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MERINO RAM “ SWEEPSTAKES,”—(See pages 29, 121, 413).
BY
HENRY 8. RANDALL, LL. D.,
AUTHOR OF “SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH,” “PINE-WOOL
BSHEEP HUSBANDRY,” ETC., ETC.
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by
D. D. T. MOORE,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the
Northern District of New York.
ROCHESTER, N. Y.?
STEREOTYPED BY JAMES LENNOX,
62 BUFFALO ATREET.
INTRODUCTION.
AN attempt has been made in the following pages to give an
impartial history of all the most valuable varieties and families of sheep
in the United States,—to explain the principles of breeding on which
their improvement rests, and to describe their proper treatment
in health and sickness, under the different climatic and other circum-
stances to which they are necessarily subjected in a country as
extensive as our own.
Many of the topics of this work have been ably discussed, and are
constantly being ably discussed in our Agricultural periodicals; but it
is now eighteen years since the publication of the last elaborate
American work which treats on them connectedly and with any
considerable degree of fullness. It is fifteen years since the appearance
of my own Sheep Husbandry in the South, which was confined to a
portion of these subjects, and, in many instances, as the title would
imply, to views and statements intended for local rather than general
information.
In the mean time, a great change — almost an entire revolution —
has taken place in the character of American sheep, and in the systems
of American sheep husbandry. The fine-wool families which existed
here in 1845 have, under a train of circumstances which will be found
recorded in this volume, mostly passed away; and they have been
succeeded by a new family, developed in our own country, which calls
for essentially different standards of breeding and modes of practical
treatment.
Our improved English, or, as they are often termed, mutton breeds
of sheep, instead of being now confined to a few small, scattering
flocks, have spread into every portion of our country, represent a large
amount of agricultural capital, and throughout regions of considerable
extent are more profitable than sheep kept specially for wool growing
purposes. Some of the most valuable families of them were wholly
unknown in this country —indeed, had scarcely been brought into
general notice in England—fifteen years ago. And, finally, our
advanced agricultural condition has created a new set of agricultural
circumstances and interests which materially affect, and, in turn, are
materially affected by, sheep husbandry,—so that their reciprocal
relations must be understood to lead to the highest measure of success
in almost any department of farming.
In view of these facts, a new work on American Sheep Husbandry
brought down to the requirements of the present day—that is,
iv INTRODUCTION.
embodying the results of the experience which sheep breeders have
obtained down to the present time—is obviously called for. And the
need is more urgent at a period when a great existing war has so
raised the price of wool that multitudes are embarking in its production
who have comparatively little knowledge of sheep or their management.
This work is intended to be minute and explicit enough in regard to
every detail of that management to meet the wants of the merest
beginner.
I would gladly have seen this labor performed by another. But,
during the past year, repeated public and -private intimations have
continued to reach me from breeders, agricultural editors, etc., scattered
through various States ofthis Union, and representing personal interests
the most diversified and even contrary, that my preparation of such
a@ work was considered desirable. In complying with the wishes thus
expressed, I can only bring to my task experience, and a disposition
to state facts with accuracy and candor. As has been remarked in
another portion of this volume, I have owned and been familiar with
flocks of sheep from my infancy, and have had the direct and practical
charge and management of them, in considerable numbers, for a period
exceeding thirty years. During that time I have bred all the varieties
of the Merino which have been introduced into our country, and
several of the leading families of English sheep. But not having bred
the latter extensively, or very recently, I have thought it would be
more satisfactory, in most instances, to employ descriptions of them
drawn from standard English writers, and from their actual breeders
in the United States. ad I contemplated writing this work lon
enough in advance to make a collection of materials specially intende
for it, I should also have taken pleasure in drawing out the opinions
of the eminent and highly successful breeders of English sheep in the
Canadas. My inquiries might even have extended to England. But
‘the “Practical Shepherd” was commenced as soon as the writing of
it was determined on, and the earlier Chapters, treating on Breeds,
were in print before I could have sought in an appropriate mode
and obtained the desired information from foreign lands.
When called upon to give the opinions of others in regard
to points with which I am unacquainted, or less acquainted, I have
chosen generally to quote their language,—and in all instances
to mention their names. Disguised compilation is one of the pettiest
forms of literary theft; and it deprives the reader of his fair and
proper privilege of deciding for himself on the competence of the
authority to which he is called upon to give credit. On various
subjects, and more especially on the subject of those ovine diseases
which are as ye unknown in the United States, these pages will be
found enriched with the descriptions and the opinions of eminent
foreign agricultural writers and veterinarians. For the invaluable
privilege of thus availing myself of their knowledge, I, as well as the
readers of this volume, owe them sincere acknowledgements.
I was at some loss whether or not it would be expedient for me
to give descriptions of an extended list of diseases and remedies, the
former of which have not appeared, or, at least, have not been
recognized in our country. But judging from their increase thus far,
and judging from their analogies derivable from the history of diseases
‘in other domestic animals, and in man, we have strong reasons tu
INTRODUCTION. v
apprehend that as our country grows older, and our systems of
husban more artificial, the same causes will be generated or
developed here which now produce many of the diseases of Europe
It is already found, for example, that as we treat our English sheep
according to English modes, maladies long known in England, but
not previously known here, and not yet known among our other
breeds of sheep, make their appearance among them. And some of
the fellest ovine maladies of Europe are liable, at any time, to be
introduced here by contagion. On the whole, I judged that it would
be erring, if at all, on the safer side, to give descriptions drawn from
the best existing sources of veterinary information of the symptoms
and treatment of all the maladies unknown in this country whicc
have thus far been recognized and classified in Europe.
I have quoted somewhat freely from my own previous works on
Sheep. I could discover no objection to this, where my opinions
remain unchanged; and where they are changed, omissions and, in a
few cases, slight alterations have been made to conform the quoted
statements to them. If occasional discrepancies are discoverable
between my present and former views, I have only to say, in explana-
tion, that further experience or further reflection has led me to change
my conclusions.
A general history and description of all the breeds of sheep have
not been attempted in this volume. Those desirous of such information
are referred to Mr. Youatt’s Work on Sheep. This unwearied
investigator and copious writer exhausted this field of research —and
he really left nothing, in what may be termed the literature of Sheep
Husbandry, to be performed by another. Those who have followed
him in the same field, have only repeated him; and these compilers
have generally been as destitute of his grace as of his erudition.
I have alluded to all the distinct breeds of sheep which have, so
far as my knowledge extends, been introduced into the United States,
but I have particularly described only those leading and valuable ones
which now employ the attention of enlightened agriculturists. And
even in respect to these, no historic investigations have been indulged
in which do not appear to me to have a direct bearing on the modes
and means of their preservation or improvement. The province of
this work embraces purely practical concerns, and history and
disquisition are pertinent only so far as they throw a direct and
instructive light on those concerns.
One of the greatest and most insuperable difficulties which I
have experienced in the prosecution of my labors arises from the
want of an established and systematic nomenclature to express the
various divisions of species. The designations, species, race, kind,
stock, breed, variety, family, etc., have been applied almost indiscrimi-
nately to the same divisions, as if the words were understood to be
synonymous. Even Mr. Youatt falls into this loose and careless use
of language. But unfortunately a confusion of terms can not but
produce a corresponding confusion of ideas, on a subject not without
intricacy, and in reference to distinctions or lines of demarkation
which are frequently faint, and nearly always irregular and abounding
in exceptions. The breeder who aspires to be an improver, ought to
have clear ideas on this subject. Called upon early in the progress
vi INTRODUCTION.
of this work, and without much previous consideration, to devise 4
uniform mode of classification in the premises, I adopted and have
made use of the following:
The term breed is applied to those extensive and permanent groups
of sheep which are believed to have. had, respectively, a common origi
—which exhibit certain common leading characteristics—and which
transmit those characteristics with uniformity to their progeny. Ex-
amples of Breeds, are the Merino of Spain, including its pure blood
descendants, wherever found; the Fat-Rumped Sheep of Asia, the
Long - Wooled Sheep of England, and the Short-Wooled Sheep of
England. The term Variety is applied to different national branches
of the same breed, such as the Saxon, French and American varieties
ef the parent Spanish Merino. The term Family is used to designate
those branches of a breed or variety found in the same country, which
exhibit permanent, but ordinarily lesser differences than varieties.
Thus the different kinds of Downs and the Rylands are families of
the English Short- Wooled sheep; the Cotswolds and the Liecesters
are families of the English Long -Wooled sheep; the Infantados and
Paulars are families of both the Spanish and American Merinos.
The term sub- family is occasionally used to designate a minor group,
bearing about the same relation to a family that a family does to a
variety. No satisfactory term was found to characterize the smallest
and initial group of all,—those closely related animals, to which,
among human beings, we apply the designation of a family, when we
use that word in its most restricted sense. Perhaps I have sometimes,
awkwardly enough, spoken of them as animals of the same individual
blood, or as possessing the same strain of individual blood.
The system of classification above described, answers very well
when applied to the Merino. This breed exhibits all the enumerated
classes in permanent, distinct forms, each to a certain extent isolated
from the others by separate breeding, for a considerable period, and
totally isolated from all other and outside groups of sheep by perfect
purity of blood. But this classification is wholly unsatisfactory when
applied to the British breeds of sheep. I will not consume space to
a a fact, the causes of which will be so obvious to the observing
reader.
I return my sincere thanks to the following gentlemen for valuable
aid in collecting materials for this work—none the less valuable
because, in many instances, they were contributed in a form which
required no: special mention in my pages. I arrange the names
alphabetically to avoid making a distinction where, in most cases,
none exists:—A. B. Allen, Lewis F. Allen, George Campbell, N. L.
Chaffee, Edmund Clapp, Prosper Elithorp, George Galas, James
Geddes, W. F. Greer, James 8. Grennell, Edwin Hammond, Benjamin
P. Johnson, Geo. Livermore, R. A. Loveland, Daniel Needham, Theo-
dore C. Peters, Virtulan Rich, William R. Sanford, Nelson A. Saxton,
Homer L. D. Sweet, Samuel Thorne, and M. W. C. Wright. .
HENRY 8. RANDALL.
CoRTLAND ViiuaGE, N. Y.,
September, 1863.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
FINE-WOOLED BREEDS OF SHEEP.
The Spanish, French, Saxon, and Silesian Merinos,... ..... Page 13
; CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION OF FINE-WOOLED SHEEP INTO THE UNITED
STATES.
Early Importations of Spanish, French and Saxon Merinos,..... 22
CHAPTER III.
AMERICAN MERINOS ESTABLISHED AS A VARIETY.
The Mixed Leonese or Jarvis Merinos—The Infantado or Atwood
Merinos—The Paular or Rich Merinos—Other Merinos,
CHAPTER IV.
LATER IMPORTATIONS OF FINE-WOOLED SHEEP INTO THE
UNITED STATES.
French and Silesian Merinos Introduced,.............ceeceeeees 35
CHAPTER Y.
BRITISH AND OTHER LONG AND MIDDLE-WOOLED SHEEP IN
THE UNITED STATES.
Leicesters, Cotswolds, Lincolns, New Oxfordshires, Black - Faced
Scotch, Cheviot, Fat-Rumped, Broad - Tailed, Persian and
Chinese Sheep,
CHAPTER VI.
BRITISH SHORT- WOOLED SHEEP, ETC., IN THE UNITED STATES.
The South Downs, Hampshire Downs, Shropshire Downs and
Oxfordshire Downs,.........ccccsscscecceeeees tes veee 55
Vill CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VII.
THE POINTS TO BE REGARDED IN FINE- WOOLED SHEEP.
Carcass — Skin — Folds or Wrinkles — Fleece — Fineness — Even-
ness— Trueness and Soundness—Pliancy and Sofiness—Style
and Length of Wool,..........esseeees sale 'ap'aja'w ar aieiaterere weee 68
CHAPTER VIII.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
Yolk— Chemical Analysis of Yolk—Its Uses—Proper Amount
and Consistency of it—Its Color—Coloring Sheep Artifi-
cially — Artificial Propagation and Preservation of Yolk,.... 77
CHAPTER IX.
ADAPTATION OF BREEDS TO DIFFERENT SITUATIONS.
Markets — Climate — Vegetation — Soils — Number of Sheep to be
Kept — Associated Branches of Husbandry,.......-..+0s-+++ 82
CHAPTER X.
PROSPECTS AND PROFITS OF WOOL AND MUTION PRODUCTION
IN THE UNITED STATES.
PSG oases lie wie ss Gucioselaaserayess aueiniduardce es was ae Ses o ae eS ENE ese 91
CHAPTER XI.
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREEDING. ;
PARE). cess csee seas eed oo she eee en ewes esos s dawwseomeReRndes eee 101
CHAPTER XII.
BREEDING IN-AND-IN.
Page ios evcevs sede sick cea sree tens aoewctiawamoubeas sveescees 116
CHAPTER XIII.
CROSS - BREEDING.
Cross-Breeding the Merino and Coarse Breeds—Crossing Different
Families of Merinos— Crossing Between English Breeds and
Families —Recapitulation,..........0c0c eee e eee ee cece eeeeees 124
CHAPTER XIV.
SPRING MANAGEMENT.
Catching and Handling—Turning Out to Grass—Tagging—Burs—
Lambing—Proper Place for Lambing—Mechanical Assistance
in Lambing — Inverted Womb— Management of New - Born
Lambs — Artificial Feeding —Chilled Lambs — Constipation
—Cutting Teeth — Pinning — Diarrhea or Purging,........ 139
CONTENTS. ix
CHAPTER XV.
SPRING MANAGEMENT CONTINUED.
Congenital Goitre—Imperfectly Developed Lambs— Rheumatism
—Treatment of the Ewe after Lambing— Closed Teats—
Uneasiness —Inflamed Udder—Drying off —Disowning Lambs
— Foster Jaambs— Docking Lambs — Castration,..........- . 152
CHAPTER XVI.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT.
Mode of Washing Sheep—Utility of Washing Considered—Cutting
the Hoofs —Time between Washing and Shearing—Shearin
—Stubble Shearing and Trimming— Shearing Lambs an
Shearing Sheep semi-annually — Doing up Wool— Frauds in
Doing. up Wool— Storing. Wool— Place for Selling Wool—
Wool Depots and Commission Stores — Sacking Wool,..... 163
CHAPTER XVII.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT — CONTINUED.
Drafting and Selection — Registration — Marking and Numbering
—Storms after Shearing — Sun - Scald — Ticks — Shortening
Horns — Maggots—Confining Rams—Training Rams—Fences-
—Salt — Tar, ‘Sulphur, Alum, &c.—Water in Pastures —Shade
in Pastures — Housing Sheep in Summer — Pampering,...... 17a
CHAPTER XVIII.
FALL MANAGEMENT.
Weaning and Fall Feeding Lambs—Sheltering Lambs in Fall—
Fall Feeding and cae? Breeding Ewes—Selecting Ewes
for the Ram — Coupling — Period of Gestation—Management
of Rams during Coupling — Dividing Flocks for Winter,.... 198
CHAPTER XIX.
WINTER MANAGEMENT.
Winter Shelter—Temporary Sheds—Hay Barns with Open Sheds
— Sheep Barns or Stables—Cleaning out Stables in Winter—
Yards — Littering Yards—Confining Sheep in Yards and to
PTY WOO cc... aria racer genial Seeiaca noise nei sieletg Sd Kaw eR. Rion oes ea 211
CHAPTER XX.
WINTER MANAGEMENT — CONTINUED.
Hay Racks— Water for Sheep in Winter—Amount of Food
Consumed by Sheep in Winter — Value of Different Fodders
—Nutritive Equivalents— Mixed Feeds—Fattening Sheep in
Winter — Regularity in Feeding —Salt,..... Wisiniederwra sarees
1
x CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXI.
PRAIRIE SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
Prairie Management in Summer — Lambing — Folds and Dogs—
Stables — Herding — Washing — Shearing— Storing and Sell-
ing Wool— Ticks — Prairie Diseases — Salt Weaning Lambs
— Prairie Management in Winter — Winter Feed — Sheds or
Stables— Water— Location of Sheep Establishment,........ 248
CHAPTER XXII.
ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF SHEEP. THE HEAD.
Comparatively small Number of American Sheep Diseases — Low
Type of American Sheep Diseases— Anatomy of the Sheep
—The Skeleton— The Skull— The Horns and their Diseases
—The Teeth —Swelled Head —Sore Face—Swelled Lips—
Inflammation of the Eye,.......... ccc ee ceeecen cence esenace 261
CHAPTER XXIII.
ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE SHEEP’S HEAD, CONTINUED.
Section of Sheep’s Head — Grub in the Head — Hydatid on the
Brain — Water on the Brain —Apoplexy — Inflammation of
the Brain—Tetanus or Locked -Jaw— Epilepsy — Palsy —
Rabies,...... sa ES SERINE sab Ese ENS ENS Lekue meee Ree tewews 273
CHAPTER XXIV.
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
Blain — Obstructions of the Gullet— The Stomachs and their
Diseases—External and Internal Appearance of the Stomachs
—The Mode of Administering Medicines into the Stomachs
of Sheep — Hoove— Poisons— Inflammation of the Rumen,
or Paunch— Obstruction of the Maniplus— Acute Dropsy,
or Red- Water — Enteritis, or Inflammation of the Coats of
the Intestines — Diarrhea — Dysentery — Constipation— Colic,
or Stretches—Braxy, or Inflammation of the Bowels—Worms
ee PIUNING ciao, a must storia cients estan aieiaeiss aisle sateen ees sitet Ke SEES Ss 291
CHAPTER XXV.
DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY AND THE RESPIRATORY
SYSTEMS.
The Pulse — Place and Mode of Siig Fever — Inflammatory
Fever— Malignant Inflammatory Fever—-Typhus Fever —
Catarrh—Malignant Epizootic Catarrh—Pneumonia, or Inflam-
mation of the Lungs—Pleuritis or Pleurisy—Consumption,.. 314
CHAPTER XXVI.
DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE AND URINARY ORGANS.
Abortion —Inversion of the Womb— Garget — Parturient, or
Puerperal Fever —Cystitis, or Inflammation of the Bladder,.. 329
CONTENTS, xi
CHAPTER XXVII.
DISEASES OF THE SKIN.
The Scab—Erysipelatous Scab— Wild fire and Ignis Sacer —
Other Cutaneous Eruptions— Small Pox, or Variola Ovina,.. 338
CHAPTER XXVIII.
DISEASES OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ORGANS.
Fractures — Rheumatism — Disease of the Biflex Canal— Gravel
= Travel - Sore —Lameness from Frozen Mud—Fouls—Hoof- at
OL sisissn: sar eiasaiastaha%a erele’os gig ase S'575"s w'etats “ereseNe Winnanal“siStaceisate cbse Weeriaece
CHAPTER XXTX.
OTHER DISEASES, WOUNDS, ETC.
The Rot—Scrofula— Hereditary Diseases — Cuts—Lacerated and
Contused Wounds—Punctured Wounds—Dog Bites—Poisoned
‘Wounds— Sprains — Bruises — AbSscess,.......+ceeceeeeeeene 87
CHAPTER XXX.
LIST OF MEDICINES,
PAB G ois ia ceria deci sate aistroarea dared neni a ene sale decays «. 883
CHAPTER XXXI.
THE DOG IN ITS CONNECTION WITH SHEEP.
The Injuries inflicted by Dogs on Sheep --The Sheep Dog—The
Spanish Sheep Dog—The Hungarian Sheep Dog— The
French Sheep Dog-- The Mexican Sheep Dog— The South
American Sheep Dog—Other Large Races of Sheep Dogs
— The English Sheep Dog —The Scotch Sheep Dog, or Colley
— Accustoming Sheep to Dogs,.............cceeec cece ceeee 393
APPENDICES.
A.— Origin of the Improved Infantados,..........0.ccecsecceces 412
B.-- Origin of the Improved Paulars,............cccccceesceecs 416
C.— English Experiments in Feeding Sheep,....... .. 418
D.— Sheep and Product of Wool in United States, 425
E.— Starting a Sheep Establishment in the New Western States, 427
F.— Climate of Texas,..........ccc cece cc eccccccecceucsceeenee 428
G.— Proportion of Meat to Wool in Sheep of Different Ages,
433
Sexes and Sizes,......... cc cee cee e cecceseeceeccseteesecn
Bee American Merinos at the International Exhibition of
i E84 POE DOYS Fan le ae ee ee a ake NW a gee ee 8
List oF ‘ILLUSTRATIONS, faraacntet sy 61A ba('sci bj stdca) slo: avanere''sig s encve aiois Sere 440
INDEX saeseciel ose detainee tr eee rrr ceceeesceceees 441
THE PRACTICAL SHEPHERD.
CHAPTER I.
FINE-WOOLED BREEDS OF SHEEP.
THE SPANISH, FRENCH, SAXON AND SILESIAN MERINOS.
Tz Spranise Mzrrvo.—From a period anterior to the
‘Christian era, fine-wooled Sheep abounded in Spain, and they
were, or gradually ripened into, a breed distinct in its
characteristics from all other breeds in the world. It was,
however, divided into provincial varieties which exhibited
considerable differences; and these were subdivided into great
permanent cabanas or flocks which being kept distinct from
each other and subjected to special courses of breeding,
assumed the character of separate families varying somewhat,
but in a lesser degree, from each other.
The first division recognized in Spain was into Transhu-
mantes or traveling flocks and Estantes or stationary flocks.
The first were regarded as the most valuable and were
owned by the king and some of the principal nobles and
clergy. They were pastured in winter on the plains of
Southern Spain, and driven in spring (commencing the
journey in April,) to the fresh green herbage of the mountains
in Northern Spain. They began their return early in October.
The route, each way, averaged about four hundred miles and
was completed in six weeks. Through inclosed regions and
where the feed was scarce, they often traveled from fifteen to
twenty miles a day. The lambs were dropped early in
January. Nearly half of them, and sometimes in seasons of
bad pasturage, three-fourths of them were destroyed as soon
as yeaned, and those which were preserved were usually
suckled by two ewes. This was intended for the benefit of
14 SPANISH FAMILIES.
both lambs and ewes. The latter were thought to produce
more wool than when each suckled a lamb. The lambs were
little over three months old when the spring migration
commenced, and about nine months old when the autumnal
one commenced. Thus every year of its life the migratory
Merino performed a journey of eight hundred miles, and
passed nearly a fourth of the entire time on the road. It
received neither shelter nor artificial food. Such a training
constantly weeded out of the flock the old, the feeble and the
weak in constitution, and developed among those which
remained capabilities for enduring exertion and hardship to
an extraordinary degree.
Some of the most esteemed families of migratory Merinos
are thus mentioned by Lasteyrie:—“The Escurial breed is
supposed to possess the finest wool of all the migratory sheep.
The Gaudeloupe have the most perfect form, and are likewise
celebrated for the quantity and quality of their wool. The
Paulars bear much wool of a fine quality; but they have a
more evident enlargement behind the ears, and a greater
degree of throatiness, and their lambs have a coarse, hairy
appearance, which is succeeded by excellent wool. The
lambs of the Infantados have the same hairy coat when
young. The Negretti are the largest and strongest of all the
Spanish traveling sheep.”
Vague and unsatisfactory as is this description, it is
perhaps the best contemporaneous one extant, of that period
near the opening of the present century when the flocks of
Spain had reached their highest point of excellence — and
before invasion and civil war had led to their sale into foreign
countries and their almost general destruction or dispersion
at home. Iam inclined to think that the small pains taken
by Lasteyrie and his contemporaries to point out the distinc-
tions between the best Spanish families,— the “‘Leonesa” as
they were collectively called—resulted from the fact, that the
foreign breeders of that day, and the Spaniards themselves,
attached but little importance to those distinctions in respect
to value—though in respect to breeding they were rigorously
preserved.
To furnish the reader with some data for comparison
between the several Spanish families and their American
descendants, I select the following facts from a table prepared
by Petri, an intelligent and highly trustworthy writer, who
visited Spain near the beginning of this century on purpose
to examine its Sheep; and I add some measurements of
SPANISH FLEECES. 15
American Merinos made of Sheep in no wise extraordinary
in their forms.*
mn
w jg [3 |¢ ala [2 [ele
3 le |8sia./@le 1@ |28
B lgs/#8|/*2¢] 2/2 |e |e lo
Bu leeles|e=| 2 |85182/8 Be
NAMES OF FLOCKS. | "8 |s3/83|S2| 2 | 5d|y8/o 2
ase [A a/San!] & | ga] os |S |Sa
a” lS) a" las!) Fd =| 8 Ie
2 ie | te | Set | ow q oD |S
E I | a 8 = q Is
a NEGRETTI. Ibs. | in. ft. in,|ft, in.ft. in.|ft. in.jft. in.) in. | in.
id ‘1% |2 2 |4 63/4 14) 38 10 16
1 5 [2 1 (4 232/14 Lik 1 | 934) 432
1623 47 42 0/9 16
1 54/2 1 [4 BiB 11 |1 O | 84) 5
1 6 |2 2 44 5 4 541 018 16
4 2 |2 1 (B11 8 9 1034| 634| 4
1 6 |2 0 4 34/4 21 01/8 16
12 21 }4 0 (810 11 [7 15
181 9 [8 Hs 2 10 | 64/3
1 1 ff 6 [8 2 210 8 16/3
10 2 4 [B11 4 44%) 11 19 19
10 (2 4 (8 1132/4 132) 11 |9 | 8
10 (2 56 [4 0 [4 9/9 18
11 (2 3 \811 [4 O%] 8%} 8 18
u
These weights and measures, except those of the American
sheep, are Austrian. The Austrian pound is equal to 1.037
pounds avoirdupois; the Austrian foot to 1.234 English feet.
The fleece of the Spanish Merino was level on the surface
and so dense that, like that of its American descendant, it
opposed a firm resistance when grasped by the hand, instead
of yielding under the fingers like fur, hair, or the thin wool of
other races of sheep. The wool was shorter than that of the
improved American Merino and particularly so on the belly,
legs and head. It was very even in quality, both as between
different sheep and on different parts of the same sheep. The
most celebrated flocks, with the exception of the Escurial,
were dark colored externally—about as dark as the present
Merino sheep in our own Middle and Western States, which
are not housed in summer. The wool was rendered moist to
* They were taken from my flock, and the measurements, &c., made in December,
1861. The ewes were a little over average size, but the ram was quite small. His
usual weight immediately after shearing is but 100 pounds. I selected him more
particularly to exhibit another contrast, with the Spanish Sheep. His unwashed
fleece of a single year’s growth has reached 21 Ibs. and averages about 20 Ibs. ‘21
per cent.,” as he is called, was bred by Edwin Hammond, Esq., of Middlebury, Vt.
16 SPANISH WOOL.
the feel, brilliant and heavy, by yolk, bat it did not exhibit
this in viscid or indurated masses within, or in a black, pitchy
coating without. It opened with a fine, flashing luster, and
with a yellowish tinge which deepened toward its outer ends.
Livingston gives the weight of the unwashed Spanish
fleeces at 84 lbs. in the ram and 5 lbs. in the ewe. Youatt
a the weight of the ram’s fleece half a poundlower. The
ing of England’s flock of Negretti’s, about one hundred in
number, which were picked sheep and included some wethers
(but no rams,) yielded, during five years, an annual average
of a little over 34 lbs. of brook-washed wool per head, and
each fleece afterwards lost about a pound in scouring.*
Youatt measured the diameter of the wool of the various
flocks first introduced from Spain into England. I judge
from his statements that 1-750 part of an inch may be assumed
as about the average diameter or fineness of the good Spanish
wool of that period. The same ingenious investigator
discovered that conformation of the fibers which causes the
felting property. It is produced by “serrations,” as he terms
them,—tooth-like projections on the wool, all pointing in a
direction from the root to the point, and so inconceivably
minute that 2560 of them occur in the space of an inch of the
fiber. They are more numerous in proportion to the fineness
of the wool, and on their number, regularity and sharpness
depends the perfection of the felting property. In this
respect the finest grades of Merino wool exceed all others.
The following cuts give the magnified appearance of a fine
specimen of Spanish wool, viewed both as an opaque and
transparent object.
These tooth-like processes are still finer on choice speci”
mens of Saxon wool; on that of the coarse-wooled varieties
of sheep they are comparatively few, blunt and irregular.
The best flocks of Spain, as already mentioned, were lost
to that country during the Peninsular war. In answer to an
application for information from T. 8. Humrickhouse, Esq., of
_ *See Sir Joseph Banks’ five annual reports, from 1798 to 1802, in respect to
this flock. The number of wethers is not given by him.
PRESENT SPANISH MERINOS. 17
Ohio, made with a view to importations and directed to the
Spanish Minister in Washington, in 1852, that functionary
caused inquiry to be made in relation to the existing condition
of the flocks of Spain. The statements sent back, in 1854,
appear to have been derived from the Spanish ‘“ General
Association of Wool Growers.” The substance of them is
condensed into the following paragraph :
“ Although it is certain that, in the war of Independence,
a great number of the said flocks, [the choice Transhumantes
of Estremadura and Leon, such as the Infantado, Paular,
Guadeloupe, Negretti, Escurial, Montarco, etc.,] were de-
stroyed, and others diminished and divided, it is equally
certain that they still exist in their majority and with the
same good qualities which formerly made them so desirable
and necessary. If, therefore, as it appears from the commu-
nication which has given rise to this report, the wool growers
of the United States should have a desire and want to
purchase fine sheep, they may come sure they will not be
disappointed.”
Then follows an extended list of flocks with the names of
their owners.* The Escurial, the Negretti and the Arriza,
are the only ones admitted to have been lost.
Conceding to these statements the merit of entire candor,
they simply show that the Spaniards place a very different
estimate on their present sheep from that placed on them by
American breeders. The late John A. Taintor, Esq., 0,
Connecticut, who seven times visited Europe to buy sheepf
carefully examined the flocks of Spain with an earnest wish
to find superior animals in them for importation to the United
States. He wrote to me in 1862, that the Spanish sheep
“were so small, neglected and miserable, that he would not
take one of them as a present.”+ In 1860 a gentleman of
Estremadura, whose flock Mr. Taintor could not visit when
in Spain, sent him a number of fleeces as samples ; and one of
these Mr. Taintor forwarded to me. It weighed, in the dirt,
5 lbs. 11 oz. The wool was about as long as ordinary
American Merino wool, was not very even in quality, and
was scarcely middling in point of fineness! Mr. William
Chamberlain, of Red Hook, New York, the well known
*Scarcely any of these are the ancient owners, or those who held the flocks
when the war ‘‘of Independence”? commenced.
+See his letter to me in my Report on Fine-Wool Husbandry in Transactions
of N. Y. State Agricultural Society for 1861. (The Report was made early in 1862
and will hereafter be cited as of that year.)
18 THE FRENCH MERINO.
importer of Silesian Merinos, informs me that he imported
about thirty Merinos from Spain, a few years since, and that
after seeing them and shearing them he quietly sold them in
the ensuing autumn to the butcher! William R. Sanford, of
Orwell, Vermont, a Merino sheep breeder of great judgment
and experience, visited the flocks of Spain, France and
Germany, in 1851, in. behalf of himself, Mr. Hammond and
some other gentlemen of the same State, to ascertain whether
fine-wooled sheep superior to those of the United States could
be found in Europe. He thus wrote to me in respect to the
sheep of Spain:
* * * “On arriving at Madrid I found that most
of those who owned sheep to any amount lived in the city,
and through our Minister T aoe introductions to them. From
what I could learn from them in regard to the form, weight
of fleece, eto., of their sheep, I became satisfied that they had
none of much value. They finally admitted that they were
not as good as formerly, and that they were going to
Germany for bucks to improve them. I concluded, however,
I would go and see for myself. It is about 200 miles from
Madrid to the plains of Estremadura, where they winter their
sheep. On examining the flocks, I found they had no fixed
character. Occasionally there would be a fair looking sheep.
At first they pretended that their sheep were pure and the
best in the world. But when they found that I understood the
history of their flocks, and what I wanted, they admitted they
were not as good as the former ones, and they gave as a
reason that they had no standard flocks to resort to as they
had before the French invasion,—at which time - those
standard flocks were all broken up, those which were not
eaten, being sold and mixed with the common sheep of the
country, which were a very inferior kind. I did not see a
sheep in Spain that I would pay freight on to this country. I
do not believe they have any that are of pure blood.”
I_ have conversed with several other American sheep
breeders.who have visited the Spanish flocks within the last
fifteen years, and all of them substantially concur in the
opinions above expressed.
Tat French Murivo.— After several successful smaller
experiments in acclimating the Spanish Merino in France,
about 300 of them were imported under royal auspices to that
country in 1786. Gilbert, a French writer of reputation, in a
THE FRENCH MERINO. 19
report made to the National Institute of France, ten years
afterwards, thus speaks of them:
“The stock from which the flock of Rambouillet was
derived, was composed of individuals beautiful beyond any
that had ever before been brought from Spain; but having
been chosen from a great number of flocks, in different parts
of the kingdom, they were distinguished by very striking
local differences, which formed a medley disagreeable to the
eye, but immaterial as it affected their quality. These
characteristic differences have melted into each other, by
their successive alliances, and from thence has resulted a race
which perhaps resembles none of those which composed the
primitive stock, but which certainly does not yield in any
circumstance to the most beautiful in point of size, form and
strength, or in the fineness, length, softness, strength and
abundance of fleece. * * * The comparison I have
made with the most scrupulous attention, between this wool
and the highest priced of that drawn from Spain, authorizes
me to declare that of Rambouillet superior.”
Lasteyrie thus gives their weight of fleeces, unwashed,
through a series of years:—In 1796, 6 lbs. 9 0z.; 1797, 8 lbs.;
1798, 7 Ibs.; 1799, 8 lbs.; 1800, 8 lbs.; 1801, 9 Ibs. 1 0z. In
1802, he says:—“The medium weight of full grown nursing
ewes’ fleeces was 8 lbs. 7 oz.; of the ewes of three years old,
which had no lambs, 9 lbs. 13 oz.; and two-tenths [grade]
ewes, 10 lbs. 8 02.”
Mr. Trimmer, an English flock-master and writer of ex-
perience, thus described them in 1827:
“The sheep, in size, are certainly the largest pure Merinos
I have ever seen. The wool is of various qualities, many
sheep carrying very fine fleeces, others middling, and some
rather indifferent; but the whole is much improved from the
quality of the original Spanish Merinos. In carcass and
appearance I hesitate not to say they are the most unsightly
flock of the kind I ever met with. The Spaniards entertained
an opinion that a looseness of skin under the throat, and other
a contributed to the increase of fleece. This system the
rench have so much enlarged on that they have produced, in
this flock, individuals with dewlaps almost down to the knees,
and folds of skin on the neck, like frills, covering nearly the
head. Several of these animals seem to possess pelts of such
looseness of size that one skin would nearly hold the carcasses
of two such sheep. The pelts are particularly thick, which is
unusual in the Merino sheep. The rams’ fleeces were stated
20 THE SAXON MERINO.
at 14 Ibs., and the ewes’ 10 lbs., in“the grease. By washing
they would be reduced half, thus giving 7 and 5 lbs. each.”
But the royal flock was already beginning to be out-
stripped by private ones in size of carcass and weight of
fleece, and now there are a very few choice flocks in France
which are said to average 14 lbs. of unwashed wool to the
fleece in ewes, and from 20 lbs. to 24 lbs. in rams, the ewes
weighing 150 lbs. and the rams 200 Ibs..
Tae Saxon Merino.—In 1765, three hundred Merinos
were introduced from Spain into Saxony. They, too, were a
royal importation, and were placed in government establish-
ments. It is understood they were selected principally if not
exclusively from the Escurial cabana.
The course of breeding and management generally adopted
in that country tended to develop a very high quality of wool
at the expense of its quantity and at the expense of both car-
cass and constitution. The sheep were not only housed during
the winter, but at night, during all rainy weather, and
generally from the noonday sun in summer. They were not
even allowed to run on wet grass. Their food was accurately
portioned out to them in quantity and in varying courses;
their stable arrangements were systematic and included a
multitude of careful manipulations; at yeaning time they
received (and came to require) about as much care as human
patients.
When introduced into the United States (1824,) the Saxon
lacked from a fifth to a quarter of the weight of the parent
Spanish stock in the country, and the latter were materially
smaller then than now. Their forms indicated a far feebler
constitution than those of the Spanish sheep. They were
slimmer, finer boned, taller in proportion, and thinner in the
head and neck,— and shorter, thinner, finer and evener in the
fleece. The wool had no hardened yolk internally or externally;
was white externally; and opened white instead of having the
buff tinge of the unwashed Spanish wool. Jt was from an inch
to an inch and a half long on the back and sides and shorter
on the head, legs and belly. Medium specimens of it
measured about 1-840 parts of an inch in diameter. The
washed fleeces on an average weighed from 14 lbs. to 2 lbs.
in ewes, and from 2 lbs. to 3 lbs. in rams. There has been a
regeneration and improvement of this variety in various parts
of Germany, but an account of these changes would possess
little interest for the mass of practical American breeders.
THE SILESIAN MERINO. | 21
Tue Siresran Mrrrno.— Prussian Silesia has numerous
flocks of sheep descended from the Electoral and other Saxon
flocks. These require no separate mention here. An impor-
tation of a different family of Merinos has been made from
that country to the United States, and they have acquired,
here, the distinctive appellation of Silesian Merinos. These
will be described when an account is given of the importations
of foreign fine-wooled sheep into the United States.
CHAPTER II.
INTRODUCTION OF FINE-WOOLED SHEEP INTO THE
UNITED STATES,
EARLY IMPORTATIONS OF SPANISH, FRENCH AND SAXON
MERINOS.
Spanish Merrnos Intropucep.—W um. Foster, of Boston,
Massachusetts, imported three Merino sheep from Spain into
that city in 1793. They were given toa friend, who killed
them for mutton! In 1801 M. Dupont de Nemours, and a
French banker named Delessert, sent four ram lambs to the
United States. All perished on the passage but one, which
was used for several years in New York, and subsequently
founded some excellent grade flocks for his owner, E. I.
Dupont, near Wilmington, Delaware. He was of fine form,
weighed 138 lbs., and yielded 8% lbs. of brook-washed
wool,— the heaviest fleece borne by any of the early imported
Merinos of which I have seen any account.* The same year,
Seth Adams, of Zanesville, Ohio, imported into Boston a pair
of Spanish sheep which had been brought from Spain into
France. I know nothing of their later history. In 1802, Mr.
Livingston, American Minister in France, sent home two
pairs of French Merinos, purchased from the Government
flock at Chalons. The rams appear from their recorded
weights to have been larger than Spanish rams, but a picture
of one of them which is extant exhibits no difference of form,
and I have always learned from those who saw them, that
they bore no resemblance to the modern French Merinos.
Mr. Livingston subsequently imported a French ram from the
Rambouillet flock. This eminent public benefactor was too
much engrosS$ed in a multitude of great undertakings to give
*As Dupont de Nemours was the head of the Commission appointed by the
French Government to select in Spain the flocks of Merinos given up by the latter by
the Treaty of Basle, I conjecture that this ram was from the original Spanish, and
not from the French stock.
IMPORTATIONS OF SPANISH SHEEP. 23
that close individual attention to his sheep which is necessary
to marked success in breeding. But his statements show that
he improved them considerably.
The following table in respect to his sheep in 1810, I take
from a manuscript letter of his, not before published. As the
weights given both of carcasses and fleeces considerably
exceed those of the previous year (published in his Essay on
Sheep, p. 186,) it is probable that the sheep had been highly
kept. The wool was unwashed.
Stock rams. Weight. Weight of fleece. 7
One, 6 years old, ......-- 146 Ibs. 9 lbs. .....-: imported from Rambouille,
“© 2 years old, -----..- 146 Ibs. 9 Ibs...... raised here.
“* 1 year old, .-.-....- ~145 Ibs, 11 lbs. 11 oz, raised here.
Ewes. Average weight of fleece.
Common (268)......----------------- 8 Ibs. 10 oz.
Half-breed, or first cross, .-. ---5 Ibs. 1 02,
Three-fourths, or second cross,.._..5 Ibs, 3 0z., heaviest fleece, 8 lbs.
Seven-eighths, or third cross,...._.. 5 Ibs. 6 02. do. 8 Ibs, 4 oz.
Fullblood, is2..sese2-cs2cececeseceeud 5 lbs. 18 oz. do. 8 Ibs. 12 oz.
His halfblood wool sold for 75 cents; three-fourths for
$1.25; seven-eighths for $1.50; full-blood for $2.00. He sold
four full-blood ram lambs for $4,000; fourteen fifteen-sixteenths
blood do. for $3,500; twenty seven-eighths blood do. for $2,000;
thirty three-fourths blood do. for $900. He says if the lambs
had been a year old they would have sold 50 per cent. higher.*
Later in the year 1802 Col. Humphreys, the American
Minister in Spain, brought home with him 21 rams and 70
ewes bought for him in that country. I find no definite early
statistics of the flock, though in manuscript letters of Col. H.
seen by me, he states that they constantly improved in
weight of fleece and in carcass. He mentions as worthy of
note that a ram raised on his farm yielded 7 lbs. 5 oz. of
washed wool.. The reputation of his flock, handed down by
tradition, is an excellent one. Various facts which I cannot
occupy space to give in detail, have led me to the undoubting
conclusion that it was entirely from the Infantado cabana or
family, and that it was selected from the best sheep of that
family.
A gentleman of Philadelphia imported two pair of black
Merinos in 1803, and Mr. Muller, a small number from Hesse
Cassel, in 1807.¢ In 1809, and 1810 Mr. Jarvis, American
* This letter will appear entire in the Transactions of the New York State
Agricultural Society for 1862.
+ These crossed with Col. Humphreys’ sheep, in the flock of Mr. Wm. Caldwelt of
Philadelphia, were the origin of the formerly highly celebrated flocks of Wells &
Dickinson, of Ohio.
24 PRICES OF WOOL.
Consul at Lisbon, Portugal, taking advantage of the offers of
the Spanish Junto to sell the confiscated flocks of certain
Spanish nobles, bought and shipped to different ports in the
United States, about three thousand eight hundred and fifty
sheep. About one thousand three hundred of these were
Aqueirres, two hundred Escurials and two hundred Montarcos.
The remainder consisted of Paulars and Negrettis— mostly
of the former.*
Mr. Jarvis very unfortunately crossed his own flock with
the Saxons, when the latter were introduced, but he dis-
covered his error in time to correct it, and bred a pure
Spanish flock to the period of his death. But he mixed his
different Spanish families together, consisting of about half
Paulars, a quarter Aqueirres, and the other fourth Escurials,
Negrettis and Montarcos.{ He stated to me that the average
weight of fleece in his full-blood Merino flock, before his
Saxon cross, was about 4Ibs.§ This I suppose included rams’
and wethers’ fleeces. The subsequent history of these sheep
will again be referred to. From 3,000 to 5,000 Spanish
Merinos were imported into the United States by other persons
in 1809, 1810, and 1811.
The earlier importations had attracted little notice until
the commencement of our commercial difficulties with England
and France, in 1807. When the embargo was imposed, that
year, wool rose to $1 a pound. In 1809 and 1810 Mr.
Livingston sold his full-blood wool, unwashed, for $2 a pound.
During the war of 1812, it rose to $2.50 a pound. Many of
the imported Merino rams sold for $1,000 apiece, and we
have seen that Mr. Livingston sold ram lambs of his own
raising at that price. Ewes sometimes sold for equal sums.
The Peace of Ghent 1815,) re-opened commerce and over-
threw our infant manufactories. Such a revulsion ensued that
before the close of the year full-blood Merino sheep were sold
for $1 a head! Wool did not materially rally in price for the
nine succeeding years, and during that period most of the
full-blood flocks of the country were broken up or adulterated
in blood.
* See Mr. Jarvis’ letter to me, in 1841, in New York Agricultural Society’s Trans-
actions of that year.
t See his letter to me on this subject in 1844, published that year in the Albany
Cultivator and New York Agriculturist.
§ Mr. Jarvis gives the facts more precisely in a letter to L. A. Morrell, published in
American Shepherd, p. 390. He says:—From 1811 to 1826, when I began to cross with
‘the Saxonies, my average weight of wool was 3 lbs. 14 0z. to 41bs. 2 0z.— varyin;
according to keep. The weight of the bucks was from 5% Ibs. to 64 lbs. in goo
stock case, all washed on the sheeps’ backs,”
SAXON MERINOS INTRODUCED. 25
Saxon Mrnrinos Inrropucep.— The woolen tariff enacted.
in 1824, gave a new impulse to the production of fine-wool,
and during that and the four succeeding years Saxon Merinos
were imported in large numbers into the United States. A
detailed history of these importations was embodied in a
report on sheep which I made to the New York State
Agricultural Society in 1838,* the facts in regard to+the
Saxons being furnished to me by another member of the
committee, Henry D. Grove, the leading German importer
and breeder of that variety of sheep in our country. That
history having been republished in the “American Shepherd,”
in “Sheep Husbandry in the South,” and in various other.
publications, it is scarcely necessary to take up space here
with its curious particulars concerning a variety now pretty
generally discarded in our country. Suffice it to say, that
the most enormous frauds were practiced; grade sheep were
mixed with nearly every importation; and these miserable
animals brought along with them scab and hoof-rot, those dire
scourges of the ovine race. _
The great discrimination made in favor of fine-wool by
the tariff of 1828, excited a mania for its production, and
every producer strove to obtain the finest, almost regardless
of every other consideration. Size, weight of fleece, and
constitution were totally overlooked. Yet the grower was
feeding on hope. Fine-wool did not rise to a high price until
after the middle of 1830, and neither then nor at any subse-
quent period did the average price of Saxon exceed that of
Spanish wool by more than ten cents a pound—while at least
a third more of the latter could be obtained from the same
number of sheep, or the same amount of feed. When we
consider this fact, and consider the superiority of the Spanish
sheep in every other particular except fineness of wool, we
cannot sufficiently wonder that from 1824 to 1840 the Saxons
should have received universal preference, have sold for vastly
higher prices, and that those who owned Spanish sheep,
should have in almost every instance made haste to cross them
with their small and comparatively worthless competitors.
In about 1840, however, a reaction commenced, and the
tariff of 1846, (which established an even ad valorem duty of
~* Published in Albany Cultivator, March, 1888, and partially in the New York
State Agricultural Society’s Transactions, 1841.
Mr. Grove’s flock of picked breeding sheep—not excelled probably in the
United States among pure bloods, for weight of fleece— yielded an average of 2 Ibs,
11 oz. per head of washed wool in 1840, and he aged this product as a proof of
the superior value of his favorite variety. See his letter to me, Transactions New
York State Agricultural Society, 1841, p. 333.
2
26 SAXON MERINOS INTRODUCED.
30 per centum on all wools and on cloths,) completed the
overthrow of the Saxons.
