Ornell Universit

ulture of the citrus in California.

OULTURE

OF

THE CITRUS IN CALIFORNIA,

RESEARCH BY B. M. LELONG,

Assisted by Experienced Horticulturists.

REVISED BY

STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

SACRAMENTO:
A. J. JOHNSTON : : : SUPERINTENDENT STATE PRINTING.
1902.

CALIFORNIA STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE

ELLWOOD COOPER..-..-- ---- President.............-.---.--Santa Barbara

PRANK Hy BUCK 22. 2scseeees VieesPresidente...1 $code Agee Vacaville
Commissioner for the Napa District.

Bi. WEUNSTOCK . cacccaesucnnes LMGRUIOE oc mcs cnectnnceccsneence Sacramento
Commissioner for the Sacramento District.

RUSS Ds STHPHENSte cs qs cAuditiorece ss 4 es sea oe Sacramento
Commissioner for the State at Large.

Midi: 2D EAN DENG 2 Soe ie te ee yo es to oe cece ey Gahvenside
Commissioner for the State at Large.

THOMAS AG. AU NID RA- sneer 208s ee oben ca hee seek onacens oases Sonora
Commissioner for the El Dorado District.

yeas Cet [etl DEN Pee eee Sm Sa RE Bee Re Nee RENE e See K Fresno
Commissioner for the San Joaquin District.

DAL WB OAS Hse enh. Yee nt ie ele alt A ee Santa Clara
Commissioner for the San Francisco District.

Wards RON GEERT S Boe re ones oaeee tak ee ee ee beeen see et Healdsburg
Commissioner for the Sonoma District.

.

\

dives “JBN QUAN. 2 nh t esol Seat Soe ie Sees acne eee ees eae Secretary
Office: State Capitol, Sacramento.
ALEXANDER CRAW -._--_.--.-- -- Quarantine Officer and Entomologist
Office: Clay Street Dock, San Francisco.
GHB RU DMA BIER D 21s cao8 ton. Gls cea oo eae Sates abe OE
OFFICES:

State Capitol, Sacramento.

Branch Office, Clay Street Dock, San Francisco.

OFFICE OF THE State Boarp or HORTICULTURE,
SACRAMENTO, CaL., May 24, 1902.

To His Excellency Hunry T. Gace, Governor of California:

Sir: To meet the demands made by fruit-growers, the State
Board of Horticulture has deemed it necessary to publish a
second edition of the Culture of the Citrus in California. This
second edition comprises nearly all of the subject-matter con-
tained in the first, with the addition of new~ matter of
importance to fruit-growers.

Respectfully submitted.

ELLWOOD COOPER,
President.

FRUITING BRANCH OF THE ORANGE (Citrus aurantiivin).

CONTENTS.

THE CALIFORNIA FRUIT INDUSTRY - - = SSl uae
CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA- - - - oe -
PRIMITIVE ORCHARDS ene - - - - -
EXPANSION OF ORANGE CULTURE - - - - - -
CALIFORNIA ORANGE AND LEMON SHIPMENTS - - - -
EsprciIaLLy FAVORABLE AND DanGERous LOCALITIES - -
POLLINATION—HYBRIDS - - - - ee
Metuops Usep 1n Hysripizinc Piants. By W. T. Swingle
H. J. Webber - - - - - - - - - -
Wuat Are Hysrips? By W.T.Swingle and H. J. Webber -
Purpose AND GrowTH OF PrimMaL Types. By Wm. C. Fuller
PERIOD OF FRUITFULNESS - - i i
THE AGE or Citrus TREES. By E. W. Holmes - - -

THE ORANGE.

VARIETIES—THE SWEET ORANGE - 2 7 = 2 S
NAVEL TYPE - - z . = 4 e 3 =
Washington Nav dBi OL = = 35 z z 3
St. MicHareL Type - - - « “ - ef . a "
Bioop TypE - = - a 2 = e P E S a
STANDARD VARIETIES WITH No DistTincTIVE MARK - -
TANGIERINE-MANDARIN TYPE - i = ws = P: : e
MISCELLANEOUS JAPANESE Citrus Fruits - - - -
Kumquat TYPE - - = s = & = = - 2 z
THE SOUR ORANGE - z = z = 4 2 - 7
THE BITTER ORANGE - = Ps * * é . = ey
MYRTLE-LEAF TYPE - - = - d 2 s = :
THE SHADDOCK - - - 7 = 2 = « 2 = e
THE POMELO - - a a . = = = 2 .
THE OTAHEITE ORANGE - 2 = Z S es 2 %
THE DECIDUOUS ORANGE - 2 e 5 < 2 e .
MISCELLANEOUS VARIETIES - = = = x . 2
PROPAGATION OF THE ORANGE 5 a = oy ae :
BUDDING - - = = 2 3 2 5 é = ea - -
WorKING-OVER LARGE ORANGE TREES - 2 2 = .
PLANTING - = S - a 3 a z 2 a e:
SOILS” - - - 2 a = = 2 _ S be 2
IRRIGATION - - z s r _ z a a ° > é
CULTIVATION - - - = = 7 = 2 5 = é
CULTIVATION AND InEIGATION. By J. W. Mills | - - - -
Supso1, Prow. By J.H. Reed - = # " Z z ie
PRUNING - é 5 = e _
THE ORANGE CROP—GATHERI NG, ETC. - - - -
Tue STANDARD ORANGE Box - 2 Bs = a 3
STANDARD CAR OF ORANGES - - - = “ “
ORANGE DROPPING, DISEASES, ETC. - - - - -
YELLOW AND VARIEGATED LEAVES) - - - - “ -

- 23

and

52-58

8 CONTENTS.

ORANGE DROPPING, DISEASES, ETC.—ContTiInvEep— PAGE.

Tue Dir-Back TROUBLE - - - - - - = =
MorrLen Lear - - - - - - = e 7
Gum DISEASE - - - - - - - - - -
FERTILIZATION -~ - = = : - - - - - - -
Tue Use or Fertivizers. By C. C. Chapman - - - -
Fertivizing Crrrus Trees. By N. W. Blanchard - - - -
Economy in Fertiyization. By Prof. E. W. Hilgard - - -
ADVANTAGE OF FERTILIZING SMALL Trees. By J. M. Edmison -
FErTILIZING THE SOIL AS AFFECTING THE ORANGE IN HEALTH AND
Disease. By Herbert J. Webber — - - - - - - -
FROST PROTECTION - - - - - - -
QUESTIONS AFFECTING ORANGE CULTURE - - - -

THE LEMON.

DESCRIPTION OF TREE, FRUIT, ETC. - 2 Z : = 2

VARIETIES -— - 2 = = = 2 s - :
THE SWEET, oR BERGAMOT, Tana - - 2 2 - 2 é

PRUNING - eee ee 7 2 2 BS Fe = s a
Tue Baronio Metuop. By A.C. Baronio - ss a a < .
OpeNn-CENTER Metuop. By C. W. Leffingwell, Jr. - - -

Open HorizontaL Trimminc. By George P. Hall — - - - -
SEMI-BAaRONIO SysTEM - - - - a : “ 2 .
TREATMENT OF THE LEMON - - = S 3 = 2 s

LEMON SIZES; STANDARD BOX - Z 7 = Z a
COST OF HANDLING LEMONS a 6s 2 2 z = Z =
SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY. By W. Catton Grasby, F.L.8. — -

THE CITRON.

DESCRIPTION OF FRUIT - - - - e = S Z 2
PROPAGATION - - - 2 S a = 2 5 . G .
VARIETIES - - E = : = 2 = =
PREPARATION OF CITRON RIND - - - - 3 z :
COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE - - . = = 2 5 z

THE LIME.

TREE, FRUIT, See en PRUNING, ETC. é a x a
VARIETIES - = - P = 5 . s

PRODUCTS OF THE CITRUS.
BY-PRODUCTS OF CITRUS FRUITS - - - - 2 S

ORANGE AND LEMON ROT.
ITS CAUSE, PREVENTION, ETC. By C. W. Woodworth - -

INSECT PESTS, ETC.

INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE CITRUS - - < x

FORMULAS FOR DESTROYING INSECT PESTS - 2 & 3
BENEFICIAL INSECTS—PREDACEOUS 2 z ss 2 Z 5

243

TOE OLE US,

ITS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA.

THE CALIFORNIA FRUIT INDUSTRY.

The most important of all California’s varied industries at
the present day is fruit-growing. It has rapidly come to be a
great productive industry, and has overshadowed all others in
its extent and importance. Stock-growing, mining, agricul-
ture, viticulture, have all been overtaken and passed on the
road, and to-day the production, handling, and marketing of
the various fruits of the State give employment to a larger
number of people and have more capital invested in them than
any other class of enterprises in California. Horticulture is
the staple industry of the State, and everything that will affect
it for either good or bad is watched with great interest. The
condition of the weather in the Eastern fruit sections, the
records of the thermometer in our own State, the climatic con-
ditions affecting the bloom or the setting of the fruit, the
coming and spread of pests or diseases, are all watched with
the keenest anxiety, for they mean to the State at large good
or bad times as the indications are favorable or otherwise.
Out of this pursuit has grown numerous organizations having
in view the advancement of the industry on various lines.
These are both public and private. There are State and County
boards of horticultural commissioners, whose duties are pro-
tective; fruit-growers’ associations; codperative associations for
curing and marketing fruits; fruit exchanges and fruit unions;
besides district and county horticultural societies. All these
are the outgrowth of this industry and all are working to

10 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

advance it to the line of perfection as nearly as possible. One
of the remarkable facts in connection with fruit-growing is
the rapidity with which it has foreed itself to the front. For,
while fruit has been grown in California from the date of the
first settlement, it is only within the past twenty years that the
industry has come into any prominence. In that time it has
become the great specialty of the State, so that California now
boasts the proud distinction of being the orchard of the United
States.

The climate and soil of the State render it especially adapted
to fruit culture. In common with all our pastoral and agricul-
tural pursuits, California owes the introduction of horticulture
to the Mission Fathers, who first of all planted fruit-bearing
trees on the Pacific shores. These plantings were small and of
no great importance, except in so far as they proved that fruit
would do wellin California. Their orchards were planted with
no regard to their commercial value, and the only object in
planting them was to furnish the Fathers and their servants
with fresh fruit. The best varieties then obtainable found
their way here, but no effort was made to improve them. In
fact, early horticulture in California, as with all other develop-
ments of agriculture, was very crude, and its products in no
way comparable with those of the present age; but in the
planting of their primitive orchards the Fathers laid the foun-
dation for a gigantic industry and “builded better than they
knew.”

In 1767 the Jesuits were expelled from the missions in
Lower California, their possessions were turned over to the
Franciscans, and Junipero Serra was selected as President of
the Missions. A dispute arose between the Franciscans and
Dominicans over the division of the property. The latier
claimed an interest in the mission work. In consequence of
this a division was made, and in 1769 the Franciscans started
northward, entering and occupying what is now the State of
California. The avowed object of their establishment was the
conversion of the savage races to christianity; but while devot-
ing themselves to the harvest of souls the Fathers did not
neglect the material interests of themselves or their establish-
ments. The surrounding country was speedily subdued and
the natives were changed from hunters to herdsmen and the
flocks of the missions became numerous and of great value.

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. 11

It was not thought possible in those early days that the vast
plains of California would ever be available for other than
grazing purposes. To the civilized world this State, together
with the whole Pacific Coast, was known as the “great
American desert.” It was known that there were fertile spots,
but these were regarded, like the oases in the Sahara, as but
accentuating the aridity of the surrounding waste.

José del Galvez, “‘visitor-general” and secular head, with
Father Serra, made arrangements for the establishment of
settlements. Twenty-one missions were established, all but
three of which had gardens and orchards. The mission
orchards were very small, and some consisted of but few trees,
but those trees played an important part in the horticultural
advancement of the State, for they showed the possibilities in
fruit culture, and furnished seeds, stocks, and scions for many
orchards.

After the occupation of the southern part of the State by the
Franciscans, the Russians, actuated by entirely different
motives, penetrated from the north. The Mission Fathers
were bent upon the spiritual conquest of the new land; the
Russian traders, upon its commercial conquest; yet the efforts
of both, diverse at first, converged in the conquest of the wild
Pacific tribes to modern civilization, and both brought with
them civilizing influences. The Russians who obtained a foot-
hold here early in the nineteenth century planted an orchard of
mixed deciduous fruits at Fort Ross, as early as 1812. The
Russian orchards, like those of the Mission Fathers, were not
planted from a commercial consideration, but to supply their
respective owners with fruit for home consumption. However,
like the corresponding industry in the south, it served to prove
that fruit would grow in California, and thus became the pioneer
of the present great wealth-producing industry of the State.

The fruits introduced into the two sections of the State were
characteristic of the countries from which they were brought.
The chief fruits brought by the Fathers were oranges, figs, grapes,
and olives—all fruits of a genial southern clime. They met on
common ground in California with those of the more rugged
climate of the north—apples, pears, and cherries, introduced
by the Russian pioneers. It speaks highly for the diversity of
products to which this State is adapted that both once having
obtained a foothold maintained it, and to-day we find the apple

12 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

of the north growing side by side with the orange of the south,
while the pear and the lemon thrive together. The varieties
of fruit grown in the missions of Lower California, whence the
Franciscans derived their stock, were few in number and con-
sisted of figs, citrons, oranges, pomegranates, plantains, olives,
and dates. There were no fruits of the north temperate zone,
unless it were a few peaches of very indifferent quality, which
did not thrive well and were not regarded as worth much con-
sideration.

As elsewhere related, the Franciscans made their first estab-
lishment at San Diego in 1769, and proceeded from that point
northward, establishing altogether twenty-one missions; the
last one being at Sonoma in 1823. Here they found the Rus-
sian settlements, and the horticultural products of the north
and the south met and have grown together since. At each of
their missions the Fathers established orchards.

Vancouver, in his memoir of the Pacific Coast, in 1792,
describes an orchard which he found at Santa Clara in which
were growing apples, peaches, pears, apricots, and figs, the
trees all being thrifty and promising. He further details
finding at the mission of San Buenaventura apples, pears,
plums, figs, oranges, grapes, peaches, and pomegranates. The
orchards connected with the Mission San Gabriel were among
the most extensive of that early period, having, among other
fruits growing, oranges, citrons, limes, apples, pears, peaches,
pomegranates, and figs; grapes also grew in abundance.

No statistical accounts are extant recording the number of
trees or the amount of fruit produced by the missions at the
period of their greatest prosperity. Inventories of the mission
properties were made at the time of their secularization in
1834. That of the Santa Ynez Mission recorded 987 fruit trees,
valued at $1.00 each. San Fernando returned 1,600 fruit
trees, valued at $1.50 each; San Gabriel, 2,333 fruit trees, upon
which no valuation was placed; and San Diego returned 517
olive trees. Outside of the missions there were a few attempts
at horticulture, which might be called the “ prehistoric”
orchards of the State.

From the period of the secularization of the missions the
early fruit industry began to decline. In a few instances the
orchards were kept up to their original standard of excellence,
but these were exceptional cases, and when General Fremont

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. 13

visited California in 1846, he wrote of them that “little remains:
of the orchards that were kept in high cultivation at the
missions. * * * Fertile valleys are overgrown with wild
mustard; vineyards and olive orchards are decayed and
neglected.”

While most of the orchards were thus allowed to fall into
decay, a few still maintained their early vigor. Of one of
these, General Fremont, in his “(Geographical Memoir,” says:
“Among the arid brush-covered hills south of San Diego
we found little valleys converted by a single spring into
crowded gardens, where pears, peaches, quinces, pomegranates,
grapes, olives, and other fruits grew luxuriantly together, the
little streams acting upon them like a principle of life.”

Some of the earlier settlers, with foresight enough to see
that there was profit in fruit, secured some of the mission
orchards, and under skillful treatment and fostering care these
were made productive again by careful pruning, cultivation,
and irrigation. These enterprising orchardists reaped a golden
reward for their labor.

The early plantings in the north were generally in the
vicinity of the mines and were small family orchards. But
little care was bestowed upon them, as fruit-growing then was
not the science into which it has since developed. All sorts of
seeds were planted and these were allowed to grow and bear
when and how they would. But as the demand for better
varieties of fruit increased, efforts at improvement were made,
and better stock was sought.

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA.

The discovery of the fact that citrus fruits could be pro-
duced successfully and profitably, gave an impetus to the
growth of a most important industry in our State, and espe-
cially in the southern counties, which is almost unprecedented
in the history of our Union.

California is essentially devoted to specialties, and while
each of the numerous industries like the prune, raisin, peach,
walnut, almond, etc., is pursued in the different sections, and
while each of these industries is followed to a greater or less
extent in the surrounding counties, so Southern California
became the center of the citrus industry. Land which had

14 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

been regarded as worthless rapidly advanced in value as the
industry grew, and as its possibilities began to dawn upon
the knowledge of the grower, its value continued to increase.
Cities, towns, and villages sprang up, whose birth, existence,
and future depended upon the condition of the orange market.
Extensive systems of irrigation were developed, and a large
extent of territory which had at the commencement of this
growth been regarded as a desert was converted into a vast
orchard, filled with pleasant homes and a prosperous popula-
tion.

While orange trees were among the earliest introduced into
our State, having been brought here by the Mission Fathers, it
may be said that orange culture is of very modern origin, and
the industry has assumed commercial importance only since
1880.

The so-called citrus region is one of indefinite boundaries,
and the question where oranges would or would not grow
has given rise to much acrimonious discussion between various
sections of the State. It may be set down as a fact that the
orange will flourish in spots over the greater part of the State,
the exceptions being in the extreme northern counties and the
higher altitudes of the Sierra Nevada and Coast Range. The
cultivation of citrus fruits has formed the chief horticultural
industry of the extreme southern counties, and from this fact
an impression has gone abroad that they would not flourish
elsewhere. They are found in places along the entire length
of the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys, and very excellent
fruit is grown as far north as Shasta. Of course this vast area
is not all adapted to the culture of citrus fruits, in fact but a
small proportion of it is so adapted, but enough has been done
to prove that the climatic conditions required by the orange
and lemon are to be found over a large part of California.
While, too, the citrus fruit industry is the principal one of the
southern counties, not all of the land in that section is suit-
able for the growth of citrus fruits.

Outside of the southern counties citrus fruits of exceedingly
good quality are grown in the foothills of Kern County. In
Tulare County there is a strip of land along the base of the
foothills of the Sierra Nevada Mountains where oranges have
been planted on a large scale, and they are grown very suc-
cessfully both at the north and south ends of the belt. Citrus

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. 15

fruits grown at Porterville and Lindsay are rapidly assuming
a front position and share the honors in this line with other
similarly favored sections of the south. Oranges thrive all
along the foothills where water can be obtained. There are no
damaging frosts or destructive winds. There are a number of |
fine orchards, and every year large areas of new land are
being planted to citrus fruits.

Placer County has numerous citrus orchards, and the area
in citrus culture is gradually extending, especially about New-
castle, Loomis, Rocklin, and Penryn.

In Sacramento County considerable attention is now devoted
to the culture of citrus fruits, at Orangevale and Fair Oaks.
In the former colony large plantings are to be seen and large
shipments of this fruit are being made annually therefrom.

Citrus fruits do well over a large portion of Butte County,
which county is entitled to the position of leader in the north-
ern citrus belt. Prior to 1886, citrus culture was largely
experimental, although even at that time the fact that oranges
would grow there and could be made a profitable crop had
gradually forced itself upon the attention of fruit-growers.
The winning of the award at the Northern Citrus Fair in Sac-
ramento that year, confirmed the belief of the citrus-growers
there, and a great impetus was given to the new industry,
until now Butte County is better known for her production of
citrus fruits than for the growing of those which had so far
proved of greater commercial importance. The colonies of
Thermalito and Palermo have taken their chief impetus from
the fact that oranges will grow there, and the planting of
orange trees has not diminished, but rather increased with
time. Wyandotte, adjacent to Palermo, is another favorite
section where citrus fruits are grown successfully. The oldest
orange tree in Northern California is at Bidwell’s Bar (Butte
County), where it may still be seen. This tree was grown
from seed of an Acapulco orange planted by Jesse Morrill
at Sacramento in 1855, and transplanted to its present site in
1859. (See illustration on next page.)

In Yuba County large tracts have been set out in orange
trees, notably at Wheatland and Smartsville.

In Stanislaus County the area of citrus-growing is being
rapidly extended. The orange has been successfully grown
about Knight’s Ferry for a number of years, but only recently

16 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

has the culture of this fruit been pursued on a large scale.
Extensive plantings are being made about Oakdale.

The western portion of Amador County is admirably adapted
to fruit-growing. The same citrus belt traverses this county
that encircles the northern counties of Butte, Nevada, and
Placer, and oranges and lemons of remarkable size and flavor
have been produced there.

In Calaveras County citrus fruits have not been grown very
extensively, but at Campo Seco there are orange trees over

f q thirty years old, which
bear good crops annu-
ally, as also in the
citrus belt which em-
braces the northern
part of the county.

In Fresno County
until recently very
little attention was
paid to growing citrus
fruits. A few orange
orchards in the foot-
hill regions of the
county showed the
future possibilities of
the section, and the
acreage is now being
rapidly extended. The
thee oranges and lemons

i Ne mower = exhibited at the Fres-

The oldest orange tree in Northern California, at no citrus fairs in the

Bidwell’s Bar, transplanted in 1859, past fouror as years
compared favorably with those grown in other favored sections
adjoining.

In Merced County the orange thrives best in the thermal
belt of the Sierra Nevada foothills. There are numerous
plantings in and about Merced City.

Fine fruit has also heen exhibited at the Cloverdale citrus
fairs held there for the past four seagons, showing the possi-
bilities of that section in citrus culture.

It will be seen from these statements that the citrus belt of
California is not confined within any mere geographical boun-

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. 17

daries; that no compass and chain can separate the so-called
southern from the northern citrus belt; that with proper
conditions citrus fruits can be grown over a large area of the
State; and that without proper climatic conditions they can
not be grown successfully.

Primitive Orchards.—The most extensive orange orchard
of early planting was at the San Gabriel Mission, in Los
Angeles County, supposed to have been set out in 1804
by one “Father” Thomas Sanches. The first orange orchard
of any note, outside of the missions, although small and
intended for home use, was planted by Louis Vignes at Los

The once famous Wolfskill Orange Orchard—trees forty years old.

Angeles in 1834. Thesame year Manuel Requena also planted
a small orchard. Other plantings soon followed, the most
notable and important of which was that of the late William
Wolfskill, at Los Angeles, consisting of two acres set out in
1841, and this was probably the first orange orchard ‘planted
in the State with a view to profit. In 1853 the Matthew Keller
orchard, opposite the Wolfskill orchard, was planted. Another
orchard was planted north of the San Gabriel Mission, now
known as the Wilson orchard. These plantings did not
immediately succeed each other, but a considerable period
elapsed from the date of the setting out of the mission orchard,
and even after the success of this latter orchard had been
assured other plantings were slow and not extensive.
2c

18 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

In 1857 a few trees were planted at old San Bernardino by
L. Van Leuven from seed grown by him. He also the same
year planted forty-five trees obtained from Los Angeles. About
two hundred were planted at Crafton by Myron H. Crafts,
about 1865. The first seeds were planted at Riverside in 1870,
and the first trees in orchard, grown from these seeds, in 1872
and 1873. In 1869 Frank A. Kimball planted some orange
and lemon trees at National City, San Diego County. At that
time there were two old orange trees growing in El Cajon Valley.
But little progress was made in orange culture from 1857
until 1862, at which date there were but twenty-five thousand
trees in the entire State, and two thirds of these were in the
Wolfskill orchard. From this date the planting of orange

Orange Avenue at San Gabriel—trees thirty years old.

trees increased, but not with any great rapidity until 1878,
when the first impetus was given to the industry. Southern
California was out of the reach of railroad transportation.
Fruit for the market was hauled to Los Angeles in wagons and
from there transferred to rail and steamer. This process was
slow and expensive, and but a limited area, and that not the
best land for the purpose, could be cultivated. The completion
of the Southern Pacific line, however, gave superior transporta-
tion facilities, and at the same time opened up a new and better
fruit region. Riverside had already started, having been set-
tled in 1869, and a considerable area of orchard land was set
to oranges. Shipments of fruit to San Francisco and the East
commenced, and they brought good returns and encouraged the

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. 19

growers. It was not, however, until the opening of the Atchi-
son, Topeka & Santa Fé line that the highest development
took place. From this time on there was a veritable boom in
orange planting. Some of the returns from these orchards
were almost incredible, as much as $3,000 from one acre having
been reported, and $800 to $1,000 being no uncommon yield.
Of course, an industry that would pay such profits was eagerly
sought. Land suitable for orchards advanced rapidly in value;
other lands advanced collaterally, and it became profitable to
subdue them to this purpose. Land companies, irrigation
companies, and planting companies were organized with suffi-
cient capital to carry out their schemes, and the whole extent
of a country which had been a forbidding waste was soon
converted into a fruitful orchard. The very face of nature was
changed, and in a few years Southern California became one
of the most important sections of the State.

In 1862, H. M. White planted two orange trees in Frazier
Valley, east of Porterville, Tulare County, which are still
bearing and which formed the nucleus of a forty-acre orchard
that now surrounds the original tree. At Plano, in the same
county, Mrs. Gibbons, in 18638, planted some orange seed as an
experiment, which proved successful. Other plantings followed,
until the present citrus district of Porterville developed. The
first orchard was planted in Porterville in 1883, by A. R. Henry.
About the same date a small planting was made at Centerville,
Fresno County. A few trees were planted by the agent of the
Marysville and Oroville railroad as early as 1868, in his garden
at Oroville, Butte County.

A small orange grove was planted by Nicholas Carriger in
1871, about two and a half miles west of the town of Sonoma.
Mr. L. L. Lewis, the present owner, says: “These trees are now
over three feet in circumference, and some of them will yield
this season as high as twenty-five boxes of oranges.”

Thus we find that, as early as 1870, small orange groves had
been planted all along the foothills from San Diego to Butte
County. Plantings in many of the valley counties had also
been made up to this date. These latter have served to prove
the inadaptability of the valleys to the growth of the industry,
while along the foothills the small beginnings have developed
into one of the most permanent and profitable branches of
horticulture in the State.

20 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

Expansion of Orange Culture.—While oranges had been
grown in the most favored sections of Southern California, and
to a very small extent in other portions of the State, to River-
side is due the great impetus that brought the industry into
national prominence. The twenty varieties of oranges that
competed against the world at the New Orleans World’s Fair,
and to which was awarded the gold medal for their superiority,
were grown at Riverside, and the fact was heralded the world
over. It is also largely to Riverside that the orange industry
is indebted for its present importance, from the success attained
in the cultivation of the Washington Navel, an orange which
achieved widespread fame for itself and the location (River-
side) where it was first successfully grown.

A Riverside Washington Navel Orange (irove.

The importation of the Australian ladybird (Vedalia car-
dinalis) gave another impetus to the industry, and the work of
this little insect in this State can not be better illustrated than by
the reported shipments of citrus fruits from Los Angeles before
and after its introduction. For years Los Angeles was the lead-
ing shipper of citrus fruits, but the introduction and spread of
the cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi) so affected the indus-
try that it was on the verge of extinction. In 1890, San Ber-
nardino County (now divided from Riverside), into which this
scale had not forced its way, shipped 1,705 carloads of oranges,
and Los Angeles 781. The Vedalia practically exterminated the
cottony cushion scale, and the returns in 1891 were 2,212 car-
loads for Los Angeles and 1,708 for San Bernardino, an increase

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. 21

of three carloads for the latter county, while Los Angeles
advanced in one season from 781 to 2,212, an increase of 1,431
carloads. The increase of San Bernardino was a natural one,
but that of Los Angeles was due to the advent of the Vedalia
and not to the coming in of new orchards.

The latest tree census from returns made by County
Assessors shows the number of orange and lemon trees in the
State to be as follows:

Oranges. Lemons.

Bearing (Brees cc ccuseen see heen seat eeeeerS loo lOd 805,084
Non-bearing Trees __.--.-.---.-.---- -------- 1,837,695 504,272
Totals..ccce.c0ceesecves 2 ccecce ee_--s-z--2-4,970,480 1,309,856

It is notorious that the returns of assessors are underesti-
mated, many orchardists reluctantly giving the full number,
fearing it might entail additional taxation. If twenty per
cent were added to the above, it would approximate more
nearly to the true number. By such addition we would have
3,759,342 bearing and 2,205,234 non-bearing orange trees.
Of lemon trees we would have 966,101 bearing and 605,126
non-bearing. The total number would be 5,964,576 orange
trees and 1,571,227 lemon trees, and a combined total of
7,535,803 orange and lemon trees. Averaging 100 trees to the
acre, would give 75,358 acres devoted to this culture. As it
is estimated that there are about 1,500,000 acres in the so-called
Thermal Belt extending from San Diego to Tehama County
suitable for the cultivation of citrus fruits, the foregoing data
show what room there is for the expansion of this industry.

CALIFORNIA ORANGE AND LEMON SHIPMENTS.

From California Fruit-Grower.

Season. Carloads. No. of Boxes.
UG SGF 5 nce cess adadenk nec naedeeuneeseaeawe eel 1,972,500
1,687,500
2,545,200
2,323,500
2,469,600
2 5,174,400
1898209 2 2 oseSesscees Leceteceseezeseseeenss 10,875 3,654,000
1899-00 s.oese ee ete wh tkeook coe ieecsteeesccen L8400 6,624,000
1900-0] ac ceases Aoscennsessesmesonessssaes sees 24,900 8,964,000

Of the 24,900 cars, or 8,964,000 boxes, of citrus fruit shipped
during the season of 1900-01, 3,200 cars, or 992,000 boxes

22 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

were lemons. As the average net value of a carload of oranges
and lemons to the producer for the season of 1900-01 was about
$350, the total value of the shipments amounts to $8,715,000.
About as much more money was disbursed for cultivation,
packing, and freight, making a grand total for that season of
about $17,430,000. The above only represents the actual
amounts that were moved to markets.

Especially Favorable and Dangerous Localities. — All
along the belt of country from Tehama County to San Diego
there are especially protected or favored localities where the
orange and the lemon grow to perfection, and also localities
where it would be unsate to attempt citrus fruit culture asa
commercial enterprise. This is caused by the local topography
of the country and does not depend much on the altitude.
Wherever cold currents of air from high altitudes flow to the
valley without interruption, it will not be safe to attempt citrus
culture at any elevation within the sweep of these currents.
On the other hand, wherever these descending currents are cut
off or turned aside by spurs of the mountains, leaving the
warm atmosphere of the days undisturbed during the nights,
there orange and lemon culture may be engaged in without
danger from frost. In other words, the eddies of air currents
must be selected and the main flow of these currents must be
avoided.

Every one who has traveled along these Sierra foothills
parallel with the valleys, particularly in the winter season and
at night, will recall his surprise at the sudden changes of the
temperature of the atmosphere within short distances. He
may also remember to have noticed tender plants and shrubs
seared and frost bitten, while just over a ridge or cone the same
plants and shrubs were in full leaf and growing luxuriantly.
Want of attention to these facts has caused many a disastrous
failure in the cultivation of citrus fruits in California.

It may be here observed that these peculiar natural
phenomena are more striking and their lessons are more
imperative north than south of the Tehachapi pass—for the
reason that south of that point the coast range of mountains is
broken up into fragments, and the tempering influences of the
waters and breezes of the ocean are more direct and powerful

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA—POLLINATION. 23

than farther north, where this range is practically unbroken
and the citrus belt is farther inland. These disadvantages of
the northern section are, however, somewhat counteracted in the
fact that the drier and warmer summer atmosphere is a greater
guarantee against the spread and ravages of insect pests. The
more elevated and inland localities in the south have this same
advantage over localities nearer the coast.

There are orange and lemon trees growing in nearly all of
the counties of the State not exclusively in the mountainous
sections, and many of these trees are bearing more or less fruit
of very fair quality. For climatic reasons, however, the citrus
fruit industry is and must be confined to a belt of country
lying along the foothills of the Sierra Nevada Mountains.
This belt is called the “Thermal Belt.” It stretches from San
Diego to Tehama County, a distance of over seven hundred
miles, and varies in width from three or four miles to twenty-
five or thirty. In this belt it is estimated there are about
1,500,000 acres of land adapted to the safe cultivation of citrus
fruits on a commercial basis.

The altitude ranges from 380 to 1,800 feet above sea-level.
The mean summer temperature of this belt is somewhat higher
in the northern portion than in the southern, but the mean
winter temperature ig higher in the southern than in the
northern portion. The mean temperature for the year does
not vary more than four degrees throughout the whole belt.

POLLINATION—HYBRIDS.

The mixing of the pollen among the flowers of the species
has given birth to innumerable hybrids, distinguished as such
and designated as varieties, by their remaining constant, 2. ¢.,
not reverting to the mother type after continuous propaga-
tion. With the constant multiplication of varieties it would
be difficult to trace to what species many hybrids belong.
Many partake of the lemon, the orange, and the citron.

The flower of the orange is nothing but a transformed
branch, coming out of either the axilla of an ordinary leaf or
from that of an abortive leaf, usually called a bract. This
transformed branch, or flower, in the orange, consists of sev-
eral whorls or transformed leaves, viz: the calyx whorl, the

24 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

corolla whorl, the stamina whorl or whorls, and ovary whorl
or whorls. The latter, in the citrus fruit, consists ordinarily
of two distinct whorls—the outer or rind whorl, and the inner
or pulp whorl. The flowers of the greater number of species
are single—possessing an abundance of pollen. Double flow-
ers are often produced by the growth of additional whorls or
petals.

Double flowers have a tendency to fruit-doubling. The
peculiarity of these fruits exists in the ovary before fertiliza-
tion, and the fruit exhibiting it may develop without having
been fertilized. It has rarely any seeds, and when present are
very small and imperfect. Such instances of seedless fruit
plainly show that the so-called superfcetation could not have
been the result of excess fertilization, as there are no germs to
be fertilized, and even if there are any, they must be so imper-
fect that no fertilization can take place. This result might
also occur from imperfection of the sexual organs.

The orange within an orange is nothing but a doubling of the
fruit or ovary whorls. It is the result of the doubling of the
flower. Gallesio says: “Certain varieties, like the double-
flowered bergamot, when not highly cultivated and left to
themselves, lose by degrees the character of giving double
flowers and bear only single ones.”

Artificial fecundation whenever applied has given varying
results, and when the action was effected upon the ovules the
fruit was not modified, but the ovules grew into seeds, which
when planted produced trees and fruit entirely distinct from
the parent trees.

Fecundation is effected naturally among pollen-producing
flowers by insects, birds, the wind, and by friction. The
moment the flowers reach maturity and are ready for fecunda-
tion the stigma of the pistil appears as if gummed with a
honey-lke substance, and serves to retain the dust-like pollen
when applied to it. The flower with which to effect fecunda-
tion must be taken when nearly ready to bloom, must be
thrifty, the corolla removed, and the anthers rubbed upon the
stigma to be fructified. The operation is repeated until the
stigma assumes its normal state, and care must be exercised
not to miss the moment of blooming in the pistil.

Varieties of the orange are innumerable, and have of late

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA—POLLINATION. 25

years been imported from all over the globe. While many of
these possess good qualities, the majority lack the most
essential characteristics to be worthy of culture for profit.
Attempts to improve upon the varieties now fruiting have
been made by cross pollination, but without results of much
value, although numerous varieties possessed of some merit
have been thus originated. The best results have been
through Dame Nature, and chance seedlings of high merit
have been produced without the aid of man. But while some
of these imported sorts and home-grown seedlings have been
planted quite largely throughout the State, the fruit, being
devoid of special characteristics through which their qualities
could be known to the trade and distinguished from the
ordinary common seedling, often sell for no more, if as much.

The only variety produced by what may be termed a peculiar
method of propagation is an exceptionally fine type of Navel
by A.C. Thomson, of Duarte. The process, which is men-
tioned by ancient writers upon agriculture, was first applied
in this State by Mr. Thomson, and was performed by a close
intermarriage of the wood of several varieties, which, by growing
together, resulted in a combination of the characteristics of
the various factors. The secret of the operation lies in the
matching of two half-buds of the same size and of different
sorts.

