theory for a long time
generally accepted is that the Eels are “catadromous,” descending to the sea to spawn. This
theory is, however, sharply contested by many observers, chief among whom on this side of the
Atlantic is Hon. Robert B. Roosevelt, president of the American Fish Cultural Association. It
appears probable to the writer that the truth lies somewhere between these two extremes, and
that it will be hereafter ascertained that the Hel, like a majority of other animals, has flexible
habits, sometimes deviating from its ordinary custom, which appears to be to spawn in salt or
brackish water.

Male Eels have been found in the following localities:

(1) In 1874, by Syrski, in the fish markets of Trieste, these markets being supplied with Hels
from Chioggia on the Adriatic, and to a lesser extent from the lagoons of Comacchio.

(2) In 1875, on the coasts of France, by Dareste.

(3) In 1875, among specimens of Anguilla marmorata from India.

(4) In 1875, in the Baltic, at Wismar on the Danish coast, by Professor von Siebold.

(5) In 1877, in the lagoons of Comacchio, by Jacoby. Among twelve hundred specimens, five
per cent. were males; while among those less than fifteen inches in length twenty per cent. were
males. This was in brackish water. ;

(6) In 1879, at Trieste, by Dr. Hermes, who found fifteen males among twenty Eels selected
by Dr. Syrski.

(7) In 1880, on the Baltic coasts of Denmark, by Dr. Hermes. Out of one lot of thirty-six
from Wismar, he obtained eight males, thus repeating von Siebold’s observation.

(8) In 1880, from the Baltic between Zealand and Saland, Denmark. Out of one lot of thirty-
six, Dr. Hermes obtained eight males.

(9) In 1880, in France, by Robin.

(10) In 1880, by Cattie.

(11) In 1880, by Dr. Hermes, at Cumlosen, on the Elbe, about one hundred and twenty miles
from the German Ocean.

(12) In 1880, at Riigers on the Baltic, by Dr. Hermes, who found forty-four and one-half per
cent. males in one lot of 137.

(13) By Dr. Pauly, among Eels planted at Hiiningen, in Alsace-Lorraine.

It has been shown by Dr. Pauly that among the very young Eels [Montée] taken near the
mouths of rivers is a considerable percentage of males, which, when transplanted to fresh water,
will there retain their masculine characters and develop into perfect adult males. This discovery
is, of course, of the utmost importance to fish-culturists making the attempt to introduce Hels into
new waters. Its importance has already been pointed out by Director Haack.

The practical lesson to be learned is simply this, that young Hels, for introduction into
strange waters, must be taken from very near the mouths of rivers, in order that both males and
females may be secured. The interest to zoologists lies in the fact that Pauly’s discovery renders
the theory of von Siebold less plausible, indicating that the sexes of the young Hels are differ-
entiated before they begin to mount the rivers and that the males do not ascend beyond the limits
of brackish water.

650 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Dr. Pauly’s discovery is so interesting that I propose to translate his own account of it. The
investigation was made, I believe, in Munich, and the report from which I quote was published in
the “ Austro-Hungarian Fishery Gazette,” of Vienna, December 23, 1880. Dr. Pauly writes:

“During the past year I have received from Court-fisherman Kuffer a large number of Eels,
which I have used in my investigations. The large individuals, all of which came from the lakes
of Northern Italy, were females. I received, however, from the same individual, another lot of
Eels, consisting of much smaller individuals, weighing from twenty to ninety grams (two-thirds
of an ounce to three ounces), also taken in fresh water. At the request of Professor von Siebold,
I had paid particular attention to the sexes of the Eels which I was engaged in investigating,
and to my great astonishment I found that a large majority of these small Eels (nineteen out of
twenty-seven) were males, possessing, instead of the familiar ovaries, the ‘Lappenorgan’ described
by Dr. Syrski. A histological examination of these organs convinced me that the structure of
these tissues agreed with that described by Freud.

“My next inquiry was very naturally concerning the locality whence these Eels had been ob-
tained. I learned that Kuffer had received them two years before from Director Haack at Hiinin-
gen, and, upon questioning Director Haack, learned that they had been brought froin a French river,
the Sévre nantaise, where they were caught as young fry [montée] at a distance of ten or twelve
miles from its mouth, and furthermore were at the time of examination about four years old. The
small size of these fish, their age being taken into consideration, satisfied me that they had been
reared in captivity, since uncultivated Eels would have been much heavier. The females in this
lot of Eels exeeeded the males in length and weight, and also exhibited those external characters
described by Jacoby as indicating sex.

‘The locality in the Sévre niortaise where these fish were taken may easily, especially at flood
tide, have been within the limits of brackish water; my observations do not prove, therefore, that
male Hels enter fresh water.

“Dr. Jacoby found male Eels in the lagoons of Comacchio, where the water is brackish. These
males must have ascended in the ‘mounting’ as fry, and probably at the approach of sexual
maturity descend with the females to the sea. My investigations and those of Jacoby prove only
this: that the young female Eels do not necessarily break away from their parents and from their
birthplaces at sea, and entirely alone proceed upon their migrations, while the males scatter through
the sea, but that their brothers seem to accompany them part of the way upon their journey. But
how far? Do the males know where pure fresh water begins, and are the fry of different sexes found
mingled together only at the river mouths? If we bear in mind the fact that the male organs had
so long escaped discovery, that, on account of their crystal-like transparency, their detection in a
fresh Eel is so difficult, etc., may we not admit that past conclusions are probably erroneous, and
that although thousands of fresh-water Hels have been studied by different investigators, male Eels
may yet be found in our streams, especially when more of the smaller individuals have been
examined ?”

Dr. Pauly then discusses the observations of Dr. Hermes, who found eleven per cent. of males
among Eels taken at Wittenberge, on the Elbe, about one hundred and twenty miles from the Ger-
man Ocean, and no males whatever at Havelberg, twenty or thirty miles higher up the stream, and
closes his essay with the following conclusions: “ Male Eels undoubtedly ascend the rivers, but the
numerical percentage of males to females appears to diminish as one proceeds up the streams.” This fact
is opposed to the theory proposed by some one that young Eels are at first of undifferentiated sex,
and have the tendency under the influence of fresh water to become females, under that of salt
water to develop male characters.

MOVEMENTS OF YOUNG EELS. 651

BENECKE ON THE MOVEMENTS OF YOUNG EELS.—Benecke gives the following thorough
discussion of the movements of young Eels:

The young Eels, hatched out of the eggs at sea, doubtless live at the bottom until they grow,
through consumption of rich food substances there to be found, to a size from one to three cen-
timeters. When they have attained this size they begin their wanderings in immense schools,
proceeding to ascend into the rivers and lakes. These wanderings of the young Eels have been
known for a very long time; for instance, in the lagoons of Comacchio, in which they may be found,
for the most part, after they have gained the length of from six to eight millimeters, and in France,
later also in England, Denmark, Sweden, and, more recently, in Germany they have also been
observed.

According to the French reports young Eels are hatched out early in the winter, and in Feb-
ruary, having attained the length of four or five centimeters, they appear in the brackish water
at the mouth of the Loire in immense numbers, soon to begin their wanderings up the stream.
They swim in crowded schools at the surface of the river right up to the banks, and little detach-
ments of the army deploy at the mouth of each tributary and pursue their wanderings along its
course. These swarms of young Eels are called in France “ Montée,” in Italy, ‘“‘Montata.” The
number of the young fish is, as might be expected from the number of the eggs in the ovary of the
Eel, wonderfully large. Redi has recounted that, from the end of January to the end of April the
young fish continue wandering up the Aruo, and that in 1867 over three million pounds of them
were taken in five hours. Into the lagoons of the Comacchio the Eels pour from February to
April. In March and April they have been noticed in many French rivers, in which the migra-
tion continues for from eight to fourteen days. The first account of these wanderings in Germany
was that given by von Ehlers. In 1863 he wrote to von Siebold: “This took place about ten
years ago, in the village of Drennhausen, in the province of Wesen, in the Kingdom of Hanover.
As we were walking, towards the end of June or the beginning of July, on a dike, which at that
place projects out into the Elbe, we noticed that along the entire shore there might be seen a
moving band of a dark color. Since everything which takes place in the Elbe is of interest to the
inhabitants of that region, this phenomenon immediately attracted attention, and it soon became
apparent that this dark band was composed of an innumerable body of young Eels, which were
pressing against each other, as, at the surface of the stream, they were forcing their way upwards
towards its source, while they kept themselves so close to the shore that they followed all its
bendings and curves. The width of this band of fish at the place where it was observed (where
the Elbe has a considerable depth) was perhaps a foot, but how deep it was could not be observed,
so thickly crowded together were the young Hels. As they swam a great number could be taken
in a bucket, and it was very annoying to the people who lived along the Elbe that, so long as the
procession of fish lasted, no water could be taken out of the river which was not full of the little
fish. The length of the young Eels was, on an average, from three to four inches; tbe thickness
of the body was about equal to that of a goose-quill. By themselves might here and there be seen
swimming Eels of greater size, but none of them were probably more than eight inches in length.
All of them, even the smallest, were dark colored. This wonderful procession of fishes continued.
unbroken and of the same density throughout the whole of the day on which it was first observed,
and continued also upon the following day. On the morning of the third day, however, not one
of the young Eels was to be seen.”

Similar observations have been made at Wittenberge, on the Elbe. Kuffer observed great
quantities of young Eels, of about three centimeters in length, in the brackish water of the Hider
at Friedrichsstadt; so also did von Stemann.

652 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“Every year,” writes the latter, “from April to the end of June, there appear great masses of
young Eels, which are present in large schools towards the Upper Eider, seeking in every way to
pass each other. In April the first Eels show themselves generally singly; cold weather has
evidently kept them back up to this time; since this year, until to-day, no ascent whatever has
taken place, and now the approach of the great schools is beginning. Where the current is féeble
the procession is broad; but where the Eels encounter a strong current—near a mill—it becomes
small, and presses close to the shore, in order to overcome the currents. The little animals swim
eagerly and rapidly along near the banks until they find a place over which they decide to climb.
Here they lie in great heaps, and appear to await the rising of the tide, which makes their ascent
easier. The tide having risen, the whole mass begins to separate without delay; Eel after Eel
climbs up on the steep wall of rock, determined to reach the little pools, at the height of fifteen
or twenty inches, into which some of the water from the Upper Hider has found its way. Into
these holes the little animals creep, and have yet to travel a distance of forty or fifty feet under
the roadway before they can reach the Upper Hider. Another detachment betakes itself to the
sluiceways, and clings to the cracks in the wood; also around the mills their ascent may be

observed, especially about sunrise.”!
Davy sends a similar account from Ireland. He was a witness of the ascent of young Eels, or

“Elvas,” at Ballyshannon, at the end of July, 1823; he speaks of the mouth of the river under the
fall being “blackened by millions of little Hels about as long as a finger, which were. constantly
urging their way up the moist rock beside the fall.” “Thousands,” he adds, “died; but their
bodies, remaining, served as a ladder by which the rest could make their way; and I saw some
ascending even perpendicular stones, making their way through wet moss or adhering to some
Eels that had died in the attempt.¥?

Such is the energy of these little animals that they continued to find their way in immense
numbers to Loch Erne.

In the little Eels which ascend the rivers there are no traces of sexual organs, but in the fresh
water they develop only into females. One of the most recent observations made by Dr. Pauly,
in Munich, would appear to contradict this idea, since he discovered male Eels among the fish
which were brought with a lot of young Eels to Hiiningen, were kept there for two years in ponds,
and were finally released in the fish pond of Court-fisherman Kuffer. We should bear in mind,
however, that these young Eels were captured at the mouths of fresh rivers in brackish water ;
and that among the numerous small Eels which swim in the brackish water there must be many
larger specimens, in which the male organs have already begun to develop. Such are doubtless
those which were sent in the male condition to Hiiningen and Munich, and were there recognized
as males. This presumption can be set aside only if male Eels shall hereafter be found among the
fish which are caught in the upper part of rivers in the condition of young fry.

Concerning another important fact which is connected with the movements of the young fry of
the Hel, I became acquainted last year (in the course of an exploration of the waters of the district of

1 Professor Benecke had in his possession some of the young Eels, which escaped from all the vessels in which
they were confined, and even climbed to the ceiling of his room.

2? EEL-FAIRS IN CONNECTICUT.—Fresh-water Eels may be caught in large numbers, in weirs along the lake
streams, when descending at the fall equinox to deposit their spawn in some lower region, and in the following
August their offspring, from three to six inches long, return in immense numbers. The basin of the Still River
Falls, near Colebrook line, is for several days alive with them. They may be seen laboriously crawling up every
rock which is moistened by the spray of the fall, and endeavoring to reach their ancestral lake or dam. At the foot
of the Niagara Falls this phenomenon may be witnessed on a large scale at the same season of the year or later, and
probably in other places where the fall is too high and the current too swift for the young Eels to stem it without
contact with the rocks.—Boypb: Annals of Winchester, Connecticut, p. 26.

»

JACOBY’S JOURNEY TO COMACCHIO. 653

Konitzkunde) with the river Brahe, at Miihlhof, above Rittel, where a high dam was built in 1846
and 1847 for the purpose of watering a large system of meadows by the overflowing of the stream.
Below the dam is an inclined plane (constructed of boards), about three hundred feet long, built
for the purpose of preventing the water, which rushes out when the sluice-gate is opened, from
washing away the bottom of the stream and its banks. This plank floor consists of two layers, the
lower one of two-inch, the upper one of three-inch boards. The grade of the dam at Miihlhof
(thirty three feet three inches) has entirely cut off the ascent of the fry of the Eel into the upper
part of the Brahe and the lakes tributary to it, and the number of Eels caught above the dam—
which was formerly very considerable—has become reduced almost to nothing. In the year 1847
the construction of the dam and the inclined plane was completed. In 1852 the upper layer of the
planks on the plane had warped and sprung up in many places, so that it had to be torn up for
repairs. The cause of the warping was immediately discovered; thousands of Eels, as thick as a
man’s finger, somewhat flattened in shape, and, on account of the absence of light, of a pure
white color, filled the space between the two layers of planks, and their united pressure from
beneath had cansed the upper layer to yield; these Eels had found their way between the boards
as fry, where they had found sufficient food and had grown to such a size that the pressure of their
united strength had pushed up the roof of their prison. These facts, observed by an old mill-
wright, were communicated to me by Privy Councillor Schmid, of Marienwerder, who supervised
the construction of the Miihlhof dam, and he fully confirmed them.

Eels of four inches in length, which in May are plenty in fish ponds, by the end of October
reach a length of ten inches and the thickness of a man’s little finger; in the following fall they
measure from twenty to twenty-four inches, and in the third year are ready to be eaten. On
account of their rapid growth and hardy nature, in consequence of which latter they live in mud-
holes and unprofitable waters of all kinds, the breeding of Eels is a very remunerative business.
The young fish (of which, at the time of their first appearance at the mouths of rivers, it takes
1,500 to 1,700 to make a pound, while, when taken later and a little farther from the sea, it takes
only 350 to 400 for the same weight) may be obtained at low prices from France through Hiiningen,
or in Germany from Randesberg, and, through the Berlin Aquarium, from Wittenberge, and, when
the temperature of the air is not too high, may be carried in soft moss throughout all Germany.

According to the statement of the well-known Paris fish-merchant, Millet, two pounds of
Eels, planted in a muddy pond in 1840, in five years yielded 5,000 pounds of fine Eels.

JACOBY’S TOUR TO COMACCHIO IN 1877, AND HIS CONCLUSIONS.—“ In the fall of 1877,” writes
Jacoby, “I undertook a journey from Trieste, by way of Ravenna, to Comacchio. Convinced of
the difficulty of the questions to be solved by my own previous labors, I had not great hopes of
finding sexually mature Hels, either gravid females or mature males. My highest aim was at
the beginning to determine the following points: (1) Whether evidences of preparation for breed-
ing might not be found in the Eels which were wandering in the fall toward the sea; (2) to what
extent Eels with the organ of Syrski could be found participating in this migration; (3) as far as
possible to obtain Eels from the sea at a distance from the coast in order to compare their organs
of reproduction with those of the Eels in the lagoons.

“Tn determining the answers to the first two questions I was able to make some new and inter-
esting discoveries, but with regard to the latter, my most diligent efforts were absolutely fruitless.

“T found that the Hels when migrating to the sea in the fall took no food. In many hundreds
examined by me, caught during their movement, I found stomach and intestines entirely empty;
that the Eels during their migrations eat nothing is also known to all fishermen and watermen of
Comacchio. At the same time, the Eels which remained in the lagoons were more or less filled

,

654 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

with food, not only those which were not sufficiently mature to migrate, but also a breed of Eels
which never goes to the sea, but remains throughout its entire life in the lagoons.

“There may be found in Comacchio, and doubtless everywhere where Eels live in great num-
bers in brackish water along the coast, a peculiar group of Eels which, as far as I could deter-
mine, consists entirely of sterile females. These female Eels with ovaries present a very peculiar
phenomenon; when they are opened one finds, instead of the well-known yellowish-white, very
fatty, cuff-shaped organ, a thin, scummy, slightly folded membrane, not at all fatty, often as trans-
parent as glass, and of about the same proportional size as the so-called cuff-shaped organ. When
this membrane is examined under the microscope there may be seen in it eggs very transparent in
appearance, with yolk-dots absent or with yolk-dots very small and few. This organ appears to be
an abnormally developed ovary incapable of fertilization. These sterile females, which I found
of all sizes, even up to the length of twenty-seven inches, present all of the acknowledged female
characters in great prominence and in an exaggerated degree: the snout is broader, and often,
especially at the tip of the under jaw, extraordinarily broad; the dorsal fins are, on the average,
higher; the eyes are much smaller, especially in large specimens, and the coloring is clearer; the
back of a clearer green and the belly yellower than in the normal female. The flesh of these
sterile females has a very delicate flavor, and quite different from that of other Eels. I was quite
astonished at the fine flavor when I tasted them for the first time in Comacchio. The flesh, as the
expression goes, melts upon the tongue. It is even possible to distinguish them while living, by
feeling them with the hand, their soft bodies being very different from the hard, solid, muscular
flesh of the others.

“In Comacchio these Eels are called ‘Pasciuti. Coste called them ‘Priscetti,’ and defined
them to be those Eels which had not become ripe, but which were at least a pound in weight. The
name ‘Priscetti’ is, however, very incorrect, as I have become convinced by questioning the fish
inspectors and by hearing the conversations of the fishermen. ‘Pasciuto’ means ‘pastured,’ and
the fishermen understand by this, those Eels which do not migrate, but which remain through the
whole year feeding in the lagoons. They include, however, under this name, Eels of two kinds—
the sterile females already described, and the Eels which are not yet ripe, as well as the normal
females and supposed males whose period of migration is somewhat remote. This circumstance
is a cause of much difficulty to the investigator.!

“The studies on the second point to be solved were of special interest, viz, the determina-

1Jt has been noticed by many early writers that there are certain Eels which never come to the sea—Risso, in his
“Fistoire Naturelle,” tome 3, p. 198, and 8. Nilsson, in his ‘‘Scandinavisk Fauna,” tome 4, p. 663. The latter called
this variety ‘‘Grasaal,” or Grass-Kel, and spoke of its yellowish-green coloration and the soft, delicious flesh. Strange
enough, both these writers spoke of the sharper snout of this Ecl, and Risso, who founded upon it another species,
Anguilla acutirostris, described it as blackish above and silvery below. These descriptions apply in every particular
to the non-migratory Eel of Comacchio. Jacoby remarks that all the sterile females brought to him under the name
“Pasciuti” were distinguished by their broad snouts. The following tables were prepared at Comacchio. a gives
the total length of the body of the Kel; b, the breadth of the snout between the nasal tubes, in millimeters.

A.—Sterile females or Pasciuti. B.—Normal females. C.—Eels with supposed male organs.
|
aw 0) a b q Ws b.
|
I 508 10 I 511 8 | I = =
Ir 480 8.5 IL 497 7 Ir 480 6
Tir 458 il III 465 9 | Tit 470 6
Iv 3 9 Iv 447 as {a Iv 445 5
Vv 42600 8.5 v 425 6 | Vv 428 5
VI 408 8 vI 407 6 VT 403 5
Vil 395 1 | VIL 396 q i VII i 395 5.5

OBSERVATIONS OF JACOBY. 655

tion of the presence at Comacchio, and the behavior of Eels with organs of Syrski. I can answer
this question very briefly, since among twelve hundred specimens examined by me at the
fishing stations and at the so-called eel factories (with the exception of the largest specimens,
which are always females) I found an average of five per cent. with the organ of Syrski; of
the Eels under fifteen inches in length (forty-five centimeters) on an average there were twenty
per cent., so that the conclusions as to their abundance were very similar to those at Trieste, where
the fish market is supplied, for the greater part, with Eels from Chioggia, and to a less extent with
those from Comacchio.

“In Comacchio the largest Eels with the organ of Syrski, which I have observed, were about
seventeen inches (forty-eight centimeters) in length, the smallest about nine inches (twenty-four
centimeters). All of these were found among the Eels taken during their migration to the sea,
and, like the females, were found with stomachs completely empty or slightly filled with a slimy
substance. It was impossible to find in any specimen a more advanced development of the Syr-
skian organ than in those examined in summer at Trieste.

““With reference to the third question undertaken by me, which relates to the actual kernel of
the eel question, that is, the possibility of obtaining the Eels which have migrated out to sea, in
order to obtain in this manner the sexually mature milters and spawners, I have been unable to
obtain any results. I have, so far as my opportunities permitted, left no stone unturned to gain
its solution. I went out to sea from Magnavacca and from Codigoro, on Chioggian vessels, and
many times have fished myself, and have stimulated the fishermen by offers of reward to endeavor
to obtain Eels at sea, but I am forced to the conclusion that with the ordinary means this cannot
be done.

“Tntelligent, gray-headed fishermen of Chioggia, who by means of their fishing apparatus
know this part of the Adriatic as well as they know their own pockets, have assured me that
throughout their entire lives they have never caught a grown-up river Eel in the sea at any dis-
tance from the coast. The Eels which were brought to me at Mannbach as having been caught
in the sea, and which I found to be the ordinary females, or Eels with the Syrskian organ, were
either from localities close to the shore where they are not rare, or were taken in the Palotta
Canal. There was no lack of attempts at deception. Fishermen took Eels from the shore with
them in order to be able, on their return, to claim that they had been caught at sea. In the imme-
diate neighborhood of the coast they are, as it has been stated, in the spring-time not rare, and
there are not the slightest differences between these and the Hels of the lagoons. I found both
females and Eels with the organ of Syrski with their reproductive organs in the same immature
condition as in Comacchio; evidently they had just come through the Palotta Canal from the
lagoon into the sea. A certain distance, perhaps one or two marine miles from the coast, every
trace is lost of the adult Eels which wander by the many thousand into the sea. Strange as this
problem appears at first sight, it is easily understood when the character of the fishing apparatus
is considered: the nets are those used in the capture of lobsters, and are thrown over the bottom;
they have meshes much too large to hold the Hels, or, when they are small-meshed, they do not
touch the bottom. The problem can only be solved by using apparatus constructed especially for
the purpose.”!

Jacoby proposes the following questions, which, in his opinion, cover the still unanswered
points concerning the natural history of the Eel, and answers them in accordance with the results
of his own observations:

1JacoBy: Der Fischfang in der Lagune von Comacchio, pp. 45-53.

Zs

656 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Question 1. How can the fact be accounted for that no one has ever found mature females and
males, spawners and milters, among the Eels?

Answer. The Eels require the influence of sea-water for the development of their reproductive
organs. As is now definitely understood, they leave the rivers and the brackish lakes on account
of the undeveloped condition of their reproductive organs, for the purpose of becoming sexually
mature at sea. That these migrations to the sea take place for the purpose of reproduction appears
to be certainly proved by the fact that the young Eels leave the sea in the spring, and that the
migrating Eels, like other fishes at the spawning season, abstain from eating.

Q. 2. When and where occurs the necessary development of the reproductive organs of the
Eel to a condition in which they are capable of fertilization ?

A. Development of the reproductive organs takes place in the sea, not close to the shore,
but at a distance and in deep waters. This development is extraordinarily rapid, when the
immature state in which the migrating Eels are found is taken into consideration; they must
become sexually mature within a few, probably five or six, weeks of the time that they enter the
sea. At Comacchio the emigration takes place between the beginning of October and the end of
December.

Q. 3. Where does the act of spawning take place, the fertilization, and the deposition of
the eggs?

A. There are probably certain definite spawning places in the sea, off the mouths of the
rivers. These are the mud-banks to which the Eels go, for the purpose of spawning, in great
numbers. The young fish are developed upon these mud-banks, and from eight to ten weeks
after their birth, at the beginning of spring, find their way to the mouths of rivers, which they
ascend.

Q. 4. What becomes of the grown-up Eels after spawning time, and why do they remain
lost to sight and never again come back into the rivers ?

A. The old Eels, male and female, without doubt, die soon after the spawning season.
The very unusual rapid development of their reproductive organs has such an effect upon the
systems of the adult Eels that they die soon after the act of reproduction. That is the reason
why they are never seen to wander back again.!

An intelligent Chioggian, the owner of a fishing vessel, in answer to my question as to where
the old Eels staid, answered, “‘They die on the mud-banks after they have propagated their
young.”

This hypothesis may be confirmed in a scientific manner by the analogous circumstances in
the history of the Lamprey. Panizza, in his description of the sea Lamprey, Petromyzon marina,
remarks that both the males and females of this species after the spawning period are brought
up dead. Concerning the river Lamprey, P. fluviatilis, Statius Miiller remarks that when they
spawn they slowly fall away and die. Concerning the little Lamprey, P. planeri, August Miiller,
the discoverer of its larval form, has recorded the same opinion.”

192. THE CONGER EEL—CONGER, OR LEPTOCEPHALUS CONGER.

The Conger Eel is occasionally seen in the summer on the coast of the New England and
middle States, and is known to our fishermen as the ‘Sea Hel.” No observations have been
made of its habits by American zoologists.

1 As a confirmation of this view, von Siebold was the first to make this hypothesis.
2Op. cit., pp. 53-56.

HERMES’ OBSERVATIONS. 657

The observations of Dr. Otto Hermes, director of the Berlin Aquarium, who has recently dis.
covered the true nature of the organ of Syrski in tiie Conger, are extremely interesting :

“Since Syrski, in 1874, found the organs in Anguilla vulgaris—which are called by his name,
and which, by him and most zoologists, were taken for the male reproductive organs—it is only

Fic. 9.—A. Ripe male reproductive organs of a

Conger Eel thirty inches in length,
4 natural size.

a. Intestinal canal.

a, Uppers a", middle, d’’, lower portion
of the liver, which has been thrown

Fic. 10.—C. Undeveloped reproductive organ of a female
at Eel thirty-four inches long, 4 nat-

ural size.

to one side. a. Stomach.
Ff. Air-bladder. b. Ccecal appendage.
g. Gall-bladder. e. Spleen.
h. Anal aperture. d. Liver.
4, te, t3, 4. Folds of the left spermary. e. Right ovary.
ky, ke, ka, ka, ks. Folds of the right sper- e. Left ovary.
mary. f. Air-bladder.
l. Seminal pouch. g» Gall-bludder.
m. Urinary bladder. h. Anal aperture.
p. Skinny covering of the spermary. m. U' inary bladder.
B. Spermatozoa. p. End of left ovary.

necessary that a ripe male Eel should be found in order to settle forever the question of the sexes

of the Eel. Up to this time all efforts have failed to reach the desired result. The histiological

investigations of the Syrskian organs pursued by S. Freud render it more probable that these were

young roes; yet there remained all the time a doubt, since the spermatozoa had not been actually
42 P

658 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

observed, and this uncertainty is an insuperable obstacle to the acceptance of the Syrskian dis-
covery. The supposed discovery of spermatozoa by A. 8. Packard in the male Eel proved to be
another delusion. The contradiction of this imaginary discovery appeared in No. 26 of the second
volume of the Zoologischer Anzeiger, p. 193, in which it was stated that the motile bodies were not
spermatozoa, but yolk particles. This correction was also made by von Siebold’s assistant, Dr.
Pauly,! and by S. Th. Cattie.

“The reproductive organs of Conger vulgaris are very similar to those of Anguilla vulgaris; in
the undeveloped condition they show the ovaries lying in the same position in a cuff-shaped band
of a proportionally large size. Since C. vulgaris reaches nearly twice the size of A. vulgaris, indi-
viduals of six feet in length are not rare. The ovary is developed in captivity, and this, I am
convinced, is often the cause of the death of the Eel. In a Conger which died in the Berlin Aqua-
rium, and was cut open, the ovaries protruded very extensively, and a specimen which lies in the
Frankfort Aquarium burst on account of the extraordinary development of the ovaries. The ova-
ries of this Eel, which weighed twenty-two and one-half pounds, themselves weighed eight pounds,
and the number of eggs was about 3,300,000. The want of a natural opening for the escape of the
eggs was evidently in this case the cause of death. Male specimens of the Conger in an undeveloped
condition I have hitherto never had the opportunity to investigate. I received, however, in the
fall of 1879 a number of sea Eels, taken in the vicinity of Havre, whose average length was from
twenty-four to twenty-seven inches. These Eels ate greedily and grew rapidly. Only one was
tardy in its development, so that it could be easily distinguished from the rest. This, which was
the smallest of the Congers in the aquarium, died on the 20th of June, 1880, and was examined by
me on the same day. I was very much delighted when I found the sexual organs very different
from those which I had ever noticed before. After a single cut into them, there flowed out a milky
fluid, which, under the microscope, with a power of 450 diameters, showed a great number of sper-
matozoa, in the liveliest motion, and in which head and tail were evidently visible. There could
be no doubt that I had found a sexually mature male of Conger vulgaris. Two fragments of the
roe were laid aside for further investigation, and the Hel, which was twenty-eight inches long, was
prepared first in alcohol and then in Wickersheimer fluid.”

In the paper before us Dr. Jacoby presents a full anatomical description of the generative
organs of the Conger as demonstrated by himself and Dr. Rabl-Riickhard. It seems unnecessary
to repeat this description, since the organs are very similar to those in the common Eel. By the
kindness of Dr. Hermes we are permitted to reproduce the drawings which accompany this
description.

Compared with the description of the roe, and the figure of the organ found by Syrski and by:
Hermes, called “‘Lappenorgan,” a great similarity is noticed between them. It must be borne in
mind that in this case we were comparing the entirely undeveloped organs of the Eel with the
fully ripe reproductive organs of the Conger, so every doubt as to the male nature of the Syrskian
organs ought to be thrown aside. Also in the comparison of the size of the male with that of the
female the Conger shows the same relations as the Eel investigated by Syrski, to wit, that the
males are smaller than the females.

‘Austrian Fishery Gazette, 1880, No. 12, p. 90.

V.—STURGEONS, SKATES, SHARKS, AND LAMPREYS.

193. THE BOWFINS—AMIIDZ.
THE BOWFIN OR JOHNNY GRINDLE—AMIA CALVA.

The one species belonging to the single genus in this family is peculiar to the fresh waters
of the United States. It occurs in the Great Lakes, where it is called “Dogfish” and “Sawyer”;
in the streams of Western Vermont, where it is the “Mud-fish”(?), as also in the streams
of the Southern Atlantic coast from the Neuse southward. It is also abundant in the smaller
rivers flowing into the Gulf of Mexico and in all parts of the Mississippi Valley, where it
is variously called the “Johnny Grindle,” “Bowfin,” and “Dogfish.” The Bowfin is an object of
great interest to naturalists on account of its affinities with the great fossil group of ganoid fishes.
It is exceedingly tenacious of life, like its allies, the garfishes. It attains the length of two feet
and the weight of twelve pounds. Though not considered eatable in the North, it is very highly
esteemed by the negroes of the South, who say ‘‘there is nothing sweeter than a Mud-fish.” It is
often taken by sportsmen on a trolling spoon, and is considered “ gamy.”

The Bowfin is probably more interesting on account of its voracity, and the wholesale destruc-
tion with which it pursues other fishes, than by reason of its own intrinsic worth. The young are
thought to be excellent bait for pickerel and pike. The best description of the habits of this fish
is here quoted from the pen of Charles Hallock :

“They take frogs, minnows, and sometimes the spoon. Their habitat is deep water, where they
drive everything before them. They are very voracious and savage. Their teeth are so sharp
and their jaws so strong that they have been known to bite a two-pound fish clean in two the very
first snap. They are as tenacious of life as the eel. The young, when about six inches long-
make a famous bait for pickerel and pike. To use it, run the hook into the mouth right up
through the center of the head, through the brain, cast a hundred times, catch several fish, and at
the end of three to six hours he will kick like a mule. Put one hundred in a rain-barrel and you
can keep them all summer without change of water. For the aquarium the young have no equal,
and on account of the spot in the tail are quite attractive; but nothing else but snails can live in
the tank. He will kill a lizard or any other living thing the instant it touches the water.

“Dr. Estes says: ‘I have sent these young Dogfish hundreds of miles for the aquarium. It is
only necessary to keep them in water, a change scarcely being required. The adults are the great
‘Jumpers’ of the lake. On certain days they are to be seen in all directions jumping clean out of
the water, and turning complete somersaults before again striking. They spawn in May and June
among the grass and weeds of the sloughs, if they can reach them in time. As soon as the spring
rise comes, usually in May and June, and connects the inland sloughs with the lake (Pepin), they
run up and over into the sloughs, deposit their eggs, and remain near the beds and young just as
long as they can and not be shut in by the receding water. The eggs hatch in eight and ten days,
the parents remaining with the brood two or three weeks, if possible, but will leave them much
sooner if necessary to save themselves. The young will not make any effort to escape to the lake
until the next season, when, if an opening occurs, they come pouring out in countless numbers.
At this time we take them by stretching the minnow seine across the opening and raising it when

full. They are now from three to six inches long, fat and chubby. I come now to mention a
659

660 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

peculiar habit of this fish, no account of which I have ever seen. It is this: While the parent still
remains with the young, if the family become suddenly alarmed, the capacious mouth of the old
fish will open, and in rushes the entire host of little ones; the ugly maw is at once closed, and off
she rushes to a place of security, when again the little captives are set at liberty. If others are
conversant with the above facts, I shall be very glad, if not, shall feel chagrined for not making
them known long ago.’” !

194. THE PADDLE-FISHES—POLYODONTIDZ.

The “ Paddle-fish” or ‘Duck-billed Cat,” Polyodon spathula, is one of the most characteristic
fishes of the rivers of the Western and Southern States. It reaches a length of four to six feet,
and a weight of thirty pounds or more. It feeds on minute organisms present in mud. The long
suout or spatula is used to stir up the mud on which, and the animals within it, the fish feeds.
The fish is rarely or never used as food. Jordan states that if abouuds in the lower parts of the
Ohio River, where it is often taken in nets.

195. THE STURGEONS—ACIPENSERIDZ.
THE STURGEONS OF THE ATLANTIC COAST.

Two species of Sturgeon are supposed to exist on our Atlantic coast. The most abundant of
these, Acipenser oxyrhynchus, is now generally supposed to be identical with the common Sturgeon
of Europe, A. sturio. The other, A. brevirostris, which is distinguished from A. oxyrhynchus by its
shorter and blunter nose, has not yet been found north of Cape Cod, and appears to be compara-
tively less abundant, although both species are found in great numbers in the larger rivers and
estuaries during the summer season, and are frequently seen leaping from the water, especially at
dusk. A leaping Sturgeon is a striking object, the whole length of the fish appearing above the
surface before it falls back with a splash into the water.

The Sturgeon attains a length of five to twelve feet. In Europe, individuals of the common
Sturgeon eighteen feet long have been secured. The spawning season is in spring and early
summer. Their eggs have several times been artificially impregnated by the fish-culturists
attached to the Fish Commissions of the United States and of New York. They spawn in the
lower stretches of the rivers, and perhaps also at their mouths, in brackish water.

Sturgeon are classed by fishermen among the fishes which “live by suction.” The mouth is
situated upon the under surface of the head, and is not provided with teeth, but is surrounded with
a cup-shaped organ composed of powerful muscular tissue, by means of which it grubs for its food
in the mud. Its stomach resembles that of the menhaden and mullet, though comparatively more
muscular, since, like the gizzard of a fowl, one of its uses is to triturate the food which has been
swallowed, and which consists largely of mollusks and crustaceans. Around the mouth is a group
of large and sensitive tentacles, which aid the fish in its search for food.

No one has yet made a careful study of the habits of the Sturgeon in our waters, and in fact
European zoologists have made little progress in the study of their own species.

Within the past few years the capture of the Sturgeon for smoking and for the manufacture of
caviare from its eggs has attained considerable importance on the Atlantic coast.

The capture and economic uses, and the statistics of the products of the sturgeon fishery, will
be fully discussed by Col. M. McDonald in a subsequent portion of this work.

1 Sportsman’s Gazetteer, 1877, pp. 324-826.

THE LAKE STURGEON. 661

THE LAKE STURGEON—ACIPENSER RUBICUNDUS.

The most satisfactory investigation of the Lake Sturgeon is that published by Milner in Part
II of the Report of the United States Fish Commission, pages 67 to 75. This species inhabits the
Great Lakes and the waters lying to the northward, and the rivers of the Mississippi Valley. It
is especially abundant in the Upper Lakes. It is a smaller species than the Atlantic Sturgeon,
and has a greater number of plates or scutes upon the sides—according to Jordan, about thirty-
four instead of twenty-eight.

SPAWNING HABITS.—Milner records the following observations upon the general habits and
history of the Lake Sturgeon:

“The spawning season of the Sturgeon in the more southern lakes occurs in the month of
June; in Lake Superior it is a little later. Early in June, in the southern end of Lake Michigan,
they begin to congregate near the shores and at the mouths of the rivers, the Kalamazoo River,
emptying at Saugatuck, Michigan, being a favorite spawning ground. They may be seen in the
evening in this river leaping from the surface, throwing their bulky forms entirely out of the
water. At Pier Cove, Michigan, on the 11th of June, 1871, schools of Sturgeons were at the edge
of the shore in a few feet of water, and men from the vicinity were in the habit of wading out and
drawing them ashore with gaff-hooks. Eighteen were taken in this way the morning we visited
the locality. They were said to be found in the vicinity every year about this season, remaining
about a fortnight. It is likely they were spawning at the time. Whether the shore of the Lakes,
where the waves would disturb the eggs in every storm, is a natural spawning ground is a ques-
tion. They may have been late arrivals seeking the mouth of the Kalamazoo River, a few miles to
the north of which they are said to ascend to the first dam, many miles inland.

“Mr, J. G. Portman, of Benton Harbor, successful as a fish-culturist, has seen the Sturgeon at
this season lying in numbers on a shallow clay ledge at the edge of a stream, several of them lying
flat on their backs, with their bellies upward, rolling and splashing in shallow water with apparent
enjoyment. Two or three that were taken with spears were opened and the stomachs examined
and found to contain some of the sturgeon spawn. At the mouth of Calumet River, South Chicago,
Illinois, July 1 of the year just referred to, a large lift of Sturgeon were brought ashore, looking
flaccid and emaciated, and but one specimen out of over twenty individuals contained spawn. In
the vicinity of Bayfield, Wisconsin, on Lake Superior, they were seen late in the month of July with
the ovaries full of spawn, and the milt of the male fishes large, making it probable that the time of
spawning was later in colder water than in warm.

“‘SrzE.—The Sturgeon of this species attains the largest size of any fish of the Lakes. They
are taken only within comparatively shoal waters and in some of the bays, and among the islands
they are very abundant. The largest specimen it has been my fortune to see did not quite attain
the length of six feet, though there are traditions in localities on the Lakes of nine-foot Sturgeons;
the average of the mature ones taken is less than five feet.

“Their food consists almost entirely of the shell-fish of the Lakes, principally gasteropods, the
thinner-shelled kinds of the genera Physa, Planorbis, and Valvata being found broken in the
stomachs, while Limnea and Melantho remain whole. A few eggs of fishes have been found at
different times, but examination of stomachs during the spawning season of some of the most
numerous fishes did not prove them to be very extensive spawn-eaters.

“ENEMIES.—In Green Bay the fishermen set their pounds for fall fishing about the 10th of
September. The Sturgeon are in abundance, and the nets often contain a hundred or more. This
is said to continue until about the middle of October, when they diminish in number and the white-

662 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

fish become plentiful. As the latter are the fish sought for, the Sturgeon are considered a nui-
sance and annoyance. A few fishermen are considerate enough to lower the corner of a net and
allow them to escape, but the commoner way is to draw them out of the net with a gaff-hook and
let them go wounded, or to take them ashore and throw them on the refuse heap, asserting that
there will be so many less to trouble them in the future. A very large number are destroyed in
this way, probably equaling or exceeding the number taken in the vicinity of Sandusky.

“The spawn is probably subjected to the depredations of numerous fishes. It is not likely
that the young Sturgeon, except in the earliest stages of their growth, suffer from the attacks of
other fishes, as they are too well defended with the sharp spine of their shields to make a comfort-
able mouthful for any fish of the Lakes, and after the spine disappears have attained a size large
enough to render them safe.

“A parasite that troubles the Sturgeon is the Lamprey Eel, Petromyzon argenteus, Kirt., which
is found very frequently attached to the skin. The circular scars and raw sores sometimes found
upon the Sturgeon and attributed to this cause by the fishermen are correctly accounted for in this
way. Itis probable that their natural food is the slime or mucus exuded in abundance from the
pores, but they frequently retain their hold upon a spot until they have eaten through to the flesh,
and deep ulcerous cavities occasionally result from the sore.

“The decrease in numbers is apparent to a certain extent in localities where the pound-net
has been in use for a number of years. At Sandusky, Ohio, the number brought in from the nets
and handled at the curing establishment in a season are said to have nearly reached eighteen
thousand a few years ago, while in 1872 the books showed a record of thirteen thousand eight
hundred and eighty received. This fact has several times been advanced as an argument in favor
of the pound-nets, that the destruction of the Sturgeon, asserted to be an extensive spawn-eater,
more than compensated for the numbers of white-fish taken.

“As an article of food they are not generally popular. But few people in the cities know the
modes of cooking that make their meat a palatable dish. A certain quantity is disposed of fresh
by the peddlers. With the Canadian-French people of the Lake shore they are in demand, and are
prepared in the form of soups (bouillon). With a good, hearty, outdoor appetite this is very pal-
atable food, but too rich in the flavor of the oil of the fish for ordinary use. The flavor of the
Sturgeon meat has very little of the taste of fish, and the bouillon, when carefully prepared by
skimming off the oil, is very much like chicken-soup. A very good pickled meat is made of it by
boiling it and preserving it in vinegar.

“But the best form of preparing Sturgeon is by smoking it. The smoking of Sturgeon meat
has been done at different points of the Lakes on a small scale, but is only carried on to a large
extent by Schacht Brothers, of Sandusky, Ohio. The method employed by this firm is the fol-
lowing: The Sturgeons are skinned and the viscera taken away. The thick parts are then cut into
strips, and after a slight pickling in brine are smoked over a close fire. The thin portions and
offal are boiled down for oil, the spawn is made into caviare, and from the bladders isinglass is
manufactured.

“The smoked Sturgeon is a most palatable meat, and is quite popular, making an excellent
substitute for smoked halibut, and, in the opinion of a great many, having some qualities superior.

“The caviare is made by pressing the ova through sieves, leaving the membranes of the
ovaries remaining in the sieve and the eggs falling through into a tub. This is continued until
the eggs are entirely free from particles of membrane, when they are put into salt pickle and
allowed to remain for some time.”

THE CHIMARA FAMILY. 663

OBSERVATIONS BY LUDWIG KUMLIEN ON THE STURGEON OF THE GREAT LAKES.—Mr. Kum-
lien, while engaged in collecting the statistics of the Great Lakes fisheries in 1880, made a number
of very important notes upon the abundance of the Sturgeon and upon the sturgeon fishery in
that region, which will be quoted in a subsequent portion of this work.

THE STURGEONS OF CALIFORNIA.

“The common Sturgeon of the Pacific coast, called distinctively the ‘White Sturgeon,” writes
Jordan, ‘‘is Acipenser transmontanus. It reaches a length of eight or ten feet or more, and is said
to attain a weight of four to five hundred pounds. We have seen none of over one hundred
and fifty pounds’ weight. It is found in the Sacramento, Columbia, and Frazer Rivers in abun-
dance, ascending them at the time of the salmon run in the spring for the purpose of spawning.
Whether it enters the small streams, how long the run continues, and how far the Sturgeon ascend,
are matters at present unknown. The Sturgeon feeds on crustacea, carrion, etc. In Frazer River
they gorge themselves on the eulachon.

“The Sturgeon is one of the most important fish in the San Francisco market, being always
abundant and very cheap. Elsewhere the abundance and superiority of the salmon cause it to be
little used. Many are smoked. Caviare is made from the eggs.

“Acipenser medirostris is known as the ‘Green Sturgeon.’ Its size and distribution are the
same as that of the White Sturgeon. It is, however, much less abundant. It is not used as
food, being reputed poisonous. We are unable to say on what facts this evil reputation is based.”

THE SHOVEL-NOSED STURGEON: WHITE STURGEON—SCAPHIRHYNCHOPS PLATYRHYNCHUS.

This species is found in abundance in all the larger rivers of the West and South. It spawns
early in May, ascending smaller streams for that purpose. Jordan states that in the Ohio River it
is taken in seines in considerable numbers and is used for food, though it does not seem to be
highly valued. He surmises that its habits are very similar to those of the Lake Sturgeon.

196. THE CHIMHRA FAMILY—CHIMARIDZ.

RAtT-FISH OF CALIFORNIA—CHIM@RA COLLIEI.

“This fish,” writes Jordan, “is known as the ‘Rat-fish’ or ‘Rat-tail.’ It reaches a length of
nearly two feet, and a weight of six to eight pounds. It is very abundant everywhere from Mon-
terey Bay northward along the coast, especially in deep bays. It feeds on fishes and takes the
hook very readily. It spawns in July. The egg cases are two or three inches long, lanceolate,
long and slender, without tentacles.

“The liver of the Chimera is very large and well filled with an oil said to be superior to ordinary
shark oil. The flesh is worthless and the fish is too small to be an object of pursuit. It has,
therefore, no economic value.”

THE BLUE CHIMHRA—CHIMZRA AFFINIS.

A species of Chimera is frequently taken by the New England fishermen on the off-shore
fishing banks. It was described by Professor Gill under the name C. plumbea, but proves to be a
species previously discovered on the coast of Spain. It has no economic importance.

197. THE GAR-PIKES—LEPIDOSTEIDA.

THE LONG-NOSED GAR-PIKE—LEPIDOSTEUS OSSEUS.

This fish is known as “Gar-pike,” ‘“Bill-fish,” “Sword-fish,” etc., the names “Gar” and “Gar:
pike” usually predominating. It is found in the Great Lakes, and throughout the Mississippi

664 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Valley, as well as in all the streams of the South from Mexico to New Jersey. In all the larger
streams it is abundant, sometimes extremely so, but in the smaller rivers it is scarce. It isa
hardy and voracious fish, being usually considered very destructive to the young of other and
better fishes. It is fair to say that remains of fishes are rarely found in its stomach. It reaches a
length of five to six feet. It is usually considered wholly worthless, being killed and thrown away
whenever taken. The flesh is very tough, and is said to be noxious. I have never known it to be
eaten. It spawns in early summer, running up smaller streams, often in company with the various
Sturgeons. At Ogdensburg, New York, they come upon the shoals for this purpose about May 20.
Another spawning ground is on a beach near Point Salubrious, Chaumont Bay, New York, about
a mile from the post-office.

The Short-nosed Gar-pike (Lepidosteus platystomus) occurs in the same waters, reaches about
the same size, and is similar in habits. It is most common southwestward.

Le Sr. de Champlain, visiting the lake which bears his name in the year 1609, speaks of a
large fish, undoubtedly the Gar-pike, there found :

“Among the rest there is one called by the Indians of the country Chaousaron, of divers lengths.
The largest, I was informed by the people, are of eight to ten feet. I saw one of five, as thick as
a thigh, with a head as big as two fists, with jaws two feet and a half long, and a double set of
very sharp and dangerous teeth. The form of the body resembles that of the pike, and it is armed
with scales that the thrust of a poniard cannot pierce, and it is of a silver-gray color. The point
of the snout is like that of a hog. This fish makes war on all others in the lakes and rivers, and
possesses, as these people assure me, a wonderful instinct; which is, that if it wants to catch any
birds it goes among the rushes or reeds bordering the lake in many places, keeping the beak out
of the water without budging, so that when the birds perch on the beak, imagining it the limb of
a tree, it is so subtle that closing the jaws, which it keeps half open, it draws the birds under
water by the feet. The Indians gave me a head of it, which they prize highly, saying that when
they have a headache they let blood with the teeth of this fish at the seat of pain, which immedi-
ately goes away.’

THE ALLIGATOR GAR—LEPIDOSTEUS SPATULA.

This species is known almost universally as the “Alligator Gar”; in Spanish, “ Manuari.” It
abounds in large bodies of water tributary to the Gulf of Mexico, being found in Mexico and Cuba
as well as in the United States. Its northern range extends to the Ohio River, where, however,
itis not common. It reaches an enormous size, being sometimes more than ten feet in length. In
habits it is probably essentially similar to the smaller Gar-pikes. It has no value as food, but is
said to be somewhat dangerous to men and domestic animals.”

It is found in various tributaries of the Gulf of Mexico, and also in the headwaters of Saint
John’s River, Florida. It is distinguished by its broad snout. In Arkansas the country people

‘Doc. Hist. of N. Y., ili, 1850, 6. See also, SAGARD: Grand Voyage du Pays des Huron, Paris, 1632.

2A Man’s FIGHT WITH A Fisu.—Mr. James F. Simmons, of Redbone district, had a narrow and peculiar escape
the other day. He was fishing on Flint River, and had attempted to swim across to get a bateau from the opposite
side. About half way over the stream he stopped on a root or tree to rest. After remaining there a short time, he
plunged off for the other shore. Just as he made a plunge a tremendous fish, known as the Gar, struck him, catching
his thigh in its mouth, and leaving an ugly and painful wound. A regular battle then took place between the man
and the fish, and lasted for some minutes, until finally Mr. §. got back on his resting place, and his enemy departed.
During the fight Mr. 8. threw the fish some feet above the water, but it continued the attack. Mr. S. was thoroughly
frightened and called lustily for help. He has several ugly and painful wounds given him by the fish, yet none
serious. This is the first time we ever heard of a Gar attacking a man, yet they say it frequently does so.—Talbottor
(Ga.) Standard, July, 1879.

THE STING RAYS. 665

manufacture from it a kind of oil, which is used as a liniment to prevent the attacks of the buffalo-
gnat. Mr. Stearns writes:

“The Alligator Gar is very abundant everywhere on the Gulf coast, living in both fresh and
salt water. Like the salt-water catfish, it will eat anything. It preys largely upon all fish smaller
than itself, and the young are, I believe, particularly destructive to fishes’ eggs and young fry.
Some think that this fish does more damage to the small food-fishes than any other fish on the
coast does. It is simply useless to place ‘set-nets’ where the Gar is abundant. Many are caught
in seines with other fishes and are thrown ashore to be destroyed. I have seen Gars that would
measure seven feet in length; the average is two feet. With the larger ones the bill is not pro-
portionately as long as with the smaller ones, but is stouter.”

198. THE RAYS, TORPEDOES AND SKATES—RAIZ.

There are six or seven species of Rays upon tbe Atlantic coast, none of which are of impor-
tance to man, except so far as they are dangerous or annoying to the fishermen, or are destructive
of useful marine animals.

THE STING RAYS.

The Sting Ray, Trygon centrura, ranges farther to the north than any of the other species, having
been observed on the shoal parts of George’s Banks; it does not, however, pass the limit of Cape
Cod. The Sting Ray attains an enormous size, its disk sometimes measuring five or six feet across,
and its entire length, including the long, flexible tail, ten feet or more. It feeds entirely upon the
large species of marine invertebrates, such as crabs, squids, clams, and sea-snails. The strong
serrated spine situated upon the top of the tail near its junction with the body can inflict dan-
gerous wounds, and several instances are on record of serious injury to fishermen who have had
their hands or feet transfixed by it. These fish are often taken in considerable numbers in the
pounds and weirs.

There are two or three other species of Sting Ray or Stingaree on the southern Atlantic and
Gulf coasts, the commonest of which, Trygon sabina, is found in the rivers, ascending the Saint
John’s to the upper Jakes, and also clear along the coast. Concerning its habits in the Gulf of
Mexico, Mr. Stearns writes:

“The Sting Ray or Stingaree is abundant all along the Gulf coast. It is present all the year,
but is most commonly seen is warm weather, while upon the shoals in search of food. I have
caught these fish with young continuously from April to the latter part of October. The usual
number of a brood is three or four, but I have seen as many as eight or nine taken from large
individuals. Possibly the age or size of the parent may affect the number of young they bear.
They feed upon shell-fish. Small ones are quite tame, coming near the shore in search of food,
and when disturbed quickly bury themselves in the sand or dart away a short distance. The
larger and older ones are more wary, seldom coming into very shoal water, and at the least disturb-
ance swim away with great rapidity to deep water. The Sting Ray has a barbed spine on its tail
which it uses in self-defense. It is sometimes caught with hook and line, but more often in seines,
and then it uses its tail as a whip upon its captors, trying to wound them with its spine. Such
wounds are often dangerous, and very painful and difficult to heal. The Sting Ray attains an
enormous size, and specimens six or seven feet across the back are frequently caught. I caught a
specimen off Cedar Keys whose spine had been broken off and replaced by a new one which grew
out beneath the old one.

“Capt. Joseph Fogarty, of Manatee, reports having seen a large school of Sting Rays in Long
Boat Inlet. They were swimming near the bottom, very closely crowded together.

666 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“The Sting Ray and Whip Ray are very often eaten on the Gulf coast, and are sold daily in
the New Orleans market.”

THE BUTTERFLY RAY.

The Butterfly Ray, Pteroplatea maclura, although a member of the same family with the Sting
Ray, differs very much in its external appearance, and would hardly be supposed by the unlearned
to be a fish at all. The tail is exceedingly small, while the pectoral flaps are enormously devel-
oped. The body often attains the weight of ten or twelve pounds, while its length is not more
than three or four feet. The enormous extent of the pectoral flaps, resembling wings, have given
origin to the common name. In an individual of the above-mentioned size the tail would not be
more than three or four inches long. This species is taken in summer in the pounds, and, when
Skates become more popular as an article of food, will doubtless, on account of its great size, be
of economic importance. Little or nothing is known of its habits.

THe EAGLE RAYS.

Of the Eagle Ray family, Myliobatide, of which there are three species, all except the Bishop
Ray straggle north to Southern New England in summer, but only one seems to be found in
Florida and the Gulf; this is the ““Whipparee” or “Corn-Cracker” of the South (Rhinoptera quad-
riloba). Its habits are thus described by Mr. Silas Stearns:

“The Whipparee is common on the Florida coast. It is present in the bays the year round.
In warm weather it lives on sand bars in shoal water, and in cold weather retires to deeper water.
It feeds upon molluscous animals, chiefly the razor-shell fish, which is one of the commonest kinds.
The Whip Ray is viviparous and brings forth its young in spring and summer, the breeding season
apparently extending over five or six months. I have not found a Whip Ray containing more than
three young ones, usually only two. When the young fish leave the parent they are quite active
and undoubtedly able to care for themselves. The adults have stout dorsal spines, which they use
as weapons of defense. These spines are barbed and slimy, and wounds from them are very trouble-
some and sometimes dangerous. The Whip Ray is sometimes six or seven feet across the back.
During the last of July, 1880, I saw large schools of young Whip Rays, probably about half-
grown, swimming at the surface at sea off Saint Andrew’s Bay, and also at a point twenty miles
up that bay.”

The “Eagle Ray,” or “Sharp-nosed Ray,” Mylobatis Fremenvillei, does not attain a large size
and is comparatively unusual in occurrence. Its food, as observed in Southern Massachusetts, is
closely similar to that of the common Sting Ray.

The Bishop Ray, Stoasodon narinari, the Obispo” of Cuba, is found in the West Indies and
at the Bermudas; stragglers have been observed at Norfolk, Virginia.

THE DEVIL-FISHES.

The Devil-fish, Manta birostris, has been observed as far north as Cape May, and is said to be
often see on the Gulf coast of Florida, as it swims on the surface of the water. This species attains
an enormous size; individuals have been caught measuring thirty feet or more from tip to tip of
the flaps. It is especially abundant on the coast of South Carolina, where its pursuit is a favorite
amusement among the planters, or rather was in former years. Every one is familiar with the
thrilling accounts given of this amusement by Elliott in his “‘Carolina Sports by Land and Water.”
There are instances on record of small vessels having been carried out to sea by these fish which
have become entangled in the anchor ropes. The appearance of these fish at the surface, especially
at the breeding season, has given origin, doubtless, to some of the stories of sea-serpents current
on the Southern coast.

THE RAYS AND SKATES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 667

TH SKATES.

Of the Skates, Ratide, there are five species on our Atlantic coast, a list of which, with their
common and scientific names and a statement of their geographical distribution, will be found on
the check-list in the appendix. They are all troublesome to the fisherman, clogging his lines and
pound-nets; but none of them are of the slightest economical value except the so-called “ Barn-door
Skate,” Raia levis, which is occasionally salted for use by the fishermen of Portsmouth, New
Hampshire, and which has, within the last two or three years, attracted some notice in New York.
Miss Corson, in her cooking school, has called attention to its excellent qualities as a food-fish,
and Skates may be found on the bill of fare at certain restaurants, such as Mouquin’s, on Fulton
street. Only the “ wings,” or the fleshy flaps to the pectoral fins, are used.

THE TORPEDO—TORPEDO OCCIDENTALIS.

The Torpedo is found north as far as Cape Ann, a specimen having been taken at Lanesville
in the summer of 1878. It is more or less abundant along the Southern New England and middle
States coast.

The Torpedo is occasionally thrown upon the shore, and its capture in the pound-nets is not
unusual. It is of no economic importance, but is of great interest to physiologists on account of
its powerful electric apparatus. The fishermen know its peculiarities, and carefuily avoid handling
it, since a shock from a living individual is sufficient to knock a man down. It is usually called
the “‘Cramp-fish,” and, in pursuance of the old idea of the influence of signatures in medicines,
the oil made from the liver is prized by fishermen as a specific for rheumatism and cramp. Captain
Atwood writes:

“JT have seen considerable many. They run ashore, and they have been harpooned from the
shore. I have seen five hundred, I think. I used to go and look for them for their livers, for the
oil. The oil is one of the best lamp oils that I ever saw. It has been used sometimes beneficially
in cases of cramp. I got a gallon of oil from one liver. I don’t know but I have seen a Cramp-
fish big enough to make three gallons of oil.”

THE RAYS AND SKATES OF THE PACIFIC COAST.

Of the numerous Rays on the Pacific coast only two or three are of economic value, being
brought into the market of San Francisco, when their pectoral fins are sold to the French and
Italians. These are of little importance, as they are so cheap that there is no profit in bringing
them to the city at all when any transportation charges are paid. One of the Sting Rays (Ptero-
platea marmorata) sometimes comes into the market of Los Angeles, and the tails of Rhinobatus
productus are sometimes preserved and eaten by the Chinese and Mexicans.

The following is a full list of the species now known: Manta birostris, the Devil-fish, the largest
of all Rays; sometimes come north to San Diego. Myliobatis californicus, the common Sting Ray,
from Cape Mendocino southward; is destructive to oyster beds, which are always shut in with a
sort of picket-fence to keep these animals out. The “sting” of this and other species often pro-
duces severe flesh wounds, which may be accompanied by blood-poisoning, and sometimes causes
death.’ Pteroplatea marmorata, Trygon dipterurus, and Urolophus Halleri, all Sting Rays, found

‘On Thursday week, as D. K. Williams, of Anaheim, was at the landing amusing himself fishing with a net, he
was severely stung by a fish known as the Stingaree. He was lifting a few small fish from the net, and among others
picked up what appeared to be a small flounder, when he received a fierce sting from the tail of the reptile on his
right forefinger. He immediately commenced sucking the poison from the wound, but in a few moments he suffered
great agony and became delirious. His friends took him at once to a house aud gave him three pints of whisky,
which, together with constant attention, brought him through safely in about fifteen hours, and he is now entirely
recovered.— Anaheim Gazette, April 14, 1871.

668 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

south of Point Concepcion only. Raia inornata, Raia binoculata, Raia rhina, and Raia stellulata,
all true Rays, ranging from Santa Barbara or Monterey northward; R. binoculata and R. rhina
as far as Alaska. R. inornata and R. binoculata are brought into the market of San Francisco in
considerable numbers. The latter reaches a length of six feet, the former of two and a half feet.
Rhinobatus exasperatus, J. & G.,in San Diego Bay; Rhinobatus productus, and Rhinobatus triseriatus,
from San Francisco southward, and the Torpedo, Torpedo californica, about San Francisco, com-
plete the list.

Only the French in San Francisco can be said to be fond of the Rays, and so long as the
present abundance of better fish continues none of them will have any special economic value.
The oil in the liver is so little that it is only preserved by the Indians.

199. THE SAW-FISH—PRISTIS PECTINATUS

Of the Saw-fishes, Pristide, there is at least one species, Pristis pectinatus, on the Florida
coast. Stragglers are taken occasionally in the Chesapeake Bay, and even farther north. A
specimen sixteen feet three inches in length and four feet in width was taken at Cape May in July,
1878. Its saw was four feet three inches long, and was armed with forty-nine teeth. The Saw-
fish is, however, rarely seen north of Florida. In the Everglades these fish are said to be exceed-
ingly abundant. In the Saint John’s River individuals of all sizes, from one to eight feet in
length, are taken as high up as Jacksonville. They are considered by the fishermen to be very
much of a nuisance, since they are exceedingly powerful and play great havoe with the shad-nets.
As they swim they move laterally, with a swinging motion, the head and snout, which latter is
powerfully armed on each side with very strong teeth. Mr. Camps, of New Berlin, told me that
he had three cast-iron rowlocks broken off close to the gunwale by a single blow of the saw of a
large individual. In the Indian River and its tributaries the Saw-fish is said to be very common,
attaining the width of six or eight feet. On the Gulf coast, according to Stearns, it is rather
common, being a bottom fish and frequently caught in seines. Stearns states that he once saw a
specimen in Saint Andrew’s Bay that must have been fully fifteen feet long.

200. THE SHARKS—SQUALI.

<

There are at least twenty species of Sharks upon our Atlantic coast, some of which are of
considerable economic value, while others are simply of interest as being annoyances to fishermen.

THE BONE SHARK—CETORHINUS MAXIMUS.

This species is a native of the Arctic Seas, but has been observed in the Western Atlantic as
far south as New York, and on the European coast to Portugal. It is known among our fisher-
men as the “ Bone Shark,” and is also called the “‘Basking Shark” from its habit of basking or
remaining quiet for a long time in one place. It is the “Sun-fish” of the Irish and Welsh coasts;
the “Sail-fish” of Northern Great Britain, while in the Orkneys it is called the “ Hoe Mother,”
contracted to “Homer”—the word “Homer” signifying the mother of the spiny Dogtish which is
there known by the name “Hoe.” The Bone Shark is one of the largest of Sharks, and many
years ago a learned dissertation was published by its first describer, Bishop Gunner, of Norway,
attempting to prove that this was the species of fish which swallowed Jonah. Yarre]l examined
a specimen, taken off Brighton, which measured thirty-six feet in length; a large individual was
secured in the lower harbor at New York in 1822, while in 1828 a smaller individual obtained in
Maine was brought to New York, the dimensions of which were twenty-eight feet in length and
sixteen feet in circumference. In September, 1839, an individual thirty-four teet long was stranded

THE BONE SHARK. 669

at Eastport, Maine. Storer records the capture of an individual, taken at Provincetown in 1839
and exhibited at Boston, which measured thirty feet and three inches. It is not unfrequently har-
pooned by the whalers on the Pacific coast. A specimen was examined at Monterey by Jordan
and Gilbert.

Very little is known of its habits. It is usually seen in summer, though this is doubtless due
to the fact that the fishermen are then in a position to observe them, while in winter the fishermen
remain in harbor and would not be so likely to notice their occurrence. Yarrell remarks: ‘When
north winds prevail they are most frequent on the west coast of Scotland, also on the north and
west coast of Ireland; if westerly winds, they are not unusual along the whole line of the southern
coast.”

If these observations are correct, it seems probable that easterly and northerly winds are most
favorable for their appearance in the waters of New England.

These Sharks are sluggish in their movements, swimming lazily at the surface, and are said to
be so indifferent to the approach of boats that they will allow them to touch their bodies without
moving, though, when struck with the harpoon, they swim away with much rapidity and strength.

The only observations upon its food have been made in the vicinity of the Orkneys by Mr.
Lowe, who states that its stomach contained a red, pulpy mass, probably the roe of sea-urchins.
Linnzus supposed its food to consist chiefly of meduse or jelly-fishes. The teeth are very small,
and the structure of the gill-rakers would indicate that it feeds at the surface, straining its
food, like the whalebone-whales. The gill-openings extend from the back nearly to the median line
of the throat. The liver of this Shark is very large and yields a great quantity of oil. When
they make their appearance in our waters they are usually harpooned by the fishermen, who con-
sider their discovery as a great piece of good fortune. About the middle of last century there is
said to have been quite an extensive pursuit of this species in Massachusetts, considerable quan-
tities of oil being taken. In 1848 a vessel, cruising on the coast of Maine for humpback-whales,
fell in with many of them off Cape Elizabeth, and secured several of them. Captain Atwood
writes: ‘They are very rare now; once in a great while you will see one. I don’t think that more
than half a dozen have been caught near Provincetown since 1810. I have heard of as high as
twelve barrels being taken from a single one, but have never seen one which yielded more than
eight barrels.” ;

In 1835 an individual was caught in a mackerel-net in Provincetown Harbor and harpooned;
in 1836 or 1837 a second one was caught in a net, and after being secured the carcass was freed
by the fishermen from the net and afterwards drifted ashore in a state of decomposition. After
lying on the beach several days a fisherman visited him in order to get a slice to feed to his hens,
as is the custom at Provincetown—he supposing it to be adead whale. Ascertaining what the
animal was, he removed the liver and sold the oil in Boston for $103, it having produced five or
six barrels. In 1847 a third was captured. The pursuit of this animal is attended with consider-
able excitement and danger.

Yarrell has recorded! the occurrence in the summer of 1870 at Eastport, Maine, of three speci-
mens, twenty-five to thirty feet in length, and also of one taken in 1868, which measured thirty-
five feet. Captain Atwood gives the following account of his experience with one:

“Coming one time from Boston to Provincetown with my two boys, I saw the fin of a big
Bone Shark. We lowered the boat and pulled up on to him. This was about 1863. I should
think he was thirty-five or thirty-eight feet long. It was smooth weather, and I threw the harpoon

1 Bulletin, Essex Institute, iii, p. 6.

670 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

into him and he darted down into the water, and finally he went down again, and kept coming up
and going down. I began at four o’clock and tried to haul him up until about supper-time, but could
not, and he towed the smack all night. He came on until he got abreast of the oil works at
Provincetown, and then he turned and I couldn’t get him up; he went about as fast as you would
row a dory moderately. The water became shoaler and shoaler until there was eight or ten feet
over his back, and then he went towards Beach Hill. We were in the dory and he then came
back within a quarter of a mile of the vessel. We went aboard and got something to eat. We
got him within six or eight feet of the top of the water and the warp parted and we lost him. I
don’t think one has been killed here for more than twenty years.”

These monsters are occasionally stuffed and carried about the country by showmen, advertised
under various high-sounding names.

Tort MACKEREL SHARK—LAMNA CORNUBICA.

This species, called at Provincetown the ‘ Blue Shark,” occurs in the Northern Atlantic, being
occasionally seen at various points on the coast of the United States from Newfoundland to Florida,
and in the West Indies. In the Eastern Atlantic it is found everywhere from the south of the
North Cape, entering the Mediterranean. It has also been recorded from Japan. It is abundant
on the coast of Great Britain, where it is known as the “ Porbeagle.” It also occurs in California.

The ordinary length of this species is from eight to ten feet. They roam about in summer,
often several together, preying upon small fish and squids, being particularly fond of mackerel.
They are very abundant on the coast of Massachusetts in the mackerel season, and are a great
annoyance to the fishermen who use nets, since they become entangled in the twine, destroying
the nets by tearing them and rolling them up. Although their livers yield a considerable quantity
of oil, formerly prized by curriers, I am unable to learn that they are now regarded as of any
practical value.

Storer wrote, in 1847, that the procuring of oil from these fish, which was once a regular busi-
ness, had at that time been almost entirely abandoned. The practice of saving the oil was a com-
mon one, but had been abandoned on account of the apparent decrease in the quantity obtainable.'
Storer also, in 1846, quoting from Captain Atwood, remarked: ‘ Seven gallons of oil were at that
time frequently extracted from the liver of a single fish, while eleven and a half gallons have been
taken from one. Of late years this fish has yielded less oil than formerly, so that they are now
scarcely worth saving. Formerly a barrel of oil was made from the livers of eleven fish. Captain -
Atwood tells me that, many years since, his father procured often a barrel of oil from eight livers;
not selecting the best, but employing large and small indiscriminately ; but now at least one hun-
dred livers would be required to furnish this amount of oil.”

THE MAN-EATER SHARK—CARCHARODON CARCHARIAS,

The so-called “ Man-eater Shark,” the American form of which has been described under the
name Carcharodon Atwooditi, in honor of Captain Atwood, who sent specimens to Storer, the histo-
rian of the “Fishes of Massachusetts,” is probably identical with the Great Blue Shark, Carcha-
rias Rondeletii, common throughout the Atlantic and Mediterranean, and also known to occur in
the Indian Ocean and about the Cape of Good Hope and Australia. In tropical seas it attains an

1A Mackerel Shark, measuring nine feet in length, was seen by two men flouncing upon the flats in this harbor
on Saturday last, having got entangled in the eel-grass in shoal water, who went tohim and cut his throat. Hisliver
made three gallons of pure oil.— Barnstable Patriot, September 8, 1833,

THE SAND SHARK. 671

enormous size. The British Museum has the jaws of an individual, thirty-six feet in length, taken
in Australia. lts mouth is wide, its teeth large, and its jaws strong; itis probable that this
species and the Tiger Shark are among the most voracious of their kind.

This is an exceedingly rare species on our Atlantic coast. Storer could learn of the capture of
but three individuals from 1820 to 1860, one measuring six feet in length, a second nine feet,
and a third thirteen feet. The specimen which he described was captured at Provincetown, and
was brought to Boston for exhibition. When first seen it was swimming in ten feet of water on
the Long Point side of Provincetown Harbor. <A boat’s crew having given chase, a harpoon was
thrown into it, when it turned toward the boat and seized it with great ferocity near the bows.
In the act several of its teeth were broken off. It was eventually killed by being frequently lanced.
A specimen was observed at Eastport, Maine, in August, 1872. It is frequently taken in Monterey
Bay. A specimen lately taken at Soquel, California, had a young sea-lion whole in its stomach.

Captain Atwood writes: “The Man-eater is rare; I don’t remember of having fallen in with
but four; these were, with one exception, all caught in mackerel-nets. I suppose about two or
three may be caught every year about Provincetown, but fishermen cut them out of the nets and
let them go.”

The enormous fossil Sharks’ teeth which are found in the phosphate beds of South Carolina
belong to a Shark closely related to our Man-eater, and, judging from the proportionate size of the
teeth, individuals measuring seventy or eighty feet in length cannot have been at all uncommon.

The alleged attacks upon men by Sharks, if any credence is to be attached to them, should
doubtless be credited to this species and to the Tiger Sharks. Such attacks are, however, of very
rare occurrence, and the stories of them lose nothing of the marvelous in repetition. I quote
one of the few accounts which have found their way into permanent record:

“On the 12th of July, 1830, Mr. Joseph Blaney, aged fifty-two, went out in a fishing-boat at
Swampscot, Massachusetts, when a Shark overset his boat and killed him. [This Shark must have
been extremely ferocious. Mr. Blaney went out into the bay in one of the large Swampscot boats,
which he left, and in a small boat rowed away, alone, to fish. After some hours he was seen to
wave his hat for assistance. Another boat immediately started toward him, and presently the fish
was seen to slide off, Mr. Blaney still remaining in his boat. But the Shark renewed the attack,
carrying down the boat before the other could arrive. It came to the surface bottom up, and the
unfortunate man was no more seen. |”!

THE SAND SHARK—ODONTASPIS LITTORALIS.

This species, known also on the coast of Maine as the ‘‘Shovel-nosed Shark,” and at Prov-
incetown as the “Dogfish Shark,” is found on our coast from New England southward to Charles-
ton, and is believed by Giinther to occur also about Australia and the Cape of Good Hope. Littleis
known of its habits or movements; it is occasionally found straggling upon the shores at Cape Cod
or entangled in the mackerel-nets. It is a sluggish species and hugs the bottom closely, feeding
upon crabs, lobsters, and squids. The ordinary length is five or six feet, but about Nantucket
they grow much larger, attaining the length of nine or ten feet and the weight of two hundred
pounds or more. It is a favorite amusement of summer visitors at Nantucket to fish for them, and
ten or twelve are frequently taken by one man in a day. ‘Their bodies are used for manure, while
the livers are saved for the oil which they contain. The liver of a large individual will yield a
gallon of oil, worth about seventy-five cents.

Lewis & NEWHALL: History of Lynn, p. 395.
2 JACKSON: Proceedings Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vi, 1857, p. 259.

672 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

THE THRASHER SHARK—ALOPIAS VULPES.

The Thrasher Shark, known in Europe as the “Fox Shark,” and to our fishermen most usually
as the “Swingle Tail,” is found in the Northern Atlantic and in the Mediterranean, and also off
California. It is one of the most grotesque of sea animals, the upper lobe of the tail being
exceedingly long, curving upwards and resembling in form the blade of a scythe.

The Thrasher attains the length of fourteen or fifteen feet and the weight of five hundred
pounds. An individual was taken in November, 1864, in the harbor of Marion, Massachusetts,
which was thirteen feet long and weighed four hundred pounds. This species is quite common all
along the coast of New England, and is frequently an annoyance to the mackerel fishermen by
becoming entangled in their nets; otherwise it is quite harmless. It is found also in California.

The tales which are current regarding the ferocious attacks of these Sharks upon whales are
apparently without foundation.

These animals feed upon fish, and it is said by the fishermen that they kill them by blows of
the long, flexible tail. When they become entangled in the nets, or are caught on hooks, they
make a powerful resistance and cause the fishermen much trouble. Their livers are sometimes
used by the oil-makers. There is a belief widely current to the effect that the Thrasher Shark,
singly or in companies, is accustomed to attack whales. This belief is undoubtedly founded upon
errors of observation, as I think I have demonstrated in the chapter relating to the Sword-fish.

THE HAMMER-HEAD SHARK—SPHYRNA ZYGAINA.

This species is found all along the coast from Cape Cod southward, and, indeed, in tropical
and subtropical seas the world over; it may be easily recognized by the curious form of the head,
which is broad, flattened, and laterally elongated into two arms, which have been compared to
the arms of a balance. It attains the length of seven or eight feet. Dillwyn obtained a female
specimen at Swansea, which contained thirty-nine young ones on the point of birth.

The Hammer-head Shark is not uncommonly taken in summer, but is of no special impor-
tance. In Mitchill’s “Fishes of New York,” under the head of this species it is stated: ‘Three
Sharks of the Shovel-nosed species were taken (in September, 1805) in a net by Mr. Joshua Turry,
of Riverhead. The largest was eleven feet long. On opening him, many detached parts of a man
were found in his belly; these were collected and buried; there was also found a striped cotton
shirt, patched on the sides and sleeves with bright-colored pieces.”!

It seems probable that the Shovel-nosed Shark referred to in the above paragraph was rather
a Carcharias, since these Sharks are often called ‘“‘Shovel-nosed Sharks” by the coast fishermen.

BONNET-HEADED SHARK—SPHYRNA TIBURO.

This species is found in our waters in company with the preceding species, and when both are
known to the fishermen, the names “‘Hammer-head” and “Shovel-nosed” are used indiscrimi-
nately for both. Its distribution as at present understood is less extensive, since it has been found
only in the warmer parts of the Atlantic and on the coast of China. It is very common on our
South Atlantic and Gulf coast, where it is often distinguished as the “Bonnet-head.” The habits
of the two species are doubtless very similar.

THE BLUE SHARK AND THE Dusky SHARK—CARCHARIAS CHXRULEUS AND CARCHARIAS
OBSCURUS.

These two species, which are somewhat common in our waters south of Cape Cod and which
can be distinguished apart only by trained observers, attain the length of twelve or fifteen feet,

1 Transactions of Literary and Philosophical Society of New York, i, p. 48.

THE HORNED DOGFISH. 673

and are occasionally taken in nets. They are of no special value, and cause much annoyance to
the fishermen. An individual taken at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, in July, 1875, measured nine
feet seven inches, and weighed three hundred and eighty pounds, the liver weighing thirty-eight
pounds. It had in its stomach a bluefish of five pounds’ weight. These two species feed upon
mollusks as well as upon fish. Individuals examined by the Fish Commission were found to
contain bluefish, flounders, crabs, lobsters, and quantities of a small species of a bivalve shell,
Yoldia sapotilla.
THE BLACK-FINNED SHARK—ISOGOMPHODON MACULIPINNIS.

This species resembles in shape the Blue Shark, from which it may be distinguished by its
lighter color and the presence of a prominent black spot upon the tip of each fin. The species is
found in the tropical parts of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and on the Pacific coast of Central
America. It was first discovered on our coast in 1875, when several specimens were taken at
Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts.

THE TIGER SHARK—GALEOCERDO TIGRINUS.

This is a species which is found throughout the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and on the coast
of Japan. It was first noticed in our waters by Captain Atwood, who obtained specimens at
Provincetown, and has since been observed occasionally. It is one of the most active and grace-
ful of Sharks, as well as one of the most ferocious. Its teeth are like razors. In the stomach of
a specimen taken by Captain Atwood at Provincetown, nearly a whole full-grown sword-fish was
found; ten or twelve wounds in the skin of the Shark gave evidence of the contest that must
have occurred. It feeds upon mollusks as well as upon other fishes. A specimen caught at
Wood’s Holl in 1871 contained large univalve shells, Buccinum undatum, and the sea-snail, Lunatia
heros.

THE SMOOTH OR BLUE DOGFISH—MUSTELUS CANIS.

‘The Smooth Dogfish of our waters, Mustelus canis, is without doubt specifically identical with
one of the common European species, M. vulgaris. The American name has, however, the right
of priority. Hitherto, only a single species has been recognized upon Atlantic coasts. It is quite
abundant on the coast of Southern New England. It feeds upon crabs, lobsters, and other bottom-
loving invertebrates, its smooth pavement-like teeth being adapted for crushing the thick shells
of these animals rather than for seizing and holding active fishes.

In Bermuda this fish is known as the “Nurse Shark,” and is highly esteemed by the negroes
as food, and is also an important bait in the local fisheries. At Folkstone, England, they are
dried, and go by the name of “‘ Folkstone beef.”

THE HORNED oR SPINY DOGFISH—SQUALUS ACANTHIAS.

This species is found in the North Atlantic, occurring on the coast of Europe from the North
Cape to the Mediterranean, and in our own waters south to New York. On the west coast it
ranges south to Santa Barbara. Little attention has been paid to its habits. I cannot do better
than quote fully the observations of Captain Atwood, who writes:

“This Shark is the most common one upon our coast. I have seen it at Gay Head, Martha’s
Vineyard, but know nothing further about its southerly limits. Both above and below Cape Cod
it is abundant, and is found all along the coast of Massachusetts, Maine, Nova Scotia, and the
Gulf of Saint Lawrence. I myself have never seen them farther north than the Magdalen
Islands and the east coast of Cape Breton Island, but reliable accounts say that it is found on the

southern coast of Newfoundland. As the Dogtish appear at Provincetown a little while after the
43 F

674 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

mackerel, and disappear shortly before them, I judge that they probably need warmer water than
that fish, and therefore do not probably go quite so far north. When they first appear they are
in great abundance; the females always excel in numbers the males; but in the early part of
the season all are females, and all have young in some stages of development, though not in every
stage, there being seldom any between the young just forming and those nearly grown. The
gravid females may be found with the young in some stages of development during the whole
season. The mature male weighs five or five and a half pounds, rarely as much as six pounds,
while the female attains the weight of eight or eight and a half pounds. In spring they are
poor, and their liver is of a dark color and lean; but in autumn it is quite fat and large, and the
amount of oil does not increase proportionately with the enlarged size of the liver, but rather
decreases. In the Gadide, on the contrary, the liver when in poor condition affords no oil. Fat
is also found in the flesh of the Dogfish, which is sometimes used for fuel, burning well when
dried.”?!

The same authority also writes: ‘‘When I first began to go fishing, in 1810 to 1820, the
Dogfish fishery was considered one of the most valuable fisheries that we had around the shore.
They appeared here in the spring, and were very plenty, and, would Jast a day or two and then
all would be gone. Then you would not see a Dogfish again all summer; but about the 10th, or
middle of September they came to us again returning south. They would stay into November,
and during that time the fishermen would get—a man and a boy—all the way from eight, ten, to
fifteen barrels of oil. Twenty-five years ago we would occasionally see Dogfish in the summer.
The last fifteen years they have been here all summer. During the war they were plenty all
summer and the livers sold for one dollar a bucket, and now they are not worth but twenty and
twenty-five cents. The female Dogfish is a good deal the biggest. I have known of Dogfish to
be with full-grown young in November.”

The annoyance which is caused by the presence of Dogfish may be judged from the fact
that a trawl line, upon which were five hundred hooks, set by the Fish Commission party of
Gloucester in 1878, had nearly one hundred and forty hooks bitten off by the Dogfish at one
setting.

About Cape Ann the Dogfish do not come near the shore. Capt. S. J. Martin, an experienced
fisherman, assures me that he has never seen one within three miles of land off Gloucester. They
leave Cape Ann, for the most part, before October, and remain on George’s Bank until December.
They go upon the shoals of George’s about the 20th of May, and stay all summer in the shoal
water, especially, at a dep:h of thirty-five to forty fathoms, on the western part.

In addition to the oil yielded by these little Sharks, the skin is of considerable value, and will
doubtless in future be more highly prized than it is at present. It is used by the fishermen
to polish their metallic mackerel-jigs, and sometimes in polishing the fancy wood-work on ship-
board. If properly brought into notice, the Dogfish skins would perhaps be used to advantage
in many departments of metal- working.

In Southern New England this fish is called the ‘ Bone-fish,” in the Orkneys, the “ Hoe.”

Couch remarks: “It is the most abundant of the Sharks, and is sometimes found in incaleu-
lable numbers, to the no small annoyance of the fishermen, whose hooks they cut from the lines in
rapid succession. I have heard of twenty thousand being taken in a seine at one time; such is the
strength of instinct that little creatures, not exceeding six inches in length, may be found in
company with the larger and stronger, following schools of fish, although at that time it is impos-
sible that they could be able to prey.”

1Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., x, 1864~’66, pp. 81-82.

THE SHARKS OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 675

THE NURSE SHARK OR SLEEPER—SOMNIOSUS MICROCEPHALUS.

This species, also called by our fishermen the ‘Gurry” or “‘Ground” Shark, is a native of
the Arctic Seas, but on our coast ranges south to Cape Cod, and in the Eastern Atlantic at least
to England, while in the Pacific it has been observed from Puget Sound northward. The name
“Gurry Shark” refers to its habit of feeding upon the refuse fish thrown overboard from the
vessels.

This species is occasionally observed in Massachusetts Bay, especially when the carcasses of
whales are floating about. Scoresby writes, in his work on the Arctic Regions: ‘‘This Shark is
one of the foes of the whale; it bites it and annoys it when alive and feeds on it when dead. It
scoops hemispherical pieces out of its body nearly as big as a person’s head, and keeps scooping
and gorging lump after lump until the whole cavity of its belly is full. It is so insensible of pain
that, though it has been run through the body with a scythe-knite, yet I have seen it return to its
banquet upon the whale at the very spot where it received its wound. Besides feeding upon
whales, these Sharks also eat small fishes and crabs. The sailors imagine that it is blind because
it pays not the least attention to the presence of a man, and is, indeed, so apparently stupid that
it never draws back when a blow is aimed at it with a knife or lance.”

Captain Atwood writes: ‘ We don’t see them very often about Provincetown, but sometimes
they are seen in the bay. They would eat a whale if one were sunk there, and they eat halibut
off the trawl. I have hauled up halibut and like enough the back would be all eaten off. Some
of them are quite large. Robert E. Smith, of Barnstable, got one about fifteen feet long, half of
whose liver filled a barrel. I don’t know of their having been taken here for a good many years.
The liver furnishes five or six gallons of oil; in one case a single half lobe filled a flour-barrel
and yielded fifteen gallons of oil.”

201. THE SHARKS OF THE PACIFIC COAST.
By Davin 8. JORDAN.

The following is a list of the Sharks known from the Pacific coast. Of these, the three very
large species, Cetorhinus maximus, Carcharodon carcharias, and Somniosus microcephalus, are valued
for the oil in their livers, but are captured rather by accident, by whalers and fishermen, than by
design. They are never made objects of pursuit. The Sharks Squalus acanthias, Galeorhinus
zyopterus, and Heptranchias maculatus are regular objects of pursuit for their oil, and in the case of
Galeorhinus zyopterus for their fins also. The young of several other species are dried by the
Chinese, who utilize everything which their brethren on the railrcads will eat. Others are used as
craw-fish bait, and for similar purposes.

List oF SHARKS OF THE PACIFIC CoASt.

Squatina angelus Duméril. Angel-fish, Angelo or Squat. From San Francisco southward. Not:
rare,
Heptranchias maculatus (Ayres) Grd. Shovel-nosed Shark. Monterey northward.

1A large winter Shark was driven ashore in the storm of the 20th instant at Cotuit Port. It was fifteen fect in
length, and his liver made fifteen gallons of oil.—Gloucester Telegraph, February 2, 1850.

The schooner ‘‘Cusmos,” of Swampscot, landed a formidable Nursefish at Portsmouth recently. It measured
sixteen feet in length and weighed about twenty-five hundred pounds, and was caught on a common trawl line.—
Cape Ann Advertiser, March 11, 1881.

676 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Hexanchus corinus J. & G. Monterey northward.

Heterodontus Francisci (Grd.) Dum. Leopard Shark. Point Concepcion southward.
Scylliorhinus ventriosus Garman. Ground Shark. From Monterey southward.
Alopias vulpes (Gmel.) Bonap. Thrasher. Monterey Bay.

Jsurus sp. San Pedro.

Lamna cornubica (L.). Monterey Bay.

Carcharodon carcharias (L.) J. & G. Man-eater Shark. Monterey Bay and southward.
Oetorhinus maximus (L.) Blainv. Ground Shark. Monterey Bay northward.
Sphyrna zygena (L.) Raf. Hammer-head Shark. San Pedro.

Carcharias glaucus (L.) J. & G. Blue Shark. San Francisco and northward.
Carcharias lamella J. & G. Bay Shark. San Diego.

Galeocerdo tigrinus Miiller & Henle. San Diego.

Galeorhinus zygopterus J.& G. Oil Shark. San Francisco and southward.

Triacis semifasciatus Grd. Cat Shark. San Francisco and southward.

Triacis Henlei (Gill.) Putu. Monterey and northward.

Mustelus californicus Gill. Dog Shark. San Francisco and southward.

Squalus acanthias L. Dog-fish; Spinarola. Santa Barbara to Alaska,

Somniosus microcephalus (Bloch) Gill. Puget Sound northward.

SHOVEL-NOSED SHARK—HEPTRANCHIAS MACULATUS.

This species is usually known as the “Shovel-nosed Shark.” It reaches a length of three to
five feet. It ranges from Monterey Bay northward, being most abundant in Northern California.
About Eureka, on Humboldt Bay, it is pursued for its oil, which has some value. For a discus-
sion of this, see the account of Humboldt County, California.

OIL SHARK—GALEORHINUS ZYOPTERUS.

This species, which is closely allied to the common Tope of Europe, is known in California as
the “Oil Shark” or ‘White Shark.” It reaches a length of five to six feet and a weight of thirty
to forty pounds, the average being about twenty. It ranges from Tomales to San Diego, being
especially abundant in spring about Monterey and Los Angeles, especially at Soquel, Monterey,
Westminster, and Newport. It feeds on other fishes, herring being the best bait. It brings forth
its young alive from April to August, entering small bays and lagoons for this purpose. At these
times it is chiefly taken. It is valued for the oil in its liver and for its fins. A liver makes from
one-half to one gallon of oil. The fins are sold to the Chinese, who dry them, and removing the
skin and flesh extract from the rays a fine, clear-white gelatine, which is highly valued by them for
making soups. This is the only American species the fins of which they consider valuable.

DOGFISH—SQUALUS ACANTHIAS.

This species is everywhere called the ‘“‘Dogfish.” The Italian fishermen also call it “Spina-
rola.” It reaches a length of about three feet. It ranges from Alaska southward as far as Santa
Barbara, but its abundance is from Puget Sound northward among the islands. It lives
especially in deep or quiet bays and channels, coming into shallower waters in pursuit of schools
of herring, smelt, or salmon. It feeds on anything, even its own young, but the herring make the
chief part of its diet. The young are brought forth in June in Puget Sound. It is valued for its
liver, from which dogfish oil is extracted.

HABITS OF THE LAMPREYS. 677

202, THE LAMPREYS—PETROMYZONTIDZ.

In the fresh and brackish waters of the United States occur several species of the Lamprey
family.

NameEs.—The habits of these fishes are not well understood, and in the present discussion we
shall be obliged to rely to a considerable degree on the observations of European zoologists. In
the United States the fishes, of whatever species, are generally known as “ Lampreys” and “‘ Lamper
Eels,” these names being also in use in England, where one of the smaller species, P. branchialis,
is also known as the “Pride,” “ Prid,” or “Sandpiper.” The name “Nine-eye” is also common in
England, a name which reappears on the continent in the “ Neunauge” and “Neunaugel” of Ger-
many and Austria, and the “Nejon é6gon” of Scandinavia. This curious name had its origin in the
eye-like appearance of the circular branchial openings, of which a considerable number appear on
either side of the head. In the common “ Nine-eye” of England, however, there are only seven,
and even if the eye be counted only eight, eye-like circles upon each side. In Germany the
nawe most commonly in use is “ Pricke” or “ Bricke,” while in France “ Lamproie” is their usual
appellation, and in Italy ‘‘ Lampreta.”

DISTRIBUTION.—The Lampreys are almost the least specialized of fishes. Although in form
resembling the eels, they belong to a very different group, which by Gill and others of our best
authorities has been considered a distinct class, and are not even entitled to be called fishes. So
slight has been the progress in the scientific study of the Lampreys, that but little can be definitely
stated about their geographical distribution, excepting that they occur in the fresh waters and
along the coasts of the temperate regions of both hemispheres. The largest and best known
species, and the only one which has at present any commercial value, is Petromyzon americanus,
by most authorities believed to be identical with the P. marinus of Europe,! which occurs in the
streams and estuaries of our eastern coast from Nova Scotia as far south at least as Cape Hatteras.

Hasirs.—The key to the habits of the Lampreys is found in the peculiar arrangement of their
mouth. In P. marinus, according to Emile Blanchard, this is completely circular and forms a
great sucker enormously capacious, surrounded by a fleshy lip studded with tentacles and sup-
ported within by a cartilaginous framework. This mouth is covered over its entire interior
surface with strong teeth arranged in concentric circles, some single, others double, the larger
occupying the central portion, and the smaller forming the exterior rows. A large double tooth,
situated above the aperture ofthe mouth, indicates the situation of the upper jaw; a large carti-
lage, supporting seven or eight great teeth, represents the lower jaw. The tongue also carries
three large teeth, deeply serrated upon their edges.

The structure of the intestine, which, as in the Sharks, is provided with an extensive spiral
valve, indicates that these animals are chiefly carnivorous in diet. They are said to feed upon
worms, insects, and decaying animal matter. Dr. Benecke, of K6nigsberg, and others have found
their stomachs full of the eggs of fish. The structure of the mouth, however, would teach us,
even in default of observations upon their customary mode of feeding, that they are semi-parasitic
in their habits, attaching themselves to large fish by suctorial action, and, while attached, tearing
the flesh of the fish with their marvelous mincing machine, which is composed of the teeth within
the circular mouth, while they suck the blood of their victim. They are often found attached to
the larger fishes, such as shad, sturgeons, and Sharks.

Captain Atwood states that small Lampreys of a bluish color are found attached to various

GUNTHER: Catalogue of Fishes of the British Museum, viii, p. 501.

678 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

species of fish in Massachusetts Bay, such as cod, haddock, and mackerel. They cling to the side
of the fish beneath the pectoral, and suck its blood until the flesh becomes as white as paper.

There can be but little doubt that to the Lampreys may be credited an immense destruction
of the various food-fishes which enter estuaries and rivers. It is by no means uncommon for
fishermen to find them attached to halibut and other large species caught at sea. Lampreys are
found far inland, ascending most of the creeks and rivers of Central Europe and of temperate
North America far toward their sources. In fact the distances from the sea at which the so-called
“sea Lamprey” of Europe is constantly found are so great, when their feeble powers of loco-
motion are considered, that Dr. Giinther in his essay on the fishes of the Neckar was induced to
advance the theory that they are carried from the sea to the river sources by the shad, salmon,
and other fish to which the Lampreys attach themselves. This view is combated by Blan-
chard, who claims that no one has ever seen Lampreys attached to salmon. If I am correctly
informed, salmon are largely annoyed by Lampreys in the United States, but it seems hardly
necessary at present to accept Giinther’s theory in the fullest extent, since the Lamprey is appar-
ently not much inferior to the eel in powers of locomotion, and the eel, it is well known, accom-
plishes long migrations without apparent inconvenience.

It has been customary among writers upon fishes to class the Lampreys among the migratory
fishes, and to describe the migrations of the sea Lamprey as beginning in the spring, when they
are supposed to ascend the rivers for the purpose of spawning in their headwaters. This theory
seems at present hardly tenable; so little, however, is known of their habits that the theory cannot
be pronounced absolutely incorrect. There are, however, certain species of Lampreys in Europe
which are believed to live entirely in fresh water. A similar statement can most positively be
made regarding our species inhabiting the Great Lakes and other inland waters of North America.
On the other hand, many of the sea Lampreys remain in salt and brackish water throughout the
year. There appears, however, to be excellent evidence that some of the Lampreys move from
brackish water into fresh for purposes of spawning.

Benecke, speaking of the habits of the river Lamprey of the Baltic, remarks: “Concerning the
habits of ‘Nine-eyes’ in the sea nothing is known. In summer they make their way from the
Baltic into the Kurisches Haff and the Frisches Haff, and toward the end of September begin to
ascend the rivers, and are caught in great numbers in baskets and pots. The ascent continues
until January. In the upper reaches of the rivers they make their appearance in the early spring,
and spawn in April and May in small schools in shallow places, where the water flows rapidly
over shingly bottom. The act of spawning has been observed by us from year to year in the
passage between the bridges at Braunsberg. After the eggs, which are one millimeter in
diameter, grayish-yellow in color, and entirely opaque, have been deposited in little masses, the
Lampreys die. .

“The development of the spawn is extremely dependent upon the weather, so that during
many years only a very small brood of young fishes makes its appearance. The young of this
species have been found by August Miiller in the Oder and the Alle, and in the latter (?) the
drying up of one of its tributaries near the mill at Pinne gives an opportunity every year to collect
hundreds of them in the bottom mud. They are never found partially grown, and we must believe
that they go back to the sea, there to attain their full size.”

REPRODUCTION.—Concerning the breeding habits of the brook Lamprey, P. planeri, Benecke
writes: ‘‘ The brook Lampreys, like the allied species, feed upon little animals, and are found in almost
all the clear brooks in Prussia, seeming uever to migrate to the sea, although Yarrell claims that he
has found them there. The clear gray or grayish-yellow eggs, which are one millimeter in thick-

THE REPRODUCTION OF THE LAMPREY. 679

ness, are deposited in March or April. The adult fish gather themselves together in companies of
from ten to fifty individuals to spawn in water of little depth, where the current flows swiftly over
rough ground. In close proximity to each other they cling with their mouths to the bottom, and
their bodies streaming out iu the current squirming like the bodies of snakes. Every once in a
while the observer can see a wale, easily recognizable by its size and black color, seize upon one of
the females with its suctorial mouth, and therewith firmly attaching itself to her close behind the
head. The two then extend themselves with a powertul backward squirm, and while the male,
with a half turn of its body, brings his abdominal aperture close to that of the female, a part of
her spawn may be seen flowing forth in a clear, semi-opaque stream. This action is repeated
until the female has deposited all of her eggs. The young Lampreys, when hatched, barrow in the
mud. They require a period of four or five years before they attain the length of twenty centim-
eters.”

The development of the Lamprey is extremely remarkable. It was first worked out thoroughly
by Prof. August Miiller in 1856.1 The young was formerly considered to be a member of a distinct
genus, Ammocetes. The young of the brook Lamprey, P. planert, which, in a general way, corre-
spond to those of other species, are thus described by Professor Benecke: “They are tawny yellow,
without any trace of silvery hues, and have half-moon shaped, toothless mouths, not intended for
suctorial uses. Their small eyes are hidden deeply under their thick skins, and hardly visible.
Their gill-openings lie in a deep furrow. The head is small and pointed, and the fins continuous.”

It is a curious fact that as early as 1866 Leonhart Boldner, of Strasbourg, investigated and
thoroughly understood the development and metamorphoses of the Lamprey, as is indicated in the
following paragraph, translated from his work upon the water-birds, fishes, and other aquatic
animals of Strasbourg:

“From August to December, Lampreys with eyes are not often seen and are rarely taken, but
blind Lampreys are found throughout the entire year. The Lampreys with eyes and the blind
Lampreys are all of the same kind, for the young from the very beginning are all blind, and bury
themselves at once in the mud as soon as they make their escape from the eggs. The blind
Lampreys develop no eggs until they develop their eyes.” ?

Like the eel, the Lamprey was formerly believed to be hermaphrodite.’

As far as I am aware, few observations are on record which indicate the date of the spawning
of the Lampreys in this country. P. niger spawns in early spring. Wittmack, in his excellent
work upon the “Fishery Statistics of Germany,” states that P. marinus spawns at Hameln in June,
and in the Rhine, at Zurich, in March and April; P. fluviatilis in various parts of Northern Ger-
many, chiefly in March, April, May, and June, though in the Kurisches Haff also in November,
December, and February. In Bavaria their spawning season is from March to June; in Austria
in April and May, and in Switzerland in March and April. P. planeri is said by the same author
to spawn in Pomerania in May; in the Rhine Provinces in March and April; in Hanover in May
and June; in Gotha in March and April, and in Lower Bavaria in May, June, and July; in the
Tyrol in March, April, May, and June, and in Switerland in March and April. In the rivers of
Connecticut, where a lamprey fishery is still carried on, Lampreys are reported to be abundant in
May and June; and it is probable that these months are included within the period of spawning.
The artificial propagation of the Lamprey was first successfully accomplished on the 24th of May,
1879, when M. Frauen, employed by the German Fishery Union in gathering sturgeon-eggs in

'MULLER: ArcLiv fiir Naturgeschichte, 1856, p. 325.
2,Von SIEBOLD: Siisswassertische Mitteleuropas, p. 378.
3§1R EDwaRD Home in Philosophical Transactions, 1815, p. 266.

680 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Schleswig-Holstein, fertilized the eggs of the river Lamprey and placed them in a breeding box.
Between June 3 and June 16, many young were hatched out, and on July 17 the entire contents of
the breeding box escaped.!

As has already been stated, it requires four or five years for the larval Lamprey to undergo
its metamorphoses and become capable of reproducing its kind. The sea Lamprey, P. marinus,
often attains the length of three feet; but those species which are found only in fresh water are
usually much smaller.

The name Petromyzon signifies “a stone-sucker,” it being a common habit of these animals to
cling to stones and pebbles. In swift currents this habit is of great importance to them, since it
enables them to hold their own where their swimming powers would often be severely taxed. It
is stated by careful observers that they have some way of transporting stones, and that they build
nests, or rather circular fortifications of stonework, around the crevices in which they lurk. As
may be inferred from what has already been said of the manner in which they prey upon other
fishes, Lampreys are among the most troublesome enemies of many large species. Gtinther states
that salmon have often been captured in the middle courses of the Rhine with marine Lampreys
attached to them. Milner, in his ‘‘Report on the Fisheries of the Great Lakes,”? remarks: “A
parasite that troubles the sturgeon is the Lamprey Eel, Petromyzon argenteus, Kirt., which is found
very frequently attached to the skin. The circular scars and raw sores sometimes found upon the
sturgeon, and attributed to this cause by the fishermen, are correctly accounted for in this way.
It is probable that their natural food is the slime or mucus exuded in abundance from the pores,
but they frequently retain their hold upon a spot until they have eaten through to the flesh, and
deep ulcerous cavities occasionally result from the sore.”

ECONOMIC USES AND CAPTURE.—Thbe Lamprey was formerly highly esteemed as an article
of food, and in early days is said to have coustituted an important dish in certain civic feasts of
Europe. It was once the custom to drown Lampreys in wine and then to stew them. This process
was supposed to impart a higher flavor to the flesh. It is stated by Lacépéde that King Henry I,
of England, came to an untimely end by too full a repast of Lampreys. At the present time, in
Germany and France, they are cooked in earthenware jars with vinegar and spices, and are fre-
quently seen among the relishes and hors-@euvre brought upon the tables as a preliminary course.
They are also highly esteemed in many other parts of the continent. At present in this country
Lampreys are but little prized, except in certain portions of New England, particularly along the
Connecticut River. Col. Theodore Lyman, in his report as fish commissioner of Massachusetts for
1876,’ states that the Lamprey Eel is a fish greatly esteemed by the country people of Massachusetts,
and one which was formerly taken in almost incredible numbers in the Merrimack. It was found as
far north as Plymouth, New Hampshire, and by the Connecticut River also it passes into the same
State. When the Saint Lawrence dam, in 1847, was first completed, several cart-loads were daily
taken by one man for a considerable period. In 1840 Mr. Joseph Ely took thirty-eight hundred in
one night at Hadley Falls. It was then the custom of the country for each family to salt down
several barrels of Lampreys for winter use. ‘“ Now, in 1866,” he continues, ‘this valuable fish has
become nearly extinct in both rivers.” This remark should be interpreted as applying simply to
the headwaters of the Connecticut, since in the tributaries of its lower stretches there is still a
considerable lamprey fishery and a large local consumption.

Mr. George Lyon, of Bridgewater, Connecticut, writes under date of August 25, 1879:

‘Circular der Deutschen Fischerei-Verein, 1879, pp. 135, 136, 159.
2Report United States Fish Commission, part ii, 1874, p. 74.
3Page 40.

THE HAG-FISHES. 681

“Previous to the building of the dam over the Housatonic at Birmingham, Lampreys were taken
in large quantities as far up the river as the falls in the town of New Milford; now none are seen
above the dam. Then, standing over the falls on shelving rocks, one could hook them, as they
clung to the rocks with their suckers, by means of a large sharp hook fastened to a long pole, this
hook being imbedded in the holes in the sides of their necks. Many people formerly salted barrels
of them for their own consumption. Their use at present has much decreased, owing to the dis-
turbance in the fisheries caused by the building of the dams. Those now used in the vicinity of
Bridgewater are taken in the Housatonic at Birmingham, and during the months of May and June
are peddled through the country by the people who catch them.”

Mr. N. M. Muckett, of Lakeville, Connecticut, states that in that vicinity the annual average
catch is about two thousand fish, the implement of capture used being a pole about six feet in
length with a hook in its end. The fisheries are located in Salmon River about two miles from the
Connecticut, just above tide-water, and the Lampreys sell in the markets of the adjoining villages
at an average price of five dollars a hundred.

Mr. M. A. Hart, of Riverton, Connecticut, says that thirty years ago, and before, Lampreys
were found in the Farmington River in the vicinity of Riverton, but have long ago been exhausted.
Quantities are sold in the city markets of Southern Connecticut, chiefly obtained in the Connecticut
River in spring and early summer. They are easily caught with the hands, and fishermen captur-
ing them in this way always use mittens.1

Mr. C. M. Hunt, of Northville, Connecticut, states that in New Milford large quantities are
consumed in May and June which are caught in the Housatonic at Birmingham. Before the dam
was built they were caught everywhere in the Housatonic and the small streams which are its
tributaries.

203. THE HAG-FISHES—MYXINIDA.

The “Slime Eel,” Myxine glutinosa, is found on the Atlantic coast north of Cape Cod, and in
the deeper water even further south. It occurs also on the coasts of Northern Europe. It is a
great annoyance to the fishermen, whose baits it devours, and who entertain for it a superstitious
dread. Little is known of its habits, and its importance to man is very slight. Jordan writes:
“The Hag-fishes (Myaxinide) are represented along the California coast by one species, Poli-
stotrema Stouti. It is most abundant in Monterey Bay, where it is very destructive to fishes caught

1The Hartford (Conn.) “Post,” in June, 1876, contained the following paragraph:

“(CURIOUS HABITS OF LAMPREY EELS.—Two gentlemen from Granby, Connecticut, Messrs. Dewey and Good-
rich, were in town last week on a visit, and took away with them on their return one hundred and ten Lamprey Eels,
which they captured in the creeks hereabout. The Eels were all of good size, sixty-two of them weighing one hun-
dred pounds. These Eels are esteemed to bea great delicacy by the people of Granby and neighborhood, and are
held to be worth twelve cents apiece, or they offer to exchange a barrel of pork for a barrel of cured Eels. The
method of taking these Eeis is quite novel. They are found only in shallow water, with stony or gravelly bottom,
and the fisherman goes provided with a large bag of netting, the mouth of the bag being distended with a hoop, and
an instrument of iron about eighteen inches long terminating in a hook.

“The Eels have what are called nests, made by heaping up stones in a circle of about eighteen inches in diameter.
These stones they place in this position by fastening their sucker mouths thereon and moving themselves laterally,
drawing the stones along with them. Inside this circle of stones lie usually from three to five Eels, parallel with
one another, their heads all in one direction and each Eel made fast by suction to a stone. The bold fisherman ap-
proaches them from behind, and, skillfully putting his hook under an Eel, he suddenly brings it up with such force
that.it penetrates the hide, and brings out the fish, when, after two or three flourishes in the air to get him in the
right position, he is deposited in the bag. Each Eel in the nest is in turn made the subject of a similar operation,
the creatures often holding on to the stone with such tenacity as to bring it out of the water with thei, when the
aérial flourish causes it to become detached and to fly to a considerable distance.

“These Eels, it is said, are wholly free from bones save the backbone, which is removed in dressing, and when
salted for a few weeks and fried make an article of food second to none in the way of fish.”

682 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

in gill-nets. It fastens itself on the eyes, or especially the gills, of fishes and works itself into the
inside of the body, where it devours all the flesh without breaking the skin, so that the fish is left
amere hulk of head, skin, and bones. Every gill-net in summer at Monterey has more or less of
these empty hulks (Sebastichthys, Ophiodon, Rhacochilus, Paralichthys, etc.) init. It is thought by
the fishermen that the Hag-fish will eat a fish of five or six pounds weight in a single night.
When a hulk is taken out of the water with a Hag-fish in it, the parasite will scramble out with
great alacrity. They reach a length of fourteen inches.”

204. THE LANCELETS—BRANCHIOSTOMIDZ.

The Lancelet, or Amphioxus, Branchiostoma lanceolatum, interesting as being the lowest and
least specialized of vertebrate animals, has been found at the mouth of the Chesapeake, at Flatts
Village, Bermuda, and at San Diego, California.

PART IV.

MOLLUSKS.

W.—MOLLUSKS IN GENERAL.............0... 2.2... By ERNEST INGERSOLL.
X.—THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE OYSTER......... By JoHn A. RYDER.

ANALYSIS.

W.—MOLLUSES IN GENERAL. Page.
205. Tho Cuttles: Cephalopod ais aceileicis soci aoope speeecre kine e eye's ein sete's disomic dees sisisicin isicin' sisieis'eikiseeie’s 687
206;, Bho Séa-snails: Gisteropodaccs scacevsiecgacele caccicle deleisiowisk eee hws siesecdicce c/s cielo visieisiew awietewieeins 693
20%. The: Wang-shellss: Piero pod ai cjsjc524 sees ae ctssee sty asacciste-atee wicis: ewiein’s Sige oie o sis nis oisisisieisieuie ersic’e Gieinleleievuiwieieie's 702
208: Thé"Dusk-shelles Solenocon chai .2x% <ocee aasidcreciers atawiciete: slateiete alark isles wininia to's Sib e sical sicimressio wisictaine eipielaisisis 703
209. The Bivalves: Lamellibranchiata ...... 20-22 cece cece seen s cece ee tect ne sneces ones cgdlahalois,elatelisintb} cteteteiels 703

X.—A CONTRIBUTION TO THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.
210. Outline Sketch of the Coarser Anatomy of the Oyster ...-.. 0222-2 0. eee cee nn cece cnn e ce eneencee 711
211. The Minute Anatomy of the Oyster ...... 22222. eee cece ee cece ce eee nee cern cee e meee ceweee ceneee 715
212. Sex of the American and European Oysters .... 0-200. .cccee cnn cece ee cone cece e cee nee cnnene cece cnee 719
213. New Methods of Distinguishing the Sexes and of Taking the Eggs of the Oyster............-..----- 722
214. Rate of Growth of Ostrea virginica ...--- 2.0... 12 eee cece cece ee cence een e ee cence new eee once ceceee 725
216; “Phe. Pood: of the Oysters 42: cos-.eccanr.ceeeeecanveie siete cine Seed cite ekeleeaele- sme ccineivanesnysemsiemcncets 729
216. The Cause of the Green Color of Oysters.....----- 2-2 seen cee e cee eee eee eee sisieiianieiite eeisibiecsiclsineidwina’u 735
217. Local Variations in the Form and Habits of the Oyster.....--.------ eo -- = enon cee eee cee cee teens 742
218. The Oyster Crab as a Mess-mate and Purveyor ...... -22. ceceee sence ee cone cece cece ee eee enna ne weenes 744
219. Physical and Vital Agencies Destructive to Oysters........... slagtitenee sae cee e eee cee cceeee nen ence 746
220. Natural and Artificial Oyster Banks. ...........04 a clnlninie hb eleis wisinis wip bls bin'e seid clase eine siesin:sieeis sicicie'cfelemic’s 750

(685)

W.—MOLLUSKS.

205. THE CUTTLES—CEPHALOPODA.

The mollusks called “Cuttles” or ‘‘Cuttle-fishes” bear a very important relation to the fisheries
and consequently to the food supply of the United States. It has recently been ascertained that
some of these Cuttle-fishes attain huge bulk and corresponding abilities for destruction. The two
species of Architeuthis (A. princeps and A. Harveyi), roaming through the North Atlantic and now
and then stranded upon the beaches of Newfoundland, have each a total length of from thirty to
fifty feet, and a weight of solid flesh amounting to thousands of pounds.

“The Cuttles,” says Dr. Philip Carpenter, “have very acute senses. They have an approach
to a brain, inclosed in a cartilaginous skull. They can hear sounds, and evidently enjoy the taste
of their food. They have a large, fleshy tongue, armed with recurved prickles, like that of the lion.
They either crawl on their head tail upwards, or swim, tail foremost, by striking with their arms,
or squirt themselves backwards by forcing water forward through their breathing funnels.

“They are ferocious creatures, the tyrants of the lower orders, and do not scruple to attack
and devour even fishes. The larger kinds are deservedly dreaded by man. Their weapons con-
sist in their powerful arms, which are abundantly furnished with rows of cup-like suckers, each
of which fastens on its prey or its foe like a limpet to the rock. Often these are accompanied with
sharp-curved teeth, strong enough to be preserved even in fossil species.”

The giant Cuttle-fishes of the north (Architeuthis) and the commoner Squids and Calamaries of
our Atlantic coast belong to the ten-armed division of the order termed Decapods. The three
smaller species ordinarily met with are Loligo Pealei, Loligo Pealei var. pallida, and Ommastrephes
illecebrosus. On the extreme southern coast they are replaced by an Octopod (Octopus granulatus).

Of these four, Loligo Pealei is the common Squid of Long Island Sound and southward, and
when full grown it is more than a foot in length. The color when living is very changeable, owing
to the alternate contractions of the color-vesicles or spots, but red and brown predominate, so as
to give a general purplish-brewn color. An allied variety or subspecies, named pallida, is a
“pale, translucent, gelatinous-looking” creature, with few spots on the back and nearly white
beneath. Commonly five or six inches long, exclusive of the arms, it frequently grows much larger,
and is of broader and stouter proportions than the type-form, from which it is further distin-
guished by its broader caudal fin and the larger size of its suckers. It belongs especially to the
western end of Long Island Sound, ‘“ where it is abundant with the schools of menhaden, on which
it feeds.”

“This species,” writes Verrill,! “is found along the whole coast from South Carolina to Massa-
chusetts Bay.

“It is the Common Squid from Cape Hatteras to Cape Cod. In Long Island Sound and Vineyard
Sound it is very abundant, and is taken in large numbers in the fish-pounds and seines, and used
to a large extent for bait. It is comparatively scarce, though not rare, north of Cape Cod. The
young were trawled by us in many localities in Massachusetts Bay in 1878. Large specimens were
taken in the pounds at Provincetown, Massachusetts, August, 1879. It was taken in considerable

1 Report U. S. Fish Commission, part vii, 1882, p. 355.

687

688 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

quantities, in breeding condition, in the fish-pounds at Cape Ann, near Gloucester, Massachusetts,
May, 1880 (var. borealis). It has not been observed north of Cape Ann. Its southern limit is not
known to me, but it appears to have been found on the coast of South Carolina.

“In depth, it has occurred from low-water mark to fifty fathoms. The eggs’ have often been
taken by us in the trawl, in great abundance, at many localities along the southern shores of New
England, in five to twenty-five fathoms.

“It is known to be a very important element in the food supply of the bluefish, tautog, sea-
bass, striped bass, weakfish, king-fish, and many other of our larger market fishes.

“In the Gulf of Mexico this species appears to be replaced by another species (Loligo Gaht
D’Orbigny). Of this we have several specimens, collected on the west coast of Florida, at Egmont
Key, near Tampa Bay, by Col. E. Jewett and Mr. W. T. Coons. This species is closely allied to
L. Pealei, but has a more slender form, with the caudal fin shorter and narrower in proportion to
the length of the mantle. The pen has a shorter and broader shaft, and a narrower and more
oblong blade, which has parallel, thickened, and darker-colored portions between the midrib and
margins. The tentacular suckers have their horny rings more coarsely and equally toothed, there
being only a partial alternation of larger and smaller teeth.

“Along our southern coast, from Delaware Bay to Florida, a much shorter and relatively
stouter species (Loligo brevis Blainv.) occurs, which might be mistaken by a careless observer for
the present species. In addition to its shorter body, it has very different large, tentacular suckers,
with the teeth on the horny rim coarser and all of similar form and size. Its pen is also shorter
and relatively broader, and different in structure.”

“JT am not aware,” he says elsewhere,? “that any definite information has hitherto been
published as to the rate of growth or length of life of any of our cephalopods. By some writers it
has been stated that the Squids are all annual, but this seems to be a mere assumption, without
any evidence for its basis. Therefore I have for several years past preserved large numbers of
specimens of the young of Loligo Pealei, collected at different seasons and localities, in order to
ascertain, if possible, the rate of growth and the size acquired during the first season, at least.
One of the following tables (I) shows some of the data thus obtained.’

‘‘There is considerable difficulty in ascertaining the age of these Squids, owing to the fact that
the spawning season extends through the whole summer, so that the young ones hatched early in
June are as large by September as those that hatch in September are in the following spring.
Owing to the same cause, most of the large lots of young Squids taken in midsummer include
various sizes, from those just hatched up to those that are two or three inches long. They are
often mixed with some of those of the previous year, considerably larger than the rest. Earlier in
the season (in May and the first part of June), before the first-laid eggs begin to hatch, the
youngest specimens taken (60™™ to 100™ long) are presumed to belong to the later broods of
the previous autumn, while those somewhat larger are believed to be from earlier broods of the
previous summer, and to represent the growth of one year very nearly.

“Taking these principles as a guide, I have arrived at the following conclusions from the data
collected :
“1, The young Squids begin to hatch at least as early as the second week in June, on the

1In early summer this Squid resorts to gravelly and weedy bottoms to lay its eggs. They are contained in pun¢hes
or clusters, sometimes six or eight inches in diameter, consisting of hundreds of gelatinous capsules each holding
numerous eggs. These clusters are attached to some fixed object, and the oysters upon planted beds offer conveniences
which the Squid is very likely to adopt. This occurrence seems to be a source of decided harm in Delaware Bay, for the
oystermen there assert that the larger ‘‘sea-grapes’’ (as they call the egg-bunches) lift many oysters from the bottom by
their buoyancy and float them off in stormy weather.—K, I.

2 Report U. 8. Fish Commission, part vii, 1882, pp. 353-355.

*See the original article.

KRALH UL GHUWTH OF YUUNG SBQUILDS. letety)

southern coast of New England, and continue to hatch till the middle of September, and perhaps
- later.

“2, By the second week in July, the first hatched of the June Squids have grown to the size
in which the body (or mantle) is 30™™ to 48™™ long; but these are associated with others that are
younger, of all sizes down to those just hatched. They begin to show a disposition to go in
‘schools’ composed of individuals of somewhat similar sizes.

“3, By the second week in August, the largest June Squids have become 50™™ to 68™™ in
length of body, and the later broods are 5™ to 30™™ long. As before, with these sizes occur others
of all ages down to those just hatched. It should be observed, however, that in those of our
tabulated lots taken by the trawl the very small sizes are absent, because they pass freely through
the coarse meshes of the net.

“4, By the second week in September, the June Squids have the mantle 60™ to 82™™ long.
All the grades of smaller ones still abound. A few larger specimens, taken the last of August
and in September, 84™" to 110™™ long, may belong to the June brood, but they may belong to
those of the previous autumn.

“5. In the first week of November, the larger young Squids taken had acquired a mantle-
length of 79™™ to 85™™, but these are probably not the largest that might be found. Younger
ones, probably hatched in September and October, 8™™ to 20™™ in length of body, occurred in vast
numbers November 1, 1874. The specimens taken November 16, off Chesapeake Bay, having the
mantle 40™™ to 70™™ long, probably belong to the schools hatched in the previous summer.

“6, In May and June the smallest Squids taken, and believed to be those hatched in the
previous September or October, have the mantle 62™™ to 100" long. With these there are others
of larger sizes, up to 152™™ to 188™™, and connected with the smaller ones by intermediate sizes.
All these are believed to belong to the various broods of the previous season. In these the sexual
organs begin to increase in size and the external sexual characters begin to appear. The males
are of somewhat greater length than the females of the same age.

“7, In July, mingled with the young of the season, in some lots, but more often in separate
schools, we take young Squids having the mantle 75™™ to 100™™ long. These we can connect by
intermediate sizes with those of the previous year taken in June. I regard these as somewhat
less than a year old.

“8, Beyond the first year it becomes very difficult to determine the age with certainty, for those
of the first season begin, even in the autumn, to overlap in their sizes those of the previous year.

“9, It is probable that those specimens which are taken in large quantities, while in breeding
condition, during the latter part of May and in June, having the mantle 175™™ to 225™™ long in
the females and 200™™ to 275™™ long in the males, are two years old.

“10. It is probable that the largest individuals taken, with the mantle 300™ to 425™™ long,
are at least three years, and perhaps in some cases four years old. The very large specimens
generally occur only in small schools and are mostly males. The females that occur with these
very large males are often of much smaller size, and may be a year younger than their mates.

“11. When Squids of very different sizes occur together in a school, it generally happens
that the larger ones are engaged in devouring the smaller ones, as the contents of their stomachs
clearly show. Therefore, it is probable that those of a similar age keep together in schools for
mutual safety.

“192, Among the adult specimens of var. pallida taken November 16 and December 7, at
Astoria, there are several young ones, from 75™™ to 120™™ in length, with rudimentary repro-
ductive organs. These may, perhaps, be the young of the year, hatched in June.”

44F

690 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Young Squids in inconceivable numbers, and even the adults, are greedily devoured by
bluefish, black bass, striped bass, weakfish, mackerel, cod, and many other marine animals. .
Thus they are really of great importance as food for our most valuable market fishes.

North of Cape Cod the Squid is represented by the Sea-arrow or Flying Calamary, Omma-
strephes illecebrosus, sometimes called “short-finned” in contrast to the long “fins” characteristic
of the Loligos, which they resemble in size and color.

Professor Verrill has given the following graphic account of this species:

“When living, this is a very beautiful creature, owing to the brilliancy of its eyes and its bright
and quickly-changing colors. It is also very quick and graceful in its movements. This is the
most common ‘Squid’ north of Cape Cod, and extends as far south as Newport, Rhode Island, and
in deep water to the region off Cape Hatteras. It is very abundant in Massachusetts Bay, the
Bay of Fundy, and northward to Newfoundland. It is taken on the coast of Newfoundland in
immense numbers, and used as bait for codfish. It occurs in vast schools when it visits the coast,
but whether it seeks those shores for the purpose of spawning or in search of food is not known.
I have been unable to learn anything personally in regard to its breeding habits, nor have I been
able to ascertain that any one has any information in regard either to the time, manner, or place
of spawning. At Eastport, Maine, I have several times observed them in large numbers in mid-
summer. But at that time they seemed to be wholly engaged in the pursuit of food, following
the schools of herring, which were then in pursuit of shrimp (Thysanopoda norvegica), which occur
in the Bay of Fundy, at times, in great quantities, swimming at the surface. The stomachs of the
Squids taken on these occasions were distended with fragments of Thysanopoda, or with the flesh
of the herring, or with a mixture of the two, but their reproductive organs were not in an active
condition. The same is true of all the specimens that I have taken at other localities in summer.
From the fact that the oviducts are small and simple, and the nidamental glands little developed,
I believe that it will eventually prove that this species discharges its eggs free in the ocean, and
that they will be found floating at the surface, either singly or in gelatinous masses or bands, not
having any complicated capsules to inclose them. Nothing is known as to the length of time
required by this species to attain its full size. It probably lives several years.

“This Squid is an exceedingly active creature, darting with great velocity backward, or in
any other direction, by means of the reaction of the jet of water which is ejected with great force
from the siphon, and which may be directed forward or backward, or to the right or left, by
bending the siphon. Even when confined in a limited space, as in a fish-pond, it is not an easy
matter to capture them with a dip-net, so quick will they dart away to the right and left. When
darting rapidly the lobes of the caudal fin are closely wrapped around the body and the arms are
held tightly together, forming an acute bundle in front, so that the animal, in this condition, is
sharp at both ends, and passes through the water with the least possible resistance. Its candal
fin is used as an accessory organ of locomotion when it slowly swims about or balances itself for
some time nearly in one position in the water.