SAXON RAM.
The cut of the Saxon ram above given, is copied from an
engraving from a drawing by Mr. Charles L. Fleischmann,
formerly draughtsman for the Patent Office. The engraving
was published in the Patent Office Report of 1847. Mr.
Fleischmann states that it is an accurate representation of the
best ram of Von Thaer (son of the celebrated Albert Von
Thaer,) made by its owner’s permission at Moeglin, in 1844—
45. The flocks of Von Thaer are among the best and most
highly improved in Germany. The drawing was made in the
ee of the month of August while the fleece was yet
short.
CHAPTER MII.
AMERICAN MERINOS ESTABLISHED AS A VARIETY.
THE MIXED LEONESE OR JARVIS MERINOS—THE INFANTADO
OR ATWOOD MERINOS—THE PAULAR OR RICH MERINOS
— OTHER MERINOS.
THe Mixep LreonrsE or Jarvis Mrrrnos.— The origin
of Mr. Jarvis’ flock has been given. Their pedigrees rested
on his own direct statements; and his integrity and veracity
were never challenged by friend or foe. -As has been seen, he
mixed five families of Spanish sheep, the Paulars considerably
predominating in numbers,— but his son writes me that for
the purpose of “accommodating the manufacturers” he bred
“in the contrary direction” from the type of the darker
colored and yolkier families.* The appearance of his sheep
when I first saw them, something over twenty years since, I
thought plainly indicated that he had “accommodated the
manufacturers” by chiefly using rams of his Escurial family
or which bore a large proportion of that blood. They were
lighter colored than the original Spanish. sheep of other
families and their wool was finer. It was entirely free from
hardened yolk, or “gum,” internally and externally, and
opened on a rosy skin with a style and brilliancy which
resembled the Saxon. It was longish, for those times, on the
back and sides, but shorter on the belly, and did not cover the
head and legs anything like as well as those parts are covered
in the improved sheep of the present day. It was of fair
medium thickness on the best animals. The form was perhaps
rather more compact than that of the original Spanish sheep,
but altogether it bore a close resemblance to them. I think
that prior to 1840, Mr. Jarvis had begun to breed back
toward the other strains of blood in his flock. At about
that period small and choice lots of breeding ewes were
ms See Charles Jarvis’ letter to me in my report on ‘‘ Fine-Wool Sheep Husbandry,”
28 THE AMERICAN INFANTADOS.
occasionally obtained from him which yielded from 4 lbs. ta’
4} Ibs. of washed wool per head. These sheep long enjoyed
great celebrity, and are now represented in the pedigrees of-
many excellent pure bred flocks; but as a distinct family, they
have mostly been merged in the two next to be described.
Tur Inrantapo on Arwoop Mrrino.—In 1813, Stephen
Atwood, of Woodbury, Connecticut, bought a ewe of Col.
David Humphreys for $120. He bred this ewe and her
descendants to rams in his neighborhood which he knew to
be of pure Humphreys’ blood, until about 1880, after which
period he uniformly used rams from his own flock. This is
the distinct and positive statement of a man of conceded good
character, and has been persisted in from a period long before
the asserted facts would have had any effect on the reputation
of his flock. From 1815 to 1824, and indeed down to a much
later period, the pedigrees of “old-fashioned Merinos,” as
they were then termed, received very little respect or
attention; and, in fact, I am not aware that Mr. Humphreys’
importation enjoyed any especial credit over several other of
the principal importations, until its reputation was reflected
back on it by Mr. Atwood’s own flock. Mr. Atwood,
moreover, is a purely practical man; has been specially and
almost exclusively devoted to his sheep; and has always acted
as his-own shepherd. We have no right, then, to doubt
either his sincerity or his accuracy.
In 1840, his sheep were not far from the size and form of
Mr. Jarvis’ — though I think they were inclined to be a little
flatter in the ribs, and perhaps a little deeper chested. Their
wool was short, fine, even, well crimped, brilliant, generally
thick, and very dark colored externally for that day. Some
of them (particularly among the rams,) had a black external
coat of hardened yolk, which was sticky in warm weather
and formed a stiff crust in cold weather. The inside yolk
was abundant, and generally colorless. The wool was still
shorter on the belly, and as with the Jarvis sheep, did not
very well cover the legs and head. Few of them had any
- below the knees and hocks. Their skins were mellow, loose
and of a rich pink color. The rams had a pendulous dew-lap
and some of them neck-folds, or “wrinkles,” of moderate
size. They rarely exhibited them on other parts of the body,
and the “broad tail” and deep pendulous flank of the present
day, were unknown in both sexes. The ewes generally had
dew-laps of greater or lesser width, sometimes dividing into
THE IMPROVED INFANTADOS. 29
two parts under the jaw, so as to form a triangular cavity or
“pouch” between; and there was on most of them a
horizontal fold of skin running across the lower portion of
the bosom or front of the brisket,— which was known as
“the cross,” and which modern breeders have developed into
that pendulous mass now sometimes termed “the apron.”
When the Spanish Merinos came again into credit, this
flock became a public favorite and colonies from it were
rapidly scattered throughout the United States, and particu-
lanly in the State of New York. Some of these deteriorated,
but most of them continued to improve. The great and
leading improver of the family has been Edwin Hammond, of
Middlebury, Vermont. He made three considerable purchases
of Mr. Atwood’s sheep between the beginning of 1844 and
the close of 1846 — in the two last, getting the average of the
flock, i.e., a proportionate number of each quality.* Bya
perfect understanding and exquisite management of his
materials, this great breeder has effected quite as marked an
improvement in the American Merino, as Mr. Bakewell
effected among the long-wooled sheep of England. He has
converted the thin, light-boned, smallish, and imperfectly
covered sheep above described, into large, round, low, strong-
boned sheep—models of compactness, and not a few of them
almost perfect models of beauty, for fine-wooled sheep. I
examined the flock nearly a week in February, 1863. They
were in very high condition, though the ewes were fed only
hay. Two of these weighed. about 140 Ibs. each. Numbers
would have reached from 110 Ibs. to 125 Ibs. One of the two
largest ewes had yielded a fleece of 174 Ibs., and the other
144 Ibs. of unwashed wool. The whole flock, usually about
200 in number, with the due proportion of young and old and’
including, say, two per cent. of grown rams, and no wethers,
yields an average of about 10 Ibs. of unwashed wool per head.
The ram, “Sweepstakes,” given as the frontispiece of this
volume, bred and now owned by Mr. Hammond, has yielded
a single year’s fleece of unwashed wool weighing 27 Ibs. His
weight in full fleece is about 140lbs. Rams producing from
20 Ibs. to 24 Ibs. are not unusual in the flock.
Mr. Hammond’s sheep exhibit no hardened yolk within
the wool and but little externally: in nearly all of them the
curves of the wool can be traced to its outer tips. They are
* In one case he bought the entire lot of ewe Jambs of a year; in another, one-third
of the old cwes—Mr. Atwood selecting the first and third, and Mr. Hammond the
second of each trio. He had partners in some of his purchases, but there is no
occasion to name them here.
30 THE AMERICAN PAULARS.
dark colored because they have abundance of liquid “ circu-
lating” yolk, and because they (like all the leading breeding
flocks of Vermont,) are housed, not only in winter, but from
summer rain storms. The great weight is made up not by
the extra amount of yolk, but by the extra length and
thickness of every part of the fleece. In many instances it is
nearly as long and thick on the belly, legs,* forehead, cheeks,
etc., as on the back and sides. The wool opens freely and
with a good luster and style. It is of a high medium quality
and remarkably even. Mr. Hammond is intentionally breeding
it back to the buff tinge of the original Spanish wool. He
has not specially cultivated folds in the skin. Sweepstakes
has more of these than most of his predecessors and has much
increased them in the flock. Some of his best ewes are nearly
without them, though all perhaps have dew-laps and the
“cross” on the brisket. In every respect this eminent
breeder has directed his whole attention to solid value, and
has never sacrificed a particle of it to attain either points of
no value or of less value. He has bred exclusively from Mr.
Atwood’s stock, sire and dam; and since the rams originally
purchased of Mr. Atwood by himself and associates, has only
used rams of his own flock. The marked extent of his
in-and-in breeding, will be adverted to in the Chapter which I
shall devote to the general subject of in-and-in breeding. But
-this has not developed any delicacy of constitution in his
flock. They are every way stronger and more robust sheep
than their predecessors of 25 years ago, bring forth larger
and stronger lambs, and are far better breeders and nurses.
There are in Vermont and other States a large body of
spirited and intelligent breeders whose flocks were founded
‘mainly or exclusively on sheep purchased of Mr. Hammond.
Not a few of them have bred with distinguished success. It
would be justly considered invidious to mention the flocks of
a portion of them, without mentioning all of equal merit.
This I am unable to do, both because I am unprovided with a
full list of them, and because the prescribed limits of this
work do not admit of it. I have aimed to do justice to all of
this improved family of sheep at once, in describing the flock
of its distinguished founder.
Tur Pavtar or Rica Merrtnos.— These sheep were
originally purchased in 1823, by Hon. Charles Rich, M. C.,
*I do not mean to be understood that it is thus long below the knees and hocks,
though it is generally quite as long as it ought to be on the shanks.
THE AMERICAN PAULARS. 31
‘and Leonard Bedell, of Shoreham, Vermont, of Andrew Cock,
of Flushing, Long Island. Cock purchased all of the original
stock and part of the individual sheep sold to them, of the
importers. Their Spanish pedigree, the authenticity of which
MERINO EWE.
was attested by a Consular certificate, (undoubtedly Mr.
Jarvis’, but that fact is not now remembered,) showed them to
be Paulars.* They have been bred by John T. Rich, son of the
preceding, and his sons John T. and Virtulan Rich, on the old
* Cock delivered this certified pedigree to Bedell. Letters of the late John T. Rich,
Esq., son of one of the purchasers, and of the late Hon. 8. H. Jennison, ex-Governor of
Vermont, were published in 1844, stating that they had seen this document; and both
entlemen remembered the ewes in the flock certified to be of the original importation,
ov. Jennison says he saw them often between 1824 and 1830.° They were very old
and toothless. The Hon. Effingham Lawrence, who resided in the same town with
Cock, and who was himself a distinguished importer and breeder of Merinos, as well.
as an old-school gentleman, highly eminent for social position and integrity, wrote to
me in 1844:—* Andrew Cock * * was my near neighbor. We were intimate and
commenced laying the foundations of our Merino flocks about the same time. I was
present when he purchased most of his sheep, which was in 1811. He first purchased
two ewes at $1,100 per head. They were very fine, and of the Escurial flock imported
by Richard Crowninshield. His next purchase was 30 of the Paular breed at from $50
to $100 per head. He continued to purchase of the different importations until he run
them up to about eighty, always selecting them with great care. This was the
foundation of A. Cock’s flock, nor did he ever purchase any but pure blooded sheep
to my knowledge or belief. Andrew Cock was an attentive breeder; saw well to his
business; and was of unimpeachable character. His certificate of the kind and
purity of blood I should implicitly rely on. I recollect of his selling sheep to Leonard
edell, of Vermont.’? Much other testimony sustaining the pedigree might be given,
32 THE IMPROVED PAULARS..
homestead in Shoreham, down to the present day, without the
least admixture of other blood than pure Spanish, and with
very little crossing with other Spanish or American families.
These sheep, in 1840, were heavy, short-legged, broad
animals, full in the quarters, strong-boned, with thick, short
necks and thick coarse heads. The ewes had deep and some-
times plaited dew-laps and folds of moderate size about the
neck. The rams had larger ones. They were darker exter-
nally than the Jarvis sheep, but not so much so as the Atwood
sheep — indicating that their wool contained more yolk than
the former and less than the latter. The wool was longer
than that of either of the other families, very thick and
covered them better on the belly, legs and head. But it was
inferior, in fineness, evenness and style. It was quite coarse
on the thigh, and hairs were occasionally seen on the neck
folds. The lambs were often covered with hair when yeaned,
and their legs and ears were marked by patches of tan color
which subsequently disappeared except on the ears, where it
continued to show faintly. They were better nurses and
hardier than either of the other families. I have remarked in
a former publication that “they were precisely the negligent
farmer’s sheep.” They encountered short keep, careless treat-
ment of all kinds, exposure to autumnal storms and winter
gales, with a degree of impunity. which was unexampled.
Their lambs came big, bony and strong, and did not suffer
much if they were dropped in a snow bank.
In 1842 and 1848 this flock was bred toa Jarvis ram —
peculiarly dark, thick and heavy fleeced and compact in form
for one of his family—the object of Mr. Rich being to avoid
breeding in-and-in and to improve the quality of his wool.
For the same object, and to increase the yolkness of the wool,
a dip or two of Atwood blood has been since taken; but it
has always been made a point to breed back after taking these
crosses, 80 as essentially to preserve the blood and distinctive
characteristics of the original family. The Messrs. Rich
have succeeded in all these objects and have kept up well
with the rapid current of modern improvement. Their sheep
are not so large nor do they yield so much wool per head as
the improved Infantados, but they possess symmetrical forms
which are remarkable for compactness. The body is shortish,
and very thick, with their ancient good fore and hind quarters;
and their heads, though thick and short, have lost their coarse-
ness. Their fleeces areeven and good. But that merit which
gives them their great popularity in Vermont and elsewhere,
OTHER MERINO FAMILIES. 33
is their adaptation to thin, scant herbage, and to their qualities
as “working flocks.” They demand no extra care or keep
to develop their qualities, are always lively and alert; and
though gentle and perfectly free from restlessness of tempera-
ment, they are ready to rove far and near to obtain their food.
And for all they consume they make the most ample returns.
While they will pay for care, they will thrive with but little
care. Ina word, they remain, par excellence, the negligent
farmer’s sheep. :
The ewe, the portrait of which is given on page 31, is a
three year old of this family, and is one of a small number of
equal appearance and excellence, which I bought of the Messrs.
Rich a year since. Her second fleece, when she was not so
large as a high-kept yearling, and when she had not been
housed before autumn, weighed 10 lbs. unwashed. Having
bred both these and the Infantados for years, and being now
about equally interested in both the improved families, I trust
I can speak of them with impartiality; and I may here add
that I also described Mr. Jarvis’ sheep on ample personal
experience.*
s
Orurr Merino Fammirs.—There were in 1840, a few
small Merino flocks descended from pure Spanish importations,
and derived from other sources than the foregoing, scattered
very thinly through the States lying west of New England.
Like the best Infantados and Paulars of that day, some of them
averaged about 44 lbs. of washed wool to the fleece. I have
been unable to obtain any authentic portraits of known
Infantados or Paulars of that period. The drawing from
which the cut given'on the following page was taken, was
made in 1840, by Francis Rotch, Esq., of Morris, (then ‘called
Louisville,) N. Y., one of the most eminent and skillful cattle
and sheep breeders in the United States, and remarkable then
as since for the accuracy and spirit of his drawings of animals.
The cut is a ewe of his own flock of thirty breeding ewes,
which had been selected with much care from different flocks
in New England; and this one was then regarded as a model,
She is rounder in the rib, broader and rounder in the thigh
and fuller in the brisket than was common among the Merinos
of that day. The illustration will show the changes which
* The account which I have given of the characteristics, &c., of these families 20
years ago, was submitted, in substantially the same form, to some of the most
prominent present breeders of each variety, including Mr. Hammond and Mr. Rich,
preparatory to its publication in my Report on Fine-Wool Husbandry in 1862, and it
received their unanimous concurrence. See that Report, p. 53.
o*
34 OTHER MERINO FAMILIES.
have taken place in American Merino sheep during the last
twenty-three years. ,
MERINO EWE.
Other persons in New York, (including myself,) and
several in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and perhaps some other States,
owned pure Spanish flocks, not differing essentially in quality
from those of Connecticut and Vermont. But while some
flock-masters in New England, and particularly in Vermont,
made ram breeding a specialty, those of the Middle and
Western States generally devoted their attention to wool-
growing, and soon began to draw their rams from the former
sources. The consequence has been that they neither
preserved nor established distinct families, among their early
sheep; and.those that now have pure and distinct families of
the improved American Merinos (and their number greatly
exceeds that of the breeders of pure sheep in New England.)
have generally obtained the origin of their flocks, within the
last fifteen or twenty years, from Vermont, or from Mr.
Atwood’s flock in Connecticut.” Consequently, there is not
within my knowledge any other separate families that require
a special description.
CHAPTER IV.
LATER IMPORTATIONS OF FINE-WOOLED SHEEP INTO
THE UNITED STATES.
FRENCH AND SILESIAN MERINOS INTRODUCED.
Frenca Merivos Inrropucep.—The first importation of
French Merinos into the United States, since they have
assumed those characteristics which constitute them a separate
variety, was made in 1840, by D. C. Collins, of Hartford,
Conn. He purchased fourteen ewes and two rams from the
royal flock at Rambouillet, which were esteemed of such choice
quality that one of the rams (“‘ Grandee”) and several of the
ewes “could only be procured after they had been used in the
national flock as far as it could be done with advantage.”
Grandee, says A. B. Allen, then Editor of the American Agri-
culturist, who attended Mr. Collins’ sheep-shearing in 1843,
was 8 feet 83 inches long from the setting on of the horns to
the end of the rump ; his height over the rump and shoulders
was 2 feet 5 inches, and his weight in good fair condition
about 150 Ibs. The ewes were proportionably large. At
three years old, in France, Grandee produced a fleece of 14 Ibs.
of unwashed wool. His fleece was suffered to grow from
1839 to 1841, two years, and weighed 26 Ibs. 3 oz. clean
unwashed wool. One year’s fleece in 1842 weighed 123
Ibs. In 1843 the ewes yielded an average of 6 lbs. 9 oz. of
unwashed wool. Mr. Allen commended their constitutions
and longevity; stated that they had large loose skins full of
folds, especially about the neck and below it on the shoulders,
and not unfrequently over the whole body; and that they
were well covered with wool on every part down to the hoofs.
Their fleeces opened of a brilliant creamy color, on a skin of
rich pink, and was soft, glossy, wavy, and very even over the
whole body. It was’ exceedingly close and compact, and had
a yolk free from gum and easily liberated by washing.*
* See Am. Agriculturist, vol. 2, p. 98. I mostly use Mr. Allen’s language.
36 FRENCH MERINOS INTRODUCED.
The late Mr. Taintor, of Hartford, Connecticut, commenced
importing French Merinos in 1846, and continued it through
several succeeding years. He selected mostly from private
flocks like those of M. Cughnot and M. Gilbert, which had
been bred much larger and heavier fleeced than the royal one.
Having made some inquiries of him, in 1862, in relation to the
sheep of his importations, he referred me to John D. Patterson
of Westfield, New York, who had purchased very extensively
of him and who owned as good animals as had ever been
imported. That gentleman wrote to me:
“Tn answer to your inquiry as to the weight of fleece of
the French sheep and their live weight, I can only reply by
giving the result of my own flock. My French rams have
generally sheared from 18 to 24 pounds of an even year’s
growth, and unwashed, but some of them, with high keeping
and light use, have sheared more, and my yearling rams have
generally sheared from 15 to 22 pounds each. My breeding
and yearling ewes have never averaged as low as 15 pounds
each, unwashed, taking the entire flock. Some of them have
sheared over 20 pounds each, but these were exceptions,
being large and in high condition. The live weight of any
animal of course depends very much upon its condition. My
yearling ewes usually range from 90 to 130 pounds each, and
the grown ewes from 130 to 170 pounds each, and I have had
some that weighed over 200 pounds each; but these would be
above the average size and in high flesh. My yearling rams
usually weigh from 120 to 180 pounds each, and my grown
rams from 180 to 250 pounds each—some of them have
weighed over 300 pounds each, but these were unusually large
and in high flesh and in full fleece. I have had ram lambs
weigh 120 pounds at seven months old, but they were more
thrifty, fleshy and larger than usual at that age.”
I have seen many sheep of Mr. Taintor’s importation and
their direct descendants. A large portion of them possessed
good forms considering their great size. Their wool was not
so fine as Mr. Collins’, but of a fair medium quality and pretty
even. Their fleeces were very light colored externally, com-
pared with those of any American family, owing undoubtedly
to their relative deficiency in yolk and to the more soluble
character of their yolk. Unless housed with care from both
summer and winter storms, they were about as destitute of
yolk before washing as a considerable class of American
Merinos are after it. Under common treatment, then, their
fleeces are greatly lighter in proportion to bulk than those of
FRENCH MERINOS. 37
the latter, and correspondingly unprofitable ina market where
no sous discrimination is made between clean and dirty
wools.
“The only really weak point of the best French Merino as
a pure wool producing animal, is the want of tha hardiness
which adapts it to our changeable climate and to our systems
of husbandry. In this particular it is to the American Merino
what the great pampered Short-Horn of England is to the
little, hardy, black cattle of the Scotch Highlands—what the
high-fed carriage horse, sixteen hands high, groomed and
attended in a wainscoted stable, is to the Sheltie that feeds
among the moors and mosses, and defies the tempests of the
Orkneys. The French sheep has not only been highly kept
and housed from storm and rain and dew for generations, but
it has been bred away from the normal type of its race. The
Dishley sheep of Mr. Bakewell are not a more artificial variety,
and all highly artificial varieties become comparatively delicate
in constitution.”*
The French Merino, if well selected, has always proved
profitable in this country, where the French, or an equally
fostering system of management, has been faithfully kept up—
but by far the largest portion of buyers have not kept up such
a system, and consequently their sheep have rapidly deterio-
rated. Where the rams have been worked hard and exposed
to rough vicissitudes of weather, they have frequently
perished before the close of the first year. These facts
account for that reaction which has taken place against this
variety in the minds of many of our farmers. And the tide of
prejudice has been enormously swelled by the impositions of
a class of importers. It creates a smile to recall to memory
the great, gaunt, shaggy monsters, with hair on their'necks
and thighs projecting three or four inches beyond the wool—
mongrels probably of the second or third cross between
French Merinos and some long-wooled and huge-bodied
variety of mutton sheep—which were picked up in France
and hawked about this country by greedy speculators, who
knew that, at that time, size and “ wrinkles” would sell any
thing!
I er that Mr. Patterson’s absence in California has
prevented me from obtaining original drawings of some of
*I quote this paragraph from my Report on Fine- Wool Husbandry, 1862,
because Mr. Taintor, the Messrs. Allen, and several other distinguished breeders and
advocates of French Sheep, wrote to me expressing their entire satisfaction with my
description of that breed in the Report; and the above quotation may therefore be set
down as res adjudicata.
-_
38 SILESIAN MERINOS INTRODUCED.
these sheep in time for this volume. J have not known where
else to look for pure and favorable specimens of the variety.
Colonies of French Sheep have been planted in the mild
climate of the South, in California, and in other situations the
most favofable to them. I cannot but hope that they will
yet acclimatize into a valuable variety for portions of our
country. They are good mothers. They often raise twins.
As a fine-wool mutton sheep they should stand unrivaled.
ue
SILESIAN MERINO RAM.
Inrropuction oF Sirestsn Merryos.—The following
account of the introduction of this variety and of its charac-
teristics, is contained in a letter from the principal importer,
William Chamberlain, of Red Hook, New York. He wrote
‘to me in January, 1862:
“Your favor dated 24th ult. is received, and it gives me
pleasure to furnish the required information in regard’ to my
flock of Silesian sheep, with full liberty to make such use of
the facts as you please.
SILESIAN MERINOS. 39
“1st. I have made importations for myself and George
Campbell of Silesian sheep, as follows:
a2 “H do,
“In 1854 I visited Silesia and made the purchases myself.
“2d. The sheep were bred by Louis Fischer, of Wirchen-
blatt, Silesia, except a few which were bred by his near
neighbor, Baron Weidebach, who used Fischer’s breeders.
“3d. Their origin is Spain. In 1811 Ferdinand Fischer,
the father of Louis Fischer, the present owner of the flock,
visited Spain himself and purchased one hundred of the best
ewes he could find of the Infantado flocks, and four bucks
from the Negretti flock, and took them home with him to
Silesia, and up to the present day they have not been crossed
with any other flocks or blood, but they have been crossed
within the families. The mode pursued is to number every
sheep and give the same number to all her increase; an
exact record is kept in books, and thus Mr. Fischer is enabled
to give the pedigree of every sheep he owns, running back to
1811, which is positive proof of their entire purity of blood.
The sheep are perhaps not as large as they would be if a little
other blood were infused; but Mr. F. claims that entire purity
of blood is indispensably necessary to insure uniformity
of improvement when crossed on ordinary wool growers’
flocks; and such is the general opinion of wool a in
Germany, Poland and Russia, which enables Mr. Fischer to
sell at high prices as many bucks and ewes as he can spare,
and as he and his father have enjoyed this reputation for so
many years, I am fully of opinion that he isright. From these
facts you will observe that my sheep are pure Spanish.
“4th, Medium aged ewes shear from 8 to 11 pounds;
bucks from 12 to 16 pounds; but in regard to ewes, it must
be borne in mind that they drop their lambs from November
to February, which lightens the clip somewhat. I do not
wash my sheep.
“5th. I have sold my clip from 30 to 45 cents, according
to the market.
“6th. We have measured the wool on quite a number of
sheep, and find.it from one and a half to two inches long, say
eight months’ growth, but J have no means of knowing what
it would be at twelve months’ growth.
40 SILESIAN MERINOS.
“7th. Their external color is dark. The wool has oil but
no gum whatever, they. having been bred so as to make them
entirely free from gum—German manufacturers always insist-
ing on large deductions in the price of wool where gum is
found.
“sth. As above stated, the Silesians have oil, but no gum
like those which are sold for Spanish and French, and the oil is
white and free; the wool does not stick together.
“9th. We have weighed five ewes. Three dropped their
lambs last month; the other two have not yet comein. Their
weights are 115, 140, 130, 115 and 127 pounds; three bucks
weighing severally 145, 158, 155 pounds; one yearling buck
weighing 130 pounds; but this would be more than an
average weight of my flock when young and very old sheep
were brought into the average. My sheep are only in fair
condition, as I feed no grain. They have beets, which I
consider very good for milk, but not so good for flesh as
Train.
“10th and 11th. For the first time my shepherd has
measured some sheep: ewes from 24 to 28 inches high, fore-
leg 11 to 12 inches; bucks, 27 to 28 inches high, fore-leg 12
to 13} inches.
“12th. We find the Silesians hardy, much more so than a
small flock of coarse mutton sheep that I keep and treat quite
as well as I do the Silesians.
“13th. They are first-rate breeders and nurses.
‘Some of these facts I have given on the statement of my
shepherd, Carl Heyne, who was one of Mr. Fischer’s shepherds,
and came home with the sheep I purchased in 1854, and a man
whose honor and integrity I can fully indorse.
“My sheep do not deteriorate in this country, but the wool
rather grows finer without any reduction in the weight of
fleece.” :
In a subsequent letter Mr. Chamberlain wrote to me:
“Carl has weighed a few more of our Silesian sheep, and
their weights are as follows: Four full aged ewes,. respect-
ively, 120, 125, 107, 107 pounds; two ewe lambs, 90, 87
pounds; two two-year old bucks, 124,122 pounds; one three-
fourths blood, 143 pounds.
“TI attended to the weighing and selection myself, and am
of opinion that our ewes from three to eight years old average
fully 115 pounds, say before dropping their lambs. Our
younger sheep do not weigh as much. Silesians do not get
their full size till four years of age, and after eight or nine
SILESIAN MERINOS. 41
years they are fot as heavy. * * * Mr. Fischer’s sheep
are large, say larger than any flock of Vermont Merinos that
I have seen. * * I have the lambs come from
November to March, Tene Carl says it is the best way, and
I let him do as he pleases. * * * The ewes do not give
quite as much wool, but I think the lambs make stronger
sheep, as they get a good start the first summer.”
The Silesian ram, a portrait of which is given on page 38,
was bred by Mr. Chamberlain, and is now the property of
James Geddes, of Fairmount, N. Y. He is regarded as
an extraordinarily valuable animal of the family. He is large
in size and yields an unusually heavy fleece. ~
The following cut represents a group of Silesian ewes
imported by Mr. Chamberlain.
——— ae non
GROUP OF SILESIAN EWES.
I visited Mr. Chamberlain’s flock in February, 1863.
Most of the lambs were then dropped and the ewes appeared
to be excellent mothers. They were fed beets but no grain.
They are housed constantly in cold weather, except when let
out to drink—housed nights throughout the year, and from all
summer rain storms. From the limited quantity of his
available pasturage, Mr. Chamberlain restricts them far more
than is usual in that particular in swmmer, but allows them to
42 SILESIAN MERINOS.
eat what hay they wish at night. He considers this more
profitable than devoting more of his high-priced lands to
pasturage, and quite as well if not better for the sheep.
The carcasses of his sheep are round and symmetrical.
Some of them are taller in proportion to weight than is
desirable—because German breeders pay less attention to this
point—but this tendency could be readily changed without
going out of the flock for rams. The wool is of admirable
quality and uniformity, and opens most brilliantly on a mellow,
rose-colored skin. The fleece is very dark externally.
Wherever it is most profitable to grow very fine wool, this
variety, or rather this family, ought to stand unrivaled.
‘Whether they have ever been tested under the common rough
usage of our country I am not advised. There is nothing in
their forms or general appearance to indicate that they would
not generally conform to it. They would doubtless lose
much of their external color and early maturity, and perhaps
something of their ultimate size. But the same would be
true of all the summer-housed, high kept and carefully
tended Merinos of our country.
CHAPTER V.
BRITISH AND OTHER LONG AND MIDDLE- WOOLED
SHEEP IN THE UNITED STATES.
LEICESTERS, COTSWOLDS, LINCOLNS, NEW OXFORDSHIRES,
BLACK-FACED SCOTCH, CHEVIOT, FAT-RUMPED, BROAD-TAILED,
PERSIAN AND CHINESE SHEEP.
No breed of domestic sheep were indigenous to the United
States; nor is it deemed necessary here to attempt to trace
the origin or subsequent history of the various breeds and
families, imported by our ancestors when they colonized this
Continent, and which, being mixed promiscuously together,
constituted what it became customary to speak of as the
“ Native Sheep,” when the Merino and the improved British
breeds were afterwards introduced. They were generall
lank, gaunt, slow-feeding, coarse, short-wooled, hardy,
prolific animals—not well adapted to any special purpose of
wool or mutton production. A family of them, the Otter
Sheep—so termed from their short, crooked, rickety legs, a
mere perpetuated monstrosity—and the descendants of some
English long-wools, on Smith’s Island, imagined by a few
persons to be indigenous there—are the only sub-varieties
which haye ever attracted special notice; and they were
wholly unworthy of it.
Not having bred English sheep of late years, and never
having bred them extensively, I can entertain little doubt that
I shall give more satisfaction to the readers of this volume if
I select descriptions of them from British and American
sources of recognized authority.
Tur Leicester Surep.*—It is with profound pleasure that
I am enabled to trace the first probable importation into the
* J leave off the prefix ‘‘ New,” because these sheep have altogether superseded
the parent stock, so as to be generally denominated ‘the Leicester.” And they are
so denominated in the prize lists of the Royal Agricultural Society of England.
44 LEICESTERS INTRODUCED.
United States of improved English Sheep, if not of improved
sheep of any kind, to that great man, first in the arts of peace
as well as war, Gzorce Wasuineton. Livingston, writing
in 1809, says of the “ Arlington Long-Wooled Sheep” that
they were “derived from the stock” of General Washington
—hbeing bred by his step-son, Mr. Custis, from a Persian
ram amd Bakewell ewes. Gen. Waskington died near the
close of 1799.*
A Mr. Lax, who resided on Long Island, “smuggled”
some Leicesters into the United States not far from 1810;
and ftom these Christopher Dunn, of Albany, New York,
obtained the origin of his long celebrated flock.t During the
war of 1812 with England, some choice Leicesters, on their
way to Canada, were captured by one of our privateers, and
sold at auction in New York, and thus became scattered
throughout the country: Some sheep of this family were also
early introduced by Captain Beanes, of New Jersey.}
The elaborate descriptions of the Leicesters, by Youatt
and Spooner, have been made so familiar to American readers,
that I shall use that of Mr. John Wilson, Professor of Agri-
culture in the University of Edinburgh, in a paper “On the
Various Breeds of Sheep in Great Britain,” published in the
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, in
1856:
* Livingston (see his Essay on Sheep, p. 58,) does not expressly say that Gen.
Washington introduced the ‘‘ Bakewells,” but this is to be inferred from his state-
ment that the Arlington Sheep “were derived from his stock,” without making an
exception of the Bakewells. r. Livingston speaks of the Arlington’s as an existing
family, when he wrote. Ihave not Mr. Custis’s pamphlet before me from which he
appears to have derived his facts. 5
+ He commenced crossing it with a Cotswold ram in 1832, and from that period it
became a grade flock between the two families. But it was an excellent one. His
wethers weighed 35 lbs. per quarter and carried 8 Ibs. of wool per head. His first
Cotswold ram weighed alive 250 Ibs., and yielded at one shearing 1534 Ibs. of wool 14
inches long. In 1835 he sold ewes from $12 to $15 a head, and rams from $30 to $50 a
head. Several eminent flocks in the vicinity, like those of Mr. Duane and Mr. North,
in Schenectady, &c., &c., originated from these. I have obtained most of my facts
about Mr. Dunn’s sheep from a communication signed B. in the Albany Cultivator,
March, 1835. It was undoubtedly written by Caleb N. Bement—entirely reliable
authority ; but whoever wrote the article, Judge Buell, then editor of the Cultivator,
who was perfectly conversant with Mr. Dunn and his flock, would not have published
any erroneous statements in regard to either; and had any errors crept into his
columns b: Oversigits he would have promptly corrected them.
Mr. William . Sotham, in a communication to the Cultivator in 1840, states the
following facts of six wethers bred and fed by Mr. Dunn that year. The heaviest
weighed 210 Ibs., and the fat on the ribs measured 5%4 inches. The thickness of fat on
the smallest was 4% inches. They wefe sold to Mr. Kirkpatrick for $22 a head, and
the meat sold rapidly in the market for 12}¢ cents a pound. The fleeces ayeraged
about 10 lbs. each in weight.
+ Capt. Beanes also introduced Teeswaters and South Downs, but they were not
long kept distinct from the surrounding varieties and families. It has been said that
earne te creralere were included among the sheep captured, as above stated, by a priva-
eer in .
LEICESTER SHEEP. 45
LEICESTER RAM.
“It was about the middle of the last century when Mr.
Bakewell, of Dishley, in Leicestershire, bégan his experiments
in the improvement of the breed of long-wooled sheep, at that
time common to the midland counties. The old Leicesters
were then considered as possessing many valuable properties ;
at the same time they possessed many defects. These
defects Bakewell sought by a judicious crossing with other
breeds to remedy, while at the same time he retained the
good points of the original breed. Up to this period the
great object of breeders seems to have been confined to the
production of animals of the largest size possible, and carrying
the heaviest fleece. The old Leicesters are described as large,
heavy, coarse-grained animals, the meat having but little
flavor and no delicacy—the carcass was long and thin, flat-
sided, with large bones on thick rough legs. The fleece was
heavy and long, and of coarse quality. The sheep were slow
feeders, and when sent to market at two and three years old,
weighed about 100 to 120 lbs. each. Such were the charac-
teristics of the stock upon which Bakewell commenced his
improved system of breeding. Recognizing the relation
46 LEICESTER SHEEP.
which exists between the form of an animal and its physical
tendencies, he sought to cross his sheep with such breeds as he
considered would be most likely to insure those points in the
animal frame which were defective in the old breed, and thus
to introduce an aptitude to lay on the largest possible amount
both of flesh and fat in the shortest space of time, and at the
least expenditure of food. The fleece too was not forgotten,
as that would necessarily share in the general improvement of
the animal. = * = = * * ig
“In order to obtain a permanent character to his breed,
after he had by continued crossing secured all those points
he considered desirable, Bakewell carried on his breeding
with his own blood, and did not scruple to use animals closely
allied to each. other. This system, adhered to more or less
during a course of years by his successors and by later
breeders, while sustaining the purity of the breed, had
the effect of lessening its value to the farmer. It gradually
exhibited a weakened constitution, became reduced in size
and more delicate in form—the ewes were less prolific and less
generous to their offspring. These prominent and serious
defects soon craved the attention of enlightened breeders, who,
by a judicious introduction of new blood, have again restored
the original character of the breed, with all the improvements
resulting from the advanced system of cultivation and the
enlarged area of sheep farming of the present day.
“The New Leicester is now perhaps the most widely
extended and most numerous of all our native breeds. The
sheep are without horns, with white faces and legs; the head
small and clean; the eye bright; neck and shoulders square
and deep; back straight, with deep carcass; hind quarters
tapering toward the tail and somewhat deficient when com-
pared with the Cotswold sheep; legs clean, with fine bone.
The flesh is juicy but of moderate quality, and is remarkable
for the proportion of outside fat it carries.
“They are not considered so hardy as the other large
breeds, and require shelter and good keep. The ewes are
neither very prolific nor good mothers, and the young lambs
require great attention. Early maturity and aptitude for
fattening are the principal characteristics of the breed ; a large
proportion of the wethers, finding their way to market at
twelve or fifteen months old, and weighing from 80 to 100
Ibs. each; at two years old they average 120 to 150 Ibs. each.
The wool is a valuable portion of the flock, the fleeces
averaging 7 Ibs. each.
LEICESTER SHEEP. AY
“The occasional introduction of a little Cotswold blood into
a Leicester flock has the effect of improving both the consti-
tution of the animal and also the hind quarters, in which the
Leicester is somewhat defective. Ram-breeding is carried out
to a much larger extent with this breed than with any other.
Sat" PARSON, SCN.Ys
LEICESTER EWE,
The accompanying cuts are from drawings of a pair of
Leicesters imported by Mr. Samuel Campbell, of New York
Mills, Oneida County, New York, and Mr. James Brodie, of
Rural Hill, Jefferson County, New York. They were
imported in the spring of 1861. The ram was bred by Mr.
Simpson and the ewe by John Thomas Robinson, both of
Yorkshire, England. The ram weighs 276 Ibs.* Messrs.
Campbell and Brodies’ ewes weigh from 200 Ibs. to 250 Ibs.
Their “yearlings and wethers yield from 10 Ibs. to 15 lbs. of
wool and their breeding ewes about 8 Ibs.”
* His weight of fleece was not sent to me, nor was the seperate weight of the |
fleece of the ewe of which a cut is given. Messrs. C. and B. sold a ram to Sanford
Howard, Esq., of Boston, which at 21 months old weighed 2%3 Ibs., and they have
a two year old which weighs 300 Ibs.
48 COTSWOLDS INTRODUCED.
COTSWOLD RAM.
Tur Cotswotp SsHEerp.—The Cotswold Sheep were
introduced into the United States about thirty-five years ago.
Mr. Dunn imported.a ram to cross with his New Leicesters in
1832, and I think some other importations of pairs or single
ones took place not far» from the same period. The first
considerable importation of which I have any information was
made in 1840, by Hon. Erastus Corning, of Albany, New
York, and William H. Sotham, then of Jefferson County, New
York, whose sheep, twenty-five in number, were bred by Mr.
Hewer, of Northleach, Gloucestershire, England. Like all
the improved Cotswolds, they had a dash of New Leicester
blood, and they were very superior animals of the family.
The same gentlemen purchased later in 1840 fifty ewes in
lamb from Mr. Hewer, and twenty from Mr. William Cother,
of Middle Aston, England. These were also prime sheep.
From Messrs. Corning and Sotham’s stock have originated
many valuable flocks, now widely scattered throughout the
country. Quite a large number of Cotswolds have since been
imported from Canada, a considerable portion of them from
the flock of Mr. Frederick William Stone, of Moreton Lodge,
COTSWOLD SHEEP. 49
Guelph, Canada West. “Pilgrim,” the ram, of which a cut
is given on preceding page, was bred by Mr. Stone, and is
now the property of Mr. Henry G. White, of South Fra-
mingham, Massachusetts. Pilgrim, just off his winter feed,
weighs 250 lbs. He would weigh considerably more in the
fall. He yielded 18 lbs. of wool in 1862.
The ewe, “‘ Lady Gay,” a portrait of which is given on next
page was also bred by Mr. Stone, and is owned by Mr. White.
She weighs 200 lbs., suckling a lamb. She yielded 16 pounds
of wool in 1862. Pilgrim, and five ewes belonging to Mr.
White, yielded an average of 16 lbs. of wool per head.
The Cotswolds are thus described by Mr. Spooner in his
work on Sheep :—‘“ The Cotswold is a large breed of sheep,
with a long and abundant fleece, and the ewes are very
prolific and good nurses. Formerly they were bred only on
the hills, and fatted in the valleys of the Severn and the
Thames; but with the inclosure of the Cotswold Hills and the
improvement of their cultivation they have been reared and
fatted in the same district. They have been extensively
crossed with the Leicester sheep, by which their size and
fleece have been somewhat diminished, but their carcasses
considerably improved, and their maturity rendered earlier.
The wethers are now sometimes fattened at 14 months old,
when they weigh from 15 lbs. to 24 Ibs. per quarter, and at
two years old increase to 20 Ibs. or 30 lbs. The wool is
strong, mellow, and of good color, though rather coarse, 6 to
8 inches in length, and from 7 Ibs. to 8 lbs. per fleece. .The
superior hardihood of the improved Cotswold over the
Leicester, and their adaptation to common treatment, together
with the prolific nature of the ewes and their abundance of
milk, have rendered them in many places rivals of the New
Leicester, and have obtained for them, of late years, more
attention to their selection and general treatment, under
which management still further improvement appears very
probable. They have also been used in crossing other breeds,
and as before noticed, have been mixed with the Hampshire
Downs. It is, indeed, the improved Cotswold that, under the
term New or Improved. Oxfordshire Sheep, are so frequently
the successful candidates for prizes offered for the best long-
wooled sheep at some of the principal agricultural meetings
or shows in the Kingdom. The quality of the mutton is
considered superior to that of the Leicester, the tallow being
less abundant, with a larger development of muscle or flesh.
We may, therefore, regard this breed as one of established
3
50 LINCOLNS INTRODUCED.
reputation, and extending itself throughout every district of
the Kingdom.”*
COTSWOLD EWE.
Tur Lixcorns.—The Lincolns are a less improved and
larger variety of long-wools than either of the preceding, and
those introduced into the United States, having been mostly
or entirely merged by cross-breeding with the Leicesters and
Cotswolds, they do not demand a separate description. Mr.
Leonard D. Clift, of Carmel, Putnam County, New York,
imported a ram and ewe of this variety, in 1835, “from the
estate of the Earl of Lansdowne, Yorkshire, England.”
Messrs. George H. Gossip & Brother imported a number in
1836 from Lancashire. From these Mr. Clift obtained
sixteen ewes and a ram, and established a flock which was
generally regarded as highly valuable. They were hardy,
gross feeders, and very prolific. They yielded from 6 lbs. to
10 Ibs. of wool per head. Mr. Clift sold a lot of half-blood
two year old wethers in February, 1839, which weighed 125
Ibs. to the carcass, and he obtained 25 cents a pound for them.
* Spooner on Sheep, p. 99.
NEW OXFORDS—BLACK-FACED SHEEP. 51
Tae New Oxrorpsures, or Improvep CorswoLtps.—
These were first introduced into this country by Mr. Charles
Reybold, of Delaware, in 1846. They are the result of a cross
between the New Leicesters and Cotswolds, the preponder-
ance being given to the blood of the latter. We have seen
the very high character given of them by Mr. Spooner, in his
description of the Cotswolds, already quoted.
In Mr. James S. Grennell’s Report, as Chairman of the
Committee on Sheep Husbandry appointed by the Massachu-
setts State Board of Agriculture, 1860, is given the following
communication in regard to these Sheep by an American
breeder of them, then of eight years standing —Mr. Lawrence
Smith, of Middlefield :
“JT doubt whether they are as hardy as the old-fashioned
Cotswolds or South Downs. I have never had any trouble
with them in regard to cold weather, or changes of climate ;
indeed, they prefer an open, cool, airy situation to any other,
and nothing is more destructive to their health than tight, ill-
ventilated stables. My present experience warrants me in
saying that one-half the ewes will have twins; they are capital
nurses and milkers; I have not had for the past seven years a
single case of neglect on the part of the dam, nor have I lost
a single lamb from lack of constitution. Yearling ewes will
weigh in store condition from 125 Ibs. to 175 Ibs.; fat wethers
at three years old, from 175 to 250 lbs. My heavist breeding
ewe last winter weighed 211 lbs. My flock of store sheep
and breeding ewes generally shear from five to seven pounds.
My ram fleeces sometimes weigh ten pounds unwashed, and
will sell in this condition for twenty-five cents per pound. I
never feed any store sheep and lambs with grain, but give
them early cut hay, and occasionally a few roots.”
The New Oxfordshires are not to be confounded with the
Oxfordshire Downs, which are cross-breeds between the
Cotswolds and South or Hampshire Downs, and which have
dark faces. :
Tur Brackx-Facep Scorcu Suzezp.—These are a small,
active, hardy, but for a mountain family, rather docile sheep,
which have open, hairy fieeces, and black legs and faces.
They can endure great privations, and can even subsist on
heather. Hence they are often called the heath sheep. Their
mutton is of excellent quality. They weigh on an average
from 60 Ibs. to 65 Ibs. each at three or four years old; and
they yield about 3 Ibs. per head of washed wool. They have
52 CHEVIOT SHEEP,
been introduced into the United States by Mr. Samuel
Campbell, of New York Mills, New York, and by Mr. Sanford
Howard, of Boston, Massachusetts, for Mr. Isaac Stickney, of
the same State. Mr. Campbell’s sheep must: be a cross, for he
writes me that he should think their weight of fleece would
be from 6 Ibs. to 8 lbs., and that on the 13th of May, 1863,
they weighed alive as follows: old ram, 132 lbs.; old ewe,
103 Ibs.; yearling ram, 102 lbs.; two yearling ewes, 99 Ibs.
and 100 lbs. They have often been crossed successfully in
Scotland and the North of England, with larger families.
On the bleak, sterile mountain ranges of North-Eastern New
York, and portions of New England, they probably would
prove a profitable acquisition. —
Tue Curvior SHrrr.—Some of these (middle-wooled)
sheep were introduced into the State of New York a number
of years since, and were thus mentioned by me in Sheep Hus-
bandry in the South (1848): ;
“Sheep of this kind have been imported into my imme-
diate neighborhood and were subject to my frequent inspection
for two or three years. They had the appearance of small
Leicesters, but were considerably inferior in correctness of
proportions to high-bred animals of that variety. They
perhaps more resemble a cross between the Leicester and the
old Native or common breed of the United States. Their
fleeces were too coarse to furnish a good carding wool—too
short for a good combing one. Mixed with a small lot of
better wool, their this year’s clip sold for 29 cents per pound,
while my heavier Merino fleeces sold for 42 cents per pound.