The process Mr. Thomson describes as follows: “The bud
is composed of two half-buds of the same size put together and
inserted as one, waxed over, after being concaved to fit the
convex side of the stock, and concaved a little also in the split
so as to bring both edges of the germ together closely. This
has to be done of course with a very thin, sharp knife. Now
say, for instance, that one of the half-buds is a Washington
Navel and the other half a St. Michael. These grow together
and form one shoot. From this shoot next season take buds,
and from Malta Blood take buds of equal size and maturity;
split and unite these halves as one bud, fit them well and
neatly together, wax over lightly, and cover with a wax
wrapper; string will not do, as the buds would dry out. Next
season again take these buds from this new growth and halve
them with half-buds of Mediterranean Sweet. Here, then,
you get a growth which includes all the varieties named. At

26 STATE BOARD OF ILORTICULTURE.

the end of three weeks from budding, the wrapper has to he
removed and the buds examined with a magnifying glass. If
the union is complete at the crown of the germ return the
wrapper, to exclude sun and air until the bud starts to grow.
Sometimes only one-half of the bud starts to grow; all such
should be cut out and the budding done over again. Sometimes
both halves die, or both halves grow separately. Then it has
to be done over again on a new place in the stock. There
ought to be at least fifty buds of each combination put in at
the same time to cover failures.”

Mr. Thomson has distributed a great many buds and trees
among his neighbors and in other sections of the State. The
trees have invariably continued to produce a thin-skinned
orange and seemingly remaining constant. Many have claimed
that the variety has not produced fruit as grown on the original
trees, but Mr. Thomson says this has not been on trees which
he has supplied. The buds then must have come from other
trees that are not the true “Improved Navel.”

METHODS USED IN HYBRIDIZING PLANTS.*

The process of hybridizing plants is in itself neither difficult
nor mysterious, it being simply necessary to understand the
general structure of the flower to be used. The flowers of the
tomato, pear, and orange may be taken as illustrating the
common forms, although, of course, very many modifications
occur. The envelopes of these flowers, as in the case of the
flowers of most cultivated plants, consist of two whorls of
modified leaves. The outer whorl, which is known as the
calyx, is commonly green like the foliage and is divided into
several distinct or more or less united lobes, or sepals; while the
inner whorl, or corolla, is usually of some bright color other
than green, and its different divisions or lobes are known as
petals. In some cases, as in the lily, the calyx and corolla
are of the same color, so that they are not easily distinguish-
able; while in still other cases, as in oaks, walnuts, etc., the
corolla is entirely wanting.

The essential, or sexual, organs of the flower, the stamens

* By Walter T. Swingle and Herbert J. Webber, Special Agents Department
of Agriculture. Yearbook 1897, p. 385.

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA—POLLINATION. 27

and pistils, are found inside the calyx and corolla, and it is
with these organs that the hybridizer is most concerned. The
stamens, or male organs, of the plant are usually several m
number, and are composed of an upper swollen portion, the
anther, which is borne on a more or less slender stalk called
the filament. In some flowers, as in those of the tomato, the
filament is very short, and in others is entirely wanting, the
anthers being borne at the base of the corolla. The very
numerous small, yellow, powdery grains of pollen, which con-
stitute the male fecundating elements, are borne in sacks in
the anthers. When the anther matures, these sacks burst open
and the pollen is exposed. A quantity of this pollen must be
transferred, either by natural or artificial means, to the stigma
of the female organ in order to insure fecundation. The appli-
cation of pollen to the stigma is designated pollination, and
successful pollination—that is, the application of pollen to the
stigma, followed by fecundation—is termed fertilization.

The pistil or pistils, which are the female organs, occupy the
center of the flower and are surrounded by the stamens. The
upper portion of the pistil is usually somewhat swollen and
more or less rough. Itis on this portion of the pistil, known
as the stigma, that the pollen must fall to produce fecundation.

In the majority of plants the stamens and pistils are pro-
duced in the same flower, as in the tomato-and orange, but in
certain plants they are produced in different flowers on the
same plant, as in walnuts, castor beans, etc., or on different’
plants, as in the willow, poplar, etc.

In undertaking to hybridize plants artificially, it is well to
- remember that in many plants the stamens and pistils when
in the same flower mature at different times—-a provision to
insure cross-pollination (the application of the pollen of one
flower to the stigma of another). In a large majority of such
cases the stamens ripen first, discharging their pollen before
the pistil is receptive. The most important feature in the work
of crossing is to exclude from the stigma all pollen except that
which it is desired touse. The prevention of self-pollination (the
transfer of pollen to the stigma of the same flower) in perfect
flowers—that is, flowers containing both stamens and pistils—
necessitates the careful opening of the flowers intended for
hybridization while they are still immature, and the cutting or

28 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

pulling off of the anthers before they burst and allow the escape
of the pollen. This process is termed emasculation. * * *

In the manipulation of orange flowers mature buds nearly
ready to open are selected and the tips of the corolla carefully
pried apart until the stamens are exposed. In these flowers
the anthers are attached to the filaments by very slender
threads, which are easily broken, so that the simplest method
of removing the stamens is to pull them off with fine-pointed
forceps. The latter may also be conveniently used in prying
apart the corolla lobes of the bud. During the process of
emasculation in this and all other cases great care must be
exercised not to open the stamens and accidentally pollinate
the flower. All insects must be watched and carefully excluded.
Fig. 3 shows an emasculated flower ready to bag.

Fic. 1—Orange flower bud, Fic.2—Matureorangeflower. Fic. 3—An emasculated

showing stage which (Natural size.) orange flower; a, shows
should be selected for where anthers were de-
emasculation. (Natural tached. (Natural size.)
size.)

(After Swingle and Webber.)

After emasculating the flower, a bag of some closely woven
cloth or of paper should be carefully passed over the twig bear-
ing the flower and tied around the stem below the flower in
such a manner as to effectually exclude all insects and foreign
pollen. The manila paper sacks used by grocers are employed
almost exclusively for this purpose. In a few days after
emasculation and bagging, when the pistils have had time to
mature, the sacks must be removed and the pistils pollinated,
after which the sacks should be replaced as before and allowed
to remain until fecundation has taken place and all danger
from the action of foreign pollen is over. In most cases the
sacks should then be removed, as they are likely to injure the
development of the fruit. In some cases, as in the orange,
where the pistil is nearly mature when the bud is opened, the
pollen may be applied to the stigma when the flower is emas-
culated, thus avoiding the trouble of opening the bag later.

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA—POLLINATION. 29

The flowers selected for emasculation and hybridization
should be full-sized, perfect in all respects, and conveniently
situated. Those on the end of a twig frequently set fruit best.
All the flowers on the branch which are not used should be
cut off. Frequently several flowers of the same age can be
selected on the same branch, emasculated, and inclosed under
the same bag.

In hybridizing, many different methods are followed in
applying the pollen. In most cases where an abundance of
pollen can be secured the freshly burst anthers from one plant
may be taken with fine-pointed forceps and rubbed over the
stigma of the other until sufficient pollen has been transferred.
This is probably the easiest and safest method in most cases.
Some hybridizers transfer the pollen with a small ladle or
camel’s-hair brush, and occasionally this method may be found
somewhat convenient, especially where the pollen is brought
from some distance and has largely escaped from the anthers.

After each pollination it is of the utmost importance to
label the bag in such a way that there will be no question as
to what it contains. These labels should be allowed to remain
after the bag has been removed. As fruits, like oranges, etc.,
approach maturity it is very desirable that they-be inclosed in
gauze bags firmly tied to the branches. Such bags allow the
normal development of the fruit, protect it from being picked
accidentally, and in case the fruit falls prematurely preserve
it in connection with the label.

WHAT ARE HYBRIDS? *

The term hybrid is by many applied only to the offspring
obtained by crossing two plants or animals sufficiently different
to be considered by naturalists as distinct species, while the
terms mongrel and cross are used to designate the offspring of
two classes or varieties of one species. It was formerly supposed
' that all hybrids were more or less sterile, in contradistinction to
mongrels, which were believed to be very sterile. It has been
found, however, that many hybrids, in the narrow sense, are
very fertile, and that some mongrels are nearly sterile. Since
it is impossible to indicate by any two words, such as hybrid

* By Walter T. Swingle and Herbert J. Webber, Special Agents Department
of Agriculture. Yearbook 1897, p. 384.

30 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

or mongrel, the various degrees of difference of the forms crossed,
the word hybrid is here used, conformably to the Century
Dictionary, as a generic term, to include all organisms arising
from a cross of two forms noticeably different, whether the
difference be great or slight. Adjectives are sometimes used to
indicate the grade of the forms crossed, such as racial hybrid,
bigeneric hybrid, etc. Where a hybrid of two species is crossed
with a third species a trispecific hybrid results.

The offspring produced by the union of two plants identical
in kind, but separated in descent by at least several seed
generations, is often called a crossed, cross-fertilized, or cross-
bred plant, but it is not a hybrid, as the essential character of
a hybrid is that it results from the union of plants differing
more or less in kind; or, in other words, is the result of a union
between different races, varieties, species, genera, etc. On the
other hand, flowers impregnated with their own pollen, with
the pollen of another flower on the same plant, or even with
pollen from another plant derived from the same original
stock by cuttings, grafts, etc., are said to be self-fertilized, and
the offspring resulting from such unions are also termed self-
fertilized plants. With some plants, such as tobacco and
wheat, self-fertilization is the rule. In many cases, however,
the flowers are so constructed that cross-fertilization is neces-
sary, all possibility of self-pollination being precluded, as in
the case of hemp and other plants having the male and female
flowers on separate individuals.

PURPOSE AND GROWTH OF PRIMAL TYPES.*

Nature, unaided by animate creatures, sets her aim and
degree of excellence around one central purpose. It is to pro-
duce a germ to perpetuate her products, a seed, and within
that seed a cluster of highly organized cells, that possess
within themselves an impulse, and a power, under favorable
conditions, to produce a type nearly identical with the parent.

We can not comprehend the structure of this tiny association
of cells, the delicate adjustment of its parts which give us the
variety of the orchard, the latent impulse that has been
imparted to this wonderful unit of growth. It is that enigma

*By Wm. C. Fuller, of Colton, Cal.

CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. PLATE II.

SEEDLING TAHITI ORANGE—PRIMAL TYPE. (REpDUcED.)

32 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

of life, co-equal and co-splendent with the human soul, the
analysis of being.

It isa necessity with nature that every precaution of pro-
tection should surround this seed in its growth, to guard it
against destruction, and to complete its perfect development.

The law of man’s self-existence is, that when the seed becomes
his food whereby he lives, every effort of nature must be sec-
onded to make a perfect seed protection. When the seed is
not his food, then we must change, or entirely eliminate, one or
more of these natural guards, and allow other qualities to
displace these protective qualities.

If wild areas were occupied by a species where the varieties
could not mix by pollination, those varieties that developed
vital seeds would thrive by perpetuating a race only slightly
at variance with the primal type.

If the area was occupied by mixed varieties, those having
the most virile pollen, or those the best sexed, would conquer in
the race for existence, and only that variety remain which
would be surrounded by the greatest protection against all
possible enemies.

This would be accomplished by a change in each generation
of seed, imparted to it by pollen possessing the greatest
strength and enduring qualities. The growing plant from
such a seed, having more resistance to climatic changes, more
streneth of root to forage in the soil, and more power of leaf
to elaborate its fruit, would produce, first, intermediate varie-
ties, and, finally, occupy the whole area with a variety indis-
tinguishable from the strongest type.

Continuous cross-pollination would, with each generation,
tend to eliminate the weaker variety, while seedless varieties
would be destroyed immediately.

It is this known law in its action, in natural selection and
adaptation, that the Citrus vulgaris var. bigaradia, or the sour-
bitter orange, may be regarded as the primitive type of many
of the California oranges. Whether or not this is the germinal
and historic species from which the historic varieties came,
it is the natural protective type to represent the purpose of
nature in the production of seed.

Citrus Vulgaris, var. Bigaradia.—If nature had marked this
tree and fruit with the sign “Touch not, taste not,” she could

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA—POLLINATION, 33

not have fulfilled her purpose in perpetuating its life better
than she has with the disagreeable qualities and outside aids
with which she has surrounded it.

The tree habits and fruit-growth differ from other varieties
in many particulars. The tree is low for a standard, rarely
reaching over thirty feet in height. This habit guards it from
the effects of high winds and allows it to get the greatest
benefit from the radiated heat, when the direct rays of the sun
are spent. By its low, conelike growth the lower fruit is pro-
duced having great strength and character, allowing a small
compact cell to do an immense work, in the leaf and root. The
leaf is winged; the large petioles below the articulation act as
a protection and help, in case of injury to the blade of the leaf
by degrees of heat or cold, or lack of nutrition and moisture.
The flowers are shortened, thick petaled, and diffused with color
ranging from white to pink. The little investigation that has
been given to the study of the nectaries, and their sweet con-
tents, of the orange forbids a comparison with other varieties.
As in this family of plants this characteristic is a staminal or
male development, and by analogy with the known habits of
wild flowers it is certain that the sour orange has large, well-
filled nectaries, aiding, as does the color of its petals, the dis-
tribution of its pollen by insect agencies. While these organs
may not be regarded as protecting the individual, as the thorns
and bitter of the fruit, yet to the species and staminal varieties
it is one of the essential means of self-protection in pollination
by the aid of insects. The fruit is unsightly and rough, bitter
and acrid. The oil is pungent and the fragrance heavy, as
are the oils of the leaves and flowers. The pulp is sour and
partakes of the bitterness of the rind. The oil cells are con-
cave. The tree carries well-formed thorns distributed to the
ends of the branches, and the fruit when ripe has strong
germinating seeds for reproduction. Every quality and develop-
ment of the tree is protective, and these staminal qualities have
guarded its life, under adverse conditions, for centuries from
destruction by birds, animals, and mankind.

The characteristics of the bitter orange are given in detail,
as this orange, highly sexualized, and strong in its staminate
and pistillate power, is a type for all, and has imparted some
of its qualities to all the varieties of our orchards. How has

3c

34 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

this orange with its combination of disagreeable qualities been
changed and modified, and some of its qualities eliminated, to
give us the Konah, the St. Michael, the Washington Navel,
and other meritorious varieties?

Staminal or Male Characteristics.—By the law of vegetable
growth, plants construct and form themselves; they increase
and multiply themselves. The orange multiplies by the root
growth of adventitious buds, that eventually form perfect
trees; by cuttings; by the development of buds in the limb,
that grow to branches and fruitfulness; and by a seed embryo
developed in the ripened fruit. The adventitious bud in the
root, and the branch bud are the result of the sex impulse dis-
tributed through the entire tree structure. The embryo of the
seed is the result of special adaptations in the structure of the
leaf. The perfect development of the nucleus of the seed is
the strength of the united reproductive functions of the entire
tree, and although the root and branch buds are liable to
“sport” and give new or modified varieties, it is to the stami-
nate and pistillate modifications that we must look for the
primary changes in the fruit and tree habits of growth.

The least modification impressed upon the pollen impulse,
and the receptivity of the ovarian cell, will change, modify, or
eliminate some habit of the tree, or quality of the fruit, in the
embryo and bud.

It is apparent that in the bitter orange of the bigaradia, the
male or staminal power 1s in the ascendancy. The whole tree,
in all its manifestations, is suffused by this power. It primar-
ily affects the cell of the leaf, the branch, and root. It influ-
ences the vitality, the strength, and the compactness of the
protoplasmic unit in the pollen germ, It is manifested in the
heavy compact limb, the stout effective thorn, the resistant
and strong terminal root growth, the thick leaf, the pungent
oils, the bitter compounds of the rind and cells of the carpel,
and in the capacity to resist the elaboration of sugar from the
fruit acid, compelling the slow development of a strong germi-
native and generative seed.

Modifications in the Pollen Impulse.—Either by ‘tutu or cul-
tivation the strength of the pollen impulse was changed. The
staminate or male power of the bitter orange was acted upon,

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA— POLLINATION. 35

and its supremacy destroyed. When that was accomplished,
those qualities that nature used to protect the seed were either
without necessity or modified to the changed habits of the new
tree. As these changes were produced, the whole tree was
acted upon to adjust a correlated growth. The germ cells were
changed in their capacity to produce a constant type. The
vegetative functions were immediately increased, and those
parts of the tree impulse ‘put forth a growth modifying those
protective growths built upon the defense and perpetuity of the
seed. As an immediate result of the loss in the pollen impulse,
the leaf increased in surface. The root cells were enlarged
and enabled to absorb liquids to meet an increase of leaf
evaporation. The whole tree acquired a greater heat range
and became more tropical. These modifications of the micro-
scopic pollen cell in its constructive energy to maintain a per-
manent type are seen in the habits of growth and fruit of the
sweet orange (Citrus aurantium) of our orchards.

Citrus Aurantium.—This orange is in such marked contrast
to the bitter orange that eminent authorities have debated
its origin, and have considered it a species equal with the
bitter orange, and awarded to both the ancestry of whole
groups of varieties. It carries a strong though weakened
reproductive function. Its departure from the type of the
bitter orange is in the loss of staminal power. The pistillate
or vegetable growths have increased by a readjustment of plant
energy in the floral branch which has weakened the virility of
the pollen impulse.

When the two varieties are compared, the necessity for a
different parentage does not appear. The lines of modifica-
tion follow the generative impulse, and this possibility of the
germ type to variation gives the key to unlock the cause of
seed and bud variation in the great number of varieties and
monstrosities. The generative force broken in the type unit,
the combinations of its qualities were resolved into groups.
The type wnit being impossible, the group wnit appears in the
pollen, the seed, and the bud, giving us the varieties of the
orchard, each having one or more characteristics of the
historic type.

The sweet orange is intermediate between the bitter orange
and the seedless varieties. In comparison with the bitter

36 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

orange the pistillate impulse has displaced the staminate
impulse, which appears in a weakened reproductive function.
The vegetative growths have increased; the leaf is larger and
has lost its relative thickness, and except in new and rampant
growths is nearly wingless. The thorns have lost much of
their protective qualities and are easily changed to a branch,
and in rare cases develop a sessile floral branch which tips the
thorn with a flower. The changes in the fruit are marked.
The oil cells of the rind are convex, and have lost the pungent
oils, becoming more delicate in fragrance. The same compara-
tive delicacy in the oils is seen in the leaf and the blossoms.
The bitter compounds are freed from the inner cells of the car-
pels, and are only feebly present in the rind. The power to
produce acidity is impaired, and the vegetative functions cause
the tree to shorten its season of fruit-ripening by the aborted
development of its seed.

In this comparison of the two varieties of oranges, the bitter
and the sweet, we see the positive staminal qualities of the
bitter orange are in the sweet orange either entirely eliminated,
weakened, or replaced by the growth of negative qualities that
could not be observed in union with the overpowering staminal
qualities. We see that the sweet orange does not represent
the complete unit of nature, but consists of a division of
qualities, comprised in a large group only. However marked
this change, our California seedling still retains the largest
group of qualities representing the type of our orchard
varieties.

Tendency of Orange Cultwre.—The tendency of orange culture
in California is to displace, as far as possible, the type of
varieties, as represented by the bitter and sweet oranges, and to
extend the orchard growths in the direction of the variety that
eliminates the seed growth and possesses only a small and
sometimes feeble group of inherited qualities. This tendency
arises froma desire to grow a sweet orange, and to a great extent
is a misunderstanding of those qualities which, in combination,
make a model fruit.

Variety Groups.—In the St. Michael we have a group of
qualities that intensified the staminal impulse of the sweet
orange, as shown in the production of seeds. It retains the

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA—POLLINATION. 37

quality of late ripening of the bitter orange, and possesses a
citrus quality of great merit associated with a heavy, compact
cell growth.

In the Homosassa (or a variety known as the Homosassa),
a Florida variety, we have a staminate group of qualities,
giving to the fruit a high color, tending to seedlessness and an
early ripening of the fruit. As we should expect from its
tendency to depart from the development of seed, it is not
possessed of the citrus quality of the St. Michael.

The Tardive, or Hart’s Late, is an orange late in ripening,
and with a feeble or impotent pollination. It is practically
seedless. The rich coloring of the flesh, united with its slow
maturity, allows this fruit to be picked in different stages of
acidity. When well colored the citrus quality is past.

The Ruby Blood is an orange with a fluctuating group of
qualities. It is deeper flushed than the Maltese Blood, sweet
and early. It develops the navel mark like the Washington
Navel, and then is of marked sweetness and has a freedom
from seeds.

In the Sweet Seville, an orange unworthy of cultivation in
California, we see the curious phenomenon of a division of the
impulse of ripening. The cells of the flesh almost exhaust the
acidity by its elaboration to sugar, while the cells of the rind
are immature and green. When the rind is colored the fruit
is insipid and worthless.

The Washington Navel, the great seedless orange of Cali-
fornia, is the popular variety and its plantings exceed any
other. Keeping in view the natural law, that a type must
possess many qualities to develop and protect a seed germ and
bud integrity to perpetuate itself, that these qualities must
be the result of the staminal impulse imparted by the pollen
to the perfected seed, and that a pervading staminal strength
must be diffused in the entire tree structure for bud growth
and development, we see in this orange from Bahia how far it
is possible to change from the purpose of nature. We see a
small group of negative qualities wrested from a natural type.
The displacement of its parts, culminating in the markings at
the apex of the fruit, and from which it has acquired its popular
name, isconstant. Asan inconstant habit it is not uncommon.
All the varieties have occasional developments of the navel
mark. It is often observed in the common seedling, and is

38 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

very common in the Ruby Blood. It has been popularly be-
lieved, when seen in other varieties, to be the result of cross-
pollination from the Washington or some other variety of
Navel. In the light of recent investigations this is deemed
impossible. Experiments the coming season will undoubtedly
be made to substantiate this view. Jam inclined to think that
this was among the first changes in the bitter orange, to destroy
the staminal supremacy of that fruit. Whenever a fruit car-
ries this mark it produces less seed and carries greater relative
sweetness to its acidity. The original plants were received
at Washington from Bahia, Brazil, and a number were sent by
the Government to Florida and California for cultivation.
The different results of cultivation and environment in the
two areas show marked tendencies in tree development and
fruitfulness. These questions arise: Were those plants of uni-
form excellence? Did the Florida plants possess the same
inherited qualities that the California plants possessed? Did
the trees received at Riverside each possess equal excellence as
a budding stock, and does the tree now in Washington possess
the average inherited qualities of those in California and
Florida? Satisfactory answers to these questions have an
important bearing in solving the cause of the different develop-
ments of the variety as grown in the two areas. If there
were inherent qualities of variation in the plants distributed
to the two areas, the difference in the habits of tree growth and
fruitfulness would be in part accounted for. If plants of known
purity of strain were exchanged by the two sections, Florida
and California, consisting of well-developed buds, on both the
sour and sweet stocks, and planted in average climatic con-
ditions in the two areas, should show a tendency to change
their habits of growth and fruitfulness, then climatic conditions
would be considered a cause sufficient for these effects and the
question of type inheritance be answered. Buds from the tree
at Washington distributed to the two sections and treated as
those exchanged by the two producing areas would further
simplify the solution of inherent qualities.

Navel Unfruitfulness.—The orange-growers of Florida observed
the unfruitfulness of the Navel, in that State, early in its history.
This seemed to show itself in the young trees as well as in the
older orchards. The absence of pollen was noticed, and its

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA—POLLINATION. 389

unfruitfulness was attributed to this unsexed development of the
navel bloom. Professor Webber, of the United States Sub-Labo-
ratory, was led to believe that the Navelin California produced an
abundance of well-developed pollen, which was the cause of its
fruitingin this State. Professor Cook observed, some time since,
the absence of pollen in the navel bloom in California. This
discovery established the normal unsexed quality of the Navel,
in both the great areas of Florida and California. Thestaminate,
or male, impulse is aborted and fails to produce developed pol-
len grains, or if it occasionally appears, is a lingering impulse
belonging to an incidental floral leaf. The impulse still exists
to produce a weakened staminal bud development. As this
development is arrested in the stamens and is only feebly
present in the bud, just sufficient to cause the growth of the
floral whorl bearing an anther without pollen, it would seem
as though the staminal impulse was a quality pertaining to
the root and in nowise dependent on the vegetative processes
of the leaf, and in the Navel it is as though nature had almost
withdrawn this force from the Navel tree and dissipated it ina
vigorous root growth.

When it was known that the Navel was not self-pollinated,
it was affirmed that it was fruitful from the action of pollen
from other varieties planted in close proximity. The proof of
this was asked by Professor Webber and the question was sub-
mitted to Mr. E. W. Holmes and Mr. J. H. Reed of Riverside,
where large areas were planted far from pollen varieties. These
able observers, aided by other horticulturists, have failed to
detect any difference in the fruitfulness of the Navel when
grown far from other varieties and outside the area of mixed
pollination.

Mr. B. M. Lelong, along the same line of investigation,
says: “Cross-pollination only tends to the production of seeds,
and can not in any way increase the production of fruit.”
Professor Webber says to the same effect: ‘That we should not
take means to secure the cross-pollination of our Navel trees,
hoping thereby to secure a larger crop of fruit. The effect of
the cross-pollination apparently being the production of seedy
fruit, but not necessarily more fruit.”

From these experiments and observations we may conclude
that in the two great areas of Florida and California, the Navel

40 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

will fruit without pollination, and that fecundation will not
increase fruitfulness in either area, but simply cause the devel-
opment of the embryo into rudimentary or perfect seeds.

Professor Webber, in a series of experiments in artificial
pollination of the Navel, proved by them that some of the
pistils of the Navel could transmit the impulse of the foreign
pollen to the ovules of both the Washington and the Parson
Navel, and that the embryo developed into full and perfect
seeds, carrying a marked individuality, so apparent that from
photographs of these seeds their form and appearance indicated
the variety of pollen experimented with.

We can infer from this how few are the qualities and how
small the group is that remain of this variety to represent a
type. This shows the Navel to be very sensitive to climate
and treatment. The climate of Florida destroys its profitable
bearing in that State. Its fruitage, as a profitable orange in
Arizona, from information received from that Territory, is an
experiment which indicated that it will not be profitable to
cultivate it there. Its area of fruitage is therefore confined to
California, as the only area in the United States where the
conditions exist for its development, and in many locations
and areas in this State where planted conditions will be found
as unsuitable to its best growth. Its fruitfulness and habits
are too sensitive to climatic changes and treatment to sustain
the universal confidence reposed in it as a variety to plant in
all conditions and soils. The orchardist should be enlisted to
plant more sexualized varieties to guard his future interests.

Results of Experiments.—These experiments and observations
are valuable, showing—

(1) That the Washington Navel is without staminal devel-
opment of pollen.

(2) That it fruits without the aid of foreign pollen.

(3) That pollination would not increase its fruitfulness.

(4) That the pistillate, or female quality, exists in the
capacity to produce seeds, but is modified and fails to impress
its growth and transmit to it its own characteristics.

(5) That the readiness of the pistil to respond to artificial
pollination, and its absence from seeds where an abundance of
free foreign pollen has been distributed, show a weakness in
the pistil to exude the adherent solvents to attach the pollen

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA—POLLINATION. 41

germ and excite germination, or a weakness of the nectaries to
furnish sweets to attract the natural insect aids.

(6) That the capacity of the Navel to produce pollen is an
inherent weakness of the staminal impulse in the tree and is
* not dependent upon climatic conditions. This removes the
Navel from the varieties that can be modified by germinal
changes in the embryo or seed, and classifies it with those
varieties which will show modifications by adaptation in their
bud development only. That if the same inherent bud quali-
ties were possessed by the parent trees of Florida and Cali-
fornia, unfruitfulness of the Navel variety may be expected to
appear in the orchards of California.

Adaptability —The great questions of profitable and success-
ful orange culture in California are the adaptability of each
variety to an area that will produce, as far as possible, a perfect
fruit, and the selection of such groups of qualities that will
meet a market demand during the season.

That one principal variety, like the Washington Navel, can
fulfill these conditions is impossible. Several well-chosen
varieties will meet the market demand.

If a relatively sweet orange for the early market is desired
we should choose one in which the processes of fruit growth
hasten the period of ripening, as in the Washington Navel and
Homosassa—one the great seedless orange of California, and
the other a modified staminal type. This caution should be
given as to the Navel and all seedless varieties.

There is a subtle and delicate citrus quality that must be
associated in all the qualities of an orange. It can only be
described by saying that it appeals to the intellectual percep-
tions, as that natural goodness and excellence inherent in the
choice products of nature. This can be eliminated from the
orange and render the fruit insipid and valueless. We must
be careful in the selections of stock and bud so that we will
draw toward this noble fruit and gift of nature the happy union
of staminate and blended qualities that awards ‘this halo of
ambrosial excellence.

If we select the late varieties—the St. Michael] and the
Tardive—we will have in the first a strong late orange, and in
the last a seedless orange, both of good qualities. Could we
add a seedling, a medium early, sweet, with few seeds, and a

42 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

fine citrus quality, we will have oranges that will supplement
the Navel with comparative excellence and meet all market
demands.

With the varieties modified and adapted to the best climatic
areas to produce the best fruit, and perpetuated in bud and
seed by scientific direction to respond to normal productiveness,
growth, and longevity, a foundation will be laid to rear a great
and glorious State.

PERIOD OF FRUITFULNESS.

There seems to be quite prevalent a belief or impression that
the period of profitable production of the Washington Navel
orange ceases after the seventh or eighth year.

*“JTtis not claimed that our trees are short lived, but that
their period of fruitfulness is to be short, and that the budded
varieties differ materially from the seedling in this regard.
But has such a difference been shown to exist in their actual
periods of fruitfulness? Let us make a comparison. In the
first place the Navel and seedling are both upon the same root,
and therefore start out in life upon the same footing. For the
first seven or eight years the seedling tree draws upon its plot
of ground for such elements of plant-food only as will produce
growth of leaf, hmb, and root, asking for no fruit-forming
material, as it has made no fruit. It then begins to use spar-
ingly of its reserve materials, and within the next seven or
eight years it will so nearly have exhausted the fruit-forming
elements in the natural soil that it no longer produces profit-
able crops, they being small in quantity and inferior in quality.
Now, in the case of the Navel tree, you have taken a bud from
a precocious variety of tree, and by uniting it with a seedling
root have produced the most ravenous feeder of the citrus
family, and also the most perfect machine for making superb
fruit yet known to the business. It is not content with the
slow, plodding habit of the seedling tree, but even in its second
yéar begins to dig up the necessary materials for constructing
fruit, and it will continue to do so in an increased ratio until
about the same length of time occupied in the process of the
seedling, when it too will have used up so much of its available

*C. E. Bemis, in essay read at Farmers’ Institute, at Covina, November,
1899.

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA—FRUITFULNESS. 43

material that it can no longer increase its output; the differ-
ence, if any, in the time occupied being easily explained by
the superior texture and greater amount of nutriment con-
tained in the Navel over the seedling fruit.”

THE AGE OF CITRUS TREES.*

APPARENT DETERIORATION IN OLD NAvEL OrcHARDS—DUE TO
IMPROPER MANAGEMENT.

The questions I here present are, then: Is there a lack of
Vitality in the tree as it grows old? Jf there appears to be,
what is the cause, and can we remove it?

I find that there is a radical difference in the condition of
the oldest groves. Some are marvelously beautiful and pro-
ductive, and others are light of color and scant of fruit. In
some fairly good orchards there are sections in which the trees
are unhealthy, and this to an extent to reduce the yield to an
unsatisfactory figure. The fact that the good and bad orchards,
and the large number which are neither very good nor very
bad, are located under practically identical conditions of soil,
climate, and irrigation facilities, is proof enough that the cause
of unsatisfactory conditions of tree and product is not due to
any constitutional weakness of the tree, but to differing methods
of treatment.

I am thoroughly convinced that the tree is above the average
in vitality, and that there is no justification for the belief that
it is to become nonproductive as it grows old.

It is a fact which can not be denied that many of the oldest
orchards are yielding light crops, and that their foliage lacks
that dark rich green characteristic of the thoroughly healthy
orange tree. But I am satisfied that the fault is not with the
tree, but with the owner. It is true that the young bearing
orchards average better crops than do the old ones. But it is
also true that the very best trees, the richest foliaged and
heaviest bearing, are the oldest in the valley. These facts
seem to point clearly to causes outside the tree itself for the

* Extracts from report of E. W. Holmes, of Riverside, who, at the request
of the Riverside Horticultural Club, made an investigation regarding the
alleged tendency of the Washington Navel orange tree to fall off in product-
iveness with the approach of age. In ‘‘Press and Horticulturist,’ January

6, 1900.

44 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

unsatisfactory condition of many orchards; and, having satis-
fied myself that many of the oldest orchards are the best, I
have thought it well to endeavor to discover why it is that
orchards adjacent to those which are most healthy and prolific
are sometimes either a burden to their owners, or, at best,
return but very moderate dividends.

It can not be doubted that to three or four causes is due the
failure of many groves. I do not mean absolute failure in all
cases, but failure as compared to the best. I do not think the
average orchardist will admit his fault in the matter. I find
a majority deny conditions in their groves which are apparent
enough to an unprejudiced investigator. J am convinced that:

First—We do not feed the trees sufficiently. The Navel
bears every year, and sooner exhausts the soil of the essential
elements than such trees as rest from time to time.

Second—We do not stir the soil to a sufficient depth, nor do
we take all the pains we should to pulverize it finely. In rich,
red, clayey soil, most prized because it produces the highest
colored and best keeping fruit, there is invariably a tendency
to form a crust of somewhat impervious soil below the depth
regularly reached by the plow and cultivator. This is hardly
“hardpan,” such as is found in some sections. It will allow
the roots to penetrate, and softens into cultivable shape if
irrigation is long continued. But it is sufficiently hard to pre-
vent the penetration of ordinary irrigation, and to prevent the
soil from receiving the full benefit of the soluble fertilizers
applied. It prevents the aération of the soil, without which
the essential process of nitrification is impossible. In nine out
of ten of the orchards examined I find evidence that its
presence has rendered partially useless much of the fertilizer,
water, and labor used.

Third—The disposition is to economize by delaying the
application of water in the hot season until the tree plainly
manifests its need. This policy, at least in a soil like that of
Riverside and Redlands, is a mistake. I admit that by the
use of manures which lighten the soil it can be made to absorb
and retain water and fertilizer, and that such treatment is a
valuable aid where water is scant; but I find the best results
obtained where no attention is paid to the theory of infrequent
irrigation, and water is regularly supplied.

A fact to which I wish to call your attention is that in every

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA—FRUITFULNESS. 45

one of the healthy and productive old orchards these three
points of treatment are faithfully attended to, while I find not
one of the ordinary or inferior orchards in which either one or
two, and sometimes all three, are disregarded. Ido not mean
that they are intentionally ignored in the latter class. The
owner hasn’t the means to properly manure his orchard. He
follows the conventional method of cultivating, and would be
surprised if one should intimate that his work was lacking in
thoroughness. He runs water in abundance, and often enough,
but the shallow stirring of strong soil prevents its proper pene-
tration. It has been a surprise to myself to find that I have
failed in thoroughness, and I am sure that if others shall exam-
ine they will find that there is need ofimprovement. Old orange
groves will not be profitable unless we use intelligent methods.

Where unhealthy trees exist because of a shallow soil, or
where the rise of surface water has made the locality unfit for
citrus fruits, or where the frost too often does injury, what I
have said does not apply. Such conditions it is impossible to
overcome.

No man can study the condition of our older orchards with-
out having proof supplied of the truth of the scriptures to the
effect that “‘To him who hath shall be given.” Men of wealth
who dare to invest heavily in fertilizers every season, and
whose orchards want neither for intelligent labor nor for irri-
gation, are the ones whose dividends are assured and regular.
Handicapped with a heavy mortgage, the intelligent and
shrewd orchardist may be forced to try to extract profit from
his grove with the least possible annual expenditure, and may
make thorough cultivation and faithful attention serve fairly
well with a scant supply of fertilizer. But he can not attain
the results achieved by him who adds to these methods the
ability to furnish the fertilizing elements needed.