“The best observations of the modes of capturing its prey are by Messrs. S. I. Smith and Oscar
Harger, who observed it at Provincetown, Massachusetts, among the wharves, in large numbers,
July 28, 1872, engaged in capturing and devouring the young mackerel, which were swimming
about in ‘schools, and at that time were about four or five inches long. In attacking the mackerel
they would suddenly dart backward among the fish with the velocity of an arrow, and as suddenly
turn obliquely to the right or left and seize a fish, which was almost instantly killed by a bite in
the back of the neck with their sharp beaks. The bite was always made in the same place, cutting
out a triangular piece of flesh, and was deep enough to penetrate to the spinal cord. The attacks

HABITS OF THE SEA-ARROW. 691

were not always successful, and were sometimes repeated a dozen times before one of these, active
and wary fisbes could be caught. Sometimes, after making several unsuccessful attempts, one of
the Squids would suddenly drop to the bottom, and, resting upon the sand, would change its color
to that of the sand so perfectly as to be almost invisible. In this position it would wait until the
fishes came back, and when they were swimming close to or over the ambuscade, the Squid, by a
sudden dart, would be pretty sure to secure a fish. Ordinarily, when swimming, they were thickly
spotted with red and brown, but when darting among the mackerel they appeared translucent and
pale. The mackerel, however, seemed to have learned that the shallow water was the safest for
them, and would hug the shore as closely as possible, so that in pursuing them many of the Squids
became stranded and perished by the hundreds, for when they once touch the shore they begin
to pump water from their siphons with great energy, and this usually forces them farther and
farther up the beach. At such times they often discharge their ink in large quantities. The
attacks on the young mackerel were observed mostly at or near high water, for at other times the
mackerel were seldom seen, though the Squids were seen swimming about at all hours, and these
attacks were observed both in the day and evening.

“It is probable, from various observations, that this and other species of Squids are mainly
nocturnal in their habits, or at least are much more active in the night than in the day. Those
that are caught in the pounds and weirs mostly enter in the night, evidently while swimming
along the shores in ‘schools.’ They often get aground on the sand-flats at Provincetown,
Massachusetts, in the night. On the islands in the Bay of Fundy, even where there are no flats,
T have often found them in the morning stranded on the beaches in immense numbers, especially
when there is a full moon, and it is thought by many of the fishermen that this is because, like
many other nocturnal animals, they have the habit of turning toward and gazing at a bright
light, and since they swim backwards, they get ashore on the beaches opposite the position of the
moon. This habit is also sometimes taken advantage of by the fishermen, who capture them for
bait for codfish. They go out in dark nights with torches in their boats, and by advancing slowly
toward a beach drive them ashore. They are taken in large quantities in nets and pounds, and
also by means of ‘jigs’ or groups of hooks, which are moved up and down in the water, and to
which the Squids cling, and are then quickly pulled out of the water. They are also sometimes
caught by fish-hooks, or adhering to the bait used for fishes.

“Their habit of discharging an inky fluid through the siphon, when irritated or alarmed, is
well known. The ink is said to have caustic and irritating properties.

“This Squid, like the Loligo, is eagerly pursued by the cod and many other voracious fishes,
even when adult. Among its enemies while young are the full-grown mackerel, who thus retaliate
for the massacre of their own young by the Squids. The specimens observed catching young
mackerel were mostly eight to ten inches long, and some of them were still larger.

“This species, like the common Loligo, has the instincts and habits of a cannibal, for small
Squids of its own species form one of the most common articles of its diet. From an adult female
of ordinary size (G, of our tables), caught at Eastport, Maine, I took a great mass of fragments
of small Squids, with which the stomach was greatly distended. These fragments completely
filled a vial having a capacity of four fluid ounces.

“From the rapidity with which the Squids devour the fish that they capture it is evident
that the jaws are the principal organs used, and that the odontophore plays only a subordinate
part in feeding. This is confirmed by the condition of the food ordinarily found in the stomach,
for both the fishes and the shrimp are usually in fragments and shreds of some size, and smaller
creatures, like amphipods, are often found entire, or nearly so; even the vertebre and other

692 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

bones of herring are often present. On the other hand, in some specimens, the contents of the
stomach are finely divided, as if the odontophore had been used for that purpose.”?

The loss which the fisheries sustain through their voracity, however, is probably equalized by
the food which Cuttle-fishes furnish the carnivorous fishes and various other denizens of the deep.
For example, the sperm whale seems to rely largely upon a diet of big Squids, sinking to the
bottom where they are groping about, to drag them up, or nipping off their large arms as they
swim about near the surface. Dolphins and porpoises also prey upon the Cuttles, and all the
flesh-eating fishes pursue and devour them at every opportunity, particularly the cod and bluefish.

Knowledge of this fact long ago led to the Squid being taken by fishermen as an attractive
bait. More than half of all the Bank fishing is said to be with such bait. When the shoals of
this mollusk [Zoligo Squid] approach the coast hundreds of vessels are ready to capture them,
forming an extensive cuttle fishery, engaging five hundred sail of French, English, and American
ships. Their habit of moon-gazing, also, is sometimes taken advantage of on the coast of Maine
by the fishermen, who capture them for bait for codfish; they go out in dark nights with torches
in their boats and by advancing slowly toward a beach drive them ashore. Violent storms heap
great windrows of dead Squids on the beach, where they are gathered up, and they are also
sometimes taken on lines adhering to the bait set for fishes. These “drives” and accidents
happen in the spring, when Cuttles are flocking into shallow water to lay their eggs.

Since this solidly-fleshed animal is so extensively eaten by other animals it is not surprising
to find that men also should number it among the edible products of the sea. “The flesh of the
large cephalopodous animals,” says Simmonds,? ‘was esteemed as a delicacy by the ancients.
Most of the Eastern nations, and those of the Polynesian Islands, partake of it and relish it as
food. They are exposed for sale dried in the bazaars or markets throughout India, and
dried Cuttle-fish may be seen among the articles of Chinese, Japanese, and Siamese food. In
Chili the flesh is also considered a delicacy, and in Barbados the bastard Cuttle-fish or ‘Calmar’
(Loligo sagittata Lam.) is used as an article of food by the lower classes.”

In the Mediterranean also, particularly near Tunis, and along the Portugal coast, the catch
and consumption of Cuttles is large, amounting to nearly a million pounds a year, most of which
is sold in Greece, after being salted and dried or pickled. These are Octopods. The same sort of
Cuttle-fish (Octopus punctatus) serves the double purpose on the Pacific coast, from California to
Alaska, of bait for the fisheries and food for the Indians. For the latter purpose it is chiefly
sought in Puget Sound, where the coast tribes hunt and kill Octopods often large enough to be
dangerous foes in a quarrel, by going to their haunts in canoes and spearing them. To some small
tribes the Octopus affords the chief supply of animal food. There is no reason why squid-flesh
from the northern Atlantic Ocean should not become available as food, and prove desirable—to
those who like it. It would be both wholesome and cheap; and a single Architeuthis would
furnish a meal for a frigate’s crew. In Bermuda the Octopus granulatus regularly forms a portion
of the fare of the fisher families. As the Bermudan fish and methods of capture prevail across
among the Florida reefs, no doubt this habit prevails there also. In New York City there is a
considerable sale of fresh Squids to foreign residents, and the trade is increasing. There seems
no reason why on some coasts this flesh should not be far more thoroughly utilized than it
is at present.

In addition to its value as a bait, or as a source of oil (our Ommastrephes has been thus
utilized somewhat), and as possible food, the cephalopods contribute two or three useful articles

‘Report U. 8. Fish Commission, part vii, 1882, pp. 305-308.
>Commercial Products of the Sea, p. 116.

THE SEA-SNAILS. 693

to commerce. A large portion of them carry under the skin of the back a long, flat, calcareous
“bone” or plate, which serves as a stay or support to the frame in lieu of a skeleton. In some
species it is long and slender like a quill-pen. This bone, reduced to powder, forms a useful
pounce, ‘“‘used in rewriting over erasures to prevent blotting, and in medicine as an antacid.” It
is also combined into a dentifrice. The principal use for it, nevertheless, is for feeding to caged
birds requiring lime for their health. For this purpose several hundred-weight of ‘cuttle-bone”
are brought into the United States annually. It is furnished chiefly from Chinese waters,
‘but is also collected floating in the Mediterranean. None of our American species afford a useful
cuttle-bone, however; so that this import can scarcely be diminished. The name ‘‘Calamary”
is often applied to a Cuttle-fish, and arises from the fact that each of them carries in an internal
gland a supply of blue-black, ink-like liquid, which upon the slightest alarm he discharges into
the water, making a dense cloud under cover of which he rapidly retreats... This ink, removed and
dried into little cakes, with a greater or less adulteration, forms the sepia of painters and the
India ink of draughtsmen. Now it is brought almost wholly from Oriental ports, via London,
but it might probably be saved on our coast as well. Provided with pen and ink on all occa-
sions, these mollusks seem truly to stand at the head of the class of animals they represent—
not wholly because of their superior size and loftier brain and organization, but also on the score
of literary accomplishments.

206. THE SEA-SNAILS—GASTEROPODA.

The Gasteropod mollusks, bearing a shell in a single piece and usually spirally whorled, are
notof much direct utility to man, as a rule, on this side of the world, north of the tropics; but there
are a few species which deserve mention. Their principal claim to notice in {his connection lies
in the fact that they figure upon the habitual bill of fare of various fishes. No doubt the list
appended might be greatly enlarged if we were better informed, particularly in respect to the
southern coast. Thus far the chief knowledge possessed in respect to the mulluscan food of
American fishes is derived from Gould’s ‘ Report upon the Invertebrates of Massachusetts,” and
Prof. A. E. Verrill’s report to the United States Fish Commission. From this and other sources
is compiled the succeeding catalogue of species of Gasteropod mollusks that are fed upon by
fishes; these, it must be observed, are confined to the Atlantic coast, and, to a great extent, to the
waters of New England, through lack of information in respect to the similar food of the fishes of
the southern and the western coast. The list includes about fifty species, and reads:

Bela turricula, Bela harpularia, Bela pyramidalis, Bela decussata, Admeté Couthouyé, Neptunea
despecta, Buccinum undatum, Buccinum ciliatum, Tritiu trivittata, Ilyanassa obsoleta, Trophon
clathratus, Trophon clathratus var. scalariformis, Purpura lapillus, Astyris rosacea, Astyris lunata,
Natica clausa, Lunatia heros, Lunatia grenlandica, Lunatia immaculata, Amauropsis islandica,
Velutina zonata, Velutina levigata, Lamellaria perspicua, Littorina—several species, Triforis nigro-
cinctus, Bittium nigrum, Turritella erosa, Trichotropis borealis, Crepidula fornicata, Orepidula plana,
Aporrhais occidentalis, Scalaria grenlandica, Sealaria Novanglie, Margarita cinerea, Margarita
grenlandica, Margarita argentata, Macheroplax obscura, Puncturella noachina, Tonicella marmora,
Trachydermon albus, Trachydermon ruber, Chiton—various species, Auricula vestita var. Emersonit,

‘There are frightful tales abroad of the ferocity with which the larger of these creatures will attack man, and they
are greatly dreaded by the shell-divers of the South Seas; but the truth is the Cuttle-fish is timid, and will hide or run
away whenever he can from anything so large and strange as a man; that is, any Cuttles smaller than the giants of
Newicundland. A diver who touched a large Octopus would instinctively be seized, of course, since the creature would
know no different course of action; but voluntary attack is not credited by those who know most about the habits of the
animal.

694. NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Odostomia striatula, Philine lineolata, Amphisphyra hiemalis, Amphisphyra debilis, Diaphana Gouldii,
and Cylichna alba among salt-water forms; with many species of “Melampus, Paludina, Planorbis,
Limnea, Physa, and other fresh-water genera.

But many of these species, and several not mentioned here, have additional claims to our
notice. For example, Buccinum undatum, the Cape Ann “Periwinkle,” might well serve as food,
since in Europe it has long been thus utilized. In all the coast towns of England and Scotland
this shell is peddled for food, under the name “ Whelk” or “ Wilk,” and it may be bought at all
the street-corners in the poorer quarters of London, where it is esteemed a great luxury. Our
Whelk might equally well be eaten, and is very common northward from Cape Cod to the arctic
regions, living chiefly on rocky shores, but also inhabiting muddy bottoms. It is thus accessible
to castaways upon bleak arctic coasts where no other edible shell-fish of consequence occurs, and
ought not to be forgotten by those who take the risk of shipwreck in Labrador or Greenland.

Next demanding attention are two of the largest mollusks on the Atlantic coast north of the
tropics—Fulgur carica and Sycotypus canaliculata. North of New Jersey these two are confused
under the general names of “ Periwinkle,” “‘ Winkle,” and “‘ Wrinkle.” The former of these species
extends ‘northward only to Cape Cod,” and is uncommon beyond Long Island, while the second
is of more frequent occurrence in Vineyard Sound and along the Connecticut shore than south-
ward. Both are carnivorous, and find in the Oysters a quiet, easy prey; they consequently do
great damage to the beds, and are properly destroyed by fishermen whenever a chance occurs. I
believe this is especially true of the Sycotypus. On the coast of New Jersey and southward,
where the Fulgur reaches an immense size, and is known as the “Conch,” the oystermen complain
very little of it.

The Sycotypus is more common north of New York, though it does not exist at all beyond
Cape Cod; while along the coast of New Jersey and southward it is the Fulgur which is charge-
able with nearly all mischief perpetrated, since the other species is rarely seen. Occasionally, as
Verrill mentions, specimens of both may be found crawling on sandy flats or in the tide-pools,
especially during the spawning season, but they do not ordinarily live in such situations, but in
deeper water, on hard bottoms off shore. It is needless to say that they do not burrow at all,
though they are able to insert the posterior part of the foot into the sand sufficiently to afford
them a strong anchorage against currents. A very soft or a very rocky bottom they equally
avoid.

The curious egg-cases of these mollusks, to which the names “‘sea-ruffle” and “ sea-necklace”
are often given by fishermen, always attract the attention of visitors to the sea side, who find
them cast upon the beaches; and we can well echo the pious exclamation of the old historian of
Martha’s Vineyard,—“‘The Author of nature makes a wonderful and copious provision for the
propagation of this worm!” The eggs are discharged in a series of disk-shaped, subcircular, or
reniform, yellowish capsules, parchment-like in texture, uvited by one edge to a stout stem of the
same kind of material often a foot and a half or two feet in length. “The largest capsules, about
an inch in diameter, are in the middle, the size decreasing toward each end. On the outer border
is a small circular or oval spot, of thinner material, which the young ones break through when
they are ready to leave the capsules, each of which, when perfect, contains twenty to thirty or
more eggs or young shells, according to the season.” Verrill adds interesting particulars, as
follows:

“Dr, Elliott Coues, who has observed Fulgur carica torming its cases at Fort Macon, North
Carolina, states that the females bury themselves a few inches below the surface of the sand on
the flats that are uncovered at low water, and remain stationary during the process. The string

REPRODUCTION OF THE CONCH. 695

of capsules is gradually thrust upward as fast as formed, and finally protrudes from the surface of
the sand, and, when completed, lies exposed on its surface. The string begins as a single shred,
two or three inches long, without well-formed cases; the first cases are small and imperfect in
shape, but they rapidly increase in size and soon become perfect, the largest being in the middle;
the series ends more abruptly than it began, with a few smaller and less perfect capsules. The
number of capsules varies considerably, but there are usually seventy-five to one hundred or
more. At Fort Macon Dr. Coues observed this species spawning in May, but at New Haven they
spawn as early as March and April. It is probable that the period of spawning extends over
several months. Mr. Sanderson Smith thinks that they also spawn in autumn on Long Island. It
is not known how long a time each female requires for the formation of her string of capsules.
There are two forms of these capsules, about equally abundant in this region. In one the sides of
the capsules are nearly smooth, but the edge is thick or truncate along most of the circumference,
and crossed by numerous sharp transverse ridges or partitions, dividing it into facets. Dr.
Coues states that these belong to Fulgur carica. An examination of the young shells, ready
to leave the capsules, confirms this. The other kind has larger and thinner capsules, with a thin,
sharp outer edge, while the sides have radiating ridges or raised lines. Sometimes the sides
are unlike, one being smooth and more or less concave, the other convex and crossed by ten
or twelve radiating, elevated ridges extending to the edge. This kind was attributed to Fulgur
carica by Dr. G. H. Perkins, and formerly by Mr. Sanderson Smith, but a more careful examina-
tion of the young shells, within the capsules, shows that they belong to Sycotypus canaliculata.”!

Eggs so exposed are subject to numberless accidents, being drifted ashore, ground to pieces
by storms, and no doubt eaten by bottom-feeding fishes, so that only a few eggs out of the
hundreds in each “necklace” are ever born, or, accomplishing that, are able to survive the perils
of unprotected youth and grow to adult age and strength. Having once done s0, however, this
mollusk probably lives to a very great age.

An examination of a specimen of either of these species will show that in both the
muscular part is large and strong and the mouth powerful. The food of the Conch being mainly
the flesh of other mollusks, its method of killing them is one of brute strength, since it is unpro-
vided with the silicious, file-like tongue by means of which the small “ Drills” set at naught the
shelly armor of their victims. The Conch is a greater savage than that. Seizing upon the unfor-
tunate Oyster, unable to run away, he envelops its shell in the concave under surface of his foot,
and, by just such a muscular action as you would employ in grasping an object in the palm of
your fist, crushes the shell into fragments and feasts at leisure on the flesh thus exposed. Where
Oysters or other prey are abundant, this operation is quickly repeated and vastly destructive.
One planter in the upper part of Buzzard’s Bay, where these pests are very troublesome, thought
one Winkle was capable of killing a bushel of Oysters in a single hour. They do not confine
themselves to Oysters altogether, of course; any mollusks or other marine animal, sluggish and
weak enough to be caught and broken up, suffers from their predacity. I was told in New
Jersey, by an intelligent man, that the Conch would even draw the Razor-shell out of his burrow
and devour it. If this be true, no doubt the Soft Clam also falls a victim to the same marauder.
The Quahaug is generally safe in his massive shells.

The oyster-beds most subject to attack and harm by the Winkles and Conchs are those
planted in water which is quite salt, as is the practice in New England and Long Island Sound.
The beds of the Great South Bay, Staten Island, and the southern Jersey coast are well protected
by the outer beaches from the sea, and to these barriers owe their immunity from the Fulgur,
while the Sycotypus, though present inside the beaches, seems to do small damage. Oystermen

‘Report U.S. Fish Commission, part i, 1873, pp. 355, 356.

696 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

will tell you, also, that beds which are disturbed from time to time by the planter will suffer more
harm than neglected beds, especially in summer. Of course it is to be expected, as reported, that
where planting has gone on for many years, there these predatory mollusks have visibly increased
in numbers.

In regard to ridding our beds of this pest, 1 can only advise, as heretofore, that every effort
be made to destroy every specimen taken and every ‘‘necklace” of eggs which can be got hold of.
The trawl, tangles, etc., recommended for the suppression of star-fishes, in my Report to the
Census Bureau upon the Oyster Industries, would take up these eggs at the same time, and thus
do double service. Persistent fighting is the only resource against this enemy, however, as in
the case of others.

Some points of minor interest may be mentioned before leaving this subject. Both of these
shells were used by the Indians of the coast ceremonially, and as material for the making of white
wampum, their money of inferior value, which consisted of bead-shaped sections of the central
column of the shell. From them, also, were fashioned sundry articles of service and ornament,
such as trowels, spoons, and dippers; they are sometimes even yet called “ladle shells.” The
Indians ate the animals, too, when hard pressed for food, and have been followed in this practice
by the whites, to some extent. De Voe says they used sometimes be sent into Catharine Market,
New York, from Long Island, and found sale; “but,” he adds, “they are not generally relished.
being somewhat strong flavored. They are mostly used by the poor who live near the coast.”
Several foreign mollusks, not greatly different, are eaten—generally being boiled—and perhaps
proper cooking would make these Conchs more palatable than they have hitherto proved.

Under the name of “Drill” is included a numerous class of univalve mollusks, which are
carnivorous in their tastes, and armed with a tongue-ribbon so shaped and so well supplied with
flinty teeth that by means of it they can file a round hole through an enemy’s shell,—a habit
which renders them of much account in the fisheries, where the victim they attack is the valuable
Oyster, as they are sadly prone to do. The mode in which the entrance is made has been clearly
described by Rey. Samuel Lockwood, as follows:

“The tongue is set with three rows of teeth like a file; itis, in fact, a tongue-file, or dental
band, and is called by conchologists the lingual ribbon. . . . Having with the utmost care
witnessed a number of times the creature in the burglarious act, I give the following as my view
of the case: With its fleshy disk, called the foot, it secures by adhesion a firm hold on the upper
part of the Oyster’s shell. The dental ribbon is next brought to a curve, and one point of this
curve, on its convex side, is brought to bear directly on the desired spot. At this point the teeth
are set perpendicularly, and the cur ve, resting at this point, as on a drill, is made to rotate one
circle, or nearly so, when the rotation is reversed; and so the movements are alternated, until,
after long and patient labor, a perforation is accomplished. This alternating movement, I think,
must act favorably on the teeth, tending to keep them sharp. To understand the precise movement,
let the reader crook his forefinger, and, inserting the knuckle in the palm of the opposite hand,
give to it, by the action of the wrist, the sort of rotation described. The hole thus effected by
the drill is hardly so much as a line in diameter. It is very neatly countersunk. The hole
finished, the little burglar inserts its siphon or sucking-tube, and thus feeds upon the occupant of
the house into which it has effected a forced entrance. To a mechanie’s eye there is something
positively beautiful in the symmetry of the bore thus effected—it is so ‘true’ ; he could not do it
better himself, even with his superior tools and intelligence.”

These small “Snails,” ‘“ Drills,” “Borers,” and ‘Snail-bores,” as they are variously called,
belong to several species of Natica, Purpura, Anachis, Astyris, Tritia, Ilyanassa, etc.; but the master

DESTRUCTIVENESS OF THE COMMON DRILL. 697

and most destructive, as well as most abundant of them all, is the Urosalpinx cinerea of Stimpson.
It is this which is the common “Drill” of the oyster-beds; and it is its eggs, laid in small vase-
shaped capsules, which are often found attached in groups to the under surfaces of stones.
Several of the small mollusks mentioned above lay eggs in this way, but the Drill’s capsules have
very short stalks, or are almost sessile, and are compressed with an ovate outline, while angular
ridges pass down their sides. The natural home of the Drill is the tide-pools and weedy borders
of rocky shallows, where barnacles, hydroids, anemones, rock-loving limpets, and other associated
forms that find shelter among the alge afford it abundant food. Though this is precisely where
the Mussels grow till the rocks are almost black with them, it is said that they are never attacked
by the Drills.

The Urosalpine sometimes strays to the oyster-beds, but is usually carried there with the seed
supplies, and, finding plenty of nourishment, lives and increases. Though its multiplication is not
very rapid, itis fast enough to make it a very serious obstacle to success in the course of a few
years. In nearly every case I was told that formerly there were no Drills, but now the oyster-
beds were overrun. This was reported in particular of the Great South Bay of Long Island and
at Keyport, New Jersey. I heard less of its ravages in New Jersey, except in the Delaware; but
in Chesapeake Bay nearly every dredge-haul in any part of Maryland or Virginia waters brings
them up. The Potomac seems to be the district least infested. Of course, in such natural haunts
as the rocky shores of Buzzard’s Bay and Connecticut a would be present if there were no
Oysters, and are all the harder to dislodge.

Once having attacked an oyster-bed, they work with rapidity, and seem to make sudden and
combined attacks at considerable intervals. Their disappearance from certain restricted localities,
too, for a long time is unexplained.

What is the best way to combat them, or whether there is any hope of ridding the beds of
them, are questions often discussed by oyster-culturists. It is certain that a great deal of trouble
might be avoided if care were exercised in culling seed to throw out—not into the water, but on
the ground or deck—all the Drills, instead of carrying them to one’s beds, deliberately planting
them, and then grumbling at destruction which previous care would have avoided. It would cost
less in point of mere labor, no doubt, to prevent this plague than to cure it when it became no longer
endurable. Some planters clean up pieces of bottom very thoroughly before plantin g, in order to
get all this sort of vermin out of their way, a8 well as to stir up the mud and fit it for the reception
of spat. It is on hard bottom that Drills are especially troublesome, and here some planters go
over the ground with a fine-meshed dredge in order to get them up, but they fail to catch all.
This is done at Norwalk, Connecticut, I know, and the men who have steamers find in the celerity
with which they are able to accomplish this sort of work a great argument against any restriction
to exclusively sailing-rig.

The Drill can be exterminated to a great extent, also, by diligently destroying its eggs. Small
boys might well be paid to search for them and destroy them among the weedy rocks by the shore
at low tide. A gentleman at Sayville, Long Island, assured me that in those years when eels
were plentiful the Drills were kept down because the eels fed on their eggs. This gentleman said
in the Great South Bay the Drills were nearly conquering the planters, and he advised the
removal of all shells from the bottom of the bay, in order that the Drills might have nothing left
on which to place their eggs. This might do there, where there are no rocks along the shore and
the Drill is not native; but I doubt whether so sweeping a measure of protection could ever be
carried out.

On the Pacific ccast. Gastrochena and various pholadiform mollusks are a great bane to the

698 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

oyster-beds, but they penetrate by digging burrows wherein their whole shell is lodged. Where
large numbers of these are present, with the help of boring-worms and sponges, they may so
riddle a reef as to cause its entire disintegration under the first gale. A fourth borer is Purpura
lapillus, which is of interest in another direction. The famous Tyrian purple of ancient days—
the regal dye that was deemed too splendid a color to be worn by any but kings and nobles—
was produced from a sea-snail, and conchologists have busied themselves to discover which
particular one.

In the works of Pliny and Aristotle, the earliest sources of knowledge on the subject, the
information is too vague to be relied upon. Dr. Roth, of Munich, in a paper read before the Jeru-
salem Literary Society, says that several years ago (previous to 1857) he found at Jaffa the
Purpura patula, sought as food by the Christians during fast days: “On puncturing this animal
there issued a greenish liquid, which, when exposed to the sunshine, changed to purple. This
purple increased in brilliancy when it was washed.” Comparing this with the accounts left by the
ancients, Dr. Roth thinks the color he produced is evidently their blue color, for they had a blue-
purple, a deep purple, and a red-purple. “Between Soor and Saida,” according to the same
author, “the Murex truncatus, or trunculus, is found in abundance, and its color is more brilliant
than that of the Purpura. One of these Murex is sufficient to dye a square inch of cloth, which
would require five individuals of Purpura patula. Wool takes the dye better than any other
substance; silk takes it with difficulty.”

Linton, in his work “On Ancient and Modern Colours,” as quoted by Simmonds (“ Commer-
cial Products of the Sea,” p. 304), states that the Purpura of the best description were chiefly found
on the rocks of Tyre, on the coast of Asia. They were also collected at Mininge, on the Gretulan
shore in Africa, and on the coast of Laconia in Europe. The colors varied according to the
locality in which they were taken, and also according to the animal’s haunt, as has since been
proved by zoologists. Thus, when it lived among sea-weeds or mud the juice it contained was
comparatively worthless; when among pebbles its quality was improved; and the dye was best
when the food and surroundings were varied. Researches carried still further proved that to
produce the richest and most costly dye which art could exhibit, the liquid must be used in
conjunction with that procured from other shell-fish. Just what the species were that were used
it is now impossible to tell, but they were allied to Murex and Buccinum. Niter, urine, water, salt,
and certain sea-weeds were also mixed with the Purpura liquor in compounding certain tints. “In
the reign of Augustus,” says Simmonds, “one pound of wool dyed with the Tyrian purple sold for
about £36 sterling [about $175]. We need not wonder at this enormous price when the tedious
nature of the process is considered, and the small quantity of dye obtained from each mollusk.
For fifty pounds of wool the ancients used no less than two hundred pounds of the liquor of the
Murex and one hundred pounds of that of the Purpura, being six pounds of liquor to one of wool ;
consequently the rich Tyrian purple fabrics vied in value even with gold.”

The liquor was procured by placing the small shells in a mortar and crushing them. Animals
extracted from the larger shells were added, and also urine, pure water, or water in which purple
Snails had been allowed to putrefy. In this mixture the cloth was soaked and afterwards exposed
to the light, sometimes under the influence of warmth to accelerate the process.

It is said that the dyeing property is a transformation of uric acid into purpurate of ammonia,

called murexide. This is a splendid substance when pure, presenting in one direction beautiful
metallic green reflections, and in others brown and purple tints. Some chemists assert that it is

1 PHIPSON: Utilization of Minute Life. London Groombridge & Sons, 1864, p. 144.

SHELLS USED FOR CAMEO.-CUTTING. 699

to this substance that the iridescent plumes of humming-birds, pheasants, and peacocks owe their
wonderful brilliancy. Murexide is now obtained not only from mollusks, but from guano, ete.

Dyes from mollusks have been obtained in all ages and almost all quarters of the world, and
not only our Purpura lapiilus, but also another species which we share with Great Britain, the
Whelk (Buccinum undatum), have been the subject of successful experiments of this sort. ‘Ifthe
shell of Purpura lapillus is broken, there is seen on the back of the animal, under the skin, a
slender, longitudinal, whitish vein, containing a yellowish liquor. When this juice is applied to
linen, by means of a small brush, and exposed to the sun, it becomes green, blue, and purple, and
at last settles into a fine unchangeable crimson.” The housewives of New England therefore have
growing abundantly on their sea-side rocks little living bottles of indelible ink which cannot be
excelled by any manufactured product for either beauty or durability, since neither acid nor alkali
will affect its color.

On the Pacific coast occur shells of the genus Olivella, so called because they resemble small
olives. There are three species, Olivella biplicata, O. gracilis, and O. dama. The first named of
these shells certainly, and possibly the other two, now and then were made into money by many
Californian tribes of Indians, which money circulated widely on the Pacific slope. The common
Indian name for this Olivella money was “colcol.” It was made by grinding off the apex or spire
of the shells in such a way that they could be strung. They are still used by some tribes in the
form of double necklaces as ornaments, but are regarded as of small value. Sometimes the shell
was broken crosswise and ground into little disks which passed as coins. This money was very
ancient and widespread through aboriginal traffic in connection with other forms of shell-money to be
mentioned hereafter, and which the present writer has fully discussed in a paper on “ Wampum”
contained in the American Naturalist,! to which the reader is referred.

Cameos are articles of ornament made by carving portions of various shells in such a way that
a raised figure of one color shall be relieved against a ground of another tint constituting the under
layer of the shell. These colors may vary—white on an orange ground, or on dark claret; pale
salmon-color on orange; yellow on pink, etc. Anciently cameos were cut upon gems with immense
labor, but latterly this easier imitation in shell has almost entirely superseded the intaglios in
onyx, agate, and jasper. The cameo artists live mostly in London and Paris, and use several
species of large shells that combine a white crust with a nacreous understratum of a different tint.
Two only of these shells come from American waters, and these only touch our coast in tropical
Florida—Cassis madagascariensis and Strombus gigas—the ‘‘ Helmet-shell” and the “Conch.”

Of the Helmet-shell several sorts are used in cameo-cutting. Our American example (which
got its name, madagascariensis, through an error in regard to the locality of the type-specimen)
has a blackish inner coat, called an “onyx” ground, and shows up white on a dark claret-color.
It is known to the trade as the Black Helmet, and is highly esteemed by cameo-cutters.

The Conch or Queen Conch (Strombus gigas) is of less account in cameo-making, because it
affords a less quantity of surface suitable for the work—a portion of its broad, rose-tinted lip.
Various other ornaments are often made from this and other large shells by turning and sawing
with special machinery, and thus a large demand is created, which is satisfied chiefly through
brokers in London and Liverpool. Just how many shells are sent to England annually it is
impossible to tell; but the amount reaches some tens of thousands. There is also a large
commerce in them both to Europe and to the United States to be used as ornaments alone, and to
be given away by grocers and tea-dealers to promote their custom. In the West Indies, and on

1American Naturalist, xvii, May, 1883, pp. 467-479.

700 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

many plantations in the Gulf States, the Conch is perforated at the apex of the spire, and forms
a horn, used to call workmen in from the fields and at dinner. From fragments of this great
mollusk, also, the Indians of Florida and the Antilles made their most esteemed beads and
pendants. Cabeza de Vaca says that the columella of large Conchs were chiefly available for this
purpose. ‘These beads are more or less cylindrical or globular, and always drilled lengthwise.
Some are tapering at both ends, resembling a cigar in shape, and were two and one-half inches in
length. The aborigines also made . . . peculiar pin-shaped articles consisting of a more or
less massive stem which terminates in a round knob.”

The Strombus enters, when ground, into the manufacture of porcelain; is extensively burned
for lime; and is carefully calcined for medicinal purposes. There is also derived from it a
secondary product of great value—the conch-pearl. When perfect, this pearl is described as either
round or egg-shaped and somewhat larger than a pea, of a beautiful rose color, and watered, that
is, presenting, when held to the light, the sheeny, wavy appearance of watered silk. It is
however, very rare to find a pearl which possesses all the requirements that constitute a perfect
gem, and such proves an exceedingly valuable prize. Although many of these pearls are annually
obtained by the fishermen in the Bahamas, not more than one in twenty proves to be a really
good gem. Pink is the most common and only desirable color, although white, yellow, and brown
pearls are occasionally found. Even among the pink ones there is usually some defect which mars
their beauty and materially injures them; some are very irregular in shape and covered apparently
with knobs or protuberances; others are too small, while many lack the watering which gives
them their great value and chief beauty. Most of the conch-pearls have been sent to London,
and the demand for them is increasing; a few come to New York.

Lunatia heros is very conspicuous along our coast, from the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to Cape
Hatteras or beyond, wherever sandy shores and pure waters are to be found, and it is abundant
and of very large size on the outer beaches of the coast of New Jersey. ‘‘When in motion the
white soft parts are protruded from the shell to a remarkable extent and spread out broadly on
all sides, so as nearly to conceal the shell; the foot is large, flat, and broadly expanded, with thin
edges, and by means of it the animal is able to burrow, like a mole, beneath the surface of the
sand.” This Snail, like many others of its tribe, drills round holes through the sides of various
bivalve shells by means of the small flinty teeth on its ribbon-like tongue, which acts like a rasp,
and having thus made an opening it inserts its proboscis and sucks out the contents. All sorts of
burrowing bivalves in this way fall victims to this and its close ally, the Neverita duplicata. “Nor
do they confine themselves to bivalves, but will drill any unfortunate Gasteropods they may happen
to meet, not even sparing their own young.” ‘Their usual haunts are away from the oyster-beds,
however, so that, although they are a familiar sight in the dredge, the harm they do to this
industry ts of small account.

Following this in the list come various small shells, such as those of the genera Littorina,
Rissoa, Melampus, and Bittium, of which it van only be said that they serve a very useful purpose as
scavengers, swarming upon the mud exposed at low tide and greedily devouring carrion of fishes,
etc., which would otherwise decay and pollute both air and water. The same good service is done
by the small mollusks previously noticed as “Borers,” and many following.

This brings us to the beautiful family of Abalones, Ormer-shells, or Sea-ears, in which there is
a very large trade on the Pacific coast, under the industry of the Chinese there, to which will be
given a special chapter.

In the Limpets (Crepidula and Acmea) the oystermen consider they have a friend, since when
they see these clustering upon their planted beds they look forward to a profitable harvest the

THE EDIBLE LAND SNAILS. 701

coming autumn. A Californian species (Fissurella aculeata) was used as money by some of the

native red men of the coast.
In respect to the odd pill-bug-like shells of the several species of Chiton of our eastern

shore I can say nothing; but in Bermuda a larger Chiton is gathered for soup, and the broth is
said to be very good. The Bermudans also make use of that Chiton as a bait with which to take
the large lobsters of the island, themselves intended to act as bait for fishes.

The sea surrounding Bermuda is of great transparency, and the fishermen can readily discern
the long horns of the lobster protruding from his hiding place among the rocks, at a considerable
depth. The only plan by which they can get him, however, is to entice him out of his refuge.
To do this they mat together a quantity of Chitons until they have formed a ball several inches in
diameter. To this they attach a string, and—having previously baited the bottom in front of the
lobster’s den and left him to enjoy it until his confidence was captured—let the ball dangle before
his nose. Thinkiug this only a larger tidbit, he seizes it, and, to his amazement, is swiftly drawn
up to daylight and torn to pieces to form a lure for equally unwary fishes.

“These shells have been called by different names, all, however, indicative of their form, such
as ‘ Wood-louse,’ ‘ Sea-boat,’ ‘ Rattle-snake’s Tail,’ ‘ Lobster’s Tail, ‘Sea-bug,’ and ‘ Sea-caterpillar,’
The French say that the animal may be eaten, and we are told that the Iceland fishers swallow it
raw to quench thirst, and pretend that it is good, also, against sea-sickness.” The American
Indians of the Northwest coast, South Sea Islanders, and other savages find the Uhiton acceptable
as food.

In Melamprus bidentatus we have a small shell which swarms upon the mud and among the
eel-grass, affording food to many fishes and acting as a scavenger of the marshes. In addition to
this, it has a place in these remarks because it belongs to the division of air-breathing mollusks,
and introduces not only the fresh-water shells Limnea, Physa, Planorbis, etv.. that feed the inland
fishes, but also the edible land Snails. To these latter interesting mollusks I lately devoted a
chapter in my “ Friends Worth Knowing,”! from which I quote whatever applies to the present
purpose:

“Snails, being great eaters, meet their just reward in being eaten. The palucine forms are
sought after by all sorts of water birds, particularly ducks and rails; while the thrushes and
other birds crush the shells of the land Snails and extract their juicy bodies. The woodland
birds, however, will not eat the naked-bodied Slugs: the slime sticks to their beaks and soils their
feathers; but the ducks seem to have no such dainty prejudices. Some mammals, like the
raccoons and wood-rats, also eat them; insects suck their juices, and the carnivorous Slugs prey
upon one another. Lastly, man, the greatest enemy of the brute creation, employs several species
of Snails for culinary purposes. By the Romans they were esteemed a great luxury, and portions
of plantations were set apart for the cultivation of the large, edible Helix pomatia, where they
were fattened by the thousand upon bran soddenin wine. Irom Italy this taste spread throughout
the Old World, and colonies of this exotic species, survivors of classical ‘ preserves,’ are yet found
in Great Britain whe:- *'e Roman encampments were. They are still regarded as a delicacy
in Italy and France, the favorite method of preparation being to boil in milk, with plenteous
seasoning. Frank Buckland says that several of the larger English species are excellent food for
hungry people, and recommends them either boiled in milk, or, in winter, raw, after soaking for
an hour in salt and water. Some of the French restaurants in London have them placed regularly
upon their bills of fare. Thousands are collected annually and sent to London as food for
cage-birds. Dr. Edward Gray stated, a few years ago, that immense quantities were shipped

1Harper and Brothers, New York, 1880.

702 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

alive to the United States ‘as delicacies’; but I am inclined to consider this an exaggeration
growing out of the fact that, among our fancy groceries, ‘a few jars of pickled Snails, imported
from Italy,’ figure as a curiosity, rather than something needed for the table. The same author
records that the glassmen at Newcastle once a year have a snail feast, collecting the animals
in the fields and hedges on the Sunday before.

“Mr. W. G. Binney, for whom a sirup of Snails was prescribed by two regular physicians in
Paris in 1863, points out how old is the belief that land mollusks possess valuable medicinal
qualities. In the Middle Ages the rudimentary shell of the Slug acquired a high rank among the
numerous bezoars and amulets which were supposed to protect the body from evil influences, and
to impart health and activity. The accounts of these virtues, copied from one author to another,
have perpetuated the early superstitions until it is difficult to overcome them by the light of the
present day, when, even in England, Snails are supposed to possess a useful power in cases of lung
trouble. A full relation of all the absurdities which gained credence would form a curious and
marvelous page in the history of credulity. They have, also, from very early times, been used in
the preparation of cosmetics; and no longer than two or three centuries ago the water procured
from them by distillation was much celebrated, and employed by ladies to impart whiteness and
freshness to the complexion. Finally, I hear that there is celebrated in Rome, even now, a
midsummer festival, upon which occasion all family feuds may be made up, or any differences
between friends easily adjusted, since that is the spirit of the day; and a sign or token of this
renewed friendship and good-will is the present of a Snail from one party to the other, or an
exchange of mollusks between them. The symbolism and virtue reside in the alleged amicable
influence of the head and ‘horns’—why, perhaps comparative mythologists may be able to tell us.

“Tn this country no such fanciful notions have ever gained credence. The Snails are too
habitually hidden to attract the attention of any but a few; and even when their existence is
known, they are unfortunately regarded with such a disgust as would preclude any acceptance of
them, either for food or medicine.”

In Thomas De Voe’s “ Market Assistant,” p. 312, is the following information, which refers to
about the year 1860: “From the French journals we learn that there are fifty restaurants and
more than twelve hundred private tables in Paris where Snails are accepted as a delicacy by from
eight to ten thousand consumers. The market price of the great vineyard Snails is from 2 francs
50 centimes to 3 francs 50 centimes (47 to 66 cents) per hundred, while those of the hedges, woods, .
and forest bring only from 2 franes to 2 francs 25 centimes (38 to 43 cents). Snails are, and have
been for several years, imported [into New York] from Europe, but are principally used by
foreigners. They are generally stewed after having been scalded out of their shelis.”

The custom-house counts this import among “fancy groceries,” so that no separate record is
obtainable of the amount consumed. In the case of several of the large Southern species, such as
the Apple-snail (Ampularia), the Bulimi, and the large pond Snails, their remains in’ the shell-
heaps show that in prehistoric time they formed a regular part of the food of the red men. The
Seminoles, of Florida, and various native races west of the Rocky Mountains, eat them yet.

207. THE WING-SHELLS—PTEROPODA.

The Pteropods, or wing-footed mollusks, are a small group which swim freely throughout the
broad ocean. Their shells are of small size, fragile, and semi-transparent. They form, therefore,
available food for a large number of surface-feeding fishes, and particularly of the cetacea; the
right whale, indeed, is said to live almost wholly upon certain species of them which abound in

THE BIVALVE MOLLUSKS. 703

arctic seas and swarm near the surface at night, so that he need only drop his jaw and engulf
them by the hundred in his capacious mouth as he swims along with his head half out of water.
Probably the same thing is true of the other balenoids.

208. THE TUSK-SHELLS—SOLENOCONCHA.

The class denominated in Professor Verrills Check List Solenoconcha includes only one
mollusk that may concern us at present—Dentalium. This mollusk (chiefly D. pretiosum) occurs
all along the northern Pacific coast of America, and is known to Americans as the “'Tusk-shell,”
to Russians as “Sookli,” and to the Alaskan Indians as “Hya-qua.” From Northern California
all the way to the arctic regions the coast tribes collected this shell, polished it, and arranged it
on strings as money—a circuiating medium of trade, similar to the wampum of the eastern coast.
There were certain rules as to fineness, arrangement, size, and measurement, which decided the
value of the shells before and after stringing; and so useful was this allocochick, as the California
Indians called it, that the Hudson’s Bay Company and other traders adopted it as current coin
in their buying and selling of peltries and provisions.

The strings of Dentalia were also worn as necklaces by the women, or twined in the hair of
both sexes; as trimming for garments, and ornaments for horse-trappings and the equipments of
war and the chase. Among other methods of employing them te enhance personal charm was to
insert two of them, point to point, from opposite sides, through a perforation in the partition
which separates the nostrils, which decoration was further increased by sticking a bright feather
in the large end of each of the hollow shells. This money is going out of use now, and only the
old Indians, conservators of ancient customs, attempt to hoard it up. A full account of it may be
found in the article upon “ Wampum” already alluded to, printed in “The American Naturalist”
for May, 1883.

209. THE BIVALVES—LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.

It is in the class of plate-gilled or lamellibranchiate mollusks, more popularly known as
“bivalves,” that we find the most examples of direct utilization by man, or immediate contribu-
tion to the fisheries. Bivalves are widespread and well-known. They afford luxuries as well as
solid nourishment for our tables, enter largely into manufactured products, serve as ornaments,
and are so beloved by food-fishes generally that they are useful as bait.

The partial list of bivalved mollusks that are ascertained to enter into the diet of Ameri-
can food-fishes includes the following, mainly from the northern Atlantic coast as in the case of
the gasteropods, and is instructive as showing how extensively fishes depend upon molluscan
food :

Ensatella americana, Orytodaria siliqua, Mya arenaria, Spisula ovalis, Macoma sabulosa, Angulus
tener, Petricola pholadiformis, Venus mercenaria, Cyprina islandica, Cardium pinnulatum, Cardium
islandicum, Cryptodon Gouldii, Venericardia borealis, Astarte quadrans, Nucula proxima, Nucula
tennis, Yoldia limatula, Yoldia sapotilla, Yoldia myalis, Yoldia thraciformis, Leda tenuisulcata,
Argina pexata, Mytilus edulis, Modiola modiolus, Modiolaria discors, Crenella glandula, Pecten
tenuicostatus, Pecten islandicus, Pecten irradians, and Ostrea virginica; to which must be added
Unio, Anodonta, and other fresh-water bivalves, and the brachiopods Rhynconella psittacus and
Terebratulina septentrionalis.

In this list many species are of importance otherwise, and some worth notice, although not
fed upon by fishes, are not mentioned; the first to be named in this latter class is the dreaded

‘Ship-worm (Teredo), of which there are seven species in the United States:

704 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Teredo navalis, Linné. Cape Cod to Florida; Sweden to Sicily.

Teredo norvegica, Spengler. Cape Cod northward.

Teredo megotara, Hanley. Massachusetts Bay to South Carolina.

Teredo dilatata, Stimpson. Massachusetts to South Carolina.

Teredo Thompsoni, Tryon. Cape Cod, Massachusetts.

Xylophaga dorsalis, Forbes and Hanley. North Atlantic.

Xylotrya fimbriata, Jeffreys. Long Island Sound to Florida; British Columbia; Europe.

The most commonly observed of these is the Teredo navalis. This is the same species that has
attracted so much attention in Europe, during nearly two centuries, on account of the great
damage that it has done, especially on the coast of Holland. Its history has been reviewed at
length by Professor Verrill in his “Invertebrates of Vineyard Sound,” from which the present
account is principally derived.

“ Although popularly known as the ‘Ship-worm,’ these creatures are not at all related to the
worms, but are true mollusks, quite nearly allied, in many respects, to the common ‘Long Clam
(Mya) and to the Pholas. Like those shells, the Teredo excavates its holes or burrows merely for
its own protection, and not for food; but the Teredo selects wood in which to form its holes, and
when these have been excavated it lines them with a tube of shelly material. The holes are very
small at the surface of the wood, where they were formed by the young Toredos, but they gradually
grow larger as they go deeper and deeper into the wood, until they sometimes become ten inches
or more iu length and a quarter of an inch in diameter; but the size is generally not more than
half these dimensions. The holes penetrate the wood at first perpendicularly or obliquely, but if
they enter the side of the timbers or planks across the grain the burrows generally turn horizon-
tally in the direction of the grain a short distance beneath the surface, unless prevented by some
obstruction, or by the presence of other toredo tubes, for they never cross the tubes of their
companions or interfere with each other in any way, and there is always a thin layer or partition
of wood left between the adjacent tubes. It is, however, not necessary that they sheuld follow
the grain of the wood, for they can and do penetrate it in every direction, and sometimes not more
than half the tubes run in the direction of the grain, and they are often very crooked or even
tortuous. They rapidly form their burrows in all kinds of our native woods, from the softest pine
to the hardest oak, and although they usually turn aside and go around hard knots, they are also
able to penetrate through even the hardest knots in oak and other hard woods. The Teredos
grow very rapidly, apparently attaining maturity in one season, and therefore, when abundant,
they may greatly damage or completely destroy small timber in the course of four or five months,
and even the largest piles may be destroyed by them in the course of two orthree years.

“When removed from its tube the animal is found to have a very long, slender, smooth, soft,
whitish body, tapering somewhat toward the outer or posterior end, which has a muscular, circularly
wrinkled collar, by which the animal is, when living, attached to the inside of the shelly lining of
its tube. To the inside of this collar two shelly plates, known as the ‘ pallets,’ are attached by
their slender basal prolongations; their outer portions are broad and flat, and more or less
emarginate or two-horned at the end. These are so connected with the muscles that when the
animal withdraws its tubes into its hole the free ends of these pallets are made to fold together
and close the opening, thus serving as an operculum to protect the soft tubes against enemies of
all kinds. Between the bases of the pallets arise the siphonal tubes, which are soft and retractile,
united together for half their length or more, but separate and divergent beyond; they are nearly
equal, but the ventral or branchial tube is perhaps a little 'arger than the other, and is fringed
with a few small papilla at the end. The tubes are white or yellowish, sometimes speckled with

HABITS OF THE SHIP-WORMS. 705

reddish-brown. At the anterior end of the body, and farthest from the external opening of the
hole, is seen the small but elegantly sculptured white bivalve shell. The shell covers the mouth
and palpi, liver, foot, and other important organs. The foot is a short, stout, muscular organ,
broadly truncate or rounded at the end, and appears to be the organ by means of which the
excavation of the burrow is effected. The shell is covered by a delicate epidermis, and probably
does not assist in rasping off the wood, as many have supposed. The gills are long and narrow,
inclosed mostly in the naked part of the body, and are reddish-brown in color.

“The Teredos obtain their microscopic food in the same manner as other bivalve mollusks, viz,
by means of a current of water constantly drawn into the branchial tube by the action of vibrating
cilia within; the infusoria and other minute organisms are thus carried along to the mouth at the
other end, while the gills are supplied with oxygen by the same current; the return current
passing out of the dorsal tube removes the waste water from the gills, together with the faces
and excretions of the animal, and also the particles of wood which have been removed by the
excavating process.

‘As the animal grows larger the burrows are deepened, the lining of shelly matter increases
in length and thickness, the shell itself and the pallets increase in size, and the terminal tubes
grow longer. But as the orifices of the terminal tubes must necessarily be kept at the external
opening of the burrow, the muscular collar at the base of the tubes constantly recedes from the
entrance, and with it the pallets; at the same time imbricated layers of shelly matter are usually
deposited in the upper end of the shelly tube, which are supposed to aid the pallets in closing the
aperture when the tubes are withdrawn. When the animal has completed its growth, or when it
has encountered the tubes of its companions and cannot pass them, or when it approaches the
exterior of a thin piece of wood and cannot turn aside, it forms a rounded or cup-shaped layer
of shelly matter, continuous with the lining of the tubes and closing up the burrow in front of
its shell. Sometimes it retreats and forms a second partition of the same kind.

“This species produces its young in May and probably through the greater part or all of the
summer. The eggs are exceedingly numerous, probably amounting to millions, and they are
retained in the gill-cavity, where they are fertilized and undergo the first stages of their develop-
ment. The embryos pass through several curious phases during their growth. In one of the
early stages they are covered with fine vibrating cilia, by means of which they can swim like
ciliated infusoria; later they lose these cilia and develop a rudimentary bivalve shell, which is at
first heart-shaped, and the mantle begins to appear and larger retractile cilia develop upon its
edge, which serve as organs for swimming; but at this period the shell is large enough to cover
the whole body when contracted. In this stage they swim actively about in the water; later the
cilia become larger, a long, narrow, ligulate foot is developed, by means of which they can creep
about and attach themselves temporarily to solid objects; the shells become rounder, a pair of
eyes aad organs of hearing are developed. After this the little animal begins to elongate, the
locomotive cilia are lost, the eyes disappear, and the mature form is gradually assumed. These
young Teredos, when they finally locate upon the surface of wood-work and begin to make their
burrows, are not larger than the head of a pin, and consequently their holes are at first very
minute, but owing to their rapid growth the holes quickly become larger and deeper.” !

This species is very abundant along the southern coast of New England, from New York to
Cape Cod, wherever submerged wood-work, sunken wrecks, timber buoys, or floating pieces of
drift-wood occur. It also infests the bottoms of vessels not protected by sheathing. At Province-
town, Cape Cod, about forty feet of the end of the steamboat wharf was so weakened by its

P ' Report, U. 8. Fish Commission, part i, 1873, pp. 384-386.
45 ¥

706 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

borings that it completely gave way under a ship-load of merchandise stored upon it. This pest
is not confined to pure sea-water, but occurs in the piles and timbers of wharves in harbors that
are not only brackish, but also muddy and contaminated with sewage. Capt. B. J. Edwards
told me that formerly when the cedar channel-buoys in Buzzard’s Bay, Massachusetts, were not
taken up they would last not more than two years, owing chiefly to the attacks of this Teredo;
but under the present system there are two sets of buoys, which are alternately taken up and
put down every six months. After a set has been allowed to dry thoroughly they are scraped
to remove the barnacles, etc., and then receive a thorough coat of verdigris paint each time
before they are put down. With this treatment they will last ten or twelve years, but they
are more or less perforated and injured every year, until finally they become worthless. This
statenent does not apply to the spar-buoys, which are taken up only once a year, in April
and May. Captain Edwards says that the Teredos would destroy an unpainted spar-buoy in
one year, but when painted with verdigris they will only work where the paint becomes rubbed
off. They first attack buoys or piles just below the water’s edge, but eventually will destroy
the entire submerged wooden portion. Commenting upon this information, Professor Verrill says:

“Inasmuch as the Teredos produce their young all through the summer, and they develope to
a very large size in one season, it is evident that the best time to take up the buoys would be in
midsummer, before the early crop of young have grown large, and leaving too little time for the
later crop to become large, in the buoys thus put down, before winter, when most of them would
probably be killed by the cold weather. In this way the damage might be materially diminished,
if not inconsistent with the other duties of the officers of the vessels employed in this service.
There are, as yet, no means of estimating the extent of the damage done to our wharves, shipping,
etc., by this and the various other species of Teredo found on our coast, but, judging from their
abundance along the whole coast, it is much greater than is generally supposed.

“The Teredo navalis is also abundant on the coast of Europe, from the Mediterranean and
Black seas to Christiania and the coasts of Great Britain. Its habits have been quite thor-
oughly investigated by several Dutch naturalists, owing to the great damage that it has done
on their coast, at times even threatening a general inundation of the country by destroying the
wood-work of the dikes. This Teredo occupies a zone of considerable breadth, for it often lives
considerably above low-water mark, and extends several feet below it, even to the depth of four-
teen feet, according to some writers.

“The best remedies in common use to resist or prevent its attacks are copper sheathing, used
chiefly on vessels; broad-headed nails, closely driven, used for piles and timbers; creosote and
coal-tar, frequently applied. The various poisonous substances that have been applied to timber
for this purpose, however useful they may be in other respects, have little or no effect on the
Teredo, for it does not depend upon the wood for its food, and even protects its body externally
with a layer of shell, lining its holes. The only-remedies that are likely to succeed are those
calculated to prevent the lodgment and entrance of the young ones beneath the surface. Even
creosote, thoroughly applied under pressure at the rate of ten pounds per square foot, has been
found insufficient to prevent their attacks, for piles thus treated at Christiania were found by Mr.
Jeffreys to be filled with the Teredo within two years after they were put down.

‘Several other species of Teredo also occur on this coast. The Teredo megotara has been found
in floating pine wood at Newport, Rhode Island, and in cedar buoys, etc., at New Bedford, Massa-
chusetts; as well as in Massachusetts Bay, at Provincetown, and other places; it is also found as.
far south as South Carolina at least. This species sometimes grows to a large size, forming tubes.
at least eighteen inches long. It sometimes occurs, also, in the piles of wharves in this region

THE CLAMS. 707

[Vineyard Sound, Massachusetts]. The Teredo Thomsoni has been found in great numbers in
the marine railway and also in cedar buoys at New Bedford. It has also been found at
Provincetown in a whaling-ship that had cruised in the West Indies.

“The Xylotrya fimbriata is very similar to the common Toredo, except that it has long, oar-
shaped pallets, with slender stalks; the blade is flattened on the inside and convex externally,
and consists of ten to twelve or more funnel-shaped segments which set one into another; their
margins project at the sides, making the edges of the blade appear serrated. This species appears
to be indigenous on this coast. It has been found living in a sunken wreck in Long Island Sound,
near New Haven, and I have also taken it from the oak timbers of a vessel, the ‘Peterhoff,”
employed in the blockading service, during the late war, on the coast of the Southern States. It
grows to a rather large size, often forming holes a foot or more in length and a quarter of an inch
in diameter, though usually smaller. The pallets are sometimes half an inch long.”

Less likely to be mistaken for worms, but equally clever at boring, is a group of shells called
Pholads, from the Greek word gwiéw, lurking. They perforate all substances that are softer than
their own valves, and some that seem to be harder. Woodward says: “It is to be remarked that
the condition of the Pholades is always related to the nature of the material in which they are
found burrowing; in soft sea-beds they attain the largest size and greatest perfection, whilst in
hard and especially gritty rock they are dwarfed in size and all prominent points and ridges
appear worn by friction.” The Pholads have white shells, generally very thin but hard and
strong, and adorned with rasp-like sculpture. It was supposed formerly that the excavation was
made by twisting and moving this rough shell in the burrow; but the muscular, club-shaped foot
is no doubt the instrument of abrasion.

We have upon the east coast three species, but none of them are of practical importance.
They might become available for food, however, since the same mollusks are eaten in the southern
counties of England, where they are called “Piddocks,” and some cousins (Zirphea crispata,
Platydon cancellatus, etc.) are esteemed delicacies ou the coast of California under the name of
‘‘Date-fish.” Other west-coast species (Navea, Gastrochena, etc.) are enemies of the Oyster,
Abalone, and other mollusks which themselves have a commercial importance, since they burrow
into their shells and so ruin them for service to man. There is, nevertheless, an attendant
advantage in this, since in a state of nature the Pholads thus break to pieces and tend to level
reefs that would prove obstructive to navigation, particularly in the case of coral banks. When
the object leveled is an expensive dike or breakwater, however, the result is exactly reversed, as
it is very likely to be where man’s arts attempt to change the natural arrangement of things.

Our Razor-shell (Hnsatella americana) is frequently used for food in Europe and in New
England, and its valves have occasionally been applied to artistic service. It passes under the
various names of “‘ Razor-fish,” “‘ Razor-clam,” “ Knife-handle,” etc., and is enticed from its sandy
burrow by sprinkling salt upon the sand under which it lies, or is rooted out with a spade. John
Josselyn, Gent., records that its “shell, calcin’d and pulveriz’d, is excellent to take off a pin and
web, or any kind of filme growing over the eye.” The Californian Razor-fish (Stiliqua patula) is
also edible.

Next upon the list comes the “Soft Clam,” “Long Clam,” or ‘“‘ Nanninose” (Mya arenaria),
dear to New Englanders and only less numerous than the Hard Clam in the markets of New York
and Philadelphia. This Clam lives just beneath the surface of the sand and mud above low-water
mark, and is easily dug out with a hand-shovel. A very large class of persons all along the shore
from Maine to Delaware derive their living wholly or in part by digging it and shipping to city
markets. This is chiefly the case north of New York, however. On the northern coasts of New

708 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

England immevse quantities of this bivalve are collected and salted to be used as bait in the
cod fishery. Statistics and a full discussion of the habits and artificial culture of this Clam will
be found in the special chapter devoted to the Clams.

Washed up by storms from the deep sands—down at least to ten fathoms below the low-water
line—and hence known as the Beach,” “Sea,” or “Surf” Clam, the huge Spisula solidissima
furnishes occasional repasts to the dwellers along the whole Atlantic shore. It is chiefly eaten in
Massachusetts, however, and its flesh is tough and by some persons considered unwholesome. It
is often cast up in such great quantities as to become available for manure, mixed with various
other marine animals of all sorts and sizes and much sea-weed. The large, smooth, white valves
are collected in considerable quantities to be decorated inside with pictures in oil or India ink,
which are again sold in the picture stores, often for a good price. This Clam is also preserved as
bait. On the Pacific coast an allied species (Spisula falcata) serves the various purposes to
which the eastern one is applied.

Following this comes the Quahang (Venus mercenaria), which is known in the markets as
“ Hard Clam,” “ Round Clam,” or, in New York, simply “Clam.” From Cape Cod to Florida it is
very abundant, but must be gathered by raking, since it does not burrow in the shore-sands like
the Soft Clam. A commerce still larger than in the case of the Soft Clam is carried on with
this species as bait, and also for food, in which respect it ranks next to the Oyster in the United
States.

On the Pacific coast—where eastern shell-fish are constantly sent for transplantation and for
immediate consumption—there are various bivalves used as food, such as Semele decisa, the “ Flat
Clam”; Macoma nasuta, the “Tellens,” of San Francisco; Schizotherus Nuttalli, the ‘“Gaper”;
Chione succincta, and allied species, which replace eastern “ Little Necks”; and Saxidomus aratus,
to relish which was learned from the Indians. :

In regard to this latter mollusk (Saxidomus aratus) it is interesting to note that its shell was
broken into pieces by the Indians of the California coast and worked into flat, circular disks by
rubbing upon stone. Highty of these disks strung upon sinews were in recent use by the Indians
of Lake County, California, as a medium of exchange in trade, and were valued at one dollar. In
Sonoma County Saxidomus gracilis seems to have served the same purpose.

Another form of aboriginal money was made from the valves of the ponderous Hen Clam of
southern California (Pachydesma crassatelloides), already mentioned. This money was called
“hawok,” and took the shape of perforated disks which could be strung as beads. The larger.
pieces, according to Stearns, were worth twenty-five cents, and were cut from the thicker parts
of the shell; while the thinner portions supplied beads worth only four cents each. Further
information will be found upon this in my magazine article above referred to.

The Pachydesma and its neighbor, the Cardium Nuttalli, are considered edible by the west
coast people; but on the Atlantic shore, where occur several large species of “Cockle” (as the
members of the genera Cardium, Astarte, Venericardia, and the like, are called), they are rarely or
never used as food. This neglect seems curious, since this mollusk is eaten in great abundance in
England, and may be bought everywhere in London during summer. “ Prodigious quantities of
this shell-fish are also consumed in Holland, where their cheapness recommends them to the
common people as a principal article of food during the winter.” In New Engiand Cyprina islandica
is eaten now and then, but bears a poor reputation in comparison with the Quahaug. In the
Southern States the large “ Painted Clam” (Callista gigantea) is equally available as food, and the
Gnathodon cuneatus of the Gulf of Mexico is already an article of diet, as well as useful in road-
Inaking, to which utility many other mollusks contribute in all sea-shore towns.

THE MUSSELS. 709

These thick-shelled bivalves disposed of, a large group of thin-shelled mollusks deserve
notice. Foremost among these are the Mussels, which are of several kinds. In Europe the Mytilus
edulis (which is not different from our common Black Mussel of both the east and west coasts) holds
an important place among sea-foods. In 1873 the mussel fishery of France alone was worth over
800,000 francs ($160,000). In that country they are regularly bred in inclosures of sea-water,
upon frames and hanging ropes constructed for the purpose, and many persons are employed.
In England, Scotland, Ireland, along the Mediterranean, in the West Indies, and along the whole
circumference of South America, edible species of one name or another grow. Our Mytilus edulis
is circumpolar in its distribution, and is excessively numerous at all rocky points suitable for its
growth. In New York it is pickled in large quantities and shipped throughout the interior of the
country. Its shells are extensively used by oyster-planters as a cultch upon which to catch young
Oysters, and when polished are made into paint-holders for artists and various articles of bijouterie
and personal ornament. The American Indians and the native New Zealanders used them as
tweezers in pulling out their beards. .

Mussels of a different sort are the Modiola plicatula, the Modiola modiolus, the Modiola hamatus,
and Modiola capaz; the first two are of the northern Atlantic, the third is more southern, and
the fourth a native of California. These are sometimes eaten, but are not considered so good as
the M. edulis. On the coasts of New Jersey and Long Island, however, incredible quantities are
gathered from the banks at the inlets through the outer beaches where they grow, and are spread
upon sea-shore farms as manure. In gathering this fertilizer a large number of vessels and men
find irregular employment at times when they would otherwise be idle.

Another important bivalve in a commercial way is the Scallop, fisheries for which flourish in
Long Island Sound, Narragansett Bay, and elsewhere. Large fleets of vessels are engaged in
summer in dredging for these shell-fish. The powerful central muscle by which the animal opens
and closes its shells forms the edible portion, the rest being discarded. These white fragments are
to be seen piled upon platters or strung in strings as a constant delicacy in all our markets. The
commopv Scallop of commerce is the Pecten irradians. Years ago the very large species, Pecten
islandicus, an inhabitant of Eastern Maine and the Bay of Fundy, used to be obtained, and was
highly prized for its flavor, but it has long been too rare to serve any purpose other than asa
curiosity to conchologists. A more common and useful species, north of Cape Cod, is Pecten tenut-
costatus, which supplied the Indians with a culinary instrument, and is good food.

“Seallop shells were formerly worn by pilgrims on their hat or the cape of their coat, as a
mark of their having crossed the sea for the purpose of paying their devotions at the holy shrine
in Palestine; in commemoration of which they are still preserved in the armorial bearings of many
families of distinction whose ancestors had performed that ceremony. From its use by cooks
now, this shell has given the name to ‘scalloped’ Oysters. In early times, when plates and drink-
ing-vessels were not so plentiful as they are now, the concave or hollow valve of the Scallop served
as a cup, and the flat valve for a plate. The idea has even been carried out by our pottery man-
ufacturers, and plates and dishes have been molded after the forms of bivalve shells. Reticules,
needle-books, pincushions, and other articles are made by shell-dealers with the scallop shell.”

Of both the Scallop and the Mussel a special account will be given in another place, con-
sidering the value of each commercially.

The fresh-water bivalves belonging to the large family of the Unionide ought not to be
omitted in this review. To the raccoon, otter, muskrat, aud many other mammals and birds, as well
as to the fishes, they are a steady source of food. Observing this, the Indians adopted them from
the earliest prehistoric times as edible, and enormous heaps of shells upon the banks of many

710 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

of our interior rivers, especially in Pennsylvania, the Ohio Valley, and the Southern States, show
how extensively and constantly they were sought. White men occasionally eat them, and in case
of extreme hunger would perhaps pronounce a roasted Unio or Anodonta good. Someyears ago a
great furore was created by the discovery of a fine pearl in one of the Unios of North Carolina—a
thing likely to happen in the case of any of them, since they have an interior which is often as finely
nacreous as that of the Mother-of-pearl Oyster of the Gulf of California. Hundreds of persons
immediately began searching the rivers all over that region, aud total extirpation of the poor Mus-
sels was prevented only by the discouragement of finding few pearls and these of insignificant
size. Itis probable that from the heavier species, in captivity, good pearls might be obtained
artificially by following the plan pursued by the Chinese with their sea Pearl-oyster. The experi-
ment is worth trying.

Shells of fresh-water Mussels are frequently worked up-into pocket-books and other fancy arti-
cles, as in the case of the Mytilus. When the brown epidermis is removed a beautiful iridescent
polish is obtainable. There are almost innumerable varieties of these fresh-water Mussels, and
full cabinets have a considerable value.

The manufacture of jewelry and shell-flowers consumes large quantities of small shells and
and the polished opercula of large ones, chiefly derived from Florida. It is said that in London
about a million of the commoner sorts are sold to street-sellers and country peddlers, who retail
them to be made into fancy work and as objects of curiosity. The same thing is frequently seen
in the United States, though more commonly in the shape of the traveling dealer who brings
a large and varied stock to a country town, hires a shop for several weeks, and sells his shells
mainly by auction.

The spread of commerce and improved facilities for dredging have made species once rare now
common; but astonishing prices, reaching hundreds of dollars for a single specimen, in some cases
were paid by owners of conchological cabinets for rare species half a century ago. This stimulated
research and distributed much money among sea-side collectors. Even now dealers in objects of
of natural history derive a large profit by importing shells whose only value is their scientific
importance; while the institutions devoted to their study and the books to which an interest in
conchology have given rise are entitled to a money estimation not to be despised.

X.—A CONTRIBUTION TO THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

(Ostrea virginica, Gmelin, and O. edulis, Linn.)
By JoHn A. RYDER.
210. OUTLINE SKETCH OF THE COARSER ANATOMY OF THE OYSTER.

“The general structure of an Oyster may be roughly represented by a long, narrow memorandum
book, with the back at one of the narrow ends instead of at one of the long ones. The covers of
such a book represent the two shells of the Oyster, and the back represents the hinge, or the
area where the two valves of the shell are fastened together by the hinge ligament. This ligament
is an elastic, dark-brown structure, which is placed in such a relation to the valves of the shell
that it tends to throw their free ends a little apart. In order to understand its manner of working,
open the memorandum book and place between its leaves, close to the back, a small piece of
rubber to represent the ligament. If the free ends of the cover are pulled together the rubber
will be compressed and will throw the covers apart as soon as they are loosened. The ligament
of the oyster-shell tends, by its elasticity, to keep the shell open at all times, and while the
Oyster is lying undisturbed upon the bottom, or when its muscle is cut, or when the animal is
dying or dead, the edges of the shell are separated a little.

“The shell is lined by a thin membrane, the mantle, which folds down on each side, and may
be compared to the leat next the cover on each side of the book. The next two leaves of each
side roughly represent the four gills, the so-called ‘beard’ of the Oyster, which hang down like
leaves into the space inside the two lobes of the mantle. The remaining leaves may be compared
to the body or visceral mass of the Oyster.

“ Although the Oyster lies upon the bottom, with one shell above and one below, the shells
are not upon the top and bottom of the body, but upon the right and left sides. The two shells
are symmetrical in the young Oyster, but after it becomes attached the lower or attached side
grows faster than the other, and becomes deep and spoon-shaped, while the free valve remains
nearly flat. In nearly every case the lower or deep valve is the left. As the hinge marks the
anterior end of the body, an Oyster which is held on edge, with the hinge away from the observer
and the flat valve on the right side, will be placed with its dorsal surface uppermost, its ventral
surface below, its anterior end away from the observer, and its posterior end toward him, and its
right and left sides on his right and left hands, respectively.

‘¢In order to examine the soft parts, the Oyster should be opened by gently working a thin, flat
knife-blade under the posterior end of the right valve of the shell, and pushing the blade forward
until it strikes and cuts the strong adductor muscle, which passes from one shell to another and
pulls them together. As soon as this muscle is cut the valves separate a little, and the right
valve may be raised up and broken off from the left, thus exposing the right side of the body.
The surface of the body is covered by the mantle, a thin membrane which is attached to the body
over a great part of its surface, but hangs free like a curtain around nearly the whole circum-

ference. By raising its edge, or gently tearing the whole right half away from the body, the gills
711

712 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

will be exposed. These are four parallel plates which occupy the ventral half of the mantle cavity
and extend from the posterior nearly to the anterior end of the body. Their ventral edges are
free, but their dorsal edges are united to each other, to the mantle, and to the body. The space
above, or dorsal to the posterior ends of the gills, is occupied by the oval, firm adductor muscle,
the so-called ‘heart.’ For some time I was at a loss to know how the iuscle came to be called
the ‘heart,’ but a friend told me that he had always supposed that this was the heart, since the
Oyster dies when it is injured. The supposed ‘death’ is simply the opening of the shell when the
animal loses the power to keep it shut. Between this muscle and the hinge the space above the
gills is occupied by the body, or visceral mass, which is made up mainly of the light-colored repro-
ductive organs and the dark-colored digestive organs, packed together in one continuous mass.

“Tf the Oyster has been opened very carefully, a transparent, crescent-shaped space will be
seen between the muscle and the visceral mass. This space is the pericardium, and if the delicate
membrane which forms its sides be carefully cut away, the heart may be found without any
difficulty, lying in this cavity, and pulsating slowly. If the Oyster has been opened roughly, or
if it has been out of water for some time, the rate of beating may be as low as one a minute,
or even less, so the heart must be watched attentively for some time in order to see one of
the contractions.”?!

The dark-purple scars near the centers of both valves are simply the areas covered by the
attachments of the adductor, which is composed of a vast number of extremely fine muscular
fibers, which collectively pass straight across the space between the inside of the valves, being
firmly fixed at eitier end of the latter. The tendency to separate the valves at their free borders,
inherent in the ligament, is balanced or counteracted by the muscle. The head end of the animal
lies close against the hinge, the point where, as previously described, the two valves are firmly
fixed to each other by a dark-brown, crescent-shaped body, the ligament, which, while it serves to
attach, also tends, by reason of its elastic properties, to cause the valves to separate at their free
borders in order to allow the passage of the water inward to the gills, and of food to the mouth,
while it also allows the water which has passed through the gills to escape by way of the cavity
above the gills which is prolonged into the cloaca, carrying along with it, in its outward passage,
the feces from the vent. The foregoing lines fairly describe the mechanism of the shell and in
part the physiological significance of the same.

The structure of the shell is laminar, or, in other words, it is composed of numerous layers of
a material identical in composition with chalk, deposited one on the other by the mantle, the organ
which builds the whole shell in this way, the chalky substance being derived from the fluids of the
animal, which in turn derives it from its food. These layers, deposited as they are internally, in
a horny organic matrix, as growth proceeds project in successiun past each other at the free edges
of the valves and external surface of the shell, so that the successive deposits may readily be
distinguished on its external surface, giving rise to a very rough imbricated appearance of the
edges of the layers on the outside. Attempts which I have made to determine the age of Oysters
from a supposed periodic deposition of the shelly material, corresponding to the years of its age, I
find to be impracticable.

The structure in the layers of the shell of the chalk or calcic carbonate is minutely prismatic,
Nathusius-K6nigsborn has found that certain portions of the shell of the European Oyster contain
very minute air-spaces. Both native and foreign species are found to have hollow cavities in the
valves, usually containing water.

'W. K. Brooks: Development of the American Oyster. Studies from the Biological Laboratory of Johns Hopkins
University, No. IV, 1880, pp. 5-7.

THE ANATOMY OF THE OYSTER. 713:

“Tn front of the gills, that is, between them and the hinge, there are four fleshy flaps—the
lips—two on each side of the body. They are much like the gills in appearance, and they are
connected with each other by two ridges which run across the middle of the body close to the
anterior end, and between these folds is the large oval mouth, which is thus seen to be situated,
not at the open end of the shell, but as far away from it as possible. As the Oyster is immovably
fixed upon the bottom, aud has no arms or other structures for seizing food and carrying it to the
mouth, the question how it obtains its food at once suggests itself. Ifa fragment of one of the gills.
is examined with a microscope it will be found to be covered with very small hairs, or cilia,.
arranged in rows. Each of these cilia is constantly swinging back and forth, with a motion
something like that of an oar in rowing. The motion is quick and strong in one direction and
slower in the other. As all the cilia of a row swing together, they act like a line of oars, only they
are fastened to the gill, and as this is immovable, they do not move forward through the water, but
produce a current of water in the opposite direction. This action is not directed by the animal,
for it can be observed for hoursin a fragment cut out of the gill, and if such a fragment be supplied
with fresh sea-water, the motion will continue until it begins to decay. While the Oyster lies.
undisturbed on the bottom, with its muscle relaxed and its shell open, the sea-water is drawn on
to the gills by the action of the cilia, for although each cilium is too small to be seen without a
microscope, they cover the gills in such great numbers that their united action produces quite a
vigorous stream of water, which is drawn through the shell and is then forced through very small
openings on the surfaces of the gills into the water-tubes, inside the gills, and through these tubes
into the cavity above them, and so out of the shell again. As the stream of water passes through
the gills the blood is aérated by contact with it. The food of the Oyster consists entirely of minute:
animal and vegetable organisms and small particles of organized matter. Ordinary sea-water
contains an abundance of this sort of food, which is drawn into the gills with the water, but as the
water strains through the pores into the water-tubes, the food particles are caught on the surface
of the gills by a layer of adhesive slime which covers all the soft parts of the body. As soon as
they are entangled the cilia strike against them in such a way as to roll or slide them along the
gills toward the mouth. When they reach the anterior ends of the gills they are pushed off and
fall between the lips, and these again are covered with cilia, which carry the particles forward.
until they slide into the mouth, which is always wide open and ciliated, so as to draw the food
through the esophagus into the stomach. Whenever the shell is open these cilia are in action,
and as long as the Oyster is breathing a current of food is sliding into its mouth.

“The cilia and particles of food are too small to be seen without a microscope, but if finely
powdered carmine be sprinkled over the gills of a fresh Oyster, which has been carefully opened
and placed in a shallow dish of sea-water, careful observation will show that as soon as the colored
particles touch the gills they begin to slide along with a motion which is quite uniform, but not
much faster than that of the minute-hand of a watch. This slow, steady, gliding motion, without
any visible cause, is a very striking sight, and with a little care the particles may be followed up-
to and into the mouth.

‘“In order to trace the course of the digestive organs, the visceral mass may be split with a
Sharp knife or razor. If the split is pretty near the middle of the body, each half will show
sections of the short, folded esophagus, running upward from the mouth, and the irregular
stomach, with thick, semi-transparent walls, surrounded by the compact, dark-greenish liver.

‘Back of the liver and stomach the convoluted intestine will be seen, cut irregularly at several
points by the section.

“There are no accessory organs of reproduction, and the position, form, and general appear--

714 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

ance of the reproductive organ is the same in both sexes. There is no characteristic by which a
male Oyster can be distinguished from a female, without microscopic examination. As the repro-
ductive organ has an opening on each side of the body, it is usually spoken of as double, but in
the adult Oyster it forms one continuous mass, with no trace of a division into halves, and extends
entirely across the body and [against] the bends and folds of the digestive tract.” }

(The last of the foregoing statements as to the impossibility of discriminating the sexes with-
out the aid of the microscope is no longer true, though it was true at the time the above was
written. The method of discriminating the sexes discovered by the writer is discussed in another
portion of this sketch of the history of the Oyster.)

The stomach is pretty definitely marked off from the other portions of the digestive tract. It
may be said to be that portion of the latter which is surrounded by the liver. The portion of the
intestine immediately following the short widened region which we regarded as the stomach is the
most spacious portion of the gut, and in it is lodged a very singular organ which has been called
the “crystalline style.” This is.an opalescent rod of a glass-like transparency and gelatinous
consistence which measures, according to the size of the Oyster, from half an inch up to one and
a half inches in length. Its anterior end is the largest, and in a large specimen measures nearly
an eighth of an inch in diameter, but at its posterior end is scarcely half as thick; both ends are
bluntly rounded. I fell into an error in supposing that this style was lodged in a special pouch.
or sac as described in my report to the Maryland commissioner in 1880. The “crystalline style”
really lies in the first portion of the intestine and extends from the pyloric end of the stomach to
the first bend of the intestine, where there is a marked constriction of the alimentary canal. It
appears therefore to be a sort of loose valve in the cavity of the gut; its function may be to
prevent coarse particles of food from passing, or it may in some way assist digestion. In speci-
mens hardened in acid or alcohol this rod is destroyed, or at least disappears, so that I have been
unable to find it. The greater portion of its substance is apparently made up of water.

The peculiar d ouble induplication of the wall of the intestine is described in another place.
The fecal matters are extru ded in the form of a demi-cylinder, with one side excavated ina groove-
like manner. This shape of the fecal matters is due to the presence of the doublefold. The fxces
themselves are composed of extremely fine particles of quartz or sand grains, the tests of diatoms,
organic matters, hu mus, cellulose, fragments of the chitinous coverings of some of the minute
worms and articulates, etc., which have been swallowed and digested by the animal. The anus
is situated on the dorsal side of the great adductor muscle where the intestine ends.

The organs of sensation of the Oyster, though not very highly developed, are of sufficient
importance to merit attention. The auditory sense, although I have never been able to dissect out
the auditory vesicles, I am satisfied exists, because one cannot noisily approach an Oyster bank
where the Oysters are feeding without their hearing so that instantly every shell is closed. The
tentacles of the mantle are often extended until their tips reach beyond the edges of the valves.
If the animal in this condition is exposed to a strong light the shadow of the hand passing over it
is a sufficient stimulus to cause it to retract the mantle and tentacles and to close its parted valves.
The mantle incloses, like a curtain, the internal organs of the creature on either side, and lies next
the shell, and, as already stated, secretes and deposits the layers of calcic carbonate composing
the latter. The free edges of the mantle, which are purplish, are garnished with small, highly
sensitive tentacles of the same color. These tentacles are ciliated and serve as organs of touch,
and also appear to be to some extent sensitive to light.

1W. K. Brooks: Op. cit., pp. 8-10.

THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE OYSTER. 715

The nervous system of the Oyster is very simple, and, as elsewhere stated, is to some extent
degenerate in character. It is composed of a pair of ganglia or knots of nervous matter, which lie
just over the gullet, and from these a pair of nervous cords pass backward, one on each side, to
join the hinder pair which lie just beneath the adductor muscle. The mantle receives nerve
branches from the hindmost ganglia or knots of nervous matter; these, as their centers, control the
contraction and elongation of the radiating bundles of muscular fibers, as well as those which lie
lengthwise along the margin; the former contract and withdraw the edges of the mantle from the
margin of the shell, while the latter in contracting tend to crimp or fold its edges. The tentacles
are mainly innervated by fibers emanating from the hindmost ganglia, while the internal organs
are innervated from the head or cephalic ganglia. The hind ganglia also preside over the
contractions of the great adductor muscle. The nerve threads which radiate outward from it to
the tentacles dispatch the warnings when intruders are at hand that it must contract and close
the shells.

211. THE MINUTE ANATOMY OF THE OYSTER.

There is a spacious segmentation cavity developed in the embryo which becomes the
subdivided body-cavity—schizocel of later stages. Between the ectoderm and endoderm the
mesoblastic tissue is developed apparently by proliferation, so that the segmentation or body
cavity becomes in part obliterated. The mesoblast of the embryo formed as above stated is the
tissue from which the mesenchyme or connective tissue of the adult is developed. The blood
channels or canals are developed in the mesenchyme of the adult—mesoblast of the embryo.
The large, coarse vesicular connective tissue cells form a sort of trabecular network of pillars and
transverse supports between and around which the sanguineous fluids circulate. The blood
channels or canals are developed directly from the spaces between the columns and their
conjoining masses of connective tissue cells; an exception to this is found only in the structure
of the anterior and posterior aorte, the heart, and branchiocardiac vessels, which have proper
walls lined with endothelial cells. Throughout the greater part of its extent the mesenchymal or
connective tissue is spongy, its cells being built around complex anastomosing spaces for the
blood. There is, therefore, a true schizocel developed in the Oyster; it has been formed as the
mesoblastic tissue has grown into the segmentation cavity and subdivided the latter into hemal
canals and spaces. The blood cells originate in all probability in the same way. These are
amoeboid, colorless, and measure about one three-thousandth of an inch in diameter. The vascular
channels have no specialized endothelial walls in the mesenchymal parts of the body.

The adductor muscle of the shell and the radiating muscular bundles running from the
insertion of the former to the edge of the mantle are derived from the mesoblastic cells of the
embryo, the observations of Dr. Horst on this point having, I think, completely set at rest what
was formerly a matter of theory. The radiating muscular bundles—pallial muscles—of the adult
lie just beneath the epiblast or epithelium on the outer sides of the mantle leaves. These pallial
muscles in the embryo are represented by two sets of dorsal and ventral muscular bundles, the
functions of which are to retract the velum into which they are inserted. The muscular fibers of
the walls of the heart are not striated and decussate in every direction. The inner walls of the
heart are crossed in various directions by muscular bands or trabeculw, and a more or less
complete muscular septum divides the ventricle in the median line; the heart is, therefore,
approximately four-chambered.

The mesenchymal or mesoblastic tissues comprise the great bulk of the body of the animal,
and extend out into and form the greatest proportion of the thickness of the mantle, and also

716 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

down into the branchial sacs between their epiblastic or epithelial, ciliated, external walls. It
also forms the principal bulk of the thick vertical, transverse septa which subdivide the branchial
pouches internally, and forms likewise the bulk of the branchial filaments themselves. These
latter are numerous and give the surface of the gills their furrowed or plaited appearance. The
individual plaits or ridges seen in section are found to be quite complex and to be themselves
compoundly ribbed and to have chitinous rods embedded in their substance just beneath the
external epithelium. These rods run lengthwise through the substance of the branchial riblets.
The branchial capillaries are excavated in the mesenchymal or connective tissue of the branchial
filaments or tentacles, between which there are numerous openings or ostia for the passage of the
water from the inferior portion of the pallial chamber into the gill cavities in order to effect
respiration. It is difficult, however, to make this arrangement understood without the aid of
figures.

The mesenchyme also gives support to all of the visceral structures, the ultimate secretory
follicles or saccules of the liver being imbedded and supported by it. The same is true of the
generative structures and the intestine. No portion of the walls of the stomach, cesophagus, or
hepatic ducts can be found the walls of which do not lie directly in contact with this mesenchymal
or mesoblastic tissue, It also extends out into and forms the greater proportion of the substance
of the palps or lips of the Oyster, and is very spongy and highly vascular in this region. The
internal or oral surface only of the palps or lips are closely plaited with numerous folds of ciliated
epithelium. These folds may number from one hundred and twenty-five or more. The surface of
the palps in the immediate vicinity of the mouth is not plaited or folded.

The mesenchymal cells are much larger than either the epithelial or endothelial cells, and will
average one five-hundredth of an inch in diameter. They inclose in all cases, both in winter and
summer, a large, irregular nucleus from which a complex network of intracellular granular fibrils
radiate in all directions through the enveloping cellular substance. At one side of the nucleus
there are always one or more accessory bodies, perfectly globular, which complicate the character
of the nucleus in a singular manner. These vesicular, very hygroscopic, mesenchymal or connective
tissue elements are not fat-cells, as has been erroneously supposed by Brooks. Their nuclei are
invariably central and not parietal in position, as in fat-cells. These cells are probably very
hygroscopic, as would appear judging from their singular appearance under the microscope. They
appear to be widely distributed in the molluscous invertebrates; they were originally named
“vesicular connective tissue cells” by the histologist Schaefer. An Oyster may in the summer
season absorb water and swell up so as to fill up almost the whole cavity of the shell, and when
opened it may lose so much blood and water in the course of half an hour that it will have shrunk
to one-tenth of its original bulk. This is a common occurrence, and is explained by the prob-
able hygroscopic character of the connective tissue cells and the spongy nature of the whole
mesenchyme which consists of these elements. This also explains why it is that Oysters may be
much swollen in a short time by osmotic action, when immersed in water of a less specific gravity
than the sea-water from which they were first taken. The process has nothing in common with
what might be called fattening, as we shall see hereafter.

There is an apparent atrophy or wasting away of the mesenchyme of the body-mass and
mantle during the spawning season, with a great concomitant development of the reproductive
follicles or tubules. In winter the reproductive follicles atrophy, when the mesenchyme again
increases in bulk in the body-mass and mantle. It also undergoes another remarkable series
of changes corresponding to summer and winter. In summer it acquires an almost glass-like
transparency, so that the mantle, palps, and superficial portions overlying the viscera become

THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE OYSTER. 717

translucent. In this cosdition, if the reproductive glands are undeveloped, the dark mass of
the liver may be seen through the body walls. Towards the autumn, on the other hand, the
connective tissue cells acquire a milky opacity and great solidity as compared with their watery,
transparent condition in summer. This last condition, which involves the whole mantle, the palps
and superficial portions of the visceral mass, indicates to the oysterman the condition of fatness.
The Oysters in this state are plump; do not so readily diminish in bulk when removed from the
shell as in summer; but that this change is due to storage of fatty matters I have not yet seen any
evidence of any sort which would amount to proof. There is some oily matter in the Oyster, but
not enough to account for the changes which we have described.

The atrophy of the connective tissue during the summer season would appear to indicate that
the material for the genesis of the reproductive elements was derived from the mesenchyme, by a
direct transformation of its substance in which the generative follicles are imbedded. It is, in
fact, the great development of the mesenchymal substance in the autumn and winter, when the
reproductive function is in abeyance, that constitutes the condition of the animal known to oyster-
men as fatness. These relations illustrate very beautifully a well-known physiological principle,
viz, that nutritive processes are very intimately related to the reproductive; they are in fact inter-
dependent.

In summer, when the reproductive organs are gorged with their products, their follicles are
crowded together into contact; in winter, in their atrophied condition, they lie imbedded in the
superficial portion of the mesenchyme of the body-mass, the same as in summer, but are much
less developed, so as to appear in sections like a very open network of strands of very small,
nucleated, incipient embryo cells, the connection of which may be traced into the now collapsed
and internally ciliated branches of the oviducts. All the parts of the reproductive apparatus are
therefore present in winter, but in an undeveloped condition. The oviducts branch and spread
over each side of the body-mass just outside of the stratum of reproductive follicles and imme-
diately beneath the mantle. They do not ramify through the substance of the reproductive organ,
but traverse its surface, the follicles emptying their contents into the ducts by way of openings
upon the inner faces of the latter. The main openings of the oviducts of either side open into the
upper branchial cavity on either side of the hinder and ventral portion of the body-mass just
below the muscle. There is but one opening on either side, notwithstanding the various state-
ments to the contrary.

Embryologically considered, the liver is an endodermal structure, a diverticulum of the
stomach. The great bile ducts pass outward from the cavity of the stomach and subdivide again
and again and end blindly in spacious ovoidal hepatic follicles, the simple plicated walls of which
consist of hepatic cells. The function of the liver is in all probability both excretory and secretory,
and takes an all-important share in the processes of digestion. That the function of the liver is
partially excretory is rendered all the more probable from the fact that there is little or no
evidence of the existence of a renal apparatus or organ of Bojanus in the Oyster such as is found
in other mollusks. Dr. Horst looked in vain for a rudiment of this last structure in the embryos
of Ostrea edulis. Transverse sections through those portions of the body where it would most
likely be found, made from both native and foreign examples, exhibit no structure in the least
degree resembling what is regarded as the organ of Bojanus in Unio and Anodonta.

The wall of the intestine, like that of the stomach, is ciliated throughout, and is also of endo-
dermal or hypoblastic origin. Its wall is folded inward along one side in a peculiar way, so that its
lumen is more or less crescentic in cross-section. This arrangement, together with the very minute
minor folds on its inner surface composed of long, columnar, ciliated epithelial cells, increases the

718 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

amount of absorbing surface very materially. The internal surface of the stomach is also very
much plicated; but here the folds are both large and conspicuous, with small folds often inter-
vening. There are neither annular nor longitudinal muscular fibers in the wall of the intestine ;
the sole motive force used in the propulsion of the ingested food appears to be exerted by the
ciliary covering which everywhere clothes the internal surface of the alimentary tract from the
mouth to the anus.

It would appear that the intestine makes two complete bends upon itself at a very early stage
of embryonic life, according to the observations of Horst, long before it measures a ninetieth of
an inch in diameter. The development of the liver seems to be at first lateral and somewhat
ventral; an arrangement traces of which may still be noticed in cross-sections of the adult.

The course of the intestine in the adult may be described as follows:

The mouth is a wide opening between the upper median angles of the palpi; so wide, indeed,
that the animal can scarcely be said to have an cesophagus; immediately follows the stomach,
which is seen to have very pronounced folds internally, with a generally transverse direction, but
two of these, which lie in a somewhat ventral position, are a pair of inward-projecting folds which
are themselves plicated. The intestine then follows an oblique course, downward and backward,
when it makes a sharp bend returning beneath the floor of the pericardial space, passing obliquely
upward and forward, somewhat to the right and dorsal of the stomach, when it crosses exactly
over the mouth or very short gullet, passing downward to the left side of the animal, alongside
and a little to the lower side of the stomach, when it again turns upward and passes over the
pericardial space to end in the rectum just over the middle of the adductor muscle. The clusters of
hepatic lobules or follicles dip down into the folds of the walls of the stomach, but the liver does not
follow the course of the intestine proper, which is provided internally with a curious pair of longi-
tudinal and parallel folds, which project into the intestinal cavity and extend from the pyloric end
to very near the anus. The presence of these folds gives to the feecal matters their singular appear-
ance, which are not in the form of a cylinder as they leave the vent, but in the form of a tube with a
part of one side removed. Tracing the course of the intestine by sections is not the proper way;
they can be very easily dissected out for their entire length by means of the scissors and forceps.

The systemic heart of the Oyster is that organ which serves to propel and redistribute the
colorless blood of the animal through the body for its nourishment, and through the gills that the
blood itself may discharge into the water the poisonous gases with which it is loaded in passing
through the body, and receive a fresh supply of oxygen as fresh supplies of water pass through
the gills. The heart consists of three principal chambers; the upper, largest, whitish and partially
divided by a median septum or partition, is the ventricle, and the two lowermost and smaller,
brownish paired chambers are known as the auricles. These three chambers which comprise the
heart of the Oyster lie in a crescent-shaped space, the pericardial space, just forward of the
adductor muscle. The ventricle is almost globular; its walls are made up of a delicate meshwork
of unstriped muscular fibers, which are so interlaced as to be altogether untraceable. From the
ventricle a great posterior and an anterior aortic vessel arises. These two vessels distribute the
blood to the posterior and anterior portions of the body of the animal, but soon divide into paired
vessels which traverse the mantle on either side both anteriorly and posteriorly, while one great
median branch passes forward over the stomach. The blood is really distributed soon after
leaving the main vessels, especially in the body through the spongy connective tissue spaces, as
already described, and is collected into a great ventral canal from which a large part of it passes
into the gills. From the four gills or branchial pouches the blood flows back to the ventricles

SEX OF THE AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN OYSTERS. 719

through six great branchiocardiac vessels, three of which are arranged on each side; two pairs of
these are anterior in position and one pair posterior.

The circulation of the Oyster is quite different in character from that observed in a vertebrated
animal. In the latter the heart pumps the purified blood to and through the gills before it passes
to all parts of the body; in the Oyster, on the other hand, the fresh, pure blood is pumped by the
heart from the gills before it passes to all parts of the body.

A curious and interesting point which I think it desirable to mention, because I have not
noticed that attention has hitherto been especially called to it, is the metamorphosis of the larval
Oyster into the adult. A. de Quatrefages! has alluded to it, but not in explicit terms. I have
shown in my sketch on the growth of the animal that the larval shell was quite different from that
of the adult, in fact, more like a very diminutive pisidiwm than anything else. The metamorphosis
of the larval shell, or rather its passage into that of the spat, is abrupt. Not so with the soft parts;
the oldest larve yet studied by any competent biologist show that the mouth of the larva is
placed on the ventral side of the embryo, and that the hinge is situated on almost exactly the
dorsal or opposite side. The ventral position of the mouth of the larve and its anterior or cephalic
position in the adult show that a very important series of changes in the position of the viscera
must take place between the time when the larva loses its principal embryonic features and
acquires the adult arrangement and relations of its hard and soft parts. In other words, we are
made. aware, after instituting the foregoing comparison, that the Oyster actually undergoes a
metamorphosis.

If an Oyster be carefully opened it will be found that the animal adheres to the shell at four
points, or at two points on either valve. The principal points of attachment are of course the
insertions of the great compound adductor muscle, made up of two portions which may be
distinguished by the color of the cut ends of the component fibers. The great shield-shaped
purple areas on either valve mark the points of insertion of the great adductor in the American
Oyster, and also in the Portuguese form, which resembles it considerably. In Ostrea edulis, or the
European species, the insertion of the adductor muscle is very rarely colored, so rarely indeed that
we may regard this feature as one of the specific marks of this form. But in both the American
and the European species there is a second muscular attachment, as implied above, which appears
to have been very generally overlooked. It is situated nearer to the hinge than to the great
adductor, and is sometimes marked by a slight depression not over an eighth of an inch in its
greatest transverse diameter. It gives attachment to a feeble muscular bundle which springs out
of the mantle on either side of the visceral mass, and when the animal is torn loose a slight
whitish scar on the soft part marks its position on the surface of the mantle. I have been
informed that Mr. W. H. Dall, who has investigated the matter, has identified this muscle with
the pedal muscle of some other acephalous mollusks.

212. SEX, SEXUAL PRODUCTS, AND DIFFERENCE OF THE SEXUAL HABITS OF THE
AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN OYSTERS.

“The number of male cells which a single male will yield is great beyond all power of
expression, but the number of eggs which an average female will furnish may be estimated with
sufficient exactness. A single ripe egg measures about one five-hundredth of an inch in diameter,
or five hundred laid in a row, touching each other, would make one inch; and a square inch would.
contain five hundred such rows, or 500 x 500—250,000 eggs. Nearly all the eggs of a perfectly

1Metamorphoses of Man and the Lower Animals. Translated by H. Lawson, M. D., pp. 104-109. London, 1864.

720 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

ripe female may be washed out of the ovary into a beaker of sea-water, and, as they are heavier
than the sea-water, they soon sink to the bottom, and the eggs of a medium-sized female will
cover the bottom of a beaker two inches in diameter with a layer of eggs one-twentieth of an inch
deep. The area of the bottom of a beaker two inches in diameter is little more than three square
inches, and a layer of eggs one-twentieth of an inch deep, covering three square inches, is equal to
‘one three-twentieths of an inch deep and two square, and as a single layer of eggs is one five-
hundredth of an inch thick, a layer three-twentieths of an inch thick will contain seventy-five
layers of eggs, with 250,000 eggs in each layer, or 18,750,000 eggs. It is difficult to get the eggs
perfectly pure, and if we allow one-half for foreign matter and errors of measurement, and for
imperfect contact between the eggs, we shall have more than nine millions as the number of eggs
laid by an Oyster of average size, a number which is probably less than the true number.

“(Mdbius estimates the number of eggs laid by an average European Oyster at 1,012,925, or only
-one-ninth the number laid by an ordinary American Oyster; but the American Oyster is very much
larger than the European, while its eggs are less than one-third as large; so the want of agreement
between these estimates does not indicate that either of them is correct.!| Another estimate of
the number of eggs laid by the European Oyster is given by Eyton (‘ History of the Oyster and
‘Oyster Fisheries,’ by T. C. Eyton, London, 1858). He says, p. 24, that there are about 1,800,000,
and therefore agrees pretty closely with Mébius.

“An unusually large American Oyster will yield nearly a cubic inch of eggs, and if these were
all in absolute contact with each other, and there were no portions of the ovaries or other organs
mixed with them, the cubic inch would contain 500°, or 125,000,000. Dividing this, as before, by
two, to allow for foreign matter, interspaces, and errors of measurement, we have about 60,000,000
as the possible number of eggs from a single Oyster.

‘‘ Although each male contains enough fluid to fertilize the eggs of several females, there does
not seem to be much difference in the number of individuals of the two sexes. When a dozen
‘Oysters are opened and examined, there may be five or six ripe females and no males, but in
another case a dozen Oysters may furnish several ripe males but no females, and in the long run
the sexes seem to be about equally numerous. Oystermen believe that the male may be dis-
tinguished from the female by certain characteristics, such as the presence of black pigment
in the mantle, but microscopic examination shows that these marks have no such meaning, and
that there are no differences between the sexes except the microscopic ones. It is not necessary
to use the microscope in every case, however, for a little experience will enable a sharp observer
to recognize a ripe female without the microscope. If a little of the milky fluid from the ovary of
a female with ripe or nearly ripe eggs be taken upon the point of a clean, bright knife-blade and
allowed to flow over it in a thin film, a sharp eye can barely detect the eggs as white dots, while
the male fluid appears perfectly homogeneous under the same circumstances, as do the contents of
the ovary of au immature female, or one which has finished spawning. When the eggs are mixed
with a drop of water they can be diffused through it without difficulty, while the male fluid is
more adhesive and difficult to mix with the water. By these indications I was able in nearly
every case to judge of the sex of the Oyster before I had made use of the microscope.?

“During my investigations I submitted more than a thousand Oysters to microscopic
-exanination. My studies were carried on during the breeding season, and [ did not find a single

1M@bius’ measurement, from .15 to .18 millimeter, is given (Austern und Austernwirthschaft, 1877) as the diameter,
not of the egg, but of the embryo, but his figures show that the European Oyster, like the American, does not grow much
‘during the early stages of development, but remains of about the same size as the egg.

*W. K. Brooks: op. cit., pp. 13-15.

THE CELL-STRUCTURE OF THE OYSTER. 721

hermaphrodite. The male cells are so small compared with the eggs that it would be impossible
to state that a mass of eggs taken from the ovary contained no spermatozoa, although they could
not escape detection if they were at all abundant.

‘“‘On the other hand, a single egg in the field of the microscope, in a drop of male fluid, would
be very conspicuous and could not escape detection; and the fact that not a single case of this
kind occurred is sufficient to establish the distinctness of the sexes at the breeding season.”?

‘Writing about this matter in 1880, I said: “No evidence to show that our Oyster is her-
maphrodite was found during the entire season; nor were my searches for embryo or eggs in
the mantle or in the gills more successful than those carried on two years before by Professo
Brooks. There is no doubt whatever that the Oyster of Europe nurses its young in its mantle
or gills for some time; nor can we well question the very high authority of Mébius for saying
that in most cases the sexes are separate, and that only one kind of products, viz, either eggs or
‘spermatozoa, are at any time found in the generative organs. Lacaze-Duthier’s observations seem
to confirm the conclusions of Mobius.”

In reference to the structure of the cells which make up the body of the Oyster, as well as
regarding the eggs, Dr. Brooks, on page 19 of his essay, writes as follows:

“Hach of these consists of a layer of protoplasm around a central nucleus, which, in the egg,
is a large, circular, transparent body known as the germinative vesicle. Each cell of the body is
able to absorb food, to grow and to multiply by division, and thus to contribute to the growth of
the organ of which it forms a part. The ovarian eggs are simply the cells of an organ of the body,
the ovary, and they differ from the ordinary cells only in being much larger and more distinct
from each other; and they have the power, when detached from the body, of growing and dividing
up into cells, which shall shape themselves into a new organism like that from whose body the
egg came. Most of the steps in this wonderful process may be watched under the microscope,
and owing to the ease with which the eggs of the Oyster may be obtained, this is a very good egg
to study.”

Brooks has represented the freshly laid ova of the Oyster with a spherical nucleus and
nucleolus ; the former is large and clear, and is imbedded near the center of the egg, and inside of
it the nucleolus is lodged somewhat to one side. I do not find the latter spherical, as described,
but formed as if composed of a larger and smaller highly refringent pair of spheres, partly fused
with each other, or of the same form as the nucleoli of the eggs of Anodonta as described by
Flemming.

Some investigations conducted under the auspices of the Dutch Government indicate that the
structure of the generative organs of the European Oyster is not, as has been supposed, strictly
follicular, but that they may rather be regarded as a mass of anastomosing tubes of irregular caliber.
The complete proof of this has been developed by the writer in the course of investigations carried
out upon our native Oysters, in which the generative organs were very immature during the
winter season. Both Brooks and myself have spoken of the generative follicles as though they’
had been clearly made out; it now appears that we will be compelled to modify our terminology
somewhat, in the face of the fact that I have sections of the immature generative organ which
exhibit it as a network of germinal cells, as well as sections of the mature organs which show a
more or less distinct tubular structure opening toward the surface into the superficial or surface
outgoing canals. At the same time the tubes show more or less extensive junction or anastomosis
with each other at certain points along their length, with a general tendency to be disposed
vertically to the surface of the visceral mass. This arrangement reminds one somewhat of the

WwW. K. BROOKS: op. cit., p. 35.
46 F

722 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

more or less parallel disposition of the seminal tubules of the testicles or milt of fishes and higher
animals.

In microscopical cross-sections of the adult Oyster, whether it be male or female, the repro-
ductive glands are found to be composed of a great number of minute pouches or follicles. In the
gross arrangement of the follicles no difference between the sexes is discernible when thin sections
are scrutinized with the microscope. Upon making an examination of the contents of the follicles
with the microscope a great difference at once becomes manifest; in the male the spermatic
particles in the follicles appear very finely granular, and if mature the tails or flagella of the

«,Spermatic particles tend to be directed toward the outlet of the follicle; in the female, sections of
the follicles show the eggs in various stages of development attached by their narrow extremity
to the walls of the reproductive saccules. The egg is pyriform in shape while still in the ovary,
but the stalk is not as long as in the eggs of Scrobicularia, as described by von Jhering. As
elsewhere stated, the oyster-egg is not globular when first extruded. It will be readily understood
that the sexes may be very readily distinguished by these and other marks observed in sections.
The immature ova are vastly larger than the spermatozoa, which measure under the ten-thousandth
of an inch at their largest end. The head of the spermatozoén of both the American and European
Oyster is globular; that of the spermatozoén of the Soft Clam (Mya) is ovoidal in form. The tail
or flagellum of the spermatic particle is the locomotive organ which lashes back and forth very
rapidly and propels it through the water and finally brings it into contact with the egg.

213. NEW METHODS OF DISTINGUISHING THE SEXES AND OF TAKING THE EGGS OF
THE OYSTER. !

DISCRIMINATION OF THE SEXES.—One of the first requisites of a practical system of arti-
ficial fertilization of the eggs of the Oyster is a means which, in the hands of unskilled persons,
will enable them, without the aid of a microscope, to infallibly distinguish the sexes apart. Such
a means we now propose to describe. Having tested it practically, and found it possible to
instruct persons of ordinary intelligence in a few minutes, we have no hesitation in offering an
account of the method so as to make it more generally available in the hands of those who may
be interested in this subject.

It is premised that the spawn is squeezed from the reproductive glands by the method to be
described further on. As soon as the spawn is emitted from the generative opening in consequence
of the pressure exerted upon the gland and the ramifications of its ducts, it is drawn up by means
of a small pipette or medicine dropper, provided with a small collapsible bulb at the upper end
which is held between the thumb and forefinger. Pressing the bulb between the fingers, then
immersing the open end of the pipette into the extruded spawn, and then allowing the bulb to
expand by its own elasticity, it will draw or suck up the spawn which has been pressed out very
neatly; and if one is careful, absolutely nothing but the spawn is picked up. One soon becomes
very expert in the use of the pipette.

The next requisite is a shallow glass dish, or even a plain tumbler will answer, into which
say a half gill of clean sea-water has been poured. Taking up the extruded spawn from the
opening of the duct it is dropped from the pipette into the clear water. This last simple operation
enables us to tell without fail to which sex the products belong. If the creamy white mass consists
of eggs which have been pressed from the generative openings and is dropped into the water, it will
at once break up into a granular cloud as the spawn strikes the latter, the granules themselves

‘The observations and experiments discussed in this article were conducted at Saint Jerome’s Creek during the
months of July and August, 1882.

ARTIFICIAL BREEDING OF OYSTERS. 723

being very distinctly visible, especially if the glass vessel be resting upon a dark ground so as to
bring the whitish granules into relief. The granules are nothing more than the ova or eggs of the
Oyster, and at once indicate that the individual from which they were obtained is a female. In
case the products are male, they break up as they mingle with the water into a milky white cloud
in which no granules are visible to the naked eye. Itis also very important to observe that as the
milt is stirred in the water it breaks up at first into long, fleecy white clouds which resemble very
strikingly in miniature what are known to meteorologists as cirrus clouds, or, vulgarly, “‘mare’s
tails,” reminding one of these in the way in which the fine particles of milt give rise to streaks,
wisps, and fibers as it breaks up in the water, without giving rise to any visible granular appear-
ance as occurs in the case of the female products, but to an opalescent or milky aspect. These
distinctions, once learned, are so palpable that the novice may as infallibly discriminate the sexes
of the Oyster apart by their aid as can be done by the most skilled biologist with a powerful
microscope.

THE IMPREGNATION OF THE EGGS.—The method formerly used was to first learn the sex of
a number of adult Oysters with the microscope, then cut out the generative glands with their
products and chop up those of different sexes separately in small dishes with sea-water. This
system we may now say is barbarous, because it is crude; large numbers of eggs are destroyed
by crushing, or are injured by the rough usage to which they are subjected, and, besides, there is
no assurance that the eggs or milt operated with are quite mature. It is also troublesome to free
the generative gland from fragments of the liver which help to pollute the water in the incubating
vessels with putrescible organic matter, and thus interfere greatly with the life and healthy devel-
opment of the embryos.

By our method the objectionable features of the old plan, as stated above, are overcome. If
possible, select good-sized Oysters; open them with the greatest possible care so as not to mutilate
the mantle and soft parts. Carefully insert an oyster-knife between the edges of the valves and
cut the great adductor muscle as close as possible to the valve which you intend to remove,
leaving the animal attached to the other valve, which, if possible, should be the left or deepest one.
The soft parts being firmly fixed or held fast by the great adductor muscle to the left valve
prevents the animal from slipping under the end of the pipette, held flatwise, as it is gently and
firmly stroked over the generative gland and ducts to force out the generative products.

To prepare the animals to take the spawn from them, after opening, the following precautions
are to be observed: Note that the reproductive gland in great part envelopes the visceral mass,
and extends from the heart space, just in front of the great adductor, to within a half inch or so of
the head or mouth end of the animal, which lies next to the hinge. Note also that both sides of
the visceral mass which incloses the stomach, liver, and intestine are enveloped on either side by
a membrane which also lies just next the shell and is garnished by a fringe of purplish, sensitive
tentacles along its entire border except at the head end where the mantle of the left side passes
into and is continuous with that of the right side of the animal. The ventral or lowermost side of
the animal, anatomically speaking, is marked by the four closely corrugated gill plates or pouches,
which are preceded in front by the four palps or lips, but both the gills and palps depend
downward between the lower borders of the mantle of the right and left sides. Note, too, that
if the mantle is carefully cut and thrown back on the exposed side of the animal between the
upper edges of the gills and the lower edge of the cut or exposed end of the great adductor
muscle, the lower and hinder blunted end of the visceral mass will be exposed to view. It is on
either side of this blunted end of the visceral mass between the upper edge of the gills and lower
side of the great muscle that the reproductive glands open almost exacily below the great adductor.

724 “NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

From these openings we will afterwards find, if the animal is sexually mature and the operation is
properly conducted, that the spawn will be forced out in a vermicular, creamy white stream. But
in order to fully expose the reproductive organ we should carefully continue to sever the mantle
of one side with a sharp penknife or small scissors, some distance forward of the great muscle
towards the head, cutting through the mantle just above the upper borders of the gills and following
a cavity which lies between the litter and the lower border of the visceral mass. A little
experience will teach one how far it is necessary to carry this incision of the mantle. For some
distance in front of the heart space the mantle is free or detached from the visceral mass and
reproductive organ which lies immediately beneath, and this enables one, if the last described
incision has been properly made, to almost completely expose the one side of the visceral mass
and the richly tinted, yellowish-white reproductive gland which constitutes its superficial portion.
The opening of the gland and its superficial ramifying ducts being laid bare on the exposed side
of the animal we are ready to press out the spawn on that side. Before beginning this, however,
it is important to observe that the principal duct passes down just along the edge of the visceral
mass where the latter bounds the heart space, in which the heart may be observed to slowly
pulsate, and that this great duct ends somewhere on the surface of the ventral blunted end of the
visceral mass. To expose the great or main generative duct it may be necessary to cut through
or remove the pericardial membrane which incloses or covers the heart space on the exposed side.
If the Oyster is sexually mature, the main duct will be observed to be distended with spawn, and
that, originating from it and branching out over almost the entire surface of the visceral mass,
there are minor ducts given off, which again and again subdivide. If these are noted, and it is
observed that they are engorged, giving them the appearance of a simple series of much branched
great veins filled with creamy white contents, it may be certainly presumed that your specimen is
mature and that spawn may be readily pressed from it.

The operation of pressing the spawn out of the ducts requires care. The side of the end of the
pipette may be used, being careful not to crush or break open the ducts as you gently and firmly
stroke the pipette flatwise over the side of the visceral mass backward from the hinge towards
the heart space and over the great duct at the border of the latter diagonally downward and
backward to the opening of the reproductive organ. If this has been properly done it will be
found that the generative products are being pushed forward by the pipette through the ducts,
as the pressure will be seen to distend the latter, the contents of the branches flowing into the
larger and larger trunks until they are forced outward through the main duct and opening below
the great adductor, where they will pour out in a stream one-sixteenth of an inch or more in diameter
if the products are perfectly ripe. The sexes may be discriminated as described at the outset, and
it is well to first find a male by the method already given and proceed to express the milt as
described above into say a gill of sea-water, adding pipetteful after pipetteful until it acquires a
milky or opalescent white color. As the milt or eggs are pressed out of the opening of the ducts
they are to be sucked up by the pipette and dropped into the water, the mixture of milt being first
prepared, to which the eggs may be added as they are expressed from the females. The judgment
of the operator is to be used in mixing the liquids; in practice I find that one male will supply
enough milt to fertilize the eggs obtained from three or four females, and it does not matter if the
operation takes from twenty to thirty minutes’ time, as the male fluid, which it is best to prepare
first, will retain its vitality for that period.

It is always desirable to be as careful as possible not to get fragments of other tissues mixed
with the eggs and milt, and the admixture of dirt of any kind is to be avoided. To separate

RATE OF GROWTH OF OSTREA VIRGINIVA. ; 725

any such fragments nicely, I find a small strainer of coarse bolting or cheese cloth to be very
convenient.

In the foregoing description we have described the method of obtaining the spawn only from
the side of the animal exposed in opening the shell. A little experience will enable one to lift up
the head end of the animal and throw it back over the great adductor muscle, expose the opening
of the reproductive organ on the left side, or whatever the case may be, and also express the
spawn from that side, thus as effectually obtaining all of the ripe eggs or milt as is possible in the
process of taking the same from fishes.

It is remarkable to note the success attending this method, since almost every egg is perfect
and uninjured, the percentage of ova which are impregnated is much larger than by the old
method, reaching, I should say, quite ninety per cent. of all that are taken when the products are
perfectly ripe. It is also found that the products are not so readily removed by my process if they
are not perfectly mature, which is also to a certain extent a safeguard against getting poor or
immature spawn. In the course of an hour after the products of the two sexes have been mingled
together it will be found that nearly every egg has assumed a globular form, has extruded a polar
cell, lost the distinct germinative vesicle and spot in the center, and begun to develop.

It is noteworthy that our practice as herein described has completely vindicated the state-
ment made by the distinguished French anatomist and embryologist, M. Lacaze-Duthiers, that
there is but a single generative opening on each side of the visceral mass of the Oyster, and that,
as we have stated, it is found to open just below the great adductor muscle.

We have also discovered, since the foregoing was written, that the use of an excessive amount
of milt is of no advantage. The water in which the eggs are to be impregnated only requires to
be rendered slightly milky; a very few drops of good milt is sufficient to make the impregnation
asuccess. Too much milt causes the eggs to be covered by too large a number of spermatozoa;
thousands more than are required if too much is used. These superfluous spermatozoa simply
become the cause of a putrescent action which is injurious to the healthy development of the eggs.
A drop of milt to twenty drops of eggs is quite sufficient.

Immediately after the ova have been fertilized it is best to put them into clean sea-water at
once, using water of the same density as that in which the adults grew. If the attempt is made
to impregnate the eggs in water much denser than that in which the adults lived, it is probable
that the milt will be killed at once. This singular fact, which was accidentally discovered by
Colonel McDonald and myself, shows how very careful we should be to take into consideration
every variation in the conditions affecting a biological experiment. If sufficient water is used no
trouble will be experienced from the pollution of the water by dangerous micro-organisms which
are able to destroy the oyster embryos. From fifty to two hundred volumes of fresh, clean water
may be added to the volume in which the eggs were first fertilized. This may be added gradually
during the first twenty-four hours, so as to assist aération and prevent the suffocation of the
embryos.

214. RATE OF GROWTH OF OSTREA VIRGINICA.

SIZE OF THE EGG.—The egg of the American Oyster, according to Brooks, is approximately
sé inch, being very nearly perfectly spherical after the extrusion of the polar or direction cells
(Richtungsblaschen of the German embryologists). This accords with what the writer has observed
in our species, and in the Portuguese Oy-ter, probably O. angulata Lam., the size of the egg
appears to be about the same, judging from specimens of the latter examined by me in March
last. Judging from the figures and the stated amplifications given in the papers of M. Davaine,

726 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

the egg of Ostrea edulis is t45 inch in diameter. Estimates based on the figures of M. Lacaze-
Duthiers give dimensions of 345 inch. These discrepancies I think are probably too great, and
may be due to imperfect micrometric methods. If they are real it would indicate a specific
difference of some importance between O. edulis and O. virginica.

The actual volume of the egg of the American Oyster would accordingly be a little more
than sscotcos0 Cubic inch, a solid so minute that we are unable to frame any adequate con-
ception of its diminutiveness. Under the best conditions, as seen against a dark back-ground,
it is visible as a grayish-white speck ; almost an optical point. It is from this diminutive spherical
mass of living matter that the young Oyster is developed. The development of the embryo
proceeds, as far as I can make out, according to the accounts given by Davaine, Brooks, Horst,
and others, similarly to that of other lamellibranebs. To Hatschek! we are indebted for the most
secure foundation for our future embryological investigations upon this difficult group of mollusks;
and we must not forget to mention the very important researches of Ray Lankester (Phil. Trans.,
1875), principally upon Pisidium. I have not been able to observe the development of the larval
Oyster beyond the size attained by it after the complete segmentation of the egg, the develop-
ment of the shell, the velum, and alimentary tract. In fact, no embryos which I have attempted
to rear from artificially impregnated eggs have ever lived long after the time when they began
to take food, which is immediately after they acquire the velum, permanent mouth, and vent,
and are almost or altogether covered on either side by the very symmetrical larval shells, which
consist of carbonate of lime laid down in a matrix of conchioline. The isolation of the conchioline
is readily effected by the use of acetic acid, the acid dissolving out the lime entirely. I find
that Brooks and Dr. Horst? have tried a similar experiment with similar resuits. The latter
writer has also been able to watch the development of the naturally impregnated ova of Ostrea
edulis until a pretty advanced stage was reached. He disagrees with Brooks in his interpretation
of the gastrula stage, and thinks that the invagination regarded by the American investigator
as the blastopore must be considered to represent simply the first rudiment of the shell-gland.
In assuming this position, from what I have been able to gather in the course of my own investi-
gation of the development of the American species, I think we are bound to accept Dr. Horst’s
determination of the homology of the shell-gland of the Oyster with that of other lamellibran-
chiate and cephalophorous mollusks.

EARLY STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT.—The oral invagination, according to Dr. Horst, originates
on the opposite or ventral side of the embryo and has no connection with the dorsal pallial
invagination or shell-gland. The early stages of the American and European species, Jike the
later ones, appear to present no marked differences, except that the latter appears, on the evidence
of Dr. Horst, Mébius, and others, to carry the ova and embryo in the mantle cavity, from which
the first-named author obtained his material for study, by breaking a hole through the shell near
the margin, so as to enable him to introduce a pipette into the pallial chamber. This method of
getting embryos is impossible in our native species, which has wholly different breeding habits, as
is proved by the investigations of Brooks, Winslow, Rice, and myself. How much further than
heretofore Messrs. Brooks and Winslow have been enabled to carry the development of our native
Oyster during the past season at Beaufort, North Carolina, I have not been able to learn, nor do I
know anything more definitely as to how much success has been attained in the artificial, produc-
tion of Ostrea edulis from artificially-impregnated eggs at the hands of Mr. Littlewood, of England,

1 Ueber Entwickelungsgesvhichte von Teredo. Arbeiten aus dem Zool. Inst. Wien., Bd. iii.
* Bijdrage tot de Kennis van de Ontwikkelingsgeschiedenis van de Vester (Ostrea edulis L.), door Dr. R. Horst. Tijdschr.
d. Ned. Dierk. Vereen, Deel, vi, 1882.

LARVAL OYSTERS. fat

who has claimed that he had succeeded in rearing them to the age of five months, specimens of
which it is said were shown at the Fishery Exhibition recently held in Edinburgh.

EXPERIMENTS AT SAINT JEROME’S CREEK.—Our experiments made at Saint Jerome’s Creek
during the past summer gave the most contradictory results, and the interval of development
between that of our oldest embryo with its diminutive Pisidium-like valves measuring about sj>
inch in diameter, and that of the embryo when its valves first begin to lose their embryonic form,
still remains unbridged. The dimensions of the embryo or “fry,” as we may more properly call it
when it becomes fixed, are between 4; and j; inch according as the measurement is made longi-
tudinally or transversely. The difference in magnitude between the oldest artificially incubated
fry seen by me and that of the youngest fixed embryos which I collected is very small, amounting
only to z#3> inch, or a little more than ;35 inch. To determine the relative volumes of these
stages, and consequently the amount of food which has been taken in and converted into the
structure of the more advanced stage in addition to the original bulk of the egg, we need only
take the cubes of their respective diameters and compare them. Taking the diameter of the egg,
or s$y inch, as the diameter of the most advanced embryo seen by me, which we will consider
unity, and comparing it with ~5 inch, or the transverse diameter of the newly fixed fry, we find,
after having reduced the last quantity to its simplest form as compared with 1, or the diameter of
the egg, that we have 5.14. The diameters then of the first and last embryonic or truly larval
stages are to each other as 1 is to 5.14, and consequently their volumes will be to each other as
the cubes of these numbers, or as 1 is to 132.6514. The difference between these two quantities,
or 131.651+ times 1, will give us approximately the amount of food material which has been taken
up by the embryo in passing from the condition when it was first able to feed until it fixed itself,
showing that the process of growth has been going on vigorously in order to augment the volume
of the young creature at the enormous rate indicated by our figures. We have, however, been
dealing not with absolute but with relative or compared volumes only; if the egg contains
zsvodo0cs Cubic inch of protoplasmic matter approximately, the newly-fixed fry, which we will
assume to be globular, and contains, as shown above, over 132 times as much material, the
absolute bulk of the latter will be gsooduc00 Cubic inch multiplied by 132, or g55332555 cubic
inch, which, in its simplest form, is therefore ;gz}o7¢ cubic inch, or. the absolute volume of the
newly fixed fry. Ninety cubed, or 729,000 young Oysters could therefore be contained in a cubic
inch of space, if taken at the stage at which they begin to be transformed into spat. This large
number is, of course, small when compared with 125,000,000, the number of eggs which might be
contained by the same extent of space.

THE LARVAL CHARACTER OF THE YOUNG OYsTER.—The proof of the larval character of
the youngest fixed stage of the Oyster rests upon the three following well-ascertained facts:
1st. The perfect symmetry and great convexity of the valves; 2d. The entirely different shape
of the shell as compared with those of the spat and adult; 3d. Its wholly different micro-
scopic structure when compared with the later and full-grown stages. The form of the shell, at
the time the animal is about to begin to develop the spat shell, is suborbicular, very thin, ven-
tricose, resembling in many respects the shell of Cyclas or Pisidium, having the symmetry of
those genera, with umbones of about the same form and prominence. These features mark the
larval shell of the Oyster so unmistakably that its valves may always be very readily recognized
at the tips of the valves of spat under a year old. The larval valves lie on the tips of the valves
of the spat like small hemispherical caps, but can usually not be found after the young Oyster
enters upon its second year, as its umbones, together with the larval shells which surmount them,

728 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

have been eroded by the action of the carbonic dioxide in solution in the sea-water. The
presence of the larval shells in an unimpaired condition on the umbones of the valves of Oysters
is therefore an indication that such specimens are young, probably under a year old.