They attracted no notice, and might at any time have been
bought of their owner for the price of common sheep of the
same weight. I believe the flock was broken up and sold to
butchers and others this spring, after shearing. They were
certainly inferior to the description of the breed by Sir John
Sinclair, even in 1792, quoted by Mr. Youatt,* and had all the
defects attributed to the original stock by Cully.t They
might not, however, have been favorable specimens of the
breed.” : :
Mr. Spooner thus describes the improved family :—“ This
breed has greatly extended itself throughout the mountains
of Scotland, and in many instances supplanted the black-
faced breed; but the change, though in many cases advanta-
* On Sheep, pp. 285-6. + Cully on Live Stock, p 150,
ASIATIC AND AFRICAN BREEDS. 53
geous, has in some instances been otherwise, the latter being
somewhat hardier, and more capable of subsisting on healthy
pasturage. They are, however, a hardy race, well suited for
their native pastures, bearing with comparative impunity the
storms of winter, and thriving well on poor keep. Though
less hardy than the black-faced sheep of Scotland, they are
more profitable as respects their feeding, making more flesh
on an equal quantity of- food, and making it quicker. They
have white faces and legs, open countenances, lively eyes,
without horns. The ears are large, and somewhat singular,
and there is much space between the ears and eyes. The
carcass is long; the back straight; the shoulders rather light ;
the ribs circular; and the quarters good. The legs are small
in the bone and covered with wool, ag well as the body, with
the exception of the face. The Cheviot wether is fit for the
butcher at three years old, and averages from 12 Ibs. to 18 lbs.
per quarter—the mutton being of a good quality, though
inferior to the South Down, and of less flavor than the black-
faced. * * * The Cheviot, though a mountain breed, is
quiet and docile, and easily managed. The wool is fine,*
closely covers the body, assisting much in preserving it from
the effects of wet: and cold; the fleece averaging about 33 Ibs.
Formerly the wool was extensively employed for making
cloths, but having given place to the finer Saxony wool, it has
sunk in price, and been confined to combing purposes. It has
thus become altogether a secondary consideration.”
Fat-Rumeep, Broap-Taitep, Persian anD CHINESE
Suzxp.—aAll of these breeds of sheep have been introduced
into the United States from Asia and Africa, but as a
general thing perhaps rather for the indulgence of curiosity
than from any expectation of establishing valuable flocks
from them. A variety of the Broad-Tailed sheep, however,
sent home by Commodore Porter from Smyrna, was bred
for a considerable period in the United States, and kept
pure in South Carolina.t } 70 60 4
& 70 60 47
70 60 50
75 63 50
70 60 50
65 55 45
March 3. 60 50 40
a 50 40 30
2 OCbOD OY ya incin aie deieoernnexinehoniwieen eosieseees 50 40 30
& J 1833. ae 7 7
b= April. = " os =e
& Jaly, 62 55 42
BL October, .... 65 55 45
Dec. 31. 1884. January, 3 70 60 47
i 65 55 42
i 60 50 40
60 50 40
1835. 60 50 40
65 58 45
65 58 45
65 58 45
1836. 65 58 45
65 58 45
70 60 60
70 60 50
<3 | 1887. 70 60 50
8 70 60 60
84 50 40 33
1838. Ji 50 42 35
50 42 36
i 45 37 82
Tariff and
time of
taking
effect.
Dec. 1.
Tariff of 1842.
Tariff of 1846.
TABLE OF WOOL PRICES. 93
Year.
1839.
1844,
1845.
1846.
f 1847,
1848.
1849.
1850.
October, .
1851. January,- 45 37 32
April 50 44 40
mudeGe swansea cinostcnns 47 42 37
45 40 33
1852. 42 37 32
42 36 31
45 38 32
50 42 37
1853. 58 55 50
62 55 60
60 63 48
55 60 48
1854. J 53 47 42,
57 62 44
45 37 30
41 36 32
1855. 40 85 32
94 TABLE OF WOOL PRICES.
Tariff and
time of
effect” Year. Quarter ending Fine. Medium, Coarse.
July, .. : 50 40 33
October, 52 41 36
1856. 50 38 35
67 43 37
55 43 38
: A 60 - e .
1857. VADNOTY 5.0 ccs cea cdwowccwiceceweeuercccccen 0
July 1, Vy sas0
- October, -.. 30 26
1858. January,. 33 28
Aprils co ossccaseses ues dse se aiaesecnset ae! 35 30
i July, .-.. 37 30
oO October, 42 36
tr | 1859. J ‘Yj <-- 62 45
34 April las Cs a
& Jul
of pase ; 49 42
& | 1860. January, 50 40
April, 45 40
July, 50 40
October, . 45 40
S501. TAME c..cs, cncascuneseneacereeseeresn 40 387
April 1. April,.... 37 32
§ wo 35 382
gcoe 4T 4T 62
From the beginning of 1827, ftom which the above prices
present the averages of each quarter, to the close of 1861, a
period of 35 years, the average price of fine wool was 50 8-10
cents; of medium, 42 8-10 cents; of coarse, 35} cents. Fine
wool averaged 15 per centum higher than medium, and
medium 14 per centum higher than coarse.
The wools classed in the table as fine, included Saxon,
grade Saxon, and choice lightish-fleece American Merino ;
the medium included American Merino and grade down, say
to half blood; the coarse ineluded wools one-fourth blood
Merino and below. Each of these classes, of course,
embraced wools of various qualities and prices.
The lessons to be derived from this table are most
valuable to the wool grower. How very striking, for
example, is the fact that during thirty-eight years — and with
all the disturbing causes to the wool market which have been
alluded to—there has not been a single year in which the
average prices for the wools marked medium in the table
would not mow pay the actual cost of producing our heavy
fleeced American Merino wools; and that there have not
been more than half a dozen years, when those prices would
not be decently remunerative! Of the production of how
ay other of our great staples of industry can as much
e said? ;
95
IMFORIS AND EXPORTS OF WOOL.
STATEMENT
Exhibiting the value of Wool, and Manufactuies of Wool, imported into and exported from the United States, from
1840 to 1861, both years inclusive.
WOOL UNMANUFACTURED. MANUFACTURES OF WOOL.
YEARS ENDING— EXPORTS. EXPORTS.
i - IMPORTS. IMPORTS.
3 Foreign. |Domestic.) Total. Foreign. | Domestic.| Total.
September 30, 1840,........-. $846,076) $418,399 $418,399] $9,071,184
do’ 30, 1841, 171,814 171,814] 11,001,939
145,123 145,123} 8,375,725
61,997 61,997} 2,472,154
67,483) 67,483} 9,475,782
156,646 156,646] 10,666,176
147,894! 147,894] 10,083,819
315,894 315,894! ‘10,998,933
179,781, 179,781} 15,240,883
201,404 201,404) 13,704,606
174,934 174,934) 17,151,509
267,379 267,379! 19,607,309
256,878) 256,878] 17,573,964
348,989) 343,989) 27,621,911
pete acta oe 1,262,897 1,262,897} 32,382,594
27,802) 159,244| 2,072,189} 2,327,701 2,327,701] 24,404,149
27,455} 42,4521 1,665,064 1,256,632 1,256,632} 81,961,798
19,007 19,927) 2,125,744) 437,498) 487,498} 31,286,118
211,861! 1,036,759) 4,022,635 197,902) 197,902] 26,486.091
355,563] 887,704! 4,444,954) 220,447 220,447] 33,521,956
889,512) 426,792) 4,842,152 201,376) 201,376} 37,937,190
237,846) 286,145} 4,717,850] . 317,340 317,340) 28,487,166
. $1,551,028/$1,562,502/$3,113,530| $46,077,273| $9,131,408]... ...-.-.|$9,131,408 $429,422, 951
TREASUR2 DEPARTMENT, REGISTER’S OFFICE,
Feb. 12, 1862.
J. A. GRAHAM, Acting Register.
96 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF WOOL.
Will this steady demand and these remunerating prices
last? Here again the facts and figures of the past afford the
most trustworthy answer. The table on preceding page was
prepared for me in 1862, by the acting Register of the
Treasury.
It is thus made to appear that during the twenty-two
years which preceded the present war, our imports of unman-
ufactured wool exceeded our exports of the home-grown
article in the value of $44,514,771, or upwards of two
millions a year; and that during the same period, our
imports of manufactured wool exceeded our exports of
domestic manufactured wool in the value of $429,422,951, or
upwards of nineteen millions a year!
There have been during the above period several
“manias,” as they have been termed, as strong as that of
1862-63, to increase wool production in our country; yet,
in spite of all contemporary predictions to the contrary, we
see how utterly they failed in every instance to bring up,
even temporarily, the supply to the demand. When every
circumstance is taken into account, there cannot be a
reasonable doubt entertained, that the United States can
permanently furnish its own markets with a full supply of
wool more cheaply than other countries can furnish it. have
not space here for the numerous facts and statistics which
go to prove this assertion; nor is there need of it, they
have been so fully set forth and discussed in a multitude
of popular publications, particularly in those invaluable
disseminators of information, our Agricultural Journals.
Indeed, we might even compete with other countries in
supplying wool to Europe. And yet, with such facts staring
us in the face, there are so many other demands for capital,
labor and enterprise in our country, that we continue and
are likely to continue, no one can say how long, vast
importers of one of the prime necessaries of life!
Sheep are not only the most profitable animals’ to
depasture the cheap lands of our country—the mountain
ranges of the South, and the vast plains of the West and
South-west —but they are also justly beginning to be
considered an absolute necessity of good farming on our
choice grain-growing soils, where wheat, clover seed, etc.,
are staples.
I may be permitted to quote the two following paragraphs
from my Report on Fine- Wool Husbandry, 1862 :—“Sheep
would be more profitable than cows on a multitude of the
ADVANTAGES OF SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 97
high, thin-soiled dairy farms of New York; and every
person who has kept the two animals ought to know that
sheep will enrich such lands far more rapidly than cows. On
the imperfectly cleared and briery lands of our grazing
regions, sheep will more than pay for their summer keep, for
several years, merely in clearing and cleaning up the land.
They effectually exterminate the blackberry (Rubus viilosus
et trivialis,) and raspberry (Rubus strigosus et occidentalis,)
the common pests in such situations, and they banish or
prevent the spread of many other troublesome shrubs and
weeds. They also, unlike any other of our valuable domestic
animals, exert a direct and observable influence in banishing
coarse, wild, poor grasses from their pastures and bringing
in the sweeter and more nutritious ones.” It was a proverb
of the Spaniards :—* Wherever the foot of the sheep touches,
the land is turned into gold.”
“And the growth of wool is peculiarly adapted to the
pecuniary means and the circumstances of a portion of our
rural population. Their capital is mostly in land. Hired
labor is costly. Sheep husbandry will render all their cleared
land profitably productive at a less annual expenditure for
labor than any other branch of farming. By reason of the
rapid increase of sheep, and the great facility of promptly
improving inferior ones, they will stock a farm well, more
expeditiously, and with far less outlay, than other animals.
And, lastly, the ordinary processes and manipulations of
sheep husbandry are simple and readily acquired. On no
other domestic animal is the hazard of loss by death so small.
It is as healthy and hardy as other animals, and unlike all the
others, if decently managed, a good sheep can never die in
the debt of man. If it dies at birth, it has consumed nothing.
If it dies the first winter, its wool will pay for its consumption
up to that period. If it lives to be sheared once, it brings its
owner into debt to it, and if the ordinary and natural course
of wool production and breeding goes on, that indebtedness
will increase uniformly and with accelerating rapidity until
the day of its death. If the horse or the steer die at three
or four years old, or the cow before breeding, the loss is
almost a total one.”
The cost of producing wool depends upon that of keeping
‘sheep, and this necessarily varies greatly in different
situations. On the highest priced lands in New York and
New England on which sheep are now usually kept for wool
growing purposes, it, under judicious systems of winter
5
98 PROFITS OF WOOL PRODUCTION.
management, reaches about $2 a head per annum. In
extensive regions of the South and South-west it is mainly
comprised in the expense of herding, salting, and shearing,
and where the number of sheep kept is large, does not
exceed 25 cents a head. But it would be more profitable in
those regions to provide some kind of shelter and give a
little feed in the height of winter, and this would increase
the cost of keeping to 50 cents a head. In some of our
Western and North-western States, where sheep can have the
run of lands belonging to the Government or to non-resident
owners, in addition to those owned by the flock- master, the
cost of keeping, including winter shelter, ranges from, say,
75 cents to $1 a head. In intermediate situations, between
the densely populated and high-priced lands of the East and
the broad, sparsely inhabited prairies of the West and South-
west, (open without price to the temporary occupant,) and
between the warm South where vegetation flourishes almost
throughout the year, and the cold North where winter feeding
lasts from five to five and a half months, the cost of keeping
will occupy every intermediate place between these extremes.
Every experienced and sensible man acquainted with all the
special circumstances, is the best judge of that cost in his
own locality. :
Improved Merino flocks of breeding ewes should average
five pounds of washed wool per head in large flocks. Medium
wool has sold on an average for 42 8-10 cents per pound for
the thirty-five years preceding the high prices of the present
war. This gives $2.14 to the fleece, which should pay for
the cost of keeping, anywhere, and leave the owner the lambs
and manure for his profit.* The increase of lambs will
average about eighty per centum on the whole number of
the breeding ewes.{ The value of the manure would greatly
vary in different situations. It may interest many to know
how it is estimated in England. Mr. Spooner says:
“Four hundred South Down sheep are sufficient to fold
twenty perches per day, or forty-five acres per year, the
* If he keeps wethers, he has for his profit their growth and about a dollar from
ce flecce. ethers’ fleeces should be worth about a dollar a piece more than ewes’
leeces,
+I gave this as the average fifteen years ago. With the improvement i
shelters, etc., it ought now to be higher. But a few usually fail a get with iat oa
occasionally there comes a ‘‘dying year’ for lambs—when they are born feeble.
goitred, rheumatic, or subject to some other maladies, so that they perish in extraor-
sine gee ene wos auite ase a ease in New York in the spring of 1962
Taking a term of years together, oubt whether, under average 3
increase by lambs yet exceeds 80 per cent. : Pec aaneeement the
PROFITS OF WOOL PRODUCTION. 99
value of which is therefore about £90 per year, or 4s. 6d. per
sheep. * * Three hundred sheep have in this manner
(with ‘a standing fold on some dry and convenient spot, well
littered with straw or stubble,’) produced eighty large cart-
loads @f dung between October and March, and in this
manner, after the expenses have been deducted, each sheep
has earned 3d. per week.”
A hundred Merino sheep, given abundance of bedding,
will, between December Ist and May 1st, make at least forty
two-horse loads of manure—and if fed roots, considerably
more. I scarcely need to say that both the summer dnd
winter manure of the sheep is far more valuable than that
of the horse or cow.* Its manure on high-priced land which
requires fertilizers, cannot be estimated at less than 50 cents
per head per annum, and I should be inclined to put it
still higher. ;
The value of the lambs and manure is the minimum of
profit. That profit increases just as the market value of land
and the cost of keeping decreases. On the rich plains of
the West and South-west, manure is not yet reckoned among
the appreciable profits, and the cost of transporting wool to
market is ftom one to two cents per pound. The Western
grower, then, gets the lamb and about half the fleece, as the
profit on each sheep. The Texan grower gets the lamb and
about three-quarters of the fleece, and so on. I do not
deduct the extra prices paid from time to time for rams,
because each good one vastly more than pays for himself in
increasing the value of the flock.
The prices of lambs of different blood and in different
places, vary too much to admit of even an approximately
uniform rate of estimating them. But it does not anywhere
cost more to raise a full-blood than a grade Merino lamb.
* Horses are not used as depasturing animals in any of the older States. The
following remarks appeared in my Report on Fine-Wool Husbandry, 1862: — “ If miich
cows are not returned to their pastures at night in summer, or the manure made in the
night is not returned to the pastures, the difference in the two animals in the particular
named in the text, is still greater. Even grazing cattle kept constantly in the pastures,
and whose manure is much better than that of dairy cows, are still greatly inferior to
the sheep in enriching land. The manure of sheep is stronger, better distributed, and
distributed in a way that admits of little loss. The smali round pellets soon work
down among the roots of the grass, and are ina great measure protected from sun and
wind. Each pellet has a coat of mucus which still further protects it. On taking one
of these out of the grass, it will be found the moisture is gradually dissolving it on the
lower side, directly among the roots, while the upper coated surface remains entire,
Finally, if there are hill tops, dry knolls, or elevations of any kind in the pasture, the
sheep almost invariably lie on them pen thus depositing an extra portion of manure
on the least fertile part of the land, and where the wash of it will be less wasted. The
manure of the milch cow, apart from its intrinsic inferiority, is deposited in masses
which give up their best contents to the atmosphere before they are dry enough to be
beaten to pieces and distributed over the soil,”
100 PROFITS OF MUTTON PRODUCTION.
Good grades have averaged about $2 per head in the fall
for a number of years and the increasing demand for them
by the butchers is steadily raismg the price. Estimating 80
per cent. of lambs and 50 cents a head for manure, each
sheep would thus average in both products $2.10—jusp about
the equivalent of the fleece; so that it would be equally
well, on high-priced lands requiring fertilizers, to say
that the lambs and manure pay the cost of keeping, and
the fleece is to be reckoned as the profit. According to the
first computation, lands worth $50 per acre would give their
owner a profit of seven per cent. if they would support a
little over one and three-fifths sheep to the acre; and that
would be indifferent grazing land, where the domesticated
grasses are grown, and under proper systems of winter
keeping, which would not support three sheep to the acre.
It would be a very moderate estimate, taking a term of years
together, to put full blood American Merino lambs— even
from flocks of no especial reputation and not kept for what
is technically designated “breeding purposes”— at double
the price of grade lambs. They are now worth at least three
times as much. ;
The prospect of the future demand for mutton has been
sufficiently considered. I had hoped to be able to present
an exhibit, in details, of the cost and profits of its production
based on actual experiments. But I have been disappointed ;
and I will only reiterate the statement that the experience of
England, and of portions of our own country, has clearly
demonstrated that in regions appropriate for its production,
it is a more profitable leading object of production than wool.
CHAPTER XI.
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTIOE OF BREEDING.
BREEDING, in its technical sense, as applied to the
reproduction. of domesticated animals under the direction
of man, is the art of selecting such males and females to
procreate together as are best adapted, in conjunction, to
produce an improved and uniform offspring. The first and
most important fact to be kept in view, in pursuing the object
of breeding, is that result of a fixed natural law which is
expressed in the phrase, “like produces like.” The painted
oriole now flashing among the apple blossoms before my
window wears the same bright dyes that were worn by the
oriole ages ago. But the breeding maxim just quoted, is
understood to assert more than that species and varieties
continue to reproduce themselves: it implies that the special
individual characteristics of parents are also transmitted to
progeny. This is the prevailing rule, but it has a broad
margin of exceptions and variations. Animals are oftentimes
more or less unlike their parents, yet inherit a very distinct
resemblance to remoter ancestors— sometimes to those
several generations back. This is termed “breeding back.”
And, moreover, where the resemblance is to the immediate
progenitors, the mode of its transmission is not uniform.
Sometimes the progeny is strongly like one parent and
sometimes like the other; sometimes, and perhaps oftenest, it
bears a modified resemblance to both.
The physiological causes or laws which control the
hereditary transmission of physical forms and properties —
which determine the precise structure which the embryo shail
assume in the womb, and give to each animal a distinct
individuality which will accompany it through life and
distinguish it from every other animal of the same breed and
family — have not yet been, and probably never will be,
fully understood. Nor can we, by the closest study of
analogies or precedents, learn to anticipate their action with
102 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREEDING.
absolute certainty. Yet, by a proper course of breeding,
we can control that action to a considerable degree; we
can generally keep it in channels which are favorable to our
wishes; we can avoid manifold evils which arise from
promiscuous procreation; and a few, more gifted or more
zealous in the attainment of their objects than the rest of us,
can make permanent improvements. in the forms and properties
of our domestic animals, and thus confer important benefits
on society. :
If the male and female parent possess the same given
peculiarity of structure, or in breeders’ phrase, the same good
or bad “point,” the chances are very strong that the progeny
will also possess it, because the progeny is most likely to
inherit the structure of its immediate progenitors; and
whether it receives that portion of the structure from one or
the other of them, or partly from both, it still receives the
same peculiar form. If all the remoter ancestors also
possessed the same point, then the progeny must, in the
ordinary course of nature, be sure to inherit it, for let it
breed back to whatever ancestor it may, it must inherit the
same conformation. This law applies to properties as well
as forms. Hence it is that in breeding between pure blood
animals of the same breed and family, we find like producing
like, so far as the family likeness is concerned, in steady and
endless order, and this necessarily includes. a good deal of
individual likeness. Indeed, it is this long continued
preservation and transmission to descendants of the same
properties by one family that constitutes “blood,” in its
technical sense — and its “purity” is its utter isolation from
the blood of all other families. The full blood, or pure
blood, or thorough-bred animal—for all these terms imply
the same thing*—can inherit from its parents, or take
from its remoter ancestors by breeding back, only the same
family characteristics.
But in breeding between mongrels— animals produced
by the crossing of different breeds — the closest resemblance
of the parents in any point not common to both breeds, does
not insure the transmission of their characteristics in that
point to their offspring ; for the offspring may obtain different
ones by breeding back to either of the ancestors with which
the cross commenced, or to some intermediate and partially
* At least, as they are used in this volume. An effort has been made in some
quarters to introduce a distinction between these significations, but, in my judgment,
without any authority.
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREEDING. 103
assimilated ancestors. This occasional breeding back and
consequent divergence from the existing type, is liable to
continue for a great number of generations; and it can only
be repressed by a long and uniform course of breeding, and
by a rigorous “weeding out” —that is, exclusion from
breeding — of every animal exhibiting a tendency toward
such divergence.
We cannot always, among either pure bloods or mongrels,
breed from perfect or approximately perfect individuals, or
those which are alike in their structure and properties.
Necessity sometimes, and economy frequently, requires us to
make use of materials which we would not voluntarily select
for the purpose. In such cases, it should always be the aim
of the breeder to counteract the imperfection of one parent by
the marked excellence of the other parent in the same point.
If, for example, a portion of the ewes of a flock are too short-
wooled, they should, other things being equal, be coupled
with a particularly long-wooled ram.
The hereditary predispositions of breeding animals are
also to be regarded, as well as their actual existing charac-
teristics. In the case just given, if the long-wooled ram was
descended from uniformly short-wooled ancestors, his length
of wool would be what is termed an “accidental” trait or
property; and there would be little probability of his
transmitting it with uniformity and force to his offspring out
of short-wooled ewes. There would be no certainty of his
doing so, even among long-wooled ewes.
What are considered accidental characteristics are them-
selves generally the result of breeding back to a forgotten
ancestor, but sometimes they are purely spontaneous. In
such cases, they are exceptions, not to be accounted for by
any of the known laws of reproduction. As a general thing
they are not transmitted to posterity. In other cases they
are feebly transmitted to the first generation and then
disappear. But occasionally they are very vigorously repro-
duced, and if cultivated by inter-breeding, the related
animals possessing them soon become fixed in their de-
scendants apparently as firmly as the old and long -established
peculiarities of breed.* The following is an instance of this,
* It is claimed that artificial peculiarities even—those produced by external
causes after birth—are sometimes inherited, as for example, a limb distorted by
accident. To this extent, I suspect the genuine cases of inheritance, are very rare.
But haditual artificial properties, and to some extent, structures, marks etc., not unfre-
quently become hereditary. If, for example, men or brutes are kept healthy and
vigorous for several generations, by proper food and exercise, they will have more
vigorous offspring than the descendants of the same ancestors improperly fed and
104 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREEDING.
which, so far as the facts occurred in the United States, fell
under my own observation. A ram having ears of not more
than a quarter the usual size appeared in a flock of Saxon
sheep, in Germany. He was a superior animal, and got
valuable stock. These were inter-bred and a “little-eared”
sub-family created.* Some of these found their way into
the United States, between 1824 and 1828. One of the
rams came into Onondaga County, New York. He was a
choice animal, and his owner, David Ely, valued his small
ears as a distinctive mark of his blood. He bred a flock
by him, and gradually almost bred off their ears entirely.
His flock enjoyed great celebrity and popularity in its day,
put has long been broken up, and many years have doubtless
elapsed since any of the surrounding sheep owners have used
a “little-eared” ram. Yet nearly every flock that retains
a drop of that blood— even coarse mutton sheep bred away
from it, probably for ten or fifteen generations, insomuch
that all Saxon characteristics have totally disappeared — still
continue to throw out an occasional lamb as distinctly
marked with the precise peculiarity under consideration, as
Mr. Ely’s original stock.
Another much more important alledged case in point, is
that of the Mauchamp family of Merinos in France. The
published accounts of them declare that, in 1828, “a Merino
ewe produced a peculiar ram lamb having a different shape
from the usual Merino, and possessing a long, straight, silky
character of wool,” “similar to mohair,” and “remarkable
for its qualities as a combing wool.” Mons. J. L. Graux, the
owner of this lamb, bred from him others which resembled
him. “In each subsequent year,” the account continues,
“the lambs were of two kinds, one possessing the curled,
elastic wool of the old Merinos, only a little longer and finer ;
the other like the new breed. At last the skillful breeder
obtained a flock combining the fine, silky fleece, with a
smaller head, broader flanks and more capacious chest.”
This, excepting in the matter of being “finer” than the
Merino, (and I am unable to say what Mons. Graux considers
fine,) is a pretty good description of a mongrel between a
Merino and some long-wooled variety,— and such I have no
enervated by idleness. And as vigor depends upon the volume of the muscle and
upon the conformation of both the muscles and general frame. it follows that the
Sesetae measurably controlled by the properties, and that artificial shapes become
ereditary.
* This was the explanation given me of the origin of these sheep by my lamented
friend, the late Henry D. Grove, = ae ae
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREEDING. 105
doubt it is. The “accidental” traits which are developed
in breeding from pure animals of the same blood never, I
suspect, at one bound, embrace quite such comprehensive
particulars as a change, not only in the essential character-
istics of the wool, but also in the general form of the carcass.*
But trustworthy cases of the vigorous transmission of
accidental properties, involving visible changes, are sufficiently
numerous. Involving slight changes or variations, not
recognized as such by casual observers, they are more
numerous. It is by noting these last, and cultivating the
good ones, that the judicious breeder makes some of his best
improvements. How otherwise can he possibly raise the
progeny, in any given point, above the plane of its parents,
and of ail its ancestors? But while the breeder should avait
himself of every opportunity of this kind to attempt to
perpetuate accidental improvements on the pre-existing type,
he must be prepared to meet with more disappointments
than successes. My Merino ram “ Premium ”— mentioned
particularly in “Sheep Husbandry in the South,” and in
some other publications, for his extraordinary individual
qualitiest— perhaps the finest wooled sheep then on record
tor one of equal weight of fleece, and ranking in the former
particular with the choicest Saxons —did not get progeny
peculiar for fineness. His own ancestors had been fine for
the breed, but not remarkable in that particular. One of the
showiest Merino rams now in New England does not inherit
his showy traits, and’he utterly fails to transmit them to his
progeny. Exceptional good qualities are not, according to
my observation, as likely to become hereditary, as indifferent
or bad ones. °
Accidental characteristics are less likely to be perpetuated
where they are opposed to the special characteristics of the
breed. For example, the Merino wool has had a peculiar
curled or spiral form of the fiber, for ages —a fixed, marked
trait, never wanting, and as much a characteristic of the wool as
its fineness. Mons. Graux’s first straight-wooled ‘“ Mauchamp
Merino” ram, if an accidental instead of a mongrel animal,
brought only his own individual power to transmit that
peculiarity to his progeny (out of full blood Merino ewes)
* It will be seen that I have not introduced the case of these sheep with any view
of illustrating the transmission of actual ‘accidental’ qualities — but to caution my
readers against what I have not a shadow of doubt is either an amusing case of
credulity or a gross attempt at imposition. ‘ .
_ + Sheep Husbandry in the South, p. 185, American Quarterly Journal of Agricul-
ture, 1845; ib, 1846, p. 290. Meenork on Fine-Wool Husbandry, 1862, pp. 65, 97.
5
106 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREEDING.
against a hereditary power which had been acquiring force for
ages.* His success therefore was the more marvelous. But
in merely giving a smaller head, etc., to his progeny, he did
not necessarily run counter to any special and fixed peculiarity
of breed.| The heads of Merino sheep vary in size. Some of
them are small. A malformation consisting of small ears, or
of the want of any ears, or of one or more imperfect legs, or
of having six legs, or any other deformity, does not impinge
the special characteristics of a breed, or of one breed more
than another. In all breeds alike, whether pure or impure,
there is a tendency in nature to preserve and restore the
normal form in the progeny; but occasionally, as in the case
of Mr. Ely’s sheep, that tendency is not strong enough to
resist the tendency of like to produce like.
In all instances, pains should be taken to avoid breeding
between males and females possessing the same defect, and
particularly the same hereditary defect. In the first case, the
individual force of hereditary transmission in both parents
unites to reproduce the defect: in the second, both the
individual and family hereditary force unite to reproduce it,
and to escape from their combined effects would, of itself, be
one of the strongest cases of “accidental” breeding.
When the same individual or family defects are thus
transmitted by both parents to their offspring, the latter are
apt to inherit them to a greater degree or extent than they
are possessed by either parent. Such an increase or aggrava-
tion may be regarded as inevitable where the common defect
is of the nature of an organic disease. If two human parents
are affected by scrofula, and especially by hereditary scrofula,
in a slight degree, their progeny may be expected to exhibit
it in a much more malignant and destructive form. And the
same law, in transmitting diseases, or morbific conditions,
pertains equally to brutes. Relationship between parents
also exerts a strong influence in such cases, but this will be
more appropriately considered in the next Chapter.
The relative influence of the sire and dam in transmitting
their own individual forms and other properties to the
progeny, has been the theme of much observation and
discussion. The prevalent opinion formerly was that each
* But if he was a mongrel, he brought the hereditary influence of straight-wooled
and probably pure blood ancestors to bear against that of his Merino ancestors, and by
breeding in-and-in, and by selection, he was made to give the preponderance to the
former in the particular under consideration.
+ Ihave no definite or reliable information in regard to the form of head in the
Mauchamp Merino.
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREEDING. 107
parent transmitted a portion of all the properties, or a trait
here and a trait there, as chance or some special and
independent power in each animal to “mark” its offspring,
might dictate. An English gentleman by the name of Orton,
broached the theory that the animal organization is trans-
mitted by halves, the sire giving to the progeny the external
organs and locomotive powers, and the dam the internal
organs and vital functions. By this division, the general
form, the bones, the external muscles, the legs, skin and wool
would be like those of the male parent, while the heart, lungs
and other viscera, and consequently those functions on which
the integrity of the constitution mainly rests, would he like
those of the female parent. But each parent was supposed by
him to exert a degree of influence on the parts and functions
chiefly inherited from the other parent; and this law “of
limitations” he considered “scarcely less important to be
understood than the fundamental law itself.” ;
Mr. Walker, in his work on Intermarriage, presents the
same theory, substantially, except that he denies that the
series of organs inherited from one parent are modified or
influenced by the other parent; and he assumes that between
parents of the same breed, “either the male or the female
parent may give either series of organs.”*
Mr. Spooner, in an article on Cross-Breeding, which appear-
ed in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England
some years since the publication of his well known work on
Sheep, adopts the Ortonian theory with some slight modi-
fications. He says:—The most probable supposition is that
propagation is done by halves, each parent giving to the
offspring the shape of one-half of the body. Thus the back,
loins, hind quarters, general shape, skin and size follow one
parent; and the fore quarters, head, vital and nervous
system, the other; and we may go so,far as to add, that the
former, in the great majority of cases,'g0 with the male parent
and the latter with the female.”
The Ortonian theory, or either of the above modifications
of it, if actually carried into practice, would lead to singular
results. According to Mr. Orton, the effects of cross-breeding
would, comparatively speaking, stop with the first cross, for
each succeeding generation of cross-bred males and females
would continue to transmit to their descendants substantially
* Vide pp. 142, 145.
+ Journal of Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1859.
108 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREEDING.
the same halves, in the same order, both with respect to form
and general properties.* ;
According to Mr. Walker the effects of crossing, among
animals of different breeds, would generally absolutely stop and
become unchangeable with the first cross, for every generation
of descendants would receive the same half of the organization
without any modification! And on the other hand, between
animals of the same breed, the descendants might either
permanently exhibit the same relative paternal and maternal
halves, or they might by in-and-in breeding, in the second
generation, become exactly like their sire in both halves!
The theory of propagation by halves appears to have
considerable support from facts when it is applied to hybrids—
animals derived from inter-brecding distinct species,—as for
instance the male ass with the mare, the horse with the female
ass, the goat with the sheep, etc. But as applied to sheep,
every observing breeder ought to know that it is essentially
unfounded and chimerical. The Merino ram crossed with a
ewe of some thin and coarse-wooled family, does not, either
fully or approximately, transmit the weight, fineness or other
*If this were so, half bloods, when bred together, would reproduce their own
essential qualities about as uniformly as full bloods when bred together; and the
attempt to form them into permanent families, occupying the same relative place they
do between the original breeds of which they are composed, should result in as splendid
success as it does, in point of fact, in complete and uniform failure. And by this theory,
it would seem the half blood ram ought always to be used to perpetuate half bloods —
yet experience shows that half blood rams are worthless for that object. I never have
seen anything more than extracts from Mr. Orton’s paper on this subject. I do not
therefore know what exceptions he made for breeding back. He must of course have
regarded it as only the exception, or else he could not have assumed any set of facts
opposed to it to be the rule. Then, in his view, a majority at least of the descendants
of half bloods, bred to half bloods, or to mongrels of their own degree, would
continue uniformly to produce their own essential characteristics,— which every
observing breeder knows they do not do.
+ Mr. Walker says : —‘‘ Let the example be that in which, of the animals subjected
to in-and-in breeding, the father breeds with the daughter, and again with the grand-
daughter. Now, it is certain the father gives half his organization to the daughter,
(suppose the anterior series of, organs,) and so far they are identical; but, in breeding
with the daughter, he may give the other half of his organization to the grand-daughter,
(namely, the posterior series of organs,) and as the grand-daughter will then have both
his series of organs —the former from the mother and the latter from himself — it is
To . there exists between the male and his grand-daughter a quasi identity.
p. 210.
Mr. Spooner does not develop his views very fully, but so far as he states them,
he would appear to adopt Mr. Walker’s theory of a strict propagation by halves, and at
the same time to assume, by implication, that either parent may give either series of
organs, in all cases, as Mr. Walker only assumes they may among animals of the same
breed. If these are Mr. Spooner’s real opinions, he must be prepared to believe that
results like the following may ensue :—If a Merino ram was put to a Leicester ewe he
would transmit half of his organization to their common progeny. If the same ram
was put to his own half-blood daughter of that cross, he might give the other half of
his organization to the progeny, so that it would be, de facto, a pure Merino. This
would be a very summary process of creating pure Merinos out o Leicesters! If the
same rule held good in regard to horses, an Arabian stallion might in two generations
produce pure Arabian stock from cart mares! Is Mr. Spooner prepared to adopt such
a sequitur to his theory?
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREEDING. 109
qualities of his fleece to his progeny. He, it is true, transmits
a fleece which is much heavier and finer than that of the ewe;
and if again crossed with the half-blood, he transmits addi-
tional weight and fineness. Each ascending grade toward the
Merino will continue more and more to resemble-the Merino
in these particulars. But the process is gradual, not immediate;
the properties are transmitted by degrees, not by halves.
The Ortonian theory, as applied to the transmission of
form, in sheep, has a little more apparent foundation. The
ram does, much oftener than the ewe, transmit his general
external structure to the progeny. But the hypothesis that
he does go as invariably as Mr. Orton contends, or as Mr.
Walker contends in the case of crosses between different
breeds, or even as generally as Mr. Spooner supposes,* will
fall tothe ground at once when examined in the light of actual
facts. In any and every flock of lambs, whether pure blood
or crossed, there will be found entirely too many to be classed
as mere exceptions, which, without breeding back of their
immediate parents, do take the general form of the dam, and
not that of the sire. And it will also be found that the
instances which, even by the most liberal resort to imagina-
tion, can be adduced as proofs of the theory of a strict
transmission by halves, and of such a division of those halves
as the advocates of the theory have agreed on, do not
comprise a majority of cases. In my judgment, they do not
include a fourth of them; and could scarcely be shown
conclusively to include any. As a general thing we see
distinct resemblances to each parent, or modified resemblances
to both parents, existing in different proportions in the form,
the fleece and the skin. One lamb has a carcass mostly like
that of its sire and a fleece mostly like that of its dam.t
Another takes a middle place between its parents in one or
both particulars. Another actually, to some degree, divides
the form, taking, for example, the shoulders of the dam with
the hind quarters of the sire, or vice versa. I have a specific
case in view of a ram (“21 per cent.,”) which has a shoulder
obviously defective in being too thin. He transmits most of
his form, his fleece, etc., to-his progeny, with marked force.
But not one in thirty of them exhibits a thin shoulder. By
* I mean making all due allowance for breeding back, or for an exceptional want
of relative vigor in the male, &c.,
+ I think it is not common to see these two characteristics quite so broadly divided ;
and probably never, when the pure blood ram is coupled with the cross-bred ewe.
But with both those pure and cross-breeds which most resemble their sires in form, it
is common to see the fleece at least egually partaking of the characteristics of the dam,
110 PRIYCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREEDING.
the half-and-half theory, all this would be impossible.
According to that theory, all these characteristics belong to
the same half of the organization, which is always transmitted
as an entirety by one parent or the other.
But it is easier to defend the half-and-half theory, so far
as it pertains to the viscera and internal organization, because
it is very difficult to follow it there! I do not see how a
really reliable decision can be arrived at except by a practical
ocular examination of the parts, and it is not easy to
understand how even the dissecting knife would let in much
light on the subject. In healthy animals, it is not probable
that any particular and persistent differences could be
discovered in the viscera, except in the mere particular of
size, and in this, the theory would not be likely to derive any
support from a comparison of facts.* If it be contended that
internal structure is to be judged or inferred by certain
effects —such as constitution, strength, appetite, etc. I
undertake to say, from abundant experience, that the progeny
as often and as fully inherit these qualities from the sire as
from the dam, even when they most distinctly inherit the
general form of the sire.
I have pursued this subject at greater length, because I
have observed that too many men who have the word
“practical” ever on their lips (who seem to consider
themselves practical on all agricultural subjects, because they
work practically with their own hands on a farm!) are always
ready to adopt the most baseless theories: and I consider the
Ortonian theory as mischievous as it is baseless.
I have said that the ram much the oftenest gives the
leading characteristics of the form; and I will now add, that
he much the oftenest gives the size, and several of the
leading properties of the fleece, particularly its length,
density, and yolkiness. Its fineness and general style are
probably usually, other things being equal, as much con-
trolled by the dam as by the sire. But I do not believe the
superior power of the ram to transmit his own qualities is
purely an incident of sex. I believe co-operating causes are
equally potential, and that the chief of these are superiority
of blood, and superiority of individual vigor.
* I suppose that if a large ram were put to a small ewe, and as usual gave his size
(comparatively) to the progeny, the size of the viscera would necessarily follow the size
of the sires’, because the viscera always correspond with the size of the external struc
tures and of the cavity to be filled. If, on the other hand, the ewe gave the size of
carcass, she would also give the size of the viscera. This is exactly at variance with
the Ortonian theory, if the size of the intestines is one of those properties said to be
given by that parent which does not give the size and form.
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREEDING. 111
* The ram is generally “higher bred” than the ewes, even
in full blood flocks. As pure blood is only separate family
blood which has been kept distinct until it transmits but
one set of family characteristics, so higher blood is produced
by the selection of pure blood animals of choicer qualities
and breeding them together separate and distinct from all
others, until they form a smaller improved sub-family, alike
possessing a permanent hereditary character. The thin-chined,
low fore-ended, roach-backed, black-faced sheep which
formerly depastured the downs of Sussex, were of as pure
blood as the superb South Downs which Mr. Ellman created
out of them—but they were not so highly or well bred.
The improved South Down ram of to-day does not transmit
the same properties to his progeny which the unimproved
animal of eighty years ago did. He not only transmits
better ones, but he transmits them with more force and
uniformity. This last is occasioned by two circumstances.
The restriction of the sub- family for a number of generations
to one fixed standard, gives greater force of hereditary
transmission to the fewer properties—that is, fewer in
kind — which that standard admits of, because by that law
on which “blood” or “species” rests, the oftener the same
quality is reproduced, the stronger becomes its tendency to
continued reproduction. The improved South Down breeds,
so to speak, to one uniform pattern. The unimproved one
breeds to a dozen different varieties of a family pattern.
The second circumstance which gives a stronger power of strict
hereditary transmission to the high-bred animal, consists (after
the improved family becomes thoroughly established) in the re-
striction placed on the limits of breeding back. The unimproved
South Down could breed back to fifty different ancestors, all
differing quite widely; the improved one, unless he casually
goes far back of the ordinary limits of breeding back, can
only breed back to ancestors of very close resemblance.
If the pure blood ram is put to grade ewes of different
and no determinate blood, his strong power of hereditary
transmission is encountered by no corresponding power on
the other side, and thé resemblance of the progeny to
himself is unexpectedly striking, considering that they are
but half of the same breed.’ i put to full blood ewes of
his own breed, but lower bred than himself, the resemblance
to himself is much less marked, though it is still very
perceptible. If put to ewes of the same breed and as high
bred as himself, the resemblance to himself is still fainter
112 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREEDING.
and considerably less uniform. In these last, he has
encountered a force of hereditary transmission equal to his
own; except in so far as he is aided by superior power of sex.
Persons who buy rams, generally buy from flocks better
bred than their own, and hence is witnessed that assimilation
of the progeny to the sire, and consequently that improve-
ment, which is by some referred exclusively to sex, and by
others to some inherent property to “mark” his offspring
supposed to be peculiar to the sire. This hypothesis is not
overthrown by the notorious fact that rams from the same
flock exhibit the power of hereditary transmission in
essentially different degrees, any more than is the hypothesis
of the superior influence of the male sex overthrown by the
same fact. Every flock has separate and better strains of
blood within itself—even where all are descended from the
same stock. Not only better males occasionally present
themselves, but also better females. If the latter are found
to transmit their own properties in a special degree to their
offspring, they are highly prized and carefully reserved from
all sales. Each female descendant is prized and reserved in
the same way, and a sub-family is thus created. A touch of
in- and -in breeding (by using a ram from the same sub-family
on his relatives, as well as on the rest of the flock,) frequently
aids to confer an identity on this little group of sheep which
preserves itself for generations — as long as the flock is kept
together. Iam not acquainted with a celebrated breeding
flock which has not within it several such recognized groups
or sub-families of different value, but all better than the
body of the flock. This explains how rams of the same blood
and flock, and perhaps general appearance, may differ materi-
ally in their qualities as sires, without imagining the existence
of an independent faculty based on no physical properties.
There is still another circumstance which affects the
power of hereditary transmission, viz., vigor,— general
physical vigor, and also special sexual vigor. A very strong,
powerfully developed ram, full of power and vital energy —
and full of untiring sexual ardor— will get stronger and
better lambs and impress his own qualities on them more
strongly than an ill, or feeble, or flaccid ram, with naturally
weak or exhausted sexual powers. The ram should be
essentially masculine in every organ and function.* He
* Large testicles, and large, firm spermatic cords connecting these with the body,
are regarded as indications of sexual vigor in the ram. The capacity to ‘‘ bear heavy
feed”’ has also much to do with a ram’s endurance in this particular.
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREEDING. 113
should not even have what is termed a “ewe’s fleece,” but a
longer, thicker and coarser one.*
The Merino ram produces strong, healthy lambs from the
age of seven or eight months to that of eight or ten years,
and sometimes later, if he has never been over-worked. He
does not attain his full maturity of vigor until he is three,
and he usually begins to decline at seven or eight. A ram
lamb ought not, for his own good, to be used to over ten
or fifteen ewes —merely enough to test his qualities as a sire ;
and to fit him properly for even this amount of work, he
should be large, strong, and fleshy. A yearling can, without
injury, do one-third and a two-year-old two-thirds the work
of amature ram. Strong, mature rams will, on the average,
properly serve about two hundred ewes a year. I speak
in all the above cases of but a single service to each ewe,
and of a coupling season extending from forty to forty-five
days. Rams have often exceeded these numbers. An
Infantado ram lamb owned by Loyal C. Wright, of Corn-
wall, Vermont, got one hundred and three lambs in the
fall of 1862. The “Wooster Ram,” so celebrated through-
out Vermont, served three hundred ewes when a year
old.t Some strong rams, in their prime, have served
four hundred. The “Old Robinson Ram” is believed to
have got nearly three thousand lambs during his life of
thirteen or fourteen years. The Merino ewe breeds from
her second to her tenth or twelfth year, and sometimes
considerably longer, if carefully nursed after she begins to
decline.{ It is better for her, however, not to breed until
her third year. Some, however, who have valuable ewes,
* A ram of the same blood and breeding does not require to be as fine as a ewe,
to get female progeny equal to her in fineness ; and an over-fine ram generally gets too
light-fleeced progeny. His own fi unless an ptional quality, shows that he
has been bred too far in the direction of fineness, and, consequently, away from the
roper standard of weight, for the maximum of these two qualities in the same fleece
is not even approximately attainable. If the over-fine ram has himself a fleece of
good weight, it is to be appr ded—in the ab of a full knowledge of antecedents
—that the latter quality is exceptional, and that he may breed too much in the
opposite direction. ;
+ SolIam informed by Mr. Abel J. Wooster, of West Cornwall, Vermont. He
urchased the ram of Mr. Hammond when a lamb—and hence the name of ‘* Wooster
m,”’ or rather, «ccording to a prevailing Americanism, ‘‘ Wooster Buck.” Some
Merino breeders who find this name in the pedigrees of their sheep may be interested
to learn the following particulars communicated to me by Mr. Wooster. The ram
never exceeded about 100 lbs. weight with his fleece off. His first fleece weighed 1244
Tbs., his second 19% lbs., and ‘after that he began to run down,” and died before the
completion of his fourth year. ‘*He would bear heavy feed, and that and hard ser-
vice shortened his life.”
+ Istated in my Report on Fine-Wool Husbanry, 1862, that I had been informed
that the dam of the ‘Old Robinson Ram” produced a lamb in her twenty-second
year. I have since ascertained that I was misinformed on the subject.