I have pointed out the fact that certain old orchards have
maintained health and productiveness, while others, having
equal if not superior natural conditions, have proved either
only moderately profitable or a source of loss to their owners.
Many of the less successful groves have not apparently been
neglected, and, it may be, have failed to use only one of the
three essentials to success. It is possible that the calling of
the attention of their growers to the practices which have won
most marked success may lead them to appreciate the need of

46 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

improving their methods, instead of drifting along in the
easier, conventional way which is common. Young orchards
generally pay while the soil is virgin and its abuse has not
begun to affect the product. It will be well if the conceit
which has always characterized the residents of each young
fruit settlement shall be eliminated before its orchardists dis-
cover that to maintain the reputation of their horticultural
youth there is need of constant and faithful labor, and a gen-
erous feeding of the soil before its best elements shall have been
extracted. Providence has given to each orchardist, in the
natural fertility of his soil, a little capital with which to work.
He can not draw upon it without loss, and permanent pros-
perity depends upon maintaining it. It is because this is gone
that we hear of the decadence of the older orange trees, and to
nothing else. The pioneers have had some expensive expe-
riences, and it will be well if the later comers shall benefit by
them.

General statements regarding my conclusions may have more
force if I give brief reference to the methods of successful growers.
There are few orchardists in Southern California who are better
known for the quality of their fruit than W. H. Backus. Though
he has never aimed to unduly force his trees, he has had uni-
form success in securing regular crops of -fine-textured fruit.
His orchard is one of the very oldest, and his trees have the
disadvantage of having been planted only a rod apart. The
soil is heavy. If there were anything in the claim of the
deterioration of the Navel tree it should find justification here.
And yet the trees are generally fine in color, and always well
loaded with fruit. What methods have maintained the uniform
excellence of this orchard? Mr. Backus has always used fer-
tilizers generously, always given from a ton to a ton and a half
to the acre. He says he made the mistake of using a smaller
quantity than usual last year, and applied it too late, and is
satisfied he is a loser by so doing. He thinks it is a serious
mistake to wait until the trees show need before giving water.
To allow the soil to bake once is to make all subsequent. irri-
gation less effective. He has always cultivated deeply, and
considers this one of the fundamental causes of his success.
Mr. Backus has never failed of good results with any of the
high-grade manufactured fertilizers, and he will continue to
use them.

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA—FRUITFULNESS. 47

Another old Navel orchard is that of Ernest Meacham. He
has five acres of trees, twenty-two years of age, planted a rod
apart. He has attained results so much superior to some of his
neighbors that his methods are worth considering. Having con-
siderable livestock, he uses his stable manure by making a dead
furrow across the regular irrigating lands, into which he puts
it while fresh, three to five feet to the tree, immediately cover-
ing it with the plow. In the course of the year he gets over
the whole place in this way. This sends the nitrogenous mat-
ter deep with the rains and irrigating water, and the soil is
made mellow by its presence. In the late winter he applies
ten to twelve pounds of guano, with which is mixed three per
cent of potash and five per cent of sulphate of iron. He irri-
gates thoroughly every thirty days in summer, and his appli-
ances of his own devising for deep furrowing and thorough
cultivation close up to the trees, while his team walks in the
center of the land, are worth examining. These trees are
exceptionally fine in color, and the quantity and quality of the
fruit are remarkable. There isn’t a sick tree in the lot, except
one or two attacked by gophers. For several years this five-
acre orchard has yielded between three and four thousand
boxes of oranges, running perhaps ninety per cent fancy.
This orchard most effectually demonstrates the vigor and pro-
ductiveness of the old Navel tree when properly cared for.

Everybody knows the Barny orchard, the largest of the origi-
nal Navel orchards. It has always had the best of care, and, if
anything, has been over-fertilized at times; and yet, in spite of
the harm the terminal branches got from the April frost of two
years ago, is marvelously beautiful to-day, with its dark green
foliage and heavy crop of splendid fruit. It has water regu-
larly, and is always thoroughly cultivated.

I might multiply such evidences of the effect of proper treat-
ment, in every one of which the three points I have referred to
are those in which they differ from the less successful.

It is, however, proper to give a type of another class of orch-
ards in which success has been attained where no special effort
at ideal cultivation and irrigation has been attempted. Sucha
one is that of D. P. Chapman. It is an old orchard of ten acres
and has yielded from four thousand to seven thousand boxes
annually for many years. I can find no other cause for its
superior and constant yield but the fact that its owner never

48 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

loses a chance to apply any kind of manures, natural or arti-
ficial, which he believes good. Such applications, with average
treatment as regards soil and water use, have proven a good
investment. If there is a criticism due here, it is that excessive
use of nitrogen may have caused rather more than the usual
scab among the trees.

Another experience, valuable as illustrating the effect of this
best treatment upon a comparatively young Navel orchard
that had suffered from the March frost, is that of A. P. Johnson.
In spite of the fact that a large proportion of the bearing wood
had been removed, a heavy application of fertilizer, properly
applied, brought not only a very profitable crop the follow-
ing winter, but, with a later generous application, a crop the
present season, which, for uniform excellence, it is hard to
excel. Mr. Johnson’s old seedlings, upon which he has put,
perhaps, seventy-five cents’ worth of fertilizer to the tree, appear
to have twenty to twenty-five boxes of fruit each at the present
time.

But the transforming effect of heavy fertilizing is more
conclusively shown in the old Kearn place, which, starved and
neglected in past years, had a crop last season not worth the
cost of picking, while to-day, as the result of expending ninety
cents to the tree for fertilizer last year, there is a transforma-
tion in appearance and a crop which will give a handsome
dividend. J mention this not as directly bearing upon the
main topic we are discussing, but as showing the effect of
generous expenditures in restoring the health of an orange
grove. The cure for tree weakness and nonproduction is simply
proper tree food in ample quantity, timely irrigation, and deep
and thorough cultivation.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—VARIETIES. 49

THE ORANGE.

THE SWEET ORANGE.
Citrus aurantium dulces, Linn.

The sweet orange belongs to the natural order Awrantiace,
and the origin of the different members of this citrus family
is extremely doubtful, having been cultivated from a remote
period of antiquity, but is supposed to belong originally to

A. Compound unifoliate leaf of the orange (Cit-
rus aurantium). 1, Point of union, marked by an
articulation; 2. Petiole, winged on both sides;
3. Lamina; 4. Flowering branch of Citrus bigaradia;
5 and 6. The fruit; 7. Flower.complete: §. Pistil;
9. Transverse section of ovary. (After Haldane.) j

China and India, and was not taken to
Europe until centuries after the Christian
era. Its cultivation has been confined to
the countries adjacent to the Mediterranean,
for only there is the climate suitable for its
best development. Seedling trees under
favorable conditions have lived for centuries. At the convent
of St. Sabina, at Rome, there is a tree 32 feet high which is
4c

50 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

said to be over 600 years old; and another at Hampton Court,
grown under glass, over 200 years old. Spain and Sicily also
have trees of great age. At Versailles there is a seedling
planted in 1421. At Nice there is a tree 50 feet high, with a
trunk over 3 feet in diameter, which is said to produce 6,000 to
7,000 oranges in a year.

The flowers are white, the leaves lanceolate or oblong. The
petiole is not so markedly winged as in the bitter-sour orange,
but is always present to a greater or less degree. The fruit is
generally an oblate
sphere, pyriform or
elliptical, of a gold-
en color when ripe,
and full of delicate
pulp and sweet,
refreshing juice.

SEEDLINGS. — Pri-
mary root stout, taper-
ing, twisted, furnished
after atime with a few
lateral rootlets, longi-
tudinally ridged and
furrowed, at least when
dry.

HHypocotyl —subterra-
nean, short, stout,
curved, longitudinally
ridged, colorless, 2-3.5

mim. long.

Cotyledons two, oppo-
site or frequently alter-
nate, colorless, fleshy,
not leaving the testa,
but very often com-
pressed and shapeless,
owing to the presence
of two, three, or four
embryos in the seed.

Stem woody, erect, terete (striate when dried and somewhat twisted), pale
green, glabrous or minutely pubescent; tirst internode 2.5-4 cm. long; sec-
ond, and sometimes the third and fourth undeveloped, or the third 3 mm.
and the fourth 2.25 mm. lone.

Leaves simple, cauline, alternate, exstipulate, petiolate, evergreen, shin-
ing, coriaceous, thickly dotted with immersed glands, strongly odoriferous
when bruised, glabrous. ; ;

Nos. land 2. Generally opposite by the nondevelopment of the internode,
more or less obliquely obcordate and wppearing deformed; very shortly
petiolate. ;

Nos. 3 and 4 (in specimen examined). Alternate, elliptic, obtuse, obso-

Seedlings of Citrus avrantium dulces—yearling plants.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—VARIETIES. 51

letely serrate, minutely emarginate, with alternate, ascending lateral nerves;
petioles channeled above, narrowly winged, articulated with the stem below
and the leaf above.

Ultimate leaves oblong-ovate, acuminate, emarginate, minutely and obso-
letely serrate, pellucidly punctate, with a thin marginal line of larger glands;
lamina articulated with the winged petiole, which is ovate in outline, with a
short, stout, not winged base.—Str Joun Lussoek, “Contributions to Our
Knowledge of Seedlings,” Vol. I, 1892.

ORANGE TYPES—VARIETIES.

(a) Seepiincs* that have lost their parental characteristics
through degeneration;

(b) Mopiriep SrEptines, types produced by chance, through
natural intermixing of pollen, with characteristics unlike their
parent, remaining constant, but with tendency to revert to the
mother type;

(c) Hysrips.

(a) SEEDLING TYPES, produced by chance.
MayYBEeRrRyY’s PREMIER.—Originated at San Gabriel.
CoorEr’s SEEDLING.—Originated at Santa Barbara.
KERCHEVAL’S QuEEN.—Originated at Los Angeles.
Batpwin’s Favorite.—Originated at San Gabriel.
NicaraGguan.—Originated at Los Angeles.
Tauiti.—Originated at Los Angeles.
IXL.—Originated at Los Angeles.
Evureka.—Originated at Los Angeles.

AcapuLco.— Originated at Los Angeles.

(6) MODIFIED TYPES, produced by chance, the embryo in
the seed having been influenced by natural cross-pollina-
tion and remaining constant.

WotFxi.w’s Best.—Originated at Los Angeles; fruit some-
what flattened and medium to large, deep orange red, fine
grain and pulp; ripens early.

Konan.—Originated at Los Angeles. Fruit large, rough and
thick-skinned; tree very thorny; ripens early.

Joppa.—Originated at San Gabriel. Fruit medium to large;
oblong, and uniform.

Witson’s Best (syn., Lake Vineyard).—Originated at San
Gabriel. Fruit medium to large; tree handsome grower.

(c) HYBRIDS.

*»The term ‘seedling’ is applied to any type of orange reared indiscrimi-

nately from seed.

52 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

Navel Type.

Wasuineton Naver.—This variety is the most widely known
and is properly styled the “king of oranges.” The fruit has
proved of such exceptional quality and is in such general favor
that its production overtops all other varieties.

The name “ Washington Navel” was applied to this variety
in California, to distinguish it from the “ Australian Navel,” a
shy bearer with a similar peculiar mark, and because it was
received from Washington, having been imported from Brazil
by the Department of Agriculture. It was for a time called
“Bahia” (place of origin), also “Riverside Navel,” denoting
the locality where the first trees were planted, and which are
the parents of all trees of this variety in the State.

The first orange shipments consist of the Washington Navel,
which constitute over one half
of the output, but it is shipped
later in the season, extending
into June and July.

Fruit large, highly colored,
solid and heavy, skin smooth
and of a very fine texture, very
juicy, highly flavored, with

First picture of the Navel orange on melting pulp, seedless (except

eS occasionally—evidently the re-
sult of pollen influence). Tree semi-dwarf, good and prolific
bearer, medium thorny, a rapid grower and early bearer. Foli-
age deep green, heavy and compact, leaves large and promi-
nently winged. Branches deep green and smooth, inclined to
roundish. Stock sturdy, with well-balanced limbs. The
blossoms are double (having a secondary blossom within),
and rarely have any pollen. Ripens early.

Most of the early publications of Brazil mention the Lavanja
de ombigo—Navel orange. The first illustration of the Navel
orange appears in a volume, “Table XVI—Historie Naturalis
de Arboribus et Fructibus, Libri Decem. Johannis Jonstoni,
Medicine Doctoris. Francofurtio/m, MDCLXII” (“The Natu-
ral History of Trees and Fruits, Ten Books. By John John-
son, Doctor of Medicine. Frankfort on Main, 1662”), referred
to as Aurantium fetiferum. The accompanying illustration,
photographed from the original plate in the library of Prof.
Edw. L. Greene, of the Catholic University of America, at
Washington, D. C., was secured through the kindness of Wm.
A. Taylor, Assistant U.S. Pomologist, to whom the writer is

(Repucen.)

CLUSTER OF WASHINGTON NAVELS—“ KING OF ORANGES.”

54 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

indebted for assistance. Although no description of the Navel
orange appears in the text, this is the earliest reference known.
M. George Gallesio, Auditor of the State Council and Sub-
Prefect of Savona, in a treatise on the citrus family, written
early in the last century, makes mention of a variety of orange,
double flowered. The author describes the Aurantiwm feti-
feruwm as presenting a superfcetation, an imperfect development
of many germs inclosed within another or united under the
envelope or an exterior germ. Those descriptions undoubtedly
refer to the Navel orange.
Thus it would seem that the
navel formation is of great
antiquity. The navel mark
shows in the fruit as early as
it can be examined, which in
its development the navel is
itself a secondary orange, in
some specimens having a dis-
tinct skin surrounding it.
History of the Introduction at
This King of Citrus Frutts.—
*“During the Civil War a
woman who had been sojourn-
ing in Brazil told Mr. Saunders
that she knew of an orange at
Bahia, Brazil, that excelled
any other variety she had eve
iivion tis yond is menedior ie ge Sted oF heard of, He sent
troduction of the Washington Navel orange. there and had twelve trees
propagated by budding and
sent to him, in 1870. They all grew, and some of them are
yet bearing fruit in the orange house at Washington. None of
the original trees was sent out to the public, but all were there
used as stock from which to propagate by budding. Many young
trees were budded from them and sent to Florida and California.
Early in 1873 Mrs. Tibbets was in Washington, just previous to
going to her new home at Riverside, California. Mr. Saunders
offered to give her some trees of this new and untried orange and
she most gladly accepted two trees. She and her aged husband
planted them beside their cottage, and when they bore fruit it was

* Prof. H. E. Van Deman, in ‘ Rural New Yorker,’’ June, 1899.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—VARIETIES. 55

found to be equal to the most extravagant reports of its quality
and size, and the trees were very prolific in that section. The
trees sent to Florida produced equally good fruit, but they did
not bear well. This is why many fruit-growers thought there
was more than one variety in the lot of trees imported from
Brazil; but the difference in fruitfulness came from climatic
causes, as has been most thoroughly proved by many years of
experience in all the orange-growing sections of the country.
It has also been said that there was only one tree at the Tib-
bets place, and that it was unlike the other trees bearing the

LUTHER C. TIBBETS AND WIFE.
The parents of the Washington Navel orange industry in California.

same name. But this is a mistake, for I have gathered and
eaten fruit from these two trees and had their history direct
from Mr. and Mrs. Tibbets, also from Mr. Saunders. Besides,
I have critically examined the trees of Bahia in bearing in
many parts of Florida and California, and compared them and
their fruit in many ways, and found them to be identical,
except in variations caused by climate, soil, and culture. The
orange’ is truly seedless and utterly devoid of pollen, and the
pistils are also deformed in such a way as to render seed pro-
duction from the pollen of other varieties an impossibility,
except in a few very rare cases.in which seeds have been found.
It is this malformation of the pistils or embryonic ovaries that

56 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

causes that peculiar umbilical mark, either large or small,
which gives the name ‘navel,’ by which this orange is com-
monly known.”

*“'The first fruit brought to general notice was at a citrus fair
in Riverside, in 1879, where it received prompt recognition.
From that time forward its propagation was rapid, until to-day
vast areas are devoted to its culture. The trees originally
imported from Brazil still stand in the greenhouses at Wash-
ington, but those that were sent out to the growers of the citrus-
producing sections of the United States were small stocks budded
directly from the imported ones. It is worthy of most careful

Most remarkable orange ‘‘sports’’ on record. A ‘‘ Navel’’ with a perfect orange outside
its fruit bud; and one with a perfect orange, skin and all, inside it.

note that the valuable qualities which make the Navel the
greatest of oranges developed in their entirety only upon the
Pacific Coast. The peculiarity from which this orange derived
its name is a navel seal, or trademark, of great importance
to its grower—an unmistakable protuberance at the apex or
blossom end of the fruit, not unlike the navel of the human
body. In a seeming effort to break forth from its confinement,
the bud often takes the form (especially in late blooming) of a
diminutive orange. This mark varies greatly in size from a
dim outline to oftentimes a monstrosity, readily distinguished
in the accompanying engravings from nature. Besides these
normal developments specimens are sometimes found with a
section of the fruit in a raised or sunken panel, with pro-

* Herman H. Monroe, in ‘ Land of Sunshine,” May, 1899.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—VARIETIES. 57

nounced difference in coloring. While some are disposed to
believe that through its golden-bronze skin shines the lighter
blood of a remote ancestry, others in turn find an excuse for
its sporting in the theory that adjacent trees bearing fruit of a
different variety may by pollination stamp upon it the insignia
of their species—for the Navel is more susceptible to change
than any other type. From reports of the United States con-
suls in the orange-growing countries of the entire world, it is
clear that in no other country on the face of the globe is the

Original Washington Navel orange trees, at the Tibbets homestead,
Riverside, Cal. [Removed April 25, 1902, to the head of
Magnolia Avenue.)

culture of the orange so successful as in the Golden State,
where the climatic conditions and soil are so well adapted to
its perfection of character. There are two colossal old trees,
‘Los Migueletes,’ in Mairena del Alcon of Seville, which are
recorded to have borne each thirty-eight thousand oranges in a
single season, and those in the garden of the Alcazar, at
Seville, said to have been planted at the time of King Pedro I.,
and others whose hollow trunks still support luxuriant foliage,
which might have afforded shade for Charles I., for they date
back three hundred and forty years. While the original Cali-

58 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

fornia pair may not command the admiration that do the his-
torical ones cited, they should merit the fostering care of a
grateful people, for they revolutionized the orange industry in

Cross-section of Thomson’s Improved Navel—
reduced.

its infancy through-
out California, and
made possible great
profits in the devel-
opment of anorange
which is unsurpass-
ed in the world.
To-day, these trees,
whose progeny has
amassed millions,
stand apart from
their fellows, re-
ceiving meager at-
tention, but still
producing ‘golden
apples’ in limited
quantities—one
which I was allow-
ed to pluck showing
a measurement of
twelve inches in
circumference and
weighing a trifle
over a pound.”

THomson’s — Im-
PROVED NAVEL.—
Originated by A.C,
Thomson, of
Duarte. Fruit
large and _ solid,
juicy and sweet, of
very fine texture.
Rind very smooth,

oil cells small. Tree is very prolific, and bears early.

AUSTRALIAN NaveL.—Fruit seedy, varying in size from large
to small, and splits at the navel, which is usually large and
prominent. Tree strong grower, but a very shy bearer.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—VARIETIES. 59

River’s Navet.—Fruit medium, ripens late. Tree large and
productive. Grown extensively by A. 8S. Chapman, at San
Gabriel, who considers it one of the best varieties to grow.

DovusLe ImpertaL NaveLt.—Imported from Florida; inferior.

WHITNEY’s SEEDILEss.—Florida.

Atwoop’s SEEDLEss.—Florida.

OrmaNpD’s PrizE.—Florida.

Sanrorp’s.—Pink-tinted flesh; Florida.

NaveEL Brioop.—Florida.

BRAZILIAN NAVEL.

St. Michael Type.

PapeR-RINDST.
MicHaELt.—Fruit
small, round, very
firm, and very juicy;
pale, thin skin; grows
uniformly in _ size.
Ripens late and keeps
wellon the tree. Tree
of a semi-dwarf habit,
medium thorny, a
good bearer. This is
the thinnest-skinned
orange grown, and is
very popular.

SMALL St. Mic Akt.
Fruit very small; has
thick, coarse skin; in-
ferior.

LarGE St. MICHAEL. §
A variety without pos- |
sessing the St. Michael
characteristics. Fruit.
large and coarse; tree
thorny.

AzoREAN St. Mi- /
CHAEL.—Fruit medi-
um to large, solid, |
pulp fine and melting, Day Uc " MOG
medium thin rind, Cross-section of Paper Rind St. Michael—natural size.

‘

|

60 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

flattened, few seeds. Ripens early and keeps well on the tree.
Tree is a rapid grower and a prolific bearer.
Sr. Micnar’s Eav.—Florida.

Valencia Late.

VaLENcIA LATE
(California’s favor-
ite late orange).—
Fruit medium size,
oblong, tapering to-
ward calyx. Few
seeds, pulp very fine,
skin smooth, flavor
subacid. Ripens late.
Tree thrifty grower
and prolific bearer.
This is the latest
variety known in the
State, rarely becom-
ing sweet before May
or June, and will
hang on the tree

through the summer.
It has often been kept on the trees until Christmas.

Cross-section of Valencia Late.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—VARIETIES. 61

Hart’s Tarpive.—(See Valencia Late, which seems iden-
tical.) :

WuitE OrancE.—Fruit large, round, light yellow, flesh white,
like a lemon, very sweet, texture fine, ripens late. Tree a
dwarf.

Blood Type.

Matta Bioop.—This is a popular variety. The fruit has a
red blush on the surface, which gives it a delightful appear-
ance not possessed by any other fruit. Fruit medium size,
oval, has a fine texture and flavor, and is sweeter and earlier
than the Maltese Blood. The pulp is marked as if streaked
and mottled with blood; has very few seeds. The tree is of a
dwarf habit and has a peculiar character of growth, very
readily distinguished.

MattesE Bioop.—Fruit oval in shape, medium in size, pulp
marked a vinous red. Ripens later than the Malta Blood.

Rupy.—Resembles the Malta Blood, and the pulp is marked
a vinous red. The tree is a good grower and prolific bearer.

MEDITERRANEAN Bioop.—Florida.

PiercE Bioop.—-Florida.

Larce Brioop.—Inferior.

NicaraGcuan Brioop.—Inferior.

Standard Varieties with No Distinctive Mark.

Rio.—Fruit and tree resemble the Mediterranean Sweet (see
page 63), but the fruit is much larger, and has a thick skin.
Ripens late and uneven.

Homosassa.—Fruit deep orange red, flesh melting and juicy,
seeds, thorny. Ripens early.

Parson Brown.—-Fruit medium, oblong, and slightly flattened
at the stem end, smooth skin, juicy and sweet; is sweet from
the time it commences to turn. Tree medium thorny, a fair
grower and a good bearer. Ripens early.

AsHer’s Best.—A strain of the Mediterranean Sweet, which
it resembles in both growth and fruit.

Masorca.—Fruit medium size, nearly round, smooth, juicy,
and few seeds.

62 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

Jaffa—natural size.

Jarra.—Fruit medium size, heavy and juicy, thin skinned,
also very smooth. <A remarkably handsome grower and nearly
thornless.

Cross-section of Jaffa—natural size

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—VARIETIES. 63

MEDITERRANEAN SWEET.—Fruit medium size, pulp and skin
of very fine texture, solid and with few seeds; ripens late. This
variety seems to require special climatic conditions and soil for

Mediterranean Sweet orange tree, showing habit. productiveness, etc.

its successful fruiting. At Colton the tree is a good grower and
ranks with the semi-dwarfs. Tree thornless, and one of the
most beautiful.
Tangierine—Mandarin Type.
Citrus aurantiwm, var. Nobilis, Linn.

Of Japaneseand
Chinese origin.
The fruit is gen-
erally small, deep
red without and
within, skin loose
and easily detach-
ed, containing
sweet juice, quite
depressed. Leaves
of most varieties
vary, but most are
somewhat linear
and unarmed. On
account of the fo-
liage being of a tonsils fruit and branch—reduced.

64 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE,

weeping habit the best results have been attained by budding
on large stocks, quite high from the ground, allowing the
branches to form a large and compact head. By this method
the trees become more fruitful and uniform in shape. This
tree requires little or no outside pruning and grows very sym-
metrical.

r

Satsuma (Unshiu
Fj and Oonshiu).—
Japan. Fruit of me-
dium size, flattened,
rind easily detached,
of exceedingly fine
texture, sweet and
nearly seedless. Tree
dwarf and remarka-
bly hardy, especially
when worked on the
Citrus — trifoliata—
the deciduous
orange.

Kineg.—Siam.
Fruit large, very
rough rind, segments
cleave when fully
ripe, very highly
flavored. Tree a-
handsome grower,
very thorny.

Dancy TANGIE-
RINE.—Fruit small,
much flattened, pulp
very sweet and fragrant, color deep red, nearly seedless. The
foliage closely resembles that of the sweet orange. Tree thorny
and an upright grower.

Strvens.—Japan. Bears two crops a year, maturing in
summer and winter. Tree of dwarf, bushy growth; thornless.
Fruit pale yellow; juice subacid, delicious. Grown by Mrs.
L. C. Stevens, of Santa Barbara.

KinnELoa.— Fruit large, depressed, flattened, few seeds, quite
juicy. Skin very easily detached and fragrant. Tree good
grower, very productive.

Broad-Leaf Mandarin tree.

CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. PLATE LV.

- R |

* , + 4 ~ ee ‘ey
| ‘ Aah Willow-Leaf Mandarin—natural size.
Stevens—natural size.

VARIETIES OF THE “CITRUS AURANTIUM NOBILIS.”
5a 65

66 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

Broap-Lear MANDARIN.—Japan. Ornamental only; fruit of
no commercial value.

Orner Varieries.—Bitter Loose Jacket, Cleopatra, Dr. Cogill’s
Tangierine, Paragon Tangierine, China Sweet, Mary Bremont,
Narrow-Leaf Mandarin, Thorny Mandarin, Emperor Mandarin,
China, Coolie, Canton, Willow-Leaf Tangierine, Broad-Leaf

Tangierine.

Seedling Tangierine tree in A. S. Chapman’s orchard at San Gabriel, showing habit of
growth, etc.

Miscellaneous Japanese Citrus Fruits.

The following varieties of miscellaneous citrus fruits have
been introduced from Japan, and after being thoroughly tested
were found to lack the essential qualities required for their
culture on a large scale, although many possess considerable
merit:

Natsu-Dai-Da1.—A species of pomelo; coarse.

Dar-Dat.—Very thick rind; coarse.

Yoma-Buxi-M1xan.—Greenish color; rind thick; coarse.

Surrawa-Kosr.—Small; very thick rind and many seeds.

Beni-Kos1.—Very highly colored; thin rind and few seeds.

CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. PLATE V.

Broad-Leaf Mandarin—natural size.

VARIETIES OF THE “CITRUS AURANTIUM NOBILIS”

68 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

Kry-Kunenspo.—Thin rind and few seeds.

Iuxo.—Small, with very thin rind and full of seeds.

Toxo-lupzu.— Very small; a species of Bergamot lemon,

JAGATARA-MIKAN.—A species of pomelo; very coarse.

Marv-BusnHiokan.—A species of citron.

To-Mikan.—A rusty brown orange; very thick rind and full
of seeds.

Kinu-Gawa-Mikan.—Very large and bitter,

Busulu-Kan.—Fruit unsightly, resembles a bunch of fingers;
said to possess medicinal qualities.

Bushiu-Kan—The fingered citron of Japan. Used for medicinuul purposes.

To-Dai-Dat.—Rusty brown; very coarse and bitter.
Beni-Mrkan.—Very small; thin rind, with few seeds.
Kawani-Mixan.—A species of Mandarin. :
Krnokuni-Mixan.—A species of Tangierine.
Kos1.—Rusty brown; very thin rind; bitter and full of seeds.
Iupzu.—Very thick rind; coarse and bitter.
Marumi-Kinkan.—The Kumquat.
Kasusa.—Pulp fine, seeds few, rind thick, pulp white.
Narvuto-Mixan.—Rusty brown; inferior. :
Ama-Dat-Da1.—Rusty brown; medium thin rind, pulp
white, few seeds, bitter.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—VARIETIES. 69

Olive-Shaped Kumquat—natural size.

Kumquat Type.

Citrus aurantium, var. Japon-
ica, Thunberg.

OLIVE-SHAPED.— Fruit very
small, olive-shaped, rind thick,
yellow, smooth, sweet-scented,
very little pulp, contains many
seeds. Tree dwarf (a bush),
four to six feet; a very prolific
bearer. The fruit is edible
whole; the rind has a pleas-
ant aroma. Valuable for pre-
serves and marmalades.

Round Kumquat—natural size.

Rounp.—Smaller than the Olive-shaped; fruit round, some-

what acid.

KinKAN.—Fruit very small; sweet juice.

70 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

THE SOUR ORANGE.

Citrus vulgaris, var. Bigaradia, Risso.

From the species vulyaris all others are supposed to have
sprung, which are sub-species proper.

The fruit of the Bigaradia and its many decendants is of a
red orange color, with a rugged skin, rough and porous. Pulp
yellow, and the juice extremely bitter. Leaf large and petiole

Sour Orange (Citrs vulgaris, var, Bigaradia).

highly winged. Flower large and highly perfumed. There
are many varieties of this species, and the fruit of some is used
in making marmalade and preserves, and the flowers for the
manufacture of perfumery.

This species does not grow as high nor as robust as the sweet
orange, but on account of its hardiness and exemption from

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—VARIETIES. 71

disease much attention has been given to its culture for stocks.
While the sweet orange requires good soil and high, dry eleva-
tion, the sour orange seems best adapted to low, wet soils, such
as it is grown in in Florida, known as “hammocks,” and along
the margins of swamps. But those kinds of land do not
exist in our State, and while the sour orange stock is hardy
beyond question and thrives in our dry soils under entirely
different conditions, it has not superseded the sweet orange
stock or Tahiti Seedling, as was predicted it would, and perhaps
never will. Trees grown on sour stocks, of the same age, show
a marked difference of growth in almost every section of the
State. The trunks are not as large as those on sweet stocks,
and show less expansion of root system. The influence of the
stocks on the bud is also traceable. Those on sweet root show
a darker foliage, with a tendency to improvement in the
quality of the fruit. The trees become of extraordinarily large
size, and the product twice or more as large. The suscepti-
bility of the sweet stock to the gum disease is obviated by the
care bestowed upon it, which is now practiced and thoroughly
understood.

Types, Sub-Species, or Varieties of C. Bigaradia.

The following types, sub-species, or varieties of C. bigaradia
are grown in Florida. Occasionally some are met with here,
but rarely:

Birrer SwEeT.—Medium size, juicy, sweet, inner rind bitter.
Tree indistinguishable from the Sour. Native wild orange of
Florida.

Bitter Sweet (Purvrp’s).—An improved variety of the Bitter
Sweet.

Sour.—Native wild orange of Florida; fruit large, coarse;
juice acid, inner rind bitter. ,

Sour (IraL1an).—Tree thornless and vigorous.

Witiow- Lear (ITaLtan).—Resembles the Italian Sour.

VARIEGATED (Sour).—Very ornamental; leaves and fruit
mottled with white.

VARIEGATED (Birrer SWEET).

Tarsus Sour.

MELANGOLO Sour.

Sour Sweet.

~l
bo

STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

THE BITTER ORANGE.
Citrus auwrantium, var. Bergamia, Risso.

The flowers of the Bergamot orange are small, white, and
highly scented. Leaves oblong, elongated, acute or obtuse, the
under side pale. Petiole more or less winged. Fruit pale
yellow, pyriform or depressed, the oil-vesicles concave, pulp
acid, and the whole highly perfumed. The tree is of semi-
dwarf habit, and very hardy. There area great many varieties
of this species, some bearing large fruits, the majority of which
are worthless, and some bearing small fruits, only valuable for
the manufacture of orange and essential oils. The peel of the
bitter orange is used in medicine as an aromatic tonic, and the
fruit is also used in making marmalade and preserves. Many
of these are grown in Europe for the essential oil they contain,
from which is made a substance known as bergamot camphor.
In this State varieties of this species have only been grown for
ornament, to which purpose they are well suited.

Varieties of C. Bergamia.

Bercamot.—Fruit large, rough, flattened, very aromatic.
Flowers large, double, and very fragrant.

Bouquet.—Flowers double and very fragrant. Leaves large
and glossy. Fruit bitter.

DousiE-FLowerEp.—Large double flowers, very aromatic;
highly prized for the bloom.

Larce MarmaLape.—Grown in Florida; highly prized.

Sweer SevitLe.—Grown in Florida.

Puivip’s Brrrer SweeEr.

MYRTLE-LEAF TYPE.
Citrus aurantium, var. Myrtifolia, Gallesio.

Tree very ornamental, dwarf, foliage densely packed together,
leaf small, ike the myrtle. Flowers small, pure white, and
very fragrant. Fruit bitter.

Myrtir Lear.—Yellow fruited.

Myrtrte Lear.—Red fruited.

Myrtie Lear.—White fruited.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—VARIETIES, 73

THE SHADDOCK.

Citrus aurantium, var. Decumana, Willd.

SEEDLINGS.—Hypocotyl very short, subterranean.
Cotyledons subterranean, and remaining in the seed till they decay, oblong-
elliptic; obtuse, plano-convex, fleshy, sessile, and both directed to one side,

Fruiting branch of Shaddock (Citrus decumana)—reduced.

greenish-yellow above, yellowish beneath, somewhat falcate, 13 mm. long
and 6 mm. wide.

Stem, soon becoming woody, covered with a short, very fine pubescence;

: . .

first internode 5-5.5 cm. long; the one to three following ones suppressed, or
from two to four of the leaves on the same level; succeeding ones again
elongated.

Leaves as in C. aurantium.

74 STATE BOARD OF TIORTICULTURE,

First pair opposite, orbicular, emarginate, subsessile, not articulated.
Petiole crenate.

Second pair often on the same level as the first two, so that there isa
whorl of four. When distinct, oblong or elliptic, obtuse, otherwise like the
two preceding.

Fifth leaf (where the first four are whorled) elliptic, cuneate at the base.

Sixth leaf obovate-elliptic, more elongate and cuneate at the base, with a
swelling of the midrib some distance above the base, corresponding to
articulation.

Seventh leaf ovate, bluntly pointed, articulated with an oblanceolate
winged petiole, obsoletely crenate.—LrInNn.xus.

Modified type of “Citrus Decumana’’—A hybrid. (Reduced one half.)

Fruit mostly pyriform, very large, pale yellow, with rugged
skin, very thick and bitter; pulp in some sorts white with
green tint,in others dark green. Fruit contains many large
seeds, and very little juice, which is bitter acid. The tree is a
rapid grower and very ornamental, but the fruit is of very
little value, except for decorative purposes. It is greatly

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—-VARIETIES. m3)

sought by the Chinese during their New Year celebrations to
ornament their homes and joss-houses, and many thousands
are annually imported by them from China for this purpose.
The fruit is called by the Chinese yw shw and gon lack. The
rind and flowers are said to furnish an essential oil of consider-
able value, and the skin is used in the manufacture of bitters.

The propagation of the shaddock is very simple. It comes
“true” from seed,
or mostly so; is
budded on almost
any kind of citrus
stock, orange pre-
ferred; the tree
requires less care
than any tree of
the citrus family.

Varieties.

Cuina. — Fruit
very large, pyri-
form; tree large
grower.

Boop. — Fruit
very large with
pink flesh.

FORBIDDEN
Fruit. — Fruit
very large, pyri-
form.

MamMMoTuH.—
Fruit extraordi-
narily large, pyri-
form, pale yellow.

Pomelo tree in fruit.