The third character, alluded to above, which distinguishes the larval shell of the Oyster is
the perfect homogeneity of the calcareous matter. Unlike the valves of the spat or translucid
flakes from the shell of the adult, they exhibit no prismatic arrangement of the calvic carbonate
in a matrix of conchioline. In the valves of the adult and spat, on the other hand, the calcic
carbonate tends to assume a prismatic arrangement vertical or at right angles to the plane of
the length and breadth of the shell. This distinction is so marked that in very young individuals
which have only lately become fixed one may very readily determine with the aid of the micro-
scope the line of demarkation along which the formation of the larval shell ceased and where the
prismatic calcareous structure of the valves of the spat began to be developed.

CHARACTERS OF THE LARVAL SHELL.—The only characters of structure which the larval
shell has in common with that of the spat and adult are the lines of growth visible in all three.
This shows that the valves grow in extent at all stages by the addition of lime to the edges of
the valves, each layer of mineral matter and organic matrix extending over successively greater
and greater areas, a8 in the growth of the shells of mollusks in general, the umbones being
the points from which the valves grow in au eccentric manner in consequence of the gradually
increasing extent of the mantle—the shell-secreting organ—as the growth of the animal
proceeds. Having clearly defined the nature of the larval shell of the Oyster, up to the time
when it is ready to begin to build or secrete the shell of the spat, we may next discuss the
character of the transition from the one to the other.

The transition is apparently an abrupt one. The excessive convexity of the valves of the fry
contrast strongly with the almost flat lower valve and feebly convex upper one of the spat. At
the free edges of the larval shells where they pass directly into the structure of the valves of the
spat there is a marked offset or angle marking very distinctly the difference of convexity between
the. two stages of shell development.

Food OF THE YOUNG OYSTER.—As already remarked, I have seen food in the intestine
of the young Oyster on the second day of development, but how long it may take before the
young embryo of this stage of growth shall have taken and appropriated one hundred and
thirty-two times its own volume of food material, I am not able to say. This it must do
before it can have attained to the size of the larva which is transformed into spat. The food
is propelled through the alimentary canal by the action of innumerable vibratory filaments
which clothe the inside of the throat, stomach, and intestine as in the adult; the intestine,
stomach, and liver are not, however, as complex as in the full-grown animal.

Of the method of fixation I have as yet learned nothing of value. That this is accomplished
by some sort of byssus J have no doubt. The fact that it is the left valve which is always the
lowermost and attached one would indicate that the method of fixation was not capricious or
haphazard in its nature.

I would infer from what we learn from the study of other animals that it may require quite a
week before an embryo reaches the dimensions of one-eightieth of an inch, but we have no data
upon which to base any conclusions of value. Of the later stage of development we know some-
thing definitely. The main fact which we have so far decided is the size of the larval shell.

RatTE OF GROWTH.—After fixation the growth of spat is very rapid, as may be inferred
from the fact that I have found spat upon collectors which had not been placed in position

FOOD OF THE OYSTER. 729

more than a week to ten days, upon which I detected spat one-fourth of an inch across. In
other cases the following were the observed dimensions: On a collector which had been placed
near a bed of spawning Oysters for twenty days I obtained a specimen of spat seven-sixteenths
of an inch across; from another collector immersed for forty-four days I obtained specimens
thirteen-sixteenths of an inch in diameter; from another out forty-eight days a specimen
measuring about one inch. Another set of collectors which had been out for seventy-nine days
had spat attached which measured one and three-fourths inches across. Some still larger spat
collected by me was not over eighty-two days old, and measured nearly two inches in length
from the hinge to the distal margin of the valves. Still larger specimens have been observed
by the writer, which bore every evidence of having affixed themselves during the same
season.

If we contrast the above measurements with those given by Mébius of the spat of O. edulis
of known age, I conclude that the American Oyster grows three or four times as rapidly as the
former. For instance, Mobius figures a European Oyster twelve to fifteen months old, which
measures only one and one-fourth inches in diameter. Contrasting this with the size of the
American at seventy-nine to eighty-two days old, and measuring from one and three-fourths to
nearly two inches in diameter, we see how greatly our species surpasses that of Europe in vigor
and rapidity of growth.

Of the rate of growth beyond the ages given above I have only a few data, based on the spat
which was caught on collectors put out in Saint Jerome’s Creek in July and August, 1880. In the
following autumn the collectors which had been put out into the creek were taken up and the spat
removed from them. This was then put into a box, through which the water could circulate
freely, and put back into the creek, in order that we might be enabled to learn how much growth
these young Oysters would make during the winter and next season. I did not have an opportu-

nity to examine them, however, until the 10th of July, 1882. From the time of their fixation in
July and August, 1880, to the time when J made my last examination of these specimens, a
period of about twenty-three months had accordingly elapsed. One of the largest specimens
examined by me measured three and three-cighths inches in length and two and five-eighths
inches in width. Another smaller specimen measured two and a half iuches long and two
and a quarter inches in width. They were about the size of Oysters available for planting, and I
have no doubt that in the course of two or three years more, if placed under favorable conditions,
they would reach a marketable size. The inference, therefore, is that it takes at least four to five
years for an Oyster to grow large enough, starting from the egg, to be available for market.

In order that an Oyster may grow to attain the great size of certain single individuals which
I have seen, it may take even ten years. I should think it would take at least that length of time
for an Oyster to grow until its valves would measure nine inches in length, a few of which I have
seen of this enormous size. These, it must be remembered, were not “Raccoon Oysters” or ‘“Cat?s-
tongues,” as the narrow, elongate individuals are called which grow so densely crowded together
upon the banks as to be abnormally lengthened. Under favorable conditions, I do not think
it improbable that an Oyster may live to the age of twenty years, attaining corresponding
dimensions.

215. THE FOOD OF THE OYSTER.

OBSERVATIONS AT SAINT JEROME’S CREEK.—The following extracts, taken mainly from
my report for 1880 to the Fish Commissioner of Maryland, will give some idea of the kinds of
organisms usually encountered on oyster banks and beds. These observations were made at

730 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Saint Jerome’s Creek, a few miles north of the mouth of the Potomac, during the months of July,
August, September, and October:

“The food of this mollusk, as is well known, consists entirely of microscopic beings and
fragments of organic matter, which are carried by currents from the palps and gills, which have
been already described, to the large mouth of the animal at the hinge end of the shell. The inside
of the gullet and stomach, like some other parts of the body, are covered with cilia, so that food
once fairly in the mouth will be carried by their action down to the cavity of the stomach, where
it is carried into the folds and deep pouches in its walls, and even into the openings of the bile
ducts, to undergo digestion or solution, so as to be fitted in its passage through the intestine to
be taken into the circulation, and finally disposed of in building up the structures of the body.

“Along with the food which is taken, a very large amount of indigestible dirt, or inorganic
matter, is carried in, which, in a great measure, fills up the intestine, together with the refuse or
waste from the body. This material, when examined, reveals the fact that the Oyster subsists
largely on diatoms, a low type of moving plants which swim about in the water, incased in minute
sandstone cases, or boxes, of the most delicate beauty of workmanship. These, when found in
the intestine, have usually bad their living contents dissolved out by the action of the digestive
juices of the stomach. I have found in our own species of Oyster the shells of three different
genera of diatoms, viz: Campylodiscus, Coscinodiscus, and Navicula. The first is a singularly bent
form; the second is discoidal; and the last boat-shaped, and all are beautifully marked. Of
these three types, I saw a number of species, especially of the latter, but as I was not an authority
upon the systematic history of any of them I had to neglect the determination of the species. No
doubt many more forms are taken as food by the Oyster, since I saw other forms in which the
living matter inside the siliceous cases was brown, the same as in most of the preceding forms
which I have indicated. Some of these brown forms were so plentiful as to color a considerable
surface whereon they grew of the same tint as themselves.

“ Besides the diatoms and the spores of alge, the larve or young of many animals, such as
sponges, bryozoa, hydroids, worms, mollusks, are small enough to be taken in as aliment by
the Oyster, though their bodies in most cases being soft and without a skeleton, it is impossible
to find any traces, either in the stomach or intestine, of their remains, to indicate that they have
formed a part of the bill of fare of the animal. What, however, demonstrates that such small
larval organisms do help to feed the Oyster is the fact that at the heads of the small inlets or
creeks along the Chesapeake, where the water is but little affected by the tides and is somewhat
brackish and inclined to be stagnant, there always appears to be a relatively greater development
of a somewhat characteristic surface or shallow water fauna of minute forms.

“In Saint Jerome’s Creek the microscopic fauna of its headwaters is entirely different from
that of the body of the creek; two minute forms inhabit in vast numbers the former, while I
sought in vain for them in the more open and changeable waters of the main body of the inlet,
which are brought into active movement twice a day by the action of the tides. One of these
forms, an infusorian,! one twenty-fifth of an inch in length, was found covering every available
surface of attachment, so that countless multitudes of the naked young would be swimming about
in the water previous to building the curious spiral tubes which they inhabit—admirably fitted in
this state as food for the Oyster. Besides the type referred to, there were a number of other
infusorians, which in their so-called swarming stages of development would become available
as Oyster food. Of such types I noticed four different species, either belonging or very nearly

‘On the occurrence of Freia producia, Wright, in the Chesapeake Bay.—Am. Naturalist, 1880, pp. 810, 811.

LOCATION OF OYSTER BEDS. W1

related to the genus Cothurnia; all of the forms built tubes for themselves. I also noticed several
forms of bell animalcules, the swarmers of which would become available as food for the Oysters

lying in the vicinity.

“The diatoms did not seem to me to be more abundant in the headwaters than in the open creek.
There was one moss animal of remarkable character, which I found in the headwaters only. This
creature was very abundant, and no doubt its embryos, like those of the infusoria referred. to, were
available as food.

“Of free-swimming infusorians, I noticed a number of genera; one especially attracted my
attention from its snake-like appearance and singularly rapid contortions; it had a tuft of vibrating
hairs or cilia at the head end in close relation with the mouth. Another more abundant type was
the curious genus Huplotes, with a thick shell inclosing the soft protoplasm of the body; the latter
was of an oval form, flat beneath and rounded on the back, so that the resemblance when the
large foot-like cilia were in motion, carrying the animal about, was strikingly like a very minute
tortoise, the resemblance being heightened when the animal was viewed from the side.

“Rod-like alga of minute size, the larve of crustacea, especially the vast numbers of extremely
small larval Copepoda, must enter as a pcrceptible factor into the food supply of the Oyster.

“ There is no doubt but that the comparatively quiescent condition of the headwaters of these
inlets and creeks, available as oyster-planting grounds, are more favorable to the propagation of
minute life than the open bay or creeks, where the temperature is lower and less constant. Prac-
tically, this is found to be true, for oystermen seem to be generally agreed that Oysters ‘ fatten’
more rapidly, that is, feed more liberally in the headwaters—blind extremities of the creeks—than
elsewhere. This notion of the oystermen isin agreement with ny own observations during the past
year. Oystermen also assert that Oysters ‘fatten’ more rapidly in shallow waters than in deep
ones, a point upon which I made but few observations; but such as I did make tended to confirm
such an opinion. In illustration I may contrast the condition of the Oysters in the pond leased by
the commission at Saint Jerome’s and those dredged off Point Lookout, in twenty or thirty feet of
water, on the 3d day of October, 1880. The Oysters in the pond, by the middle or end of September,
were in good condition as to flesh, and marketable, while those from deeper water off Point Lookout,
and but little later in the season, were still extremely poor, thin, and watery, and utterly unfit for
market. These differences in condition, it seems to me, are to be attributed in a great measure to
differences of temperature and the abundance of food, but mainly to the latter.”

These observations give us some hints regarding the advantages arising from the cultiva-
tion of Oysters in more or less stagnant water, in which, as in the French parks or claires, an
abundance of microscopic life would be generated in consequence of a nearly uniform temperature,
higher in the early autumn months at least than the waters of the open sea, where cold currents
also would tend to make it still less uniform and thus interfere with the generation of the minute
food of the Oyster. In other words, it would appear that the effect of the French method is to
furnish the best conditions for the rapid and constant propagation of an immense amount of
microscopic food well adapted to nourish the Oyster. That unlike Oysters exposed to a rapid flow
of water on a bottom barren of life they grow and quickly come into a salable condition.

SIrUATIONS BEST ADAPTED FOR OYSTER CULTURE.—In this country narrow coves and
inlets with comparatively shallow water appear to furnish the best conditions for the nutrition
and growth of Oysters; and according to my own experience these are the places where we act-
ually find minute animal and vegetable life in the greatest abundance, and, as might have
been expected, the Oysters planted in such situations appear to be in good condition early in
the autumn, long before those which are found in deeper and more active water, where their

732 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

food has less chance to multiply. If the French mode applies successfully to an inferior species,
ours, which grows so much more rapidly, ought to derive a proportionally greater benefit from
being treated in the same manner. However, before we are ready to deal with the material
on which the Oyster feeds, we desire a more perfect acquaintance with the microscopic life
which grows upon oyster-beds and swims about in the adjacent waters. From the fact that
the lower forms of life in fresh water often appear in great abundance one year, while in the
next, from some unexplained cause, none of the same species will be found in the same situation,
we may conclude that similar seasonal variations occur in the phases of the microscopic life of
a given oyster-bed and its vicinity.

INFLUENCES OF ENVIRONMENT.—Such yearly variations in the abundance of microscopic
lite are probably the causes of the variable condition of the Oysters taken from the same beds
during the same season of different years. Violent or sudden changes of temperature are prob-
ably often the cause of the destruction of a great amount of the minute life upon which the Oyster
feeds. Backward and stormy seasons doubtless also affect the abundance of the microscopic life
of the sea. All of these questions have, however, as yet been scarcely touched, and, judging from
the disposition of many of our students of zoology to be content merely with a description of new
species and the compilation of lists, instead of also entering into investigations of the life-histories,
the relative abundance of individuals, and the influence of surrounding conditions upon the
* forms they study, it will take some time yet before we get the information so much desired.
When we arrive at this knowledge we will know why it is that Oysters taken from a certain bed
are in good condition for a season or two and then for one or more years are found to be watery and
of poor quality, as well as why it is that the Oysters of certain beds, which for years have had a
high reputation for their fine qualities, are suddenly found to be more or less green in the beard,
as I have been informed is now the case with the Oysters of Lynn Haven Bay, Virginia.

As to the influence of brackish water in improving the condition of Oysters, let me observe
here that those who hold to that opinion appear to forget to bear in mind that brackish-water beds
are often in the case just described; that lying in shallow, relatively quiet water, an abundance
of food is generated which is rapidly consumed by the animals, quickly bringing the latter into
condition, the brackish state of the water getting the credit of the result.

“In a paper published in the report to the British Government on oyster-culture in Ireland,
in 1870, Prot. W. K. Sullivan, of Dublin, remarked that independently of the mechanical constitu-
tion of the shore and littoral sea-bottom, %. e., deposition of sediment, the currents, the temperature,
etc., the nature of the soil produces a marked influence upon the food of the plants and sedentary
animals that inhabit the locality, as well as upon the association of species. Especially is it the
case with Oysters, that the soil exerts so much influence on the shape, size, color, brittleness of
shell, and flavor of the meat, that an experienced person can tell with great certainty where any
particular specimen was grown.) . . . Were we able to determine the specific qualities of
the soil which produce those differences in the qualities of Oysters, it would be an important step
in their cultivation. Again, soils favorable for the reproduction of the Oyster are not always
equally favorable for their subsequent development; and, again, there are many places where
Oysters thrive but where they cannot breed. This problem of the specific influence of the soil is,
however, a very difficult and complicated one. First, because it is almost impossible to separate
the specific action of the soil from that of the other causes enumerated ; and next, because, though
much has been written on the subject of Oysters, 1 do not know of any systematic series of experi-

1], INGERSOLL: Report on Oyster Industry, Tenth Census,

PROTOZOANS OF SAINT JEROME'S CREEK. too

ments carried out upon different soils, and for a sufficient length of time to enable accidental
causes to be eliminated, which could afford a clue to the determination of the relative importance
of the action of the several causes above enumerated at the different stages of development of the
Oyster. . . . I believe the character and abundance of Diatomacea and Rhizopoda, and other
microscopic animals, in Oyster-grounds, is of primary importance in connection with Oyster
cultivation. The green color of the Colchester and Marennes Oyster shows how much the quality
may be affected by such organisms. Itis probable that the action or influence of the soil of Oyster-
grounds upon the Oyster, at the various stages of its growth, depends mainly upon the nature and
comparative abundance of the Diatomacea, Rhizopoda, Infusoria, and other microscopical organisms
which inhabit the ground. I have accordingly always noted where the mud appeared to be rich in
Diatomacea, Foraminifera, and other microscopicorganisms. A thorough a study of a few differently-
situated Oyster-grounds, exhibiting well-marked differences in the character of the Oyster from
this point of view, by a competent microscopist, acquainted with the classes of plants and animals
just mentioned, would be of great scientific interest and practical importance.”

PROTOZOANS OF SAINT JEROME’S CREEK.—The Protozoan fauna of Saint Jerome’s Creek
presents considerable variety; several species of test-building Cothurnie were noticed, one
Vaginicola, three species of Vorticella or bell-animalcules, free-swimming Huplotes, Nassula; of
the latter type an exceedingly elongate form was noticed, with a body almost as slender as a
thread-worm. Monads were noted sometimes in profusion, though some of these may have been
the spores of alge. Ameceboid forms were very few, and the only one which was frequently
noticed was a form so nearly like Actinophrys sol that I would pronounce it the same.

The Freia producta Wright was most common; this creature is related to the fresh-water
trumpet animalcules, and is one of the most beautiful Protozoans I have ever seen. I reproduce
here, with some changes, my description of the Chesapeake form from the “ American Naturalist”
for November, 1880:

“The tubes in which the animalcule resides are formed of a narrow transparent ribbon of
horny consistency, wound into a spiral and terminating in a trumpet-shaped extremity, from which
the odd peristome of the inhabitant protrudes. The basal or attached end is usually bent at an
angle to the tube and bears a striking resemblance to the foot end of a stocking resting upon the
sole. This portion is not composed, like the tube, of a spiral ribbon, but is simply a thin-walled
sac, from the open end of which the ribbon takes its rise, but it is composed of the same kind of
material. Many of the tubes show a trumpet-like rim projecting from the sides of the former, a
little above the middle, and of the same form as the terminal rim, showing that this, like the form
described by Mr. Wright from British waters, may stop building its tube for a time and then
recommence.

“The adult animal, tube and all, when fully extended, will measure one twenty-fifth of an
inch in length. It is of the same color as Stentor ceruleus, or bottle-green, but has the power of
elongating and twisting itself as greatly as 8. reseli. The peristome is quite unlike that of Freia
ampulla and bears a strong likeness to the blades of a pair of obstetrical forceps. The blades are
deeply grooved, forming a deep ciliated demi-canal with parallel sides, and at the junction of their
bases lies the spacious, twisted, and spirally ciliated pharynx, which is bounded dorsally and
ventrally by the prominent folds which unite on either side with the long, curved lobes of the
peristome. ‘There is a small basal disc as in Stentor, and the ectosarc is traversed as in that genus
by parallel granular bands, regarded as muscular fibers by some writers. The usual food-balls
and vacuoles are present, and I was enabled to define sharply the endosare from the ectosarc,

734 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

and clearly see the nucleus. The tube or ribbon-secreting organ described by Wright I was unable
to discover.

‘When fully extended the basal portion of the animal becomes attenuated to a thin bluish
filament, which widens towards the peristome, where the body is over half as thick as the inside
diameter of the tube. When fully retracted and resting, the animal resembles in its oblong shape
a retracted and resting Stentor, and measures about ~ as long as when fully extended. The
ribbon which forms the tube makes from four to twenty-four turns in specimens of different ages.”

This organism I since find to be an inhabitant of the bay also, but is not so abundant as in
the creek. Small mica collectors fixed to floating corks in the hatching jars and aquaria used
during the past season were found to afford a nidus for Freia as well as Zodthamnium, the latter
multiplying at a most astonishing rate in a very few days. Under similar conditions, amebe,
apparently A. proteus, multiplied at a suprising rate; this was the case, too, with a small brown
diatom which would coat in three or four days the sides of the glass vessels with a thin brownish
film composed of countless myriads of individuals of the one species. The temperature of the
bay-water used in the aquaria at this time would range from 76° F. to 89° F. The Vorticellide
also soon attach themselves, and next to the hypotrichous infusorians found in the locality are the
most important animalcular forms found in the Chesapeake. At the mouth of the Cherrystone
River I last year found Lienophora cohnii in great abundance ectoparasitic upon an unidentified
hydroid. The heliozoén, Actinophrys sol, is found in the bay and Saint Jerome’s Creek, and I think
it capable of swallowing dead or enfeebled Oyster eggs and embryos.

MUTUAL RELATIONS BETWEEN THE OYSTER AND ITS PREY.—MObius calls an Oyster-
bank a Biocenosis or interdependent community of life. The many species of animals found
on the banks and beds are no doubt more or less mutually dependent upon each other for
subsistence, but this is perhaps not any more true of Oyster-banks than it is of terrestrial
faune. There are no doubt vast numbers of floating embryos of Oysters eaten by other
animals growing on the beds which bring their food supply to themselves by means of
currents produced by ciliary motion. On the other hand, there are no doubt vast numbers of the
minute swimming embryos of these, drawn in and swallowed by the Oyster, which ‘may, indeed,
for aught we know, iu this way swallow many of its own young, for the current produced by the
Oyster by means of the cilia clothing its gills is by no means a feeble one, though it is exceeded
in power by the current flowing into and out of the siphons of Mya. In the latter I have frequently,
upon opening the animal, found several Copepoda plainly visible to the naked eye swimming
about in the water in the inferior mantle cavity, which had evidently been drawn in by the inward
current. Itis plain in this case that very mild means may become effective as prehensile and
destructive agents, so as to bring remotely related types into intimate vital relations.

Though an animal may be apparently invulnerable on account of the effectiveness of its
covering, it cannot emancipate itself from the abiding struggle it has to make to obtain food, no
matter how passively it may appear to conduct itself. The Oyster has such a character, yet it has
been apparent from what has been observed before, that it is entirely dependent for a Vigorous
existence upon the favorableness of surrounding conditions. The beds and banks in a true sense
are interdependent communities, whose vigor may no doubt be impaired by the removal of a single
one of its members. Suppose we should take away the algex, diatoms, Oyster-crabs, vibriones,
bacteria, infusoria, in fact all the minute life; we should greatly impair if not destroy the vitality
of the beds. While it is true that many of even the smallest forms may destroy food which
should properly be consumed by the Oyster, that were it not for the presence of these same small
forms some destructive element might attain such a development as to be more injurious still.

CAUSE OF THE GREEN COLOR OF THE OYSTER. 735

There is therefore no doubt but that a delicate balance of power is maintained by these rivals
which is best for the health of the community. The stability of permanent oyster-beds, it must
be remembered, furnishes the right conditions for the survival of many types. It is a place where
they find both a home and plenty of food. It is the very favorableness offered by these places
which tends to induce them to congregate and multiply, and it becomes a serious question whether
the artificial establishment of banks will not in time cause the proper types to congregate and
multiply so as to afford the needed food supply for the Oysters. That destructive members of the
community may also be attracted is admitted, but if the beds are established in shallow waters, as
I have previously suggested, the destruction of such unwelcome intruders may be very readily
effected. “Drills” and boring-sponges are naturally to be thought of as types which should be
destroyed, while diatoms, infusoria, small polyps, bryozoa, minute alge, etc., are to be favored in
every way. Those forms again which the oyster-culturist knows are only there for the purpose
of getting a good living with little trouble to themselves ought to be destroyed.

It might be an advantage to introduce certain desirable forms onto a bank, which might be
supposed to be useful as a food supply. Infusoria and diatoms not previously existing might be
introduced in this way; this, I think, would be especially easy in the case of the furmer where
the type was one which is fixed during its adult life.

216. ON THE CAUSE OF THE GREEN COLOR OF THE OYSTER.

EXPERIMENTS AT WASHINGTON AND PHILADELPHIA.—I have frequently read accounts of
Oysters which had become green-fleshed in certain localities, and it has also been asserted that
competent chemists had discovered poisonous green substances of metallic origin in such speci-
mens. Tests made at the Smithsonian Institution by Professor Endlich in 1879 failed to disclose
anything poisonous in some green Oysters which had excited the suspicion of the Board of Health
of the city of Washington. This investigator, it is desirable to state, resorted to every test known
to him in order to discover if anything poisonous was present, and failing to discover any harmful
substance concluded that the color must be due to some inert material. In order to see if the color
was due to the presence of some green compound of copper, Prof. H. C. Lewis, of the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, kindly made some delicate tests for me, using small dried frag-
ments of an Oyster very deeply tinged with green in various regions, especially in the liver, con-
nective tissue, and mantle. The fragments were burned in a bead of microcosmic salt and chloride
of sodium on a clean platinuin wire in a gas flame; this test did not give the characteristic sky-
blue flame which should have been developed had there been the minutest trace of copper present.

It is therefore clear that the substance, whatever it may be, is not a corrosive metallic poison
derived from copper, which if present would almost undoubtedly be detected by a peculiar acrid
metallic taste, which would be experienced when one ate such Oysters. In making some practical
tests as to the relative qualities of such Oysters as compared with white-fleshed ones, oppor-
tunities for which were kindly furnished me by Mr. J. M. Carley, of Fulton Market, I failed to
detect the slightest difference of flavor. Such also is Professor Leidy’s: verdict, who informs
me that he made a similar experiment, and a restaurateur, with whom I discussed the matter,
declared that he was in the habit of selecting them for his own eating, preferring their flavor to
that of the white O;sters.

VARIATIONS IN COLOR.—If it be objected that the green color indicates an unhealthful
condition of the animal, it may be stated that other color variations of the flesh have fallen

736 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

under my observation recently. What is now alluded to is the yellowish, verging toward
a reddish cast, which is sometimes noticed in the gills and mantle of both the American and
European species. This, in all probability, like the green color, is due to the reddish-brown
matter which is contained in much of the diatomaceous food of the animal.

Mr. J. M. Carley has also called my attention to these variations, and was inclined to attribute
them to the soil in the vicinity of the beds. But if the classical writers are to be trusted, to the
green, yellow, and white fleshed sorts we must add red, tawny, and black fleshed ones. Pliny
tells us of red Oysters found in Spain, of others of a tawny hue in Illyricum, and of black
ones at Circeii, the latter being, he says, black both in meat andshell. Horace and other writers
awarded these the palm of excellence.—(O’Shanghnessy.) However, the black appearance may
only have been due to an abundance of the natural purple pigment in the mantles of the animal,
which varies very much in different forms; some, judging from the dark purple color of the whole
inside of the shell, must have the whole of the mantle of the same tint. The amount of color in
the mantle, especially at its border, varies in local varieties of both the American and European
species, as may often be noticed.

Sometimes almost the whole of the outside surface of the mantle is charged with dark purple
pigment cells. That copper is not usually the cause of the green color of Oysters I also have the
additional testimony of Prof. W. K. Sullivan, of Dublin, who says:

“As the green color of the mantle of Oysters from certain localities just referred to is
commonly attributed to copper, and as such Oysters are consequently believed very generally to
be poisonous, and their value therefore greatly depreciated, I made the most careful search for
traces of that metal in the muds which I had received from grounds known to produce green-
bearded Oysters. Oysters and other mollusca placed in solutions containing copper and other
metals absorb them and retain them in their tissues. I have had two or three opportunities of
examining Oysters which had assimilated copper, owing to mine-water containing it being allowed
to flow into estuaries at places close to oyster-beds. In every case the copper was found in the
body only of the Oyster, which it colored bluishg-reen, and not in the mantle or beard, which was
not green. In the green-bearded Oysters which I have had an opportunity of examining, the body
was not green, and no trace of copper could be detected in any part of the animal. The color,
too, was not the same as that of the true copper Oysters, but rather that which would result from
the deposition of chlorophyl or other similar chloroid vegetable body in the cells.”

The American consumer, however, need not be alarmed about the presence of copper in our
species, as there are no beds on our eastern coast into which the washings from mines ever flow,
as we have no workable deposits of copper near any of our beds, as in Cornwall, England. Besides,
Iam inclined to doubt the statement of Professor Sullivan that Oysters or other mollusks can
absorb copper salts until their tissues are “colored bluish-green.” Every competent histologist
knows how very readily organisms are killed by the action of inorganic acids and salts, several of
which are constantly used by biologists in fixing histological characters. Liebig, in his “Animal
Chemistry,” long ago pointed out that the oxides and metallic compounds of antimony, arsenic,
copper, and lead had a very remarkable affinity for protoplasm, producing its immediate death.
In consequence, he suggested a very high chemical equivalency for living matter. ‘This has since
been confirmed by the studies of Loew and Pokorny, who found that silver nitrate would produce
a reaction with protoplasm if diluted to the extent of one part to a million of water.

PROBABLE CAUSE OF THE GREEN COLOR.—It is highly probable that the green color of the
Oyster is due to the absorption from its food of a harmless vegetable pigment. In this country
green-bearded Oysters occur at Lynn Haven Bay, Hongers and York Rivers, Virginia, on the

OBSERVATIONS OF GAILLON AND JOHNSTON. 737

coast of New Jersey, in New York Bay, and Long Island Sound. I have seen specimens from a
number of these localities, and also tasted them both raw and cooked without being able to detect
any disagreeable or apparently harmful flavor.

Diatoms and green alge occur in great abundance in the stomach of the Oyster, especially the
former. The intestine is sometimes packed with countless numbers of the empty frpstules or tests
of diatoms, mixed with dark, muddy ooze or sediment and very fine particles of sand or quartz.
It has been objected that the green color could not be derived from diatoms, because these organ-
isms are, as a rule, apparently brown rather than green. This objection I find to be based upon
a misapprehension of the structure of the Diatomacew, as may be gathered from the following
general statement taken from Sachs’ “Text Book of Botany,” one of the latest and highest
authorities. On page 222 he says: ‘The diatoms are the only alga except the Conjugate in which
the chlorophyl occurs in the form of disks and bands, but in some forms it is also found in grains,
and the green coloring matter is concealed, like the chlorophyl grains in Fucacee, by a buft-colored
substance, diatomine or phycoxanthine.” _ It appears, then, according to the foregoing quotation,
that it is not impossible for diatoms to be the cause of the green tint in Oysters, which, let me
remark, is very nearly that of some pale green forms of those organisms which I have observed in
water from oyster coves where I have conducted microscopic studies. Both green and brown
diatoms may frequently be found in the stomach, and in making examinations to discover them I
find it best to thrust the nozzle of a pipette directly into the stomach through the mouth and
esophagus. The pipette should, have a compressible bulb, so as to enable one to draw up the
contents of the gastric cavity into the tube without injuring the animal or taking up any fragments
of it to vitiate the experiment.

OBSERVATIONS OF GAILLON AND JOHNSTON.—Speaking of the abundance of the Navicula

_ostrearia of Kiitzing, M. Benjamin Gaillon, in 1820, said that they inhabit the water of the
tanks or “parks” in which the Oysters are grown in such immense abundance, at certain seasons
of the year, that they can only be compared to the grains of dust which rise in clouds and
obscure the air in dusty weather. Dr. Jobnston, speaking of the French Oysters, says that in
order to communicate to them a green color, which, as with us (in England), enhances their
value in the market and in the estimation of the epicure, they are placed for a time in tanks

or “parks,” formed in particular places near high- water mark, and into which the sea can be

admitted at pleasure by means of sluices; the water being kept shallow and left at rest is
favorable to the growth of the green Conferve and Ulve; and with these there are generated
at the same time innumerable erustaceous animalcules which serve the Oysters’ for food and
tincture their flesh with the desirable hue.

This last remark of Dr. Johnston’s at first struck me as im probable, but I have met with great
numbers of small crustaceans, Copepoda mainly, in the branchial cavity of the common Clam (Mya
arenaria). Certain peculiar species have also been described by Allman from the branchial
cavities of ascidians. More recently, while investigating the contents of the stomach of the
Oyster, by the method already described, I find that it also swallows crustaceans,-which. are di gested
and absorbed as food.. The tests of nauplii or very minute larval crustaceans with the contents
digested out were frequently met with. Doubtless many very small Copepoda are also swallowed
and digested, but these are not-green. Besides the foregoing, I sometimes met with the very young
shells of larval gasteropods and lamellibranchs; indeed, it is not improbable that the adult Oyster
may consume its own larve. The remains of bryozoa were also observed, such as Pedicellina
americana. The test of a peculiar elongate rhizopod and the ecephalula stage of several worms
were also noticed. Of the smaller organisms usually associated with more or less clearly marked

47 F

738 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

putrefactive changes, one which I find almost uniformly present is a filiform or thread-like organ--
ism allied to Spirillum. It, however, was always found in the stomach in great abundance, and
especially in the pyloric portion of the intestine in which the crystalline style is lodged. This.
organism is probably harmless; a similar one is frequently found in both fresh and salt water,
and has at times been developed in prodigious numbers in the reservoirs from which the supplies.
of water were drawn for a large city, without any evidence of its having produced a harmful
effect upon those who drank of the water.

VIEWS OF LEIDY, PUYSEGUR, AND DECAISNE.— Professor Leidy, at a recent meeting of
the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phifadelphia, stated it as his belief that Oysters feed at
times on the zoospores of certain algx, as those of Ulva latissima (sea cabbage), which he knew
from personal observation to be green, and which he thought might possibly be the cause of
the green coloration of the soft parts of the animal as sometimes observed in certain localities.
Very possibly this may be the case, but judging from what I have seen and heard from oyster-.
men, as well as from what I have read in various publications relating to this matter, Iam not
inclined to regard this as the only source of the unusual green tint of the flesh of the Oyster.
I hope to be able to show that it is probably of vegetable origin, and therefore quite harmless.
That it is not copper we may be equally certain, as Professor Lewis’ tests have shown, for:
any such quantity of a copper salt as would produce the green gills, heart, and cysts in the
mantle, such as are often observed, would, without doubt, be as fatally poisonous to the Oyster:
as to a human being. The source of the green has recently been investigated by two French
savants, MM. Puysegur and Decaisne, who found that when perfectly white-fleshed Oysters.
were supplied with water containing an abundance of a green microscopic plant, the Navicula
ostrearia of Kiitzing, their flesh acquired a corresponding green tint. These investigators also-
found that if the Oysters which they had caused to become imbued with this vegetable green
were placed in sea-water deprived of the microscopic vegetable food the characteristic color would.
also disappear. Whether this will finally be found to be the explanation in all cases remains to.
be seen, as some recent investigations appear to indicate that it is possible that a green coloration
of animal organisms may be due to one of three other causes besides the one described above as.
the source of the green color of the Oyster.

GEDDES UPON CHLOROPHYL-CONTAINING ANIMALS.—Patrick Geddes, in a recent number
of “Nature,” has pointed out that the “list of supposed chlorophyl-containing animals
breaks up into three categories: first, those which do not contain chlorophyl at all, but green.
pigments of unknown function (Bonellia, Idotea, etc.); secondly, those vegetating by their own
intrinsic chlorophyl (Convoluta, Spongilla, Hydra); thirdly, those vegetating by proxy, if one may
so speak, rearing copious alge in their own tissues, and profiting in every way by the vital
activities of these.” This latter is one of the most interesting and important of modern biological.
discoveries, that living animal bodies may actually afford a nidus for the propagation of green.
microscopic plants and not be injured but rather be benefited thereby. The oxygen thrown.
off by the parasitic vegetable organism appears to be absorbed by the tissues of the animal host,.
while the carbonic-acid gas thrown off by the latter is absorbed by the vegetable parasite, thus
affording each other mutual help in the processes of nutrition and excretion. This singular
association and interdependence of the animal host and vegetable guest has received the some-
what cumbrous name of Symbiosis, which may be translated pretty nearly by the phrase “asso-
ciated existence.” This is not the place for the discussion of the purely scientific aspect of this.
question as already ably dealt with by Dr. Brandt, Patrick Geddes, Geza Entz, and others, and.

THE GREEN MATTER IN ANIMALS. 739

We will thérefore only notice their researches in so far as they appear to have a bearing upop
the origin of the green color of the Oyster.

ENTZ’ DISCOVERIES.—Entz has discovered that he could cause colorless infusoria to become
green by feeding with green palmellaceous cells, which, moreover, did not die after the death of
their hosts, but continued to live, growing and developing within the latter until their total evolu-
tion proved them to be forms of very simple microscopic green alga, such as Palmella, Gleoc ystis,
etc. My own observations on some green-colored infusorial animals have been of so interesting a
character that I will here describe what I observed in a green bell animalcule ( Vorticella chloro-
stigma). Upon investigating their structure, I found that next the cuticle or skin in the outer soft
layer of their bodies, known as the ‘“ectosarc,” at all stages there was a single stratum of green
corpuscles very evenly or uniformly imbedded. In another form (Stentor), as already noticed by
Stein, the same superficial layer of green corpuscles was observed, reminding one very forcibly of
the superficial layer of chlorophy] grains observed in the cells of some plants, as, for instance,
Anacharis. Now, it is well known that certain animalcules are at times quite colorless and at
others quite green; this appears to be the case with Ophrydiwm. In this last case I have a
suspicion that vegetable parasites may be the cause of the green variety, but as for the others,

_ Stentor and Vorticella, I am not so sure that their green forms are so caused. In them the
superficial positions of the green corpuscles and their behavior toward reagents lead me to
think that they must be regarded as integral parts of the creatures in which they are found.

NATURE OF THE GREEN MATTER IN ANIMALS.—A grass-green planarian worm (Convoluta
Schultzti), found at Roscoff by Mr. Geddes, was observed by him to evolve oxygen in large
amounts, like a plant, and “both chemical and histological observations showed the abundant.
presence of starch in the green cells; and thus these planarians, and presumably, also, Hydra,
Spongilla, etc.,, were proved to be truly vegetating animals.” While some organisms, like the
foregoing, appear to have true chlorophyl grains imbedded superficially in their own substance,
others, like the radiolarians, some siphonophores, sea anemones, and jelly-fishes, harbor true:
vegetable parasites, or, preferably, vegetable guests.

That the green observed in a number of animal organisms is of the nature of chlorophyl,,
or leaf green, has been proved by Lankester by means of the spectroscope. A. W. Bennett, in:
alluding to Lankester’s observations, says: “In all cases the chlorophylloid substance agrees in.
having a strong absorption band in the red—a little to the right or left—and, except in Idotea, in:
being soluble in alcohol, and in having strong red Huareseen ce, and in finally losing its eolor whem
dissolved.”

The vegetable organisms which have been found to inhabit the lower forms of Iife alluded’ to»
in the foregoing paper have been regarded as belonging to two genera, which Dr. Brandt has.
named Zodchlorella and Zodxanthella, and which are probably in part synonymous with the genus.
Philozoén, afterwards proposed by Mr. Geddes. The latter gentleman, however, claims to have
first demonstrated the truth of the view that the yellow cells of radiolarians and polyps are algx;.

‘secondly, the foundation of the hypothesis of the lichenoid nature. of the alliance between alge-
and animal into a theory of mutual dependence; and, thirdly, the transference of that view from .
the region of probable speculation into that of experimental science.

Hitherto no one has apparently noticed the occurrence of green vegetable parasites ii-
bivalve mollusks except Professor Leidy, who has very kindly permitted me to use the facts .
observed by him relating to Anodon, ove of our common fresh-water Mussels. In this animal he -
some years ago observed what must be considered to be algous parasites. He found them in
great numbers infesting the tissues of the Mussel and of a larger size than the nuclei of the cells of
the host in which they were imbedded. They were also provided with a nucleus, and were, there--

740 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

fore, not a part of the animal but a distinct vegetable organism. These facts, observed a long
time since, render it very probabie that Professor Leidy was one of the first to notice the intra-
cellular parasitism of a plant.in an animal. ; ;

The green color of the Oyster, as far as my experience goes, is not intense, as in many green
animals, such as we observe in Stentor, Spongilla, Hydra, etc., but is a pale pea-green tint. This
has been found to be the color of affected natives as well as of foreign ones, the gills and mantle
being usually most distinctly tinged. Exceptionally the heart is affected, its color sometimes
being quite intense.

EXPERIMENTS UPON EUROPEAN OySTERS.—In studying some Oysters which were obtained
from England through the kind offices of Messrs. Shaffer and Blackford, in response to a request
comivg from Professor Baird, certain ones were found which were decidedly green. Of these the
French specimens of Ostrea edulis, and a very singular form, labeled « Anglo-Portuguese,” had the
gills affected, and in some of the latter the liver, heart, and mantle were very deeply tinged in
certain parts, so much so that I decided to make as critical an examination as my resources could
command.

Spectroscopic investigations gave only negative results, as it was found impossible to discern
any positive evidence of chloropbyl from the spectrum of light passed through thin preparations
made from specimens of green-tinted Oyster, some of which, like those made from the heart, are
decidedly green to the naked eye. There was no absorption noticed at the red and biue ends of
the spectrum, such as is observed when the light which enters the slit of the spectroscope first
passes through an alcoholic solution of leaf green or chlorophyl; indeed, the spectrum did not
appear to be sensibly affected by the green substance which causes the coloration of the Oyster.
' No attempt was made to test the matter with the use of alcoholic green solutions obtained from
affected Oysters, as the former are not easy to get with a sufficient depth of color, because of the
_ relatively small amount of coloring matter present in the animals. Unstained (fresh) preparations
were used in all of these experiments.

COLORS IN DIFFERENT PARTS.—I find the liver to be normally of a brownish-red color in
both the American and European Oyster, sometimes verging toward green. When the flesh or
gills of the animal is green, the liver almost invariably partakes of this color, but in an intensi-
fied degree. The green stain or tincture appears in some cases to have affected the internal ends
of the cells which line the follicles or ultimate saccules of the liver. This color is able to survive
prolonged immersion in chromic acid and alcohol, and does not allow carmine to replace it in
sections which have been stained with an ammoniacal solution of that color, the effect of which
is to produce a result similar to double staining in green and red. The singular green ele-
ments scattered through the connective tissue remain equally well defined, and do not take the
-carmiue dye. I at first believed these to be parasitic vegetable organisms, and I also sup-
“posed I saw starch granules in them, which physical tests with an iodine solution failed to con-
firm. These large and small green granular bodies in the connective tissue, and those close to
the intestinal wall, as well as those in the heart I, find present in fewer numbers in white-fleshed |
Oysters, but simply with this difference, that they are devoid of the green color. It is evident,
therefore, that they cannot be of the nature of parasites, though the color is limited to them,
only the surrounding tissue, except in the region of the heart, appearing of the normal! tint.
This condition of the specimens observed by me does not, however, disprove the possibility of
the occurrence of vegetable parasites in the Oyster, where there is as much, or perhaps more
likelihood of their occurring than in some much more highly organized animals.

It is a fact, however, that the Oyster is singularly free from true parasites of all kinds; the

‘ COLORS OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE OYSTER. 741

oyster-crab being perhaps the only creature which is ever frequently found within its valves,
and then only as a harmless messmate. More recently it has been my good fortune to be able to
study a second lot’of European Oysters, in two varieties of which the green color was unusually
developed, especially in the heart. In a specimen of Falmouth Oyster I found a large cyst or
sac in'the mantle near the edge filled with green cells, which, like those in the heart, when opened
readily separated from one another, being quite as i: dependent of each other as the ordinary
discoidal corpuscles in the serum of red blood. The hearts of affected specimens were found to
have the wall of the ventricle abnormally thick, and covered inside with the readily detachable
green cells in a thick layer and measuring one three-thousandth of an inch in diameter. An appli-
cation of the test for starch with iodine gave a negative result. If iodine was first applied to
these cells in strong solution, and they were then treated with sulphuric acid, the characteristic
blue reaction was not developed, showing that there was no cellulose wall covering them, and
that they were most positively not parasitic, algous vegetable organisms. In potassic hydrate
solution they were completely dissolved, a further proof of the absence of cellulose.

Their dimensions, one three-thousandth of an inch, is the same as that of the blood-cell of the
Oyster. They are nucleated, with the nucleus in an eccentric position as in the blood-cell of the
animal. Their occurrence in the heart and gills so as to tinge those organs of their own color is
almost positive proof of their true origin and character. Furthermore, I find in sections that they
sometimes occlude the blood-channels. In the cysts in the mantle, as in tle heart, they are free,
and in the normal untin ged heart they are not abundant. All of the foregoing facts indicate that
these green bodies are in reality blood-cells which belong to the animal. How they become green
is not easy to determine. The fact remains that no evidence of the presence of green Mier ococct
or Microbia, as independent existences, could be made out. The fact that I found instances in green
Oysters where an unusualigreenish material was found in the follicles of the liver, the living cells
of which were also affected, would indicate that the color was probably absorbed from the food of
the animal, which, as we know, consists largely of living vegetable matter. It is not improbable
that the tinged nutritive juices transuded through the walls of the alimentary canal acquired the
color of the food which had been dissolved by the digestive juices.

How to account for the accumulation of the green cells in the heart and in cysts in the
mantle is not, however, an easy matter, unless one be permitted to suppose that the acquisition
of the green color by the blood-cells is in reality a more or less decidedly diseased condition, for
which we have no ground in fact, since the green Oysters are in apparently as good health as the
white ones. They were found ‘fat’ or ‘poor,’ just as it may have happened that their food was
abundant or the reverse. They are also found in all stages of the ‘greened’ condition. Sometimes
they have only a very faint tinge of the gills, or they may be so deeply tinged as to ‘appear

* unpalatable, with the heart of a deep green, or with green cysts developed in the mantle, or with

clouds of this color shading the latter organ in certain places. A vastly greater proportion of
green Oysters are eaten in this country, at all events, than is generally supposed, especially of
those just faintly tinged in the gills. ;
The most important glandular appendage of the alimentary tract of the Oyster is the liver.
It communicates by means of a number of wide ducts with a very irregularly formed cavity, which
we may designate as the stomach proper, in which the food of the animal comes into contact with
the digestive juices poured out by the ultimate follicles of the liver, to undergo solution preparatory

‘ to its absorption during its passage through the singularly formed intestine.

If thin slices of the animal are examined under the microscope we find the walls of the
stomach continuous with the walls of the great ducts of the liver. These great ducts divide and.

742 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

subdivide until they break up into a great number of blind ovoidal sacs, into which the biliary
secretion is poured from the cells of their walls. A thick stratum of these follicles surrounds the
stomach, except at its back or dorsal side. It is not correct to speak of the liver of the Oyster as
we speak of the liver of a higher animal. Its function in the Oyster is the same as that of three
different glands in us, viz, the gastric follicles, the pancreas, and the liver, to which we may add the
salivary, making a total of four in the higher animals which is represented by a single organ in
the Oyster. In fact, experiment has shown that the secretion of the liver of mollusks combines
characters of at least two, if not three, of the glandular appendages of the intestine of vertebrated
animals. There are absolutely no triturating organs in the Oyster for the comminution of its
food; it is simply macerated in the glandular secretion of the liver and swept along through the
intestine by. the combined vibratory action of innumerable fine filaments with which the walls of
the stomach, hepatic ducts, and intestine are clothed.

In this way the nutritive matters of the food are acted upon in two ways: first, a peculiar
organic ferment derived from the liver reduces them to a condition in which they may be absorbed ;
secondly, in order that the latter process may be favored it is propelled through an intestinal
canal which is peculiarly constructed so as to present as large an amount of absorbent surface as
possible. This is accomplished by a double induplication or fold which extends for the whole
length of the intestine, the cavity of which in consequence appears almost crescent-shaped when
cut straight across. On the concave side the intestinal wall is thrown into numerous very narrow
longitudinal folds, which further serve to increase the absorbing surface. Such minor folds are
also noticed in the stomach, and some of these may even have a special glandular function. There
are no muscular fibers in the wall of the intestine as in vertebrates, and the sole motive force
which propels the indigestible as well as digestible portions of the food through the alimentary
canal is exerted by the innumerable vibratory cilia with which its inner surface is clothed. The
intestinal wall is wholly made up of columnar cells which are in direct contact externally with
the connective tissue which is traversed by numerous large and small bloodvessels devoid of
spécialized walls.

This apparatus is admirably suited to render the microscopic life found in the vicinity of the
animal available as a food supply. The vortices created by the innumerable vibratory filaments
which cover the mantle, gills, and palps of the Oyster enables it to draw its food toward itself,
and at the same time the microscopic host is hurled into the capacious throat of the animal to
undergo conversion into its substance as described above. The mode in which the tissues may
become tinged by the consumption of green spores, diatoms, or desmids it is easy to infer from
the foregoing description of the digestive apparatus of the animal; and the colorless blood-cells,
moving in a thin, watery liquor sanguinis, would, judging from their amcebiform character, readily
absorb any tinge acquired by the latter from the intestinal juices.

217. LOCAL VARIATIONS IN THE FORM AND HABITS OF THE OYSTER.

Mr. Darwin (“Variation of Animals and Plants,” vol. ii, 2d ed., p. 270) writes: “With
respect to the common Oyster, Mr. F. Buckland informs me that he can generally distinguish the
shells from different districts; young Oysters brought from Wales and laid down in beds where
‘natives’ are indigenous, in the short space of two months begin to assume the ‘native’ character.
M. Costa! has recorded a much more remarkable case of the same nature, namely, that young

‘ Bull. de la Soc. Imp. d’Acclimat.,.viii, p. 351.

EFFECT OF HEAT UPON OYSTERS. 743

‘shells taken from the shores of England and placed in the Mediterranean at once altered their
‘manner of growth and formed prominent diverging rays, like those on the shells of the proper
Mediterranean Oyster. The same individual shell, showing both forms of growth, was exhibited
‘before a society in Paris.”

VARIATIONS IN THE SHELL.—The statement by Mr. Buckland in regard to the local forms of
‘Ostrea edulis is undoubtedly true, as I know from personal observation of specimens o'-tained for
me from various parts of Europe through the efforts of Professor Baird. In some cases the local
‘differences between the shells from different places were so marked that had a person mixed certain
“lots together indiscriminately without my knowledge I could afterwards certainly have sorted out
‘the more marked varieties. Local influences also very largely determine the “ greening” of Oysters,
as I can assert from personal observation of both the American and European species. Practical
-oystermen affirm that they can readily discriminate the local varieties of Oysters grown in various
noted localities along the eastern coast of the United States. From what I have seen it is very
‘probable that this may be the case, as one may often observe well-marked differences of form as
‘well as color. :

Local adaptation undoubtedly takes place, for how else are we to account for the fact that
-a change in the specific gravity of the water to which the adult has been accustomed will kill the
milt? This point has an important practical bearing in relation to the effect of heavy rains in
‘diluting the water when the animals are spawning. Might not a marked change in the specific
gravity of the water at the time of spawning kill all the spermatozoa which are set free, and thus
also prevent the impregnation of whatever mature ova were being thrown out at that time by
the adults?

INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE.—Certain it is that temperature has an influence upon the
‘time of spawning. A lot of Oysters marked “ Anglo-Portuguese,” which had been transplanted
from Portuguese to English waters, and which I received in the month of March and others
‘in January last, had the reproductive organs remarkably advanced in development. as compared
with specimens of O. edulis from different parts of England, Wales, Scotland, Holland, and France.
So great was this difference that, although planted for some time in the colder waters of England,
the reproductive organs of the Portuguese form had not apparently had their disposition to
become functionally active at this early season influenced to any great extent. In fact, I obtained
living mature eggs and milt from a number of specimens of this variety, while I looked in vain
for ripe spawn in any of the others of the true O. edulis. This would indicate that the influence otf
‘temperature, though not altogether hereditary in this case, was persistent, and had so impressed
‘itself that the reproductive organs of these Oysters, coming from a warmer latitude, had begun
to mature their sexual products even after transplanting into more northerly and colder waters
much sooner than the natives of those same latitudes.

Like this persistent influence of a climate to which certain forms of Oysters have been long
accustomed, the influence of the specific gravity of the water of a certain locality may also be
persistent: The Oysters of Saint Jerome’s Creek seem to be adapted to the specific gravity of
the water of the vicinity, so that if artificial sea-water is prepared, differing much in this regard
from the native water, we find that the spermatozoa are immediately killed if put into it. From
this it follows that if the specific gravity to which the adults become accustomed is normal to
their sexual products, may it not be well to look into the effect of such changes upon the health
of the adults?

I have met with spawning Oysters in December, such at least in which the spawn was nearly
mature, but this was an exceptional case. I find them in April and May in considerable abun-

744 - NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

dance; the months of May, June, and July may, however, be regarded as their principal spawning
months. Ripe spawn may be sparingly obtained in the latter part of August, and even up to
the first of October, but the three months mentioned are the periods during which the experi-
mentalist ought to be in the field prepared for work in this, the latitude of Washington. What
amount of variation from this period may be made manifest as we go north or south along the
eastern coast of the United States I am unable to state; and what amount of local variation may
also be due to causes of a purely local character I am also unable to say, not having examined
the Oysters at a sufficient number of localities to make such facts as I may possess of any
value.

218. THE OYSTER-CRAB AS A MESSMATE AND PURVEYOR.

It is many years since Mr. Say named the little Oyster-crab Pinnotheres ostreum, and its habits
since that time seem to have excited but little interest. Professor Verrill, in his observations pub-
lished in the ‘Report of the United States Fish Commissioner for 1871-7 2,” records the fact that
it is the female which lives in the Oyster, and that the male, which is smaller and unlike the
female, especially in the form of the abdominal segments of the body, is rarely if ever seen to
occur as a messmate of the Oyster, but that he has seen it swimming at the surface of the water
in the middle of Vineyard Sound. He also says that they occur wherever Oysters are found.
This singular little crab has quite a number of allies which inhabit various living mollusks, holo-
thurians, etc., of which admirable accounts are given by Van Beneden in his work on “ Animal
Parasites and Messmates,” and also by Semper in his treatise entitled “‘ Animal Life.”

QUADRUPLE COMMENSALISM.—The Oyster-crab is a true messmate, and it is in the highest
degree probable that the presence of these animals in the mantle cavity of the Oyster is to be
regarded as advantageous rather than otherwise. The animal usually lives between the ventral
lobes of the mantle of its host, into which the four lobes of the gills and palps also depend,
and, as will be seen from the following observations, may be the means of indirectly supplying
its passive protector with a portion of food. During a trip down the Chesapeake in July, 1880,
while I was with the Fish Commission vessel, some Oysters were dredged up by the crew which
contained some Oyster-crabs. In the case I am about to describe the included crab was a female
with the curiously expanded, bowl-like abdomen folded forward under the thorax, partially
covering a huge mass of brownish eggs. Upon examining these eggs, what was my astonish-
ment to find that they afforded attachment to a great number of compound colonies of the
singular bell animalcule, Zodthamnium arbusculum. Upon further examination it was found that
the legs and back of the animal also afforded points of attachment for similar colonies, and .
that here and there, where some of the individuals of a colony of Zodthamnium had been sepa-
rated from their stalks, numerous rod-like vibriones had affixed themselves by one end. In this
way it happens that there is a quadruple commensalism established, since we have the vibriones
fixed and probably nourished from the stalks of the bell animalcule, while the latter is benefited
by the stream of water drawn in by the cilia of the Oyster, and the last feeds itself and its protegé,
the crab, from the same food-laden current. Possibly the crab inside the shell of its host catches
and swallows food which in its entire state could not be taken by the Oyster, but in any event
the small crumbs which would fall from the mouth and claws of the crab would be carried to

‘the mouth of the Oyster, so that nothing would be wasted. ,

We must consider the crab with its forest of bell animalcules in still another light. Since

the animalcules are well fed in their strange position, it is but natural to suppose that they would

DEVELOPMENT OF THE OYSTER-CRAB. 745

propagate rapidly, and that the branches of the curious tree-like colonies would also increase in
numbers. The individuals of the colonies multiply in about three ways: first, by branching;
secondly, by splitting lengthwise; thirdly, certain much enlarged and overfed zoids divide cross-
wise. By the two last modes one-half of the product is often set free, the free animalcules
so originated being known as “swarmers.” These cast-off or free zodids which drop from the
colonies are no doubt carried along by the vortex created by the cilia of the gill and palps, and
hurled into the mouth and swallowed as part of the daily allowance of the food of the Oyster.
We may therefore regard Pinnotheres, in such instances, as a ‘veritable nursery, upon the body and
legs of which animalculesg are continually propagated and set free as part of the food supply of
the Oyster, acting as host to'the crab. I do not suppose, however, that such a condition will
always be found to obtain, and it must also be remembered that myriads of Zodthamnium colonies
were dredged up attached to the fronds of the handsome Grinnelia, a red alga commonly found
in certain parts of Chesapeake Bay. Where this plant grows in abundance on the bottom I have
estimated that one might find upwards of a hundred animalcules attached to a square inch of
frond surface, which would indicate an animalcular population of upwards of four millions of
individuals to the square rod, a number as great as that of the human inhabitants of the city of
London. a .

DEVELOPMENT OF THE OYSTER-CRAB.—The Oyster-crab undergoes a development and
metamorphosis similar to that of our edible crab, Callinectes, but the body in the Zowa stage
is blotched with dark, branched pigment cells. The eyes also are vastly more developed than
in the adult, where they are partly suppressed from disuse. There is no dorsal spine, nor are
the antennary and rostral appendages so well developed as in the Zowa of Callinectes. After the
young are hatched they probably leave the abdominal covering of the parent, swim out of the
Oyster for a season, and, if female, seek a permanent abode in some Vyster near by, behaving
somewhat like the species described by Semper as inhabiting the water-lungs of certain holothu-
rians. After undergoing further development, the young Pinnotheres reaches the megalops stage
of its development, when it is probable that the choice of its home takes place.. After it has’
entered the mantle cavity of its host as a diminutive larva, and has grown to be adult, when
it measures a half inch or more in diameter, it is probably ever after a prisoner within the
shell of its molluscan protector. It undergoes a retrogressive metamorphosis as it grows adult,
its eyes become relatively less conspicuous than in youth, and it never has a thick, hard shell
like its allies which live in the open water, but the external skeleton remains almost entirely sott
and chitinous, or in the state in which we commonly find the outer covering of an edible crab
which has just molted. This arises apparently from the conditions by which the animal is sur-
rounded; the protection afforded it by its host does away with the need of a thick, hard covering
such as we find inclosing the bodies of its free-swimming allies. Unlike the latter, too, the limbs
of the Oyster-crab are to some extent degenerate and weakened; its chel or claws are feeble,
and, when removed from its home,. seems a very sluggish, helpless sort of creature, without a
particle of the pugnacity of its allies, and if placed on its back will sometimes remain in that
position helplessly beating the air with its weak limbs. This is a remarkable instance, which also
serves very admirably to illustrate the principle of degeneration in organic evolution, so ably
dealt with by Prof. E. Ray Lankester.

: The Oyster itself is also an example of the effect of disuse in producing retrograde develop-
ment, and even shows signs of gradual adaptation when removed, from one locality to another.
Unlike most other bivalves, the Oyster has no soft muscular foot which it may protrude outward
from between the edges of its valves. No visible rudiment of such a prominence can be found

- .

746 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

iin the adult, though something of the sort, it is asserted by embryologists, appears to be devel-
oped in the larve. As the Oyster lost its power of locomotion from the non-development of
‘the foot, due doubtless to a gradually acquired sedentary habit which has become permanent.
the pedal structures have been almost entirely aborted, leaving nothing excepting the poorly
developed pedal muscles described by Dall. There is accordingly little or no evidence of the
-existence of a pedal or foot ganglion in the Oyster, because there is no need for one, as in other
forms; it, too, has disappeared with the structure which required its presence.

Returning to the consideration of the Oyster-crab, it is well known that it is much relished
‘by many persons. The animal may be eaten alive, and has a peculiar, agreeable sweetish taste.

Recently an enterprising New York party has taken to canning them, the supplies for this purpose
- being obtained from some of the large oyster-canning establishments. The ecoromic value of the
animal as food, although not great, is sufficiently important to demand a passing notice.

219. PHYSICAL AND VITAL AGENCIES DESTRUCTIVE TO OYSTERS.

Most of the observations which follow were made at Saint Jerome’s Creek, Maryland, but
inasmuch as the physical and vital enemies of Oysters appear to be similar the world over, I have
no hesitation in reproducing what [ have previously published elsewhere. And of physically
injurious agents the black ooze or mud found in the vicinity or on the bottom of many of our
most valuable beds and planting grounds is probably the most to be dreaded if it accumulates
‘in too great quantity.

The origin of the black ooze at the bottom can be traced directly to the sediment held in
‘suspension in the water which slowly ebbs and flows in and out of the inclosure, carrying with it
in its going and coming a great deal of light organic and inorganic débris, the former part of which
is mainly derived from the comminuted fragments of plants growing in the creek. This seemed to
‘be the true history indicated by what was noticed in studying the box-collector. The same opinion
is held as to the origin of this mud by both Coste and Fraiche in their works on oyster-culture.

There is probably no worse enemy of the oyster-culturist than this very mud or sediment.
It accumulates on the bottom of the oyster-grounds, where in course of time it may become deep
‘enough to cause serious trouble.’ Especially is this true of ponds from which the sea ebbs, and to
which it flows through a narrow channel. The falling leaves from neighboring trees in autumn
also contribute to this pollution, as well as heavy rains which wash deleterious materials into it.

Adult Oysters which are immersed in part in this mud struggle hard to shut it out from
their shells. If one will notice the inside of the shells of Oysters which have grown in a muddy
bottom, it will often be seen that there are blister-like cavities around the edges of the valves
filled with mud, or a black material of a similar character. There is not the slightest doubt
in my mind that in these cases the animal, in order to keep out the intruding mud, has had
recourse to the only available means at its command. A great many of the Oysters in the pond
are affected in this manner, but it is extremely uncommon to find shells of this kind in opening
Oysters coming from a hard bottom. It is easy to understand that such efforts at keeping out
the mud from the shell will not only waste the life forces of the animal, but also tend to greatly
interfere with its growth. The importance, therefore, of artificial preparation is apparent, where
it is desirable to establish ponds for the successful culture of this mollusk.

Only in one case have I observed that the mud tended to impair the flavor and color of
the Oyster. In this instance the animal was thoroughly saturated with the black ooze, the very
tissues seeming to be impregnated with the color, the stomach and intestine loaded to engorge-
ment with the mud, the animal inanifesting every sign of being in a decidedly sickened condition.

EFTECT OF SEDIMENT UPON YOUNG OYSTERS. T47

The cause of this was probably that the shell with its tenant had sunken too deeply into the
mud when the ingestion of the black ooze commenced, giving rise to the remarkable changes
which I have recorded. No doubt had this condition of things persisted for long the animal
would have been smothered by the mud.

“MUD AND THE YOUNG FRY.—The accumulation of the slightest quantity of sediment around
a young Oyster would tend to impede its respiration, and in that way destroy it, yet in the natural
beds there are so few naturally clean places which remain so that it is really surprising that so
many young Oysters pass safely through the critical periods of their lives without suceumbing to
the smothering effects of mud and sediment. When it is borne in mind that at the time the infant
Oyster settles down and fixes itself once and for all time to one place, from which it has no power
to move itself, it measures at the utmost one-eightieth of an inch, it will not be hard to under-
stand how easily the little creature can be smothered even by a very small pinch of dirt. The
animal, small as it is, must already begin to breathe just in the same way as its parents did before
it. Like them its gills soon grow as little filaments covered with cilia, which cause a tiny current
of water to pass in and out of the shell. The reader’s imagination may be here allowed to esti-
mate the feeble strength of that little current, which is of such vital importance to the tiny Oyster,
and the ease-with which it may be stopped by a very slight accumulation of dirt. Mébius esti-
mates that each Oyster which is born has y;z$q99 Of a chance to survive and reach adult age. So
numerous and effective are the adverse conditions which surround the millions of eggs matured by
a single female that only the most trifling fraction ever develop, as illustrated by the above calcu-
lation. The egg of the Oyster, being exceedingly small and heavier than water, immediately falls
to the bottom on being set free by the parent. Should the bottom be oozy or composed of
sediment its chances of development are meager indeed. Irrecoverably buried, the eggs do not
in all probability have the chance to begin to develop at all. The chances of impregnation cre
also reduced, because the male and female Oysters empty their generative products directly into
the surrounding water, whereby the likelihood of the eggs meeting with the niale cells becomes
diminished. What with falling into the mud and what with a lessened chance of becoming
impregnated, it is not unlikely that Mébius’ estimate is very nearly correct ; but the American
Oyster, whose yield of eggs is much greater, not only on account of its larger size, but also
because the eggs are smaller than those of the European, has probably still fewer chances of
survival. The vigorous growth of small organisms on surfaces fitted for the attachment of young
Oysters also tends to cause sediment to gather in such places in the interstices of the little
organic forest, where the eggs of the Oyster no doubt often become entombed or smothered by the
crowded growth surrounding them.

“Tn addition to the active, animate enemies of the Oyster, the beds suffer seriously, at certain
times, from the elements. . . . Great storms will sweep the Oysters all off the beds, bury
them under shifting sand or mud, or heap upon them the drifting wrack torn from the shores.
Beds which lie at the mouths of rivers are liable to be injured by floods also, which keep the
water wholly fresh, or bring down enormous quantities of silt and floating matter, which settles
on the beds and smothers the Oysters.

“A few years ago a large tract of peat was drained at Grangemouth, Scotland. The loose
mud and moss was carried down the drains upon an oyster-bed in the estuary; the consequence
was that the Oysters were covered over with mud and entirely destroyed. Nothing is so fatal to
Oysters as a mud storm, except it be‘a sand storm. The mud and the sand accumulate in the
Oyster’s delicate breathing organs and suffocate him.

“North of Long Island an enemy is found which does not exist in the milder south, in the

748 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

shape of ‘ground-ice’ or ‘anchor-frost.’ It is little understood, though often experienced, and I
was able to collect only vague data in regard to it. It appears that in hard winters the bottom of
the bays freezes solid in great patches, even at a depth of fifteen or twenty feet. The mud freezes
so hard that rakes cannot be pressed into it; and if a stronger implement, like a ship’s anchor, is
able to penetrate it. the crust comes up in great chunks. These frozen patches are sometimes
forty feet square and continue unthawed for long periods. When such ‘anchor-frost’ takes place
at an Oyster-bed, of course the mollusks are frozen solidly into the mass, and few of them ever
survive the treatment. To the Cape Cod planters this is a serious obstacle to success.”?

INTERFERENCE OF OTHER ANIMAL LIFE.—We have called attention to the probable inter-
ference of small organic growths to the fixation of the young fry; in practice it is found that the
larger organic growths which establish themselves on the collectors also become injurious. The
two most conspicuous types are the sessile ascidians or tunicates and the barnacles. I have
frequently found fully one-half of the surface of a slate covered with a dense colony of ascidians;
in this condition a great percentage of available surface is lost which ought to serve for the
attachment of spat. The surfaces so occupied would also be comparatively clean were it not for
‘these organisms, which actually become a serious annoyance. They, like the Oyster, affix
themselves to the slates while still in the free-swimming larval stage, since the surfaces designed
for the Oyster are equally well adapted to them. The barnacles, which also affix themselves in
great numbers, become a nuisance for the same reason. The larval barnacle is an extremely
active little creature, and dashes about in the water with great rapidity. As soon as it has
completed this stage of its growth it betakes itself to some object, to the surface of which it
attaches itself by the head end, when a singular change takes place, at the end of which it is
found that it has begun the construction of the curious conical shell which it inhabits. They
grow very rapidly, so that in a couple of months the shell will already measure over half an inch
in diameter. In this way further inroads are made upon the room which should be taken up by
Oysters.

Of course the larger types are not alone in taking up. space, since infusorians, bryozoans,
polyps, etc., are also culpable, as well as alge, such as diatoms and the higher’ forms. The only
remedy for this accumulation of animal growths on the surfaces of the slates and other collecting
apparatus will be to have the frames which hold the slate in position so arranged that each tile,
shingle, or slate can be removed, in order that it may be readily overhauled and these organisms
removed from the surfaces which it is desired shall remain clean. This work would have to be
done at intervals of every two or three weeks, and should be conducted with great caie, so as not
to remove the Oysters which have affixed themselves along with the other things which it is the
jntention to destroy. The removal of the smaller forms from the surfaces of the slate would be
more difficult, and attended with danger to the fry already attached. With this object in view,
I would suggest the use of wooden racks or frames lying horizontally, which would receive the
slates into deep notches made with a saw, so as to hold them vertically or edgewise, rendering
their removal, for the purposes of cleansing, and their replacement an easy matter. Other
devices would no doubt answer the same purpose and be more convenient even than the last.
If posts were securely fixed in the bottom eight.or ten feet apart, so as to project a foot or so
above the water at the highest tide, a single board six inches wide, nailed against the tops of the
posts edgewise, and extending from one to the other, would provide a simple arrangement from
which to hang the slates singly by means of galvanized wire fastened or hooked to nails partly
driven into the board. By the help of this plan one man with a boat could overhaul many

1, INGERSOLL, Report on Oyster Industry, Tenth Census.

ENEMIES OF THE OYSTERS. 749

hundreds of slates in a single day, and effectually care for them for a whole season. This last
contrivance would not answer well perhaps where there was a swift current, but would be a most
admirable arrangement in still ponds or ‘claires.’ In such places the whole area might be
provided with posts grouped or placed in rows, so that when the attendant was at work he could
pass in order from one row to the other in a narrow boat, or two attendants in one boat could take
care of two rows, the ones on either hand, at the same time.

Star-fishes are notorious for the havoc they are capable of making among Oysters. They
have the power apparently of everting their saccular stomachs and extracting the soft parts of
their prey from the shell. Whole beds have been seriously injured by the inroads of these
creatures. They do not seem to be dreaded much in the Chesapeake Bay, however, and appear
to annoy the oyster-planters of New England most seriously.

“The oyster-catcher, and some other birds, steal not a few at low tide. Barnacles, annelids,

and masses of hydroid growth sometimes form about the shells and intercept the nutriment of the
; poor mollusk, until he is nearly or quite starved; this is particularly true in Southern waters. At
Staten Island the planters are always apprehensive of trouble from the colonization of mussels on
their oyster-beds. The mussels, having established themselves, grow rapidly, knit the Oysters
together by their tough threads, making culling very difficult, and take much of the food which
otherwise would help fatten the more valuable shell-fish. In the Delaware Bay the spawn of
squids, in the shape of clusters of egg-cases, appropriately called ‘sea-grapes,’ often grows on the
Oysters so thickly, during the inaction of summer, that when the fall winds come, or the beds are
disturbed by a dredge, great quantities of Oysters rise to the surface, buoyed up by the light
parasitic ‘grapes,’ and are floated away. This is a very curious danger. Lastly, certain crabs
are to be feared—chiefly the Callinectes hastatus, our common ‘soft crab,’ and the Cancer irroratus.
Probably the latter is the more hurtful of the two. I have heard more complaint on this score at
the western end of the Great South Bay, Long Island, than anywhere else. Mr. Edward Udall
told me that the crab was the greatest of all enemies to Oysters on the Oak Island beds. They eat
the small Oysters up to the size of a quarter-dollar, chewing them all to bits. These are on the
the artificial beds, for they do not seem to trouble the natural growth. But tolled by broken
Oysters, when the planter is working, they come in crowds to that point. Mr. Udall stated that
once he put down five hundred bushels of seed brought from Brookhaven, and that it was utterly
destroyed by these crabs within a week and while he was still planting. He could see the crabs,
and they numbered one to every fifty Oysters. It is well known that in Europe the crabs are
_ very destructive to planted beds, and it is quite possible that many mysterious losses may be
charged to these rapacious and insidious robbers. By the way, Aldrovandus and other of the
naturalists of the Middle Ages entertained a singular notion relative to the crab and the Oyster.
They state that the crab, in order to obtain the animal of the Oyster, without danger to their
own claws, watch their opportunity when the shell is open to advance without noise and cast a
pebble between their shells, to prevent their closing, and then extract the animal in safety.
‘What craft!’ exclaims the credulous author, ‘in animals that are destitute of reason and
voice”!

In a specimen of the common Ostrea virginica, recently handed me for examination by my
friend, Mr. John Ford, the substance of the shell was thoroughly cavernated so as to render it
extremely brittle and readily crushed; in fact, the inner table of the shell left standing showed a
great number of elevations within, which indicated points where the intruding parasite had been
kept out by the Oyster, which had deposited new layers of calcareous matter at these places so

1. INGERSOLL: Report on the Oyster Industry, Tenth Census.

750 NATURAL HISTORY JF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

as to give rise to the elevations spoken of. Besides this, the inner table had become so weakened
at the insertion of the adductor muscles that the animal in closing had torn a part of it loose,
which had been repaired by the deposition of a brown, horny substance. Evidence of the presence
of the boring sponge may very frequently be noticed in shells of Oysters brought to the markets,
though it often appears as if the parasite had left its work incomplete, being killed on its host.
I find that Schmidt has also noted this, and that the boring operations of the sponge usually seem
to stop in the case of living mollusks at the nacreous layer.

Upon examining some Scotch Oysters, obtained for we for study by Professor Baird, I was
struck with the fact that every one was infested with this organism. The effect of the parasitism
was that all of the specimens had abnormally thick shells, due evidently to the effort made by
the Oyster to deposit more and more calcareous matter in order to exclude its persistent tormentor.
Internally the shell showed irregularities due to the intrusion of the sponge. It is highly probable
that in this case the growth of the Oysters had been impeded by the parasite, in consequence of
the effort made by the animals to exclude their enemy by increasing the thickness of their shells.
This same tendency to increase the thickness of the valves I have noticed in specimens of our
native Oyster, the shells of which were infested with this parasite. It is very remarkable that the
Oyster should make an effort to exclude its enemy by suck a means; and it is not less remarkable
to observe that the lime carbonate secreting function of the mantle is often stimulated to extra,
exertion long before the parasite has actually intruded into the cavity of the shell.

Dr. Leidy gives a lucid account of the living sponge as found in Ostrea virginiana and Venus
mercenaria. He says: “This boring sponge forms an extensive system of galleries between the
outer and inner layers of the shells, protrudes through the perforations of the latter tubular
processes, from one to two lines long and one-half to three-fourths of a line wide. The tubes are

of two kinds, the most numerous being cylindrical and expanded at the orifice in a corolla form,
with their margin thin, translucent, entire, veined with more opaque lines, and with the throat
bristling with siliceous spicule. The second kind of tubes are comparatively few, about as one is
to thirty of the other, and are shorter, wider, not expanded at the orifice, and the throat unob-
structed with spiculea. Some of the second variety of tubes are constituted of a confluent pair,
the throat of which bifurcates at bottom. Both kinds of the tubes are very slightly contractile,
and under irritation may gradually assume the appearance of superficial, wart-like eminences
within the perforations of the shell occupied by the sponge. Water obtains access to the interior
of the latter through the more numerous tubes, and is expelled in quite active currents from the
wider tubes.”

The boring process seems to be effected by the action of the living soft material of the sponge,
according to observations which have recently been made by a Russian naturalist, according to
whom it appears that the calcareous matter is dissolved away by the parasite. JI am told by a
practical oysterman that a bed once planted with Oysters which are badly infested by the boring
sponge is apt to remain so for some time, and that the beds adjoining become infested, for the
reason that the embryo sponges, which are thrown off in large numbers from the infested “plants,”
swim about in the water, attach themselves to other Oysters, to begin their injurious growth and
excavations in sound shells.

220. NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL OYSTER-BANKS,

CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURAL OYSTER-BANKS.—I have examined a number of oyster-
banks, which were readily accessible in shallow water, with gratifying results as to the habits
of the animal under virtually undisturbed conditions. These banks, like those formed by the

POSITIONS OF THE SPAT. 75r

European Oyster, always appear to be much longer than wide, but many of them are almost
entirely exposed to the air during low tide, a rare occurrence, according to Mébius, with the
banks on the Schleswig-Holstein coast of the North Sea. I learned from the owners of
some of these banks that, although a considerable proportion of the Oysters on them were
at times frozen to death during the severe winters, the fecundity of those which remained was.
such, combined with the naturally favorable conditions found on the banks for the growth
of old and young, as to restore the beds to their ‘wonted productiveness in one or two seasons.
Whether this description of the fecundity of the beds found in shallow water is overdrawn
or not matters little, since there was the plainest evidence that we had here before our eyes.
the best natural conditions for the propagation and feeding of the individuals. The beds are,.
in a word, natural spat-collecting grounds; places where such conditions obtain as will allow a
large proportion of the swarming brood of the spawning season to affix itself securely and survive:
in positions where an abundance of food may be got. The tide ebbing and flowing over the beds.
not only carries with it in suspension the microscopic food best adapted for the nourishment of the.
Oysters, but also tends, owing to the peculiar arrangement of the shells on the banks, to keep the.
surface of the latter clean, so as to be well adapted as favorable points of attachment for the young..

In all of the natural banks which I have had the pleasure of examining in the Chesapeake,.
‘the individual Oysters assume an approximately vertical position. The assumption of this position:
seems perfectly natural; with the hinge end downwards and the free edges of the valves directed
upward the animals are in an excellent position to feed, while the outside vertical surfaces of the
valves are well adapted to afford places of attachment for the spat: The latter, however, appears.
to attach itselfin the greatest abundance to the old Oysters at the surface of the bank. The result
is that when. one removes the Oysters from the bed they are found to adhere together in clusters,
generation after generation being piled one on top of the other in succession. As many as four
generations may be made out in most cases; the oldest being buried in the mud and sand below
and is often found to be smothered by those which have followed. Even below the last stratum
of living Oysters, if one keeps digging, itis discovered that the shells of numerous still more:
remote ancestors of the living ones now occupying the bed are disposed vertically in the sand and
earth beneath. Attached to the upper edges of these dead shells follows, we will say, the first
living generation and so on to the fourth, composed mainly of young individuals or spat only a
few days or months old. Whether it is proper to regard the superimposed series of individuals as.
generations may be questioned, but as no more expressive word occurs to me, I wish to be under-
stood as using it here witb qualifications. ;

POSITIONS OF THE SPAT.—The spat does not fix itself in any constant position; the young
may have the hinge of the shell directed downward, upward, or to the right or left hand.
Singularly enough the shells do not gréw in the directions which the free edges of the valves.
are made to assume in the young. Should the young happen to be fixed hinge downward
the free edges of the valves grow in length directly upward; in case the hinge is directed
either to the-right or to the left, the layers of calcic carbonate will be deposited in
such a way upon one side as to cause the free edges of the valves to be eventually
directed upwards, causing the umbonal portion of the valves to describe an arc of 90°.
In case the hinge is at first directed upward, the layers of carbonate of lime will be deposited
in such a way by tlie mantle as to bring the mouth of the shell upward. The attempt to get
into a vertical position will, however, not always be successful in cases like the last; the arc of
180°, which it is necessary for the animal to traverse from its starting point in order to build.
its ‘shell with the free edges opening upward, seem to be a feat a little too difficult of accom-
plishment, in spite of the wonderful persistence of effort manifested by the inhabitant.

fo2 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

The habit of growing in the erect position, where the banks are prolific and undisturbed,
causes the individuals to be very much crowded together, so that they do not have a chance to
expand and grow into their normal shape. From this cause, overcrowding, the shells of the
individual Oysters become very narrow and greatly elongated; the peculiar forms which result
are known to oystermen as “ Raccoon Oysters,” or “‘Cat’s-tongues,” the latter name being probably
derived from a suggestive resemblauce to the tongue of a cat. Fossil Oysters appear to have had
the same habit. In some banks their crowded condition may be inferred from the fact that I
counted as many as forty Oysters in an area included by a quadrangle of wire including exactly
one square foot; thirty individuals to the square foot was a fair average on one bank
examined. .

All of the observant writers upon the Oyster agree that it is essential that the bottom upon
which oyster-banks are to be permanent should not be liable to shift or be covered by mud or
sediment. The experience of the writer strongly enforces such a conclusion. The permanent
banks, owing to the great number of dead shells scattered through the bottom soil upon which
they have been established, acquire a peculiar solidity or fixedness which the currents of tide water
cannot sensibly affect. When these banks are once covered by the clusters of Oysters more or
less securely held together by the lower portions becoming imbedded in the soil below, and
mutually wedged and fitted together by the any msurfaces of contiguous clusters which have
’ become neatly adapted to each other by pressure, it is a very hard matter for the tides to smother
the bank unless sufficient soil in suspension is carried by the waters to completely cover the
animals.

ESTABLISHMENT OF ARTIFICIAL BEDS.—The inferences to be drawn from the foregoing
observations are very important. They naturally lead to ‘the inquiry whether artificial Oyster-
beds cannot at least be established in shallow water, where the difficulties in altering the
character of the bottom so as to adapt it to the wants of the Oyster are not practically
insurmountable. I believe that the establishment of artificial beds, which would in time become
similar in every respect to the natural ones, is possible in a moderately rapid tideway. The
localities, I apprehend, are abundant along the shores of the Chesapeake, and I certainly
know of few places where the existing natural conditions for such a project are any better
than those found in Saint Jerome’s Creek. The bottom would, of course, have to undergo such
preparation as would insure to it solidity, and it might be well to imitate the flat, ridge-like
character of the natural banks in constructing artificial ones. The long axis of the beds should
probably lie transversely to the direction in which the tide ebbs and flows in and out of the
creeks, a8 appears to be the case with many banks examined. The next thing to do would be
to colonize these artificial banks with Oysters stuck thickly into the bottom, hinge downward,
imitating the position of the animals in the natural banks. The cost of such an experimental
bank would be comparatively insignificant.

Since the publication of the substance of the foregoing suggestion I have seen the idea
practically realized in the Cherrystone River, Virginia. A heap of Oyster-shells had been
scattered so as to form a low, solid elevation, which was submerged twice a day by the tide.
Upon this spat had caught and grown until the whole in two years was as completely and
solidly covered by living natural-growth Oysters as any good natural bank. The desirability
of using the poorly grown stock from natural and artificial banks as “seed” for planting
appears reasonable, and could no doubt be made profitable where banks of a sufficient extent
could be established, from which a supply of seed could be obtained.

SPAT-COLLECTORS. "753

I have been informed by an old oysterman that pine bushes stuck securely into the sea
bottom so as to be submerged in shallow areas have been found very effectual as collectors.
In fact; he told me that in one case which had fallen under his observation an oyster-planter
who followed this plan had the satisfaction of seeing his submerged bushes load with spat,
much of which afterwards grew to marketable size. Afterwards a productive ridge or bank
was the result where the brush palisade had originally acted as a collector. Thick palisades
of brush might, be stuck into the bottom near permanent oyster-banks with good results.
Doubtless it would be possible to establish banks by this method if, in addition, oyster-shells
or stones were strewn on the ‘bottom along either side of the brush palisade, in order to afford
a foundation for the fixation of the first generations of oysters.

. SPAT-COLLECTORS.—Lieutenant Winslow, in 1879, used hurdles or nests of half-round tiles,
eight to'sixteen in number; the results from one placed in the Big Annemessex were very flatter-
ing. After it had been immersed twenty-four days 1,506 Oysters had attached themselves. After
forty-five days had elapsed 1,334 still remained, and after ninety-three days were past the number
still adherent was 539. I have had no such success, but in other parts of the bay, as at Tangier
Sound for instance, spat falls in great abundance. I have seen the inner face of one valve of a dead
Oyster furnish attachment for over forty spat from one-eighth to three eighths of an inch in
diameter. Sponges, pieces of wreck, old shoes, pebbles, iron ore, leather, the external surface of
the shell of Modiolaria, branches of trees and logs which have fallen into the water act as collectors.
Oysters are sometimes found inside of bottles which have been thrown upon the bottom, the fry
having wandered through the neck and attached itself to the inner surface, growing to the size of
two inches in diameter and over. The spat is shaped much like the scallop or Pecten, a form which
it often retains until it measures more than two inches in diameter. The primary requisite in
collectors is that they shall present clean surfaces while the spawning season is in progress.
Small inequalities are probably an advantage, as the very youngest spat is often found in chinks
and angles on the shells of the adults. No other organisms should be allowed to grow and cover
up or smother the oyster spat. Barnacles, infusoria, moss animals, polyps, and many other’
organisms are liable to accumulate on the surface of the collectors to the detriment of the young
Oysters which have established themselves. Many of these animals, polyps especially, eat the
young fry in the free-swimming stage, as shown by Dr. Horst. .

The use of the methods employed abroad for collecting spat has not been tested in the United
States upon a scale large enough to enable us to arrive as yet at any very important conclusions.
Roofing slate coated with mortar promises good results; the valves of oyster-shells strung upon
wire, pine cones, and brush have been used, but in unfavorable places, so as to vitiate to some
extent the results which were expected. A coating of cement will not answer; it gets too hard,
so that the spat when it is to be removed from the collectors cannot be loosened without injuring
its delicate, thin valves. The coating of lime and sand should be thick enough so as to make a
layer of at least an eighth of an inch over the surface of the collector. It should also be allowed
to thoroughly “set,” as a stone-mason would say, after it has been applied so as not to wash off
readily. A strong mortar should be mixed for the coating, composed of sharp sand and good
lime, in the proportions .of about equal parts, and thin enough to dip the slates or tiles into the
mixture bodily. If the first coat is. not found to be thick enough a second and third may be
applied. The tiles or slates after coating should be allowed to dry for two or three days so as to
' allow the coating to “set” firmly.

48 F

754 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Various ways of supporting the tiles and slates have been devised, cheap forms of which are
described in the treatises of Coste and Fraiche. The primary requisite in putting down collectors
is that they shall be so placed as not to be covered by mud, especially where the bottom is overlaid
with ooze. In such cases they must be supported so as to prevent their falling into the mud, the
effect of which would be to make them useless. In practice, I suspect, that it would be well to
look after the collectors occasionally and to brush off the mud, because in some places I have
noticed that thick deposits of sediment soon collect upon the upper surfaces. This accounts for
the fact that several observers have noticed that the spat is disposed to attach itself and survive

,on the lower surface of the collectors.

I am informed by Mr. C. P. Hull that the practice of strewing oyster-shells as spat-collectors.
on hard sea-bottom two or three fathoms deep is becoming quite common on the Connecticut.
shores of Long Island Sound. Here, the practice is to scatter two hundred and fifty to three-
hundred bushels of shells over an acre of bottom. The method there has also been so successful
and profitable as a means of increasing the area of the oyster fishery that the price of the dead
shells has increased and is likely to continue to do so, since the demand is greater than the supply.
Mr. Hull, himself a practical oyster-culturist, proposes to introduce this system into practice on
his projected plantations on the Chesapeake, where a beginning has already been made by this.
method under the direction of Captain Hine, at Cherrystone, the superintendent of the firm of-
Maltby & Co., of Norfolk, now largely interested as planters in the Cherrystone River. This.
method is the same as that extensively practiced in Europe.

How AN OYSTER TAKES ON FLESH.—Among oystermen the business of fattening or feeding -
the Oyster is one of the most important, from the fact that upon the condition of the market.
able product largely depends its value. Fatness, so called, in the Oyster is a.condition wholly
different in nature from the state known under that name in stall-fed domestic animals. The-
turgidity of the reproductive organs is not usually indicative of fatness, as it appears some authors
have supposed, Mobius being the only one who has apprehended its true nature. The word “ fat,”
as applied to indicate the condition of the Oyster when in flesh, is a misnomer, since it is not fat
at all which is the immediate cause of the condition of plumpness which betokens a fitness for-
market, but a very extensive deposit of protoplasmic matter which has been assimilated and laid
down mainly in the substance of the mantle. It is this relatively large amount of delicate, easily-
digested protoplasm, stored up in the palps and mantle, which renders the Oyster so wholesome -
and nutritious.

. The deposition of this protoplasmic material in the mantle, palps, and body stands in intimate
relation to the activity of the reproductive organs. During the spawning season Oysters are said
to be “ poor,” that is to say poor in condition, for at this time the mantle, especially where it lies
next the body on each side, is very thin and quite transparent; the radiating pallial muscles along
the border of the mantle, as well as its vessels and nerves, may now be readily studied under the
microscope, owing to its transparency and the absence of opaque granular protoplasm. If we
examine the reproductive organs at this time, as a rule, we will find them greatly developed and
pouring out their products through two large ducts, the combined caliber of which is not far short
of that of the intestine. It will be evident to any thinking mind that if the major part of the food
material elaborated by the digestive and nutritive systems goes to the ovaries or testes ‘to be
transformed into sex products, which are continually thrown off during the breeding season, little
of such material can be stored up in the tissues of the body. We have described exactly what
happens. In the month of September, when the Oysters in this latitude are for the most part
done spawning, the drain of elaborated material having ceased to flow from the openings of the.

FATTENING OF OYSTERS. 755

reproductive organs, it is diverted in another direction, but is retained in the system and has to be
deposited somewhere in the body. The most extensive deposits of this elaborated living matter
occur in the manile, body, and palps, the color of which rapidly changes from the watery, trans-
parent condition prevalent during the spawning season to a creamy white. The whole animal also
acquires a solidity which it did not possess before; it loses its watery, impoverished appearance,
together with its disposition to shrink to a fraction of its original bulk from an extensive loss of
fluids when opened. The mantle and palps become opaque and thicker than before, and their
substance is softer and more easily lacerated. The change here described undoubtedly affects the
connective tissue principally, as elsewhere stated. The material of the latter has the milky
appearance of the reproductive organ when mutilated, and may readily be mistaken for the latter
by the inexperienced. It appears that the generative and nutritive functions are opposed to each
other in the Oyster as in other animals; all of which indicates, too, the amount of energy which
must be expended during the breeding season in the production of germs. Whatever surplus
nutriment is stored up in the winter appears to be immediately devoted to the formation of germs
upon the arrival of the warm months, when food is also probably most plentiful and when the
external conditions are right for the development of the embryos. The effort which the Oyster
makes, at the expense of so much material, to reproduce its kind ought to be respected. In the
protection of the Oyster during the close season we are simply following the dictates of experience
and common sense.

The account which we have given above of the physiology and interdependence of the
fattening and reproductive processes of the Oyster, it seems to me, affords an opportunity to
point out how little philosophy there is in the doctrine that Oysters may be fattened by putting
them for a day or two in water less salt than that from which they were first taken, in order that
they may be water-swollen by the action of osmose, so as to give to them a plump appearance.
It is surprising how little dependence is to be placed upon the statements of oystermen and
fishermen in regard to the habits of the objects with which they are supposed to be most familiar.
‘And this statement, like many others of a similar kind, has no,basis of fact and experimental
evidence to rest upon. I may sum up the utter absurdity of the widespread belief in the possi-
bility of fattening Oysters by removing them from salt to less salt water for a few days, by
saying that it amounts to the same thing as to assert that water is a fatty or oleaginous substance!

The results of my most recent investigations upon the minute anatomy of Ostrea virginica may
be fitly described in this place, since they have an important bearing upon the process of fattening.
The subject of this investigation was one of the most impoverished-looking Oysters which it has:
ever been my fortune to find. It was collected on the 20th of July this present year (1882) and
placed in a chromic acid solution of one per cent. for forty-eight hours, when it was washed and.
finally transferred to alcohol, to be cut into sections when convenient. This I have recently done..
When the specimen in question was fresh it was characterized by the almost perfect transpar-.
ency of the mantle, and, as it afterwards turned out, the total atrophy of the generative orgam.
Before the hardening process had been undergone, the mantle was greatly distended by watery-
fluid, so much so that, after hardening, it had shrunken to about one-tenth of its bulk while in-
the fresh and living state. The hardened specimen was cut into thin sections after imbedding in
paraffine, by means of a modification of the Taylor freezing microtome; the sections for thinness.
left nothing to be desired, and revealed a condition of things different from any previously
observed by the writer in sections of either native or foreign Oysters. A careful microscopic:
serutiny showed that nowhere in the section was there a trace of even a rudiment of the genera-.
tive network described as the atrophied condition in a previous portion of this paper. Not even

756 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

a trace of the connective tissue in which the rudiments of the latter are usually imbedded
remained, but the hepatic follicles or ultimate saccules of the liver were lying in immediate
contact with the mantle, with no tissue whatever intervening. I have hitherto found the liver
surrounded by a thick stratum of connective tissue in all of the specimens examined. The state-
ments in a previous portion of this essay in regard to the existence of vessels which traverse this
connective tissue mass will therefore have to be modified so far as to say that not only does the
connective tissue of the body mass completely disappear, but also the vessels themselves which
are excavated through its substance. ;

Turning now to the condition of the mantle, I find this in a no less remarkable state than the
parts already described. The “vesicular connective tissue cellx,” as they have appeared to me
hitherto, have given place to an entirely different structure, apparently much less solid and
substantial. Instead of the clearly defined coarsely cellular structure usually noticed in sections
made from less impoverished individuals, the tissue has now become very coarsely areolar, all trace
of the peculiar nuclear bodies having vanished, together with the internal protoplasmic network
which they so clearly exhibit. The areole inclosed by the fibers of the connective tissue of the
mantle are very coarse and may measure as much as half a millimeter across in sections of the
hardened and shrunken specimen. When the mantle was gorged in life, with blood probably, some
idea of the coarseness of these meshes may be formed. The meshes may then have measured four
or five millimeters in diameter, the resulting cavernous state of this highly elastic tissue enabling
the mantle to become gorged or swollen by endosmosis to a remarkable degree, so much so as to
cause the animal to be apparently bulky, yet in reality distended with sanious fluids merely. The
question now arises, What has become of this connective tissue which has so completely disap-
peared? The only interpretation which I can offer is that the connective tissue substance has
been transformed into sexual products which have been poured out by way of the efferent sexual
ducts, and that our specimen represents the extreme of exhaustion consequent upon the completed
exercise of the reproductive function for the season. The animal, in other words, has now exhausted
its germ-producing resources, and must begin to feed and store up material for the next season’s
generative products. It therefore becomes highly probable that the reproductive organs develop
anew each season. My reason for thinking so is, that in this specimen the atrophy or wasting
away of the reproductive organ has gone so far that no trace even of the efferent ducts of that body
remains. The specimen, taken as it was in July, also shows that the spawning season may be
completed before the end of summer.

The connective tissue of the Oyster is, therefore, in reality transformed into ova and sperma-
tozoa, depending simply upon the sex of the individual whether it shall be the former or the latter.
This also raises the question whether the same individual may not be of a different sex during
different seasons, since it appears that the whole reproductive organ disappears and develops anew
every year. This it is however to be noted is arguing from a very different basis from that of
‘some foreign writers who have been absurdly illogical enough to say that the Oyster was of a
different sex in different years, apparently forgetting that it would be impossible to open the same
individual twice in succession; since opening it kills the animal and puts the second examination
totally out of the question.

The function of the mesenchymal or connective tissue in the Oyster is, therefore, of the nature
of a store of reserved material—protoplasm laid up for the purpose of conversion into germs as the
reproductive organ develops anew. It is then in the highest degree improbable that it is of the
nature of an oily or fatty substance, out of which it would be impossible to form such highly vitalized
bodies as the ova and spermatozoa of the Oyster. While it is true that we find the mesenchyme

RESEARCH UPON THE FATTENING OF OYSTERS. G57

developed to the greatest extent during the winter when it may be said the Oyster is in the
best condition as regards flesh, it does not follow that this plumpness is due to fatty matters, but
rather to a larger amount of protoplasm filling up the mantle, palps, and body mass.

Onur sections of the specimen described above show some other singular features which cannot
be passed over in silence. The principal of these is the presence of thick-walled vessels in the
ventral lobes of the mantle. In life we find branching vessels visible in the transparent mantle in
very impoverished specimens, such as the one under discussion. These vessels may be followed to
what are apparently their ultimate ramifications and seem to end abruptly. It is these vessels
which become obscured when the animal acquires flesh; they are, in fact, hidden in the thick
deposit of connective tissue laid down in the mantle. They are grayish or whitish in color as they
shimmer through the transparent external epithelial and connective tissue layers of the mantle
organ. They are also different in character from other vessels excavated in the connective tissue
of the mantle, and which disappear with the atrophy of the latter’s substance, just as we noticed
was the case with the vessels of the body mass. In a specimen as greatly impoverished as the one
under discussion, the thick-walled pallial vessels become very conspicuous in transverse sections.
They may not have the same function as the bloodvessels of the ordinary wall-less form found in
the connective tissue, from which type they may be at once distinguished by their thick, finely
cellular walls. :

The almost total atrophy of the mesenchyme or mesoblast during the spawning season is a
very remarkable fact, no less so than its regeneration. It appears, however, as far as I have been
able to learn from transverse sections of very small spat, one-eighth to one-sixteenth of an inch

_ in diameter, that the absence of a well-developed counective tissue deposit also characterizes the
soft parts of the young animal. Indeed, the liver follicles here are relatively few in number,
whereas they are very numerous in the adult. The follicles in the young also lie in immediate
contact with the mantle, resembling in this respect the spawn-spent adults. This, for embryolo-
gical reasons, ought tobe so. We find, in fact, according to the unanimous testimony of observers,
that the mesoblast in the Oyster develops by the proliferation of cells from the outer and inner
layers into the segmentation or body cavity.. Why, then, should it not be absorbed and regener-
ated in the same way in theadult? There seems to be no valid reason assignable why this should
not be so, if we look upon the mesenchyme with its vessels and areolar tissue and cavernous
spaces as having been primarily derived from the embryonic body cavity.

The arrangement of the intestine as shown in sections of spat as small as that described
above is essentially the same as in the adult. The second bend of the intestine crosses the
gullet in the same way, but. the double lateral longitudinal fold or induplication is not so well
marked as in the intestine of the adult. The stomach is more nearly cylindrical and not so
irregular as in the adult. The contents of both the stomach and intestine show that diatoms
have formed a large proportion of the food of the young animal, in the sections of which, these
contents, in a number of my preparations, have been kept in situ.

The sections of the soft parts may be very readily double stained so as to bring out the
tissues of the reproductive organs very distinctly. To effect this, 1 throw the section into a
solution of methyl green for a few minutes, then into magenta, when it will be ‘found that
the green will dye only the reproductive tissues, leaving the others scarcely tinged, while the red
will stain the mantle, liver, and connective tissues, mapping out these parts so distinctly as to
make a really useful as well as beautiful preparation. '

Considerable care must be exercised in the preparation of the color solutions, so as not to
have them too intense. The sections should also be at once and quickly dehydrated or else the

758 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

alcohol will abstract the green and spoil in part the effect of the double stain. In making
sections, the best ones which I have ever made have been prepared from portions of whole
‘Oysters which had been imbedded in paraffine, the latter substance having in the molten state
interpenetrated all the cavities and spaces in the hardened specimen, which had been previously
dehydrated and saturated with oil of turpentine.

Note on the organ of Bojanus of the Oyster.—In the first part of this paper it is stated that the organ of Bojanus is
rudimentary or wanting in the Oyster. This statement must now be modified. Within the past year, M. Hoek, of
Leyden, has demonstrated the existence of the organ of Bojanus in Ostrea edulis, and the writer has shown it to be present
in the American species as a crescent-shaped glandular or canaliculated structure lying just below the adductor and close
against it, as a paired organ which also extends slightly into the substance of the mantle on either side. M. Hoek has
shown that, as in other acephalous mollusks, this organ communicates with the pericardiac cavity and the genital
openings. Its function is excretory.

Valves of the heart.—A pair of very distinct valvular folds separates each of the auricles of the heart of the Oyster
from the ventricle, opening upward into the latter. They prevent the blood from regurgitating into the auricles, and
cause the blood-current to assume one constant direction, viz, from the auricles to the ventricles, and from the latter
through the anterior and posterior aortic vessels to the various parts of the body.

Fixation of the spat.—Recent studies have led me to the conclusion that the existence of a byssus in the fry of the
Oyster is very doubtful, and that fixation is accomplished at a very early stage, possibly twenty-four hours after the
embryos commence to swim, by the border of the mantle, as I have endeavored to show in my paper ‘‘On the Fixation of
the Fry of the Oyster,’’ illustrated with figures, and recently prepared for the Bulletin of the United States Fish Com-
mission, where I also show that the beaks of the larval valves are constantly directed one way, and that the hinge end
of the larval shell is inclined upward, the free margin of the left larval valve being brought into close contact with the
surface to which attachment occurs through the instrumentality of the margin of the mantle. The attachment itself is a
very firm one, and consists of the horny matrix of the calcareous material which serves as a cement to glue the free
margin of the lower valve of the fry and spat to the surface which has been chosen as a permanent abode.

SECTION I:

PaRT V.—CRUSTACEANS, WORMS, RADIATES, AND SPONGES.

By RICHARD RATHBUN.

ANALYSIS.

Y.—CRUSTACEANS : : Page.
221, The Crabs es s<c0vcsesscenees seemes se ecener sees iiss) cata wiouME MERE wee ee fa eieaio es Dieis lay Wares Siby Sis): cinisvaicieiwisia 763
: 222, The Common Edible or Blue Crab .......-..-220 oes cece ceccecceccee ceececvcnensevcenes codes cose 775
220s “The TOD SOLS) avecscraraya tyes erst treieysjninssin ab cicicieimlninic wid Siaia Miayerain diarercininy seared e.dberdiwieia aueic aide dys SerapSertmreiageicwinlscis cis 780
224. The American Lobster ...-- HES Sises Sse soi lew tak ere aude och qeusee ee SITE aoe as pm scenes aes aenIeoyalraoromI eae reuneala 781
225. The Cray Fishes, Astacus and Cambarus .............. SoA Sia ie caee Tatas da Re GueaCanaed 812
226. The Shrimps and Prawns .......-.. 0... 0h ee cence eee eee cee cen nee e nee fapcalniaiclaraidiarciatuste a accierw'aes 816
227. The Mantis Shrimps: Squillide .....-... 22.22.22 ee eeee eee ee cee cece ee ee joivigichivtabinislapine ied babe 823
Ba). “ThepA ap hipodst. 2 cich.aiiaccdrchintiun cin ndecdamnadweuwnanwvenge deg luanedelvaas eueanaaeduuueelece 824
229, The Isopods ...... 2.222. ce 200. concen cee een snenee’s ACW Se a ee RNS dcihevs sieiaeuieecbicenceeuedues 826
230. Thé Entomostracans 2.0.0. xc wand csse nscale sina icitinlg eiginigigin tia'ep wien Oacaistere Sing delarsiewm/aemienien beeen 827
231. The Cirripedia ....... dined Siesta dems mpl al Sap iui ei ehcacelsnnaie a Gime meisaisie aaa daetiet baba nasey 628
239, STNG: Ki phOsura’ sececd nue ices Sadaiaceinceueeeaneeees slacaed aa deeeguieba ian qoeps wien maceeweee 829

Z.—WORMS:
233. The Annelids-.... mi wicca tnieiel cp ayetcin' crate eiwin “sielaleya sti lainiu~utgipicialeiereie e seisiei se eelsiajsbase a letoluiewietsnisléemiennepmaen' seas 831
234. The: Leeche se. ssicceinw ge sicicicicigiieareinisio sinisiwinie! ais ia'sinre isis biases wisteinreissaialain cieiersisioipinins vinie we Ripcolaeme a neem eats 833

Z. A.—TuHE RapiatTEs:

Z. B.—THE PORIFERS:

237. The Sponges sisisssccsscuacernaarcsi avissua reese s wus swmenaawienaweeeeee sume lwexesewescewanciones sama 843.
238. The Genus Spongia, and the American Commercial Sponges....... 22... --0-eeceee eee ot eect tenes 846
239. Injurious Sponges ............---2 000+ h gislowere Sects ul oaleecisne eilesebeniebhn en see eear semearasaeeuniee BDO!

Y.—CRUSTACEANS.

221. THE CRABS.

THE FIDDLER CRABS—GELASIMUS PUGNAX, Smith; GELASIMUS PUGILATOR, Latreille; GELASI-
MUS MINAX, Le Conte.

Three species of Fiddler Crabs occur upon the Atlantic coast of the United States, and are
frequently utilized as bait. Congregating together in immense numbers, as they often do, and

excavating their holes generally in convenient localities, above the reach of the tides, they might
be easily collected in large quantities, were they better appreciated by the fishermen. Most
dwellers upon the sea-shore are acquainted with that peculiarity of the Fiddler Crabs which has
given to them their common name, and by which they are readily distinguished from our other
Crabs. The males are provided with two very unequal claws, one being of large, the other of
quite small size, in comparison with the size of the animal. Of these, the larger cliuw has been
likened to a fiddle and the smaller one to a bow; hence the derivation of the name. The claws of
the females are, however, of equal and small size. :

The three species mentioned as living upon the Atlantic coast are Gelasimus minaz, G.
pugnaxr, and G.pugilator. The former species, which is the largest, ranges from the southern coast
of New England to Florida, and lives upon salt marshes, usually farther from the sea than the
others, and frequently where the water is nearly fresh. G. pugnax ranges from Cape Cod to
Florida, and also occurs in the Gult of Mexico aud umong the West Indies. “It makes its
burrows only upon salt marshes, but is often seen in great companies wandering out upon muddy
or sandy flats, or even upon the beaches of the bays and sounds.” G. pugilator ranges from Cape
Cod to Florida, upon muddy and sandy flats. and beaches. Professor Verrill describes the habits
and characteristics of these species as follows: ! =

“We find several species of Crabs burrowing in muddy banks along the shores of the
estuaries, us well as along banks of the streams and ditches of the salt marshes. The most
abundant of these is the marsh Fiddler Crab, Gelasimus pugnax, which is often so abundant that
the banks are completely honeycombed and undermined by them. These holes are of various
sizes up to about three-quarters of an ‘inch in diameter, and descend more or less perpendicularly,
often to the depth of two feet or more. Occasionally in summer these Crabs will leave their holes
and scatter over the surface of the marshes, which at times seem to be perfectly alive with them,
but when disturbed they will scamper away in every direction and speedily retreat to their holes;
but occasionally, at least, they do not find their own, for sometimes the rightful owner will be seen
forcibly ejecting several intruders. It is probable that at such times of general retreat each one
gets into the first hole that he can find. Associated with this ‘Fiddler,’ another related Crab, the

' Sesarma reticulata, is occasionally found in considerable numbers. This is a stout-looking, reddish-
brown crab, with a squarish carapax; its large claws are stout and-nearly equal in both sexes,
instead of being very unequal, as in the male ‘Fiddlers. It lives in holes like the ‘Fiddlers,’

1 Report upon the Invertebrate Animals of Vineyard Sound, ete., in Report United States Fish Commissioner for
1871-72, pp. 336, 466.
763

764 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

but its holes are usually much larger, often an inch or an inch and a half in diameter. It is much
less active than the ‘Fiddlers,’ but can pinch very powerfully with its large claws, which are
always promptly used when an opportunity occurs.

‘On the marshes farther up the estuaries, and along the mouths of rivers and brooks, and
extending up even to places where the water is quite fresh, another and much larger species of
‘Fiddler Crab’ occurs, often in abundance; this is the Gelasimus minaz. It can be easily |
distinguished by its much larger size and by having a patch of red at the joints of the legs. _ Its
habits have been carefully studied by Mr. T. M. Prudden, of New Haven, who has also investigated
its anatomy. According to Mr. Prudden, this species, like Gelasimus pugilator, is a vegetarian.
He often saw it engaged in scraping up and eating a minute green algoid plant which covers the
surface of the mud. The male uses its small claw exclusively in obtaining its food and conveying
it to the mouth. The female uses either of her small ones indifferently. In enlarging its burrows,
Mr. Prudden observed that these Crabs scraped off the mud from the inside of the burrow by
means of the claws of the ambulatory legs, and, having formed the mud into a pellet, pushed it up
out of the hole by means of the elbow-like joint at the base of the great claw, when this is folded
down. He also ascertained that this Crab often constructs a regular oven-like arch of mud over
the mouth of its burrow. This archway is horizontal, and large and long enough to contain the
Crab, who quietly sits in this curious doorway on the lookout for his enemies of all kinds.

“This species can live out of water and without food for many days. It can also live in
perfectly fresh water. One large male was kept in my laboratory in a glass jar, containing nothing
but a little siliceous sand moistened with pure, fresh water, for over six months. During this
whole period he seemed to be constantly in motion, walking round and round the jar and trying
to climb out. He was never observed to rest or appear ured, and after months of confinement and
starvation was just as pugnacious as ever.

“Although some of the colonies of this species live nearly or quite up to fresh water, others
are found farther down on the marshes, where the water is quite brackish, and thus there is a
middle ground where this and G. pugnax occur together. This was found by Mr. Prudden to be
the case both on the marshes bordering West River and on those of Mill River, near New Haven.
They are abundant along both these streams. The holes made by this species are much larger
than those of G. pugnax. Some of them are from an inch and a half to two inches in diameter.

‘On sandy beaches near high-water mark, especially where the sand is rather compact and
somewhat sheltered, one of the ‘Fiddler Crabs, Gelasimus pugilator, is frequently found in great
numbers, either running actively about over the sand, or peering cautiously from their holes,
which are often thickly scattered over considerable areas. These holes are mostly from half an
inch to an inch in diameter, and a foot or more in depth, the upper part nearly perpendicular,
‘becoming horizontal below, with a chamber at the end. Mr. Smith, by lying perfectly still for
some time on the sand, succeeded in witnessing their mode of digging. In doing this they drag
up pellets of moist sand, which they carry under the three anterior ambulatory legs that are on
the rear side, climbing out of their burrows by means of the legs of the side in front, aided by the
posterior leg of the other side. After arriving at the mouth of their burrows and taking a cautious
survey of the landscape, they run quickly to the distance often of four or five feet from the burrow
before droppin g their load, using the same legs as before and carrying the dirt in the same
manner. They then take another careful survey of the surroundings, run nimbly back to the
hole, and after again turning their pedunculated eyes in every direction suddenly disappear, soon
to reappear with another load. They work in this way both in the night and in the brightest
sunshine, whenever the tide is out and the weather is suitable. _In coming out or going into their

THE OYSTER CRAB. 765

burrows either side may go in advance, but the male more commonly comes out with the large
claw forward. According to Mr. Smith’s observations this species is a vegetarian, feeding upon
the minute alga which grows upon the moist sand. In feeding, the males use only the small
claw, with which they pick up the bits of alge very daintily; the females use indifferently either
of their small claws for this purpose. They always swallow more or less sand with their food.
Mr. Smith also saw these Crabs engaged in scraping up the surface of the sand where covered
with their favorite alge, which they formed into pellets and carried into their holes, in the same
way that they bring sand out, doubtless storing it until needed for food, for he often found large
quantities stored in the terminal chamber.”

As above stated, the Fiddler Crabs are sometimes used as bait; and at the mouth of the
Mississippi River G. pugnaz has been observed, in connection with the river Cray-fish (Cambarus),
burrowing into and greatly damaging the levees.

YELLOW SHORE-CRAB OF THE PACIFIC COAST—HETEROGRAPSUS OREGONENSIS, Stm.
PURPLE SHORE-CRAB OF THE PACIFIC COAST—HETEROGRAPSUS NUDUS, Stm.

According to W. N. Lockington, these two species are by far the most abundant of all the
California coast Crabs; but they are only eaten by the Chinese. The body of these Crabs is
nearly square, and the claws large in proportion. In H. oregonensis the anterior half of the
lateral margins on each side has two rather deep indentations, resulting in the formation of two
large spine-like projections, which bend strongly forward; in H. nudus these characters are less
pronounced. The four posterior pairs of limbs in H. oregonensis are also more or less hairy,
- while in H. nudus they are naked. The general color of the former species is yellow, of the
Jatter purple; H. nudus also has marbled hands and attains a somewhat larger size than H.
oregonensis, measuring at tines two inches broad. Hundreds of one or other of these species of
both sexes and of all sizes may frequently be found together, congregated under a single stone.
H. oregonensis is especially’ abundant in muddy sloughs of salt or brackish water, where it
literally swarms. Hundreds of uplifted threatening claws welcome the intruder who ventures
near these mud flats when the tide is out. Both species occur at Puget Sound, and range thence
southward to the southern limit of California. H. nudus also occurs at the Sandwich Islands.
Both species are eaten to some extent by the Chinese, who spit them on wires and cook them .
over their fires.

THE OYSTER-CRAB—PINNOTHERES OSTREUM, Say.

“The ‘Oyster-crab,’ Pinnotheres ostreum, is found wherever oysters occur. The female lives,
at least when mature, within the shell of the oyster, in the gill cavity, and is well known to most
consumers of oysters. The males are seldom seen, and rarely, if ever, occur in the oyster. We
found them, on several occasions, swimming actively at the surface of the water in the middle of
Vineyard Sound. They are quite unlike the females in appearance, being smaller, with a firmer
shell, and they differ widely in color, for the carapax is dark brown above, with a central dorsal
stripe and two conspicuous spots of whitish; the lower side and legs are whitish. The female has
the carapax thin and translucent, whitish, tinged with pink.” A

This Crab has been recorded from the Atlantic coast from Massachusetts to South Carolina.
The females measure, when adult, about half an inch broad and a little less in length. From the
European Oyster-crab (Pinnotheres piswm) our species differs in having a thinner and more.
membranaceous shell and a larger size. The colors are also different in the two species.

1 VERRILL: Vineyard Sound Report, p. 367, 1871-"72.

766 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Pinnotheres ostreum is eaten both raw and cooked, either along with the oysters with which it.
is associated, or as a separate dish. It is also pickled for domestic use and for the trade.

Another species of Pinnotheres (P. maculatum) frequently occurs in the shells of the common:
sea-mussel (Mytilus edulis) and the smooth scallop (Pecten tenuicostatus), between the gills of the.
animal. It attains a larger size than the Oyster-crab, and, as in the vase of the latter, the females
alone are parasitic, the males having only been found swimming at the surface of the sea. We
have never heard of this species being eaten, probably because neither the mussel nor the smooth
scallop has ever been used much as food in this country. In the summer of 1880, while dredging
off Newport, Rhode Island, the United States Fish Commission steamer Fish Hawk came upon.
extensive beds of the smooth scallop, from a bushel of which nearly a pint of these Crabs were
obtained. Again, in 1881, the same species was encountered in great abundance by the same.
party, in Vineyard Sound, in Mytilus edulis. As an experiment, they were cooked along with the.
mussels and found to be very palatable, although their shell is, perhaps, somewhat harder than
that of Pinnotheres ostreum.

A third species of Pinnotheres occurs upon the west ¢oast of the United States, in the shells of
Pachydesma and Mytilus californianus.

THE Rock CRAB—CANCER IRRORATUS, Say.

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITS.—This is the common Crab of the New England coast, where

adult specimens occur in all depths of water from low-tide level to about twelve fathoms
Smaller specimens have, however, been obtained in from thirty to fifty fathoms, both near
the coast and on George’s Bank, Stellwagen’s Bank, and elsewhere. Its entire range, so far
as determined, is from the Straits of Belle Isle, Labrador, to South Carolina. In the Gulf of
Saint Lawrence it is exceedingly abundant, but south of New Jersey it is rare. According to
Prof. 8. I. Smith,' this species is not common in the muddy bays of the New Jersey coast, but
is thrown up in large numbers upon the sandy outer beaches; it is abundant on the sandy shores
of the southern side of Long Island, and on the sandy and rocky shores of Long Island Sound;
it is equally abundant, in similar situations, along all the rest of the south coast of New
England and in Cape Cod, Massachusetts, and Casco Bays, but is apparently less common in
the Bay of Fundy and at Halifax, Nova Scotia. ‘When found living between tides it is usually
concealed among rocks or buried beneath the sand. It is usually much more abundant at or just
below low-water mark, however, than between tides.”
“The common ‘Rock Crab,’ Cancer irroratus, is generally common under the large rocks near
low-water mark, and often lies nearly buried in the sand and gravel beneath them. It can be
easily distinguished by having nine blunt teeth along each side of the front edge of its shell or
carapax, and by its reddish color sprinkled over with darker brownish dots. This crab also occurs
in the pools, where the comical combats of the males may sometimes be witnessed. It is not
confined to rocky shores, but is common also on sandy shores, as well as on rocky and gravelly
bottoms off shore. It is widely diffused along our coast, extending both north and south, and is
common even on the coast of Labrador. Like all the other species of crabs, this is greedily
devoured by many of the larger fishes, such as cod, haddock, tautog, black bass, and especially
by sharks and sting-rays.”? ;

EXTERNAL OHARACTERS.—The carapax of the Rock Crab is transversely suboval in outline,
and about two-thirds as long as broad; the upper surface is moderately convex, with unequal _

1Trans. Conn. Acad., v, p. 38, 1879. 2VERRILL: Vineyard Sound Report, p. 312, 1871~"72.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROCK CRAB. 167

but symmetrically arranged mammillations, some of which are scarcely defined. The surface
appears nearly smooth, but is really covered with closely-placed, minute granulations. The eyes
stand on short, stout peduncles, which lie in deep circular holes on either side of the middle of
the front margin. Between the eyes there are three small teeth, and on each side, between the
eyes and the outer edge of the shell, the margin is indented to form nine broad and stout teeth.
The claws are rather short and stout, the inner margins of the fingers bearing each a row of
few, large, blunt, and sometimes double tubercles. The four posterior pairs of legs are similar
to one another, long and slender, with pointed tips. The ground color of the carapax is yellowish,
closely dotted with dark purplish-brown, which becomes a reddish-brown after death.

The only species of Crab upon our Atlantic coast which could possibly be confounded with
the present one is Cancer borealis, of which a description is given following this. The differences.
between the two species being once pointed out, there is no difficulty in distinguishing between
them.

EcoNoMICc VALUE.—The Rock Crab is not much in demand as an article of food. It is sold
to some extent in the markets at Boston, New Bedford, Newport, New York, and perhaps
elsewhere within the limits of its range, generally, if not’ always, in a hard-shell condition.
But even in Boston, where it could be easily supplied, its place is mainly taken by the common
edible Blue Crab (Callinectes hastatus), which is seut there fresh from New York and other
localities. The two species of Cancer are, however, more nearly related to the English edible
Crab (Cancer pagurus) than is our, own common edible Crab, and, were this kind of food more
appreciated by the American seacoast inhabitants, there is no reason why the Rock Crab, as.
well as the “Jonah,” should not be utilized to a very great extent. In some places, Newport
for instance, the two species of Cancer, but especially the Cancer borealis, are preferred to. the
Callinectes hastatus, but this is not the rule elsewhere.

DEVELOPMENT.—The following account of the growth and development of this Crab, by
Prof. 8. I. Smith, will suffice, in a general way, for nearly all the American species of Crabs, and
will serve to indicate the curious. changes which take place before the simple crab egg becomes a
well-developed Crab. Such an account as this becomes very valuable in many cases as a means of
pointing out the essential details to be followed in the artificial breeding of marine animals.

“All, or at least nearly all, the species of Crabs living on the coast of New England pass.
through very complete.and remarkable metamorphoses. The most distinct stages through which
they pass were long ago described as two groups of crustaceans, far removed from the adult forms.
of which they were the young. The names Zoea and Megalops, originally applied to these groups,
are conveniently retained for the two best marked stages in the development of the Crabs. :

“The young of the common Crab (Cancer irroratus), in the earlier or zoea stage, when first
hatched from the egg, are somewhat like the form figured [reproduced on one of the plates at the
end of this volume], but the spines upon the carapax are all much longer in proportion, and there
are no signs of the abdominal legs or of any of the future legs of the Megalops and Crab.
In this stage they are very small, much smaller than in the stage figured. After they
have increased very much in size, and have molted probably several times, they appear as in
the figure just referred to. The terminal segment of the abdomen, seen only in a side view in the
figure, is very broad and divided nearly to the base by a broad sinus; each side the margins
project in long, spiniform, diverging processes, at the base of which the margin of the sinus is:
armed with six to eight spines on each side. When alive they are translucent, with deposits of
dafk pigment forming spots at the articulations of the abdomen and a few upon the cephalothorax
and its appendages. In this stage they were taken at the surface in Vineyard Sound, in immense

‘

’

768 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

numbers, from June 23 to late in August. They were most abundant in the early part of July,
and appeared in the greatest numbers on calm, sunny days.

“Several Zoee of this stage were observed to change directly to the megalops form. Shortly
before the change took place they were not quite as active as previously, but still continued to
swim about until they appeared to be seized by violent convulsions,-and after a-moment began to
wriggle rapidly out of the old zoea skin, and at once appeared in the full megalops form. The
new integument seems to stiffen at once, for in a very few moments after freeing itself from the
old skin the new Megalops was swimming about as actively as the oldest individuals.

‘In this megalops stage the animal begins to resemble the adult. The five pairs of cepha-
lothoracic legs are much like those of the adult, and the mouth-organs have assumed nearly their
final form. The eyes, however, are still enormous in size, the carapax is elongated and has a
slender rostrum and a long spine projecting from the cardiac region far over the posterior border,
and the abdomen is carried extended, and is furnished with powerful swimming-legs, as in the
Macroura. In color and habits they are quite similar to the later stage of the Zoesx from which
they came; their motions appear, however, to be more regular and not so rapid, although they
swim with great facility. In this Megalops the dactyli of the posterior cephalothoracic legs are
styliform, and are each furnished at the tip with three peculiar sete of different lengths and with
strongly curved extremities, the longest one simple and about as long as the dactylus itself, while
the one next in length is armed along the inner side of the curved extremity with what appear to
be minute teeth, and the shortest one is again simple.

“According to the observations made at Wood’s Holl, the young of Cancer irroratus remain
in the Megalops stage only a very short time, and at the first molt change to a form very near
that,of the adult. Notwithstanding this, they occurred in vast numbers, and were taken in the
towing-nets in greater quantities even than in the zoea stage. Their time of occurrence seemed
nearly simultaneous with that of the Zoee, and the two forms were almost always associated. The
exact time any particular individual remained in this stage was observed only a few times. One
full-grown Zoea obtained June 23, and placed in a vessel by itself, changed to a Megalops between
9 and 11.30 a. m. of June 24, and did not molt again till the forenoon of June 27, when it became
a young Crab of the form described farther on. Of the two other Zoes obtained at the same time,
and placed together in a dish, one changed to a Megalops between 9 and 11.30 a. m. of June 24,
the other during the following night; these both changed to Crabs during the night of June 26
and 27.

“In the two or three instances in which the change from the Megalops to the young Crab was
actually observed, the Megalops sank to the bottom of the dish and remained quiet for some time
before the molting took place. The muscular movements seemed to be much less violent than in
the molting at the close of the zoea stage, and the little Crab worked himself out of the megalops
skin quite slowly. For a short time after their appearance the young Crabs were soft and inactive,
but the integument very soon stiffened, and in the course of two or three hours they acquired all-
the pugnacity of the adult. They swam about with ease and were constantly attacking each
other and their companions in the earlier stages. Many of the deaths recorded in the above
memorandum were due to them, and on this account they wére removed from the vessel at each
observation. In this early stage the young Crabs are quite different from the adult. The carapax
is about three millimeters long and slightly less in breadth. The front is much more ‘prominent
than in the adult, but still has the same number of lobes and the same general form. The antero-
lateral margin is much more longitudinal than in the adult, and is armed with the five normal
teeth, which are long and acute, and four very. much smaller secondary teeth alternating with the

HABITS OF THE JONAH CRAB. 769

normal ones. The antenns and ambulatory legs are proportionally longer than in the adult. The
young Crabs in this stage were once or twice taken in the towing-net, but they were not common
at the surface, although a large number were found, with a few in the megalops stage, among
hydroids upon a floating barrel in Vineyard Sound, July 7.”!