114 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREEDING.
put them to breeding at two, but take off their lambs and
give them to foster-mothers. If the young ewe is carefully
dried off her milk, she will experience no injury and no loss
of growth. The increase of growth during pregnancy
will make up for the slight falling off after yeaning.
The English breeds both mature and decline considerably
earlier in life.
A theory of considerable importance to the breeder, if
true, has recently been started, viz., that the male which first
impregnates a female, continues to exert an influence on
some of the qualities of her subsequent offspring, or at least
is liable to do so. I have not, in my own experience,
observed any proofs of this.*
It has been a prevailing opinion among American breeders
that it is much better to breed between a small male and
large female, than in the contrary direction. The reason
assigned by Mr. Cline, of ’England, who first, I think,
publicly advanced this view, was that the fetus begotten
by the larger male has not room to expand and develop
itself properly in the womb of the small female; that it does
not obtain sufficient nutrition from stores intended for a
smaller foetus; and that, in consequence of these things, it
can not obtain its normal size and proportions anterior
to birth: secondly, that it is lable on account of its extra
size to cause difficulty, if not danger to its dam in yeaning;
and finally, that the opposite course, by giving the fetus
unusual room and extra nutriment,’ tends to its most perfect
development. This is probably true as- between different
breeds, where the disparity in size is extreme, as, for
instance, between the Saxon Merino ewe and the Cotswold
ram. I would not expect a greatly overgrown ram to get
as good stock as a more moderate sized one, even on ewes
of the same breed, but it would be quite as much for
another reason as for any of the preceding ones, viz., that
these overgrown animals never possess the highest attainable
amount of vigor and general excellence themselves, and are
not therefore fitted for sires, irrespective of relative size.
But the rule should not be extended to the exclusion of
large rams of the breed, if good in other particulars. Nature
adapts herself unexpectedly to circumstances, in the face of
all theories. Constant and recent experiments, in England,
__* Those who wish to see the facts and arguments which are set forth to support
this theory will find them in Mr. 8, L, Goodale’s interesting work on the Principles of
Breeding, published in 1861.
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREEDING. 115
in crossing ewes with the rams of much larger breeds (to
obtain large lambs for the butcher) demonstrate, as has been
already seen, that the prevailing fears on this subject have
been somewhat exaggerated.*
.._* The Down or New Leicester ram is coupled with almost any of the smaller
sized local varieties for the purpose of getting larger and earlier maturing lambs for
the market. The very small and hornless heads of the Down and New Leicester
lambs, it is true, peculiarly fit them for easy and safe parturition; but in other
respects, they are exposed to all the disadvantages of disproportioned size before and
after birth, and these are not found sufficient, in practice, to prevent the crosses from
proving highly profitable for the objects in view. ~
CHAPTER XII.
BREEDING IN-AND-IN.
BREEDING in-and-in is ordinarily understood, in our
country, to mean breeding between relatives, without
reference to the degree of consanguinity; and I shall
therefore use it in that sense in this [work, specifying, when
there is occasion, whether the degree of consanguinity is
close or remote. But this is not the sense in which it has
been used by those eminent European writers who have done
so much to plant an inveterate prejudice against its very
name in the public mind. Sir John Sebright ranks among
the highest of these, and he did not consider procreation
between father and daughter, and mother and son, to be
breeding in-and-in! Breeding between brother and sister
he thought might “be called a little close,” but “should they
both be very good, and particularly should the same defects
not predominate in both, but the perfections of the one
promise to correct in the produce the imperfections of the
other, he did not think it objectionable!” And again, he
says breeding in-and in “may be beneficial, if not carried too
far, particularly in fixing any variety which may be thought
valuable.” It is to be regretted that Sir John does not
define what he considers to be in-and-in breeding. J apprehend
that he means by it breeding the father with the daughter
and again with the grand-daughter, or the mother with the
son and again with the grand-son. In all the distinguished
British works I have ever perused on the subject, I have found
the same lack of definitions. The authors evidently vary in
the meaning they attach to the term, but I think I can
confidently say that none of them make it include breeding
between all relatives, or object to breeding, when there is
occasion for it, between relatives not of near consanguinity.
It is a very prevalent impression in the United States,
particularly among those who have no personal experience
on the subject, that the inter-breeding of the most remote
BREEDING IN-AND-IN. 117
relatives is fatal — fatal not only to the physical organization,
but to the mind among human beings, and even to the
instinct among brutes.
It was stated in the preceding Chapter that when
hereditary disease or a predisposition toward it, exists in
either parent, there is always danger that it will be trans-
mitted to offspring, and that if the disease or predisposition,
exists in both parents, that danger is greatly increased. If
the parents be nearly related to each other, the danger of
transmission is virtually converted into certainty, with an
aggravation of the conditions and increased incurableness in
the malady. Consequently when mankind degenerated from
their original physical perfection—when disease entered the
world and predispositions to it became engrafted in the
human system—the Divine Lawgiver made cohabitation
within certain degrees of affinity a crime by prohibition.
But if it was evil in itself (malum in se) why was it not
prohibited to the immediate descendants of our first parents,
and why were not unrelated human beings created to avoid
its necessity? The peopling of the world in the second
generation at least, was necessarily carried on between
brothers and sisters, the closest possible relations. Can it be
supposed that, under the direct ordination of Omnipotence,
the human race originated in a crime against nature — in an
extreme violation of the fundamental laws which regulate
physical and mental well being?
The brute, it is fair to assume, was started in its course of
procreation equally unrestricted, for it would understand no
prohibition; and it was created with habits which must
constantly and necessarily lead to cohabitation and breedin
between the nearest relatives. Some varieties of birds, like
the dove, are hatched in pairs, one of each sex, and with
habits which would render the separation of those pairs, for
procreation, the exception instead of the rule. Some varieties
of quadrupeds, like the lion, are born and brought up in
isolated families ; and having no aversion to breeding between
relatives, it would be most natural that those who thus live
together should at maturity pair together. In herds of
elephants, wild horses, buffaloes, etc., particular males
dominate over the same herd for years, and make it their
harem until they become enfeebled and are conquered by
some more youthful and more vigorous rival — probably a
son — who in turn dominates, decays and gives place to a
successor. In this course of things, the father must be
118 BREEDING IN-AND-IN.
constantly breeding with his own daughters, and, if he lives
long enough, with his grand-daughters; and his male
successors must commence breeding with sisters and continue
it with their descendants. All these animals are, de facto,
paired together by that Being who created their instincts and
gave them their habits. Is there any visible proof that their
races have become physically degenerate on this account?
Are not the lion and the elephant as large, healthy and
powerful as they were ages ago? ;
No one pretends to the contrary. But we are told—
and this was Sebright’s argument — that a natural provision
was also made to prevent animals from degenerating from the
effects of in-and-in breeding. ‘A severe winter, or a scarcity
of food, by destroying the weak and the unhealthy, has all
the good effects of the most skillful selection.” And he might
have added, that the strong male kills the weak male, the herd
trample down the sick and the feeble, and gore to death the
wounded. Such causes, undoubtedly, combine to extirpate
what may be termed accidental degeneracy. But these facts
do not go far enough to sustain the position of those who
believe that in-and-in breeding necessarily results in degen-
eracy. If it did, instead of a few, the whole or nearly the
whole flock or herd or family, in such cases as I have
mentioned, would perish; and whole races would long since
have become extinct.
The moment we step from the domain of nature to the
domain of man, the scene changes. We have treated our
domesticated animals as we have treated ourselves. By
artificial surroundings — by changing the natural habits m
regard to nutrition, exercise, etc. — by cruelty or kindness —
by breeding the diseased with the healthy — we have brought
malformation, infirmity, disease and premature death among
all of them; and we have continued the causes until we have
made the effects a part of the physical systems, and thoroughly
hereditary among them. Therefore no longer, like the free
normal denizens of the forest and the air, can they follow
their natural instincts with impunity; and the inter-breeding
of the infirm and diseased, and especially of infirm and
diseased relatives, must, as in the case of man, be prevented.
But all the facts I have ever seen or ascertained from
entirely reliable sources, go to show that the inter-breeding of
relatives, and even near ones, is innocuous when both parents
are free from all defects and infirmities which tend to impair
‘the normal physical organization. It is difficult to improve
BREEDING IN-AND-IN. 119
animals, give them a marked family uniformity, and give
their peculiar excellencies a permanent hereditary character,
without in-and-in breeding. Consequently a great majority
of the ablest breeders of domestic animals of every description
in England—such as Bakewell among long-wooled sheep ;
Ellman among short-wooled sheep; the Collings, Mason,
Maynard, Wetherell, Knightly, Bates and the Booths among
Short-Horn cattle;* Price among the Herefords,¢ and a
multitude of others of nearly equal celebrity — have been
close in-and-in breeders. The Stud Book abounds in examples
of celebrated horses produced by this course of breeding.
The same is true of nearly all the improved English varieties
of smaller animals, such as pigs, rabbits, fowls, pigeons, etc.
But we need not go abroad for examples. The Paular
sheep of the Rich family were first crossed in 1842. They
were then pre-eminently hardy. No one claims that they
have gained either in hardiness or size by the cross. Yet
for thirty years preceding that period, they had been bred
strictly m-and-in, to say nothing of their previous in-and-in
breeding in Spain. Whether and how far the Spaniards aimed
to avoid breeding from very close individual relationships I
am not informed. I have never learned that they paid any
attention to them one way or the other; and their general
course of breeding was certainly in-and-in. Each Cabana, or
permanent flock, was kept entirely free from admixture with
+ T quote the following from a note in my Report on Fine-Wool Husbandry, 1862:
“In the first volume of American Short-Horn Herd Book (edited by Lewis F. Allen,
Esq.,) are diagrams showing the continuous and close in-and-in breeding which pro-
duced the bull Comet, by far the most superb and celebrated animal of his day, and
which sold, at Charles Colling’s sale for the then unprecedented price of $5,000. His
pedigree cannot be stated so as to make the extent of the in-and-in breeding, of which
he was the result, fully apparent, except to persons familiar with such things, and such
persons probably need no information on the subject. But this much all will see the
force of: the bull Bolingbroke and the cow Phenix, which were more closely related
to each other than half-brother and sister, were coupled and produced the bull
Favorite. Favorite was then coupled with his own dam and produced the cow Young
Phenix. He was then coupled with his own daughter (Young Phenix) and their pro-
duce was the world-famed Comet. One of the best breeding cows in Sir C. Knightly’s
herd (Restless) was the result of still more continuous in-and-in breeding. I willstate
a part of the pedigree. The bull Favorite was put to his own daughter, and then to
his own grand-daughter, and so on to the produce of his produce in regular succession
for six generations. The cow which was the result of the sixth inter-breeding, was
then put to the bull Wellington, ‘‘ deeply inter-bred on the side Qf both sire and dam
in the blood of Favorite, and the produce was the cow Clarissa, an admirable animal
and the mother of Restless, Mr. Bates, whose Short-Horns were never excelled (if
equaled) in England, put sire to daughter and grand-daughter, son to dam and grand-
dam, and brother to sister, indifferently, his rule being ‘always to put the best
animals together, regardless of any affinity of blood,’ as A. B. Allen informs me he
distinctly eclared to him, and indeed as his recorded: practice in the Herd Book fully
proves.
+ Mr. Price, whose Herefords were the best in England in his day, declared, in an
article published in the British Farmer’s Magazine, that he had not gone beyond his
own herd for a bull or a cow for forty years.
120 BREEDING IN-AND-IN.
others, and its stock rams were selected from its own number.
Consequently fathers and daughters, and brothers and sisters
must have constantly bred with each other. Mr. Chamber-
lain’s Silesians have not received any cross, or any fresh blood
from either of the original families, within half a century;
yet they are 50 per cent. larger than the sheep they originated
from and are entirely healthy. Mr. Hammond’s Infantados
present a still stronger case. They were bred in-and-in
by Col. Humphreys up to the period of Mr. Atwood’s
purchase; Mr. Atwood bred his entire flock from one ewe,
and never used any but pure Humphreys rams; Mr. Ham-
mond has preserved the same blood entirely intact — and
thus, after being drawn beyond all doubt trom an unmixed
Spanish Cabana, they have been bred in-and-in, in the
United States, for upwards of sixty years. Fortunately Mr.
Hammond has preserved some of his leading individual
pedigrees, and I will give one of these as a most forcible
illustration of the subject under examination. For that
purpose I will select the pedigree of Gold-Drop, one of his
present stock rams. It includes that of Sweepstakes — the
ram figured in the frontispiece—and has the advantage of
exhibiting the course of breeding for two generations later.
The pedigree is given on next page.
121
PEDIGREE OF GOLD-DROP AND SWEEPSTAKKS.
Gold-Drop, J
1861.
L
California, |
1860.
Old Queen,
1854.
1856.
Beauty 1st,
1857.
Sweepstakes, _
cr
L
Old Greasy,
1850.”
Old Wrinkly,
1853.
5 Light Color-
Little Wrinkly, Sd eweied,
1855: asbl.
ae Twin of Little (Wooster, by
Lawrence ewe,< 1849.
1850. First choice
: Old Greasy, by Wooster, by
Light Colored 1890,
ewe 8d, 1854. 1850,
Light Color-
ed ewe Ist,
~ 1848,
Light Colored.
ewe 2d, 1851,
Sweepstakes, by
1856.
1850.
Long Wool,
1853.
: Lawrence ,
Old Queen, ewe, 1851.
1854,
dam, 1851. 1841.
Old Queen’s { Black,
(First choice
Long Wool, by Old Greasy, by Wooster, by Old Black,
1853.
Old Queen’s
~ dam, 1851.
Old Black,’
1841.
First choice of old ewes.
Wooster,
1849.
Dam of Old
Greasy, 1847.
Old Greasy, by
1850.
Light Colored
ewe Ist, 1848.
1d Black,
of old ewes.
Old Black,
1841.
Old Black,
1841.
First choice of ewe lambs,
Old Black,
1841,
First choice of old ewes.
ooster, by Old Black,
Old Matchless,
1841.
Dam of Light Colored ewe.
Old Greasy, by Wooster, by Old Black,
Dam of Light Colored ewe.
Se Matchless,
Young Match-
less, 1850.
Little Wrinkly, by Old Wrinkly, by Old Greasy, &c.,
(01d Greasy, by Wooster, by Old Black,
Wooster, by Old Black,
1849.
Light eI Matchless,,
1841,
owe Ist, 1848. Dam of L. Col’d ewe.
First choice of ewe lambs.
of old ewes.
122 BREEDING IN-AND-IN.
It will be seen that Gold-Drop, after the recurrence of
seven generations, traces every drop of his blood to two
rams and three ewes, purchased of Mr. Atwood! A careful
study of this pedigree will disclose a closeness of in-and-in
‘breeding which will surprise most persons, and will surprise a
ortion of them the more in view of the fact that Mr.
Hammonds whole flock has been bred with the same disre-
gard of consanguinity, and yet all the time since his purchase
of its foundation, has been increasing, not only in amount of
wool, but in size, bone, spread of rib, compactness, easiness
of keep; in short, in all those things which indicate improved
constitution. Nor has there been the least tendency toward
that barrenness which has been thought by some to be one of
the results of in-and-in breeding.* ;
Every one who draws rams from his own flock and
breeds from the best, will inevitably find himself a close
in-and-in breeder. The best beget the best. If a ram of
surpassing excellence as a sire arises and makes a decided
improvement in the flock, he is of course coupled with the
best ewes, and all the choicest young animals in the flock are
soon of his get—and consequently, leaving out of view all
previous consanguinity, are as nearly related as half brothers
and sisters. These must be bred with each other, or the best
of one sex sold, or the highest grade of perfection, on one
side, prevented from being joined with the highest grade of
perfection on the other. The latter alternatives are most
discouraging hindrances in the progress of breeding improve-
ment; and how can we assume that they are. necessary, in
the face of such facts as those above given? I could add
hundreds of examples, both in Europe and the United
States, to prove that in-and-in breeding does not, per se,
produce degeneracy. z
But while I am satisfied that even close in-and-in breeding
is one of the most powerful levers of improvement in the
hands of such men as Bakewell, Ellman, and Hammond —
breeders who thoroughly understand the physiology of their
art —I shall not claim that it is so, or even that it is safe,
in the hands of those who do not fully and clearly know
what is perfect and imperfect in structure; who cannot detect
every visible indication of hereditary disease; and who are
not familiar by long experience with the effects of combining
different forms, qualities and conditions by inter-breeding.
* See APPENDIX A.
BREEDING IN-AND-IN. 123
With such notable instances of successful in-and-in breeders
as I have given, and with the hundreds that might be added
_to the list, it is equally true that the instances of those who
have failed have been vastly more numerous. When the
masterly hand of Bakewell no longer guided his improved
Leicesters, but a very small number among all the prominent
breeders of them were found able to preserve them without
some admixture of fresh blood. When not ruined entirely,
they became delicate and inclined to sterility. And so the
pinnacle of success is often but one step from the final over-
throw. In view of all the facts, therefore, the great majority
of sheep farmers, who do not make breeding a study and an
art, had better continue to avoid anything like close in-and-in
breeding — though there is no occasion for those exaggerated
fears which many entertain on the subject, in respect to
remote relatives, where the animals to be coupled are
obviously robust and well formed.
Some persons believe that the dangers of in-and-in breed-
ing are less between animals of pure blood than between
mongrels or grade animals.* I can see no reason for this,
if the latter are equally perfect in that structural organization
on which health depends.
* See Goodale on the Principles of Breeding.
CHAPTER XIII.
OROSS-BREEDING.
CROSS - BREEDING THE MERINO AND COARSE BREEDS —
CROSSING DIFFERENT FAMILIES OF MERINOS — CROSSING
BETWEEN ENGLISH BREEDS AND FAMILIES — RECAPITULA-
TION.
* Cross-BreEeprne, as I shall use the term, signifies
breeding between animals of different breeds, varieties, or
families; but it is not ‘applicable to breeding between
animals of the same family, though they belong to different
and unrelated flocks.
Cross-BREEDING BETWEEN THE MERINO AND CoARsE
Brereps.— The range of - cross-breeding between fine and
coarse-wooled sheep is comparatively limited, because there
is but one breed of the former of any recognized importance,
viz., the Merino. And no intelligent man, at the present day,
would any more think of crossing the Merino with another
breed to improve the characteristics sought in the Merino,
than he would of alloying gold with copper to improve the
qualities of the gold.
When the object of such crossing has been to improve
coarse inferior races, it has succeeded for certain purposes.
The coarse common sheep of our country, for example, are
always rendered more valuable by an infusion of Merino
blood. They gain materially in fleece, and lose in no other
particular. But all crosses between the Merino and the
large, early-maturing improved English breeds and families,
such as the Leicesters, Cotswolds, and the different families
of Downs, have uniformly resulted in failure, and must
always do so, as long as the characteristics of the respective
breeds remain the same. The largest and heaviest fleeced
Merinos would probably increase the weight of fleece of even
the heaviest fleeced English long-wools, but the wool loses by
CROSS - BREEDING. 125
the cross its present specific adaptation to a demand always
reat in England and now rapidly increasing in the United
tates.* THe mutton is not injured, nay, for American tastes,
it is decidedly improved by the cross; but the long-wool sheep
loses its size, its early maturity, its propensity to fatten, and
its great Sead in breeding. It loses the faultless form
of the English sheep, without even acquiring the knotty
compactness of the Merino. In short, in the expressive
common phrase, it becomes ‘neither one thing nor the other,”
but only a comparatively valueless mongrel between two — for
their own separate objects — unimprovable breeds ! t
The cross between the Merino and the Down materially
increases and improves the fleece of the latter. But it is held
to detract from the value of the mutton, and it seriously
impairs the value of the Down in all the same particulars in
which it impairs the value of long-wools.
All attempts to establish permanent intermediate varieties
of value by crosses between the Merino and any family of
mutton sheep, with a view of combining the especial excel-
lencies of each, have ended in utter failure. Those with the
Down and the Ryeland seemed to promise best,{ yet they
not only resulted in disappointment, but produced mongrels
incapable of being bred back to. either of the English types.
The Merino, owing doubtless to its greater purity of
blood compared with most other breeds, and to its vastly
greater antiquity of blood compared with any of them,§
possesses a force and tenacity of hereditary transmission
which renders it a most unmanageable material in any cross
aiming at middle results. Its distinctive peculiarities are
* The combination of a wool so pre-eminent for certain necessary objects with
such valuable mutton properties, render these sheep one of those great gifts to man-
kind which it would seem almost wicked to tamper with!
+I made some experiments in this cross—quite enough to satisfy me—in the
earlier part of my life.
+I bred a few hundred South Down and Merino eross-breeds, many years ago, and
they made avery pretty sheep. They were not much larger than the largest sized
Infantados of the present day— because, filled with Mr, Cline’s ideas, I selected a very
small and excessively high-bred ram for the cross. He was bred by Francis Rotch,
Esq., and got by a prize ram of Mr. Ellman’s out of an Ellman ewe.
§ The fine-wooled sheep of Spain are clearly traceable to a period anterior to the
Christian Era, on the authority of Strabo, Pliny and othemRoman writers of conceded
veracity. Pliny was himself the Roman Procurator in Spain in the opening part of the
first century, and could speak from the result of his own observations. The often
re-published statement— that the breed was formed and subsequently perfected by
crossing these fine-wooled sheep with coarse, hairy, long-wooled Barbary rams, intro-
duced for that purpose by Columella, Pedro IV, of Castile, and Cardinal Ximenes—rests
on no sound historical proof, and is not credited by any recent intelligent writer on
sheep. It never was credited by men who were practically acquainted with the breed-
ing of Merino sheep. If these Barbary crosses are not altogether mythical, they
undoubtedly were made with, or first formed, the Chunahs, a long, coarse-woolod
breed of sheep which have existed for ages in Spain.
126 CROSS - BREEDING.
made to give way with difficulty, and its tendency to breed
back is almost unconquerable. But if the Merino fuses with
reluctance, it absorbs other breeds with rapidity. A cross
between it and a coarse breed is always legitimate and
successful, where the object is to merge that coarse breed
entirely in the Merino. This is accomplished by putting the
ewes of such breed, and every new generation of their cross-
bred descendants, steadily to pure blood Merino rams.
Many grade flocks were commenced in this way, a few
years since, in the Southern States, and particularly in
Texas,— not a few of them under my advice, and to some
extent under my direction. The pasture lands in those
regions were limitless and their market value only nominal.
They were generally yielding no returns to their owners. If
they could be stocked speedi'y with any kind of sheep, the
gain would be immense. But wool would be the main object,
as there was little or no market for mutton. To stock such
large tracts with pure blood Merinos was out of the question,
both on the score of expense, and because they could not be
obtained rapidly enough at any cost. I therefore counseled
the purchase -of the common ewes of the country where there
were any, and where there were none, those most readily to
be obtained,— even though, as it often happened in Western
Texas, none could be obtained better than the small, coarse,
thin -wooled, miserable Mexican ewes. These and their
progeny being bred steadily to Merino rams, the result was
in every instance a decided success. The first generation of
cross-breeds, even from Mexican sheep, were signally improved
in weight and quality of wool, and when from a mediocre
Merino ram, would sell for more than twice the price of their
dams ; and each ascending grade toward the Merino continued
to increase steadily in value. *
* George W. Kendall, Esq., by far the largest and most experienced wool grower
in Texas, who started a portion of his flock with Mexican ewes, in a letter published
in the Texas Almanac, 1858, says:
“The produce of the old Mexican ewes gave evident signs of great improvement,
not only in form and apparent vigor of constitution, but particularly in the quantity and
quality of the wool. ere I might state that a Mexican ewe, shearing one pound of
coarse wool, if bred to a Merino buck of pure and approved good blood, will produce
a lamb, which, when one year old, will shear at least three pounds of much finer wool;
and the produce of this lamb, again, if a ewe, will go up to four and a half or five
pounds of still finer wool. Ican now show wethers in my flock of the third remove
rom the original coarse Mexican stock which last May sheared seven pounds of wool—
unwashed, it is true, but of exceeding fine quality, and worth 30 cents per pound at this
time in New York, or $2.10 for the fleece. Thisisa rapid improvement. Had the old ewe
and her produce been bred constantly to Mexican bucks, the wether would have sheared
about 35 cents worth of coarse wool—not more than 40 cents worth at the outside.”
ine facts further show the nonsense of the half-and-half theory of propaga-
CROSSING FAMILIES OF MERINOS. 127
In such crosses the high qualities of choice rams render
themselves eminently conSpicuous —even more so, relatively,
than in breeding among full-bloods. The descendants of
such rams in the second cross (2 blood) are frequently more
valuable than those of mediocre rams in the fourth or fifth
cross (+8 or 33 blood.)
In the matter of profit—for the mere purposes of wool
growing for our American market — these grades approach
the full-blood rapidly. But there never was a more prepos-
terous delusion than that entertained by the early French
breeders, that “a Merino in the fourth generation [12 blood]
from even the worst wooled ewes, was in every respect equal
to the stock of the sire.” Chancellor Livingston, who asserts
this to have been the opinion of the French breeders, further
says:—‘ No difference is now [1809] made in Europe in
the choice of a ram, whether he is a full-blood or fifteen-
sixteenths.”* This undoubtedly solves problems in relation
to a portion of the French Merinos, which otherwise would
be quite inexplicable. They are, undoubtedly, grade sheep.
The Germans, on the other hand, refuse to the highest bred
grade sheep any other designation than “improved half-
bloods.” They found, says Mr. Fleichmann, that their
original coarse sheep had 5,500 fibers of wool on a square
inch of skin; that grades of the third or fourth Merino cross
have about 8,000; the twentieth cross 27,000; the perfect
pure blood from 40,000 to 48,000.t I do not apprehend that
there is any thing like an equal difference between the number
of fibers on a given surface of the American Merino and its
grades; but in thirty years observation of such grades of every
rank — some of them higher than the tenth cross, where there
is but one part of the blood of the coarse sheep to 1,023 parts
of Merino blood {—I never have yet seen one which, in every
particular, equaled a full blood of the highest class.
CROSSING DIFFERENT Famiries oF Merinos. —This has
resulted more or less favorably under different circumstances.
The Spaniards did-not-practice it. The French were the first
who undertook it on'a comprehensive scale. They selected,
as we have seen, from all the Spanish families indiscriminately
” * 'Livingston’s Essay on Sheep, p. 131.
fe See Mr. Fleichmann’s article on German sheep in the Patent Office Report, 1847.
+ Probably most persons.are familiar with reckoning the aoutons of blood in
ascending crosses — but for those who are not, I will say that the first cross has 1-2
improved blood ; 24, 3-4; 8d, 7-8; 4th, 15-16; 6th, 31-32; 6th, 63-64; th, 127-128: 8th
255-256: Oth, 511-512; 10th, 1628-1034, andsoon. ° as:
128 CROSSING FAMILIES OF MERINOS.
where they could find animals which presented desirable
qualities, and mixed these families indiscriminately together.
To this cause, in a very considerable measure, is to be
attributed the remarkably” unhomogeneous character of the
French flocks. Breeding back, in the hands of persons
entertaining different views, has separated them into almost
as many families as they started from; and the new families
lack within themselves the uniformity and permanent hered-
itary character of the original ones. Mr. Jarvis, in the
United States, crossed several families —all prime Leonese,
and not widely variant in character. The cross was guided
by a single intelligent will, and always toward a definite
and consistent end. Therefore a much greater degree of
uniformity was obtained.
The present highly popular Paular family in Vermont is,
as has been already seen, dashed with Infantado and mixed
Leonese (Jarvis) strains of blood.* Crosses between the
present Paulars and Infantados are now common throughout
Vermont, and the produce is held in high estimation. The
Paular ewe in such cases is usually bred to the Infantado
ram. It should be borne in mind that the widest of these
crosses do not go beyond six original cabanas of prime
Leonese sheep,—among the best and most uniform of Spain.
The cross began: in Germany by Ferdinand Fischer,
* I gave an account of the origin of this cross in my Report on Fine-Wool
Husbandry, 1862, from the information of those who ought to have known the facts;
put on fuller investigation it proves to have been erroneous in some particulars. The
Rich (Paular) and Jarvis (mixed Leonese) sheep had been crossed somewhat anterior
to 1844. Judge M. W. C. Wright, of Shoreham, Vermont, having conceived the idea of
crossing the produce with the Infantado or Atwood family, purchased a ram for that
Ho eae of Mr, Atwood at the New York State Fair in the fall of the last named year.
udge Wright sold the ram, immediately after his return to Vermont, to Prosper
Elithorp, of Bridport, and Loyal ©. Remelee, of Shoreham, but used him himself
more or less for three years. his, the ‘‘ Atwood ram,” got the ‘‘Elithorp ram” out
of a ewe bred by Mr. Remelee, and sold by him to Mr. Elithorp. The dam of the
Elithorp ram was got by Judge Wright's ‘‘ Black Hawk” out of a pure Jarvis ewe,
purchased by Mr. Remelee of Mr, Jarvis. Black Hawk was got by ‘‘ Fortune,” out of
a pure Jarvis ewe purchased by J udge Wright of Mr. Jarvis. Fortune was bred by
Tyler Stickney, and got by ‘‘Consul” out of a pure Paular (Rich) ewe. Consul was
a pure Jarvis ram, pnrchased by Mr. Stickney of Mr. Jarvis. Mr. Elithorp sold the
Elithorp ram, then a lamb, in the fall of 1845, to Erastus Robinson, of Shoreham.
The Elithorp ram got the ‘‘ Old Robinson ram” out of a ewe bred by Mr. Elithorp,
and sold by him, with twenty-nine others, to Mr. Robinson in 1848. The dam of the
Old Robinson ram was got by the Atwood ram, above mentioned, out of a pure
Paular (Rich) ewe bred by Mr. Robinson, and sold by him to Mr. Elithorp in 1843.
The Atwood, Elithorp and Old Robinson rams, and particularly the last named, were
the founders of the crossed family. The Old Robinson ram in the hands of Mr.
Robinson and his brother-in-law, Mr. Stickney, (who subsequently purchased him of
the former,) begot an immense number of lambs, which were very strongly marked
with his own characteristics, and which, in turn, generally transmitted them with
great force to their posterity. They were generally smallish, short, exceedingly
round and compact, with fine, yolky, and for those times and for the size of the sheep,
heavy fleeces, Messrs. Robinson and Stickney spread rams of this family far and
wide. See APPENDIX B,
CROSSING AMERICAN AND FRENCH MERINOS. 129
between the Negretti and Infantado families, and continued
in the United States-by Mr. Chamberlain, and its results have
already been described.
The cross between the French and American Merino has
been well spoken of in some quarters, but it has not yet, so
far as my individual observation has extended, justified those
expectations which, it would seem, might reasonably be based.
on the character of the materials. The best French ewe, or the
French and American Merino ewe (with a sufficient infusion
of French blood to have large size,) has few superiors as a pure
wool-producing animal. But the wool lacks yolk to give it
weight. The full-blood French sheep also lacks in hardi-
ness*.. Both it and its cross-breeds are excellent nurses. The
American Merino ram has a super-abundance of the desired
yolkiness of fleece and of hardiness. As the smaller animal,
his progeny have especial advantages for an excellent develop-
ment before parturition, and they receive abundant nutrition
afterwards. Here then, seemingly, are all the requisite
conditions for an excellent cross; and I cannot but believe
that such a cross will be made with decided success, as soon
as precisely the fitting individual materials are brought
together and managed with the requisite skill.t
The cross between the American and Saxon Merino results
proverbially well—better in almost every instance than
it would be considered reasonable to anticipate. I gave a
* It lacks very materially in hardiness if from a pampered flock, or immediately
descended from pampered ancestors. The early crosses between French and American
Merino sheep require extra attention when young, but when fully grown are, on fair
keep, a healthy and hardy animal.
+ I tried this cross a few years since, and the following statement of the results
appeared in my Report on Fine Wool Husbandry, 1862 :—‘t My own experiments in
this cross, candor requires me to say, have been less successful. Some of them were
made with a ram bred by Col. F. M, Rotch and pure-blood American Merino ewes;
some were purchased of gentlemen who started with such ewes and bred them to first-
rate French rams obtained of Messrs. Taintor and Patterson; and some were got by
pure American rams on high grade French and American ewes (averaging say fifteen-
sixteenths or more French, and the remainder American Merino blood.) From this
last cross I expected‘much. The ewes were compact and noble looking animals. The
produce was obviously better than the get of French rams on the same ewes, but after
watching it for two years, I have recently come rather reluctantly to the conclusion
that, in this climate, even these grades are not intrinsically as valuable as, pure
American Merinos. But the Merino ram which got them, though apparently present-
ing the most admirable combination of points for such a cross, has-not proved himself
a superior sire with other ewes; and I do not therefore regard this experiment as
conclusive. (This ram weighed about 140 Ibs., was compact and symmetrical, and his
fleece weighed 14 lbs. washed. He was a very dark, yolky sheep. He was bred in
Vermont; and though undoubtedly full blood, probably did not spring from ancestors
as good as himself, or in other words, he was an “accidental” animal.) Some well-
managed experiments of both these kinds have been tried by the Messrs. Baker, of
Lafayette, and the Messrs. Clapp, of Pompey, N.Y. They bred toward the French
until they obtained about fifteen-sixteenths of that blood, and now find the cross best
neo way. Ono of the last of these crosses now appears to promise extremely
well.
6*
130 CROSSING AMERICAN AND SAXON MERINOS.
striking instance, in my Report on Fine-Wool Husbandry,
1862, of the good results of a Paular and Saxon cross. I will
now give one of an Infantado and Saxon cross. Capt. Davis
Cossit (U. S. V.) of Onondaga, New York, had ih 1859 a
flock of Saxon ewes with sufficient American Merino blood to
yield, on ordinary keep, about four pounds of washed wool
per head. In that and the two succeeding years he put
his ewes to the Infantado ram “21 per cent.,” (named in
connection with Petri’s table of the dimensions, etc., of Spanish
sheep in Chapter Ist of this volume.) In 1862 the fleeces of
the young sheep produced by this cross were first weighed
separately. Highty-three two-year old ewes yielded 552 Ibs.,
and eighty yearling ewes 504 lbs. of washed wool— within a
fraction of 64 Ibs. per head, and an advance of about 24 lbs.
per head over the fleeces of their dams. Each lot was the
entire one (of ewes) of its year: not one having been excluded
on account of inferiority. I saw them several times before
shearing, and them and their wool immediately after shearing.
The wool was in good condition; and the sheep obviously had
not been pampered. They were very uniform in size and
shape, and bore a strong resemblance to their sire. Not one
of the whole number had short or thin wool.
In 18683, sixty-five two-year olds (the portion remaining on
hand of the eighty yearlings of the preceding year) and
ninety-two yearlings (the third crop of lambs got by “21 per
cent.”) yielded 1,119} Ibs. of washed wool, or an average of
7 lbs. 2 oz. per head. All these sheep had been heavily tagged
and the tags, which would not have averaged less than 2 oz.
of washed wool per head, were not weighed with the
fleeces.*
Notwithstanding these brilliant and rather frequent
successes in crossing different Merino families, (especially
where the object is to merge an inferior in a superior family,)
the failures, or comparative failures, have been far more
numerous. To cross different families of any breed merely
for the sake of crossing, under the impression that it is in
itself beneficial to health, or in any other particular — or with
*Ido not give the weight of the three-year olds’ fleeces in 1863, because they
were put in with the fleeces of other breeding ewes, and not weighed separately.
About fifteen of the yearling ewes were out of some young ewes of a previous cross,
then just come into brooding. which yiclded about 5 lbs. of wool per head. The two-
year olds were sheared on the 24th of May in 1862, and on the 8th and Sth of June in
1863, so that their fleeces were of 1234 months’ growth. The yearlings were dropped
between the 6th of April and 1st of June, 1862, and sheared at the same time with the
preceding in 1863, so that their fleeces did not average over fourteen months’ growth—
the usual one at the first shearing. Neither lot was pampered.
CROSSING WITHOUT AN OBJECT. 131
a vague hope that some improvement of a character which
cannot be anticipated may result from it, is the height of folly
and weakness. Even uniform mediocrity is far preferable to
mediocrity without uniformity; and he who has the former
should not break it up by crossing, without having a definite
purpose, a definite plan for attaining that purpose, and enough
knowledge and experience on the subject to afford a decent
prospect of success. It is always safer and better in seeking
any improvement, to adhere strictly to the same breed and
family, if that family contains within itself all the requisite
elements of the desired improvement, or as good ones as can
be found elsewhere. The most splendid successes, among all
classes of domestic animals have been won in this way.*
Successful crossing generally requires as much skill as success-
ful in-and-in breeding. And as it is vastly more common, so
vastly more flocks in this country have been impaired in
value by it, or at least hindered from making any important
and permanent improvement. They are not permitted to
become established in any improvement, before it is upset by
a new cross; and these rapid crosses finally so destroy the
family character of the flock — infuse into it so many family
and individual strains of blood to be bred back to — that it
sometimes becomes a mere medley which has lost the benefit
that blood confers —viz., family likeness and the power to
transmit family likeness to posterity.
Every breeder or flockmaster should, after due observation
and reflection, fix upon a standard for his flock —a standard
* The English race-horse and the Short-Horned family of cattle are both frequently
cited as instances of choice breeds originating from a mixed origin. In regard to the
origin of the race-horse, the weight of proof and intelligent opinion is the other way.
In regard to that of the Short-Horn, the matter is involved in much doubt. (Those
who wish to see the facts on both sides of the question stated, will find them in
Stevens’ edition of Youatt and Martin on Cattle 1851.) But conceding, for the sake
of the argument, that both breeds were originally the result of crosses, can any one
show that they owed such merit as they first possessed to the cross? And have either
of them been itmproved up to their present matchless character, by the aid of any new
crosses? Mr. Youatt says:—‘tIn the descent of almost every modern racer, not the
slightest flaw can be discovered; or when, with the splendid exception of Sampson
and Bay Malton, one drop of common blood has mingled with the pure stream, it has
been immediately detected in the inferiority of form, and deficiency of bottom, and it
has required two or three generations to wipe away the stain and get rid of its conse-
quences.’? The Short-Horns have been bred pure, with an equally jealous exclusive-
ness; and no breeder of them would admit a cross in his pedigrees sooner than he
would a bar-sinister on his family escutcheon, except in the single case of the
descendents of a polled Galloway cow, to which Charles Colling resorted for a cross
with some of his Short-Horns. He took but a single cross and bred back ever after to
the Short-Horns, so that there is not probably a thousandth, or perhaps five thousandth
part of the blood of that Galloway cow in any of the Alloy (as the descendants of
the cross are called,) now living. Yet the English breeders think one of the Alloy
can now be distinguished from a pure Short-Horn, by its appearance! This cross
once enjoyed— perhaps was written into—great popularity; butits reputation has
waned; and there are many leading breeders in England who would not on any
consideration have a valuable cow bulled by the best sire of the family.
132 CROSSING ENGLISH BREEDS.
of form, of size, of length of wool, of quality of wool, etc., etc.;
and on this he should keep his eyes as steadily as the mariner
keeps his eyes on the light house, in the darkness, when on a
dangerous coast. Even in using afresh ram from an unrelated
flock of the same family, (which is not crossing,) he should
use one which conforms as nearly as possible to his standard.
If he disregards this; if he uses rams now tall and long
bodied, and now low and short; now short and yolky wooled,
and now long and dry wooled; now fine, and now coarse —
in a word, each varying from its predecessor in some essential
quality — he will not, perhaps, break up his flock quite as
much as he would by crossing equally at random, but he will
do the next thing to it; he will give it an unsettled and
unhomogenous character and materially retard, if not alto-
gether prevent essential improvement.
CrossING BETWEEN Ene isa BREEDS AND FamMmiEs. —
If we assume, with Mr. Youatt, that the long and short-wooled
sheep of England are each respectively descended from
common ancestors, they form but two breeds of sheep,
according to the mode of classification adopted in this volume.
There have been but a very few successful crosses between
these two breeds. The Hampshire and Shropshire Downs,
however, both ranked as first class sheep, and both officially
classed as short-wools, have usually a dip of long-wool blood.
The Oxfordshire Downs are the result of a direct cross
between the Down and the Cotswold, and they are already
claimed to be an “established variety.”* But the instances
of failure in blending the breeds have been so much more
numerous than the successes, that the balance of intelligent
opinion seems to be decidedly against such attempts. With
them, as with the Merino, the successes in crossing between
the different families of the same breed, have been numerous and
signal. Mr. Bakewell, there is little doubt, was the first great
improver in this direction, though we are scarcely authorized
to cite his example, because, with a spirit much better befitting
* In this and all similar instances, we should not forget that a breed regarded as
“established”? in England, might not prove so, literally, elsewhere. The English
breeders, as a class, are men of education, and of ample wealth and leisure to choose
materials for their experiments, devote time to those experiments, and sacrifice by
weeding out, without regard to time or money. And by devoting themselves to the
pursuit, and constantly comparing their opinions with other opinions, and their stock
with other stock, among a whole nation of breeders striving to excel each other, they
acquire a degree of knowledge, taste and skill on the subject which is professional,
and which far exceeds that (within their own particular circle of breeding,) of any
other people. And in no place has Engligh breeding skill manifested itself more than
in creating, moulding and ‘establishing’? mutton breeds of sheep.
ey
CROSSING ENGLISH FAMILIES. 1383
a nostrum vender than a reputable breeder, he veiled all
his proceedings in the closest mystery, and even permitted
the knowledge of them to die with him. Some therefore havé
affected to believe that he resorted to different breeds, as he
is known to have done to different families, in selecting his
materials. But there are no proofs of the fact, and all the
probabilities favor the conclusion that he adhered strictly to
the long-wooled families.* Among the facts which would
seem, by analogy, to favor the latter conclusion, was his own
rigid in-and-in line of breeding, after his materials were
selected. If he deemed such quasi-identity both in blood and
structure necessary or favorable to the completion of his
object, it can scarcely be supposed that he would have volun-
tarily, and wholly unnecessarily, disregarded so great a
discrepancy as that of a total difference in breed, in its outset ;
or, even that he would have spread his selection over any
unnecessary number of families within the same breed.
Mr. Bakewell’s improved Leicesters have, since his death,
again been improved by a dip of Cotswold blood. It is found
to invigorate their constitutions, and to render them better in
the hind quarters. The Cotswolds of the present day have
generally been rendered a little more disposed to take on fat
rapidly, and to mature earlier, by a Leieester cross. The New
Oxfordshire sheep, as has been seen, is but a Cotswold
improved by Leicester blood.
The Hampshire and Shropshire Downs may be cited as
conspicuous examples of successful crossing between the
short-wooled families —for it is, in my opinion, mainly to
these families they owe their peculiar excellence, and not to
any strain of long-wool blood, where it exists in them.
Various of the minor British short-wooled families have also
been improved by crosses with the Down, and with each other.
For another and merely temporary purpose, viz., to obtain
larger and earlier lambs or sheep for the butcher, it is
legitimate to cross between different breeds or families indis-
criminately, where the object in view can be effected in the
first cross. The nature of the soil, food or climate may be
unfavorable to the large, early-maturing mutton families, but
sufficiently favorable to some smaller and hardier sheep;
indeed, many such localities in all old countries have families,
grown on them for many generations, which have gradually
* This is decidedly Mr. Youatt’s opinion, though, like other British writers, he
uses the word breed to classify the different families (as they ‘are termed in this
volume) of the long-wooled breed. al
134 CROSSING ENGLISH AND LOCAL BREEDS.
become so adapted to their surroundings, that conditions
highly unfavorable to other sheep have become innocuous, if
not actually favorable to them. Yet these local families may
be ill adapted to meet the requisitions of the most accessible
mutton markets, or, indeed, of any mutton market. They
may be too small, too late in maturing, too indisposed to take
on flesh, fat, etc. In such cases, rams of an improved mutton
family — the family being selected with especial reference to
the demands of the particular market and the defects to be
counteracted in the local family — are put to the ewes of the
local family, and the produce, as is usual with halfbloods,
partakes strongly of the physical properties of the sire and yet
retains enough of the hardiness and local adaptation of the
dam to thrive and mature where the full-blood or high bred
grade of the superior family could not do so. But in all such
instances, the grower should stop with the first cross. If,
seduced by the beauty of that cross, he makes a second one
between the full-blood ram and the half-blood females, he ob-
tains animals very little better than their dams for the purposes
of mutton sheep, and decidedly less adapted to the local cir-
cumstances. Accordingly, some portions of the local family
should always also be bred pure by themselves, to furnish
females for the cross. This last course is generally pursued
among the breeders of England who make such crosses.
It is wonderful that, with the highly successful example of
the English constantly before us, in the mode of cross-breeding
last described, it has not been more extensively resorted to
in the United States. In the heart of the mutton-growing
region on our Atlantic sea-board, there are very many locali-
ties which, by the poverty of the soil, by the severity of the
climate and the want of proper winter conveniencies, or by
these causes combined, are rendered unfit to sustain the large
English mutton breeds. But they sustain local varieties, or
in default of these, would sustain the coarse, hardy ‘“ common
sheep ” of the country; and these bred to Down or Leicester
rams would produce lambs which, with a little better keep,
would sell, at four or five months old, for as much as the cost
of their dams, so that, if the fleece and manure would pay for
keeping, and if the number of lambs equaled that of the ewes
(always practicable with such sheep when not kept in large
numbers,) the net profit of 100 per centum would be annually
made on the flock.*
* Mr. Thorne, whose superb South Downs have been described, finds his lands
well adapted to the pure South Down, but his sheep of that family are too valuablo
CROSSING ENGLISH AND COMMON SHEEP. 135
An analagous course of crossing might be resorted to
with great profit by those farmers in our Western States, who
prefer to make mutton production the leading object of their
sheep husbandry, and who now grow those immense flocks of
“common sheep,” which are annually driven eastward to find
a market. A single proper cross of English blood on these
sheep would produce a stock which it would cost little more
to raise than it now costs to raise common sheep in the most
profitable way, and which would habitually command 50 per
cent. more in market and be ready for market a year earlier
than the common sheep. They would require good feed and
consequently not overstocked ranges in summer, and comfort-
able sheds and an abundance of corn in winter. In regions
where the latter can be grown more cheaply than its equiva-
lent in meadow hay in the Atlantic States, nay, more cheaply
than an equivalent of prairie hay can be cut and stored on
the same farm, it is a sufficiently cheap feed; and no one will
fatten sheep more rapidly or produce more wool.* The value
of the wool would not be lessened by any of the proper
English crosses, and would be considerably increased by some
of them.