THE POMELO.*

Citrus aurantium, var. Pomelanus, Willd.

Leaves large, very dark green, somewhat lanceolated and
notched at their edges. Leaf stalk markedly winged. Flowers

*The name “ grape fruit’? has been applied by common consent to this
fruit, from its habit of growing in clusters, but such name is wrong and
misleading. It should be known solely as Pomelo, which is popular and
botanically correct.

76 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

white (like the orange), large and fleshy (like the citron), and
arranged in large clusters. Fruit of most varieties extraordi-
narily large, round or pyriform, with a smooth yellow skin.
Tree a rapid grower and prolific bearer, with short and often
flattened branches.

Owing to the incomplete research and lack of knowledge of
the species Pomelanus, a hybrid, botanists have confounded it
with Decumana, and have joined the two under the latter
name, but it has no place there. That Pomelanus (pomelo)
was confounded with Decumana (shaddock) was no doubt on
account of its having sprung from the latter and on account of
both species bearing fruits of extraordinary size; decumana
(Latin for huge) has been indiscriminately applied to both.

The chief characteristics of all these fruits, distinguishing
them from the different varieties of the orange, are associated
with their size and color. They are all, or nearlv all, larger
than the largest orange, and are uniformly of a pale yellow.
In texture the rind may be smooth or even polished; it is sel-
dom rough, nearly always firm, and not very thick. The pulp
is pale yellow or greenish white, sometimes pink or crimson;
the vesicles (juice bags) of the pulp are more distinet than in
the orange; very juicy, somewhat sweetish, with a distinct but
agreeable, bitter flavor. The pith surrounding the segments
possesses more of the bitter than the pulp, but it is less agree-
able, and on that account is never eaten. In shape these fruits
vary a good deal. Some are quite globular, others somewhat
flattened at the top and tapering below, forming a pear-shaped
body. Even in the globular fruits the top is more or less
flattened. There are none, we believe, pointed at both ends.

The special alkaloid of most varieties of the pomelo contains
a bitter principle, which, while its medicinal virtues are con-
ceded, has not yet, I regret to say, been defined by chemical
examination. Neither is it safe to consider it quinine, for
there are scores of vegetable bitters which are not quinine.
The presumption therefore is, that it is a unique bitter prin-
ciple peculiar to this fruit.

Observations made by William C. Fuller, of Colton, and
myself show that large confluent and well-defined oil cells in
the citrus indicate sweet fruit, and especially does this law of
energy follow when applied to the pomelo. Considering the
purpose for which the demand for this fruit comes, tendency

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA— VARIETIES. 77

to undue sweetness should be avoided and varieties producing
fruit with a delicate bitter should be sought.

Within the past five years a good deal of interest has been
manifested in this State respecting the pomelo.

For medicinal purposes it leads all the citrus fruits, and its
value from this point of view is as yet unknown. Invalids
find it just the thing to tone up their system; it is a sure pre-
ventive of that languid feeling so prevalent in spring; when
used in fevers it is fully as beneficial as quinine without the
deleterious effect of that drug, and is one of the finest tonics in
the world. Women find it exceedingly valuable. A German
physician pronounces it a cure for incipient consumption and
kindred lung troubles. It is a well-known fact that people with
weak lungs wintering in Florida have derived permanent
benefits from eating the fruit regularly.

Varieties.

A number of growers and shippers from different sections of
the southern part of the State collected samples of pomelos
from the numerous shipping points and on March 1 (1897)
met in Los Angeles and tested them. In the opinion of those
assembled the best shape was the flat round; and best color
and texture were a lemon color and a peel similar to the St.
Michael orange. The most desirable sizes wanted by the trade
are those that pack 42, 56, 64, and 80 to the box.

DuarRTE Seepiinc.—A Florida seedling, grown at Duarte,
met with much favor. The fruit was a flat round, growing
from 42 to 80 (per box) in size, with a skin the color of a
lemon, and no thicker than that of a Navel orange. The fruit
is heavy and a delightful “bitter sweet,” so much enjoyed in
the East. It had quite a few seeds, but very little rag or
waste. The peel and section linings are very bitter.

Cotton TERRACE SEEDLING.*—Grown at Colton; was the
next best variety tested. The fruit had a thicker rind anda
more orange color and much more rag and waste; the flavor,
however, was nearly the same.

Prof. H. B. Heiges, late U.S. Pomologist, says of this seed-
ling, in a letter to the Chamber of Commerce of Los Angeles:
“The California seedling pomelo was much finer and thinner

*Sample was given the committee thinking the same was for immediate
use and not for comparison.

ALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE.

Y
)

C

LTON TERRACE SEEDLING POMELO,

CO

CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE.

TRIUMPH

ie
POMELO.

PLATE VII.

80 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

in the skin than the Triumph, and was of superior quality; in
fact, no pomelo that has been received-by this Division sur-
passed in quality the California seedling.”

Fruit medium to large, heavy, subacid and delicate bitter,
full of seeds; skin smooth, light lemon color, very small oil
cells, turning slightly orange when mature.

From an analysis made by Chemist George E. Colby, of the
Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Califor-
nia, I am able to compare the relative merits of this seedling
as against the analysis of the Triumph, a variety which is

now very popular, as follows:
Colton Terrace

Physical Analysis— Triumph. Seedling.
Average weight, in grams _.-...--.---------- 440. 430.
Rindwec.. 2ceee eden Gsecee cee cee aceas. ZR 30.7 %
Pulp, pressed ... 2... -cs-s+..+.+- 29.5 %
SCG 8:2 32. saccteic te esos sues Soe eee es pees 3.407,
JUICE LA eps eee a once toate re eaieiae cetera 1.38%

Analysis of Jwice—

Solid contents, by spindle..-.----. .-- --.--- , 10.00%
AD Otel SWeATS Yo. ne oo Se eteseeet caes asezeueose —OU0% 6.80%
BACH CHAE Gace aes pee ene e eahe t ey eee ee. RBUOTE 2.00%

TriumpH.—This variety, in the opinion of those assembled,
ranked next. This was considered a fine-looking fruit, full of
juice, but lacking in the real pomelo taste of the first two
named. The texture of both peel and fruit was pronounced
very desirable.

CommMErciaL.—This variety attracted much attention for its
large, desirable size, its fine color and shape, and also that it
had a good lot of juice, but did not compare in flavor with the
first three varieties named.

AuRANTIUM.—A medium to small variety, with a sweet rind;
imported from Florida. It is said to be a cross between an
orange and a pomelo, partakes greatly of the orange, and does
not possess the eccentric bitter principle so much sought in
this fruit.

TuHeEsca BLoop.—From Florida; a large pear-shaped variety,
with pink-colored pulp, described as being “a good grower and
heavy cropper. Fruit medium size, pale yellow in color, with
slightly bitter pulp.”

Buoop (syn., Prvk).—This variety is apparently very prolific,
slight bitter principle of the species, agreeable acid; tree very
vigorous, with striking foliage; an ornamental tree, as well as
interesting fruit with its tinted texture; skin thicker than some.

CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE.

PreRNaMBUCO PomMELO—Reduced one half.

PLATE VIII.

VARIETIES OF THE POMELO.

82 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

Duncan.—A new variety recently introduced into the State.
Much larger than an orange and smaller than a shaddock; a
delicious fruit, by many preferred to an orange, Skin smooth,
pale yellow, subacid. The membrane dividing the pulp is

bitter and must be removed before eating the pulp.
THURSBY.

Marcu SEEDLEsS.
LEONDARDY.

THE OTAHEITE ORANGE.
Citrus aurantium, var. Pumilum, Gallesio.

This dwarf species of the citrus is largely grown in Florida as
a stock for budding purposes. It is used to dwarf varieties of

Branch and fruit of Otaheite orange—re-
duced one half.

the sweet orange. The tree isa shrub, never attaining a greater
height than six to eight feet. The fruit is very small; the
flowers are of a reddish color—a pretty ornamental shrub.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—VARIETIES. 83

DECIDUOUS ORANGE.
Citrus awrantium, var. Trifoliata, Linn.

A hardy deciduous
species from Japan.
Early in the fall it
sheds its leaves and
becomes entirely dor-
mant, in which con-
dition it passes the
winter. The tree is
very dwarf, of a shrub-
by habit, and suitable
for hedges and dwarf-
ing varieties of oranges
and lemons. Fruit
orange yellow, spheri-
cal, about one and one
half inches in diame-
ter. Leaves trifoliate,
leaflets sessile, ellipti-
cal, obtuse, on a wing-
ed petiole. Branches robust, often more or less flattened; very
thorny.

Branch and fruit of C. trifoliata—reduced one half.

MISCELLANEOUS SPECIES AND VARIETIES.

The following varieties of the various species have been im-
ported from different parts of the globe, many of which have
proved to be duplications of varieties under different names.
Owing to change of location, climatic conditions, etc., they
have not come up to expectations. Those marked with an
asterisk (*) possess merit; all others proved failures, although
it is doubtful if any are now grown in this State:

Selecta* Catania China Oval

Candian* Lorretto Chio Early Spanish
Paros Sabina Archipelago Parramatta
Mitylene* Poor Man Tenedos Royal*

Samos Chinese Oval Scio Belearic, or Ma-

Parakila Imperial* Kau lorea*

84

Accaway*
Shamanty
Tarsus (sweet)
Red Juiced
Round
Havana

STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

Silver Leaf (orna-
mental)

Violet Flower (or-
namental)

Portugal

Belady*

Bisry

Vanigila

Double Flowered
Sicilian

Orange of Nice
Jamaican
Compaida
mental)
Lisbon

(orma-

Many varieties have been introduced into Florida and many

have also originated there.
been introduced into California from that State.

In late years many varieties have

After fruiting,

the majority of these also proved a further duplication of vari-
eties under different names.

but only to a limited extent.
by A. Scott Chapman at San Gabriel.
able to grow, owing to its good shipping qualities.

Some of them are still grown,
The Botelka is extensively grown
He considers it profit-

It is also

grown in different portions of the northern part of the State.
The following is a partial list; those marked with two aster-
isks (**) being of Florida origin:

Early Oblong**
Ege**
Botelka**
Dulcissima
Prata
Exquisite

Old Vina**
Arcadia
Prolitie

Star Calyx
Acis
Centennial**
Dr. May’s Best

Pernambuco
Mediterranean
(Sanford’s)
Parson’s Navel**
Italian Navel

Double Imperial
Navel
Bostrom’s
Navel**
Richardson’s Na-

vel**
China (Tangier-
ine, willow leaf)
Golden Variegat-
ed (Mandarin)
Markham’s Best**
Higley’s Late**
Wilder**
Dixon**
Krause**
Pride of Malta
Everbearing**
Peerless
Madame Vinous**

Prize

Cunningham**
Tony**
Pineapple**
Spratt’s Harmon
Bell**
Pierce’s Blood**
Round Sweet
Blood#*
Armory’s Blood#*
Sall’s Blood**
Mediterranean
Blood
Thornless*?
Foundling
De Barry’s Seed-
ling**
Dr. Stark’s Best**
Mellwood Seed-

ling**

Dann's Best**

Osceola**

Oce**®

Prater, or Silver#*

Beach’s No, 5#*

Foster#*

Indian River

Milikensis

Marquis

Sanford’s Navel

Orange Lake**

Queen

Queen of Halifax

Sustain Navel

Velvet Peel (orna-
mental)

Whitaker®*

Indian
Sweet**

River

PROPAGATION OF THE ORANGE,

Planting the Seed.—The best time to plant orange seed is

in the months of March and April, and even in May

and June.

Early planting is not recommended, because it does not give
good results. When planted too early many seeds decay, wait-
ing for spring, their time of germination. The seed-bed should
be kept moist, but not too wet.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—PROPAGATION. 85

Collecting the Seed.—There are various ways in vogue, but
in the one most commonly used the fruit is piled in heaps or
put into barrels to rot. When it has decayed sufficiently to
break easily when handled, it is crushed in a tub or barrel and
the seeds are washed out. A coarse sieve is used; the soft sub-
stance of the fruit passes through, leaving the seeds in the sieve.
This operation is carried on in a place where water can be used
freely, as considerable is required to do the work properly.

Keeping the Seed.—To insure best results, the seed of the
orange should not be allowed to dry after being taken from
the fruit. If not ready to plant then, they should be put in
moist sand. In this way they can be kept until everything is
prepared,

How to Put the Seed in Sand.—Take a shallow box, say
five inches deep and twenty or thirty inches square; fill it half
full of moist sand; then put the seed on top, about two inches
deep. On top of the seed place considerable sand and mix
the sand and the seed together with the hands. This is done
so that the sand will stick to the seeds and prevent them from
adhering to each other. Then fill up the box with sand and
let the seeds remain until they are to be planted. The boxes
can be stacked one upon another. i

Taking the Seed Out of the Sand.—The seed-bed having
been prepared, take the top box and dump its contents into a
coarse sieve. This must be done with care, go as not to bruise
the seed. Then shake the sieve; the sand will pass through,
leaving the seed in the sieve.

The Seed-Bed.—The seed-bed should be inclosed with
boards, eighteen or twenty inches wide, set on edge, about four
or six feet apart. The bottom should be floored, so as to
prevent the ingress of gophers and other rodents. Laths are
nailed on top, leaving a space of one half inch between them,
to protect the seed from being scratched up by birds. A cover-
ing of thin muslin is put on top of the laths to prevent the
young plants from being scorched by the sun. If the weather
he cloudy, it is well that the covering be removed to allow the
seed-bed to get warm. It is better to plant the seed broadcast,
but not too thickly, as the plants will grow slender and not so

86 ; STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

strong and thrifty as when sown sparingly. The seed should
be covered with fine, rich soil, from one to two inches in depth.
Boxes filled with rich soil are also used in which to grow seed-
lings. They are set close to each other on the ground, watered
and covered the same as the seed-hed.

Transplanting.—In one year the plants will be large enough
to be transplanted in nursery form. They are sorted, the very
small and delicate ones planted by themselves, or transplanted
in boxes and kept another year; being so small and delicate,
they are generally scorched by the sun when planted in whe
open ground, and remain small in the nursery.

Distance of Nursery Rows.—The rows should he far enough
apart to admit a cultivator between them. Grave mistakes are
often made in setting the plants less than four feet apart, asin
cultivating after being budded many buds are knocked off by
the horse or the traces rubbing against them. Preference is
given to rows when set five or six feet apart. This will give
ample room for cultivation; and also, in digging up trees, a
small, narrow sled can be run in to haul them to the head of
the rows without rubbing against the nursery stock.

Planting close together in the rows tends to make feeble and
slender trees. If it is not intended to “sack” or “ball” the
trees when they are to be transplanted, then the plants can he
set from eight to twelve inches apart, and they will make strong
and thrifty stocks; but if it is intended to ‘“‘sack” them, this is
too close. They should be at least eighteen inches apart; this
will give the digger enough space to take up trees between
others. It also has the advantage of not cutting the roots
too short, which is apt to he the case when the plants are close
together.

Trimming the Stock.—The plants should be trimmed but
sparingly until at least one year after planting. They should
be left to grow almost at will the first year, as they will with-
stand the cold of winter better. When plants are trimmed too
young they generally-make slender and feeble stock. In the
following spring, as early as possible, say in February, the
plants are trimmed, leaving a clear stock. All cuts should be
made close, so that they may soon heal over. The brush is
then gathered and burned. As the ground becomes packed by

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—PROPAGATION. 87

the trimmers it should be loosened by running a cultivator
between the rows.

Topping the Trees.— When a tree is taken from the nursery
.the foliage should be cut back; the branches should be so cut
that in starting they will form a fine-shaped head. This is
done because evaporation from the leaves is rapid. In many
cases where the top shoots are left on, the circulation of the
trees becomes dry and the bark will shrivel before the roots
have assumed their natural functions.

Balling System.—A narrow trench is made along the row
and within six inches of the tree; the taproot is cut about
eighteen inches deep; then with a spade an oblong ball is cut,
leaving in it the tree. The spade should be very sharp, or in
cutting the roots the jar will break the ball. Pruning shears
are used in cutting large roots. When trees are taken up with
a solid ball of earth the leaves will scarcely wilt.

Puddling System.—Puddling is practiced where the soil is
so loose that sacking is rendered impossible. Many prefer this
system to any other, as it gives the trees larger and more roots;
and where all due precautions are taken, puddling is the best
system, besides saving considerable expense.

A hole is made in the ground and filled half full of water,
then soil is thrown in and worked with a hoe, which forms a
puddle. The puddle should be thin enough so that when the
roots of the trees are put into it, the mud will stick to them, at
the same time wetting every part thoroughly. The trees are
carefully taken up, the soil shaken from the roots, and they are
immediately dipped into the mud or puddle. They are then
placed on wet strawina wagon. A covering is placed over the
wagon to prevent the sun from drying the roots, as the roots
should not be exposed to the sun, even if only for a few min-
utes. The wagon is then driven to the field where the holes
have been dug. ‘The driver hands the trees, one at a time, to
the planter, who holds them in position while his men fill the
hole with dirt, first throwing in the moistest. The planter
presses the soil very lightly, and goes to the next one. The
tree having been set, a basin is made around it and a couple
of buckets of water poured into the basin; this will settle the
soil and keep the tree fresh until water can be run down the

rows in furrows.

88 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

Transplanting the Trees from the Nursery to the
Orchard.—This important work often determines the future
growth and fruitage of the orchard. Its performance in all its
details should be conducted in a manner to give as little shock
to the growth of the tree as possible. Mr. L. C. Waite, of
Riverside, has had great success in transplanting trees in their
natural state; that is, removing the tree without balling,
leaving the roots free from soil. He attaches great importance
to two conditions: first, selecting the proper time for removal;
and second, the manner of handling. The time for removing
the tree is. when it has made a previous growth and has
hardened that growth and balanced it by a later root growth.
In this condition it is ready to put out a new branch growth.
Before this appears the fine roots are cut on one side of the
tree by the use of a sharp spade. At the same time the tap-
root is cut at the proper depth below the surface. The excava-
tion is then filled with earth, and the tree allowed to remain
for several days until the rootlets and the taproot have formed
a crown of growth. By leaving the rootlets of a considerable
portion of the tree undisturbed by the first handling this growth
is rapid. When the growth is sufficiently developed the tree
can then be removed from the nursery to the orchard by the
second handling. This is to cut the remaining roots, being
careful to leave unbroken the roots cut at the previous hand-
ling. When this tree is placed in orchard form the earlier cut
roots are ready to start new growth immediately. The shock
to the tree by its last necessary mutilation is hardly felt. Every
care must be taken in carrying the tree from the nursery to the
orchard to keep the tender and sensitive rootlets from drying.

*“Tf orange trees are properly handled from the time they
are dug in the nursery until they are planted in orchard form,
there should be no loss. We have found in our experience in
planting, that if this plan is properly followed we do not lose
any trees, but if orange tree roots are exposed to sunshine or
wind, for a short time only, the planter will lose a large per-
centage of his trees; besides, those which grow will have such a
sickly growth that he would be better off if they had died with
the others. We know that it is possible to pack trees so that

*B.F,. Dixon, in essay before Escondido Farmers’ Institute, November,
1896.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—PROPAGATION. 89

they may be shipped long distances and, when planted, nearly
all live, but from observations of the experiences of various
planters we have concluded that the only safe plan is to buy
your trees from the nearest nursery and superintend the dig-
cing of them yourself. After your trees are planted in orchard
form they should be watered and thoroughly cultivated every
thirty days during the dry season. In the rainy season
cultivate enough to keep down the weeds.”

*“T A. Reed, whose systematic methods and habit of care-
ful observation peculiarly fit him for successful experimental
work, has demonstrated to the members of this club, and to
the satisfaction of various other careful observers, the value of
the following methods in transplanting orange and lemon
trees:

“ First—In taking up the trees the roots should be protected
by a ball of earth;

“ Second—That, to the satisfaction of various careful observers
the most essential factor in tree growth, should be preserved
as far as possible;

‘““Third—Where it is practicable, the tree should be trans-
ferred to its new home immediately after the taproot is cut,
and loose earth carefully filled in around it;

“ Fourth—Let water in furrows follow the planters and fill
the holes, thoroughly settling fine earth around the balls or
roots.

“By carefully observing these points, if the nursery is near
by, every leaf may be saved, and the tree will resume the work
of growth almost immediately. Examination in a day or
two after planting will show a large number of fibrous roots
reaching out from the ball into the new soil around it. A
small amount of well-rotted manure placed near the roots, but
not immediately touching the ball, will assist in giving a
vigorous growth.

“The evidence from actual observation and experience is
conclusive that trees thus treated will make a growth the first
year which can not be approximated if the trees are taken up
with bare roots. Indeed, if the leaves wilt and mostly drop,
the tree will seldom do more the first year than reclothe itself,
and will be a year later in coming into bearing.

* From report of committee, by J. M. Edmison, to Riverside Horticultural
Club, February, 1899.

90 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

‘Tt is very important the first season after transplanting
trees to run water frequently, at least so as to insure soft and
moist earth about the roots at all times. And it is better to
run water in furrows through the entire open space between
the rows. Experiments have shown that the roots reach out
enormously, even the first year, if favorable conditions are
provided.”

Extending the Roots.—A common practice in planting
trees with loose roots, of placing the tree in the hole, filling the
hole with soil and water, and then tramping,
should be avoided. As the roots are covered
with thick mud they will stick together, and
if the tree grows it will not do as well as when
the roots are extended with care. This is very
simple. The hole is half filled with earth,
which being loose admits the taproot of the
tree by slight pressure of the hand; then the
© lateral roots are spread and the soil is lightly
pressed. Heavy tramping is not necessary, as
Bac cae the water settles the dirt and keeps the roots

in place. As soon as the water in the basin
has disappeared, the basin is covered with loose soil; this will
prevent evaporation, and keep the tree from leaning over.
Trees planted with these precautions make the best growth
and become the most thrifty.

Shading Newly Set Plants.—Plants set out during summer
,or during a period of sunny
weather often wilt and many
perish, unless duly protected.
-|The accompanying illustra-
tion shows a simple method of
protecting freshly set plants.
=| These shades are made of any
|size desired, from old _ paste-
4 board boxes, which are easily
Jobtained at drygoods stores,

etc. Squares are cut from the

top, bottom, and sides. They
are nailed to a peg made of any kind of material, in the man-
ner shown. ‘These shades can be put down close to the plant,
and when taken up after a few days can be kept for future use.

Plants protected by shades.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—BUDDING. 91

BUDDING.

There are various systems of budding citrus trees. In
Florida and Louisiana the most popular method is the reverse
of the one universally practiced in this State.

Time to Bud.—The best time to bud citrus trees is in March
and April, as soon as the trees begin to put forth leaves and the
sap flows freely. Everything should be prepared; no time should
be lost, as buds inserted early in the season start with vigor
and by fall have a large and thrifty top. The buds should be
looked over at least ten days after they are inserted, and all
those which show signs of not having “taken” should be re-
budded in order to give them an early start, and that they may
grow more evenly with those first budded.

Budding done in June and July is styled “summer budding.”
It is not considered as good as early spring budding, because
the buds do not start evenly; and as the greater portion of them
start late their growth is so tender by the time winter sets in
that, if they pass through it, they become prematurely hardened
by the cold weather, which sometimes causes the trees to become
stunted.

Fall budding is generally performed during September and
October, and sometimes in favored localities as late as
November. After the strings have been removed the buds are
left to lie dormant through the winter, to be started in the
spring.

Methods Illustrated.—The selection of scions is very impor-
tant. Only plump and healthy buds should be chosen; dor-

Fic. 1. Thornless orange buds.

mant or blind and immature buds should be avoided. Fig. 1
shows an orange stick prepared for budding. In this the leaves
have been cut off the leaf stem at the proper distance from the

\
C=" at ao a aces

Fig. 2. Thorny lemon buds.
bud. Fig. 2 shows a thorny lemon bud, also with the leaves
removed, and ready for use. The stocks are previously pre-

92 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

pared for budding by the removal of all growth to about eight
or ten inches from the ground, or at the height they are to be
budded, so as not to interfere with the men. The lemon should
be budded at such a height that its union with the stock will
be above the line of irrigation and moisture arising therefrom.
This guards the lemon against disease.

The first operation consists in making a vertical incision in
the bark, as shown in Fig. 3. Note the position in which the
knifeis held. Itis not necessary to press
too hard, but simply cut through the bark.
The transverse incision is then made at
the top of the ver-
tical incision, as

shown in Fig. 4, and by a slight twist of the hand from left to
right the bark becomes opened sutliciently to admit the point
of the bud to enter into the incision (see Fig. 5). Now comes
the cutting of the bud, which is shown in Fig. 6. Note the
position of the hands and the manner of holding the knife.
The point of the bud is held downward and the buds are cut
from the back. In this way the buds are cut smooth and do
not crack in cutting, as is the case when cut from above. The
bud is then inserted by holding it between the fingers and press-
ing it downward into position, as shown in Fig. 7. It is then

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—BUDDING. 93

tied with soft budding twine (although other materials, such as
cloth, etc., are greatly preferred by some), as shown in Fig. 8,
which shows the opera-
tion complete. Figs. 7
and 8 show the treat-
ment of the stock after
the bud has “taken,”
and not at the time of
budding. In order to
start the buds it is best
to cut back the stocks as
shown in the figures,
leaving a portion of the
foliage until the buds
have made a good start.
This prevents a check of
the flow of sap, which
generally is the case

when all the leaves are removed with the top; causing the

94 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

incision to open and the bud to dry. This brush is removed
later at the point shown in Fig. 7, ata. When the
buds start they are very delicate and require to be
protected by being tied to the stock, either with soft
twine or cloth, as shown in Fig. 9. When the buds
have become strong the remaining portion of the
stock is sawed off at the point shown in Fig. 9 at o.
The cut is then waxed over, or given one or more
z=. coats of rubber paint, to protect it from atmospheric
~~ action, that the cut may heal over without defects.

Starting and Training the Buds.—Nursery trees swell very
fast in the spring, and three weeks is long enough for the
strings to remain on them; but the tops should not be cut off
then. The strings should be removed, and the nursery irri-
gated and cultivated. This will force new growth, and the tops
should then be cut back from four to eight inches above the
bud. After the bud has grown about six inches or more it is
tied to the stock. When the bud has become stocky and able
to support itself, what remains of the top is then cut away.
The cut should be made smooth and waxed over or painted with
rubber paint. This helps the wound in healing over and pro-
tects the stock from the action of the atmosphere. Buds left to
lie dormant through the winter are “started” in the spring,
just as soon as the trees begin to show signs of growth. Great
care should be used in the cutting of the top, that it be done at
the proper time, and that the top be not cut so near the bud as
to endanger it. It is advisable always to leave a little foliage
on the stock, to avoid too great a shock by the removal of the
entire top and its functions, which in many cases causes the
death of the bud and the dwarfing of the stock.

When the stocks put forth in the spring the buds peneealie
start also. The suckers, being very tender, are removed by
hand (thumb-pruning), breaking at the soul, Cutting them
with a sharp knife has the advantage that no others will grow
where so cut, and the cut being made clean will give the tree
a smooth body, and as the tree grows very little suckering will
be required. When the suckers become strong and are removed
by rubbing with the hand, the trunks generally become rough
and suckering becomes much greater.

As the buds continue to grow, they are loosely tied with

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA——-BUDDING. 95

soft twine or rope either to the remaining portion of the stock
or to laths driven alongside. By this practice the trees will
grow straight and symmetrical.

Growing Budded Trees in the Nursery Without Staking.—
The buds are allowed to grow until they show signs of drooping.
They are then pinched at the top. The growth is arrested;
the stock becomes firm and erect. The bud starts several new
growths. One of these growths, generally the center, is allowed
to make an upward growth and the rival growths removed.
As this growth advances and, like the first, begins to droop,
it is again pinched, when it again assumes an upright position
and starts its multiple growths. From these, as before, is
selected a growth to further advance the height of the tree.
When the tree has arrived at its proper height for the crown,
allow all the growths from the last pinching to remain and the
tree to form its desired head. Trees grown in this manner are
stronger than those that have had the support of stakes.

WORKING-OVER LARGE ORANGE TREES.

Large orange trees
are somewhat diff-
cult to bud, owing to
the extreme thick-
ness of the bark and
the inactivity of flow
of sap at the space
where the buds are
generally inserted.
Neither does the
bark “slip” as easily
as on younger
stocks. Three meth-
ods of working-over
large trees are prac-
ticed in the southern
citrus counties. One
is to bud into the

large limbs near the Orange tree budded over, showing the buds start-
crotch; the second is ing, and trunk whitewashed for protection.

96 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE,

to cut the tree back in the spring and to bud into the young
shoots; and the third is to bud high into the limbs, either into
the old wood or on the new shoots as they put forth after the
trees are topped.

Unless the buds are inserted reasonably early the entire tops
are not cut back until the spring following. It is best to cut
back a portion of the foliage of the limbs to induce the buds to
start without giving the trees too severe a shock, and to allow the
buds to grow at will with the rest
of the foliage through the winter.
From two to five of the large side
limbs are left to grow, as a pro-
tection to the buds from frost,
and to induce the flow of sap to
the buds.

*“T believe the lack of success
in budding old trees arose fre-
quently from the fact that it was
deferred until too late in the
spring, when the sap was in the
top of the trees, passing by the
bud in its haste to get higher up,
and the best success has come
from buds inserted as the sap got
to be active at the point of inser-
tion.”

Budding Large Trees in the

Fall.—_At a meeting of the Riv-

Orange treé cut back to fonee ap CTRGe Horticultural Club, Mr.

to throw out shoots from the main Bryan, a noted horticulturist,
branches, which are budded; the body : 3

of tree being protected with burlap. recommended inserting the bud

» from below, and pushing it up

instead of the usual way of pushing it down, thereby insur-

ing better protection from damage by rain. Waxed cloth,

he said, was the best for tying. In regard to the treatment of

the tree when the buds are fully set, he favored leaving a

portion of the old wood and foliage to bear fruit for a time as

a protection from the fierce rays of the sun in July and August.

The heroic treatment of cutting the tree right back, which

¥

*J, E. Cutter, before Riverside Horticultural Club, June, 1896.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—BUDDING. 97

might rightly be called “beheading system,’ he could not
indorse. It was found that a much better way was to girdle
the limbs just above the new buds, to be done with a knife,
slanting away from the bud. In old trees several buds can be
inserted on large limbs, thus giving greater assurance of
success.

Many budders remove from the limb, above the bud, a ring
of bark, about an inch wide, which indies the bud to start. The
bud is left to grow at will until the followi ing spring, when the
branches are finally removed, and the buds which have had a
season’s start are made to assuine the functions of the top.

Large seedling orange trees changed over by budding in the branches.

Protecting the Trunks of Large Trees.—As soon as pos-
sible after the removal of the tops the ends of all limbs cut are
waxed over. The trunks are then treated with a heavy coat of
whitewash, or wrapped with sacks to prevent them from being
scorched by the hot sun. Water is applied, and everything
possible done to cause the tree and buds to start without being
injured. But these precautions are not as necessary where the
gradual process is practiced.

Budding Large Trees in the Branches.—The rules laid
down for budding large trees in the main branches close to the
trunk apply with equal force to budding large trees in the
branches higher up, and as shown in the accompanying illus-

7c

95 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

tration. The main limbs are cleared of all brush long before
the time of budding. They are budded in the spring or in the
fall. If budded in the fall the buds are allowed to lie dormant
through the winter and started in the spring. The buds are
inserted in the limbs, and when they have “taken” the tops
are gradually removed, leaving the side limbs to grow for
awhile to prevent the flowing sap from relaxing, which keeps
the buds growing until they assume the functions of the top.
These side limbs are then removed, and the trunks and limbs
are given a thick coating of whitewash to prevent sunburn, ete.

Beheading System.—This system is successfully practiced
by several experienced budders of Riverside. O. D. Wilhite, a
gentleman of long experience, treats his trees before budding by
removing all limbs (below the line of buds) that are not needed
in the process of budding. He further treats the remaining
limbs by removing the small branches near the line of buds,
to induce a flow of sap at points where the buds are to be
inserted. By this double removal he concentrates the flow of
sap over a limited part of the tree and also at the special line
of bud insertion. This service is done in the early spring.
When the tree responds by increased growth, as it soon will,
the sap is circulating in vigor and the buds are inserted. The
treatment of the buds is the same as for nursery budding.
Immediately after insertion they are tightly covered with
waxed cloth. The coverings are allowed to remain about
three weeks, or until such time as the buds are well established.
They are then removed, and where the buds have not taken,
new buds are inserted. Wherever a sufficient number of buds
have taken, the top is entirely removed and the wounds
covered with heated wax. In processing the tree for protection
from injury by the sun a heavy coat of whitewash is applied
before the removal of the limbs. This coating is carried above
the point of cutting and over the waxed cloth. This insures
the whole surface to be covered with the lime except a band
where the cloth rests. When the cloth is removed the clear
strip beneath can easily be seen in future observations of the
buds. The first treatment of the tree is to let all new sprouts
grow. These will appear over the entire tree surface, and will
keep the sap in motion and the roots in action. The first
handling is to pinch the fast growing buds to strengthen their
trunks, and to remove a few of the sprouts which have grown

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100 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

near them and threaten to smother them. As the buds grow
the remaining sprouts are from time to time removed, being
careful, early in their growth, to keep a sufficient sprout growth
to maintain a rapid flow of sap. The top of the tree should
now be free from sprouts and occupied only by the buds. The
bud growth must be often pinched, to prevent a long, straggling,
weak growth. Asthe crown of bud growth increases, all sprouts
are removed from the trunk. Large trees treated in this
manner should appear with a solid bud growth, as in the illus-
tration (Plate IX, page 99).

In some portions of the State the buds are
troubled by the leaf-eating beetle Aramigus ful-
_ leri, which climbs the trees and feeds on the ten-
4.\ der leaves and tipends of the buds. To keep the
beetles from ascending the trees, bands of cotton-

batting are placed on the trunks of the trees below
Fuller’s Rose

Beetle — natural the buds. These bands are removed from time
size and enlarged: to time.

PLANTING.

Preparation of the Soil.—The land should be thoroughly
worked through the winter and prepared to be planted in the
spring, when it becomes warmer. All weeds and stubble should
be plowed-under; these will decompose and serve as a fertilizer
to the orchard. The thorough working. of the soil liberates
crude gases and changes the nutritive principles to a form more
readily assimilated by the tree.

*«The question is often propounded to us how to prepare
the land before planting the orange tree. Our advice to all
contemplating planting is to first have a thorough survey of the
land to be planted; then thoroughly grade same, so that water
can be successfully carried to every tree. Here is where many
make a fatal mistake; they undertake to grade the land by
the ‘eye,’ and find after they have planted their grove that it is
impossible to properly water all trees in the grove; then their
lifelong trouble begins. So we would say most emphatically,
always have your land well graded. When this is properly

*B. F. Dixon, in essay before Escondido Farmers’ Institute, Nov., 1896.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—PLANTING. 101

done, plow the land at least twelve inches deep. Let the land
lie until it has been thoroughly settled by rains or by irriga-
tion, then plow again, if possible some deeper than the first
plowing. Thoroughly pulverize the soil by harrowing. Go to
the nursery and see that your trees are dug with good roots,
and tops well cut back and all leaves removed from the trees
before they are lifted from nursery rows; have roots immedi-
ately puddled, then packed so as to retain all moisture and
exclude sunshine and wind. As fast as the trees are planted
in orchard form, each tree should receive at least twenty-five
gallons of water to thoroughly settle the soil. As soon as the
soil is in good condition cultivate thoroughly.”

A great mistake is often made by careless planters in digging
small holes, just large enough to crowd the roots into. Into
these the trees are forced, the roots being twisted out of shape,
with no regard to their proper position, and as a result the trees
make a stunted and unhealthy growth. The holes should be
both deep and broad. It is best to dig the hole deeper than
needed; then fill up the bottom with a cone of surface soil, and
in the apex of this cone a hole is made with a shovel-handle
to receive the taproot. The laterals are then carefully spread
out as nearly as possible in the position occupied in the
nursery, and the hole filled up. The tree should be planted a
little deeper than it originally grew, and when it is set should
be pulled up with a gentle shaking motion to its proper height.
This will settle the soil about the small roots. A bucket of
water is now applied, which will still further settle the soil.
As soon as the water has disappeared a little fresh soil is put
over the basin, to prevent evaporation and to keep the tree
from leaning. Trees planted with these precautions make the
best growth and become the thriftiest.