THE JONAH CRAB—CANCER BOREALIS, Stimpson.

AFFINITIES.—The “ Jonah Crab” is very closely related to the common Rock Crab, and is
also to some extent associated with it in its distribution. ‘he two species are so much alike in
shape and general characters that they were originally regarded as the male and female respect-
ively of one and the same species. They are, however, quite distinct, and after the differences
have been once noticed there is no difficulty in distinguishing between them. The Jonah Crab
differs from the Rock Crab in the much larger size-of adult specimens, in the rougher surface of
the carapax and claws, caused by the larger granules covering it, which are of irregular size, some
being much larger than others, and by the serrations of the antero-lateral margins being crenate
and the posterior ones armed with numerous sharp points, instead of being simple as in the Rock
Crab. The legs of the Jonah Crab are also proportionately shorter and heavier than those of
the Rock Crab. The color of Cancer borealis is yellowish beneath and brick-red above, the limbs
corresponding more or less in coloration with the lower surface, but of a light reddish tint above.

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITS.—Besides being found in moderately deep water, the Jonah Crab,
in certain localities, inhabits the rocks near low-tide level, in the clear waters of the ocean shores,
but it never occurs in muddy or sandy bays and harbors where the Rock Crab abounds. The
range of Cancer borealis is from the eastern end of Long Island Sound to Nova Scotia, but it is
not found everywhere within these limits, being apparently local in its distribution and abundant
‘only within certain more or less restricted areas. The principal localities where it has been
observed are as follows: off Noank, Connecticut; off Watch Hill and Newport, and in Narra.
gansett Bay, Rhode Island; Vineyard Sound, Noman’s Land, and Salem, Massachusetts ; Casco
Bay, Maine; Bay of Fundy and Nova Scotia. In 1880, the United States Fish Commission found
the Jonah Crab abundant everywhere in the lower part of Narragansett Bay from about low-tide
level down to the greatest depths of the bay, and it was likewise very common off the bay, and
off the north end of Block Island. The following account of the habits and distribution of this
species is taken from Prof. S. I. Smith’s account:?

“In habits this species differs very greatly from irroratus. The best opportunities which I
have had for observing it were at Peak’s Island, in Casco Bay, August and September, 1873.
Empty carapaces, chelipeds, etc., of borealis were at first found in abundance scattered along the
outer shores, far above the action of the waves, where they had evidently been carried by gulls
and crows, and were also found in considerable numbers half a mile from the shore, in a forest of
coniferous trees thickly inhabited by crows. For several weeks no living specimens of borealis
were discovered, although the irroratus was found living in abundance all about the island,
without, however, its remains scarcely ever being found scattered about with those of borealis.
The borealis was finally discovered in dbundance at low water on the exposed and very rocky
shores of the northern end of the island. At this locality, between eighty and ninety specimens,
all females and many of them carrying eggs, were obtained in a single morning. They were all
found in situations exposed to the action of the waves, and were either resting, entirely exposed,
upon the bare rocks and ledges, or clinging to the seaweeds in the edge of the waves, or in the

1§. I. Smith, Vineyard Sound Report, pp. 530-533, 1871-’72.
* Trans. Conn. Acad., v, p. 40, 1879.
49 ¥ 2

770 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

tide-pools. They were never found concealed beneath the rocks, where, however, irroratus
abounded. It isa much heavier and more massive species than the érroratus, and is consequently
much better adapted than that species to the situations in which it is found. So many individuals
falling a prey to birds is evidently a result of the habit of remaining exposed between tides,
although the heavy shell must afford much greater protection than the comparatively fragile
covering of irroratus would afford to that species if similarly exposed. The borealis was also
found at a somewhat similar locality, but more exposed to the sea, on Ram Island Ledge, a low
reef open to the full force of the ocean. One specimen of moderate size was dredged in the ship
channel between Peak’s Island and Cape Elizabeth, in ten fathoms, rocky and shelly bottom, and
specimens were several times captured in lobster-traps, set at a depth of eight or ten fathoms,
among rocks. Specimens were also several times found in stomachs of the cod taken on the cod
ledges.

“Jn the vicinity of Vineyard Sound, this -species was not infrequently found thrown upon
sandy beaches, but never upon beaches very far removed from rocky reefs. The following are
the localities where it was seen in greatest numbers: Along the sandy beach of Martha’s
Vineyard, from Menemsha Bight to Gay Head; the rocky island of Cuttyhunk; and the rocky
outer shores of Noman’s Land, where dead specimens were found in considerable abundance. In
the vicinity of Noank, Connecticut, it was occasionally found dead upon the shores, and was
several times obtained from lobster-traps.

“The largest specimens I have seen are two males, of almost exactly the same size, one from
Casco Bay, the other from near Noank, Connecticut. The carapax of the specimen from Casco
Bay is three and one-half inches long and five and three-fourths inches broad.”

ECONOMIC VALUE.—Cancer borealis is supplied to the Newport markets in small quantities
during most of the summer months, and is much esteemed there as food, being considered by
many preferable to the Blue Crab (Callinectes hastatus). Itis taken by the fishermen on the shore
and in shallow water.

NameE.—The term “ Jonah Crab,” which we have adopted here for this species, is the one by
which it is commonly known in and about Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, and to some extent
also about Vineyard Sound, Massachusetts, but apparently not elsewhere. The origin of the
name we have not been able to ascertain. In most localities where it occurs it is confounded by
the fishermen with the commoner Rock Crab.

THE COMMON CRAB OF THE PACIFIC.COAST—CANCER MAGISTER, Dana.

This is the largest of the edible species of Crabs of the Pacific coast of the United States, and
likewise the most important. It is the only species commonly eaten in San Francisco, although
two other species inhabiting the same region, and which are described further on (Cancer productus
and Cancer antennarius), are also edible and of good flavor. The carapax of adult males usually
measures from seven to nine inches in breadth and four to five inches in length; the females
average much smaller. The color of the upper surface is a light reddish-brown, darkest in front;
the limbs and under surface are yellowish. The anterior margin of the carapax forms a nearly
regular elliptical curve, reaching back to about the middle of the sides and interrupted by nine
slightly prominent, sharp teeth on each side. At the termination of this curve on each side, there
is a strong, pointed tooth, projecting directly outward, and forming the commencement of the
postero-lateral margins, which are long and slope abruptly backward so as to leave but a narrow
posterior margin. The surface of the carapax is slightly convex, undulated, and covered with
papille; the claws are strongly toothed above and ribbed at the sides.

THE ROCK CRAB OF THE PACIFIC. Til

This species has quite an extended range, having been recorded from Sitka, Alaska, in the
north, and from Magdalena Bay, Lower California, in the south ; but whether these are its extreme
northern and southern limits or not is unknown. In the Bay of San Francisco it is very abundant,
and large quantities are constantly captured and brought to the markets in that city ;. it is also
taken for food in Monterey Bay, California.

It occurs most commonly on the sandy bottoms, below low-tide level, and is seldom found, at
least to any extent, between tide-marks. The supplies sent to the San Francisco markets come
mainly from the San Francisco side of the bay, especially from the south side of the Golden Gate,
between the city and the sea. They are also taken in abundance from about the wharves and piers
in the Bay of San Francisco. Crab-nets baited with fish and offal are used for catching them.
Nothing is known regarding the spawning season and habits of this species. The fishermen say
they spawn in March or April. The occurrence of a female with spawn in the San Francisco
market has not yet been recorded by any naturalist.

THE RED CRAB—CANCER PRODUCTUS, Randall.

This is a very common species in the Bay of San Francisco, although less abundant than the
last (Cancer magister). It also attains a large size, adult individuals measuring from five to seven
or more inches in breadth across the carapax, and from two and a half to four inches in length.
The proportion of width to length is rather greater.in the males than in the females. The antero-
lateral borders of the carapax form an ellipse, broken in the center in front by a slight projection,
by which the specific name was suggested. The teeth of the front and of the antero-lateral bor-
ders are distinctly separate in the adult, but in the very young exist only as wrinklings of the
edge of the carapax. The postero-lateral margins are concave and short. The claws are of
medium size compared with the carapax, and the posterior limbs are slender and plain. The color
of adult specimens is an intense dark red or reddish-brown above and yellowish-white below; the
young differ from the adults in their more variable coloring, some being of a dark reddish-
brown, others yellow spotted with red, and still others banded with red and yellow. The shape of
the carapax, with its produced front, sufficiently distinguishes this species of Cancer from all the
others on the Pacific coast.

Cancer productus is found along the entire Pacific coast of the United States, and has been
recorded from Magdalena Bay, Lower California, and the Queen Charlotte’s Islands and other
localities, in British Columbia. It is very abundant in the Bays of San Francisco, Monterey, and
Tomales, and also occurs at Santa Barbara and San Diego. Its habitat is in the shallow water
along the shores, principally in rocky sections, and it is frequently found between tide-marks,
often taking refuge in pools under stones near low-tide level.

Stimpson, in 1856, recorded seeing this species in the San Francisco markets, but it is no
longer taken there, unless by accident or inadvertence, the larger and more abundant Cancer
magister fully supplying the demands. In case of the latter becoming scarce, however, Cancer
productus would become an important article of capture.

Tue Rock CRAB OF THE PACIFIC COAST—CANCER ANTENNARIUS, Stimpson.

This species is of about the same average size as Cancer productus, and is tolerably abundant
along the Pacific coast, from Queen Charlotte’s Islands, in the north, to Magdalena Bay, Lower
California, in the south. Although as regards edible qualities it is said to compare -favorably
with Cancer magister, it has not, up to the present time, been brought to the San Francisco
markets. The carapax of adult specimens measures three and a half or more inches in length,

Viz NATURAL HISTCRY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

and from five to six inches across. The carpus and hand of the big claws are smooth or nearly
so, and the external antenne are very large and hairy. The margins of the abdomen and of
other parts of the lower surface of the body, as well as the ambulatory feet, are very hairy, and
this character, together with the great length and hairiness of the antenne, serves as the best
distinguishing feature of the species. Young individuals are more hirsute than adults. The
color of the carapax is a dark purplish brown; the chelipeds in adults are marbled with purplish
Spots.

The Pacific Rock Crab does not often occur on the shore between tides; it appears to frequent
deeper water than either Cancer magister or C. productus, being abundant in from two to three
fathoms, always, however, among rocks.

THe Mup CraBss—PANOPEUS HERBSTII, Edwards; PANOPEUS DEPRESSUS, Smith; PANOPEUS
SAYI, Smith; PANOPEUS HARRISII, Stimpson.

Four species of the so-called Mud Crabs occur upon our Atlantic coast: Panopeus Herbstii
ranges from Long Island Sound to Brazil, but is not common north of New Jersey; P. depressus,
from Cape Cod to Florida, and often carried much farther north with oysters; P. Sayi, associated
with the last and having the same range; P. Harrisii, from Massachusetts Bay to Florida.
P. Herbstii is rather the larger species, specimens from Florida and the West Indies measuring
fully two inches across the back. The color is a dark olive above, the fingers of the claws being
black, though lighter at the tips. This species is occasionally sold as food in the New Orleans
markets, and is sometimes used as bait. The other three species are more or less abundant in
numerous localities where they could also be obtained as bait. Professor Verrill refers to them
as follows:

“Two small kinds of Crabs are very abundant under the stones, especially where there is some
mud. These are dark olive-brown and have the large claws broadly tipped with black. They
are often called Mud Crabs on account of their fondness for muddy places. One of these, the
Panopeus depressus, is decidedly flattened above, and is usually a little smaller than the second,
the Panopeus Sayi, which is somewhat convex above. They are usually found together and have
similar habits. A third small species of the same genus is occasionally met with under stones,
but lives rather higher up toward high-water mark, and is comparatively rare. This is the
Panopeus Harrisii. It can be easily distinguished, for it lacks the black on the ends of the big
claws and has a groove along the edge of the front of the carapax, between the eyes. This last
species is also found in the salt marshes, and was originally discovered on the marshes of the
Charles River, near Boston. All the species of Panopeus are southern forms, extending to Florida,
or to the Gulf coast of the Southern States, but they are rare north of Cape Cod, and not found
at all on the coast of Maine. They contribute largely to the food of the tautog and other
fishes.”!

THE STONE CRAB—MENIPPE MERCENARIUS, Gibbes.

This is one of the two edible species of Crabs occurring upon the Southern Atlantic coast of
the United States, Callinectes hastatus being the other and more important one, on account of its
greater abundance. The recorded range of the Stone Crab is from Charleston Harbor, South
Carolina, to Key West, Florida, but the so-called Stone Crabs of the Gulf of Mexico probably
belong, in part at least, to the same species, and it has also been recently collected on the coast
of North Carolina.

1Vineyard Sound Report, pp. 312, 313, 1871-"72.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE STONE CRAB. 773

The Stone Crab is much stouter and heavier than the Blue Crab, of more solid build, and
with a much thicker shell-covering both on the body and claws. There is, moreover, no similarity
between the two species. The carapax of adult individuals measures about three inches in length
by about four and a half inches in width, and the body is from one and a half to two inches thick.
The large claws, when folded against the front of the body, measure about seven inches from
elbow toelbow. One claw is somewhat larger than the other.

Prof. Lewis .R. Gibbes has kindly furnished the following notes on the habits of this species
as observed in the vicinity of Charleston, South Carolina:

“They live in holes in the mud along the borders of the creeks and estuaries of the coast,
and are taken by the hand, thrust down several inches, sometimes fifteen to twenty, to reach the
inhabitant at the bottom, at the risk of a severe bite from one or both of its claws. They can
also be found in the crevices between fragments of any solid material, occurring near their haunts,
such as rejected stone ballast, fragments of brick thrown out as waste from houses or other
structures in the city or vicinity. Again, they occur in similar situations along the breakwater,
constructed some forty years ago to protect a part of the front beach of Sullivan’s Island, at the
mouth of the harbor, from the destructive action of the waves. They offer a stout resistance to
being dragged from their chosen retreat, by firmly pressing their powerful claws against the walls
of their abode. From their holes in the mud they are drawn with some difficulty, with a quantity
of the mud adhering to them; and if the walls of their retreat are solid, and cannot be removed
from around them, they cling to them with such tenacity that not i they are brought
out piecemeal, first one claw, then the other, and finally the body.”

Professor Gibbes further states that the Stone Crabs are highly esteemed as food, and preferred
to the Blue Crab, as the meat of their large claws is more lobster-like in texture and flavor.
From the difficulty of capturing them, however, they are much less common in the markets than
the Blue Crab, and command a higher price. They are also apparently less abundant. Like the
Blue Crab, they are constant dwellers upon our coast, and could doubtless be taken at all times
during the year. Soft-shelled specimens are seldom if ever brought to market.

In the Gulf of Mexico, according to Mr. Silas Stearns, the Stone Crab is not so universally
common as the Blue Crab, although it is found along the entire coast. It seems to be most
abundant on the southern and western coasts of Florida where the bottom, being more rocky than
elsewhere, is best suited to its habits. In this section it lives in cavities in the rocks, and in deep
holes which it excavates in the sand. It attains a larger size than the Blue Crab, measuring in
adult species one or two inches more across the carapax than the latter species. The people
living upon the coast where the Stone Crab is so abundant and so large esteem it highly, and
regard it as an important food supply. Owing to the persistent way in which it keeps on the
bottom, and in its hiding places, it cannot be captured as easily as the other species. The most
common method of capture is, after finding its hole or place of retreat, to run the hand and arm
down quickly and drag it out. To one unversed in this practice it seems a dangerous operation,
but it is not so. The crab lies in its hole with its claws uppermost or outermost, and considering
its well-known slowness and clumsiness of action, a man’s strong grip finds no difficulty in
controlling them. In other parts of the Gulf, away from the Florida coast, visited by Mr. Stearns,
he did not find the Stone Crabs nearly so abundant. They were mostly confined to oyster beds
and stone heaps, and were inferior in size to the Florida specimens.

As the Stone Crabs generally live more or less buried beneath the bottom, their movements
are probably less affected by tides and changes of temperature than the Blue Crabs. They have
never appeared for sale in the markets of any of the larger cities and towns of the Gulf coast, on

774 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

account of the difficulty of procuring them. By those who have eaten them they are considered
decidedly superior to the Blue Crab in flavor.

THE GREEN CRAB—CARCINUS MINAS, Leach.

| This Crab, which is one of the most common species on the coast of Great Britain, also
abounds upon our Atlantic coast, from Cape Cod to New Jersey and perhaps farther south. It is
very abundant in Vineyard Sound, Buzzard’s Bay, and Long Island Sound. The body is of a
bright-green color, varied with spots and blotches of yellow, making it very conspicuous; adult
specimens measure about two inches in width and one and a half inches in length. The surfaces
of the carapax and limbs are more or less granulated.

“The Green Crab, Carcinus menas, occurs quite frequently well up toward high-water mark,
hiding under the loose stones, and nimbly running away when disturbed. It may also be found,
at times, in the larger tidal pools, It often resorts to the holes and cavernous places under the
peaty banks of the shores, or along the small ditches and streams cutting through the peaty
marshes near the shore.’

It is most abundant between tide-marks, or near low-water mark, and is seldom found below
a very few fathoms in depth.

The Green Crab is an article of food in some parts of Europe, where it occurs abundantly. In
England it is occasionally used as bait, especially while in a soft-shell state. It is said to be often
very annoying to the salmon fishermen in that country. “Trout and mackerel are reduced to
skeletons in a very short time, and grilse and salmon often rendered unfit for market by an
unseemly scar, the work of these marauders.” ?

In this country, the Green Crab is frequently used as bait on the Southern New England
coast, especially for the tautog. In Vineyard Sound and Buzzard’s Bay it is known to the
fishermen as the “ Joe Rocker.”

Toe Lapy CRAB—PLATYONICHUS OCELLATUS, Latreille.

The “Lady Crab,” or “Sand Crab,” is abundant on nearly all our sandy shores from Cape Cod
to Florida, and in the Gulf of Mexico; it ranges from low-water mark to a depth of ten fathoms.
This species is easily distinguished from all our other Crabs by the shape and coler of its carapax,
taken in connection with the character of its posterior pair of limbs, which are modified into
swimming organs, as in the edible Crab. Its body is nearly as long as broad, the margins rudely
indicating a six-sided figure. The front lateral margins bear five spines each, which are directed
forward, and the front margin is deeply indented on each side of a slightly projecting three-
spined rostrum, to form cavities for the eyes. The front limbs, those bearing the claws, are long
. and rather slender, and the succeeding three pairs are simple in their structure. ‘The color of
this Crab is quite bright and does not imitate the sand on which it lives, probably owing to its
mode of concealment. The ground-color is white, but the back is covered with annular spots
formed by specks of red and purple. The Lady Crab is perfectly at home among the loose sands
at low-water mark, even on the most exposed beaches. It is also abundant on sandy bottoms off
shore, and as it is furnished with swimming organs on its posterior legs, it can swim rapidly in
the water, and has been taken at the surface in several instances, and some of the specimens thus
taken were of full size. When living at low-water mark on the sand beaches, it generally buries
itself up to its eyes and antenne in the sand, watching for prey, or on the lookout for enemies.
If disturbed, it quickly glides backward and downward into the sand and disappears instantly.

1VERRILL: Vineyard Sound Report, p. 312, 1871-72.
2? WHITE: Popular History of the British Crustacea.

THE EDIBLE CRAB. V5

This power of quickly burrowing deeply into the sand it possesses in common with all the other
marine animals of every class which inhabit the exposed beaches of loose sand, for upon this
habit their very existence depends during storms. By burying themselves deep they are beyond
the reach of breakers.

“The Lady Crab is predaceous in its habits, feeding upon various smaller creatures, but, like
most of the Crabs, it is also fond of dead fishes or any other dead animals. In some localities
they are so abundant that a dead fish or shark will in a short time be completely covered with
them; but if a person should approach they will all suddenly slip off backwards and quickly
disappear in every direction beneath the sand. After a short time, if everything be quiet,
immense numbers of eyes and antenne will be gradually and cautiously protruded from beneath
the sand, and after their owners have satisfied themselves that all is well the army of Crabs will
soon appear above the sand again and continue their operations.” !

This species is used as bait on many parts of the coast, especially about Vineyard Sound
and Buzzard’s Bay. It is also an important article of food at New Orleans, Louisiana, and is
occasionally taken to the New York markets.

222. THE COMMON EDIBLE OR BLUE CRAB—CALLINECTES HASTATUS, Ordway.

DISTRIBUTION.—The common edible Crab of the eastern coast of the United States, generally
termed “Blue Crab” at the North and “Sea Crab” at the South, ranges from Cape Cod to Florida,
and also occurs in the Gulf of Mexico, and is occasionally taken in Massachusetts Bay. Next to
the Lobster, it is the most important crustacean of our waters in a commercial point of view.
There are several species of the genus Callinectes living upon the coast of the Southern States.
Callinectes hastatus, the genuine Blue Crab, is positively known to occur as far south as Louis-
iana, and is probably the only species brought to the New York markets. Callinectes ornatus
inhabits Charleston Harbor, South Carolina, and extends southward from there, but to what
extent has not been determined. Two other species, Callinectes larvatus and C. tumidus, have
been recorded from Southern Florida and the West Indies. Which of these four species occurs
in the greatest abundance in the Gulf of Mexico, and is there most commonly taken for food, we
are unable to state, as no careful examination of market supplies from that region has ever been
made.

EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.—The shell of tbe Blue Crab is about twice as broad as long,
including the stout, sharp spines which project from each side. Between the spine of each side
and the eye of that side the margin is armed with about eight short and acute spines, which are
largest at the side and gradually decrease in size toward the eye. Between the eyes, which are
placed in slight recesses, the margin forms four broad, unequal-sided teeth, with a median spine
underneath. The front limbs, including the claws, are similar in shape but somewhat unequal in
size; they have several strong sharp spines above. The three succeeding pairs of limbs are
slender, similar to one another, and terminate in sharp points. The posterior pair, however, end
in an expanded oval joint, especially adapted for swimming. The entire body of this species is
considerably compressed, the carapax being only moderately convex above; the surface, excepting
near the posterior margin, is covered with minute granulations, which are more numerous over

*some portions than over others. The entire margin of the carapax and abdomen is bordered with
fine hairs, and most of the joints of the limbs are ornamented in the same way.

The abdomen of the female is very broad, and when not charged with eggs fills in the entire

1VERRILL: Vineyard Sound Report, p. 338, 1871-’72.

776 - NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

space between the bases of the posterior pairs of legs. During the spawning season, however, the
eggs are so numerous and form such a large mass that they throw the abdomen some distance out
from the lower surface of the body, causing it to project almost at right angles with the upper
surface of the carapax. The upper surface of the shell and claws is of a dark-green color, and
the lower surface of a dingy white; feet blue; tips of fingers and spines reddish.

HABITS, USES, ETC.—The following account of the habits of the Blue Crab is by Professor
Verrill:

‘“The common edible Crab or ‘Blue Crab’ is a common inhabitant of muddy shores, especially
in sheltered coves and bays. It is a very active species, and can swim rapidly. It is, therefore,
often seen swimming at or near the surface. The full-grown individuals generally keep away from
the shores, in shallow water, frequenting muddy bottoms, especially among the eel-grass, and are
also found in large numbers in the somewhat brackish waters of estuaries and the mouths of
rivers. The young specimens of all sizes, up to two or three inches in breadth, are, however, very
frequent along the muddy shores, hiding in the grass and weeds or under the peaty banks at high
water and retreating as the tide goes down. When disturbed they swim away quickly into deeper
water. They also have the habit of pushing themselves backward into and beneath the mud for
concealment. They are predaceous in their habits, feeding upon small fishes and various other
animal food. They are very pugnacious, and have remarkable strength in their claws, which they
use with great dexterity. When they have recently shed their shells they are caught in great
numbers for the markets, and these ‘soft-shelled Crabs’ are much esteemed by many. Those with
hard shells are also sold in our markets, but are not valued so highly. This Crab can easily
be distinguished from all the other species found in this region by the sharp spine on each side of
the carapax. . . . They are usually brought to market early in May, but the ‘soft-shelled’
ones, which are more highly esteemed, are taken later. These soft-shelled individuals are merely
those that have recently shed their old shells, while the new shell has not had time to harden.
The period of shedding seems to be irregular and long continued, for soft-shelled Crabs are taken
nearly all summer. The young and half-grown specimens of this Crab may often be found in
considerable numbers hiding in the holes and hollows beneath the banks during the flood tide.
When disturbed, they swim away quietly into deeper water. These small Crabs are devoured by
many of the larger fishes. During flood tide the large Crabs swim up the streams like many fishes
and retreat again with the ebb. They feed largely on fishes, and often do much damage by eating
fishes caught in set-nets, frequently making large holes in the nets at the same time.”!

Besides devouring living animals, the Blue Crab “feeds on dead animal matter in its various
stages of putrescence, and is one of the many depurators of the ocean. It often buries itself in
the sand, so that no part is visible but the eyes and anterior antenne; these last are then in
continual motion, the bifid terminal joint acting as forceps to seize and convey to its mouth the
small molluscous animals for food. The shell is cast annually, and they are then known by the
name of ‘soft-shell Crab,’ are very delicate, and in particular request for the table. In this state
the Crab is incapable of any defense from its enemies; the male usually retires to a secluded
situation for security, but the adult female is protected by a male whose shell is hard. They are
then called double Crabs.”?

On different parts of the coast, Crabs in the soft state are known respectively as “Soft Crabs,”
“Shedders,” or “Peelers.” The terms “Soft Crab,” “Paper-shell,” and “Buckler” denote the
different stages of consistency of the shell, from the time of shedding until it has become nearly

1Vineyard Sound Report, pp. 367, 368, 468, 1871-72.
?Say: Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., i, p. 66, 1817.

BREEDING HABITS OF THE EDIBLE CRAB. 777

hard again. For instance, immediately after shedding it is a “Soft Crab”; as the shell becomes
slightly hardened it is called “Paper-shell,” and just before reaching its normal hardness it is
termed “ Buckler.”

Callinectes hastatus does not appear to be confined to salt and brackish water only, for it has
been known to ascend the Saint John’s River, Florida, a distance of one hundred miles, to where
the water is sufficiently fresh for drinking.

According to Prof. Lewis R. Gibbes, of Charleston, South Carolina, the Blue Crab is abundant
in and about Charleston Harbor, and is largely taken for food. Average-sized specimens measure
about two and a half inches long and five to five and a half broad, including the lateral spines.
It occurs, feeding and swimming on the bottom and between the bottom and the surface, in the
deeper water of the harbor, and in the shallower waters of rivers and creeks. It is also found
walking on the muddy borders of creeks or rivers, and on the marshes, when the tide is out. For
market, these Crabs are occasionally taken by the fishermen in cast-nets while seeking fish, but the
customary crab-net is a sort of dip-net attached toa pole. In the deeper water, it is sometimes
necessary to entice the Crabs to the surface by means of bait attached to cords. Although Blue
Crabs occur in this region more or less throughout the entire year, they are chiefly taken for the
market in the spring and early summer months, as they are then in the best condition and most
highly esteemed for their flavor. Both hard and soft shell individuals are eaten. They seem to be
as common now as formerly.

Mr. Silas Stearns, of Pensacola, Florida, writes as follows concerning the habits, etc., of
Callinectes in the Gulf of Mexico:

“The Blue Crab is more abundant than the Stone Crab, and is distributed along the entire
Gulf coast. It is found out in the Gulf, in the bays and estuaries, and very often in fresh-water
rivers and lakes that have close connection with some body of salt water. It lives in the shoaler
waters during the summer months, from about April to November, and retires to the deeper water
on the approach of cold weather, to remain half dormant until the first warm day or settled mild
weather. Its first move in the spring is to the grass-covered shoals, where various kinds of fishes
and other marine animals have just deposited their eggs, upon which it feeds greedily. All
through the summer it is found in such places as these, acting both as a scavenger of decomposing
animal matter and as one of the most dreaded enemies of small fish and theirspawn. At high tide
the Crabs come nearer to the shore than at low tide, and at all times the young are more venture-
some than the old. Hiding under patches of seaweed, behind and under logs and roots of trees
and in the sand, the young spend the period of high tide at the very water’s edge.

“The period of spawning and shedding extends through several months, probably the entire
summer, for some individuals are found loaded with spawn and others in a soft state during the
whole season. This summer (1880), while at Saint Joseph’s Bay, on this coast, I found large
quantities of females, heavy with spawn, lying just at: the edge of the surf on the sea-beach.
They were quite inactive, and there were no males among them. While shedding its shell, and.
until the new shell has become sufficiently hard to protect it, the Blue Crab remains hidden in
the mud or among seaweeds. This is the most active of all the Gulf species of Crabs. It swims
easily and rapidly at the surface at times, and its movements at the bottom are remarkably swift.
It is also very pugnacious, and not only fights its own kind, but also shows a bold front to its
enemies, including man. The average size of the Blue Crub is about six inches broad across the
shell. ;

“Being so common that people nearly everywhere along the coast can obtain any quantity
for the mere trouble of capturing them, they have given rise to-no defined industry excepting in

778 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

the larger cities. Outside of New Orleans, in fact, there is no regular trade in Blue Crabs. In
the early spring they are trolled from deep water to within reach of a dip-net, by means of a piece
of meat attached to a long string. Later in the season, when the water has become warmer, they
may be dipped up with a dip-net all along the shore. About Pensacola, the catching of Crabs is
classed among the sports. During warm summer evenings, parties of men, women, and children
set out for secluded portions of the bay shore, where they pursue the Crabs, with torches and jigs
or dip-nets, until they are tired. A midnight supper, made up mainly of the Crabs and fish they
have taken, follows, and the enjoyment concludes with a moonlight sail homeward.”

THE SPIDER CRABS—LIBINIA EMARGINATA, Leach; LIBrnia DUBIA, Edwards.

The Spider Crabs are inhabitants of shallow water along the Atlantic ‘coast, from Western
Maine to the Gulf of Mexico. The two species resemble one another very closely, but the
emarginata is more thickly covered with spines than the dubia, which is also further distinguished
by being narrower across the front, and by having a longer rostrum. As arule, the latter species
is found more commonly than the former in the very shallow water near shore, and its range is
more restricted toward the north, not passing beyond Cape Cod.

Professor Verrill says of their habits, that ‘“‘ they are very common on muddy shores and flats.
They hide beneath the surface of the mud and decaying weeds, or among the eel-grass, and are
very sluggish in their motions. The whole surface of the body is covered with hairs, which
entangle particles of mud and dirt of various kinds; and sometimes hydroids, alge, and even
barnacles grow upon their shells, contributing to their more ready concealment. The males are
much larger than the females, and have long and stout claws. They often spread a foot or more
across the extended legs. The females have much smaller and shorter legs and comparatively
weak claws.”!

The Spider Crabs are used as bait along the Middle Atlantic States, and probably elsewhere,
within their range.

THE KELP CRAB—EPIALTUS PRODUCTUS, Randall.

The Kelp Crab of the Pacific coast is ‘easily recognized by its smooth quadrate carapax, with
two distinct teeth on either side. It is the most common maioid Crab on the coast of California
and Oregon, and is usually found among seaweeds on rocks, just below low-water mark. Its color
is olivaceous when alive.”?

This Crab is occasionally taken for food by the natives along the coast, but apparently has not
yet found its way into the San Francisco markets. It has been especially recorded from Puget
Sound, the mouth of the Columbia River, the Farallone Islands, Tomales Bay, entrance to San
Francisco Bay, and Monterey.

THE RED Rock CRAB—ECHIDNOCEROS SETIMANUS, Stimpson.

This is quite a large and very ornamental red Crab, which is not eaten, but is occasionally
sold in the San Francisco markets as a curiosity. It is procured in moderately deep water about
the Farallone Islands, which lie a short distance off the coast at San Francisco, California. The
body of adult specimens measures about ten inches both in length and breadth, and the weight
of such specimens is between six and seven pounds. The carapax is convex and exceedingly
uneven, being covered with large tubercles and granules. The front and lateral margins on each
side bear about eight principal teeth, and the beak is four-lobed. The right claw is much larger
than the left, and both are covered with tufts of hair, and armed with teeth and tubercles. The

1Vineyard Sound Report, p. 368, 1871-72.
*8Tmpson: Journ. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vi, p. 457, 1857.

THE HERMIT CRABS. 77

ground color of the body is vermilion, the granules and spines being generally of a deep blue o1
purple { the entire carapax is covered with minute bristles. According to Dr. William Stimpson
who wrote concerning this Crab in 1857, specimens of this species then readily sold in the Saz
Francisco market for five and ten dollars each. A certain demand for them still continues, bu:
they are apparently brought to market only occasionally.

THE SAND BUG—HIPPA TALPOIDA, Say.

This is rather an odd species of Crab, related to the Hermit Crabs, from which, however, it
differs greatly in appearance. The body is oval in outline and more than half as broad as long
the sides forming a nearly regular curve. The upper part of the body, formed mostly of the
cephalo-thorax, is convex and rather plain, giving a decidedly bug-like appearance to the
creature, as suggested by its common name. The tail, which is long and broad, is pressed uy
against the under surface of the body, reaching nearly to the front. The eyes are minute anc
placed at the ends of long, slender peduncles; the principal antenne are about as long as the
carapax, and are curved and strongly plumose.

“This species burrows like a mole, head first, instead of backward. It can also swim quite
actively, and is sometimes found swimming about in the pools left on the flats at low water. I
is occasionally dug out of the sand at low-water mark, and is often thrown up by the waves or
sand-beaches, but it seems to live in shallow water on sandy bottoms in great numbers, for it
seining on one of the sand-beaches near Wood’s Holl for small fishes, a large quantity of this
species was taken. Its color is yellowish-white, tinged with purple on the back. It is one of the
favorite articles of food of many fishes. Mr. Smith found the young abundant at Fire Island
near high water, burrowing in the sand. This species is still more abundant farther south.” +

The Sand Bug ranges from Cape Cod to Florida, but is much more abundant toward the
South than at the North. On the New Jersey coast, and probably at other places farther south, i:
is used by the fishermen as bait. It is frequently called by them the “ Bait Bug.”

THE HERMIT CRABS—EUPAGURUS POLLICARIS, Stimpson; HUPAGURUS BERNHARDUS, Brandt
EUPAGURUS LONGICARPUS, Stimpson; AND ALLIED SPECIES.

There are numerous species of Hermit Crabs living upon our coast, in all depths from the
shore down to several hundred fathoms. Three species which are of large enough size to be
considered as desirable for bait occur, however, in localities where they might be easily taken by
the fishermen. One of the species, Hupagurus bernhardus, is frequently used for that purpose it
England, and could as well be utilized here. The other two species, living in shallow water, ar
E. pollicaris and #. longicarpus. E. bernhardus ranges from Cape Cod northward, and fron
low-water mark to depths of fifty fathoms and more. JZ. pollicaris ranges from Massachusetts t¢
Florida, and occurs at low-water mark, but is more abundant on the rocky and shelly bottoms o
the bays and sounds, and upon oyster-beds. H. longicarpus ranges from Massachusetts Bay t
the Gulf of Mexico, and from between tide levels to a depth of ten fathoms.

The Hermit Crabs protect the hinder, soft portion of their bodies in any empty Gasteropoc
shell of sufficient size which is obtainable, carrying this shell upon their back. They move abou
very actively and are very pugnacious. Their savage dispositions toward each other has earnec
for them, in England, the name of “Soldier Crabs,” but both in Europe and this country they ar
generally termed “ Hermits.” ,

1VERRILL: Vineyard Sound Report, p. 339, 1871-72.

780 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

EB. longicarpus is smaller than either of the other species, but is more of a littoral species, and
therefore, as a rule, more easily obtainable.

A fourth species, H. pubescens, might be added to our list of available Hermit Crabs, but it is
generally limited to deeper water than the others. It ranges from New Jersey to Greenland, but
south of Casco Bay, Maine, has not been found as high up as the level of low tide. In Casco Bay
and the Bay of Fundy, it sometimes, but rarely, occurs upon the shore, just below low-water mark.

“ Active and interesting little ‘Hermit Crabs,’ Hupagurus longicarpus, are generally abundant
in the pools near low water, and concealed in wet places beneath rocks. In the pools they may
be seen actively running about, carrying upon their backs the dead shell of some small Gasteropod,
most commonly Anachis avara or Ilyanassa obsoleta, though all the small spiral shells are used in
this way. They are very pugnacious and nearly always ready for a fight when two happen to
meet, but they are also great cowards, and very likely each, after the first onset, will instantly
retreat into his shell, closing the aperture closely with the large claws. They use their long,
slender antenne very efficiently as organs of feeling, and show great wariness in all their actions.
The hinder part of the body is soft, with a thin skin, and one-sided in structure, so as to fit into
the borrowed shells, while near the end there are appendages which are formed into hook-like
organs, by which they hold themselves securely in their houses, for these spiral shells serve them
both for shields and dwellings. This species also occurs in vast numbers among the eel-grass, both
in the estuaries and in the sounds and bays, and is also frequent on nearly all other kinds of
bottoms in the sounds. It is a favorite article of food for many of the fishes, for they swallow it
shell and all. A much larger species, belonging to the same genus, but having much shorter and
thicker claws (Hupagurus pollicaris), is also found occasionally under the rocks at low water, but
it is much more common on rocky and shelly bottoms in the sounds and bays. Its habits are
otherwise similar to the small one, but it occupies much larger shells, such as those of Lunatia
heros, Fulgur carica, &c. This large species is devoured by the sharks and sting-rays.”

223. THE LOBSTERS.
THE Spiny LOBSTER OR ROCK LOBSTER—PANULIRUS INTERRUPTUS, Randall.

The well-known Spiny Lobster of the European coast, Palinurus vulgaris, is represented

_on the western coast of the United States by a closely allied genus and species, Panulirus

interruptus. The Spiny Lobster differs from the common Lobster in wanting the large anterior

claws, the first pair of feet being simple and without pincers, and in having enormously developed

antenne or feelers, which are very large around at the base, and as long as, or longer than, the

body. The gills are similar in structure to those of the true Lobster, but number twenty-one on
each side.

The California Spiny Lobster, which, in the region where it occurs, is often called simply
“Lobster” or “Cray-fish,” attains a total length of fourteen inches, the carapax in adult
individuals measuring as much as five inches. Average-sized individuals weigh from three and
one-half to four pounds. One specimen weighing eleven and one-half pounds has been recorded
from Santa Barbara, but very large specimens are now rarely taken in that locality. It ranges
southward from Point Conception, California, the most northern point from which it has been
recorded being San Luis Obispo. At this place it is rare, but at Santa Barbara and to the
southward from there it is very common. ‘These Lobsters generally inhabit rocky ledges. In the
winter they remain in deep water among the kelp, and are captured in lobster-pots; in the

1 VERRILL: Vineyard Sound Report, p. 313, 1871-72.

THE AMERICAN LOBSTER. 78

summer they move into shallower water, and are taken by means of dip-nets. The best bait fi
the traps is fresh fish, but any flesh will answer for this purpose. The spawning season for tk
Spiny Lobster is the early spring, when they are found in abundance close to the shore. At th
time they are less fat than at others, and are not considered as good eating; some even regar
them as unwholesome at the spawning time,sbut nevertheless they are eaten more or les
continuously through the entire year. When abundant near the shore, catches aggregating fiv
hundred pounds have been made by a single person in the short space of two hours. They ar
not as abundant now as formerly in the places where they are most extensively taken as fooc
this having resulted from overfishing, especially during the spawning season. There is, therefor
great danger of the species becoming exterminated, unless some stringent Jaws are framed t
protect them.

224, THE AMERICAN LOBSTER—HOMARUS AMERICANUS, Milne-Edwards.

INTRODUCTION.—Although the Lobster is one of the most important of our food inverte
brates, careful observations regarding its natural history, and especially its breeding habit:
rate of growth, etc., have been strangely neglected. This fact is greatly to be deplorec
considering that the Lobster has recently become the subject of important legislation by th
several States which it inhabits, and that its cultivation by artificial means has been frequentl
attempted. It is now an undisputed fact that the abundance, as well as the average size, c
Lobsters has greatly decreased in our shallow-water areas during the past twenty to thirty years
thereby forcing the lobster fishermen to resort to deeper water, and increasing the hardships c
their profession. The question has, therefore, very naturally arisen as to whether this continue
decrease can in any way be checked either by the enactment of proper protective laws, or by mean
of artificial propagation. Laws for the protection of the Lobster have been passed by all. th
States interested in this fishery, but their want of uniformity and the difficulty of enforcing ther
have diminished the benefits which it was hoped might result. The success attending the artificia
breeding of several of our food-fishes has inspired the hope that similar methods might succee:
with regard to the Lobster, and many persons are now awaiting with interest the results o
experiments in that direction. It is very certain, however, that the breeding of Lobsters cai
never be successfully carried on until we have become acquainted with at least the main feature
of their natural history. The artificial cultivation of animals can only progress through th
fulfillment of natural laws, which must be thoroughly understood before they can be properl.
applied. As it is, however, the would-be experimenter in the matter of lobster-breeding mus
still follow a very uncertain pathway, meeting with numerous failures which previous studie
might have averted.

To assist in a small way toward overcoming this difficulty, and as a preliminary to th
industrial report which will appear hereafter, the author has brought together the following fey
disconnected popular notes, taken in part from published works, but mainly derived from th
observations of intelligent lobster fishermen and dealers, who have always cheerfully responde:
when called upon for information. It is hoped that the meagerness of these notes will act as ai
incentive to observers in this line of research.

RELATIONS AND STRUCTURE OF THE LOBSTER.—The Lobster belongs to the highest grow
of the Crustacea, the so-called Decapoda, or ten-footed crustaceans, which group is again divide:
into the Brachyura, or short-tailed Decapods (true Crabs), the Anomoura (Hermit Crabs, etc.), an:
the Macroura, or long-tailed Decapods (Lobsters and Shrimps). The members of the first grou;

782 _ NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

range higher in organization than those of the two latter, and the Lobster must, therefore, be
regarded as lower in the scale of being than our common Crab.

The Lobsters find some of their nearest allies among the common fresh-water Cray-fish of our
rivers and small streams, with which they agree structurally in most particulars. The principal
differences existing between them, beyond size and shape, are such as would be readily overlooked
by the casual observer. One of the most important is as to the number of gills, of which there are
twenty perfect ones on each side in the Lobster and only seventeen to eighteen on each side in the
Cray-fish. Some of the gills also differ in structure in the two groups. The other structural
differences need not be discussed here, nor do we propose to describe the anatomical peculiarities
of the Lobster in this connection, as they have been fully treated of in numerous scientific publica-
tions which are easily obtainable. It will suffice for our purpose to pass over in review the
principal external characteristics.

The body of the Lobster, as may be readily observed, is made up of two general divisions, an
anterior one, called the carapax or cephalo-thorax, and covered by a single shell or shield above
and at the sides, and a posterior one, termed the abdomen, consisting of six segments and a
terminal flap, or telson. The dividing line between the head and thorax proper, which are both
contained within the carapax, is indicated on the upper surface of the carapax by a trans-
verse, curved groove. Underneath the thoracic portion of the carapax there are five transverse
segments, corresponding to the pairs of legs, of which the four posterior pairs are subequal in
size and much smaller than the anterior pair or claws. All of the legs are composed of
several and an equal number of joints; the two posterior ones terminate in simple points, while
the two in advance of them end in small claws. The anterior legs are very much enlarged, the
joints very unequal in size and very unlike in shape, the terminal joint, forming the claw proper,
being very greatly developed, hard and rugged, and very powerful. “Each segment of tke
abdomen or tail also has a pair of appendages on the lower side. In the female, the anterior five
pairs are small and slender, and constitute the so-called swimmerets, to which the eggs are
attached after extrusion from the body and during incubation. The appendages of the posterior
abdominal segment are large, and each terminates in two broad plates which lie at each side of the
telson. In the male, the anterior pair of abdominal appendages are modified into the stiffened
styles, by means of which the sex may be easily distinguished. The functions of these different
appendages correspond with the same in the Cray-fish, which are described as follows by
Professor Huxley:

“The Cray-fish swims by the help of its abdomen and the hinder pairs of abdominal limbs;
walks by means of the four hinder pairs of thoracic limbs; lays hold of anything to fix itself, or
to assist in climbing, by the two chelate anterior pairs of these limbs, which are also employed in
tearing the food seized by the forceps [big claws] and conveying it to the mouth; while it seizes
its prey and defends itself with the forceps.” .

On the lower side of the body, in front of the claws, are several pairs of variously shaped
small organs, which surround the mouth and subserve mastication. Still farther in front are two
long feelers or antennz, and two smaller feelers or antenules, and also the two compound eyes,
situated at the ends of two short, movable stalks. The carapax terminates in front in a sharp,
spiny, and prominent projection or rostrum, which reaches out between the eyes. The gills are
situated on each side of the body, just inside of the carapax, in two cavities, called the branchial
chambers, which open behind, below, and in front, so that the water has free entrance.

Three species of true Lobsters, constituting the genus Homarus, are now recognized by
naturalists. They live exclusively in the sea. The American species, Homarus americanus, in

SIZE OF THE LOBSTER. TBE

which we are now interested, is the largest of them all. Next in size, and of equal importance, is
the European species, Homarus vulgaris, which differs but slightly from our own, the rostrun
being narrower, and bearing teeth only on its upper margin, while in the former species the lowe!
margin of the rostrum is also armed with teeth. The third species belongs to the southern hemi
sphere and attains a length of only about five inches. It is called Homarus capensis, and inhabits
the region of the Cape of Good Hope. We are not aware of its being used as food.

Namz.—For a common and widely distributed marine animal, the American Lobster is
surprisingly free from the long list of vernacular and local names which encumber some of ow
most important industrial fishes, such as the menhaden. The simple term ‘Lobster” belongs to it
wherever it occurs, and in offly a few rare instances have the fishermen dared to assert their well
acknowledged right of adding, through its means, a new word to their already somewhat lengthy
and interesting vocabulary. On the coast of Rhode Island, Lobsters are sometimes called ‘“ Sea.
craws,” from their resemblance to the fresh-water Cray-fish; and at Nantucket the young Lobste1
is termed “Grass-hopper”; but such names are not much used, nor are they of importance to oui
discussion.

The different stages during the process of shedding and subsequent hardening of the new
shell and during spawning are designated by descriptive terms, such as “‘ Black Lobster,” “Soft
shell,” “ Berried Lobster,” etc., which are described in full further on.

In and about Vineyard Sound, Massachusetts, two varieties of Lobsters are recognized, and
these are distinguished as “School Lobsters” and ‘Rock Lobsters,” or “‘Groundholders.”

DECREASE IN sIzE.—Lobsters occur of all sizes up to about forty pounds weight, but the
average size of all Lobsters now caught for market is probably not above two pounds weight.
It'is a well-attested fact that the average size, as well as the abundance of Lobsters, has steadily
decreased from year to year during the past twenty years, and the markets are now supplied witk
amuch smaller breed, so to speak, than formerly. Not that Lobsters grow less rapidly at the
present time than in previous years, or have become in any way dwarfed in size, but the avaricious
fishing which has been constantly carried on along almost the entire extent of their range has
caught up nearly all the larger individuals and reduced the bulk of those remaining, suitable fo1
market, to near the minimum prescribed by law, and there they will probably remain. Were the
spawning Lobsters carefully protected, and due respect paid to the laws limiting the size ot!
those taken for food, we might expect to find about as many Lobsters now as in any past time.
though they might average smaller in size; but such, unfortunately, is not the case.

Just what the decrease in average size has been we have not sufficient data to determine:
but it has occurred so recently and has been so marked that no one who is familiar with the facts
can refuse to acknowledge it. A New Haven correspondent states that the average length of the
Lobsters sold in the markets there to-day is about ten and one-half inches and the average
weight about two pounds, against an average length of about thirteen inches and an average
weight of about three and one-half pounds twenty years ago. A Boston correspondent, who has
spent much time in studying the lobster question from a practical standpoint, writes that
“they decreased rapidly until the law was enacted regulating the size of those brought tc
market, the enforcement of which arrested the apparent decrease. I would say here that the
effect of a law regulating the size of those saved for food is, after a time, to bring a very large
majority of those offered for sale to about the legal limits, and an improvement can only be
looked for by increasing the limit from time to time.”

AVERAGE SIZE AT PRESENT.—From many fishermen and lobster-dealers along the entire
New England coast we have solicited information as to the average size of Lobsters taken by

784 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

them in their traps and sold as food, or received at the markets. The replies were numerous,
and in many cases undoubtedly reliable. In four of the principal larger markets the average
sizes were stated to be as follows, the length given being exclusive of the claws:

Portland, “Maing 2 wees o 2c ies etd oo sc ate es es ae eae ceases 10}
Boston; Massachusetts’... oy ei ec ceoiese aude t eee deer aeb eee ee deeiaese dda eOs 11-11}
New Haven, Connectictites 2c caosjccaep sess sodecestesle op eceeiseseeseeeeeseserssuesees 10}
New: Mork City: ssverseb cnet oe 8 sates eoeuetoesneacesactessescceceneeeteee ese 103-15

The larger Lobsters received at New York probably came from Eastern Maine, and the
smaller ones from Southern New England.

According to the fishermen, the average size of Lobsters taken upon certain sections of the
New England States runs about as follows, the wide range in the figures given in some cases
resulting from the combining of data from different localities :

Inches
Coast of Maine, from Eastport to Portland _.-..--------------------------------------- 8-15
New Hampshire_-_------- AREA A Oh See ee EE ap eRe wel come in aes Ant ee aa een 11
Vicinity of Boston 2222222 csesesesese se seen es Se Oe ee ee ee Seek ee ORR eer rea 10-13
Vineyard Sound to New London, Connecticut -_._--.._-..-_------------------------+--- 8-12
Western Connéctidut:.<= 22222 sc ssc2es sob seca eet eee oon eeecsbece soeemeesebeees 8-103

The average size is said to be somewhat greater in Eastern than in Western Maine, but even
at the east the smaller sizes are taken to sell to the canneries. On the coast of Nova Scotia
Lobsters, at present, run larger than on the coast of Maine. According to Capt. N. E. Atwood,
smnall Lobsters are seldom seen at Provincetown, or at least were seldom taken there when the
lobster fishery was extensively carried on at that place. In an entire smack load there would
not be half a dozen individuals .weighing under.two pounds. The average size of Lobsters
taken in the traps does not appear to remain the same at any one place throughout the year. In
many places they are said to run largest during the summer, or from June until the latter part
of August. This may not hold good, however, for all localities. About Vineyard Sound, Massa-
chusetts, Lobsters average largest in June, and those taken at that time are called “June” or
“Sand” Lobsters. They are lighter colored and have thinner shells than those caught the
remainder of the year. School Lobsters average about the same in size in the same school, but
the different schools may differ more or less from one another in the average size of the Lobsters
composing them, and some at times consist mostly of one sex and others of the opposite sex.

LARGE LOBSTERS.—The male Lobsters are said, as a rule, to attain the largest size, and in
most localities they average larger than the females. In some few places, however, we are
informed that the females average largest, and where this occurs it may possibly result from
the greater protection accorded the latter sex. A correspondent at Provincetown, Massachu-
setts, estimates that the larger females attain there a length of about fifteen to sixteen inches,
and the larger males about eighteen to twenty-two inches. Although large Lobsters have been
mostly exterminated from our coast, we still occasionally hear of the capture of individuals of
unusual size. From fishermen we have obtained information regarding three monster individuals,
weighing respectively thirty-five, thirty-eight, and forty pounds each, but no notice as to the
year when they were taken. Lobsters of over forty pounds weight have been recorded, but we
are inclined to look upon these giants with some distrust, as we cannot ascertain that any of them
were actually weighed. From more reliable sources we learn that sixteen to twenty-five pound
Lobsters, although by no means common, have been, and still are, occasionally found. They do
not seem to have been confined to any one part of the coast, as they are recorded all the way
frm E astp ort, Maine, to New Jersey.

COLOR OF THE LOBSTER. 785

Much of the information regarding large Lobsters was obtained from lobster-dealers, whc«
have had them for sale in their markets. A dealer at New Haven states that twenty years age
twelve to sixteen pound Lobsters were common, but during the past ten years a Lobster weighing
ten pounds has been rarely seen. A Boston dealer writes that during the past season (1880) he
has received and sold several Lobsters weighing from twelve to fifteen pounds each. On the
Nova Scotia coast, ten-pound Lobsters are said to be common now. The dimensions of these
heavy individuals are seldom given. A specimen taken at Boothbay, Maine, and said to weigh
between thirty and forty pounds, had such large claws that the meat from one of them was equal
to that of an entire ordinary-sized Lobster. Another specimen, weighing thirty-five pounds, had
a length of four feet. Seventeen to twenty-four pound Lobsters are stated to measure from three
to three and one-half feet long, and ten-pounders from twenty to twenty-four inches. A nineteen.
pound Lobster, shipped from Eastport, in 1875, measured three feet five inches in length, the
claws being eighteen inches long and eight inches across.

LARGE LOBSTERS ON THE COAST OF ENGLAND.—Although the European Lobster neve
attains the extreme size of the American, still large individuals are occasionally met with. Mr.
Frank Buckland makes the following records of large Lobsters observed on the coast of the
British Islands: “ The deeper the water and the farther from the shore, the larger are the Lobsters.
The Skye and the Orkney Lobsters are probably the largest in the British Islands. At St.
Mawe’s we heard of two Lobsters, one ten pounds and the other nine and three-fourths pounds,
and at Durgan and Sennen of one of thirteen pounds. A large Lobster was caught in a large
earthenware pot at Gosport in 1870; he weighed eight pounds ten ounces. In May, 1875, 4
Lobster, weight twelve pounds, was found at Saint’s Bay, Guernsey.” Another specimen caught
at Hamble, near Southampton, was said to have weighed fourteen’ pounds.

CoLor.—The color of the Lobster is so varied as to almost defy accurate description, ever
in single individuals. It may be described in a general way as consisting of a groundwork oi
yellow or yellowish-red, covered with spots or mottlings of green, or more rarely blue. The
mottlings are most numerous and dense upon the back, while on the sides of the carapax and
lower surfaces of the claws the yellow generally predominates. Along the lower edge of the
carapax, on each side, there is quite a broad marginal band of blue or bluish coloration, whick
also extends a short distance up the posterior margin of the carapax. Just above this band.
which has a distinctly defined edge, the yellow (ranging in intensity from a light yellow to a deer
orange) begins, and may be nearly plain for quite a breadth, or become at once covered witt
roundish spots of dark green or greenish or brownish olive, which increase in size and become
more closely placed toward the dorsal surface, where they overlap to such an extent that the
yellow seldom shows through. This combination frequently produces a very dark coloration or
the back, which sometimes appears as a greenish-black. Often the entire carapax and abdomer
assume a very dark shade over nearly all the sides as well as back. Sometimes the spots are
fewer in number than ordinary and stand apart from one another, even on the back, producing
the so-called “Spotted Lobsters.” The green color is often replaced by different shades of blue
Occasionally a reddish coloration will predominate over the entire carapax. The rostrum is olive
green, the spines it bears being of a deep, rich red. The abdomen corresponds in markings witl
the carapax. The depressed line running along the center of the back of the carapax is distinctl
marked, being generally dark green. ‘The tail-flaps are bordered along their posterior margins by
a band of dark olive brown.

The upper surface of the big claws has a decidedly reddish or orange cast, the color deep
ening towards the ends, which are a very deep red, fading out to a whitish color just at the tips

60 F

786 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Over this groundwork the outer margin of the claw has a broad banding of dark olive brown or
black, and numerous large spots of the same color cover more or less of the remaining surface.
The under sides of the large claws are almost always an orange of variable intensity, the terminal
joints being more intense than the inner ones, which are more or less marked with green or blue.
The other legs are much lighter below than the claws, with green or blue markings, especially
above and at the ends of the joints. The tips end in deep orange red, while the bunches of hairs
which ornament them and other parts of the body are almost a ruby red, when the specimen has
just been taken from the water. The soft skin covering the under surface of the abdomen, and
the swimmerets are of a faint pinkish color, due to the presence of multitudes of very minute red
spots.

. These color variations of Lobsters probably depend, to a certain extent, upon the character
or color of the bottom inhabited by them, but some of the varieties cannot be accounted for in
that manner. The character of their food may also have some influence in the matter. Lobsters
obtained from rocky bottoms more or less covered with sea weeds, and from dark grassy bottoms,
are said to be generally much darker in color than those from sandy bottoms, and also to average
shorter in proportion to their weight. Lobsters from open sandy bottoms are not only lighter in
color, but also appear to be, usually, brighter. We have several recorded instances of red Lobsters
from sandy bottoms, some of the specimens examined having been nearly as red as Lobsters
ordinarily are after boiling. Nearly white Lobsters also occur occasionally in similar situations.
One of the most curious color varieties we ever saw had numerous round, bright yellow spots,
ranging in size from very small to about half an inch in diameter, scattered without order over
the entire body. It is well known to all consumers of Lobsters that the shell of these animals
quickly changes to a nearly uniform bright-red color on boiling.

DISTRIBUTION—GEOGRAP. ICAL RANGE.—The American Lobster ranges along the Atlantic
coast from Delaware to Labrador, and has even been found as far south as the northeastern corner
of Virginia. A correspondent at Johnsontown, Virginia, informs us that he has seen two or three
stragglers taken in that neighborhood, and he believes them to have wandered naturally to that
far southern limit, as he cannot account for their being carried there tbrough the agency of man.
The vicinity of the Delaware breakwater can be regarded with greater certainty as their southern
limit, for there they occur in moderate abundance, and are occasionally fished for with lobster-
pots. They are also sometimes taken on the fishing banks off Cape Henlopen and Cape May.
The stonework of the Delaware breakwater seems, however, to form quite an attractive place for
them at present, though previous to its construction they may not have existed there at all. They
may be caught in the immediate vicinity of the breakwater in lobster-pots, and are also incidentally
taken in gill-nets and on hand-lines, but the fishery is not carried on regularly, mainly on account
of their scarcity, and partly from the fact that the pots are liable to be disturbed by the anchors
of vessels seeking the protection of the breakwater. Mr. Burbage, of Ocean View, Delaware,
states that he has occasionally seen small Lobsters in the surf along the beach, near Indian River
Inlet. .

Along the New Jersey coast, Lobsters have been recorded from a few places, but are no.
where very abundant. A fisherman of long experience about Cape May writes that he has never
seen Lobsters in that region. Off Monmouth County they occur near to and south of Nave-
sink. At Long Branch and Atlantic City small amounts are taken annually for local consump-
tion and for shipment to New York and Philadelphia. Lobsters are more plentiful on a fishing
ledge of rocks lying a short distance off Long Branch, and those found near the shore are
supposed to be summer visitants from this locality. Several instances of large Lobsters are

DISTRIBUTION OF THE LOBSTER. 787

recorded from this region—two in particular from off Atlantic City, weighing twenty and twenty:
one pounds each.

After passing the New Jersey coast, we soon come to the region where Lobsters are more
continuously abundant. At one time they were common in New York Bay, but the establishment
there of large factories, which pollute the waters, has almost exterminated them and dwarfed the
size of those remaining. Throughout Long Island Sound, Lobsters are moderately abundant,
and are fished for at several localities. They become much more plentiful in the neighborhood
of Fisher’s Island, Block Island, Montauk Point, the Elizabeth Islands, Martha’s Vineyard,
and Noman’s Land, all of which regions furnish a very important summer fishery. Nearly all
favorable localities on the Massachusetts coast abound in Lobsters, though overfishing has
nearly depleted some sections, as at Provincetown. New Hampshire supports a limited lobster
fishery. :

The Maine coast excels all others of the States in the abundance of Lobsters, which are more
or less uniformly distributed from Portland to Eastport, some localities, however, being more
favorable to their existence than others. The fishery for this State is much greater than for all
the other States combined, Massachusetts ranking next.

The Provincial coast, or at least the Nova Scotian part of it, is said to be more prolific in
Lobsters than Maine, though the fishery there is not of as long standing. We have little data as
to the relative abundance of Lobsters on the Newfoundland and Labrador coasts, but they are
apparently less common than to the south.

BATHYMETRICAL RANGE.—The Lobster ranges in depth from about low-water mark to at
least eighty fathoms, and the fishery is regularly carried on in some localities in depths of fifty to
sixty fathoms, especially during the winter. At Eastport and elsewhere on the Maine coast,
in the summer, they are occasionally left upon the shore by the receding tide, either concealed
under stones and seaweeds or partly buried in the sand. During the same season they may
also be frequently seen about the wharves of some of the Maine sea-coast towns, attracted
there by the refuse thrown over from the canneries. Twenty to thirty years ago, or before
the fishery had made much advancement, Lobsters were of much more common occurrence
in the littoral zone, and were often gaffed from the shore by the early fishermen. Even to-day,
in some places, the pots are set in such shallow water that they are exposed at low tide.
Several accounts of this shore fishery have been reserved for the industrial portion of the
present report. ‘

As explained elsewhere, Lobsters move towards the shore in summer, and away from it, or
into deeper water, on the approach of cold weather. During the principal fishing season, which
includes the warmer half of the year, they are most abundant in depths of a very few to about
fifteen or twenty fathoms, and it is within these depths that the pots are mainly set.

OFF-SHORE RANGE.—Lobsters have been recorded from the fishing banks off Nova Scotia,
from the fishing banks and ledges of the Gulf of Maine, such as Jeffrey’s Ledge and Cashe’s
Ledge, and from other more southern off-shore banks. They have also been taken from the
stomachs of cod caught on George’s Banks. ‘There is, however, no off-shore lobster fishery.

FRESH AND BRACKISH WATER.—Lobsters will not live in fresh or brackish water, although
it is an unsettled question as to whether a slight admixture of fresh water is harmful to them or
not. They are caught at the mouths of large rivers where the water is decidedly brackish on top,
but when placed in surface cars at the same localities they are said to quickly perish, indicating
that the water must be much more salt at the bottom.

CHARACTER OF THE BOTTOM.—Lobsters prefer rocky, gravelly, and sandy bottoms, and,

‘

788 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

in shoal waters, especially those which are more or less covered with growths of the larger
seaweeds. Vegetation is not, however, essential to their well-being, for they live on the barren
sands, as at Provincetown, Cape Cod, and on rocky, stony, and hard bottoms, wherever they
can find food. At the mouth of the Bay of Fundy, they are said to occasionally occur on the
mud, and this fact is recorded of them in other localities. On rocky bottoms they remain
more or less concealed under and among the rocks and stones, watching for their prey. In
the Bay of Fundy and elsewhere they are often seen lurking under stones at low water,
and about the wharves. The lobster-pots are generally set upon gravelly and sandy bottoms.
In many localities the young, under eight or ten inches long, are often abundant in shallow
coves or bays, which are more or less filled up with kelp and other large seaweeds. In such
places as these they have been commonly taken in the beam trawl used by the United States
Fish Commission for bottom fish, in Long Island Sound, Narragansett Bay, and Vineyard
Sound. One cause assigned for the great decrease in the abundance of Lobsters in Plymouth
Bay, Massachusetts, is the raking over of the rocky bottom for Irish moss, which industry is
carried on to a very great extent, thereby uncovering and destroying the young and damaging
their grounds.

MIGRATIONS.—The Lobsters inhabiting the shoaler grounds in summer move into deeper
water, as a rule, on the approach of cold weather, and return again in the spring. In some
localities, however, a few Lobsters are said to remain in moderately shoal water the entire year,
especially toward the south. But all Lobsters do not leave their deeper abiding places in summer,
for they appear to occur in greater or less abundance in all depths at all seasons. The extent of
the fall migrations is not very great, but the Lobsters move off beyond the influence of the extreme
cold into slightly deeper water, generally not far away, where’ the temperature remains milder
and more uniform. Those who fish for Lobsters in the winter have, therefore, to set their pots at
a greater distance from land than in the summer, but the winter fishery is of slight importance
compared with the summer.

Lobsters are said to approach the shores of Nova Scotia in May and to recede from them in
November, their winter quarters being in depths of ten to forty-five fathoms. In the summer
they are abundant close to shore. At the mouth of the Bay of Fundy they generally come into
shoal water in April, and move off again in October or November. During the summer
months they abound under the shelter of overhanging rocks and among the kelp near shore.
About five ‘or six weeks are taken up by these migrations. They do not move in a body, but
approach and recede gradually, as the temperature of the water changes. Throughout the coast
of Maine the spring and fall migrations are about the same, but vary more or less according to
the character and temperature of the different seasons. In the summer, they enter the numerous
bays and indentations of the coast line, which they leave again in the fall. They leave the
shallow waters of the coast of New Hampshire in December or November, and can be caught
during the entire winter in depths of twenty fathoms. Boston Harbor has always been famous
as a fishing ground for Lobsters, but in the fall it is completely deserted by these crustaceans,
which repair to the deeper waters of Massachusetts Bay, where a winter fishery can be carried
on. A sudden cold spell is said to send them off rapidly, and they have been Known to entirely
disappear from shoal water in the course of a day or two. Lobster fishing ceases at Province-
town, Cape Cod, the latter part of September, as the Lobsters become scarce after that time. In
Vineyard Sound the fall migrations extend into the deeper holes not far distant from the summer
grounds, but some individuals remain in comparatively shallow water the entire year. The same
is true of Long Island Sound, where Lobsters do not move far from their summer haunts, but,

e

MALE AND FEMALE LOBSTERS. 78

merely seek the protection of deeper water, wherever they can find it. The season generally lasts
from April to October. Off New Haven, Connecticut, Lobsters are occasionally taken in winter.
on the deeper oyster banks, while dredging for oysters.

SCHOOLING.—Although Lobsters do not appear to school in the same manner as some
fishes, still they often congregate in larger or smaller moving bodies, which travel from place
to place, as though in search of food. On the central and southern New England coasts.
especially about Martha’s Vineyard and Noman’s Land, two kinds of Lobsters are recognized
by most fishermen—‘ School Lobsters,” and “Rock Lobsters” or “Ground holders.” The latte:
are said to remain more or less continuously in one place during the entire fishing season, while
the former are migratory and uncertain in their movements. These two kinds of Lobsters are
also stated to differ more or less from one another in appearance, especially as regards color, ané
the Rock Lobsters are supposed to average heavier than the School Lobsters, when of the same
lengths. To what extent this habit of schooling takes place we have had no means of ascertain
ing, but for a short period during the spring and fall migrations it is probably more commor
than at other times. During the regular summer movements, the larger or stronger Lobster:
are said to lead the schools, and the maimed or crippled ones to straggle on behind. The
schools are apparently made up more or less of Lobsters of uniform size, as the fishermen wil
often catch the same sized Lobsters in their traps for a certain period, after which this size dis
appears and another takes its place. These changes are said to occur suddenly, and during
some years quite frequently.

The strongest proof of the schooling of Lobsters is the fact that they will suddenly appeai
in great numbers in a region where none have been caught for several days, and as suddenly
disappear therefrom without apparent cause. It is possible that the habit of schooling arises
solely from the necessity of migrating, and that, while they ordinarily live more or less scattered
over good feeding bottoms, yet when their common feeding ground becomes exhausted, or the
temperature too severe, they are impelled to desert it in a body for some other more favorable
locality.

ASSOCIATION OF MALES AND FEMALES.—The male and female Lobsters generally associate
together in the same places, in about equal proportions; but some curious exceptions to this rule
have been recorded. Capt. N. E. Atwood, of Provincetown, Massachusetts, writing in 1866, states
that at that time about ninety per cent. of all the Lobsters taken at Cape Cod were females, while
to the northward of Plymouth, on the west side of Massachusetts Bay, seventy-five per cent. o!
all those captured were males. In and about Narragansett Bay, the fishermen claim that, during
July and August, about seven-eighths of the Lobsters taken are females, while during the balance
of the season the two sexes are about equally abundant. At Eastport, Maine, it is said that, as
‘a rule, more male Lobsters are taken than females. The above statements must be taken wit
some grains of allowance, from the fact that the fishermen may not always be able to readily
distinguish between the two sexes, especially in the case of females not bearing eggs externally
The rude and hasty manner in which they handle Lobsters would also preclude their discriminating
between the sexes with certainty, even though they were well acquainted with their anatomica
differences. Prof. 8. I. Smith examined quantities of Lobsters in the Provincetown market
on two occasions, in August and September, 1872, without finding any decided differences ix
the number of males and females. At Eastport, Maine, his examinations were made with ever
more thoroughness, and with the same result. Professor Verrill also states that he has founc
the males and females about equally abundant in market supplies received from New Lon
don, Stonington, and Waterford, Connecticut. It is possible that, at some seasons, or unde!

790 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

certain conditions the males and females may live more or less apart from one another, but
the observations of scientific men indicate that this separation is not long continued, if it
occurs at all.

Mr. S. M. Johnson, of Boston, has recently assured us that the great preponderance of
females still holds true in the case of the Cape Cod region. Of the supplies received from there
at Boston, during the summer months, he feels certain, from long-continued observations, that
nearly if not quite ninety per cent. are females, and about seven-eighths of these bear spawn
externally. The section of coast from which these Lobsters are obtained extends along the outer
side of Cape Cod, from off Highland Light to Wood End Light. The Lobsters examined at
Provincetown, by Prof. 8. I. Smith, in 1872, may have come from the bay side of Cape Cod, whence
Provincetown is supposed to receive its supplies for home consumption. _ The females may resort
to the shallow waters of the outer side of the cape to spawn during the season when the fishery
is carried on there, and this fact, if true, would readily account for their great abundance in that
region, as has been noticed for so long a time. The males and females approach and recede from
the shore together in the fall and spring.

WINTER HABITS.—Fishermen generally agree that Lobsters do not trap as readily in the
winter as in the summer, even though the pots are set on what are supposed to be their winter
grounds. The reason assigned for this is that they are not as eager for food nor as active in
their movements in cold weather as in warm weather. This may be true to a great extent, but
we think it is equally probable that they are scattered over broader areas in the winter,
, and their haunts are not as easily found. Evidence in proof of this idea has been recently
furnished us by a prominent Eastern dealer, who has kept large quantities of Lobsters in confine-
ment for the winter trade. The bottom of the area given up to their keeping is very muddy, and
the surface of the water sometimes freezes over to a depth of twenty-two inches. On the
approach of cold weather the Lobsters bury themselves in the mud, leaving only the long
antennz, the eyes, the tips of the claws, and perhaps a small portion of the front of the carapax,
projecting above it. Over some parts of the inclosure the water is so shallow that the exposed
appendages can be readily seen from the surface. In these positions the Lobsters lie, presumably
all winter, unless disturbed, but whether or not they feed regularly has not been observed. If,
however, a hoop-net, properly baited, is lowered in front of ‘them, they are not slow to enter it,
plainly indicating that they are still attracted by the bait, and it is just the same even after the
surface of the water has become a sheet of ice. As the ice breaks up toward spring, and after-
ward, while the drift ice still remains in this area, the Lobsters become more timid and cannot be
caught. They also seem to ve easily frightened at loud noises, and perhaps retire deeper into the
mud, for bait appears to have no attraction for them at such times. It is not possible, however,
that they could be influenced in this manner in deeper water.

It is a question which may never be definitely decided, whether Lobsters bury themselves in
the same manner in deep water as near shore. The temperature there would undoubtedly remain
more favorable to them than in shallow water, but many of those caught in the pots in winter are
more or less covered with mud.

MovemeEnts.—Lobsters hold quite closely to the bottom and seldom leave it, unless it may
be to escape an enemy, when they have been seen to execute a sort of swimming movement
backward, by means of their tail, darting up from the bottom, but quickly settling down again.
In moving about, they seem to skim over the bottom, using their four posterior pairs of feet,
the anterior pair, or big claws, being held rigidly out in front of them, with the tips pointing
inward and not far apart. The tail is also spread out and well expanded at the same time. The

GROWTH OF THE LOBSTER. 19.

movements of Lobsters can be easily studied in the shallow cars in which they are kept fo
market, providing there are not too many of them, as the bottom of the car should not be coverec
Their actions appear easy and graceful, and their swimming powers may be tested by dippin;
them out with a scoop-net and allowing them to fall back again. If allowed to fall in tail foremosi
a gentle flap or two of the tail is sufficient to give the body the proper slope in the water so tha
in sinking it falls obliquely and reaches bottom by a more gradual motion than would be the cas
if it fell directly downward. During the downward movement the tail may or may uot be kept ii
motion. But in case the specimen is thrown in head first or sidewise, if it be in good, livel:
condition, it may give several vigorous flaps of the tail to right itself, and even swim off in on:
direction or another for a distance of several feet before settling down as in the former case. As :
rule, however, the Lobster must be regarded as a bottom animal, exercising its power of swimmin;
only in cases of emergency. .

We have made the above remarks to correct the current impression among many people tha
the Lobster is a free swimmer and moves about in schools like many species of fish. For thi
belief there is no foundation in fact.

GROWTH, SHEDDING, ETC.—Soft-shelled Lobsters occur at all seasons of the year, but appea
to be much less common in the winter than in the summer. The period of their greatest abundance
is from June to September or October. There is, therefore, no strictly defined shedding period
and no possibility of determining, from present data, how often Lobsters shed. The shedding i
connected with the growth of the individual, and when the body has attained such an increase
volume that the hard covering or shell can no longer contain it, the latter breaks open, and th:
Lobster comes forth in a soft state, and considerably enlarged. The possibility, therefore, exist
that in good feeding regions Lobsters may shed more frequently than in poor ones, for in th:
former it is natural to suppose that the growth would be more rapid than in the latter. Absolutel:
nothing is known, however, regarding this fact, and we must await future observations befor:
generalizing. During the younger stages,-shedding goes on quite rapidly, but as the Lobste
increases in age it is probable that the shedding periods become much less frequent, and in ver:
old individuals may cease altogether. There is, however, no conclusive evidence to prove tha
Lobsters ever attain a limit in size beyond which there is no further growth. Large individual:
are occasionally taken with a very thick and heavy shell so scarred and worn as to indicate :
prolonged and severe service. At times, the edges and angles of the shell and the exposec
prominences of the claws are completely worn away. Large Barnacles are often found upon th
shells of large Lobsters, and this fact is frequently cited as evidence that the Lobster had ceasec
shedding, or at least had not shed for several seasons. But after having examined the slate:
used by the United States Fish Commission as collectors for oyster spat, in Chesapeake Bay, ir
1880, the writer can no longer regard this proof as very convincing. In the course of a month o:
two the common Barnacle of that region, a species of Balanus, which had attached itself to thi
slates in much greater abundance than the oysters, had attained a diameter of nearly an inch anc
gave promise of growing much larger in a short space of time.

The process of shedding is very interesting, and has been frequently witnessed, although i
has never been minutely described by a competent observer. The following account has beer
furnished us by Mr. 8. M. Johnson, of Boston. As a preliminary, the carapax generally, but by
no means always, splits lengthwise along the middle of the back, often with a clean cut, quite t
the rostrum. Otherwise, the carapax merely separates widely from the abdomen, on the uppe:
side. The abdominal segments are the first to be withdrawn from their hard investment,’ anc

1 This is contrary to what happens in the fresh-water Cray-fish.

792 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

as soon as they are free they are used in extricating the anterior portion of the body. The entire
process requires a great amount of violent struggling and pulling, the claws occasioning the
greatest difficulty, from being so much larger near the tips than at the base. Their fleshy
portion, however, becomes somewhat soft and flabby so as to be easily extensible, and capable of
being compressed down to a smaller diameter. The basal joint, called the thimble by fishermen,
breaks lengthwise across the narrowest side, where a groove naturally exists, and the base of
the next succeeding joint splits in the same way. The remainder of this second joint, and the
following larger one, are compressed and flattened upon the upper or inner side, where the
Shell is thinner than elsewhere, the thin area being oval in outline, distinctly marked off from
the surrounding surface, and more or less marked with irregular, elongate, depressed lines.
Preparatory to shedding, this area, by the absorption of certain of its elements, becomes a thin,
soft, and extensible membrane, or may be entirely absorbed away. No other hinderances lie in
the way of the passage of the claws proper, which can be sufficiently compressed to work through
the next joint above them, although the latter remains hard and firm.

The layer of skin which is to form the new shell begins to take on its distinctive character
before the old one is cast, but does not harden to any extent. In this state it assumes a dark-
green color and gives rise to the common fishermen’s term of “ Black Lobster,” which is used to
designate the Shedders. As the hard shell is cast, the soft skin exposed presents a velvet-like
surface. The process of shedding goes on rapidly, as often happens in lobster-cars where the
animals have been placed awaiting shipment to market. Lobsters which have had no marked
indications of shedding, when placed in the cars, have cast their coat within a day or two
afterwards. The hardening of the new shell also progresses rapidly. On many Lobsters the
newly forming shell can be seen inside of the old one, and more or less closely adhering to it.
It appears like a thin, semi-transparent, gelatinous lining of the old shell, and in some instances
can be readily peeled-off from it. Soft-shell Lobsters are sometimes called “Cullings,” and those
in which the new shell has become slightly hardened are named “ Paper-shells.”

Just before and after shedding, Lobsters remain quiet, almost dormant, and more or less
concealed under stones or among seaweeds. Statements differ as to whether Lobsters seek
food while in the soft shell state. They are said to be captured in the traps at times, often
in great numbers; but as the food ordinarily preferred by them, and especially the baitings
of the traps, require hard surfaces for their mastication, we do not know how to account for
their presence in such situations. It is well known that hard Lobsters which entered the traps
in that condition have shed therein, but in all such cases the cast skin should be present
when the traps are brought to the surface of the water. It is possible that soft Lobsters are
attracted into the traps by the smell of the bait, without the possibility of eating it. Most
of the soft-shell Lobsters handled, however, are captured before shedding. Very many are often
obtained in this way, but they are not considered good eating, as their flesh is described as
thin and watery. They are mostly used as bait, although it is stated that they are also sold to
the canneries.

Soft-shell Lobsters are more subject to dangers than the hard-shell, being helpless to protect
themselves. They are greedily devoured by many species of fish, especially the cod, and are
even said to be attacked by hard-shell individuals of their own species. When caught at this
time, even if returned at once to the water, the slight handling they receive is said to generally
kill them. Remaining, as they are supposed to, as much as possible out of harm’s way, and
probably not feeding while in the soft state, the mortality is undoubtedly much Jess than as though
their habits continued the same.

PROCESS OF SHEDDING. 19:

The length of time required for the hardening of the new shell has never been recorded fron
observation. The fishermen’s statements regarding it disagree, but the hardening goes o1
probably more rapidly in warm weather than in cold, as in the case of the edible Crab. A carefa
observer at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, says that the shell becomes quite firm in the course 0
twenty-four hours. After three or four days it is supposed to be hard enough to enable the
Lobster to go in search of food, but the hardening probably continues and the shell increases ix
thickness, even though it be very gradually, until the next shedding period.

A short time before shedding, the Lobster is said to be very full of meat and in the bes
possible condition for eating. This would seem to result naturally from the increased quantity o
flesh which must accumulate within the shell preparatory to the Lobster’s assuming a larger size
While shedding, but more especially while in the soft state, after the Lobster has expanded tc
its new size, the flesh is considered by most people as unpalatable, although it is probably as
harmless then as at any time. The fishermen abhor soft Lobsters as a rule, and would not eai
them under any circumstances, but customers are occasionally found. One fisherman correspond
ent very aptly expressed his dislike for them in the following terms: ‘They are sometimes eater
by aristocrats, but never by us.” It seems very strange that soft Lobsters should be so unfavor
ably regarded, when we consider that the edible Crab is in its best condition just after shedding

The female Lobster probably casts its shell soon after its spawn is hatched. The eggs are
attached so firmly to the swimmerets that they remain hanging to them even after the young have
gone forth, and there is no other way of getting rid of this great encumbrance to the abdomer
than by shedding. This occurrence has been frequently observed in other species of crustacea
and probably happens in the case of the Lobster. In fact, we have numerous recorded instances
of female Lobsters bearing spawn nearly ready to hatch, and with the new shell in process o:
formation. It is the common belief of lobstermen that Lobsters which -have lost a claw, or beer
seriously maimed in any way, do not shed until after the injury has been repaired.

Prof. G. O. Sars describes the process of shedding with the European Lobster, Homarus vul
garis, as follows:

“The process of changing its skin is very tedious and dangerous for the Lobster, which maj
be imagined when it is known that not only the outer shell is changed, but even some of the
inner parts, ¢.g., the stomach-bag. The process occupies considerable time, and while it is going
on the Lobster is sick and utterly unable to escape from its enemies or. to defend itself agains!
them. It is therefore but natural that under such circumstances it very easily dies in the traps
Even after the change of shell is over the Lobster remains weak for some time. It therefore
hides among the stones at the bottom of the sea, and remains there until the new shell has become
sufficiently hard and its strength has returned.

“The earliest changing of shell which I observed during my journey was in the first part o
July, near Tananger. I here had an opportunity of observing a Lobster engaged in this process
It had just been taken out of a lobster-box, and could be handled without offering the least resist
ance. The shell on the back was burst in the middle, and the tail and the feet were nearly all ou
of the old shell, while the largest claw only stuck out half its length. This latter portion of the
change of shell is evidently very dangerous, and, although I observed it for quite a while, I coulc
see little or no progress. It is certainly a painful and dangerous process, and probably many ¢
Lobster loses its life at such times. Immediately after casting its shell the Lobster is lean anc
miserable, and only obtains its proper condition after the lapse of considerable time. According
to my observations, the change of shell takes place chiefly during the month of July. It certainly
happens that some change later, but by far the larger number appear to shed during that month.’

194 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

The following note regarding the shedding of the European Lobster, abstracted from a report
by a Danish naturalist,’ goes to confirm our previous statement, that the females shed soon after
spawning:

“ After the Lobster has emitted its roe, and the young have left the mother, she begins to
shed. She therefore goes to safe places, and does not seem to care much for food while the old
skin is being loosened; the shell finally opens in the back, and the animal goes into the water
naked. It then looks as if it were covered with velvet, on account of the considerable formation
of cells which is going on all over its surface. These cells afterward grow hard through small
particles of lime and form the new shell. This shedding of the shell goes on from the middle of
July to September, but not at the same time all along the coast, being earlier in the southern and
later in the northern part. The Lobster thus gets sick, as it is called, toward the end of June
near Sogndal, and the export must then cease, as the mortality among them becomes too great,
while near Karm6 it is still in a healthy condition till July 15. Farther north the shedding of
the shell begins still later, and Lobster may be caught all through July.”

RATE OF GROWTH.—Nothing is known regarding the rate of growth of the Lobster for any
extended period of time. Just how many years must elapse before it reaches a length of, say, ten
inches has never been determined, nor can we expect to solve this problem without a long series
of careful observations, which it seems almost impossible to make. It is well known that the
Lobster increases in size only when shedding. . As the old shell is cast away the soft body rapidly
expands to a certain extent, and then soon becomes invested again with a new hard covering.
Knowing the frequency of the shedding periods, and the amount of expansion at each, we could
easily determine the age of Lobsters of all sizes; but these are the very data which are lacking.
It is probable that the rate of growth is not the same at all shedding periods, but is greater in the
younger stages than in the older. The early transformation from the embryo to the first perfect
lobster form are all accomplished during a single season by several moltings, but beyond this
period we know nothing accurately concerning the intervals between moltings, but in a medium-
sized Lobster they probably occur only once or twice a year.

We have collected from several sources a few data as to the amount of expansion at certain
stages of growth, and although we cannot vouch for their accuracy, they are probably not far
from correct. The measurements given are for the length of the entire body without the claws.
One Lobster eight inches long before shedding measured ten inches after shedding; another
measured ten inches before and twelve inches after shedding; a third ten and one-half inches
before and eleven and three-fourths inches after shedding; and a fourth ten and one-half inches
before and twelve inches after shedding. If these measurements had all been taken with care
- they would indicate that the rate of growth was not always the same in different individuals of
about the same size. .

The lobster fishermen have very different notions regarding the ages of Lobsters, and while
some contend that they attain a marketable size in two or three years, others extend the period to
eight or ten years. The matter is one of considerable importance, bearing as it does upon the
framing of proper protective laws, and the feasibility of lobster culture and breeding.

Mr. Frank Buckland, in his report for 1877, gives the two following notes on the frequency
of shedding and the rate of growth of the European Lobster. They are not, however, very
satisfactory; and we cannot believe that the American lobster sheds as frequently after the
first year or two. : =

“ According to some careful observations made at the marine laboratory, Concarnean, it

1 AXEL Borck: Om det norske Hummerfiske og dets Historie. Copenhagen, 1868~’69.

REPRODUCTION OF THE LOBSTER. 79!

appears that the first year the Lobster sheds his shell six times, the second year six times, th:
third year four times, and the fourth year three times.
“The following table shows the rate of growth in a Lobster after each shedding of its shell

Sheddings. Length. Weight.
Inches. | Ounce. | Drachms,
HiShth wsiccwsssvcsneceacaseaed Ya Poco 1}
Ninth ....... DE: il sssdecexdecs 2%
Tenth ....... 2 aan Vee 3a
Eleventh... as Bs | iseseaveveee 52
Twelfth ........ saa Gh lasessdesaase 9%
Thirteenth ......... cee eeeee A laeuatetes 104
Fourteenth ..............500 ay 1 4

REPRODUCTION—GENERAL REMARKS.—Comparatively little has yet been made know1
regarding the reproduction of the American Lobster and the habits of the female during th
spawning season. This is very unfortunate, considering the important bearing of all sucl
information upon the question of the artificial breeding of Lobsters, which, if it is feasible, ma;
ere long have to be undertaken in order to replenish our already diminished supplies. Man:
obstacles have been mentioned as standing in the way of such an enterprise, but from th
favorable beginnings already made in Europe, as well as in this country, we are inclined t
believe it will terminate successfully.

Most of our larger crustaceans, including the Lobster and common Crabs, although livin;
mainly upon the bottom when adult, have free-swimming young, which, as soon as they leave th:
egg, and for a more or less prolonged period, lead a very erratic life. Not only, however, do th:
habits of the young generally differ very widely from those of the adults, but the- appearance an
structure of the two are as widely unlike. As described under “shedding,” the Lobster grow
by a series of molts. A molting or shedding of the skin indicates that the animal has grow)
too large for its inelastic outer coat. Now, the very young, or the larve, as they are sometime
called, grow in the same manner as the adults. When the higher crustaceans first leave the egg
they are very unlike the parent, having a very much simpler structure and often resembling on:
of the lower groups of crustaceans. The larva of the Lobster, for instance, is somewhat simila
in structure and appearance to one of the simplest groups of Shrimps, the so-called Schizopods.

The free-swimming habits of the young furnish some of the most serious obstacles to th
breeding of Lobsters. The embryos, after hatching, rise to the surface of the water, where the;
spend much of their time, and are borne hither and thither at the mercy of the currents, bein,
often carried beyond the favorable influences necessary to their development. In many Lobste
regions along our coast, in calm and clear weather, large quantities of the young may be dippe:
from the surface of the water, in the eddies and smooth streaks formed by the meeting of tida
currents. In these quiet spots the varied minute animal life characterizing the upper strata c
the sea are collected together in the same manner as bits of wood and clusters of seaweed, whick
from their larger size, are more familiar to the dwellers upon our coast. In stormy weather thi
surface life descends, in greater part, to lowef levels. This vagrant life of the young Lobster
exposes them to the attacks of all kinds of predaceous surface-feeding avimals, which consum
them in immense numbers. In this manner a great mortality occurs—a much greater one
undoubtedly, than would arise did the young remain upon the bottom, where they could find som
shelter and protection from their enemies. The means of caring for and protecting these way war
young should be the first consideration of the would-be Lobster-breeder, and in this matter he wi
probably encounter his greatest difficulties. The length of time required for the young to attai

796 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

the adult size is another matter of prime importance, as the breeder’s success must also depend on
his producing an early harvest. The age of what may be considered adult Lobsters (ten to
eleven inches) is not known, estimates by different observers placing it all the way from three
to a dozen years. If the latter estimate be correct, we would be almost forced to consider lobster-
breeding as an industry impracticable from the start, as the care, during ten or twelve years, of
the number of young necessary to produce salable Lobsters in marketable quantities would involve
an expense quite out of proportion to the prices which could be obtained for them. We very
much doubt, however, this prolonged extension of the immature stage of the Lobster, although
we have no direct proof to the contrary. Lobstermen, as a rule, consider that Lobsters grow to
be ten inches long in the course of three to five years, and they base their conclusions mainly
on the fact that the increase in size at each molt is considerable; but this question is discussed
elsewhere in this report. We do not pretend to say that, in case the slow growth of Lobsters
is proved, breeding would be without many good results; for, if the growth and habits of Lobsters
could be well understood, much care and protection might be accorded them, which would
materially increase their numbers. Any new and carefully made observations on the spawning
habits and growth of Lobsters would be gladly welcomed by all who are interested in the lobster
question, whether from a scientific or a practical standpoint.

SPAWNING SEASON.—Lobsters appear to have no definite spawning season, as they are
found with eggs, in different stages of development, during the entire year. According to the
statements of lobster fishermen and others who have had abundant means of observation in this
line, spawning takes place mainly from March until September. It should be remembered,
however, that the winter lobster fishery is of very much less importance than the summer, and
that during the former season the number of Lobsters handled does not in any way compare with
the number taken in the latter, so that the proportion of spawning Lobsters to non-spawning
ones, in the two seasons, may not be a8 great as would seem to appear. Winter observations on
the natural history of the Lobster, as well as of many other of our marine food invertebrates, are
very much desired. It is said that on the northern New England coast, from Cape Cod eastward,
Lobsters with spawn about ready for extrusion from the body begin to appear abundantly in
March, and with the spawn or eggs on the outside, as well as hatching, are most abundant from
June to September. In the Bay of Fundy, Lobsters spawn principally from the last of June to
the last of August. Southward of these limits the spawning season begins earlier.

Considering, now, the fact that spawning Lobsters occur throughout the entire year, we are
left without data as to the frequency of spawning in each individual Lobster. Did a short,
definite spawning period exist for each year, we might assume that Lobsters spawned only once
a year, or at least we could assert that they spawned no oftener than once a year. The only way
of determining the fact positively would be to study individual Lobsters for a certain period of
time, in their natural haunts and under natural conditions, and every one knows how difficult
such an undertaking would be with most marine animals. As it is, the possibility exists of
Lobsters spawning more than once a year, and there is no evidence to prove that they spawn
with any exact regularity as to time. We have the statements of several individuals, some
published and others not, to the effect that quite fully developed eggs are sometimes apparent
in the ovaries when the Lobster is carrying spawn on the outside of the body. But there is no
way of determining how long a time must elapse before the second lot of spawn might be
fertilized and made ready for extrusion. We are justified in believing, however, that, as a rule,
Lobsters spawn but once a year. In the Lobster, as in many other marine animals, only a portion
of the ova is fertilized and developed at each spawning time, often leaving the ovaries still quite

SPAWNING HABITS. 79'

expanded with their contents, and therefore we must always expect to find spawn in some stag:
of development within the adult female, whether she is carrying external spawn or not. Thi
statement will serve to explain to lobstermen the fact, which they often regard -with som:
surprise, of females carrying both internal and external spawn at the same time, the former, o
course, far less developed than the latter.

The mature ovaries form two elongate lobes of considerable size, on the upper side of th
body, just within the shell, and immediately before spawning Lobsters are considered to be ii
very good, if not the best, condition for eating; it is probable also that at about this stage thi
spawn first attracts the attention of most fishermen.

HABITATS WHILE SPAWNING.—Nothing definite seems to be known regarding the haunt
of spawning Lobsters, or as to whether they change their ground at such times. It is probabl
that, to some extent, they do prefer certain localities for this purpose; but as Lobsters witl
spawn are taken by the fishermen in their traps at all seasons of the year, and in all depths, thi
rule cannot, by any means, be regarded as universal. By assuming that certain regions are mor
favorable for the development and hatching of the eggs, we can readily explain the great prepon
derance of female Lobsters with spawn on the sandy shores about Provincetown, Cape Cod
during the summer months. Yet, in direct contrast with this region stands nearly the entir
coast of Maine, rocky in the extreme, where Lobsters are even more abundant, and where the;
probably reproduce in equal proportions.

SIZE OF SPAWNING LOBSTERS.—Lobsters do not generally begin to spawn until they hav:
attained a length of about ten and a half to eleven inches (exclusive of the claws), which is abou
the legal size of marketable Lobsters. We are informed by several correspondents, however
that spawning Lobsters have been taken as small as eight, nine, and ten inches; but such as thes:
are very rare. It is probable that they become mature at a smaller size at the South than a
the North, as Lobsters average smaller in Southern New England than in Northern Nev
England, and yet the age may average the same in both cases. Mr. S. M. Johnson, of Boston
who has handled many thousands of Lobsters, states that he has never seen from east o
Cape Cod more than two or three specimens bearing spawn under ten and a half inches. Hi
thinks that but few begin to spawn much under eleven inches in length, and this size, in hi:
_ opinion, would be the proper limit below which none should be sold in order to fully protect the
species.

ParrRine.—So far as we are aware, no one has ever witnessed the operation of pairing ix
Lobsters, and all that we know concerning it is mere conjecture. Many of the female Lobster:
obtained from sandy bottoms, as at Provincetown, Cape Cod, are said, by observers, to have th«
carapax more or less abraded along the top, and also somewhat worn over a limited area upor
the sides. This has led the fishermen to believe that, in pairing, the female Lobster lies upon he:
back with the male on top, clasping her about the carapax with his claws. While in thi
position any strong agitation of the water by the waves in slight depths would probably caus
the pairs to oscillate backward and forward, and might account for the abraded carapaces 0
the female, which are said to be of common occurrence. This story has been told us by severa
reliable parties, entirely independent of one another; but we cannot say how much reliance
should be placed upon it, and the evidence is certainly very slight.

A large New York dealer in Cray-fishes, who keeps large quantities of these lobster-lik«
crustaceans on hand during their season, says that he has frequently witnessed them pairing, anc
that the males and females come together belly to belly, with the claws of one tightly claspings
those of the other, and spread out so as to form with the bodies a rude Y-shaped figure.

798 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

NUMBER OF EGGS.—The Lobster, like many other crustaceans, carries a very large amount
of spawn on the exterior of the body at each spawning time. The number varies with the age
and size of the Lobster, but to what extent is not known. Mr. 8. M. Johnson, of Boston, states
that two and a half pound Lobsters bear externally, on an average, about twenty thousand eggs
at a time, according to several careful computations, made by comparing the weight of a certain
number of eggs with the weight of the entire mass of spawn attached to the swimmerets.

Two females which I examined at Eastport, Maine, in the summer of 1882, gave the following
results as regards the number of eggs carried on the swimmerets. The first specimen, measuring
133 inches in length, had 875 grains of eggs, there being 20 eggs to a grain, making a total of
17,500 eggs. The second specimen measured 13 inches long and carried 480 grains of eggs, with
25 eggs to a grain, making a sum total of about 12,000 eggs. Neither of the above specimens,
however, appeared to have their full quota of eggs, as many of the bunches seemed to have been
more or less brushed away, probably by rough handling. In the last specimen, especially, had all
the bunches been of equal and full size, the number would have been increased fully one-half.

According to Mr. Frank Buckland, “the [English] Berried Lobster carries five bunches of
eggs on each side underneath the tail, making ten bunches in all. I have counted the eggs in
one bunch and find that there are 2,496, making the number of eggs in this one lobster 24,960.
Lobsters are found with berries all the year round; March, April, May are the months when they
are fullest.”

DESIGNATIONS OF SPAWN.—Lobster spawn is variously designated, on different parts of the
coast, as “spawn,” “roe,” “eggs,” “berry,” ‘‘seed,” “pea,” “sweetbread,” “coral,” etc.; but in most
places it is known simply as “spawn,” “eggs,” or “berry.” On the Nova Scotia coast the term
“coral” is sometimes used to designate the nearly mature spawn while still within the body of the
Lobster, and after it has passed to the outside it is called “eggs.” In the Bay of Fundy the terms
“ coral, “roe,” and “sweetbread” refer to the spawn before extrusion from the body, and they
may also be used in a similar way on other parts of the coast. In some portions of Long Island
Sound, Lobsters with external spawn are called “‘ Black-egg Lobsters.”

THE SPAWN AS FOOD.—Before the spawn has passed from the body to the external appendages
it is very much esteemed as food, and is generally eaten whenever it can be obtained; it is also
canned. The external spawn, however, although sometimes used to garnish fish dishes and
salads, is not usually regarded as edible.

EXTRUSION OF THE EGGS, ETC.—The spawning of the Lobster is accomplished in about the
same manner as with the Cray-fish, regarding which many more carefully recorded observations
are extant. According to Huxley, the fecundating material of the Cray-fish, which is extruded
from a small aperture on the basal joint of the hindermost pair of legs, is a “thickish fluid,
which sets into a white solid after extrusion.” This substance is deposited by the male on the
thorax of the female, between the bases of the hindermost pair of thoracic limbs. The apertures
for the outward passage of the eggs are situated on the bases of the second pair of legs, back of
the large claws. The eggs, ‘ asthey leave the apertures of the oviducts, are coated with a viscid
matter, which is readily drawn out into a short thread. The end of the thread attaches itself to
one of the long hairs with which the swimmerets are fringed, and as the viscid matter rapidly
hardens, the egg thus becomes attached to the limb by a stalk. The operation is repeated until
sometimes a couple of hundred eggs are thus glued on to the swimmerets. Partaking in the move-
ments of the swimmerets, they are washed backward and forward in the water, and thus aérated
and kept free of impurities.”

The process of development is slow, and the young, when first hatched, bear a general

DEVELOPMENT OF THE YOUNG. 79¢

resemblance to the parent. For some time after they are hatched they hold on to the swimmerets
of the mother, and are carried about protected by her abdomen. As they become more active
they sometimes leave the mother when she is resting quietly and creep about a short distance off.
but quickly return to her on the first semblance of danger. A few days later they gradually
forsake her for good. The earlier stages of the embryo Lobster differ considerably from those
of the Cray-fish, as described further on. The eggs of the Lobster ure probably extruded in
a similar manner, and are attached to the swimmerets by the same viscid substance. Accord.
ing to some American observers, however, the viscid substance is first extruded from the openings
of the oviducts and appears as a thick, globular mass, which is brushed back over the swim.
merets by the movements of the posterior pair of thoracic legs. The eggs are said to follow
immediately afterwards and to be spread about in the same manner. Becoming thus securely
attached. to the swimmerets, they remain well protected and are kept constantly aérated by the
movements of these posterior flaps until the young are hatched. Without further observations
we cannot strongly indorse the idea of the viscid material being first excreted; but if such
occurs in the beginning, there is still no reason why the eggs may not be also covered with the
same substance as they are laid. The eggs are not attached to the smooth surface of the
swimmerets of the Lobster, but to the long, slender hairs which project from along their sides.
In that way they hang more loosely and can be given freer motion.

SHEDDING AFTER SPAWNING.— As explained under “shedding,” it is probable that, as a
rule, the females shed their shells soon after their eggs are hatched, as there is no other way of
ridding themselves of the broken egg-shells adhering so firmly to the swimmerets by means of
the tough little threads. Lobsters with very ripe spawn have frequently been seen in a condition
preparatory to shedding, thus, in a measure, corroborating the above conjecture. According to
Prof. S. I. Smith this shedding after spawning is known to occur in some of the Crabs. This
peculiarity is also affirmed with regard to the European female Lobster, as described elsewhere.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE YOUNG.—The earlier embryonic stages of the Lobster have been
studied by Prof. 8. I. Smith, of Yale College, whose observations, however, extended over only a
limited périod. They were made at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, and New Haven, Connecticut.
Eggs with the embryos well advanced, taken from the females May 2, had the shape of slightly
elongate spheroids, about 2.1™™ long and 1.9™™ across. “One side is rendered very opaque dark
green by the unabsorbed yolk mass, while the other shows the eyes as two large black spots,
and the red pigment spots on the edge of the carapax, bases of the legs, etc., as irregular lines

of pink markings. . . . Fully one-half the embryo is still occupied by the unabsorbed portion
of the yolk. . . . The eyes are large, nearly round, and with a central portion of black
pigment. . . . The five pairs of cephalo-thoracic legs are all similar and of about the same

size, except the main branch of the first pair, which is much larger than that of the others.
The subsequent development of the embryo within the egg was not observed.”

In the account of his observations, Professor Smith goes on to describe such of the embryonic
stages following hatching as he was able to obtain. From his long and technical descriptions we
extract only those portions which can be best understood by the general reader, and which it will
be well for the breeder to become acquainted with to aid him in ‘his practical labors. We would
suggest here that the breeder himself, or some intelligent man in his employ, should familiarize
himself with the workings of an ordinary low-power microscope, in order that he may follow the
development of the young Lobsters -under his care, and observe whether they are doing well or
die off soon after hatching. Unless such precautions as these are taken, he might continue to
work for a long time completely in the dark, and without knowing whether he was making

800 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

progress or not. A continuous series of observations would enable him, at all times, to follow
the success of his experiments, or determine, perhaps, the causes of his failures.

The exact number of changes or moltings which take place between the last egg stage and
the first stage having the general shape and characters of the adult, is not known. Professor
Smith observed three such stages, but supposes others to be wanting. His account of these
stages is as follows:

“The following observations on the young larva, after they have left the eggs, have all been
made upon specimens obtained in Vineyard Sound, or the adjacent waters, during July. These
specimens were mostly taken at the surface in the daytime, either with the towing or hand net.
They represent three quite different stages in the true larval condition, besides a later stage
approaching closely the adult. The exact age of the larve of the first stage was not ascertained,
but was probably only a few days, and they had, most likely, molted not more than once.
Between the third stage, here described, and the last there is probably an intermediate form
wanting.

“ First stage—In this stage the young are free-swimming Schizopods' about a third of an
inch (7.8% to 8.0™") in length, without abdominal appendages, and with six pairs of pediform
cephalo-thoracic appendages, each with the exopodus developed into a powerful swimming organ.
The eyes are bright blue; the anterior portion and the lower margin of the carapax and the
bases of the legs are speckled with orange; the lower margin, the whole of the penultimate, and
the basal portion of the ultimate segment of the abdomen are brilliant reddish-orange. The
antenne have large, well-developed scales, furnished along the inner margin with long, plumose
hairs. . . . The anterior cephalo-thoracic legs, which in the adult develop into the big claws,
are exactly alike and no longer than the exterior maxillipeds. The pediform (outer) branch
is, however, somewhat stouter than in the other legs, and subcheliform (bearing an imperfect
claw); the legs of the second and third pairs are similar to the first, but not as stout. The legs of
the fourth and fifth pairs are still more slender, and styliform at the extremity, as in the adult.”
Very rudimentary branchie or gills are observed on all of the legs and the external maxillipeds.
“The abdomen is slender, the second to the fifth segments each armed with a large dorsal spine,
curved backward, and with the lateral angles produced into long spines, and the sixth segment
with two dorsal spines. The posterior margin of the last segment is armed with a long and stout
central spine, and each side with fourteen or fifteen plumose spines or sete, which are articulated
to the margin. ‘

“Tn this stage the young were first taken July 1, when they were seen swimming rapidly
about at the surface of the water among great numbers of Zoée, Megalops, and Copepods. Their
motions and habits recall at once the species of Mysis and Thysanopoda, but their motions are not
quite as rapid, and are more irregular. Their bright colors render them conspicuous objects, and
they must be readily seen and captured by fishes. They were frequently taken at the surface in
different parts of Vineyard Sound from July 1 to 7, and several were taken off Newport, Rhode
Island, as late as July 15, and they would very likely be found also in June, judging from the
stage of development to which the embryos had advanced early in May in Long Island Sofind.
Besides the specimens taken in the open water of the Sound, a great number were obtained July
6 from the well of a lobster-smack, where they were swimming in great abundance near the
surface of the water, having undoubtedly been recently hatched from the eggs carried by the

1 The Schizopods are a group of Shrimps, lower in organization than our common Shrimp (Crangon vulgaris), and very -
abundant along the New England coast. ‘They generally swim in large schools, either at the surface or at intermediate
depths between the surface and the bottom, often at some distance from land.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE YOUNG. 801

female Lobsters confined in the well. Some of these specimens lived in vessels of fresh sea-watel
for two days, but all efforts to keep them alive long enough to observe their molting failed. They
appeared, while thus in confinement, to feed principally upon very minute animals of different
kinds, but were several times seen to devour small Zoéx, and occasionally when much crowded, sc
that some of them became exhausted, they fed upon each other, the stronger ones eating the
weaker.

“ Second stage.—In the next stage the young Lobsters have increased somewhat in size, anc
the abdominal legs of the second to the fifth segments have appeared. The rostrum is muck
broader and there are several teeth along the edges. The basal segments of the anteunule have
become defined, and the secondary flagellum has appeared, but is not subdivided into segments
The antenne and mouth organs have undergone but slight changes. The first cephalo-thoracic
legs are proportionally larger and stouter than in the first stage, and have become truly cheli
form. The succeeding legs have changed little. The epipodi of all the legs and of the external
maxillipeds have increased in size, and the branchial processes are distinctly lobed along the
edges, and have begun to assume the form of true branchiw. The segments of the abdomen have
the same number of spines, but they are relatively. somewhat smaller, and the last segment is
relatively smaller and broader at base. The appendages of the second to the fifth segments differ
considerably in size indifferent specimens, but are nearly as long as the segments themselves:
their terminal lamella, however, are represented only by simple, sack-like appendages, without
sign of segmentation, or clothing of hairs or sete. The penultimate segment is still without
appendages. Specimens in this stage were taken only twice, July 1 and 15. They have the same
habits and general appearance as in the first stage, but are readily distinguished by the posses
sion of rudimentary abdominal legs. In color they are almost exactly the same, only the orange
colored markings are perhaps a little less intense.

“Third stage.—In the third stage the larve are about half an inch (12™™ to 13™™) in length.
and the integument is of a much firmer consistency than in the earlier stages. The antennule are
still rudimentary, and. considerably shorter than the rostrum, although the secondary flagellum
has increased in length and begin’s to show division into numerous segments. The antenna
retain the most marked feature of the early stages—the large size of the scale—but the flagellum
is much longer than the scale and begins to show division into segments. . . . The external
maxillipeds have begun to lose their pediform character. The anterior legs have increased
enormously in size, and those of the second and third pairs have become truly chelate, while the
swimming exopodal branches of all the legs, as well as of the external maxillipeds, are relatively
much smaller and more unimportant. . . . The branchie have developed rapidly and have
a single series of well-marked lobes along each side. The abdomen still has the spines charac.
teristic of the earlier stages, though all of them are much reduced in size. The appendages ot
the second to the fifth segments have become conspicuous, their lamelle have more than doubled
in length, and the margins of the terminal half are furnished with very short ciliated sete. The
appendages of the penultimate segment are well developed, although quite different from those in
the adult. The outer lamella wants-wholly the transverse articulation near its extremity, and
both are margined, except the outer edge of the outer lamella, with long plumose hairs. The last
segment is relatively smaller and more quadrangular in outline, and the spines of the posterior
margin are much smaller. The only specimens procured in this stage were taken July 8 and 15.
In color they were less brilliant than in the earlier stages, the orange markings being duller and
the whole animal slightly tinged with greenish-brown.

“Tn the next stage observed,.the animal, abouc three-fifths of an inch (14™™ to 17™™) long, has

51 F

802 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

lost all its schizopodal characters, and has assumed the more important features of the adult
Lobster. It still retains, however, the free-swimming habit of the true larval forms, and was
frequently taken at the surface, both in the towing and hand net. Although resembling the
adult in many features, it differs so much that, were it an adult form, it would undoubtedly be
regarded as a distinct genus. The rostrum is bifid at tip, and armed with three or four teeth on
each side toward the base, and in some specimens with a minute additional spine, on one or both
sides, close to the tip. The flagella of the antennule extend scarcely beyond the tip of the
rostrum. The antennal scale is very much reduced in size, but is still conspicuous and furnished.
with long plumose hairs along the inner margin, while the flagellum is as long as the carapax.
The palpi of the mandibles have assumed the adult character, but the mandibles themselves
have not acquired the massive molar character which they have in the older animal. The other
mouth organs have nearly the adult form. The anterior legs, although quite large, are still
slender and just alike on the two sides, while all the cephalo-thoracic legs retain a distinct process
in place of the swimming exopodi of the larva. The lateral angles of the second to the fifth
“ abdominal segments are prolonged downward into long spiniform teeth; the appendages of these
segments are proportionately much longer than in the adult, and the margins of their terminal
lamelle are furnished with very long plumose hairs. The lamelle of the appendages of the
penultimate segment are oval, and margined with long plumose hairs. The terminal segment is
nearly quadrangular, as wide at the extremity as at the base, the posterior margin arcuate, but
not extending beyond the prominent lateral angles, and furnished-with hairs like those on the
margins of the lamelle of the appendages of the penultimate segment. ' In color they resemble
closely the adult, but the green color of the back is lighter, and the yellowish markings upon
the claws and body are proportionately larger.

“In this stage the young Lobsters swim very rapidly by means of the abdominal legs, and
dart backward, when, disturbed, with the caudal appendages, frequently jumping out of the water
in this way like Shrimp, which their movements in the water much resemble. They appear to be
truly surface animals, as in the earlier stages, and were often seen swimming about among other
surface animals. They were frequently taken from the 8th'to the 28th of July, and very likely
occur much later. From the dates at which the different forms were taken, it is probable that
they pass through all the stages here described in the course of a single season. How late the
young, after reaching the lobster-like form, retain their free-swimming habit was not ascer-
tained.” :

DEVELOPMENT OF THE EUROPEAN LOBSTER.—According to Prof. G. O. Sars, of Norway,
‘the European Lobster agrees more or less closely with our own species in its spawning habits
and development, as the following extract from his report will show :1 :

“The propagating of the Lobster does not seem to be strictly confined to a certain season of
the year, as Lobsters with roe may be found nearly all the year round. But the rule seems to be
that the development of the young goes on during the summer months, from the beginning of
July until the early part of September. The more developed roe can easily be distinguished by its
lighter color, and partly, also, by the larger size of the eggs. . A closer examination shows distinctly
in every egg two dark spots, which are the eyes of the embryo. The more distinct these spots
are the more developed is the embryo. When its development is complete the egg-shell bursts,
and the young Lobsters come out. These are in the beginning very helpless and sink to the
bottom, where within a very short time they undergo their first change of shell. Soon afterward
their swimming apparatus, which has so far been surrounded by a skin, begins to work, and the

1 Salt-water Fisheries of Norway. Christiania, 1878.

BREEDING OF THE EUROPEAN LOBSTER. 80

young Lobsters soon gambol about in the water, and come up to the surface, where they remai
during the entire time of their future development. '

‘“‘ At the fifth change their metamorphosis is complete, and therewith ends their pelagian lifi
The young Lobster has then entirely lost its swimming apparatus attached to the fore part of it
body, and in its stead the well-known fringes have grown at the lower side of the back part of th
‘body. These fringes are the only swimming apparatus which the grown Lobster possesses; in th
female Lobster they also serve to keep the roe in position. The Lobster now leaves the surfac
and goes to the bottom, there to lead the same life as its parents. I am not positively certain ho
long a time is required for the entire metamorphosis, but I am inclined to believe that it consume
a couple of months.

“Even after the Lobster has reached its final development, it continues to change its ski
regularly at least once a year, and continues to do so as long ag it grows. Only when it ha
ceased growing this change of skin does not occur so often.. We shall, therefore, always fin
that very lamee Lobsters are more or less thickly covered ie scales, mana is not so frequent i
smaller specimens. .

“T did not succeed in‘ obtaining Lobsters measuring from an inch to a finger’s length, and s
far as I know none are contained in any museum. I consider it as certain, however, that th
Lobsters keep near the coast during this stage of their development. The reason why they cannc
be caught with the bottom scraper is partly their quick movements and partly the circumstanc
that they hide among the alge on the bottom of the sea. The fact that they cannot be caugl
in the common lobster-baskets is easily explained by these having such wide openings.”

. The followin account of tlie reproduction of the European Lobster on the French coast i
by the late M. Coste, well remembered from his many interesting and extensive experiments i
several branches of fish culture. We have no means of determining how accurate these obse
vations are, nor do we know whether they are the result of close study or conclusions derive
from the accounts of fishermen. We offer them here as affording many valuable suggestior
which may aid observers on our own coast. The seasons do not entirely correspond with ours:

“The Lobster commences breeding in the month of October, and the pairing takes plac
sometimes as late as January. The couplings are rare at the opening of the season, but increas
in frequency to: the end of December, and “put few take place in J: January. The female emits th
eggs in about fifteen or twenty days after the pairing. When they have reached the stag
proper for their expulsion, the female applies the inner side of the tail against the plastron ¢
shell immediately over the stomach, in such a manner’as to form a cup or cavity, in which ar
to be found the openings of the oviduct, placed exactly behind the third pair of legs. Cons:
quently when the eggs escape they fall into this natural cup or. cavity, as described abov:
They are expelled in successive jets, to the number of twenty thousand in a'single day.

“The Lobster emits at the same time, along. with the eggs, a kind of adhesive liquic
which binds the eggs one to the other, and attaches them all to the small feet under the tai
where they remain in perfect shelter from all harm until they.are sufficiently ripe for fin:
expulsion.

“In order to forward and force the regular incubation of the ova, the females have th
power to give them more or less light, as they consider requisite, by closing or opening the fol
of the tail. Sométimes the eggs are kept quite covered, and at other times they give them
kind of washing, by moving the flanges of. the tail in a peculiar manner. The incubation last
six months, during which time the female takes such good care of the ova that it is rare to fin
an injured embryo or barren egg.

804 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“It is during the months of March, April, and May that the actual birth of the young
Lobster takes place. The females, in order to expel the embryos, now ready to burst the shells
of the eggs, extend their tails, make light oscillations with the fan and its appendages, so as to
rid themselves gradually of the young Lobsters, which they succeed in doing in a few days. The
young Lobster, as soon as born, makes away from its parent, rises to the surface of the water, and
leaves the shore for the deep water of the sea, where it passes the earliest days of its existence
in a vagabond state for thirty or forty days. During this time it undergoes four different
changes of shell, but on the fourth it loses its natatory organs, and is, therefore, no longer
able to swim on the surface of the water, but falls to the bottom, where it has to remain for the
future; according, however, to its increase of size it gains courage to approach the shore which
it had left at its birth. The number of enemies which assail the young embryos in the deep
sea is enormous; thoysands of all kinds of fish, mollusks, and crustaceans are pursuing it con-
tinually to destroy it. The very changing of the shell causes great ravages at these periods,
as the young Lobsters have to undergo a crisis which appears to be a necessary condition to their
rapid growth. In fact, every young Lobster loses and remakes its crusty shell from eight to ten
times the first year, five to seven the second, three to four the third, and from two to three the
fourth year. However, after the fifth year, the change is only annual, for the reason that were
the changes more frequent the shell would not last long enough to protect the ova adhering
to the shell of the female during the six months’ incubation. The Lobster increases rapidly
in size until the second year, and goes on increasing more gradually until the fifth, when it begins .
to reproduce, and from this period the growth is still more gradual.”

TRANSPLANTING OF THE YOUNG.—For the benefit of those interested in the question of
breeding Lobsters by artificial means or care, we extract the following paragraph from a commu-
nication made by Capt. N. E. Atwood, of Provincetown, Massachusetts, to one of the New York
papers about fifteen years ago:

“When we take a cargo of Lobsters on board of a fishing-smack and throw them into the
well, many of the young are so far developed that when they strike the water the shell of the
egg is broken, and you can see hundreds of thousands of little: Lobsters on or near the top of the
water in the well. After the cargo has been taken on board, the smack sails for New York, and
during the whole passage the young are being hatched and are passing out through the holes in
the bottom of the well. On thé arrival of the smack at Fulton Slip the Lobsters are taken out
and put in cars. If any of the. eggs are on the Lobsters, not hatched, they are soon eaten off by
eels, which go out and in the car as they please.”

These observations of Captain Atwood are exceedingly interesting. It is probable that the
numerous young Lobsters hatched on the trips of the Cape Cod smacks through Long Island
Sound have contributed toward increasing the supply of Lobsters along that section of coast. It
has amounted to a transplanting of Lobsters from one prolific region to another much less prolific, .
and the benefits thus inadvertently derived were possibly considerable. This traffic has long
ceased, however, and young Cape Cod Lobsters no longer find their way into the waters of Long
Island Sound.

Foop.—The Lobster appears to feed upon most any kind of animal matter within its reach, but
is said to prefer fresh fish as bait. Feeding naturally, it probably does not discriminate closely as
to its food. It digs clams from the bottom and removes mussels from their places of attachment,
sometimes crushing the shells in its claws, and afterwards devouring out the soft parts. Flounders
and other bottom fish undoubtedly fall a prey to its appetite, and it has been seen to catch nimbly
.atismall fish swimming by. Very probably it feeds upon all kinds of invertebrate life which

: CASTING A CLAW. 8C

are palatable to its taste and live within easy reach of its claws. Sea-urchins even are describ:
as furnishing food for it on the Nova Scotia coast. Flounders, sculpins, herring, menhaden, codfi
heads, haddock, and bluefish are commonly used as bait in the lobster-pots. An experienc
observer who has watched their habits under peculiarly favorable circumstances, on the coast
Maine, states that, in devouring clams, he has never seen them crush the shell, but as it we
they absorb the meat from between the valves, leaving the latter intact. He has never seen the
catch living fish, but could not positively affirm that they did not do so at times.

CASTING A CLAW.—As is well known, Lobsters have the power of dropping or “shootin;
one or both claws, which may be more or less completely replaced by a new growth. Mai
incentives are quoted for this curious procedure, the principal ones being handling, especial
in cold weather, entanglement of the claws, and fright. Fright, ‘or a sudden impulse to free thei
selves from impending danger or pain,-is probably the main cause, however it may be produce
The break does not occur between any of the movable joints, but always at one particular poit
near the upper end of the second or double joint, where it is smallest and encircled by a distin
groove. The claw cannot be broken off at this or any other place by main force without injury
the Lobster, causing it to bleed to death.

Occasionally in mild weather, but much more frequently in cold weather, Lobsters will sho
their claws if handled by them out of water. This also frequently occurs when Lobsters becor
entangled by their claws in the fishermen’s nets. AS they are drawn above the water, they w
often, without a moment’s warning, slide back into their native element, leaving their disjoint
member behind. Loud noises, such as thunder, the firing of cannons, etc., are said to ine
$ Lobsters to shoot their claws, and also the presence of very impure or fresh waters; but to wh
. extent this happens we cannot say. When a claw becomes injured or broken, or perhaps crush

by an antagonist of the same species, so as to render it useless or painful, it is often dispens
with, in order that a new one may take its place. This process of dropping an old and growing
new claw is certainly a wise provision of nature, for this appendage is much subject to injury, a
nothing more deplorable can be imagined than a Lobster with mutilated claws.

The practice of shooting a claw, even under natural conditions, seems at times to be a ve
common one. Out of one hundred specimens, averaging about eight or nine inches long, collect
for natural history purposes in Narragansett Bay, in 1880, fully twenty-five per cent. had lost
claw each, and a few both claws. From each stump, iu all these specimens, projected a short s
claw, still very imperfect in structure, and measuring from one-fourth of an inch to about an in

_ it length. In some of the specimens, one or more of the hinder legs were being reproduced
the same way. The fishermen state that similar specimens are also sometimes common in th
catch. The breaking off of a claw, according to observers, is accomplished so quietly that t
operation is scarcely perceptible. If a claw of a Lobster be seized by the hands while he is
the water, and he casts it, no unusual sensation is felt, but the claw is simply left behind, and t
former owner darts quickly off. Soon after the break occurs, it is covered with a crust of coag
lated blood, which prevents further bleeding until a skin has formed, from the center of which t
new claw begins to grow. How long a time is required for the new claw to attain a size prop

_tioned to that of the Lobster, if it ever reaches that size, is not known. However, the incipie
‘claw remains soft and continues to grow probably until the first molt, after which its outer lay
of skin is supposed, to harden like that of the remainder of the Lobster. Specimens <
frequently taken with hardened claws of regular shape, but of different sizes below the norn
one, rather indicating that at least several moltings must take place before the claw can reach
full size.

806 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

The following incident, furnished by a correspondent, forcibly illustrates the process of
shooting a claw and points a moral. A party who had purchased a number of Lobsters as food
thought to keep them fresh overnight by hanging them over the side of his vessel, by means of
cords tied to the claws. In the morning, ‘when he went to examine his live stock, he found

. nothing but the claws remaining fast to the cords, the Lobsters having dropped back into |
their former abode.

DEFORMITIES AND DISEASES.—Lobsters are subject to many deformities or malformations,
which generally occur upon the claws, and appear to originate from several causes. A broken

’ claw is sometimes mended in an irregular manner, and there are frequent instances of what are
termed double claws, resulting from the formation of a second projection or thumb upon either the
larger or smaller branch of the claw, and which is more or less perfect in shape but immovable.
Rarely the two branches of the “claw are not regularly set with reference to one another, and“
instead of working in the same plane,,and ‘meeting edge to edge, they pass one another like the
blades of a pair of scissors. The thumb or finger of one of the claws occasionally takes on an
‘unusual or fantastic shape, or becomes greatly broadened and thickened, but the variations to
which the claws are subject are too numerous to warrant description here. Many of them have
been figured and discussed by Mr. Walter Faxon in the “Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative
Zoology” for March, 1881. They probably arise in part from injuries received while in the soft
state, but in great measure they have not been accounted for.

During the past winter, there was sent to the National Museum, from the coast of Nova
Scotia, the carapax of a medium-sized Lobster, with two small round openings covered with
membranes, placed symmetrically one on each side of the median line, a short distance back of
the rostrum. By the person who sent the specimen, and who saw the Lobster when alive, these
membranes were described as projecting slightly from the surface, and taking on the appearance
of a second pair of eyes. Unusual but symmetrical markings also occur upon the dorsal side of
the carapax. The specimen was so thoroughly cleaned and dried, however, before we received
it—nothing remaining but the shell—that it is now impossible to form a correct idea as to the
real import of these strange features.

Diseased Lobsters are not commonly met with. Individuals are occasionally found in a very
emaciated condition, and some with soft spots like sores upon the body; but such cases are rare.
Specimens are sometimes taken with small portions of the body gone, or with deep scars and dents
upon the surface, the results of injury. It is usually the older individuals that are marked in
this way.

PARASITES.—Lobsters do not appear to be much troubled with external parasites or messmates.
Barnacles often grow upon the back and claws, and mussels sometimes attach themselves to the
same places. The number of Barnacles is frequently so great and they cover so large a portion of
the exterior surface as to seriously impede the movements of the Lobster, but this seldom happens.
‘Fish-lice are mentioned by the fishermen as occasionally occurring on the Lobsters, but as we
have never seen any specimens of such it is impossible to determine what they may be, if they
are parasites at all.