The selection of the English family for the purposes of
the above cross should be made with strict reference to local
circumstances. On rich, sufficiently moist lands, unsubject to
summer drouth, bearing an abundance of the domesticated
grasses, and near good local mutton markets, the unrivalled
earliness of maturity in the Leicester would give it great
advantages ; but it would bear no even partial deprivation of
feed, no hardships of any kind, and no long drives to distant
markets. The Cotswold is a hardier, better working and
for breeding purposes, to be sold as mutton; and, living in the mutton-growing region
and having more land than is necessary for his prea flock, he pursues the follow-
ing course. He purchases the common sheep of the Western States—say, one part
Merino to three parts of coarse-wooled varieties—as soon as they begin to be driven
eastward, about mid-summer or a little later. He has generally, in past years, bought
‘ood ones trom $2.50 to $3.00 a head. It is necessary that they have some Merino
Blood or they will not take the ram early enough. He puts them toa South Down ram
as near as practicable to the first of September. The ewes are kept on hay in winter
until just before lambing, when they get turnips, and after lambing, meal or bran slop
inaddition. The lambs are also fed separately. Theylare sold when they reach 40 lbs.
weight, and all are generally disposed of by first of June. They have always brought
$5 a head on the average. The ewes having only to provide for themselves during
summer get into good condition, and a little grain fed to them after frost has touched
the grass ripens them for the butcher. They, too, have sold for $5 a head, on the
average. If the fleece, manure, and one dollar a head in addition, will pay for the
keeping, this leaves 200 per cent. net profit. One hundred and fifty per cent. ought to
leave a margin wide enough for all casualties. See Mr. Thorne's letter to me in my
Report on Fine- Wool Husbandry, 1862, p. 104. : fe
* I mean corn cut up and cured with all the ears on, and fed out in that state. The
system of Western keeping and corn feeding will be fully examined in Chapter XXI
of this volume.
136 ENGLISH BREEDS ADAPTED TO SUCH CROSSES.
driving sheep, inferior to the Leicester in no particular, which
would be very essential in Such situations; and I cannot but
think that, for the object under consideration, those sub-
families of it which have not been too deeply infused with
Leicester blood, offer excellent materials for a cross. The
different Down families will bear shorter keep than the pre-
ceding, and will range over larger surfaces to obtain it.
They are considerably hardier than the Leicesters, or those
families of the improved Cotswolds which have much
Leicester blood. They can endure slight and temporary
deprivation of food better than the long-wools; but it is a
mistake to suppose that any mutton breed or family will
fully, or profitably, attain the objects of its production, with-
out abundance of suitable food being the rule, and depriva-
tions of it any more than the occasional exception.* The
Downs also produce better mutton; and the dark legs and
faces of the half-bloods always gives them a readier and
better market. But the halfblood Downs would generally
carry less wool than the half-blood long-wools.
In hardiness, patience of short keep, and adaptability to
driving long distances, any of the half-bloods would surpass
their English ancestors, and would, under the conditions
already stated, generally flourish vigorously in our Western
States. If the views here expressed of the value of such a
cross are even approximately correct, the utility of embark-
ing in it at once, and the immense advantages which would
thereby accrue to individuals and to our whole country, must
be apparent to all eyes.
‘Though the crossing of mutton breeds has, in many
instances, entirely different objects from those sought in
crossing sheep kept specially for the production of wool, and
though, consequently, the proper modes of crossing in the
two cases often vary essentially, still the general views ex-
pressed at page 130 in regard to unmeaning, aimless and
unnecessary crossing, are as applicable to the English mutton
sheep as to the Merino.
Recarirutation.—I will now, for greater convenience of
reference, recapitulate the principal positions taken in this
chapter.
I. That it is wholly inexpedient to cross Merino sheep with
* Ispeak of course of sheep which are grown only for the butcher, the leading
objects of whose production is high condition and early maturity.
RULES OF CROSSING RECAPITULATED. 137
any other breed to improve the Merino in any of the charac-
teristics now. sought in that breed.
Il. That while an infusion of Merino blood is highly
beneficial to unimproved coarse families, to increase the
fineness and quality of their wool, it injures the improved
mutton races more in size, early maturity, propensity to
fatten and prolificacy in breeding than it benefits them in
respect to the fleece, or otherwise.
III. That no valuable intermediate family of permanent
hereditary character has yet been formed, or is likely to be
formed, by crossing between Merinos and coarse sheep; and
that the only successful continuous cross between them ig
when the object is to merge a coarse-wooled family wholly
in the Merino, and when the breeding is steadily continued
toward the Merino (i. e., when no ram is ever used but the
full-blood Merino.) ;
IV. That an infusion of the blood of one coarse-wooled
breed has been supposed, in a very few instances, to benefit
another coarse-wooled breed, but that as a general thing it is
much safer to avoid all crossing between distinct breeds.
V. That crossing between different families of the same
breed, for the purpose of obtaining permanent sub-families,
has, both among the Merinos and English sheep, resulted
highly favorably in many instances; but that, nevertheless,
the instances of failure have been much more numerous; that
it is not expedient to cross even different families of the same
breed for this object, except in pursuance of a well-digested
and definite plan, founded on some experimental knowledge
of the subject; and finally, that such crosses (like all others)
should only be made when the necessary materials for the
desired improvement cannot be found within one of the
families (in other cases breeds) which it is proposed to cross
together. ; A
VI. That crossing between different families of the same
breed for the purpose of merging one family in another is
still more likely to prove successful: but that, in attaining
either this or the preceding object, it is desirable to unite
families presenting the fewest differences, and to limit the
cross to as few families as the circumstances admit of.
VII. That for the purposes of mutton production it is
highly expedient to breed rams of the best mutton families
with ewes of hardier and more easily kept local families —
but that, in such cases, it is almost uniformly advisable to
stop with the first cross. That such a system to produce
138 RULES OF CROSSING RECAPITULATED.
early lambs for the butcher on sterile and exposed situations
of the mutton region proper, or to produce earlier and better
mutton on the natural pastures and corn-producing soils of
the West, where its production as a leading object is
preferred to the production of wool, would’ redound enor-
mously to individual profit and to public utility.
VIII. That with-all breeds and families, crossing for the
sake of crossing, without a definite and well understood
object — under the vague impression that it is in itself bene-
ficial to health or thrift, or that some benefit, the character of
which cannot’ be anticipated, is likely to spring from it—is in
ethe highest degree improper and absurd. That in using rams
of the same breed and family taken from different and not
directly related flocks, the utmost care should be used to
select such only as conform as nearly as practicable to a
uniform standard of qualities; which the owner should have
previously adopted as the settled one of his flock.
CHAPTER XIV.
SPRING MANAGEMENT.
CATCHING AND HANDLING — TURNING OUT TO. GRASS — TAG-
GING —BURS — LAMBING —- PROPER PLACE FOR LAMBING —
MECHANICAL ASSISTANCE IN LAMBING-——INVERTED WOMB—
MANAGEMENT OF NEW-BORN LAMBS— ARTIFICIAL BREED-
ING — CHILLED LAMBS — CONSTIPATION—CUTTING TEETH—
PINNING — DIARRHEA OR PURGING.
Carcuine anp Hanpirne Surzp.—As nearly every
operation of practical sheep husbandry is necessarily attended
with the catching and handling of sheep, I will g
make these the first of those practical manipula- §
tions which I am now to describe. A sheep
should always be caught by throwing the hands
about the. neck; or by seizing one hind leg
immediately above the hock with the hand; or
by hooking the crook round it at the same place.
When thus caught by the hand, the sheep should
be drawn gently back until the disengaged hand
can be placed in front of its neck. The crook
is very convenient to reach out and draw a sheep
from a number huddled by a dog or in a corner,
without the shepherd’s making a spring for it
and thus putting the rest to flight ; and a person
accustomed to its use will catch moderately tame
sheep almost anywhere with this implement.
But 1t must be handled with care. It should be
used with a quick but gentle motion —and the
caught sheep immediately drawn back rapidly “cnoos®
enough to prevent it from springing to one side or the other,
and thus wrenching the leg, or throwing itself down, by
exerting its force at an angle with the line of draft in the
* The cut represents the crook with but a small portion of ¢ i
is made seven or eight feet long, of light, strong wood. - Eee ae
140 USE OF CROOK — HANDLING SHEEP.
crook. Care must be taken not to hook the crook to a sheep
when it is so deep in a huddle with others that they are liable
to spring against the caught one, or against the handle of the
crook, either of which may occasion a severe lateral strain on
the leg. When the sheep is drawn within reach, the leg
held by the crook should at once be seized by the hand, and
the crook removed.
A sheep should be lifted either by placing both arms
around its body, immediately back of the forelegs; or by
standing sideways to it and placing one arm before the fore-
legs and the other behind the hind-legs; or by throwing one
arm round the fore parts and taking up the sheep between the
arm and the hip; or by lifting it with the left arm under the
brisket, the right hand grasping the thigh on the other side,
so that the sheep lays on the left arm with its back against the
catcher’s body. The two first modes are handiest and safest
with large sheep ; the third mode is very convenient with small
sheep or lambs; and a change between them all operates as a
relief to the catcher who has a large number to handle.
Under .no circumstances whatever should a sheep be
seized, and much less lifted, by the wool. The skin is thus
sometimes’ literally torn from the flesh, and even where this
extent of injury is not inflicted, killing and skinning would
invariably disclose more or less congestion occasioned by
lacerating the cellular tissue between the skin and flesh, and
thus prove how much purely unnecessary pain and injury has
been inflicted on an unoffending and valuable animal, by the
ignorance or brutality of its attendant. *
It cannot be too strongly enforced that gentleness in
every manipulation and movement connected with sheep is the
first and one of the main conditions of success in managing
them. They should be taught to fear no injury from man.
They should be made tame and even affectionate—so that
they will follow their keeper about the field — and so that,
in the stable, they will scarcely rise to get out of his way.
Wild sheep are constantly suffering some loss or deprivation
themselves, and constantly occasioning some annoyance or
damage to their owner; and under the modern system of
winter stable-management, it is difficult to get them through
the yeaning season with safety to their lambs.
* Let him who doubts the doupreprlety of lifting a sheep by the wool, have himself
lifted a few times by his hair! d let him who falls into a passion and kicks and
thumps sheep because they crowd about him and impede his movements when feeding,
or because they attempt to get away when he has occasion to hold them, &c., &c., test
the comfort and utility of these processes in the same way — by having them tried on
himself Such a person ought not to lack this convinemg Kind of experience.
TURNING TO GRASS — TAGGING. 141
Turning our to Grass.—In northern regions, where
sheep are yarded and fed only on dry feed in winter, they
should be put upon their grass feed, in the spring, gradually.
It,is better to turn them out before the new grass has started
much, and only during a portion of each day for the first few
days, returning them to their yards at night and feeding them
with dry hay. If this course is pursued, they make the
change without that purging and sudden debility which
ensues when they are kept up later, and abruptly changed
from entire dry to entire green feed. This last is always a
very perilous procedure in the case of poor or weak sheep,
particularly if they are yearlings or pregnant ewes.
Taaeinc.— After the fresh grass starts vigorously in the
spring, sheep are apt to purge or scour, notwithstanding the
preceding precautions. The wool about and below the vent
becomes covered with dung, which dries into hard knobs if
the scouring ceases; otherwise, it accumulates in a filthy
mass which is unsightly, unhealthy, and to a certain degree
dangerous — for maggots are not unfrequently generated
under it. In the case of a ewe, itis a great annoyance, and
sometimes damage to her lamb, for the filth trickles down the
udder and teats so that it mingles with the milk drawn by
the lamb, and often miserably besmears its face. I have seen
the lamb thus prevented from attempting to suck at all.
Whether the dung is wet or dry it cannot be washed out by
brook washing: it must sooner or later be cut from the fleece
and at the waste of considerable wool. :
Tagging sheep before they are let out to grass, prevents
.. this. This is cuttimg away the wool around the
~~ vent and from the roots of the tail down the
\ inside of the thigh, (as shown in cut,) in a stri
¥ wide enough so. that the dung will fall to the
ground without touching any wool. Wool on or
about the udder which is liable to impede the
lamb in sucking, should also be cut away — but
not to an unnecessay degree during cold weather, so as to
denude this delicate part of adequate protection. Tagging is
sometimes performed by an attendant holding the sheep on
its rump with its legs drawn apart for the convenience of the
shearer. But it is best done by the attendant holding the
sheep on its side on a table, or on a large box, covered, except
at one end, and the breech of the sheep is placed at the
opening, so that the tags will drop into it as they are cut
142 BURS — LAMBING.
away. This is the only safe position in which to place a
breeding ewe for the operation, when near to lambing, unless
it-be on her feet—and tagging on the feet is excessively
inconvenient. If a ewe is handled with violence; there-is
danger of so changing the position of the fetus in the womb
as to render its presentation at birth more or less irregular
and dangerous. But. if the operation is performed as last
described, and the catching and handling are done with
proper care, there is no danger whatever.
Burs.— Pastures containing dry weeds of the previous
year, which bear burs or prickles liable to get into the fleece,
should be carefully looked over before sheep are turned on
them in the spring, and all such weeds brought together and
burned. The common Burdock (Arctium lappa,) the large
and small Hounds-tongue, or Tory-weed (Cynoglossum offici-
nale et Virginicum ;*) and the wild Bur-marigold, Beggar-
ticks, or Cuckold, (Bidens frondosa,) are peculiarly injurious
to wool. The damage that a large quantity of them would do
to half a dozen fleeces, would exceed the cost of exterminating
them from a large field. The dry prickles of thistles are also
hurtful to wool, and they render it excessively disagreeable
to wash and shear the sheep. They readily snap off in the
fleece, when sheep are grazing about and among them in
early spring. . a
Lampine.— It used to be the aim of flock-masters in the
Northern States, to have their lambs yeaned from about the
ist to the 15th of May — particularly when Saxon and grade
Saxon sheep were in vogue. Small flocks with abundant
range would grow up their lambs, born even at this season,
large and strong enough to winter well; but in the case of
large flocks they were not sure, or very likely to do so, except
under highly favorable circumstances. The least scarcity of
good fall feed told very destructively on them — and if there
‘were those which were dropped ‘as late as June, they
generally perished before the close of winter.
From the 15th of April to the 15th of May is now the
preferred yeaning season among a majority of Northern
flock-masters. Some, however, have it commence as early
* The first named variety grows at the roots of stumps and by the sides of decaying
logs, etc., along road-sides, and in new cleared and other fields—the other grows more
particularly in woods and thickets. The last variety has finer stems, and its burs are
considerably smaller, but I think more difficult to remove from wool.
PROPER PLACE FOR LAMBING. 143
as the Ist of April, and those who breed rams for sale, as
early as the 10th or 15th of March. These very early lambs, if
properly fed and kept growing, are about as much matured at
their first, as late dropped ones are at their second shearing.*
It is understood, a course, that lambs yeaned earlier than
May, in the Northern States, must, as a general thing, be
yeaned in stables. But this in reality diminishes instead of
increasing the labors of the shepherd. The yeaning flock is
thus kept together, and no time is spent traversing pastures
to see if any ewe or lamb requires assistance, or in getting a
weak lamb and its dam to shelter, or in driving in the flock
at night and before storms. And the yeaning season may
thus be got through with before it is time for the farmer to
commence his summer work in the fields.
Proper Pracze ror Lamspine.— Stable yeaning, too, is
safest, (though I once thought otherwise,) even in quite
pleasant weather, provided the stables are roomy, properly
littered down and ventilated, and proyided the sheep are
sufficiently docile to allow themselves to be handled and their
keeper to pass round among them, without crowding from side
to side and running over their lambs. While the stables
should not be kept hot and tight, they should be capable of
being closed all round; and they should be so close that in
a cold night the heat of the sheep will preserve a moderate |
temperature. On the other hand, they should be provided
with movable windows, or ventilators, so that excess of heat,
or impure air, can always be avoided.
Excessive care is not requisite with hardy sheep in lamb-
ing, and too much interference is not beneficial. It is well
to look into the shegp-house at night, the last thing before
going to bed, to see that all is well; but then if all is well,
many even of the best Merino shepherds leave their flocks
undisturbed until morning, holding that the lamb which
cannot get up, suck, and take care of itself until morning in
a clean, well-strawed, comfortable stable, is not worth raising.
Our English shepherds, who have charge of choice breeding
flocks, usually go round once in two hours through the night
* We have seen that Mr. Chamberlain, the importer and leading breeder of the
Silesian Merinos in this country, has his lambs dropped from November to February.
Under the admirable arrangements of Mr. C., and under the admirable handling of his
German shepherd, this works well, and a lamb is rarely lost: and being early taught
to eat roots, &c., separate from their dams, they attain a remarkable earliness of ma-
turity. Such a system would not, of course, succeed with ordinary arrangements and
handling, nor would it be profitable for ordinary purposes.
144 ASSISTANCE IN LAMBING.
during the height of the lambing season. This may be rather
more necessary among breeds which are accustomed to bring
forth twins — for one of a pair is less likely to be missed and
cared for by the mother, if it accidentally gets separated from
her. But unless the sheep are extremely tame, more harm
than good, even in this particular, would result from disturb-
ing them in the night.
Mecuanicat Assistance In Lamprnc.—The Merino ewe
rarely requires mechanical assistance in lambing. The high-
kept English ewe requires it oftener. But in neither case
should it be rendered, if the presentation of the lamb is
proper, until nature has exhausted her own energies in the
effort, and prostration begins to supervene. The labors are
often protracted, or renewed at intervals, through many hours,
and finally terminate successfully without the slightest interfer-
ence. But ifthe ewe ceases to rise, if her efforts to expel the
foetus are less vigorous, and her strength is obviously begin-
ning to fail, the shepherd should approach her, without
alarming or disturbing her, if possible, and at once render his
aid. The natural presentation of the lamb is with the nose
first and the fore-feet on each side of it. The shepherd with
every throe of the sheep should draw very gently on each
foreleg, alternately. If this does not suffice, he should
attempt to assist the passage of the head with his finger,
proceding slowly and with extreme caution. If the head is
too large to be drawn out thus gently, both the forelegs
must be grasped, the fingers (after being greased or oiled)
introduced into the vagina, and the head and legs drawn
forward together with as much force as is safe. But haste or
violence will destroy the lamb, if not the dam also. If the
former cannot be drawn forth by the application of considera-
ple force, it is better to dissect it away. In these operations
the ewe must be held by an assistant.
If the fore-legs do not protrude far enough to be grasped,
the head of the lamb is to be pushed back and down, which
will generally bring them into place — or they may be felt for
by the hand and brought into place. If the forelegs protrude
and the head is turned back, then the foetus must be pushed
back into the womb, and the head brought along with the
legs into natural position. There are several other false
presentations, such as having the crown of the head, the side,
back or rump come first to the mouth of the womb. The
only directions which I can render intelligible in all such
INVERTED WOMB. 145
cases is to say that the lamb should be pushed back into the
womb, and either placed in natural position or its hinder legs
allowed to come first into the vagina. A lamb is born
perfectly safely with its hind feet first. In applying force to
pull away the lamb, it should always be exerted if practicable
simultaneously with the efforts of nature toward the same
end, provided the throes are continued and are of reasonably
frequent occurrence. But on the other hand, if a throe occurs
while the hand of the operator is in the womb, he should at
once suspend every movement until the throe is over, or else
there will be great danger of his rupturing the womb—a
calamity always fatal. But if the throes are suspended, or
only recur faintly and at long intervals, and the strength is
failing, the operator should, as a dernier resort, attempt to
get away the lamb independently of them; and he may even,
where death is certain without it, use a degree of force that
would be justifiable under no other circumstances.
The English shepherds administer cordials to their ewes
during protracted labors to increase their efforts or to keep
up their strength. In some cases, they give ginger and the
ergot of rye *— in others oatmeal gruel and linseed.t They
also sometimes administer restoratives after long and exhaust-
ing parturition. One of these is thus compounded: —To
half a pint of oatmeal gruel is added a gill of sound beer
warmed, and from two to.four drachms of laudanum. This is
given and repeated at intervals of three or four hours, as the
case may require; the same quantities of nitric ether being
substituted for the laudanum if the pain is less violent and
the animal seems to rally a little. { The diseases occurring
after parturition, will be mentioned among the general
diseases of sheep.
InverteD Woms.— The womb is sometimes inverted and
appears externally —especially when parturition has been
severe, and force applied for the extraction of the fetus. It
should be very carefully cleansed of any dirt with tepid
water — washed with strong alum-water — or a decoction of
oak bark — and then returned. If again protruded, its return
should be followed by taking a stitch (rather deep, to prevent
tearing out,) with small twine, through the lips of the vagina,
* Youatt on Sheep, 502. Amounts not stated.
t Spooner on Sheep, 360. Amounts not stated.
_ _¢ See W. C. Sibbald’s prize report ‘‘On the Diseases occurring after Parturition
in Couns and Sheep, and their Remedies,” Jour. of Royal Ag’] Soc. of England, Vol.
, Pp. 564.
7
146 MANAGEMENT OF NEW-BORN LAMBS.
by means of a curved needle, and tying those lips loosely
enough together to permit the passage of the urine. The
parts should be washed frequently with alum-water or decoction
of oak bark, and some of the fluid be often injected with
moderate force into the vagina. If this fails to effect a cure
and the protrusion of the womb becomes habitual, it should
be strongly corded close to the vagina (or the back of the
sheep) and allowed to slough off. The ewe will not, of
course, breed after this operation, but she will fatten for the
butcher.
Manacement oF New-Born Lamss.—lIf a lamb can
help itself from the outset, it is better not to interfere in any
way to assist it. Ifthe weather is mild, if the ewe apparently
has abundance of milk, and stands kindly for her lamb, and if
the latter is strong and disposed to help itself, there is usually
little danger. But if the lamb is weak and makes no
successful efforts to suck, and particularly when this occurs in
cold or raw weather, the attendant — the “lamber,” as he is
called in England — should at once render his aid. The ewe
should not be thrown down, if it can be avoided, but the
lamb assisted, if necessary, to stand in the natural posture of
sucking, a teat placed in its mouth, and its back and
particularly the rump about the roots of its tail lightly and
rapidly rubbed with a finger, which it mistakes for the licking
‘of its dam. This last generally produces an immediate effort
to suck. If it does not, a little milk should be milked from
the teat into its mouth, and the licking motion of the finger
continued. These efforts will generally succeed speedily —
but occasionally a lamb is very stupid or very obstmate. In
that case, gentleness and perseverance are the only remedies,
and they will always in the end triumph. Too speedy resort
to the spoon or sucking-bottle frequently causes a lamb to
rely on this kind of aid, and a number of days may pass by
before it can be taught to help itself properly, even from a full
udder of milk.
ARTIFICIAL FrEpine.—If the dam of a new-born lamb has
not good milk ready for it, it is better to allow it to fill itself
the first time from another ewe, or from a couple of ewes,
which can spare the milk from their own lambs. And-it is
well to continue the same supply two or three days, if
there is a prospect that the dam will in that time have milk—
for ewes’ milk is better for young lambs than cows’ milk. If
ARTIFICIAL FEEDING. 147
cows’ milk must be resorted to, it should by all means be that
of a new-milch cow. This is generally fed from a bottle
having on its nose an artificial India-rubber lambs’ nipple —
now manufactured and sold for the express purpose. But
milk flows less freely from a bottle than from a vessel having
two vents, and accordingly tea-pots, or other vessels manufac-
tured for the purpose, with spouts so constructed as to hold
the artificial nipple, are now more used.* Milk should be
fed at about its natural temperature—but when cold, never
be heated rapidly enough to scald it, which renders. it
costive in its effects. A new-born lamb fed on other ewes’,
or on cows’ milk, should be fed about six times, at equal
intervals between sun-rise and ten o’olock at night, and
allowed each time to take all it wants. After two or three
days it need not be fed so often.
Some farmers feed from a spoon instead of a nipple —
others milk directly from a cow’s teat into the mouth of the
lamb. By neither mode is the habit and disposition to suck
as well preserved—and by both modes, and especially by
the last, there is great danger of the milk entering the
throat so rapidly that a portion of it will be forced into the
lungs. If the strangulation of the weak little animal at the
time passes unnoticed by the careless “lamber,” a rattling
sound will soon be heard in the lungs, accompanying each
respiration; and it is a death-rattle. I never knew one to
recover.
A farrow cow’s milk is unsuited to young lambs, and it is
very difficult to raise them on it. When it must be used, it
is generally mixed with a little “sale” molasses, as that made
from the cane is familiarly termed, to distinguish it from
domestic or maple molasses, which is not supposed to be
equally purgative in its effects. Others do not mix molasses
with the milk, but in lieu of it, administer a teaspoonful of
lard: to the lamb every other day.{ A farmer of my acquaint-
ance who is very successful in raising lambs, feeds in such
cases beaten eggs with, or in the place of, milk. This is a
highly nutritious food, and he informs me that it is quite as
* My friend, Mr. Rich, has devised a good substitute by winding cloth around the
spout.of a lamp-filler, so that it will hold the artificial nipple.
+ Some persons do not allow lambs thus to fill themselves at first. If the lamb is
fed soon after birth, and then as often ag above recommended, it is decidedly best.
But if a lamb has been for some hours deprived of food at birth—or is subsequently
kept on very scanty feed—a sudden admission to an unbounded supply is undoubtedly
hurtful and dangerous,
+ Some persons mix molasses, and others molasses and water, with new milch
cows milk. I used to do this, but have come to the conclusion that it is inexpedient,
N
Re
148 CHILLED LAMBS.
good for the lamb as new milk, and that it passes the bowels
freely, without being too laxative.
Cumttep Lamss.— When a lamb is found “chilled” in
cold weather, i. e., unable to move, or swallow, and perhaps
with its jaws “set,” no time is to be lost. It can not be
restored by mere friction; and if only wrapped in a blanket
and put in a warm room, it will inevitably die. It should at
once be placed in a heated oven, or in a bath of water about as
hot as can be comfortably borne by the hand. The restoration
must be immediate, and to effect this the degree of warmth
applied greater than an inexperienced person would suppose a
lamb capable of enduring. Where neither oven nor water are
ready, (ine of these always ought to be ready at such times
in the farm house,) the lamb should be held over a fire or
over coals, constantly turning it, rubbing it with the hands,
bending its joints, &c. On taking it from the water it should
be rubbed thoroughly dry. If sufficient animation is restored
for it to suck, and it at once fills itself, the danger is over.
But if it revives slowly, or remains too weak or languid to
suck, it should, as soon as it can swallow,* receive from half to
a full teaspoonful of gin, whiskey or other spirits, mixed with
enough milk for a feed—the amount of the spirits being
proportioned to the size and apparent necessities of the lamb.
If taken to the stable to suck it should be wrapped in a
woolen blanket while on the way, if the cold is severe; and
the temperature of the stable will decide whether it is safe to
leave it there, or whether it should be returned to the house
for a few hours longer. If returned, it should not be placed
in a room heated above the ‘common temperature of those
occupied by a family. It is astonishing from how near a point
to death lambs can be restored by the above means. It often
appears literally like a re-animation of the dead.
If a lamb is found beginning to be chilled — inactive,
stupid, but still able to swallow —the dose of spirits above
recommended acts on it like a charm. If it will not drink the
mixture from the sucking bottle— which is scarcely to be
expected — it must be poured down it carefully with a spoon,
giving ample time to swallow. Some administer ground black
pepper in the place of spirits. It is not so prompt or so
decided in its effects, and its effects do not so rapidly pass
away, leaving the restored functions to their natural action.
* Under no possible circumstances should fluid be poured down the throat before
the lamb can swallow, :
CONSTIPATION OR COSTIVENESS. 149
But, in emergency, any stimulus should be resorted to which
is not likely to be followed with directly injurious results.
One of the most skillful shepherds in the United States
administers strong tea in such cases—in extreme ones, tea
laced with gin. :
All lambs which get an insufficient supply of milk from
their dams, or from other ewes, should regularly be fed cows’
milk from the sucking bottle two or three times a day, until
the amount given by the dam can be increased by better
keeping. They will learn to come for it as regularly as lambs
brought up entirely by hand. If the sheep are not yet let out
to grass, those deficient in milk should, with their lambs, be
separated from the flock and fed the choicest of hay and roots,
oatmeal, bran-slop or the like. Some persons partition off a
little place with slats which stop the sheep, but which allow
the free ingress and egress of the lambs; and in this they put
a rack of hay for the lambs, and a trough into which is daily
sprinkled a little meal. The lambs soon learn to eat hay and
ineal, and it benefits them as much in proportion as grown
sheep.*
ConsTIPATION oR CostivenEss.— Lambs fed on cows’
milk, or fed on any milk artificially, are quite subject to
constipation. The first milk of the mother, too, sometimes
produces this effect.t A lamb that gets strayed from its dam
for several hours and then surfeits itself on a full udder of
milk—or one that is changed, after it is several days old,
from one ewe to another —is subject to constipation. In all
these cases the evacuations cease, or they are hard and are
expelled with great difficulty. The lamb becomes dull,
drooping, disinclined to move about, and lies down most of
the time. Its belly or sides usually appear a little more
distended than usual. It becomes torpid—sleeps most of the
* Mr. Chamberlain's Silesian lambs, yeaned in early winter, are thus fed separately
all winter— but they, according to the German custom, are caught out of the flock,
and confined in a separate place during most of each day. They eat at their racks and
troughs as regularly as the old sheep. This undoubtedly materially contributes to the
extraordinary size they obtain the first year. The poet Burns had a good idea of a
shepherd’s duties! Among the ‘‘Dying words of Poor Mailie,” to be borne to her
‘Master dear,” are the following, in respect to her ‘‘ helpless lambs” left to his care:
““O bid him save their harmless lives 1
Frae dogs, ’an tods, an’ butchers’ knives!
But gie them guid cow milk their fill,
Till they be fit to fend themsel’;
An’ tent them duly, e’en an’ morn,
Wi’ teats o’ hay an’ rips o’ corn.”
+ While the ewes are in the yards and before they are let out to grass. After
being let out to grass, I think the milk of the mother very rarely produces this effect,
150 CUTTING TEETH.
time —and if not relieved speedily dies. This not unfre-
quently happens when the lamb is a number of days old and
had previously appeared healthy. Constipation is liable to
attack the same lamb several times if the exciting causes are
continued. Cathartics are not rapid enough in their action to
meet the case at the stage when it is generally first observed.
An injection of milk warmed to blood heat, with a sufficient
infusion of molasses to give it a chocolate color, should at
once be administered with a small syringe —say two ounces
at a time for a small lamb, and three for a larger one.* The
lamb is held up perpendicularly by the hind-legs, so that the
fore-feet but just touch the floor, during and for a moment
after the injection. If hardened dung is not discharged. with
the fluid, or soon afterwards, the injection is to be repeated.
This process generally gives prompt and entire relief, but if
the lamb continues inactive and dull, the tonic contained in
half a dozen teaspoonfulls of strong boneset or thoroughwort
(Hupatorium perfoliatum) tea, has an excellent effect. And
where, as it often happens, the urinary action is also insufficient,
pumpkin seed tea is the readiest and safest remedy in the
hands of most farmers. The syringe and the injection
constitute the very sheet-anchor of artificial lamb raising.
The flock-master had better be without all other remedies
than these.
There is another form of constipation occurring to very
young lambs, with their first evacuations. The dung (yet of a
bright yellow color) is so pasty and sticky that it is voided
with great effort, and the lamb sometimes utters short bleats,
expressive of considerable pain, in the process. The injection
is here also the most rapid remedy ; but two or three spoonfuls
of hogs’ lard administered as a purgative, will usually answer
the same purpose.
Corrine TrErtTH.—Sometimes a healthy looking lamb
seems strangely disinclined to suck. It seizes the teat as if
very hungry, but soon relinquishes it. It repeats this perhaps
once or twice, and then gives up the attempt. On examining
its mouth it will be found that the front teeth are not through
the gums, and that the latter, over the edges of the teeth, are
sufficiently inflamed to be very tender. Drawing the back of
the thumb nail across the teeth with sufficient force to press
* It is not necessary to be exact. There are about sige ounces jn half a pint of
fluid; and the ordinary teacup or water-tumbler hold half a pint.
PINNING — DIARRHEA. 151
them up through the gums, is the usual resort; but a keen-
edged knife or lancet inflicts less pain and leaves the
‘inflammation to subside more rapidly. It generally, however,
subsides in either case in a few hours; but it is well enough to
watch both the lamb and the ewe to see that the former does.
not suffer for food, and that the udder of the latter is properly
drawn.
Pinnine.— The first yellow, gummy excrements of the
lamb often adhere to the tail and about the vent, and if
suffered to harden there, pin down the tail to the breech and
hinder or entirely prevent later evacuations. The dung should
be carefully removed and the parts rubbed with pulverized
dry clay, chalk, or, in the absence of anything better, dirt.
If there is a tendency to a recurrence of the pinning, docking
the tail lessens the danger.
DiarrgEea oR Purcine.— Lambs which suck their dams,
very rarely purge, and if they do, they usually scarcely
require attention. If a fed lamb purges, the cause should be
ascertained and discontinued— and a spoonful of prepared
chalk given in milk, and the dose repeated after a few hours,
if necessary.
CHAPTER XV.
SPRING MANAGEMENT — CONTINUED.
CONGENITAL GOITRE — IMPERFECTLY DEVELOPED LAMBS —
RHEUMATISM — TREATMENT OF THE EWE AFTER LAMBING
— CLOSED TEATS — UNEASINESS — INFLAMED UDDER —
DRYING OFF — DISOWNING LAMBS — FOSTER LAMBS —
DOCKING LAMBS — CASTRATION.
ConGENITAL GoirTRE, on SweLttED Nxcs.— The thyroid
glands are small, soft, spongy bodies on each side of the upper
portion of the trachea, (wind-pipe.) Lambs are sometimes
born with them enlarged to once or twice the size of an
almond, and they then have the feeling of a firm, separate body,
lying between the cellular tissue and the muscles of the neck.
The lamb thus affected is generally small and lean, or if it
is large and plump it has a soft, jelly-like feeling, as if its
muscular tissues were imperfectly developed. In either case,
the bones are unnaturally small. It is excessively weak —
the plump, soft ones being often unable to stand, and usually
dying soon after birth. The others perhaps linger a little
longer — sometimes several days— but they perish on the
least exposure. So far as my observations have extended this
condition always, to a greater or lesser extent, accompanies
the glandular enlargement under consideration; but it also
appears without it, and, as I shall presently show, sometimes
to a highly destructive extent.
Having early adopted the view that the preservation of
the life of a lamb, which is incapable of attaining that full
structural development on which the vigor of the constitution
depends, is a loss instead of a gain—and being specially
averse to tolerating in a breeding flock any animal even
suspected of being capable of carrying along and transmitting
a hereditary disease—JI never have applied any remedy
whatever for “swelled neck.” I have seen very little of it
for the last few years; but events in 1862, presently to be
mentioned, have surrounded the subject with new interest,
CONGENITAL GOITRE. 153
and I now regret that I have not experimented more fully in
order to ascertain the precise nature of the malady.
I have learned some new facts in relation to it. Two or
three lambs which-I saw, in 1862, decidedly affected by it,
but not as weak or as attenuated in the bony structures as
usual, very rapidly threw off all appearance of the goitrous
enlargement of the glands; and they thenceforth grew about
as rapidly and appeared about as strong as ordinary lambs.
I saw another such case in 1863. I made no memorandum of
the facts at the time, but my impression is that in all these
instances the enlargement of the thyroid glands disappeared
within the space of as short a period as a fortnight. An
intelligent friend informed me that having some goitrous
lambs in his flock, last spring, he placed a bandage round the
neck of each over the thyroid glands, and wet it a few times
a day with camphor (dissolved in alcohol.) The swelling, he
thinks, disappeared in less time than a fortnight. Mr. Daniel
Kelly, Jr., of Wheaton, Illinois, who is represented to be a
highly successful flock-master, states in an ayficle in the Rural
New-Yorker, that the disease is frequent among his lambs;
that he binds a woolen cloth about their necks and keeps it
wet “with spirits of camphor or the tincture of iodine” —
that “there is little, if any, difference in the effectiveness of
these tinctures””—that either “is sure to cure them.” *
These facts would seem to add to the number of anomalous
features of the malady, when they are compared with those
which appear in the human subject of goitre, if indeed it is
the same malady;+ and they suggest some doubts of the latter
fact. But fortunately no question affecting the practical
treatment of the disease is to be settled by the determination
of that identity. It would now seem that mere evaporants
and external stimulants rapidly control it. Should the fact
be found otherwise, in the case of a lamb worth saving, the
application of iodine would undoubtedly remove the glandular
* I should rather say the article is published under the head of Western Editorial
Notes, Mr. C. D. Bragdon giving the statements as he received them from Mr. Kelly.
+ Twas the first public writer, so far as I know, who classified the “‘swelled
neck”’ of lambs as goitre or bronchocele, (in Sheep Husbandry in the South,)—
though conscious then that some of its conditions were very different from those
generally exhibited in the human subject of that disease. These exceptional condi-
tions were:—1. That it was so often congenital; 2. That it so frequently affected the
progeny of parents that were not themselves subjects of the disease or known ever
to have been subjects of it; and 3. That it should so often affect young animals,
and so comparatively rarely affect grown ones. The additional anomalies disclosed
by the facts stated in the text (if they are facts,) are the following :—4. The very sudden
and spontaneous disappearance of the supposed golirous enlargement. 5. Its sudden
disappearance on the application of camphor, and the apparent equal power possessed
by camphor and iodine to cause its absorption. 5
154 IMPERFECTLY DEVELOPED LAMBS.
enlargement. It might be applied to the parts with a little
less trouble in the form of an ointment, composed of one part
by weight of hydriodate of potash to seven parts of lard.
ImpERFECTLY DEVELOPED Lames.—Asidgfrom abortions
and premature births, lambs are sometimes yeaned of the
feeble and imperfect class described under the preceding
head, but apparently exhibiting no specific form of. disease.
The plump, soft ones, and perhaps some of the others, are
frequently so colorless about the nose, eyes and the skin
generally, that they have the appearance of being nearly
destitute of blood. The small ones are often almost destitute
of the ordinary wooly coating. This, with their diminutive
size, the smallness of their bones, the remarkable delicacy of
their tissues, their general appearance of fragility, and their
feeble, languid movements, gives them so much resemblance
to prematurely born lambs, that the observer finds it difficult
to believe they are not so, until dates and other circumstances
are investigated
Far more of these imperfect lambs were produced in 1862
than in any other year within my recollection. Some counties
in New York lost twenty-five and others probably thirty-three
“per cent. of their entire number, and the mortality is said to
have extended to a greater or lesser degree further west. I
saw large numbers of these imperfect and perishing lambs.
A few, im some of the flocks, were affected by goitre, but in
others there was not an instance of it; and taking all I
saw together, not five per cent. of them were affected by that,
or, so far as I could discover, any other specific disease.
Any mode of treating lambs which are in the condition I
have described, so that they will, in more than an occasional
instance, ultimately attain the average size and the average
integrity of structures and functions possessed by good sheep,
is, according to my experience, wholly out of the question;
and the bestowal of excessive care merely to preserve the life
of an animal essentially lacking in the above particulars, is, as
remarked under the preceding head, labor thrown away:
indeed, it is much worse than thrown away if the animal is
suffered to remain in a breeding flock. No good sheep
breeder would permit this. And even if the subsequent
structural development appeared to become about as complete
as usual, I eontead I should still feel decidedly averse to
breeding from such an animal. In the case of a ram, I should
regard it as inexcusable. We cannot too jealously guard our
RHEUMATISM. 155
flocks from the remotest predispositions to hereditary defect,
especially in the cardinal point of constitution. I fully concur
in this particular with Mr. George W. Kendall, of Texas,
who, on ordering some rams of me for the use of his flock,
sent the following “particular description” of the points
which he wished to have regarded in their selection: he said
they must have, “1st, constitution; 2d, constitution; 3d,
constitution.” And a congenital defect of any kind, whether
ostensibly removed or unremoved, should be a subject of
peculiar apprehension, from the stronger probability which
exists of its being hereditary. Acting under these views,
my directions in regard to my own flocks have always been
to give all lambs of the class under consideration merely good
care, and if that prove insufficient, to let them die. If they
live until fall, they are sold for any trifle they will fetch as
avowedly imperfect lambs, or are given away.
The causes which lead to the production of these
imperfectly developed lambs will receive some attention
when I treat of the winter management. of breeding ewes.
Ruevmatism.— Lambs on being first turned out of warm,
dry, and well-littered yards and stables into the pastures
where they lie on the damp ground, and where they are for
the first time exposed to cold rains and chilly winds, some-
times exhibit symptoms which, with the present limited
information which I possess on the subject, I can only classify
as rheumatism. The lamb suddenly becomes unable to walk
except with difficulty. It is lame in the loins, and the hind
quarters are nearly powerless; or it partly loses the use of all
the legs, without the back appearing to be particularly
affected; the legs, either from pain or weakness, are unable
to support the weight of the body; the lamb hobbles about,
and occasionally becomes wholly unable to walk. The neck
sometimes becomes stiff, is firmly drawn down, and is
perhaps drawn to one side.* Usually there is not much
appearance of constitutional disease. The lamb seems to be
bright and feeds well. But in some cases, a hollowness and
heaving at the flank indicate a degree of fever. Those unable
to rise, and those whose necks are so drawn down that they
cannot reach the teat, would soon perish without assistance ;
but in no other way do any of the forms of the disease, as
a general thing, very strongly tend to fatal results.
* I was not at first disposed to consider this the result of the same disease —but I
now have very little doubt of this fact.
156 TREATMENT OF EWES AFTER LAMBING.
_ §o far as my information extends, this malady.is new,
infrequent, and in any other form than “stiff neck” is yet
limited to comparatively few localities in our country.
Warmth, dryness, non-exposure to the damp ground, etc.,
and the careful feeding (from the teats of their dams) of those
unable to.suck, are conditions necessary to recovery ; and_as
the weather becomes warm and settled it generally disappears
without other remedies. In a few cases, however, it has
proved quite destructive. Mr. Luther Baker, of Lafayette,
New York, had a very valuable flock of Merino ewes, about
20 per cent. of the lambs of which died one year, and 50 per
cent. another, of this malady— though his sheep were very
carefully and judiciously managed. This is by far the severest
mortality which has come to my knowledge. Mr. Baker then
put his ewes to ram so the lambs would not come until the
flock began to be turned to grass, and the malady almost
entirely disappeared. The present year (1863) he had but
two or three cases, and these were promptly cured by
administering three spoonfuls of lard and one spoonful of
turpentine, once or twice, as required, to each lamb. Some
of Mr. Baker’s neighbors who had one or two diseased lambs
apiece, made use of the same remedy with equal success.
The dose above mentioned may prove rather large for a very
young lamb. Its constituents render it an appropriate internal
remedy for rheumatism. The cathartic, and the stimulating
and diuretic properties of the turpentine, are called for. Mr.
Spooner recommends (for a grown sheep) two ounces epsom
salts, one drachm of ginger and half an ounce of spirit of
nitrous ether — rubbing the affected parts with stimulants,
like hartshorn or opodeldoc; and. he says if the disease
assumes a chronic form, a seaton should be inserted near the
part. Rheumatism in grown sheep, or chronic rheumatism in
lambs, appears to be yet unknown in the United States.
TREATMENT OF THE Ewe AFTER Lampine.— Every sound
principle of physiology goes to show that the ewe, like every
other domestic animal, and like the female human being,
should be suffered to remain as quiet as possible for some
time after parturition.- To drive her for any considerable
distance immediately after her lamb drops, when exhausted
with her labors, and when her womb remains fully distended,
is cruel and injurious; “hounding” her with a shepherd’s
dog, in that situation, as is sometimes done in driving, because
she lingers behind the flock, is to the last’ degree brutal.
CLOSED TEATS —UNEASINESS—INFLAMED UDDER. 157
As already ‘said, there should be no hasty interference
with a new-born lamb, if it appears to be doing well. But if,
on making the usual effort, it fails to obtain a supply of milk,
the ewe should at once be examined. The natural flow of
milk does not always, particularly in young ewes, commence
immediately after lambing, though in a few hours it may be
abundant. In this case the lamb should be fed, in the mean-
time, artificially. If from the smallness of the udder or other
indications, there is a prospect that the supply of milk will be
permanently small, the ewe should be separated from the
flock and nursed with better feed, as mentioned in preceding
Chapter. Some careful flock-masters separate from the flock
all the two-year-old breeding ewes, and all the old and weak
ones, either a few days before, or immediately after lambing,
and give them feed especially intended to promote the
secretion of milk.
Crosep Trats.—Sometimes when a ewe has a full
udder of milk the opening of the teats are so firmly closed
that the lamb can not force them open. The pressure of the
human fingers, lubricated with spittle to prevent chafing or
straining the skin, will readily remove the difficulty. If the
teat has been cut off by the shearer and has healed up so as to
leave no opening, it should be re-opened with a needle, and
this followed by inserting a small, smooth, round-ended wire, ,
heated sufficiently to cauterize the parts very moderately.
Neither of these should enter the teat but a little way —
barely sufficient to permit the milk to flow out. The sucking
of the lamb will generally keep the orifice open — but it may
require a little looking to and the application of something
calculated to allay inflammation.
Uneasiness.— A young ewe, owing partly, perhaps, to
the novelty of her situation, and partly sometimes either to
her excessive fondness for, or indifference toward her lamb,
will not stand for it to suck. As soon as it makes the
attempt, she will turn about to caress it, or will step a little
away. In cold weather, she may thus interpose a dangerous
delay to its feeding. If she is caught and held by the neck
until the udder is once well drawn out, she will generally
require no further attention.
InFLamMED Upprr.— But a-ewe that refuses thus to stand
will sometimes be found to have a hot, hard, inflamed or
158 DRYING OFF—DISOWNING LAMBS.
“caked” udder — particularly if she is in high condition, and
lambs late in the season. In this case, the udder should be
fomented frequently for some time with hot water containing
a slight infusion of opium, obtained from the crude article,
from laudanum or from steeped poppy leaves. The oftener
the fomentation is repeated the sooner the inflammation will
subside and the proper flow of milk ensue. Repeated
washings with cold water will produce the same effect, but
less rapidly, and I think with a less favorable influence on the
subsequent secretions of milk. If a ewe has lost her lamb, and
from neglect the udder has become swollen and indurations
have formed in it, the iodine ointment is one of the best
applications. (For further particulars, see Garget, among
Diseases of Sheep.)
Dryine Orr.—If a grown ewe having a full udder of
milk loses her lamb, she should receive a foster lamb, or be
reserved to give temporary supplies of milk to the new-born
lambs requiring it. But if it becomes necessary to dry off a
ewe, even a young one not having much milk, she should, if
convenient, be fed on dry feed, and care taken to milk out
the udder as often as once a day for several days, and a few
times afterwards, as may appear necessary, at intervals of
increasing length. The daily application of an evaporant —
say water with 15 grains of sugar of lead dissolved in a pint
—would facilitate the process. I am satisfied that many of
the troubles shepherds experience in raising lambs are
produced or greatly increased by the very careless manner
in which ewes are habitually dried off.