Time of Planting.—The orange, being an evergreen, can be
planted at any time in the year when the conditions are favor-
able, and this is determined by the condition of the tree and
the season. The orange tree makes several growths during
the season, varying in number and season with different
varieties and different seasons. But there are periods when
all orange trees are dormant, and others when nearly all are
active. In transplanting, the trees should be taken at their
dormant stage, as the shock of removal will not then be so

102 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

severe and the tree will more quickly recover. These dormant
periods usually occur about four times in the year: from the
middle of March to the middle of April, in June, in September,
and from the middle of November to the middle of December.
The warmer season is the best for planting. Trees transplanted
in the winter when the ground is cold will remain until spring
without growing. It is therefore better to transplant when the
ground is warm. The nearer an orange tree is to starting new
erowth the greater its strength and root power. This is the
best time for transplanting—atter they have made their first
crowth and before starting the second time in the spring.

Trees designed for transplanting should be pruned a week or
ten days before they are removed from the nursery. This
enables them to recover from the shock of pruning before being
subjected to the shock of removal.

In the selection of trees it will always be found most profit-
able to get the best, even though the first cost may be a little
more. Scrubby, neglected, ill-grown trees are dear as a gift,
and will never repay the care required in their culture. If the
trees for the orchard are to be purchased they should be pro-
cured from some well-known and reliable nurseryman, who
will guarantee them true to name. Only clean, healthy, well-
grown trees should be accepted.

Setting Out the Orchard.—In laying off the orchard it is
desirable to have it symmetrical and to economize the land.
A little thought and care displayed at the commencement will
save much annoyance in after years, and it is no greater task
to have the orchard neat in appearance and symmetrical in
outline than to have it in a haphazard condition. There are
three objects to be considered in laying out the orchard: sym-
metry of appearance, economy of space, and facility for future
care. Of course the first thing is to get the trees in straight
rows, at equal distances apart, and every one thinks he can
accomplish this. But there are various methods of disposing
of the straight row, and these methods all have their advocates,
and each one its advantages. The principal forms are the
square, the quincunx, and the hexagonal or septuple. The
methods most common in use are the syuare and the quincunx
systems. The most generally adopted is the square system, as
the orchard can be changed to quincunx after being planted,
even after a number of years of growth.

THE ORANGE IN

CALIFORNIA— PLANTING.

108

PLANTING SYSTEMS.

In order that the most Riese ie ae a
approved planting sys- | | ;
tems may be better under- |: :
stood, they are illustrated e ere aloes eae es “F
to show how the orchard | | :
is first laid out, and how | &------- bess Reve ao a
the trees look after several |: : :
years of growth. i ele Elin te lke -

The Square System. : =
This is the most approved $ @& @ &@ & 2
method. The orchard is |
laid off in lines crossing BR * es 8 & &
each other, with equal in-
tervals of space, and a tree Ss &£ & & & oe
planted at each crossing of
the lines. By the square ae z
method, at twenty feet ca ae Bo He aL a
apart, one hundred and ; -
eight trees are planted to | ns a: a 2 ae
the acre. The preferable The Square System.

i ay hess eS eee ~, ]distances for planting are
SL ee ae oe iL L ; yen feet for dwarf varie-

BO) ester cate % . ties, twenty-four feet for

bases yi Navels and Mediterranean

: de Dee Sweets, and thirty feet for

Peon all seedling types.

ao Quincunx System.—In

r. i this system the orchard is

— laid off in the same manner
oa |as for square planting, ex-
va cept that the number of

i rows are doubled, and a

3 tree planted in the center
4 : jot every square. This
Bh “|method is chiefly used in
eee planting with the idea of
Pe removing the center trees
ob __ |(which are generally dwarf)
a: “* lwhen those designed to be

Quincunx System.

permanent shall have at-

104

STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

tained a considerable size;
the orchard then assumes
thesquareplan. At twenty
feet apart, one hundred and
ninety-nine trees are plant-
ed toan acre by this method.

Hexagonal, or Septu-
ple, System.—In this sys-
tem the trees are equilateral
(equally distant from each
other) and more completely
fill the space than any other
systemcan. Six trees form
a hexagon and inclose a
seventh. The lines in the
figure indicate the method
of laying out the orchard.
By the hexagonal system,
at twenty feet apart, one

Hexagonal, or Septuple, System.

hundred and _ twenty-six

trees are planted to an acre.

Triangular, or Alter-
nate, System.—In laying
out an orchard by this sys-
tem, the lines are run form-
ing a square, as in the
square system; a line is
then run diagonally acrogs,
and a tree planted alter-
nately, forming a triangle.
The advantage in this sys-
tem is that the trees are
given more space, and can
be planted closer together
without crowding.

The following table will
show the number of trees
to the acre by the square,
quincunx, and hexagonal

%s
is
tees

fe

oo

o

a

“tee

ws

or septuple systems:

Triangular, or Alternate, System.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—SOILS. 105

Distance apart. | Square. eye ies | Quincunx.

NQMC C tc ras ie ch ee hc 436 | 500 831
T2feete eas eA ate eee ne ad 303 | 347 571
14 fee fates ae ee pee ee ERA 299 | 255 415
NG MeO be eevee ree he oR RR ea ee ae | 170 | 195 313
AST C2 (oy es teas Care hoe pee eye Se CE | 134 | 154 247
SOCCER ee Ne el nee 108 126 199
DOE yA) ees eeay ATS eae Bee Pee 90 103 173
DE ICGY a coumae ote! tomate ita pacceel 76 | 86 137
30 feet |

Sai ey Saeed wee a seen Sees 48 56 | 83

tree is not taken into account.

For any distances not given in the above data, calculate the
number of trees to the acre by the square system, and add
fifteen per cent. This will give the number if planted septuple.

SOILS.

An old saying among orange-growers, and in which there is
much truth, is that “the orange tree must have its feet dry”;
in other words, what is true of the requirements of all fruit
trees, is especially so of the orange, and the soil upon which it
is planted must be well drained. It should never be planted
on heavy, low ground, or on low, damp ground, where water
can be reached within a few feet of the surface, and never on
black adobe soil. A rich, porous soil is absolutely necessary to
give the tree a vigorous growth. A deep alluvium intermixed
with decomposed granite or limestone, with a porous subsoil,
offers the best conditions in soil. A hardpan soil is to be
avoided. At Redlands, in San Bernardino County, the soil is,
as its name indicates, a deep red, composed largely of disinte-
grated granite, with a large percentage of oxide of iron. The
oranges grown there are of a deeper color than those produced
in most other sections. At Riverside the soil is largely of the
same character, and much of it, approaching the hills, a sharp
granitic grit. The same general characteristics of soil prevail
over the greater part of the orange section of Southern Califor-
nia, the land varying as to the admixture of sand, some being
more and some less of a sandy nature.

*“ The orange is not overchoice as to whether or not the soil
is granite, sandy loam, or red soil. Either of these kinds of

#B. F. Dixon, in essay before Farmers’ Institute, Escondido, 1896.

106 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

soil stands watering thoroughly and can be kept in good con-
dition without an extra amount of culture. The ‘adobe’ land
has probably more strength of richness than either of the other
soils named, but we should prefer it to be some other fellow
who would successfully grow orange groves on ‘adobe.’”

The best citrus fruits are those produced on the higher
lands, which are naturally warm and well drained, and the
best orange lands in our State are those having the higher
altitude. :

A southern exposure is usually the best for an orange
orchard, and it is better if sheltered from strong prevailing
winds. Where the winds are very strong, it is customary to
plant windbreaks on the windward side of each five or ten
acres, for protection. These windbreaks usually consist of
alternate eucalyptus and pepper trees, planted close together,
usually ten or twelve feet apart. The pepper is a dense, low-
growing tree, while the eucalyptus runs up, and the combina-
tion makes a tall, solid wall capable of offering great resistance
to the wind. Both are very rapid growing trees, and in a short
time give complete protection to the orchard. The Monterey
cypress is also commonly used for windbreaks, for which pur-
pose the trees are planted from six to eight feet apart.

IRRIGATION,

Irrigation and cultivation are closely associated. It has
come to be accepted as a truism that citrus fruits must be
grown on irrigated land. The method and frequency of irriga-
tion and the quantity of water to be applied were subjects of
discussion for a-long time, and the orange-growers formed
opposing schools of irrigators and cultivators—the former
advocating a plentiful and frequent application of water, and
the latter little if any irrigation but frequent cultivation. As
is usual in such cases the mean was reached, and the practice
to-day is thorough cultivation with enough irrigation. When
the young trees are first set out they must have enough water
to insure their growth, for the tender and lacerated roots, with-
out a firm foothold in the soil, can not withstand a long dry
season; but after the first year the trees will grow with little
if any irrigation, if well cultivated, although in most cases
they are watered from two to seven times in the season. When

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108 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

the orchard comes into bearing, however, the trees must be
copiously watered, or the fruit will be small.

Of the methods of irrigation, the simplest, best, and most
generally used, is the furrow system, in which several furrows

IRRIGATING—THE OLD Way.
The furrows were made with the plow, and water run through in large streams,
thereby cutting up the land and washing away the available plant-food.
are plowed between the rows of trees, the first one about three
feet distant from the trunks, and down these the water is allowed
to flow gradually until the ground is thoroughly saturated.

THE BASIN SYSTEM OF IRRIGATION.
The orchard is laid out in square basins, ready to run water into them.

Irrigation by the basin method is performed by hollowing out,
around each tree, a basin with a diameter equal to the spread of
the branches; into this the water is run, and when filled it is
conducted to the next,and so on until all the basins have been

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—CULTIVATION. 109

filled. These are sometimes filled two or three times, until the
soil will absorb no more water. By this method care must be
taken to prevent the water coming in contact with the trunks
of the trees, or they will become scalded and gum disease will
result. A cone of earth is usually banked up around each tree to
prevent this, but it must be broken and leveled off after each
application of water; if not, bad results follow, such as the
breaking out of gum, ete.

CULTIVATION.

Much of the success of the orange orchard depends upon
cultivation. If this be carelessly done or entirely neglected
the best results from the trees are not to be expected. Culti-
vation is imperatively needed by the orange grove, from the
fact that the orange does best upon irrigated lands, and irriga-
tion and cultivation must go hand in hand. If water is
applied to the orchard and it is left without cultivation the
soil bakes hard, cracks, the moisture escapes, and the trees
suffer. It is the rule, and one established by experience, to
cultivate after each irrigation, just as soon as the ground is
sufficiently dry to permit a horse to travel over it, usually in
two or three days after the application of water. The soil
must be kept mellow and free from weeds at all times. Many
of the leading orange-growers plow in the fall before the
winter rains, turning the furrows toward the trees, and harrow-
ing the land after. This leaves the trees on a ridge with the
dead furrow in the middle of the rows and serves to drain the
surplus water from the trees. During the winter season the
ground is naturally cold, and allowing the tree to stand in
water is very detrimental to it. In the spring a second plow-
ing from the trees to the middle fills up the dead furrow and
leaves the ground smooth for the summer.

The ground should be cultivated close to the trees, which
can easily be effected by the use of a short whiffletree. Care
must be taken, however, not to damage or wound the trees, and
it is a wise precaution to wrap the ends of the singletree with
cloth—a barley sack or something similar—to keep it from
barking the trees in case of contact. A careful driver and a
steady horse should do the work, and the danger of damage to
the trees will be reduced to a minimum.

110 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

In regard to the implements to be used, the orchardist must
exercise his best judgment and consider the nature of the soil to
be worked. There area large number of good cultivators on the
market, some adapted to heavy, others to light, and others to
gravelly soil. The orchardist should ascertain those best suited
to the requirements of his particular work, and secure them.

CULTIVATION AND IRRIGATION.*

The orange tree is a native of tropical forests, where it
obtains warm soil and abundant moisture within easy reach.
Its successful culture in the countries like California, which
lack summer rains and moisture-iaden atmosphere, is neces-
sarily to some degree artificial and a notable triumph of modern
horticulture. In order to achieve the highest results, it becomes
more and more essential that the grower shall keep the soil in
the most perfect condition, shall apply all needed water and
plant-food in sufficient but not in excessive amounts, and shall
pay especial attention to keeping the feeding roots as low as
practicable and to preventing the formation of what is called
“hardpan,” but is only the well-known “‘plow-sole,” aggra-
vated by shallow irrigation.

“Wardpan,” some growers say, appears now where it was
never before known. The fibrous roots of orange trees run
along its surface, and thus are subject to every vicissitude. It
often happens that what orchardists call “hardpan” is only
the firm layer of soil caused by uniform cultivation, or plow-
ing, whether deep or shallow. The depth to which soil is
stirred should vary from year to year; eight inches, twelve
inches, ten inches, fourteen inches, and then eight inches again,
would put an end to much of the present outcry against
“hardpan.” Cultivator teeth should also be kept sharp, and
should be “set down” to various depths so as to prevent the
formation of “ plow-sole” of any description, and to assist in
breaking up that which former neglect has caused.

Very few orange groves have been planted upon true “ hard-
pan,” andif so planted have seldom succeeded. Only a few
trees, such as our native oaks, are capable of thrusting roots
through the iron-like layer of natural subsoil that is properly
termed “hardpan.” When found to exist, it should be deemed
sufficient to debar citrus culture, unless so thin that, by boring

*J.W. Mills, in University of California Bulletin No. 138.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—CULTIVATION. 111

or blasting, the root-system can be established in good soil
below the “hardpan,” or when it is so constituted that when
kept irrigated the roots will penetrate it.

An instance of the latter occurred at Riverside, where Mr.
Reed planted a few trees on a terrace bordering on an arroyo,
and found what was reported as true “hardpan” near the
surface. The trees received “an abundance of water over the
whole area for a year,” and it was then found that the roots
had penetrated it to a considerable distance.

The term “irrigation hardpan” is quite generally used in
the orange-growing district to describe the condition of some
small areas in orchards where irrigation and subsequent cul-
ture have been careless, or where sufficient attention has not
been paid to the difference of treatment required by lighter
and heavier soils.

Of course very sandy soils can be handled sooner after irri-
gation than can heavier soils, and when a sandy piece of land
containing areas of heavy soil is cultivated as soon after
irrigation as the sandiest part will permit, trouble may be
expected with the so-called “irrigation hardpan,” by the
puddling of the subsoil, partly directly by the plow, partly by
the soaking-in of clay-water.

It is usual for orchardists to put in a subsoil plow to help
in breaking up the heavy spots of what is called “irrigation
hardpan.” But this difficulty can easily be overcome without
using a subsoil plow, as was shown by the experience of
Mr. W. J. Cox, of Glendora, Los Angeles County, who found
that “irrigation hardpan” was forming in a part of his orange
grove. He irrigated a few trees that were within reach of the
domestic water-supply, and followed this up at the proper time
with thorough cultivation. After each irrigation he cultivated
a little deeper. As a result of deep irrigation and cultivation,
the soil took in water as readily as ever and the trees regained
their vigorous appearance. He simply used a chisel-tooth
cultivator and plenty of water. ‘

A somewhat different case was that of Mrs. McKenzie, of
Riverside, whose orange grove failed to be profitable, though
apparently well irrigated. This orchard had been cultivated
to the same-depth until a hard, clay “plow-sole” had been
formed. The stratum of hard subsoil was several inches thick
and contained a number of large surface roots. She wrote to
the California Experiment Station, sending samples of soil for

112 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

examination. It was found that the plow-sole prevented the
irrigation water from reaching the deeper roots, and she was
advised to plow the entire orchard, roots and all, as deep as
the plow would go. This was done, much to the alarm of
many growers, and great numbers of orange roots of all sizes
were turned to the surface. Following further advice, she
irrigated and cultivated the ground deeply, and the following
season she harvested the largest crop ever taken from this
grove.

The Glendora grove, to which allusion has been made, had
had deep cultivation from the beginning, and the roots were
mainly below the so-called hardpan. The McKenzie grove
had many roots in the hard “ plow-sole,” so that the only
remedy was to destroy these useless roots and force the growth
of new and deeper ones, at the same time giving the irrigation
water a chance to penetrate. This rather drastic root-pruning
was necessary, and if the Glendora grove had been cultivated
to a uniform depth a few more seasons, deeper plowing and the
destruction of the surface roots would have become inevitable
there also. The breaking-up of all hard layers of soil caused by
improper cultivation or careless use of water is of the first
importance to the health and profit of an orchard.

After Mrs. McKenzie’s experiment at Riverside, previously
mentioned, subsoilers of different forms were used, and the
idea soon became common. among growers that the deeper
a plow could be run, the better would be the results that would
follow. The injurious results of such practice can not be
estimated without careful study of the root-systems of orange
trees on various stocks and soils. A number of bearing citrus
groves were so much injured by the reckless use of subsoil
plows that the leaves of the trees actually wilted down imme-
diately after the operation. In these cases, the sharp-cutting
plow was run close to and on all sides of the trees. When
trees over ten years of age, which have been subjected to uni-
form shallow plowing and irrigation, are submitted to such
treatment, they probably lose at one blow not less than seventy-
five per cent of their active roots. The shock is such that it
would take several years of careful treatment to restore the
trees.

It is almost always more economical to use a subsoiler or
plow where “irrigation hardpan” has been formed than it is
to use the large amount of water necessary to soften it; but

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—CULTIVATION. 113

according to the best practice the deepening of cultivation
should be gradual, and the implement should never run deeper
than fifteen inches. One must remember that the really
serious loss in sudden deep cultivation comes from the destruc-
tion of thousands of fibrous roots that grow from the hundreds
of laterals branching from the large main roots.

If a plow is run to a depth of one foot, in three furrows,
between the rows, and water percolates slowly for a long time
through these furrows, no need can arise for a subsoiler.
“ Trrigation hardpan” within reach of the plow simply shows,
as has been said. that too shallow and too uniform cultivation
has been practiced. In that case the entire surface should be
thoroughly broken up, and irrigation in deep furrows after
this will restore the proper conditions.

Experience also shows that when the water is slowly run in
deep furrows for a long time and the greater part of the surface
is kept dry and is deeply cultivated, better results are obtained
than when the basin or block method, or even the shallow-furrow
plan, is used, even though they are followed by deep cultiva-
tion. When the water is applied below the first foot of soil,
and the soil above is kept comparatively dry, there is nothing
to attract the roots to the surface; and when the water is thus
applied, a team can be driven along the dry strips of land
between the furrows, and with a harrow or other appliance the
dry soil can be dragged into the wet furrows, to lessen the
evaporation, immediately after the irrigation water is turned
off. By any other system, it is absolutely necessary to wait at
least twelve hours, and sometimes much longer, before a team
can be driven over the ground. Then, too, when a soil irri-
gated by these more wasteful methods has been cultivated, it is
still moist near the top, and is soon filled with a mass of new
‘roots so close to the surface that they must be destroyed.

Water applied to the soil sinks and spreads. Some of it is
being taken up by the still dry soil underneath and at the
sides long after the last drop is visible. Some of it, too, is
being drawn back to the surface, and thence evaporated into
the warm air. Irrigation after sundown has some distinct
advantages, if the water can be handled. Sub-irrigation upon
soils adapted to its use is the ideal system of applying water,
and greatly lessens waste. Orange roots will not enter a pipe-
line unless it is full of water all the time. If the pipe is on a

8c

114 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

grade and open at bottom and top so that air passes through it,
there will never be trouble from orange roots. Valves, once
thought necessary, are not now used. The high cost of the
present sub-irrigation systems places them beyond the reach

of most orange-growers.

SUBSOIL PLOW.*

Can the necessity for the use of a subsoil plow be avoided by
guarding against the formation of hardpan while orchards are
young? Jam quite of the opinion thatit may. But my expe-
rience has been with orchards under ten years old, and I have
learned that we are frequently obliged to revise opinions very
confidently held, as our actual experience extends under new
conditions, and this opinion may be quite wrong. If the hard
layer is occasioned by repeated drying-out after irrigation, a
portion of that stratum should be thoroughly broken up once
or twice a year before becoming hard, while the balance of it,
I think, can be kept from hardening by careful irrigation. This
opinion is based on a good many years’ experience in all soils,
from sandy loam to stiff adobe, without any of this trouble-
some layer; yet you will allow me to refer to this experience in
illustrating—not in any dogmatic spirit, for every year more
and more I find that different men will accomplish the same
desired results best, by quite different means. Once a year we
thoroughly break up the surface with a walking plow, as deep as
we can without permanent injury to the root-system, say from
six to nine inches. In our earlier planted orchard, where we
did not commence with especially deep plowing, we have trouble
with the roots even at six inches. In our later plantings, on
deep plowing, repeated each season, we can keep a depth of
seven to nine inches easily. With this annual plowing we
have no trouble in getting the water into the ground during
the irrigating season. We aim to make the irrigation most
thorough every time. As aids to this, I want to mention three
things that we have found of great importance:

First—We make our irrigating furrows as nearly the depth
of the annual plowing as possible, thus putting the water
nearest where needed, greatly reducing the surface saturation
where so much water is wasted, and facilitating the early
covering of the furrows after irrigation.

*Essay by J. H. Reed, of Riverside, read at the Highgrove and Pasadena
Farmers’ Institute, January, 1900.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—CULTIVATION. 115

Second—Any portion of the orchard where there is any
special occasion we cross-furrow before making main furrows.
This done, with a little hard work the short pieces of the cross-
furrows are easily filled and kept full. (This is of special
advantage among large trees where the spaces between the
furrows, between the trees, are necessarily wide.)

Third—We run water three days in place of two; total
amount of water the same. I think this practice may be
adopted to great advantage much more generally than it
has been. We find that the third day leaves more water in

The subsoil plow, drawn by eight mules, in the Windermere orchards, La Mirada.

the ground than either of the others. By this method of irri-
gation I feel quite satisfied that the root strata could have
been kept thoroughly wet in spite of the hard layer, in any of
the voung orchards where I have seen the subsoil plow used.
In older orchards where this layer had been hardening for
years, the implement may prove of great service. Of course,
even in young orchards, the desired results can not be secured
by the most careful irrigation, except the water when once in
the ground is conserved by proper cultivation.

Again, I would like to refer to our own experiences. Instead
of waiting for the irrigating furrows to become dry and then
breaking them up thoroughly, bringing much of the saturated
earth to the surface, as we used to do, as soon as possible—
often within twenty-four hours—we cover the furrows instead

116 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

of breaking them up. We do this with a single twelve-inch
upright plank, dragged lengthwise with the furrows. We
attach the plank to the shanks of an old two-horse walking
furrower. This fills the furrows from their shoulders and leaves
a light coat of pulverized earth on the rest of the surface.
The object is to stop as soon as possible the evaporation of
moisture from the saturated bottoms of the furrows. Others
doubtless have, or will know, better methods of doing this.
For cultivating, for several years we used the Planet Junior,
with the widest shovels, for the purpose of moving the hard earth
at the bottom, which is more easily done with wide than with
narrow shovels. But the objection to bringing so much of the
damp earth to the surface had so impressed itself upon me,
that this season I determined to try the Killfeler cultivator,
with its large number of shovel-pointed teeth, which thor-
oughly stirs all the ground without exposing the wet earth.
There are serious objections to this implement, but I must
confess to being greatly intereéyted in the results from it.
Using it thoroughly once after each irrigation, when the
ground is in best condition, after the furrows are covered, then
keeping the surface well loosened with a fine-tooth harrow, I
have been able, so far as I can determine, to hold the
moisture better than I have ever succeeded in doing before,
and I find no signs of any permanent hard layers forming
to retard irrigation.

PRUNING.

For years a strong contest was waged between the advocates
of high pruning and those who favored low pruning, and many
arguments were urged by the champions of each system in
behalf of their favorite method. Victory finally perched upon
the banner of the low-pruners, and the greater part of the more
recent orange orchards have been trained low, experience hay-
ing demonstrated that in our peculiar climate and in the dry
soils in which our citrus fruits attain their best condition, low
pruning offers great advantages over the rival system. .

In pruning orange trees, especially when allowed to grow for
several years without it, considerable work and skill are required
in removing the surplus inside growth and limbs without
destroying the natural symmetry of the tree. The sun should
not be allowed to strike the inside wood and foliage, as it is

*LHOIY NO SIGAVN NOLONIHSVY MA ‘Ida'] NO ALYY VIONTIVA—MOT CHNODUd SHAUL ATAVLIAOdd

IX GLVTd ‘AUNLTNO SAQULIO VINYONTTVO

118 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

sure to scorch the bark and cause the fine brush to die; a dis-
eased tree is apt to result. The advice, so often given, “that
the tree be opened so as to allow plenty of air and sun heat to
enter,” does not hold good with the orange. Whenever the
foliage that protects the trunk and main branches is removed,
the inside growth is left exposed to the hot rays of the sun.
Trees with one side of the trunk sunburned, and dead bark,
resulting from -the removal of the brush that protected it, are
not uncommon throughout the State.

Low-trained trees protect their trunks and inner growth by
the shade of their limbs and foliage, and the ground under-
neath is prevented from drying out. -

Orange orchard pruned high.

*“ Experience and careful observation have fully satisfied
the members of this club that the formation of low heads is
the true method for the Washington Navel and other varieties
of budded oranges. The shears should be used sparingly; in
fact, scarcely used at all in young orchards, at least for six or
eight years. The young growth should be guided with the
definite object of developing a close and systematic head.
J. H. Reed, to whom I am much indebted, in writing this paper,
for definite statements in regard to his experimental work,
says: ‘As to pruning, I have demonstrated, to my own satis-
faction at least, that need of pruning the orange can be

*From report of J. M. Edmison to Riverside Horticultural Club, February,
1899.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA —PRUNING. 119

almost entirely avoided by suitable clipping during the early
and rapid stages of growth, while the Jemon needs constant
and often heavy cutting from the first.’ It is clearly a great
mistake to cut out branches and to thin the top,as we sometimes
hear, to let the sunlight in. Indeed, to keep the untempered
heat of the sun out from the tender young fruit when setting,
and to give shelter from the desiccating hot northers which
sometimes cause the destruction of almost the entire crop of a
young orchard, should be constantly kept in view, and not a
leaf should be removed that can help in the work. Take a
Washington Navel tree with dense foliage of a rich, dark green,
and you will seldom fail to have a bountiful crop of choice
fruit.”

The illustration on the opposite page shows an orchard where
the lower limbs of the tree have been removed, leaving a clear
stock, so as to allow, in cultivating, the horse to pass under
their branches and the cultivator to work the ground close to
the trunks. No under support is left to the branches, and they
require to be propped with poles, and have to be tied to the
main limbs. The trunks are left exposed to the sun, and the
ground under the trees invariably “bakes” before it can be
worked.

Citrus-tree pruning can be commenced as early as January
and continued through the spring months, but the best time to
prune is immediately prior to the season of blooming. Oranges
in the southern counties are picked from December to June;
pruning follows the removal of the crop, and is regulated
according to climatic conditions and the season. In the north-
ern counties the fruit is removed much earlier, and pruning is
pursued accordingly.

At all seasons of the year all superfluous sprouts on the
trunk, and stray branches that threaten to throw the tree out
of balance, should be removed without delay. The use of a
sharp knife is very essential, and all cuts should be made as
smooth as possible. All cuts made with a saw, especially large
limbs, should be pared down smooth with a sharp knife, then
waxed over or painted with gum shellac in proper solution to
spread easily.

The advantage low-trained trees have over the high-trimmed
is easily seen in the accompanying illustrations, made from |

120 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

photographs taken in two of the largest orchards in the State,
at San Gabriel.

The cut on this page illustrates the method of high pruning
followed by some growers who until recently were firm believers
in the system. The trees require to be propped to support the
fruit which is borne at the ends of the branches. As many as
ten to fifteen poles are required on some trees to prevent the
breaking of limbs that become heavily laden with fruit, besides
tying them with ropes
to the main branches.
The ground underneath
always “bakes” and
the trees show yellow-
ing of the leaves. Now,
pause for a moment,
study the picture and
see what proportion of
foliage is cut away,
which, if left, would
protect the upper limbs
from breaking and al-
low the fruit to be
borne proportionately
throughout. It is need-
less, perhaps, to remark
that the crop borne on
such trees is consider-
ably less than that
borne by trees having

es ; a dense foliage and
High-pruned trees—propped. trained low

The illustration on page 122 is of a low-trained tree, from
a photograph taken in an orchard, and a fair specimen of how
the entire orchard looks. No props are used; there is little
or no dead wood inside, caused by the hot rays of the sun;
no limbs are required to be tied; and above all, the crop is
always twice the size of that borne by high-trimmed orchards.

In summer the trees must be irrigated, and as the cultivator
can not run close to the trunks the surface of most soils will
“bake” by the heat before they can be worked by hand. On

‘OLQ ‘ONIddoug UdaON ‘SSAINTAILONGOUG UAH, ‘SAIUT, GINIVEL-MO'T PNINOHS—GCUVHOYO GONVUO ONITCAAS LAAAS

‘IX GLVId “AU OLTNO SQYLIO VINYOXITVO

122 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

low-trained trees, the shade of the branches keeps the ground
moist, and in case of excessive heat or scarcity-of water, the
trees will not suffer; whereas the heat dries out the soil beneath
high-trimmed trees and causes the leaves to curl, and also
checks the growth of the fruit unless the trees are again watered.
Low-trained trees’ become well balanced, vigorous, healthy, and
more productive, and the fruit is much more easily and cheaply
gathered.

es wet

A low-trained tree—The favorite method.

Propping.—Proper propping of orange trees becomes one
of the essential features in orchard work. The old method of
propping with willow poles has been improved upon by the
construction of a prop which is both durable and adjustable, of
which there are several patents. The prop is so placed that
the ends rest under the tree, as shown in the illustration on the
next page, from a photograph. When so arranged they do not
interfere with the cultivator, as they naturally would if placed
surrounding the tree on the outside.

9

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—THE CROP. 123

THE ORANGE CROP—GATHERING, ETO.

Picking.—Generally the fruit is not taken from the trees at
one picking; the ripe fruit is first picked, thus lightening up
the trees. The clean, bright-colored, smooth, fine-shaped, firm
oranges always command the best prices. Fruit is handled
with care. Growers find it an advantage to stem-cut (clip),
rather than to pull the orange, as in pulling there is danger of
tearing the skin. The fruit should not be packed fresh from
the tree, as when so packed it will heat and sweat in the box at
an ordinary temperature, and, as the entire contents of the box
become damp, there
is great danger of rot ie |
and decay. The fruit ;
should be picked into
boxes and left in the
packing-house three
or four days, to allow
the rind to shrink
and lose its surplus
moisture. Unless the |
weather is very cool

oranges go through
a natural sweat, in
which the surplus
moisture escapes and
the rind becomes Orange tree properly propped.

tough and_ pliable;

many unseen imperfections, such as slight bruises, etc., will
develop into spots, necessitating a more careful selection of the
perfect fruit for market.

Packing.— Packing oranges has almost been reduced to a
fine art, and the following suggéstions offered by experienced
growers should be carefully followed:

Use only the standard box, which is 113x114x26 inches,
with a partition in the middle. It is of great importance in
securing a perfect pack that the partition and ends of the box
are, in their making, correctly placed. The sizes of oranges
vary only one eighth of an inch in diameter, and the least irreg-

124 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

ularity in box-making will cause the oranges of one side to be
too high and the other side with the same sized fruit to be too
low. In topping the packed box of oranges for shipment, the old
method of hooping the ends and middle of the box to secure
the box during shipment has been discarded. With a proper
machine the fruit is pressed at the extreme ends of the box
only. The top pieces are held in place, and narrow, thin
cleats are nailed across the top ends, which hold the top firmly
in place. The center of the top is left free. By this method the
fruit is hardly pressed in the box, and two advantages arise
from this practice: The fruit arrives in better condition as to
shape and soundness, and the buyer by removing the cleats
can readily inspect the fruit and not injure the package.

The arrangement which brings one orange directly on top of
another, instead of breaking joints, has been discarded by the
best packers. Alternated so that each orange comes over the
space between two, the whole has more solidity and elasticity,
and the fruit, as a result, sustains less injury from rough hand-
ling. It is best to pack oranges upon the dovetail plan, which
allows the packing of more oranges in the box, and they are so
braced against each other as to be immovable.

Regulate the size so as to have the oranges packed in tight
and rise a full three quarters of an inch above the top of the
box. Packers confine themselves to the 96, 112, 126, 150, 176,
200, 216, and 250 sizes. If the sizer be properly adjusted, this
will provide for all sizes and simplify matters very much.

Do not dump the fruit into the boxes carelessly. Pack close
and firm, so that the fruit will not have room to tumble about
in the boxes and get bruised.

Oranges classed as ‘‘fancy” should be extra bright, with
very smooth, thin skin. Rough, thick-skinned fruit, be it ever
so bright, should never be classed as fancy.

Oranges classed as “choice bright” should be strictly bright
and of fairly smooth skin and desirable size.

Oranges classed as “bright” should be bright and free from
smut.

Never pack bright and smutty oranges in the same box.
Never pack large and small oranges in the same box.

One of the most important features in the packing of oranges
is the uniform neatness of the packages. Buyers will pay more

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—THE CROP. 125

for fruit that is neatly and properly packed than they will for
that which is carelessly put up.

All growers should endeavor to avoid, as far as possible, the
shipment of green and imperfect fruit. A few years ago the
“windfalls” and “culls” brought paying prices, for the simple
reason that there was, comparatively speaking, only a limited
quantity of this class of fruit. Remember, however, that of
late years the crop has steadily increased, and the supply of
strictly good fruit is now becoming amply sufficient to fill ordi-
nary demands, hence, the shipment of “ drops,” “culls,” green
and inferior fruit simply aids in depressing markets, and inter-
feres seriously with the sale of good fruit. The shipment of
inferior fruit is neither profitable to the grower nor creditable
to the State.

THE STANDARD ORANGE BOX.

Standard Orange Boxes, 1114’ x 1114" x 26”.

PANGS s csia vue sntewew wae ence cent eee eee 3 pieces 44” x 114g” x 1114”
Sides: ses ace eeis Soot eet acoc mee ee OS PlECes lyn x COI 326"
late Sa seas uss hen ds Shae See enon 2 pieces 34"x 44’ x11"

Standard Orange Boxes, 1114’ x 114%" x 26”.

BOGS 27 sca2 sepee, Sep kemewensneaes aecke 3 pieces 4” x 11144” x 1114”
Sides and bottoms-.-...-. -------.------ 9 pieces 14x 314” x 26”
WOpSs 2 2i-n2- 6525 doh eaed tees ec eo ee le CES Wa YG
Cléats).s222cc.0. cescssecec bese sveeegece pleces:34/"s. 4h" xl"

Standard Orange Boxes, 1114” x 1114" x 26”.

BM GS 22ee os osl ek eka sees Sesteeetey 8 pieces 44” x 11144" x 11"
Tops and bottoms, and sides_-.--.....12 pieces 14" x 344" x 26”
Cleats: ca-ssceeeee toss eee 2 pieces 36” x AY xX 114”

‘Half Orange Boxes, 534 x 1114" x 26”.

Bids jo deenaecese nasee sees assess, Sees 3 pieces "x 534 x 1114”
DIDS Secock cavesne cosas asereansesicae hes 6 pieces 44" x 514” x 26”
@leateris 2 35-2 ee Bee secede eae 2 precesiyg ox. Fe ey

Half Orange Boxes, 534’ x 1114" x 26”.

PONG Soo ese eees soe seek assess 3 pieces 14” x 534” x 1114”

Tops and bottoms .-..--.-..---- --------6 pieces 14x 314" x 26”

Gidiediain Cetera lee coe neato cetacean 2 PleCes ae se Ol ae2Oy

Olédtsx.3- 2. Js os: Soe teeeereee eet sees 2 pieces 34x f4"% xX 114"
Half Orange Boxes, 111,” x 11144" x 13”.