ENEMIES.—AII the larger bottom-feeding fish probably feed upon the Lobster, and the sur-
face fish also greedily devour the young. Soft-shell Lobsters suffer most in this way, and are
frequently found in the stomachs of cod taken by the fishermen. Sharks, dogfish, rays, tautog, and
Striped bass are also mentioned as being especially fond of Lobsters, but this list could undoubt-
edly be greatly extended without much trouble. Water-birds. sometimes feed upon the smaller
individuals in shallow water. During the earlier period of their existence, while they are still”

DISTRIBUTION OF THE EUROPEAN LOBSTER. 80%

free swimmers and very small, living mostly at the surface of the water, by far the greates
mortality must occur. At this time they are eaten in vast quantities along with other surfac
animals by the more active fish and invertebrates, and probably but a comparatively small pro
portion of those hatched from the egg ever survive this stage. We may, however, be justified ir
asserting that the greatest enemy of the Lobster is man.

Mr. Frank Buckland, in treating of the enemies of the European Lobster, says that “among
the animate enemies the principal one, I believe, is the cod. A witness at Burghead stated thai
‘codfish are great enemies to Lobsters; he hardly ever opens a cod without finding young Lobsters
in the stomach; this is particularly in February and March; has seen cod throwing up Lobster:
on the deck of a vessel, as many as five or six Lobsters in one cod. These Lobsters would be
three or four inches in length, or even smaller. Cod eat Lobsters all the season. In the spring
and in January, February, and March, there are many cod about.’ Skates and congers, codling
and haddock, also eat Crabs and Lobsters.” . , '

DESTRUCTION BY STORMS.—Mr. I’. H. Baker, in a recent paper on American Lobsters, refer:
to their being occasionally destroyed in great numbers in shallow water by heavy storms. He
cites as an instance the great Saxby storm on the coast of Nova Scotia, after which the dea¢
Lobsters were piled up in immense numbers, in several places, ‘lining the shores like windrow:
of hay on a field in midsummer, the stench from which was overpowering as the Lobsters decayec
in the sun.” :

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITS OF THE EUROPEAN LOBSTER.—The following account of the
distribution and habits of the European Lobster, Homarus vulgaris, abstracted from a report
by a Danish-Norwegian naturalist,! is inserted’ here to permit of comparison between these twe
closely related forms, and to fill up some of the numerous gaps in the history of our own species
The European Lobster is so similar to our own structurally that we are safe in assuming that
the habits of the two are in the main alike. In comparing the European with the Americar
species, however, it must always be borne in mind that the former never attains the extreme size
of the latter, and also averages sm4ller in size, while the female begins tv spawn when only sis
inches long, although at this size it may possibly be quite as old as the young spawning Amer
ican female. There are so many important questions of practical value still unsolved regarding
the American Lobster, that the suggestions set forth by this Norwegian report may lead to thei
proper investigation:

“The European Lobster seems to have its central location on the southwestern coast 0:
Norway, and goes as far north as Finmarken, where, according to Lem, in his description of the
Finmarken Laplanders, 1767, it is found north of Traenen, where he ate very fine ones on the
island of Rédé, while formerly their northern limit was thought to be the island of Brénd6; but
he also thinks that they would be found in Finmarken, if people only searched for them. It is
very rarely found on the coasts of Iceland, where, according to Mohr’s ‘Islandske Naturhistorie,
it has been found by Dr. Poulsen in Gréndevig, but it does not extend to Greenland or Spitzbergen
It does not go into the Baltic, but is found all over the Kattegat, especially near Anholt
Hirsholmene, Laesé, and Hjelm, and, according to Mr. Fiedler’s report, in the Great Belt as fai
as Sprogdé. On the coast of Bohuslan it is very common, and is said to go into the Sound as fai
as the island of Hveen. On the west coast of J utland, it is found wherever the bottom is stony
and it is very common near Heligoland. It rarely goes into the inlets on our western coasts
chiefly on account of their great depth. It is very rare in the inner portion of the Bay of Christi
ania, and not very common in the Limfiord. On the coasts of England, Scotland, and Ireland, it is

1 Axe Boeck: Om det norske Hummerfiske og dets Historie. Copenhagen, 1868-’69.

808 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

common wherever there is a rocky bottom, especially near Montrose, Orkney, Lewis, and Harris
Island, and on the southern coast of England, near Land’s End and the Scilly Islands. Near sbe
Channel Islands it is common, as well as near several groups of islands on the French coast. In
the Mediterranean it is not so common, although it is not entirely wanting; but its substitute as
an article of food is another large species of Cray-fish, the Langusta (Palinurus). It is, therefore,
not spread over a very large extent of sea; but it is found in its central locations in very large
numbers, and there becomes an important article of food and trade.

“Its general size is eight to ten inches from the point of the spine on the forehead to the tip
end of the tail. It rarely exceeds this size where large fisheries are carried on; but now and then
specimens of a much greater size are found in places from which none are exported, and where it
consequently has time to grow before it is caught. Thus, Pontoppidan, in his ‘Norges naturlige
Historie’ (part ii, p. 279), says that the very large Lobsters are called ‘Stérjer, and that near
Utvaer, on the Bay of Evien, a Lobster had been seen which was so large and ugly that nobody
dared to attack it, and that it measured a full-fathom between the claws. This seems certainly to
be somewhat exaggerated; but I myself have seen the claw of one which must have been about
eighteen inches long. Sir John Graham Dalyell says, in his work ‘The Powers of the Creator,’
1827, that he had seen a joint of the left claw of a Lobster that measured nine inches in length.
According to this, the whole claw must have measured eighteen to twenty-four inches, and the
whole animal three to four feet. As a general rule, those that are taken in the fiords are larger
than those that are caught near the islands toward the sea. The color of the anima] when
alive is generally a blackish-green, with several blue spots; but it unay also be lighter, especially
near the mouths of fiords, while farther out toward the sea it becomes much darker. I may
mention as a curiosity that during this year (1868) I found a Lobster near Haugesund, one-half of
which was of a greenish-black and the other of a light-orange color, there being a sharp and
clearly defined dividing line, which ran lengthwise, and divided the Lobster in two halves of
equal size.

‘‘The Lobster lives close to the coast, where there is a rocky bottom, among the large alge;
but in winter, when the water grows cooler, it descends as far down as sixteen to twenty fathoms,
while in spring, when the temperature of the sea rises, it stays at a depth of from one to four
fathoms. It is altogether a coast animal, which very rarely seems to go any distance from its
birthplace, if it can readily find there a sufficient supply of food. Sometimes, however, they have
been seen in large masses swimming toward the land from the sea, and they have then been
caught in nets, having been mistaken for a school of herrings; but this is only a consequence of
local migrations, when it goes from the deeper into the shallower waters. It is not able to make.
its way through the sea for any length of time by swimming. Its structure certainly allows it to
make quick and definite movements, and it can swim freely about in the sea, but this swimming
never lasts long, as it cannot keep itself afloat very long.. Neither is it able, while swimming, to
catch and swallow its food; but it seizes its prey only when it can hold on to something. At the
bottom of the sea it can chase its prey, if necessary, with great rapidity, but while eating it
remains quite still. The Lobster is a very greedy animal, and can swallow great quantities of
food, which it seems to find especially during the night by its scent, while during the day it keeps
quiet and digests. Its food consists chiefly of the roe of fish, and of dead fish, but likewise of
small crustaceans and other marine animals. When kept in confinement, it canlive for a
consillerable time without food. The Lobster seems to be able to propagate when it is a little
more than six inches long (at least, roe is only found in animals of this size); but when the
Lobster reaches a length of eight incbes it contains a great quantity of roe. A real act of

+

BREEDING HABITS. 809

a

copulation takes place, the male Lobster placing its double male member into the outer genital
opening of the female; and the eggs are impregnated while they are yet in the ovary. This
pairing seems to take place from autumn to spring, or March and April, for it is highly probable
that the roe is emitted from the ovaries immediately aftér copulation has taken place, just as with
other crustaceans; and the emitted roe is found during the entire winter. After impregnation.
the eggs are emitted from the outer genital openings of the female, which are found at the bases
of the third pair of feet, but do not fall into the water, as they are held in a hollow which is
formed by the bent tail, which, both at the end and on the sides, has leaf-shaped fringes that
inclose the space formed by the bending of the tail. Under this tail there is fastened a double
row of the so-called tail-feet, to which the eggs are strung by strong, slimy strings. The embryc
now begins to develope in these eggs, which are quite numerous, two to three thousand in one
female, according to the size, and occasionally as many as ten to twelve thousand. The formatior
of the embryo does not, however, seem to begin till-the temperature of the water has become
milder in spring, even if the pairing should have taken place in autumn or winter; for, althougl
loose roe ‘is often found in winter, it is never seen in any degree developed into embryos. Thit
pairing and the development of the roe seem to take place at different times on different portion:
of the coast; for the fishermen themselves, who have such an excellent opportunity of observing
them, are not agreed as to the actual time. The development of the embryo seems to take a
_ least fourteen days from the time of commencement, and it can easily be observed till the young
break the shells of the eggs and begin to lead an independent life. When the young Lobster comes
out of the egg it measures only a few lines in length, and does not at all resemble the old Lobster
but has a different structure. It does not leave the hollow under its mother’s tail immediately afte:
being hatched, but lives there for some time, and later frequently returns to it. .It is particular];
distinguished .by a less complete development of its feelers and tail-feet, and by the feet bein;
exceedingly small but furnished with long, brush-like branches, with which it swims vigoroush
on the surface of the water. After having spent some time in this state, it changes its skin severa
times and assumes the shape of its mother, when it goes to the bottom. Its life from this momen
till it reaches a size of five to six inches is entirely unknown; for no young Lobsters have beei
caught, either by fishermen or scientists, the smallest having been found in the stomach of th
torsk, so that it is probable that they spend this portion of their life at a greater depth, and liv
in a different mhnner and on other food than at a later period. There cannot, therefore, be an;
artificial hatching of Lobsters in the sense of artificial fish-hatching, but all that can be done i
to keep the ‘Lobster imprisoned during the development of the eggs, and thus protect it from th
dangers which threaten it and its young. Itis impossible to do anything for the tender young, a
they die very soon when confined. I see, however, that several persons in France, and Mr. voi
Eris, in the lagoons of Triest, near Grado, have hatched several millions of young by keepin;
Lobsters with ripe roe at the bottom'of the sea in perforated boxes.

“The greatest enemy of the Lobster, and one who sensibly diminishes its numbers, is man. Whe:
swimming near the surface during its youth, with a number of other small crustaceans, it become
a welcome prey to the herring and the mackerel. As the grown Lobster keeps at no great depth
and where large fish of prey are not commonly found, it is not much exposed to them, bu
occasionally, when lying near the surface, it is taken’ by large birds of prey. An interesting scen
may be witnessed near Bukkené, north of Stavanger, where an Englishman has constructed
large pond, between some small islands, for keeping live Lobsters. Whenever the pond become
too full of Lobsters, so that they do not find sufficient food, they leave the water and crawl abou

810 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

.

seeking to reach the sea; but during their wanderings they fall an easy prey to large numbers of
crows hovering round, which take them in their claws, fly high up, and Jet the unfortunate
Lobsters drop down on the rocks, where their shells are broken, so that the crows can eat them in
comfort. The crows are not easily scaréd away, but show a remarkable degree of sense, only
flying away when any one approaches with fire-arms, and later they carry on their depredations
in the early morning, when they have less to fear.”

In addition to the above we have some interesting remarks on the natural history of the
European Lobster, from observations made by Prof. G. O. Sars, about 1875, and published in
1878, in a report on the “ Salt-water Fisheries of Norway.” In prefacing bis remarks, Professor
Sars states:

“Tn order to judge of this matter (the protection required for the fishery) it is absolutely
necessary to have as complete a knowledge as possible of the natural history of the Lobster. But
in this respect very little progress has been made. Although the Lobster is one of the commonest
marine animals on the coast of Europe, and has been made the subject of special investigations
by many naturalists, its mode of life is still involved in darkness.”

Farther on he gives the following general accounts of its habits:

“ As to its organization and its analogy with similar crustaceans, the Lobster must doubtless
be on the whole considered as a stationary animal. It never undertakes long migrations like
some of our fish. The Lobster certainly moves about with great swiftness and ease, aided by its
strong tail and the swimming apparatus attached to it; but this mode of moving about is
evidently not the rule. The hard-shell and ponderous Lobster must always make an extra
exertion in moving about, and its movements cannot, therefore, be of long duration. People
certainly talk of the so-called ‘traveling Lobsters,’ which are said to come from the open sea in
large schools ; and some even say that they have seen such schools many miles from the coast,
moving about rapidly near the surface of the sea. If this is really so, I consider it as absolutely
certain that these schools came from no very great distance, possibly from some.of the elevated
bottoms off the coast. The grown Lobster is, as every lobster fisher will know, in its whole mode
of life a genuine bottom animal, and prefers a stony or uneven bottom, overgrown with alge,
where it finds good hiding-places for lying in wait for its prey. During summer and part of |
autumn, the Lobster.goes on higher bottoms in the bays and inlets, and is then frequently caught
quite near the shore among the alge, at a depth of less than a fathom. Toward winter it again
retires into the deep; and still later in the season it has almost entirely disappeared from those
places where it was quite common during summer. Occasionally, however, it is, even in the
middle of winter, found in deep water, and I have reason to believe that the Lobster never leaves
our coast entirely, but considers it as its proper home.

“ As may be judged from its powerful claws, the Lobster is a fierce beast of prey, that is
not satisfied with small marine animals, but occasionally attacks all kinds of small fish that are
unfortunate enough to come within its reach. The bait used for catching Lobsters consists
exclusively of fish, principally small codfish and herrings. These jnust, however, be tolerably
fresh; as soon as they begin to get old the Lobster leaves them to bis cousins, the Crabs, which
are less fastidious in their tastes, and they enter the baskets in great quantities.

“The Lobster is cautious and cunning. It never pursues its prey ‘openly, but either
endeavors to surprise it, in which it is greatly aided by its very highly developed sense of smell,
or waits patiently among the alge till some marine animal comes within reach of its claws. I
have several times observed with what cautiousness and evident distrust the Lobster, attracted,
by the bait, has gone round the traps and examined them several times on all sides, before it has

COMPOSITION OF LOBSTERS. 81)

‘gone in. Only when it is very hungry, as is especially the case later in summer, after the spawnin;
season and casting of the shell is over, is it less cautious and more ready to enter the traps.

“The Lobster is best and fattest in the spring and early summer, while later in the summe:
and autumn it becomes thin, in consequence of which the English will not take it during thos
seasons.”

COMPOSITION OF LOBSTERS.—According to a'series of careful analyses by Professor W. O
Atwater, of Middletown, Connecticut, the composition of the flesh of Lobsters is as follows, thi
figures given indicating the average results obtained from three specimens received from thi
coasts of Maine and Massachusetts: :

Proportions of edible portion and shell: Per cent.
Total edible portion-__----..-_.-..-..---------.---------.------------ weber: 39.77
Shell oo ascses' ceeecices ee ee an eee Ne OEE Ieee Se ee Oy Cee eee pres Yee ROE 57. 47
AGOSS: IN CLEANING oe oo sir es ee tiie nee ae etre 2.76

Proportions of water and dry substance in edible portion
Wabetie cated ol oe eee ee ae ane oh bee tad eee Smee seer see a 82.73
Dry: Stbstante: 22 23052 scenekkseeasccucemuaocuescecetenuewesesiset enemas 17.27

Chemical analysis calculated on dry substance :

INTO PED eect es es re a eco te ie a Oe
Albuminoids (nitrogen X 6.25) --._--.-----.-------------------- Partesseesentus 78. 37
Wate eect ea ens oe Se eae nn tha Raat, Augsecticdscoveceseeesses 11. 43
Crude: ash’: 332 sent es scot tose teen eces ee ee ae 10. 06
‘Phosphorus (calculated as P.O;)-----------------------------------------n- eee 2, 24
Sulphur (calculated as SO3)_-..-------------------------------------------------- 2. 47
Chlorine sg /2 sso nt As eds ed SES UOA NEY PS EERIE ERE AED 3. 46

Chemical analysis calculated on fresh substance in flesh :

SW aibe tthe ot eo On IS ee ee os oe a Sa See eee 82.73

BG ce) | ea SS fe A nO oe ee 2.17
Albuminoids (nitrogen X 6.25)..-------------------------- ee eeeeeeeee 13. 57

Wate ssa sdb Sees ao sec ee Senne os See oe re Ces 1.97

. Crudeashe oo ss eres ne eo SiSecasteeaeesecectesee a4 Lieuiveseonseauinee ewes 1,74
Phosphorus (calculated as P,0s)-------------2------------- (eave ese eee ees . 39

Sulphur (calculated as SQ3)-_--.-.-----------.---------------------------------- . 43
Chlorine: "ose csecese aac stesadaecces suet code teo sao Pitts Reciet Scete . 59

Nutritive value of the flesh of Lobsters compared with beef as a standard and reckoned at 100: 61.97

The chemical composition of the flesh of the European Lobster is stated by Mr. Franl
' Buckland to be as follows: :

Flesh. Sos Antennal Spawn.
matter. |
Per cent. Per cent, Per cent. : ‘
Nitrogenous matter........ceccccceereees 19.170 12.140 21. 892
Fatty matt 1.170 1.444 | "8,284
Mineral matter..........cccccssssesescerers 1. 823 1,749 1.998
Non-nitrogenous matter and loss... 1.219 0. 354 4,893
Water 76. 618 84,313 62. 983 x
100. 000 100.000. 100. 000

In connection with this table, Mr. Buckland makes the following observations:

“That phosphorus exists in large quantities in Lobsters may easily be proved, A Lobster ii
hot weather, when it ceases to be fresh, assumes a highly phosphorescent appearance when see!
in the dark, equal, if not superior, to that of a glow-worm or luminous ¢entipede. This ligh
increases by friction . . . and this phosphorescent appearance is probably caused by th

812 : NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

chemical changes in the organic tissues, when life is no longer present to resist the ordained
agency of decay and decomposition; in fact, it is a slow combustion by combination with oxygen.

“The presence of phosphorus in the Lobster is of great importance to the consumers of these
sea luxuries; there is no substance which conveys phosphorus so readily into the human system
in an agreeable form, and which the system so readily and quickly assimilates, as the flesh of
Crabs and Lobsters.”

225. THE CRAY-FISHES—ASTACUS AND CAMBARUS.

RELATIONS AND DISTRIBUTION.—The so-called “Oray-fishes ” or “Craw-fishes ” are common
inhabitants of most of the fresh-water streams of the United States and Europe, but in this
country they are not eaten nearly to the same extent as in some parts of the Old World, and
they are not generally regarded here as a staple article of food.

The North American Cray-fishes, although belonging to but a single family, the Astacida,
constitute two distinct genera, Astacus and Cambarus, and about thirty-eight species, three of
which do not, however, occur within the limits of the United States. The Cray-fishes bear a strik-
ing resemblance to the Lobsters (Homarus), to which they are closely related, but there are
several important structural differences between them, and none of the Cray-fishes grow nearly
as large as the Lobster.

Europe contains only three species of Cray-fishes, all belonging to the well-known genus
Astacus. They are A. nobilis Huxley (fluviatilis), A. torrentium, and A. leptodactylus. Much
discussion has taken place among naturalists as to whether the above species are really distinct
from one another, or merely form varieties of a single variable species. The relations of A. nobilis
to A. torrentium are more marked than of those two forms to A. leptodactylus, but probably the
specific differences pointed out are as good as exist between many other unquestioned species of
the same group in this country. It matters little to us in this connection, however, what may be
the true affinities of these forms to one another, as long as we can define them sufficiently well to
speak of their relations to the fresh-water fisheries of Europe, as an introduction to our own species.

Astacus nobilis and A. torrentium are the edible Cray-fishes of Western Europe, and inhabit
fresh-water streams generally. They “are intermixed over a large part of Central Europe.
A. torrentium has a wider northwestward, southwestward, and southeastward extension, being
the sole occupant of Britain, and apparently of Spain and of Greece. On the other hand, in the
northern and eastern parts of Central Europe, A. nobilis appears to exist alone. Farther to the
east a new form, A. leptodactylus, makes its appearance.”! Those who have treated of the two
western species of Europe from a practical standpoint have generally spoken of them as a single
species, to which the old and well-known name of fluviatilis has been applied. This distinction
corresponds with the views of the older European naturalists, and this species thus constituted,
with its two or more varieties, is the common fresh-water Cray-fish of European literature, which
has come to have a world-wide reputation.

The structure of the Oray-fish can be best described by defining some of the principal
characters in which it differs from the common Lobster, according to Huxley. The general shape
of the body with its appendages and the general make-up of the two forms are very similar;
but the Cray-fish has only eighteen pairs of perfect gills or branchie at the most, and the Lobster
twenty. “Moreover, the branchial filaments of these gills are much stiffer and more closely set”
in the Lobster than in most Cray-fishes. The most important distinction, however, is presented
by those gills which are attached to the bases of the thoracic limbs, and which number six pairs

1HuxLEy: The Cray-fish, 1880, pp. 299, 300.

DISTRIBUTION OF CRAY-FISHES. 813

in both the Lobster and the Cray-fish. In the latter animals each of these gills forms a simple
stem ending above in a plume and plate; in the former this “stem is, as it were, completely split
into two parts longitudinally, one-half corresponding with the lamina (plate) of the Cray-fish gill,
and the other with its plume.” :

The shedding and the spawning habits of the Cray-fish correspond very closely with those
of the Lobster, in connection with the description of which animal the subject has been discussed
at some length.

As stated above, the American Cray-fishes belon g to two genera, Astacus and Cambarus, while
all the European species belong to the one genus Astacus. The only marked difference between
the two genera is this, that while in Astacus there are eighteen gills on each side, in Cambarus
there are only seventeen. This difference in structure is considered to be of sufficient importance
to warrant the formation of the two genera, but the external differences, such as the variation in
shape of the body, and in the proportionate sizes of the several external parts, which are more
apparent and more striking to the superficial observer, have only specific value. On such
differences as these are founded the thirty-two species of Cambarus and the six species of Astacus,
belonging to the North American fauna. More careful and detailed studies of large collections
of Cray-fishes from different parts of North America may serve to greatly reduce this number of
species, and if such should follow, it would simply go to prove that some of the differences now
supposed to be of specific importance are merely varietal. Strangely enough, all of the North
American species of Astacus are limited to the western slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains,
that is to say, to that portion of our country most distant from Europe; while the genus Cambarus
is confined to the intervening area bétween the Rocky Mountains and the Atlantic coast. The
six species of Astacus are variously distributed through California, Oregon, Washington Territory,
and British Columbia, but only one species, A. nigrescens, appears to be used as food, at least to
any extent. This probably results from the fact that this is the only species found in the vicinity
of San Francisco, outside of which city there is little or no demand for this sort of food. Adult
individuals of this species exceed four inches in length, and when living are blackish i in color;
after death, however, they become of a light grayish tint. According to Mr. Lockington, of San
Francisco, this species is brought to that city only in small quantities, the demand for it being
slight. The supply is mostly obtained from Coyote Creek, Santa Clara County, and from the
sloughs of the San Joaquin.

The genus Cambarus is pretty cecal distributed throughout the region east of the Rocky
Mountains. No Cray-fishes have ever been found, however, in the New England States, exceptin g
in the extreme western parts of Vermont and Massachusetts and in Central Maine, and ten years
ago no species had been recorded from most of the Western Territories, especially between the
Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, where if any Cray-fishes should be found in the future it
will be interesting to know whether they belong to the western genus, Astacus, or the eastern,
Cambarus.

At present we know 80 little, comparatively speaking, of the invertebrate fauna of the rivers of
the Territories that it is not at all strange we should have so few records of Cray-fishes from them;
but it is very probable that Cray-fishes exist there in greater or less numbers. New England, on
the contrary, has been too well explored to leave much doubt but that Cray-fishes are absent from
it excepting in the localities above cited. To enter into a discussion of all the species of North
American Cambarus would lead us away from the main object of this sketch, which is intended
principally to point out the range and habits of those species known to be eaten. Sufiice it to
say that the species are more or less irregularly distributed, some States, or even sections of

814 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Sates, having several species, and others again only one or two. Some species are very limited in
their range, while others are widely distributed. Cambarus acutus is an illustration of this wide
distribution, ranging as it does through a large number of the States from the Great Lakes
southward to the Gulf, and from Missouri eastward to the Atlantic coast. CO. Bartonti ranges
from Canada to the District of Columbia and Kentucky; (. obesus, from Illinois to Louisiana, and
from Missouri to New York and Virginia. OC. affinis occurs in all of the Middle States and in
Maryland and the District of Columbia, and ©. virilis extends from Lake Winnipeg, British
America, to Toronto in the east and Texas in the south. Very many of the species have been
recorded from only a single locality each, but this does not necessarily imply a restricted range,
as they may occur in other places in which no collections have yet been made.

Economic VALUE.—Although Americans, as a rule, do not regard the eating of Cray-fishes
with much favor; these animals are probably used as food in many of the localities in which they
are abundant and can be easily obtained. The French in this country are perhaps the principal
consumers of this delicacy, as they are in Europe, where their own country cau supply only a
small part of the demand, great quantities being annually imported into France from Germany
and other neighboring countries., -In the United States the principal centers for the consumption

' of Cray-fishes are New York City and New Orleans, and we have been unable to learn of any other
cities demanding a regular supply. New Orleans derives its supplies from the fresh waters near
at hand, but New York depends upon more distant sources. The Cray-fish season in New York
City begins early in the spring and lasts until fall, or until frost sets in. The first supplies come
from the Potomac River at Washington, where the Cray-fishes are first taken soon after the
breaking up of the ice in the river. About June 1 the weather becomes almost too warm for
the shipment of Cray-fishes from Washington, and another more northern locality, Milwaukee and
vicinity, begins to send supplies to New York. In the early part of July, Montreal adds her
quota to the New York markets, and the shipments from these two latter localities continue as
stated above until into the fall. The Potomac River Cray-fishes are larger than those from
Milwaukee, while the Montreal species is the smallest of all. The Milwaukeé Cray-fishes are most
esteemed by epicures, their flesh being less coarse and of a finer flavor than any of the other
species sold in the New York markets, The Potomac species is the darkest in color when living,
but does not turn red by boiling, while the Milwaukee and Montreal species do. Small quantities
of Cray-fish are very probably brought to New York City from the State and from New J ersey,
but if so they do not pass through the larger markets, and there is no regular supply.

The Potomac River Cray-fish sent to New York is the Cambarus afinis Erichson, and the
Milwaukee species is the Cambarus virilis Hagen. We have never examined specimens of the
Montreal species. The New Orleans market Cray-fish is the Cambarus Clarkii Girard, while the
San Francisco species, as already stated, is the Astacus nigrescens. One of the Lower Mississippi
River species, either the Cambarus Clarkii or the Cambarus acutus, burrows into and causes much

. damage to the levees of the river in the vicinity of New Orleans.

Hapits.—Cray-fishes differ widely in their habits, and while some species prefer clear run-
ning streams, others live in more quiet waters, and still others upon muddy banks, where they dig
holes, and remain much of the time out of the reach of water.

Dr. C. C. Abbott has given us the following account of the habits of three of our commoner
species of Cray-fishes, which occur near Trenton, New Jersey.! They are Cambarus acutus, C.
afinis, aud C. Bartonii, which have already been referred to as living in regions where Cray-
fishes are taken as food: ,

1 American Naturalist, vii, 1873.

HABITS OF CRAY-FISHES. | 815

“Yt is difficult to say which of the three species. is the most abundant in the general locality
we have named, inasmuch as they seem to prefer different streams; one being a plant-loving, one
a stone-haunting, and the third a mud-frequenting species. In their respective haunts each is
apparently as numerous as is either of the others in its chosen,home. . . . We have found
Cambarus acutus to frequent running streams which have masses of vegetation growing in them,
the animal in question resting upon the plants, usually near the surface of the water. We. have
found since our collecting excursions, on carefully approaching clear running streams, such as
just mentioned, that this Cray-fish is to be seen resting on the plants, always with the head
directed down-stream. If disturbed, they would dart backward, down to the roots, apparently,
of the plant upon which they were sitting. After a lapse of about ten minutes they would return
to their former resting place, creeping up the plant down which they had so suddenly darted tail
foremost.

“The Cambarus affinis is apparently the river species of this locality. We have been able to
find it, as yet, only in the Delaware River, usually frequenting the rocky bed, but also, in fewer
numbers, on the mud-bottomed portions of the river. They are usually found resting under flat :
, stones, Well out from the banks of the stream, where the water is of considerable depth.
Wherever the vegetation is dense, we have failed to find them; nor have we seen anything to
indicate that it is a ‘burrowing’ species. . . .. Cambarus Bartonii, it appears to us, is the one
burrowing species of this locality. We have found in the deep ditches, with precipitous, muddy
banks, a medium-sized Cray-fish, which in most respects accords with the species called Cambarus
Bartonii Fabr. by Dr. Hagen. :

*“ Cray-fish are strictly omnivorous animals, but, although excellent scavengers, do not feed
wholly upon decayed animal and vegetable matters. We have frequently noticed that 0. Bartonii
in an aquarium breaks off the short stems of tle common river weed, and eats the main stem,
after stripping it of its minute leaves. So the C. affinis, from beneath its sheltering flat stone, and
C. Bartonti, in its safe burrow, will seize thé minute young cyprinoids, that pass up and down the
stream in such myriads, ever and anon peeping into the various little indentations in the. banks.
Such little fish, when once fairly caught by the big claws but by no means clumsy ‘hands’ of a
Cambarus, have no chance of escape, and are soon torn to pieces.” . .

Cambarus Bartonti described by C. Girard as 0. Diogenes, constructs very interesting bur-
rows on the meadow flats of the Potomac River at Washington, which Mr. Girard describes as
follows :}

“The holes, as they appear at the surface of the ground, are nearly circular, from seven-tenths
of an inch to one inch and one inch and a half in diameter. The depth of the burrows varies
according to the locations; this we generally found to be from sixteen inches to two feet, and
sometimes to three feet a more. The construction of the burrow itself is often exceedingly’
simple; from the surface of the ground the excavation exhibits gradual slope, in direction more
or less undulating, for a distance of from five to ten inches, when it becomes vertical for six or
eight, inches, and then terminates in a sudden bottle-shape enlargement, in which the animal is
found. The bottom of the burrows having no subterraneous communication, no other issue except
towards the surface, it is entirely isolated from its neighbors, and leaves no chance of escape to its
inhabitant. The same burrow may have several external holes connected with it, several inclined
channels, which, however, meet at the depth where it becomes vertical. We constantly found the.
cavity full of water, but this was in March and April; the bottom, for several inches, was filled
With a soft and pulpy mud.

1 Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., vi, pp. 88-90, 1854.

816 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“‘We generally found a single individual in each burrow, it being either a male or a female,
the latter in March or April, carrying under the tail a bundle of her eggs. Sometimes, when
numerous individuals are gathered on a small space, it may happen that the windings of the upper
part of their burrows will accidentally meet and have in this case a communication which was not
contemplated. Each individual, however, remains in its own apartment; so at least we constantly
found to be the case. To accomplish the act of breeding, males and females must come together
at one particular time. In one of the burrows which we examined we found a male and a female.
We are inclined to believe that the male quits its retreat and goes in search of the female, as one
individual of the former sex was found, at one time, walking over the surface of the ground.

“In the spring, and we are told in the fall also, the burrowing Craw-fish builds over the holes
of its burrow a chimney of the maximum height of one foot, but most generally lower. This
chimney, circularly pyramidal in shape, is constructed of lumps of mud, varying in size, irreg-
ularly rolled up, and piled up one upon another, and intimately connected together. Its exterior
has a rough and irregular appearance, whilst the interior is smooth and as uniform as the subter-
raneous channel, and having the same diameter as the latter. The cementing of the successive
balls of mud is easily accounted for when we bear in mind that the latter are brought up ina
very soft state, and that their drainage and subsequent solidification on their exposure to the
atmospheric air and rays of the sun are all that is required to unite these parts. . . . The
last touch consists in shutting up the aperture. This is accomplished by means of several balls
of mud brought up from underneath, deposited temporarily on the edge of the chimney and
drawn back in close contiguity, so as to intercept all communication with the external world.
The number of such chimneys is sometimes very great in one particular locality, distributed
without any geometrical regularity, and recalling to mind the scattered habitations or village of
a newly settled colony.”

226. THE SHRIMPS AND PRAWNS.
THE COMMON SHRIMP—CRANGON VULGARIS, Fabricius.

This species of Shrimp occurs on both sides of the Atlantic, and is eaten both in this country
and in Europe. It is, therefore, of considerable economic importance, though of less value than
the larger Shrimp (Peneus) of the Southern States. Crangon vulgaris, on the American coast,
ranges from Labrador to North Carolina, and from low-tide level to depths of about fifty
fathoms. ‘It is found in greatest abundance i in shallow water, and on sandy or weedy bottoms,
but occurs also on muddy, shelly, and rocky bottoms, and extends at least to about fifty fathoms
in depth. It varies much in coloration according to the location in which it is found. Upon the
exposed and light-colored sandy shoyes of Southern New England, specimens are invariably
translucent and very pale in color, so as to closely resemble the surface upon and beneath which
they live, while upon dark-colored muddy bottoms they are very much darker in color. Specimens
from a dark-colored muddy inlet of Vineyard Sound and others from dark muddy and sandy
‘bottoms at Halifax, Nova Scotia, are very dark indeed, the pigment spots covering nearly the
entire surface, and the caudal appendages becoming almost black toward the tips.” }

‘“When resting quietly on the bottom, or when it buries itself partially and sometimes almost
entirely, except the eyes and long, slender antenna, it cannot easily be- distinguished by its
enemies, and, therefore, gains great protection by its colors. When left by the tide it buries itself
to a considerable depth in moist sand. It needs all its powers of concealment, however, for it is

18, I. SmirH: Trans. Conn. Acad., v, p. 56, 1879.

THE COMMON SHRIMP. 817

eagerly hunted and captured by nearly all the larger fishes which frequent the same waters, and
it constitutes the principal food of many of them, such as the weak-fish, king-fish, white perch,
bluefish, flounders, striped bass, etc. Fortunately it is a very prolific species, and is abundant
along the entire coast, from North Carolina to Labrador, wherever sandy shores occur. The young
swim free for a considerable time after hatching, and were taken at the surface in the evening, in
large numbers.”

According to White,’ the common Shrimp are in spawn on the English coast during the entire
summer; “the ova are of a dirty white color.”

We have no published data as to the duration of the spawning season upon our coast, but
“the young are hatched in the neighborhood of Vineyard Sound in May and June, and arrive at
the adult form befére they are more than four or five millimeters long. Specimens of this size
were taken at Wood’s Holl, at the surface, on the evening of July 3. Later in the season much
larger specimens were frequently taken at the surface both in the evening and daytime.

“The young of the different kinds of Shrimp, Crangon vulgaris, Palemonetes vulgaris, and
Virbius zostericola, when hatched from the egg, are free-swimming animals, similar in their habits
to the young of the Lobster. In structure, however, they are quite unlike the larve of the
Lobster, and approach more the zoéa stages of the Crabs. When they first leave the egg,
they are without the five pairs of cephalo-thoracic legs, the abdomen is without appendages,
and much as it is in the first stage of the young Lobster, while the masillipeds are developed
into long locomotive appendages, somewhat like the external maxillipeds of the first stage
of the young Lobster. While yet in the free-swimming condition the cephalo-thoracic legs
are developed, the maxillipeds assume the adult form, and the abdominal limbs appear. The
young of these Shrimp are very much smaller than the young of the Lobster, but they
remain for a considerable time in this immature state, and were very frequently taken at the
surface in the towing-net.”?

Although Crangon vulgaris may be common in the southern part of its range (New York to
North Carolina), it has;not been often recorded from that region, and in fact we know much more
‘about it on the New England coast, along the entire extent of which it is very abundant, though
somewhat less so north of Massachusetts Bay. About Halifax, Nova Scotia, it is again abundant
and of large size from low-water mark to eighteen fathoms, on sandy, muddy, stony, and rocky
bottoms. It is common everywhere in shallow water and at low-water mark on most sandy
beaches in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It also occurs in the Straits of Belle Isle. Since this
report was in manuscript, Crangon vulgaris has been found by the Fish Commission to occur in
different parts of Chesapeake Bay in immense numbers and‘ of unusually large size.

The common Shrimp attains a length of over two inches, exclusive of the anterior appendages,
but is generally smaller. In the neighborhood of New York and about New Bedford, Mass.,
itis taken as food. Northward from there it is, so far as we know, only utilized to a slight extent,
and for bait only. It may perhaps be taken on the southern coasts, where it occurs, in connection
with Peneus, which is sent in large quantities to New York, but from all the information we
have been able to obtain, no notice is taken of it south of New York.

Mr. W. N. Lockington states that Crangon vulgaris is very abundant upon the Pacific coast
of North America, ranging from Alaska (Mutiny Bay) to San Diego, California. It is smaller than
€. franciscorum, with which it is found associated; and it is also less abundant in the San

1VERRILL: Vineyard Sound Report, p. 339, 1871-72.

? Popular History of British Crustacea, 1857, p. 107.

38. I. SmirH: Vineyard Sound Report, pp. 528, 529, 1871-"72.
52 F '

818 - NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

Francisco markets, although comprising no inconsiderable part of the total catch of Shrimp, and
at some seasons it is more common than its congener. The average length of the specimens
taken on the Pacific coast is said to be about two and a quarter inches, but large examples
exceed three inches in length. This form, which is a sort of color variety, is easily distinguished
from C. franciscorum by its black tail, and the large proportion of black upon its body, as well as
by the different form of the hand, the movable finger of which is much shorter and folds trans-
versely across the tip of the hand. From its black coloring it has received the name of “ Black-
tailed Crab.” . .

This Shrimp is taken on the west coast in connection with C. franciscorum, and is sold fresh in
the markets as well as boiled and dried for exportation to China.

THE CALIFORNIA SHRIMP—CRANGON FRANCISCORUM, Stimpson.

According to notes furnished by W. N. Lockington, this is the largest species of Shrimp on
the Pacific coast of the United States, and is the Shrimp par excellence of the San Francisco mar-
kets, where large quantities are sold during nearly every month of the year.

The total length of the body, in the adults, ratiges from three to three and a half cio
while in the same the length of the carapax is about seven-eighths of an inch.

From the Pacific coast variety of Crangon vulgaris this species can be distinguished by its
larger size; by the absence of the black tail and large black spots, characteristic of the former ;
by the small dots of dark tint which mottle the surface; and most readily by the much greater
length of the movable finger of the hand, which folds parallel with the side of the hand ‘instead
of across ifs extremity.

Crangon franciscorum has a somewhat limited range, not being known from north of Puget
Sound, nor south of Point Conception, California. In San Francisco Bay and Tomales Bay it is
exceedingly abundant, frequenting especially the sandy coves along their shores. Not only is
this Shrimp largely consumed upon the coast when fresh, but it is also taken by the Chinese in
immense quantities and shipped to China after boiling and drying. The Shrimp industry affords
employment to a large number of Chinese, and constitutes an important factor in the export trade
of San Francisco. The Shrimp are usually caught in purse-nets, which are conical in shape,
about twenty-five feet long and'ten feet across the mouth; they taper to the lower end, which is
opened and closed by means of a “‘puckering string.” It is said that no diminution in the number
of Shrimp results from the continuous fishing, although the edible species of fish are nearly
exterminated in San Francisco Bay.

A species of Hippolite (H. brevirostris), of a uniform light crimson or scarlet color, occurs at
the Straits of Fuca, in San Francisco Bay, and probably along the intervening coast. In San
Francisco Bay it is taken with the Crangons for food.

THE COMMON PRAWN—PALAMONETES VULGARIS, Stimpson.

The common American Prawn, which closely resembles the English species, although occurring
in great abundance along some portions of our Atlantic coast, does not rank among our food
invertebrates on account of its small size. It frequently makes up for that deficiency, however,
by its great abundance.

The average length of specimens is about one and one-half inches. The body is translucent,
almost colorless, but is “(marked with irregular, ill-defined, dark blotches and spots, which
admirably adapt it for concealment among the discolored and dead leaves of eel-grass, at or near
the bottom,” in which localities it is most abundant. The American Prawn differs from the

THE DEEP-WATER PRAWNS. 819

English, among other things, in the character of its rostrum and in its smaller size. The rostrum
of the latter is divided or double at the tip, and specimens range in length from three to five
inches.

P. vulgaris ranges from Massachusetts Bay to Northern Florida. North of Cape Cod, how-
‘ever, it is rare. It is very common among eel-grass, etc., in Vineyard Sound, Buzzard’s Bay,
Fisher’s Island Sound, and Long Island Sound. Thence it has been recorded from the south side
of Long Island, and from numerous points along the coast of New Jersey and the Southern States, -
as far south as Saint John’s River, Florida. The localities inhabited by this spevies are described
as follows by Professor Verrill:!

“The common Prawn has its true home among the eel-grass (in brackish water), and here it
occurs in countless numbers. . . . It is also very abundant in the pools and ditches (of the
muddy shores in brackish water), even where the water is but little salt, and also occurs in
immense numbers on the muddy bottoms.”

It likewise abounds on the muddy bottoms in pure salt water. On sandy bottoms in both salt
and brackish water it often occurs associated with Crangon vulgaris, but not in large numbers.

TuE RIvER SHRIMPS—PALAMON OHIONIS, Smith; PALAMONETES EXILIPES, Stimpson.

Only two species of river Shrimp have yet been described from the United States east of
the Mississippi River, and they seem to be used as food in only a few localities. At New Orleans,
however, one species, the Palemon ohionis, is very much esteemed.

In this species, the carapax or anterior part of thé body is smooth, stout, and considerably
swollen, with a short rostrum. Specimens from the Ohio River measured in total length of body
from two ‘to three and one-fourth inches, the carapax occupying about one-fourth of this length.
The original specimens from which the species was described were from the Ohio River at
Cannelton, Indiana, where it is taken for food. Since then it has been found over a larger area,
including the vicinity of New Orleans. ,

Palemonetes exilipes is a much smaller species than the above, measuring only about an

‘inch and a half in total length. It has been recorded from Sandusky Bay, Lake Erie; Ecorse,
Michigan; Somerville, South Carolina; and from fresh-water streams in Florida. It is probably
quite widespread in its distribution, but'we are not aware of its ever having been used as food,
probably on account of its small size.

THE DEEP-WATER PRAWNS—PANDALUS BOREALIS, Kroyer; LEPTOCEROS, Smith; MONTAGUI,
Leach; PROPINQUUS, Sars.

These species of Prawns, which .resemble one another very closely in appearance and
structure, are exceedingly abundant in the deeper waters of Massachusetts Bay, the Gulf of
' Maine, and elsewhere off the coast of New England, the British Provinces, and southward as far
as Virginia, at least. ; i

Pandalus borealis grows to a much larger size than the other three species, but all are large
enough to serve as food, and sufficiently abundant in the localities where they occur. Unfor-
tunately they never approach the shore, and the ordinary methods of taking shrimp, in shallow
water will not answer.for their capture. If some means of taking them easily could be devised,
they would undoubtedly find a ready sale in the Boston and New York markets, for they have an
exceedingly good flavor.

Pandatus borealis attains a length of seven inches. As to color, it is, according to Professor
Verrill, “ thickly sprinkled with small, red, stellate spots, which, from closer aggregation, make the

1 Vineyard Sound Report, 1871-72.

820 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

tail deeper in color than the rest of the body. The spermariés are purplish-red, the outer
membrane golden, ovaries blue, eggs ultramarine blue.” Females carrying eggs were taken in
August and September, 1877 and 1878, in and off Massachusetts Bay and off Cape Ann. The
localities where this species has been found are as follows: Massachusetts Bay, off Salem,
forty-five to fifty fathoms, mud, very abundant; Gulf of Maine, forty to one hundred and sixty
fathoms, muddy bottoms, very abundant in some places. In the Gulf of Maine, it was found
to be especially common in a region about fourteen miles southeast from Cape Ann, in fifty
to about one hundred fathoms. It was also encountered twenty to thirty miles off Cape Sable,
Nova Scotia, in depths of fifty-nine to eighty-eight fathoms, and thirty miles off Halifax in
eighty-five to one hundred and ten fathoms. Beyond our seas it has been recorded from
Greenland, Norway, and Bering Sea.

Pandalus Montagui and leptoceros differ from P. borealis in coloration, “in having the red
more intense and arranged in clearly defined markings, of which those upon the carapax and
abdomen are arranged in conspicuous obliquely transverse lines or bars, while the color upon
the rest of the body and upon the appendages is collected in distinct specks, blotches, or
annulations.” The largest specimens which have been examined were from depths of ninety
fathoms, off Cape Ann, and measured four and one-half inches in length. Specimens over four
inches long have been obtained from several localities. Only a few individuals have so far
been seen carrying spawn. They were taken in different places during the months of August,
September, and October. These species range all the way from off the month of Chesapeake
Bay to Greenland, and P. Montagui also occurs on the European coast as far south as the
British Islands. They are more abundant than P. borealis, though of smaller size, and are
common in much shallower water, as well as in the same deeper places resorted to by P. borealis.

In Massachusetts Bay, they inhabit depths of twenty-two to forty-eight fathoms, where the
“bottom is gravelly, sandy, and muddy, and have also been found on Stellwagen Bank. In the
Gulf of Maine they are widespread and exceedingly abundant in many localities, being often
associate] with P. borealis on muddy bottoms. They live on all kinds of bottom, in depths of
ten fathoms downward. They have been found east of George’s Bank in a depth of four hundred
and thirty fathoms; in the Bay of Fundy, ten to seventy-seven fathoms; off Nova Scotia, sixteen
to seventy-five fathoms; in Bedford Basin, Halifax, twenty-six to forty-one fathoms; Gulf of Saint
Lawrence, Labrador, etc. South of Cape Cod they range down to depths of two and three hundred
fathoms.

‘Pandalus propinquus, which has been recognized only since this report was first written,
occurs associated with the two last species south of Cape Cod. ;

The United States Fish Commission, in its explorations with the dredge and trawl along the
New England coast during the past ten years, has constantly come upon immense schools of these
deep- -water Prawns, sometimes, two or more of the species being associated together, at others
occurring separately. It has been no uncommon occurrence for a peck or more to come up ina single
cast of the beam trawl, and several such hauls have sometimes been made in a single day. These
Prawns apparently move in schools, and it is often impossible to secure more than a single catch
in any spot at one time. This fact may result from their moving in a regular body from place to
place, and thus coming by chance in the course of the trawl at times, or, if naturally disposed to
remain long in a single place, the appearance of the trawl must have the effect of frightening
them away. They are active in their movements, and are thus seldom. taken in thesdredge. It
has been the custom on the United States Fish Commission steamer, when a large haul of Pandali
has been made, after having selected the specimens required for scientific purposes, to turn the

THE SOUTHERN SHRIMPS AND PRAWNS. 821

remainder over to the mess, and there are many witnesses to testify to the superior character of
the deep-water Prawns as an article of food.

The lobstermen of Biddeford Pool, Maine, who set their pots in the winter from four to six
miles from shore, occasionally capture these Prawns, and here may be a suggestion as to the
style of apparatus: which might be tried advantageously for their capture. The openings would,
of course, need to be of much smaller size than those of an ordinary lobster-pot. A light beam
trawl of large size might, however, answer still better.

Tue *CALIFORNIA PRAWN—PANDALUS Dan.#z, Stimpson.

According to W. N. Lockington, this is a moderately large species of Prawn, which is now
commonly brought to the San Francisco market, and is caught in the open ocean between the
Farallone Islands and Point Reyes. The length of the body in the adults, including the rostrum,
is about five inches, while the average length of the carapax, excluding the rostrum, is about one

_and a quarter inches. Fresh specimens are finely marked with transverse zigzag lines of white,
separated by bands of red.

Pandalus Dane has been recorded from the Queen Charlotte Islands and Puget Sound, north
of which it is not known; its southern limit is possibly Point Conception, California, the most
pronounced point of division between the northern and southern marine faune of California,
though this fact has not been positively determined. This Prawn has been much more abundant
in the San Francisco markets during the past two years than formerly, and the reason assigned i is
that the fishermen, driven out of San Francisco Bay by the constantly diminishing supply of fish
there, have been forced to resort to the open sea between the Farallone Islands and Point Reyes,
where the Prawns live in large numbers. It has been noticed with spawn in November, Decem-
ber, and January. <A second species of Prawn is occasionally brought to the San Francisco
market, along with P. Dane, being obtained in the same places. It is of smaller size than P.
Dane and of a uniform light pink color when fresh; it also differs from the latter in the size and
shape of the rostrum, appendages, etc., and in the number of the rostral spines.

In 1879, several examples of a large species of Prawn, apparently identical with Pencus
brasiliensis, of Brazil and the Southern United States, were brought to the San Francisco
‘markets; in 1880 none were observed. This species is also recorded from the west coast of
Nicaragua. Adult specimens examined at San Francisco measured seven inches in total length,
including the rostrum. Compared with specimens from the Rio Grande, Brazil, no points of
difference as regards form or proportion of parts were detected.

THE SOUTHERN SHRIMPS AND PRAWNS—PENZUS SETIFERUS, M.-Edwards; PENAUS BRASIL-
IENSIS, Latreille.

These are the large Shrimps or Prawns which occur in such immense numbers on the coasts
of the Southern States, and are taken to supply the markets at Charleston, South Carolina;
Savannah, Georgia; New Orleans, Louisiana; New York, and elsewhere. The two species are
often found associated together, but Pencus setiferus is the more abundant, and is, therefore, more
commonly seen in the markets. According to Prof. Lewis R. Gibbes, these species may be dis-
tinguished apart by the following characters:

“The common Shrimp (P. setiferus) has a groove on each side of the large spine that springs
from the fore and upper part of the shell or carapax; these run backward and terminate about
the middle of the length of the shell. In the same tray in the market will frequently be found
other individuals, far less numerous, in which these grooves run the whole length of the shell,
terminating just in front of the hinder edge or border of the shell, at the first joint. This form I
have referred to the P. brasiliensis of Latreille.

822 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

“Full-grown individuals of P. setiferus measure six or more inches in length, from the tip of
the large anterior spine to the tip of the tail spine, and three-fourths of an inch deep and broad
in the front or body part. These large specimens of both species are known in the markets as
‘Prawns, or ‘Sprawns,’ and the half-grown individuals are distinguished as ‘Shrimps’ The
Prawns appear in our waters generally in March, or in warm seasons as early as the latter weeks
of February, and remain in season for two or three months, after which the supply diminishes, and
they appear to retire for a time to spawn. To what region or localities they retreat I do not:
know, nor have I been able to learn anything concerning this matter from the fishermen. I may
add that I have never seen one of these Shrimp carrying its eggs. It may be that they ascend
our rivers for the purpose of spawning, and. friends have called my attention to what they call
‘fresh-water Shrimp’ that differ in no respect from the common Shrimp, and yet are found in the
rivers above the reach of salt water. In June and the succeeding months of summer, the half-
grown individuals or ‘ Shrimps’ are in season, and for tenderness of flesh and delicacy of flavor are
preferred to the ‘Prawns.’ In the autumn they all disappear from our waters, and I suppose go
southward or else into deeper water. As Prawns and Shrimps die very soon after being taken
from the water, they cannot be sent fresh to any distance. They are used both as food and
bait.”

According to Stimpson, Peneus brasiliensis “is often found in brackish water, and even
ascends streams to points where the water is nearly or quite fresh. It was thus found in the
Croton River at Sing Sing, New York, by Professor Baird, and by myself in a fresh-water creek
near Somers Point, New Jersey.” From these places it ranges southward to Brazil, and is found
more or less continuously along the Southern Atlantic coast, and the Gulf coast to Mexico.
Penwus setiferus has not been recorded from north of Norfolk, Virginia, but thence southward its
range corresponds with that of P. brasiliensis, atleast so far as regards the coast of the United
States. ;

Mr. T. E. Fisher, of Fernandina, Florida, who has been interested in the Shrimp industry at
that place for several years, furnishes the following notes regarding the Shrimps and Prawns,
which he distinguishes from one another in the same way as Professor Gibbes: “It is my belief
that the Shrimp (smaller individuals) move out’ into deeper water at the beginning of winter and
there remain until about the full moon in March or thereabouts, when they return to the bays
and rivers in great quantities as ‘Prawns’ and ascend the rivers and creeks, I think, to spawn.
This is the time when they are taken as food. After spawning, or about May or J une, they
return to the sea. From.May to August the so-called Shrimp, which then appear, are quite
small and used: principally as fish bait; from August to December they grow quite rapidly.
September and October are the best shrimping months of the season, and May and June are the
only months when Shrimp are scarce, excepting during the colder months of winter, when they
leave the coast for a time.” The seasons on the coasts of South Carolina and Eastern Florida,
therefore, nearly correspond, excepting that in Florida, the climate being milder, the Shrimp
remain upon the coast much later in the season or nearly all winter. Mr. Silas Stearns, of
Pensacoia, Florida, writes that “Shrimp are abundant on all parts of the Gulf coast, and
especially so in the region of Louisiana and Texas. They live on the grassy or sandy flats, and
among the weeds on the bottoms of bayous and lagoons, in both salt and brackish water. On the
Florida coast they are found throughout the summer months, and appear to breed in the spring
or early summer. In the fall they make up in schools, and seem bent on migratory movements.
At this time a few are taken in seines and sold to the restaurant keepers of the cities. On the
Louisiana and Texas coasts the habit of schooling is much more common, and as the Shrimp

THE MANTIS SHRIMP. 823

are very abundant at all times during warm weather, they can be profitably caught for the
market. Barrataria Bay, of the Louisiana coast, and Galveston and Matagorda Bays, of the
Texas coast, are notable places for the shrimp fishery. The fact that these bays afford unusually
good feeding grounds and hiding places for the Shrimp will undoubtedly explain their great
abundance there. Shrimp of marketable size average about four inches in length. Their color
tends to imitate that of the bottom on which they dwell. New Orleans and Galveston are the
only cities of the Gulf coast which engage in the shrimp trade.”

227. THE MANTIS SHRIMPS—SQUILLIDZ.

THE MANTIS SHRIMP, OR SEA MANTIS—SQUILLA EMPUSA, Say.

“The Squilla empusa is a very interesting creature, whose habits are still imperfectly known.
It is often thrown on the beaches by the waves, and probably it usually burrows in the mud below
low-water mark, but in certain localities it has been found burrowing at br near low-water mark of
spring tides, forming large, irregular holes. The very curious, free-swimming young were often
taken in the towing-nets. Large specimens are eight or ten inches long and about two broad.
The body is not so stoutly built as that of the Lobster, and the carapax or shell is much smaller and

‘softer, while the abdomen is much larger and longer in proportion. The legs and all the other
organs are quite unlike those of the Lobster, and the last joint of the great claw, instead of forming
a pair of pincers with the next, is armed with a row of six sharp, curved spines, which shut into
corresponding sockets, arranged in a groove in the next joint, which also bears smaller spines.
By means of this singular organ they can hold their prey securely, and can give a severe wound
to the human hand, if handled incautiously. It also uses the stout caudal. appendages, which are
armed with spines, very effectively. The colors of this species are quite vivid, considering its
mud-dwelling habits. The body is usually pale green or yellowish green, each segment bordered
posteriorly with darker green and edged with bright yellow; the tail is tinged with rose and
mottled with yellow and blackish; the outer caudal lamellae have the base and spines white, the
last joint yellow, margined with black; the inner ones are black, pale at base; the eyes are bright
emerald-green ; the inner antenne are dark, with a yellow band at the base of each joint; and the
flagellum is annulated with black and white.”

This species of Squilla ranges from Cape Cod to Florida, but from its habit of remaining most
of the time in its burrows it is not very commonly known or met with on the sea-shore, though it
is probably very abundant in some localities.

“The Mediterranean species of Squilla are generally found at considerable depths; they live
in sandy places, where they can easily procure their food, which seems to consist chiefly of annelids
and fragments of the Actinia effeta. According to Risso, the females when they wish to deposit
their eggs, which they have under their abdominal appendages, retire to rocky places. The
Squille are timid, avoiding danger; they swim much after the fashion of Lobsters.”* In Europe
wherever Squilia can be found in sufficient numbers it is much esteemed as food, and the American
species would probably be as wholesome. On the shores where it abounds it might easily be
obtained by digging, and from deeper water by means of the rake dredge. ‘

‘ Two other species of Squilla—Squilla dubia and Lysiosquilla glabriuscula—also occur on the
coasts of the Southern States, where one or more of these three species are said to be used as
bait to some extent. ’

‘LVERRILL: Vineyard Sound Report, 1871~'72. .
? WHITE: Popular History of the British Crustacea, 1857.

824 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

228. THE AMPHIPODS.

THE BEACH FLEAS, OR SAND FLEAS—ORCHESTIA AGILIS, Smith; ScuDs—GAMMARUS LOCUSTA,
Gould; AND ALLIED FORMS.

The extensive group of Amphipoda, to which these species belong, cousists entirely of small
aquatic animals which, although not of direct importance from an economical point of view, still
serve an important purpose in the general economy of nature, and deserve at least some mention
here. Besides serving as food for fish, many of the species act as scavengers on the sea-shore,
and, despite their small size, are, from their great numbers, able to dispose of a large quantity of
dead refuse matter.. Some of the species live entirely in the water, while others are exposed to
the air during low tide, or even most of the time. The experiment of utilizing these small creat-
ures in the preparation of skeletons for anatomical purposes has been tried with much success.
Fish, cleaned of the bulk of their flesh, have been fastened to boards and anchored just below the
surface of the water, near the docks in Eastport Harbor, and within the space of a few hours
nothing but the bones remained, being cleaned as completely as by any other process, and with
but little expenditure of time on the part of the naturalist. Several species upon our coast are
abundant enough to act in unison in this way. Some of the deep-water species are as destructive
to dead animal matter as are those which live near the shore. The cod and halibut fishermen
often suffer from their depredations, as several of the deep-water Amphipods quickly attack the
fish which die after being caught on the trawl lines before they are hauled up. The gills of the
fish appear to be first devoured, but within a few hours they are able to eat out the entire
muscular and visceral matter, leaving only the bones and skin. Cod and hake frequently die
upon the trawls, and are thus destroyed, but halibut are more hardy and are seldom much
injured.

The number of species of Amphipods upon our coast is very large, but we need refer here to
only two or three species to illustrate their principal characteristics.

“These small crustacea are of great importance in connection with our fisheries, for we have
found that they, together with the Shrimps, constitute a very large part of the food of most of our
more valuable edible fishes, both of the fresh and salt water. The Amphipods, though mostly of
small size, occur in such immense numbers in their favorite localities that they can nearly always
be easily obtained by the fishes that eat them, and no doubt they furnish excellent and nutritious
food, for even the smallest of them are by no means despised or overlooked even by large and
powerful fishes that could easily capture larger. game. Even the voracious bluefish will feed
upon these small crustacea where they can be easily obtained, even when menhaden and other
fishes are plenty in the same localities. They are also the favorite food of trout, lake white-fish,
shad, flounders, scup, etc., as will be seen from the lists of the animals found in the stomachs of
fishes. One species, which occurs in countless numbers beneath the masses of decaying seaweeds
thrown up at high-water mark on all the shores by the waves, is the Orchestia agilis Smith, which
has received this name in allusion to the extreme agility which it displays in leaping when
disturbed. The common name given to it is ‘Beach-flea,” which refers to the same habit. Its
color is dark olive green or brown, and much resembles that of the decaying weeds among which
it lives, and upon which it probably feeds. It also constructs burrows in the sand beneath the
vegetable débris. It leaps by means of the appendages at the posterior end of the body.

“A much larger species, and one of the largest of all the Amphipods, is the Gammarus
locusta, which occurs in great numbers beneath the stones and among the rock-weed near low-

THE BORING AMPHIPOD. 825

water mark. The males are much larger than the females, and sometimes become nearly an inch
and a half long. They cannot leap like their cousin that live at high-water mark, but skip
actively about on their sides among the stones and gravel until they reach some shelter or
enter the water, when they swim rapidly in a gyrating manner back downward:or sideways.
But although they can swim they are seldom met with away from the shore or much below low-
water mark. The zone of Fucus is their true home. This species is abundant on all our shores,
wherever rocks and Fucus occur, from Great Egg Harbor, New Jersey, to Labrador. Its color
is generally olive- -brown or reddish-brown, much like that of the Fucus among which it lives.
The only good English name that I have ever heard for these creatures is that of ‘Sends, given
by a small boy, in reference to their rapid and peculiar motions. . . . Two other related
species, of larger size and paler colors, but having the same habit of leaping as the Orchestia,
though not in such a high, degree, occur among the weeds, or burrowing in the sand, or beneath
drift-wood, etc., a little below high-water mark. In fact, the sand is sometimes completely filled
with their oles; of various sizes. Both these species are stout in form, and become about an
inch long when mature. One of them, Talorchestia longicornis, can be easily distinguished by
its very long antenne; the other, 7. megalophthalma, by its shorter antenne and very large eyes.
Both these species are pale grayish, and imitate the color of the sand very perfectly. When
driven from their burrows by unusually high tides or storms they are capable of swimming
actively in the water. They make dainty morsels for fishes and many shore birds, as well as for
certain Crabs, especially Ocypoda arenaria.”?

THE BORING AMPHIPOD—CHELURA TEREBRANS, Phillipi.

This very destructive little crustacean, which is of common occurrence on the European
coast, from Southern Norway to the Adriatic Sea, has so far been noticed on the Atlantic coast
of the United States at only two places, Wood’s Holl and Provincetown, Massachusetts. At
both of these localities it was found associated with the “Gribble” (Limnoria lignorum), in the
submerged piles of old wharves. It is more than possible, however, that it is a common inhabitant
of our coast, doing a certain amount of the damage hitherto ascribed to other boring animals.
Without a careful examination, it is quite easy for an unskilled eye to confound Chelura with
Limnoria, atthough they belong to very distinct divisions of the Crustacea.

The main characteristics of this animal by which it may be distinguished from all the other
Amphipods, as well as crustaceans, are the three pairs of caudal stylets, the last pair being
nearly as long as the body proper of the males, although much shorter in the females and young.
As to color, the body is semitranslucent and thickly spotted and mottled above with pink.

Professor Allman, of England, who has studied living specimens, describes the habits of
this species as follows:?

“Ohelura terebrans is an nahin little animal, swimming on its back and employing its
thoracic legs to adhere to the timber which it has selected for its ravages. . . . Its habits
are truly xylophagous, and it excavates the timber not merely for the purpose of concealment,
but with the object of employing it as food, which is apparent from the fact that the alimentary
canal may be found on dissection filled with minutely comminuted ligneous matter.
Timber which has been subject to the ravages of Chelura presents a somewhat different
appearance from that which has been attacked by Limnoria lignorum. In the latter we find
narrow cylindrical burrows running deep into the interior, while the excavations of Chelura are

1VERRILL: Vineyard Sound Report, pp. 313, 314, 1871~’72.
? Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xix, p. 361, 1847.

826 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

considerably larger and more oblique in their direction, so that the surface of the timber thus
undermined by these destructive animal®is rapidly washed away by the action of the sea, anv
the excavations are exposed in the greater part of their extent, the wood appearing plowed
up, So to speak, rather than burrowed into.” Upon the whole, Chelura would seem to be a still
more destructive creature than even Limnoria.”

229. THE ISOPODS.

THe GRIBBLE, OR Borinc LimnorR1A—LIMNORIA LIGNORUM, White.

This little crustacean pest, which measures less than one-fifth of an inch in length, is a very
common habitant of our Atlantic coast from the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to Florida, and also
occurs abundantly on the coasts of Great Britain and of other parts of Europe. In spite of its
small size, it is very destructive to all kinds of submarine wood-work, which it rapidly eats away.
Its body, which is subcylindrical in shape, consists of fourteen segments, the anterior one being
the head; the two ends are rounded and the sides are nearly straight and parallel to one another.
The first seven segments, not including the head, bear each a pair of short legs. It makes its
burrows by means of stout mandibles or jaws. In color it is grayish, the upper surface of the
body being covered with minute hairs, to which more or less dirt usually adheres.

The Gribble generally lives above and just below low-water mark, but has been found at
times, though very rarely, as low down as seven to ten fathoms. It gnaws burrows into all sorts
of sunken or floating wood near the shore, and lumber or drift-wood left for some time on muddy
shores is pretty certain to be attacked by it. The burrows are made toa depth of about half an inch,
and when they become numerous enough to reduce the superficial layer of wood to a mere honey-
comb, it scales off, leaving a fresh surface, which is at once attacked. Much damage is done by .
this little creature to the piles of wharves and other submarine wood-work all along our Atlantic
coast, and numerous methods of stopping its ravages have been devised. It has been observed
attacking the gutta percha of submarine telegraph cables. Professor Verrill describes its habits
and the damage it has done on the American coast, as follows:}

“Tt has the habit of eating burrows for itself into solid wood to the depth of about half an
inch. These burrows are nearly round, and of all sizes up to about a sixteenth of an inch in
diameter, and they go into the wood at all angles and are usually more or less crooked. They are
often so numerous as to reduce the wood to mere series of thin partitions between the holes. In
this state the wood rapidly decays, or is washed away by the waves, and every new surface
exposed is immediately attacked, so that layer after layer is rapidly removed, and the timber thus
wastes away and is entirely destroyed in a few years. It destroys soft woods more rapidly than
hard ones, but all kinds are attacked except teak. It works chiefly in the softer parts of the wood,
between the hard, annual layers, and avoids the knots and lines of hard fiber connected with them,
as well as rusted portions around nails that have been driven in, and consequently, as the
timbers waste away under its attacks, these harder portions stand out in bold relief. Where
abundant it will destroy soft timber at the rate of half an inch or more every. year, thus dimin-
ishing the effective diameter of piles about an inch annually. Generally, however, the amount is
probably not more than half this, but even at that rate'the largest timbers will soon be destroyed,
especially when, as often happens, the Teredos are aiding in this work of destruction. It lives in
a pretty narrow zone, extending a short distance above and below low-water mark. It occurs all

: ' Vineyard Sound Report, pp. 379, 380, 1871-72.

THE SALVE BUG. 827°

along our shores, from Long Island Sound to Nova Scotia. In the Bay of Fundy it often does
great damage to the timbers and other wood-work used in constructing the brush fish-weirs, as’
well as to the wharves, etc. At Wood’s Holl it was found to be very destructive to the piles of
the wharves. The piles of the new government wharves have been protected by broad bands of
tin-plate covering the zone which it chiefly affects. North of Cape Cod, where the tides are much
greater, this zone is broader, and this remedy is not so easily applied. It does great damage also
to ship timber floating in the docks, and great losses are sometimes caused in this way. Com-
plaints of such ravages in the navy-yard at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, have been made, and
they also occur at the Charlestown navy-yard and in the piles of the wharves at Boston. Probably
the wharves and other submerged wood-work in all our sea-ports, from New York northward, are
more or less injured by this creature, and, if it could be accurately estimated, the damage would
be found surprisingly great.

“Unlike the Teredo, this creature is a vegetarian, and eats the wood which it excavates, so
that its boring operations provide it with both food and shelter. The burrows are made by means
of its stout mandibles or jaws. It is capable of swimming quite rapidly, and can leap backward
suddenly by means of its tail. It can creep both forward and backward. Its legs are short and
better adapted for moving up and down in its burrow than elsewhere, and its body is rounded,
with parallel sides, and wel adapted to its mode of life. When disturbed it will roll itself into g
ball. The female carries seven to nine eggs or young in the incubatory pouch at one time. '

“The destructive habits of this species were first brought prominently to notice in 1811, by
the celebrated Robert Stephenson, who found it rapidly destroying the wood-work at the Bell
Rock light-house, erected by him on the coast of Scotland. Since that time it has been investi-
gated and its ravages have been described by numerous European writers. It is very destructive
on the coasts of Great Britain, where it is known as the ‘ Gribble,’

“The remedies used to check its rayages are chiefly copper or other metallic sheathing;
driving broad-headed iron nails, close together, into the part of the piles subject to their attacks ;
and applying coal-tar, creosote, or verdigris-paint, once a year or oftener.”

THE SALVE BuG—iGA PsoRA, Kroyer.

This is the largest species of Isopod living upon the New England coast, and attains a length
of two inches and a breadth of one inch. It occurs as a parasite on the cod and halibut. In addi-
tion to its large size, when adult, it may be readily distinguished by its large eyes, which nearly
cover the upper surface of the head, and approach closely together at their anterior extremities.
The first three pairs of legs are adapted for clinging to the surface of the fish on which it lives.
The body is oval, and broadest just in front.of the middle. The Salve Bugs are used as an unguent
by the fishermen, who sometimes collect them in large quantities.

230. THE ENTOMOSTRACANS.

This order of crustaceans includes a vast number of small, generally minute, free-swimming
forms, frequently called water-fleas, which abound in both fresh and salt waters, and other and
generally larger species which occur as parasites on fish and other aquatic animals. The former
serve as an important article of food for many fishes, such as the menhaden and mackerel, while
the latter are frequently injurious to them, being often strangely modified, and burrowing deeply
into the flesh, from which they suck the juices, causing great irritation and at times perhaps
death.

828 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

231. THE CIRRIPEDIA.
THE BARNACLES—BALANUS EBURNEUS, Gould, AND ALLIED SPECIES.

Several species of Barnacles (which belong to the natural group of Crustacea, despite the
hard, mollusk-like shell of most of the species) occur upon our coast and serve as food for some
of our fishes, but it is mainly their -intrusion upon certain of the marine industries that gives
them a place in this volume. A large species of Barnacle, Coronula diadema, Linné, growing upon
the skin of one or more species of whales, is eaten to some extent by the west coast Indians.

In one group of Barnacles the animals are furnished with a fleshy stem or peduncle, by means
of which they remain permanently attached to floating objects in the sea. The species of this
group bear the general name of “Goose Barnacles.” Our commonest species is the Lepas
fascicularis. The other group of Barnacles, represented upon our coast by the “ Rock Barnacle”
(Balanus balanoides), “Ivory Barnacle” (Balanus eburneus), and other species, has no peduncle,
but the several valves forming the conical shell are attached directly and permanently to the
rocks or wood on which they happen to dwell. Some of the species of both groups grow upon the
hulls of ships below the water-line, and in connection with seaweed and other species of marine
animals cause the so-called fouling of the bottom, necessitating constant cleaning and scraping of
the bottoms of vessels at considerable expense. Barnacles also stand as a serious obstacle in the
way of oyster culture, as shown by the recent experiences of the United States Fish Commission.
They grow with exceeding rapidity, very much faster than the oyster, and are so hardy as to defy
any attempts at extermination. In the spring of 1880, when the experiments in the artificial
breeding of oysters were being carried on in Chesapeake Bay, slates coated with plaster were
used as collectors. To these the oyster embryos attached themselves in large numbers, and began
their growth with good promises of success; but at the same time embryos of the Ivory Barnacle
were fully as abundant in the water, and, attaching themselves in even greater numbers, rapidly

outgrew the less hardy oysters. In many places they completely crowded the oysters out of
place, and soon occupied entire surfaces. In other places, however, they were less numerous and
interfered less’ with the oyster growths. It is very certain that this inconvenience must always
remain as a certain check on all oyster-cultural experiments on our coast, and must seriously
interfere with any attempts at artificial oyster-breeding. It is to be hoped, however, that future
experiments will prove that the Ivory Barnacle cannot entirely destroy the profits of such an
important industry, which, in consideration of the greatly impoverished character of some of our
formerly rich oyster regions, it is very necessary should be started at once, and, if possible, carried
to a high state of perfection.

The Ivory Barnacle ranges from Massachusetts Bay to Florida and the West Indies, while the
Rock Barnacle inhabits the entire North Atlantic coasts of both continents. The habitats of our
common species are given as follows by Professor Verrill:

“The common Barnacle of the rocky shores, Balanus balanoides, is also common on the piles
of wharves and bridges, between tides, and also on the bottoms of vessels, etc. It never grows
very large, although it may become so crowded together as to form a continuous crust. It is
easily distinguished from the other species by its membranous base, which never forms a solid
plate like that of the other species. The ‘Ivory Barnacle,’ Balanus eburneus, is also common on
all kinds of submerged wood-work, whether fixed or floating. It is usually abundant on the piles
and timbers of wharves, buoys, oyster-stakes, bottoms of vessels, etc. It is chiefly found below
low-water mark if on fixed objects, and is even more common in the brackish waters of estuaries
than in the purer waters outside, and it is capable of living even in pure, fresh water, for Prof.

4#HE HORSESHOE CRAB. 829

Jeffreys Wyman has sent me specimens collected by himself about sixty-five miles up the Saint
John’s River, in Florida, where the water is not at all brackish. This species is sometimes found
adhering to the carapax of Crabs, the shell of Limulus, and various mollusks. It.is easily
distinguished from most species on account of its low, broad form and its smooth, white exterior. .
It has a shelly base. The B. crenatus, common on shells and stones in deep water, also occurs on
vessels. Other species are often found on the bottoms of vessels that have come from warmer
latitudes. Some of them are of large size. One of the most frequent of these is Balanus
tintemnabulum.”

232. THE XIPHOSURA.
THE HoRsESHOE CRAB—LIMULUS POLYPHEMUS, Latreille.

The curious form of marine animal called “Horseshoe Crab,” “King Crab,” and “ Horse
foot,” ranges along our entire Atlantic coast, from Casco Bay, Maine, to Mexico, and gives rise
to an important industry in at least one region—Delaware Bay. It is not, however, a true Crab,
and its exact position in the animal kingdom is still involved in much obscurity. Some natu-
ralists regard it as a low type of crustacean, while others place it among the Arachnida, or
scorpions and spiders. Its nearest allies all occur as fossils, through many geological'ages down
to nearly the oldest of the fossiliferous series. Another species of the same genus, however, still
lives upon the eastern coast of-Asia.

The carapax of the King Crab is very large, with a regularly rounded outer margin, termi-
nating in a spine at the posterior angles on both sides. The abdomen ig much smaller, and from
its hinder end, to which it is jointed, runs out a long, tapering spine. The basal portions of the
feet on the lower side of the carapax serve as masticating organs.

The King Crab is sluggish in its movements, and spends much of its time more or less buried
in the mud and sand of shallow water, coming up occasionally to high-water mark. It is most
abundant on the muddy bottoms of shores and estuaries, where it burrows just beneath the
surface, and feeds upon various small animals.

“ At the breeding season, however, it comes up on the sandy shores to depaalt the eggs, near
high-water mark. According to the statements of Rev. 8. Lockwood, the spawning is done at the
time of high tides, during May, June, and July; they come up in pairs, the males, which are
smallest, riding on the backs of the females and holding themselves in that position by the short
feet, provided with nippers, which are peculiar to the males. The female excavates a depression
in the sand and deposits the eggs in it, and the male casts the milt over them, when they again
return to deeper water, leaving the eggs to be buried by the action of the waves. In aquaria,
under favorable circumstances, the eggs hatch in about six weeks, but in their natural conditions
they probably hatch sooner than this; under unfavorable conditions the hatching may be delayed
for a whole year. The eggs are very numerous.”!

From several intelligent observers living on the Delaware Bay side of Southern New Jersey
we have received interesting notes on the habits of the King Crab, as exemplified in that region,
and which may also hold good for others. While this Crab is comparatively rare on the outer
side of Southern New Jersey, on the inner side, along the shores of Delaware Bay, from Cape
May to Reed’s Island, it is unusually abundant. It is not, however, always present in the very
shallow water near shore. During the breeding season, which is mainly confined to the months
of May and June, bit also extends slightly into July, the males and females approach and ascend
the beaches in countless numbers, the latter to lay their eggs, the former to impregnate them. It

1VERRILL: Vineyard Sound Report, pp. 340, 341, 1871-72.

830 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC’ ANIMALS.

is not an uncommon thing for the female, as she crawls up the beach, to be accompanied by two,
three, and even as many as six males, the forward one clinging to the abdomen of the female, and
the remainder fastened to one another in thesame manner. As arule, however, each female brings
with her only a single male. After the spawning has been accomplished, they retreat from the
beach in the same order. King Crabs are not equally abundant at all times during the spawning
season, but are most plentiful on the beaches during the spring tides, which occur about the times
of the new and full moon. Westerly winds suit them best for spawning, and they will not come
ashore in large numbers during an easterly wind. They approach with the flood tide and leave
soon after the ebb. The eggs hatch in July and August, at which times the sands become literally
alive with the young Crabs. These soon disappear, not to return to the shore until they have
attained a considerable size. After the close of the spawning season the adult Crabs are not seen
in abundance about the shore, but probably live in slight depths of water near at hand. During
the winter they are often taken out in Delaware Bay by the oyster dredgers. They are very
much less abundant now than formerly, on account of so many having been caught from year to
year for use as a fertilizer. It would appear as though a few years more of indiscriminate capture
would result in their being entirely exterminated from the region. The men catch them mainly
in their hands, as they come upon the beaches, but they are also captured in pounds and weirs.

The King Crab is rarely used as food for man, but is often fed to swine and poultry, and,
after drying, is extensively employed as a fertilizer. It also serves as bait for eels and some
species of fish. This species of Crab has been introduced on the west coast of the United States,
the young, it is supposed, having been carried over mingled with the spat of the eastern oyster,
which has been largely transplanted into the shallow waters of San Francisco Bay. It has also
been introduced on the European coast.

Z.—THE WORMS.
233, THE ANNELIDS.

»

THE MARINE WoRMS, BAIT WORMS, ETC.—NEREIS VIRENS, Sars, AND ALLIED SPECIES.

Marine Worms of many different kinds occur in great abundance along the entire Atlantic
and Pacific coasts of the United States, and are available as bait, for which purpose a few species
are frequently employed by both professional and amateur fishermen. They are generally easily
obtained by digging with a spade or trowel into sandy or muddy shores, but are not common on
exposed beaches of clear sand. They usually require for their existence a greater or less
admixture of mud, gravel, and organic matter, the latter to serve as food. Shores which furnish
the common clam (Mya arenaria) usually abound in Marine Worms of several varieties, which are
overturned in digging for that mollusk. So far as we know, there is no regular trade in this
marine product on any part of our coast; but occurring as they do within the convenient reach of
most of the shore fishermen, these Worms may be obtained at short notice, and deserve mention
here as forming an element of some importance in our marine fisheries. The following account of
the habits of Marine Worms in general and of some of our commoner species is extracted from
the report of Prof. A. E. Verrill:! °

“The Marine Worms or Annelids are very numerous under the rocks between tides, and
concealed beneath the surface of the gravel and mud that accumulates between and benéath the
stones and in crevices. Many kinds also live in the pools, lurking among the roots of the
‘alge, burrowing in the bottom, or building tubes of their own in more exposed situations. Many
of these Annelids are very beautiful in form and brilliant in color when living, while most of them
have curious habits and marvelous structures. Several species are of large size, growing to the
length of one or two feet. Some are carnivorous, devouring other worms and any other small
creatures that they can kill by their powerful weapons; others are vegetarians; but many are
mud-eaters, swallowing the mud and fine sand in great quantities, for the sake of the animal and

‘vegetable organisms that always exist in it, as is the case with clams and most of the bivalve
shells and many other kinds of marine animals. \

“ All these Annelids are greedily devoured by most kinds of marine fishes, whenever they can
get at them, and, since many of the Annelids leave their burrows in the night to swim at the
surface, or do this constantly at the breeding season, they make an important element in the diet
of many fishes besides those that constantly root for them in the mud and gravel, like the tautog,
scup, haddock, etc. The young of nearly all the Annelids also swim free in the water for a
considerable time, and in this state are doubtless devoured in immense numbers by all sorts of
young and small fishes.

“One of the largest and most common Annelids found under rocks, burrowing in the sand
and gravel, is the Nereis virens. It lives both at low-water mark and at a considerable distance
farther up. It grows to the length of eighteen inches or more, and is also quite stout in its
proportions. The color is dull greenish, or bluish-green, more or less tinged with red, and the
surface reflects bright iridescent hues; the large lamelle or gills along the sides are greenish

1 Vineyard Sound Report, pp. 317, 318, 341, 342, 1871-72.
831

832 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

anteriorly, but farther back often become bright red owing to the numerous blood-vessels that
they contain. It is a very active and voracious Worm, and has a large, retractile proboscis, armed
with two strong, black, hook-like jaws at the end, and many smaller teeth on the sides. It feeds
on other Worms and various kinds of marine animals. It captures its prey by suddenly thrusting
out its proboscis and seizing hold with the two terminal jaws; then withdrawing the proboscis,
the food is torn and masticated at leisure, the proboscis, when withdrawn, acting somewhat like a
gizzard. These large Worms are dug out of their burrows and devoured eagerly by the tautog,
scup, and other fishes. But at certain times, especially at night, they leave their own‘ burrows,
and, coming to the surface, swim about like eels or snakes, in vast numbers, and at such times fall
an easy prey to many kinds of fishes. This habit appears to be connected with the season of
reproduction. They were observed thus swimming at the surface in the daytime, near Newport,
in April, 1872, by Messrs. T. M. Prudden and T. H. Russell, and I have often observed them
in the evening later in the season. At Watch Hill; Rhode Island, April 12, I found great
numbers of the males swimming in the pools among the rocks at low water, and discharging their
milt. This Worm also occurs in many other situations, and is abundant in most places along
sandy and muddy shores, both of the sounds and estuaries, burrowing near low-water mark. '
It occurs all along the coast from New York to the Arctic Ocean, and is also common on the
northern coasts of Europe. : |

‘With the last, in this region and southward, another similar species, but of smaller size, is
usually met with in large numbers. This is the Nereis limbata. It grows to the length of five or
" six inches, and can easily be distinguished by its slender, sharp, light amber-colored jaws, and by
the lateral lamellz, which are small anteriorly and narrow or ligulate posteriorly. Its color, when
full grown, is usually dull brown, or smoky brown or bronze-color anteriorly, with oblique light
lines on the sides, and often with a whitish border to each of the rings, which form narrow, pale
bands at the articulations; posteriorly the body and lateral appendages are pale red, and the
longitudinal dorsal bloodvessel is conspicuous. -

“ Annelids are quite numerous on the sandy shores where the conditions are favorable. It
is evident that these soft-bodied creatures would be quickly destroyed by the force of the waves
and the agitation of the sand were they not provided with suitable means for protecting them-
selves. This is effected mainly in two ways: the sand-dwelling species either have the power of
burrowing deeply into the sand with great rapidity, or else they construct long, durable tubes,
which descend deeply into the sand and afford a safe retreat. Many of the active burrowing
species also construct tubes, but they usually have but little coherence and are not very perma-
nent, nor do they appear to be much relied on by the owners. There is, however, great diversity
both in the structure and composition of the tubes of different species, and in the modes by which
the rapid burrowing is effected.

“The large green Nereis (N. virens) is found on the sandy shores in places that are somewhat
sheltered, especially if there be an admixture of mud or gravel with the sand to give it firmness
and solidity. This species burrows deeply beneath the surface and lines the interior of its large
irregular burrows with an abundant mucus-like secretion, which gives smoothness and some
coherency to the walls, but does not form a solid tube. With this, and in greater numbers, the
smaller ‘species, Nereis limbata, is also found, and its habits appear to be essentially the same.
Both this and the preceding can burrow rapidly, but much less so than some other worms, and
consequently they are not well adapted to live on exposed beaches of moving sands, but prefer
coves and harbors. The two large species of Rhynchobolus are much better adapted for rapid
burrowing. Their heads are very small and acute, and destitute of all appendages, except four

THE AMERICAN MEDICINAL LEECH. 833

minute tentacles at the end; the body is long, smooth, and tapers gradually to both ends, and
the muscular system is very powerful, and so arranged as to enable these Worms to coil them-
selves up into the shape of an open spiral, like a corkscrew, and then to rapidly rotate themselves
on the axis of the spiral. When the sharp head is inserted into the loose mud or sand and the
body is thus rotated, it penetrates with great rapidity and disappears almost instantly. Both
these species are found on sandy as well as on muddy shores and flats near low-water mark, and
also in deeper water. The one usually most abundant is R. dibranchiatus. This is readily distin-
guished by having a simple gill both on the upper and lower sides of the lateral appendages.
The other, R. americanus, has gills that are more or less branched on the upper: side of the
appendages, but none on the lower side; the appendages are also longer, especially posteriorly,
and differently shaped. The proboscis is remarkably long and large, and when fully protruded it
shows four large, black, sharp, fang-like jaws or hooks. Both these Worms are destitute of true
bloodvessels, such as most of the allied Worms possess, but have the general cavity of the body
filled, between the various organs, with bright red blood, which shows through the skin, giving a
more or less red or purple color to the whole body and proboscis.”

The principal species of marine Worms which are used as bait are the Nereis virens, Noreis
limbata, Diopatra cuprea, Arenicola marina, Clymenella torquata, Marphysa i ald Arabella
opalina, and Rhynchobolus dibranchiatus.

The Earth Worm might also be mentioned in this connection, as it is likewise very commonly
used as a fish-bait, especially in fresh waters. All sportsmen, from boyhood up, are acquainted
with this simple form of bait, which is more easily obtained than any other. Large quantities are
used annually, but no statistics can ever exist to determine the amount, which is irregularly
distributed over the country.

234, THE LEECHES.

THE AMERICAN MEDICINAL LEECH—MACROBDELLA DECORA, Verrill.

Structure of Leeches.—In the true Leeches, which belong to the-order Hirudinea, the body is
flattened, divided into numerous short and indistinctly marked segments, and bears neither bristles
nor appendages of any kind. The head is small, with five pairs of minute, simple eyes, and each
end of the body terminates in a sucker. ‘The mouth is armed internally with three pharyngeal
teeth arranged in a triradial manner, so that the wound made in the flesh of persons to whom the
Leech is applied consists of three short, deep gashes radiating from a common center.” The
stomach is large, and the nervous system consists of a “brain” and ventral cord. The Leech is
hermaphroditic. The eggs, which range from six to fifteen in number, are contained in a sort of
spongy, slimy cocoon, from half an inch to an inch in diameter. These are deposited near the
water’s edge and hatched by the heat of the sun. Respiration in the Leeches is carried on through
small apertures arranged along the under surface of the body. The Leech swims with a vertical
undulatory motion and moves both in and out of the water by means of its suckers, fastening itself
first by one and then by the other, and alternately stretching out and contracting its body.

There are two or three species of Leeches, known as medicinal Leeches, which afford the
most convenient means of drawing blood from the human body. They have been used by
physicians for this purpose for many years, and have given rise to a very extensive and profitable
trade. One of the species belongs to North America.

Distribution and structure of the American Leech.—Although numerous species of Leeches
abound in the fresh waters of the United States and are related to the fisheries in various ways,

53 F '

834 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

this region has so far afforded only a single species of true blood-sucking Leech, the Macrobdella-
decora of Verrill. This is, therefore, the only known Leech in our country of economic value. It
is very widely distributed in the Northern United States, and was at one time quite extensively
used by physicians. Being somewhat inferior in quality to the European Leeches, however, it
has, since they have begun to import the latter regularly into this country, ceased to be consid-
ered as an officinal Leech excepting in a few places.

The American Leech has, according to Professor Verrill, a large, stout, and broad body,
which is considerably compressed throughout. It is strongly annulated, and in extension is much.
elongated, gradually tapering anteriorly. The larger specimens measure twelve inches or more
in length, and have a breadth of upwards of an inch. The head is rounded in front, and is.
furnished with three,stout and prominent maxilla, having the outer edge denticulate with numer-
ous acute teeth. The eye-spots are ten in number. The breeding season is in the spring. The
color above is a dark livid brown or olive green, with a median dorsal row of about twenty to-
twenty-two bright or pale red spots, which are sometimes obsolete, and a row of rounded black
spots near each margin, corresponding in number, and nearly in size, with the red ones. The
lower surface is a bright or dark orange red or reddish brown, sometimes with black spots near
the margin. “This species is very common, and widely diffused in the fresh waters of the.
Northern United States. Its range northward and southward is unknown. It is the only true
blood-sucking Leech known from the Northern States. It is capable of drawing blood from the
human skin, but ordinarily subsists upon fishes, frogs, and tadpoles. It often attaches itself to
the throat, and speedily kills them, even when of considerable size.”?

While the American Leech sometimes attains a length of twelve inches, four to five inches.
is the average adult size, and the majority of those sold in the shops measure only two to three
inches. American Leeches are now seldom used by physicians. The foreign species are so easily
obtained, so cheap, and so much more reliable in the majority of cases, that they are now given.
the preference nearly everywhere. The American Leech was formerly extensively employed,.
before they began to import the foreign species, and even for some time afterwards, in conse-
quence of the continued high price of the latter. With the gradual decline in the practice
of leeching the import trade in Leeches has also fallen off from year to year, the imports for the
past few years being less than half those for 1856, and the price about one-fourth what it was then.

Cultivation and economic. value of the American Leech——Attempts have been made to breed
and raise the American Leech in artificial ponds after the plan pursued in Europe, but always.
without success. The Leeches in these inclosures have never thrived well, and, in addition, the
slight demand for them has tended to render all the attempts in this direction decidedly unprofit- -
able. Mr. Herman Witte, of New York, has perhaps experimented more extensively in leech-
culture in this country than any other person. His ponds, constructed very mucli like those in.
France, to be described further on, are located between Winfield and Newtown, Long Island,.
New York. They are five in number and cover an area of over fifteen acres. At present they
serve merely as preservative ponds for surplus supplies of imported Leeches. Other artificial.
ponds have been started in the State of New Jersey and near Saint, Louis, Missouri, but they
were all speedily given up. Turtles, snakes, birds, and insects were said to have destroyed great
quantities of the Leeches and discouraged operations. American Leeches, when they were in
common use, were probably collected to a greater or less extent in most of the regions where they
were employed. Eastern Pennsylvania, Bucks and Berks Counties especially, seems, however, to-.
have furnished the principal collecting ground, in past times as.at present.. Numerous ponds in.

1VERRILL: Report, U. 8S. Fish Commissioner for 1872-73, p. 669.

LEECH CULTURE. 835

Eastern Massachusetts, including the southern part of Cape Cod, were formerly noted for the
large numbers of Leeches they contained, and during the early part of this century many Leeches
were collected from them for medicinal purposes. Philadelphia is now the only large city where
American Leeches are used by physicians, who prefer them to the European for certain kinds of
treatment. The latter Leech is the more powerful, and extracts the most blood. According to
the statements of Philadelphia leechers, about four American Leeches are required to do the work
of one European, and the chief merit of the former arises from the fact that they can be used more
freely and with less danger to the patient, and can also be employed on the more delicate parts
of the body, where the European Leech would act too vigorously. They are especially recom-
mended for the region about the eye, and several are sometimes used, distributed over a wider
space, when it is thought best not to extract the blood from a single spot by the aid of an
imported specimen. The American Leech does not attach itself as readily as the foreign, and often
several specimens have to be tried before one can be found to fasten itself. They bite much less
readily out of water than in. The bites of the two Leeches are different; that of the European
being deeper and more pronounced and bleeding much longer after the Leech has been detached.
The wound of the American Leech generally closes very soon after the Leech has been released,
‘and sometimes immediately.

The European Leech.—The European Leech belongs to a different genus from our own, Hirudo,
and by some authorities is considered to constitute two distinct species, H. medicinalis, the Gray
Leech, and H. officinalis, the Green Leech. By others the Green Leech and Gray Leech are placed
in the one species, H. medicinalis of Linneus. “They are both marked with six longitudinal
dorsal ferruginous stripes, the four lateral ones being interrnpted or tesselated with black spots.
The color of the back varies from a blackish to a grayish green. The belly in the first variety is
of a yellowish color, free from spots, and bordered with longitudinal black stripes. In the second
it is of a green color, bordered and maculated with black. This Leech varies from two to four
inches in length. It inhabits marshes and running ‘streams, and is abundant throughout
Europe.” ;

Prior to thirty years ago nearly all the northern countries of Europe contained Leeches, but.
most of the supplies came from Sweden, Russia, Poland, and Hungary. The swampy regions in
which they lived were drained from time to time, for one reason and another, until finally vast.
areas which had once been profitable became dried up, to the almost entire destruction of the
Leeches. Then, and for the first time was the extent of the injury fully realized over all Europe,.
and strenuous efforts were made to remedy the evil. Several governments, including the French,.
Prussian, and Hanoverian, offered premiums for successful results in leech-culture, but these.
efforts were rewarded only in the former country. At present the larger share of the Leeches
used in Europe and this country come from the artificial ponds or meadows of Southern France,.
although many are also raised in Hungary and in other countries of Southern Europe. Paris is.
the principal receiving center, whence they are sent to England, to the English colonies, and’
the United States. The export trade to South America and the West Indies is largely carried.
on through the United States.

Leech culture.—The localities selected for leech-raising are swampy meadows, where the-
bottom is more or less firm and solid. A certain area having been chosen, it is divided into.
rectangular plots of different sizes by means of ditches. The breeding season is in June and:
July. At this time water is admitted only into the ditches, the meadow flats remaining dry..
The eggs are laid in the loose, swampy soil at the margins of the ditches, and when the young:
creep out about six weeks, more or less, afterwards, the meadows are overflowed artificially to a.

836 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

depth of six to eight inches. Before the young appear, however, as many of the old ones as
possible are caught and transferred to other places. Otherwise they would consume too much of
the food required for the young. The young Leeches are fed upon the blood of living animals,
horses, cattle, etc., which are driven into the shallow water about twice a week and allowed to
remain a certain length of time. The Leeches attach themselves merely to the feet, but find in
those portions of their prey enough sustenance to cause them to grow rapidly and quickly attain
the required size. Fresh blood obtained from the slaughter-houses and deprived of its fibrine by
agitation is also supplied to them, or they are placed in it, while it is still warm, for a-‘short time.
The feeding is carried on principally in September and October, and again in April and May.
During the winter the Leeches remain torpid at the bottom.

Extravagant statements have sometimes been published as to the manner of feeding Leeches
in France. It is said that many of the owners of ponds are accustomed to buy up old and diseased
horses, drive them into the ponds, and allow them to be overcome by the Leeches, which fasten to
all parts of the body and kill them by a slow process of torture.: This may occasionally take

. place, but we are assured by one who has had considerable personalrexperience in the matter

that it is by no means a common practice. The quantity of blood sucked from the feet injures
‘the horses but little; and they are taken out in time to prevent harm. Some single breeding
establishments in Southern Europe cover an area of one hundred and twenty hectares. In about
three years’ time, the young Leeches, without being forced in their growth, attain a good medium
size and are suited to the wants of physicians. Medium Leeches are about two inches long, and
weigh three and one-half to four pounds to the thousand. The large Leeches weigh about five fo
five and one-half pounds to the thousand, aud this is the preferred size. The European Leeches
are graded in the markets as small, medium, and large. Only the medium and large Leeches are
used in this country. The very large ones, however, are generally considered too dangerous for
use, and are kept for breeding purposes. The foreign Leeches are transported and generally
stored in wooden cases or pails, containing swamp earth or mold. The American Leeches, how-
ever, are usually kept in glass vessels of water.
"American Leech ponds.—Mr. Witte’s ponds on Long Island, where he attempted the breeding
of American Leeches, occupied about three and one-half acres each, and were divided into five
compartments by ditches, like the French ponds. As before stated, his efforts were unsuccessful,
or at least unprofitably rewarded. In connection with these large ponds, Mr. Witte has since con-
structed thirteen others of much smaller size (about twelve by fifteen feet each) for the storage
and feeding of Leeches, which are generally imported in larger quantities than are required to
supply the immediate demands of the trade. He has had as many as one hundred thousand
Leeches in these small ponds at a time, but the number varies.

Use of Leeches.—Leeches are not now used nearly as much as formerly, and the practice of ©
leeching is gradually declining. From year to year the imports have constantly fallen off, and the
price of Leeches has rapidly decreased. Whether this will continue until the old custom of leech.
ing is entirely replaced by other methods of treatment or not cannot be predicted. It is evident,
however, that in Philadelphia the practice has greatly revived during the past few years, and the.
best physicians aré once more advocating the application of Leeches. About ten years ago thu
leeching practice reached its minimum in Philadelphia, and it has remained at a low stage until
very recently. A well-known Philadelphia leecher says that thirty or forty years ago many mere
American Leeches were used in that city than European, but during the past year he has applied
only about one hundred of the former. Another leecher of the same city states that formerly he
applied on an average’ over three thousand American Leeches a year, while now he uses but a
very few.

THE VARIETIES OF LEECHES. 837

The varieties of Leeches.—The terms “‘ Spanish Leeches” and “Swedish Leeches” have in this
country lost their distinctive meaning. We are informed by a large importer that the Spanish
Leech was a small green Leech brought here occasionally, thirty or forty years ago, by sea-
captains. They were inferior to other varieties, and during the past twenty years none have
been brought into the country, at least not through regular importing houses. The name
“Spanish Leech” is, however, still used in the trade, and we have heard it frequently referred to:
by cuppers and leechers, who are probably ignorant of the real sources of their supplies. As to
the Swedish Leeches, they were probably the first variety brought to this country when the
import trade began some fifty years ago. They then came from the country whence they
derived their name. Since the beginning of leech-culture in France, this same Leech has been
raised there artificially, and it is claimed that the American supplies from France are whally of
this kind. The Leeches used in England are also said to be mostly descendants of the Swedish
stock raised in France. Having been shipped originally to London by way of Hamburg, they
received there the name of Hamburg Leeches, which they still retain. The Leeches used almost
exclusively in France come from a native stock, which is now propagated artificially. They are .
small and of a green color.

'In the Germanleech trade two kinds of Leeches are recognized, one ae which is called the.
German Leech and the other the Hungarian Leech. The former has a black-spotted belly, while
in the latter the belly is uniform in color. The first is a native of Germany, where it has become
rare on account of the extent to which it has been caught up. It is now raised artificially. The
Aiungarian Leech is imported from Hungary, whence come most of the supplies now used in
Germany. Other sources of supply are the principalities of the Danube and Plagacz en Posen.
The Island of Porto Rico and other islands of the West Indies are said to contain medicinal
Leeches. Most of the South American countries, however, on both sides are supplied from
Europe via the United States, and Mexico receives some supplies from the same source,

‘

ZA.—THE RADIATES.
235. THE ECHINODERMS.

THe SEA CUCUMBERS, OR TREPANG—HOLOTHURIA FLORIDANA, Pourtales; HoLOTHURIA
PRINCEPS; PENTACTA FRONDOSA, Jeger.

The Sea Cucumbers, or Holothurians, are the highest members of the group of Echinoderms,
which also includes the Sea Urchins and Star-fishes. They usually have an elongate, cylindrical,
flexible body, covered with a muscular skin, which varies greatly in thickness in the different
species. The mouth is located at one end of the body, and is surrounded by a circle of more or
less complex tentacles or feelers. That division of the Holothurians to which the economic species
belong are furnished with the so-called ambulacral feet, which are sometimes arranged in five
longitudinal rows or series, and at others are scattered without order over the surface of the body.
The body wall frequently contains numerous minute calcareous plates, of various shapes, which
are often peculiar to the different species. Many of the species are quite worm-like in external
appearance. The Trepang of Chinese commerce is the dried skin of a large species of Holothurian
living in the South Pacific Ocean, and used as food in China. -

The largest and one of the most conspicuous of the New England Holothurians is the Pentacta

JSrondosa, which inhabits the northern Atlantic coasts of both Europe and America, from low-water
mark to a depth of one hundred fathoms or more. It is of a brown color, and measures from a
few inches to about a foot in length when expanded. The ambulacral feet form five double and
irregular rows, and the tentacles are:ten in number, and much branched. Dr. William Stimpson
remarks concerning this species that, made into a soup, it is very palatable; but it has never
been regularly used as food.

Holothuria floridana is a large dark-brown species, with the feet scattered irregularly over
the body, and with smaller tentacles than Pentacta. It occurs abundantly on the Forida reefs, just
below low-water mark, and grows to about fifteen inches in length. Holothuria princeps is
another large Florida Sea Cucumber. One or both of these species, but more probably the former,
gave rise, about 1870, to a limited industry on the Florida coast, to be described hereafter. Large
quantities were collected on the reefs, cleaned of their internal organs, boiled, and then dried
and shipped to China; but the industry was abandoned after two years’ trial, probably having
been unprofitable. Chinese coolies assisted in the work.

THE SEA URCHINS—STRONGYLOCENTROLUS DROBACHIENSIS, A. Ag.; STRONGYLOCENTROTUS
FRANCISCANUS, A. Ag.; ECHINARACHNIUS PARMA, Gray.

The Sea Urchins are related to the Sea Cucumbers, but differ from them in form, and in the
character of their external covering. The body is generally somewhat spherical in shape, but
more or less flattened below, the mouth being ‘placed near the center of the lower. surface. The
outer covering is built up of calcareous plates, closely fitting together, from which project a
multitude of spines, sometimes of small, sometimes of large size, there being generally a great
variation in size in the same individuals. The larger spines are generally arranged in regular

series. There is a water system; five double rows of feet, which run from the center above to
838

THE SAND DOLLAR. 839

‘the mouth below; and many pedicellaria. The cesophagus is small and the stomach and intestine
somewhat lengthened and curved upon itself. The sexes among Sea Urchins are distinct, the
different individuals containing either ovaries or spermaries only. These are five in number, and
resemble those of the Star-fish. This portion of the Sea Urchins (the ovaries) are the most
important in an economic point of view, the ovaries alone being eaten.

The common or green Sea Urchin (Strongylocentrotus drébachiensis) has a very wide range,
and is very abundant upon our vorthern coast. It extends from New Jersey to the Bay of
Fundy, but south and west of the eastern part of Long Island Sound it is rare. Its bathymetrical
range is from low-water mark to depths of over four hundred fathoms. Outside of the United
States, it ranges from Nova Scotia to the Arctic Ocean; from Spitzbergen to Great Britain; from
Bering Strait to the Gulf of Georgia; and along Eastern Siberia to Okhotsk Sea, and De
Castries’ Bay. This species “feeds partly on diatoms and other small alge, etc., which it cuts from
the rocks with the sharp points of its teeth, and it is also fond of dead fishes, which are scon
‘dévoured, bones and all. In return it is swallowed whole, in large quantities, by the wolf-fish
and other large fishes.” The green Sea Urchin is not now eaten upon our eastern coast, and
most Americans would probably regard its use as food with much repugnance, but it was formerly
eaten by some of the native east coast Indian tribes, and is still favorably regarded by the
Alaskans. Mr. Henry Elliott states that at Saint Paul’s Island the villagers, principally Aleuts,
search for it at low tide, under the shelter of the bowlders, which stand in the tide pools, on the
‘rocky shores, during nearly all seasons. Usually the shells are broken, the ovaries removed and
spread out like raw oysters on a plate, and eaten with salt, pepper, and vinegar. The old women,
called “barbies,” despise these condiments, however, and suck the Sea Urchins as small boys do
eggs. The native Alaskan name for this Sea Urchin is “‘ Repkie.”

The common west coast Sea Urchin (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus) inhabits the coasts of
Southern Alaska, British Columbia, and the United States, as far south as San Diego, California.
Jt attains a much larger size than the green Sea Urchin, and is used as food in some localities. |
In Southern Europe a related species, Strongylocentrotus lividus, is much esteemed as food.

The “ Sand Dollar,” or “Flat Sea Urchin” (Echinarachnius parma), of the New England coast
differs so much from the Green Sea Urchin in appearance that it: would scarcely appear to belong
to the same group of animals,.from a superficial examination. Its principal points of difference
are its extremely compressed form and very small spines, which are nearly uniform over the
entire body. The lower side is perfectly flat, and the upper but slightly convex. Its only
importance from an economic standpoint arises from the fact that it furnishes an indelible ink,
which might possibly be utilized in the arts, as it now is to a slight extent by the fishermen of
some parts of the coast.

The Sand Dollar is commonly met with on sandy shores, but is seldom found living “ except
at extreme low water of spring tides, when it may sometimes be found on flats or bars of fine sili-
ceous sand in great numbers, buried just beneath the surface, or even partially exposed. It creeps
along beneath the sand with 4 slow gliding motion, by means of the myriads of minute extensile
suckers with which it is furnished. It is far more abundant on sandy bottoms at various depths
off shore. It has a very wide range, for it is found all the way from New Jersey to Labrador, and
also on the North Pacific coast; and in depth it ranges from low-water mark to four hundred and
thirty fathoms, off Saint George’s Bank, where it was dredged by Messrs. Smith and Harger.
When living its color is usually a rich purplish-brown, but it soon turns green when taken from
the water. It gives a dark green or blackish color to alcohol, which stains very injuriously any
other specimens put in with it. The fishermen on the coast of Maine and New Brunswick some-

~

840 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

times prepare an indelible marking-ink from these ‘Sand Dollars,’ by rubbing off the spines and
skin, and, after pulverizing, making the mass into a thin paste with water. A number of fishes
have been found to swallow this unpromising creature for food, and the flounders consume large
numbers of them.” !

.

THE STAR-FISHES—ASTERIAS VULGARIS, Stimpson; ASTERIAS FORBESI, Verrill.

Only two species of Star-fish merit our attention in this report, not from any good they perform,
out from their destructive attacks upon our oyster-beds, which they are said to damage to the
extent of perhaps two hundred thousand dollars annually. These two Star-fishes, called Asterias
vulgaris and Asterias Forbesii, are so closely related to one another and so similar in appearance
as to require considerable skill at times to point out their differences; but when living the Asterias
Forbesii can generally be recognized by its bright orange madreporic plate on the upper side of the
body, the corresponding plate in A. vulgaris agreeing more closely in color with the surrounding
portions of its disk. The fishermen do not distinguish between the two species; to them they are
both alike, and both are designated under the common but descriptive terms of ‘ Star-fish,” “ Five-
finger,” “Sea Star,” or simply “Star.”

” The Star-fish, as its name implies, is a star-shaped animal, consisting of a central disk from
which radiate, in the case of the species now under discussion, five elongate arms, which are not
marked off or separated in any way from the disk, but exist merely as prolongations from it. The
upper and lower sides are quite different from one another. ‘The upper side presents a rough
surface of a greenish, brownish, reddish-green, or purple hue, which when it is dried turns to a
yellowish-brown. This is the leathery membrane covering the skeleton of the animal, which con-
sists of small limestone plates, united together at their edges by a sort of cartilage. This forms
the framework of the arms and disk, and acts as a chain-armor, encircling and protecting all the
soft parts within. On the lower side of the Star-fish this framework terminates in two series of
larger plates. This armor is sufficiently flexible to allow the Star-fish to bend himself clumsily
over or around anything he is likely to wish to climb upon or grasp.” The entire upper surface
is covered with many short spines, which are largest and thickest at the edges of the rays and
upon the plates bordering the lower sides of the rays. Around the base of each spine there is a
circle of curious little claw-like appendages called pedicellarie, which may serve to aid in clearing
the upper surface, but whose functions are not satisfactorily made out. Scattered between the

. spines are little soft water tubes, and at one side of the disk on the back is a sieve-like arrange-
ment, called the madreporic plate, for the admission of water.

The under side of the body is softer than the upper and much lighter in color. The mouth is
in the center of the disk; it bears no teeth, but is surrounded by an elastic tube. Five furrows
run from the mouth down the center of each ‘arm, They are filled with numerous extensible soft
tubes, terminating in a disk and arranged in four rows. These are the so-called feet of the Star-
fish, and by means of them it moves about. The majority of the Star-fishes are bisexual, but in
the two species under discussion the sexes are distinct.

Our common Star-fishes, and especially the Asterias vulgaris, attain a large size, specimens
often measuring fifteen inches across, and upwards, on the Maine and Massachusetts coasts.
From this extreme we find all the intermediate sizes down to the very smallest. They inhabit
various kinds of bottoms, from above low-water mark to twelve or fifteen fathoms and deeper, but
it is in shallow water that they do the most damage. They live on muddy, sandy, rocky, and shelly
bottoms, and even on the piles of wharves, and are most abundant where they can’ find the

1VERRILL: Vineyard Sound Report, pp. 362, 363, 1871~’72.

THE CORALS AND JELLY-FISHES. 841

greatest amount of food, and it is for the purpose of feeding that they visit the oyster-beds in
such large droves. They are not always abundant in the same places, but seem to move about.
Professor Verrill thinks “their habit of coming up to the shore may be connected with their
reproductive season.” They do not enjoy too brackish water, and oysters in such locations are
safe from their attacks.

Asterias vulgaris ranges from Long Island Sound to Labrador, and A. Forbesii from Massa-
chusetts Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. The former species is, therefore, essentially a northern one,
and the latter a southern one, but over a certain region they overlap, and it is through this region
and just to the south of it that most of the damage is done. A. Forbesié is the shore species where
the greater part.of the oyster-beds occur, and it must assume most of the blame for the thousands
of oysters destroyed on these beds.

236. THE CHLENTERATES.
THE CORALS.

Many of the common Florida Corals, from their graceful shapes and delicately sculptured
surfaces, are highly prized for ornamental purposes, and have come to possess a certain commer-
cial value. They are regularly kept for sale in most of the larger cities, such as Boston and New
York, and unusually fine specimens frequently command a high price. The group of Corals, as
popularly understood, includes members of two classes of the Coelenterata, the Polyp Corals and
the Hydroid Corals, both of which, and especially the former, present a great variety of forms.
The principal ornamental Corals found on the coast of Florida are as follows: Among the
Gorgonians occur the Sea-fans (Gorgonia flabellum), and the Sea-feathers or Sea-plumes (Gorgonia
acerosa and Gorgonia setosa). Among the true stony corals are the Stag-horn Corals (Madrepora
cervicornis, prolifera, and palmata); the Brain Corals (Meandrina labyrinthiformis, clivosa, and
sinuosa, Diploria cerebriformis, and Manicina areolata); the Fungus Corals (Agaricia agaricites
and Mycedium fragile); the Star Corals (Orbicella annularis and cavernosa), and many others
without common names, such as the Oculina diffusa and Isophyllia dipsacea. «nly a single species
of Hydroid’ Coral is commonly seen in show collections ; it is the so-called Finger Coral or Sea
Ginger (Millepora alcicornis), the latter common name havirtg reference to the smarting sensation
which it imparts to the skin, on handling, soon after it is taken from the water. Many foreign
species of Corals, belonging to the above groups, are often to be seen in the natural history stores;
they come mainly from the West Indies and the Pacific Ocean. Neither the precious Coral
(Corallium rubrum) nor any other species approaching it in value to the trade occurs in American
waters, but large quantities of the former are:imported annually from Europe for making into
jewelry.

THE JELLY-FISHES.

The Jelly-fishes, Sun-fishes, or Medusz, which are well known to the sea-coast inhabitants as
transparent and delicate floating animals, most abundant in the summer months, are, at times, a
source of great annoyance to the net fishermen. These watery creatures, whose bodies contain only
a very small percentage of solid matter, vary greatly in shape, and belong to several orders of the
Celenterata. They have often been described and figured in popular books on natural history, to
which the reader is referred for details concerning their structure and habits. The commoner
species found on the New England coast are referred to as follows by Prof. A. E. Verrill.!

“A fine, large specimen of the beautiful Jelly-fish Tima formosa has been sent me'by Mr. V.
N. Edwards, who captured it at Wood’s Holl, April 30. He states that the same species was very

1 Vineyard Sound Report, p. 449, 1871-’72.

842 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

abundant in February, 1872. It has not been previously recorded as found south of Cape Cod.
Among the most common of the larger species in summer were Mnemiopsis Leidyi, which occurred
in abundance at nearly all hours of the day and evening, and was very phosphorescent at night;
Cyanea arctica, which occurred chiefly in the daytime, and was here seldom more than a foot in
diameter; Aurelia flavidula, which was not unfrequently seen in the daytime; Dactylometra
quinquecirra, which was quite common both by night and day in August and September; and
Zygodactyla grenlandica, which was common in July, both in the day and evening, but was seldom
seen later in the season. In the winter season the Mnemiopsis Leidyi is often abundant in Long
Island Sound, and I have also observed it in New York Harbor in February, in large numbers.
At Wood’s Holl, Mr. V. N. Edwards found the Pleurobrachia rhododactyla, both young and nearly
full-grown, very abundant in February and March. At Watch Hill, April 13, I found both adult
specimens and young ones not more than one-eighth of an inch in diameter. It probably occurs
through the entire year, for we frequently met with it in midsummer in Vineyard Sound. Mr.S.
I. Smith also found it very abundant at Fire Island, on the south side of Long Island, in
September. The Idyia roseola, so abundant on the coast of New England north of Cape Cod, was
only occasionally met with, and in small numbers, while the Bolina alata, which is one of the most
abundant species on the northern coast of New Englard, was not seen at all. The Avwrelia
flavidula is less common than north of Cape Cod, but was found in abundance in Buzzard’s Bay,
in May, by V. N. Edwards.”

Many accounts have been given of the damage done to the nets of the fishermen by Jelly-
fishes, when they have congregated together in large numbers. Mr. Fred. Mather, writing from
Saybrook, Connecticut, in 1881, says that “the Jelly-fish, called Sun-fish here, are a source of
great annoyance this year. They clog up the meshes of the nets, and the tide sweeps away either
the net alone, or with its stakes.”

The following extract from a letter by Mr. R. H. Stannard, of Westbrook, Connecticut, dated
June 1, 1881, refers to the destruction occasioned in former years. ‘The Jelly-fish have been
very destructive to pound fishing several times within the past thirty-five years, and there have
been more or less of them every year in the Sound. In 1861, the best part of the season was
destroyed, and, in 1868, one-half of the shad-fishing season was destroyed by the Jelly-fish taking
away the nets and stakes. In 1878, Jelly-fishes were very plentiful; they stopped the shad fishing
with pounds almost entirely, and to such an extent that the company did not pay expenses. This
year, 1881, they have destroyed about one-third of the catch or season. If no Jelly-fish had
appeared I believe the catch would have been one-third larger than it is.”

ZB.—THE PORIFERS.
237, THE SPONGES.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.—The natural group of Sponges with which the public have
become familiar, through their constant use of the domestic varieties, remained until comparatively
recent times in the much disputed ground between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. The
careful investigations of several distinguished modern naturalists, howeyer, finally established
their animal nature beyond all question, and they were accordingly transferred to the kingdom in
which they properly Delong. But some years were yet to pass before theit true affinities with
other animals could be definitely determined, and they were grouped provisionally with the so-
called Protozoa, a somewhat heterogeneous assemblage of such low-forms as did not agree struc-
turally with any of the four great branches or subkingdoms, then recognized as composing the
animal kingdom. Still later researches have clearly proved that the Sponges have a much higher
organization than the Protozoa proper, and propagate by means of eggs, while the members of the
latter group do not. Compared as a whole with all the groups above the Protozoa, the Sponges
appear to be the lowest in structure, and, moreover, they stand apart by themselves as a distinct
group, which, in the more recent division of the animal kingdom by most authorities into some
seven subkingdoms or branches, in place of the original four, assumes the rank of a subking-
dom called Porifera, and comeg into the plan of classification between the Protozoa and the
Celenterara.

The term Sponge conveys to the minds of most people simply the idea of an irregular, soft, .
flexible mass of open structure, whose exterior is generally much roughened by projecting points,
and pierced by numerous holes, leading toward the interior, and whose structure, more closely
examined, is seen to consist of a fine net-work of small, horny fibers. This typical Sponge, as we
may term it, from its being the form most commonly known and observed, is the ordinary Sponge
of commerce, which, though limited iniits range to but a few tropical and subtropical regions, is
collected in great quantities and sent to all parts of the world. The commercial Sponges, which
are the only ones of economical importance to mankind, all belong to a single natural genus,
Spongia, and form, so far as the number of species are concerned, but a small portion of the entire
branch Porifera.

As stated above, the general conception of a Sponge is a fibrous skeleton, and nearly all
Sponges possess a skeleton or the rudiments of one, but this varies greatly in character in the
different divisions of the branch. In the commercial Sponges and their allies, the skeleton is
horny and more or less flexible, consisting of fine fibers interwoven and joined together. In
another group, the skeleton is composed of horny fibers intermingled with which are many
siliceous spicules, causing it, to have a much stiffer and harsher structure. In a third group, the
so-called siliceous Sponges, the skeleton is entirely made up of siliceous spicules, which may be
scattered singly through the soft substance of the Sponge, or joined together in bundles. These
spicules vary in shape, some being simple and straight, and others pyramidal, star-shape, or
granular. A fourth group, the calcareous Sponges, has a skeleton of calcareous materials, disposed

in lines or columns at right angles to the walls. The recent members of this group have the
843

844 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC’ ANIMALS.

skeleton made up of calcareous spicules, while the fossil forms referred to the same have calcareous.
columnar supports, instead of spicular. :

The soft and fleshy part of the Sponge, which is the truly organized portion, and upon a
knowledge of which we must rely for a perfect understanding of the relations of Sponges, is the
most difficult to study, as it is also the least known. It collapses anid begins to decay almost on
the moment of the Sponge being taken from the water, and alcoholic preparations are of compara-
* tively little value for investigation. The structure of some forms has, however, been sufficiently
well made out to give us a tolerably clear idea of what it must bein the entire group. Prof. A.
Hyatt describes the general structure of the Sponge as follows :?

“They are structurally remarkably uniform, though differing greatly in external aspect. They
consist internally of a mass or layer of sarcode or mesoderm, egntaining a greater or less number
of true cells, and have an ectoderm and endoderm of cellular tissue. The majority of the forms
are supported by a skeleton of interwoven threads or spicules, or both, of various forms. The
exterior is perforated by innumerable pores, leading mto channels in the interior, which enlarge
and join with groups of neighboring channels, forming large branches. These, in turn, form
junctions with other branches, and finally all of them unite into one or several large trunks,
which open outwards, like minute craters, on the external surface. These are lined with another
membrane, differing from anything else of its kind in the animal kingdom. It is composed of
minute cells, furnished on the free side with a long whip or flagellum, surrounded by a collar.
Their interiors contain a nucleus and digestive vacuoles, and they, in all respects, resemble the
independent animals known as flagellate infusoria. They take in and digest food in the same
manner, and eject excrements in great profusion from the area inclosed by the membraneous collar.

“The eggs and spermatozoa are derived from modified cells of the mesoderm, whereas the
skeleton is either built up partly from the external membrane, and partly from the sarcode by
exogenous growth, or by the transformation of the loose cells of the sarcode into spicule. The
function of the smaller external pores is to admit the water, which is thus strained and deprived.
of its coarser floating material. It is then carried along the canals, by the motion of the cilia,
and conveys its load of minute food to the ampullaceous sacs and zodidal cells. The hydraulic
pressure occasioned by the inward flow of the innumerable minute streams forces it through the
larger trunks and out at the craters or ostioles with great rapidity.”

Their peculiar cellular structure caused the Sponges when they were first carefully studied to
be looked upon as compound animals, but this idea has been refuted by more recent studies, and
each individual Sponge is now considered, “in its simplest adult form, as homologically a single
animal with the internal structure and functions of a colonial organization.”

The branch or subkingdom Porifera is divided into two classes, the Calci-Spongie (calcareous
Sponges) and the Carneo-Spongice (horny and siliceous Sponges). ’ :

The Calci-Spongie are again divided into two orders, and the Carneo-Spongie into four orders,
the Halisarcoidea, Keratoidea, Kerato-Silicioidea, and Silicioidea.

The Keratoidea includes all the purely horny Sponges, and the only genus, Spongia, of direct
importance to mankind. According to Professor Hyatt, the horny Sponges “appear to require
for the production of the forms in abundance tropical or subtropical seas, and obtain by far their
greatest development in the number, of the forms and species in the West Indian seas. The
typical forms, the commercial Sponges, are essentially confined to the waters of the Caribbean
Islands, Bahama Archipelago, and the southern and western coasts of Florida, in this hemisphere,
and to the Mediterranean and Red Seas in the other.

t

‘Memoirs Boston Soc. Nat, Hist., ii, 1875-’77.

‘

DISTRIBUTION OF SPONGES. 845

“ Australia affords a few forms, and I have heard, though I cannot substantiate the fact, of
some species on the Atlantic coast of Brazil.‘ Bermuda also has a few of the commercial kinds,
which, according to Mr. Goode’s report, and the suite of specimens forwarded, are much coarser
than the Key West, darker in color, and, in fact, just about intermediate between these and those

of Australia. They are occasionally found in the stores, but, as a rule, are used only by the.

fishermen themselves, about their boats, the Bahama Sponges being Breet for domestic
purposes by the inhabitants. pie

“The true Spongie are all shallow-water forms. In the Mediterranean, according to Eckhel,
they are not found below thirty fathoms, and in our own seas about the same, probably, though
not fished to greater than five fathoms. The greater part of the fishery is accomplished between
the depths of three and twenty feet, according to the report of Dr. Palmer, from whom these
remarks are principally derived. The commercial grades coincide very closely here and in
Europe, but it is quite easy to show that each of them may be considered a distinct species, if one
has an inclination to multiply in this direction. , The three grades [of American Sponges], Glove
Sponge (Spongia officinalis), subspecies tubulifera, Wool Sponge (Spongia equina), subspecies gos-
sypina, and Yellow and Hard Head, both under the name of (Spongia agaricina), subspecies cor-
losia, correspond with remarkable accuracy to the three principal grades of commercial Sponges
in Europe. These are the Bath Sponge, Spongia officinalis, the Horse Sponge, Spongia equina, and
“the Zimocca Sponge, Spongia agaricina. This result, in which three species appear on both sides
of the Atlantic, as representing alone the marketable qualities of the genus Spongia, becomes
of double interest when these varieties, or local species, as they might be called, are compared
with one another. It is then found that the aspect of the surface is closely similar in each
of the three; that subspecies tubulifera represents Spongia officinalis, subspecies gossypina offsets
Spongia equina in the same way, and, lastly, subspecies corlosia has the same relation to Spongia
agaricina. . :

“The whole group of Keratosa is confined to seas in which the differences observable
between the winter and summer isotherms are not excessive. None are found north of Cape
Hatteras and the island of Bermuda, and doubtless a similar limit occurs to the southward of
the equator.

¢

“The finer skeletons of the Keratosa, those of the genus Spongia, are only to be sought in |

the intermediate zone, where the waters are of equable and high temperature. Again, in examining
the species of this genus with relation to each other, it becomes equally evident that they are
finest ahd most numerous in archipelagoes or off coasts which are bordered by large numbers of:
islands or long reefs, or in sheltered seas.

“The Sponges near Nassau lie on reefs very much exposed to the action of the waves, often
thirty miles from land, and always in currents, sometimes running three or four miles an hour.
Such currents are usual wherever groups of islands confine the tide water within certain definite
channels, and they have also the effect of concentrating the floating food in the channels, or
wherever tides meet. Both of these conditions are essential to successful sponge growth, namely,
a continuous renewal of aérated water and a plextiful supply of food, and are probably partially
the cause of their abundance in such places.