Disowninc Lamps.—Ewes, and especially young or very
poor ones, or those which have been prostrated by difficult
parturition, occasionally refuse to own their lambs or are
exceedingly neglectful of them. When, notwithstanding, it
is advisable to compel the ewe to raise her lamb, both should
immediately be separated from the flock and placed in a small,
dark inclosure together, and if convenient out of hearing of
other sheep—care being taken to hold the ewe, at first, as often
as five or six times a day for the lamb to suck. As soon as
she takes to it, she may be let out; but for a few days she
should be let out only with her lamb, and be closely watched,
for when she mixes with other sheep as soon as she regains
her liberty, her indifference sometimes returns. It is very
PENS—FOSTER LAMBS. 159
convenient to attach some peculiar paint mark both to the
ewe and lamb, so that they can be readily recognized. If a
ewe is obstinate about accepting her lamb, frightening her
sometimes aids to arouse her maternal instincts. Some
shepherds show her a strange dog, a child wearing a bright
colored mantle, or the like. I never- chanced to suffer
inconvenience by it, but I am informed by good shepherds
that on driving flocks of ewes with new-born lambs, when they
are wet, into a crowded barn, and keeping them there for
some time, it produces great confusion in the recognition of
lambs, particularly by the young ewes: and my informants
attributed this to the lambs rubbing together, and thus
blending or disguising those odors by which each ewe is
supposed alone to distinguish her own lamb, until she
becomes accustomed to recognize it by sight and by its voice.
If a ewe exhibits the least indifference to her lamb when it is
first born—or if it is quite weak, or in a crowded stable,
or requires help of any kind, a pen should be immediately
brought and placed around them.
Pxrws.— Every breeding barn should be provided with
a dozen or two of pens, ready made, and hung up on pegs
overhead. They should be about three by three and a half, or
three and a half by four feet in dimensions, very light but
strong; and in field lambing, canvas covers on top and
one canvas side cover to a few of them would be highly
convenient to keep off rain and cold winds.
Foster Lamps.—If a ewe having a good udder of milk
loses her lamb, and a young or feeble ewe disowns hers, or
is unable to raise it properly, the lamb of the latter should
be transferred to the former. This can usually be readily
effected. If the skin of the foster dam’s lamb can be taken
off soon after death, and fastened on the lamb she is required
to adopt, she will generally take to it at once or after only a
moment’s hesitation. Neither the head, legs nor tail of the
skin need to be retained. It should be fastened by strings
(sewed through the edges of it,) tied under the neck and
body—the labor of a moment— and that is all that is
required. Those persons, already mentioned, who transfer
all the lambs of their two-year old ewes to foster dams, in
some instances put good-milking coarse ewes to ram at the
same time with their young ewes, or a trifle later. These are
160 DOCKING LAMBS.
watched and when one yeans, her lamb is immediately taken
away, if practicable, before she sees it. The foster lamb is
rubbed_about in “the waters,” (amniotic fiuid,) blood, etc.,
which accompanies the “cleanings,” (placenta,) and then is
left with her in a pen. She generally does not suspect the
substitution, or if she does, after a short delay the adoption
on both sides becomes complete. When neither of the above
modes is available, the ewe required to adopt a lamb is
treated like one which disowns’her own. Some take to them
pretty readily; others exhibit great obstinacy. If the ewe is
confined long in a pen, she should be given feed calculated to
produce milk, or should, after a little, be let out daily in a
small, green paddock alone with the lamb.
Docgine Lamss.— This is most safely performed when the
lamb is not over two or three weeks old.. Some experienced
shepherds do it well, on simply having the lamb lifted by an
attendant and its breech held toward them — the lamb being
held with its back uppermost and in about the same position
as if it was standing on the ground. The shepherd seizes the
tail with one hand, places the knifé wnder and cuts up and
toward himself, with a swift, firm motion. But an inexpe-
rienced person attempting this, will cut the tails of different
lengths, cut off some of them obliquely, and will occasionally
leave the bone projecting half an inch outside of the skin, to
heal over slowly and cause a vast deal of unnecessary pain.
This last is sure to occur in a good share of cases if an
unfeeling booby performs the operation, without an attendant,
holding the lamb by the tail as it stands on the ground pulling
with all its might to escape.* A flock of choice sheep owe
too much to the neat and uniform appearance of their tails —
especially among the Merinos, where it has become a “fancy
point ”— not to have the process well performed. The safest
mode is to have an attendant hold the lamb, upright but
leaning back, with its rump resting on a block, and the hind-
legs drawn up out of the way. The shepherd with his right
hand fore-finger and thumb slides the skin of the tail toward
the body, places a two or three inch chisel across the tail,
with his left hand— pressing it down enough to keep the
skin slidden toward the body; and taking a mallet in the right
hand he severs the tail ata blow. The tail of the Merino
should be left barely long enough to cover the anus and
* I knew a brutal fellow who, cutting thus, with all his strength, severed not
only the tail but one of the hind-legs of a lamb.
CASTRATION. 161
vagina. The breeders of English sheep usually leave it three
or four inches long.
Docking is best performed in cool, dry weather, and the
lambs should not be previously heated by chasing or even
driving them fast. The flock should be driven into a stable,
the lambs caught out, one by one, and as they are docked
placed in another apartment. The tails of the rams should be
thrown into one pile and those of the ewes into another, so
that when the docking is done, a count of each pile will give
the number of each sex; and this should then and there be
recorded in the “Sheep Book” of the farm. It is well, also,
to mark those of one sex with a brand, or a dot made by the
end of a cob dipped in paint, to facilitate later separations.
Sometimes, though very rarely, a lamb bleeds to death from
docking. This generally can be stopped by a tightly drawn
ligature. If this fails, resort should at once be had to actual
cautery—the red-hot iron. If lambs are docked after the
weather becomes quite hot, it is advisable to apply a mixture of
tar, butter and turpentine to the parts. I this year saw eighty
lambs, docked on the 7th of July, with their tails swollen and
covered with small maggots, for the want of some such
application to keep away the fly. The scrotums of the
castrated ones were also filled with maggots. Docking is
necessary to guard against filthiness. Maggots, too, are
liable to be produced under that filth, and to cause the
death of the animal. And, finally, habit has rendered a long
tail an unsightly appendage to the sheep.
Castration — Is usually performed at the same time with
docking — but it is rather severe on the young lamb to do
both at the same time. Some, therefore, put off castration a
few days later. It should be performed with still more care
in regard to the weather, heating the lamb in advance, etc.
An attendant holds the lamb (with a fore and hind-leg grasped
in each hand,) in an upright, position, with its back placed
against his own body. He draws the hind-legs up and apart,
and presses against the lamb’s body. with sufficient force to
cause the lower part of the belly to protrude between the
thighs and the scrotum to be well exposed. The operator
then cuts off about one-third of the scrotum ; takes each testicle
in turn between the thumb and fore-finger, and after sliding
down the loose enveloping membrane to the spermatic chord,
pulls out the testicle with a moderately quick but not violently
jerking motion. The connecting tissues (of the spermatic
162 CASTRATION.
cord) snap with very little bleeding.* If they snap so that
a portion of the nerve adhering to the body remains exposed,
it should be cut off. Tar, butter and turpentine should be
applied to the parts.
* Some foreign shepherds have yarious absurd processes of severing the last
attachments, before the entire spermatic cord snaps asunder. Some chew them off—
others cut them off by rubbing the thumb nail across them. Mr. Spooner recom-
mends, even in the case of a young lamb, to put iron clams on the spermatic cords
and to divide them with a hot iron.
T have eka the process, in the text, as it is generally performed, and as itis
always performed among my own sheep, But there is no denying that pulling out
the testicle in this way often draws out the spermatic nerves (oleeas testiculares) 60
that they do not snap within ¢hree or even four inches of the testicles. The remain-
ing part, of course, retracts within the abdominal ring, which must certainly be
injurious, and might, with an animal less capable of enduring all sorts of mistreat-
ment, have serious consequences. I have tolerated the practice because thus tearing
the spermatic cord asunder, prevents bleeding; and the hot iron, etc., are inconven-
ient. Pulling out the testicle far enough and severing it with a hot iron (without
using the clams) might also sufficiently prevent bleeding.
CHAPTER XVI.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT.
MODE OF WASHING SHEEP— UTILITY OF WASHING CONSID-
ERED — CUTTING THE HOOFS—TIME BETWEEN WASHING
AND SHEARING — SHEARING-—— STUBBLE SHEARING AND
TRIMMING— SHEARING LAMBS AND SHEARING SHEEP SEMI-
ANNUALLY — DOING UP WOOL— FRAUDS IN DOING UP
WOOL — STORING WOOL— PLACE FOR SELLING WOOL—
WOOL DEPOTS AND COMMISSION STORES — SACKING WOOL.
Moves or Wasuine SurEp.—Sheep are now washed,
in the Northern States, somewhat earlier than formerly —
usually between the first and fifteenth of June —as early
as the warmth of the streams will admit. When it used
to be considered an object to sell clean wool, it was the
common practice to wash fine-wooled sheep under the fall of
a mill-dam ; or to make an artificial fall by damming up a
small stream, conducting its water a few feet in a race, and
having it fall thence a couple of feet into a tub or washing vat.
The vat was a strong box, large enough to hold four sheep
at a time. It was from three and a half to four feet deep,
about two and a half feet of it rising above the surrounding
platform for the washers, and the remaining portion being
sunk in the ground. The sheep were penned close at hand,
and the lambs immediately taken out to prevent their
being trampled under foot. Two washers generally worked
together, and a catcher brought the sheep to them. If the
sheep were dry, four were usually placed in the vat together,
so that two were soaking while two were being washed.
Every part of each fleece was exposed for a short time to the
full force of the descending current. The dirtier parts, the
breech, belly and neck, were thoroughly squeezed, (by
pressing the wool together in masses between the palms of
the hands,) and these operations continued until the water
ran entirely clear from the fleece. The animal was then
164 WASHING SHEEP CONSIDERED.
grasped by the fore parts, plunged down deep into the water
and the re-bound taken advantage of to lift it over the edges
of the vat without touching them. It was set carefully on its
feet, and, if old or weak, a portion of the water was pressed
from the fleece. Washing under a mill-dam was performed
in substantially the same manner, except that the washers
were compelled to stand in the water.
These modes rendered wool quite too clean for the
fashion of the present day. The reasons for the change have
been elsewhere adverted to. The object now is, with a large
proportion of the growers, to see how little they can wash
their wool and yet have it sell as “washed wool.” It would
be difficult, if indeed desirable, to give any instructions on
this head! English sheep require very little washing
compared with the Merino, and it can be done with sufficient
expedition and thoroughness in any clear, running water of
proper depth.
Urmiry or Wasninc ConsipEreD.— The utility of
washing sheep before shearing is now the subject of a good
deal of discussion. One class of producers advocate it on
the ground that it prevents a useless transportation of dirt to
market, that it improves the saleableness of wool, and that it
avoids the operation of an unequal rule of shrinkage applied
by buyers indiscriminately to all unwashed wools. Another
class of producers contend that ‘it is injurious to the health
of sheep; that it renders shearing impracticable at that period
which best tends both to the comfort and productiveness of
the animal, and which enables the producer to avail himself
of the early wool markets; that it subjects sheep to the
danger of contracting contagious diseases; and, finally, that
any custom of buying, or conventional rule of shrinkage,
which is found unfair in itself or opposed to public utility,
should be. promptly abandoned.
The objection to transporting dirt is a good one, unless it
secures some advantage which counterbalances its cost. I
am satisfied that washing, properly conducted, in water of
suitable temperature, is not in the least injurious to decently
hardy sheep —not any more so than an hour’s rain any time
within a month after shearing —the rain being of the same
temperature with brook water when fit for washing. But if
it can be shown that shearing before about the 25th of June
is better for the sheep, or gives the grower a better chance
to sell, there is a weighty and perfectly legitimate reason
WASHING SHEEP CONSIDERED. 165
against washing in many portions of the Northern States —
for the streams are not warm enough usually for washing
sheep without injury until about the second week of June.
This is true among the high lards of New York* and
Northern Pennsylvania, and certainly ought to be still more
so in Vermont, New Hampshire, etc., where the snows which
feed the streams lie later on the mountains.
Highly intelligent and candid flock-masters who have tried
the experiment, (I have never myself done so,) assure me that
Merino sheep sheared a month before the usual period — say
from 20th of May to Ist of June — get sooner into condition
if they are lacking in that particular; that the wool obtains a
better start before the opening of hot weather, and retains it
through the year; and that the sheep have better protection
from inclemencies of weather during those periods when they
most require it—that is, in the winter—and still more
particularly during the cold storms of autumn. Whatever
may be thought of the two first of these propositions—and
they certainly are not unreasonable ones—the last is
undeniably true; and the additional autumn protection
alone would be a sufficient reason for earlier shearing, in
the absence of any special reason to the contrary. The
apprehension of contagious diseases, too, from using the
same washing yards, from temporarily occupying the same
fields during the process, and even from driving sheep
over the same roads, is, as I know from bitter experience, +
perfectly well founded ; and it is often highly inconvenient, if
not altogether impracticable, for the farmer to wash his sheep
without using the same washing pens, or at least the same
roads, with the public.
And what sound objection can the buyer have to the
* My residence is less than 1,200 feet above tide-water, surrounded by no lofty
hills, and I know that ere it is generally difficult to find the water as warm as it
ought to be to wash sheep, before about the time specified in the text.
+ Ihave had four different visitations of hoof-rot in my flocks— all clearly and
distinctly traceable to contagion. The third case occurred from some wethers
affected by that disease, getting once among a flock of my breeding ewes. The
wethers were found with the. ewes at 9 o'clock, A. M., and were not with them at
night-fall the preceding day. They might therefore have been with them a few hours,
or only a few moments. In the fourth case, half a dozen of my lambs and sheep
jumped into the road when a lame flock was passing, and remained with them half an
hour. Both lots of animals were thus exposed when I was not awure there was a
sheep having hoof-rot in the town! The diseased sheep had just been brought in by
drovers, and the farmer who took them to pasture, in the lot adjoining mine, in the
third case, did not dream of their being thus affected; and they had mixed with mine
before I knew there was a new flock in the neighborhood. I mention these facts to
show how readily sheep contract the disease, and how idle it would be for any man
to lay aside all fears of contagion in going to and occupying a public washing pen—
because he supposed he knew there were no diseased flocks in his neighborhood,
There could be no better place for contracting hoof-rot or scab, than a washing-pen.
166 WASHING SHEEP CONSIDERED.
farmer’s shearing his sheep a month earlier and unwashed, if
he chooses to do so, even if we should admit, for the sake of
argument, that all the reasons assigned for it have no
real weight? Ifthe farmer sends dirt to market, he, not the
buyer, pays for the transportation. Washed or unwashed,
the wool must go through the same cleansing process. Am I
asked if the buyer has not the right to judge of the conditions
in which fe shall voluntarily purchase a commodity with his
own money? By no sound principle, either of morals or
commerce, have any class of buyers a right to establish rules
of purchasing, not necessary to protect their own legitimate
interests, which are calculated to injure the legitimate
interests of producers. j
The rule that all wools shall be washed or subjected to a
deduction of one-third to put them on a par with brook-
washed wools, operates -very unequally. A large, highly
yolky ram, housed in the summer, will have at least two
pounds, and a ewe one pound, more yolk in its fleece than
would the same animal if unhoused in the summer. Should
the unwashed wool then sell at the same rate of shrinkage in
both cases? If we were to admit that one-third is a fair
average rate of shrinkage on all unwashed wools, is there any
justice in making the producer of the cleaner ones suffer for
the benefit of the person who chooses to grow yolkier wools,
or who houses his sheep in summer to preserve all their
yolk? Does the manufacturer wish to pay a premium on the
production and preservation of yolk in the wool?
No manufacturer claims that the present rule of shrinkage
operates strictly equitably in all cases; but some manufacturers
contend that a discrimination in unwashed wools would be
impracticable, or at least inconvenient, and that if the present
rule injures the interest of the producer, all he has to do is to
wash his wool. It would be difficult for any one to show
that there is any greater practical inconvenience in deciding
between the different amounts of yolk in unwashed wool than
there is in deciding between the different amounts of foul
seed in wheat and other varieties of grain, of useless weeds
in hay, or even of yolk in washed wool; yet who thinks of
buying these impure commodities at a fixed rate of shrinkage?
Still Iess excuse is there for preserving an arbitrary and
unequal rule, as a quasi punishment on’ growers who only
believe themselves consulting their own legitimate interests,
and who certainly are not invading those of others.
The ground directly or impliedly assumed by some
WASHING SHEEP CONSIDERED. 167
growers, that a reduction of the present rate of shrinkage is
all that is now called for—leaving it as fixed in its rate as
at present — must be a pleasing one to those who grow and
preserve the largest amount of yolk, for this would increase
the present premium on yolk precisely in proportion to that
reduction. But it would do it at the expense either of the
producer of cleaner wools, or of the manufacturer. Equally
fallacious and interested is the pretence that unwashed wools
come nearer to a uniform standard in respect to cleanliness
than washed ones, and therefore that, as a matter of right or
mutual protection, all wool growers ought to combine
to omit washing for the purpose of forcing all wools on the
market in that situation.
The only sound and equitable course is to abolish any fixed
rule in the premises — to buy unwashed wool as wheat, other
grain, hay, and washed wool containing impurities are now
bought, viz., subject to a deduction proportioned to the
amount of impurity in each particular case—clean wool
being made the standard. It is as easy for the’buyer and
seller to agree on the-amount of deduction as to agree on the
quality. Indeed, they have no especial occasion to agree in
terms on either; nor do they now, in the case of washed wools
of different qualities and degrees of cleanliness. They simply
agree or disagree on price, each basing his estimates on such
data as he pleases. The moment this mode of purchasing is
adopted and put fairly into operation, its propriety will
commend it to all. It will equally promote the legitimate
interests of both buyer and seller. But one leading purchaser
has to adopt it rapidly to procure its general adoption —
because those who bought thus would secure the decided
advantage of acting without competition in the rapidly
increasing market of unwashed wools, while they still could
compete on equal terms in the market of washed wools.
Two sets of persons have taken what I esteem to be very
uncalled for positions on this subject. Those who assume
that manufacturers should, at the first intimation and without
understanding the reasons, abandon any established custom
of their calling, or submit to the imputation of laboring to
take advantage of the wool producer, and of “combining”
to secure that advantage, assume positions which are equally
unsupported by proof and at war with good sense. The
manufacturers have been at least as much sinned against
as sinning. There is no more intelligent, honorable, public-
spirited and liberal class of business men in our country.
168 CUTTING THE HOOFS.
The one-third rule of shrinkage was adopted by them at an
early day, when but very little domestic wool came unwashed
into the market. It was brought in usually by owners of small
lots, who took no care.of their sheep. The wool was not
only frequently filled with wood-dirt, sand and dung, but it
was also frequently out of condition—here a fleece cotted,
there one jointed, and anon one filled with burs. It was not
convenient to classify these with good washed wools, nor
was it obligatory on anybody to encourage their continued
production. Under such circumstances, the one-third rule of
shrinkage met the case fairly enough.
Very few persons are the first to discover that their
customs have survived their original causes. Even sensible
men surrender old ones with reluctance, and are quite apt to
suspect the motives of proposed innovators. Weak and
prejudiced men mistake them for principles and support them
with bigotry and fury. As soon as the manufacturers become
convinced that the present feeling among flock-masters against
the washing of wool springs from legitimate motives, and
indicates a settled purpose instead of a mere freak, they will
meet jt, not by a suspension of purchases or by holding on to
any. unequal and unjust rules, but in a fair and business-like
way. But if the grower errs in denouncing and “ passing
resolutions” against the manufacturer who does not at once
accede to his precise terms, not less does the manufacturer
err in assuming, in a matter where his own real interests are
not at stake, to dictate modes and times of preparing a
commodity for market to the producer of it; and especially
in assuming that the reasons offered by the latter for the
change under consideration are either false or frivolous.
I have in this connection spoken only of the manufacturers
as buyers, though, directly, other classes of buyers are equally
concerned in the question. But I have done this on the supposi-
tion that as all wools go ultimately into the hands of the former
to be prepared for consumption, their action in the premises
would be the controlling one. among all classes of purchasers.
Curtine tux Hoors.— The hoofs of the improved English
mutton breeds usually retain nearly their natural size and
form. The hoofs of the Merino often continue growing to
twice their natural length, and their horny crusts turn up in
front and curl under at the sides. There is some difference
between individuals in this particular, and considerable is
made between flocks, by the nature of their summer pastures.
CUITING THE HOOFS. 169
Moist, low grounds encourage the growth of the horn; and
it is also highly increased by the presence of hoof-rot. But
all Merino flocks require examination, at least once a year, in
this particular, or else a considerable portion of the sheep
will have their hoofs grown out to an extent which is highly
unsightly, which gives them a hobbling, “groggy” gait, and
which, when the hoof turns under at the sides, confines
between it and the sole a mass of mud or filth which remains
there constantly. Occasionally, the hoof turns under so far
that these impurities are also kept confined between the
toes. This situation of things greatly increases the tendency
to fouls, and aggravates hoof-rot where it exists. In England
it would probably be thought to originate both.
Where no disease is present, and the hoofs only require
their usual annual shortening, the time of washing is often
a very convenient one to attend to it. The hoofs are then
freed from dirt and softened by soaking. When the sheep is
removed from the washing-vat, the washer, or an attendant,
holds it sitting on its rump with its back resting against his
legs. He then, with a thin-bladed, strong, sharp knife, cuts
away the horn underneath the foot so as to restore it toa
level with the sole; and some of the sole should be pared off
too, if it has become unnaturally thick. Care should be taken
to preserve the natural bearing of the foot—not lowering the
heel so much as to throw the weight on the toes, and not
lowering the latter so much as to throw it on the heel. An
experienced, firm, swift hand will perform this operation on
each foot by one or two rapid strokes with the knife. The
long toes are then to be cut off with a pair of nippers made
for the purpose. As these
<——————> _ are sometimes necessarily
used when the hoofs are dry
and tough, they should be
TOE-NIPPERS. made very strong, with
handles eighteen or twenty inches long, the rivet being half
an inch in diameter and confined with a nut, so they can
be taken apart for sharpening. The cutting edge should
descend upon a strip of copper inserted in the iron to prevent
dulling. With this instrument, the largest hoofs are readily
severed. All these operations should be performed in a little
more time than it takes to read this description of them— or
else deferred until some other occasion, because, both on
account of the washers and the sheep, the washing process
is one which ought not to brook much delay.
8
170 TIME BETWEEN WASHING AND SHEARING.
TIME BETWEEN WASHING anD SuEarine.— This should
be determined by the weather. The fleece should become
thoroughly dry, and be so far again lubricated with yolk as
to have its natural silky feel and glossy appearance. The
secretion of yolk depends much on temperature. More of it
is secreted in one really hot day than in half a dozen dry,
cool ones. Consequently the time of shearing should be
controlled by the condition of the wool, and not by the lapse
of any established period of time. The old-fashioned wool
growers usually sheared within ten days of washing, if the
weather was dry, without much respect to temperature.
Their successors, for reasons which have been repeatedly
alluded to, generally aim to let enough time elapse for the
fleece to become well nigh as yolky as it was before washing.
SuEsrine.— This should always be performed on smooth,
clean floors or platforms, with the sheep penned close at hand.
If the weather is fair, it is best to drive only enough sheep
into the pen at once to employ the shearers three hours — the
rest remaining in the pasture to keep themselves filled with
feed. A hungry, empty sheep is more impatient, and the
shears run round its collapsed belly and sides with more
difficulty. The bottom of the pen should be kept clean with
straw, saw-dust, or corn-cobs.* If there are any sheep in the
pen dirty from purging, they should be the first taken out.
They should be carried a little aside from the shearing floor
and the dungy locks cut away. When the catcher catches a
sheep in the pen he should lift it in his arms clear of the floor,
instead of dragging it to the door and thus filling its feet
‘with straw, manure, &c. At the door of the pen, he should
hold it up with its back resting against his own body and its
feet projecting toward the shearer, who should be there with
a proper shaped stick to clear its feet of loose filth, and with
a short broom to free its belly from any adhering straws,
chaff or saw-dust — before the sheep is carried to the place of
shearing. ;
It is difficult to give any practical directions for shearing
which are of any use to the novice; and experienced shearers
do not need them. The art can only be properly acquired by
experience and observation. A few suggestions, however,
may not be entirely thrown away. The first care of the
* These last, if rat on the bottom of the pen afew inches deep, answer the
purpose admirably, They keep the feet clean and do not adhere to the wool if the
sheep lie down.
SHEARING. 171
shearer should be to clip off the wool evenly and smoothly,
without breaking the fleece and without cutting the wool
twice in two, or cutting the skin. It is difficult to avoid the
last, occasionally, on the corrugated surfaces of the Merino:
but repeated and severe cuts should always procure the
shearer’s dismissal. Especial pains are to be taken in this
particular about the udders of ewes. There is perhaps less
danger if these are large and in sight. In the case of a
young Merino ewe having no lamb, and whose udder is small
and mostly covered with wool, I have repeatedly seen a teat
clipped off—thus, rendering it forever after incapable of allow-
ing the passage of milk, unless re-opened by the artificial process
already described at page 157. The shearer who holds his
sheep in the easiest manner for itself, who keeps it confined
for the least period in one and especially an uncomfortable
position, and who makes use of the least violence in case it
attempts to escape, accomplishes more work, performs it
better, and incurs far less labor and fatigue.
Wool should be cut off reasonably close, but not close
enough to have the skin show naked and red—so as to
expose it to sun-burn, or to have the sheep suffer severely
from a moderate degree of cold. The English shepherds
have a system of shearing their large sheep in uniform ridges
or flutings, running in a particular way, which has a very
pleasing appearance. I see no objections to it; and every-
thing which tends to raise any process toward the dignity of
art, and increase the esprit du corps of any class of laborers,
is beneficial both to themselves and their employers.
Fair ordinary shearers will shear about twenty - five
common Merinos in a day, and active ones from five to ten
more. The highly corrugated sheep which are now becoming
fashionable among a class, demand far more time. The
comparatively open-fleeces, and smooth, round carcasses of the
English breeds, admit of considerably more rapid shearing.
While sheep are being sheared, the catcher should always
be at hand with shovel and broom to remove dung, pick up
scattered locks, and keep the floor perfectly clean. When a
sheep is sheared, he should catch another for the shearer and
set it on a new place on the floor, before taking up the fleece
of its predecessor. This done, he should bring the preceding
fleece together as it lies with its inner side up, and then,
pressing it between his hands and arms, lift it up, carry it to
the folding table and turn 7 over as he lays it down. He
172 STUBBLE SHEARING AND TRIMMING.
next should go back, pick up every “frib,” and sweep the
place so that it will be ready for another sheep.*
StussLE SHEARING AND Trimmine.—If wool is left half
an inch long or more at shearing, it will, of course, (in the
case of all varieties which do not annually shed their wool,)
retain that extra length through the ensuing year. This is
called “stubble shearing ;” and is sometimes resorted to by
the sellers of Merino sheep to deceive purchasers in relation
to the actual length of the staple. The sellers are always
ready to make or produce affidavits, if need be, of the time
of shearing — but the mode of shearing is not stated in these
interesting documents! . Indeed, thousands of unsuspecting
buyers never think to ask that question. “Stubbling” is par-
ticularly convenient to convert an unimproved Merino into
an improved one in appearance, by doubling the length of
wool about the head, legs, belly, etc., where the former is
most deficient.
“Trimming” is a little higher branch of the same art. It
is “cutting a sheep into form,” by shortening the wool where
there is over-fullness, and leaving it longer where there is a
lack of fullness, so that the sheep takes many of its leading
points — such as fullness in the crops, straightness of back,
etc. — quite as much from the shears as from nature. This is
practiced by exhibitors for prizes in the show yards of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England! +
“Trimming” has entirely the advantage on the score of
respectability of association, for “stubbling” in this country
is not practiced by any but the acknowledged Bedouins “ of
the profession!” Both are disreputable frauds.
Surarine Lamps anp SHEARING SHEEP Sum1-ANNUALLY.
— When lambs are yeaned, as Mr. Chamberlain’s Silesians
are, in the early part of winter, and fed up to a large size
before shearing, there is no impropriety in shearing them in
the spring with their dams; but there can be no good reason
for shearing spring lambs when two or three months old.
* I once knew a powerful Englishman who would thus tend twelve good shearers,
do up the wool beautifully, (this was when the fleeces were done up entirely by hand,)
and bring out the sheep so fast that the shearers were constantly hurried by him!
Most who both catch and do up the wool do not tend more than half a dozen shearers,
and want a boy to pick up the fribs.
+ So says the Editor of the Mark-Lane Express (by implication,) in his paper of
January 19th, 1863, .and he there entirely dissents from the opinion ofa correspondent
pine asberts that the animals which take the prizes are those which are “‘deasé cut
into form.
DOING UP WOOL. 178
Sheep are sheared twice a year in portions ot the Southern
States. This may be a sort of necessity to save the wool,
where they are suffered to run at large in forests or on lands
infested by brambles. But where sheep are treated like domes-
ticated animals, and kept’ on cleared and inclosed pastures,
neither necessity nor utility can be pleaded for the practice.
Doing Ur Woot.— The fleece having been desposited on
the folding table, with its inside ends downward, the wool-tyer
i of
o fe
peta ecm ad
j F
¥
cites sore y
FOLDING TABLE.
first spreads it out to its full extent, restoring every part to
its natural relative position. Dung and other impurities
being removed, the fleece is pressed together in the same
position as closely as practicable. One of the sides (1 in
above cut,) is then folded directly over or inverted toward
the middle of the
fleece so that it covers
5. The opposite side
(2) is then folded ied ‘
and inward in the pea
same way, covering 6, J
and leaving the fleece
in a long strip, some
twenty inches wide.
The neck (8) is next
folded toward the
breech; and the breech —-—-——_
(4) toward the neck. rd
The fleece is now 5
brought into the ob- FLEECE READY FOR PRESS,
long square represented by 5 and 6. Having placed the clean
174 DOING UP WOOL.
fribs belonging to the fleece in a bunch on top, and having
folded 5 over on 6, so that it will take the form presented
in the preceding cut, it is ready for the wool press. The
wool-tyer then takes it carefully
ty yy, between his hands and arms, so as
iy 7, not to disturb its arrangement, and
] places it unbroken in the wool
press, either on one side, as in the
left hand cut annexed, or on what
may be termed its edge, as in right
hand cut annexed.
The wool press I consider one of the most convenient
minor agricultural inventions of the day. Combining some
previous plans with my own, I furnished a plan of it substan-
tially as it now is, except that it was worked by a lever
instead of the crank arrangement described below, to Mr.
James Geddes, of Fairmount, New York. Mr. Geddes
perfected it by adding that arrangement. I am indebted to
him for the following cut and description:
FLEECE IN PRESS.
“The Press consists of a substantial and firmly made box, sup-
ported on legs of convenient height; the length of the box, four feet,
and its width eleven inches, and its depth ten and one-half inches,
both measured inside of the box.* One end or head of this box (a)
is fixed,.and strongly
braced by a sort of iron b : a
bracket made for the . :
purpose; the other or
movable head (8,) has a
horizontal support to
which it is also firmly
braced, and slides under @
the cleet nailed at f up
to within any requisite
distance of the other
head, a. Through both
the heads there are three
perpendicular slits
which render so many
braces essential to their
strength, and through “=z,
wick the strings are sated .
extended for the tying WOOL PRESB,
of the fleece. In oper- :
ation, these strings having been put in place, the fleece is folded to go
into the box, but not rolled; the crank, turned by hand and prevented
by a ratchet from springing back, moves the roller at d, which, by
means of the strap, two inches wide, shown at c, pulls up the follower
* Large fleeces require a rather larger box.
FRAUDS IN DOING UP WOOL. 175
b—the strings are tied; the catch lifted and crank reversed, when the
straps, one inch wide each, at g, draw back the follower, and the
fleece is released in perfect shape.”
There are several other forms of wool presses, but they
possess so little proportionable value that “L do not regard
them as worth describing.* ;
The fleece comes from the press in a nearly square mass,
and if it is properly folded, and placed in the machine with
respectable skill, not a black or outside end of a single lock is
visible; and none but the best parts of the fleece are visible.
This is expected by the buyer, and therefore has no odor of
deception about it.
The twine used in tying should be of flax or hemp. If
of cotton, particles of it are liable to be mixed with the wool
and to become incorporated with the cloth. They receive
different colors from wool in the process of dyeing, and might
thus spot the surfaces of dark, fine cloths. Wool twine should
be large enough not to render the continuous tying of it too
painful to the fingers, but if over large, it looks unwork-
manlike and also as if the seller was anxious to sell twine for
wool. The three bands of twine placed on each fleece in the
press is sufficient, unless it comes loose at the edges and
requires an extra band placed round it, the other way, after
being taken from the press.
Fraups iw Doing Up Woor.—Some farmers have the
habit, if they have a few sheep die in winter, of putting the
wool pulled from them into the sheared wool, distributing a
a handful or two into each fleece. If the pulled wool is
unwashed and the fleeces are sold as washed, the practice is
a serious fraud. If the pulled wool is washed, or is in the
same condition in this respect with the fleece wool, then it is
a petty fraud—for pulled wool is not as well adapted to some
* The only possible exception, I think, is the original of this press, worked by a
lever. It is notso good an implement as the above, but is much more conveniently
made with the rough tools usually found on a farm. One end of the lever passes
through a hole in the middle of the cross-piece or brace, which is nailed on the left
hand iegs of the machine, near their bottom, as seen in the cut. The strap (c,) which
is attached in above cut to the movable head (6,) is fastened to the lever under the
front end of box (d.) The lever is a couple of feet longer than the box, so that a man
can, if necessary, stand on the elevated end to press it down. That end is raised
about half-way from the floor to the box, when the movable head (0) is slid back to /.
Consequently when forced down by the foot, it draws forward the sliding head toward
the stationary one, in the same manner as the crank does above. A strip of notched
iron attached perpendicularly to the inside of one of the fore-legs with a piece of iron
on the lever to catch into the notches, holds down the lever to any point to which it is
pressed. The lever-press requires to be fastened to the floor by a hook and staple at
Ln ee end, 40 prevent it tipping up when the weight of a man is put on the lever at
e other end. :
176 STORING WOOL.
purposes as sheared wool, and “dead wool” is apt to be
inferior in various particulars.* Putting unwashed tags into
washed fleeces is also fraudulent. If as well washed as the
wool, it is not fraudulent, for they are parts of the same
fleeces.t Breech wool simply. discolored by dung may enter
the fleece, but all respectable flock-masters should take good
care that no lumps or masses of dung are accidentally rolled
up init. Locks wet with urine should be dried in the sun
before being done up in the fleece. It is not a fraud to put
the hairy shank wool in the fleece, but it is unworkmanlike.
It is fraudulent to sell fleeces burred to any extent, unless
the buyer is distinctly put on his guard. All such fleeces,
however much or little burred, should be put by themselves,
and the buyer invited to open them.
Stormve Wooxu.— Wool should be stored in a clean, dry
room, into which neither dust, vermin nor insects can obtain
entrance. Both of the latter are very fond of building nests
in it.§ A north light is the best one to show wool in. If
there is room for it, the fleeces should be piled up neatly
and regularly in walls, with alleys between, so that a large
proportion of them can be seen by the purchaser without
disturbing their arrangement. Fleeces of the same lot or
flock should be piled promiscuously, or divided into lots
according to quality. If the want of room or other circum-
stances require the wool to be piled in a large, compact
mass, it is not only for the character but even often for the
immediate interests of the seller to place a full proportion of
the inferior fleeces in sight. Few persons buy without
opening the pile somewhat, and he who opens it and finds
that it has been “faced” with the best fleeces, is apt to
overestimate the inferiority of that which remains unseen.
It is 2 common but erroneous idea, that wool continues to
gain in weight for long periods after being stored. It does
so for a short time: at any rate it has where I have seen the
fact tested; but every: wool merchant knows that in the
course of a year it loses several per cent. by the evaporation
of yolk and moisture.
* When the sheep die of diseases it is apt to be uneven, jointed, weak, harsh
and unelastic.
+ And the buyer is a gainer by their being washed separately, because, being
severed from the sheep, they receive no yolk after washing.
+ However badly wool is burred, not one is usually visible on the outside of fleece
when it is well done up in a press.
§ Especially rats, mice and bumble-bees.
PLACE FOR SELLING WOOL— WOOL DEPOTS. 177
Pracr For Setting Woou.— My own experience and
observation for more than thirty. years, in regard to selling
wool, has satisfied me that, on the whole, the best, and, to the
farmer, by far the most satisfactory place for disposing of his
clip, is at home in his own wool room. It shows better there
than in the sack; and the bargain a man makes for’ himself, he
is bound to rest contented with. The local competition, too,
in places frequented by buyers, I think usually runs up prices
to quite as high a point as the general market authorizes at
the time of sale — not unfrequently quite as high as would be
received directly from the manufacturer, after deducting
freight and the other incidental charges which cluster round
such transactions.
Woot Dxrors anp Commission Srores.—The wool
depot system, as it was called, was introduced by H.
Blanchard, at’ Kinderhook, New York, in 1844. It was
conducted on the same general principles with the ordinary
commission establishments, but varied in its method of
transacting business. Each lot of wool was graded and.
stapled and the owner credited with the amount; but his
wool was no longer kept separate. The charges were for
receiving, sorting and selling, one cent a pound; cartage,
three cents a bale; and insurance, usually thirty cents on $100
for three months. The anticipated advantages of the system
were that each owner would get the highest market value for
his wool, and that the manufacturer could afford to pay a
better price when he could buy the kind he wanted unmixed
with others. T.C. Peters opened such an establishment at
Buffalo, New York, in 1847, Perkins & Brown one at
Springfield, Massachusetts; and I think others were com-
menced. It was anticipated for a time that they would
receive and sell most of the wool of the country, but, though
conducted with acknowledged skill and probity, the system
failed utterly. Americans generally prefer to do their own
bargaining. Wool commission stores, however, still flourish
in the important centers of commerce. For a class of
sellers — those like the prairie wool growers, for example,
who have large lots and no suitable place of storage, or those
who are remote from regular markets and wish to realize at
stated periods — they are indispensable.
Sackine Woout.— When wool is sold at the barn, the
place of delivery is the subject of stipulation. The sacking,
8
178 SACKING WOOL.
unless otherwise agreed, must be done by the purchaser. It
is sacked in bales nine feet long, formed of two breadths of
“burlaps” from 35 to 40 inches wide. The mouth of the
sack is sowed with twine round a strongly iron-riveted hoop,
and the body of it is let down through a circular aperture
usually in the floor of the loft or room where the wool is
stored, if it is in an upper story. If sacked on the farm, and
the wool room is not in an upper story, a temporary platform
is sometimes erected for that purpose, and the wool tossed up
toa catcher. The hoop rests on the edges of the floor around
the hole, and the suspended sack should swing clear of
everything beneath. A man enters it, and another standing
at the mouth passes down the fleeces to him. He arranges
them as closely as possible in successive layers and tramples
them down with his feet until they are as compact as they
can be made. When the bale is filled, the top of it is sowed
up with twine, and it is marked as the buyer wishes. It
renders the bales more convenient for lifting, if handles are
formed by tying up a. little wool in their lower corners.
CHAPTER XVII.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT — CONTINUED,
DRAFTING AND SELECTION — REGISTRATION — MARKING AND
NUMBERING — STORMS AFTER SHEARING — SUN -SCALD —
TICKS — SHORTENING HORNS — MAGGOTS — CONFINING RAMS
— TRAINING RAMS — FENCES — SALT — TAR, SULPHUR,
ALUM, &C.— WATER IN PASTURES—SHADE IN PASTURES
-—— HOUSING SHEEP IN SUMMER— PAMPERING.
Drarrine AND SELECTION.—To secure constant improve-
ment in a stock of sheep, as well as to remove all animals
from it which have individual peculiarities which render
them comparatively unprofitable, or troublesome, it is
necessary annually to “draft” the flock, as it is termed, that
is, exclude from it all animals which fall below a certain
standard of excellence. The leading defects to be had in
view in drafting are, first, the general ones of a want of the
requisite degree of perfection in the form and fleece, judged
by the existing standard of the flock. What satisfies the
owner, in these respects, in one generation of sheep, ought
not to in the next. However perfect the flock, there ought
to be some degree of improvement visible in the get of every
new stock ram, or that ram ought at once to give place to
another. ‘And as each year brings more perfect younger
animals into breeding, the most defective old ones should be
excluded, or drafted, to make place for them. If, however,
the get of a new stock ram do not meet expectation—or if
it is found that they bring some new prominent fault into the
flock, or, what is still worse, restore an old one partly bred
out and toward which a predisposition yet lingers in the
flock—or if they present a type not uniform with the
established type of the flock, even though, in itself, it may
be an equally good one—it would be better to draft this
entire get of lambs, and allow the year of their birth to be a
stationary one in the progress of the flock.
180 DRAFTING — REGISTRATION.
The principal special and, in prime flocks, exceptional
defects which call for drafting, are weakness of constitution,
predispositions to particular diseases, poor qualities either as
breeders or mothers, difficulties of any kind connected with
lambing, tendencies to barrenness, or any important vices,
such as wool-biting, jumping, untamable wildness, &c. Ewes
which have attained an advanced age are usually excluded
unless they are peculiar favorites. If crones are retained on
account of their marked value as breeders, they ought, both
on the score of utility and appearance, to be separated from
the rest of the flock and fed and nursed by themselves.
The selection of the young stock to take the place of the
drafted sheep, should not depend on one examination,
however deliberate and careful. It is one of the most
important operations of the sheep farm, and can only be
properly performed by noting the characteristics of every
animal in the young flock, from the time it is yeaned until
that for selection arrives. ;
The best time for drafting is at shearing. There is no
other one period during the entire year when all the charac-
teristics of each individual are either so apparent to the eye,
or so fresh in the recollection, as then. No person ever
attains so perfect a knowledge of the fleece in any other way
as by seéing it roll from the carcass under the shears, spread
out on the folding table, handled into and out of the wool-
press, and put to the last and crowning test of being
separtely weighed. The least defect of form, too, is then
laid most naked. And, finally, in the case of sheep not
permanently numbered, if the drafting and selection are not
then made, the removal of the fleece usually destroys all
means of distinctly identifying the animal, and consequently
of recalling its past history, unless in the case of a few very
superior or otherwise peculiar animals.
RecisrraTion.— Some owners of small and very carefully
managed flocks remember, or imagine they remember, the
history of every sheep in them; but this is obviously
impracticable in regard to flocks of any considerable size. A
history of each individual sheep is by no means necessary in
a flock kept mainly for wool-growing or mutton purposes, or
in order to effect a good and even a rapid degree of general
improvement in any flock; but it is indispensable to the
breeder to enable him to make the greatest individual as
well as general improvement—to preserve his pedigrees
REGISTRATION. 181
correctly — and to sell sheep with a full understanding of
their particular qualities at periods of the year when those
qualities cannot be determined solely by the eye. The
careful breeder should invariably be on the shearing floor
with his Register in his hand, minutely scrutinizing each
sheep as its fleece is taken off, and noting down his observa-
tions on the spot. It is most convenient to have a prescribed
form of record in which each particular can be stated by a
figure; and it will, of course, include those particulars which
each person is most desirous of preserving. I have always
had my own include such facts as would give me a full
general idea of the sheep without going beyond the record.
I have changed the form several times, but that used for the
last three or four years has been a blank book with each page
ruled into columns, and headed as follows:
i le ies
Blsjdlael=| |z/s
glee 2]eis ala) |.
SelB ele] leis] s]s REMAREE.
ri wliS/eleolZ] 2] eof} wlals
g Slelelplaleleisa)/se/a}2
4 sdlale(Slalelala/e|slsiz
Ele S/ElelS i238] PISS 2/2/2132
Blo; Nlolal a slzlelsle ic)
vid lala l/SIg@ IEF Ileio PISISIBIS
1) 4] 1] 38] O|] 1) 83a} 8] 1) 2] 8] 1] 4] 17) 21
25] 5] 1) 4) 8/5 | 1) 8] 8] 2] 4] 1] 5] 4
Except in the columns for number, age, and weight of
fleece, the figures imply relative degree or quality: and 1 is
assumed as the maximum and 5 as the minimum of that
degree or quality. Thus the first of the above records being
translated reads thus: No. 1 is four years old, very large, of
middling form, has no lamb, has hitherto exhibited first rate
breeding qualities, yields 8}1bs. of wool, the wool is of middling
quality, and of the longest staple, its thickness is better than
middling but not first rate, yolkiness medium, covering on
belly excellent, the head badly covered, wrinkled in the
182 PERMANENT MARKS ON SHEEP.
highest degree, constitution excellent. The second would
read thus: No. 2 is 5 years old, is of the smallest size, of the
best form, has an inferior lamb, her breeding qualities are
only middling, weight of fleece 5 Ibs., quality of wool prime,
length of staple middling, thickness of fleece middling, fleece
of more than medium yolkiness, covering of belly below
middling, covering of head first rate, no wrinkles, constitution
quite defective. The star at the left of No. 2, signifies that
she is to be drafted from the flock. If I had a ram exceed-
ingly strong in the points where No. 1 was most defective
viz., in form, quality of wool and covering of head, I should
be likely to write his name opposite in the column of
“Remarks,” to signify the propriety of coupling them the
ensuing fall. If any sheep had any special defect not
included in the record, I would place that fact in the same
column. * ;
The above system of registration may appear to many
poe to be attended with a good deal of labor and trouble.
know by abundant experience that there is not the slightest
difficulty in recording these memoranda with the utmost care
and accuracy, and at the same time keeping up with five or
six shearers. To prevent any confusion, where there is alone
a chance for it, namely, in crediting fleeces to the wrong
sheep, I throw down a card by each sheep which is being
sheared, marked with its number as entered in the Register,
in connection with its other qualities. The card is taken up
with the fleece, and kept with it until the latter is done up
and weighed. Habit soon renders the eye prompt to decide,
and at least as accurate here as under any other circum-
stances. I had as lief sell sheep, or select them for coupling,
by my Register, as to give them a new examination at the
time; and I certainly could do so far more understandingly
than by examination without the Register at any period
within five or six months after shearing.