WS) eos dosnt Saeeeenteeed se .cere pleces ty Selly ely”

a Foe oA eo os ese eae eo PIC Ces AI OR ASM

GléatS..acole cscs cose cccsseeewaeeesee 2 pleces age, 4 xs

126 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

SIZES OF ORANGES.

No. in Inches in
Box. Diameter.
112. Shs Ia fa eae RN et Aether Atel Nam eta If oP OS
WIGS o paetiaaeahe ees Howe come ees: Sige aoa sm Biase amie Oe
U5 Ole sumisncenietenme a: Soe ve eaaaane = sGedeess Sas tsatsesdet cscs Eee ds 3
V1 c.tetee de owes cos weeensee sen sae eoees ee ENS ee ee ea)
QUO Pees a eeta tects Sacer NS Sera Eom EA SNE rir DN APm eat OL
DIG scot ass Spex b agen ee Sea eee ct awe esores ee
DE Oe a ret ore at eR are RANA APRN eset IEE Sn are ah hat sles e
DUONG E a eae Seat men tee aise aie aera ne meee ee Saree OSes seen aceon e

PAPER USED IN PACKING DIFFERENT SIZED ORANGES.

Size of Paper. Number of Oranges in Box.
BON Barts Soest Ades ole ee Slot eee iam sions wes eae ss 288-324-360

216-250
SS ate Sa Boe ans A SL eR A AS See SS 176-200
- - -112-126-150
80- 96

Weight of Oranges.—The weight of a box of oranges
varies in each season, in the months of the same season, i
different varieties, and in the different sizes of each variety.
The difference in weight is caused by many circumstances. In
some seasons climatic conditions are such as to build the tissues
solid and firm. The plant seems to have an added power to
construct the heavy sugar compounds and to build its tissues
compact and with more than its usual weight. In arriving at
the weight of oranges all of these conditions have to be con-
sidered. An average season is when there is a continuous and
even distribution of heat units during the summer months,
with no frost to break the inner tissues of the orange, causing
both evaporation of its juices and re-absorption, preventing the
tree giving and the orange appropriating the starch-building
compounds from the injured and unelaborated sap. There are
also local conditions—as soil, nearness to the ocean, altitude,
and the general slope of the orange area, as to the north, east,
south, or west—to which may be added those personal condi-
tions of irrigation, fertilization, and cultivation.

Taking the season of 1895 as an average season, and the.
orange growths of March, April, May, and June, produced on
the terrace lands of Colton, the average net weights of packed
oranges in the standard orange box were as follows:

, : Pounds.
Washington Navel <3 200.2025 ses oes eect eee o 65.144
Australian Navel). 225. 2,2.vecpaee oo oS cu ectaee, Dee ea OL ORD,

Wlonidla: Navel 2 scec2 882 pakee a outs ee Ee ie 67.972

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—THE CROP. 127

Pounds
Weed lin pears ane dee eel ees BER ne ere ene ee eh Od 005
EROTIOSASS ane soto uel tevin tung ees, Welk EA Sea NE bin ate 65.182
Mediterratiean:Swéet 22s ee 66.510
St. Michael.__.___._.. Bee Rohe Me ich eee ne ee Oh 69.172
BIO Cds Sacks Set Rane rN BECK Oe Lands ee 66.352

Valénelatlates 2 Pe Ce See ores 2a SIO SLOOS

Net average weight per box, all varieties and sizes, during
the above months. ienperecescewaeen WOT

The three principal varieties grown in California, or that
will be grown, are the Washington Navel, Seedling (either
natural or budded), and Mediterranean Sweet. The weights of
these varieties are:

Pounds.
Washington Navells v0 300 oss sees Jae ee OBALE
SCO CM os Is Cees Soe et ts Cer nee Se Non Pr 64.095
Mediterranean Sweet ._..-.....-.. pe missense, OOD1O
Net average weight of these varieties --.--................. 65 247

The sizes of oranges vary from 80 to 360 to the box. The
size variation in weight per box of the three varieties of fruit is:

Pounds, +
WashingtonNavelijst-2 ede. os Coto foe ek 6.56
Needing cs sees ada eee
Mediterranean Sweet ___..__..... ___..

The average difference in weight of the three varieties of the
light or heavy sizes is 6.36 pounds.

Taking the same size for the determination of monthly
variation in weight, and comparing the lightest and heaviest
month’s fruit of the three varieties named, the following
variations in monthly weights appear for the 176 size:

Washington Navel— Pounds.

Wepruaryc2osscs cease Goss assess scene 1 o2seyc die he diewee HOB 4
IAT CIS a hake eben tue a Seen ee TN Ae he Ae eek ee RNG a1

Wiatlation 2 vsescs2dcs sue ois bee wes eee Seneca SeSeees aT
Seedling—

WEDTMALY 23 ceecsusesiassesdncsh at nesssecset sea seseeoweee 61.24

Mays cee Scheninses sano en erase eee Quam enaeea ag: See IAT

Varlation 22x: vecsccecee se svenceseeds sieeee seceessecedecs 6.27

Mediterranean Sweet—
Mavic os chest donee UR ene wore dk Sunde ces 6506
JUN Cees eh ae Shae caae sce eames Aer eee Geer POMLO
V OUR UO Sessnavanvensuwercen soem acaneeadadstacdscaasensem adult

These deductions are of value in determining the proper
sizes of each variety to grow and the profitable season to
market each variety.

128 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

The monthly variation of the Washington Navel shows that
it matures early, and that it is practically uniform in weight.
With the Seedling it is different; the increase in weight from
February to May is over ten per cent—surely a good argument
against sending to market the immature fruit of the former
date.

Standard Car of Oranges.—The regulations governing the
variety of size in the “standard car of oranges” were adopted
by the Fruit Growers and Shippers’ Association of Southern
California, as follows:

Navel Oranges.—A standard car of Navel oranges to consist
of sizes 96’s to 200’s inclusive; not over 15 per cent 96’s and
112’s. Any excess of 15 per cent 96’s and 112’s to be considered
off-sizes and invoiced at a reduction of 50 cents per box. Sizes
64’s, 80’s, and 250’s, Navel, to be considered off-sizes and in-
voiced at a reduction of 50 cents per box from the price for
regular sizes. Sizes 216’s, in Navels, to be considered off-sizes
and invoiced at a reduction of 25 cents per box.

Seedlings, Mediterranean Sweets, etc—The standard car of
other varieties (except Valencias and Paper-rind St. Michaels)
to consist of sizes 126’s to 250’s inclusive; not to exceed 15 per
cent 126’s and not over 15 per cent 250’s. Any excess of 15
per cent 126’s and 15 per cent 250’s to be considered off-sizes
and invoiced at a reduction of 25 cents per box. Sizes of Seed-
ling oranges larger and smaller than 126’s to 250’s, inclusive,
to be considered off-sizes and invoiced at a reduction of 25 cents
per box.

It is understood that each car of oranges may contain a
reasonable quantity of off-sizes, at the reductions named above.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—DISEASES, ETC. 129

ORANGE DROPPING, DISEASES, ETC.

Generally during the month of June, and as early as May
in some years, growers experience a continuous dropping of
young fruit, due to various unknown causes.

** Asa rule, growers ascribe it entirely to hot winds, and it
is doubtless true that the extremely hot weather finds trees
partially dormant and the damage is wrought on the young,
tender oranges and lemons before the sap could start to flow-
ing freely. But, on the other hand, we can see orchards that
still have a fair crop of fruit. Why is it? is easily asked, but
not so easily answered. The most universal remedy that is
recommended is water, and in so far as it is used to put the
treein good condition, is doubtless effective. To do that water
should be applied two or three weeks prior to the hot or cold
weather: or in other words, the tree should at all times be in
strong growing condition. To accomplish this, water in abun-
dance down deep in the ground is necessary. Surface irriga-
tion is of little avail. It will be noticed that those irrigators
who are applying water in the furrow until it reaches the lower
end, are the ones who scarcely ever have a crop, whether we have
hot or cold weather, or the best of conditions. And right here
I might say that the ideal season never comes, for there is
always something with which to contend. I plan to irrigate
my trees every six weeks, running the water eight or ten hours
in each furrow. On heavy soil this would not be sufficient,
but on my sandy loam it is. Following the irrigation I culti-
vate deeply and thoroughly. I deem the deep cultivation
essential so that the surface roots may be destroyed. This is
still better accomplished in the wet season by deep plowing.
I am thoroughly convinced that deep plowing is beneficial in
all seasons, and especially so in dry ones. The roots are
forced to go lower to where the supply of moisture is more
permanent, consequently such trees are not so quickly affected
by any hot wave or sudden change. Therefore, I would say
that the first requisite of always securing a good crop of oranges
is deeply rooted trees irrigated so thoroughly that at all

*C. B. Messenger, before Farmers’ Institute at Pomona, October, 1896.

9c

130 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

times there is in store a plentiful supply of moisture. Should
I stop here and say that this is the one thing needful, I
presume there are some who might declare it a fallacy, and
quote their own experience in proof. In fact, in my inquiries
I consulted one orchardist who had irrigated thoroughly three
different plots, respectively four weeks, two weeks, and one or
two days before the first hot wave this spring, and yet a large
percentage of his crop went to the ground.”

Wm. C. Fuller, of Colton, says: “I find the best crops near
the heads of irrigating streams, and use the method described
as so fatal by Mr. Messenger. To be sure I do not get as large
a crop as some who use this same method. I had twelve
carloads from about fifteen acres.”

Yellow and Variegated Leaves on Orange and Lemon
Trees.—It is doubtful if there isasection in the State where
orange and lemon trees can not be seen with yellow and
variegated leaves. This has been ascribed to various reasons,
such as too much or not enough water, too much or lack of
cultivation, excessive cold, excessive heat, etc.

Prof. 8. M. Woodbridge, of Los Angeles, says: “ Without
wishing to offend any one for ill treating so good and paying
a friend as the orange or lemon tree, we would suggest the
answer in one word: Starvation. The remedy then would
naturally lie in feeding. In reviewing the analyses of the soils
in Southern California, one is naturally struck with the defi-
ciency in sulphuric acid that such soils show. Having been
brought up in a section of country where it was definitely
settled that the ‘only expensive ingredients that any soil
was likely to be deficient in were nitrogen, phosphoric acid,
and potash,’ and considering that there the form of phos-
phate was invariably a superphosphate, i. ¢., made soluble
by sulphuric acid, and further finding that untreated bone is
the usual form in which it is used there, and also being con-
vinced that the soil-analysis theory had been exploded years
since and discarded by people the world over who are looked
upon and considered ‘authorities,’ and having shown, by
actual field tests, that potash was beneficial even on soils that
had been reported as very rich in potash, and when the theo-
retical advice had been given that no potash would be required

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—DISEASES, ETC. 131

for many years; and also having followed out the experiments
of A. B. Griffiths, Ph.D., F.R.S., of England, with the use of
sulphate of iron, and also similar experiments conducted in
France, and not having obtained as satisfactory results from a
certain test plot on wornout soil as could have been desired,
the writer used sulphate of iron in conjunction with the test
plot. The result was so satisfactory that when one of the large
growers of lemons and oranges last September asked what remedy
could be applied to prevent the leaves of his trees from turning
yellow and much of the fruit from ripening prematurely when
not half grown, I suggested a liberal dose of complete fertilizer—
that is, one containing nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash—
together with about seventy-five pounds of sulphate of iron
per acre. The orchard had previously been liberally treated
with stable manure, yet some of the trees were not in a healthy
condition. Now the trees have a healthy green appearance,
and nearly if not quite all of the new growth is of a bright or
deep green color, whereas the trees that were not treated have
the new growth showing a variegated, streaked leaf. Since the
first experiment was tried several other plots have been treated
in the same way, with the most gratifying results. As to the
why and wherefore of the encouraging results obtained from
the use of sulphate of iron, we confine ourselves to quoting
what Dr. Griffiths says upon the subject:

“Three years’ experiments show that a small dressing of a
hundredweight of iron sulphate per acre is a most beneficial
manure.

“<‘The author’s proposition (Chemical News, Vol. XLVII,
p. 27) was that a “fairly large proportion of soluble iron in a
soil is favorable to the growth of plants developing a large
amount of chlorophyll.” And all subsequent investigations
on the growth of crops with iron sulphate have entirely
confirmed the accuracy of that proposition.

“¢A]] soils contain iron as a constituent, but the iron is not
always in a form to be readily taken up by growing crops.
This being so, a crop must suffer, iron being one of the ingre-
dients requisite for the formation of green chlorophyll.

“Chlorophyll is a substance of primary importance in every
plant (giving rise in the first instance to starch, woody fibers,
fats, and carbohydrates generally); therefore it is necessary to

132 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

add soluble iron compounds, where the soil is deficient in these
ingredients, or where the iron is not in a form for root-absorp-
tion. Some soils are certainly deficient in soluble iron, and no
amount of nitrates, ammonia salts, etc. will replace this
ingredient. The farmer must add soluble iron salts to his
land if he desires to obtain a full yield with the least expense.
Dr. E. Wolff, the German authority, found that when soluble
iron was omitted in certain culture experiments, the young
plants became yellow and sickly, but they quickly became
green and assumed a luxuriant growth when a small quantity
of iron solution was added.’ (Griffith on Manures, p. 268, etc.)”

*«The ‘Die-Back’ Trouble.—This serious trouble is exan-
thema or ‘die-back.’ The name is given to a weakness affecting
orange, lemon, and other orchard trees. There are several
especially bad cases in the San Gabriel Valley, where solid
blocks of citrus trees are now utterly worthless. Trees seven
years old and in a frostless location have not attained a height
of over four feet, in some instances, and bear little or no fruit,
while adjoining trees of the same age and seemingly under
similar conditions are of large size and bear heavy crops.

“Orange trees affected with ‘die-back’ make an apparently
healthy growth in the spring and early summer, but the young
shoots soon turn yellow, the leaves drop off, and the twigs die
back to the older wood, from which a brown granular sub-
stance exudes. In a season or two, this older wood also dies.
Adventitious buds keep developing at the axils of the leaves,
until at the end of the season there are small knots, where
there should be healthy lateral branches. Experiments with
Bordeaux mixture and carbonate of copper have been made
in a badly affected grove near Pomona. The work so far has
shown no appreciable results, but it has not yet been carried
through one season.

‘(In almost all cases of ‘die-back,’ examination has shown
some fault in the subsoil, which puts the roots under stress.
Such fault may be an underlying hardpan or impervious clay,
pure and simple; or it may be excessive wetness or dryness of
the substrata surrounding the deeper roots; or the rise of
bottom water from below, as in cases of over-irrigation. The

*J. W. Miller, in University of California Bulletin No. 138.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—DISEASES, ETC. 133

true ‘die-back’ is not properly a disease, but simply the mani-
festation of the distress felt by the root-system underground.
The first thing needful is to dig down and examine the roots,
and then to relieve whatever fault may be found, if possible;
which may not always be the case. Sometimes an appearance
similar to the ‘die-back’ is caused by the roots encountering
a marly stratum, which is apt to stunt the growth of the tree,
causing it to put out a multitude of small, thin branches, and
sometimes causing the tips to die off. For this form of the
trouble there is no permanent remedy; the trees should never
have been planted in such ground, any more than in such as
has shallow-lying hardpan or clay. (E. W. H.)]

“ {Mottled Leaf.’—Closely related in its causes to the ‘ die-
back,’ and sometimes accompanying it, is the ‘mottled leaf?
trouble. It may be properly called ‘partial chlorosis’ of the
leaves, and on the basis of that designation it has been
attempted to treat it like the corresponding human ailment,
with iron tonics and fertilizers. But in every case that I have
closely examined, and in most of those reported to me by others
who have made such examinations at my suggestion, the cause
was not lack of nourishment that could be remedied by such
means, but simply an improper condition of the root-system,
especially of the deeper roots. When a thriftily growing tree
suddenly stops and begins to show mottled leaves, it is clearly
not because of lack of nourishment in the soil, but because
some of the physical requirements of the tree’s well-being have
ceased to be satisfied. In such case fertilization can afford but
temporary relief, if any.

‘The commonest cause of mottled leaf is a layer of dry gravel
or sand reached by the taproots, throwing them out of healthy
action. Of course the same effect may be expected from the
exhaustion of the usual supply of moisture in the substrata,
which has not been made up for by the comparatively scanty
irrigation permitted by the diminished water-supply during
the past three yerrs. The cause of the present great prevalence
of mottled or yellow-leaf in the citrus orchards is probably a
parallel to the wholesale dying out of vineyards in the Santa
Clara Valley, regarding which a special bulletin (No. 134) was
issued by this Station some months ago.

134 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

“Quite probably, however, other unfavorable conditions affect-
ing the roots, such as alkali, marl, or a hardpan layer, may in
many cases produce this effect. In any case, the cause should
be sought for at the roots before deciding upon possible
remedies. (E. W. H.)]”

Gum Disease.—There are various forms of so-called “gum
diseases.” One attacks both young and old trees at the crown
and roots of the tree, while another appears on the large limbs
in the form ofa “scab,” and another on the trunks and main
branches.

The most deadly of these is the “root form,” which is preva-
lent almost everywhere. This form of the disease is first
detected on the trunks of trees close to the ground, and is an
exudation of the sap, which breaks through the bark and con-
geals in the form of a gum. No citrus tree is free from the
disease, and one of the newest facts regarding its appearance
is that frequently the finest trees are attacked. It often hap-
pens that in making a search for the early development of the
disease, no trace of it is observed until exudation has freely
commenced. It often happens, too, that in digging away the
surface soil around the stem, little more than a black scratch
about one to two inches long has been discovered, which when
cut open shows the gummy fluid more or less encircling the
wood under the bark.

Remedy for the Gum Disease.—The best method of con-
trolling this disease is to cut away the bark surrounding the
place from whence the gum is oozing, in order to detect the
main parts affected. The wood where the gum is oozing is cut
out with a chisel and left for a day or so, to determine if all
the disease has been removed. If it is not altogether removed,
the affected parts soon commence to ooze out gum, when more
of the wood is cut until it ceases. Yellow streaks of sour sap
are generally seen in the grain of the wood, which are traces of
the disease. If the affected parts show no further exudation it
is proof that the disease has been removed, and the affected
parts so treated are either waxed over or covered with a‘ good
coat of rubber paint. Where the disease has reached around
the tree there is no possible cure for it, and in such cases it is

‘SHHUL SAULIO NO INATVAGUd SASVaSI

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-SIP QBOS SNI}IO JO Pano 9al} Jo FuNI

L

‘morj10d pesvestp
au} JO [BAOUTAI BT} Aq PaINd 991} pojyoaye UV

d dvos GNV WS AHL

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asBesIp uns Aq poyoAys VIL,

136 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

better to remove the tree and put a healthy one in its place.
The spot where the tree stood should be disinfected by a slack-
ing of fresh lime, and the ground permitted to remain exposed
for a reasonable time.

This disease being of a bacterial form, all chips and scrapings
should be carefully collected and burned, to prevent the spread
of the disease through the orchard. The tools should also be
dipped in some disinfectant before being used on other trees.

Some growers are led to believe that badly diseased trees
can be restored to perfect health by cutting back the tops and
removing all large limbs to force a new growth. In all badly
infected trees there are always a few healthy roots that furnish
enough vitality to the tree to keep it alive. The cutting away
of all the foliage forces new growth, and while the trees some-
times produce large, coarse, puffy, and sour oranges for a few
years, they finally succumb to the effects of the disease, and
it is only a waste of time and energy to try to restore them.

*“ Crude commercial carbolic acid was found to be the best
remedy, and was used in varying strengths. When mixed
with its own weight of water it was found to answer the pur-
pose admirably, the gum having been previously cut away, so
that the application could be made directly on the parts most
affected. The result in almost every case was that new bark
began to grow over the diseased parts, at the lines where the
old bark was healthy. In cases where the roots had become
affected, the ground was carefully pulled away from the roots
of the tree to the depth of from six to ten inches, and, after a
day or two exposure, the diluted carbolic acid was applied, and
in the course of three or four weeks a second application was
made, when the soil was put back to its original position, and
subsequent applications of diluted carbolic acid were made,
from time to time, above the surface of the ground. Coal tar
has been found to be very efficacious also. It is applied by
taking the soil away from the roots of the tree and putting
from one half pint to a quart (according to the size of the tree)
in the soil about the roots of the tree, and covering the tar
with the soil so removed. Among those so treated are some

* Prof. 8. M. Woodbridge, in essay before Farmers’ Institute, Santa Bar-
bara, 1894.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FERTILIZATION. 1387

trees in the famous orange avenue of Sunny Slope. Too much
care can not be exercised in the use of carbolic acid. The
strength of the commercial acid varies, and it must be diluted

to such an extent that the vegetable tissues will not be destroyed
by it.”

FERTILIZATION.

*“The question of fertilizers for the orange orchard has in
some form been almost continuously before the club. What
kind of fertilizers are the best, and how and when they should
be put on, are questions often asked, but never as yet answered
to the satisfaction of all. Careful experiments are being made
by members of the club, but as yet we have nothing definite to
report. However, it is known that the different commercial
fertilizers on the market are good, and that freely apphed they
generally give satisfactory results. But the growers believe
that they are too expensive, and that by buying the chemicals
and doing their own mixing, or by applying the chemicals in
suitable quantity to the soil without mixing, they may reduce
the expense almost one half. This method is likely to be
adopted by many growers, and that will tend to lower the
price of the fertilizers now on the market.

“There is a growing conviction among our orchardists that
stable manure is one of our most valuable fertilizers, when it
can be secured at reasonable figures. A member of our club
has a small Navel orchard, fifteen years old, a part of which
has been fertilized exclusively with stable manure. It has
borne regularly, and the fruit has been fully up to the average
standard in quality. But it is probably better as a rule to
vary the kind of fertilizer applied.”

*From report of J. M. Edmison to Riverside Horticultural Club,
February, 1899.

138 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

THE USE OF FERTILIZERS.*

In the use of any kind of fertilizer there are so many
unknown conditions prevailing, so great difference in soils and
in their general treatment, and the ignorance of the construc-
tion of the fertilizer, that with me it is difficult to attend to this
important work with any scientific exactitude. I presume those
who will make the question a study may eventually gain such
knowledge as will enable them to discern the wants of their
soil, and become sufficiently posted in agricultural chemistry
that they will know how to provide these requirements at the
least expense and with the greatest degree of accuracy. But
what is the ordinary rancher going to do about it?

Uncertain Results.—The growers of my section have experi-
mented with almost every kind of fertilizer, but the results, in
the way of better crops, have not been so marked and so plainly
attributed to the applied articles, that many of us dare speak
with any degree of certainty. We wish we could. One grower,
and the only one I have talked with who has continued to use
the same compounded article for so long as four years, has
gathered each year a profitable crop. A neighbor adjoining,
who has used nothing, has also harvested good crops. Another,
who has used different kinds of fertilizers, and with no attempt
at regularity, has usually gathered abundance. This, of course,
is not conclusive evidence that fertilizers are not helpful, but
when similar experiences are general it leaves one in great
doubt as to what should be done. We have no money to spend
upon that which does not at least bring an equivalent in larger
or better crops, yet we are quite anxious to do that which will
enhance the quality of the fruit and maintain the groves in
vigor for the longest possible time.

The soil in the Fullerton and Placentia districts in general
abounds in the essential elements—potash, nitrogen, and phos-
phoric acid—and is capable of sustaining an enormous draft
upon it for a considerable time, if properly manipulated. Win-
ter plowing, a couple of good irrigations, and proper cultivation,
I believe, have never failed to produce a good crop, providing
always that the trees are free from scale and intelligently
pruned. We do not consider it prudent, however, to make too

*By C. C. Chapman, Pomological Meeting, Covina, 1898.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FERTILIZATION. 139

great demands upon the soil without giving back some equiva-
lent in the way of plant-food. I think many of our people
have tried to discover just what is most needed in the way of
substantial diet, but, as previously stated, only a few have found
that which is satisfactory. As our groves advance in age, how-
ever, more marked results may be noticed in the application of
fertilizers.

Pretty much every brand of commercial fertilizer finds users
among our growers; but so far as my information goes, with
one exception, of those who are not interested in some way in
the sale of these goods, the users have no very decided views
as to results. They are unable to say positively that one kind
has given better results than another, and in many cases are
not convinced that any favorable returns were obtained from
their use.

There may be reasons for these discouraging experiences
which can be explained by those informed. If we only knew
just what to employ with that degree of certainty that we use
hydrocyanic acid gas to kill scale, we should feel that the pro-
duction of citrus fruits could be regulated with almost scientific
accuracy.

Great Anticipations.—I recognize one difficulty in the employ-
ment of commercial fertilizers that not infrequently prevails,
and that is, the too great expectation of immediate good results
to be derived from their use. The fertilizer is scattered about
and then a magical change is looked for, and a consequent
inactivity in cultivation results, and in the end perhaps dis-
appointment. We should follow the example of the good
Baptist deacon who prayed most fervently for a good crop, and
then turned all hands out early to help the Lord answer his
prayer. We should not depend upon the fertilizer, however
high priced, to take the place of the whole process of crop
production.

An Experiment.—I have been frequently questioned as to
what fertilizer we use on the San Isabel ranch; the parties
inquiring wishing to know so that they might employ that which
had produced such excellent results. I regret very much that
I have been unable to reply to these inquiries in a manner
that makes the answer of any practical value. Two years ago
I made what I intended to be a fairly practical test of different

140 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

fertilizers. I can not say that the experiment was satisfactory
in giving the information that would guide me in the
future as to what to do to insure a good crop. Upon a plot of
one thousand trees I put a light dressing of sheep manure.
Upon the next one thousand I used commercial fertilizer... The
adjoining one hundred I passed without giving anything.
Upon the next plot I used lime cake. Next to this I used
bone meal. Then,upon another plot, I used the sheep manure,
commercial fertilizer, bone meal and lime cake, and some wood
ashes—a little of each. The crop came, and it was in great
abundance in all parts of the orchard. I am frank to say
that I could not distinguish any material difference in the
size, quality, or texture of the fruit grown upon the various
plots. This was not a little disappointing, for I had looked
forward to this plan of testing soil requirements and the rela-
tive value of various fertilizers to decide this most perplexing
question. I supposed I would be able to tell thereafter just
what the soil demanded in order to produce desired results.
But I was still left in the dark. I will add that while I may
have been unable to distinguish any material difference in
results after employment of fertilizers, I have noticed unmis-
takable evidences of the value of proper irrigation and
cultivation.

The year following, last year, being able to secure sheep manure
at what I considered a reasonable price, I used it in giving the
orchard a light dressing, with the exception of two plots. The
harvest was the heaviest ever secured, and the fruits of the
highest grade, and I still could distinguish no material
difference in the yield in any part of the orchard.

Iam quite aware that there was a combination of favorable
influences generally prevailing last year, which gave the great-
est abundance of fruit to non-users of fertilizers as well as to
their most enthusiastic advocates, or to those who used a
common article, as to those who applied the most expensive
commercial production. So I am still in doubt.

The portion of the orchard which is the heaviest set this
year is the plot that had the entire combination of fertilizers
two years ago. Other favorable conditions, I think, are at
least in a measure responsible for this.

Aération of the Soil—I am convinced that we have much
plant-food in some of our soils that is not utilized on account

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FERTILIZATION. 141

of our failure to sufficiently aérate the soil by proper and
frequent cultivation. The air, I believe, is an essential factor
in carrying on the process of nitrification. A circulation of air
through the soil will unquestionably increase the available
supply of nitrogenous food.

I know little of chemistry, but I observe that soils kept open
and thoroughly aérated produce great growth, even without
the application of fertilizers of any kind; whereas, soils com-
pacted, however rich in plant-food, will not compare in results.
I thus philosophize because I believe much plant-food will
never be utilized until the soil is properly aérated. Cultivation
is therefore an important factor in proper fertilization of soil.

How to Apply.—Fertilizers are variously applied by orchard-
ists. One grower, and he has a fine, well-kept orchard I notice,
scatters barnyard or sheep manure immediately around the
trunks of the trees, and extending out five or six feet. Generally,
however, fertilizers are scattered broadcast between trees and
plowed under; some, however, drill them in. The latter, for
commercial goods or ground sheep manure, is the best method,
in my opinion. I observe that the grove first referred to is
vigorous in growing, but this year has a light crop.

However, the advocates of these different methods generally
point to good crops as the result of their plans. One thing is
certain, it either makes little or no difference with us what is
used, or how applied, or else the fertilizers are so all-powerful
that it is only necessary to have them come in contact with
the soil to have it respond.

Some of our people have experimented with green crops for
fertilizing, but have nothing satisfactory to report. Perhaps if
they had used some of the leguminous plants recently secured
from Europe, and so highly recommended by Professor Hilgard
and others, results might have been quite different.

More Investigation Desirable—I want to commend this
subject to the careful investigation of the more observing and
scientific of our growers, so that the work of fertilizing our
citrus orchards may be reduced to a science so plain, simple,
and practical that any of us may comprehend it, and that the
results will be such that an all-assuring faith in its principles
may prevail. I am pleased to note that the Agricultural
Department of our State University, as well as those interested

142 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

in the manufacture of fertilizers, have made and are making
a careful study of the subject, and have done much in dissemi-
nating general knowledge of the question and in educating
the public. Those who give the matter candid and honest
thought should be commended, and while they may be pri-
marily promoted by selfish motives in the way of financial
gain, yet if they devote any special ability they may possess
to a more perfect comprehension of the question they should
be regarded as public benefactors.

FERTILIZING CITRUS TREES.*

Some four or five years ago I commenced hauling stable
manure on the orchard, and on the information of good
authority, that the trees would not need fertilizing probably
for some years, and that when they did it would be nitrogen, I
bought and applied in the fall Chili saltpeter, a small amount
per tree, with the evident result that I had more puffy fruit
than Il ever had before up to that date. I say evident result,
as the orange-growers who used it in Los Angeles County had
the same experience.

Four years ago I commenced to apply Woodbridge’s Orange
Fertilizer. Following this use my oranges improved in color—
at least had a higher color—the increased yield making the
oranges smaller and more desirable. Last December I sowed
twelve pounds of Woodbridge’s Orange Fertilizer No. 1 per
tree, and cultivated it in. Then in January and Febru-
ary last I put in addition upon one section of the orchard
fifteen pounds per tree of the West Coast Fertilizer; and on
another portion of the orchard fifteen pounds of Bradley’s
Nursery Stock Fertilizer; and on another portion of the
orchard fifteen pounds of pure guano, to test their relative
values. From the portion of the orchard where I used West
Coast Fertilizer the fruit was the tenderest I ever had; per-
haps the word softest would explain the character—and it
needed shipment first. My opinion was that it should go
under ice; but Chicago said not to ice. When the fruit
arrived in the Hast, then the advice came to ice the cars.
After shipping this fruit I commenced on’ the section where I
had used the Bradley Nursery Stock Fertilizer, and this fruit,

* Extracts from essay by N. W. Blanchard, President of the Lemonia
Company of Santa Paula, before Farmers’ Institute, 1897.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FERTILIZATION, 143

while not soft like the first, did not stand up well, and a large
amount of it became puffy and could only be classed as culls.
The last shipments of oranges came from the portion of the
orchard where guano was used. The fruit was not puffy,
although it was late in June. The oranges, however, had com-
menced to drop a good deal and did not keep much better than
the rest. It should be added here that the promise for the next
year’s crop of oranges is best where I used the Bradley fertil-
izer; then next the West Coast, and last where the pure guano
was used. It should be said that there was a general com-
plaint last year that all the oranges did not keep well. I was
told in both San Francisco and Sacramento that never before
did oranges keep so poorly. Now, the interesting question
is, Why did the oranges not keep as well as formerly, and
what was the cause of the difference in the quality and keep-
ing of the oranges? It will be remembered that the rains of
last winter came slowly and timely for the agriculturists, and
a larger portion of the rain was taken up by the soil than in
any winter of my remembrance since I have been in the
valley, a period of twenty-five years. The orchards were
soaked with water for several months. This probably explains
the reason for the general non-keeping quality of the last
orange crop; and the only reason I can assign for the differ-
ence in the keeping quality of the oranges from the different
sections of my orchard was the difference in the amount of
nitrogen in the different fertilizers—the poor crop being
accentuated, perhaps, by the stable manure put on the orch-
ard. One point was called to my attention, to wit: that the
trees bordering a deep ditch through the orchard had better
fruit than the trees more distant from the ditch, indicating
that the ground needed draining.

In regard to the use of nitrogen or ammonia, I had supposed
that the same result would be attained in whatever form it was
used, and have only recently learned that this is not the case.
For instance, ammonia in Chili saltpeter is very quickly taken
up by the tree roots, or washed out of the soil by rains or irri-
gation, while it may be so combined in other materials as to
give up its ammonia slowly, and this would make a difference
in the value of fertilizers of the same analysis.

A few years ago I found some of the limbs of the orange
trees dying and some dead. This I have arrested, I believe,

144, STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

by fertilization. I am this year using the Bradley Orange
Tree Fertilizer at the rate of thirty pounds per tree, or twenty-
four hundred pounds per acre, making two applications in the
year, say one in January and one in July.

ECONOMY IN FERTILIZATION.*

Numerous inquiries regarding the necessity or expediency of
potash fertilization in this State, and the fact that active mis-
representation of my views and teaching in the premises has
been made by interested parties, render it expedient that these
views should be briefly formulated in print for the benefit of
persons interested.

What the Plant Needs.—It is an elementary fact, pretty
generally understood, that, strictly speaking, all substances
used by plants for building up their tissues are of equal impor-
tance; in so far as in the entire absence of any one of them, plant
development can not occur at all. But it is universally known
and admitted that all but three or four of these are present in
ordinary soils in sufficient amounts and in an available con-
dition for the purposes of plant growth. The only ingredients
usually required to be replaced by the use of fertilizers are
potash, phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and lime. Any fertilizer
containing all of these may be considered “ complete,’ and
when supplied after each crop in the same amount and in the
same proportion as has been finally withdrawn by the sale of
the crop, soil exhaustion can be indefinitely prevented and
fertility perpetuated. The only question, then, about which
there can be any discussion is: whether in every case the use of
all the four substances is really necessary, or whether one or more
can, for the time at Jeast, be omitted. This question arises
most obviously with reference to the great differences existing
in the kind and amount of draft made by different crops on
the soil. Thus, root crops withdraw very large amounts of
potash from the soil, while drawing but lightly upon phos-
phoric acid and nitrogen; on the other hand, cereal crops are
known to draw very. heavily on phosphoric acid and nitrogen,
while taking up a comparatively small amount of potash only.
These facts form the main basis of the utility of rotation of

“*By Prof. E. W. Hilgard, Director of Agricultural Experiment Station,
University of California. In ‘“ Pacific Rural Press,’ November 4, 1896.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—-FERTILIZATION. 145

crops; and the same principle is recognized in the practical
fertilization of the root crops with fertilizers that include
chiefly potash, while for grain a combination of nitrogen and
phosphoric acid is usually given and found most profitable.

Supplying Deficiencies.—The reason why in many cases the
return of one or two of these fertilizing ingredients can be
omitted from the replacement is that the soil itself frequently
contains a larger proportion of one or several of these same
ingredients in a form available to plants; that, moreover, these
ingredients, usually occurring in the soil chiefly in a difficult
soluble condition, are gradually set free, by the “ fallowing”
action of the atmosphere, from their insoluble combinations,
so as to become available to plants; and that if the soil is
naturally rich in one or more of these ingredients, the return
of such ingredient may be omitted, either after a fallow or after
a crop that has drawn but lightly upon it. Thus, after a root
crop phosphoric acid may usually be omitted from fertilization, if
the soil is known to be (naturally or artificially) rich in phos-
phoric acid; and the same, of course, is true of potash and
nitrogen in other cases. In so doing, the husbandman draws
upon the natural resources of the land, availing himself of the
advantages of a rich soil; but those who cultivate soils nat-
urally poor may be compelled to return in every case each one
of the three or four ingredients needed for and commonly used
in fertilization.