“The shallow-water Sponges are coarser than the deep-water forms. This is probably due, in
part, as in other species, to the quantity of sediment, which is, of course, less in deep than in
shallow water, as, for example, at Key West in the winter time. I am informed that no fine
qualities of any Sponges are found within the limits of the milky water, but all the finer qualities
of: the marketable kinds in the deepest water in which the species occur, except perhaps in the

846 » NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

case of the Reef Sponge. Glove, Reef, and Hard Head are fished in shallow waters, greatest:
depth two fathoms, and the other, and generally finer marketable varieties, in from two to five
fathoms. This fact also explains in a measure, but not wholly, the greater coarseness of our own
Sponges as compared with the European. For though it may be assumed, from the examination
of the skeletons, that Mediterranean Sponges are niuch less exposed to turbid waters, and though
it may be shown by the microscope that the primary fibers contain less débris, this does not
wholly explain their greater fineness and elasticity. I think that we may attribute this either
wholly or partly to peculiar climatic conditions.

“The coral reefs afford good holding ground for the bases of the colonies, and protection
from the excessive surf of ocean shores, while they grow in water the remarkable clearness of
which to a considerable depth is constant subject of remark. These are undoubtedly favorable
conditions, as they are common also to the Mediterranean waters. The great quantity of cal-
careous sediment, however, which is churned by the waves in the winter, on the borders of a.
coral reef, is not present in the Mediterranean; and the average temperature also, which is very
much higher than that under which the finest Sponge skeletons are produced in the Mediter-
ranean, cannot be considered as favorable. These last, then, are probably the direct cause of the
inferiority of the skeleton of the commercial varieties found in this association [%. ¢., many of the
American varieties]. +

“The coarsest quality of all the Mediterranean Sponges, the Gherbis sort and other coarse
sorts, grow in localities along the coast, where they are most subject to the action of suspended
matter in the water; but all of these are, however, on account of the clearness and medium
temperature of the Mediterranean waters, as compared with those of other seas, of much finer
quality.

“The coarser kinds of the same variety grow nearest the shore, and the finer kinds in deeper
water, and also, according to Nassau spongers, are more apt to occur on marly ground, where the
sediment is finer than upon other kinds of bottom. The openness which usually accompanies.
and appears to correlate with coarseness of the fiber must be considered as one of the elements
of inferiority, which invariably accompanies a skeleton having a loose microscopical texture or
mesh, and harsh or inelastic or easily torn fibers, but is also, though rarely, found in skeletons of
very fine quality, especially at an early age. Thus it may be said that it is undoubtedly a
common characteristic of all the inferior qualities of Mediterranean, and of all the Caribbean
commercial Sponges without exception, which, though they may have very fine or very coarse or
inelastic fibers, are always permeated in the interior and have the surface also cut up by larger
and more numerous canals than the corresponding Mediterranean species.”

238. THE GENUS SPONGIA AND THE AMERICAN COMMERCIAL SPONGES.

The skeleton of this genus, according to Professor Hyatt, is composed of solid, elastic fibers,
the primary ones, those having their origin in the external integuments, being usually, though
not invariably, more or less radiatory in their arrangements; but the secondary or connecting
fibers are excessively irregular, and generally very closely intertwined. The primary fibers are
particularly noticeable on the inner side of the walls of the large or excurrent openings. ‘The
skeleton exhibits a very rough surface, due to the development of large projecting masses of the
secondary or connecting fibers, which are separated by horizontal channels of greater or less
depth. The primary fibers protrude above the surface of the cushions or ridges thus tormed,
carrying with them more or less of the secondary fiber, and forming a series of superficial tufts,

_giving the skeleton a peculiarly hirsute aspect. The pores through which the water enters the.

THE GLOVE SPONGE. 847

Sponges are very numerous, quite permanent in their positions, and irregularly scattered over the-
sides of the mass, often remaining open even in dried specimens. The cloacal canals are few in
number, but exceedingly large, and their apertures are irregularly scattered about, but are-
almost always on the upper side of the colony. When living, the outer skin is of a dark brown,
very dark purple, or a black color. The external layer is usually more or less filled with whatever
sediment may be prevalent in the water, and, especially in the West Indies, with the siliceous
spicules of other Sponges.

Only four species or six so-called subspecies of commercial Sponges, are recognized from the
Florida waters, and these give rise to the five grades, known to the trade, in the order of their:
importance, beginning with the finest, as Sheepswool, Velvet, Grass, and Glove Sponges. These
same grades and subspecies, with one exception, also occur among the Bahama Islands, the
sponge fauna of Florida and the Bahamas being more or less identical, but the corresponding-
grades of these two regions are generally finest in the Florida waters, the Florida commercial
Sponges ranking much higher than the Bahama, and commanding higher prices. Commercially,.
Bahama has two or three times as many grades of Sponges as Florida but these commercial
grades are not of specific or even subspecific importance. They result from a division according
to quality for the convenience of the trade. Notwithstanding the many Bahama grades, the
best of the Bahama Sheepswool Sponges are inferior to the best Florida Sheepswool.

The following descriptions of the several Florida and Bahama commercial Sponges are taken
from Professor Hyatt’s memoir, ‘Revision of the North American Porifere,” with notes on the:
corresponding Mediterranean species:

THE GLOVE SPONGE—SPONGIA OFFICINALIS, Linn., subspecies TUBULIFERA.

“This subspecies, as compared with other American subspecies, has a skeleton composed of’
remarkably fine fibers, which bleach out to a whitish brown color. The surface is covered with.
fine tufts of primary fibers, which are, however, very pliable. The surface is generally quite free
from cushions and ridges, and the channels between these when they do occur are neither very
deep nor long. The result of these characteristics is a form with a smoother surface and a denser:
looking skeleton than usual, pierced on the sides by numerous small apertures, very regularly
distributed, and at the top by one or more large cloacal oscules. The form is generally dome-like,
and is never, so far as I know, cup-shaped, though it may become exceedingly irregular, fistular, .
or even dendritic. The older specimens show a decided tendency to increase by the prolongation. .
of the parts immediately around the apertures. Thus the main body of the Sponge becomes.
projected into numerous smaller conical or head-shaped masses like the young of variety rotunda,.
and crested masses like those of variety disciformis. At an advanced age the fiber becomes very
brittle and unfit for domestic purposes.”

This subspecies generally occurs abundantly upon hard bottom. While living its color is
black; the largest specimen seen by Dr. Edward Palmer, who collected many specimens for
Professor Hyatt, measured about eight inches in height by about twenty inches in circumference.
It lives on the coast of Southern Florida (Key West), and among the Bahama Islands (Nassau),
upon hard bottoms or reefs, in about six feet of water. Ten varieties are enumerated, all of
which inhabit American tropical seas. They are as follows: pertusa, mollis, prava, disciformis,
rotunda, aperta, corlosiformis, duplex, exotica, and solida.

The Glove Sponge ranks as the poorest of all the Florida commercial grades, and yet belonging
to the same species, under the name subspecies mediterranea, are the Levant Toilet Sponges, the-
finest of all Sponges, and the fine-textured Turkey Cup Sponges. The different grades of the-

848 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

subspecies mediterranea, some of which are of an inferior quality, occur on the eastern shore of the
Adriatic, on the coast of Greece to Asia Minor, and thence to Tripoli and Tunis.

THE GRASS SPONGE—SPONGIA GRAMINEA, Hyatt.

“This is one of the Grass Sponges of commerce, and is perhaps one of the least variable of
all the species. . . . The general structure is coarser than in tubulifera, and the interior is
exceedingly open, owing to the large size and central situation of the efferent canals. The form
is that of a truncated cone, fluted by deep furrows on the sides, and either infundibuliform or flat
on the truncated surface. The large excurrent orifices are all upon this surface, or in the depres-
_ sion which takes its place. The smaller apertures are situated on the sides, invariably in the
depressions between the ridges. The persistency of the former and of the latter ridges, and the
situation of the different kinds of orifices, are by far the most characteristic features of this species.
Notwithstanding these facts, and though I am obliged to describe this and some other forms as
distinct species, I have great doubts of the truth of the assumption. It rests upon the evidence
of many specimens, but they are all from one locality.”

This species occurs at Key West, Florida, where it grows abundantly on the coral reefs, either
on smooth bottoms or attached to corals or other Sponges, in three feet of water and deeper.
When living its color is black.

THE SHEEPSWOOL SPONGE—SPONGIA EQUINA, Schm., subspecies GOSSYPINA.

“The typical variety of this species, usually called the Sheepswool Sponge, varies greatly in
form. All of these forms, however, are characterized by a peculiar surface. The skeleton rises
into large tufts over the entire surface, the larger oscula occupying the depressions. between.
Sometimes these are very numerous, the whole interior being very cavernous, and sometimes the
structure is much denser, with fewer large openings and many small ones scattered between the
tufts. Occasionally the depressions are filled up on parts of the Sponge, and a surface is presented
having no large tufts, but only the small secondary bundles of fibers, which are especially charac-
teristic of this variety. The result of this structure is to leave great hollows or rather a net-work
of deep tunnels under the derm, which are apparent only after the drying of the specimens, when
they become exposed by the universal contraction and cracking of the skin. The color when
living is said by Dr. Palmer to be a shining black.”

The habitat of this species is Southern Florida and the Bahama Islands, where it grows in
from three to sixteen feet of water and deeper. The largest specimen examined measured about
‘nine inches high by thirty inches broad. The following five varieties are recognized by Professor
Hyatt: dendritica, porosa, alba, solitaria, and hirsuta.

This is by far the finest of the American commercial Sponges, ranking much higher than any
of the‘other grades. It is also the one most eagerly sought for, the supply being quite unequal to
the demand. It takes the place of the finer Mediterranean grades for most purposes, and, though
not so finein texture, is more durable than the Turkish Sponges. In the same species are placed
some of the best-known of the eastern grades, the so-called Horse Sponge, Venetian Bath Sponge,
and Gherbis Sponge, which occur in numerous places in the Mediterranean Sea.

THE VELVET SPONGE—SPONGIA EQUINA, Schm., subspecies MEANDRINIFORMIS.

“This, the well-known Velvet Sponge of commerce, . . . differs from the preceding in
its extreme forms by the absence of the pointed bundles or tufts, and the fibers are also perhaps
slightly finer. The absence of the pointed tufts gives a smoother surface, since, as in the preceding
variety, these are mainly composed of coarse primary fibers loaded with foreign matter, whereas

THE GRASS AND YELLOW SPONGES. 849

the connecting or secondary fibers are composed of pure keratose. The surface is also reu.arkable
for the protruding, flattened cushions of fiber, which slightly resemble the convoluted ridges
of a meandrina. Sometimes these cushions are transformed into long, solid brushes or pencils of
fibers.”

The localities from which this subspecies has been recorded are as follows: Biscayne Bay and
Key West, Florida; Nassau, Bahamas; Havana, Cuba; Mauritius Islands; and the island of
Fernando de Noronha, off the coast of Brazil. But one variety of this subspecies has been recog-
nized; it is also in its typical form known commercially as the Velvet Sponge. Professor Hyatt
writes of it as follows: “The forms of the specimens in our collection are more spreading than is
usual in that variety (meandriniformis), and the texture is quite as soft, though denser, perhaps,
when the skeleton is dry. The projecting cushions of fiber are similar in form to those of variety
meandriniformis, but are joined together in larger masses by a tissue of fine superficial threads; also
are often less dense and simply bridge the intermediate channels. This and the tortuous and
rather shallow character of the channels give the surface a smoother aspect than is common in the
skeleton of meandriniforntis. The oscules are very large and have a peculiar ragged aspect in dried
specimens. They look as if some one had made them by repeatedly running a knife into the animal
while it was drying, and then omitted to clean out the interior thoroughly, leaving sharp pinnacles
of dried sponge cuttings projecting inward, sometimes so as to fill the center, but oftener sticking
around the center of the aperture, and more or less completely joined to the wall of the canal,
This characteristic ragged look is sometimes also to be seen in the oscules of subspecies gossypina.
but never so decidedly.” This variety is found at Key West, Florida, and Nassau, Bahamas.

This is a fair grade of Sponge, rather rare, and not much in demand; in fact, the dealers
often omit it in their enumeration of the American commercial Sponges. It is considered of little
value by the trade.

THE GRASS SPONGE—SPONGIA EQUINA, Schm., subspecies CEREBRIFORMIS.

“The aspect of this species, commonly known as one of the ‘Grass Sponges,’ is very similar to
that of Spongia agaricina, subspecies corlosia, variety typica. The difference consists principally
in the aspect of the surface. This is broken up by parallel longitudinal ridges of irregular length
on the sides, each ornamented with one or two lines of tufts. These ridges extend onto the upper
surface, giving them a markedly radiatory arrangement. The larger orifices are situated in rows
in the channels between the ridges.” Six varieties are enumerated, as follows: typica, described
above; plana, inhabiting Florida and Kingsmill’s Islands; divisa, found upon hard, irregular bottom
or corals, in about two feet of water at low tide, at Key West and Biscayne Bay, Florida, and at
Stone’s Inlet, South Carolina; mewicana, from Vera Cruz, Mexico; caliciformis, from Nassau,
Bahamas; and obscura, from Nassau and the Bermudas. These several varieties differ more or
less markedly from the typical specimens, some of them approaching other species in shape and
general appearance. This grade is inferior in quality.

THE YELLOW SPONGE—SPONGIA AGARICINA, Pall., subspecies CORLOSIA AND DURA.

“The subspecies corlosia resembles very closely in external appearance the Spongia dura, or
‘Hard Head,’ but an examination of a full series of forms showed that very considerable differ-
ences exist in the texture, though superficially there is little or no distinction in the aspect of the
surface. Dealers can identify these varieties instantly by the color, which is usually lighter than
that of the ‘Hard Head,’ and by the touch, the ‘Yellow Sponge’ yielding much more readily and
feeling less harsh under the fingers. These characters, however, only apply to the normal head-
like forms and some of the varieties; many forms cannot be placed in either one or the other of

54 F

850 NATURAL HISTORY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS.

the two groups with any certainty.” This subspecies occurs at the Bahama Islands and Florida.
Three varieties are classed with it by Professor Hyatt, gossypiniformis, from Nassau; fusca and
elongata, from Biscayne Bay and Key West, Florida; the range in depth is from two feet of water
at low tide to thirty feet or more.

This constitutes the second grade of American Sponges, and is very abundant. Although
selling at a much lower price than the Sheepswool it forms an important article of commerce.
The Mediterranean grade corresponding with it is the so-called Zimocca Sponge.

239. INJURIOUS SPONGES.
THE Borinc SPONGE—CLIONA SULPHUREA, Verrill.

This is a common species of siliceous Sponge, which ranges along our Atlantic coast, from
Cape Cod to South Carolina, in from one to fifteen fathoms of water. It begins to grow on
mussel, clam, or oyster shells, mostly on dead, but also on living specimens, into which, when
still very young, it excavates numerous burrows. ‘As it grows, it penetrates the shell in every
direction, forming irregular holes and galleries, which continue to grow as more and more of the
substance of the shell is absorbed, until the shells are reduced to a completely honeycombed,
’ brittle mass, or a mere skeleton. Finally the Sponge begins to protrude from the surface, and
grows up into mammiliform masses, or small rounded crusts, which continue to grow and spread
in every direction, until finally they form masses six or eight inches in diameter. . . . Owing
to the remarkable boring habits of this and other allied Sponges, they are very important in the
economy of the sea, for they are the principal agents in the disintegration and decay of the shells
that accumulate over the bottoms, thus performing the same function in the sea that fungi and
insects perform on the land.”!

There is no question but that the offices of this Sponge are mainly for good, as stated above;
but they often attack living shells, burrowing into them as far as the inner layer, and greatly
irritating the anima), which will sometimes deposit one or more new coatings of shell structure, so
as to cover up the little pores about to open into the inside. They probably also often cause the
destruction of oysters. These burrows sometimes appear on the inside as little prominences,
scattered over the surface. Masses of this Sponge, when full grown, measure a foot or more in
length, and contain stones as large as one’s fist, as well as a large quantity of sand. “This
species is of a bright sulphur yellow color, and grows into hemispherical or irregular massive
forms of firm texture, the surface being covered with scattered, low, wart-like, soft prominences,
about an eighth of an inch in diameter, which contract when the Sponge is dried, leaving shallow
pits.”

Oliona sulphurea has the power of burrowing into submerged limestone as well as shells. A
case of this sort was brought to notice in 1878, when a wrecked cargo of marble was discovered
off Long Island, having lain there for several years. The pieces of marble taken up were
completely riddled by this Sponge to a slight depth.

1Vineyard Sound Report, p. 421, 1871-’72.

INDEX.

Page,
AalMmutter cic eriaccis wacase ocd cos ace comscee sees 247
ADGlOTIOS siciciats,. sissajsies ais a5 e5sjejereicte: eis aieie sjeieeiet esses 700
Abbott, Dr. C. C., on common Seals....-.-.----. 55, 56
habits of the Cray-fishes.. .814, 816
spawning and feeding hab-
its of White Perch....... 432, 433
Abeona aurora .......----.---- Rane Eieid marae easiest 278
MMM 26 sok ee coc ca weseceee eucerssct 276-278
AWETAOON fish a2 2cieese cists ecmvesnccedscdise em ceeege 200
Acantharchus pomotis .... 22.2. -- e221 cece eee e ee 405
AGaDtHiTidi o.25 cece cred el neseawesece Rcjasiee oc-4 279
Acanthurus coeruleus .....-. .-.--- 202. eee eee wees 279
NIQTICANS .--- 2. -2o cee eee eee e eee 279
Achigan ...-...-..----.----- (S| wroly fain aratmiararjaiese. 401
Achirus lineatus.... 2.2. 022. 220 eens ee eee ee ceee 177
Acipenser brevirostris ..---...---- 200-222 seenee 659
medirostris ....---.---.------ ee ee wees 662
oxyrhynchus......--.-..-2-.---...--- 659
SUUPOso52 hte fours see.dene eeierSenteeebbuhs 659
transmontanus .....-.-.-- 222-21 eee eee 662
ACIPCDBOTIA® o.0.50:0 vs eanee senesmsinseeesetnsecenes 659
Acrochilus alutaceus .... 2... 22.2. 62-220 eee eee eee 618
Actinophrys sol ..---. 0220-22 eee eee eee eee e ee 734
Acuiia, Christopher, on the Pegebuey......---.- 120
products of the Pece-
BUCY wecwmncin crams 128
Adams, Prof. A. L., on the habits of the Togue .. 493
Admete Couthouyi ......-..---.---------- eee eee 693
AOCBCNGE oiisisinis wie netvars winie sejeieie ts seremes sesame tens 506
African Pompano.....----- 0-2 0220-2 eeee eee eee a 327
distribution of ........---..---- 329
Agaphelus gibbosus ..........----+-----/+------ 31
Agaricia agaricites........22..----+- e022 ceeeee 841
Agassiz on breeding of Green Turtles..-.....---- 151
breeding seasons and habits of Snap-
ping Turtles.......-.-------------- 153
range of Soft-shell Turtles.....-...-. 152
rate of growth of Loggerhead Turtle. 148
Aglektok ...-.----------- 22-0 eee e ee cee cee cence 62
Agonid@ ... 2... 2000-222 none cnn eee ee eee rene eee 257
Agonus family .........----+ --+- cece eee e eee eee 257
Aguglia imperiale ...--------------- +--+ -se-e- 358
AQUjA.. ~~. 2. cece ween cee ene eee ewer ee eens 337
Blaine) ssaecias sssione sig siete s win iaieie saicisiover eines 337
de Palada ......--2-- eeceee nee e een e eee ees 337
Pridta: «cesses cessed esc daieivee ss = sieseg sieterer 337
Voladora....--. 0200 seccce ceneer seecer cree 337
6 Casta: v.22)e-daiaains wisjsieea ee + oe Seeie seeise 337
Agulha .... 2... 222-00 - eee eee eee eee eee eeee 337
Agulhao 2... 2.2202 eee seen ee eee nee erence eee 337
Alaska Pollack ....--.--- 2-000 ceceee secre cence 232
Smelt... 22. 22-2. cence eee ene cee dies ee wee 544

Page.
AIDIGONE 2.22 sessisenleesmcinsand sesees sees Feces 320, 322
Albula: vulpes) ...,..ccceesesc cess wccincie teases oe te. 612
ALBUNINS isesarcnesetwciccewsciss ceeses saececiecs 612
ANCDY=tLOUb) aio cic: ida etintivins netsiiersReiele wee io Re vis cies 236
Alepidosaurid@...-..-...--. 022. eee ee eee eee eee 547
Alepidosaurus borealis..........-.--.---- peeelies 547
PELOX cei isdiie was Heismacsedciae cwisinee 548
Alepocephalus Agassizii ...... .......2---+.----- 548
Baird ii, 2.226 siesieieei Saws saisind 548

family ....--.. 222-222 .22e- eee eee 548

AIO WILG cs2s ci oeateeos aa taasadeinmee eosin tase 569, 576, 580
abundance of .....-.--...------ 22 -e nee 582, 583

TOOW OL oe siersncis es asnns Gaccen. wes sed cicles 586

former abundance of ........---..------- 583, 584
geographical distribution of.........-... 584, 585
history and nomenclature of....--..-..-. 579-562
migrations and movements of ......----. 585
occurrence of, in New England ..........580,;581
reproduction of ........--2.-..--2. --5--- 586

B1ZO) OL sis sco 5'4 -craisisystéiajsiararaiale cain csoaresare a: sieialews 587

USES OF sareic cis ciosis sisieic nore Sinreseretaisiansie es sialaisicte 587

BOY. caciceded tieaniareelciticineminas slewels taieniciein’ 569
Branch .... ...--. .22220 enone ee eee e tees 588

TTA: 5 sjoseitsd iessiscaie: eisesa iinet wie als omnis 594
ANNONG 25.2 S2d-de ccc ces ost eis eas eieecsiase Smiaslem asieie 277
Allen on Fur Seal pups ......-.---..--+--------- 93
reproduction of Fur Seal........---.--- 106

Seals and Walruses .-...-----..------+- 33
swimining of Fur Seal .-.....-..------- 102
Alligator. ........-.-- itt Wdegiasieaeieotanciaierd eA GCiaie 141
abundance of.........----.--------- niet 142
economical value of ..--..-..---...---- 146

the fishery of.....----..---.----------- 146
food and manner of obtaiuing it ....-.- 142

geographical distribution of ....-...... 141
hibernation of...........-2..---------- 145
mode of capture of ......-..----------- 146
mode of life of .......---..--..---.- ee 144
origin of name of ....-..----.---.--.-- 141
pugnacity of ......-.---.----.+-- earapaise 143
BIZOiOL ou ecwiesiessa's we sinae caus ele ces.eee-aieas 142
2 WNWO1COrOP 0 Aecca5s 66s ties awene ceeness 145
Alligator Gar .... 2.20 .200 2-22 cee eee cence en eeee 663
Suapper...--.-.-.---- 2020+ ---- ienancrea 153
DUE G ne casi conics: aside eamenieceimwaniesy 153

Allman, Professor, on habits of the Boring Am-
PHIPO o.oo oie csc, seca cesewiwise eee seie messes 825, 826
Alopias vulpes ...--. 2... 22-22 - eee eee eee eee nee 675
Alosa cyanonoton .. ...-.. ---0 2-2. eee eee eee eee 579
TYTANNUG 2s 32 aade- ces scetscees lédeeeeeeas 579
Alutera Schoepfii...-..--.. 22.2. .2..-02-2-. 2 2ee 171
Amauropsis islandica .......--.....--0----.--6-- 693

852 INDEX.

Page. Page.
AMDOP ABH: < 51. o.se anne sesee ce ciciaiecienie sive wie wleate 331 Arctic Sea-cow ..-.-.-- ---2 eee eee eee reer ence 128
fishes and Leather-jackets ...............331, 332 extinction of, in historical times. -128-129
Ambloplites rupestris...........---2222..:-.---. 404 | Arctocephalus ........---- +2222 222-25 eeeeee eee 37
American Leech ...... 0222.22.22. cece ee eee cee 834 californianus ..-....----------- -- 52, 53
Lobster ...... 20000 cceeee eee e ee ceeeee 781 monteriensis..-...----------- wee. 52,58
SOLES coven caccdecsneaceasedlaxenc aun 175 UPSINUS: J. a cedcos eee eewieie eve =~ 52
AMIA-CALVA 6222004 sce wn oe oencewsnamedes Bonen ce ' 658 | Arenicola marina...... .....------2e2-eee cere ee 833
AMIGO, wisetcn das estunea asin aentlnmaiinoc come cide 658 | Argina pexata.........0-5-.-:- eee eee eee eee eee ee 703
AMIDEUG).c10'< same cined sined-<Aesiseeialnbienynetsiatbied sch 626 | Aromochelys odorata .......---..--+-+++ e202 --+- 154
TODULOSUS faces smrdce Geeerehous cantinwnce 627 | Artedi on different forms of Ostracion ......---.- 171
Ammodytes lanceolatus.....-..--.-. ----.---0-- 244 Artedius fenestralis.....-..----- +--+ +--ee2-----> 259
tobianus ...--. 2... 0-222. eee eee ees 248 lateralis....-..--2+2- cere scenes ceee s+ 259
Ampelisca, sp., found in stomach of Sea-robin.... 256 megacephalus ...-..-----.------++----- 259
Amphibians <0 2.2)2¢ see docs joc tewee eecee ee see 159-162 notospilotus ....-----------------+---+- 259
Amphibious Carnivora..............--2+-----5+- 33 pugettensis..--...-----------2--eere +++ 209
Amphiozus sxc cose cece serene suse sevevccess 681 POTIALUG woscncos toe esses stems eat 259
Amphipod, Boring. ...... 2... ..22-2.-0-02 eee eee 825, 826 Ascelichthys rhodorus ...--..------------------- 259
Amphipods) 2. 02 < sive se eeeeeees dee see seesenkead 824-826 Ashby, Captain, on distribution of Halibut ..--.. 193
Amphisphyra debilis ...........2...--2-0---.--- 694 food of Halibut .....--.-.-.. 195
Hiemalis six oseie sere e:siaie dean oes ui es 694 Halibut Spawn ......-.--- -- 196
Amphistichus argenteus .........----.---------. 278 migrations of Halibut. --...--. 194
AMY Oi ios cc elaine pists Se eeaacieeacte vas Rew sas Seere 152 spawning of Mackerel. .....-- 295
MULICA.--- 2.22 -e eee eee eee eee ee 152, | Aspidonectes asper .......----------+--------+-- 152
ANACHIS wi sccicses: cine mens eeea dine iene cede ewes 596 Emoryi ...-------- 222-2222 ee eee 152
Anarrhicas lepturus ..-.....---.-------------+-- 249 | nuchalis ..-.....--+.-------+ +220 152
TU PUS seus. a sctiteneliuecee cescicm nmcienine 248, 249 SPINEL ce icencovecancidaseeand ease 152
MUMOY o.wicisteehacanaceedccedeesaes 249 Aspidophoroides inermis..........-----.-------- 258
Anarrhichadida . .--. ..-.-.-. 22-222 eee eee eee 248 monopterygius ......-.-.---... 257, 258
Anarrichthys ocellatus -........--...----------- 250 ASTA CUB sate ovicntje-cjncs ssh s reper steers ces suescees 812
ANGHOY aS (. «vos cetnce ccmnwee sta sea ss paeenE coe 544 leptodactylus ..........---..----..----- 812
Anchovies ....--.. e022 c0e cece cece ee cece ee eee 611, 612 DRIPTOSCONS ce .ees wae a sees sree sexes cans 813
Angel-fish «2... .-00seeees cece cece seen cccees sees 171 NODS: saver voces qoaues ces cee sedecncws 812
Black sects acccerscessaccae sane acess 280 POLTONHIUM sues vocees ones cae cows cewcees 812
family Aveee deeeteetess 280 | Astarte quadrans.....-.......2...-------0--2--- 703
WLC: oa:e)s cane aie Se biereiesccie 2d siewie sen 280 Asterias Forbesii ...-........ .--- 22-0 -----0- sees 840, 841
2 10) eee 280 vulgaris .----. .-.-+--.22--- 2-2 --e eee eee 840, 841
Angelo......... diag Wels apeie anise Ske Paicie ge siete eee 674 ASUYTIS: wise ocieieis wlejeesreee te ste wiawie's wei sie’sle Seeiiets 698
Angler, Marbled ..........------0. 0-222 eee eens 173 TaD ata dieicicssininyeinsrsinivisciercietaisie'eigiuie deine? 693
ANIONS ootesicn ini oicaeeica a teine teeies aereewcae waa 169 TOSACOD isa ieisivtc waists Sea esis esieeunabcaene seen 693
Anglis ..... b. polsiels s sreureaceresaeaas Gas Soe cee 171° | Atheresthes stomias .......-...-.--..----. sitioee 188
Anguilla bostoniensis.........--......-------.-- 630 Atherinidse,...iis cise once esis ace icnis oserceig cercie eee 456
Marmorata...-...------- 2-2 eee eee eee 630 Atherinops affinis ......-... 2... ..----.--22----5- 457
megalostoma ....---------------e eee eee 630 californiensis.........--....--.------ 457
THO Wa Sc sicw sds motions mbintiniasiew aucreiienate 630 Atka Mackerel ..--...-.-2.000-00 sscces ceeeweees 268
TOR ONG: --co0 weenie ce nin tie eee eine nde eee 630 Atlantic Porpoise .....----...-.-.-.- valse sieees 14
vulgaris ....---------- 000 eee eee eee 629 POM COG. 220.006 soe sewn ceeeeecene ccine 223
Angulus tener...... 0... --- 2-6 eee ee cee eee eee ee 703 AGATE coo rojaspid ioe o2s accteva aie siniee ne sad eminnieunsence 62
Annelids ...... 2.22. --.0- 02. eee eee ee eek ee ee eee 831-833 AATOLESLAKY < 2iciicddcede seiethoyedees cedex voce sees 62
AMOQONGH s..scdcies aedessind $e S2c2 FSS ewe eRe ee ce 703 AttersGalk,.. . 22 22cccciwsebenencoses saeeeeaies 62
Anonyx, sp., found in stomach of Sea-robin..... 256 Atwood, Captain, on abundance of Haddock ---. 225
Anoplopoma fimbria ............-.---------- +--+ 243, 268 abundance of the Plaice -178, 180, 181

Anspach on habits of the Capelin ..............- 545 capture of White Whales in
Aolkussa .... ..---- -- 22 22 - cee eee eee eee cee eee 247 Massachusetts..........- 18, 19
Apeltes quadracus ..-.....---.. Sgnedch: See Tisy 457 distribution of the Laut .. .245, 246
Aphoristia atricauda..-.-...-----.--+--+--6-++++ 175 distribution ofthe Scuppaug 387
Apodichthys flavidus ........ 2... ..-..0---e eee 251 food of Cod ...-......-.... 213
FUCOLUM .... 2.2 seesiew Voy Sees eee eee 251 food of Mackerel .......... 290

VIOIACONS ois cic ceecdewessecionss cent 251 geographical distribution of
Aporrhais occidentalis ..........-...--. +--+ ee. 693 ' Mackerel....2...-2.. 2... 281
Aproplarchus atropurpureus ..--......---.------ 251 the habits of the Hake .... 235
Arabella opalina.... 22... -- 12-2 -. eee eee eee 833 habits of the Horned Dogfish .672, 673
Architeuthis Harveyi.......--.------ +++. ee--ee- 687 habits of Horse-Mackerel ..321, 322
princepS.... ----- eee. eee e eee ee eee 687 habits of the Lant _..._.... 245
Archoplites interruptus........----.----.+-.----276, 405 habits of Pollock .......... 229

INDEX. 853
Page. Page.
Atwood, Captain, on the Man-eater Shark ...... 670 Baird, Professor, on pugnacity of Sword-fish ....361, 352
movements of Pollock ..... 229 reproduction of the Alewife. 586
the Nurse Shark........... 674 reproduction of Bluefish ....440, 441
rate of growth and size of ‘ size of Bluefish..........-.- 414, 442
Mackerel...-..........-- 298 spawning habits of Herring.56¢, 563
reproduction of Pollock.... 231 spawning season of Mackerel - 297
scarcity of the Bone Shark. 663 the uses of the Alewife......£87,588
the Scrag Whale ........-. 30 Bairdiélla chrysura ...-...22.--+- 02-25 seen eee 375
the size of Codfish......... 220 Baitbug esiccseatemsennine we oe aces ouee ete 779
size of the Halibut ....._-. 193 Stealots ..icéaosccnciccanewoanrs wesdess eae 273
spawning of Mackerel -...296, 297 WOPMSdce's si sees see e cboeeuee eae eaecnseis 831
the Torpedo ..-.....2-2...- 666 Bakbeljaune s 22 sesecc2 son ociceigsicinaeceats sence 200
the torpidity of the Tautog Balenaboops) ooc6 geuec sven tees ates ae canes 29
and the Scup....-...-2.. 273 PIDDOSA. s clae is eeiedodacertciieaalsielee: ae see 29
transplanting young Lob- NOMOSA sd awiciecaistesgece ceuphageceesacas 29
C10) eee ee 804 Novea Anglia. ....-.. eee cee es ween 29
useful products of Sperm Velde eves Wasecls inseiise ee ak weno esate 29
WHAIE 2.5 eo o2cecesaies nase i Balenoptera Davidsonii ...--..--..----. .--+--+- 30
the uses of the Lant....... 246 GUbartes sos cece ieee cee eee 29
Aurelia flavidula ...... 0.0 ..2.2- 0.2022 ee eee. 842 VelfOPa) ceecvsesyistcis cislels Sarcietes waives 30
Auricula vestita Emersonii .......-..-....---..- 693 Balenopteridas ...-..- 1.22 eee eee eee eee ee ee 29
Autennaridia .......... 2222. cee ee cece ee eens 173 Balahoo .......---. -.-- .-+ sols sictaree -Iasese 3 461
Auxis Thazard) a: .oc.:556 vceceaweckca cece saceceas 305 | Balanusbalanoides .-......--.--.--.----+----e- 828
APIA a acincs Sane ciahe pedis ticece cue eens vetsedte 250 CTOMALUS oie mdeeisione deceive osee: ewecinesse 829
BNC AROS ix.<o)ic uses s asteenaiis scan cena siae Sweets ets 200 ODORNGUS eee citings cic saur'esis edjacieies 829
BAGO (2/025) ecaye hs <aee Sciaicicte seis see umneseeeiee 200 tintinnabulum .......-..------ ..------- 829
Bachelor .-.-...--.....------ cee. ee eee e ee 407 | Baleine jubarte ............------ 2-2 eee eee eee 29
BaddOGhy, oi. acess xais weine wine's seeeie ee cereeee 228 | Balistes capriscus...-......---.-----2e- cence eee 172
BOS Bi. wiaicicn sicce site: x.2te wearers wie sleg cieishesrsaigsomais s 468 Balistide csocecxe sess cccarecicie ester eet dee esis 171
DAG TGiitioc advas ausmiee se oon seieeeces cea hioeenselce ee 379 Ballefisht: views Sod cco haass Saeed. 2 aaeientne 170
Baird, Professor, on abundance of Cod .......--. 205 Banded Druni 2sk¢ wceseserevonnwed sakes nswuleene 367
abundance and qualities of GYOUPOL pei ocese sarees tesa sietelese sises 412
Spanish Mackerel ....--.. 312, 313 Rudder- fish) 2:3 dose 2+jiseceesus seaeeers 331
the Anchovy -.......- ve ee 611, 612 Banke Cod! i072 ceceeeee tec sae eaas eee eee ee 201
capture and uses of Herring -565, 566 Lick Basse.2 2 cscs vcasaccascivs sacess asic sees 406
the Common Pompano...... 327 Banner Pompano ...2222s0200 e006 cesses senescence 327
culture of Lake Trout ...... 492 Pompano, distribution of....-.----.----- 329
decrease of Cod-fisheries on Bath: sc2 21 See Geese sex ectwetes arenes cece beens 377
New England Coast ....-. 221-223 Barbot on mode of captnre of South American
flesh of Little Tunny, when Manatees... vec scaisses asic cee s2e5 s+ 127
COOKED sissies ciweisresisreistne 5 322 products of South American Manatee. 127
food of Mackerel ..........- 291 Batd oi cess seo ye Roars weed sees Ses ex Ye seb sees 247
the food and voracity of Blue- Bar fish wicacavees sees Gpombeaee Rina wines ee ea eet 406
fidly smiece secs aredess Barlow, Rev. William, on Mola, Salv. or Sunfish
the habits of the Eel ....... 631 632 and glue made from it ....-.---.-...---------- 169
the habits of the King-fish - .375, 376 Barnacle Baten vsscecvecscwwaseee cetees aees veaie's 171
history and habits of the La- ROCK. ajanes eens esa Ae aerate oleae etatete 828
LOY CULO iis ois: biere apenas siesis 5 371 BariniaGles osc 'se ee ccprseeias weds does ve ebek bees 828, 829
the history and habits of the Barnacles, Goose .--...- 22-220 cece e cece ee cee cee 828
Scuppang ...--.-----..-.. 388-393 Barn-door Skatevces ceescnednasegagiscs odes eee ee 666
the Horse-Mackerel......... 320 Barracuda ccccs cces seesee voewesies sientereas aie es ie 448
manner of capturing Plaice-. 181 Barracouta sscceveedcissccre sins eaaiice eas ope saesee 448
migrations of Mackerel ..... 283 Barracouta family-..........---- se " 448
movements of Herring Barrel-fisht cosas asuswie ie cvaewsvesccaciese osenses 334
Schools .......--..-..---- 553-555 Bartram on breeding habits of Alligators..-..... 145, 146
movements of Mackerel..... 287 pugnacity of Alligators .....-....-.- 143, 144
movements and migrations of size of the Alligator. .......--..---.. 142
Bluefish .asss.c20202 500-5 434, 435 the voice of Alligators .............. 145
periodicity of abundance of Bagshaw «s/o: vse 2 oe ge dedd veceeeneesenesmesieectes 627
abundance of Herring in Basking Shark ........---...--2----- 200 aerials = 667
Northern Europe .... .-..- 557 Bass, name for Red-fish........-.-------------+-
periodicity of Bluefish...... 435-437 Bank Dick..s.0.0 sox .-sesieenacees temas axes 406
Plaice fishing and distribu- Blache. si. sccesnse asses eaey eee: cases teese 266
tion ....-.. 2-22. 0-22 eae 178 Blache cedee ce os se ander sKewnedebeeie eee ses 401

854 INDEX.
Page. Page
Bass, Brassy 424 | Bela decussata .......------0- 20202 eeee = heoaae 693
Calico 406 harpularia ......-..-..+--------- +e -- ee eee 693
Channel, name for Red-fish 372 pyramidalis ........--.--- 22-2 eee cece renee 693
family 401 HUPTICUB jecrcc cateaess sarees one ces boeareet Sooce 693
GRABS josie aioe a fatsladinagielaiaels' ve clesciesiegamcicessh< 406 | Belknap on the Grampus .......-.--------+-0--+ 14
MOSS) 2 Sih seetbingadcctoes waevecsoeyeeece's 401 Bellam ers ieiec ad seep sqnciine erste Selawiesaiea seer 62
Mid enseioeiacig enscauice tons meee ediucaase 405 Bellows-fishysisnce sees oa ten etic awa atiee eee 173
Oswego 401 fatal ys juutersecc oneness ceaee seen 170
Otsego 507 geographical distribution of .....--. 170
Red, name for Red-fish 372 NUMDELS Ofsivesrcae a sahna cues sees aee 170
Reef, name for Red-fish 372 Bell’s Tortoise ....-. -.-- 2. see nee cee e ee teen eee 157
ROCK ix cteneneumsscimena sects meses cece decane 404 Blonds. 22:2o 42202 cccceneee eet hase dee Habe 458
ROCixccinnciiaegcad 2 aisle cmremiewe omnes seme 413 Bel @ ia setes cos p ne Hodes Seles Roesess melee ene 18
School, name for Red-fish..............-..+ 372 Bendire on the Red-fish..-.....------.---------- 478, 479
NOG jJscce saree men ah ethene eetesens semanas 378 Benecke, Dr. B., on breeding habits of the brook
POA): asisia sa wetih maaan aes ad ner eaceacnatenatc 407 Lamprey ..---..-.------- 677, 678
Sea, name for Red-fish .......-.-.----.-..- 37 habits of river Lamprey. .-.- 677
Silver, name for Moon-eye.............-..- 612 migrations of Eels........-.. 633, 634
Spotted, name for Red-fish -..-...-.-...--- 372 movements of young Eels... 650
Strawberry scisccess nase coceyes cess s cee es 406 reproduction of the Eel....- 634-638
Stripediece sawatecec ceecu cece Sesewece see 424, 425 reproductive habits of Eels. .646, 647
Striped Lake ccjccics scence cece cecaes ansaess A2Q4 the spawning of Lump-fish. . 254
White acy esane: vase comnctberetaes onde cere 428 viviparous natureofEels.... 645
White Seah ccssiscccie se seem reiesevicecndewese 378 breeding habits of the Pike-.- 463
Mellow cnc nssnece anew secvecee sn eeceies sane 431 Bere ylt: semcwe.ue = cisdivezecisnccicien ctisnes eee weeee 260-273
Bastard Cod:iciiso: sowabilea wan aeteeae aut Seetenis 264 | Bering, Capt. Vitus, death of ..........--.-.---- 129
alibutbisacsicccsioe tecmsreunanaause xk sete 182 Bermuda Chub 2.8.25 secsascaecedos ke ceseeexeces 394
SHAPPC :s:dsision ceiciesreseukeaiiedelaena eae 397 Berried Lobster .1<:.e0:006s occ saan answew venecess 783
Trout, name for Silver Squeteague...... 367 Berycide ....--..---- 22s. cece cece een cece ences 361
DUT Gs. cicceciie sci cekieeBeteeaue cece 147 Beryx family <oie sce scicsissicccinie nes ote esceacease 361
Bae, SOA: 52 css siec seaie cates otc cicra aioe ida o ee sie sin swiss 255 Beshow (Alaska Pollock).......-...----------+-+ 233
Bath SPODG6 ss<-csaic cece ua sew ccisicie aoeie se cies sees 845 (Black Candle-fish).........-----..----- 268
Bathymaster signatus .......----.----...-.--22- 361 BeZH Ai ASCH ono nue nie ened evcien semanas acaseesusineniee 338
Batrachus pardus................2-- 02-00. .20--- 251 BRO ZUP 8. escheat Sa eieversiaidee 24 ccciaip eieicie Se aredentad 370
CBU acisiais sraidia: wie sia iaediaraicidimimiate Pee eetees 251 BiGiida)..ncnicsiciee2 egies weess seuiveaiecieasiseseecses 338
Bavarian Char iecc0 noes iecned ston neces ceedeees 500 Biclayary ar. cccmacedass abe Fase vedas ceegescne’ AGT
Bay Alewite.ssme- cas etieec sec eeeeeatseo8e ace 569 Bict on habits of American Manatee.....-...-..- 120
POPPOC so: 4¢s esse ceeeesebcene tices he 14 products of South American Manatee .... 127
Porpoise, of California, and Marsuin, of Eu- Big-eyed Herring -...---.---.-.----- +--+ ------e-
rope, similarity between i Mackerel
Seal cocccsosas ges cee veeeeeeeerianeces seacee Mallet cscs cae 22 oe aeecce tees deoseeseex
Shark scsssewskees weaces te esawaciyeey te seuss Biggy-head. s2e02 seses cence cist weee- dene veces
Bdellostoma Dombeyi ...--.......-.-....- getaie Big-mouth sscsesscisas cove ness ck exkesteseeeeese
Beach Clam ig26 ears 2ciaes aie iciss savers decose vs esse Black Bass
Pleasicce ecco doetecdkenek eeeice cone secs 824 Billish io oce weed sebeaniclendenscts temsegeeleeauses
Beale on distribution of Sperm Whale........... 7 name for Gar-pike -......-.-..--------- zs 662
habits of Sperm Whale .........--.-... 9 name for Silver Gar-fish ............---- 458
size of Sperm Whale.......--..---.-.-- 9 Billardcc cou cia ela eenasoaiganisieses serene Sait 228
Bean, T. H., on chiroid fishes...........-....---. 268 Billet seemecwicese vic v'siccie cee ina seat oeeisiorew se oeeced 228
distribution of the Halibut ...... 190 BiOCOenOSI8. oi. asic vier cinines see cce vemsin secces 734
distribution of Starry Flounder .. 184 Bishop Rayivacisiee ss 'cieie wet cc cicviisicieinis sew oats eee 665
the Rough Limanda.....-....-.-. 184 Bitter Head ccncventouranasicchodoce saese-he emis 406
the Burbot ................-.---- 235 Bittium nigrum .... 2... 2-2. 22-2. peewee eee eee 693
occurrence of Branch Alewife in BitQM OM o:.:ctaiste ciniraieie/ se aesintioreisware teu wad. veiets pines 11
certain lakes of New York..... 588-594 BV al WeS tesesoisic wiarare wtaiciorsiens Beste srecareiasarste alates She of ate 703-710
Bear, See wesc wate s se pesca ee ateaielasiesieis s. galets 49 Black Angel-fish.......--------.pee+ e-eeeeee eee 280
TPOW Gi: syste 2.2 S<teid e's Saidase isieiaiaieicle Seeds e's 497 Bas8cccasnscc cio nies inal cnc araieecls ararste weralete’y 401
Bearded Seal scsi, <y sercteiisescaievs clsrciets sigis's oes sae 63 distribution of........-...-2-.-..---- 401, 402
Beardless Drum ...-...--.see02 eeeeeeeuee cee ees 372 habits and food of ........---.-...--. 402
BOay CP siccis cxisisic eisiga a sisials sks cece setocwecs Seaeie 11 name for Black Rock-fish ......-..-.- 266
Bécasse de Mer ...-.-..---- ------ cen neon eee 338 MAM OS .OF |. isa eee ee eet as adepesc 6 401
BOCK GE ss vests wa stators telsioGindieeasistaciesaas wisteeroe acti 393 SPAWNING Owe vice we ecise we seiesiee seasic 402, 403
Bedlamers: snc. csv orees seisosesacese isshotsse beefa'sete 62 tenacity of life of.....-........----.-403, 404
Bedlimers........--...----- sosaaasi aes b2eeEeE 62 transportation of ............---....- 404

INDEX. 855

: Page.

Black Bass, Big-inouth...--.....--.2.. 2-2-2222 401
Small-mouth .......--....--........ 401

Black elles: wacie devas sae se 4s seek ashes cesicccss, 582
Black: Biters ss. evescjneeakse vies des seseghecse sew oe 201
Cand lesfish: 5.0.6.0 /seb-scce-ceeid da tees ebeeos 268
Black-Coalsey ..--.. 222.022 22. s cece cence e eee 228
Black-dotted Flounder.............-...0.0 .eseee 187
Black Drum 2.2.35. cc0 5.62 cs decoadcenadeccesesen 367
BGC AN ss a:5,asarneass stancit's Mopeacc@acea tees 541
Black-finned Shark.........0.. 0202 .2ee0- eee eee 672
Blackfish: ccsavswaenasncss atk cesbine kee seeoueed 268, 269
Black Grouper .... 2.222. 202. cece cece ee eee e cee 411
GEUTB a .2.5 cece oe sak ceeie Seats vie wes cresteteines dr 98y BOD
RATT Vise toler Sisiets ste sis beter, tots Julaie te emaarsmeis 407

JAC oo siraiecag ate ae oe ateys Beem keetere ted 228
DOD Sb6Ric.-e aisle geloe cytotec encase 783

Lunge ..... — Sabai 487
Mullet . - é 2 375
OTOH: 215-43: Grape the goes Cepyed Whee wes 444
Perch, name for Black Surf-fish ...-......- 278
Black-Pollocle iiss s:sesje-ceee ace rienveckbeetesees esis 228
Black Rock-fish ...... 20.22. 02020200 cece eee tees 266
Rock-fish of Alaska.......----..----.----- 266

Black Rock-fish, spotted ..-.......----2--------- 266
Roucador asc 2 see vsecdaceasseesesss fevers ate 379
SalMOn 4: 2s s2s swe cewew see as veeoenrvacedes 487
SNAPPOr” ys ev 22 cave seeded weeeowes eeea seas = 397
Snappers, name for Cod ........---...--6+ 201
Spotted ‘Trottss scccescwssssuccassonceivice 475
Surf-fish: <<. sexconcisaceeaceoesess estas 278

tailed Crab, name for Shrimp............- 818
Triple-tail, sesexn s seenwsddinvwaxeccce axes 545
Warmouth weeecsesdves socwes wesc acimeaes 405
Whale cccesssesewaenescy waeeks va eede sae 11-25

Will ures arlene Sead Sa ceed Sete 2 407

Black Ashysccrneereusa.c teson eas Seas ececisee Soke 17
Capture Ofseu.ne-c-sesissmeae ga seee sccm 13
distribution of ......----...2---------- 11

£000 Of soos e aa ciee werd tances esadeeee seu 12
movements Of. -..-...----- -22. cee e coe 12

name for Sea Bass ........-..-...----- 407
reproduction of. ........---..-0--.----- 12

schools, stranding of....--.-------.-.-- 12

SIZE OF. sce dcnceeas Saceneeee daeeace 12

time when most abundant..........-.-. 12

used as food....--... Scat t¥eiCee eeees 13

useful products of -......-.....-----.-- 13

WAI OF. 52 :cccciecps wr hciee sce dee te ewied soe 13
Alaska... 2.0.2. -222e. cece eens eee ees -466, 467
Blackfishes...-...----.--.- Oe hoe ee dociceeziscuscines 11
Blackford, on prices of Bull-frogs ....-...-..---- 161
Blacksmith .......--..----- ++. siihinnaeeervee ss 276
Blainville, on Sperm Whale in Brittany... --.-. 9

Blake, J. H., Notes on Sperm Whale Porpoise -.. 18
Blanchera, de la, on Sword-fish in Bay of Biscay. 342

Blan QuilO: xcccsctaws sewwedianwscemd wanes avaness 361
Blasius, on distribution of Ringed Seal ........-. 65
on geographical distribution of Hooded

SOAl ce ncina sc cmmica wamandvaarmaan eee saa 70
Bleking Herring......--.-..----------2+-- 0+ +++ 550
Blenn td dic nssicewed. o8ssas Beige cece deuce 250
Blenny family: -iaicae cistereiaie sisecie cians sinsie sinaie oeiaie 250

Blepharis crinitus ........2.-.----------------+- 326

Page
Blepsias cirrhosus .......---.--.---- 22-2 -----5-- 259
BG WAG ss, xis'siessa rst ane nieces hietsie a bccn sido: <idvetaiec ic pe Sores oF 435
Blew Hound-fish.... ..--. 2-2. ----- 22-2 e eee e eee 308-435
BIW ancora ened Aiea Semaine een ces ewes taes 298
BIOS palssde tana mesecddecetagtweeedaaeieswaumcee 259
BIOCKIN: 5 sas tabs teeta ese tee wets eee 228
BlO Welsh sc .ceces Seceete se ese sand ealtneneins 418
Blower ined ose achatewcitcaceay os ant awe cdasmer we 170
Blowing Whale ...... ......-.-.---- 00-022 eee ee il
Bluesbackesisc ses \otitecsmptensicens diavince extensieiese tates 582
SBM ON go oias:xcctciaterssels os aiaiqioieraict wiecels-Siew's A477

Blvie Brean ja. isis see awed nore eieeitreiaicleisasiicin sie 406
Catefi glist ue .c ecient atatetcicts a.2ig guste wegiarsiac siete 626
Cat-fish (see Cat-fish).......----------. e+ 249
Chimera: esac ode a ete seis eee tasers 662

Cod: steg ners veeden ee siting. soles seuss els 268
Crabise sess svcenines mien 2e satele cess enisictese 15
Crab, distribution of .................2.--- 1%
Crab, external character of .........----.-- 775, 776
Crab, habits, uses, &c...--..--.-----.---- 776-778

Pit os shureeod teenie aeesieeebennones = yeeinise 541
Herrin ecccesc ete cinwesicis vine cee s Sesie salsines 579
Lhompish <s2c2ce0 skcea.os visions ceccide seneee 254
Parroteaish vosesceescas sade es se thee ssees sess 274
Pérebiscasasoeee wad sacs sie abe bawe Seeewensit 277
Perch, name for Cunner .........--...----- 273
Perch, similar in form to Red Perch........ 260
Pike, name for Pike Perch.........-...-..- 417
Shark casos: seca cos scese i sceee ceedess 669, 671, 675
Snappers sss0ecccssi andes ssseee ses eecets 433
Sun-fish cas oc. coesiss ee eeee usta bhaceccame'cs's 406
Surf-fish 22s ses csc vos sweiewd seekeweecews 277
Bliefin: case se2s wesessassess aan: teaess eo see ess 541
Blilefish vessotsccns vise tee dices veeesc ener esse 433
abundance in New Jersey, 1870 and 1881 .439, 440
distribution of ...-...-.--..-..--.----5- 433

enemy of Mackerel ........--.-... Bake 299

family? 2 oss ose tees tebeesnssess societies < 433
food and voracity of..........-.-..----- 437-440

Girella nigricans ........-.0.-...208 --6- 394
movements and migrations of -........ 434, 435
Mummichog........-----.-----+------- 449
name for Chogset ...........-.-.-- 273

name for Sea Bass ..........-...-.----++ 407

name for Squeteague ............-----.- 362

names of ......- re 2 dee queiou a eeetnumumaeels 433

periodicity of ....--..-....---.---+++ -- -435-437
reproduction ...........--2.---.--..-.--440, 441
BIZO OL 2 oo ioc cse stew scescus cence ese + 441,442
W868 Of soe icced castaese eases sea vetes ceae 448 Add
BH OSTC OB) jaceis sig weiss) Seacdie-srcinleidieloye 6 dueieieie aera meee 62
Blunt-nosed Shiner......-...-. 2-2. ----------05- 322
BOATENG: ise. 2ieaisie: facaccrediecee sees sulle Bareieiaitinrenstees & 335

BOOS Giind seis eicia stad asemeice caainn ade emmas Eee 266
Boccaccio ...... Jag micee sisiewaee Ad cduslan haataieencisiniee 266, 267
Boccone, 8. Paulo, on the Sanguisuga, parasite of
Sword shsliccscsiscances cece acjemceeiecusmeseesaice 354, 355
BOGGOD, pases siwieec ecavhs ns 2d odes evel Sue pdoeeies 65
BOGUCLOD sin iois ceeid ease sie sniaisia Is rinse Hestia' era aoe aarminepeae 267
Boeck Axel, on distribution and habits of Euro-
pean Lobster ....-..-..--.-----.- 807-810
on process of shedding of European
LODStOP ees scan Seas ciemenes cinews 793, 794
Bohusliin Herring ......-...------------- 202+ -e0+ 550

856 INDEX.
Page. Page.
Boldner, Leonhart, on the development of the Lam- Brandt on abundance of South American Manatee. 123
PLOY” sieidesieyacsinin’svalativy vine sees mardinedaw Goce ieleears 678 the Arctic Sea-cow.------------------- 134
Bolina alata... 25-50 seeceecccsiees estes seme sees 842 breeding habits of Manatees -.....---- 118
Bone-fish, name for Dog-fish..---...----.----.--- 673 | BrassyBass.-.-....-. 2-2. eeee-eee ence eeee erence 424
name for Lady-fish GIR i: Bream cae osoee skh ee oka esigets eats te retsiow erates wie As 393
name for Surgeon-fish .......-........ 279 TST UG ates tsar theses otters om erc aps) guste ee iatsieee 406
Bone Sharks ss..'s seine speanessecediesea pes’ seas anes 667-669 Copper-nosed....-.. 2-2-2222. e2eee ee eeeeee 406
Bonito 316 Salt-watetivenucee Sheet pace see meee 393
MOUND AN CO! OF ois roa cs ciciciciceinie eicinie eee 317 | Breeding Harps -.-.-.....-------+ een ee eee ee ee 62
Cuban name for Medregal....-..-..-...+- 331 Brevoort, J. Carson, on names of Codfish.....--.. 200
GiStribution Of wise wcijerresissiew seine moeeuveres 317 uses of the Gurnard ...--- 256, 257
asa food-fish ...-..--....-.- 318, 319 Brevoortia patronus......-..---...2-22- eee eee ee 570, 575
name for the Cobia 444 pectinaa, (223565 lett steers bedig teclal es * 570
PACHA nst-dedecaedestawaderde: Riculccke: 319 PYLADDUS soci se cae ewistelccigieiciwialgcinie sieves 569
PA ie si ciciais wisn emeasoaaaardd seen ceweneee 306 tyTANNUS AUTCUS.-.-....---- 2-2 eee 570
BETIPOO ono. c nea vciede eeansie sae-cins Seeeatiow * 316 Brick: icccwiecaan castes said a suee sewn wes nce s suas 676
Bonnet-headed Shark ...-...--.-----2..0---.- ae 671 Briggs on intestines of embryonic White-fish .... 516
Bonnet-worm, food of Black Bass ...--...-...--- 402 Brim..-.-.---- Tiasielaretitn aiayalavore-usre\Sie.g 2 a imiminreereSiwis nae 406
BODY: fish sieswccs seco scig ses weseen cceecedagen ses 569 BHibi2coss -wemnraeeoes ate sieaiaimss csteimenes 550
BOOWOO cicmeciniais cee cetivestracaassace<amaeceamoun 337 found in the same locality as the Lant -....- 246
BORG Bb nose. cn teccwss Lotned wats oneeeueoees ae 267 Brochet ...... Jie Si miaRincaubieaia (Oe siainiG, wdanerateewscidie andes 462
BOrep atic. -ocascse o> pancem -pecredsaenhenees 267 BOOK EAS Bi ccscieie ats arsreey tuo preidie wines Saw aascieine Arnieiere isi 466
Boring Amphipod..-.-......---..22.2----22------ 825, 826 PICK Ge] S a5 cracajersteveictersisis dias <eid sia siege lecisiaein 464
TMNOB A) 2c o2.hese Sa vecesc coeis es Se eaeae ee 826, 827 SUCKOR carci 2555 ceeseease se ccstes theses 614, 615
BPON GS a a5is.2.2 Beka semi isda dace Saeed tern 850 APOUU x o/:s,ci02 ae. oaieiey Basia Sieiewis mos asaroene 475
Bothragonus Swani............----------------- 258 Brooks, W. K., on anatomy of the Oyster -.711, 712, 713,714
Bottle Meh iicecs vee yec0 tae tne Qaeereeaees cmos 170 reproduction of the oyster. - ..719, 720, 721
Bottle-head Whale..........-..----------------- 11 Brosmius brosme....-.--...------0---e20- eee ee 233, 236
Bottle-nose Whale.._....-....---- 02-2 ----e0 ee 14 Brosmophycis marginatus..........-----.-.----- 244
Boundary Herring ....-...---. 22-2 ---- e002 22 eee 550 Brotulide sce vecnccemecase tes cceeae mst sede 244
BOW scceoricwesnies oo Jase we eeesectededsdecie = 658 BrIOWn Cod csijee dacicee ves see ecsecseecaseessees 201
Bowhead and Right Whales, confusion between . 20 Brown on products of Ringed Seals...--....-.--- 66
Bowhead Whale@sse ewes eckcsccics deieneeiien xe eeee 20 Brown, J. Ross, on Northern Fur Seals....-..-.-- 49
economic importance of. ....-. >. 21 Brown, Robert, on geographical distribution of
feeding habits of ...-..---.---.- 23 Hooded Seal...-....- iisc. cceeeeaads anes es neers 69
fO00)-OF 3. Mee dagen Sues see 23 Brown, Dr. Robert, on similarity of feeding of
movements of .......--.-------- 21 Whales and Mackerel........-...------------- 294
reproduction of .......----..-.-- 21 Brown Rock-fish .... 0.2.2. .ss002ceceesseenesces 264
B1Z6: Of - icincean eens cacicica someone 21 SNAPPOE 2: ccc Vekee oe peined Scidaes coger 410
BoxX-fish wscacse scan csae costes sevedeese aeeeecan 170 BUceinaM CiMatUM once cee aces aoe taevdesecteedes 693
Box Turtle, Carolina......--..-.....+-- acc secc 158 | Buccinum undatum ................ -----222---- 693, 694
Box Turtles)... 22: 0sec. cccesncaaeec ses cone osee% 158 Buckland on abundance and value of Gar-fish - -. 459
Brachyistius frenatus..-..-...-.-...2-----.---.- 278 Buckland, Frank, on chemical composition of Eu-
TPOBAOOTB ic 2 an eiciee eee te ede wes eceede 278 Topéan Lobster 0.20. sacwes senses ercicensieeced 811, 812
Breil ccd sche utiho. wateceensdicenabbhes semcices 178 Buckland, F. T., on gastronomic value of Bull-
Brain Corals: s1-4 12.00 icieecnecccecer ceecceween G4 TPO GS aos aiaragsoe seiciscidelesarels 160, 161
BY AIZ6asulyshas- aeneged Becen se Sseeeuene leg eweeeses 393 gastronomic value of Cat-
Brama chilensis 335 HSH copa dcewan uamancet esc 250
Brama Raii......---.---.-.02 eee ee eee eee cee eee 335 the habits of the Lant-....244, 245
BEATE DB) jaja: ovis lemrwinidie Ssio-oine bulerwiters Aainiss emersio cea 335 the Lump-fish -..--....-.-. 254
Branch Alewife 588 mode ofcaptureofBull-frogs 160
593 number of eggs in English
593 DOME: .ctcs cases es cnnis 798
enemies and fatalities of. ........ 592, 593 on rate of growth and shed-
movements of -..---...---.------ 591, 592 ding of European Lobster.794,795
occurrence in certain lakes of Buckle sss eee Gt wae. ccaew aa eceeed sawaweeere Je 776
New York ...-...--------- --- 588-594 Buckskin Trout ..---...2-.. 222 cece ee eee nee oe 488
origin of, in Lake Ontario and Big Salve ss jeceskcissidewsis sacaceceaseace sees cats 827
New York Lakes......---.---. 590, 591 ButtalO Cod icc de.cpne cw cateand aciewaei esses ene ktes 268
Branch Alewife, scarcity of in St.Lawrence River. 589 | Buffalo-fish............... 222.2222 .22 20222 eee 614
Branch Herring... ..--------00eeeee. eee eee ee eee 580 Buffalo-fishes .... 2.2.2. .- 2-20 eee eee nee eee en ee 615
Branchiostomid@ ...-.-------- ---2-+-eee eeeeee ee 681 BUTAO JACK cccctcciie seein: deme .aieonls cae nis sees 324
Branchiostoma lanceolatum ....--------.------+- 681 DU ATOGS « ca.4 seems as bese- Camas seca waa 159
Branded Drum .... 2... .-2.00 ence eneeee coos 372 breeding habits of ...-.....-2.......- 159

INDEX. 857
Page. Page.
Bull-frogs, culture of ..--.. 2222.22. .2eeee eee 159 California Sardine ...... 0.222. 0022-22-22 eens eee 569
digcovery Of: . nsecgeccnesaeestecuskos 159 Sea Elephant ...-.....2.. 0-2-2. -2---. 72
economic uses of ........2-..22 2222-2. 160 general history of ....... 79

how to get spawn of ........---.....- 159 geographical distribution
take care of spawn of ......-. 159 Of cox ae wee sewecwete es 72
modes of capture of.....-....-...-... 160 habits: Of 2. ss2. 6-23.02. 73

TAN FO:Of acs o sean peacesede es eweided 159 and Southern Sea Ele-

size and mode of life of ..........-... 159 phant, comparison be-
Bull-head, name for Horned Pout ..........-.--- 627 GWOOD . 2.252 een cedees 74
Sculpiienies ve sei aeec eases 258, 259 Sea EOD wigs sides wocicice ccd ececenscd 44
Whiting.» as. 2sodey eae s seceeeseecé 377 geographical distribution of-. 44
Bull Mackerel) i scic:s) isn ges sad eeeweccousunsneree 303 Habits: Of .22;seice i coe epenas 45
Bull-pout @s.ncivniieec sions tare veskaeeeesuece 627 SHCLMP easiness cose Ssiceeeeede ec neneues 818
Bull Prout) seen see oe eee ek ee eee cece 504 Smelt .o e Wesean wes ccs. Seesaw sane 457,544
Banch Whale: sccwss ssecseew see acicceecaaddebees 26 MellOw-tail . ccs scone poececataceness 331
Bunk? ssewi-nd as aie acy eeeisisie coed dees scasvaraniaareeae 569 Callinectes hastatus ...... 22.0022. 22 e ee eee eee 775
BuUrbob! cose mssaes dt cic s aide da gieeguda seared sianeciare 235, 236 JAPVaAtUB 22 500 scenes st eeeoeescaace 75
abundance of.......----. 222-2. eee eee 238 OINGUUS sac oedoe wetnee sas cemane ncaa 775
American and European, relation between 237 TUMIDUS occas ccs seeescie sessee tees 775
distribution of.--...-......2200.-2eceeee 238 | Callista gigantea ..-.....-2----.eeeee eee ee eee 708
economic value of -.......-.-.--2--2---- 240 Callocephalus vitulinus......---. ..------------- 66
food and feeding habits of ....-.....-.-- ~ 239 CaOrhinue 2.25 sc vesce cetiesceteeee sheen ees 37, 40
information desired concerning the .--.-. 240 nrsinus...--...-. eG iolea ca areraee 49, 52, 53, 77
mode of capture of......---..22. 22-2 ..-- 239 Cambards x acccue dsc sccdoweawaee semeaeainis cane an 812
MAMGOF oe cca ccccercesssedenwescuces sees 235, 236 ACULUS :-dcceesideseucwaseecdeseatage oe 814
popular names of....... 22-22. ---------- 236 DMTMIS: ocwe cereevese sanguine sicwecacas 814, 815
reproduction of ..........---.---------- 238 Barton. ccce teameustkwscsirdccmicn women 814, 815
BIZO,0 fia wacs tise gwetinsarticeaweecicie siaieierstaate 237 CMAP EM: cacncnns cose oscar k eee eres 814
Burge: once ccc ance ccna aewases cesses ain 273 DIO GSES: sacs occ ceases dios scie te wei cee 815
Burmeister on range of American Manatee...--.. 116 QUES wy one 6d ssccieaiciniaie, vine ov sueine's 814
DEPTS jars sincercameins ats Gcceigeawlbeuyecatlsvaaalact's 170 NATUAG 2. sencnerncmces xwaiiemsciemeeeaeaas 814
Butternsht 22s scenes, Staaten hte eles nase 333 Cami pbellite .inccesiccmswame sauteed ance cne wees 407
Humpbacked.......-....--- dacee sina 323 | Cancer antennarius ........ 202-2 222-2200 2e-e ee 771
Duttéeriy=fishisce cesar eu csveceewes Goce netics 257 DOTCALIG: cn :ccce waded cnincciceeu see semis 769
Butterfly Ray ....°.-...-..--------- eoamersngacen 665 ITPOTAGUS! «2252 ceccmsnmencuis ce cca gueess 766
Cabezon Aceiiiecsn Sanit Giese a derriadctaoae nels 2 259 found in stomach of Sea-robin.. 256
Cabrilla cccnccdssataceeiiscsy dex o.xec seas aan se 413 MABISOD . 1.0 ccccccaicr coast yess ee Bees 770
Spotted ease ceweeevse weaker wade gee swans 414 PROAUCHUS we: sce saceenne «see secede 771
Cachalotineccienscccucc cite ceteris Ma cerunateteslenicaie s 7-10 Caiidl6ish: scicaeccseensaen sone creme + cece ren ced 268, 547
Caing Whale .......-..-.----2----6- Sddectanacie 11 Canestrini on distribution of the Pollock ........ 228
Calamary, Flying’. 2.6 221. -sescewisesevewsicway cots 690 on the Scomber pneumatophorus -.... 303
Calamus arctifrons..............-22. 2200-02-00 394 Cape May Goody ...--.-.-----.----- eee eee ee 370
DajOD ad: sss. caierisusiarersiey aeivinn s cisala estes 394 CAPO: ccicinmn teaieswimosninews shtncsveaceudasecee 544
MACLOPS Hehe. c- cena detancecterede stetwis'ata'v Stelelerates 394 name for Sand Sinelt ..---..--...22.--.- 456
megacephalus ..-.-- ..-.- ro gtecrechrets eleaians 394 Capelings | 2s. eadiss nse caans dees eGdewenine eee 544
Milnefiies se'selige oooste esrais ce stestevestans wecietets 394 Carangid® ....-..----. -.----+----, Siw wenaweriars 322
Calei-Spon piel: sosicic5sejstclesicteicciceisise's dele alesieret 844 Carangoid fishes .........-....22..2-2---00- 322
Calico Baas-.2 A 2ie2,5 en datlacnd sca ered aged: “size 406 Carank:Chrys08 20:40 06sedea ut teecmeat vetelds 324
California Anchovy .....--.-.--------+e-e-seeee 612. crumenophthalmus .........-...-5------ 324
Conper Wel ex serinsiaeis od Mauve Salsielenees 628 TallaX osce oo savercecmien gees < S ee Scenraings 325
Gram pus ioe sis) ln dstocae's aa x Sek lslateecenes 14 DIPPOS «x2a0-ciciwres sea saw aheeewe ee dieness 323
Gray Whale, abundance of.........--. 31 Richardil «1.0. 10.200 vscc sees ccessussess 325
capture of....--...---2-- 32 Carassius gibelio -...--......0..-- seeeeeeeee eee 620
distribution of ...-..-..- 31 Carayvina: . ni wssst se secen ves. Re Seine seseeess 378
food and reproduction of. 32 Carcane: xs cieseis see See dewiaie: 905 ade e ee deetsasars 322
habits: Of scncc.se.-es4ens 31 Carcharias ceeruleus.-...-.-...--.. -.---2 +--+ eee 671
8120 Of seceee vee cemaese ss 32 GIAUCUS «cas cee cenceswe se scneenenenee 675
Grunts wwewes caceeesescsy seeenesseeeas 400 lamellar o.acnisies vs sens secdvaseescneces 676
Hake cscs sese saceee vse sesnssesecesses 243 obscurus .-........--.. was ee eerie nie 671
Merrins 2e<-s2ccescecienesetowece cece 568, 569 Carcharodon Atwoodii .........-.....------.--- 669
Pompano sc. sis sesses teeces coerce 334 Carcharias .....-...-0-0. eeeee- 669, 674, 675
PIAWD 2.54 sence cee seesseesa sees 821 Rondeletii........-....- 669
Dalim: s.06 05 scosieedee ese ossacsisewene 479 Carcinas menas ...---.- 2-2-2222 22 eee ee eee eee TIA

858 INDEX
Page Page.
Cardium islandicum .... 2.2... 22-2 .eeeee cone eee 708 COTO 228 ose kadesedcemectases saacactsemers SSeeeR 307, 316
pinnulatum -.....2---2..--2- eee e eee eee 703 RNG ee cases ccs scesaaedcineios ead de.cceeasenne 307, 316
Carneo Spongia .. .... 2.2. .2 2. eee e nn cee eee eee 844 Spotted 2... 2.02 ceceee cen ee cece ee cee e eens 307, 316
Carnivora, Amphibious .... . nents cetde cede 33 C6taAGO aio cae eccewecee st emeesecemar sederesece 33
Carolina Box Turtle ..........------ eeeeee eee 158 Cetorhinus maximus .......-....----------- 667, 674, 675
POMPAHO: oo sicis canesan cn den vewiwee snes 326 Chenobryttus antistius -.....---.--2---------6- 405
CAB Pa eaaiseta serine secamoua sie eateieisisio aie mein ciate eee 618 PnLOSUKs agar sssensonmicne sae zee8 405
growth and size of ...--.---.....--..------ 624-626 Chetodipterusfaber...........-.-.-.---------+- 445
habits -ccceads tone seawioncasadeceeectets 621, 622 Chetodontid® ........-...- 02. -----+ eee eee 280
races of, their history and habits ........... 618-621 Channel Bass, name for Red-fish..-....----.---- 372
reproduction Of...... 2-2-2... 2222+ eee ceen 622-624 Cat, common ...-....0..2 2222 ee eee eee 626
WCGthOP ..ccccndcawesnasseacesmeme os sece sees 619 of the Potomac........---..-.---- 627
MiP OP’ sic cnrenee eee ae bee neneneny cede wears 619 CAS coat cee sebaeetwtacuceasemecuacdce 626
BOOt Mans s.2 ens cadectmstiaeonsous oneal cece 620 Chapman on food of Sirenians ......-....--.---- 118
DCAIOs snasn. cc sceid a wwewtahotaswce weome tees 619 size of South American Manatee . .. 118
BUCKED oeince tccidm ages celacincian.e Omaame seme 615 Chak ..4242 asmiaeaiseswetm avsce parce se teesivnse sed 501
Carpenter, Dr. Philip, on the Cuttles ........... 687 Bay Ala 2ac52.c ciaweote Ayan cecie ae ties ee serie 500
Carpiodes cyprinus .....-.----.----- --2- eee eee 615 Chars, distribution and effect of temperature on.502, 503
Carroll on geographical distribution of Hooded Chasmistes brevirostris....-.-.-.-.----2----.-.- 615
Seal pucccsesusaeaanaes Se tsdacddes 69 TORUS). )2>ejaieinia Givi eiesictsterasd.sre: ereieicis 615
habits of Hooded Seals...........--- 58 Juxatus...---...2---.2-206 22 Sioccee, 615
Cassis madagascariensis ......-.-.-..----.------ 699 Chelonia mydas ...... 2... ..e-52 eee ee ee eee eee 150
CatHS Hs oS rare venase ace veimqewesnie 6 anit mie erernicioleteeine sie aside 248 VIL EAC pan wee aa cinaciaia eens cinltieaeceeisices.s 150
BlWes soceiceewcaucess seas acatacoees sarees 249, 626 CHELlO PWS iy. oss eseniesinses wacecwisse maedeatecnicn 157
Channel, common ....... mhaGuea cee sede 626 guttatus ..........-.------ eee eee 158
Flannel-mouth .........-.--.-2- 2-0-2005 627 insculptus ..---....------.-s2-02 sees 158
£000 OF sccccacccwoenieacenecen cc. aeetaces 249 Muhlenbergi ....-...... tececeis ta mae 158
Gaff-topsail ........---- 22-222 eee eee eee 627 Chelura terebrans ........-- 2-22-2202 eee ee eeee 825
Great Lake .... 2... 0220 22+ een ee eee eee 627 Chely dt ai cen ceeios fossiecoces seine seameccyveeeornne 153
Great Mississippi .......-----....2..---- 626 serpentina .... 2... 2-0. ceenee enone 153
MUG eo cacccis sicicig eis ace tars Saavedepies fase 627 Chely droid ® on 26 sc.20c5. ciceiwwine dnd euenamanis eencre 153
pugnacity of ........-22.-.----- 2-2 ---- 249 CHM? Sass unc sca de. caitie oitisceseetdasasansselsesd 411
Salt-water .... 2.222. ss 22. cence eee eee 628 Che wa eh scsicnie scncing tkcmetem sed mekinelsdeuens case 504
DO By arose aio Saisie ove S sie ered ears BEG wjoieid excise 248, 627 Chicken Halibut ........---.-.-----.-.---------178, 194
Spotted ...--. 2-22. sees eee eee eee eee 249 TOPrtolsO ic cindecssee nasa Sees dead anes 6 157
Stone: deiactueddeucenabvewescauane seas 627 ,|| “Chickywiti o.oo) scabies op cenetnddnecnenesla te 362
Wellow jusccscttsine sac sucker hereme cess 627 Chief Mountain White-fish...-.- 2.222. 2.2..20--- 542
Cat-fishes .. .-..---. .--. ---- 2+ --- 202 eee eee eee eee 626 Chilomycterus geometricus........-.-...-.-.---- 170
Cit) Bean cs cia ciemiciian's des ceeeerwneeeesigd aieic eees 51 Chimera affimis .... 2... 20s eee ee ee cece ee eee 662
Sark: ioscan s tee See Geccresies ce sces 675 BlUC eso stersecseeercs ness acacee ehh s 662
Cat-thrasher .....-.....-2-. 206005 peseccea wscecd 582 COlligi ooiu).secveerioc antes sos asetsees 662
Catesby on the Sword-fish .......-....---..-.--- 339 family 224 22 scch. wisccscceree ecu ssaass 662
Catostomide ....-. .--- 22 - enesen cecceeseceee cone 614 Chimeridae: .s see scxswedececmestie dese ahs deeeas 662
Catostomus ardens ...... ..---.---0-- cence eee ee 615 Chinnook Salmon .............2.-2- 2-2. 0-02-05- 479
Commersoni ......-2.. --------+ eee 615 Chinquapin Perch.............2-.-----------6-- 407
LECUNAUS se s:cee weewssseeesaicierse cove 615 Chione succincta ....-..- 2220-222 eee eee eee eee 708
longirostris ....-...--..------+---- A 615 CHITIdS 5, ware seed veceees ewes ys boncusess exes tee 267
macrocheilus.... 2.2... .--2-.------- 615 ChIbONs cis sceeeiceawce seca anne ceeese Ramey eee 693
DIPVICADS on ewceanes ies osineisdsion's sain 615 W803 OF secvee coeeeee codevee cesevivne ne acts 701
occidentalis .....-....--.-2-..e005-- 615 Cho geet varie oe0 $ ce ceioes See cbeaeeelesstsawans ue 273
tahoéngis ...... chists cider ciate ae Bee 615 Chopa blanca): 2... s.ck-seeceiemey isewnaecesetae 370
Caulolatilus anomalus.........-......-22--2---- 361 SBPLUB, iste + sta seas seas Gases Soeweeeeeanas 393
chrysops ......-...-.--.-.---.----- 360 Chorruy Ry ba... soca wee sasiens aseeeseesececwes 466
WOIGLOPS ses cecwevee sees cst oe een 360 Choweech ties: sciccne tise wsaetecew seakeavesersce 479
Gavally.ciccccricewtGe. secteettewanzsesetetang: S23 Christmas Flounder ...........--0-. 2020-222 183
the Scad and the Jurels..............--- 322-326 | Chromis punctipinnis .................22. 002005 276
CaVASING eeesacimsie cs eriee eee sevweneecscieccin aaa 331 Chrysemiys Bell ccc cs.wse dees sams waeeice Jcjew care 157
Cayiian, 22252505 ssasea vee cers nelecene dines sey ete 141 marmoratus.......--. 2... -22-----++- 157
Caymanes...... 22 --- 2-2 e cence cee ee ce eens 142 Pitta wee. csseecsm aces Sess esse ces sews 157
Cebedichthys violaceus........-.-+--++++- +--+ 250, 251 roticulata ccs. 2icccccrasce secescancey 157
Centrarchids .....-.-- 2+... eee. eens cee ee tee eee 401 Chub, name for Black Bass .........---.2..---- 269
Centrarchus macropterus ...-....-22+-e2-e-2 eee 406 Fall-fish .............2..0.022.- 617
Cephalopoda .........-----.0-+ cee neee eee neeeeee 687 Lafayette .......... 2.22.2 eeeeee 370
Ceratichthys biguttatus ....-.- isecmuscueen eames 617 TAOS cic oscsceenatawe sawece 269

INDEX. 859

Page Page.

Chub, Bermuda ........2. 0... cee eee ee eee eee 394 | Clupea vernalis .........222 022-20 eee eee ee 579, 588
DAY. wiasinm acu ucemns senceswies ee Seee suede 618 Clupeidx, families related to...-....-.-.-----+-- 610-618

EV sowie oe nein ses nce weein niente eee cegcees 236 | Clymenella torquata.......-----.----.----2+---- 833
Mackerel 2... :. 5-00 yeien osisiee soc ckedsescee 303-305 COA) wesseesices.occiewie nei ot est dele betes eke canes 228
Nigger sade eclgs oi ecakenesanecaneeeseees 618 Coa ESD crosernseaes Sa che she see bee sieeeccleeescene 228, 233

RIVOL o5:0 sie sheet eee soewratendaesse cosets 617 | Coal-Whiting ........2... 22-0 -.0eee eee eee wa-. 228
Salt-water.. 20. ccaae seavsaseseesenwness 969 | Coalséy cscccnswsess cecaey stdace steer sereacees 228
Sucker wcahes 32 tevchess gc caccebe ce ve 614 Cobia, distribution of.......-.--..-----2---- 00> 444

of Utah Lake weiss soc snc cee nene ance wees 616 Cock-paddle........0.c4- secens s-nceas cee cine saaes 254
Chabby Goby ez. sceihece ccc ocd céeidoes acces cece 255 Coole paidle iis. 2c on cone taco cdeiceeacceaece tes 254
Cicharra ....-.-----...000e cece ee eee eee eee ieee 324 Coch lesa. coz cewnsoa wes see 'oe Soin Rcwismm aetecaeaeme eters 708
Cichhi@ family soc.sc..525250 aicie deed cece ese eters 276 C00 ease Stee at dn uaese st auey - 200
Cigar-Nslss, 24 scat sccmeceocise iacsetqoueess 324 family and its kindred ..................---- 200
Cinosternoid@ .... 2.2. 2... neces ween ee ween cence 154 Banko accdsced dedaesee nce Resch eee 201
CITPIPC Maia srcieide cteais's vinnjceigintivig)sieletre ges ae ES 828, 829 Bastard :ayacccsactss ae eee cece scecedemeneeees 268
CISCO) 2.5.3 sits, S. Uae tage toes Aaw cee Yau aes 541 BING -secce Gisesosceciscdet-cemmetocuseawetes 268
CIBEIOO 5 ccaisicieretisioretreis! jigje Sasa sto-scas seeteieie seme 158 BOWE c i cicsk Soace wes ee cee cee see eeetese 201
CATOMNG aia aie s ocieh sine cab edna Sule sinicieuineee 158 Busia se ainysreescseidersinisie siaieieies tinjenieig sn eisenaa vie 268

OPN ALA esse suse Sess s weee dewesd vad eebie eae 158 Cla sic cae aenigeedetseiaigie's Satie wuaune eats 201
Citharichthys sordidus...........--.------------ 186, 187 COltUs! vaisiete sie daeisexcinine(scieiceegtlics ceaenanae 267
Civit-Catizccc cncdwwed ovine mecitee Sees s2 see veeerex 11 Deep- waters scsi Av civics cists Hemawieeae tunes 201
Clem gis ey te olen oan ayo de dd he oe Gee em emree 708 fish, name for Cultus Cod ........----------- 267
Beach) sass cece oe Wee. sess att ees sec eee seme 708 Fresh-water ..-.-..--22. ees 20 cence cnn neee 236

CO ee eee teas 25g ates does Sees adem sees wees 201 Herring seciceesnreaeeecass sernse axteee’s sekioes 201

Wah ce ewscesasctisias See aeae Sewiecce seeese 708 Tnshore pecsienactserecut ee se sede taser seecetesi 201

Mar ossesessishic ceed egos ceaw eecke eeseeee 708 Native: cicceccseie vga cen aie ee seteede cece 201

Be ee ae ee ee AR 708 to ANight:cacc2coreeanceccecseeiearneszee es 214
POMS raps,’ waive waft ie ee aeiee Se wiles Tee eeRe 707 Pine-tree..........-. 220-0 eeee - Ke ttemeeae 201
Painted ......-------... Sud kobaceie ss cisieeicisien 708 ROCK si5s.6 soe ooh wcieied sen ois Hee eee ees 200
PROUING 52 sais- sceyciarasd crereigsais atasaral amis areinvnie aUerciein th 708 BCHOO) cae meGtencmanciodsemasic sieemmcrscas 201

BOG: sic cocina dinsud diana aeineacee oui cde sacs 708 Shoal-water .......226 2-10 cece eee es eee neee 201
DSOlbsacewestae soces seer canta gueneeeaseee 707 GhOre: 2 cnkocbossorstacesnenese SeectAdecens 201

Saris sscceianans esos sages seco dice wend 708 MPOM sci cuae aoc edie dole-wat sg Se aeee oe atuee 267
Clark, A. H., on abundance of Frigate Mackerel. 306 WO 26 oo sce ees cd deere eissede, ceeeceeee 201
abundance of Halibut ....-..... 192 | Codfish, distribution of.......---...---.------ 202

distribution of Cod..........-.- 202 OOD OF. jicicc oss tae cskS eueessaeeee 211, 212

George, letter on marked White-fish...-... 508 NAMES Of s..2.:0 oo aeee se cieeeeenesean cone 200

on rate of growth of White-fish.. . 509° history of, in America ...-...-..-.----- 201

Clarke, 8. C., on the Black Grouper.......--...- 411 reproduction of....-....-.---+- +--+ +05 214
breeding habits of the Drum... —-368 schooling of the ......---------------- 203

the Cobia -..........-...-..--- 444 schools, migrations and movements of... 207

habits and spawning of Sheeps- BIZ OR eswisacnisiies cee see eeaseet ae 220

Wad o..2tciearscen Qoec ee teee-w esd 385 Coblenterates a .ceccccices! decie vipteicige Hose see sees 841, 842

mode of life of Alligators...... 145 OOP Wards ses dances asics suies ssieeceee eee ete ewes 379

names and habits of Whiting... 377 COMO: peeks veces vakueeciemecied sated wae ee iste 477

the Big-fish..........-. .-+-...- 399 COpinUe cevccceded-sawcergsenes sens See seeen os 324

size, abundance, and habits of CojUmMerd wesesctseweswacses sees ee ce ergs oe-ee= 116

Silver Mullet............ moe 453 Colemic, 2xciazcarsidecicmsd oxestesse aes sos eee ese s 228

spawning of Red-fish.......... 373, 374 Collet on distribution of the Sea Cat-fish......- 248

Cliona sulphurea....--..----. sasarad AT wis bie "Simroret 0 Sieis 850 Robert, on the Gray Seal ...........-.--- 103
Clupea estivalis.....-. 222-2. ----20 seen e cee e eee 579 Collins, Capt. J. W., on distribution of Mackerel. 281
chrysochloris ... .....---.------ --------- 594 Mackerel-fishing grounds 294
CRLULC Re einrs ese cicisrsciarsisis siwieinine ss dw eweide se _ 679 migrations of Mackerel.. 301, 302

AN taicceesisdeteadanodeee mses seeaeReS 594 spawning of Mackerel. -. 295

PLO a crieiss reicisiwiassins wise a sueee deemed ent 579 food of Halibut... ...... 196

ALON GUS, wie siersis cisiewne arciee semen sec ewes 584 food of Mackerel....-... 292

INI PONG) 2 jo cisteeigiaic on Joeweircaseeees ts 579 Halibut spawn.........- 197
mattowaca....-....- dignsigtee statebioehmerls eens 607 migrations of Halibut. -. 194
mediocris ..---. 0.222 -- eee ene teense 607 size of the Halibut...... 193
menhaden ........ 222-22 -- 20 cece ee eens 569 COlM6Y, casiedseesestkscatiasecct teas sued Mees eel 228
Mirabilis iecn ce cneseeccee sacines ce se tecees 568 Common Flounder....-....--.-----------2+0+-+-+ 178

POLV Uae sic cerssmelaw mucisiele <ietete- ceeee seen 579 Pompano .......----- 0-20 eee eee eee 327

PUSIND: J cscqcwaennanaindawns ames sone 579 Seal: oacevsocsceswene coceeewadewsndes 55
sapidissima ..........-.-2+------0------- 594 © SUONAIGH. 5262.22 5cencosie owas cae ceeee's 405

860 INDEX.
Page. Page.
GOneh seccesesdovciwsauiy Secessiseeeicdeaeewn depos 694,699 | (Cover sexs sve oeetsaicae acieanigetinieisin’ vera sete sane 177
food and destructiveness of.............. 695, 696 Cover-clip....-. 205-222 cnn cece erence en ceenee 177
N968 Of soenccan che teed se tertesnedeyedes 700 Cow-fish +o cicvansceenaiece ekeeu secees secsteeds 13, 16
Condamine on habits of South American Manatee. 121 | Cow-piloticcssjsnsuws ecu saesiae: teins inineereece - 28 o% 2%
CONCY sik sees scareet<tee vesuenseeoet ote x es 412 Crab, Black-tailed, name for Shrimp ........-.-- 818
Conger Weliw sosaed tats cece seer oa ee hese 655 BUG exe caanere 2 ieee cee ease saeeees ees 775
California: cece sscesseeaswesies seis 628 Common edible....-.....------22 +2207 e+ 770
Congeree: « sccesess seater sere veseaees oxe cdeeees 628 Common, of Pacific coast ...--..---.------770, 771
Congo: Hel) asses wane ves acueesacanuee céseewness 247 Crab eatery acces are oe eeceon epee et, kacantetep ee 444
Con grogadid iii cis csrcu, cee neeaseneseecns aekeee 243 Crab; Green-..2 <5 04 chee e ese aseeaensewesgiesen. 774
Congrogadus, family.........-. .--02. ---- eee eee 243 Florseshee aise cee tesneedeciiccnaseae esses 829
Conklin on food of Sirenians...........-...+--- 119 Jonah... soadecewvs soueem eecwesseces 769
habits of American Manatee.......- 121 Rep jag stonkine siletcecete tenes cersteoroeaem 778
size of Florida Manatee ....-....-.. 117 KANG sieiatonis at aeeisiasies scres on ncewoosteinaes 829
Conyr fight os.cts pee adudagee ents de See ees 237 Wadyisisoad sc cndseeessreceesetwehoseshaes 774, 775
COOtOR arses tesoisclos: Sellekgee hab seesos wee aee se 158 OFSCET ciccois sera dad's wind acemalseieneusaem acer 765, 766
POTS) ow eas selectors aewiads saw eaeceds 155 ROG: oso scene shteesutonaeas tie bias emecimatmes eens T71-
Coothicr ree eke eh -caeeeeaeh oom aemesed 228 ROU ROGK e515 6 sie caicac ctor erdewrs aaunbe eciafore 778
Cope on distribution of the Alligator........... 142 * ROCK vice sccis(sececcmisawamaice seine se seeci 766
Hooded Seal.......- 71 Rock, of Pacific coast -......--.---------- 771,772
MORTAPING soccer eas crewice sce cae eee 154 Sand Soc teceke sce cdc cinse seu eeeecceseas 774
the Wall-eyed Pike...........-..-.---. 423 BO ai sce eiis aces seis Gene sees ewes 775
Copper-nosed Bream........--..----+----+--++5 406 BtON6: sceeeskeees coca deca ossoutts ees: See 172-774
Corallium rubrum......-...-.-------------26-- 841 Crabs esse Socccaeiesemessinies qecee tee aes tesees 763-780
COrale jsi23.0 sac ses odes cea hcete-seececceueigaee 841 Hiddlereces veccessedsxmeenis saceen Gees sete 763
BTalni; sac soseuses c/ecsiaicle ie obese aa cece ene 841 Heriiit sccesicn weseteascesewcnosaaeesces 779
ING OU 2s oe spire aatsscice s/acioeeaiea selma 841 MUG scsacn sceesessdesesd Sesseawceisise sacs = 772
FUNGUS Wo ecst digas caseseaes svena since 841 DOPE seccwsendeseasseddswende cemsesignd celeas 776
By droid sc casivemce scoceceecideeetacaeds 841 SOldi€l. so ccsusswsued each eree car enesceenS 779
POL Pcssscswcwses seesecsaseese ate cesses 841 1S) 0100) eee ee ee ee Pe ere ee ee eS 778
Stee horn saccce. chest dciet exe nce wediel ae Sh 841 | Craibe, Angus W., on habits of Leopard Seal.... 60,61
Stal scheewcdesasecices ereaseeweess sexe 841 Craig Blound ef cick ce ccindsdesoaae sctnbee dace v5 198
Cordeaux, John, on general history of Harbor Crane, Agnes, on habits of South American Ma-
SOAIS ok ates exes cecaee shew yee bees See kee 58, 59 NALCO sede s ccasnae cwerricis wiggishin gs ob Bowes we ae 121, 122
Coregonus Artedi......... io aiotnca sieinsisaiaiabicis eiaiete'e 541 Crangon franciscorum ....-.-.....-------------- 818
: clupeiformis .......-----..----.----- 507 WU SAPS cin tayo carccacsteieicie aisis: via siatcre erste lere'e ote 816
LOY I sicinle Avie’ Stes lt eahe laser dere stele 541 found in stomach of Sea-robin-.- 256
labradoricus.........------2-2.0e--- 541 Crappie .........--. ... Bohl aS aha ween nti 407
NIPT PINDIG sesceccceccee weicieeaecione-ce 541 Crawihshes .cccce0, cssscscsceas) Seses Goce ee vee 812
quadrilateralis.......-..-.---.-.--++ 541 Crayfish: sccaccasehamaccscndncne ecedsGunacaeeede E 780
tullibee....... Nese teaweswrtemsaaaeusen 541 and Lobster, similarity of shedding and
Williamsoni ..-......--..-----..----- 542 spawning habits -....-...-.--2. 22... 813
COUT -CLACK OL ace ore. siestonnie ceded ciciaia sua Siniaiaa Greisimieens 665 Crayishes:.-< occ cssancedcomereanetensues eee 812-816
Cornide, Don Joseph, on pugnacity of Swordfish. 351 economic value of .......--..----...-- 814
Coronula diadema .......-...----.------ 222 eee 828 Habits Of 25 <2. a aacesaie semen we Sseute 814-816
OOPS RIT a 2 isu s.cceis asin sicinca’s cisions pelnwie wien Malema, 265 relations and distribution of.......... 812-814
Spotted )ccnesciesccecewes ashen ogee ones 265 Crocle NS: sveadic gcniscinetnicit Gamane oe cect tuctew sont 614
CORVINE ses cee oeasrsced wince. ope bas ieee eeeneuseees 378 Cremnobates integripinnis ...-.........-....2.-. 251
SOUT). ccesiawse Ses sdekees ose sh eee 379 Crenella glandula.-.... 2.2... 2-00 eens eee e eee 703
Coryphena hippurus ....-..----..----- +--+. 6 332 Crenilabrus melops .--..--.....--- 2... eeeeee eee 273
Coryphenide o2 22 seccs. scene cove cecceccs saiescee 332 Crepidula fornicata .... 0.2... 000. .2e eee eee ee eee 693
Coste on reproduction of European Lobster on the Plana sinsecs deescs. Ge sacecese aacece heme 693
French. Coast: 2.2 ses dxces cesses onres oxcejsee eee 803, 804 Crested Sealecxcecccas ceccnccsed ccod-cecece cece 62, 63, 68
COthUI AI ee wsc ean Wace Seed eae wee cannwahs Rack 733 CrevallG: sasaecemin eis die chee cae en cocu woueacsaoone 323
COttides: . sass sissies seicmenas wee savas sian eininn unin 258 Horse wossresiowcis oasis seins cajcwawcarece 324
Cottus SNOUT cecis0 sessed seas eceasene cee seese 258 Crosker’ ssc sa eiws cebetuecc 2k Jc ke scoecnmaaie-cocs 378
octodecimspinosus......-..-2-.-----00--- 258 name for black Surf-fish ..........-..... 278
polyacanthocephalus ....-.....---...+--- 259 fresh-water Drum ............. 370
scorpius grenlandicus ..-----.-.--------- 258 | Crocodile ...... .......-.....2. meen carseed Stews 141
Couch, on abundance of Dogfish..........--.--.- 673 North American...............0..22.-- 141
food of Sperm Whale .............---. 10 | Crocodilus acutus......-......02-.-22. 22-2 220--- 141
the habits of the Lant.......-......-- 245 Crocus, name for Croaker ...-.............---+-- 378
habits of the Silver Hake............- 242 name for Drum .............--...-....--- 370
the habits of the Skipjack .........-.. 461 Crustaceans .......--. 0.2.5. eee eee eee ee cee eee 763-830

INDEX. 861
Page. Page.
Cryptodon Gouldii ..-... -----. 22-20 ..-eee ween ee 703 | Dallia pectoralis...-.. 22.2222. ---e2eeeee ee eee eee 466
Crytodari siliqua .... 2.2.0.0 ..220. 2 eee eee ee eee 703 Damalichthys argyresomus .......--....------5- 276, 277
Ctenolabrus adspersus ........ ote cece teen ee eens 273 | Dampier, on size of South American Manatee.... 117
similar in form to Red DAT diiee cic apo tae wees tecaiseee saacaa een eoee 337
Perehizvecwee ee seisgesucees 260 Dareste, M. C. M. , on the classification of the Eel. 629, 630
rupestris ..--...--.---------22. 222. 273 | DPB .cs ee caeiscccisma’s decisis den en miawerme daigie seis 228
Cuban Jurel 222 3222 ssesneceicceieeeecccecaeeeee es 325 DSTLETB 2c. ccicncorigues doen imenue Mee soaeeara coca 417
CObDY Yew sscinwe: cies one's soeicinie Mice cies see arene 444 Darwin, on local variation in form of Oysters... .742, 743
Giekoo-fish: 2 .:c.-wi2is): wietsisicn ceeccmeemesai nematic 257 Da b6sfighivs sc-iciciciinyisiece Seiwes wiquspanccicegviciate's - 707
Cucumbers, Sea ...-... 222.22. cece ee eee ee eee 838 Dauphin Blane se sie3 exh) oe ties eee ee ee arate es eaare's 18
Cudden .... 2.2... eee cece cece cere cee ene ees 228 Davy, on movements of young Eels...--.....-..- 651
Cuddy ...........-..---- tee Sedaris cams aeoueae 328 Dawson, J. W., onscarcity of Gaspereaux in Saint
Oiiltas CO o.a0 oe ence snc ctewne cam seticcc ce teeis 267 Lawrence River ......--...22---eveees cons neces 589
Cummer, similar in form to Rose-fish ...-......-. 260 Day Chub w2ccnnjesene oe sets eseateesaioncead weiss 618
CONNOR a.o5c was see oot ae se sis vials icicle eo Nedee ees 273 Daylight, name for Sole ......--....2-------00-- 177
Conners. sseccncccces 22S is semen Gerstner cag 274 Spotted Sand Flounder ..---. 199
CiShk: 2855 sects BS See cess oas ances 233 | Deal-fish family .....--... 200222020222 eee eens 449
BDUNGANCOOE suc Sas p cele seek ice g ee eee 233 Decaisne, on cause of green color of Oyster ....-. 738
Cutlip icccsccrsciieeosica secisey oes sen cele cena ring 618 Decapterus macarellus......-.-. .2. 22-22. .2-2-- 324
Cutlass-fishies iia Gasca Sieeet seek ce eeecuese |) (B95 PUNCH -25 sods coe duee em asasees 324
Cuttlesfishes iscsi iseciecis te Hei cee seg sad eee resale 687 Deep-Sea Flounder, name for Plaice..........--. 178
Cutbles ccc cisisiets citang -srcperc ss stale Weis:s ose eh eeegins 687-693 name for Pole Flounder ...-. 198
Cuvier, on distribution of Sword-fish -.......- Seu 340 Deep-water Cod ...--.-.- 2-2-2. - cece cece ee eee ee 201
Cyanea arctica .-.....-22 1.2. ee eee eee eee 842 Sculpin's..2 w2ucessteeesectssieanene< 258
CybinM 22 25085 cows cee ses og ys eee eke sects edn 307 Trou side) 2s e's weieesedesedeeseccaese 488
maculatum, supposed to have been caught Trout, name for Squeteague ........- 364
at Prince Edward Island ..........-... 310 WHINING o5c2 2 caine erect eceveeses cues 377
Cycleptus elongatus .........-.. 2-22-20 .eeeee 615 DeKay, on abundance of Chub Mackerel........- 303
Cyclopterida ..... 2... 02.2.2. eee eee eee eee eee 253 Pig-fish ve: 2cscedes. aeose 399
Cyclopterus lumpus .......----.-. 22-2222 2-253, 254 distribution of the Chogset .-........- 273
OUDIB cis sevsnves HU LLe Cuetec hedge 255 Hooded Seal........... 70,71
Cylichna alba vices cence sees vine ee Seed le seu eioneie 694 Rose-fish -......--....- 260
Cymatogaster aggregatus ......---------.------- 278 gastronomic value of Cat-fish ......... 250
Cynoscion maculatum .-....-.-.---------- tees 365 Harbor Seals ....-.-..--.---.+-------- 55, 56
MODU ei sais cee ails, bodes ceaceaes 378 the uses of the Silver Hake....-....... 248
Mothum ...2.. 2.6 ee eee eee eee ee ee 367 Delphinapterus catodon....-....---.----.. 2-2-2. “18
parvipinne ..-..-.---.---- +--+ eee. eee 379 Delphinus Bairdii ......---.-------------.---+-- 16
TOPAIG!iaicae does so wee enneeeae sh aeicne 362 clymenis ....--.------- ------ eee eee 16
Cyprina islandica ..-..--..---------++ +--+ ------ 703 Demoiselle and Cichlid families ....-..-..-.....- 275, 276
Cyprnide -.---.---------- 2-2 oe eee eee eee eee 616 Dentalium pretiosum -.---.--..-----.---+-------- 703
Cyprinodon californiensis .... ....-.....--.--.-- 466 Descourtlitz, on breeding habits of Manatees .... 118
Cyprinodontida .......--.-. 22-2 - cence eee e eee 466 mode of capture of South Ameri-
Cyprinus carpio ......---. ------ eee ene cone ee eens 616-618 can Manatee .........-..---.. 127
carpio communis .....-...-..-.------+- 619 DOvil-fish, «ss se0 aes esiedemecs oneednbencscae genes 31
carpio coriaceus, sive nudus........... 619 geographical distribution of........... 173
carpio specularis .......----------.---- 619 habits and form of...... ..-...---...-- 173
Cystophora angustirostris ...-.....--.-- isle aiaie sini 74 Devil-fishes oj2e:ci2 see! seen ascesaee ose s cde eed 173, 665
; antillarum.....-.0- 20 c--ccecceces s 71 Diabasisescess seceus scene PoSoverarstayeia\a\slane Behm Sets Se 397
cristata... 2.222... 22+ eee ee eee eee 65, 68, 71 AUTOLINCATUS oie ciecia sence ene dace Hes e Hei 398
falklandica ......---.--------------- 74 Plomiert sce cosnesereecdvees secees case 398
kerguelensis.......--.-. ++. ---0--+- 74 Diamond-back Terrapin ........-.----.----.----- 155, 157
leonina ....-..----- 2-22 - enone eee 74 breeding habits of .. .... 156, 157
proboscidea..---..----- ----0. -e----- 74 characteristics and habits
D806 ..sccs xine sists sie nde sees sernre wecatueneesd 616, 617 OF eszas dn od oe shee 156
Orne -s:é:e/cisis capers Gomes ae ew checey seeke ere 617 distribution ‘of Valeletse:alsexe 156
ROO ncn ads ser dees ose see sees cee seeewesesens 617 economic value of ...... - 157
Dactylometra quinquecirra ..----..-.----------- 842 food of ......-...------- 156
Dactylopterus volitans .........---- -.-+ eee ---- 255 Diamond Flounder ........-.--.--------------++ 185
Daddy sculpin........---.---2-- ceeeee eee eee eee 258 Bee ee eee 694
Dall, on Ambergris ....-.----2. 22-202 ---2--eeee- 11 Dickie . bate 22g sh aeiees 224
Northern Fur Seals...--....-------+.-- : 53 Diffenbach, BE, on 1 the 0 Sorag W Whale . Bee dee ele <8 31
reproduction of the Burbot....-....--.-- 238 Diodontide . se ase ie) etijasslwiels Wietereisis 170
Sword-fish .......... 350 Diopatra pre Subd ceieeebewemeawc ecco ce weuees 833
Dallea delicatissima .....-.--. 2-2-2. 62-202 eee eee 467 Diplodus Holbrookii ...... .....-----+e--ee cnee _ 386

862 INDEX.
Page. Page.
Diplodus probatocephalus ..........---.---.-- a8 380 Dwarf Salmon.....-.--0 eee eee wee nee eee eee ee 470
Diploria cerebriformis ......---. 2.222. 222-0. e008 841 Eagle Rays...--. 22-22. -2ecee nen ee cer eee serene 665
Ditrema atripes ......--....---. 02-2 eee eee eee eee 277 | Earll, R.E.,on Bluefish in North Carolina. ....-. 3
TUPC AGU 2 x. eesre secs 2 Simin Baces eae, Ss hee 277 food of Cod......-.-------------- 213, 214
JACKSON oe ccies es Se wees te eeeidmeesicceeene o77 history of Spanish Mackerel...... 309, 310
VRtOV El Oise. edscac ca Gisiciess Sd aaesieapeaeeaadie 277 migrations of Codfish .....----.-- 210, 211
Temmincki ..........---.-------.------ 276 movements of Pollock...-.-..---- 230
Doctor-fish ...... 02.02. cole eee ence cece ee eee eeee 279 Spanish Mackerel -.310, 311
Dogfish, name dor Shark . decisia dimssierevaseIueigan 675 reproduction of Codfish.......-.-- 215, 219
Shark nccssanassacedasinss téeccciewies ns 670 Haddock ......-. 227
DOR SalMoOL nc: s owing acon nodew cee cecwswaancnatinas 476 Pollock...-..-.-. 230, 231
NOGi 225 sous ne tanaahas ose ae eameeiade me aneee 55 Spanish Mackerel ,313-315
Shark . disiminioiereaus sterauaietwaisizio aia oe 675 schooling of the Codfish.. 203-205, 206-207

Dogfish, enemy of Mackerel. nicigie ccisicice Qeeeteeivees 299
name for Bowfin .....-.-...----.---.--- 236
Borbott sc -:sc-2 ocs-es sn ceseles oe 658

Horned <2. cescccccev eetdew vad sca Saereaeuaces 672
ISMOObN s 53:2 ccpaieac Sy ce ccisic ord sae ce 672
Dollar-fish - afesriage(arataisles 2 exe iS Ody staiesatereaeeSei5 333
Dollardee - bigest Guuisieiermraaieisine SRE eiseate ee 406
Dolly Varden’ epub - mbisie seeeeerte aie ceia 504
Dolphins sci. j2nc Boise aot eteee ee cess eae siet, 16
(Coryphenida) .......-..-. ..-------- 332

habits Of . ccc sence sae
DOPG6 5012 sede eee

DoOtmitator pe aseseces os cecas oe 3e ages veces 255
Dorosoma lepidcanum ........... .2--20--- 2.22 ee 610
Dorosomatide ...2s05 cece eaviecs yoeess cecees ess 610
Doreets sc5c0scc8ccs0e tess vee ose tower ese sewews 200
DOvy 2aceeieswss se resnsedsnsssis's- aie slid bier e le myfsin te 417-420
nies ig yee Seia eodaveses. ck dees eee sakinen 335
Dotard.. wineslauns suesles Guu tee Sekwle skeen OBER,
‘Doublpadc on Mewives « edad eroe talon Ceaeere sO Map OOU:
products of Sperm Whale........... 11
Sperm Whale in North America ..... 8

Dowler, Bennet, on the manner in which Alliga-

tors obtain food ..--...----. ---. -.2. eee eee 142, 143

Drill 255-2 vecmetees eawanscsaes seGedee sea cigels 696

destructiveness of ...-....-...---.-20. eee ee 697
DIUM ics cisris especie oneieee steed swe eeis ces ceaibe eas 367
PAM Fn cctetecanereeretes atic eeteeeme ee as 362
BARI siwaccssinveins di aciee nicciciewwie wewieenwayes 367
BOaraless o.2.2 2c scia sieve omecsas sowed dwiesicn wns 37
Blak... cc. saicnccicdaceamens esac oasaiagamnns 367
Bran Qed oiss.255 < dieses 4c c:000 seceiewe caw aaas 372
Fresh-water ....-. .----- ----0----2--eeenee 370
LAGU E: seis diswssidicisacchenratais oars siaisieide eee erase p's 367
Reds2 be secon es daeten ed Boke 362, 371
BiTi Pd x cewsieveeen aewdericed seme ey ceeots 367
DrUifishh eo. os cicsinis wise cokes Se, cee ee eeieRs 15
Drummer, name for Sculpin..........-..---..--- 259
Drummers ..-. ...--. -- 22-2 eee cee cee ee cee eee 362
Dubertus rhodinsulensis ....-....--.----.-2--. -- 29
Duck-billéd Cat: 2.00: pe octescssee ees gee soecewas 659
Ducky Shark ........----..---+- eke picts eed 671, 672
Dudley, Hon. Paul, on the Scrag Whale ......... 30
DUZODE aoe: sees vests caecsnehieintieeece Messe sie es 127
Duméril and Bibron on classification of the Tor-

HOIGC cisco cderediessecteapinet ee chee eteetancests 147
DUNMSW ohcc.ccce ehsokwsanteend sae seems cmscts 200
Dunn, Matthias, on spawning of mackerel....... 297
Du Tertre, on breeding habits of Manatee........ 118

capture of American Manatee....... 126

habits of American Manatee ........ 120

size of Codfish ....-.....-..----- 220
Easter Mackerel.......-.--- .---2- -- 2-00 eeeene- 304
Echeneidid® .......--------- - 22. eee eee eee ee eee 446
Echidnoceros setimanus..-.-.-.--------.--+------ 778
Echinarachnius parma. ....--.--------- asacieaisna 838, 839
Echinoderms .....----. ------ ee-- 2222 eee ee eeee- 838-841
1 Dt) ee Pct citeh Guciayie iw ataas Sialay SES cies Sele SARE Re 629
classification of. .........22--2 22 eee eee 629, 630
discovery of female.....-.----.------s-+--+- 636
male, by Syrski.........----.-. 638-640
Conger .... 222. cee. nee cone coer cena ceeeee nee 655
Conger, California ..........----.----+----- 628
CONGO aassns dace saicenessweteigeecies dee eee 247
HOrnedys.s- os sccccece o5 seesie ce seecied meee 246
Lamper -.-....---.-- 222+ e200 cone ce ee eee ee 247
Maroona...-....-- Zaeoreacese Wetnen tees ste 247
POUG ce nceicccedececss ecu eeeetees tease 236, 247
SOBs wiin Si uieicicie enero ce Se SS cicetee See ce cis 655
SUVED i:scic sais hose ween Sear $ ae Rerediss Sem eae 335
SUNG iaisco.cs scicicisie’ 'eisiesespe ene Sere ses Sse aie 680
Eels, ancient beliefs concerning reproduction of. .634-633
external characteristics of ...-.-. .......--. 644, 645
geographical distribution of ...--.........- 630, 631
Hhabits:OF - 2020. cssserweswetwensdestecisa see ses 631, 632
-internal characteristics of males and females .640-644
life history of ....--.-.--..------ -----+-+-- 632, 633
male, do they leave the sea and enter fresh-

Water?..... Stceeceessewreedessodeeee wets 648
migrations of -....-..----.------+----+---- 633, 634
normal, reproductive habits of ...-....---.. 646, 647
supposed to be viviparous ...-.-.-.------.- 645
young, search for .........-...----.-----.-- 646
Lam perisccises ae skew ve sekemecedeeeres pasion: 676

Ege-fishseccwwwassie qoasee ieceesseseeseeeeaxase 170
Berefins vengtveeanvasens vend scenes sinew ebeesexes 224
Egypt Herring . «2... s000 sccccc ce cccsanescece sans 460
Eithinyoo-cannooshoeoo ........---..-.------.+- 462
Blacate; Canada sscsvs gsicce dee eeeewss eres tax exe 444
Elagatis pinnulatus...-.-....--..----..--.-.---- 332
Eleotris ....-. didice peumer neds Jacks sceweewinsen 255
Bl-la-chick:. 220002223 goxce sseeeexeecks eeeeuls 157, 158
Elliott, H. W., on Fittsrence between California
and Alaska Sea Lions........ 48, 49
figures of Fur Seals.....--..... 54
Par Seale ease seccce cease cs se 53, 75-113
Northern Fur Seals ..--.....--- 50
peculiar methods of catching
Sheepshead -.......--..----. 383, 384
Sea Lions ....-.. 0... -.-..----. 39, 44
size of Northern Fur Seal. ..-.-. 50

INDEX. 863

Page. Page.