Marxine anp Numserinc.—Sheep should be marked
immediately after shearing with the mark of ownership —
usually two of the owner’s initials stamped on the side by an
iron brand dipped in paint. Whether they need additional
marks, so that each can at any time be distinguished from all
the rest of the flock, depends upon the owner’s modes of
* Tt is understood, of course, that the above are merely imaginary cases to illus-
trate the mode of keeping a record, Such a sheep as No, 2, frond hardly be found in
any good breeding flock. ~-
PERMANENT MARKS ON SHEEP. 183
treatment, breeding, &c. In “Sheep Husbandry in the
South,” I recommended Von Thaer’s elaborate system of
permanently numbering lambs, by notches on the ear. By
this, one notch over the left ear signifies 1; two notches over
the same, 2; one notch under the same, 3; three notches
under the left ear, 9; one notch over the right ear, 10; two
over same, 20; a notch under the right ear, 30; three’ notches
under right ear, 90; a notch in end of left ear, 100; in the
end of right ear, 200; these added together, 300; the point of
the left ear cut square off, 400; the point of the right ear cut
square off, 500; the latter and the notch for 100 added, 600,
and so on.
Von Thaer indicated the age by round holes in the ears.
As there could not be a mistake of ten years in the age of a
sheep, the holes are the same for every succeeding ten years.
The absence of any hole indicates the beginning of each
decade of years, as 1840, 1850, or 1860; one hole in left
ear, 1861; two holes in left, 1862; one hole in right, 1863;
one hole in right, and one in left, 1864; one hole in right and
two in left, 1865; two in right, 1866; two in the right, and
one in left, 1867 ; two in each, 1868; three in the right, 1869;
none in either, 1870.*
I have again given this system of numbering because it
has proved a highly satisfactory one to some pains-taking
men; but I confess I long since got tired of and abandoned
it. It requires considerable trouble; and if the holes and
notches are not made large enough to mutilate the ear, they
are liable to heal up or become obscure; and they therefore
require watching while healing. Even when made as small
as will answer, they still, in high numbers, cause a dis-
agreeable mutilation.
There is another German system by which the different
numerals are made by rows of sharp, steel points inserted in
metallic types, as in the two upper figures on following
page; and these types have dovetails which can be slid into
corresponding grooves (@a@ aa in cut on next page) in the
lower jaw of a pair of nippers constructed for the purpose,
and thus will be made ready for use.
The inside of the ear is smeared with a thick paint made
of vermillion, indigo, or gunpowder and whiskey. By means
of the nippers, the steel points giving the proper numbers, are
* The proper instrument to use is aspring punch like those used by railroad
conductors — cutting a hole a little less than one-fourth of an inch in diameter, James
Martin, 20 Beaver Street, Albany, manufactures beautiful ones of any size, to order.
184 PERMANENT MARKS ON SHEEP.
forced into the skin inside the ear as far as is practicable
without causing bleeding, and when they are withdrawn the
paint is rubbed into the punctures. Mr. Fleichmann—t
MARKING IMPLEMENTS.
whose Report on German Sheep* I am indebted for the
illustrations of this. process—declares, as the result of his
own observation and experience, that it succeeds fally, and
that the numbers remain visible “in old sheep which have
ybeen marked for several years.”
I have seen imported sheep which had been perfectly
tattooed in this way; ii
and it constitutes a :
very beautiful mode €
of marking for those
who have time and
taste for manipula- INSIDE EAR HARES.
tions demanding so much care. They must be performed
with great exactness to be successful. Mr. George Campbell,
of West Westminster, Vt., writes me that “he likes the
system very much when the figures can be made plain; that
he has been using gunpowder, but does not get all the figures
legible; that-he is now experimenting with India ink.”
A third mode of permanent marking is performed by
punching a hole an eighth of an inch in diameter through the
ear and inserting a lead rivet of the size and form of the
ordinary No. 8 copper belt rivet, sold in hardware shops.
Like the belt rivet, it has a bur on which the opposite end
* In United States Patent Office Report for 1847.
PERMANENT MARKS ON SHEEP. 185
of the rivet is headed down, on the inner side of the ear.
The head is about half an inch in diameter, and on this is
stamped the number of the sheep. I have never tested it;
but learn that it has given satisfaction to those who have
done so. The copper belt rivet itself might be used.
A fourth mode of permanent marking was introduced to
some extent among the breeders of New York in 1862. To
a ring three-fourths of an inch in circumference,
and formed of smallish No. 14 brass wire, was
suspended a plate of copper of the form exhibited
in the annexed cut, on which were stamped the
initials of the owner’s name, and the number of
the sheep. The ring was inserted about the
middle of the ear, so that the plate would remain
visible outside the wool. It was found, however,
that the ring sometimes cut down through the
ear, and sometimes that it was itself cut through
by the plate. The cutting of the ear might
doubtless be prevented by making the holes
with a punch, and allowing them to heal fully before
inserting the rings,* and, if necessary, reducing the weight
of the plate by making it no larger than in the cut, or even
no larger than a five or three cent piece, and as thin as the
last named coin. This reduction of weight would probably
also prevent the ring from being cut through. Or a split steel
ring, or a small T might take the place of the brass ring. t
This is so neat and convenient a mode of permanent marking,
that it ought to be brought to perfection.
If not permanently numbered, every large flock of any.
considerable value, from which sales of breeding sheep are to
be made, or which is to be bred with particular reference to
individual characteristics, should be annually numbered — for
without this there can be no registration. It is performed by
stamping figures about 24 inches long, on the side or rump,
with paint, by means of iron or wooden brands. The latter
are cut like a type on the end of blocks of soft wood. It is
convenient to have a box of brands (arranged and kept in
their order,) with special marks for wethers, cull or draft
METAL EARMARE.
* Brass is corrosive toa new wound, and by keeping the edges of the hole raw,
works down through the ear more readily.
+ The ring turning freely in a hole on sound healed up flesh, would be less likely
tocut through. The split ring is inserted with considerable difficulty. The T, half an
inch long, inserted through a hole already healed and lying across the upper side of
the ear could not cut through. Butif the plate is lightened, as suggested, (its upper
eaee a also be thickened and ronnded) I have little doubt the present brass ring
Wo} suffice.
186 STORMS AFTER SHEARING.
sheep, those of particular crosses, etc., etc. It is a great
convenience to have even permanently numbered sheep also
receive this annual numbering on the body, so that they
can be readily distinguished in the field, without catching,
and at some distance. All marks should be put on near the
spine to prevent rubbing before the paint is dry.
SToRMS AFTER SHEARING.— It is remarkable how readily
even hardy sheep perish if exposed to very cold storms soon
after shearing. A cold rain-storm accompanied with a north-
west wind, occurred in Central New York in 1860, during the
height of shearing, a little after the middle of June. It came
on a day which had opened pleasantly, and many farmers
having made their preparations and having their sheep under
cover, shut their doors and kept on shearing. Some, with
singular thoughtlessness, turned the new-shorn sheep out as
usual. Probably three hundred perished within a circle of a
few miles. In one case within my knowledge, a wool buyer
approaching a barn found a number of dead and dying sheep
lying about. On entering the closed barn he found the farmer
and his assistants shearing away in high glee and turning
out new victims. They had not even thought to look out!
When death is not directly produced by such exposure,
the sheep are apt to contract obstinate catarrhs, and exhibit
other symptoms of unthriftiness for a considerable period
afterwards —a very bad way of commencing the summer,
particularly for ewes having lambs. Sheep should be housed
on cold nights and during cold storms for a few days after
shearing ; and in default of conveniences for this, they should
‘be driven into dense forests and to situations most sheltered
from cold winds. 7
Very early shearing should be considered out of the
question in climates like those of the Northern States, without
a sufficient supply of barns and sheds to shelter every sheep
on the farm in case of necessity. But, in truth, the early
shorn sheep do not appear to suffer as much, in proportion,
from cold. The change to them is not so great or sudden as
when cold storms follow shearing after they have been
sweltering in their fleeces in hot weather. New-shorn sheep
rapidly become inured to much colder weather than they
could endure at first, and this long before their wool has
grown enough to offer them any additional protection.
Sun -Scaip.— This is very rare now, but was not so when
Saxon sheep abounded in the country. It was the fashion to
DESTROYING TICKS. 187
shear them very close, and their skins were so thin and
delicate, that they not unfrequently blistered, and became
sore under the scorching sun. Some greased these sores —
others gave the sheep shade and paid no further attention
to them. i
Ticxs.— A very ticky flock of lambs can not be kept in
good order, and when they become poor and weak, toward
spring, these destructive parasites rapidly reduce them lower
and render it extremely difficult to save their lives. Ticks are
found on all sheep in neglected flocks, but thé heat and cold,
and the rubbing and biting to which they are exposed on new
shorn sheep, drive them to take shelter in the long wool of
the lambs. Here they are so readily exterminated, that it is
as much of a disgrace as a loss to the flock-master to suffer
them to remain in a breeding flock. About a fortnight after
shearing, every lamb should be dipped in a decoction of
DIPPING BOX.
tobacco strong enough to kill the ticks. The last point can be
readily settled by an experiment on a few of these insects. *
The decoction is poured into a narrow, deep box, which has an
inclined shelf on one side, covered with a grate, as shown in
the cut. One man holds the lamb by the fore-legs with one
* The rule used to be to boil 5 lbs. of plug tobacco (after chopping it fine) or 10
Ibs. of stems for a hundred late Saxon lambs,’ The larger, earlier and longer fleeced
lambs of the present day require more—say 634 lbs. or % ibs. The decoction is used
cold or blood-warm. Care must be taken not to dilute it so that it will fail to kill
both the tick and its eggs.
188 DESTROYING TICKS.
hand, and with the other clasps the nose so as to prevent any
of the fluid from entering the nostrils or mouth; another
holds the lamb by the hind-legs, and they then entirely
immerse it in the fluid. It is immediately taken. out, placed
on the grate, and every part of its wool carefully squeezed.
The grated shelf conducts the liquor back into the box. In
default of a dipping box, two tubs may be used. After
dipping the lamb in one it is set on its feet in the empty one,
its wool squeezed out, and the liquor returned to the dipping
tub as often as is necessary.
Mr. Thorne informs me that he mixes whale oil with the
tobacco water, until the latter is considerably thickened by it;
and he thinks this renders the wash beneficial to the fleece.
A solution of arsenic has long been used for the same
purpose in Great Britain, and at the present time it is vastly
more economical than’ tobacco. Three pounds of ‘white
arsenic, in. powder, are dissolved in six gallons of boiling
water, and forty gallons of cold water are added. The whole
is well stirred with a stick, and the lamb is then immersed pre-
cisely in the same way as in the tobacco water. The remaining
liquor, containing this deadly poison, should be poured where
no animal can get to it; and the dipping box, after being well
rinsed, should be put in a safe place and used for no other
purpose. Arsenic is not poisonous to the hands, if they are
sound; and even if the skin should be a little broken, a couple
of hours exposure to the above described solution would be
attended with no danger. If large surfaces of the hands
were denuded of skin, an injurious absorption of the arsenic
might take place. The old sheep are frequently dipped at
the same time with lambs, in arsenic water, in England.
If the lambs of a breeding flock are properly dipped, but
very few ticks will be found either on the old sheep or lambs
at the next shearing. If killed in the same way on the
succeeding years’ lambs, they will generally be wholly
exterminated from the flock; and if no ticky sheep are
subsequently introduced into it, and it is kept in good order,
two or three or more years may elapse before another tick
will be found in it.
When lambs have been suffered to go until winter without
dipping, and are covered with ticks, arsenic boiled in water,
an ounce to a gallon, is poured on them; but the Mountain
Shepherd’s Manual, which recommends this, adds :—“In this
method, however, several of the ticks escape by crawling to
the extremities of the filaments.” The common mercurial
SHORTENING HORNS — MAGGOTS. 189
ointment of the shops, mixed. with seven parts of lard, is an
effectual remedy. It is rubbed on the skin in furrows made’
by opening the wool, and should be most freely applied to
the parts which are especially frequented by the. insects, viz.,
the neck and brisket. Half an ounce of it may thus be used
with entire safety on a common sized Merino lamb, having
the ordinary. access to shelter, in any but exceedingly
tempestuous or changeable weather; and this would be more
than sufficient for the purpose. In England, where mercurial
ointment is frequently used, it is believed to have a generally
salutary effect on the skin and on the growth of the wool.
Indeed, it is often applied for this express purpose, about the
first of October, to lambs which were dipped at shearing, and
which, therefore, have no vermin on them. It is also applied
to grown sheep for the same purposes, at the close of the
coupling season — 2 lbs. to twenty head — or 13 oz. per head.
An ounce would be sufficient on a grown Merino.
Ssortentne Horns, Erc.—Every horn in the flock should
be examined at marking time. When those of the ram press
upon the side of the head or neck, a longitudinal section
should be sawed from the inside of each, so as to relieve the
parts of their contact—and the edges should be rasped
smooth. Ewes’ horns sometimes grow into the eyes or sides
of the face. They should be sawed off, and it will save the
trouble of repeating the operation often if they be taken off
near the head. By far the best saw I have ever used for
these different purposes is a butcher’s bow saw.
Maccors.— New-shorn rams do not recognize each other
at once after shearing ; and those often fight which have pre-
viously run kindly together. If the skin of the head becomes
broken, and especially if blood oozes from the wound to a part
where a horn presses on the flesh, or where the shearer has
left a mass of wool between the flesh and horn, maggots are
promptly generated, and they soon burrow in the flesh and-
produce death under the most distressing form. Where they
have entered the flesh deeply it is difficult to exterminate them
by one application of the proper substances—and they should
be carefully re-examined at intervals of a day or two,
according to appearances. Spirit of turpentine will kill the
maggots it comes in contact with, and prevent the fly from
again attacking the parts until its effects are dissipated. It is
common also to daub tar over the wound. Having always
190 CONFINING RAMS,
found these applications sufficient, I have not experimented
with others. Spirit of tar is said to be more effective than
turpentine. A flock-master who is an excellent practical
shepherd writes me that he has found that “two ounces of
corrosive sublimate in a quart of any spirits that will dissolve
it” is a sure remedy in such cases; and that the flies will not
return to a wound to which it has been applied.*
Prevention here, as in most other cases, is much the best
remedy. There is no excuse for leaving a horn pressing on
the head, or wool under the horns. Rams should be smeared
back of and between. the horns immediately after shearing,
with tar and turpentine, or with fish oil, to repel the flies in
case the skin becomes broken. A ram attacked by maggots
will soon show it by his rapid emaciation and by his agonized
movements, but the mischief has then proceeded to a serious
extent. When rams fight, or when it is necessary to keep
them in considerable flocks together, they should be frequently
examined: and it would be labor well spent to renew the
smearing of fish oil on their heads once a fortnight through
the months of July and August.
Maggots are sometimes generated under adhering dung
on the breech. They are to be removed and the same
remedies applied. Maggots in the feet will be mentioned
under the head of Hoof- Rot.
Corrine Raus.— It is not often that a properly trained
ram gives much trouble by leaping good fences — particularly
if he is allowed one or two companions. But it is not very
safe to allow very valuable grown rams to run together,
even if acquainted and ordinarily peaceable. Nobody can
tell how soon a sudden and fatal battle between them will
occur. A choice ram should only be mated with a weather
or two, or after lamb-weaning with some ram lambs. I
would sooner, if necessary, build a high board fence round a
sufficient enclosure for stock rams, than hopple or clog them.
Hoppling, when resorted to, is effected by fastening a leather
strap around a fore and a hind leg, just above the pastern
joints, leaving the legs about the natural distance apart.
The ends should be broad enough not to cut into the flesh.
* My informant is Mr. Prosper Elithorp, of Bridport, Vermont. He considers it
much more effectual than turpentine in continuing to repel the attack of flies. It is
soluble in two and a third parts of alcohol. It dissolves in about 20 parts of cold
water, and in three of boiling water. But a boiling saturated solution deposits it
again in crystals after cooling. Applied externally itis an active stimulant and caustic
and has been much used with other substances in applications to ill-conditioned ulcers
TRAINING RAMS. 191
Clogging is effected by fastening a billet of wood to one fore-
leg a a strap. It used to be quite customary to fasten two
rams together by a long yoke having bows like an ox yoke.
These and similar modes of confinement are injurious to the
sheep, and they are at best insecure.
Trarninc Rams.— Great pains should be taken to teach
stock rams the most perfect docility. They should be so
tame that their keeper can anywhere walk up and put his
hands on them. They should be taught to lead by the halter
and to stand confined by the halter as quietly as well broken
horses. But arope should never be put around their heads,
as it rubs and tears off the wool. An iron ring about an inch
and a half in diameter, should be attached by an eye to a
small bolt passing through the thin part of the (left) horn,
confined on the other side by anut. The halter should be a
strap of leather with an iron snap, so that it can be readily
fastened to or detached from the ring. On the hornless
English ram the strap must buckle around the neck.
From being teazed or petted—or from natural viciousness
of temper —a ram sometimes acquires a habit of attacking
strangers who enter its enclosure—and occasionally even
its keeper. Another will strike only when some other sheep
in the flock is caught. A cross ram that requires constant
watching, is not only an annoyance but a serious danger —
for the full blow of one might inflict material injury and even
death. Unless of great value, such an animal should be
castrated at once. If kept, he should have a blind put on
him —that is, his face should be covered and his line of
sight forward cut off by a flap of leather in front of his face,
secured to the horns. If very quarrelsome, he may be
entirely blinded by tying back the ends of the flap over his
eyes.
: A ram that is not seriously disposed to be vicious, is often
made so by the cowardice of those who are in the habit of
meeting him. If he finds his attendant is afraid of him, he
will soon exert his mastery to the utmost. It is not expedient
to court an issue,.but as soon as it is discovered that a ram is
determined to test the question of mastery, his first motion
toward an attack should be followed by carrying the war
into Africa. He should be punished until he is taught the
complete and absolute superiority of his attendant.*
* He should be sprung in upon with a good tough whip —with two or three in the
left hand to supply the place of broken ones—and such a storm of blows rained on
192 FENCES — SALT.
Frncrs.—It does not require a fence of more than very
ordinary height, if it is kept constantly in repair, for the
Merino or for the improved English breeds of sheep. But if
portions of it are suffered to get partly down, and the flock pass
over these low portions a few times, some of the more restless
ones learn to be constantly on the look-out for such opportuni-
ties to escape; and they will gradually leap higher and higher,
until they are ready to scale any ordinary fence that lies in
their way. Therefore, the fences of sheep pastures ought in
all cases to be thoroughly repaired before turning out flocks
in the spring; and they should be frequently examined
through the season, particularly after heavy winds.
If sheep are to be driven through an opening in the fence,
that opening should be extended to the ground —so as never
unnecessarily to make them acquainted with the fact that
they can even leap over two rails. One ‘‘breachy” sheep
will rapidly teach its habits to the whole flock; and it
ought to be considered a fraud to sell one, without giving
notice of its vice. Such a sheep should not be tolerated in
an “orderly” flock, for a single day.
Stone walls unless very high and smooth, or unless
surmounted by rough coping stones, set up on edge, do not
turn sheep as well as rail or board fences. Sloping sod fences
are still worse. In new cleared countries, where inclosures
are very imperfectly made with brush, logs, etc., poorly kept
sheep sometimes acquire a habit, almost equal to that of
swine, of crawling through every opening.
Satr.— Salt is admitted by all to be necessary for the
health of sheep. It may be kept in the fields, under cover,
where they can have constant access to it: or as much as they
will eat may be fed to them once a week on the grass. It is
common to throw it in handfulls on mossy knolls, on tufts of
coarse grass not eaten down by sheep, on new sprouting bull
thistles, or around the roots of Canada thistles, or other
weeds—so that it shall call in the aid of the sheep to
extirpate vegetable enemies, and so that, if any of it is left, it
his head that he stands confused, not daring to open his eyes. If he retreats he
should be pursued, and if recently shorn, whipped over the back as he runs, until
thoroughly cowed. If he makes his attack on a person not prepared with whips, a
Tew rapid and hearty kicks in the face will generally settle the contest. If he charges,
the assailed person should stand firm until he is close upon him and then he should
spring suddenly aside, and as the ram rushes past dash in upon him and so punish
him that he will have no desire to renew the onset. If after one sound beating he is
not quelled permanently, or for a considerable period, resort should at once be had to
the knife or the blind.
TAR, SULPHUR, ALUM, ETC. 193
shall aid in the same particular, and in preparing the soil for
better products. I prefer weekly salting, because it is just as
well for the health of the sheep; because it keeps them tame
and ready to come at the call; and because it compels the
owner or shepherd to see them once a week, and consequently
to observe whether anything is amiss among them. He
should make it an invariable rule to count them if practicable
at salting.
Tar, Surpuur, Arum, Etc.— Some persons compel healthy
sheep to eat these substances by mixing them with salt, on
the supposition that like salt, they tend to preserve health and
increase thrift. There is no proof of this; and we have every
reason to believe that nature would prompt healthy sheep to
eat these substances as it does salt, were they in like manner
necessary to the animal economy. Tar is an impure turpen-
tine, containing, however, some different principles, of which
the principal medicinal one is creosote. Turpentine taken
internally is stimulant, diuretic and in large doses laxative.
The creosote, which adds greatly to the value of tar as an
external application to old sores, has been used internally for
various human maladies,* but it is one of the last things
which would be administered in a state of perfect health.
Sulphur is laxative, diaphoretic—i. e., it tends to produce a
greater degree of perspiration than is natural, but less than in
sweating—and resolvent, or in other words, possesses the
power of repelling or dispersing tumors. Alum is astringent
in moderate doses, purgative in large, and does not possess a
property which gives it a place among the internal remedies
of sheep, except as an astringent, and there it is inferior to
other astringents+ and is scarcely in use. Of what use can
such a compound as this be to a healthy animal?
If there is a practice in sheep or any other animal
husbandry, which more than all others lacks the shadow of
an excuse, it is, in my opinion, that of cramming drugs or any
substances which nature does not prompt them to eat, down
the throats of healthy brutes, under the idea that these will,
or can, make them fealthier ; or under the wholly mistaken
idea that the medicines which are appropriate to particular
diseases, are therefore preventives of those diseases, or even
exert a tendency in that direction. On the contrary, by dis-
* Diabetes, epilepsy, neuralgia, chronic catarrh, hysteria, etc.
+ Both Youatt and Spooner concur in this opinion,
194 WATER IN PASTURES.
arranging the habitual and orderly action of’ the functions,
they actually increase the tendency to disease; and if there is
any prevailing malady at the time, they, as it were, open the
door for its entrance. To what an innumerable number of
domestic animals of all sorts would the epitaph of the
Spaniard apply, with a slight change: “I was well; my
owner wanted me to be better, and I am here.”
Some extremely intelligent men, however, attach much
virtue to the articles under consideration, in combination with
salt, as a general remedy for certain obscure diseases. A. B.
Allen, Esq., formerly editor of the American Agriculturist,
writes me :—‘ My brother Lewis had a flock of about two hun-
dred sheep which were dying off with what was supposed to
be the rot. They were on Grand Island. He called on me in
despair, said he had done everything he could think of, and
asked if I could help him. I told him to get large scows,
load them with sheep and send them to my farm, nearly
opposite to him on the main land. I then took long troughs
made of two narrow boards put together in the form of a V.
Into these I poured tar about three inches deep; then I
sprinkled sulphur profusely; then salt and pulverized alum
sparingly. Then J took each sheep and examined its feet
thoroughly. If in the least’ diseased, I washed the feet clean
with soap suds and applied the above mixture to them. The
sheep would come to these troughs many times per day,
just lick a little and go away. I believe I also placed some
boards before and behind the troughs (for they stood in an
open position) smeared with the above, so that they would be
obliged to tread in the mixture when they went to the
troughs. The tar, etc, was renewed as often as was
necessary, for several weeks. The result was that only three
or four sheep died after this: all the rest were soon restored
to health, and in six weeks or so, my brother had the pleasure
of selling as fine and healthy a fat flock to the butchers as
was seen in Buffalo that season. I presume change of
pastures and air were beneficial to my brother’s flock, but let
me tell you that there is nothing like plenty of tar, sulphur;
salt and a modicum of pulverized alum to keep sheep in good
health, especially on heavy soils, low grounds, and when the ~
water is not over pure and abundant.”
Water 1x Pasrures.— Water is not indispensable in
summer pastures, but it is unquestionably beneficial to all
sheep, and highly important for ewes suckling lambs. It will
SHADE— HOUSING SHEEP IN SUMMER. 195
do at any time in the summer to change sheep from a dry
to a watered field or range; but the reverse of this I have
always found injurious, particularly to nursing ewes and
their lambs.
SuapE rn Pastures.— The eagerness with which sheep
seek shade from the full glare of the summer sun, is of itself
a sufficient proof of its utility. Occasional trees or clumps of
trees in each pasture afford the most natural shade. Where
these and all others (except those made by open rail fences,)
are lacking, I believe it would repay the flock-master to form
artificial ones by the cheapest means within his reach; and
planting at the same time young, rapidly growing shade trees,
for the future, would be a judicious and economical measure.
Hovstne SHEEP in Sumuer.— The comparatively small,
choice, high-priced breeding flocks of Merinos are frequently,
as has already been mentioned, housed from all summer rain-
storms. They are put up nights when there is any prospect
of rain, and some put them up-nights habitually after the
lapse of a few weeks after shearing. The object is to preserve
the yolk in the wool, and thereby obtain color and weight
of fleece. ’
Sheltering in warm weather is unnecessary, and in the
case of the sheep, as in that of all other animals, it is the
tendency of habitual non-exposure to beget an inability to
withstand exposure. But the Merino is not only an exceed-
ingly hardy animal, but one which possesses a remarkable
power of adapting itself to different circumstances. I have
repeatedly bought sheep out of these summer housed flocks,
and found no difficulty whatever in accustoming them to
ordinary treatment. Housing in summer is not, then, of
itself of much consequence, if it and its effects are, as I
now believe them to be, universally understood. This being
the case it would be binding the sheep breeder by more
stringent restrictions than we impose on other breeders, if
public opinion refused to tolerate the practice. *
* I expressed different views in my Report on Fine-Wool Husbandry, 1862.
While I stated that the leading breeders were guilty of no deception in this particular,
because they avowed their treatment and their motives for it, I urged that it led to
disappointments on the part of the buyer, and that it was a purely unnecessary waste
of labor and capital. Further information has convinced me that the effect of summer
housing sheep is about as generally understood among sheep men, as the effect of
stabling and currying horses is understood among horsemen. And the animals sub-
jected to it or not subjected to it can be as readily distinguished from each other, in
the fall, when the selling of breeding sheep commences. It is a waste of time; but
why shall not the sheep breeder be permitted to waste his time as well as the cattle
196 PAMPERING SHEEP,
Pamprrinc.— But when housing is connected with
pampering, with a high and forced system of feeding, the
case is different. To make show sheep, to make rams
saleable, to stimulate an unnatural growth of wool and
secretion of yolk, and thus produce what are termed “brag
fleeces” — to cover up defects of carcass, to convey false
impressions as to the natural size and substance of the animal
—some persons feed their sheep a good portion of the summer
and all winter, as much as they can safely get them to eat
of the richest feed. This treatment is not often given to
breeding ewes, at least in its full extent, for it materially
interferes with their own safety in lambing, and the lambs
are small, weak and difficult to raise. But to young
ewes kept for sale and for show sheep, and to rams kept for
sale, it is applied to the fullest extent. Thus a good sized
Merino ram is made to produce three or four more pounds,
and a good sized ewe one or two more pounds, of wool and
yolk, than they would if only kept in good ordinary condition.
But he who buys such. sheep (for other purposes than
slaughtering) — particularly if they are descended from
several generations of ancestors which have been pampered
in the same way—pbuys a spent hot-bed. It never will
produce again the monster fleece which tempted him to give
a monster price for it. If its feed is kept up, it has little
value for breeding purposes; if its feed is taken off, it runs
down, becomes debilitated and incapable of withstanding
ordinary hardships, is subject to every malady, and succumbs
to the first one. This was the case with that tribe of monster
French rams which first spread over this country, and died
within a year like mushrooms — ruining the reputation of the
breed. Some of them had been so thoroughly pampered,
that they could not sustain themselves on good pasturage,
and perished almost without disease, of mere debility. This
mode of preparing breeding sheep for sale is not a legal
fraud; but it is dishonest and dishonorable by whomsoever it
may be practiced.
No one will deny that every man has a right to keep his
sheep well, whether he proposes to sell them or not. Good
keeping may be pronounced the custom of all breeders. I
am not sure, indeed, that it is not necessary to certain
breeder, the horse breeder. and the breeder of every other description? The world
has agreed to find fault with no class of producers for ‘“‘putting the best side out,”
provided no deception is practiced and no injury done to the thing produced in thus
fitting it for market.
PAMPERING SHEEP. 197
improvements. For example, size cannot be increased, nor
even kept up without abundant feed. The highest bred
Short-Horn dwindles rapidly in size in each succeeding
generation — however strong the individual] and family
tendency to size—if put on thin upland pasturage and fed
only hay in winter. Ido not suppose that Mr. Ellman could
ever have raised the flat rib of the unimproved South Down
to its present almost horizontal spring from the back-bone,
had he suffered his sheep to remain ill-fed and empty —
because, while it is true that the viscera adapt their size to
the inclosing structures, it is equally true that the bony and
muscular inclosing structures adapt their size and shape to the
viscera. Whatever we may do, nature insists on and enforces
harmony!
Good keep may be pronounced necessary to improvement
in other particulars: but while the fire warms and cheers and
strengthens, the conflagration destroys! Knaves are generally
very much puzzled to ascertain, in all such cases, where the
good agency ends and the bad one begins. Men of common
sense, common experience, and common honesty, labor under
no such difficulties. They can decide at once between good
keep and destructive pampering.
CHAPTER XVII.
FALL MANAGEMENT.
WEANING AND FALL FEEDING LAMBS— SHELTERING LAMBS
IN FALL— FALL FEEDING AND SHELTERING BREEDING EWES
— SELECTING EWES FOR THE RAM-— COUPLING — PERIOD
OF GESTATION —MANAGEMENT OF RAMS DURING COUPLING—
DIVIDING FLOCKS FOR WINTER.
Weranine anp Fatt Frerprine Lamss.—Lambs of all
breeds should be weaned at about four months old; and if
drouth or other circumstances have occasioned a particular
scarcity of pasturage for the lambs and their dams, and the
former can be put on good feed by separating them, it would
be advisable to take off the lambs three or even four weeks
earlier. The somewhat prevalent idea that it is improper to
wean them in “dog days,” has not a particle of foundation.
But whatever the period of weaning, sweet, tender pasturage
is indispensable for them. New seeded stubbles and the
rowen of meadows are usually reserved for them in this
country. But many flock-masters prefer rested pastures —
i. e., those which, after being fed close, are cleared of stock
and allowed to spring up fresh. A few of our breeders of
English sheep fold their ram lambs on rape.
The modes of weaning and fall feeding lambs now
practiced in England may interest the breeders of English
sheep in this country. The following directions are from the
Royal Agricultural Society’s prize essay on the Management
of Sheep, written by Mr. Robert Smith, of Burley, 1847:
‘Lambs should never be placed upon rested summer-eaten
clover pastures, however tempting they may appear, as they
invariably cause scouring, fever and other severe ailments.
Old grass, clover, or grass-eddish [after-math] is preferable
until the autumn quarter commences, which is considered an
important one, as much depends upon the manner in which
the lambs are started, or taught to eat their winter feed. In
WEANING AND FALL FEEDING. 199
the middle of September the lambs are placed in moderate
lots upon grass or seeds, as, from the domestic habits peculiar
to the race, they are fond of picking their food at this season
of the year, cabbages being thrown to them upon the pastures,
or cut for them in troughs: after a short time a few white
turnips are mixed with them as a preparation for the winter.
As October advances they are placed upon the common or
white turnips. Some breeders mix a little cole seed in the
first sowing, which is an excellent plan. After a short time
the wether lambs are given } lb. of oil cake, or corn to that
value, each per day; at Christmas they are placed upon the
- Swedes which are cut for them, as also the white ones upon
bad. layer.”
In the “ commended essay” * of Mr. T. E. Pawlett, on the
same subject, 1847, occur the following statements :—“TI have
found lambs to thrive much better on old keeping —as red
clover, sanfoin, or grass—than upon what are termed
eddishes; yet I must state that old white clover, or trefoil
stubbles, are, when they are seeded and have become dry, the
very worst of all kinds of food for young lambs. If, however,
proper food cannot be provided for them, they should often
have their pastures changed to keep them healthy, when a
little oil cake or a few split peas or beans (one pint a day
among four lambs,) would do them no harm. Having proved
by many experiments the advantages of putting young lambs,
after weaning, upon old keeping — namély, pastures that have
been stocked from the commencement of the spring — over
eddishes or pastures that have been previously mown the
same season, I will state one experiment as a sample of the
rest. In the year 1834, I put a lot of lambs on some old
sanfoin, having a few tares carried to them, and another lot of
lambs were put on young sanfoin, or an eddish which had
grown to a pasture; these, also, had some tares. Each lot
was weighed at the commencement, and again at the end of
the trial:
The moist, mild climate and constant rain, in England,
affect pastures very differently from the scorching and often
* This is headed as follows :—‘‘ A Commended Essay, written in competition for
the premium awarded to Mr. R, Smith, by the Royal Agricultural Society, 184%.”” Mr.
Pawlett is known as a distinguished breeder of Leicesters.
260 WEANING AND FALL FEEDING.
very dry summers of the United States; and as a general
thing I have found good fresh rowen or after-math on
meadows, or the new seeded grass in grain stubbles, better
feed for lambs than rested pastures, unless the latter have
been seeded the same or the previous year, and the grass on
them is tender and fresh. ;
Both of the above quotations, however, teach one valuable
lesson to those who have not already learned it —the high
importance of giving lambs generous keep from the time
of weaning until winter in order that they may continue
growing rapidly during that entire period. If by poor keep
or any other cause, their growth is seriously arrested, and
instead of the rounded -plumpness of thrifty lambs, they put
on the dried-up appearance of “little old sheep” — the poorer
ones are likely to perish outright before the close of winter ;
and by no amount of care or feed can the others be brought to
the next spring equal with lambs which receive only common
feed in winter, but which were kept properly through the fall
months.
Lambs, when separated from their dams for weaning,
should, if the feed is good enough, be left for a few days in
the field where the flock has been previously kept—their dams
being taken away to a new one. The lambs are more
contented and make fewer efforts to escape when thus familiar
with the place. The two fields should be so far apart that
they cannot hear each others’ bleating. If this is imprac-
ticable, the fence should be carefully stopped, for if a few
lambs crawl through and again reach their dams, they will not
give up renewing their efforts to escape and communicating
their own restlessness to the others, for twice the usual weaning
period. Two or three escapes establish a habit which it is
difficult to overcome.
It is a great advantage to put two or three very tame old
crones which have not lambs of their own, or a lead wether,
among the lambs, to teach them to come at the call; and to
lead them up to, and set them the example of eating salt,
trough - feed, etc.
The dams should be put on the dryest feed on the farm for
a fortnight after separation, to stop their flow of milk. The
udders of some of them may require to be milked out once or
twice, and if these exhibit much redness and warmth, they
should be bathed as recommended at page 158. Smearing
the udders with a thick, pasty mixture of soap and water,
after a previous washing in cold water, is sometimes resorted
SHELTERING LAMBS IN FALL. 201
to. I have already sufficiently adverted to the high import-
ance of preserving the udders of breeding ewes in a perfectly
normal condition. When entirely dried off, they should be
put on good feed to get into condition for winter.
As soon as the fall frosts have touched the grass, it is
highly beneficial—nay, it is indispensable in good sheep
farming—to give lambs some kind of artificial feed. Turnips
are (I am sorry to say,) but little raised among the great mass
‘of our sheep farmers, and rape and cabbage are nearly
unknown as field crops. Any of these would be, vastly
cheaper than grain feed; but in default of them, grain feed
should be given. At first a little sprinkling of oats, shorts,
bran or the like should be put once a day in troughs, in their
pasture. By keeping them from salt on other occasions and
salting their trough feed very slightly, they, led up by the
crones, will first nibble at and then eat it; and when even a
few do this, the rest will rapidly follow their example. A
spoonful of oats a head is more than enough to begin with;
and when they get well to eating, this may be gradually
increased to half a gill per head—and before winter to a gill,
or to its equvalent in shorts, bran, or other grain. ran
and shorts, or shorts and oats, mixed half-and-half, are
proverbially good feed for lambs. An addition of turnips to
these would leave nothing to desire. Indian corn, in despite
of the fears entertained of it by some persons, for that object,
is also an excellent lamb feed; but it must be given more
sparingly. A bushel of it is equivalent to its weight in
oats.*
Saetterinec Lamps 1n Fatt.— Sheltering lambs from the
heavy, cold rain-storms which fall for a month or a month
and a half before the setting in of winter, in our northern
latitudes, is now beginning to be practiced by all the best
flock-masters; and when the ground becomes wet and cold,
and frequently freezes, toward the close of autumn theyshould
also be regularly housed every night. It is well to have
racks of hay ready for them in their stables; and it is very
easy to learn them to eat grain, etc., there. If it is regularly
placed in the troughs over night, with a very light dusting of
salt, as before mentioned, but two or three days will elapse
before it will be regularly and entirely consumed. Getting
* A bushel of corn weighs 58 lbs,, a bushel oats 32 lbs., by the rule established in
New York. "
9
202 FALL TREATMENT OF BREEDING EWES.
the lambs accustomed to the stables before winter, is in itself
no inconsiderable advantage.
Fatt Frrpine anp SHzrrrrine Brerpine Ewxs.— It is
a common and very truthful saying among observing flock-
masters, that “a sheep well summered is half wintered.”
Breeding ewes should be brought into good condition by the
time the first killing frosts occur. After that, they should not
be suffered to fall off, but be kept rather improving by feeding
them, if the condition of the pastures render it necessary, with
pumpkins, turnip-tops, and any other perishable green feed on
the farm—and after these are exhausted, with turnips. If
some of the oldest and youngest ewes remain thin, they
should be separated from the others and fed rather better —
grain not being withheld, if it is necessary to bring them
into plump condition before winter. Shelter from late, cold
storms, though not as important as in the case of lambs,
is very desirable, and there can be no doubt that with persons
possessing convenient and commodious sheep stables, it will
well pay for the trouble to put up breeding ewes nights
whenever the weather is raw and the ground wet and cold. *
In default of artificial green feed, hay or corn stalks should be
regularly fed to sheep—once or twice a day, according to
circumstances—as the pasturage becomes insufficient for
their full support.
A singular idea prevails among a class of our farmers, in
regard to fall feeding sheep, which has been handed down
from those days when the two dozen gaunt, “native” sheep
which belonged to a farm and which roamed nearly as
unrestrained as wild deer through field and forest, did not
“come in to the barn” before the ground was covered with
snow. In coppices, on briars, and in swamps where the
water kept the snow dissolved—and by digging in the
fields —they even found subsistence until the snow became
deep and so packed and crusted by sun and wind as to prevent
their reaching the ground. They then retreated to the barn-
yard, usually lank enough! But every farmer knows the
immense difference whether in the fields in summer, or in the
* My own flocks have generally been too large and spread over too much surface,
to render housing from storms practicable until the sheep are brought into their
winter quarters; and if well kept, they certainly do well enough without it. But I
housed a flock of lambs last fall, and I thought the benefit was very obvious. I have
repeatedly observed the same thing in other men’s flocks — particularly in Vermont.
In that State, fall housing is almost as common, and is regarded as almost as indispen-
sable, as winter housing. This is probably somewhat a question of climate.
FALL TREATMENT OF BREEDING EWES. 203
stable or barn-yard in winter, between recruiting up and
getting into condition two dozen, or two hundred lean,
reduced sheep. The little handful of “natives” choosing
every morsel of their food over one or two hundred acres of
land, through the summer, had high condition to fall back on,
in the pinch of the early winter; and when put into the barn-
yards with the cattle and young horses, they still chose all the
best morsels of the hay—robbing the latter animals — so
that they not only made a shift to live, but usually got round
to the next spring in tolerable order. True, when let out to
grass again, their condition began to change so rapidly that
they frequently shed off nearly all their wool—so that many
of them had not half a pound a piece at shearing; and those
which escaped this were very likely to have their fleeces half
ruined by cotting. But what of all this? This was the way
things were done in those days!
Brought up under such traditions, many of our older
farmers who consider it highly essential as well as profitable
to give their cows, horses and other animals, artificial and
extra feed a month before the winter sets in, consider every
pound of fodder bestowed on sheep at that time, so much
taken from the profits which these animals are bound, under
all circumstances, to yield to their owners—a total loss!
A more absurd and pernicious notion could not prevail. If
sheep could withstand the effects of such treatment with as
little danger to life as the horse or cow, it would still occasion
a much greater proportionable loss in their products.* But
they can not. The former are capable of being raised at any
period of the year, from the lowest condition of leanness,
without danger. The muscular and vascular systems of the
sheep are so much weaker, that if they become reduced below
a certain point in winter—and if they herded together in
considerable numbers — their restoration to good condition is
always difficult and doubtful, and, in unfavorable winters,
impracticable. Their progress thenceforth is frequently about
as follows: If fed liberally with grain, their appetites become
poor and capricious, or if they eat freely it is followed by
* Turge no “petting” or enervating system of treatment. I have not five times
within thirty years fed hay or grain, or brought in the body of my store sheep from
their summer pastures, before the fall of snow—which generally occurs in this
climate not far from the first of December. But I should have done it in all cases, if
they had not sufficient feed in their pastures. In this respect I would put them on
precisely the same footing with cows and horses. AndI would sooner limit the feed
of either of them in the winter, than during the month preceding winter. Unless the
fall feed was unusually abundant and good, I have always fed my lambs and crones
pumpkins, turnip tops, grain, etc., and a little hay as soon as they would eat it.
204 FALL FEEDING OF BREEDING EWES.
obstinate and enfeebling diarrheas. Low, obscure forms of
disease seem to attack them and become chronic. The
strength of the lambs and of the very old sheep, rapidly
fails. They scarcely move about. The skin around the eyes
becomes bloodless. The eyes lose their bright, alert look,
and yellow, waxy matter collects about and under them. A
discharge frequently commences from the nose — perhaps the
result of a cold, but how or when taken it is frequently
difficult to say. The viscid mucus dries about the nostrils so
that they cannot breathe freely without its removal. The
evacuations become dark colored, viscid, and have an offensive
odor. The strength fails more rapidly; the sheep becomes
unable to rise without assistance ; and it falls when jostled to
the least degree by its associates. It will taste a few morsels
of choice hay, but generally the appetite is nearly gone.
Some, however, will eat grain pretty freely to the last.
Finally, it becomes unable to stand, and after reaching this
stage, it usually lingers along from two or three days to a
week, and then, emaciated, covered with filth behind, and
emitting a disgusting fetor, it perishes miserably.
Post mortem examination shows that this is not the rot of
Europe. Some American flock-masters term it the “hunger
rot.” If to this could be added something to express the fact
that the hunger which engenders it, usually occurs in the fall,
before the setting in of winter, it would be an admirably
descriptive name!* It is true, that entering the winter poor
does not prove equally destructive in all instances. Its effects
doubtless may be materially enhanced or diminished by the
regularity and excellence of the wintér management, the nice
condition of the feed, etc., or the reverse of these conditions.
And the character of the winter itself exerts a very marked
influence. Sheep thrive best when the temperature is compar-
atively steady—no matter how cold. 9,222 75,638 37,888
Sees eheH 20,720 10,162
sees 42,648 879,015 886,328
52,516,959 | 60,511,343 | 28,317,756
APPENDIX E. 427
APPENDIX E— (Page 250.)
STARTING A SHEEP ESTABLISHMENT IN THE NEW
WESTERN STATES.
‘Tre following letter is from an intelligent gentleman residing in
Essex County, New York, whom I knew a few years since as a highly
respectable member of the New York Legislature:
Cxicago, Inurors, May 1, 1863.
Hon. H. 8. Ranpaui—Dear Sir: Yours dated April 20th came duly
to hand. I should have replied at once, but have not had a spare
moment for the last four weeks, as my sheep have required my undivided
attention. I am here on business for a day, and will take time to give
you a few facts as far as my experience is concerned.
About the 20th of last July I started from Calhoun County, Michigan,
with two droves of sheep, about 1,700 in each drove. My destination
was Southern Minnesota. In consequence of the Indian outbreak in
that section of country, I changed my plan and stopped in Northern
Iowa, about twenty miles west of McGregor, on the old military road
to Forts Crawford and Atkinson. My sheep stood driving remarkably
well, and arrived at that point about the 10th of September. I found
good feed, and by the time winter set in my sheep were in fine order.
I sold about 300 ingthe autumn, thinking I would winter the remainder.
I then set about preparing winter quarters for 3,000 sheep. I did not
erect my sheds at one place, (on account of the inconvenience of hauling
the feed I had purchased to one place,) but about two miles apart, where
water was convenient. I succeeded in getting a grove, at each place,
and built my sheds fronting the grove and parallel with each other,
about 500 feet long. I built them of poles and posts from the groves,
and covered them with straw. The front posts were about six feet
above ground and the back ones about four. I employed Irishmen
that were in the habit of using the spade and covered the back side
with dirt, and then covered this smoothly with sod, which made them
very warm — being left open in front, this was important. I then cut
the sheds up with board fences about 22 feet apart, commencing under
the shed and running out about 50 feet in front, making yard and shelter
for about 50 sheep. I forgot to mention the width of the sheds, which was
18 feet. I then sorted my sheep, putting heavy wethers by themselves,
heavy ewes by themselves, &c.; in short, I went through the flock
grading them according to strength and sex. I started with prepared
winter quarters for 3,000, but continued to sell some through the early
part of winter. By the ist of January I had reduced my flock to 2,200.
After that I declined selling more.
I will now give you a brief account of my feeding, its quantity,
quality, &c. I procured what hay I conveniently could, about half of
which was nice timothy. I expected to buy from time to time during
the winter, which I have been able to do at fair rates, say from $3 to
$4 per ton. I would quite as soon have good upland prairie hay as
timothy, provided it is cut early. The sheep will eat it better. I also
bought what corn I could in the field, paying from $4 to $7 per acre.
428 APPENDIX F.
This I cut while the fodder was green, before frost, shocking it in the
field and drawing in after the ground froze. This I found excellent
feed. I fed it once a day, usually at noon. After that was used up I
fed corn in the ear to all except my yearling lambs. The latter I fed a
mixture of shelled corn, oats and shorts from the mill, mixing it as
follows :—+ corn, } oats, 4 shorts. I gave a pen of 50 lambs one-half
bushel once a day (at 11 o’clock.) This, with what hay they could eat,
made them prosper finely. I fed hay to all my sheep twice a day; but
the lambs generally got it three times. . .