Wasteful Practice.—Were the immediate return of everything
that the crop takes away necessary on every soil, the possessor
of rich land would have no advantage over the owner of poor
land, for as soon as the first flush of fertility is exhausted in
the virgin soil, both would be equally obliged to supply the full
amount of ingredients withdrawn from the soil by each crop.
But the experience of centuries has shown that such integral
replacement is altogether unnecessary on very many lands, and,
as a result, the use of a “complete” fertilizer is in Europe a

‘rare exception, save as regards stable manure. Farmers buy
the individual ingredients as furnished in commerce, according
to the supposed requirements of the land, as deduced either
from its previous history or from the known richness of the
soil in either one or the other ingredient in question.

10c

146 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

Complete Fertilizers.—In the United States the habit of pur-
chasing everything ‘ready made’ prevails to an unusual
extent, and fertilizer manufacturers mostly cater to this demand
by supplying “complete fertilizers,” compounded in accordance
with the known requirements for certain crops, therefore on the
supposition that the sotl supplies nothing of itself. In purchasing
these complete fertilizers the farmer is, therefore, likely to pay
for one or perhaps two ingredients which the soil may not
require at all to produce the most profitable crops, when his
money would be probably much better spent in procuring a
larger amount of one substance specially needed. The enor-
mous waste of money thus incurred is now so well recognized
in Europe that the manufacture and sale of mixed fertilizers
has been almost completely superseded by that of the simples
themselves. A farmer buys superphosphate, potash salts,
or nitrogenous fertilizers separately, in accordance with a
rational understanding of the requirements of his land, more
particularly with reference to the nature of the preceding
crop, the amount and the kind of draft made on the land, and
the character of the latter.

That this is the only rational and economical mode of using
commercial fertilizers is indisputable; it is only in the case of
stable manure itself that the farmer is compelled to use all the
ingredients indiscriminately. The farmer who, either from
lack of knowledge or from inertness, spends his money for ‘‘com-
plete” fertilizers, a part of which he may not need at all, need
not be surprised if the increase of crop resulting from their
application does not yield adequate returns for the outlay
incurred. The fertilizer manufacturer naturally desires to sell
his wares and is not specially interested in reducing the farmer’s
expenditures therefor.

California Soils.—As regards the soils of this State, experience
has shown that an unusually large proportion of them remain
profitably productive without fertilization for a considerable
length of time, and that when virgin soils, or such as have been
under cultivation for a short series of years only, fail to pro-
duce satisfactory crops, it is usually due to other defects than
lack of fertility, requiring to be supplemented by fertilization.
Even in the East it takes from seven to thirty years to reduce
the production of “fresh” soils below profitableness, and the
nature of the crops grown being known, it is not difficult to

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FERTILIZATION. 147

determine what ingredient or ingredients are most urgently
required to restore production.

A simple leaching with water shows many of our valley
soils to contain, in water-soluble condition, a large proportion of
potash salts, so as to render the idea of supplying more of the
same substance simply absurd. Thus, the ten-acre experi-
mental tract near Chino contains per acre an average of over
1,200 pounds of water-soluble potash in the first three feet,
equivalent to the amount required for eight twenty-ton crops
of sugar beets, without drawing on the less soluble but much
more copious soil store. Similar cases are common in other
valley regions of the State. These facts speak for themselves.

Equally simple tests show that in the great majority,
probably at least three fourths, of the soils of the State, lime is
so abundant that it need not be supplied for centuries to come
atleast. These facts are easily ascertainable by any one having
even a superticial knowledge of chemistry.

But more elaborate investigation and analysis show that
while both lime and potash are present in unusually large
proportion, as compared with soils east of the Mississippi and
in Europe, phosphoric acid and nitrogen are, on the contrary,
as a rule, present in small amounts, and likely to become deti-
cient in a short time under exhaustive cultivation.

What to Use First—Upon these plain and simple facts is
based my recommendation to California farmers that, when-
ever production of their land becomes unsatisfactory, they
should try any large-scale fertilizer first with phosphates and
‘nitrogen, and, should this not prove fully satisfactory, then
with potash also; this being the order in which these substances
are likely to become deficient in most of our soils under culti-
vation.

In the course of time potash fertilization will become widely
necessary in this State, also; but it is certainly not among the
first things generally required, as is actually the case in the Kast
and in Europe. Under continuous heavy cropping with root
crops, such as beets, potatoes, or artichokes, or with small fruits,
such as strawberries, potash fertilization has already, as a mat-
ter of fact, become necessary at some points and will gradually
become more so. On the gray soils of the foothills of Amador
and Placer counties we have found it necessary from the very

148 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

outset, these soils being as poor in potash as Eastern lands.
The same is true of some of the sandy lands of the interior.

My advice to the farmers of California is and has been simply
that, in order not to waste their money for the purchase of
ingredients probably not necessary, they should begin by sup-
plying those most likely to be required at the time, and to turn
to the use of potash fertilizers only after they have found the
effect of phosphatic and nitrogenous ones to be unsatisfactory.

The efforts of those interested in selling as much as possible
of their manufactured products are, quite naturally, in opposi-
tion to this policy, but the advice of the interested party is not
usually the one most likely to benefit the taker.

How to Make Experiments.—Plot experiments made with dif-
ferent fertilizers must, in order to be of definite value, be made
on a sufficiently large scale to eliminate the source of error
arising from local differences in soil and subsoil, and must be
checked by several check plots so interposed between the others
as to not only check them by direct comparison, and to prevent
the washing of fertilizers from one fertilized plot to another,
but must also be compared, first of all, among themselves, so
as to determine what is the normal product of the unfertilized
land. It will frequently be found that these unfertilized check
plots differ more widely between themselves than do the
fertilized ones from them or from each other. It usually takes
several seasons to come to definite results.

A question wholly aside from those discussed above is that
of the special modification of crops by the use of a surplus of
certain substances known to produce a specific effect. Thus,
common salt is known to make asparagus and some other
vegetables more succulent and tender; nitrogenous matter
increases the size and succulence of fruits, and some experi-
ments made with potash fertilizers on oranges point to an
increase of sweetness thereby. It is then simply a question
whether or not purchasers appreciate such modifications suffi-
ciently to render their attainment a profitable undertaking,
apart from any increase of the crop or the maintenance of soil
fertility.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FERTILIZATION. 149

ADVANTAGE OF FERTILIZING SMALL TREES.*

Vareful experiments have established another important
point in bringing a young orchard into speedy and profitable
bearing. That is, that by giving it a moderate dressing of
stable manure, or some other good fertilizer, it may be brought
into bearing one or two years earlier than if no fertilizer had
been used. Experiments have been made by fertilizing some
parts of a young orchard and leaving another part without,
demonstrating that the part fertilized would bear enough more
than the other, the first crop, to far more than pay for the fer-
tilizer used, while, owing to the increased growth of the trees, a
still greater difference in productiveness would be realized in
the second crop. The fact is well established that a young
orchard judiciously fertilized and well cared for, at five or six
years from planting may be brought into profitable bearing,
while one of the same age which has not been fertilized will
give small and unsatisfactory returns. The two orchards cost
the same for water and care, and yet the one fertilized yields
a handsome profit, while the other little more than pays
expenses.

FERTILIZING THE SOIL AS AFFECTING THE ORANGE IN
HEALTH AND DISEASE. t

Fertilizing for Growth and Fruit.—Primarily the orange-
grower desires to know how to fertilize so as to stimulate either
growth or fruit production. With oranges, as with many other
agricultural plants, one may fertilize in such a manner that
excessive growth is stimulated at the expense of fruit produc-
tion. A strong nitrogenous fertilizer results usually in much
growth and little fruit. This seems to be particularly true if
the ammonia is added in an organic form. While trees are
young it is probably well to favor the growth of wood princi-
pally; but at the age of seven or eight years from the bud, the
tree, if it has grown properly, will have attained sufficient size
to begin to produce a fair quantity of fruit. It should then be
given a slightly modified fertilizer, containing more potash and

*From report of J. M. Edmison, to Riverside Horticultural Club, Febru-
ary, 1899.

+ Extracts from an article by Herbert J. Webber, Assistant in Division of
Vegetable Pathology, Washington, D.C. A deduction from Florida experi-
ence, which naturally will interest California citrus-growers.

150 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

phosphoric acid and less nitrogen, to stimulate fruit production
as much as possible. The so-called chemical manures appear
to be much more active in stimulating fruit production than
organic manures.

Effect on Quality of Fruit.—The experience of many orange-
growers indicates that the quality of the fruit may be largely
controlled by fertilization. As oranges are purchased very
largely on their appearance and quality, this becomes an
important consideration in manuring. Many intelligent grow-
ers are coming to believe that the best results can be obtained
by giving the trees an application of that element only which
seems to be lacking, and not using, as a majority do, a com-
plete fertilizer, in definite proportions, regardless of whether
all the elements are needed by the plant or not. If it can be
determined by the appearance of the tree and fruit what
element is lacking, this would seem to be the most rational
way to fertilize.

It seems reasonable to suppose that by careful study patho-
logical characters induced by starvation might be found, which
would serve to indicate clearly the lack of any particular
element. Some growers claim to be able to recognize these
characters now, and are fertilizing largely on this modified
plan, taking advantage of what we might call the sign language
of the tree. Some of these characters will be mentioned below
under the consideration of the different elements used.

Effect on Soil Moistwre.—In fertilization at least two factors
must usually be considered: the element of plant-food supplied,
and the effect of this upon the soil as aiding it in supplying
the plant with moisture. The heavy application, in late fall
or early spring, of an organic manure, like blood and bone,
which is extensively used in Florida, is liable to lead to injuri-
ous effects during the spring drought, if the trees are on high
and dry land. On the other hand, such soils might be ameli-
orated by using substances which attract water and increase
the surface tension of soil moisture. Nitrogen, for instance,
used in the form of nitrate of soda, and potash, in the form of
kainit, would tend to draw up the subsoil moisture and proba-
bly aid largely in supplying the necessary moisture during
this trying season. ‘The use of organic manures, on the con-
trary, would only exaggerate the damage produced by drought.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FERTILIZATION. 151

If groves are on very moist land, as is frequently the case in
Florida, where the necessity is to lessen the moisture rather
than to increase it, some form of organic manure, as muck or
blood and bone, might be found of benefit.

Effect of Fertilizers on the Orange in Health.—The elements
which need to be supplied in fertilization to most Florida orange
groves are nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus; or, using the
terms in which they are expressed in most analyses of fertil-
izers, ammonia, potash, and phosphoric acid. The application
of lime would also prove of benefit to many groves. Probably
no element of plant-food used in the fertilization of orange
groves should be more carefully considered, with respect to
both form and quantity, than nitrogen. It is the most costly
and at the same time the most dangerous element to use, as
excessive applications are liable to result in extensive dropping

and splitting of the fruit or in the production of the serious
disease known as die-back.

Effect of Nitrogen.—A grower may with considerable certainty
determine by the appearance of his trees the condition of his
grove in respect to the supply of nitrogen available in the soil.
An abundance of nitrogen is indicated by a dark green color of
the foliage and rank growth. The fruit shows the effect of an
abundance of nitrogen by being, in general, large, with a com-
paratively thick and rough rind. If the trees have a yellowish
foliage, with comparatively small leaves, and show little or no
growth, there is probably a lack of nitrogen. In this case there
is but little fruit formed, and that formed is small and usually
colors early. If the tree is starving from a lack of nitrogen,
the foliage will become very light yellow and sparse, and the
small limbs will die, as will also the large limbs in extreme
cases. If the starvation is continued, no fertilizer being added,
the tree will finally die back nearly to the ground and prob-
ably die out entirely. The extreme symptoms of general
starvation from lack of all elements are probably nearly the
same. The nitrogen used in fertilization is commonly derived
from mineral or organic sources. Of the former, sulphate of
ammonia and nitrate of soda are the forms most used; of the
latter, muck, dried blood, blood and bone, cottonseed meal,
tankage, fish scrap, stable manure, etc., are the forms most

commonly employed.

152 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

Stable Manure of Doubtful Utility—Barn manure is largely
used by many growers, who still hold to the tradition that
chemical manures are injurious to the plants. The benefits of
barn manure in an orange-grove are in serious question. The
fruits produced by nitrogen from this source are usually large,
coarse, thick-skinned, with abundant rag, and of inferior
flavor. If barn manure is used—and most growers have a
limited quantity and desire to use what they have—it should
be spread over the grove lightly, so that each tree receives only
a small amount. Where such manure is depended upon as
the main element of fertilization, liberal dressings of potash
should be occasionally applied; this will tend to correct the
evils of an overbalanced nitrogeneous fertilizer. What has been
said as to the effect of barn manure on the quality of fruit
applies equally to the effects produced by muck, cottonseed
meal, blood and bone, tankage, etc.

In general, organic fertilizers do not stimulate fruiting to the
same extent as the mineral fertilizers. It is probably better
economy to apply such fertilizers to annual crops, cereals,
garden truck, ete.

Mineral Nitrogen.—The mineral nitrogen manures, nitrate
of soda and sulphate of ammonia, apparently stimulate pro-
duction of fruit more than organic manures, and yet promote
a fair general growth. The fruit produced by fertilization with
these salts, used in correct proportions with the other elements
which it is necessary to apply, is usually of good yuality, being
solid, juicy, and rich, with thin skin and little rag. Sulphate
of ammonia has the effect, growers testify, of sweetening the
fruit to a considerable extent. There seems to be little doubt
as to the correctness of this view, but why it is so remains
in question. The sweetening is probably more marked if
there is a slight deficiency in potash. The use of very large
quantities of either sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda
may result disastrously, acting as ‘chemical poison,” killing
the trees outright and causing them to throw off their leaves.

Sulphate of ammonia has been very widely used among
orange-growers. Nitrate of soda has been but little used thus
far, but is apparently growing in favor. Its insecticide and
water-attracting properties are probably much greater than
those of sulphate of ammonia.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FERTILIZATION, 153

Potash Fertilizers.—In fertilizing the orange, potash is most
frequently used, either in the form of the sulphate or of wood
ashes. While sulphate of potash has been most widely used,
there is apparently little evidence that it is superior to other
forms. Muriate of potash, containing the equivalent of about
hity per cent of actual potash, the form probably most used
In the apple and peach orchards of the North, has been little
used in orange groves. Apparently those who have used this
form have obtained uniformly good results. Kainit, or German
potash salt, which isa crude double salt of magnesium sulphate
with calcium chloride, containing the equivalent of from twelve
to fourteen per cent of actual potash, is a form much used in
Northern orchards and is promising for use in orange groves.
Its very active effect in increasing the surface tension of the
soil moisture, and thus attracting water to the trees, might
make it an excellent form to add in early spring to aid the
plant in withstanding the spring drought, which is so frequently
injurious to the orange tree and sometimes fatal to the fruit
crop. Growers not supplied with facilities for irrigation would,
undoubtedly, find it profitable to consider carefully points of
this nature in fertilization. The noticeable effect of potash on
the orange tree appears to be its aid in completing and matur-
ing the wood. Apparently an insufficient amount of potash is
shown by an excessive growth of weak, immature wood, which
does not harden up as winter approaches and is liable to be
injured by frost.

An abundance of potash, in the form of sulphate of potash
or tobacco stems, is said by many growers to produce excess-
ively sour fruit. That potash is very necessary in fruit
production is shown by the fact that the fruit contains a large
percentage of this element. An average of fifteen analyses of
different varieties of Florida oranges shows 52.05 per cent to
be about the usual amount of potash in the ash of the orange
fruit. The ash in these fifteen analyses averaged 0.916 per
cent, or less than one per cent of the total weight of the fruit.

Phosphoric Acid.—Phosphoric acid, which is a very necessary
element of fertilization on Florida orange lands, is mostly used
in the form of dissolved bone black, acidulated bone or phos-
phate rock, soft phosphate, raw bone, guano, etc. The immedi-
ate effect of phosphoric acid on the orange tree and fruit is
little understood. Several intelligent growers claim to be able

154 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

to recognize the effect of phosphorus starvation by the appear-
ance of the new growth of leaves. If these, when they first
push out or while they are still young and tender, present a
slightly variegated appearance, mottled with light and dark
green, it is claimed they are suffering from lack of phosphorus,
and that if a liberal application of some soluble phosphate is
applied this appearance may be checked. If this can be shown
to be true it will prove a valuable index.to the available
quantity of phosphoric acid in the soil. A similar appearance
may, however, appear in light cases of the so-called “‘ frenching,”
a disease, or probably more properly a symptom of disease,
which is not uncommon. Phosphorus starvation, it is true,
may have some effect in inducing this disease.

Inme.—Lime, it is usually supposed, is present in sufficient
quantities in most of our soils. It may be questioned, how-
ever, whether the common high pine land and scrub land, and
indeed much of the flat woods and hammock of the interior of
Florida, might not be benefited by dressings of lime. From
the superiority of oranges grown on soils which are known to
be rich in lime it would seem that this is probably a very
desirable and necessary element for the production of superior
fruit. The fine, smooth-skinned, and deliciously flavored
Indian and Halifax River oranges, with their characteristic
aroma, are grown largely on soils rich in lime from shell
mounds and coralline and coquina rock. The oranges pro-
duced in the noted Orange Bend hammock, which are of dis-
tinctive quality, with delicate, rich aroma, and thin, smooth
rind, are produced on a soil underlaid by a marl rich in lime.
Lime soils are in many orange countries considered superior
for orange-growing.

Dr. A. Stutzer, in his work on the Fertilization of Tropical
Cultivated Plants, writes: “The orange and citron fruits
desire a deep, porous, dry soil, rich in lime. If sufficient lime
is not present the fruit will be thick-skinned and not have a
fine aroma.” It appears also that the effect of abundant lime
is to hasten to some extent the time of ripening. Fruits
grown on soils rich in lime appear to color and become suit-
able for shipping somewhat earlier than those grown on soils
containing but little lime. To secure a good quality of fruit
the regular application of lime may be found very desirable in
many groves.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FROST PROTECTION. 155

Fertilization as Affecting Disease-—Probably the most com-
mon cause of injury to orange trees is a lack of fertilization,
yet it is not infrequent for disease to be induced or ageravated
by excessive or improper fertilization. This may, indeed, be
of much more importance than we are at present inclined to
believe. One of the forms of die-back, a common and destruc-
tive disease of the orange, is quite evidently due to errors in
fertilization. In other cases the disease appears to be caused
by planting in improper soil.

FROST PROTECTION.

The Riverside Horticultural Club appointed a committee
consisting of J. H. Reed, E. W. Holmes, E. L. Koethen, E. A.
Zumbro, and J. H. Martin—all practical orange-growers—to
investigate the question of orchard protection against frost.
The committee, after a careful investigation of all the methods
in use and experimented with, made its report, which was
adopted, as follows:*

With the assistance of some fifteen or twenty citizens inter-
ested in the study of the points involved, a most complete test
has been made of the many different methods employed to pre-
vent frost damage. With such a force of competent and impar-
tial observers, it was possible to secure data of much value in
forming an estimate of the efficiency of the various plans made
use of. Careful comparison was made between those orchards
where no work was done, and where no direct effect of the fire
was probable, and those where the different methods were being
tried. As indicated by our partial report at the last meeting
of the club, these tests were in some particulars eminently
satisfactory, as showing the way to definite conclusions.

The exceptionally long period of cold following gave addi-
tional opportunity to verify the first conclusions reached, and
subsequent investigations made by ourselves, as well as by
other citizens who have awakened to the possibility of protect-
ing their property, strengthened and confirmed the opinion
formed as the result of the tests already partially reported upon.

*Riverside Press, February 19, 1898.

156 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

Some theories are proven to have little practical value, and
members of your committee have modified their views some-
what .in consequence. No preconceived notions have been
allowed to stand in the way of a thoroughly practical study of
the facts as they exist, to the end that the growers may not, for
the lack of definite knowledge as to the direction their efforts
should take, neglect reasonable precautions hereafter to insure
the safety of their crops. These, therefore, are our conclusions:

First—There is no doubt whatever that the temperature of
our orchards may be materially raised by the use of dry heat.

Second—The radiation of the earth’s heat can be very consid-
erably lessened by moist smudges, when these are started early
enough and are properly managed.

Third—The possibility of raising the dew-point on one of the
dry cold nights peculiar to our climate, sufficiently to prevent
damage, by means of steam-producing apparatus, seems
impracticable. ;

Fourth—Fruit and trees can undoubtedly be saved, even in
the coldest sections, by covering them with cloth or matting;
but the expense involved makes this method impossible on the
part of the ordinary grower.

Fifth—It is found that the temperature in an old seedling
grove, or where tall windbreaks afford to smaller fruit trees a
like protection, is almost invariably one or two degrees
higher than in exposed orchards in the immediate neighbor-
hood. This fact seems to thoroughly upset the theory strongly
held by many intelligent growers that the tall, well-located
windbreak is a disadvantage; the contrary seeming to be the
truth.

Siath—It is found that the temperature twenty feet above
the ground is from one to two degrees higher than at the sur-
face, and that, as a rule, when the cold is severe enough to
injure the ripest fruit, fifty feet from the ground there is almost
invariably a temperature above the freezing point of water.

Prof. Zumbro, who has given special attention to this matter,
finds that at the height of fifty feet the temperature is from
five to ten degrees higher than at the surface, when the air is
not in motion. When there is any considerable breeze it varies
but little.

Seventh—Our conclusion is that, all things considered, the
coal baskets, sufficiently numerous, will prove the most satis-

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FROST PROTECTION. 157

factory and effective means of warming the orchards yet made
use of. It is'true the oil pots make a far hotter fire, and are
neither expensive nor difficult to manage, but the deposit of
lampblack upon tree and fruit resulting from their use con-
demns this system for general use.

As to the value of smudging, the members of your com-
mittee are not so well agreed. Because of less sharply defined
results, we find it more difficult to come to definite—at least
uniform—conclusions. But, under certain conditions, we are
convinced that, properly used, it may be made a valuable
means of protection. We think this especially true in locali-
ties where the temperature never falls but little below the
danger point, and where there are considerable solid areas of
young orchards exposed. Here it will work well if the protec-
tion is made general. But where the danger is considerable,
we think it wise to be prepared to use dry heat, even in
connection with the smudge. The benefit from smudging is
probably as much from its protecting fruit and trees from the
sudden rays of the morning sun after a freezing night as from
modifying the temperature during the time of danger.

Experience demonstrates that flooding or running water in
connection with dry heat or smudging is a valuable adjunct.
One of the committee which has been testing this matter care-
fully for three years is disposed to think that the direct benefit
from running water is overestimated by the majority of grow-
ers. Its value in putting orchards in condition to withstand
safely quite severe weather is unquestioned, but the committee
is inclined to think that entire dependence upon this method
will occasionally result in serious loss to those who trust to
this means alone, especially when used in young orchards.

As to the number of baskets needed when coal is used, we
find the most decided and satisfactory results have been gained
where from twenty to fifty coal fires have been used to each
acre. If intelligently and energetically used, this plan will
never fail, except when the mercury drops below 24° for a long
while, and even then it is believed the larger portion of a crop
may be saved if anything like a general use of such fires be
secured. The smaller number of fires named has in numerous
cases, and even when a man was working alone, secured a rise
of from three to five degrees and saved a crop. Can it be
doubted that fifty fires per acre used in every orchard would

158 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

save both trees and crop on the coldest night ever known in
California’s history? cs

To equip an orchard with fifty baskets to the acre means an
outlay of only a little over $5. The fuel to run them one
night costs from $2.50 to $3. If a crop of Navels upon the trees
is worth $400, it will pay well to spend in fuel and labor $4 per
night, or one per cent of the value of the crop, to insure its
safety. In the orange region of Southern California it is not
usual to have more than two or three nights in a season
when the fruit is in danger. But even if, as in the present
season, the period of cold is more extended, will it not pay to
expend at least as much as one pays for his irrigating water
to secure the safe maturing of a crop it has cost him a year’s
labor and heavy expense to produce?

The conclusion is obvious that we have only to provide for
the insurance of this sort of property exactly as we would in
the case of that liable to destruction by fire, to be enabled to
follow the business of orange and lemon growing with the
certainty of having perfect fruit to market at the season’s end.

While the practicability of protecting our orchards from
frosts seems established, the problem of the most economical
and scientific means of accomplishing this is probably yet to
be solved. However well the wire baskets may serve us now,
there doubtless will be improved methods for burning coal,
and even other material may be found that will serve the pur-
pose better; and while wet straw seems at present to be the
most available for smudges, doubtless when the need is made
known, chemists will find some vapor-producing material more
compact, efficient, and economical. Hence we recommend that
the club appoint a permanent committee to continue these
investigations.

ROOFING PROTECTION AGAINST FROSTS, AND HEAT
IN SUMMER.

After having tried several other methods of protecting trees
from frost, none of which proved absolutely safe, the Everest
Rancho incorporation at Arlington Place, Riverside County,
decided to roof over a portion of their orange grove. Such
were the results of the first trial on three acres that the
company extended it over seventeen acres, shown in the
accompanying illustrations, made from photographs taken on

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—FROST PROTECTION, 159

the spot. The proposition embraced in the covering is to pre-
vent the warm air from leaving the immediate vicinity of the
trees at night. During the day the earth and trees become
warm, but as the night cools the atmosphere the process of

Roofing over an orange grove at the Everest Rancho, Arlington Place, Riverside
County.
radiation sets in and the heat from the earth and the trees is
carried off, the cold frosty atmosphere taking its place. The
idea was conceived of covering the orchard with canvas, which
could be rolled up in the morning and let out at night. One

Covering shown from beneath.

acre was covered in this way, but it was found to be too expen-
sive and unstable, as the canvas would get wet and decay.
The present method costs about $450 an acre. The fruit borne
by the trees under this covering has matured perfectly and the

160 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

covering serves two purposes, 2. ¢., protecting the trees from the
effects of frost, and from excessive heat in the summer.

The posts are 3x4 redwood, 18 feet long. The trees are so
planted that the posts are placed 21 feet 3 inches apart each
way, setting them 8 feet in the ground, thus allowing about 15
feet in the clear for height of the trees, which is sufficient for
most Navel trees. These posts are connected by pieces of 1x4
pine suitably braced, on top of which another strip of 1x 4 has
been securely nailed to prevent the whole from swaying side-
ways with the weight of the cover. This, when placed in
position, is braced horizontally with braces of 1x3 pine, 7 feet
long. Thus is secured a framework that is quite rigid and on
which a man may walk freely, provided he has a head clear
enough to walk on a four-inch strip.

Over this were stretched galvanized iron wires, diagonally, of
No. 11 wire, which are securely stapled on top of each post and
to the horizontal braces. These diagonal wires are stretched
very tight with iron stretchers, and throw a portion of the
weight of the cover on to posts directly that would otherwise
be borne by the pieces of 1x4 pine, 21 feet 3 inches long.
These diagonal wires are supplemented by wires running across
the framework at right angles to the direction in which the
cover is laid. These four wires—two diagonal and two cross
wires—steady the whole construction and distribute the weight
more evenly.

Thus is the framework completed. For the cover Arizona
laths were used, being the lightest and best for the purpose,
and were wove on a lath machine into common chicken fencing,
placing the lath one inch apart and weaving with six wires—
three double strands. This is made in sections 21 feet 3 inches
long and rolled up preparatory to being taken to cover. In
covering the framework four rolls made of four-foot lath and
one roll of five-foot lath are used, thus filling out the space
over each tree of 21 feet 3 inches as nearly as is necessary. It
takes 100 lath to each roll, or 500 to each tree; and as the trees
are planted 100 to the acre, 50,000 laths are required to the
acre. This Arizona lath is cheaper than ordinary pine in that
part of the State.

The crop of fruit under this covering was of good size, color,
and quality, and while the construction of the cover could be,
and no doubt will be, improved upon, it has proved of great
benefit as built.

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—QUESTIONS. 161

LEAF SHELTER AN ADVANTAGE.*

Old “Sunny Side” hag again covered herself with glory.
Eight consecutive big crops is her record. I had sold five
carloads before the chilly night of December 29th, and have
just finished delivering the second lot of five cars on a satis-
factory cash sale. Since the “chill” I have delivered in bulk
at the packing-house, and the fruit has packed nearly four
fifths “fancy,” and this fruit, too, was, by special contract with
the buyer, picked from the outside of the trees where most
exposed. ,

The fact is that my twenty-acre orchard of 1,500 orange trees
is well prepared to resist chilly weather. The trees are so large,
so thrifty, and so densely covered outside, that they are like
so many houses shingled with broad orange leaves clear to the
ground. The interior spaces under each tree, filled with the
sun-baked air of the day, bid defiance to “Jack” on a cool
night, and prevent him getting in his diabolical work before
another day’s sunshine comes along to oust him entirely. I
have never lost a crop, though of course some of the fruit on
the outside will sometimes “take cold”; but there is great
protection in a shelter of thick, broad, healthy, glossy leaves.

QUESTIONS AFFECTING ORANGE CULTURE.

During the year 1898 the Horticultural Society of Highlands
invited its members and citrus-growers having any questions
regarding any phase of orange culture to send them to the
Society, for submission to the orange-growers of the State.
The following were received and answered:t

Question: Should hardpan within two feet of the surface be
considered a barrier to the planting of orange trees ?

Pror. E. W. Hizearp, of Berkeley: Yes, if impenetrable
by roots.

J. H. Reep, of Riverside: Yes.

*B. B. Barney, in California Fruit Grower, February 1, 1896.
+ Reported by W. M. Bristol, chairman of committee.

11—c

162 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

H. D. Moors, of Redlands: Hardpan within two feet of the
surface will eventually ruin any orchard. Its effects will
probably be noticed by the third or fourth year.

Dicrst or Discussion BY THE CLuB: The question doubtless
refers to the natural hardpan underlying the red mesa soil
common in California, and not to the artificial hardpan (so
called) which is formed in orchards by the tramping of horses
used in cultivating. The latter occurs immediately below the
cultivated stratum, and is caused by driving over the ground
too soon after rain or irrigation. The natural hardpan may
be divided into three classes, namely: gravelly, sandy, and
clayey hardpan. It is found at varying depths, and runs
from a few inches to several feet in thickness. Analysis shows
it to be deficient in nitrogen, but rich in potash and phosphoric
acid, the same being true of the looser soil found underlying
it. In many cases it is impervious to either water or roots,
and consequently marks the downward limit of the soil capable
of holding moisture or of yielding plant-food to the tree.

Question: Is it advisable to break up this hardpan, and will
tt stay broken up?

Pror. Hitgarp: Yes, to both.

Mr. Reep: Other conditions being markedly favorable, yes.
If well done it will stay broken up.

Mr. Moore: If an orchard is already planted in’ such soil,
it would be advisable to put in three or four cartridges at equal
distances around the trees. The soil has been found to pack
down hard again in three years after blasting.

C. E. Mosuer, of Pasadena: Yes. Hardpan once broken
up will not form again.

Tue CLus: Yes, if the stratum is not too thick. The grav-
elly hardpan, which is probably the hardest for roots or water
to penetrate, is the most easily and permanently broken up.

Question: What is the best method of blasting in such cases,
and what is the expense?

Pror. Hirgarb: Bore into the hardpan and use one-half
pound of No. 2 giant powder in each hole. -

Mr. Reep: Giant powder. Expense depends on condition of
hardpan. ‘

Mr. Mosuer: I took the contract for blasting the hardpan ~

THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA—QUESTIONS. 163

on seven acres of land near Raymond Hill, South Pasadena,
at 15 cents per hole, and cleared #5 a day at it. The top soil
was 2} feet thick, the hardpan 3 feet. I dug the holes to hard-
pan, then with a 14-inch wood bit welded onto a 5-foot shank
I bored down 20 inches into it, put in one stick of No. 2 giant
powder, tamping it with fineearth. It blewa hole clear through
the hardpan, the hole afterward being cleaned out and filled
with top soil.

Tue Crus: The foregoing replies were indorsed. No. 2
giant powder is preferable to No. 1, because its slower action
cracks and shakes the hardpan more thoroughly. Good results
have been obtained in orchards already set, by putting one stick
of powder directly under the tree. It is important that the
charge be in the hardpan—not under it. If exploded below the
hardpan its force is expended in making a cavity there without
breaking up the overlying stratum. It is well to clean out
the hole and fill with sand, thus insuring the free penetration
of water to the substratum. Of course in putting the blast
directly under the tree, the hole must be made slanting. Some
roots are necessarily broken, but the benefits are largely in the
majority.

CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. PLATE XIV.

FRUIT AND BRANCH—PRIMAL TYPE.

(Citrus limonum vulgaris.)

THE LEMON INDUSTRY.

THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA. 165

THEH LEMON.

Citrus medica Limonum, Risso.

SEEDLINGS.—Hypocotyl becoming woody, erect, terete, finely pubescent,
wiry, pale green, 2.3-2.9 em. long.

Cotyledons two, rarely three, mostly alternate, fleshy, oblong, obtuse, pale
green, finely pubescent, sessile or subsessile, somewhat notched at the base.

Stem woody, erect, terete, finely pubescent, wiry; first internode variable,
1.6-2.3 cm. long; second, 2mm.; third, 3mm.; fourth, 7.5 mm.

Leaves compound, cauline, alternate, exstipulate, petiolate, glabrous, deep
green, shining, pubescent on the nerves beneath when young, permeated
with translucent glands, doubly crenulate, emarginate; petioles subpu-
bescent, winged, [sometimes wingless,] with a prominent midrib, and taper-
ing toward the base.

Nos. 1 and 2 unifoliate, frequently also Nos. 3 and 4. All alternate at
greater or less distances from each other, or in pairs, or all four verticillate,
ovate, obtuse, emarginate, articulated at the top of their petioles, or the
lowest pair articulate at the base only.

Nos. 3 and 4 frequently digitately trifoliate, the terminal leaflet being
lanceolate-elliptic, attenuate at the base; the lateral leaflets arise by segmen-
tation from the terminal one.

No. 4. In some instances five-foliolate; the rachis between the basal and
next pair of leaflets winged and tapering toward the base in the same way as
the primary petiole; leaflets sessile, lanceolate-elliptic, emarginate, minutely
and doubly crenulate, smaller than the leaflets of unfoliate leaves.—Srr
Joun Lvesock, ‘‘ Contributions to our Knowledge of Seedlings,”’ Vol. I, 1892.

The flower of the lemon is of medium size, with a reddish
tint outside, but white within. Fruit pale yellow, generally
oval, ending in a nipple-like point, seldom round or pyriform.
The skin is smooth, about the thickness of that of the orange,
becoming greatly reduced, thin, pliable, and leathery to the
touch after being stored away, styled “curing.”

The lemon is not so hardy a tree as the orange and is more
susceptible to frost. While this is true, it is also true that
it does not require so high a temperature to bring out its best
qualities, which it will attain on the coast, where the orange is
inferior. The lemon is a prolific tree, bearing more fruit than
the orange and requiring more water; but the treatment of the
tree in the matter of planting, cultivating, etc., except pruning,
is the same as that required by the orange, and the rules laid
down for the latter apply equally to the former.

166 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

The lemon has received less attention in California than the .
orange, owing partly to the extra care required in its prepara-
tion for market, and partly to the impression that it was not
so profitable a fruit to grow. Of late years, however, much
more attention has been given to lemon culture, and the area
adapted to lemon growth has been widened. It was thought
that this fruit would flourish only in a few favored nooks in
the citrus section, but experience has proved that there are
numerous places in the higher lands—the foothills and mesas—
of the southern and central counties where the lemon will
flourish. The result of this has been a great impetus in lemon
planting in San Diego, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino,
Los Angeles, Ventura, Santa Barbara, and Tulare counties.
This has been aided, too, by the fear that the very extensive
planting of oranges would result in the reducing of profits in
orange-growing. Improved methods of handling and curing
the lemon—the outcome of years of experiments—have resulted
in securing a fruit which commands a good price and competes
with the imported article, making lemon-growing profitable.
These facts have turned the attention of planters toward the
lemon, and it is probable that this fruit will steadily advance
in popularity until it reaches a place in our fruit exportations
beside that of the orange.