B-lo-Kioik scxcaesaewsae sa sceeseccesnencemseaces 466 | Expedition, the great Northern ................. 129
Telops Saurus... ..---- coe. cee cee cece cece ee nee 243 Exquemelin, on food of Alligators.........--.--- 142
EVE W DOD 5 s:e:coninioaitranacare laren mraisity Seth Bseiclety Sic eevoteserce 580 habits American Manatee....-.- 121
PAWL G aise ondmsiocaiscinimamince Ueus seems sey 580 name of Manatee..............- 116
EMD CAD nr nioncicicicrciciscicinicrce domes eehiiaasisk eens 276 || Byebatt,..40...0-actess anaexe wide eerers meee eee 246
EM POLO Ue os aeseigi se sineeieie scree does wee beleeeee 337 Fabricns, on habits of Harbor Seal....-.---.-.-- 57
EM@¥ iy 2 sosises gecesi daiiaitte Genie sienh ela sisiseeeieeeates 133) Ghat MBI secois sivpe ccireeecicd Saserancemariveee Meise 387
BMY Cide sacs meceieuccieseniee ae qencetecztie ese 154 Pali shiz cewissscaincssince vais ciemsins Hediste Binee ees 617
Emys meleagris ............---------+-- jeaeeicee 158 Pansies co: suis sccticenisecs See cdeiec esesseeae see 338
English Herring........---......2220. -22.eeeeee 582 Fat-back, name for Menhaden........-.....---- 569
Hn granule ono, 4-5s2e ate iside cine seine aeiewwinigecicid 611 name for Mullet........-.-....-.-.--. 449
Enophrys bison. ........---. -- 22 e eee eee eee eee 259 Pat HOA osicie:cieneicsioisauaiciain aidbiaeniwewinimcnsuwies'seminies 275
Ensatella americana ......-.-..2. ------ 22.2 eee 703, 707 Qt OTrin Bois ,2:5sAciasaye cra se eecianciece aweesecuwees 550
Entomostracans ....-. 222-22. 2 226 eee eee eee ee 827 MUN 6 bo sins oscitssciai-ideriaceeslcniie soca ae as 451
Entz,on green watter in animals ......-.....---- 739 Fiber canadensis ......-.---.----.2220+ eeeeee eee 11
Epée de Mer... 22. 02. ee eee ne eee ee eee een ee 887 | Piddler (Craba\...oc sanccncecewsicascessacecccias 763
Epialtus productus .....-.-...---------- eee eee 778 Fierasfer: faM Uy. aires nceiresivnicecieinww oaces once ae 243
Epinephelus apua ....-. 1... 2-2-2222. --2------- 412 HiCPaster id eos5 cn) senn.nesn ataiineaniosuseneucees 243
Drummond-Hayi-..............-.--- 412 Hile-fish familly ccen cate canteen chhows chee esos 171

MOTO’ eaemare cian maee Hemsewieegewaay 410 geographical distribution......-....... 171

MIBTIOUS: 2.02202 cere eesesces teaeewes 411 number of species—habits..-........... 171

SITIAUUS 2:52.20 coc ced qemneiceen seeseses A120 | OF AD B6 iio ec ccamacinaivnccis anes eeda ees 171
Eretmochelys squamata......--.-----....-2.---- 149. | WilO MSHS o.oo copes ceteeeicnec ena tececee nas ase 169
Erignathus barbatus. .......-.--..-----.--------- 63, 107 24, 27, 28-30
Erimyzou Goodei .........----------00 +2 eee eeee 614 abundance in New England.... 28
BUCCHLA x ccacinevacisies atieiecstasnna accuse 614 distribution of......-....----.- 28
HSTU SN Pe acces ioceernaeaaeiocee See eeere mee eemiecaieen 466 movements of......-..--.--.--. 28
Eschricht and Reinhardt on distribution of Bow- in the Pacific ........-...-.--.- 28
NG ad? cise ssereisicresiiaw eiacieeciinteieinves annum am ames 20 HUD ger COPA os cc aiscssscisinic: haces ciniewe sees caig cists Z 841
Esox americanus ......-.-..----2 +. 22 e-2- eee eee 464 Mulletsccsccc asi. ccstweewnninicccaicedeange 453
LUGTUG! seaiei signee scicencisusisinta: Seesewietemmseemonieient 461 Finner, Sharp-headed.............----.---.-.-- 30
enemy of Alewives......-.-.----..-- 592 IDM OTS ciaiiciat sista eieiaraiginints 0 cisteiais Grote aien aa nicce csielis 24

1X0) 0 (:) ee ee 464 BiSh OR 2 sciscia) ssayaisser sacaoeaedmedae eninge astaisets 120
enemy of Alewives .-...--.-.-..... 592 Fisher, Captain, on spawning of Mackerel..-...- 295
TObICUIALUS::s\nicionsnivieencees am envisicdeeeeinie cis 462 Fisher, 8. E., on Southern Shrimps and Prawns. .822, 823
enemy of Alewives...-.......--- 592 Bishing Prog sisis:i0:0-ssicisiwie wicsig ies gis seine ea sicrclaeias 5 173

vermiculatus ...--. ---- 2.2 ceee eo enes cn eece 464 Fissurella aculeata..........-2.-2-.---.-+2----- 701
Bepad tecesseemsewecscacsiieevecsiewersseenese sss 337 | Five-finger ........---. 222 cnee eeee eee eee eee eee 840
Bepad arte ees sates see cupleiciswiestiexcutees eee es 337 Bjord ‘Herring ..., . -20.-002 600s cices cscs eee sans 551
Espadn. » sere xe cnaie seciseeieqemestedecseoeeesce 337 DOOD Sore iovaicta icrein ane eadaeia Ale aie iejepeises peecl Ss 62
Estes, Dr., on habits of the Bowfin..-.-....--.-- 658, 659 Wjordskaly. 20: saw cceacnstcae ses ce ceecn vat aecest eters 62
D. C., on habits of Moon-eye.........--..- 613 Flannel-mouth Cat......--.. ..---.-.-0-0. ------ 627
Estheostomatida ......-.....---------- eee eee 417 PU ASNT xiciceicinsieeeSecwiat teases eacie ese create 445
Etzel, Anton von, on distribution of Halibut..... 192 | Flat Clam...--. 2... .----2 eee eee ee eee ee eee ee 708
Eubalena antipodarum..-......-----------.----- 25 DaGhsseciorsa sien ciain cinin oorwsiotinlaye caterers cates dae QT
AUSGALIS o4/s une cecote wicrceniewedenes esas 25 PIN siisais s seisioiais sis cje's:sreraneieidsisie-Wateioreidiwienereniee 179, 182

biscayensis ..--....-..----5--------- 24 FiGhes soc cecnees cecenseisscosiacincios yesiceiers 175,176

CISAL CHCA 'a:ce0 5:0 wis ewe: seston cine seees 24 Pleas, Beachy. -ociss:ceiis isceeecidedeczenice stesees 824

cullamach .......--.-26. ceeeee cee cee 25 Sand vecsescnsenseedenesescaccsigeew cesses 824
Eucyclogobius Newberrii ...-.-.----.------+-+6+ 255 | Fleming, on the range of American Manatee .... 116
Bulachon......occ¢ scsccaecen stents susererecasccesies 547 Sperm Whale in Orkney...-....---.- 9
Eumesogrammus subbifurcatus .....--.--.------ 213 WIStON. samen ve pice cvieesceceesuicetaseaden axcses 191
Bumetopias 2.2. ee cecesccaescewosisecseesecs se 37 Fliaum ..---. +++ s-enee eee nee ween ees econ eee 265
elongatiSsnct exessuvoedouneceanexas 80) +). Mloeratsncecaceerseacendes sac aeesate ceantaemecs 66

Stelleri ..........-...--.--......38, 39, 49, 82 Florida Cooterss «020 ci0esscsescncsseceeseee scans 155

Eupaguros pollicaris........-...2--22.--02-0 05+. 779 Ploanderstex sncaes sees ucseorvoseexesees eves 177, 178, 184
Bermhardus s.cecseeescesccoe seoxces 779 Black-dotted ...--...2-..------ 22+ --+- 187
longicarpus ..----.------2-------0--- 779 COMMON 22 sees seenssseseee sessee cee ves 178
pubescens......---.-.--------------- 780 Cralgiccticcnweseine ee esccee ceee umes 198, 237

Euplotes .. ...-.--- cece cc-0 ceee eens erence ne ccee= 733 Deep-Sea....-.-.------ 22 - eee e enon eee 178, 198
European Leech........---. -.--0- eee nee eee eee ee 835 Diamond... 2... seceee ------ eee eee eee 185,
Exocoetus californiensis ........---------------- 459 Four-spotted ...... .---+.----++ ene+---- 181
RONG OSH a ciate cieeevcecinctors wasae 459 Pol6:. o.2.2+02,- as adsawscses sinew cic 177, 178, 198
Exoglossum maxillingua.......... ae SoeGawetarccion 618 RUBY -o2n cacieeaetetisecceneaceen ance 197

864 INDEX.

Page Page.
Flounder Sand, spotted ..-...--..---.....020--- 199 | Fur Seals, dolphin, jumps of...-..--------..----- 101
SMOG, weve weweesscsseice Hees coves 183 effects of heat on ...-..------ ---- oes 83
Starry’ so s.esessewese coaemdases seas save 184 eyes of the pups....-...---- .----+---- 94,95
Torbotzcesessesteseuiscss nawiehe seer ness 178 fasting at the rookeries......-.----.-- 84
W ater sex vesicaeses sedeeicc cates esses: 199 fine opportunities for observation ....- 107
Wiltels. sccscemsxseniomace coseeencsess 179, 182 general character of ........------.--- 37
Flounders--.. ...------- ------ s+ 2222 cece eens sess 175, genitalia of the male and female...... 108
PUK Gas cso cee sememsmewseeseeees seecsseace uses 182 gentleness of holluschickie............ 99
Flower, W. H., on distribution of Ringed Seal... 65, 66 geographical distribution of ........--. 37, 38
Wy -fish wins cae scteteeeke ceweeseoen cde seeiewenice 264 and migra-
Flying Calamary.......-+.-.2.---2-2---------.- 690 tion of.... 49
BY yiNg fh veces scescsewesese sa -aseseceuerecens 257 habits Of v-sssssenses os sen-ceeees cased 37, 75
family ecessseccewes wee see scwwaeecead 459-461 hauling-grounds on beaches for hollu-
Plying Gurnards sossicseends sane cose tact cess cee. 255 BCHICKIO .- oo eeienicuies cesses sieeeee cease 99
Food-fishes........---. saalothte eimcaguemr a aicietoeweiei oes 169 holluschickie...-..-.-..-.....----.. 72,82, 96
Fool-fish, name for File-fish.................-.-- 171 holluschickie do not fast.......-..-.-- 99, 100
Flounder cscics ssseces vseeses 183 hospitals of........---- ..222- e222 eee ee 93
Forster, J. R., on feeding habits of the Burbot... 239 intestinal worms -....----.----------- 4, 8
size of Burbot......... .....-. 237 irregular feeding of the pups......-...- 110
Fortin, P., on abundance and modes of capture of leaping out of water........-.--.-.--- 101
Horse-Mackerel secs. seca ss sece sevedsacwensce 321 life history of ...-....---.---------+-- 1
Four-eyed fish: 2sxceneses saccee xs sie seeeie ui veaee 280 locating the hauling-grounds of hollu-
Four-spotted Flounder ......-......----+------- 181 BCDICKIO: cicrcresicinictaiaia ‘erste esis fe isieye araie’s 98
Box Sharky «200 s.ccanecivind Ses sive cisie sceseeeeses 671 mangy cows and pups......-.-...--.- 92
Freia producta .......... 022-22 eee cee ween 733 monstrosities among -...-.-....-.---- 105, 106
Fresh-water Cod ....... .------ 22 cece cece eee eee 236 necessity of understanding the method
PUI. tesa sscaisisiarsie ‘stele ie's /ele'ele bho baie 370 of reproduction........-...-------- 106, 107
BOdIS cis cicinie-sisinte sive cain sisteueisscetee alec 59 QOOP OF visicies = eesiaceniees ec sceciee Yeeoes 96
TellapiNs ici ceacacss sissies sasineeeasis 152 old and young males fighting........-. 79
BBIOT iy sistcic gains oc aemdeiteas ocusms ome wa geueauwees 456 only one pup born at a time........-- 79
Frigate Mackerel...... -.....---- 002 se-ee- seers 305 organization of the rookeries ......... 86, 87
Og efiB isons cicada sociseiwads wcenieanm saiaee sewers 173 paths through the rookeries for hollu-
FSDING acne ce eeaicieienceresaeeesiccccas 173 schickie ......-..- .2-- 2. eeee ee ener 98, 99
Prostfigh .-..- 02-000 ceccc+ coos peceee cece econ eees 336 pelagic coition impossible .........--. 111
PulQar C@LiCAi....6.cccnee cs ee seice sesteeumezees ie 3 694 period of gestation.........-....-.--- 111
Fundulus grandis ....-....-2. -222 -20- eee eee eeee 466 podding of the pups..........-..--..- 94
MAAS soo sce se sass scceaeaesenases 466 power of scentof.......-..-.-.---.--- 96
parvipinnis ......-..-...-2....+..- asfe 466 pre-emption of the rookeries........- 80
PUTGUS COTALE ie researene. ornare ne senerianeiame some 841 preliminary advances of sexual union 110
Bilt Sealeiic.ccsiseew ci manannn sdb eeidkeeesstumesns 37 range of vision of.......--.---.-.---- 95
action of reproduction..........-..... WL relative duration of life of....-......- 79
age of female when first pregnant ... - 78 reproduction is terrestrial............ 79
albinos among -....-...---.-----..06- 105 review of statements of life in rook-
among the breakers ....-.....--.....- 101 OLLOS' sc20% as sicenes ccs cteanicecss 96, 97
arrival of Cow-seals at rookeries ...... 85 TiGh MIKE Of. c.00.002 0 se. easiccarcinn vewene 110
at seal grounds ..........-.... 7 second change of coat........-..--.-- 94
attitudes and coloration of ........... 81, 82 shedding the hair................---. 103
on land....--.-+--------.--. 88 sleeping -.---.---.----.-----+----+--- 89
battle of the Seals .........--.-.--.... 80, 81 sleeping afloat......-..--.---...2--.- 84
behavior of females on rookeries -... -- 88 small number of barren females..._... 113
Ab DiGht, Of ..cscnwcersaweses 95 speedy birth of pups .........-..-...- 108
change in weight ....-...---..-...... 104 sports and pastimes of young bache-
classing the holluschickie by age ..... 103 LOTS cow scaresieiane commence mecingos 100
coming in of the bulls ..--.....-...... 77,78 stagey seals......---..--2-- 22 eee eee 103
comparative size of females and males 103, 104 sullenness of old males............... 95
COUTAGE OF 2 esownectissedctecce mes cence 87,88 swimming feats of the bachelors ..... 101, 102
definition of holluschickie ............ 98 taste in the matter of weather ....... 105
description of adult male. .........-.. 75-77 unattached males.................--. 87
Cow-Seal ......-.-.-.-- 85, 86, vitality of the male....--............ 112
the holluschickie. ...... 97,98 voice of the....2. 20... eee eee eee 82, 83
PUPS ..---. ------ eee 89-91 weight of females.......... 2.2.2.2... 104
disorganization of rookeries.........-. 91,92 where do they die?..............2.... 106
dispersal of the holluschickie......... 105 young Seals learning to swim......... 93
distribution in southern seas........-. 38 Northern oss ccs coed cuscce ceneseccwe 49

INDEX. 865

Page. Page.
Gd Bis oi 2 werenicn nies Satis acne annecsccceaeegeune 462 German Leech wisi 0.565 seie sonic ey ccelpcivignie Seinen 837
Gadida, unimportant families related to the..... 243 Gerres argentous .-... 2.220. 12--0- ceee nee e ee eee 279
GGUS 2 o.oo seeing id sie aaias sicwieeiesciice siamese 200 i harengulus eesscecces cess kadeeeemkicee sis ve 279
chalcogrammus ........-2-. .202-- seeeee ee 232 homonymus ........-. 0.2. 2-02 e0ee cence eee 279
COLDPLOSSUG 26 isd ieisisieisie ewe srdeioe se oa enine xe 236 Gerrids ois ssociecs eeseics concen desees wes sen benaes 269
lacustris: .ccsesieccciccces seetuewene vasese 235 Gervais on Sperm Whale in Mediterranean. ..--. 9
G8 wccninececuicasesineeeewece sedieam assess s 235 Gherbis Sponge..............--------- 222s eee 848
MACUIORUB. 2244222202 seceenusccde secece ese 236 Gibbares sasa5 s2niewi Swentsietesoaive see sss aed o 28 29
MOMTNUS. ceseswessecesrecsusead Sse esis 200, 236 Gibbartus ci) se cecescce me scaweans Sac cenjatee dese 29
POVISCOPUS sec seheecsweewe selon soeeceeces 232 Gibbero Dorso......-.2.----+- -e- 22+ eee eee eee 29
NAW weeuew tore civic ees coeaeeoteeecansseuee 251 Gibbes, L. R., on habits of the Stone Crab. . 773
Gaff-topsail Cat-fish .... 2.2.2. ..2--. 2.222.022 0 ee 627 the Southern Shrimps-.....--... -.821, 822
POMPADO ssnsissc Sees scowlcees ste eas 329 Gibbonsia elegans ........--...--- 2-2-2220) eee 251
Gao on wmiedisc ccc eccie sce, ciwisesincienceddee sents serccale 413 | Gila elegans.......... Upleuse Sea sneicas eaccce see 616
Gaillon and Johnson, observations on green color Gahawid s..0 nc. wee we cn ccscccieien seca ccees 616
Of OY STOLE. see caccencususeusamenoes weiseiae sie oid 737-738 TODUSUA acne ve Seis cree rarserns: pciaid giarwtene Oe 616
Galeocerdo tigrinus...-..-..2...2-0.2---2--02--- 672, 675 Gill on distribution of Black B Bass . vis ais esis 402
enemy of Sword-fish.....-.. 354 history of California Sea Elophant eeicea 72
Galeorhinus zygopterus ..-..--...-.-.---.------ 674, 675 Sperm Whales, Giant and Pigmy -....... 11
Gammarus locusta ......-.-..-22--2-------- eee 824 Gillichthys mirabilis.........--.--.------.------ 255
Gannet, enemy of Mackerel .......-.--..--..---- 299 Gilpin, Dr. Bernard, on geographical distribution
Gaper ise ic cue pseu ice ociecuaemmauioant Base 708 of Hooded Seal ...-....---.-22-2. -e00- ence eee 69
Garden, Alexander, on the Sword-fish ........... 339 Gilpin, habits of the Mackerel........-.. .... 285-287, 288
Gar-fishes, Silver 458 movements of Haddock ..---..--....---- 224
Garibaldi. .:).006 222-05 seedessses seeee cecces cons 270 Gilt head iiss ine siaise ceicewis seee cecidescimeiaesngenss 273
Garman, S. W., on distribution of West Indian Girella nigricans.......-------..---------------+ 394
Seal: sc<:acee-25 svek seecen veces rsseeadeacates ave 68 Gizzard Shad sijsij05.43 22 acess eeeoseeemaice saienees 610
Garou pads nisias's ic + cvn cence shee cesesuseueateex sas 411 Gash ant jeaisies: is vaule cemawrseauiostwace spies elas 228
Gar-pike' s.22.vseece cdpeee cewesseases te sceaeesicce 662 Glaes-CCwic: so veicces seeeeeesacinc see deieses eacins 417
pugnacity of ‘ 663 GlassOGl sisi vines ein csimeedemrsaiese's wmciaicy aisles + aciem 228
Alligator ....... 663 | Glattbutt ........02-. 02202 cee ee cere cee eee 199
Long-nosed ........0. 20-22-2222 eeeees 662 Glaudius ..........---- 2-2-0 2 ee eee eee eee eee 337
Short-nosed 22s c225.0scecssocsseccisees 663 Globe-fish jsc.02 decane sess cece ecneesersess deeess 170
458 Globicephalus intermedius .....--.--...--------- 11
118 Scammonii ...-..-.--------.------ 12
Garr pa. 22 sccsciscws cesses weecese ccc peswsee cscs 262 BWiNOVAL ics ecos wees aicscie wisicioaie s 11
Black and Yellow ...-....------------- 264 GlOS8aD. asics xc sok cesses weseimeses secs Seles aenis 228
Flesh-colored ..-.-..----. -----+ 22-2 006 264 Glos8i tess se ses cewteceniw ass seasons saesaels sine 228
GLreGN js cssestseestensestes access ceces 265 Glove Sponge. ...... .----. ------- 22+ eee eee ee ee 845-847
ROO Sz ced Sckicctrecew eines eee ccs secs exe 264 Glut Herring .. wed dives weneeaemmeleuis Helston 582
Speckled... .... ---.2.--0--------+ eee 263 | Glyphidodon gaxatilis.. siesmetmeeeeseces 275
Gaspereat....--. 22... eee ene cece ne eee eee eee eee 580, 589 Glyptocephalus cynoglossus Lenwesi anee Sees news 198, 237
Gaspergou ...--. --.. .-- 2-2 eee ne cone eee e eee eee 370 pacificus ..---.--....---.-------- 186-188
Gasperot-cc2so22 sosnesiesaccosscascaseSeue scene 580 TaChiLUS .o25 <sisisie weisirnis dates. sie 188
Gasteropoda...... 22-2. eee ee cee cee eee eee eee 693 Gnathodon cuneatus ..---..---------- ---------- 708
Gasterosteidm ......--...--.-- saueeieed satytawaeace 557 | Goat’s-head Porgy .....----------- --+2eeee-2 e+e 393
Gasterosteus aculeatus 338, 457 Gobius glaucofrenum ........--.- +... -22--ee-e ee 255
biaculeatus ....... suaeiisGeeadsoes 213 SOPOLALOL .: .on2 sa 6-8. acceeewees sre eeeeies 255
microcephalus...-..---..------.--- 458 Gobiesocid@..-... .-.- ---- ---- eee eee eee eee ee 253
pungitius ...........-.-------.---- 457 Gobiesox reticulatus.........---..-------------- 255
Gastrochwne ...:;.oses cokercesee enews emsiaecs 699 Gobiidw..-....---..--- iovizyaticiads noe cpensierantaGmiseies 255
Ga wnoolk «iis cis:cis.s,ajsseiste eisiaie siesta we Hien, ate eiersseva ls ore wiciare 460 Gobiosoma alepidotum.........--....--.-.------ 255
Geare, R. I., onthe Lake White-fish .....-.....--- 507 Goblingascc2cn4asss cds2 ces ceeseteesoneena eet 259
Geddes, Patrick, on chlorophyl-containing ani- Goby, Chubby...-...----- 2-2-2. .2---- eee eee eee 251, 255
Malls sescaeise ws naosiee ve sdee selsees sas cceswerses 737,739 | Goggle-eye -..----.------------ eee ee eee ee eee 404, 405
Gelasimus minax......--....-.---.------------- 763 Goggled-eyed Jack .--...-------------+------+-- 324
pugilator ....--... .-.--.----------+- 763 Goggler ...--...---- 2220+ eee eee eee eee eee eee 324
PUPAE ones sets seeece sees seedceewens 763 Goldfish sso csaitvouiat metered ok whl old cecal iecense ci 276
Genyonemus lineatus.........-----.- Ye setulae 379 Golden Shiner..........----------- eee eee eee ee 616
Geographic Tortoises...-...----..-------------- 152 FD TOU bassin diss eaietned sisiere- anew Sisie de wideescue 9 Sere 475
Geophagus surinamensis........---..----------- 276 Goldsinny: se. sosc8s, shes esatnceesecuecsess 273
George’s fish... ... 2-2-2. 2250 nen ee canner cones 201 Golet . sass cain cies sceersicia «leis de Ericis teen e es 505

55 F

866 INDEX.
Page. Page.
Goody, -yshsay or 2! snaeehcaesedsanons wees selects 370 Green Cod. ..-. eo. cee e ee ene ne eee e ne eee ee eee 228
Cape May ccecccwewene once wee eeiec intend 370 FIBNe icine ose bce ewidisesivinmnncce sews cece 433
Goose Barnacles ...... 22-22-0222. ee eeee eee vee 828 Garrupa .----- enon cece ee cone cone cee eers 265
Goose-fish, appearance...--..----.---.---- eee ee 174 NOG siwie carisis'e wire singiseesscsiesie weeeiwmicies 425
eggs—time of spawning........-..-.. 174 TiG6CH a dsiecsuats sriedicristewatnieie viociemiiceses 835
geographical distribution of ......-.. 173 Pik@ cssees cocicns seeese cers sees teens: wes 418
habits and food of........---....-..- 173 POMOC sees siewaswacies'aicienie's apeeis cicistes oeeid 228
palatable for food ........---.-.----- 174 Rock-fishis. +o. sexseen senescence eceanectees 265,266
Goose fishes sconce see vesecessck cas ame cscs sets 173 ROCK Trout nies waisinss wa occ seeeecisgacicsrevis 267
Gopher Tortoise sens sascence ccs sajcie cuecee vacis 158 Siielis! cess wecsesesones cemase weeees eels 456
Gorgonia acerosa ...... .----------+ ese eee ween 841 StOTPOON see eens cacees ceseuhececctiadeesns 662
flabellum ......... SoveaheeG: ac eeewene ee 841 Oil) conten Sos ar cial aes e eek eee ace gees 569
BOLOSA) siccd stewerxceaiseee sites sects cease 841 DOP OS aps sess Rrcerdicisicis aise cee cee seeestes sis 147, 150
Gottenburg Herring ....-... 02222. 02.2 eee eee 550 breeding Of i... ssics seasceenasdeisave 151
Gouj OD nassus cece sees eee ce semen adie ee Seeece 627 distribution of. ..-.......-..----.- 150
Gourd-seed Sucker............200- eeeeee eee e eens 615 food and feeding habits........... 150
Graben Herring ai vc scecesiseccecitsice cie'sinnd siewaies 550 MAMOS OF... o2cecs neo ceeene es o's 150
GAMA PDB jscainss sie 3 sinio. wists stale brarslmajaie Sinintetes aa aias 12 BIZOOF siete (ateisins wins He igeas neiialnes 150
color and size of........---...+--- +--+ 13 MBES! OL aaisieinic cis vs oie eee sige casi 151
distribution of...-......-. 2222-2 ---206- 13 North American species of......... 150
Habits Ofs sees sceescasecseecins sees sees 14 Greenland and Right Whales, Baleen of ........ 21, 22
known to early colonists.....-.....-.-- 14 TOrbDOb so ocicie tinge s'gieeini gi em dcwewenes 197
products 0f.cc2s-cocess vacuee tec esses te 14 While ccsctee leds eet eee eeeeg 20
California occissc poe ceaeigdeeeve'ssies eset 14 Greenlander....-...---...-----+------ sialateiieielatesis 258
Mottled so2 occ. cckicae nies eels eteinea ase see's 14 Grenadier family .............----- ------eeeeee 244
White-headed .......-...----.--2.----- 14 Grey Gurnard .......----. ---- +--+ ee eee e eee eee 256
PTISOUB is: cee eincicce vances vee sderes teres 13 Halibut acc ecote sec coe cree eget sti cwees 194
Stearnsii ...-.. 2.222. --0-0- eee eee 14 Grey-lord. .... 2.2222 -- 2-2. ene cence eee e towne 228
Grande Beaille...--.-...2. -22e seen cece ee neeee 611 Grey-Trout, uame of Squeteague..........---.-- 362
Grandykye.....--. 220. -e nee see nee cece ee eee ee 611 Gribble ......---- 222+ cece e cece ee cower ee cece ee 826
Grass Bass.... 2... 220 es eeee cece ee cece ee eee pase 406 Grilse pose ose wisisvinsegs seni nade seetee tees sen 468
Herrin gs. seers cig sae waiics sae iee eden 550 Groper. i svicisiniee seman pees neee cea seieiccels ces 410
Grass-hopper, name for young Lobster.......... 733 Ground-holders. 22... 222.022 2-5 cece e eee e ee eens 783
Grass Rock-fish...--.--2--.---- esse. eee eee eee 264 Ground-keepers ....-.---.------ 2-2 ee eee cee eee 201, 213
SPON GO wanes cceeeaweensect onde Swe sceeesns 848, 849 Ground Pike... ..-.-. -------+----------ee-eee eee 424
Gray, on distribution of the Grampus.........--. 13 SHAG cess. ewneee sascee sce meat es ae 2-..674, 675
feeding habits of Bowhead............. 23 Tenders -.---.-----.------ ------ --2- 202 201
Greenland Whales......-.....--------- 22 Grouper, name for Rock Cod............ .-.-.--- 262
PiOG Whale: ccs nioss er iemenicedetcaeeuciais ll Triple-tail .........---.....-- 444
Sperm Whale in English Channel..-.... 9 Banded .......---.----------- dua wa eas 412
figures of Fur Seals....-.------...----- 54 411
geographical distribution of the Hooded 410
Beal caine wtraieig-ocanmncsdatete sneare loa aisiniers 70 612
North American Manatees .........--.- 114 Grubbers, name for Cod......----..----.-------- 212
Northern Fur Seals.......--..-.-------- 52 GIDDY aside de cosauted etieiwmewicwcce ccdecsaccosy 258
Gray Back Whale...... ..----.----------+ .e-5-- 31 Grint, Black .c:2.000- 0s ses wnecivesews) smeacioes 308, 390
TOG CH iy ciaa caret Satara sme aeie nine eicaweie si siacises 835 Californian .cccccn:cacassescceceenas sees 400
Perch, name for Drum........---..-...... 370 Red-mouth --...---.-----.-----. +--+. 398
Pickerel....-. .----- -----+ oe eeee eee nee eens 421 WA catawd seed GNERRS Gb enewdawaneans 399
PIKGscc.escncdce ene suecsaeeiicencidet Cease 424 VOHOW au tccdecemmnboteacinsenme.cle Smccig caine 399
Snapper ics ccasccsns ecco wowed teceiweemy 397 GIUDEE 4. cs uisss Sas teecaatsie acon latgecweubmen ¢ 256
MPT OUG a: oscais 6 ainiwn areca sreidyaiteiniod celewid awineanio sie 487 Guard on distribution of the alligator. .......... 142
Whale, California...... ...--.-.---..----- 31, 32 GUESS jas eis occdos ceca mnsomaymcigeoemisiie cece sisiess 4il
Grayling..-.-.-----.---+ +--+ Paungut matecemewacs 505 Gubartas nds ccsocinctamnnsaBagonscaeces cee sitee 29
Awerican and European, similarity of. . 506 Gundlach on abundance of Florida Manatee. .._. 123
distribution of, in Europe........--.... 506 Guebieds.c32cccd socceha cess seer ate grams 337
name for Salmon.....-.--...----..---- 470 brasiliensibus .......-. 22-2. spo. ------ee 356
Great Herring a0. oc cececccnancevsisivien see eeeuees 550 Gutters crsisicnaictsererecacimecio eens ere Siam weal ate eee 247
Great Lake Pike..........----2-2e-e eee e ceeeee 462 Guichenot on distribution of Sword-fish......_.. 340
Gréedigittiiie.: ce <coctence canis secs ecesis toes 173 Gulf Menhaden .....- 2.22... 2.22. cee eee cee eee 575
Green-bone, name for Mutton-fish...--......-..- 247 TOON 06 cies ine wn deen ee woes d 577
Silver Gar-fish............ 458 messmates of ...-....20. eee eee 576
Green Crabs vasccnba co ddostsaseesnstose scenes 773 movements Of -......2..0206 000- 576

INDEX. 867

Page. Page.

Gulf Menhaden, popular names of....---.....--. 576 Halibut, Bastard......------ 2-22 eee eee eee eee 182
reproduction of...-...--.---...- 577 | Chicken 2.02534. 5scseens soe vena rests 178, 194

Gullfish: pajscie's aaieres 242 seve ee sae oy Cee hone eats 228 GEV sc veacseentsetcs esicuec dee te euenee 194

Gumilla, on name of Manatee.............-.--.- 116 Vi Gt Osis. cee. ceu: ioe dec ceeecsesuee eee ends 197

Gtinther, on the anatomy of the Mullet.......... 449, 450 Monterey csscsenc cenit icoccecad sctiiwessss 182

classification of the Eel...-..... 629 Halichoerus grypus....-- 222 s20- een e ee cee ee eee 65

distribution of Rose-fish............ 260 Halicyon richardsi...-.....-.. 22. ------0- -eee ee 57
Fierasferide ....-..--..---.-..---.- 243 | Halisarcoidea.......-..-.2.------00e-eeee ee eeeee 844

history and habits of the Pilot- Hall on Spawning of Mackerel.........--..----- 296

FISH. fyn8 sissies ebacne eerie cece 330 Halletighks ss joniwesccskeececagt asain seems eeeens 191

Lampreys ...--..----.-..----.------ 676 | Halleflundra 191

the life history of the Eel. ........ 632, 633 Hallock, Charles, on migration of Sea Bass-- .-.. 408

movements of the Gar-fishes........ 458 on distribution of Striped Bass--..---.- 425

names of American Burbot......--.. 236 Charles, on habits of the Bowfin .....-- 658

tate of growth of Sword-fishes. .. ....347, 348 on spawning habits of Black Bass...... 403

Scopelus family 547 Hamlin, on habits of Lake Trout.....--.....---- 487
DPhread=fish soc cjsciccsirsed sees sabe es 279 Hammer-head Shark ...........---.------------ 671, 675

variations of Saibling...... eigeeaa 501 Sucker secs sees wsice singe ss tarciaen ile 615

Gurnard fantily...- 22 222 ccsecines since secieiee ces 255 Handsaw Fish family........--.. 222. --2-------- 547, 548
Gurnard), Flyin os ois ocisse seavsiarecicic auewiew anit se ss 255 Hannabills cee suee vine wine eesaneicie J visieindes ba'ctee sei 407
Grey --- 222-22 wee e ee cere cone cone cee e es 256 | Haploidonotus grunniens 362, 370

R60. eetewdccsercsisicinaldatsie'sceie veweus came 256 Harbithcwsssateasys suse nese ee cieices veweee esse eee: 228

Gurry Shark .......-.- 2-2. 2-002 eee seen eee “aeiaes 674 Harbor Porpoise, food of...-....----------++--++ 15

Gut-pock Herrings.......----...-------0-+ --+--- 550 destructiveness of ...-..-.--... 15

Had eucwencuecedsnsessatcisesswees seers acess 224 distribution of........--..---.- 14

Haddock ....- we Seaicesetebicisl sinc slams siuiete Speieas 223 reproduction of.........-..---- 15

Haddock, abundance of... ..-...---. +--+ -020--- 225 size and movements of..-...-.- 15

distribution of.....-..------.--------- 223 USCS OF gene vewsst eoeecgscceiescs 15
FOU OP weitere at anes ane mies acne 226 SealictrcaiGans civewedushedsetad sll. 55
movements of .......-2. .--22. -2----6- 224 general history and synonymy of .. - 55
names Of .......--- --- 220 eee eee eee e ee 224 geographical distribution of ..--.--- 55
USCS OF csiea case ss.ce oe ee enew vies cece 228 habits of .......--- 2-2. ------ eens 57°
NOTWay’'sso- see wceces ceenies son eeeaeics 260 Hard? Clam ess +-s2 sect eecencaeceeoecvcigcsdas Sosa: 708

Haddoh ssscsceacowssnaser cane osc qeoe see eeeses 476 Hard-head, name for Salmon......--..---------- 444

Had OW: sicxicsc2o4 cece Sak Se ee Robin Ba ee ee sees eis 224 Whale ..c.3.:20 42 essences 31

Had Ob... .<iseveds yas cis se vced deceeeGesene eens ees 224 Shad, Name for Menhaden...-.....-.. 569

Hag-fish, enemy of Halibut..-.......-...-------- 182 SPON Pe seis oe oeels cise eeieeisersesees << ie 845

Hagfish .jui..¢ sectebevied sesame mune cane wees sees 680, 681 Hard-mouth......-.---.----22------------------ 618

Hair Seals...-...-.- ---- -- 20 seen ee cece ee cree eee 37 Hard =tail isis =: sese osea sescecceceseice es cece ce soee 324

Hairy-back Shad ......-..--+2-----0- e--eee eee eee 610 Harding, Capt. King, on abundance of Mack-

Hake. 23.05 2 aeseecets vesces) aebhus ae sees eee 234 Orel -ccxseens ances ae WSicielar sixispert euaia ateioansisteia.weraien 290
distribution of.....----.-----------+------ 234 Harding, Capt. King, on food of Mackerel....-.. 291
habits of.......:--.--------- ---e eee e eee 235 Hare-lip ssee cave cis ews cgee sucess weisien acess 614
names Of....-..--. -------- se eeee ee eee eee 234 Hate, Sea ces ecciccee oe ee cine sca deeevecons escce 18
USCS OF... -- 2 eee eee eee eee eee eee ee 235 Harlan, on abundance of Florida Manatee..-.-... 123
California ....-..-.----------- fsemeiesw ese 243 American Manatees. .-........--.---- 114
Dame .... 20222. een ne cece ee ee eens were eee 234 size of Florida Manatee......--.----- 117
King 1.2. .--02- cee coon cee e cee e eee cone eee 234 Harmer, Thomas, on enumeration of eggs in
Old English....-.--.----.---+---- +--+ ---- 234 Mackerel ....... 2222+ 20-200 ceee cee eee core cones 298
Silver _...---. .--. ---6 eee ee eee eee eee ee 240 Harp Seal susie wu iecnpece oss ociecie semen eens 62, 65
Squirrel ......---. ------- 202 eee eee cere eee 234 Breeding. ....------------ -----+-00-- 62
We ini cee cede svete cea ccedureeseeaoaed 234 geographical distribution of......... 62

Half Herring ...--. ..-.--------+see+ ssd didieieed eibise= 551 hunting, and products ......-.-.---- 63, 64

Half-beak..-.... Saeines Sham adetaneeenese eee ees 461 Turning .-..2. - 220-200 eee e ne wenn tenes 62

Fal fam o0m eisinie ais's ai esiins oc eetnn tec ccihcamadeen es 395 VOUNG cescsscseseties 2 eck deeisige eeeee scien 62

Halibatiecictees ace ne go scene ske eee seca ee seeess: 177 Hart, M. A., on capture of Lampreys-.-..------- 680

abnormal individuals among..-..-..----- 197 Harvest-fish ......---.---..+---- saistetctdtcin gielerciete 333
abundance of........-.---- +--+ e--- ee eee 193 distribution of ...-.-...--.------- 333
common names Of...-.. .------- --------- 190 Harwood on the nose of the Fur Seal. .----.---- 79
distribution in N. W. Atlantic. ....-...-- 191 Haul-a-boat......---.--- 220 ene eee cree re neee 101
food of.....-.. adieiemseee Rie ors Slee See metecies 195 Hawk’s-bill Turtles ....---.---.-------.------- 147, 149
migrations of...-...----.--------------- 194 as food.-....---- iegeosese 150
BIZE Of s wa'e-ses cee skewecionas deren ne eeucsoe 193 economic value, grades of

BPAWNINE Of nahscescuesctcosecriewes seco 196 shell of ..---.----------- 149

868 INDEX.
Page. Page.
Hawk’s-bill Turtle, food and habits of ......... 149 Herring, Vaid; éiosscce.acicjaics cise seed asemesiscwes os 551
range Of .....----.-.---+.- 149 Tittldsetachatasdesseusevecctesnececssaw. 4579
size Of ...--.-.-..--20.--0. 149 Michigan, o:- 0s cies ccccienselisetscecnetace 541
Hecht ....-...- 20. 20. eee eee e eee eee ee noes 562 New York.........20-sceeseeeeeseeeee- 579
Hector on Sword-fish in New Zealand.......... 341 Norwegian ...... Gc encores A Ay NS Tk 550
Heilbot .... 222-2. .2200 ceeeee cee eee eee ee eens 191 Norwegian Winter .....-.--.----------- 550
Heiligobutt ...... -.--.. 2 -2-eeee eee eee eee eee 191 Scotch Dutch .....-.---..2-----eeeee oe 551
Helmet-Bhell-s.serci studies Sam eave ssceeigcr see eee 699 SKStp ose) cost oatsoce ea odcenee sous 550
Hemdurgan ....-.....----+2-------- passat oleeis 260 Small tot oe ceo A a 550
Hemilepidotus spinosus..........---2 2-2 .2202e 259 Spiced’ ..ccoewices eid wus vata see 550
trachurus ...........02---.-20.. 259 Spratiecdescewccocevcascceeeeecesee. “D9
Hemirhamphus Ros@.......... 2-22-2222. eee eee 460 Springs: seca caaedeoscdwecdeseuceues 579
unifasciatus ........--..--2..2- 461 Summer. ...--. cece cece cence e ceceee cecee 579
Hemitripterus, americanus .....-..........--.- 258 Tender. oc coe cen c cece cece cece cececcce 551
HISPICUS so siess Seciciec dew tes ues 258 Titly cicacsten dccsegescecsvesclessasase. - 1079
Hen Clam ..- 22. 222-220 cece cece eens ce ceee ee 708 Toothed .... . 000.2220 eo eee cece eee eee 612
Hen-fish family ...-2. 0.222. 2.0. cence eee eee 335 MPO cate c oaciet one cee eee ted 549
Henshall, J. A., on the Black Bass............. 401 Wall-eyed ..... 2.222. 20220 ee eee eee 580
Heptranchias maculatus...... -.-..--.-------- 674 | Herrings of the Pacific coast........-.-..------- 568, 569
Herbert on the peculiarities of the Siscowet.... 496 PIV Or et te sealilce rao eGid cece oe eoeed 579
Hermes, Dr. Otto, on reproductive organs of Con- Hessel, Rudolph, on the Carp.........--+----+-- 618-626
Ger-Hel .... 2. - 2. eee eee eee eee eee eee 656,657 | Heterodontus Francisci................--..----- 675
Hermit Crabs....-. -.---- +220 2202 eee eee cee 779,780 | Heterograpsus nudus..............--- eee atoed 765
Herrard on habits of, American Manatee ........ 119, 120 oregonensis ......---.-.---+.--+- 165
on products of South American Manatee. 127 Heterostichus rostratus.........-.....---2------ 251, 275
on the pugnacity of Alligators .......... 143 Hewlook-Powak 2... 22. 2.202200 -eee coe eee eee 505
PIG ETO Gs aan sscinein idence tiv cinmiciaysittere stan scee sewers 549 Hexagrammus asper...-.. ---.-----. eee eee eee ee 268
abundance and importance of........-.. 549 decagrammus..........-...-.-- --267, 268
artificial propagation of........-.....-- 563 lagocephalus .......-.--...----.- 267, 268
capture and uses of.........-........--- 565, 566 ordinatus ...... ...--..------+--- 268
effect of meteorological conditions on Stelleri.........-2. 22-2. 22-22. 267
COpPtiTre OF occ ccs cose cacecaiete ooo ecoe 554, 555 Hexanchus corinus ......---..2.. 22-202 e ee 676
fishery, alleged destructiveness of ...... 566-568 Hickory Shad ....- Pid oid mieiesdioieie aieaiaiorereiaralepisicsieraaia 607
F000 Of rise Jose seessaseecsczceateadesen ct 563-565 abundance of........--+.--..------ 608, 609
geographical distribution of............ 551-552 geographical distribution of........ 608
movements and migrations of .... .....- 552-557 MAMESOF esnits cscs cso ccs vee seed 607, 608
name for Char......-...-..--+---------- 501 reproduction of....-...---.-.------- 609
Gulf Menhaden.......-.--. 2... 576 GIZE OL ines ob cis tase VeleweTe soot s ease 609
Menhaden ...... ...--..-...-.- 569 Higginson, Francis, on abundance of Mackerel in
NaAMCSOF 2 -ssocecce ecocededsssscscewcs 550 1629) oiecenln ites wade oa vee eee cumeccencemeiese 289
periodicity of abundance of, on Euro- High-finned Killer Whale. ..............---.-.-- 17
PCAN COABb .csees soeccseseess sees stecee 557-559 Hind, H. Y., on abundance of Herring...-...... 549
reproduction of ........--..--.--------- 559, 563 the causes of irregular movements
Big-eyed « ons sess assincnsscogses ox ceesse 611, 680 Mackerel schools....--....-..-. 300-1
BlCKING «sac ses vers seeceeiess dace seiss se 550 distribution and abundance of
Blu@ cesasetsecccicene sesceeeeds i ceemics 579 Cod fishy o sicie sisices se decease deed 209, 210
Bohuslan. siccc. sscieicis caceiecescawiecs sees 550 geographical distribution of Mack-
Boundary sc sces seescsewsataes se cose seis 550 OVO) scree sisters ee asoewi sac skies g 2&1
Branehl sass saocew seesees sews coe Sassi 580 migrations of the Mackerel... -. 282
Califormia .sics isccevisvescccsese soee since 568, 169 movements of Capelin........-.- 546
COd sascss senesced see veecenesseencesees 201 Codfish schools .. . 208
Hnglish<csaccies eoacievmace wemex seestoss 582 relations between Mackerel and
Patios sccariiaswosjnee socpeasncacisissonus 550 DAQUNCE) isco een see cate eeewe 292, 293
BYOrd + siicse- vse ceaveseeceemsncwes seer cece 551 spawning Codfish. .......-..-... 209
GUUG . ccviccke ceide: Gombe ewes eed cee 582 habits of the Capelin -........... 545, 546
Gottenbure ...jcsssciecds sciect Geese once 550 Hind, Spotted ........2. 2.2.2. 222 eee eee ee 412
Gré beri... ceckcovs: eccdesewscemectsieeds 550 Hippa talpoida....--..--2. 2-26. 2-22-20. eee eee 779
GEASS 555652456 eaoseeen sdceuawercuse ces 550 Hippocampus heptagonus...--.-....-.--. 22-2... 172
GTOR Ties nccreccscicc ccicuiede crews eemmrereieiareses 550 | hudsonius ....--.. 2.22. 0s... --- 172
Gut-pock .... 222.222 cee eee ween eee eee 550 ingens .....-----.----- eee ee eee ee 172
Fal fe: cvacaecaacsnecs scceencastaGbeaseus 151 Hippoglossoides elassodon ...... marti erchdectiees 188
FO pBiseas ocavice aoseeaencescesesnacasee 14 OXLIS: csicacteehenaccas cescocens 187
ROTTS. cole dddman a eeniud Sata be weaenee 550 DOTOODE fcc esc cecwes ceteccances 186, 187
Dak@ si cccaies ood gation pce conc sesees este 541 platessoides -..................- 197

INDEX. 869
Page. Page.
Hippoglossus vulgaris --..---. .-......--2-0+-6+ 189 | Hooded Seal, geographical distribution and migra-
Hippolyte brevirostris .............2..2--.------ 818 GIONS: OF viaeieisictaieveis Arvin: Weed snisteiniste 68-71
Hirudo medicinalis .-.... 2.2.22... 000...002.0000- 835 habits Of wuwk mers sep cectsoenctseinsas 71
OFACMAMG oo. cui ceca sons cence nceas seein 835 hunting and products of....-....... 71
parasite of Sword-fish...........2....... 855 Hoopid Salmon ss 20s s2scee ee ccnecseseuresecen os A477
Histiophorus americanus .........-..-...... 336, 337, 356 Horned Dace....-. 22-220 eee neon eissbaradeuye's 617
PISGIUB einai. seine ses saversexvescess 336, 357 DOGhSD cca vi vesnas cswderseaes pares eats 672
immaculatus ...--.......---. 222-2. 336 Bel sascdnessiesascasee te een sae aes 8 246
INDIGUB:. secseeee snes sessce cece 356 POWb isc camncicere scams tiers -cheuisiewenee ee 627
orientalis -......-2.. 220-2. -2.- 22s 336 IA GIMOSSl joi soi cirisswiige senGemece he sea ha deewoueeree 246
pulchellus sccccs sees eewedescaccces 336 Horny-head ........-2-2 2-0 e. cee cee cece ee cone 617
Histriophoca fasciata ...... 2.22.2. .ee eee cee e eee * 63,67 HOLS cases. Seneca adeaGinwe be ae cre haresaee avenue Se 326
PASCIATA o2 oxicicice sede ecko laregeaces 107 HOTS6 CreValll 6 eccrcrsccicieaianinameace saw eens aimee 323, 324
HOC: syed axes a Gee bes aici se cuncaeees ceseeesee 673 Horse-fish, name for Blunt-nosed Shiner....-....- 322
Mothers 5:6 sacsiceducc/ acca swecmeneeeonias anes 667 Sal @6P soc we sse aceeeswnie 424
Hop choker: .o5\-ic:secie, gsdice Sdeceanoecdadesiaawlces 177 HOPSG2H6Ed- vain cose ccecciscceeinswicinicn seine serie 323
FOB ASN) sccic.2e Mose mescicies den eceosan Oeeuasenees 275 Horse-mackerel ........---. 22-220 eee cece eee 320
name for Log Perch ...-.........------- 417 name for Black Candle-fish...-... 268
Pipfish.\ccostns tess caaescecses 398 Bluefish ..........---.- 433
Holacanthus ciliaris ........---...---2---------- 280 California Hake.....-. 243
Holbrook on best fishing-grounds for Sheepshead - 383 JUL) )o:s6 wose carcass 324
breeding of Green Turtles.......... 151 HOrse, SCA esssscccsacie scitad secs wsiniciee see sees 35
differences between Sea Bass and SPON ZO: cisiciciccs cies, cen eorsaiae mewiaae cisecx 845, 848
Black=fishi 2005.06 65 205, cee cece seen 408 FIOrséshoe: Cray ioscsicacscistcicie enim caw cieiaie maton Wes aie 829, 830
distribution of the Alligator. ....-. 141 FHOTSO WBA 2 :sie:s ies citvtersictsie nice gin'e wae oateeisaccacen 35
Tautog .....---- 269 Houndfish, name for Bluefish...-..-....--..----- 435
food and feeding habits of Green Silver Gar-fish ...........-. 459
Turtled -s josejegeiiacie sige seiceilsee 150 BlOWiicees cs me te sccek cect gent eine 308, 435
the food of the Loggerhead Turtle . 148 Specklediejssnccccsiseices wes soe veins 308, 435
habits of the Crab-eater ......- 444 Hubbard on abundance of Sperm Whale ......-. 9
habits of the Grouper ....-...---.. 410 distribution of Atlantic Walrus. .... 34
Sheepshead .......-.. 382 FALWIAANA) ose aise sens cieajewesuesaysieaiieelaee oi) seers 474
Spanish Mackerel ...-..-.- 312 Humpback Whales .........--.--2..-2------+-- 26, 27, 29
the Squirrel-fish........-- 410 £000 Of emsistessciimsras doen seeiee 26
the habits of the Whiting .......-. 376, 377 distribution of........----..- 26
Mobilianer .......-....-------- 155 migrations of.............--. 26
mode of life of Alligators.....-..--- 144 in New England............- 27
origin of name of Alligator ...-.... 141 8126. Of epescn veoaciae Hose ok one 26
the Pig-fish: o.2 ci see covees seocees 399° | Hump-backed Salmon ........---..22.-0--+- eee 476
range of Hawk’s-bill Turtles...-...- 149 Butterfishs. cece sese a5 sone sees sees 323
the Red-mouth Grunt.....-.....--- 398 Hungarian Leech ...... -.....0. 22-2 eeee eee eee 837
size of the Alligator .....-.-..---.- 142 Hunter and Woods on Sperm Whale in England. 9
and mode of life of Bullfrog. -. 159 Huxley, Prof. T. H., on abundance of Herring ....549, 550
Holconotus Agassizi ........-...--++ 2220-22-02 e- 278 alleged destructiveness of
DANG us eisicc we eidacce acicisied qewecceees 278 the Herring fishery -.-... 567, 568
argenteus ....---- eee. eee cone tee eee 278 distribution of the Cray-
rhodoterus ......-. 0002 -22-ecee eee 278 Fishes e210 cee ois tia seswees 812
AON Beis caiaisice siond oa casteenn a gaesse tees teiince sees 476 the functions of the append-
HOUbUb icc sscdis cee cee ne temsasieoeweadelamewie xis 191 ages of Cray-fish........ 782
Holocanthus tricolor....-...-.-.+----+seeeee eens 280 migration of Herrings .... 553
Holocentrum pentacanthum......---------.----- 361 spawning habits of Herring.559-562
Holothuria floridana........-------------+ eeeee- 838 the structure of the Cray-
PTINCEPs ..-- wee ee eee cee eee eee 838 Gish << sacccscdavusetieeces 812, 813
SHO DUG fc os eisiss can cissinnd teimewiecegeseeetees 191 ya QUA canes aiiviciewicinrsa sia sin eeiSimaie sired c simed sens 703
Homarus americanus ...-...----- 020+ eens eee 781 Hyatt, Prof. A., on Florida and Bahama commer-
CAPCHSIS 2... 22 ewes cee n ee cee e ee wees 783 cial Sponges. ....-.---..... 846-850
Vulgaris ....--.02..2ceee cone cere ee eeee 783 generalstructureoftheSponge 9844
Home, Sir Edward, on development of the Lam- the horny Sponges .........-- 844-846
PICY. Seite wiancineaisiow wok Sa see swies dadeeeesineewned 678 Hy droid; Coralse..ssiccscecscescsesee snc etcecseen 841
HOME sc decen sacnaecwaeegcicicss sndeeseeamine etc 667 Hyodon alosoides -.---...-... ---2-.2---- eee eee 612
TRON Ost wisrorersertersit diats'-mraraiaisis Gatete “suvore SURI e eieiecwters 476 SClONOPBisinaiciais s ccwwatesainae dasdaesctende’s 612
Hooded Seal ec cecciaccieaictecieicinn vic eo oe secs towewe 65, 68 OP RISUS ies oc. scse's eaaiimainne-sceuidiwoes acd 612
fOOd OF. siessscinis oa oie wie etese edeidone 71 FLYOOONUAD. js: ci s.s eeccamscianseueaass stone cece 612

870. INDEX.
,
Page. Page.
Hyodon tergisus.............2222. 05+ ea sceeceee 613 | Johnson, Capt. G.A.,on spawning of Halibut.--. 196
Hyperaodon bidens.... 22... 222. ecee cence cane 18 Jornal. Cra Divs 2ocosane Sao Sne soca as ce boeseee 769
Hypleurochilus gentilis..............-22. 200005 251 affinities of ....-..22..-2--.eeee+ eee 769
Hypomesus olidus ..-.-...---2-..2---2-00- eee 544 distribution and habits.........----- 769
Hypsopsetta guttulata.........- 0-0. .20.02ee eee 185 economic value Of.........-------+-+ 770
Hy psurus} Caryl, tesssicisise veducecctewe-ed cae caaes 278 MAM 620£ So Fsse eeeen carer eseeeeees 770
Hysterocarpus traski ....--..-...022.--..eeeeee- 279 | Jones, J. Matthew, on abundance of Horse-Mack-
Icichthys Lockingtoni.........2.. 22202. 0.02 eeee 361 CLO] sic crecae coke sien Seees 321
Icostens enigmaticus ...-.. 2.2.2.2. eee eee eee 361 distribution of Sword-fish. . -- 341
PATOL yeerestieya ras <iwiass Su einalcitiee Siedaresm vase 2 361 pugnacity of Spear-fishes.... 359
MetalupusnssccieccicSs aie is daeeise cquonswesialdaiacs.< 626 OCG ancien aici suites penne aus mula warainde eareneleea 337
PDIMUSs cers ceeciacedeehinws Seed euismod 627 Jordan, D.8., Prof.,on distribution of—
nigricans .....-. 22.22. 220. eee eee 626, 627 Agonidw ........-.. wouteene 258
ponderosus ...... 2-202. ceenes cone coon ee 626 Alaska Pollack.........-.. 232, 233
PUNCIAGUS: 2. ccenccdesecnuciw.ecics ounces 626 Banner Pompano........-- 329
Ictiobus bubalus...- 2. 022. 0... ceo cece ween cee eee 615 Barracouta. 2222 c..~ cece 448
CAMPIG « <ic-ssebccuatiacon, suse dene Seka cess 615 Blue Pike...-....---.-.--- 423
cyprinella -...... 222. ee eee eee eee eee 615 California Anchovy ....-..- 612
CY PINUS |.2 2 auc seamaaisierd aac ciecacramecoene. 615 Conger Eel....-.. 628
EUS Se culos ses ce cclok Boh ee eneees 615 Flying-fish...... 459, 460
Idyia roseola .... 2.2.22 .00 coe eee eee eee eee en ee 842 Herring ...--..- 568, 569
Ikan jegan ..--....... i ieie Gacevnareeceneeee meas 338 Pompano ...-.-..- 334
Ikan-layer.... 2.222... 2 020 cece ee cee eee pees oe es 988, 357 Sardine........- 569
WV anassa 35st sees euitcian cae eh aeabereeaesenease 696 » Smelt...--.....- 457, 544
ODSOl6b8 ssais.s gnsas.e casateeeacetuceme srs 693 Yellow-tail...... 331
Tmperador:. . 2008 sc c0c cance cas ncecue sceceswece 337 Sparoids........ 394, 395
Ingersoll, E., on agencies destructive to Oysters .746-748 Carp family.......----.--- 616-618
on destructive influence of the Drum Catfish family ........---.- 626-628
on Oyster-beds...-........--.----- 369 Chub Mackerel .....----.- 303
on interference of other animal life Corvinas and Roncadors of
with Oysters.........----------- 748, 749 the Pacific coast. ..... .. -378-380
on Oyster culture.............---- 732, 733 Dolly Varden Trout......- 504, 505
Inland Alewife ...-.. 22.00 0200 cece cee ee ee ee eee 594 Flat-fishes and Soles of the
Inshore Cod wz wees az eexaweswsdedsvccimces ecec esse 201 Pacific coast ...-.....--- 184-189
Isogomphodon maculipinnis........-.-.-..----- 672 Fresh-water Drum ........ 370
Isophyllia dipsacea.............. Se eee 841 Hag-fishes .......--.---.-- 681
Inland Alewife.........--. 594
King-fish........---... were 316
Little Tunny..-...-..-..-- 322
Log Perch ......--...--.-- 417
Long-finned Tunny...-...-.. 320
Mullet in California....-... 456
Parrot-fish ........---.---- 275
Pacific Bonito.......-....- 319
Tom Cod ..--. piste tea 223
Jackson, J. B. §., on Sperm-Whale grounds. ....-. 8 Pike Perches...-.....-.--. 417
Jacobs, Solomon, on migrations of Mackerel..... 287 Quinnat Salmon ..--..-.-- 479, 480
Jacoby on discovery of female Eel ..-.......-.-- 636, 638 RatASD csi: secant 662
the external characteristics of Eels .. .644, 645 Rock Cods of the Pacific. . .262-267
natural history of the Eel..........-. 652-655 Trouts .......-..-.-- 267, 268
search for young Eels .......--...---- 646 Salmons of the Pacific. .... 474-479
Jelly-fish, food of ocean Sunfish ........-.-----. 169 Bai ger. cocce ees cess ods 424
J oll yafishes seine sin oeole Sk eae atom cd eantoes 841, 842 Serranoid fishes of the Pa-
J OUI OF as ccovarcrsiaistere’s aie: siatarnions siatarere sthegci oe Htateicie esters 617 cific Coast...-......--..- 413
SOWPDSD, fx oi cieiwin ciaicisise es oieseiors te creraratartiarstonere dteicid's rele 413 Sharks of the Pacific Coast.674-676
name for Black Grouper ........---.---- 411 Sturgeons of California.... 662
Tarpum. 50. asecsen:sawaiee soe 611 Sucker family....... .....- 614-616
JOWCL-LOA wieieccin aeicig eeinice sineitis sere cisisisie cineivias asc 370 Sunfishes and their allies... 404
JOG ROCK OR sca wis ots: sicie Steie stra ieintev nya dieieis eisinin Miniee siaias's 774 Surf-fish family..--.-.-..-. 276-279
JOH: DOry serine: sess oe ware beteieiersie pee Seek see en se 335 Surf Smelt.... 2... 222. 22. 544
name for Rose-fish .....-...---------- 260 Sword-fish --.....--...-.-. 341
VORUNY? 2 seis vaenaesodaciqecls ween vie be qoresecdas 259 Tile-fish family ............ 361
Grindléissssonecs sktene sabecensisceeeccen 658 Wall-eyed Pike............ 417
Whitefishes ............... 541-543

Verde sieesiesdcemaede tetiene cockwasieetes 413

INDEX. 871

Page. Page.
JOTOHAMO nes ewiewscisrissubenn esses veisiclesine ssc ssss 322 KN Pphis lee ic nia sein dnis oaersiarmnninemaiccicd sec ntemieaenls 200
Josselyn on the Alewife, 1675............ 2.2.2... 583 Knife-handle ..... 2.2.0.2 2-020 cnen seen cece cee 707
size of Mackerel, 1675-........... Deets 299 Knight on food and feeding habits of Green Tur-
Joyce, Capt. Hanson B., on migrations of Mack- ClOS) secigigasasuccase aasehiiecaees 151
OVO oiaasa.cipraicisienciz antiga deisauarmeneme Carecoenaoemreoaects 288, 289 habits of Yellow-bellied Terrapin...... 155
DUDA OE ss. 5a55.0. 2 51diaiasn cram ooeraboeeneeee: dpuicigeslemtnes 29 Rois: Blow etissesee ase serieened semerecesewscoes 11
JUDATUOS so emacs iis oooh eens ate dniideiglensdaeenes 29) | KOblerscccicsiscciee daewee seek cecesevaewenceseses 228
PUDAPENE? wa ciscn os aoc coc eomemecadeeedapens Seeeren 29 Kotickié: css sscese siaewa ss aecredesesecteecees 82
Jukes, Professor, on distribution of Ringed Seals. 65 | Krasnaya Ryba..........---00 secees wees coos sees 477
food of Hooded Seal......... 71 WP AT Dp jar eepcen cicieicieancisios tucisietaers Seenven sete eee Reals 133
DMMP cccacwsss Sigs ee wave masasnenean sey 401 SGI eID) eaidecsoia apcinieicicsamsicismieg sieSee Cale e ees es ais 476
JUMPING MAL Ob acu scimeaicewtiuceweuawsent ade 449 RUN A errin 5 os, asacsisieie: eamiaeicice miccntiemeuaesien e 550
JUNC: Mallets 3 cicecinincsersecckin @ubeedet seen ceeds 451 RR TA poco specs sicisinctprereomadarcmmectons Veeuaiste ates 501
JUPbOL cos aeiccicaicuns. awaws areseeeeseesd osc 29 Kumlien, L., on Lake Trout..-...---.------ Sane 493-496
Jupiter Fisch............ Rbeeeiewie oe: Sei ecisicieln 29 Muscallonge.......---.---------- 464-466
Wh elOecccmcesceseecssrc eset ce casicsceieas 30 PAUG6 oc cceinciaisinin ae Sette aaion satin 463, 464
Jupitervisch............... Bewieiiee cbsciatainaieieies mre 29 White Bass...........2..--..---- 428-431
PUTO] weds shasiecmnarsinss cecisch ace siseeise aces eals seems 324 Whitefish ..........22--22..02--- 536-540
CUDA snseiasceciccirwa ok cew see veusemasoasienaas 325 Yellow Perch........-.------ +--+ 414-417
QUPMC RA ts occ scien Henemeie is od cement loe ane 150 Ringed Seal .........-..-.-.--..- 80
Kabeljaauw .........-....-- reeibigatioceaaisaorseie seis 200 Halipttccccccucteesasiacscnneden 192
Kalleraglik. <0 ccs smsccisccicnccacecienenwascce aeen 197 Seals in fresh water......-..----- 59
Ka pustaike a's siecscussce:cdarvan coeuumecueciocec aes 133 Hooded Seal............--...---- 69, 70
Mas KOLO GS 3 sire nk ist duadccvosedieeceje saree etemerniiesrs 7 Ringed Seals ......---.-...---.- 664
Kassiars0ak . <2 s2.- noc ccc necsecccacacnece sone 59 Salmon in Lake Ontario .......... 473, 47
ASS BI AK 2.2.2 cveecebamaeiecccenwesmcecded calmer one 59, 66 Kuth aiginiel giotetoSereikici'etalsioiisieie Werclavecigarsicias 228
Kay Rob msc cu canosndodnceciencncmmde Scmeaeeacee 476 Ky ackioc socs.cinsieaineecitatewiceisheens theo denies 582
Mag NOG ccs dcdicomatetercmdeeadeenseecseeeconwes 7 Ky BWC a visisiciste sisncvoteresnisinieietnisic'c teins iaie ceva eisialigierste ste 582
Keelay Taw ai-.soawsseseeeecsmcet heeeenceciese 18 Taber an oie sicicisxsciciecrsiareinipiessieisiiela ginjn eve sista ereere sie 200
OC GHLG acts iciocesmaiereeinsdeiniernia eoeelimasuemanceceescreer 173 Lachnolemus falcatus..-.......----.--2---2+--+ 275
OB D16 6 652, ccicie wea cmaimnciercnebaign scowl de eisarerewatees E73) a) Dad FOr abs vsciccecisieiniewmade eeriewsesawaige vests 774,775
Keeithoky. ace. cctceus Sscvedsecien en ccuwesecce 173 DGG = fiGH a acs gsc ninnicisiore ra oreselesatareaats o cieieielsiwiaiateraig ste 612
Kelp Oradsccncecscsocteasdcetmaerannsesshececs 778 fama ¥ ic.w siatseupeiineiehesewseedeesvaeescn 612
Kelp-fish of California...........--...----.----- 275 Watayette cc secasiesaislensitubicc tenueieeexeucecee wanes 370
Kelp Salmo ....00cc0r cases edscinss cas sec ancien case 413 TAGS OTbOS: Ja sewiercxaqisiancisinoesteinee wees eae gas Sasicine 141
Kemp, R. W., on distribution of West Indian Seal. 67,68 Lagenorhynchus obliquidens ........--.---.---- 16
Kemps, Capt. David, on abundance and habits of perspicillatus.........-...----- 16
Milby. 5s ansccre oncaeid deweceein tock ease 452, 453 Lagocephalus levigatus ...-.........--.--+- +--+ 170
Kerato-Silicioidea -... 2.2... -.-0.. seeeee wees nee 844 Lagodon rhomboides ......-..-.2. .e-e0. e--e eee 393
KGTatOld6 A ccc rinctcmumessuviatucsdccsnmesenyas B44 1 Lake: Cushy cviecis seins cert iniseies-sniwet salemiea sina 236
Kerr, J. W., on food of White-fish........--..... 516 PLOT UN Ge on sors ciaiaie's seis sass Sigirersrepiciansieveraios “541
spawning of White-fish,..--..-.. 523 BAM OD ise so ieista icine winicinis aise eg nie sister oieiserersiciete 487
ROtUOM AW: iincice: estenwest eetexenie geclo euviecewmsr 173 StUTP CON eae ceewe ees wevecaweceieeailoncte 660
Kiel, Peter, on food of White-fish.....-..--....-- 516 TLOUU wiccisaevesescenay deeds siestac weriecaie 485, 504
spawning of White-fish......... 522, 523 Trout, culture of......---..-2.-.-----22--- 491-493
AMER: WHALES iniiscicintcisiaiemicier Menleqcerseiomsidemnenisie 12,17 CNEMIOG Of. neces ve sels cerwariemmaet 491
annoyance to whalemen..-.-.-...-.. 17 LOOT! OF winicisrecisindic onigie endive istersinns wiainte 490
destructiveness of...-....-....... 17 importance of.......-.--...-------- 488
habits and distribution of........- 17 TAMER OF win: c-ote ec ciciciciaicic osintie weleieiciaiors 488
eR) eee ee 17 principal spawning grounds of ..... 489, 490
Low-finned ........--.e----+ se---e 17 BIZO® OF saisiencisierscioise's wamjseiaiainsireneiees 486
KE Aighi: ia jaisienctosajniae asinine waves Slee eawreeieaaiane sie seks 466 spawning of ........ 2... -.-2--eeeeee 488
King Cero ne snnie-nciorisisisemeceenewsasecwedncesiscet 307, 316 varieties of ....--.--.---2 ---- -ee--- 486-488
Kang: (Crab isiecidseae siete srciceacicrsion ancien mictejarensiaisiaiat 829, 630 White-fish .... 2.2.2... {isa mierace MisipioiSerters orere 507
Ri MaDe coesinea cians eermiereie) isieia wo stal ajetereteinipieisyajeintals 375 Da ker sxeetsidscnces seam esaiesastesaiksiasleiste seieteio 487
name for Cero.....-.-2. .----- saeeee--- 316 aD ANID sassicyaroaicwaraiesiala aiming atossibnw sicie Rarsieisioraio 116
Whiting......-...-.-.-..-.-- 377 Lamellaria perspicua ..........--..------------- 693
Ring Hakei.cusicesscessesinsecdesseceess one sacs 234 Lamellibranchiata .....- 2.222. 0.0 seen eee eee eee 703
King Salmoniccs sc secas cowsis esi sale ewejiecine cists 479 Lamna cornubica..-... -------- e220 eee e ee eee eee 669
Kap pet seis se scseruce sisson meeeerereee ess deskerses 468 cornubica ....-..--- ..----- sapeigsess 675
Kisntch ecscsesncesienss de ccaxiesnens senccesince 477 Lamper Eel, name for Mutton-fish...........---- 247
Kirtland, J. P., on breeding habits of the Sunfish. 405, 406 2 Eel 8) sesso naucmeducae sabes estes 676
habits and value of Grass Bass. 407 Lamplighter ssi secs scene ceccdenceecesecie cisco 406
EUSP WAy GS wiewiawisiseinircmninasraeaioma cee eee esensd ose 69 Lam prota: sacc. cc awieceececcanieds ares asians vores 676

872 INDEX.

Page.
Lamprey, economic uses and capture of.......... 679, 680
spawning season of ...........-22.-.-- 678
Ham pPleys.ae2e ccs scscwe gees annem sivavederaialde cious 676-680
Damp MB 2s ec s cca ce caeu cuss ete ga ceuiaerre sls 335
Lampris guttatus..........0....22--...000e eee 335
DUAMPPOL\os3 sieicas see be tiger camaewe ge saserseerace 676
TeANCOMOTBY a2 cycccih anos us came smaicn esiceuics deere 681
Land-snails, edible ...-....222...2022 000-02 - eee 701, 702
Lanman, Charles, on capture of White-fish in the
Grand Lake......-....-. 536
economic value: of the Bur-
Ob cieecaeacese nace sacie 240
feeding habits of the Bur-
Ob 2 cccncncawesendinsste 239
geographical distribution of
BDAC sates socisesia cant cece '. 694, 595
on spawning habits of the Capelin ..-..-. 545
value of Capelin....-......-----...-- 546
varieties of Lake Trout .....--.....-- 487
A AING: assictndsnie: see anasiwen avaneia. arose ‘otecasce mimo ibih aiove aime oie asd 244
distribution of...-..---.--.----- +2226. eee 245
Habits Obs,scscvatascessscck ate veeee anaes 244
TOS OF sicis pints wiaiaia a unereiorerosaieia cd ciaree tieuke amaier sisters 246
TOE GPE WD Be os eiasare. sicietsnararsis: wiaseiminie sepa meiainievmiaiare & 551
Pad orcs Setecirsca qaiaeia cisieedhle eeu wae niamomsens 360
DSUWCE = cistsiis ianieiare pai noes saceanlearesbinacaee faci 244
Lavinia exilicauda ...... 2.222. -2.2-----2---006- 618
TUAW VOD isis oye ace canara sasaemmscaincinicidive ne oxen causasiecie 236
Leather Carpe. ..<cio< cece cceecdineceuscooceae-sceie:s 619
Leather-jacket .....-.2-.2---- 2220 coon ee eee eee 332
habit of stealing bait...-........ 172
name for File-fish............---. 172
Leather Turtle 2.2.0). 20.0 cvs cetaee cee ces ose eens 147
Le Baron, J. F., on mode of capturing Manatee. .124, 125
Leda tenuisuleata ........2. 22-22-2222 2e nee noes 703
Leoch, culture Of. .\si0: scssenseecaciscics sene sews as 835, 836
ponds, American. .......-..---------e00-- 836
structure of ....-...---. ieisieas malsteies Sear 833
M800 sce ncinesieias ronwenideeasemajecee seme 836
varieties Of n<. sj- nec sneescwnesicis cose ae 836
American, cultivation and economic value
OE sassy siaicte Bai Guteiaiois: Sivtere <tviaine 834, 835
distribution and structure of. .. 833
medicinal ....-....------.----- 833
European ...-.. 2-22. een 2 ene e ee eee nn ee 835
German on. srcresinie setcieraie-sie oS com sai cene nee 837
GIBY sae ecinsiclncincsys sisicn gjstsisen ceases: sinter 835
GQLOOD a sie. nicissseiteine cieteece slaw se scncanees 835
Hungarian ..........-------.------eeeeee 837
Spanish cocci sss goceeeassssnscees a0% 837
Swedishisess cic cgiiane cece vince seine cee S 837
Leeches....-... Sse josiee Meemoacecweeawatae a 833-837
TiC PAlGGY sioiacc:s cpoers ciaicieie = stntcartes seaakees ae Sceless 141
Leidy, on cause of green color of Oysters....-... 738

‘the living Sponge, in Ostrea virginiana. 750
the range of American Manatee. ...--..- 116

Tie-Kal sic jesesisneseis\cistalsvic sowie: gigcistecicicssesierecon 5 476
DO MATINUG os nemrasinaricwis apicia siewis eepoissesacecc 39
Leopard Seal...... 22.2. 2020. seeeee ence ee eee 59, 73

Sharks. ociosa35 weedeat ceease reese ese aces 675
Lepas fascicularis ........-.---------+------e2++ 828
Lepidogobius gracilis.......-----------++------- 255
Lepidopsetta bilineata.......--.-------+--++--+- 185

Lepidopus caudatus ........ 2+. .0-+-- Saisseesepele 336

Page.

Lepidosteida .....--. 2. 2222 wee e cece e cone neces 662
Lepidosteus osseus. ..--- euch: diemeeee amie sewe ee 622
Plat yStOMOG sn: agecasenrs one 063

Spatula: soni, cee keeeerienssiecee sacs 668

Lepomis cyanellus. .......-..---.------ +--+ ----- 406
PIDDOSUG Sac a peeicescegsopeasiesesice esos 405
Holbrook occ secs cewsiessicceveise ae 406

TWN UALS sentir rersusn eisieieiaie’ Steps: Sielels ginmier ee °406
MOPAOPIS oo wise cre ecsierasieeicct vine see'e' 406

MOLALUG cients ewan ease siete tse ees oeee sie t 406

PAIS: necrnsciarcisietdicinaets orca ciclo xe se oe 406
PUNGHANS:- asses pee aets poise Sis ce se Bettie 406

Leptagonus

VETIUCOSUS ast¢:sta Se Wiese Se sie paioe be Ses 258
MY OSLLNUG op oksa hese aratg gia elastin ge we in 258

Leptocottus armatus......-.-. 222-220-222 20-2220 259
Leptocephalus conger .........----------2------ 655
D6 pbO pS niccctice seca engeincdsncciee eae noice opis 626

olivaris ......-...-.--..-.------------- 626, 627

Lerneans, parasites of Sword-fish........-..--.-- 354
Leucorhamphus borealis.......---..------ .----- 16
PCPONI wiser wssoewecasuecsisinns 16

Lewis, on abundance of Haddock .......--.--..- 225
Libinia dubia .............-- ieee Scans oeiacineaeyyeio at 778
emarginata ..-.-. 02-22. 226 eee eee eee 778
Licnophora Cohnii...-....--...----2---- 20 seen 734
Limanda aspera .-..---...---- +--+ eon eee conn ee 184
PPTU LINED 5c cena sccivwee scesocnemcwnws 184

Roveh.2 jcssescstec esse esesaeenas ster 184

TG B25 2s ioue, sac eueaeer cen teen sed enetsenalees 694
Limnoria, Boring. ........---.-------------- eee 826

lignorum 826
similar to Boring Amphipod. 825
Limulus polyphemus.....--.....-...-------+---- 829
Lindahl, Josua, on periodicity in movements of
Herring in Europe....--.-.----.--.- 22-2 -ee eee 557, 558
Ling, name for Burbot......-....--.-----.-.---- 236
Cobitis ...2cecee ere ceed Sassi 444
Cultus COdwencencscomscs sane vane 267
Hake « wssesscdsicoxsveccouses cose 734
Mutton-fish .............---- 2-2. 247
Liocottus hirundo ....-..-.. 2-2-2 ---2 22-2 ee eee 259
i005: S08 ac22 acins ese sreasenesivicieeieacie Sceiee tees 37,38
Liostomus xanthurus.......---.--..2----------- 370
Diparididens osje's cacaecisncesceisiosceesie etem anes eee 253
_Liparis lineatus ...-.. 22.22. 0-202. eee eee eee eee 253
pulchellus s..--sisis. saseceeesemesseipeisrdsienise 255
VUIQANIS so cejecis acted onside soacesices S isieiate 253
Lirus perciformis ....-.. 2-2-2. ------ 2-22-22 eee 334
Libtle Dri ji ocincien gee a Sais cwiderueejsise Belisle 367
Habu ose eee yeweu set see eaiecetant's 197
ROPE 2 oc cciary sejnresciewis cece amstersceriste ares 579
Mackeérehy. oi «ci. seew ecm wiactivcisisieeacic aae:s 305
NGGK Clam (5: scicinic sinicis ee nateg.one onsmeiseisiesio 708
RRONCAC OF nis soe aenecieweeiitccpeneschacn Gees 379
BME ne sercise deine namone cumecicuremenaeies 457
SUDDY sos ccesie emia sinc cace de oeaseeees 322
DittOrNGisc ss ee amcanis-cinseccenis Veieteaeeecnnnae ace 693
Ljungman, on annual migrations of Herring
BChOOMS:. sis Gans ce gee dece nese 555-557
geographical distribution of Her-
TU Picea sevice cemeaincvanscgins ciate 551, 552
migrations of Herring . ........ ..552, 553
names of Herring......-.--...... 550
LOb-KOHNG . 22 coe sc tewiseen sees ociie ween eeiee cine 228

INDEX. 873
Page. Page.
Lobo marino -..---. ..- 22-200 ceeeee ceeeee cee eee 48 | Loggerhead Turtle, distribution of......--------- 147
Lobotes surinamensis........--2-.-22. 2-0. .220-5 444 economic value...---.-----.- 148
WHO DSUER. 6.3 eS ciasyos weitere seems aceeeeee tens 780 000. OF we scisesctese seen wesw ss 148
AMET CAIs, boo deiieee: dece sce seedee cea 781 rate of growth.............-- 148
NAME Of 5 ss ssse Soesee ee ceces 783 BIZGIOL, sacnenrccce c amiene Botees 148
Berried: ys iscacaee wee odes ee see ecclesia 783 Loggerheads ....--.. 22. ---- 22 cece ee eee eee 147
Black sesaceasaess dhcmtviesisisce sed werceies 783 Péaléi, cfosis-cosecets Slbcqcdemeedease sea 349, 687
European, development of ...........-.. 802-804 | Long-boned Shad ...... 2-222. 2202 cece ee eee eens 279
distribution and habits of....807-811 Lone Clam. iscoss gost seiek gielee sists. te weenie as 707
ROCK scent cece teccae Soesaeacoeneree' 780,783 | Long-eared Sun-fish.........--.----ee-ce0 eeee-s 406
SCHOO 6.s5 nce dacosamuineeiacece See hkes 783 Long-finned Sole -...-.--.. s--2-. -2-2-- eee woe 188
Softshell oc sccce sat nusin-sceewe ses eee 783 PONY suisiggssaioewexeiece Ekin ciseee 320
DPIMY. 2 srsrecieicess-trnsibee wSanicesse ames 780 Long-nosed Gar-pike .......- -------------- +--+ 662
LObSteTE since once cians necinines seicew aac eeedoewce 780-812: |. Look-downsiiensncssese veceos eee ownescestoeces 323
association of males and females........ 789-790 Lopholatilug chameleonticeps .... ------------- 360
average size at present....--.....-..--- 783-784 Lophopsetta maculata...........2222.2- 00. eee 179, 199
bathymetrical range of................- 787 WiOGD sjeaece Padi sp che sce anand seittversenessoaeee a: 236
casting a claw...-......0-------- 2220+ 805-806 Lost Salmon sie). 2-22 tonnes cccosteeses eer eweecc 476
character of the bottom preferred by....787-788 | Lota brosmiana ........-.-. 2.20. eee--2 eee cere 236
COOP OF oi iccsiwe dens anos Seeeeedesnosaess 785-786 ANOTNA bax: scisceeced seeasedceSetincecseeseese 236
composition of......----- 222-2222. eee 811-812 WMACWLOGA caw icin iecdas. die ciscied simajeatiaasaere sain 235, 236
decrease in size of........-.--..2-2- 2-5 783 enemy of Alewives ......-...---- 592.
deformities and diseases of.....-....... 806 VMIGATIS- 2222 ssgnics ohaccn secs ewiecse ale eeas 236
designations of spawn of -..-.-..---..-- 798 Low-finned Killer-whale..............--2.e+---- 7
destruction by storms.........-...22.-. BOF | Wtieelo: .jeccs snccedceseccisaccrsccs nose scce- emia 462
development of the young.-........----- 979 | Lucioperca borea, .... 2... 2222 cane cece cence eee 424
distribution and geographical range of. .786-787 canadensis.......... wees eee cee e tees 424
eNeMiOs, Of os sass s eee eos ce cee ceed 806-807 PESO Bic. 2. oe oiseaalcnescenccocmses cose: 424
extrusion of the eggs, etc ...-...--.---- 798-799 | Lump-fish.........2--20 ce -222 ence ee cee eeeeeneee 253
£000 Of secciweceee ces nceeteuesaacenane 804-605 distribution of ...... ..2-2. 2-2. seeeee 254
in fresh and brackish water ....-......- 787 Duimip-stekers «22... cee cme esseie wis co ndaciced sacicies 253
growth, shedding, etc., of..-........--. 791-794 | Lumpenus anguillaris -..........-..-2----2-0--- 251
habitats while spawning of .-.-.....--- 797 | Lunatia grenlandica...... --.. ---- --e2-+e----- 693
lar gerescedinss cen chauwotestdoatam sean 784-785 NOLOS ies Set eeeoceet essa tees case sees 693
migrations of.........-2.2.---02-eeeeee 788 H6POS wos aesieceeseiececicocerentsigenin cee 700
movements of ......-.2..-2--..2-200-e- 790-791 immaculata.... 2.22... 220. eee eeee ee eee 693
number of eggs in -.....-.---.---.----. 798 DUD GO iio Sages si stcsewieis cisiste geltceie cisiesesesecaets 487
off-shore range of......-.-..----.-----. 787 Black uid dccrecose sane con cele sence aces ceie's 487
parasites of.......-2..2-22-e.eceeee---. 806 Racor: cy tone Aiiccad cacenepae cece aneet 5s 487
POAPING OF. oie secs ccetcesacis vecices © 797 SilVericsccereccacavesice soos ous aeectacneteees 487

rate of growth of...--......----.....-- 794-795 Lupton, N. S., on breeding habits of salt-water
relations and structure of............-- 781-783 Cat-fish ...... 202. cee nes cee eee cone cee nee cnee 628
reproduction of.....-..-. 22-02. s-eee-e- 795-796 Datht cine ce ceed awjtousis sawisis cebepeewseecwreice eae 147
schooling of .... 0.222. ..----seeeee ween 789 Lutjanus autolycus ...... 22-22. -.e 2) cee ee eens 397
shedding after spawning.........-....- 799 Blackfordii ...... 0222. 2020. cece eens 395
size of spawning..........-.-..2--22-.. 797 campechianns .........---.-02-eeee-- 396
spawn as food ....... 2.2.22. -eeeee ne ne ee 798 CAMIS occ wiaisasise ca cesis cies eaieeseicw sence 236
spawning season of --.-...--....-..---- 796-797 CONIC Sie wee ede cisss ciesicicle cammins en's sicwiee 397
transplanting the young of,..--...--..- 804 Stearnsil, 0.2 <s:0scces canines cesses cose 396
winter habits of .......-.. 2.0. ------00- 790 POLTIAUS 260 .secce vast snes cctsewccesies 396
Lobster’s Tail, name for Land Snail............. 701 Liitken on distribution of Sword-fish...........- 341
LOCO ve seieis: tsar sede ais bisibiieee seed Rigor cece eee 236 geographical distribution of Rose-fish. 261
Lockee Cod cc cccssssece vases ccbtcesic bai cwoeecs AIS: || LU 220 sesvic sa stemeriand sins sce cicein Seiten sees eee 462
Lockington on the Glyptocephalus zachirus..... 189 Lybecker on periodicity of Herring in Europe... 558
Hippoglossoides Jordani ....- 187 Lycodes family ......---. 222. ---02- cece e cee neee 347
Parophrys ischyrus .......... 185 DsYCODID B35. cos sin Soins ocic'd) acodee coetiesitee deb aties 247
Lockwood, Rev. Samuel, on habits of Sea-horse.. 172 Lycodopsis microstomus........-.----.----- +--+ 248
tongue of the Drill.. 696 paucidens ...-....-2.. ...--- 22+ eee 248

DiG0G ssterecie aienietin waseccceccs Sces eoceataaaese sass 544 Lyell, Sir Charles, account of battle between por-
WGdde- Wisk: 2.-2ccsocecscaewdercceesestiassecues 205 poise, and alligators......... 15
DOBSON, acc gcnicti ot\eas atateyeeeGle ws aeeeedncaciecsn 334 on habits of Cowfish.......-.. 16
Log: Perebs 22 sss 2arcces Gascesieseessoestaccacess 417 Lyman, Col. Theo., on abundance of Tautog .... Q71
Loggerhead Turtle . 1.2.22. ---. sense ceee eee nee 147, 153 spawning of the Sea-robin 256
breeding habits of..........- 148 Lyon, George, on capture of Lampreys...... ----- 679-680

874 INDEX.

Page.
Diysan Ger sins see szcescwce cenpacceasiceced vecaccer 261
Lysiosquilla glabriuscula..................-.+-- 823

Lytle, A. H., on movements of Branch Alewife.. 592
McDonald, Marshall, on the Hickory Shad...... .607-609

SHA ss caccedsecdend 594-599
Shad and Alewives -579-588
Macheroplax obscura...... ......------- easeece 693
Mackerel, abundance of........-------.------e6- 289, 290
and its allies............--..-----.--- 281, 300
GNOMICS. OF ssc. otusiosgowoscwtes cece sed 299-300
L000: Of. oars o.2e2 sewed bec ieeecestceed 290-294
geographical distribution of,.......... 281-282
hibernation of....-..---....22-..-2-5- 284
migrations of........--.---.-.---- 282, 283-289
spawning grounds of.
rate of growth and size of ....-.....-- 298, 209
reproduction of...........---..------- 294-298
schools, studies of the movements of .- 300
BGS cscs cay necees seems vaeroas cee sawe 268
BIG CY OO: Veoscemeninecews secegsciacee 2 303
Boll) vesnccederndiewtascotarenes veces 303
CHOD: a jaccctdeietseienoaeantos cesiies 303
PIB ALG: :c5: aise ciniars sin 0's sraiaciapnciesiad weweas 305
GUIdE:s = Soveikis teubec ut te senses tcicicice 458
Little .... Sogiiiwes caarseeese suse 305
Mixed. fo caseccntesecastnscsemnsemeane 304
Money ic'-.c- ces csecmGenscessecse cock 316
Shark 2sc 9 ss. sieiiew te staniglsaccecen 669

enemy of Mackerel ........----- 299
SKIP 22 0252 se ccgerocsedcteccedeteeeece °ABB
Snapping ....-.....---------- ee ee ee ee 433

SPADISD ooo occ cis tai ose sis iaweiad Seles 307
Thimble-eye ...2.. 22... 2-22 ween cee eee 304
Sinker sascse.odicc secu oases akesced 304
Wel OW uu sics..ccccke wese veeses sees eeee< 324
Mackinaw Trout: 22. < sss2 sccessswcces toes csee ces 488
Mackinnon, Captain, on Turbot in America ..... 176
Macomia nasiitay oxic sseisesxeces castes etweeneeds 708
SADUOND ss seinen seswevesereccsdeeciews sees - 703
Macrobdella decora...--.------ --- 222 cone een neee 833
MacrochelyS ..--.. ..0. 202 .--ne2 cee ee cee e eens 153
lacertina..- 2-2... ec. ees cocene cece 153
Macrorhinus angustirostris -.....---.....----.-- 72
LOOMING is vee sicse cose teieics viemieseiesix 73,74
Macrurida. ...-.- .-.- 2. 220+ eeceee cece ee eee cee 244
Macrurus Bairdii ......---. -------- +02 2+ eee ee- 244
TUPOSWWIG -2 - saine since se cencciswe cocwice 244

Macy Zaccheus, on former abundance of Sperm
Whale... --- 20. en nnee cone con nce ceceee 8
on the Scrag Whale .........----..------- 31
Mademoiselle .....----. --- 2-5 eee 2 eee ee eee eee 375
Madrepora cervicornis....-..... 22+. -.---- 02-5 841
palmate. cs ceciscoc ce. Somm wean sae eie 841
PTOLUPCT A cicin sniesienseiess dsiviccicicinw cicw'e 841
Mai gre... --- ---- seeene tone ee eee eee eee ee cence 368
Malacoclemmys geographica......- ‘Sistreseie daierete 156
HeSvCtr ll oicccccccceesacwcve seve. 156
palustris ....... 2.2. ...-+.------ 156
Mallotus villosus ....-...-----2-- 02sec eee eee e eee 207, 544
Malm, on date of capture of Cat-fish....-....... 250
Malma.... ..--02 -2e 202 enone eee cree cee ene wenn 504
Malmgren, on distribution of Hooded Seal ..... . 70
habits of Ringed Seals ..........- 66

Malthe vespertilio......... een ee nee newees cones 172

Page.
Maltheid ei. aise: aiamiecnsccnce ae oetaee oceieble selects 178
Manatee, names of...........--.------0+------- 116
mode of capture......--..-----.------ 123, 124
probability of extinction of...-..--..- 123
products furnished by .......-----.---- 127
size and weight of...-......---------- 117
Ameri an ss mss oar sees eee eee e eden 114
boundaries of the range of -. 116

early allusion to habits of,
by Columbus.....--..---- 119
Florida, abundance of...--..--.------- 122, 123
distribution of....-.---.------ 114
BIZ Of saypineni Sekidbs fae deasisl 117
North American species of....--.....-- 114
South American, abundance of ......--. 123
distribution of ..-..-. 115
size and weight of - -- 117
West Indian .... -......+.. 22-202 eee eee 115
Manaticess wiScccassce tek bade eee weetee teres 116
Manatus antiquus......-... ..2--. --2 2 eee eee eee 116
RUSUPAMS so cccersineseeeaie hte oeiecinceisi 114
dnorNatis... 22... .--02- sseees cece naeces 116
Ta biPOStTISi os Sc ceasie seers actib nies ciaciee-e 115
Manaty.....----. .---0.---- Peeeser eet ewana veces 116
Man-eater Shark.-...-.. .....-2.----2++ 226+ 669-670, 675
Manentine acs, jseences we sane aware Mase dé asawwaiee- 116
“Mangrove Snapper...--. ------------e- eee eee 396, 397
Manicina areolata...........22. -20------0------ 841
Manta birostris....-. 00.22.2222 cece ee eee e ee eee 666
Matis, SO oo oico:s cceccec ois nic tie) siemaraisien ease savin 823
SHTUWP rine n:cida vie oe nicvocniainaieisie soi. d Gee ese 823
Manan: eines c ten seceeecastccauoesgaade: canes 663
Mar, Captain Chester, on food of Mackerel ...--- 291-292
migration of Codfish -- 210
Marbled Angler ........----.------------------- 173
Margarita argentata........---...---.-----. +2. 693
CINOPCA) cise tesseweied tad meeRiee ceases 693
groenlandica .....-...---..-----.----- 693
Margate fish issn ssevescsecinewemaee seen siaews 394
Marine Tortoises and Turtles ........----..----- 147
Turtles, species of commercial importance. 147
WINS « vecsesuceeese sccides oseacseseress 831
Market: GSN socal seccae cesiecciettieciacjeccs rex eee 394
Maroona Eel...... ..---- ..---- ee enon nee cee en ee 247
Marphysa sanguinea....-...---.---------------- 833
Marse Banker: . 2.222202 ce siiacccc sencind ace eres 326
Marshbanker -:.:<..i9i0 cee eiersccsives cae svieisisie onisece 569
0 (00) ee ee ee 18
MareUitocseeis tomis cee ctseeecercaladevasion Sams Seeted 14,18
Marten on distribution of White Whale... ....-. 18
Marth” 2 sce scci cc cccenee eens cace eoessis! sine sen 236
MASOOK8 acca: nase seid cncacecewesec ccce-scine-ciet 370

Masters, Peter, on abundance of Mullet at Saint
AUQUBUING.... occ veces ee sewedis oaisisine sateen 453
MatajuelO se .:.<-cny sone ond wndawenwsecncccc sanicice 361
on the colors of Grayling....-.....---. 507
Mather, Fred., on destructiveness of the Drum... 368
Jelly-fish . 842

Richard, on abundance of Mackerel in
1GS5 sais ca cieectecceseweeses 289
extract from journal.......... 13
Maties -..-..-.. Pe ee ET Tne 550
Matkah..0-2asoce cacew seceecaccceesicent ese es 82
Matitowacca . 20. wee eee cece cee eee cece cece cece 607

INDEX. 875
Page. Page.
Maulrush. 222.50 ses'ssance sats, osicd tees eco sce 228 Mil@ktok? ssceesossicc sReea ce aeenecesweescues 62
Maximilian, Prince, on distribution of South Amer- Millepora alcicornis ............ --...e0- --e-ee ee 841
ican Manatee... ....-..... 2020 22 eee eee eee 115 Miller's Thums o's ice(s atseecewerisnctessesies cece 259
May Sucker oc :cnjc scat ccoes teense weeeosaceece 614 Millet on food and voracity of the Saibling...... 504
Maynard, C. J., on distribution of Florida Mana- Milner, J. W., on artificial propagation of White-
E68 nats etiocemsnaeamacane sen dersaen coum akinee 115 AiSbsssevaceasasosesssass oo e.020-H28
Meandrina clivosa......-.22-.--- see sence cen eee 84 the Chief Mountain White-fish 542, 543
labyrinthiformis.-...........---..--. 841 culture of White-fish .......... 529-535
SUN DOSS sic aeeg ye awislce we sineidiseteets 841 development and rate of growth
M6d1alUNS 52 ccna ss Seecictcinic etme 5 oGle Shem se 395 of. White-fish .....-......--.519-522
Medre gal. s.g:.crcccstea cesesswcisine euise iees wceex 331 |] - distribution of the Eel .....-.. 632
Meds 2...-sicccse i cececcisqsanonsinans seemine vente 841 enemies of Lake Trout -...-... 491
Moerhecht 22. po 5essesensauesssiens s Susmeta eeeices 242 enemies of White-fish..-------- 512, 513
Megalops thrissoides..-.....-.-...---+---0++ +--+ 610 food of the Grayling ......---.. 506, 507
Megaptera osphyia...-...--- 2.02.20. eee eee eee 26 White-fish ........- 513-516
Wersabilis saco3 cu se saccesice sa sces sn 26 general habits and history of
Melampus seccgs-eeseeu seewen i cssdwewees cascacee 694 Lake Sturgeon ..........---- 660, 661
bidentatus.......-..---. 222-0. seen 701 the habitat of the Michigan Gay-
Melanogrammus egilefinus ............2.-..--++. 233 HIG oss oswe cd weecesie Queers 506
Menhaden 3.2 2sc.0enicedenbscecasieesmns smasaece <e 569 habits of the speckled trout.... 499
abundance of........---------+--0-r-+ 573 importance of Lake Trout.....- 488
distribution of........---..-----.----- 570 improved methods of shipping
enemies Of... ..2- 22. ee eee cone ne wee 574 eggs of White-fish...........529-531
PO00 OF. o -jescicicinw Gorse cad ins sacwemcaes aes 573-574 the Lamprey as a parasite ..... 679
movements of ...--.....-----0--5 ---- 570-573 movements of White-fish in the
NAMES OL. aoe seca ca disc Gocis siemebeiceen 569-570 Great Lakes -....-....-.-..- 509-512
reproduction of........2--....---- s-0- 573 parasites of White-fish......... 535
MSOBOF: ..-oosie nee ecereauecmeessaeccoe 574-575 size and weight of Lake Trout. 491
Gulf ss ccscssstescneaecceeacecn coas 575 spawning grounds of Lake
Menidia notata-... 2.2. 022. eee ee eee ee eee eee 456 WT TOU bias cioecjen ed fandasnelte sie 489, 490
Menippe mercenarius ...-......-------------+--- 772 spawning habits of Lake Trout .488, 489
Menomonee White-fish.........--...------------ 541-542 Ministers. ou vine tase eases cicegodesesewlc cece 627
Menticirrus alburnus -......--. 2.2.22. 222+ ---0-e 376 Minnilus cornutus...--...-.-----2 .02- sees eee ee 617
Hibboralis wise ccsisacscic sine siete cic sceiciniwin'a 376 Minnow name for Mummichog .........--...---- 466
NODULOSUS 22sec aoc sieiseisighs'siciciciisinicse 375 ROUT wisi wacicins Seine vente s secioeeececes 618
undulatus -......---.----.+--------- 379 Minnows....-. qiacigtche Gia wiaters capre lanes Nias Ui awneiaeravaiete 616
Merchant, Capt. E. W., onabundance of Haddock. 225 MINDY? aiatntais x siete ieinloe es clacecs asiaeicinisrsae vite: ails 276, 278
Pollock .. 229 Mirror: Caip\ ine cciesieaarstolsinns Jemareisiniy sieecinis: aisteters 619
Cod-fish schools ...-. oe 205 Mish cup Pau Panne siienciscenonsinsieie nescisawiniesisinic.c 386
food of Mackerel ...--. 292 Missouri Sucker..-... ..2. ..-02- cece ee ee eeee coos 615
the uses of the Hake .. 235 Mitchill, on habits of the Sheepshead .......-..- 382, 383
Merlangus carbonarius ........-.-...---+-----6- 231 the Hammer-head Shark.........-.. 671
vulgaris ...... 2-2 ..------- diate taste claies 241 history of the Chub Mackerel... 303
Merluecio’ - 22 sicccec se scesjems cece ce cinscceis tenisiee 240, 243 Spanish Mackerel .-...........-. 308
Merlucius bilinearis ...... ..---...-. +--+ eee+ nee 240 Sword-fish ...-....--2...---.--- 340
MELUGseecececcsee eesdeciewscieemeeenien 240 Taboe nn siscisinelcesieccrc ae scjciojaie 269
PLOMUCHUGs ss sc secccesccsevns socene 243 Tautog fishing .......-......-..----- 272, 273
VUIPATIS: oe ccaseseeecsselseses asawses s 240 term of continuance of the Sheeps-
Mermaid-fish .......-.--------. eeees cee en eeeee 171 Nea soe aiaiseeisrersinie'ciciow: sine aias ay'eae's 380, 381
MGPOW si2'e o.0:5: 02 cies cine werk aeaeeEeseesasesernass 267 and Field on abundance of Salmon. 469
Moth. .c2: coccescossee ts cicesemenseeweteaneeae 236 Mixed Mackerel .......-..-.- 222.0200 neee eee eee 304
Meunier, on overfishing for Sword-fish in the Mnemiopsis Leidyi ....-. .....-.--. ..20---eee--- 842
Mediterranean........-.....---- 349 Mobilianer Terrapin ....----. 20.220 ------ eee ee 155
reproduction of Sword-fish ....... 350 Mobius, Professor, on food of Herring -...... .... 565
Michigan Grayling, artificial propagation of..... 507 reproduction of European
Herring .....------2 2-200 cece eee e cone 541 Oyster os ccoae.cisis wine cieie 720
Microgadus proximus .......----- e020 -eeee eee 223 Modiola capax ...-...---0. se2e2.-eee eee eeeee- 709
POMGOR: wisace sepccick sceesiceeeeses « 223 hamatus ........-...-2---. --eneeeeeees 709
Micropogon undulatus ..-.-...--..----0-- see eee 378 MOIOIUS ...-.. 2-22 - eee eee een ee eee ee 703, 709
Micropterus Dolomiei....-....---..--------- 20+ 401 plioatula ose. csieseccek sacessiece nese ace 709
enemy of Alewives ....---- 592 Modiolaria discors ........ 0022-2 .s-eee eee eee sees 703
salmoides ....-....-..----0- e--eee 401 MONAT A: Sccices ccictet cose aredc et weeee eeeseoatces 276, 278
enemy of Alewives ....-.-- 592 ‘ family vsesice-wciceiencew ences iseewsseceses 279
Microstomid@ ......-..----- Agsiievevewas eccans 543 Mongrel White-fish.......... wo Vetesweedecu<sisice 541

876 INDEX.
Page. Page.
Monk-fish) (Gees choc eloc ligase aides eeear eens 171,173 | Mullet, Roe.... 2... .22. 222 eens ene e cee eee cece nee 451
M18) 26 see secescacs dcx thee nddessdee. eeatied sees 169 DSUs sorties tctteaeesscaaseceeeses 449
MOM ab cevasiaike cater usrgecekseeuunutae vse ateedtees 269 S68 ic pcwicbrsecuises ei ses coeescaaesaesase® 453
MONI Sts siec sae toners Ste caeceeeaaie came views 173 Silver nc sida e aici aisiovs ios seam swiaescie esas 449
Moltsks 62.205 so. ccivicaselesus sew ceeeeseetess 687 SUE PO co see wd ei biat aie tinnis leita wanes s 449
OyOS frOMl site Sh oseeaeaiasie Sex cess 699 Wit ccccee Awesthasvesdcaheetasdesancian 449
shells for cameo-cutting...............- 699, 700 Mullets ..............--.. rain gia mice wica eee eueee%s 449
Wing-footed ....-.....2.-.2- 2222-2004. 702,703 | Mummichog......-.-..----- 222 e02-ee eee eee eee 466
Molva Huntia ........ 22... c eee eee cee cee eee 236 family: jve seeSeiwcduacssetiensecsse’s 466
VUIGATIG iat eccincicinenctaw tee seed cee wewSe, 236 BlUSASh SceeckGoesstacareeccseaens 449
Molyneux on Sperm Whale in England. eaees 9 Muraena nigra ....-...---. 0-22-02 ee eee eee eee eee 629
Monocanthus setifer .......--......--..2--22-2- 213 MUTSONIdS ce cccnaccnn anon sdseasadenescbedase 628
Monodon monoceros ......-. 2.2. 22-202 ee eee e eee 19 Murensides ornatus ....--.. 2-2. -2--------0- eee 251
Monterey Halibut ....-.........-....-..-.--.--- 182 | Maurie, Dr., on food of Sirenians.----........-..- 119
Mackerélic.js2cicnceeeu Sacks sacacewses es 316 size of South American Manatee. .117, 118
MOONY 6 aiidieci Side wcwict aoee tehewscunaectces se 541-613 Murray, Andrew, on Bowhead Whales..........-- 20
family. so saseina, asteciaecseeeaes<eeece 612, 613 distribution of Right Whales. 25
Moons fshiwiio: occ jcgectSaanie apawaseeweneneeee 445 Sperm Whales. 7
name for Blunt-nosed Shiner.......... 822 | Muscallonge........--.--22- e202. 2 eee eee eee 464
TANGO Of... - oni we ceas viens sess ciceeasaia 445 abundance of ...-....-----.----.---- 464-466
BilWereias sats k epee ea ee 323 Musk Tortoise........-..- .20-02 20-220 eee ee ceee 152, 154
Moore, C.R., on abundance of Spanish Mackerel. 312 characteristics of ....-.-.....----- 154
Moray, speckled. .-.. 222-2... 2-222 --- ceee neces 628 distribution of......-...---..----- 154
Moray Sin icatoca ciate esas eke tenes eecaseenes 628 Musquaw River White-fish.......-....----..---- 541
MOniNa2en5 2 fcisalt ids sco Sos Shes eee eeheeensaseaes 250 Mussel DIGGOR. s <.2: tase atisisesremersawiiedicusicnies se 31
MOPSC: .pcnisnicnseepelviscee them dee eesgeeaeeeee' 34, 35, 36 Mussel 6 ricci cis ewceae cusses seae scien ceced 709
Mortimer, C., on pugnacity of Sword-fish........ 351 MaGSiOf i ssieccis cera sie cadcmam ase, 710
Morue.. delet a vale Rei pada ee mecibadoageins 200 Mustelis:Cani8. cic oeiscipo cies cecisas ceiemicRbeene ne 236
ee eG ee sraeerchcrayejatnis alateles 200 Mustelus californicus ....-...-.-.-----.+..------ 675
M088 Baas) osiceivrs scieig cine ciainin a:aiein' ede weiss Rainis smn 401 CANIS) ei cocceciewenises Sacietnee smcietseises 672
Miossb tn k6t 2.23 22 2 sciousness oe gain wae Ge deice olen 569 MUSEO bic) aisicicpe si ceiclis dcinibiesesmieininic bi sininicistcisinicteteeidic 244
Mother Of Bele osicccis siseces sins eceecansiecsicies seis 236 MUSCO ER a iaina sic cccsaies Sis.n winiel winters oes oat Se creme ceeaies 244
Mottled Grampus.......... 0. cose ee eens eee nee 14 Mitton fil goicnc eee cseceninc seine tine sate encence 247
Mountain Trout... 2-2. 2222 eee eee eee eee ee 475 Myaiarenatian nics lescecccien sities tee ssiceeccns 703
name for Black Bass-........-... 401 Mycedium fragile........ 222.220.2222 22 022 eee ee 841
Moxostoma macrolepidotum...............--..-- 614 Mycteroperca brunnea .........--.---------- +--+ 413
MUCQUB 6 cnc esicscis ce ceins Hees eee easiedvesicceue seus 497 fal@ata wsces eas wae sneice cece case 413
Mad Bass ... 206 ...0ce cecees soccer cece csccen cece 405 microlepis ....-....----.----.----- 413
Cab nia oe ais arsine iocae sineis Hews siviaweis icicle einer 627 SUOMIAS. .sseiecsines sece Lecce eens 413
CRAB cou asc ceeaiecs as esdicaaetrdceie cee 772 Myctophum crenulare ..........-...---. 22-2 ---- 547
Mud-dab .... 2... --2- 222-22 eee n ne cece cece cones 182 | Myers, W.E.,on the Mullet in Saint Mary’s River. 453
Mud-fish | ..sisiccs csceiee secsncewesesescaen ste cies 658 My king: oo.ca- tibbeevedee peckeand Gasost eae caaases 474
Mud Shad acison csec cece acc ceiccee veces Scie gies 610 Myliobatidae:. 3.202 cenicsswescecicwsn see cnectcwcse 665
Suckers... -...-. cence ee eee ce eeneeeee- 615 Myliobatis californicus ...-......-...-...-..---- 666
Muifle Jaws isis sisiciene sasaicsiasicsnisieccisianieciee ss 259 Fremenville...........--2.------ +++ 665
Mupilialbula: cccir ccc a tecnsecsicesccioe vetic pele 449 Mylochilus caurinus.......-......---.---.------ 617
prasiliensis..........-------- 2-22. eee e eee 449 Mylopharodon conocephalus ........-.-.-..-..-- 617
Miiller, August, on the developmentoftheLamprey 678 | Myriolepis zonifer .............----.0----2 +2220 268
great Northern Expedition-.-. 129 | Mytilus edulis.......... Suissimies csgessee Siewaces 703, 709
Mullet, abundance of.........--------+---e++ 450, 451,452 | Myxine glutinosa.............22. 2.220 -2e eee eee 680
in California.........2-. .---2. s2---e eee 456 | Myxinidae.<< e206 sccssesscscetews secses coees cee
Eastern Florida.......-----..2---- 200+ 450-453 Namayousht. ssc sccess sasees warisceriecc cess den
general habits of...-......---...---.---- 449 Narwhial osjis ccna seccsesweracieicsic eee cans vaccies
movements Of ...--. 22. cee 2 cen eee cee eeee 451 distribution of
TAMNCS OF 2 vis 'o. ercssccte ed Sissslcininsie-walee'nig oie sic 449 size, uses, &c
in Saint Mary’s River.......--.-----+---- 453° | Nasbulasisccice coed eeietesteticeestcseee ese tceees
Southeastern Florida...-..-.....-...--- 453 INGbICS: dees Séinees eee wis veae'va sw sesaecesssces sees
Value Of icisiseccevevsissesicisen senis ceuiecesc 452 CIANAA sh dened sciesieucies Socemc caeeeceone
Big-oyed .. 2... .e2ee cence cnnnee ceneeees 449 Native Cod)... cone vices ecme se ceca seaecasvaeetiene
Black .cicsssasseesies access taemwscs ices e 375 Peal casesucecciceancascce cote seteiaceeee as
Pat) 253 votsasavcdecsons scenew seeeweses 451 Naucrates ductor
Pinger s c.c tse ese eotsecsca sees seveweenes 453 | Nautichthys Genlotesoiaws paGecdedescegieeteneed 259
Jumping .... 2.2. 20. wees cece ene e cen ee ee 449 | Needle-figh ..ccc0. ceed cece s ctaweeeeeesasecaes 458
June...... Pads Beals Eide cee cncsceeeweces -. 451 | Neill, Mr., on the Mutton-fish......, .... see. sees 248

INDEX. 877

Page. Page.

NG1GSOK ics es.c esate rasedesacienss Seleibiecis «aes 65, 66 Oligoplites sanrns......---. .-22 seceer cneeeenees 332
NGJOU G20W eee pseesia Secseeeseceosesecseeesies 676 Olivella biplicata.........--. 2-222. eeeeee cence 699
Nelson, E. W., on the Blackfish of Alaska ...... 466, 467 AMA 2.50 sss Seccecessecaemecenoenee xe. 699
Neoclinus Blanchardi.........-......0.22. 0000-5 251 PTACIISis020-00. 2250 sescwe cecateaseseses 699
SabiTICNS.<20se00e4erueseessecar sense es 251 Oliver on the habits of the Lant.........-..--..- 245
Neoliparis mucosus .......-...-.- ig Oaiesdics aieaeeniee a 255 Ombre Chevalier ....-..-----.-- 2-02 -- eee eee eee 501
Neptunea despecta --.. 2... 220. 20s eee eee eee 693 Omwmastrephes illecebrosa ....---...-.-.---.---- 687, 690
Nereis limbata........-.-. 222 cece e cece ee eee 832, 833 enemy of Mackerel -.. 299
VAPEDS np ccc i cece tse ne Sees re cacesecieience 831,833 | Oncorhynchus chouicha ....-....--..-----2--++- 479
Nerimartout..---- 2.200. ..222. ce eeee cee ee cee eee 69 gorbuscha........---..---------- 476
NOUN SHES 2 aoc cian <n. cine dae nace vaweesnne ses 676 RObd: ccicean svcuen scesws voesen cues 476
Neuniatigel...-cc.s0c0-ccontntn vention ee guoaeeces 676 kisutch......2.2-0-+.2---- seeeee 477
Neverita duplicata........---...2-2. eee ecee eens 700 TOPE cass hincie ncseieeiewetoekte seas 477
New England Whiting -..............-.--.----- 240 quinnat .........20. --02 see eeee- 480
ING WLIGHG oi. cicisc cute aes seer dee scicnccdtcaeese 407 Onion=fishes:; -c..cc2sceesaccced dewcesm esse ates 244
New York Herring .......-.....-2- 2,22 ee00- ++ 579 Opah family ........0.2. 2-20. cee e ee eee e eee 335
Newfoundland Turbot........2-2. 222-2 222.--200- 17 Ophichthys chrysops........---- 20-20 .-2-0- 22+ 628
Nigger. Chub: scisie sc.c0:c eossewsseeeedecexes wens 618 ocellatus ....-...--2.-2-2-0 2-0-2 628
Night Cod, .2.-20ces0ecsssneseenesosse senevesss 214 Ophidiida ss acocscotciwenssdcencecenreteseasaens 243
Nilsson and Muller on Sea-Bears-....--.---.---- 52 Ophidium marginatum....-...---.-----.-2+--+-- 243
Nine-07@ 222 0iee ons xv cae vex ee ncdsovseee sc ecees 676 WAV OT 5 -ises sosven sricedaeeieseweess 244
Nipper voce scee cecudiscemsinwsesseeewen e eoees 273 Ophiodon elongatus ...-.. 2-2. see. ---- ee eee 267, 268
Nordenskiéld on extinction of Rhytina..-....-... 135 Orange File-fish .-.-....- 22. .1 222. cee e ee cee e ee ee 171
Norris, Thad., on beauty of young Salmon .....-- 472 RROGKABD 3. ociajs coisa seen a war acgeeeceieens 265
habits and size of White Perch ..-.. 432 Orbicella annularis...-...-.--. 2-0-2. 2-2 ----e- 841

manner of fishing for Sheepshead.. 383 CAVEINOBA ...--. eee wees cee eee eee 841

the size of the Salmon ............ 473 OLCR Atle soi cise gate ch sess wesw scedateeee 17

North, Christopher, on the ‘ perfect fish” .....-. 473 Gladiator-42. sswioseeccseceeeekeseevengenge 17
Northern Fur Seal.......-..--...----- 22. coos 49 TOCtpPINN9 oi. dons sseicee Sesuieinkecweer ntewcs 17
figures of.......--..--a-.---- 53,54 | Orchestia agilis .....-.. 2-22-0002) eee eee ee ee ee 824

general history .....-...---.- 51 Orcynus alalonga.. .... 2... 22-22 eee eee eee eens 320

size Of ........- 20. eee eee . 1 MteratUs s0i- seni sees sseevecsessnuces 322

Northwest Whale.......-..-....--------2------- 24 argentivittatus ....-......--. 2-202... 320
Norway Haddock ...--.....- 2-22 22-2 eee eee eee 260 PeOlaMY Glo ash saes renee cose weneees 316
Norwegian Herring .............------.----0--- 550 TDYDNUG pesca aeeige.s sis se eee ese siedis 320
Winter Herring ...........---..-..-- 550 enemy of Sword-fish ...--..... 354
NOSCONOUR6 io icscnie see sce sae see seems nee ewewnae 466 similar to Frigate Mackerel ... 306
Notemigonus chrysoleucus..........-.-------+-- 616 Oregon Pinner .... 2.0. 220 cece seen ee cou nee cowee 30
Noturus flavus ....-. 222.022 22. ene ee cece cee 627 Ormer-shell@ cis: csceiscessocls ccm Geaciseeese cases 700
Nucula proxima.......... 2.2. -20eseeeee cece eee 703 Orthagoriscid@. ..--.. 222. 222.2. eee eens cece eee 169
PODNIG' oo ccinies Helicase cigars Ose rwiciee sees --- 703 | Orthagoriscus mola..........-.---.222--22+22-5- 169
Nurse-shark.....-- 2-2-2. 22-02 eee eee eee eee eee 672, 674 Orthodon microlepidotus .........-....------+-- 618
Nye, William, on pugnacity of Sword-fish. ...... 353 Osmerus Centex 22006 scccee cease snes cons seee cess 544
Oar-fishise s sioe's tetaice sakes see edeweese ae shee eens 449 eperlanns ..,22 saci cose nave wee seecisess 543
Obispo Ray s.202ce0e. coves sees scence oease cose 665 MOP awn cies ccsnas cee doer dons cves cexs 543
Ocean Kingfish .....-.....-. 0222-2 -0-0-2 eee eee ee 337 SpiTinchds)..2..c225 scece sees esevewsees 544
Bun-fishes -<:2.105 sins see cswaws veeeess cecnse 169 * thaleichthys.......---. -.-.-.2--. .e.eee 544
Octopus granulatus ..--..-.-------------------- 687 Ostracion bicaudalis...........-.----.-.-------- 171
Oculina diffusa ........-. 222.2 eee eee e ee eee ee 841 \ quadricornis -..-.....------0. 0 ee eee 171
Odobanide® ...-..------ 2-2 -- 0 ee eee eee eee eee 33 UPIB OMG asics = Scie-sreiwininiS dinide dewic daew cea. 171
Odobaenus obesus.....- -....--- 22 een 2 eee eee ee 34 PHIQMOTED «2a seine ees ace wei ete eens 171
TOSMATUS ..--.- 2-02 eee eee eee eee 34 Ostraciontida ....-...-----.-----. 2-02 ee eee eee 170

Odontaspis littoralis.............--- iid enced byeie 670 Ostted, CGULIS .--ooeic scales onieeeeees ce cence sees 711
Odontopyxis trispinosus..-....----..-.---. -+--- 258 VIPBINICAs Fs.2 ee See omeeeiees cecaeece ees 703,711
Odostomia striatula ....2. 02-22-22 -2eeeeeeeee eee 694 rate of growth of...........---. 725-729
‘Ogilby on breeding habits of Manatees.....-..-. 118 Oswero: Base ee. onccesoaee te chiieeeeceetiee cece 401
the Sucking-fish as a fisher. ......... -446, 447 tala. cccpese ess sesso scsi esas seeeeeneces 37

Oil, Shark ic cccc0coeaseisen ae ce-oawe ogden seeeewe 675 Galiformiana ...004 2-2 sie cone see eee ees 45
OR OW: io cite dose siceinicle Galceieis <ourgiceemmsee rete 418 GUbata wis oes ee cs deceit comin’ 38, 44
Old English Hake.........-.. 22-22-2222 ---- eee 234 TOON Ales so iccaeisarwacrareners cemeniene'sisiete aesiats 52
OGM se secsidesccc ctaeivs scck sexses 2 aleyatsissiels 65 TPB vars isieo-e Saratarss alsiessis stejesete g's eieratas ongciony 54
Oligocottus analis.....--.-...----.----+---+---- 259 Obariess sais owe seiscisseresne.s\seicisl agar aesjewareeiee-a's 37
2010 CC) eee 259 Ot arid is. 5s; cas seddcedae guess Gee eeeseieecas 33

MACULOSUS «nose sxc see secee asec neces 259 Otolithus thalassinus.........--...---- ------ eee 364

878 INDEX.
Page. Page.
Otsego Bass .... 22-22 secees ccceen ceceee cece enes 507 Packard, Dr., on geographical distribution of
Oulachon se46..2525c5cx cee o ee bce veces & Meenewee 547 Hooded: Sealicisacacces senses sesecsesecsesensss 69
Oviedo on name of Manatee ..........---.------ 116 | Paddle-fish ...--.....-.---.-----+ --- 2-2 eee eee eee 659
Owen, Prof. R., on the power of Sword-fishes.... 345 Pagophilus groenlandicus....------------------- 70
Owl: Seaicss ssc sne seis choneoecenicessecccwees eels 254 Painted Clamd...on. js 0 00s ciccacioce cacsesscicesincsee 708
Oxylebius pictus ..........2022ceceee eeeeee coon 268 Palemon ohionis ..--...-.---.--..--2-2+----2--- 819
OS Steir s ce o28 zo ohowecane pacealee Sadie sao be a eee 711 Palemonetes exilipes ...---..----- ---- eee ene ee 819
Oyster-banks, natural and artificial ..........-.. 750-758 vulgaris ..---.-.02------ 2-20 eee eee 818
characteristics of .......-. 750, 751 Palinurus vulgaris...-.- 2.22. 2220 eee 22 eee e ee ee 780
positions of the spat in ..........- 751, 752 Paladins ccs sais wasiesecs csewaessegcee cae eden 694
Oyster-beds, artificial, establishment of ......... 752, 753 Pandalus borealis-...-.. 2-22. .22---e-eee eee nee 819, 820
cause of green color of .......--.-..-+-2 735-742 Dane vez sete sevectutcoweadeceseou seu 821
experiments at JeptlOeeres ‘iiniee ao 2 Scareecicce twee se Sewioes 819, 820
Washington and Montagnl 2... 6560s c5:0s siececiswiosicsviccie 819, 820
Philadelphia... 735 propinquus ...-....-----------eee eee 819, 820
characters of the larval shell............ 728 Panganaut Tamwock ....--.--2--- 222. eens eee e ee 201
coarser anatomy of .----.-....---2- +--+ 711-715 Panopeus depressus...--. -------- ----eeeeee vee 772
colors in different parts of -....- eiicioeaoeis ‘740-742 Harrighh ou csieesdovisectecetocle soca sicseas 772
culture, influences of environment on. ...732, 733 Herbst jssniciizersisisie: sivas sis.cie sieieis aicisiee's' 772
situations best adapted for.-.--- 731, 732 SAY est arsies siepeiereieictercle sg ceeclas wane since 772
discrimination of sexes of..........-.---- 722, 723 found in stomach of Sea-robin.... 256
early stages of development of......-... 726 Pantosteus platyrhynehus .............--.------ 615
experiments on, at Saint Jerome’s Creek. 727 Panulirus interruptus....-.---. 2.2 .-020+ ceeeee- 780
£000 0f 2 se shew vemecsitiindsinnsecee sie eeas 729-735 Paper shelllssci cee iece deters dp anidataselsaee eee 776
observations at Saint Jerome’s Paral6pid Boe. ccse ces caceses sereeebeeeeeeseeess - 548
Creole isk creas docs aoedioces 729-731 Paralepis borealis...............2--2- e022 eee ees 548
influence of temperature on....-...----. 743, 744 COPUSCADB : oie < cieveeecici wialere) seieis see vesee Ss 548
impregnation of the eggs of-.........--. 723-725 FAMILY oo seis sae vs ais ce rstsiseleiwis's oasis 548
interference of other animal life with. ..748-750 Paralichthys dentatus ......-.-.---.--.. 176, 177, 178, 182
local variations in form and habits of....742-744 MACUIOSUS). o5.ccce sc sce sees cee 182
manner of taking on flesh and reproduc- ODIONGU8 soasdnccat cacn Saekees ets 181
tion Of ..----. +--+ --eee cree eee eee 755-758 quadrocellatus -.......--. -------.- 181
methods of distinguishing sexes and tak- stigmatias _....... 222. cece. eeeeee 182
ing eggs Of ....---.---- e225 eee eee ee 722-725 | Parkhurst, on the Capelin ..............-22-..-. 544, 545
minute anatomy of .....-----------+.--- 715-719 |’ Parnell, on economic value of Cat-fish ...-..-.--- 250
mud and fry of ..-....--+ --+--+--+--++-- 747 on the Mutton-fish.... ...-.....2-....--. 247
physical and vital agencies destructive to.746-750 uses of the Lump-fish ..- eee 254
and its prey, mutual relation between. ..734, 735 Red Gurnard ......... 256
rate of growth of....-..-.... Sinise esis ei 728, 729 Parophrys ischyrus - ....---.---. ---- eee ween eee 185
sex, sexual products, and difference of SOLS PIS) seco Sse heete sss oooee yee 186
sexual habits in American and Eu- Vetulus 2.0 occ cece conn cece cece ce cece 185
TOPCAD ... 20+ 222+ oeeee eee cece ee eeee MAO |) Pata sacs ce ar cca ewe swe caaeelad eee eden anecacnc DDB AGG
size of the egg of......---------------++ 725,726 | Parrot-fish, Blue ........2..2 20-0 cceeeeeeeeeeees QA
spat collectors.... -...----------+-----+- 753, 754 Parrot-fishes and some of their allies............ 274,775
variations in color of ......-..--..------ 735, 736 Pasture school... .-. cee voce cone cece cece cues cece 201
the shell of... ..-..--.-..--. 743 Paupy asccuansees eseetedes Net Pee eth easel 386
young, food of........---------+---+-++- 3 728 Pauly, Dr., on sex of Eels ..........-.---------- 649
larval character of ...-..-..----. 727, 728 Peacocle- fish jos: osinac cxscvedscaceetee es cacnelns 338
Crab). se csiscicen note seecaieeiowes sceexe ns 765,766 | Peal... 22. -ce cece cen cece cece ce cccs ccececeee. 468
development of......---..2.--.----- 745,746 | Pearch occ cee ceccccceccccceceeccecccccccee-e.. 406
as a messmate and purveyor-..-..--- 744-746 | Pece-Buey.... -.-. ce. ee cece cece ee cece ce ecee wees 128
quadruple commensalism of.......-- 744,745 | Pecten irradians .......-.---..---------e. eee eee 703, 709
European experiments upon. ...--.-.--.- 740 islandicus ......---. cece eeecee cece cece ee 703, 709
fish, name for Tautog.........-.-------- 269 tenuicostatus .... 20... .0020. 2222 2s eee eee 703, 709
Toad-fish....-..----.----- 251 Peelerecriiss water ee cence eeke a daut Moss 776.
Raccoon..---- ----------++-2-ereeeeree ee "62 | Pega de las Agujas ..-........0 eee eeeeee cee eeee 446
Pacific Bonito ...--...---------------+ 222-22 -0-- ‘319 | Pegebuey ..-...----------e2 cece ee eeeeee cee eee ee 116
Finback...-.------------ eee eee ee eeee eee 30 | Penzus brasiliensis. .........202. 20200020 cee eee 821
Lycodids .--..----- -----+ -+-+ --eee- eer eee 248 BOtIPORNS Ese ewe ene sent Meteo ol ee 821
Tom Cod...--. ++. -----2 22-22 eee ee cree 223 Pennant on abundance of Alewives ............. 584
Walrus, size of ...---.----------+ 2+ eee 35 feeding habits of the Burbot ........ 939
distribution of ...-..---.------++ 35 | Pensacola Rock Salmon. ..........--.2---2-----. 331
habits of......-----------+-++-+-- 35, 36 Snappers ..... 2222. cece eee eee 398

INDEX. 879

Page. 7 Page.