My sheep have been remarkably healthy. Of course one dies
occasionally, but I have got them well through the winter. [have just
finished tagging. On coming to handle them, we find them very heavy.
A large number are good mutton. ‘Since putting up my sheep last fall,
I have lost less than one per cent. of 630 lambs that I went into winter
with.’ Only one has died. I think the feed I have used for lambs can’t
be bettered. My sheep are about two-thirds ewes. I can't give any
definite idea of how many lambs I shall have, as I did not put my bucks
in with my ewes until the first of December. I was unfortunate enough
in the autumn to have a native buck get in with my flock once in a
while, and the result has been that I have had about ninety lambs
during the winter, scattered along. I had from the ninety ewes eighty-
four good healthy lambs. I should, however, have had but very few of
the lambs living, coming as they did, had it not been for the care of my
yard-master. A lamb will chill in one hour in cold weather if not
taken to the fire to dry, which is found necessary in most cases.
I am satisfied that Iowa and Southern Minnesota are especially
adapted to wool growing. The country where I ant keeping my sheep
is somewhat uneven and rolling, and a good farming country. The
country seems prosperous. Improved farms are selling from $15 to $20
per acre, and unimproved lands from $3 to $10 per acre.
I am sorry that I am obliged to give you such a hurried statement
of my experience with sheep in the West. Any farther inquiries you
may be pleased to make, I shall be happy to answer.
Yours truly, “R. A. LOVELAND.
APPENDIX F — (page 257.)
CLIMATE OF TEXAS.
Tue following account of some of the peculiarities of the climate of
Texas, of the seasons and crops and their vicissitudes, I extract from
articles on the Climatology of that State, contributed to the Texas
Almanacs of 1860 and 1861, by Professor Caleb G. Forshey, Superinten-
dent of the Military Institute, in Fayette County :
APPENDIX F. 429
TEXAS NORTHERS. ~
Number and Duration—1. During seven or eight months of every
year, Texas is liable to a class of storms, or winds, styled “ northers,”
from the direction from which they come. 7 .
2. In the year 1857, there were twenty-six northers experienced at
the Texas Military Institute, in Fayette county. Of these some two or
three were gentle or baffled northers. They occupied fifty-seven days,
having an average of two and one-fifth days in length. The latest in
spring, was May 16, and earliest in autumn, was Nov. 7.
3. In the year 1858, there were thirty-seven northers, about thirty-
three of which might be classed as well marked, the others being either
entle or baffled northers. These occupied seventy-eight days. The
atest in spring, was May 9, and the earliest in autumn, was Oct. 7.
4, In the first half of 1859, there have been twenty-four northers, of
which four may be described as gentle or baffled northers. They have
occupied forty-seven days in their transit, and the latest was May 24.
5. It is proper to remark that nearly all the northers of May and
October are mild, and rarely do much damage, or produce so low a
temperature as to be severely felt. All the other months, November to
April inclusive, are liable to northers of considerable severity.
6. It appears then, that in thirty months last past, of which eighteen
months are liable to distinct northers, we have experienced eighty
northers, not including the feeble ones of May and October. The same
period has seventy-seven weeks, very nearly affirming the hypothesis of
weekly returns of the norther.’ An inspection of the table shows a large
number of punctual weekly recurrences of this meteor.
5 7. At this place of observation their duration varies from one to four
ays.
Area and Boundaries of Norther.—8. The region over which this
peculiar storm has its sweep, is not very great, though its precise limits
can not be defined. By diligent inquiry from persons of great experi-
ence, we submit the following limits:
9. On the north, by the valley of Red river, in the Indian Territory;
on the east, by the second tier of counties from the east boundary of
Texas, near meridian 95°, south to the Trinity and thence south-east to
the mouth of the Sabine. On the south they are felt across the Gulf, to
the coast of South-Mexico and Yucatan. On the west they are bounded
by the Sierra Madre, up to the mouth of the Pecos, and thence by about
the 101st meridian to the sources of Red river.
10. Within this area, there are various degrees of violence, having
their axis of intensity. between meridians 97 and 98, and increasing in
force and duration, the further south. At Red river, on this line, they
are usually limited to a day or two; whereas at Corpus Christi and
Matamoras, one norther often continues till the next supersedes it; and
at Vera Cruz, a twenty-days norther is not remarkable.
West of Fort Belknap, to the Pecos, the northers grow feebler and
rarer. North of Red river, on the route from Fort Washita to Fort
Smith, they are rarely felt.
On the east sags they are much modified by the forests of the
timbered region. At all points, an open prairie increases their vigor.
430 APPENDIX F.
Forces and other Phenomena.—11. The norther usually commences
with a violence nearly equal to its greatest force, if its initial point be
near the observer. If it has traveled some distance, it will be warmed
up, and moderated in its violence, at first attack. Its greatest force
might be marked fivesin a scale between a gentle breeze, at one, and a
hurricane, at ten. The writer has measured one traveling at about
thirty-two miles per hour—but many others at twelve to eighteen miles.
The mean progress seems to be about fifteen miles per hour.
12. Just before a norther, two to six hours, the south wind lulls, and
the still air becomes very oppressive. A low black cloud rolls up from
the north, and when it comes near the zenith, the wind strikes with
vigor. Sometimes we have a sudden dash of rain; but generally
northers are intensely dry, and soon drink up all the moisture of the
surface earth, and of the objects upon it, capable of yielding their
humidity.
Great thirst of man, and all other animals, is experienced; an itching
sensation over the skin; a highly electric condition of the skin of horses
and cats; a wilting and withering of vegetation, even when the tempe-
rature would not account for it ; a reduction of temperature, usually very
sudden, sometimes, though rarely, a degree per minute, for twenty
minutes ; and in winter commonly a reduction from 70° or 75°, to 30°
or 40°. : .
This fall of temperature is the more severely felt fromy the drying
power of the forth wind— evaporation from the surface of the skin
increasing the severity of the temperature.
13. Nervous, rheumatic, and gouty persons suffer more severely than
others. To invalids suffering from other maladies, it has not been found
unhealthy; and for persons of weak lungs, if not too much exposed to
its direct fury, it is found. to be more salubrious than the humid south
winds. Consumptions do not oriyinate over the area of the norther.
On the contrary, many persons afflicted with weak or diseased lungs,
resort to this region, and find relief. The western and northern portions
of this area are most salubrious, and. best adapted to weak lungs.
* * _ * * * * * * *
Phenomena not readily explicable—When a dry norther commences,
the whole air, in an hour or two, curdles, and becomes smoky, or rather
whitish, and has a distinct smell. Its odor sometimes resembles that
which is developed by a flash of lightning, though, at other times, it
reminds one of fine straw smoke, in its odor.
It is highly probable that this turbidness and odor, are due to the
ozone set free, by the high electrical excitation, in a dry nurther. Ex-
periments instituted to test the matter, last April, were too late in the
season.
Strocco.— When the norther has a little westing, it is observed to
be more intensely dry, and to be destructive to vegetation, even before
the frost which usually follows it. Corn, beans, young foliage, and the
grass and weeds of the prairie, bow and wither before it.* A few of
these I have called Stroccos. They occur as well in summer as in spring
or autumn, and differ, in several respects, from the true norther. :
* The citizens of Galveston, and the southern portions of Texas, will remember
the violent north-wester in 1856, which preceded and attended the storm which
wrecked the Nautilus. It was, in my judgment, a true Sirocco. In like manner the
north-west wind, that withered the corn-fields in Lamar, Fannin, and Grayson, and
the counties south of these, on the 17th day of August, 1858, deserves a like name,
APPENDIX F.
431
SEASONS AND CROPS: THEIR VICISSITUDES.
1857, 1858. 1859. 1860.
January.—No rain.) January.—No se-| J: anuary—Some se-| January. — Moder-
vere cold; abundantivere weather. Rainjately cold. Rain, 1.5
February 6.—Prai-
ries getting green.—|
10th. Corn, peas, let-|
tuce, and radishes
coming up. Rain 1
inch.
March 7%.—Corn six
inches. high; prairies
one month forward.
12th. Terrible frost ;
kills every thing—
fruit and crops. Rain|
Linch.
April 5.—Alll green|
again; new crops up
and vigorous, 6th.
Norther, hail, and
freeze; all crops, fruit,
and mast, killed. 11-
12th. Sleet, snow, and
freeze, again. 24th.
Frost in valleys. —
Rain, 34 inch.
May 30.—Rain two
inches—not 12 inches)
in a year,
June 11. — Wheat,
reaped; good crop;
rain.
February. 3. —Vio-
lent storm. 1st. Bra-
zos8 overflows. 22d.|
Peaches killed~. by;
frost, 25 deg. 27th.
Growing weather.
March 2.—Freeze,
24 deg. 20th. Woods
greenish; grasshop-|
pers hatching, west.
2%th. Make havocand|
migrate. 17th. Corn
planted. 25th. Squir-|
Fels migrate on Trin-|
ity.
April 1—Grasshop-
pers bad in Guada-
loupe; May 20, coun-
try eaten up by them
west of 97° 10’.
_.May 1 to 9.—Rain
534 inches; wheat,
_ foats, rye and millet
die of rust. 10-15th.
Rivers overflow. 25-
30th. Corn tasseling ;
|beans, peas and pota-
toes in use from 10th.
‘weather. 11th. Great
man and beast suffer-
ing for water. 20th.
Grass all dead.
July.—No rain}
August, no rain!
rain, Rain in June,
624 inches, 6th. Roast-
ing ears.
| July.—Rain 1 inch.
Good corn crops over|
most of the State.—
Rust kills all small
grain, a
June. — Showery}
234 inches.
February 15—Grass|
covers woods and
prairies ; corn-plant-
ing begins. -24th.—
oods gray. Rain 1
inch.
inch,
Febrnary 1, 2, 3, 24,
25, 26.—Frost. 17th.
Rain copious, East-
‘Texas. Whole rain of
month, 5 inches.
March 6.— Woodg|
half-green ; rye head-
ing; dogwoods bloom;
corn. coming up gen-
erally. 20th. ‘ood
stand; post oaks
maked, blackjacks|
green, 23d. Wild
geese leave,and doves|
coo, Rain—7.8%.
April 1.— Radishes|
and lettuce, 2
Frost kills corn and
cotton in low grounds
Rain, 0.69 in.
May %.—Fair rains!
start the re-planted|
crops ; not one grass-
hopper in the land.
22d. Crops look well;
‘wheat harvest begins.
28th. Wheat harvest
closes; early corn tas-
sels. Total rain, 6.76
‘inches.
June 3.— Roasting
ears. 11th. Rain saves
corn; total, 0.50 in.
July.—Very dry.—|}
Total rain, 0.90. 30th.
Cattle suffer for water
land creeks all
March 5.— Prairies
green; corn-planting ;
woods gray. Frost,
28-9 cuts ‘off cotton
land some corn, and
rdens. 14th. Rad-
ishes and lettuce.—
Whole rain, 1.5 in.
28th. Geese migrate
good prospects o
crop,
April 1.— Whip-
peor - wills. 5th.—
oods quite green.
14th. Ground crack-
ing from drouth. —
21st. Dewberries ripe.
19th-27th, good rains;
total, 3.8 inches.
ft
May 1.—Crops very
promising ; no grass-
hoppers. 15th. Crops
hwilt for want of rain.
25th. Corn tasseling ;
very dry. 2ist. Rye
|ripe. 26th. Oats cut.
30th. Wheat ripe and
cutting. Rain, 0.35in.
June.—No rain this
month. Corn per-
ishes, gardens die,
creeks and springs
dry up. Much corn cut
up west of Colorado,
Fayette and Wash-
ington make half.
crops corn; wheat,
outs, rye, and barley
‘ood. Greatest
jdrouth over United
States ever remem-
bered.
duly 1.—Cattle suf-
fer for water; ponds
‘ dry ;
continues to July
18th, when this report
closes,
432 APPENDIX F.
1857. 1858. 1859. | 1860.
August and Sep-| August—Rain, 0.50;
tember.—Dry ; only i/west of 97° no rain;| ~
inch rain, all sammer corn and
cotton dead, Augnst}
ve showers in
uadaloupe, etc.
September 7.—Oaks| "
drying from drouth,| Sept,—Good rains ;
except live oak. First} 5.85 inches,
good rain this year, 2}
inches, t
_ October.—Rain, 334] | October.— Good| , October. — Good|
inches. The prairies|rains, 8.7inches. _|rains, 6.60 inches,
green. oe oN,
November.—Grass-| November. —Some| November.—Warm|
hoppers, west. Rea-rain—2% inches, and pleasant month;
sonable rains; good] - : mo rain.
fall sendens. 26 ith}
Hard storms’ very
extensivé; Nebraska] ~
wrecked at' Galves-|
ton. Rain, 234 inches.
December—Lowest| December,—Rains| December 1 to 8.—|
temperature, 30°. copious, 4.4 inches.—|Terrible ‘winter
INo severe cold. ‘weather; snow, sleet,
rain and freeze; kills| ©
cattle, horses and ,
sheep in vast num-|
bers. Hardest Decem-|
ber ever known.
NORTHERS, WINTER OF 1859-60.
First genuine norther,
Last genuine norther, --
Number of weeks’ time, -
Number of northers, -
Sept. 30/Number of days occupied, .-
April 23|Average duration, hours, -..-
28/Lowest day’s temperature, Dec. BSc
----28|Lowest 3 days’ norther, Dec. 6th, -.---- 20.3
TEMPERATURE AND HYGROMETRY OF 1859 AND PART OF 1860.
‘ »
1859. 1860.
TEMPERATURE. nae ee TEMPERATURE. || pers RAIN:
SUNR.|2 P.M.|9 P.M, . ; D
January, --| 41.00} 63.58} 47.19
February, .| 55.19) 73.32] 58.82
71.50) 59.00
88.38) 80.07
.05} 89.77) 82.10
August, ._-| 79.01] 93.02] 82.04]
September, | 75.30} 85.00] 78,00
October, - . _| 59.80) 75.20) 63.86)
November, | 55.16] 74.43) 61.16
December, . | 35.00} 54,00}-40.00) :
Annual, . || 68.04|| 63.62| 30.361 114 yr |] 60.42} 76.51] 63.03]] 66.67]] 60.44] 11.75
APPENDIX G. 433
APPENDIX @G.
PROPORTION OF WOOL TO MEAT IN SHEEP OF DIFFERENT
AGES, SEXES AND SIZES,
Tue following was not received until this work was nearly through
the press, and too late to refer to it except in this place:
Pompey, Onon. Co., N. Y., Aug. 22, 1863.
Hon. Henry 8. Ranpatu— Dear Sir: Agreeable to your request, I
herewith send you my investigations and observations upon the compar-
ative weight of wool and bodies of sheep. I hope pert will be of benefit
to the sheep breeder, as well as the wool grower; and that I shall have
the satisfaction of knowing that I have in part repaid to the world much
that I owe for the investigations of those who have gone before me.
With high hopes, but no higher ambition than to be called a “good
farmer,’ I remain your obedient servant,
Homer D. L. Sweet.
COMPARATIVE WEIGHT OF WOOL AND BODIES OF SHEEP.
BY H. D. L. SWEET.
The Hon. Robert R. erilge Cia the first President of the first Agri-
cultural Society of the State of New York, in his justly celebrated essay
on Fine-Wooled Sheep, uses the following language:
“The inferiority in the size of the Merino to some other breeds,
which some make as an objection, is, in my opinion, an important
advantage, not only in sheep but in every other stock not designed for
the draft; because they will fatten in pastures in which larger cattle
would suffer from the fatigue they must undergo, in order to procure
the food that is necessary for their support.
“This meaning applies more strongly to sheep than to any other
stock, They are peteraly kept upon high and dry pastures, that are
frequently parched in summer, when fatigue is most irksome to them.
To which we may add that the fleece is not proportioned, as the food is
to the bulk of the animal, but to his surface, and a small sheep having
more surface in proportion to his bulk, must also have wool in the same
proportion. That is,a sheep whose live weight shall be 60 Ibs., and
who, of course, will require but one-quarter of the food of a sheep that
weighs 240 Ibs. will, notwithstanding, have half as much wool (if the
fleeces are equally thick,) as his gigantic brother.” *
* Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts, Vol, II, p. 86
19
434 APPENDIX G.
In proof of the first proposition, that sheep do consume in proportion
to their bulk, Mr. Livingston submits, in an appendix to his essay, the
record of many experiments which show conclusively that such is the
fact; but of his second proposition, that they shear in proportion to their
surface, he gives no facts, and I suppose it to be mere theory. The
attention of the writer was called to this subject by the Hon. George
Geddes, some four years since, and at his request the trial was made,
and the result has been given to the world by yourself. Experiments
of the same character on the same flock have been conducted for three
successive years, and their results are recorded in the following tables.
In one or two points they are not as perfect as I could wish, but they
are the best that could be done with so small a flock. Had there been
from forty to fifty in each class and every year, the natural law in rela-
tion to them might be nearer in accordance with the facts noted; for as
there are exceptions to all rules, I may be giving the exception and not
the rule. This can be true only in regard to five and six year old ewes,
and five year old wethers, In all other cases, taking the three years
collectively, 1 am confident that facts of value have been obtained.
The base of the flock a few years since was Saxon; they are now
classed from one-half to seven-eighths Spanish Merino—a portion of the
largest, in 1861, was one-quarter French Merino. In 1861 the ewes
raised 35 lambs; in 1862, 30, and in 1863, 70. In the fall of ’61 the
oldest and largest were sold and replaced by 60 lambs purchased. In
the fall of ’62, 70 wether lambs were purchased, part of the smallest of
them were sold, some three-year old ewes purchased ; and some older
ones sold. Other discrepancies that may be noted are attributable to
death, They were all brook-washed about two weeks before shearing.
The flocks at the time of shearing were in good condition —some of the
ewes thin, of course, The four rams in the flock are included with the
wethers, to save space, figures and calculation. The first table is the
same as published in 1862, in Mr. Randall’s Essay, in the Transactions
of the N. Y. 8. Agricultural Society, except that I have subdivided the
sexes. The fifth table is the same as the second one then published,
except that I have added the last three classes, and called them one.
They were sheared the 26th and 27th of June, 1861 ; 27th, 28th and 30th
of June, 1862, and 25th, 26th and 27th of June, 1863. Every sheep and
fleece were weighed separately and recorded on the spot.
[ The tables referred to in the preceding paragraphs are given on
the two following pages.]
APPENDIX G.
435
SWEET BROTHER’S FLOCK, POMPEY, N. Y.
TABLE 1. 1861.—CLAssIFIED By AGE AND SEX.
Las. oF | PER Cr.
No. IN] SEXES, Gross |W’, oF| Wr.oF |AVER. OF|AVER. OF
Crass.| 495:| pwes Wera’s|Weranr, Bopres. | Woox.| Boptes. |FLEECES. tgeseraee px We
19 1| £5 1,193.72} 1,097] 96.72} 52.47/ 5.09 10.44| 8.10
13 1 WwW 965.23 894) 71.23] 68.77] 5.48 12.55| 7.37
16 2) 8 1,124.37, 1048] 76.37] 69.86] 5.09 13.72| 6.88
15 2 W_ | 1,383.92] 1,299! 84.92] 86.66} 5.66 15.29] 16.53
9 3 | E 759.14 710] 49.14) 78.88} 5.45 14.45] "6.46
42 3 W |4,155.11) 3,891] 264.11] 92.64) 6.28 14.73| 6.83
41 4] 738. 3,557] 181. 86.75, 4.41 19.65] 4.84
26 4 W | 2,921.13) 2,786 185.13} 105.11) 7.12 14.76| 6.33
180 |Lto4| 84 96 |16,341. 15,331] 1.010] 85.17] 5.38 15.17] 6.18
TABLE 2. 1862.—CuassIFIED BY AGE AND SEx.
42 1/5 2,378.57, 2,189] 189.57| 52.11] 4.51 11.60| 7.96
52 1 W | 3,224.51) 2,985] 239.51] 57.40] 4.60 12.46| 7.42
19 2| 25 1,387.16} 1,292] 95.16] 68. 5. 13.57| 6.86
13 2 W_ | 1,225.16} 1,147] 78.16] 88.231 6. 14.66] 6.46
14 a lie 1,026.31) 960} 66.31] 68.57| 4.70 14.47} 6.46
18 3 W | 1,297.36] 1,215) 82.36] 93.40] 6.33 14.75| 6.35
9 4|E5 726.59) 679) 47.59] 77.44] 5.28 14.26] 6.54
27 4 W | 2,693.06} 2,505) 188.06] 92.77] 6.96 13.32] 6.98
15 5 | EB 1,178.15] 1,111] 67.15] 74. 4.47 16.54} 5.77
u 5 W | 1,153.40] 1,075] 78.40] 97.72) 7.12 13.71| 7.00
215 l1to5! 99 | 116 !16,290.27! 15,158/1,132.27/ 70.50! 5.26 13.30! 6.95
TABLE 3. 1863.—CuassIFIED By AGE AND SEX
“4 1 | 955.78 877| 78.78| 62.64] 5.62 11.00] 8.24
18 1 W | 5,623.84) 5,201} 422.84] 66.67/ 5.42 12.30] 7.71
42 2|5 2,861.64] 2,662| 199.64] 63.38] 4.75 13.33] 6.97
48 2 W | 3,994.79] 3,785] 259.791 77.81] 5.41 14,37] 6.50
33 3 | E 2,887.24] 2,658] 179.24) 80.54) 5.40 14.82} 6.31
13 3 W | 1,338.89] 1,251] 87.89] 96.23] 6.76 14.231 6.56
B 4/5 1,154.68] 11,0831 71.68] 83.30 5.51 15.10] 6.26
9 5 | EB 735.93) 680] 45.93] 75.35] 5.10 14.82] 6.24
10 6| 5 837.84 790| 47.84) 79.00] 4.78 16.49} 5.70
260 l1to6!121 | 139 120,350.63! 18,957|1,303.631 72.91! 5.32 13.58] 6.84
TABLE 4. AVERAGE OF THE THREE YEARS.
Classified by Age and Sex, the Footing being the three Flocks collectively,
PouNDs OF
No. In Av’aGEe Wr. | AVERAGE Wr. AVERAGE
AGE. Srx. Bopy 10
Crass. or Bopy. OF FLEECE. 1 oF Woot. Per Cent.
15 1 E 55.74 5,07 11.01 8.10
76 2 E 67.08 4.94 13.54 6.90
56 3 E 75.99 5.18 14.58 6.41
63 4 E 82.49 5.06 16.33 5.88
24 6 E T4867 4.75 15.68 6.00
10 6 E 79.00 4.78 16.49 5.70
143 1 Ww 64.28 6.16 12.43 7.60
76 2 Ww 84: 5.69 14.77 6.49
68 3 Ww 88.86 6.45 14.57 6.58
53 4 w 103.94 7,04 14.04 6.65
ll 5 Ww 97.72 7.12 13.71 7.00
Ewes. WETH.
655 304 351 79.52 5.32 14.01 6.65
436 APPENDIX @.
TABLE 5, 1861.—CLassIFIED BY WEIGHT,
In divisions of 10 Pounds each, except those weighing less than 50 lbs., and
those more than 100 lbs.
WEIGHT Las. oF | PER Cr.
No. 1n SEXES. Gross |W’t. oF| W7. oF |AVER. OF|AVER. OF|
Cass. pa EWEs. |WETH.|WEIGHT.| Bopres. | WOOL. | BopIes. Fureces.poD% 7 are
5 |42 to 51) 6 256. 234) 22. 46.80} 4.40 10.63] 8.59
14 |50 to 61} 10 4 871 803] 68. 67.35) 4.85 11.80} 7.80
20 |60 to 71) 14 6 | 1,427 1,320] 107. 66. 5.35 12.33] 7.49
34 |70 to 81} 21 13 | 2,742. 2,567) 175. 75.50) 5.14 14.66] 6.38
39 |80 to 91} 19 20 | 3,566. 3,355) 211. 86. 6.41 15.87} 5.90
34 |90tol0l) 11 23 | 3,453. 3,252) 201. 95.64) 5.91 15.42) 5.82
34 [100tol34; 4 30 | 4,026. 3,800] 226. 111.76} 6.67 16.80) 5.61
180 |42to 134] 84 96 |16,341. 15,331/1,010. 85.17} 5.38 15.17] 6.18
TABLE 6. 1862.,—CLassIFIED BY WEIGHT, AS BEFORE.
37 |s4 to 51] 23 | 14 | 1,875. 1,725] 150. 46.60| 4.05 11.50] 8.00
41 |50 to 61] 19 | 22 | 2/460. 2270) 190. 55.37| 4.63 194] 7.72
42 |60 to 71] 25 | 17 | 2940. 2740] 200. 65.23] 4.75 13.70] 6.80
30 |70 to si] 24 | 6 | 2432. 22721 160. 75.73] 5.33 14.20] 6.57
25 |80 to 91] 6 | 19 | 2266. 2110] 156. 84.40] 6.24 13.52] 6.88
25 |90to101| 2 | 23 | 2)568. 2,408] 160. 96.321 6.40 15.05] 6.
15 |100t0127 15 | 1743.27} 1,633] 110.27| 108.86| 7.35 14.801 6.32
H
215 [34to12g7! 99 | 116 116,290.271 15,158/1,132.271 70.50! 5.26 13.301 6.95
TABLE 7. 1863.—CLassIFIED BY WEIGHT, AS BEFORE,
10 [36 to 51] 5 | 5 | 493. 455| 38. 40.50] 3.80 1197] 7.91
34 [50 to 61] 15 | 19 | 2,009. 1,850| 159. 5444] 467 | [1415] 7.90
67 60 to 71] 33 | 34 | 428. 4480| 348. 66.88| 5.19 12.87| 7:20
96 |70 to si] 44 | 52 | 7,755. 7,230| 525. 75.30] 5.46 13.77] 6.76
28 |80 to 91] 14 | 14 | 2'550. 2;390| 160. 85.35 5.71 14.93] 6.23
16 |90to101] 7 | ‘9 | 1,628. 3532] | 96. 95.75] 6.00 15.85] 5.89
9 |100te140) 3 | 6 | 1,087.63} 1020] 67.63, 113.33] 7.51 15.09] 6.21
a
i)
L<}
=
oo
ma
)
7
i)
>
260 |s6 to 140! 121 | 139 120,350.63! 18,95711,393.631 72.91]
TABLE 8. THE AVERAGE OF TABLES 5, 6 AND 7.
AVERAGE AVERAGE | POUNDS OF
No. In | WEIGHT oF SEXES. Per CENT.
WEIGHT oF | WEIGHT OF} Bopy To -
Cuass. | Drvisions.| Ewes. | WETH’S.| Bovres. Fuerces. |1 or Woor.| °F Woot.
52 34 to 51 33 19 44.63 4.08 11.86 8.16
89 50 to 61 44 45 55.78 471 11.90 7.80
129 60 to 71 72 57 66.03 5.09 12.96 7.13
160 70 to 81 89 71 75.52 5.31 14.21 6.63
92 80 to 91 39 63 85.25 5.78 14.77 6.33
75 90 to 101 20 55 95.90 6.10 15.44 5.85
58 {100 to 140 7 51 111,31 7.17 15.56 6.04
655 34 to 140} 304 351 79.52 5.32 14.01 6.65
The value of these tables can only be known by careful comparison
and thorough study of them. What may be learned I have not now
the time to determine; but from a very cursory glance at them, I learn
that Mr. Livingston’s proposition is true. ‘Small sheep do shear more tn
proportion to heir bulk than large ones, without regard to age or
APPENDIX G. 437
sex. I learn, also, that yearling ewes shear the largest per centage they
ever will shear, and that they shear less and less per centage as they
grow older, till they are four years old. They gain until five, when they
are in their prime, and raising a lamb at that age does not decrease the
product of wool as it has done; but at six they have passed the meri-
dian, and for the product of wool commence going “down hill.”
It can be seen at a glance that wethers shear their largest per
cent. when yearlings. At two, they have lost 1 per cent., after which
they commence gaining, and continue to gain till they are five years old,
after which I know nothing of the facts.
The facts are just as obvious in the classification by weight. The
smallest sheep shear the largest per centage, and as their weight
increases the fleece decreases in proportion, till they weigh more than 100
Ibs., when it increases the fifth of 1 per cent.—a smaller increase than any
decrease in either of the tables. This being the exception to what
before seemed to be the rule, leads me to believe that the number in the
class is too small, and that I ought to have had 100 sheep at least in this
class to arrive at the truth. If it could be ascertained what per cent. of
lambs 100 or 1,000 ewes would raise, and the average market price of
average lambs on the 1st of October, it could be very easily calculated
which would be the most profitable to keep, a flock of ewes or wethers.
But as there is no likelihood of this being done, and as ewes are
absolutely necessary to increase the flock, perhaps no farmer will be bold
enough to have a flock exclusively of wethers, though I am confident
that these tables will prove that the wethers have brought to the farm
the most money at the average price of wool and lambs.
If I had the time I might pursue these deductions further, with
profit to myself if not to those who read; but I think enough has
already been disclosed to give any inquiring mind a stimulus to pursue
the investigation. Every wool raiser ought to know which of his sheep
he is keeping at a profit and which at a loss. By weighing the fleeces as
they are shorn, he thinks he knows all about it, when in reality he
knows nothing, or at the best only half. At sheep shearing the careful
breeder ought to know what any sheep ought to shear when it comes
on the floor. For instance, next year we shall have a dozen four
year old wethers, any one of which ought to weigh somewhere near
ninety pounds and shear seven pounds. If any one weighs up to the
average of the last three years, and shears above the average, keep him
—if below, sell him. hen a ewe is brought on the floor, other things
have to be taken into consideration, as she is to breed, viz., the quality
of the wool, the form of the body, beside the weight of the fleece and
weight of the body. If she has raised a lamb, it must be examined ; if
a ewe lamb, particularly. In our flock we have now made a standard
to which we can refer; our efforts of course will be to excel it. Those
who keep flocks expressly for their increase, will make a standard of
their own, and those who keep sheep exclusively for wool, will make
their standard accordingly. Every breeder cught to know every fact
certainly, and have his record to refer to.
438 APPENDIX H.
APPENDIX H— (page 75.)
THE AMERICAN MERINOS AT THE INTERNATIONAL
EXHIBITION OF 1863.
Ir was noticed at page 75 that Mr. George Campbell, of West West-
minster, Vermont, took American Merino sheep to exhibit at the
International Exhibition at Hamburg, in July, 1868. The result was
not ascertained in time to be alluded to in the body of this work.
Mr. Campbell found 1,761 sheep competing in the same class with
his own. They were from the Austrian, Prussian and other States of
Germany, and from France. Among the French sheep corn ee were
about sixty belonging to the Emperor Napoleon. Mr. Campbell was
awarded the first prize of fifty thalers for the best ram, the second prize
of twenty-five thalers for the second best ram, and the first prize of fifty
thalers for the best ewes. ;
The Committee of Award consisted of eighteen noblemen and
gentlemen. The examinations were made by sub-committees, whose
reliminary reports were subject to the revision of the general committee.
‘he American sheep had encountered a certain degree of prejudice
from their first arrival. The breeders of the old world, and particularly
of Germany, seemed to think it audacious that Americans, who had so
often imported sheep from Germany, should now enter the lists as
competitors against them. And when a rumor began to gain ground
that the sub-committee were disposed to award one and then two first
prizes to the American Merinos, it caused loud expressions of dissatis-
faction, which were promptly re-echoed in the German newspapers.
Notwithstanding, and in defiance of all of this, the general committee
with manly independence ratified the action of the sub-committee by a
unanimous vote. On the official promulgation of the decision, the
previous censures took the form of accusations. It was asserted that
the committee had been unduly influenced. Thereupon Col. Danie.
Needham, Corresponding Secretary of the Vermont State Agricultural
Society, who was present at the Exhibition as the Commissioner of the
State of Vermont, after conferring with the U.S. Commissioner, Gov.
Wright, and Mr. Campbell, published a card in the German tongue,
proposing a sweepstakes open to all the previous competitors — the
award to be made by @ new commitiee, to be selected by the German
association under whose auspices and direction the International
Exhibition took place. Col. Needham’s proposal was that each com-
petitor pay an entrance fee of $10; and if there were less than ten entries
he offered himself to make up the prize to $100. This offer, (substantially
a challenge to a new trial,) was posted and circulated among all the
competitors. Mr. Campbell immediately entered his sheep, but his was
the only entry! This rendered the triumph of the American Merinos
absolute and undeniable; and the press and public, with that hearty
honesty which always marks the German national character, did ample
justice to the Americans and to the American sheep. Mr. Campbell
sold his prize sheep, twelve in number, to a Prussian nobleman for $5,000.
APPENDIX H. 439
The highest priced foreign Merino sold at the Exhibition fetched but £40,
or $200. The preceding facts are stated on the personal authority of
Mr. Campbell and Col. Needham,
I cannot here withhold a pleasing fact which strikingly evidences
the fairness and the modesty of the victorious exhibitor at Hamburg.
Col. Needham informs me that Mr. Campbell on all occasions, signified
to the breeders of Germany and France, and requested him, (Col.
Needham.) to signify that he was not the founder or leading breeder of
the improved family of American Merinos, which his (Mr. Campbell's.)
sheep chiefly represented—but that this honor belonged to Mr. Hammond.
Mr. C.’s show sheep were, if I remember aright, all from his celebrated
ram “Old Grimes,” bred by Mr. Hammond and got by his “ Sweep-
stakes.” “Old Grimes” competed against his sire in the great
sweepstakes at the Vermont State Fair of 1861, and stood second. He
is remarkable for individual excellence and as a stock getter.
I was one of those consulted by Mr. Campbell in reference to taking
American Merinos to the International Exhibition, and I strongly
encouraged him to doso. I had just as little doubt of their success then
as now, provided they could receive fair play; and I never for an instant
doubted that among the many Germans they would receive the same
fair play which our stock and products have received at all these World’s
Fairs. In Germany as in England, we encountered some prejyudice—
but when the time for official action arrived, it always gave way like a
morning mist before the broad, bright sun of personal and official
honor.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page.
Merino Ram “ Sweepstakes,”,....cessececcsccccesseecees Frontispiece
Spanish Wool,.......cscecceee coccccceeccerecsccersenereeeces 16
Saxon Ram,.......... ieee Rede DEE Ss dela 6 EUS Aes elas Sea bela aie saves S 26
Merino Ewe, (Imported Paular,).......cceccecceesseeseccecceeee 31
Merino Ewe, (Old Fashioned,).........cccceeeccecceeseeeeeeees 84
Silesian Merino Ram,......... cece cece ec ee ccc cence eee e eens eees 38
Group of Silesian Ewes,........... ccc cece cece eee eteeee eeees 41
Leicester: Rea in ysis sin ataa, 9's e050 whee suprerey'ors ahah sialiaiatenovaist sya eitieis Gs Sorat 45
Leicester Hwee. sssscsevsdenesaetecesecivees seseeete cess ce si ces AQ
Cotswold Ram,... ...ccscccecce cence cece rece cece tense rtenncecs 48
Cotswold Hwe,... cc. cc cenccsccceec ccc cccceecccre rs seansssences 50
South Down Ram,........... cece cece eceee cesveeececcsceseees 56
Bouth Down Ewes, « s:sc sese'sisisie sisine s sain e:sisisn eine vieieie siereeieiereaions 57
Shropshire Down Ram,..........cccceeec nce cece eee rete eeeees 62
Shropshire Down Ewe,..........cseee cece eee c eect e ee eeeenee 64
Shepherd’s Crook,..........eeseee0s .. 189
Tagging, illustrated,....... 0... esse eee cece cence ene en erence cece 141
FOC SNIPPCr Sinai acaw sade wae cat views te arene eure stenmmnnnee malate 169
BOLING PADCS acco o:cas's sin Seose aieidiace Weide Gu ewe din sim eben Wiaya wa bare 178
Fleece Ready for Press,.........cceceeeceeeeecereeeeseeeeeeens 173
WUCCC! Ut PROB: (Sel Sontane sede’ ase vareieigvaat:shaara die enaierarsacaonien aoe nears treld 174
kes ee Rsekeie aie ioanston aera FEA Csbie tie laa eal iv
attooing Instruments, (three CS, ) eeinncsdiosatiea sates ees
Ears Tatiooed, aaieesa » sees eee sua’ gcais arsine Shalereseste Ree TS 184
Metal: Mar= Mark) ccccnccwsesen taawaa te eeaeerey eee inweiza erases 185
Dipping Boxyeccsscdesnweenavsvawevievsier cane soni ves comers 187
Shed of Polesyc cis sic ve vicwasiws sevewasseecsserGorsieresows.cts « 211
Sheep Barn, with Open Sheds,.............0e008 coat ata ns wears 213
Ground Plan of Sheep Barn and Yards,...........ccseeeee esses 217
Ground Plan of a Sheep Establishment,.............0eccee eee 218
Slatted, Box gRack: -s ssws- 92-94.
prices medium have never sunk below
cost of production, 94.
prices have been generally remunera-
tive, 94.
annual exports and imports of from
1840 to 1861, 95, 96.
the domestic supply has never met the
demand, 96.
cost of producing in New York and
New England, 97.
cost of producing in the South and
South-west, 98.
cost of producing in the Western and
North-western States, 98.
cost of producing in intermediate situ-
ations, 98.
average production of per head by
Merinos in large flocks, 98.
comparative profit of Producing in
erent parts of the United States,
seats of producing on land worth $50
per acre, 100.
washing of on the back, 163, 164.
shearing, mode of, 170-172.
doing up, mode of, 173-175.
frauds in doing up, 175.
storing wool, 176.
place for selling wool, 177.
wool depots and commission stores,
sacking wool, 177.
cost of getting to market, 251.
product of, in the United States in
}, 426.
proportion to meat in sheep of different
ages, sexes and sizes, 433 et seg.
‘Woolens, exports and imports of, from
1840 to 1861, 95.
Wooster, Abel J., describes the ‘ Wooster
Ram,” 113 note.
Wooster Ram described, 113 and note.
Worms, 812.
Wounds, (see Diseases and Wounds.)
cuts, 380.
INDEX.
Wounds: lacerated and contused wounds
punctured wounds, 381.
dog bites, 381.
poisoned ‘wounds, 381.
eran Loyal C., his ram, 113.
Wright, w.c., first crosses the Paular
a ‘Tefantaae Sheep in Vermont,
128 note.
originates the Panlar and Infantado
cross, 416.
his statements, 418.
Wright, Gov., of Tndiana, at World’s Fair,
‘Wrinkles, (see Folds.)
Y
‘Yards for sheep (see Barns.)
size, situation of, etc., 220.
littering yards, 220.
Sonning sheep to them i in winter, 221
Yolk aeaebed, 1.
chemical analysis of, V7.
uses Of, in wool, 77.
proper amount and consistency of,
proper color of, 80, 81.
artificial imitation of its color exter-
nally, 81.
ar fificral el and preservation
of in fleece
'Youatt, William, discovers conformation
of wool, 16.
his testimony in favor of pure blood,
181 note.
in regard to sagacity and affection of
sheep, 213.
in regard to defects of the Merino, 223
note.
cited in regard to diseases of sheep,
» 274, 275, 278, 279, 280, 282, 283,
291, 300, 301, 306, 309, 314, 315, 317,
318, 326, 327, 329, 330, 336, 339, 340,
342, 344, 345, 347, 350, 354, 856, 357,
363, 364, 373, 385, 389.
MANUAL OF FLAX AND HEMP CULUTURE.
JUST PUBLISHED, A NEW EDITION OF
A MANUAL OF FLAX CULTURE AND MANUFACTURE: embracing Full
Directions for Preparing the Ground, Sowing the Seed, Harvesting the Crop,
Etc. Also comprising an Essay, by a Western Man, on Hemp aND FLAX IN
THe West:—Amount Grown, Modes of Culture, Preparation for Market, &c.,
&c. With Botanical Descriptions and Dlustrations.
Txis work is composed of Nine Essays from the pens of Practical
and Scientific Men who are well advised on the various branches of
the subject discussed. It comprises, in a neat and compact form, a
large amount of valuable information, and is designed to enable new
beginners to cultivate Flax and Hemp successfully. The leading
Essay is by a gentleman who has had over thirty years experience
in Flax Growing, and thoroughly understands the whole business.
The Manual is published in handsome style, pamphlet form. Price
only 25 cents—for which a copy will be sent to any point reached
by the United States or Canada mails. Liberal discount to Agents
and the Trade. Address
D. D. T. MOORE,
September, 1863. Epiror Rurat New-YorkKER, RocueEstzR, N. Y.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
Fuax AND Hemp.—A Manual of Flax Culture and Manufacture, embracing full
directions for preparing the SrOUnG, sowing, harvesting, dressing, and manufacturing,
with the process of making flax cotton, and also an essay upon hemp culture, has been
published by D. D. T. Moons, editor of the Rural New- Yorker, Rochester, in pam-
phlet form at 25 cents, and is well worthy the attention of all who are embarking in
flax culture.— New York Daily Tribune.
Tue CULTIVATION oF Firax.—A Manual of Flax Culture and Manufacture, has
been published in neat pamphlet form, at the office of Moore’s Rural New- Yorker, and
is on sale at the Bookstores generally,—price 25 cents. It is a work pretty exhaustive
on the subject. The production of flax is a matter of increasing importance, and our
agricultural friends should consult the new Manual.— Syracuse Daily Journal.
ManvaL oF Fuax CuLTuRE.— * * * Those who wish to know all about
Flax and Hemp Culture, and to aid in killing “ King Cotton” and suspending traitors
should remit the cost of the Manual—2 cents —to D. D. T. Moorz, Rochester, N.
Y.— Rochester Daily Democrat and American,
MANUAL oF FLax CoLttuRE.—We have received from the publisher, D. D. T.
Moors, Rochester, N. Y.; Rural Manual, No. 1, being a collection of valuable infor-
mation on the culture and manufacture of Flax and Hemp; with illustrations, The
wants of a large number of persons who are experimenting with these crops for the
first time will be filled with this book. It can be had by addressing the publisher,
inclosing 25 cents.— Prairie Farmer.
Manuva or Fuax snp Hemp CutturE.—We are pleased to learn that this valu-
able little work is selling rapidly and widely. The publisher is daily receiving orders
from various parts of the Loyal States and Canadas. Three editions have been pub-
lished within as many weeks, and the demand is such that a fourth is now in press.
Those desirous of obtaining reliable information on the culture of Flax and Hemp,
and the preparation of their staples for market, should send 2 cents to D. D. T.
Moorz, Rochester, for his Manual on the subject.—Rochester Daily Union & Adv.
A Manvat or Fuax Cutture.—* “* * Our farmers have had their attention
frequently called this season to the importance of flax-growing, and will probably sow
twice or three times the usual amount of seed. But many, and perhaps most of them,
are ignorant of the best methods of culture, the improved methods of preparing the
fiber, etc. They will find just the information they need in Mr. Moorz’s seasonable
little Manual.—Dtica Morning Herald and Daily Gazette.
“Excelsior” its Motto—“Progress and Improvement” its Objects,
MOORE’S RURAL NEW-YORKER,
THE MOST COMPLETE AND POPULAR WEEKLY
AGRIOULTURAL, LITERARY AND FAMILY JOURNAL.
Tus Standard and Unrivaled AGRICULTURAL, HORTICULTURAL, LITERARY AND
FamLy NewspaPer, is now in its Fourteenth Year and Volume. ‘The RURAL NrEw-
YorxkER is well known as the Best, Cheapest and Largest Circulated Journal of its
Class on the Continent—as the Favorite Homs WEEKLY of America—and the
Volume for 1864 will at least equal either of its predecessors in ConTENTs, STYLE
AND APPEARANCE. Its ample pages comprise various Departments, such as
Agriculture, Rural Architecture, Education,
Horticulture, Choice Miscellany, Arts and Sciences,
Domestic Economy, Sabbath oa General News,
Ladies Reading, Reading for the Young, Market Reports, &c°
Including Numerous [lustrations, Tales, Sketches,
Music, Poetry, Enigmas and Rebuses, &c., &e,
The Rurau New-YorkEr is and will continue to be THz PareR FoR THE TIMES,
furnishing a weekly variety of
members of the Family Circle.
appropriate and interesting reading for the various
tt is National, Patriotic and Progressive — earnest in
its support of the Union, Constitution and Laws— ardently advocates the Ricut
condemns Wrong, and constantly endeavors to promote the Best Interests of the
People and Country.
FORM, STYLE
a
THE RurRaL New-YorKER is published in Quarto Form,
AND TERMS:
each No. comprising
Eight Double Quarto Pages, [forty columns,] printed in Superior Style. An Index,
Title Page, &c., given at the close of each Volume.
TERMS, IN ADVANCE:— $2 a Year; Three Copies, $5; Six for $10; Ten for $15,
and any
different
Club rate to Canada, and $2.50 to Europe.
(Jan. 1st,) or any number.
September, 1863.
OPINIONS OF
Moorz’s Rurau is full of variety,
original and select. No paper on our ex-
change list comes so near our ideas of;
perfection, for a secular family paper. It
maintains a high moral standard.—ew!
York Observer.
TuE frequency with which we publish
extracts from the RuRAL shows our own
appreciation of it—W. Y. Evening Post.
Tue Runt is not only a favorite in the
rural districts, but deservedly popular in
the cities. No newspaper in this or any
other country has ever run 2 more pros-
perous career.—Louisville Journal.
THE Runa is a very valuable paper,
eminently practical in its character, and
pure in its tone. Deserves and is achiey-
ing abundant success.—W. ¥. Times.
Mr. Moore ought to make a fortune out! C.
of his journal, and we trust he will, for he
is helping to make the fortune of the
country.— Ohio Statesman.
eater number at same rate—only $1.50 per copy. Club papers sent to
ost-offices, if desired. As we pre-pay American postage, $1.70 is the lowest
ubscriptions can begin with the volume,
Specimens sent free. Address
D. D. T. MOORE, Rochester, N. ¥.
THE PRESS.
Tue Rurat is the best Farm and Fire-
side Journal in America, and has justly
earned all {ts devoted editor claims for it.
—Chicago Daily Democrat.
No one can possibly regret subscribin,
for the Rurat, as it will be read wit!
profit by every family. It has excellent
illustrations.—Jnd. State Sentinel.
Wirxourt exception, the best Agricultu-
Tal and Family ewspaper. Mr. Moore
lately received a $1,000 draft for one club of
new subscribers !—Minnesota Statesman.
THe Rurat is a perfect typographical
luxury, teeming with originalit: 5
morals, and useful reading.— Vt.
Tuz Rurau is the best Agricultural,
Horticultural and Family paper published
on = Continent. — Recorder, Newcastle,
WE wonder not at the Rurat’s
success; it richly merits it.—
ner, Maine,
eat,
Gospel Ban-