Pentacta frondosa .... 22-02 ceee cece ee eee ceeeee 838 Phoca nummularis..-... .- 2022 ceeeee cece ee cence 57

Perea americana .... 220 nnn e cece en eee eee ceeeee 239, 414 Petrova scsicg cone sedis oscrecie Ding Sertaraicts 107

fluviatilis, enemy of Alewives ............ 592 PLOHOSCIMOA. .icwcx dewiecedeadeen'sscregsincle ¢ 74

Perch, name for Black Bass..-.........---.-.--- 401 VItWIND cca cjsjert cone cane soem 55, 57, 63, 65, 73, 82, 107

Chogseb....-2sc-esicsene vate wejuie 273 | Phocwna brachycion..........-.---2--00 eee eee 14

DIUM eo: eeeeseesscaneceseie sasiews 370 Phocarctos Hookeri...-....-------2+--e2-0 cence 38

Surffish <cnsseccsessewcn vecciew's 276 | Photid®@....222.esceusderwancsise tecees as eee see's 33

Blatk 222 scceseswvensncdaccsestioscecicaaes 444 Pholads ss... 5-..sesc22ensteces oo jase cices se otais shies 707

name for Surf-fish .......---..----- 278) |, PHY Ga a. co.cos. cc enmeeadeecasecemndpaseen teem eee 694

BIUG) eine dong Sea Sea eae Bee cdlereceecceace 277 Phycis blennioides. ..-... .----.----------------- 234

Chinguapim. 5 ..22sc 2a csaceice Seecice soccer 407 Chesteri we eee e ee ceee eee e cease eeene 234

Gray, name for Drum.....--..--.--..---- 370 CUBS 3 p'.2.2 sex ate.aye erareraicie ets coisio sein cjeiain sieia ese 234

OB i ataiasaitinte- ibid crmiaaye. einlataid a Sateemersieisiee cers 417 Barllitss sc ss Se nc sone wel Gelceeissaascs 234

PAG: < xiaeectee vy wm cinls abeicie obynete celsiies:<'e 417 TOBTOBS oo th.iaeieaies cents a tenas Semsisies ec ceieinilers 234

R60 2c csesiscsnsccinsas songstycs cocaine 2 260 POMUIS)-2. case sete teee Seie Boros ste eee cetaes 234

Ringed sncschudssecaseicneveevee denen ds 414 | Pickerel ........-.c0e2 cecceeseeeeeceeee 421, 424, 462, 464

BRLY OE win os sive wees eevecsiengae Seechauecstaete's<4 279 Broke wes sersienrsoncse tees ceeeanmees 464

Sacramento ...... --..---- s02e ee ee ee eee 405 GRAY shia nnd es cisicls: quiwinciel anelcibete desl enieins 421

ULV OR sivas cis eee ciewinins isa eieicis ae owes aapinee% 375 Daltices cons nuswesarmnewd euccisaswescan 418

Striped 2222552. scns ences as stecs aaa eee 417 VOHOW ccc cscs ie sinie gate ws sewitieewscases 421

White sc2o055 nae cddenasiaucnciecte dene 277,424,431 | Pickering .........------2-+-ee-ceeeecee coe eee ee 424

name for Drum ...........-------- 370 Pickets 2.25 csscsnrsonacisenes sede sacteesucweeecs 201

VOM OW 2st sacsasexeacemeveceecce sacs Sows 414 Piddocks...... 02. -20. 20+ ee 2 eee eens cee eee nee 707
Percina caprodes ....-.-.2- -0-- 2-22 eee ee coe neee 417 Piembo, Paul, on prices of Bull-frogs in Cali-

Peristedium miniatum.......--.--...----..-+-+- 257 POUT co:s.disisisidis dicicisiows vis vis ale cleiwiaipaeliesoecw'sics 161

Periwinkle. 22s cs2sedessscemosecuw sauce adaces ses 694 Pigsfishives ci eete cigs ro sdas Sak aoe See foes ate oe 398

Perley, M. H., on distribution of Halibut........ 192, 193 name for Sculpin ........-.....-.------- 258

the Pollock .... 228 | Pig-fishes ...---..------.4---0----- 222 seeeee eee 397

the habits of the Hake .........-....- 235 Pig, SnufO ng. 2. ce severe paeocieg crete beens es. 14

migrations of Mackerel.......-....... 288 Pigmy Sculpin..sccecoces sone cesevedscceces cece 258

movements of Pollock..............-- 230 PIG sic weeds se siecisisceiten vices ee ee ye tewisieeoneuie 461

movements of the Silver Hake........ 242 POAT Yas srciarersiacs < eich a ctcici seus g ctalaterglvieteimn qureisisis 461-466

names of Hickory Shad.......---.-.-. 608 Blue, name for Pike Perch ......--..-..-.-. 417

the uses of the Lump-fish..........-.. 254, 255 GEA" asic Ses eivie estes ae cite orate sls Sete ateelewesen 424

Permit cien/ ccc, wetatdesee betmcdes weass SHsiaes dome 329 Great Lake....--.. +--+... +222 eee ee eee eee 462

Pesee-spads, 010-2 <--saleeneresacce Haid eae wwe 337 Green, name for Pike Perch................ 418

Prete: .--cesiess tescae cheese cencse sees 266 GIOUNG «.. 40 ees viee secieey see one teense 424

Vermighia: .5..-.5.0.4-.skeeeidssscscsse wets 264 Nicholas, on habits of Spear-fishes.......... 358

Pescerey ...20. -cecne cee eee teens cece ee cece eens 275 Perches. cece cis ooee gesisee Hesceeereescwedes 417

Peters, on abundance of Salmon ....-.....------ 469 Sacramento..--...----------------------+ 6 617

Petricola pholadiformis.........-..---.--------- 703 Sand) oc ssccnee access geet esce Votes see ees 424

Petromyzon americanus..--........2--2 22+ e006- 676 SPAWH. coc tess Hse sacs scien ueeises Hedeees 421

APGONtEUS ..-.-- - ee eee eee eee ees 679 Wall-eyed, name for Pike Perch............ 417

branchialis.......-.2.. 02-200 --0--+- 676 VOMOW oe cecndsecne' ce ¢ veel sles! Re eicwdae sas 421

fluviatilis: .2....c2026...ceseeseecisccss 678 name for Pike Perch ...-........-..- 417

MATIDUE. <2. arceed mths Seeees esseee 676,679 | Pilcher .-.... idole ascmisbonies Cate op Sane ye eae 569

PIANOLE se. s.cis cess wind neo SEW te AES Vw ES 677, 678 PUlOb-fighs sects ese science Saintes seieeie se cis seeeane 330

Petromyzonidae ...-..------ -----+ -----2 eee eee 676 Whales: std agccewcids ce oiee sits setisr ache nee ll

Pez Colorads. cc cccjessseee dance sarsecte ses cece 372 Piltoele os s22 eceeu aeciessis diet iajiew lgjgu se Sremieeysretes 228

de epada --.--. 22.20. sence e eee ee eee ee eee 337 Pinsfishs saz es ciew smeiee ae cic, sees czescseesee sd 386, 393

Philine lineolata ...--. 0... ------ eee. eee eee eee: $ 694 Pine-barren Terrapin.....-.---. 2-22. ---------. 158

Phillips, Barnet, a criticism on the essay “ First. Pine-tree Cod ..--2. .- 220 ene ne ce ee eee cee eens 201

families of the Atlantic” ...-..-. ---.-.---.-- 282, 283 Pinnipedia ¢222-<cjssscesaaeeie ovine week xis casters 33

Phoca Ansoni ...--..-.---26 eee 2 eee ene eet eee 74 Pinnipeds «2.00% se ceca os svesisatens sev see sess veex 33

harbata ccscessessGcenbhes cinessieeceeece 65 Pinnotheres maculatum.........--..-------.---- 766

PYTONL...--. 2 eee eee eee nee ce eee eee eee 74 OStYEUM 2.20, --- 22 e e ee eee eee eee 765

CANINA aioe coscceesms ooeeamlaetme esis sea8 57 Pipe-fish, appearance and size -......--.------.. 172

GOrs abcde oe pipes Scicie se secmes soos haces 63 famil yess cexesaccaciey ed scien saceee se se 172

elephantina....-..-----.----- se eeee sees 74 geographical distribution............- 172

foetida ...--..--22------+- eee seeacied 59, 63, 65, 107 Habits veesaaeeices wees eased sweeecy 172

groenlandica.......----- -----+ --- 22+ 2+ + 62, 63, 65 Pipeshshes) 20: .-sesapcaescenscees ieee ooetees 169

Isidorei....---- +--+. 2000 ene seen ee eee ceee 70 Piper? scices wisseavestenesesecieneees Sos nck eeesies 257

Piscator, on Alewifein theSaintLawrenceRiver... 589

Veonia<seresosemnece eisictzs garcteee Semeteus. 74

880 INDEX.
zs Page. Page.
Piscator, author of ‘ Practical Angler,” on eco- Polyodontid® ....--.--- -2- 22+ see cece cece ee eens 659
nomic value of the Gurnard...-......--.....+. 257 || “Polyp. Corale .scnjec.oces encciceceetaseeenecue oes 841
PisGis J OVIG so e:e serene cain ca cuun secuseeeeeecinsaces 29 Pomacentrid®...... 22-200 cece cece ween seen erence 275
Piso, on the history of the Sail-fish.............. 356 Pomacentrus rubicundus .......-..---- ----s-00- 276
PIA CO cs cease discs daa oeee aeeeesoeaes fa arenas 176,178,186 | Pomatomide .......-2-2..-2-2- cee e eee e nee ens 433
FIGHELY: .n.-4 vee = nemsceeos seticwssee eee dene 179, 180 Pomatomus saltatrix ...-.. 2-20 sse2ce ceceee canes 433
Plain Bonito <:.scsoic'senis eeesenvarereietee saaeaass 306 Pom fretids. sascde secedeaeses eteate Mehind oayciesmes 335
Planorbis 2-14 su sescdveveocseesejesea dave sass 694 | Pomodasys fulvomaculatus ....-...---.-----+-.- 398
Platydon cancellatus .... 2.02222. .eeeee coon eee 707 | Pomoxys annularis...--. ...--.---.+--02+---+--- 407
Platyglossus bivittatus...........0-.-.-0..-2..- 274 sparoides .... 2... 2-22. eee ee eee ee eons 406
VACISIUS sov-essacewssece soos secwe’s 274 | Pompano, African .........-------2+---220 eee 427, 329
semicinctus,........---.-.-0------- 275 Banner's oj.) scnccindeedsccstissstt seats 327, 329
Platygobio gracilis -.......2...22-.-.-2. 02-22-00 617 California -----..-2.-----. +2202 eases 334
Platyonichus ocellatus.... 2... ..2.---- 22-0 -ee--- 774 CATON gs s.scic sesieiee tid sscetin waeendecee 326
food of Mackerel......... 290 Common....-.-... --2-- eee eee e ween 327
Platypeltis f6r0x 2 o:20. scsnos de weee ae keeeescsssicns 152 Gaff-topsail ..---....-2.-+------0-0--- 329
Platysomatichthys hippoglossoides.............- 177,197 RON sesces ssecwneersesacatetiescaciee 327, 329
Pleurobrachia rhodactyla............--220---e-6 842 Shores ascii se ssemes sasmemaiciscescsemes 329
Pleurogrammus monopterygius......--.--..----- 268 PomMpanoeS...--- 2-00 eee eee cee e ee cee nee cee 326
Pleuronectes glaber..-......20. 220022 cece e eee 183 PoOMpilUs) ssaecs os sescedaveciewdsincawasis stances 330
glacialig:s cco: ceeicesaedasaacsas’s 184 Pond Tortoises ......-.-..---0.-0---5--eeee- 152, 154, 157
stellatus...-..- 2-2. 2-22 eee e eee 184 Pookagen «2 222sxences caeacckenececcssseeees see 569
Pleuronichthys coonosus ..---. 22-22. 2202 eeee eee 189 Porbeagle ccs escciwic vec deci soesswevvcseeecess youd 669
quadrituberculatus...........-.- 189 Porcupine Fish, appearance, habits, voice -...--. 170
verticalis ...........- eisiwapesica 189 geographical distribution ..--......-. 170
Pliny, on the Sword-fish.........--...-2-..2.--. 338 FISHES «015 saie aie Hedin ese eesesle seis sesnies 170
POddH 22 cocessnnwecece seeescacrcscssosssss, 228 PODPOO o:22 see soedoces shee todeesediedase seeoss -276, 277
POCICY. we :aidis seisinieinun aerewtioweemcmearedaaasds cee 228 name for Moon-fish .......-....---.------ 445
POGUE wcic.cci. enewelitaieam Dimi detecetewageoess 228 ThHree@-tAil 2.0 5 2-20 e:s- sein gne Saws sociales ewes 445
Podothecus acipenserinus........-...-.-.------- 258 Porgies of the Gulf .....----- -----.-------- +++. 394
WUISUS . cic datiscicemueieelanneyeesece 258 Porgy, name for Porcupine Fish............-.-.- 170
Poey on distribution of Sword-fish .-...........- 341 Name for SCup nu sernceceiciccnine esenisieae se 386
movements of Spear-fishes -........-...-- 358 Goat’s-head .....-..-----2. 2-22 --- eee eeee 393
size of Black Grouper.... ......---.--..- 412 . Sheepshead...... -.-..---2. .--- ---2 0-6 394
21 White-boned ..-.-...-..----------202 ++ 394
387, 569 Porichthys porosissimus ........--.-..-.---.---- 253
367 Poriferata...----.-.--+- --- 22 eee e cece ee cece eee 843, 844
fasciatus ...-.----.- 2. eee eee ee eee eee 367 POPMCTSS oars wioe enjs.cie sis seem aed se Meee RutRe seas 843-850
Pogonichthes macrolepidotus -........----.-.... 617 POEPOISG -n cine a scicin ces Shae. eee tereseelncecneess 18
Pogy, name for Menhaden ...-.......-...---...-- 569 Atlantic... 2.2... .-200. cee eee eee eee 14
Moon-fish ...-..-...2..2.. +--+. 445 Bay --.- .-- 222 eee cone cece en eee cen ees 14
SOUP sce secies Gacewesecr cena: 887 Right Whale........--.....---------- 16
Surf-fish-....... --.. 22222222202. 276 Skunk ........--.02 0-2-2 ee eee eee eee 16
Poiseon! bf sees: caciecrnwieseciecjeisiecie ces cae sas eee 116 Sperm Whale.......-..---..-------0.- 11
TOUDS: sereet nis cv towee eerie etic vsceee 372 VOMETING scicis ews sa'sniterncesssmeaeavcwne 14
Polar Whale ........---..-- mieticicw ne Macaw tse 20 FOE WOR: asec:0 ccwiatiscieeiciscmadisias aarmiaeme 14
Pole Flounder sees cose scsese ce ccicinws oe ance ee 177, 178, 188 Pristipomatide ....-..----. 2-2-2 eee eee ee 395
Polistotrema, enemy of Cultus Cod ............-- 268 Pot-belly Trout .......--.-----.------+-22------ 488

Rock Cod....-.-.......-. 263 Potomac River, observations of temperature

BbOUtl soc cesnencs. ciiaees cers vecews 681 taken; 1861 a: s122 see cccetscecuseiecenwe'sis seine 602
Pollachius carbonarius ...-.. 22-2 .21.2--- 220-25 228 POthBk swiss. cocewieeempencceee ges cee teen od cmiaccens 7
chalcogrammus..........------.+---- 232 Potter sccced. ssa mereacnsaes sees s Hoes eehcese. 154
VATIGIS x2.2,c0 sineieva cess seeeex aeeeiaets 228 Pottfisch «sc. sess veesasvcoees csc cnd sees esas 7
POAC sce svesescesacceanasecs veae sans veiteseea 228 Pout, Horned) osce0s ese see eeeedesssese sedascaae 627
POWLWOGS seem sess chimes edertee ais coe eee seins 160, | Potviseh, :osnessevesmay cece tasse Sci ecsee teens 7
PONOCk. <2.secs sewsesersiacsaqcst axthetieetceseeen. 228 Prawn, California.......-.. 2.2.2. 222. 2220 eee 821
distribtition Of... .ss02 i cesse ese ee 228 ComMON ..--..----- +--+ - 2. eee eee eee 818, 819
habits and food of ..-.-...-... 22.2 -4--.- 229 Prawns, Deep-water....-.----------.----. .+.-- 819-821
reproduction of ...-...----.----.--2205-- 230 Preéstleccunuensanis ss seehs nes Stee se occa vac seuss 6 475
USCS) OL. 2 sig segs eos eesiee decease 231 Prick@..2 cmos aniemsauetie ies Sawa ticees seme eee : 676
TOW siccsiceoty seaetecce Sole eee ness. 228 Pridvisssce .cehbemesasoeesien ees ce esd deceaed 676
POLY WOM 5 ccis disse o:acie cies nie Sins caine seein ae-we sie 279 PRG. ccueeuseeneets Ghana aue bist Vartan cenaien& 676
Polynemus octonemus .......--. 2-22 ee eee eee 279 Prinkl6: cscecseet sew saswsseisws saecee en csaceccecas 228
Polyodon spathula...-.......------2---2--.0 e+e 659 PLiGhOUUS) wiciscavwswssiea se werscewon sinmacsetecew toads 955

INDEX. 881
Page. Page.
Prionotus palmipes ...-....-2-.......2-2..-0000- 255,256 | Raed-fisk..... 02.022. ---- coos neon eens beicsae ott 261
stephanophrys .......-.--.....-...--- 258 Ragged-jackets. .-.. 2-2-2. 2-2. s-e-e0 eee e cee e ones 62
strigatus....-. 2222.22. eee eee eee 255 | Raia binoculata 667
PTISGIOS: 22izelcniedes pee e kites Shewunin barccmlecas 667 NOL Aba: soe. ee esieesies geese cass Lose see 667
Pristipoma Davidsoni ............222. .eceee caee 400 Tee Vis eee cece dese mat ede nace ae 667
Pristis pectinatus....... 2.002. 22. eee e eee eee eee 667 Ph tasters esosiacceccca- cece dese dese cose cece 667
Promicrops guage .... 2.222.222 eee eens eee ee ee 412 C2913) OB 1 6:91. ene 667
Prosopion Couesii -...-.---- 222. .ee-ee eee ee ceee 542 FRAN Bie ympseicas oo iene de Boage Sieieele cee weinaae aes Geese 664
PsevtlCh thy: sui ce 2% visio vewian pe aceeuc capasse ace + 186 FRANCS 5 ccaciseeie sens oasis eeseenteeee nociaee eeeies 666
‘melanostictus ......--. -..-2-. 20. 186, 187 Rainbow Trout ..--.. .--2- 2-2 ee eee e eee eee eee 475
Pseudemys concinna...... 22.22.2222. ------ eee 155 Raleigh on the Alligator.........---.----------- 141
ClOGANS ..ccecercesecestsewesceses.. 155 pugnacity of Alligators...........--- 143
hieroglyphica ...-.....2.. 22022. 0e00- 155 | Rana Catesbiana ...........2.2.22cne eens eee 159
mobiliensis..........---.----2. 022-2. 155 i esculenta...-....-------- fare te Samebash 161
SEULOSS 26 < des nine salen seis semcies seas 154 TROD DONS cc arais di nieraw wit nae tit ediaiminie die seins ceroea eure 58
SCBDTS 250s occas vewisen wesc sence 155 Ranzania truncata... ......2--- ee. eee e ee eee ee 170
TrO0st s..1025 doen see doer seed said. 155 RRASDEL 3.26c,ccisoeoe ccc nin Some sswwnsnnnwelaeioe ies eis 265
Pseudo-harengus...-..-..---.-- 22002 eee ee eee ee 580 Rat-fish of California -...-.....-22.2-2-0-2-.-24- 662
Pseudojulis modestus ......-.-...---------.2--ee 275 Rathbunn, Richard, on Crustaceans, Worms, Ra-
Pseudopleuronectes americanus ......----..-..-- 182 diates, and Sponges......-....--- 0-2-0 eeeeees 762
Psychrolutes paradoxus..-.-..--.------ +2. --+e- 259 Reatetal BID. ois aie siewisiesesisisie scimaies ener weet 244
Pterophryne histrio......-. 222.222. eee eee eee 173 Rattle-snake’s Tail ......-..---- 0-2-2 eee eee eee 701
Pteroplatea maclura.....-..-....2--..-.+02.---- 665 | Rauning Pollack..........2..2222.cccceeeeeene ee 228
MarMmorata sce suciens qos ewes "666 | Raw Pollock...-...----.--02-ececeeesnenee eeeees 228
Pteropod an. ¢.ceiiveceoe sccee sys esse seen skies wee ies 702 Rawilint Polak: -2 2. scsi, c0e <ccs-ccieic cencmscaicces 228
Ptychochilus Harfordii.....-...----+-.---+--00+: 617 Ray, Bishop........-...- de eviiaoibrmapsiaiartiin madaceice 665
MWIC1US ozo. ce ca acicacicdcion ceeticn'e Serer 617 BiUtterily.ssocssost cece caessaae se oweews 665
oregonensis .....-------------+ we0- 617 Eagle...... .. odeepdemeeemaecne amaceataniicids 665
Puckermouth........2cceneccsccesc seen vecnes ances 178 Sharp-nosed ........-.---- ------ -e--ee Sida 665
Putt fislis <i aig cc uence dai secewaaet deeaiin nawiaselsnae 170 MUS bing a) scras oe ceusiovaadioess oseeaeeeasee 664
Puffer....-.-- Land sora eviciahatalas daneoiomec eects 14 | Razor-fish....... Minauscaucaraeceouemesnees Lecce 707
PUPPGRS aicia: 25 tcieig Gsiatnia's wiclaje-sioisies a Siete sailors momew ates 170 Razor-clame co2es elec ee bsctace aces cove ccencees 707
Puffing-grubby .----.-----.-.-- edveo cseeeseaeeS 258 Razor-shell ...-...... 2.22. -2ee eee e ee cece ee eee 707
Pug-nosed Shiner........ 2-22. 2202-002 2s eee 322 Red Bass, name for Red-fish 372
Puit Aal ....... Pica sieierpibleis web Sletasaiee Sate eects 247 Red-bellied Snapper...--.....-.....222--5 410
Pumpkin-seed ......---. 2 eee cee eee eee e cee eee 333, 405. Terrapin onde 154
Puncturella noachina......-.--...22. -+-----5-- 693 RedsCrabir. te scdd scniesanaasGcdete eausckaces 771
Purchas on American Manatees .........---.---- 125, 126 Cush Lanny. sie so sajeiecivetees sae maeelecs seme 244
Purple Shore-crab of Pacific coast.......-.-..--. 765 Dae@nzaiwavsdecs casa ieaiinle Semiosceeceeeis 617
PULpUla jcc cc wcicese Soon ceieeeeestecnie Goes amie 698 Drum...--. aisles SRM ee Cicinis arses cnewesicaes 362, 371
YMA PUG =o ctais saints ciiaics ciclerve oer ois seats 2 693, 699 Reds@ yan wees ae ssces aicciccawincccin sce nae sececiene’s 404, 405
Puysegur on cause of green color of Oyster...... 738 Redstenderssaccwsizis succes tecesces ven ticaneccune 154
Pygosteus pungitius -. ......---. +22. 2-002 ------ 338 GG OM dis a san serie setoes vrett seinics see cweeled ce 617
Qushau er ccc coc sceigoccegigice vaciocarace et sees 708 Redaish sxeneevedessadiss seetes cise cece cenceen ces 371, 372
Qualoch...........-.--. \ce te rece cee tee eee eee eee 476 of California ......... see Aece aedaderee<% "295
Quassilabia lacera...-.. 2... 220+ ceee ee eee e ee 614 name for Blue-back Salmon...-......... 477
Queen-fish ..-.---. ---.-2-- 222+ 22-2 ee eee eee ee 380 Rose-fish...--. 2.2. ..2.0.----- 261
Quill hack ces vais: vsieis Gio o sein eigeiis tacielsis wes w'setiee 615 Southern....... eG Rabel ceed tenetecees 372
Quinnat Salmon... ..--.----- ee. coon eens eee e ee 479 | Red Grouper.......--.-.-------- 2222-222 eee-e- 410
development of....-..-.-..---.- 481, 482 Gurnard...... eneie
distribution of......-.......-.-. 480, 481
DAMES OF se sisieivics sates’ < sete'eis diss 480
river ascent of....-...---...-..- 482, 483
spawning habits of ..........--.484, 485
speed of ascent of............-.- 483, 484
Quinnault.......--. 2-22. cence cen e cence tenes 480
Quoddy Salmon. ..--...--. ---- 22-0 ee eeee enone 230
Rabbit Fish .....- 2.2.2. eee cone ee eens cee eee 170
size and habits of.......--...-.----- 170
Rabbit-mouth Sucker.... 22.22.22. --2- see ----- 614 '
Racer Lunge ..---. pistarelghe atetnincie ¢ Pat eigicleare eer oe 487
Raccoon Oysters...-....---- ene eens ence ee nee 752 Roncador....-.....-----..------- moviseades 379°
Racochilus toxotes........------- eb isicGiswaetetutesine 277 Snapper iscecscewcceswigeiceas weed voces cones 395
RAG AtOS e.ticci sels ciwiate Sighs wines Ziel: silo eiateloneie ese 838-843 Snappers, enemies of Turbot............... 172

882

dB 0 ee 488
Reeks, Henry, on habits of Harbor Seals........ 58
on the Harbor Seal......-.--..... 62
Regalecus Bank Silvas wad ponawwesuse seeeose lees 449
ROMA ccuoaats aide ehteds Geeedelssaewae see ecweata 266
FRE MIOLG sos cs avert atin suetn Gavaemey acter eis lisca beanie 446
PAM Ye Sore 5 sad eiceaye 6 Sw lercioeie Geeta ebay 446
brachyptera, parasite of Sword-fish....- 355
squalipeta, parasite of Sword-fish....... 355
Remoras, fish parasite.....----..-..--------26-- 355
Remoropsis brachyptera .........--..----. ------ 446
Re pRiG ic sevcee ss dhncicnte tebe ec meeaee seen 839
Rhachianectes glaucus ........-...---..----200- 31
Rhacochilus toxotes ........---- 222-22 eee ee eee 276
Rhamphocottus Richardsoni.--.....---.-..----- 259
Rhinobatus exasperatus..- 667
productus .....-..-...-..- seGeealdens 666, 677
triseriatus .... 22... fees eee e cee eee ee 667
ROM DiI 2s sees sed eirwecen Hence cele sie eeieene se 177
Rhombochirus osteochir ...-..- Seeisieecigc semmicens 446
parasite of Spear-fish... 355
Rhomboplites aurorubens.--.....-----.----.---- 396, 397
Rhombus maximus ..........-. 200+ eeeeeeeeeees 199
Rhynchobolus Americanis -....-...-----.2+.--+- 833
dibranchiatus .......---.--..----- 833
Rhynchonella psittacus .....-..---.-----.--- +6. 703
RD HDi ccciee cncwasae aera eectad se cee cies eedee 123
causes of extinction ........-.-...--.--- 135, 136
extinction of .........--.----- 2 2- eee eee 134
use to survivors of Northern Expedition. 129
BUFAS weoicsciee screiibduore sis, He anis Sadie ac eieaisie 129
Ribbon Seal...-.....--..----- 22-2 eee eee eee eee ee
general history of.......--...----.-- 67
geographical distribution of......... 67
Habite OL. os cceeesasvediswwcsie seins 67
Richardson, on biography of the Pike......----. 462
Sir John, on discovery of Thymallus
BIGNIer ms, ese.cees Sask = coe cees 505
on distribution of Cod.....-...---.. 202
distribution of the Sea Cat-fish-. 248
the Lump-fish......--.-2....---- 254
reproduction of the Burbot...... 238
Right Whale Porpoise............--.---.----.--- 16
Whales ........-. een es eau us Seavce aeewies 824
distribution of affinities of........ 24
movements Of..-.-..,--..------++- 25
reproduction of...- 1... ....--e-2e8 25
sizes and yield of oil of............ 26
Ringed Perch.....--..----. ------00-------e0---- Ald
Beallicc seacine sites wees Suietis cess sheactelc eae 56, 63, 65
geographical distribution-.......... 65
habits, products, and hunting ...... 66
history and nomenclature ........-- 65
Rink, on annual catch of Harp Seals in Green-

TANG aia os ce odes Ceeeeevewesietaseesiae 64
distribution of Halibut............-..-- 191
geographical distribution of Hooded Seal 69
Greenland Turbot 198

Rio Grande Trout......-.-.---. 22-20 cece seeeee ee + 476

67

INDEX.

Page.

Rip Sack wc sicsawacisasiesesewice viene sven sieesie risises 31
Risso, on distribution of Sword-fish 340
River Chub-seas oosk sass gece gece seas werdrectiesiecs 617
Herrin gS sans cs ceee saws aesciccieeeercewesne 579
Perelisinssvccue wack sei wadecbecpe dae depacte 279
Rhinoptera quadriloba....-...-...-.-+-.-------- 665
Roach, name for Fall-fish..-...--...--------- eee 617
SDOb davies eeinwisehestecisciscwcke 370

Robinett sosdse eee aeeceed esa aseedees 393
Seg. cgecc ents sb ote ue wad yeu ice ati nanent 255
PROUNG vaca weisistercraisiecialoncokiecieemmemctence 324
name for Goose Fish ......--.-.---- 173

Roccus americanus .. ....-.-.--------------- -- -- 424, 431

similar to Surf-fish.....-...-. 276
CLPYSOPSi< 22.5<.c250-ce2c0 geese ene eaciecsi 424, 428
interruptus .-.........-. Brcohdeeispee sors 424, 431
VAD PAR css ob seit tne eetee agi oyesuneeae
lineatus

Rochefort, on the habits of Antillean Manatee. -. 120
products of South American Man-
BUCO sc eciee succes ecese cess cescne 127
Rock Barnacle ssc sos soovwess asco ccccssccae voce 828
BaSs wexceexacs cesses seeceecwrveceu sacar ents 404, 413
Black-fish: 2xcccssssuccsnse eons aecstocncice 410
Rock:0odwassay asen ck woe seoheueomcawasesdeats 200
distribution of adewbadbiet sesicddsitacess 262
NAMES Of oi.52 soe owewisogs se Sledecewcivees 262
Of ‘PaCifie ssiciwiccssstea tive seoseuecen cele 262
spawning of .......------------------- 262, 263
Red) c2dcciucitcnwoccasvoserdaceeoemacacis 265
Rock: Crabijcscsccseces cosces sauntsucsssonaqusons 766
economic value of ....-.-.--...------ 767
development of ......-..-.--.---.-.-- 767
distribution and habits of ........-.-- 766
external characters of ...... ...--.-.-.766, 767
of Pacific coast ......-.--------------- 771, 772
Rock-fish
Rock Lobster
Salmon
Seal
Rock Toad-fish
Rock Trout ....--.- sacs
Rockling
Rocky Mountain White-fish............ Snasieee on 542
ROG Mull66 sic cc cise cccistensaciciesacicimasisncsisesicis 451
Roding ....-.----- ce nene cone cee eee cece es cone eee 501
RONCROGE: ccwncic cee cnccess woe acicie csi cee skece 379
Black ..2....--.----- GNiainsidieysiniewiele eicie 379
Dittlejs: ccsscescceccc cewedmesaesas suse 379
RGdiacgs2ccccsseccuioencclueinesadcu 379
StOaINsl ogc/ccce ces yssecateccusece ot 379
Yellow-finned ...-......----.--+ eee ee 379

INDEX. 883

Page. Page.

Ronchil ....---. 22. cece eee eee cece ee cece cee e ee 361 | Salmon, habits of........-...---...---+---------469, 470
RODCO wiv oieise cocssises cisotcseeticneenee cen cidcisaioe ts 378 in Lake Ontario ..........---.-.-.- -.--473, 474
Rorquals .....- parece ese seca gids iemasaenaeeiets 24 movements Of... .----- .-2-eeeeee eee eee A71
Rose-fish .....-..-..--.-- pweGoPaieiee ema Saieces wei 260 name for Pike Perch ...-.....--..------ 418
POO Of ooo s:0c ins os ce cesioncne wowace eee 261 Squeteague.......-...---.---- 365

range and size of -..........-.. 2-0-6. 261 reproduction of ....-.---- ----0.eeeeeeee 470, 471

SER OF Secscisagumandis be ecus Soe erse us 262 spawning habits of .......--..-------.- 471, 472

Ross, J. C., on distribution of Ringed Seals ...... 65 young? fish Of j-.02s.ssee le eesescesecces 472
Rosy: Surf-fishs 2<0c:escmce cossss oxeues se scce cess 278 BIGGK te oicieies sie ncas anise cecmieststawae anes 487
* Rot-gut Minnow ...... 20.2. .--.0--- eee eee ee 618 Blue-baelk eccioseies dacis cciesied wn cn Sasa 477
Rotehet'.o2csscsmeisonsss sect Sasese cock ¥eadces 257 California: ss i022.5s:csicandesaecd vedas s 479
Rough Cab osicicjies seete's sweisiess tadses cunsee tesinec 197 QHiNN OOK’ ia ose eiscereces cinied dione eins eicieininin 479
FAM BNOER ss ccjeis, sa.deee ice ouid cn aeidse smcince 184 DOG cuci coset scacasnesecwceee rossi see 476

Round! Robin. c.3ejcccc ewes ecccs cs kateete cascwe 324 Dwart:coseace ceases tecoaccese newer 35 470
name for Goose Fish .........----. 173 Fresh-water ......-2-- seeeee pene seen ees 470

lath. 22cd iene verccscees eatdacweseaceed 208 Grils6 :<22.cceccecsecsceverensedeusecss 472

NSN i ciefos seiner: sase wae ee Sines So oe meaeees 541 Hump-backed ...-..--....--02 -20--e0- 476
POMPANO? sec: Sce,0: scs8 acieciceis Sicacecee sees 327 KROL Dy sracsiowee sense micinrsiowicisic: ere ine oucjaisjoieesoeiee 413

: distribution of......-.......... 329 MOGs 2). accede sesedieieeccamesewssisace 471

Roys, Captain, on Sulphur-bottom Whale........ 27 TRUOT: jn isc saieig:niwiae aieia disses sais wicisicineieisieieres 458
Rudderfish 3.05 sane seceterencesesccddemtccices: 334 King oc cmme.stpaerecie-cecmestteccsetecees 479
family 2csccosjcoe cece cee acinieeeha 332 Dake :22254 cocscces wesact dacwtesecuecee 487

Banded. sos. sicciencs sc caine sccaeesese: 331 ‘ Land-locked...... 22. .-2- eee. seeee ee 470

RONNESP 32 sises ssc cece osed. des soe te emeeeeeeule 332 DOS cs cise aa iateitoavelninjaicis veimicssbayesicic tisicee- 476
Rusty Flounder .......-.--2..-0-- ---5 0-25 eee eee 197 Part oo 5 2s(eisiacinlsein seit msisiomsiaicicwicieeesics s 472
Rutty, on Sperm Whale in England............. 9 Pensacola, Rock ........-..----+- e--+ ees 331
Ryder, John A., on the Life-history of the Oyster.711-758 QuOdGy acencsccce tcicecinvemesingewmciet aes 230
Sabre-fishs. «0. ose. cccscewscs siee sede aceeencee 335 ROCK i icicecuswaicseusicissis S5is vslaisiewweseieoie cia 228
Sac-a-lait, name for Crappie ......-.------.----- 407 SOdi iis eeeecieurec acacia teiesisicies wttene 230
Mummichog .....-.......... 466 BEV OR) oie ccirdiciccicis crises: Suen seecicis'eicisics's 477

Sacramento Perch .... 2.2. ---- 2-2 -00 n en ee ee eee 405 GTO se ccenise Set choiaiesisciee dunes ucees ees 468
PURO oa eciecs ocd sseccscses sxe dascee><cOl6=617 Trout ...... ais ayutole' sisiGie ws aqeiceiuasicie: Gienieie'sier 474, 485
Saddle-backs......-..-------226 --- eee coon eee eee 62 9 name for Dolly Varden Trout. .... 504
Bad dLErs) 55-20. cusecesacieccmersaeamacee saeeewsces 62 Wb ar, < cise vinisiersicinisteiccciviewcmessieceeets 381, 477
BAR KW6Y. cc sniciesinscwe ws sdieeweed a eeiieinceracsaees 479 Salmonids, families related to .........----.---- 547,548
Saibling....-- SSsescccwines Rewnesiossmewisaises acca 500 | -Salpaseciaccces Jaca secnet este saccetse tw cewek 259
and Oquassa, resemblance between ..... 503 Balt: Pickerel cr csic.tcci wees asiediee cers sei mei 418

Sail fishisoas cake sos soot coeds Aeceeateeseateses 356 Salter-water Bream........ 22-22-22 222+ eee eee - 393
movements Of........ 22222025 eee eee - 357 CRUD. 23:5 ssecccscssecedavcwssaewses 269

name for Carp Sucker.............---- 615 TOTES PINS ssaces wxvonvemcicsasceawes 152
Bone-Shark ......---....----. 667 Trout, name for Squeteague......-. 362

Sword-fish ..---.---.......-.- —_ Salve Bug... ccc sciss ssecee cence mecca seeseces 827

Sailor's Chote ....... .o2--6 ese ceccceedewese access 393 Salvelinus fontinalis .....-...-.-...--.- 485, 486, 497, 498
name for Pig-fish ...............- 398 malma -....------.----+------------- 504

Baith:c22eecac ice accteenst es locates eas eaus 231 namaycush ...-....---.------ ------- 485
S@ithe: ccs ssewiietecmamcsonewesse ams acsmoemcnsee 228 ' namaycush, enemy of Alewives...-.... 592
Salmarino...... 0.22. c226 cee e ee cen ee cee e nee e ee 501 namaycush var. siscowet .....-..----- 496
Salmo chouicha 480 BISCO Wetec. ae ccieaseieesinis S50 exma% 486
Clarkii --.. 568 | Sand Bug..-...-.---2-2 222 0---22ee eee ee eee eee 779
confinis . 487 Grab occe caee cetera eke eid cotades cece tlce 774
fontinalis 498 Cask family .2-scaiciercAvsiceseieucic weiss sewies 243
Gairdner: 55226 oo sshs case ctwous teed Sienece 468, 474 AD sec dai de (ete nase sntnierinrs quince aa eee welsietels 197
TPIDGUS 50s os sciciewcieie Sieve sinla oo uie blaine isisinie's 468, 475 GOW AP, cis Ficicwoiwsic nie cciai ee onisie-esieieticinciiesiesie 839, 840
purpuratus 475 Ol ee .ccec ene scccec eciacsclemeend 2 Sotec cele. ce 244
quinnat 480 HCAS js cicn cine s wnwis ee seca ammo co 'se:os:alede 824

BAAR Ss Jciereatars ciara: asics saiheccieeid sigue weitie mined 237 MUS bin ntiaic a cose nisneasinvecesis eeiedies teecce 449
siscowet 496 PAK: aia cinrsin'n brs aitieyen wins eterctinern e's dac.e/nis ainicin 424
stomias 475 PAPO? se 52.20-52 Stile nensatewete seanes ces, 676;
GPUUTUG 2.2 Sonwciwswsanecreowe cotetdience 468, 476 Shark .... 22-00-20 cere cece cece cone cone 670, 671
symmetrica.-....------.+.-+-- foidic tere sieces 487 Smelts ....-.-.-------.------------------ -456, 457

COMA aia8is ave se cistscabaieinclenio cece snescemnure 487 Smelts, spawning, of ...... --...----------- 456, 457
SAIWION oi cicie arse sieteice-aictescivie. pie siwicte arescipisieietelniay sic eats 468 Sanguisuga, parasite of Sword-fish.............. 354
abundance of ...-.. 2-2-2200 -e-eee- ene eee 469 Sarda chilensis ....-. 2.2... ..2- 222. e220 eee eee ees 319
distribution of.......-----.---2+ ence cone 468, 469 Mediterranea.... 2-2-0 -- 22.22 ee ee ee eee 316

884 INDEX.

Page. Page
Sarda pelamys, similar to Frigate Mackerel...... 306 Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus.. ..----.-------+- 662
Sardine, name for Anchovy .....--.---.-----+--- 611 Schellfisch: . 2. <2 s-2-- esse conecsnessasneeen cei 224
Gulf Menhaden .......--.----. 576 Scherer, on extinction of Rhytina..-...-.-..----- 135
California ............-..--2--.--2.---- 569 Schizothwrus nuttalli ........ 222. ------ eee eee 708
Sargo 0.22222. ecco ee eee ce eee ee ee ee eeeeeeees+++ 400 | Schlegel, on distribution of the Cat-fish ......--.- 248
Sarpo .. 2 Swecsegacsiemsnn Meal on spawning of the Cat-fish.........--- 249
Sars, G. 0, on Codfish agli. diese nee 205 Schoodié: Trowtie.- 2 cwense wesc ecetemaseces cients 470
development and apawaine habite School Bass, name for Red Fish ........-.--.---- 372
of European Lobster ...-..--...----- 802, 803 COd) s2sscb ceseceweteesemecaaeecacis casecis 201
habits of the Pollock ......-....-. 229 Lobsters ces seenevedec Hebe eeweciesaue sees 783
natural history of Norwegian Lob- Schroder, on parmacitty -.....---.-.-------- ---- 11
BOD seas sicce cea taemeneeseede's --810, 811 SCIWNG: AQUIID s cisiccie cncicweresnenpenceceiccsiciee aces 368
process of shedding of European : Ocellata <2 tasveeessieceseureecee ese sese 362-371
Lobster - eae eupdeleselegs suscieisiisie 793 SCIBDIMD sce oe cose soe ee semiewcme swore cece scee 362
répeuluction of Codfish. see te see e214, 215 Scomber Colias......2-2. 0-2-2... oe eee eee eens 303
Sauer on extinction of Rhytina Dewi see aiweeaats 135 C1686: Sccicies cana ceccssnicssnscoeonstoee 303
SOU GE? 2 ocee seas maseteecesedceceiee seeeeenaes se 424 PIAdIS eee. esc ceca ectosewscenate noe ss 356
Saury occ desea e seset esis canes wet eee weeesicete 460 OTOR so cce a td.ccertusiee Suds eins crmaciaa earesicis 303
Savanilla .....2 2-22. 2-222 eee ne cee eee cere eee 611 pneumatophorus ......-------2---- ---- 303
Baye Passes cee ceccsscasecgwe aneees code eseswices 569 ScOMbIuS........---- -.--6 HSdaanies sisal 281
Sawebelly iccc -ccceswecscciceesecwecete coe cleeatee 582 Scomberesocid@ ......-.-. 20. -- 22 eee e eens eee e ee 459
SAW RfSH sccicc cece sacs easels sae ce tinciesitcaewecaces 667 Scomberesox S@UIuS .----. 222 eee ween en tee ene ne 460
PAW YOPs 2 2-casstirdekiscsd tise ck Se ccistcieecigtioeseaes 658 Scomberomorus ..--.----. 2. --- --0 0 eo one enone 307
Saxidomus aratus....------. ---2--2--- see. ee eee 708 Caballaiscccaisececyeenanicsesiset ca’ 307, 316
PTACIIB s- cciece ce scie wdc. cee-sinicin baw eiciae 708 CONCOLOT «00:00 so aseecciccbsieseees 316
Say, on food and habits of Blue Grals oe SaN ice oe 776 maculatus ........-.---------0-+ 307
Sayrus Camperii.....--.------ 22. le ene eee eee 461 TOGAMIG: 20s cecticniss eee essa 3C7, 316
Scabbard-fishis os ccicccccesscscccace sce caw voce sess 335 Scombrolucius brevirostris. ......--.-..-..------ 460
Beads vaense sis see sccesenereccctedatemse Sdeecices 326 Scoodled Skulljoe ...-...---.---- ------- eee eee 228
Scalaria Groenlandica ........2-.--+2----0------ 693 Scopelida:.cccscssee woes seus save deee seedencnecks 547
Novanglia.....22.2020-s2eeee cece eeeeee 693 Scopelus family ....-.-.-. 02.222 2225 eee ee eee eee 547
Doale Carp. 2.6 sjecceseseeenscsese seceek 6 2 619 Scores by on habits of Nurse Shark...-......-.-. 674
SCaOp ancccieicicises sece seers eee sndensew caus veeeex 709 Seal killing .... ....-.....------ eee 64
Scammon, C. M., on abundance California Gray Scorpena dactyloptera ........ ..-.------------ 260
Whale: 2 ..c:eseie onecctieces 31, 32 BUA ws oicacic a aicieinie daa wee ence nine 263
antics of Humpback Whale 26, 27 MATINUS...--- .- 220 ween ene e owen e wee 261
Blackfish ............-.---- 12 TOT WO PICS 0) <):sie se ninie snereininn wisivaenieeiees 261
Bowheads ....--..-....-..- 21 POLCUB a csrscicre cinic seielete cisiwatissstpieieios nie ais 263
California Sea Lions -...... 45-48 POBULUG: wiisig ci ssisteie vcvie veisiectieins teeceees 261
Porpoise .......- 14 BCPOLA x ss cic vistioaie ss aee sean Sema ese 263
destructiveness of Killer SLOATNSL :ic:5.55 dos cron se ncemle moseseeeice 260
Whales... ..-.-.- een s.00 17 WIVIPAT US ia isssenercatoimcin siniawiee seceitionveeais 261
distribution California Sea Scorpxnichthys marmoratus......-... sebinee sees 259
Elephant.... 72 SOOrpene:: 2.62 ses.ace te asss gave cediteenn Re Rete 263
Right Whales. 25 NCOLPINA) = 2. sis Seweciziarsidccpecsisielee. Seed mareee ween 263
Sulphur - bot- SCOPP1 ON feiss nicce'nin nis cies Meearsaciceedseameaemecee 259, 263
tom Whales. 27 Scorpis californiensis ...............---2.----0-- 395
figures of Fur Seals........ 54 Scotch Dutch Herring................2-2.------ 551
habits of California Grampus 14 Scott, G. C., on abundance of the Bonito ........ 318
California Sea Ele- Spanish Mackerel. . 308

phant.......2... 73 the best fishing ground for Sheeps-
the Leopard Seal .......... 59, 60 HOGS ds sceisisisisisin’ sin cies icine: ieeinin's 383
motion of Cachalot........ 10 the Grouper, as a dinner-fish.. -. - 411
movements of Right Whales 25 habits of the Bonito.....- ae ciate 318
Northern Fur Seals ........ 49-53 reproduction of Spanish Mackerel 313
Pacific Finback ............ 30 | Scrag Whale Steen tate t= es edie ce 30
reproduction of Right Whale, history of......---. 22-2. -22--0--- 30
Whales. ...--.-.....-.2.. 25 SOred ccseicnsisen ce cece eweweh seteceleswens evercee 201
the Scrag Right Whale .... 31 SCL006 seeisis xc vans enews awsweasacesewemeesccces, 201
size of California Sea Ele- Sculpin secess dened eemecciseeece meterarsee oases 258
phant............ 72 Dada ywnacien soncds ice mexanederwosecy cick 258
Humpback Whale.. 26 PIQMY sas sacs goscige cogs seca weseaecees xe 258
Sperm Whale ...... 9 TIDS: cess oajcews sews semciewe vseeteisen sees 258
BOGMP. 2.000. en nane secees enna ne tances cere en ceee 413 Sculpins of Atlantic coast...-..........-...----- 258

: INDEX. 885

Page. Page.
Sculpins, food of Goose Fish...........---.....-- 173 |° Sea Salmon ....-. - 22 oe ewe ween eee cee woes 230
of Pacific coast.........----. 2.0. .eeee- 259 Rea-serpont focincesjccsecaasicnd sawcem acess scene . 449

SOUP sedec cicada asciyeetpeeetenscaeedetece:, 986, | ‘Redeanailaves cece ssssacane aseced-aeccacedenensse 253, 693
abundance: Of. cccacece ncende-awienee dacs seu 389 Sea-snakesscecsccccsintacage dus coscae oases ease 628
enemies Of...... 2.2.2.2. cece eee eee eee ee eee 391 Sea-snipe, name for Silver Gar-fish.... ......---- 488
POOMOF jeisasc clas Sas ghavan ama weeds ccesces 388 Sword-fish ....-...-.. ..---- 338
increasing abundance of .......--....--.--. 392 NOABbAT ws sac. age sese sd ss pase a erasae ewer 840
movements Of..... 2... ise. ceeeee eeee eee 300 | Sea-toad ..........- Sine cael ras So ecee lemeeeae 258
BPAWDING Of so cccis coca wasese saacces ce ceccer 389 Sea Lrout sissretesc cesses seed tecseeradeie ecinjctae wiovicse 267
Value: Of. cosccnacuke + odsoce tee beste eencdes 392 Sea Trout, name for Squeteague...--..-....----- 362
Scuppaug ssc-cecesees can cece sowncc ceeslcmve weet 386 White Sea Bass .....-....-- 378
Scylliorhinus ventriosus..........-...-.-....--- 676 Sea Urchin: cassseinneeac: Sesiede nine ade cheuce veces 838, 839
Scytalina cerdale.......-2. 220.22 e ee eee eee - 243 Seal, Baye cccvsrencasens sacs nese see s seeeue cess 62-65
SOa-AlvOw? p22 262: cicjeie es ndewes dicing actevensseeaces 690 Bearded. cavesesses se ccus siceee see exeed cons 63
Sea: Bass os gece tacicioc wleise doteesmcinnsoscelecs 407 COMMON pe sescicsxeet sess cacces temee ee ceees 55
breeding of ... 2... 22222. 2 eee. eee ee eee 409 Crested scsccacose cociees cece tens emees wees 62, 63, 68
geographical range of....-..-.-........ 408 BYOrd wise sscscise sedises sowenw cece paeiangserecle 62
movements and habits of........-...... 409 Fresh-water ......-..----. se ewiNesG meee wose 59

name for Red-fish..-....-.2-..0220- e008 372 Be dcesan casey eoceyewne ss coeds acca eeee 37, 75-113

size and value of....-...--.......------ 409, 410 Northern, Furs. sce0 20 ooses cess veee cece. 49, 54

WIG. sccymicsie see snemiseueatpe eeeecbeas 378 Hail. scence raseewessecwese wacacnss seeceaes 37
Seas Dat: csecssccvasaisweaiemiene Socio seelerean be cee 173 Harbor sisccccinciesiecice cesnce ceesax coesewewes 55
Sea-DOSt 622 nce de cceectceus the ceeeeredaneetecsa 701 Hat p sacs aeve seeeeeece ees cease de ccesecse us 62, 65
Sea-Bear sic o aie ikak ence cgek ce sewee aes 49 Hooded e-sas2siecn deenies eeu ces dec deeesets ‘65, 68
Bea- bug ae ej tcinie-sis corse: Saisigd senses ee cee 701 Leopard 22 sasncesie asia aces cccy semen see 59,73
BOG: Cab acesac secs, ceccan tence secede) sereweccen 627 Native se ciicinws 4 sjetein's Seeewde ey ceeseee seen 58, 65
name for Northern Fur Seals -...-....... 51 RIDDON, ssisccecessoscs sctec csseececsaues se 4 67

Sea Cat fishes 02 sac sce. cicicis teceecisesee scenes 248 Ringed si sasesiase cots seeresccesevessoe se 56, 63, 65
Sea-caterpular’ oes a5 sacices sceecesswececseues 701 Rock...... Bae tc ete Nite aaa aneend hha 62
SeacCla@M ccs osc: cscs sctewce.ciersnec eens seals jaw peremisra) 708 Square Flipper...... 220-202 eeeere ce ceceee 65
SeasCOw 2.60 es se cces ccewesastnee a ccederennense L416 tribe, in general ........ 22. ------2. eee ee 32, 33
APCUCice sees sackwateceaecccemeneeasas 128 West Indian: scccnsceecwasseeoceeecisveenss 67

Sea Cradyc scscecice pecan cotecees ie ppeesenetes ay 715 Sebago Trout. cs: c22s se ecesereseiecescwse cece 470
DSOAFCLAWS 5 acres 's:aasre lsis ota Geminis “cteivieteiaecnee a aueesies 783 Sebastes marinus ....-......-.---------0 eee eee 260
Sea Cucumbers.....-.. 0.20. ----2+ eee ee ne nee 838 Sebastichthys atrovirens... .- hose coehates exces 265
Sea: Devil oi. ices age ecieens eck bieakeemes 173 auriculatus ...... ......--22------ 264
SOAS vocicee vee eee cee oarce venice sawieesess ew mena 55 Carnatus --.-....2-------2----- eee 264
Seaseare cin. oi sce iste Be eee eke, slate eters cediosas 700 caurinus vexillaris .....-.-....-.. 264
Bear Weletidetaue dos eae ee aa 655 chlorostictus ........---.-----.... 264
Sea Elephant... .... 2-22. -- 222.2222 2e eee ee ee eee 49 chrysomelas..-...-----..----.---- 264
California ...... 2.222. .200-2.2eeee- 72 CMiWbUB eee seces sewecs cesciecees ‘266

Sea-fans.... 2.2222 cece ee cnn ee cece ee nee cone neee 841 constellatus ....-. ..-.2..2----2... 265
Sea-foatherss cine soicicw essence prievewaecencecwares 841 elongatus ..----..---...---...--- ie 266
Sea Ginger ..---. 022. -2---- ee eee adeemetteats 841 entomelas ...--. ..-.-.------20-6- 266
Seashares: sue ciicists sine o aaieeceuweetis oe eeasvensesuts 18 Ha VIG US: asi: :nisy ecinineteineneediaamsreects 264, 266
Sea-Horse family ......-.-.-------- --220 eee eee 172 MAN GOL os aisieie sisins ceiewe ce ecssezues 264
geographical distribution ............. 172 melanopS .4.--..----. een ee ween ee 266

strange shapes—interesting habits.... 172 miniatus...... ....---20eeeeece-- 265

Bea Ua wy Ohne seicacssswteeg sce seeesaodeevdecieleaes 397 MYSPINUB 2k oo iiss Seal siciee ace maametns 263, 266
Bea Diol... cn. ceiecac esas ad sdmecncseeccace seve = 37, 38 nebulosus ..-.--...- 2020+ sees wees 263
general history of ........-.....-.-.-.- 39 nigrocinctus...---.-----..-2--.--- 263
geographical distribution...--..-........ 38, 39 ovalis...-.-.-.. wee beeen ene cen eee 266
California: soviet bose tieecict aus sees sos 44 pinniger ....... eee eee docwasenc 264, 265

Bea Mantis ccccc cesececceues vecscaseescucawase 823 PToriger ...--- ..-2-- ----------- 266
Sea Mullet: cust viedecwsesnecesscudaxcewoaecees s 453 rastrelliger ....-..----- .....- 264, 265, 266
Séa-necdle wince 2tcatedeecatmcoudecaatawswnts S 458 rhodochloris ........--.. -.------ 264-265
Seacowl joc desea asc eeked edaeciaa Sates cttectiest 254 TOBACCUS ...--- 22-2 ener wee e ee nee 264, 265
Hea pereh. sacs scccssaseeve cow sacasemserscioe cows 273 TUDOT wee. cnceincee weconnccewies eas 265
Sea-pike .2.4..0cc2c0ceneicee J Siciaig Sarels setae sit ciniaie's 458 rubrivinctus .......-..-222-.2--. 265.
Sea-ravens, food of Goose Fish..........---.--0-- 173 BCITICEPS ..-.-- ------ 2-2 -e eee 263
name for Sculpin -..........------.- 258 UMDIOSUS ..-2 ee ee see e ee cee eeee 265
Sea-robinl .- 2242 stesseshessscceetasioswaciey oes 251 Sebastodes paucispinis.............-..-.------- 266
distribution of....-...-..--220 -------- 256 Hee-Catehinseciesccaaresisiocin sie sevcwseersciccesie 77,81
spawning Of ...-.. 2... 22-2 -- eee nee 256 Bee-VItCble sacs, secre scics sommes cons reese cana ce 40

886 INDEX:
Page. Page.
Ol ezocine die gues succes dee eectencedesseuectuag, 228 Shark, Cat .:..... Sires siaeae pe Red vecteeeeeeatoes sa 675
Selene argentea ... 2.2.2.0. ween ee cece ee cece 323 DOG ASNs sdcasceuis wee Veseeeedseoeseeses 670
SOLIPINNIS wo. cseseccinst tious esse weawncncon 322 DUCKY vcisswtaccs veacwednecntere we eeeeees 671
Semele decisa ......-. 2.22222 cee eee cece ee eee 708 POR Sassen sek veseneee doeawasons cuss 671
Semotilus bullaris .......-2, 2.2.2.2. e202 ee ee eee 617 Ground 3.2m .ns sceeeee eee ceh eee oseles 674
Corporalis.......2.--.. eee e ee coon eee 617 GUOEPY S202 ee neioeveeiGewiameleeiciadisiga eicjoresercls 674
NONNCH 222 cawcsis cms Ssseee ae deebeteesemensese 448 Hammer-head........--..------ ---0- eee 671
Sefiorita-fish of California ...........-.....---- 275 Mackerehiswc-scsccerecisince sem eracicicecciee wale 669
COMBS jain a ciaidis: esisicinie Selwid.s Gra saere cieaiwa wc Scisieeis 474 Ma Caters isis iniacie sie o:eeiecee:ncdisais ence sean 669
DOLSOAN GD 2 ooo. tien seie nee bgieiscte we eeeciesiesise 444 INUOTSO ajji0% Siete Lsicesenic ode Sapeteaiwia nie tenieie ciclo €72, 674
Sergeant Major... ... 2.2.20. .2eee cee ee ce ee ee 276 Band seniace. sce canst ee sce sta sete aicin sie siyeinies 670
Seriola carolinensis.... 2... ..020- -22--. cece ence 331 Shovel-nosed .... sc. ccceccceseceececes 670
COrsais) icicjics cease seew ceesiows acs os ae aes 331 WhTashehs.ccsecaccseunecsestt fat eeteesen 671
faleabaenssscese dacs sume <cesinacicinine se 331 WIGOL 7 c2s at oresces Seaeesseeeistnsesenetee 672
PABCLAGE ccc sais owew saciowe sda dinisices ses 331 BH ATKS) a5 oaidesaciinysiels sade Seddon sereseescersies 667-674
Lalandii .... 2.222.220 cece eee cece eens 331 of Pacific coast. Spi winwiers wioimeithe saisreer seaman 674-676
ZONBLD 2002 socaed cacelewes! ctelnccoeseeees 331 Sharp-headed Finner .....-... 222. -02220-e2- eee 30
Seriphus politus. ........--2----...020+ seeeee es 380 Sharp-nosed Ray ........----2--ceeeceee eee ee. 665 -
Serranoid fishes ........ 220-20. 22 cece eeeeee eee 413 Shed Gerais ces... soee eecsises aes ceceseseeweaciece se 776
Serranus atrarius......---...--2.---202.--- eee 407 | Sheepshead ..........--0.-20. cece ceneeeee ee ceee 380
Clathratus........ 2222-2222. eeee eee ee 413 distribution of...........----...---- 380
fascicularis........-. 222. .22s22 cece eee 410 family oi. csccivescisewssasee ac aeeese 380
maculofasciatus .......-...-..-------+ 414 name for Butter-fish................ 333
NODULE 22 od reiciaceaed we ce oe te cereece 413 Parrot-fish .....-.--.------ 275

MTILULCUS 2 scdcocenanetid cose wigewoeee 410
Sesarma reticulata.......... 2... 2. eee e ee ee ee eee 763
Sethe ......
Sey .- seis
Sey Pollack sues
Shad..

Siokie se.aeis 228
ida deanzers Sia are cleats ces ceases 228
siwisleigis aloe sete tiene awa. vee mamsicsciasrels 594

causes @ infltencine rate of movement up
DAV OLGS tates sieteiet Sees ajo eis aie bie sind wy Rivieidicin wt 605
effects of water temperatures on migrations. 598-599
food of......-..--.. 606-607
geographical distribution of ...... -.-...-- 594-596
hereditary instinct of locality in .......... 597,598
migrations of...... -.------e22e-0 scene 596-597-598
name for Gulf Menhaden ............----. 576
Moharra .. ..
names of -.......-.------

ciecuemeecke: Oped

observations of, on Saint John’s River, Fla. 599
period of river life of ............-...----- 603-606
reproduction of...-.....--- 22. 22.0 ee -eeee 605-606
BIZO OF iss le cece eee ee Nees oe wie Se 606
young, observations of movements in Po-

POMOC icc Seis sire octane Sisiaiaiey wie S PReeeee 603
Gigtatd i acacisacduercn \odoauen nes eeneasits 610
Hard-head, name for Menhaden...-.......- 569
HICK OLY, uence sciecie scedcce nadwcese-ceatens 607
Long-boned, name for Moharra........... 279
MU) s <ecise vacecaureceet 6 mcetels icc wee. decicee 610
SCHOOL s cisissiors witaisiertmewinieic, Kaisiaions dees we sacieisie 201
SUID s,s ose sea meee Sob wiSes ak cee weiedeca cee 610
WailOE ic is:cscis:cisipsieersiieis sie eareimem ataisia(sicretaiccein 608
Trout, name for Squeteague......-..-.200-. 362
Waiter ..... 2... cee e cee e ee eee ne concen ceee 541
White-eyed...... 2. 20-2 -- eee nee eee ee cee nee 610
WARE sono on.25: sincieie:d se neioate ine miele wei Sissi 610
Yellow-tail, name for Menhaden ........... 569

Shark, Basking....-. ...-.--.0--- 02 --0+ ceeeeenee 667

Black-finned ......---. ..-- --0- eee 2 ee eeee 672

Bliss sceciceu sane scadcsse cece nazar eee, 669, 671,

Bone..... micitichis SpcRee SRS ce he-ba cies Sse 667

Bonnet- headed saitieui ce Rem eoemesnem es soc 671

Shbeveraraciarewne ade dSeseve mes 228 ©

POPPY” wis cicciciae Side siedis Se/aie: cs'ee ce seysie 394
Three-tailed......-. 2-2 .------2 -2 ee 445
Sheepswool Sponge ........--..--------.-2----- 848
SBUCP oossc wcsis se cee we swale drmecis-ee on ea ve ne 2 617,618
miante fan Meehitlett wesc guck sare oecccdas 569
SULEHASD ~ 2. 2c enn wie oie cosine 278

Blunt-nosed........ 22-2. 22-22 - eee ee eee 322
GOldGt ssc caicccersnem siecciogssiienisestaieas 616
Pug-nosed .......----0----s0-eeeee eset 322
DBRIGGTS).<:5). 25s anise sewie cic sciaiats ciciodisiee wecminsicces 616
Ships WOM . sesce sed ste soe tecs estan tes cee coemes 704
Shoal-water Cod... 22.2.2 2-20 ceceee cece eee ene nne 201
TrONscscsccseadcsene sarcinea verieiee 488
Shoemaker ........-.- ip cated slcueisisl aie gies Semis 332
Shoemaker-fish .... 2... 2.2222. c2eees cee eee ween 326
Shore: Cod .0i.. oie ssectceraeescie cet ccicte ++ wets sees 201
Shore-crab, Purple, of Pacific coast ...........-. 765
Yellow, of Pacific coast ...........-. 765
Shore Pompano, distribution of ............-.--- 329
Short-nosed Gar-pike -.... 2... 2.222. 20. e222 eee 663
Shovel-nosed Shark ............-0+. .- 222+ eseee. 670, 674
Sturgeon .........---. ..2----. 2-5 662
Shrimp, California -...... 0-22. --2-eeee ee eee eee 818
Common. .j.22 Spec cesses Sains secede 816-818
Mantis .csus2cnriewesstteeck neste ets 823
Shrimps and Prawns...........--+-------+-..--- 816-823
Southern. ..............--.. 821-823
Shrimps, River. ...--.---. .---------++ eee eee eee 819
Shriver, W. W., letter from, claiming first trans-
portation of Black Bass.........-...-.---..+-- 404
Sibbald, on Sperm Whale in England........-.... 9
Sibbaldius borealis ..........------.-.--0-.0---- Q7
SuUlfaTeNS cots sc dscice wecices secu ze ds 27
tectirostris ....-. Pages teh Mrady cadres 28
tuberosus ......- deimieesiewine se/ierecteties 28, 29
Sidera mordax ...-. ..--.---ee-e eee ee eee e ee ee ee 628
Ocell ate wecassecaweics sees seseesaeeessies 628
Sifo sccscscxeses der sek tee eeteiss, ses seoeey secees 337
S00) CC: 844
Siliqua patula...... 02... 2c. ee eee ee eee ee eee 707

INDEX. 887
Page. Page.
BIN si02 Hie cistsnlsiescew weieusond Come teweka Sadcaeses 550 Smelt, name for Pacific Tom Cod.........--.----- 223
Sillkung, similar to Deal-fish ...............-... 449 Adsiglz a, sictcicise: scqeiare oaieein vieiemisin a swisteis Serereie's 544
SUlOCK . scica-cesetiwteciaeewee Semecias ae cunssacreeets 228 Californias... si. sesecanecsened veeeetieeases 457,544
SUOTIOR : sane See seca e ee tke eeese eee 626 Citileice. Gees pene Sose come cectmeeauiens 457
Silver. Bass, name for Moon-eye ...-...-...-....- 612 Gee ie 2 a kyek, Giessen Selah ane eek radeeae 456
Hel. oacedesensiensccspacscaetec cesses 335 Little ccs sawmes scesrsaesscaececsieecses 457
Silvor-fish..)-jic anche veceeweseenseneceweretetes 611 SUlf ween sete seeeed veces vetueeesesees 544
Silver Gar-fishes.......--. 0.222. -2---- 22-2 eeeeee 458 Smelts, Sand.....--....----- Useeecedeseuenracen 456
PA GIG ais o's aiciere Sia tateis en SSP cpamregpe eee ees 240 Smith, on different varieties of Mackerel ...-..-. 308
distribution of .......--..-.-.-.---- 240 John on size of Mackerel (1622)...-....-- 299
habits OF .seneen sees seesee cesseors 242 Capt. J. B., on spawning of Sand Smelts.. 457
migrations and movements of ....-.. 241 J. V. C., on abundance of Chub Mackerel. 304
UGOS OF 6 conc semises cawreneseeriieeeees 242 Turbots in America .......... 176
DUN G6 eee sic cad seniecescccseea ees eccses 487 8. 1., on development of the Shrimp.....-.. 817
Moon fishes .....---.- e220. ceoeee cnee eens 322 young Lobster.799, 802
Mallets. case sucess teseee wscieseeecceeess 449 distribution and coloration of com-
Perel ¢.rcicece tase tennek eee eter wees ee ts 375 mon Shrimp....-.....-...----- 816
Salmon: sccccs seesaw sicwata sewewsveneecse 477 growth and development of Rock
BIDCS vans teceae vtec seisacd ceeeseevesaseues 456 COd as 5 ace saeee inca sssewesd~s25767—169
Silver-spotted Tunny.......-..-2.-.---2-.22 eee 320 habits and distribution of Jonah
Silver Squeteague.... ....---- ..-0-- .ee- eee e nee 367 Crabis.ces einen eweeeeess conse. 2,769,770
Surf-fish 25465 ccc sseees vecewsacesscwssces 278 SmOltivoec sevwsscesdes seccve sceeen temecestasescs 468
TrOUbssisosee sees cssee seeeee eeceseisss 475 Smooth Black-fish ......-....----.------.---+--- 269
Simmonds, on gastronomic value of theCuttlefish., 692 Dog-fish soc): ccc5- seceecnesesseueiscea 6 672
Simpson, A. W., on geographical distribution of Pounder 2.42 seeceneeoeses cesses ccetes < . 183
Mackerel. ...--. ...--. ---- --+- 22+ 2-2-2 eee 281 Smyth & Lowe, on size of South American Mana-
Singing-fish .... 2-2-2 -.-. 2-0 202 eee eee ee eee 253 100. svevsereswderesensees cone sven sees esas. 117
Birehila: snes sees sewews. wae a seen escses weeee een 33 Snail-borers......---..----- sinbede temas mesma 696
Sirenians asec. seasiss sdeie deine siciee osGe seen seeececs 114 Snails seis ceiewais anew suns vee none eeaeeieseesaaciss 696
FOO. OF acre 0 sie ote ctaicicins ecicntoeieees Hee semes 118 S08 woseus etek seseweesg seetesereseneses ae 253
SiscOwel: = oic5 sda dose. ves 3 dseisctieecctesercsesd 485, 486 Snake-fish family...... 2.25. ----.-0--20- Sensistee 548
Siskaw ita as sase sceraen)s deiceeiasne kee ereecementon 486,496 | Snapper family.....--.....-------------e2--208- 395
Skarp Herring...... -----------0-eeeee cece eeeees 550 name for Rose-fish....-....-.---------- 260
Skate, Barn-door ......-.....2--- cence seen eee eens 666 AMI Gabor sce cclaz stem eae eecadecienierciecre 153
SKAGCS 2 csi 5 aise 28 week sad ceid stele ese ceeee see 666 BaSbard) isis: wciels,ctevieie-steigde ce aearsinab estes 397
Skeponopodus guebucu .......---.--------+----- 357 Blak sicsisssich siatsaiseiepeienes sis soeeisiosia neers sve 397
i GY DUG: oe wie veg aia seeececeaneenese 357 Brown, name for Red Grouper -....--.- « 410
Skip Mackerel, name for Bluefish......---....--- 433 GIAY voces rinse = Geta siecle elses ences 397
Skipjackuc.kccesesowieensgssaccantouskewccce, 460 MAN STOVE scceecuicesntesces sscaiciciess 396, 397
name for Bluefish.......----..----- eric 433 Pensacola: ..icccscraccccccwascives cicece sc 396
Butter-fish ..-.-... twin ioa ieee art 333 Red-bellied, name for Red Grouper....- 410
Cutlass-fish ......-..-.----+-- 335 Snappers, food of Mackerel..........--.-.------ 291
Inland Alewife .....-..---...- 594. name for Bluefish........-----.+-...- 433
thé: Jurel i.e seescwe caesar. 324 Black, name for Cod-fish.........-.-- 201
Leather-jacket.....--..--.--.. 332 Blue, name for Bluefish ..-......--.-. 433
Pacific Bonito ..........---- 319 Snapping' Mackerel, name for Bluefish........... 433
Runner. ..i-:-sesncessacosesates 332 WOLCI!S . vcsccicic saeaitceewmateeaeae ---- 152, 153
Skipper sss ceiiclecaais sane lvetsie as Sates aoe esis ase 460 breeding seasons and habits of 153
Skopsterccsew ed ciccienckev seascapes ooeesaseseteies 460 economic value of ........... 153, 154
SkOWitZscosevicwccdeicn seaisiewaccneesecdes ween 477 S126 Of. .2si2 cdcccenceseseaes 153
Skrae-fish save seecwe sees ocd seeescscceseceseens 228 North American species......- 1538
Skea lljoe: wa sscancceesswncercarivceieesedessene sce 228 | Snooks ........---- 2-22 eee ee eee ee cece eee eee 444
Skunk porpoise ......... -------- 2222-2 e secre ee 16 Snuffing pig-...--.-.----- ---2 2-2 eee eee cee eee 14
Sleeper Shark... ..-.-..------- sees. --eceeecee-- G74 | Snuffer..-... 2222. e seen eee cee cee eee eee 14
SMG F ive't nce sip vale wade pew. idieneniene were ssreesae 155 SOGIal WHALE. 255 ocicac sacicis -ncisccecsion eniem aeeyerss 11
Slime HGliss sens sewsimsescwestesasteces cer cwatecienss 680 SOft Cla tl. aise cisnisas cece tnmosiniengeswdst cones eee 707
Slimskin sos ceescsesswrceceeeesimeasses eee ecie ses 73 CLAD te cincismse Mss. dasia Mogi iseostusarcebecmm ee 776
Slippery Dick 2s secses sevceceseeer cece sst-seee se 274 Soft-shelled Tortoises, range of ..........-.....- 152
i) (ee ed. Gas emeeweuiougecs:< 188 Soft-shell Lobster ....-....-- seine cs iaibeecmi sea 783
Small Herring «. 222202 eecseeccccices sed eee cece 550 Turtles, economic value of.........--. 152
Small-mouth Black Bass.......-.-.-s--+--+---+- 401 LOO Of soi sdicic senses emesis ene 152
BME] toe scp oueincd dee beteetessumes sete uses esses 543 SOGMA casas somes ond sieccecetetnieceae seeccsmen ae 187
PATA Y cio lniaa sire ee ere ala ameter eareiev'siwiaiarstmseiasais oie 543 Soldier Crabs. ... 2... 22-2. cen e cece ee cee coon nee 779
name for Lant...... .----...ee0-e----- eaein 244 SOG: viscarcevccdatimme see ce tees seeded ces 182, 186, 187

888 INDEX.

4 Page. Page.

Sole, Amevican......-2..2...2222ec0e--0.-2-----. 175 | Spicer, Capt. William, on pugnacity of Spear-
Californianiees v2 evcuecdésctkddececnieeas:, 185 Fishes:.s cic: cbdeweneedesieaatiee vasceu sieaene veik's 358, 359
Long-finned ...-.. 22222-22222. eee eee eee ees 188 | Spider Crabs: ...520cc2ceewsscen dene seecees ceemee 778
Slipperysesesessoeesde soe ea saoredccen dens 188 Spiering.. <0. secces.vetsecaiswesss Hecws ses ee ciecie'se 543
Sol0a Vul@aris ec. cen6 voces seccekeseeeseeusaese as 175 Spikes) avd jee scceesee eed ateaueceeneaaes Soeteee 298
DOleIdHO Ss 2 sce Seeker eyae cote e Shee see ones. 175 Spiny Lobster: 22002 eereescesuws sone oe oc ote 780, 781
Solenoconchal «022% sssaes vescme ceeeecensweeiess 703 Spirialis Gouldii, food of Mackerel.....----.----- 290
Somniosus microcephalus -....----.------------ 674, 675 Spisula owallisivcn-eeemendolaueincaete cence ene = 703
Sook li wenn sgiocaisdaeay Paap eM ei Gate 703 solidissima ....-..----. 2-222 eeeeeeeeee- 708
Southern Red-fish 372 Split-mouth Sucker...-.. 02-22. 02. eee eee ee eee 614
Spade-tah sap xe viseicd scree gi selec enter seeiglceis 445 Split=tail:. 22264 be weresiscicasidecine view Sisiele eGierene 817
Spanish Pag icccsceecce cicccciets oi senteweees wane 265 American, commercial........-.------- 846
DOC. jciccccceisiesia scnic cis setesoewasre siete 837 Sponge, Bath oo. ceiecwsis cas cecccieccic vanes ns seas 845
MsbckKG?el sccccnraedus doadee kecesamaenee 303 BOT seed ose Bas Sata else atest 850:
and its allies .............-.. 307-316 general considerations of...----.....---- 843
reproduction of. ......---..-.- 313 GHOLPD IS! g22e:c2sccesesmlecsmmececeatscin’ esis 848
SPOEAG nate oncadewtiemmnna aves 6 vmaweueametenaaten 278 IGTO V6: sin.cis dine cin wemierinde See meaner see 845, 847
SPSPade vee ac dere ced dace aca smdeeeen eee caes 276, 278 GT DBS specie aistcicisids sie Seideic wise wer eewicine eisai 848, 849
PAI B)siadaiaisic onietiarse e poewcaisae secu eree eed se ees 330 Hard Head: :2. scenes secs cas,.2 aceesee ee 845
Sparlinpe 2.2260 rsawucesig aces ws eseadiemeeences 543 HOT8G 2: wc ccc evoeesscoctetesteeotics wees 845, 848
SParoids! oe cee ceded ce ee teeeieee ese 394 INJOPIOUS*sssces ces. eet aeseeseasess <x 850
, Californian. s:.ss.2cskecseeasescisecseas S04 Refs soee 5o2.aiseeseeeseecoeeessesees 846
Sparus, BUTS <2 2.206006 cece cece sweswocace sees 393 Sheepswool ..2226020ss.esccnscwens soca 848
PASTUS xs 5 one seentcveeieasweners ere cnses 393 Velvet) cacecasced wekwee warce wana cece s © 848
Spawn Pikes cc.cccsee sae suie's neve sateen weaeeeenes 421 Venetian Bath........--...-..0---- +--+ 848:
Spear-fish a2 2c: asics ols se oi ee eee ececse BOO) Sets OOt Wroolsante ieee wee eet aS see tecin sca: 845
movements of........--...------00--e 358 Wellow's ecebe een ca seoecee eiSeced 845, 849
name for Carp Sucker ...-....----- Boe 615 MUMOCER asks ce we Ssuescel See setemosiad Sos's 845
pugnacity of. ........-.-.------.----- 358 BPOD GOS vias sais. getcia otztal cay wracieie wuddichs state sratareigiataeracnre 843-846.
Mediterranean 337 Spongia, the genus.....--... -----. ------------- 846
BPOAINE (socio cies ccn swmineaalamnoaisia: daeee weammsre 612 agaricina..-.-...--...- Sed egrchdhcesrarcia Srdsoisie 845
Spearling ...--..----- -. 22s eee cee e ee eee eee 543 agaricina, sub-sps. Corlosia and dura.. - 849
Speckled Garrupa ...-....---.---- 02-222 --ee eee 263 equina...... samaeet ate mwah eae aren ee eat 845
HOUUG=HSD oi. oe cicive ceaisicicwe s-cmieis cecil 308, 435 equina, sub-sp. cerebriformis -.......-.. 849
MOLay, sion see siicer eis Raseperesinne watsisiessarcieseise 628 equina, sub-sp. gossypina -.......--.... 848
7 Troube: sses ssc peste neee ge eter eens 497, 475, 504 equina, sub-sp. meandriniformis...--... 848, 849
Culture: Of, sc cccscssseecaee ce sces 500 graminea...... tatralasSediciaySie's aie aidveiersiareucisss 848.
distribution of....-....2....---. 498 officinalis.... .- Re ARE es Se eee ner 845
habits Of-.e- ssseedeuie cee sxese 498, 499 officinalis, sub-sp. tubulifera ........... 847
size and food of...............-. 500 Spot...... Maslolaek site imi a Soa ease rial tena was eee abaran ats 376
spawning season and habits of .. 499 Spotted Bass, name for Red-fish ....-.......---.- 372
MAT eas wae =) web eare sddeeieiaiers se else 158 Black Rock-fish ........--.. ------ ----- 266
SPOrl iD Biyesicciets disci avin stew creed cece alps s's'ste'eteee 550 Cabri asec wscc ce cepslschisietereina dawece enses 414
Spermy Whale secs secre beasts winced diets Seis ees 7-11 Cattfishs.cusc snes seis sceacecepaiacice sijenes 249
in California..--.....-...-----.--- 9 CORO ceiicin Losin cB sokl aacisveniaslnaee canis od 307, 316
distribution of......-...2...-----. 7 Cons Albeo sare ociataie srias circ aisicaesaishantsiarels 265
IT: Europe sis cscsisesicwsiecicis weiciesivaie 9 IDG eicieicisictcinigin eiatnies eas eine so’ dete Byers 412
LOO OF 2 sea rseccnsneesccecereeee: gels 10 ROCK DLOUt ccies. oe ewieis sini’ enegeees: Sees 267
former abundance of....-..------- 8 Sand Flounder....-..... Se soe eeicsien sc 199
habits of association, motion, blow- BQUCLEARUC sc. Sed peewee eee cen cases 365
IND; QCiacnescoammcamacacieciecenan 9 OPOISG: aansinw se senemwesueeseeeeeceeeess 158
reproduction of......-.----.--- es 10 PTOUU cuit aici ocde cous saeeoweee meen 475
size and color of ....-.-.-.-------- 9 Trout, name for Squeteague.... ...-..--. 365
useful products of ........-------- 11 DUED OG: ics feere esis visidmie ine we eieereen eae 177
POEPOISG-(csch04 dca aaciemmacinaeean od 18t. | -Spraticsecsoncctencs ct anwacseaeeces 28 geo subg Q77
capture of two, in England 18 Herring .....-----.. Se ayhibre Garerci aime iamernedes 579
Sphyrena argentea ........-. 2-2-2022 .2 22 ee eee 448 Spring Herring: ..2<..cc<cice cede saves escere news xe 579
DOLBRLIS inwimioss ia aain dmimmtechsasieta arvana siamwiaie'e 448 BQO soso ic csneewete semis cesieee sons emis -wteus 667
picuda.-.... -- ‘ ances 448 Squalius gibbosus..........-.-. 0... ---- sndeeeoe 616
spet 448 TUPET: Jas 2 se scyesenensnescaevos Soceeowes 616
SPB YVPBDIIB: cceraccirnes same so deedee daseidmmaveciiesls 448 ODESUS'. sisiese cred -ce ce aiauace tied: smeitiowemeniandine 616
Sphyriia tiburo.... coe. oc pcenetebedencnnenacee ee 671 pandora... . 2. ee eece wenn eens cere G16
DY GBD. oc acwia scare vicnicns aamceie sacs ewer OCl, 675 purpureus .............. dco aiamnrearchenarae siete 616
Spiced Herring .... 2... 22. cece. ccceee cocens nee 550 thomaleus ..........-- cebe-Seseissoes ce 616

INDEX. 889
‘Page. Page.
Squalusacanthias.........-2. 222-2. cease eee 672, 674, 675 Stearns, Silas, on feeding habits of Margate fish... 394
AMELTICANUS): 2.0 ccsciccneccecetes i where ce 204 Silver Gar-fish .. . .458, 459:
Square Flipper Seal ...-....---..--22....2..---- 65 Spade-fish ........445, 446
SQ ab ciorats cinicew teeoneeceseesee cars snasenoeuss 674 Spotted Hind..... 412
SQM ata cins sco capes iesctarcedeccencunscseette 171 Spotted Sque-
AN GOLUB) wise ciciesimnsoe soe ec aedews een seee 674 teague.....-.. 366, 367 ¢
Squeteague.......... oe eee eens eee eee eee 362 Sting Ray........ 664
abundance of .......---...----5- +--+ 362-364 history and habits of Southern
great catch of, off Rockaway, 1881... 363 Red-fishiscsc cocoa et cree hed 371, 373
names Of .... 2... --2. 2005 cece eee eee 362 the King-fish........-.......--. 316
BTIVEN 3 )-)-,05 niin Sevens se esacencsiesa ae 367 Mangrove Snapper. ....-.-. 397
Spotted: cois2c.eysscascseeedesoccces 365 manner of capture and value of
Squld School: .cccssss cess. cssses oe wxcocniedes se 201 the Drum..........-.--.-..-- 369:
COMMON sss cece sce ccmeimane: sete wlateia ore ectersie 687 migrations of Spanish Mackerel
NOUIGAISH oasieiovne coe Se caies c coe cicepeciciles'le wide: 11 in Gulf of Mexico. .......----. 311, 312
SQUIG-HOUD cose ec sae as,e siceeg egieisinnie maze ce sicle 425 movements of Red-fish.... ..... 373
Squids, enemies of the Lant-.........----...---- 345 Mullet in the Gulf of Mexico... .454-456.
SQUM AUD1 Gio. sie cieins nies Se sieieecctescie sae nis 823 names of Banded Groupers.....-. 413
CMPUSA 5252 sccectawecececec ion tacua conse 823 Plate6yscnweeceei sce sen ascgace 178
Squirrel Aish. < ececese sic aciicewe gusie vslsiasislee sees 410 Red-mouth Grunt..-..--. 2.2... 398
name for Sailor’s Choice..-....-----. 393 reproduction of Spanish Mack-
BOrMU Bs isinis eines ajeisis gidioisizicte siarsjoeisizns 361 OLOl swinesidides nocccaesacciecineae 315
Squirrel Hake.......... .- welch nede Rane Gaede se 234 size and habits of the Pig-fish. ..399, 400
QUI E saice cise mcr cin jars ei islaew isla stale ier cores ee sletersietels 362 spawning of Red Snappers...-.-. 396.
DOUIG6O wit oer rolsnie Sergent oeveseanewieseiases 362 season of Sea Bass. ... 409
Stag-horn Corals.... 2... 202. c202 eee eee ce en ee 841 of Sheepshead....... 385, 386
Stannard, R. H., on destructiveness of the Jélly- Toad-fish /........... 252
AIGD a: sss ci siaie'eicrsiseratalecistais cinlste: alatsly. giqmnisvaete tee iblaicis 842 Sucking-fish ......... 446
Star Corals wie sis iiccteice sieiciyp sinisis sisigie aie oie wees weiesies 841 Sarpum ........-.-.. 611
Star-fish, name for Butter-fish.............--...- 333 Shread-fish .........- 279
Star Ashes «nse sisie sc cisinee cists c:aicle create wie ets cieinis wre ere -- 840, 841 Whipparee ......-. ais 665
Starbuck, Alexander, on former abundance of Stedman on size of South American Manatee .... 117
Sperm Whale.......... 2... 2-2-0202 ee ee eee ees B | Steel-head. ...200ss 00 cces cesses seeeesneeeeeeeses ATA
Starling gocc deca csicie tee cau Sak oe Sei nae 267 | Steen-Kobbe .......--. 2-22-20. cece cee eee eee 62
Starry Flounder....--.. 2... -..- -2-0--02 eee eee 184 Steindachner on size of Sword-fish in the Mediter-
Stay-ships, fish-parasites 355 TAN GN 0:0) vninie = ie bbe: wsawrsiel Siaein wicie © desemisie sisieteeetis 347
Stearns, Silas, on abundance and babits of Com- Steinbutt -.cce00 sec ccc ree Series tone Gees seeetions 199:
mon Pompano.......-......-.-- 328, 329 Steller, G. W., on habits of Northern Fur Seal. . 51, 52
on abundance and habits of the Rhytina.........--.- 130:
Grouper ..-------..-----.--+--- 410, 411 misfortunes of...........---.--.- 130
on abundance and habits of the on natural history of Sea Cew .., 130-134 |
Sailor’s Choice ....-. -.....---- 394 Stenlocl:....cccnccssnecscecss ceca cst weee pees 228
on abundance of Sheepshead ...... 380 Stenotomus caprinus...-........22-.--0--2 eee ee 386
and size of the Plaice. 179 | GHEY SODS e aisicisisssrcisinicm eee ne ewes ancl 386.
of Striped Bass in Gulf Gardeni ....-2..---.------------ 2 eee 386.
of Mexico......---. 425 Stereolepis gigas .... 22... 2-2. cee cee ee eee n eee 413
Alligator Gar...--...---.----+-- 664 Stickleback family ......-...-.--.. 22-220 -e--e 457, 458
Angel-fish...--.-.-e0.---seee--- 280 four-spined..........-..----..0-- fe ABT
Black Grouper.....----..------- 411 ten-spined .. .... 20.2 ..se0. eee eee ee 457
Bluefish in Gulf of Mexico...... 442-443 two-spined ...--.-.---.....-2------- 457
the Crevallé.......----....----- 324 Stimpson on the Kelp Crab......--..-.-.-.-.---- 778
destructiveness of the Drum.... 368 range of Southern Shrimps .---..... 822
distribution of Banner Pompano. 329 Sting Ray cs. csccecee esse ccc cicscs cccsenweescces 664
the Cobia..... -- 444 SUNSATES: coo ocenqoncesd seeds ores) stems cede, 664
Florida Manatees. 114 SHINE POti <ssccascacsscewaccns seek sommes ueessees 154
and habits of Red Stink Shad... sos s..e cece eco secon cee sewieesinwes 610
Snappers......... 395 Stint..... Fae) ebiaiide ain aiainiaestnbiwiereie aria eile areleene adie 543
of Plaice ...-...... 179 Stizostedium canadense..........--..--.--.-----417, 424
feeding habits of Toad-fish..... 252 vitreum.... 222-22. .eeeeeee ener ees 417
Gray Snapper...-.-. igalwwciwtale 397 Stoasodon narineri ...-....-.-. 2-22-22. 2-0. -e-e- 665
Gulf Menhaden........--... 575, 577 Stockfisch..22 3526.3. sc S50 chee vehane seee-ckesees 200
habits of Amber-fish........ 331 StOKVISCH... ccc occauohagsincicte ence uiseerncce aed 242
Blue Crab... ..---- 777,778 Stolephorus Browni ....-... ..------.0-.-------- 611
the Jurel.......-. 325 COMPTeCSBUS ~~... 12. eee ee eee cee eee + 612

890 INDEX. °
Page. Page.
Stolephorus delicatissimus ........-.---------+-- 612 Sturgeon, Green ..---. 20. oo eee eee cece eee 662
MitCbilli s.c52ccecdcte cee guise tice 611 Lak Cs scsesccoe so acura tense dasicee eeecs 660
THI PONS s.c)5;0. <6 ainve eidrcissess sizemeisie sisiosee 612 Shovel-nosed ..-..-------.--- ------+0-- 662
Stone Cat cccce secu ee eee cecdeie sie eee 627 Whites. 2.206 eeasreecess pecs cececeee 662!
BUONG CLAW wisine-ciinicin diese cesie sd eiidn winced eeeey 772, 774 Sturgeons, Atlantic coast ...... ..--..-.-...---- 659-662
distribution ofz.......--2.-----2----- 773 Califormia:sss2<sisescisiecsee come setacee 662
Stone- biter... oc. n2e scee ceciset ce acee cetecuse ees 249 Succoteague..-- sc scccsesecsesseet escase seexecs 362
Stone Livingston on the California Salmon .. .... 479-485 Sucker, Brook oj. sss 2c cscssacsiess seine sees ooee 614
Stone-roller Sucker.........--. 2-22-22. -2------+ 615 Catp cesses ceceesccusecsses sets seenedese 615
Storer, H. R., on abundance of the Bonito........ 317 CDUD sevsccsvresetemoiens + anne See were 614
Chub Mackerel.... 304 615
Cunners .......... 274 615
Squeteague ....-.. 362 614
amount of oil obtained from 615
Mackerel Shark..........---. 669 MOG) We sce cceeiice cee sacgeneee eee es 615
distribution of Halibut........ 192 name for the Bagre........-..--..------ 379
the Scuppaug .. 387 Rabbit-mouth ..............---.-.--+-- 614
Tautog......... 269 Stone-roller .......--.-.---------------- 615
economic value of Cat-fish --.. - 250 SWO6bi cos oe cee obicwicinmice asin sews eecawees 614
Snapping Tur- Sword-fish, name for Remora....-....-.- 446
HO esses. 154 WIG os cose cenlnmesion suse aeeeheedivees 614
Toad-fish ...- 253 BUCKLE: i oicinrs:ecdiarevate nisseralniess bianca encic ayes er eidmieceies 615
Plat-fish .... 0.2.0... -eeee2- eee 182, 183 SUCKELS 6225. dc cosine eh. cree aetans ewes ance eneteas 614
gastronomic value of the Tau- name for Remora........-...--2-------- 446
TOP -csccincenace écccdcaeseees 271 Sucking-fishes.... -.......------.-- Rec aleeeineeiaee 446
the habits of the Lant......... 245 Sudis ringens...........--- ---. 2202 econ eee ee 548
movements of Haddock ........- 224 BUR KO PH 5 cs icss cialis eaieis ecieetse coc eciseessiesciccne 477
Mutton-fish....-----..- aeons 247 | Sulphur-bottom Whales........---.-....------- 27, 29
names of Sea Bass...---...-....- 407, 408 distribution and move-
spawning of Mackerel..........- 296 ments of....-....----. 27
Toad-fish...-......- 252 Summer Flounder.............---------2-----+- 178
uses of the Silver Hake ........- 242, 243 FLGITING sas: dsicncnd swawes comaceawss saeas 579
Strawberry Bass...... 2.222.222 222-2 eee ee eee ee 406 Sunefish wecccececmccce sees scwesscers wesc wee cic 405
Striped Bass ........--.. Me wpe latte ryan RSS 424, 425 name for Blunt-nosed Shiner....-.-----. 322
abundance of........---------:---- 427, 428 name for Bone Shark............-.----- 667
American and European, similarity BlU6 escscnset cosee rateneesseec cee eames 406
OF sive seicicne cases lcvawss saci ses 424 COMMON saisisee soee secene cw eccwseicis asics x 405
family .----. .----------- eee ee cone 424 Long-eared «2+ s0--sseese sent scene cece = 406
fishing clubs .........--...-------- 426, 427 Sun-fishes, name for Jelly-fish...........-.--...- 841
L000: Of sss sea ve cesesia: desivacmee wears 425, 426 Ocean: soc ceo enaie tess citateciciee ais 169, 170
geographical distribution of ....... 425 Sun-squalls ics cess sacions ‘sess asesccisene geeeet 169
habits of ........-....------------- 425 Sun Trout, name for Squeteague....... ...-.--- 362
manner of capture, size and ship- Sundevall, Carl J., on reproduction of European
MONG OF swscaw ceccesnncescisecces 426 Burbot.....-..---- digi Suleedesiensieiaweiciaisfe Wia'sieveia'e 238, 239
reproduction and growth of........ 426 SUNNY: caicecis asie'ecseee cee sad se cctawewaccmewcelecen 405
USO OF a .nicieis’ sicininie eiaieeisesiceisteicis'eeine 426 Sarf Clam ¢.icic3.- ceases ccesw weston sndetoarwciccice 708
BODO cosets cee sercraceeinae scare ccesoaeies 316, 319 Surf-fish ..--...... 2222 eee - eens eee eee ee eee 277
DUM aio ssicg ts ae sce eee sees ee eencuisite 367 family ... ase =
PAG Yi sds cunisintaehmeeseeweecavlenciice’: 368 habits of...-.. dnbisiedietars wcayehaeve aims ial
Diak6: Bags esos. saci tiene cease siasicis esate 424 names of....
MUM C6 cio jasc ccteniee scigee seiinctciguee sine 449 Blath a. o.2-.c2ecisis tcc see erence cces. con
Bethivce ccyiacicocnis settee fe dencaaecaes 417 Blue ..-.-
Stromateid@...-.... 2-2. eee cence ene ee cnn eee 332 Rosy .-.-
Stromateoid fishes ...... 2-222. .2.--.---eee eee eee 332 Silver...
Stromateus alepidotus .....-...--...---2-. 0-00 333 Wralle6y6: noice csco.c5 a's sie ose empteisteitiesccscisies
SIMIAN IMG once seed So geceesecics 334 Surf Smelt.....-..--.--- Oooo dae etcesmusescate~ 544
triacanthus.-...---.----.--20-eeeees 333 | | WHE ccs cnendic den s¥eeser ee secs ens 377
food of Sword-fish....... 349 | Surgeon-fish family........ ween ene ne cet eee ences 279
Strombas gigas ...-.....---- 0-22 sees cece eee 699 Sutherland, P. C., on abundance of Halibut....- 192
Strémming........ 2-2-0 2-02 eee cee e eee eee 550 Svine-hval ....-..-- 2-2 eee n ee ee eee eee eee eee 11
Strongylocentrotus drébachiensis .-.-.....--...- 838, 839 Swedish Leech.....-.-- Sie Siaigiciobesivetea eases sistance 837
franciscanus ....-...-....--- 838, 839 Sweet Sucker....-..----.------ ------ eee eee eee 614
TividUs: .2scvecee sive. cates 839 | Swell fishes .......------- Sconesiembezamemecces 170
Sturgeon... 222. nas once cnen wees cone ee ween cn eee 659 DOA winners ios Se eave sidncib Beimieicied Se siee sicecinis 170

INDEX. 891
Page. Page.
Sweeny, R. 0., on dissimilarity of Siscowet and Waite fishery: 622... + caus ween earse er dcckce de 271, 272
Namacush -..-.... 222.0000 eee cece e eee ee 497, 498 TOQOGOL sci. eee eseeimee eee sek seemoeees 270
SWAME-FBM < .s3:55 sisicie S cciste 5 deeoe Vicaev clo zec acca, 249 DADS OF sees a & seis sett eee ce cawcaie os 270
Swingle Tail................ ewe ee eee eens 671 reproduction of............-.----.------270, 271
SWOrd fA oo oae sapieiete vate cies wade dence cosnud 336-338 | Tautogaonitis ....-.-.-. 20222. cence ee ee eee 268
abundance in the past, probability of Tehawytcha. sccccssa vaaie ncdeedaacden cece couse 479
future decrease...... 2-2-2. ...-2.2. 348 WOlleUssscaqase estes Seas yaw wee soccer oe ee sss 708
abundance of at present............. 348 | Tender Herring ............2. 2.2202 ee nnn e eee e ee 551
absence of ordinary habits of breeding Terebratulina septentrionalis .......----..------ 703
season among.....--.--.. eee aieacee 350 Teredo, destructiveness of ......-..... iDeedaem eis 706
in America, allusions by early writers.339, 340 Ailatatay mise cies eecesecseccseewee stceaes 704
ag an article of food.......--........ 355, 356 MeGOtaTA asc acdsee oeeeeece cc eee eee 704
distribution on coast of United States 340 MOV ANS: aeraseee Sede tenets bcweelseccee se 704
distribution in Eastern Atlantic... ... 340 TOLVE PICA sa. Segoe vedhcane Seacinaccmses 704
effects of overfishing for in the Medi- Thompsoni ........ sckvidee bee eoeencnes 704
terranean ........2. 22-222 ---- 000. 348 Terrapin, Diamond-back..........------.-0.---- 155-157
enemies of......-..---...--- Pacseiens 354 Pine-barten soccce cseaeency cece cecece 158
entering rivers........... A Sececiaclcels 342 Red-bellied... .......---20 ------------- 154
family -.......2222-..... aneosinaeee’s 336 Salt-waterts <<< ascerewes'ss can Sie sec 156
geographical distribution and move- Yellow-bellied -.......2...20. -2.2 200 155
MENGES: Of. 2 a scscciceseagacrdsacen de 338 Terrapins, Fresh-water ..........------.--++--0- 154
influence of temperatures on move- Tetrapturus albidus ........2220-20. eeeeeeeeee ee 337, 358
MONUS: OF soso oe .0e scerasnnee seis. ve 344, 345 albidus, enemy of Swordfish ....... 354
invertebrate parasites of............. 354 DelONC: sec weies se de eead eseews cesar 337
large painting of, in Bremen......... 342 Imperator esses oesae cose soeexs cess 357
movements of individuals............ 345 INGICHS: co sass eurcdis cseeeon cases ses 336, 358
name for Cutlass-fish.......-........ 335 Tetrodon turgidus....-.-.-2.. 1.222. eee eee eee eee 170
name for Gar-pike...-..............- 662 Tetrodontide ...... 22. 2-2 eee eee eee eee 170
names of ........---..----. 22-2 eee 337 Tetu, D. H., on uses of White Whale..........-. 19
nature of food of .....-.--.--....--.. 349 Thalassochelys caretta.....--..-----.----------- 147
occurrence in Pacific and Indian RO Dll sis.cieis ccivisice sisiae asieseetsene 147

Oceans. okies tosssosusccssececes 341 Thalassophryne maculosa, closely related to Toad-
Parasites, Suckers, or Bemoras....... 355 dish, 7. cic sci oe gas ososwewisalke Jeweki vec ecemeetae 251
periodical movements of. .......- 342, 343, 344 Thaleichthys pacificus.........-....-----...---- 547
probable winter habitat of......-.... 345 Thimble-eye Mackerel .............-.. --2-.----- 303
pugnacity of ......-.-.-.-... 351, 352, 353, 354 Thompson, on capture of Harbor Seal...--.....--. 57
rate of growth of....-.....-1.--.-.-- 347 Sperm Whale in England......... 9

reasons of coming of, on our coast.... 344 J. H., on periodical movements of
reproduction of..........-. pointers 349, 350 Sword-fish..........------ 222. 20+ 343
size of, in the Mediterranean......... 347 Thrasher Shark .........-2. 002-0 ee eee eee eee 671
times of arrival and departure of ....343, 344 "Phread=fShi. cc.cicc wdc soe seeuaceeseleceswewacsanies 320
- American, maximum, and average family ..--.. .--ceeceenee cence eee nee 279
GIZO Of s25 255 scien visi ciisened oceans 346 | Thread Herring ...........-. Dae cdeoelee stew eaeds 610
American, minimum size of.......... 346-347 Thresher Shark ....-....-...---- Kids. aiaus Ve eaoeste 675
SuGker sic. 2222: wciseicticsicsan set ads 446 Three-tail Porgee ..........--0- 2-02 ee ee ee een 445
Sycotyphus canaliculata..-..........2-. ..---- ee 694 Sheepshead ...-.. 2... .22.2. 2-250 -e eee 445
Syngnathide...--. 2-22. eee cece wee es wee ee 172 Thunder-pumper -.....-.. 2-222. ee eee eee eee eee 370
SyNOdOn tid ed.< <.2-2.- aaceec encase eceneeeicesewe coe 548 Thutinameg -... ..-- -- 2 22. cee e cee eee eee eee 173
Synodus fotens ..-.-..... 22.222 22 eee eee ee ee 548 Thymallus montanus -.....--. 2. 2022-222 eee e ee 505
LMCIOCEPS ..n:20'cn ecescens som edesceeceeese 548 SIGTILOL eid, sccucsinw'acieeeieaeisrnesdeece 505
Syrski, discovery of male eel by ....-.---.-..--- 638-640 TICOLOL, sis.se co sdsusiece de etrensensdecas 505
on the ovaries of the eel ...........-...- 641-644 vulgaris. ....---- 22. cee cee eee eee 506
Tailor shad ...... 222-2. 0220-5 cone cee ee ceeeenee 608 Thysanopoda, food of Mackerel.............---- 290
Talorchestia longicornis ........---..----------- 825 TUDO 2 isoS ayes ccciea cieeme hewiem oes siaresimsmeiee 228
megalophthalma........-.--..----- 825 Tiger Shark sees ios tase sieneniaiseainiessecie Raisin Geesd 2.2 672
PPAMDOP ssc icin eceu ses seteesocseiteesesecae 265 Til@-fish cc 2/n.njecie ndio neice Mice onic Se Ba einiesreciokes 360
DAIPOM saisicimie sateiorcre wiaceicare Seicdmecamislewesgamiewmels oe 611 PATIL o sinidsn cidis'ee sicoiaiace wieliceie sinieisicie-stesieioe 360
TATUM iu sa ce os wins csnnis nicolas nacisiansisis seis oe 610 Tima formosa ...--.---.-- -- 2-02 ee eee eee eee eee 841
"TArtaruga: s2scia ce ceewcas et sacetens seeanneonnes 150 Timberello ....... 222 -- 22 eens ween nee cee cee eee 305
alia sccasesecdacusctcedintoes aes suatereustas 322 | Tinker Mackerel ..........-......---------+---+290, 304
TaUtaug - 222s sicscecsascesensds ee 268 THOKCTS ced .ccadtmeciicccatecds csae ss eeeeeaeees 298
DAQOR occ ccecsscncssssue cet eerecsaraccccdwaiier:ce 268, 269 Tiny Herring .:..-. .-2.-- 022s cc ence wees cee cee 579
abundance of.... 2222+ .---2- 222. eee eee 271 TOGA FISH. 2's 5 sicis'sinic. tininie d bw soe DAES CoereseeSenis 251
distribution of..........22-- eeeeee enon ee 269 POO Of 5 ois s2ey enue Seton snsecwicsietees 252

892 INDEX.

Page Page.
Toad-fish, name for Goose Fish........- RS orelane ee 173 DTU Gi sccce ase ae tisis k osioas esis amie ine lamar s ies ciuee sys 696
name for Swell Fish .........-...-.---- 170 trivittata.... 222-22 ee. cee eee cece eee ee eee 693
MObias-HSH . 22. cacauscaatsscesaw asad Sandee easels 244 Trophon clathratus ..........------------5 e+e 693
TORUS ssvawonscceoarcceceaeseeeteseeeeaccercsey ABB scalariformis ...........----- 693
Tom-cod, name for King-fish......-....----.--.- 375 TrOUties cst secadeenaceeed ise degdamsoaieeeieiss ae 486
name for Rock-fish..... )..-.-2--. 202+ 267 in the Great Lakes ..........--..-----.-- -493--496
Atlantic........--..---2-------------- 228 Bastard, name for Silver Squeteague -... .- 367
PON eis eisjrecon cate Sake: Gite hae Heck esate sees 230 Bear -suapetes sive sese eeeeseeeesagees ss = 497
Tonicella marmora ...... 693 Black Spotted .... 2.2... 2-22 cece ceceeecee- 475
TONNING i secccnewevsacnds samese <u cise Soeewacmes 322 Brook snwc cscs ses t cares wie sescie meee oe 475
Toothed Herring ....-....---. .--22- eeee ee eee eee 612 Boll ais cseatnes saa sev ewie ce temennaiesieleiacse oi 504
TOTSOCH ouies exewee se cee csargecges sant eenet 501 Deop-water ....--------e22ene--a-ce------ 488
TOLPOGO ws ve: s cen sirews ssiviscineesewiece weed secwx'e ve 666 name for Squeteague......-.-- 364
californica ...--2. ..-225 -22- pene eee eens 667 Dolly Varden . sis: vsiemicccsini ewes caresrecicicsic 504
occidentalis ....-.--..---.------ 25 ---- 666 Qt BY sce seeircescccinns ccmcmesesesorsauses 487
He) 0c) ee ee ee ee ee ee 200 Grey, name for Squeteague......-..-....-- 362
Tortoise, Bell siiesccecisicis: cites ciesats! ginvesaie a hictess wiarsieies 157 Golded 2 scsscs cence ane sececwmeetececsee 475
Chicken ......-.----.- wintadpa a’suis sleet 157 Wak6iscd-eteuewoss ssaces shaste ba eccdiaesins te 485
Gopher .....-.. ieinvecsceked aitiateeialas 158 name for Dolly Varden Trout....-... 504
Miuskiic sce aesobencosicetdedee seston. 152, 154 Mackinaw ...-- Be ahais tance eaeoaks ue wae 488
shell Turtles ....-..-----.------------- 149 Moatitain 0. 22... cee ene cenieaeanececneecs _ 475
SPOthEd, wis cine sonic: cascewiaeseeesnaeten 158 name for Black Bass ....-..---.-- 401
Wood ........- ios Moaaaittes ates coceas 158 Potbelligs. .cecisanseiceuey’scee annsviceexies 488
Tortoises, Geographic...-..--...-.-....---- oe ciays, 152 RAN POW sx<<ci05 oc cccccacwnaind seoweaeeeeee 475
BODO: 222 seid gaatas ose aside sedesser 152, 154, 157 Red cs ce sche sielenon sseset sewer eme ees 487
Soft-shelled, food of ...-....--....- nists 152 BPOUbE 2.02 cane wien cccweosuxs seas seats 504
and Turtles, Marine. .......--.----.... 147 Re6f. ess ccscceceeccnwuecsacesce Seed semeices 488
mode of life of..... 147 Rio Grande: ..02.52seeseec ses seed oreekeeces 476.
distribution of..... 147 Rock: 2ccseses ceateses shee. ecae cheeeess vee 267
Tortue franche . sceec<ceas + seses cose casveeescess 150 Salmon ssevewcscecssness sock tesson seecesss 474, 485
Trachurus picturatus .....-...----- -2-2 2.2. -2ee- 326 name for Dolly Varden Trout -....-- 504
BAUTUB 520s a diane seesine sadibexieeseice ce 326 Salt-water, name for Squetesgue....-....-- 362
Trachydermon albus. ........-......- se Saebedan 693 Sea, name for Green Rock Trout....-----.. 267
: PUD CP igatonsoeine Saidiels tosicmuee-cues 693 Sea Bass: -.iiscsieeuies vce eee a's 378
Trachynotus carolinus ....-.-.-...2.---------0-- 326 name for Squeteague ..---.-----.--------2- 362
fasciatus ........--...- pieereaecnus 392 Sebago ..-.-.------.-------- 22-2 eee eee eee 470
BIBUCUB 62550 eee sieciee swioneis vos sinew 327, 329 Schoodiciiscces.ssed.cemiies Sackew euices sa wells me 470
BOTOCNEIG .o5o.sis Suisis cise eee ee cciencs 327, 329 Shad, name for Squeteague ......-....----- 362
; OVAEUB: << sosaciene esis sae ces ceesieces 327, 329 Shoal-water....--.....-222- eee eee eee ee eee 488
TEACH YPtCTid®: 2.2 os Cajon se siew sete ceee acer 449 Speckled .....-.- 2. -.--- ees ee ne cece cee eens 497
Trachypterus altivelis........ .....--.---.----- 449 name for Dolly Varden Trout--......--..--- 504
SP POCHLGN) ai-'s vine: sicieisieisaasece maida dese cciaeaeteweiem acs 263 Rainbow Trout.......---.-------- 475
PVOPAD isc cscihewnwiexdincheareciscisae adesiecmeeaitens 838 Spotted, name for Rainbow Trout .-..-.-.-. 475
Triacis Heulei....-..--.---- 220 eeae eee ee ween €75 name for Squeteague.....-...-.---.--.---- 365-
semifasciatus .....--.-...--------------- 675 Sun, name for Squeteaguo.--..---.-...------ 362
Trichechus latirostris........--...2.--------+--- 114, 118 White, name for Silver Squeteague........- 367
MANGGUS sess cee te seeses cece es 114, 115 True, F. W., on enumeration of eggs in Mackerel. 297
senegalensis -.-....-.-.--.-.e------- 119 the Sirenians...... ..---.-...--- 114-136.

Trichiurus haumela .-.-.....-2...---- 0-02 eeee 335 useful Aquatic Reptiles and Batra-
L6PbUTUS: Jencueesexsoswcecs aeky testes 335, 337 CHIADS 5 nj:carw iver eos aes ee seis 141-161
Trichodon Stelleri .... 22. -------. ences nee eens 253 Trumbull, J. H., on abundance of the Bonito. ..-.. 317
Trichotropis borealis...... 2.220. ..---. cence ene 693 letter in the Dubertus.........- 29, 30
Triforis nigrocinctus............-+-.-+----.-- rsiefoh 693 TPUINPO scicisisis) v<isisine iain aarerwiow piuielSioic Siaregci sine ees d
THIS SOP ABN cose). ics ve ee cemetery eusienes eaten 172 Trunk Fishes .....-.. --------- +220 eee eee eee ee 170
TPIPA: cccecessdsdwaagia vain sm sinat ote ceapieciscetnecie 256 TPUrtleivinic eivie sicinayscesiciatsyesine aiwteinis weteesig: vias 147
CUCUIMG: sont csccee ccs esbee seniesioeciaee 4 256, 257 Trygon dipterurus........-..---------0--.-..ee- 666.
GUNATAUS <5 jae csiecerde ces cee sece selscles 256 | Tsebarqua...........--. ee -eee eee e eee ence seen - 267
WIPUDCO)c.c.cteranrscicmceeit sine tarda sateeeieeciaiics 256, 257 Tu bafishin- ccc sep cesecelaceres.ios ewes sma eens 256, 257
Vy Pago oiatacaecoce? nacmescn saat seawecae’s 257 TUAGi ntsc cesses se seoateg tienes sees eared eeeats 486
THUGS otat.c:ciaiesisiaiasd aicinisvepie.a\ssis aiebemee eeemenrcare 255 BUA essere weet wan 2 Sveeencjere sascte-ciaie cia saiajsiciser niece 319, 320:
Triglopsis Thompsoni, food of Burbot ........... 239 WPUDD Yc siete rns Weiaaecieceiecraae: ne Sea sieieie. Salsieis 320:
TROD S CHIU oe ac debe ecinaiee tose tueeeiesacin< 152 Long-finned .o~--.. 0... ---- 2-02 eee eee 320
Triple-tail......---. 222-2. eens cee eee eee ee eee 444 Silver-spotted ...... ....------0--------.- 320
BIBOK 6 25 sysiesceen ade seiscnstanesuseacec 445 | Turbot........- Néewidbieesisouv-s vee dees dy cesis 177

INDEX. 893
Page Page.
Turbot in America..-.-.....2. 222 eee ee cee eee 17% Verrill on the Amphipods...........-.---..... -- 824, 825
name for Diamond Flounder ............- 185 appearance and habits of Lady Crab..774, 775
File fishes..........-.-2-...4 o- 172 of Mantes Shrimp. .-...--. 823
Plaice......---.+---+----.------ 178 breeding habits of King Crab......... 829
skin used for cleansing purposes..---...:. 172 color of Pandalus borealis.....-....--- 819, 820
valuable as food ...-....-.-..----.------- 172 destructiveness and distribution of the
Wound? sisccee seed vecicveceewss eeeskes ces 178 TOr6dO:. cece cis. -jaae gar eee oe epee ewes 706, 707
Greenland «si: scceeesscceeeeesascwsseaces 199 distribution of the Green Crab.... .-.- 774
Bpottied os cc. cneic saviews Geuecececerewsais 177 Rock Crab .....------- 766
Torning Harps. sscese seed seenes seeeos reese secs. 62 habitat of common Prawn ..--..-.---- 819
Turritella erosa, 2s oss0 cases saccae ees caeen tee e es. 653 habitats of the common Barnacle - .-.. 828, 829
TOSI sexe asec viseises tes jabisuaee peat Seema a 233 habits and appearance of Oyster Crab. 765
Task -shells) jsscsiaataisie’ bocce vccbciceae seers cs 703 characteristics of Fiddler
Tursiops erebennus-......--..--------------0- ee 16 Crabs scc222 snseede eenisice 763-765
PUN ows on sc ccarsceid asacue poedeceaies caw. 16 of common Shrimp........----. 816, 817
Turtle, Alligator ......----- c20- cane neee cnee seen 153 and destructiveness of Boring
Bastard ....-..----- pie saw dielce nea aememtie 147 Limnorid... a. 2 scene ence eeeeee 826, 827
QB then) a2 acicaniecevietions:/oe seis te eie cio geet 147 of Hermit Crabs. ....-..--.---- 780
Loggerhead - .....--..--02. -eeeee eee ee ee 147, 153 Marine Worms..--...-.---..-- 831-833
Speckled ssc: csacecdscecetences cotGeete ae 158 the Sea-arrow...--..---.---- 690-692
PUM 2 2'52)2 2 cic eeiediaciewiad sews eweseenes ie 147 Spider Crab. .......--..----- 778
PUPUCS ie is.c isis ccicsgictiaiee Ase be.n aisle aciciecasins seetee sa 147 and uses of Blue Crab........-- 776
BOK oie cask iaciedicidccceersehesic<ncesess 158 history and breeding habits of the com-
GrOCNy 2: f2F arias acendeaee sen scorteras wade 147, 150 mon Squid ......--------- ', 687-690
Hawk’s bill. ...... 2... -22- 20s eee ee eee 147,149 of the Ship-worm. ee 704, 705
Snapping. ...--. 22-2. ..20.- 2 eee eee eee 152, 153 the Jelly-fishes -.....----.------------ 841, 842
Tortoise-shell.......---.----..---------- 149 | Mud Crabs.......--..------------- 772
SRY 66) 2). ois siete aeisamcra tise: comadecmneies a ane aieest oer 479 | Ophidium marginatum.........--- 243
Tyler, E., on abundance of Branch Alewife...... 591 reproduction of the Conch -. iaeewesee 694, 695
movements of Branch Alewife...... 591, 592 the Sand-dollar........-----.--+-- sees 839, 840
Tylosurus caribbeus .... ..---. .------- -------- 459 Squids, enemies of Mackerel. ...-.. 299, 300
ORAS 'ac:c'5 coer, eine Saseieeais. aeeic cm wise’ 459 structure of American Leech.......--. R34
NAG: jataiciew sainacimmesadidewe cease eeeeee 459 VOD V 8 sic tedw Sewiempeviw niet eeiscier ere siaceinie wieie earste s diciainw 266
Jonesii.----.------ ------ --- ee eee eee 459 V OM OB oe sein xeric entinncigeaieiane SEuiSicaret Sem wndetcite 338
longirostris ...-...----. -------------- 458 ViGIaGOR inc cicanctcitca sienna einamiastiaasee eaisretetre eect 459
Vulgaris... 1.2 0.0220 cece eee e ee cece eens 459 Von Frantzius, on abundance of South American
Tyrant of the Lake..---..---------------------- 487 Manatee .......-.-.----------- 123
Tyrgon centrura..---. .--------------- s+ 2+ 2+ eee 664 distribution of Florida Manatees - 115
Uhler and Lugger on economical importance of Von Heuglin, on distribution of Hooded Seal .-.-- 70
the Drum..........--.- 368 Ringed Seals.... 65
distribution of Sword-fish. 341 | Von Schrenck, on distribution of Ribbon Seal.... 67
UMD OP ois ac. npes wissen et stieaemitiow scale caisaneclee 506 Von Stemann, on movements of young Eels... ... 651
Umbrina roncador .....-.. 6-222. --2--- eee e eee eee 379 Worticell a tcc -cccs cenit seta Gasin a gecmsacereecee 733
Unceola irrorata, found in stomach of Sea-robin. 256 Wagner, on distribution of Ringed Seals ......-. 65
UT Oras o6ijs is ccie ns SSS amelewiarsie mea Seeimete Sieicicin © 703 S0a-DGATG sj accee asic ce seicieinis ceed ae ae 52
UN ON10 a se52 cece cece saiied wae cesied vewermes 709,710 | Waiter Shad ....... 2.22. --- 222 cece een eee cece ee 541
Upeneus flavovittatus ........----------02 eee --. 361 Walker, S. T., on consumption of Moss by Sheeps-
Uranidea....-. 22. 222 cnn e cee cece ee eee eee cee 259 OAS: 6 sianis saieis Seimais'e side eG eir ee ete SE iene ce SOR, +385
ASPOCTA ..- 22. eee eee eens ene ed Blaiedhaiciaie 259 | Wall-eye Surf-fish ........---...---- 22-2 --0- eee 278
QUlOSA «2-2 one mane one e ee cece ee ene e enee, 259 Wall-eyed Herring ....-....--...----- 202 eeeeee 580
Urchin, Sea ....-..-- 202 cone cae e eee cone eee eee 838 Pike, abundance of ..........-.-.-.-- 418
Urolophus halleri-....-...----.----- ee nee eee eee 666 in the Great Lakes.418-423
Urosalpinx cinerea ....--. -222 eee. cee ne cee ne 697 name for Pike Perch....-..----- 417
Ursus marinus ....-..2-222 ee cece ee ewes eee cee 51 Walrus, Atlantic, distribution OF seis siieeSoneihew 34
Vache marin ..... ..-. 2222-222 een cece ee eee ee ee 116 W SIRO BOB ois es, ohe cise sidsciciclesia ereiss Sisiesaicibv tue SERS 33, 34, 35
Vaginicola ......----. seene cone ee nee ee eee ceee 733 Atlantic and Pacific species...-........- 34
Valenciennes, on distribution of Sword-fish...... 340 | Walton, on the habits of Salmon......-...-----. 469, 470
Velutina levigata ...--....2-- 2222-2 e ee noes ene 693 marked Salmon. .........--.-------- 470
ZONAGA ....------ a2 ee nee ee eee eee ee 693 Warmouth -...... 2-2-2 ee eee eee ene eee eee 405
Velvet Sponge...--..--.------------ Siaicis-s eis sinn sis 848 BIRO isco cecicdcatasce ad sacmciceens ada 405
Venericardia borealis ....-....---...------------ 703 Warsaw seccivn sasiensiewaeinsacmamicinacieed oomuen asics 411
Venetian Bath Sponge........-22.-2-2---see--- . 848 Water Flounder ......---. .----- ---------------- 199
Venus mercenaria .... 0.0.2.0. -20ces cece eens eee 703 Woak«figh occ cccctccceceweeccosek secrete asicsece 562
Vermilion-fish ......---. 022-22 cece cecees cone ene 264 Webb, Capt. Henry, on spawning of Mackerel. -. 295

894 INDEX.
Page. Page.
Weesick « vssscuicencesev sebe shee sceeeeteeede see 608 White Mallet........---. 2-22-2220 eee e eee ene 449
Wells, on pugnacity of Alligators......-.- eases 144 Perteh s2cnec cesar decewasseeccanececee’ E 431
Welshman sce 202 22220. ois sbeseeeeemeesckendces < 401 Perch, name for Drum.......-.-.....----- 370
West Indian Seal. ..--. 02. .2-2 222-20 een eee eee 67 Surf-fish ......... ee 277
geographical distribution of.... 67 similar to Striped Bass.....-...... 424
Whale, Black ...< - << wecessiceicen ce ee cerciesiesie tres 11, 25 Surf fish sj..<cccavessiessis 276
BLOWIN Gh e.o.2) care ojeies, gies wa se Se ecre esis ne 11 Salmon + oscsseceins caaes aig ee see eenene ees 477
Bo Whead u<cicicn aici aicwieenciecseseciccn seas 20 name for California’ Yellow-tail.-.. 331
BUNCD sg avis cigieisteia sieaeiseeeia se cvmeoasicnstonis 26 N6a: BOSS sci <sicissiae'y'e's Dageiedack wees ness 3738
Caingecsesrqece sila taeda: oer asacatecies 11 Sturgeon sec ig aisles oes sesieesees -eee. (662
Pinback: sscccc: ccecatecsueeen cose wes weed 28, 30 SUCKER 2 screeners) sieicte av oe Meeewe ees ecece 614
Grayback .... 1... ..ee2. eens cee eee ene 31 Trout, name of Silver Squeteague ..---..- 367
Gray, California...... ..---.-----..----- 31, 32 Whale iso tts.2gcse ssdeeatececs cen cerandetes 15,18
Greenland .inies.acsciscw asc: ci atececitie cies nine 20 captures in Massachusetts.......-- 18,19
Humpback..........2. ---20--- Daten Sasa 26, 27, 29 distribution of ..............--..-- 18
PUPILEN cic s cicisid wiciddrsw awn maee wae smcctaees 30 DAD OL s.. ssciinijecies since crsecccene 18
historical note of .....---.---.----- 18
TUBES OF 5.05 o iiein nines sic Sain miswieiSewresees: 19
Whiting, name for Harvest-fish....-...---.------ 333
King-fish .....-....-.-...---. 375
Musquaw River White-fish -. - 541
Tom Cod « ec scccecseccxs Poses 223
Bull-head, 2.2.2 see eeceess seeacs waeens 2

SPOlM sak sews cece teeessicree ode etsies Deep-water ..-.-..----.---------- Sasa: 377
Whales, Sulphur-bottom..........---.--.---/..- New England .............-...2-..---- 240
Wits jc oh oce sce sek sockicwe sds SURF osc 0 cece eeeteewaccemeeaaceecocey 377
WRIPPBree sissesiiccs ciclo: civ celta taeiecs: ccuecwegeene "WRI 98) soe cesncineisicre: sialeleicnceetaissncice wnisie Gears 376
White, on range and habits of Mantis Shrimps... 823 Wade: Gapio cs gitecli Geo oesesteacecsleaneee ss 173
uses and destructiveness of the Green GU bec icisicin Soe coca tem meiseging maeedlecmelcen's 173
CPaDasoecaewse sccece: cee seneees see 774 Will Ge0rge)s:ccc0- cmecewecemen seco een Sesesietats 269
ANP el fishenacnamsinw euarmcneeisas me sine 280 Williams, H. S., on the habits of the 5 Oscalls giviede 323

Bass j22 20 tjeckeekaeecaccactamedetetnieta 424, 428 Mullet season in the In-
White-boned Porgy....-....---- fecimcmiesseisS Sessile Poe 394 dian River....-....-... 453, 454
White-coats 62 Red-fish asa game-fish. ..374, 375
White-eyed Shad 610 season for Sheepshead ...- 385
Whitefish. .csssscce0 tes seen codes eeeiece seuss 507 Wan GTS Hs s:c:cie.e' oe vis escie e setieies e.g ttedieseeieie easton seminal 173
abundance of...-.....--..-..-.+----- 536-540 Window-pane, name for Spotted Sand Flounder... 199
artificial propagation of....-...-.---- 523-535 Turbot 4253.2 bce secein 177
capture Of.-.-..--.--...-2-2 022.20. 535, 536 Wing-fish .-....----.----------2 2-22-22 e ee eee 255
development of eggs and embryo..... 519-521 Wing-shells sac225 wesscssessecesissces ced teal sees 702, 703
CiSeA868 OF. u.o:2 ce ipicmels Paeineebeseceees 535 Winkle 22:0: c2405 siskeen kes oeeseeses sok exe ares 694
embryonic, food of..---...---...----- 515, 516 Winninish: w:cjiaice senenacinens aaeees nee cece deans 470
ONEMICS Of 3 seiv soearneageawsicese ce a 512, 513 Winter Blounder .. 2 occc0e- ose e vis ce seeeseeewes 179, 182
experiments in hatching eggs of....-- 528 Shad. oss aeis-ssjace feissicnewidee ose cinemas 610
POO, OF, srs iarens nies cnn ceecremvaiee overseas 513-516 Wittmack, Dr. L., on habits of the Pike i in Europe-462, 463
habits of, at spawning season........ 516-519 on the habits of the Sabling eis ebices -503, 504
methods of shipping eggs of..... o 2-528, 529 Dr., onmovements of Haddock........ 225
migrations of........-.....--.. einete “509 on poproductian of Haddock.-........ 226
name for Bluefish..........-..--..... 433 WOlf66liociice hinds jusdnee sven deeeuatwewas eee 250
Menhaden.................. 569) | “WOLEAGHES ccccnc .nocctoecack tweceecaesceseecen 247-249
Silver Salmon...-.......... 477 Wood, on capture of American Manatee.......... 125
Tile-fish..---.-.22..-2-.-.-- 361 | Wood-louse ..---.-.---. ---eeeeeeeeeceecee ceeeee 701
NAMES Of sc asec seeses, werdeessceenncee 507 Wood Tortoise .......--. - 2-2 --- eee ee eee eee e eee 158
rate of growth of..........2. 020-006. 521, 522 Woodward, on the Pholades........---.-........ 707
BIZE Of sawcwe seam sswene copie deseeccccee 507, 508 WONG) sou accicieres eininities Siscieidia wees ois: co sie cisinies 387
spawning of......--.. s...---eee eee 516 Wool Sponge.......-- 2... 200 cece ee cece ee eens 845
Chief Mountain............--....-... 542 Worm Cod 201
Lid ajnin'e: «/2:5 siatnsass} Giajelslen sieiacicte wreieiens.é 507 WOTs cnc etiata sear see Saeads osc cekickeme chicg 831-837
Menomonee.....-.----.. 2-220 -2e- ones 541, 542 Dal tisinssvawwrers ce simtoa weiaciew secep ce tsedcee's 831
Mongrel onic scans ssiceee wacsiseescwais 541 MATING: sees cacissseeespaqcsaw cjcesiceccce sane 831
Musquaw River........-.-.--..-...-- 541 WYASSES 2+ :i2 sesces Yen'eeeneswalsteese eee sees 247
Rocky Mountain. ............---.---- 542 Wrinkle ccicssccwiee scacsccsesononnsse ccc sances 604,
Grunt ...--...---.... diddwincioveseereecienesis's 399 Xenistius californiensis .............----.-..2--- 400
TI AK ijoicjaisiaeleieie'e srasidiove ie sisisieveasia/eigneaizreitis 234 Xerobates Agassizi..... 2.2... 2-2. eee ee wee e eee 158

INDEX. 895
Page. Page.
Xerobates Berlandieri.......2.. 2-2-5 cece eee eeee 158 Yellow Pike, name for Pike Perch......-...-..--- 417
polyphemus -.........-..------------- 158 RMOok+fishis i. bsceeteesscasies cetboeeosee 265
Miphiss lading: .ciiscs slecwaselsuasas que sees 336, 337 Shore-crab of Pacific Coast ......-..----- 765
TM PETALOP sic dsp cd araicia sialwaicteranars Gaerne 357 Sponge senses ih cecasws cen sccsiiecwtecets 845, 849
Rondeletil ..cce0 de seossscaea wccieea-e sees 337 Vellow=-tail nce ccieeu sect secacosctesestseseaccee 375
Miphiid es s.scccwese meena yeeciewcicsweceiicins sic amas 336 name for Menhaden.........--..----- 569
Xiphister chirus -.....--. Rates ak amet ae uenecens 251 RanN er ecnc css csedconsowes 332
MUCOSUS -224 2252 ceee ene e cece cee noes 250 California ........-----------+------- 331
Xiphusura ......-...----.2------ rie swede emits! 829, 830 Rock-fish.........--0+ e-ecccaecwee coun 266
Xylophaga dorsalis ..---....------.-2--.--+----- 704 Shad, name for Menhaden .........-. 560
Xylotrya fimbriata ..-.-. 22.2.2 2222-2622 eee eee 704, 707 Yoldia limatula...... Listas Shela desi seslavaie teisleye'cleietarsiers 703
Xystreurys liolepis ...-...... 2-2-0 .------2----6-- 188 WY Ais) see eceswesacases ieiaisaitiat cele Settle 703
Yarrell, on distribution of the Sea Cat-fish....--. 248 PAPO: ssmasewrsecewre ses sss:teeisisionsiears 703
economic value of Cat-fish ........--- 250 thraciformis...--...---.------+ seceee nee 703
Yarrow, H. C.,on abundance and size of Spanish Young Harps...---..---- ..--0- --eeee een ee eeee- 62
Mackerel... ....-.--.-..----- 312 ZRlOPHUs ssc seisinsnes scewels ceccetasces esse siscee 37, 38
distribution of Sword-fish. .... 341 -californianus ....-.-..---..-------- 39, 44, 45
the Spotted Squeteague....--. 365, 366 Zaniolepis latipinnis.......--.---.-.2----------- 268
Yellow Angel-fish.....-....-----------02 sees eens 280 ZO@-SDIP .-.. 22 oe eens cee cee e cee eee eens 338
BASS coisa) tid sicisicR see See ee ease eece eae 431 LOW Bic wcrsidamicacitassic discs wcecur eels eeouee whe 335
Yellow-bellied Terrapin.-....---.---.--------++- 155 Zenopsis ocellatus ....-..--..----- ------ eee eee 335
Yellow Cat....-..------+ ---- eee e cone cee ene ene ee 627 Zeus faber...-..--...- 2-6-2222 eee pie binlaaowiws 224
Yellow-finned Roncador..........---.-.---sse0-- 379 Zoey fseh s.<:ccsiuis ee ses: ssieeenipemes ese seecceeacces 338
Yellow Fish . 3.03. 0--00 see's scesiswooteeecsnseses 268 Zimocea Sponge...-----.- 222-22. eee e ee eee e eee 845
GIUD ta as0bes ese decd se veees eeee eres 399 Zirphea crispata ......----- Sestaies sdecieseccsees 707
Mackerel ...-.----. ---2-----0- cee scenes 324 Zoarces anguillaris ......-- ---- ---- eee- eee eee 236, 247
Perehis. scence sces seer ccar sensed wacsias 414 Viviparus -. 2. .-2. eee ewe e cee wenn coos 247
abundance of.........-.----414, 415, 416, 417 DWAaTOshss. Cccicicia siti cciwiccinie tcwacedineraieierd aisetein’s 337
Pickerel] .... 2200 cone cone coceee once ences 421 Zygodactyla gronlandica .....-. eeee-+ een-cennee 842

PikG sescccdsccccccssiccnicins taesaesessces 421 .

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