VARIETIES.

The varieties of the lemon are not as numerous as those of
the orange. While many varieties have been introduced, some
of our choicest have originated here. The common seedling, of
poor shipping and keeping qualities, that used to be met with
in almost every orchard in the State, has been discarded, and
in its place stand varieties which possess exceedingly high
merit. The fruit of the varieties now grown is not over-large,
but of a uniform medium size, good keepers, with a sweet rind
and a delicious, strong acid.

Lispon.—Fruit of medium size, fine grain, sweet rind, acid
strong, few seeds, an excellent keeper. Grows very uniformly
on the tree, and ripens evenly. The tree is a strong grower,
very prolific, thorny, but thorns decrease as the trees grow
older. Imported from Portugal.

THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—VARIETIES. 167

Dr. J. H. Needham, in an essay before Pomological Society,
at Covina, in 1898, says: “The advantages claimed for the
Lisbon are that it bears its fruit uniformly all through the
tree. But the disadvantage is that the tree is thickly stud-
ded with long, sharp thorns, which, when the branches are
waved by the winds, puncture much of the fruit, spoiling it
for the market, especially the Eastern market. Another objec-
ton is that it does not come into bearing until it is from seven
to ten years in orchard, and bears only one crop a year.”

VILLA Franca.—Fruit oblong, slightly pointed at the blos-
som end, rind thin, without any trace of bitterness, acid strong,

Cross-sections of Villa Franca Lemon (cured specimens)—natural size.

juicy, nearly seedless. Tree almost thornless, branches spread-
ing and somewhat drooping, foliage very abundant, which pro-
tects the fruit from scorching. The tree is a strong grower and
less susceptible to cold than most varieties. Imported from
Europe.

Dr. J. H. Needham, in an essay before Pomological Society,
at Covina, in 1898, says: ‘‘The advantages claimed for the
Villa Franca are that it makes a more compact tree and bears
its fruit more uniformly over the entire tree; but, from my
experience, it requires at least one year longer to come into
bearing, and the fruits on young trees are shorter when they
have the requisite diameter for picking than either the Eureka
or the Lisbon.”

168 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

AcME (syn., ‘Sweet Rind,” ‘ Hale’s Seedling’’).—This is an
old established variety; originated at Los Angeles. Resembles
the Lisbon in many of its characteristics, so much so that it
has been confounded with it. The fruit is similar to the Lisbon,
grows uniformly, of medium size, strong acid, with a sweet
rind; a good keeper. The tree is a more upright grower than
the Lisbon, has fewer thorns, and is of a much less spreading
habit.

Evreka.—Fruit medium size, sweet, smooth, glossy rind,
and an excellent keeper. Acid strong and most pleasant, with
very few seeds. Tree semi-dwarf, sparse foliage, inclined to
bear at the extremities of the branches, and endangering the
fruit to sunburn. A remarkable lemon. Originated at Los
Angeles.

Dr. J. H. Needham, in an essay before Pomological Society,
at Covina, in 1898, says: “The advantages of the Eureka are
its comparative freedom from thorns, its tendency to early
bearing, and, when properly trained, to enormous crops when
it comes into full bearing, by its continuous blooming and
setting of lemons all the year, especially in sections that are
comparatively free from frost. The objections are its tendency
to set its fruit on the tips of the branches, and the inclination
to grow long canes with but few laterals, and to drop its leaves
on the long canes or branches, thus leaving the limbs and
fruit too much exposed to the hot rays of the sun in the heated
term of summer. But this can be remedied by proper pruning
from the time the tree is one or not more than two years in
the orchard, being careful to keep off all sucker growth, and
cutting back the long branches to not more than twelve to
eighteen inches, in the spring and fall; June and October being
a fair division of the growth of the year. Always cut away
the larger of the two or three branches that have started near
where the branch was pruned the previous time, as the bold,
rapid growers will only make a wood growth, while the smaller
twigs or branches will form the fruit spurs, which bud, bloom,
and bear the fruit.”

Genoa.—Fruit medium size, oval, sweet rind, and nearly
seedless; a good keeper. Tree of a dwarf habit and thornless.
This is one of the best lemons grown in the State.

Astatic.—Fruit medium size, oval, thin rind, with an agree-
able strong acid. Tree semi-dwarf, thornless.

THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—VARIETIES. 169

Bonnre Brar.—A vigorous growing tree, quite thorny, and
with distinct foliage. The fruit, which resembles a lime in
appearance, is of a medium size, ribbed, and with exceedingly
thin rind.

Stcity.—Fruit large and coarse; keeps only with extreme
care; inferior.

AcNESs.—Fruit medium size, sweet rind, pulp very fine, with
strong acid, and few seeds. Thorns few, short and blunt. Tree
a rapid grower, medium dwarf, and drooping in character.

OLtvia.—Fruit medium size, of good quality, acid strong.
Tree a thrifty grower and a good bearer; thorny.

“Royat Messina.”—Introduced from Florida, under the
name of Sicily, but there being numerous varieties under this
name, “ Royal Messina” was applied to it, identifying the same
with one grown in Florida by that name. It is a choice
lemon of medium size, seedless, strong acid, skin thin, pliable,
and an excellent keeper. Tree nearly free from thorns, strong
in growth, and of dark, elegant foliage.

GARCELON’s Kyosppy.—Fruit medium size; when cured, very
thin rind, juicy. Tree a good grower and prolific.

Bouton.—Fruit medium size, sweet rind when cured, very
seedy. Tree very thorny; inferior.

Sweet Rinp.—Fruit very large; tree very thorny; inferior.

Mixan.*—Fruit medium size; an exceptionally fine lemon.

CaLirorNia Siciuy.—Name applied to common seedling
lemons.

CHINESE.— Fruit large, the size of a citron, which it resembles.
Fruit of little commercial value, except the peel, which is used
for preserving purposes. Tree is of a dwarf habit—a bush. In
former years it was extensively used as a stock, but being
subject to the gum disease and unable to support the growth of
the orange and lemon, it has been discarded.

Ever-Bearinc.*—Fruit large and coarse. Decreases in size
as the tree grows older.

Sicitran.*—A lemon of superior quality.

Lamp.*—Fruit medium; strong acid.

Bryov.*—Fruit medium and a good keeper.

V ARIEGATED.—The leaves are mottled with white; ornamental.

Napoteon. —Fruit medium size, thin rind, oblong. A pro-

lific bearer.

* Florida varieties; some have been introduced into California.

170 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

Aveust.*—Fruit medium size, elongated, a good shipper.
Tree a rapid grower.

Bevarr Premium.*—Fruit medium size, without bitterness.
Tree a strong grower and thrifty. Considered the best variety
grown in Florida.

Frencu SEEpLING.*—Fruit quite small, sweet rind, and a
strong acid. Tree a strong grower, almost thornless.

Frencu, or Fioripa.*—Rough; used as a stock.

Frenco SEEDLING.*—Said to be very good.

OTHER VARIETIES—

Valentina* Genoese Castilian Bracy*

Leghorn* Garden Lemon Royal Im perial*

Neapolitan* (inferior) Candian Long*

Makay* Mela Rosa Chio Naples*

Meranda* Paradise Praos Sweet Brazilian*

Malta* Communis Messina* Tuberculata*

Waring’s Seed- Suacco Roman Waring’s Seedless*
ling* Melaroce St. Jerome

The Sweet, or Bergamot, Lemon.
Citrus limonum, var. Dulcis, Risso.

This species of the citrus family has been grown in a small
way in dooryards and gardens by early settlers, and must have
had its origin, or was introduced, at a very early period. It
has never assumed much importance in the markets, and for
this reason has only been grown to a very limited extent. The
flowers are pure white, slightly tinged with purple on the out-
side and white within. The leaves are large, ovate roundish,
serrated; petioles subulate, very smooth and aromatic. The
fruit resembles the lemon in appearance, but is globose, with a
blunt, nipple-like protuberance at the blossom end, a firm rind,
sweet puip, and a non-aromatic juice.

The tree is a prolific bearer, is easily grown from cuttings,
and is also worked on orange stocks or vice versa. The tree
requires the same treatment and conditions for its growth as
the lemon, and on its own root is very much subject to the
attacks of gum disease. There are various types grown, and
while some possess marked qualities, perhaps owing to the
climatic conditions, soil, etc., none have been so far classed as
distinctive varieties.

*Plorida varieties; some have been introduced into California.

__ CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. PLATE XV.

VILLA FRANCA-— Slightly reduced.

THE LEMON INDUSTRY—VARIETIES.

CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTU PLATE XVI.

BONNIE BRAE—Cross-section—Natural size. Bonnie BrarE—Cross-section, showing seed
(Cured specimen.) variation and thickness of rind. (Uncured.)

THE LEMON INDUSTRY—VARIBETIBS.

CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. Beene

GENOA—Natural size.

THE LEMON INDUSTRY—VARIETIES.

CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. PLATE XVIII.

“Royal MESSIN«’’—Cross-sections—Natural size.

THE LEMON INDUSTRY—VARIETIES.

Soe nee ene?

CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. PLATE XIX.

Sictny—Cured specimen—Natural size.

THE LEMON INDUSTRY—VARIETIES.

176 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

PRUNING THE LEMON.

‘How shall we prune, and when shall wedo it?” I. C. Wood,
of Ontario, Cal., an experienced lemon-grower, answered the
question before the Southern California Pomological Society,
as follows:

“Tf the tree is one year-old, I would cut it to about three
and one half feet high; if older, possibly higher, according to
strength of plant. Then let it branch from near the ground,
say one to one and a half feet. As soon as the young shoots
are strong enough, select from four to six or more of the best
of them; see that they are evenly distributed on every side of

Lemon orchard pruned high, without cutting back the upper shoots, which
continually break by the weight of the fruit.

the stem and at different heights from the ground; allow the
uppermost to form the leader, which should be encouraged
from year to year to continue as a leader, so as to avoid as far
as possible decided forks.

“At the end of first year prune-in all side shoots and top
according to the amount of wood made—usually one half will
be about right for the lower branches, and more severe for the
upper ones. The object is to shape the tree and keep it in the
form of a letter “A,” limbed right from the ground or nearly
so. In pruning, do not cut at random, especially at this
stage, but see which way you want the upper buds to grow, as
the upper bud usually makes the leader which we want to

THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 177

encourage to go upward and not outward, as we are laying a
foundation for a heavy crop of fruit and we want to keep that
crop protected as much as possible by a mass of foliage, and
equally distributed through the tree and close to the stronger
or main branches. The object is to make the tree carry a full
crop, and that, too, without props or ropes, which are expensive,
take time and labor to put in place, besides being unsightly
and in the way. Moreover, the tree will be so compact in its
make-up that should we be located where subject to winds, the
resisting power of the tree will be much greater and losses of
fruit and breakage of branches very much lessened. The crop
of fruit will be found very largely on the inside of the tree,
insuring less sunburn or that unpleasant deep yellow color
on the side exposed, as is so general when the crop is allowed
to bear on the outside and at the extremities of the branches.

“In this section (Ontario) there is a half-dormant season
during the months of February, March, and a part of April,
which I would consider the proper time for making our heavy
cutting. If it becomes necessary at any time, which may be
the case with young and thrifty trees not yet in bearing, I have
before recommended pruning the lighter wood at the time of
picking the fruit, and experience has taught me that there is no
time when we can do pruning soeffectually. When this method
is followed we invariably find a large amount of the fruit on
the inside of the tree, and on small, willow-like branches.
When the stronger growth has been kept in check, these smaller
branches are encouraged and live on, because they receive a
fair proportion of the tree sap, which would otherwise go to the
stronger parts, and if allowed, the smaller shoots, especially on
the inside, would die, and the inside of the tree would become
a scraggy mass of small, dry branches.”

*“The idea of growing as large a tree as possible in three or
four years, or until bearing age, must be reversed; must be done
by cutting back the tree when one year old and keeping it cut
back and thinned out until the growth is controlled. The
wood must never be cut on its first growth; let it become hard,
not less than two growths old. The older the wood the more
inclined to small fruit growth when cut back. The length to
leave depends altogether on size of wood and location of

*J.W. Scott, in Covina Argus, October, 1895,

12c

178 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

branches; but seldom leave more than eight inches, and often
only one or two buds. The one great mistake made by some
in cutting back heavily is to shear off the crown of the tree
year after year, causing it to grow thicker and thicker each
year, sacrificing all of the lateral fruit growth and the fruit
growth inside the tree.

“In cutting trees three years old and upward, one must
understand the nature of the tree especially, or he will leave
too much foundation for new growth. After the new wood is
dormant it should be thinned out, leaving plenty of lateral and
inside growth, but taking out everything from the top that has
a tendency to shoot upward, especially large wood. The idea
is to keep the top down and work for a lateral growth, always
keeping out suckers and large young wood. Above all do not
try to form any more branches by utilizing a sucker to fill in a
vacancy; better let time fill it up with the old wood, or grub out
the tree and put in a new one.

“ During pruning, use very little water, if any, until the first
growth is dormant. I believe there is a great mistake made
in watering lemon trees at just the wrong time. Until they
are in full bearing they do not require much water. I think
the majority of growers will agree with me that the time to
water the lemon tree is when dormant; then a good, healthy
stock of wood is secured; but it requires more labor keeping out
suckers. I think the time will come when lemon-growers in
irrigation districts will build their own private reservoirs that
they may be able to use the water when needed. I have made
the assertion that a lemon tree needs more water than the
orange, and it is very evident, for the reason that when a lemon
tree comes into bearing it is capable of producing, at the same
age and with the same care, two or three times as much fruit
as the orange, and is setting fruit all through the year.”

G. W. Garcelon, a pioneer lemon-grower of Riverside, says:
“After the tree is set, let it grow. As soon as suckers appear,
remove them, although some growers leave them for a time to
protect the trunk of the tree from the sun. Rather burlap the
trunks and let the growth come from the top, which will con-
stitute two thirds of the tree. Allow all top growth to remain,
except shortening-in any too luxuriant branches, or winds will
prune for you, and more than is desirable. Now this is all

THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 179

that is necessary, except annually to clean out any wood in
the tree which has got through being useful to the tree, always
remembering that the best fruit of the lemon comes from the
inside of the tree and nearest the ground.”

The lemon tree being a strong and vigorous plant, requires

liberal irrigation and, ahove all, judicious pruning, for almost
before a person is aware of it, long straggling branches will
hinder cultivation, and must be cut back, thereby entailing an
absolute waste and greatly lessening the vitality of the tree.
To prevent this waste and loss, the ends of the branches
should be pinched off at the proper time, and with such dis-
eretion as will result in forming a symmetrical and well-
balanced top. Great care should also be taken in thinning
out the small and weak branches, so as to afford circulation
and to allow sunshine to penetrate. Pinching off the ends of the
limbs will cause them to throw out spurs, thereby bringing the
fruit nearer the body of the tree.

*“We have learned from observation that the lemon tree
produces its best fruit on twigs or small branches in the interior
of the tree. To get any considerable quantity of such twigs we
must cut back the branches, for the habit of the tree is to send
out long shoots that fruit on the end, often leaving two or three
feet without a break. The fruit that grows on these branches
is largely culls. If the branches are properly cut back, the
body of the tree will probably fill up with fine wood, which
will furnish bearing surface for all the fruit that the tree can
properly mature.

“Two difficulties have confronted us as growers: one, that
much of our fruit does not attain the proper size before we are
obliged to pick it in order to prevent its deteriorating in quality;
and the other, that our crop is ready to gather tuo late for one
market and too early for another, or during the early winter
months. The former of these difficulties can probably be largely
overcome, and the latter by somewhat reducing the bearing
surface of the tree and bringing the fruit nearer to the source of
supply. All experiments along this line go to show that both
the grade and size of the lemon are improved by the process.
Many lemons, from being too small or too highly colored before
picking, go into the second grade or culls that otherwise should

*J. W. Freeman, in ‘ Pacific Rural Press,’’? April 25, 1897.

180 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

gointo the first or second grade. One can easily see that it pays
better to grow twelve boxes of lemons at $1.25 per box than to
grow fifteen boxes of second grade at $1, or any number of culls
for nothing, as the cost per box is the same in each case.

“Tt isthought by some that by certain methods of pruning
the habits of the lemon tree can be so changed that from bear-
ing the bulk of its fruit in the fall and early winter it may be
made to bear in the summer. It would seem that in certain
localities that is the habit of the tree, but we speak of this as
we know it; that to our minds is unquestionable. The possi-
bility of it lies, of course, in the fact that the tree is a continu-
ous bearer; but supposing that it could be done, the thing of
itself is of doubtful benefit, especially in localities subject to
injury by frost. The so-called summer crop is on the trees
during the winter months, and if it passes through safely, is
just the thing to be desired. Until we can devise some method
of. protection (from the elements, we mean), it would seem
that the wisest course will be to do what we can to hasten the
time of maturity of our fall crop to catch as much of the early
market as possible, and to hold the balance.-of our crop over
until spring, if necessary. This fruit is of much better keeping
quality than the summer crop.

“Tf this method is adopted it will be much better to begin
with the trees when they are young; but with old trees, the
sooner the better. Some have the practice of rounding up their
trees like a billiard ball, irrespective of what may be the
length of the limbs in the body of the tree. This seems to us
to be a mistake, as it will leave the trees with too dense a growth
of foliage. Others cut them off like a billiard table. This is
open to the same objection, besides taking from the tree much
wood that is already in the place desired. Each limb should
be treated by itself and cut back to within six or eight inches
of the fork; when limbs spring from this, instead of cutting
each one off at the same distance, they should be thinned out
to two or three, cutting the surplus shoots right back to the
branch. It may be necessary to reduce the surface still further
each year by cutting out a portion of the bearing wood, so that
each limb shall not carry more fruit than it can mature. We
can show trees treated in this way that are now one mass
of bloom right through the whole body of the tree, so that one
could scarcely put his hand in without touching a blossom.

THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 181

This may in time need thinning out, but that is an easy
matter.

“This may seem like heroic work, and many dislike to
undertake it, though they may be convinced that it will pay
in the end. It does not mean the total loss of a year’s crop by
any means. The yield will not be so large, it is true, but the
actual returns may not be far behind. Let me call your atten-
tion to the saving that will be effected in the cost of picking.
To go into the top of a large tree five or six times a year for a
half box of lemons is an expensive business and increases the
cost of picking to almost more than the actual value of the fruit.
By this method of
pruning, the fruit
will be kept within
easy reach.

“To get the best
results from this
system of pruning
the work must be
followed up and all
useless growth re-
moved while the
process will shock
neither the feelings
of the grower nor
the sensibilities of
the tree. :

ee A low-pruned tree headed back, and supporting a large

Let me say here quantity of lemons.

that the grove that

yielded the largest returns in this section seems to me to have
been pruned nearly in line with these suggestions. By a com-
mon-sense method of pruning, lemon trees are gotten into such
shape that the wind causes less damage to fruit and tree, and
the branches are not broken if overburdened with fruit. Props
and twenty-foot ladders are rendered unnecessary, the cost of
picking is reduced from one third to one half, the quality of
the fruit is materially improved, the returns are largely aug-
mented, and the grower made correspondingly happy.”

182 : STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

*“ Head the tree about two and a half feet from the ground;
keep it shortened-in for three or four years, forcing a thick,
stocky basis for after-growth. The tree by this time is bear-
ing freely, and the fruit will pull or bend down the long shoots,
which will then put up or throw out small fruit-bearing timber
all along the upper side of the drooping limb. I think this
preferable to a continuous shortening of all long growth. A
dense, shady tree is what is wanted, since the denser the shade
the more symmetrical and smoother the fruit will be. Limbs
that reach to and lie upon the ground may from time to time,
as needed, be tipped off.”

THE BARONIO METHOD OF PRUNING THE LEMON.

The so-called “‘ Baronio Method” of pruning the lemon takes
its name from A. C. Baronio, an Italian gentleman who
recently introduced it into some orchards at La Mesa, San
Diego County, and who is now a resident of that locality.
While this method of pruning is not new, it is practically new
as applied to the lemon in this State. Gallesio, in his treatise
on the citrus family, written nearly a century ago, mentions
“the lemon of Genoa as a vigorous tree which will also extend
itself en espalier (on a trellis) and bear an abundance of fruit.”
He also mentions other varieties “that will not submit to be
trained en espalier.” This system partakes of the principles laid
down by Du Breuil, Barry, and Downing in the Espalier and
Cordon systems of pruning long in vogue, but applied to decid-
uous trees. Mr. Baronio claims that the present method as
practiced by him on the lemon is the outcome of a series of
years of personal tests and practical experience as a matter of
study, which led him to the conclusion that it is preéminently
suited to the lemon, especially in various sections in the south-
ern part of the State. Whether this method, and others that
have come into general use of late, will ever be pronounced
eminently successful, time can only determine. Suffice it to
say, however, that they are much believed in and are applied
in many orchards. The method is described as follows by
A. C. Baronio:

The method of pruning the lemon as practiced by me,
although having been mistaken for the old vase, or the “tronco

*Dr. W. B. Wall, an extensive lemon-grower of Tustin, before Southern
California Pomological Society, June, 1896.

THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 183

rovesciato” form of the Italians, is entirely different, because
it brings the tree under such control as is not to be obtained
by any other method. It really aims at producing a very low,
Wide-open, standard tree, possessing all the merits of an espalier
with none of its drawbacks. |
When once the tree has been brought under subjection, every
part of it is kept within easy reach of an ordinary man stand-
Ing on the ground, the structure strong enough to carry a great
weight of fruit and capable of standing undisturbed by wind
and weather. The fruit is of superior quality, free from culls,
the succession of crops regulated, and the fruit-bearing surface

Lemon orchard of T. F. Jones, at La Mesa, cut back by Mr. Baronio in July, 1898.
Photo taken October 30, 1899.

can be enlarged and directed at will as the tree acquires age
and strength, so that it is a question of laying the foundation
for a permanent structure, which may be enlarged for an indefi-
nite time. Of course it necessitates an entire reconstruction
(unless so raised from the beginning) in order to lay the foun-
dation for such a lasting and progressively profitable tree, which
can not be done by a single operation. I have emphatically
warned those who may be enticed by some of the half-and-half
attempts which have sprung up since as new systems and which
find favor in some quarters as a happy compromise on what
would seem to be too radical a reform. But these are merely
makeshifts or bad imitations likely to lead to temporary
encouragement and ultimate disappointment, through lack of
knowledge and experience in the proper application of vital

184 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

principles. Instead of the pruner being able to control the
tree, it will be found that the tree is master of the situation,
growing its own way without proper foundation. The lemon tree
is either the most tractable or the most obstinate of servants,
but the choice rests with the intelligence of its master. The
great object in view is to grow lemons for “ profit,” which must
be progressive as the age and strength of the tree advance,
always with due regard to its future life and well-being. The
method is based on well-formulated physiological principles,
of which the following are the most important:

(a) A tree is most profitable when the flow of sap is evenly
distributed over all its surface, each branch maintained prop-
erly covered with elaborated growth all along from its base
extending outward in methodical form; and when it is held
under absolute control so that the root shall always be capable
of feeding the whole top, which is kept within easy reach from
the ground. ;

(b) The sap circulates faster through a shoot running
straight up in the air than through a branch going out in a
lateral direction.

(c) There is little or no elaboration along the length of a
straight shoot until the top is reached.

(d) There is a larger amount of elaboration along a branch
in proportion as it goes out in a lateral direction.

(e) There can be no fruitfulness without elaboration; there-
fore,

(f) A lateral branch is more fruitful than an upright one.

(g) If a young, vigorous shoot (commonly called a sucker)
running straight up is allowed to persist on a branch, it will
draw most of the sap and tend to starve the other growth below.

(h) A branch may be built slightly crooked and strong in
short sections made up of wood of different ages, and so pruned
that, a rush of sap never being permitted, it is forced to elabo-
rate a lot of small fruiting growth all along its length.

(1) Fruitfulness and excellence are the results of a slow but
steady circulation.

(j) An over-accelerated circulation tends to foster unneces-
sarily vigorous or rank wood formation.

(k) A tree must never be permitted at the top to outgrow its
root-system, but allowed only sufficient wood formation to keep

THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 185

it growing, and all the fruit compatible with its age and
strength.

(1) Branches should never be so crowded as to preclude the
free admission of light and air between them.

(m) In order that a tree might have the sap evenly distrib-
uted, its main branches must be of equal size and run out at
similar angles.

(n) A limb which branches off at an acute angle is liable to
split at the fork.

Fic. 1—Baronio method of pruning the lemon. (From a sketch by G. P. Hall, of
san Diego.)

(0) A limb which branches off at a blunt angle is not liable
to split.

(p) A limb (like a chain) is no stronger than its weakest
point, and therefore there must be no weak points about it.

(qg) The strongest points of a limb must commence at its
base.

(r) Foundation branches can never be built too strong.

(s) Limbs seldom break down by mere weight, but mostly
by vibration, which brings all the strain on the weakest point
at the fork.

186 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

(t) Main branches should be perfectly stiff, not affected by
any vibration whatever.

It is impossible, in a short article like this, to do full justice
to the system, or even attempt to partly explain it in detail.
A few hours with me in the field will do more than can be
attempted here on paper, especially since I am willing and
capable of explaining everything about it. The method is

—————

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Fic. 2—Baronio method of pruning the lemon. (From a sketch
by G. P. Hall, of San Diego.)

shown in the accompanying illustrations, made from sketches
and photographs taken on the spot.

Figs. 1, 2, and 3 represent three rather extreme cases of
straggling Eurekas taken immediately after the first operation.
With the center leader, which probably carried a top to the
height of about ten feet, cut out so that little if anything is left,
any one with a timid heart who did not know any better would
certainly think it impossible to get anything like a tree back
again, but it is astonishing how quickly an entirely new and

THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 187

better structure is brought into existence. First of all, by the
removal of the great leverage which the high top exercised on
the root, this at once gets a chance to obtain a firmer hold of
the ground; the tree puts forth a new effort, and by a much
More vigorous growth and healthier foliage, which act as new
lungs to it, a correspondingly increased activity goes on under
ground, forcing the formation of fresh rootlets, the trunk begins
to thicken in proportion, and so an altogether more satisfactory
condition of things is established. The great necessity for a
good and strong constitution is a proportionately large stem
from the base up, since a tree, like a man, of a strong consti-
tution can stand more than a cripple. Now, fixing our attention

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Fic. 3—Baronio method of pruning the lemon. (From asketch by G.P Hall,
of San Diego.)

on Fig. 1, according to my plan the tree is branched too high, for 1
consider sixteen inches the best height, and if more it should not
exceed two feet; it will therefore be noticed that on the stem about
a foot below the first branch two suckers are already started, the
intention being to let them run straight up, like the one shown
in Fig. 2, then arch them over as seen in Fig. 3. Observe how
the two suckers have been intentionally selected not to be
exactly opposite, one about four inches below the other, this
being essential to form strong, independent branches. It would
require a great number of diagrams and a too lengthy
description to attempt an explanation of the process whereby
the perfect conditions of principle are secured. How weak

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190 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

limbs are made strong enough to overtake those which are
strong already, and how new ones are raised at any desired
position, may be seen in the various orchards of Mr. G. O.
Hilton, and on the “Anna Belle” ranch of Mr. T. F. Jones, all
of which are situated in the “Lemon Villa” tract of the San
Diego mesa, where new limbs from one and a half to two
inches thick have been raised in less than two years, notwith-
standing the exceptionally dry seasons.

When the necessary well-placed limbs have been obtained,
the most eligible ones are selected for structural purposes
and future fruit, whereas the others are reserved for present
fruit only. :

The same remarks apply to Fig. 2; and as to Fig. 3,
although at present it looks to be the most unlikely thing out
of which to evolve a good tree, it will nevertheless make the
best structure and get into shape quicker than either of the
other two. All that is wanted to make it perfect would be to
have the two branches right and left in the picture not located
so nearly opposite to each other.

On each of these three arched branches two suckers are
allowed to run, say one about one foot and the other sixteen
inches from the trunk (all other growth being suppressed),
and when properly matured these suckers are similarly arched,
one to the right and one to the left of the respective original
three branches, which by this time will be set into position and
may therefore be shortened in, leaving to each a sufficiently
long projecting stub to which the corresponding newly arched
suckers may be fastened, and thus no longer obstruct the
ground below. There will then be three main branches, each
subdivided into two secondary branches, giving six structural
points around a circle; and by a succession of similar opera-
tions these are in due time doubled to make twelve, and so on,
always remembering to leave sufficient space between each of
these fan-like main branches so as to allow a man to crawl
through them and get into the middle of the tree to command
the inside surface as far as he can reach.

Everything, in fact, is reduced to a perfect system, rendering
the work a pleasure rather than a toil.

Plates XX and XXI commend themselves, but here the
structural frame is not visible at all, or the effect would prob-
ably be as startling as in the three cases discussed above. Of

THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING, 191

course, each tree being a separate proposition in itself, it is
needless to say that where there is found already a tolerably
good supply of well-placed branches, an opportunity is offered
for an almost immediate symmetrical appearance. But this
ambition must not be too greatly encouraged to the detriment
of solidity, for it is easier and quicker to build a proper branch
anew than to patch up an old one. To know what to remove
and what to leave is an art to be acquired only by practice.

OPEN-CENTER PRUNING OF THE LEMON.*
(Modified from the Baronio Method.)

In the early days of citrus culture in California many lemon-
growers did not believe in pruning. At the present time there
may be a few who still cling to the idea that nature should be
let alone; but nearly all observant growers have been forced,
by the logic of facts, to the conclusion that the lemon tree, in
all its varieties, needs pruning, more or less severe, to bring
about the best results.

While the untrained tree grows rapidly and produces heavy
crops, the fruit runs largely to culls, and often fails to come
to a profitable size. The tree, with its great load of fruit grow-
ing at the ends of long limbs, is at the mercy of the winds, and
is often split and. ruined by the mere weight of its burden.
Therefore, it may be true that the lemon tree left to itself will
produce heavily, but it is generally recognized that to produce
the largest per cent of good-sized and fancy lemons the tree
must be intelligently pruned.

In the method of pruning given in thesketch the main object
has been to shorten back and strengthen the scaffold or main
limbs, so that they will carry their load nearer the center of
the tree and be stocky and stiff enough to withstand strong
winds without swaying and bruising the fruit. This method,
properly carried out, has produced good results. ; It has, how-
ever, caused a tendency in the tree to form too thick and dense
a head; a tendency very hard to combat. Even when carefully
thinned out, trees shortened back in this way grow faster in
their tops than in their lateral branches; on the principle that
the sap flows most freely in vertical lines. The result is apt

‘to be a tree high and all top; and this top, while beautiful to

*By C. W. Leffingwell, Jr.. Manager of the ‘Lefingwell Orchards,”’
Fullerton, Cal.

192 . STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

behold (to a “tenderfoot’’) is not fruitful, but consists chiefly
of rank-growing, vertical leaders, commonly called suckers.
These suckers are not supplied with fruit spurs, and are as
worthless as so much bamboo. Even did they bear fruit, it
would be almost inaccessible, and expensive to pick. The
lower limbs, naturally the most fruitful, are robbed of sap
by the superior drawing powers of the top, and fail to do their
duty.

To overcome these difficulties the “open center” style of
pruning has been tried, and has given good results. By

Ss
oo”

Skeleton sketch of a cross-section of an open-center tree. Hair lines
indicate where to cut limbs.

eliminating the top entirely, the sap is thrown into the lower
branches. These limbs being horizontal rather than vertical,
and more or less bent, elaborate or digest the sap and produce
heavy crops of good-sized fruit. This fruit, moreover, is within
reach from the ground and can be economically picked.
When the tree is once adapted to this form, the regular prun-
ing is more easily and quickly performed, the number of limbs
to be cut being greatly reduced, and all being within reach
from the ground.

An explanation of the details of this system should prop-
erly come under two heads: “Pruning of young trees,” and

THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 193

“Altering old trees.” As most of the lemon trees in California
are three years old or over, this paper will be confined to a
discussion of the method of altering old trees to conform to the
“open-center” style.

It is assumed that the trees to be altered are branched fairly
near the ground. If they have been up high no system of
pruning will bring the fruit within reach from the ground, but
to cut out the tops will save sap and make the lower limbs,
such as they are, more fruitful.

Lemon tree pruned by the open-center method.

Assuming, then, that the grower has trained his trees near
the ground, and has not caused the branches to grow up for
elephants to walk under, the method of procedure is as follows:
Draw an imaginary line around the outside of the tree, as high
up as a man can reach standing on a picking-box. All the
limbs that terminate above thig line should be cut out. Cut
them off at their juncture with the limbs that terminate below
the imaginary line. The sketch on page 192 shows roughly

13c

194 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

the places where to cut to eliminate the top. When this is
done the top of the tree, looking down into it, will look like
the inside of an inverted cone, and the tree may be called
open-centered.

If the trees are small, cut out all limbs that extend up from
the center of the tree at an angle greater than forty-five:
degrees from the horizontal. The tree in appearance will then
be proportionately the same as the older tree above described,
and can be trained gradually to the same limit of height.

The after-treatment of an open-centered tree, whatever its
size, resolves itself into two distinct operations: the treatment
of the hollow top, and the training of the main branches.

The hollow, cone-shaped opening in the top of the tree will
soon be filled with shoots springing from buds on the main
limbs, these buds being now exposed to the sun and excited
into growth. Some of these shoots will stop growing when
from six to twelve inches long, and will harden up and form
fruit spurs. Others of these shoots will continue to grow at
their terminal bud, retaining the color and appearance of tender
sucker growth. When all have grown long enough to show
their character, cut out the suckers and leave the fruit spurs.
As a result, the saucer-like top of the tree will in time be
clothed with short spurs, shading the main limbs, and bearing
fruit of finest quality. The top, before a dense thicket, is now
made fruitful, without in any way interfering with the remain-
ing (most fruitful) branches. With each growth the suckers
will for some years persist in coming, but are easy to take out
as soon as they show their identity.

The treatment of the lower branches which remain is the
same as if the top had not been removed. If the tree has been
well trained from the start its skeleton will consist of three or
four strong main branches leaving the trunk near the ground,
and running out more or less horizontally; and one or two
more sets or decks of the same number of branches, leaving the
trunk above these and extending out at an angle of from thirty
to forty-five degrees. These limbs will have been pruned back
at intervals, and, forming forks at each pruning, will be found
to support an increasing number of branches as the outside of
the tree is approached.

The problem is how to handle the new growth on the tips of
these branches. In solving this problem we should keep in:

THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 195

mind the objects in view, which are: to make the tree stocky,
and at the same time to keep it from getting too dense. The
pruning should be confined entirely to an effort to control the
growth of the skeleton of the tree, letting nature take care of
the fruit spurs with which this skeleton is clothed.

The terminal shoots or leaders of the tree should be left
alone until they have grown to be several feet in length and
from one quarter to one half inch in diameter. They should
then be cut back, leaving from six to ten inches from the last
pruning. In cutting back a vertical leader, cut to a bud that
points out, away from the tree; horizontal leaders should be
cut to a bud that points up. By persevering in this practice
the limbs can be trained out, then up, then out again; they
will be angular and crooked, which is conducive to fruitful-
ness. Their angling direction will help to brace them against
the evergrowing leverage of their fruit and foliage, so that,
while they may in time be bent down to the horizontal, they
will never droop and rest upon the ground.

After each cutting back these leaders should be left alone and
nature given full sway; and this is what will happen: Five or
six buds nearest the cut will be excited into growth. Then
will ensue a struggle to see which of these buds will get the
most sap. The terminal bud is sure to get its share, and
become a strong, sucker-like shoot. Probably one or two others
will secure enough nutriment to become suckers likewise. The
rest of the buds will have to give up their ambition to shine,
and will settle down to the domestic role of bearing lemons,
and thus perpetuating their species. These are the shoots that
we are after. Were it not for the cutting back these buds
would become dormant and lost to use; the leader on which
they are situated would grow five or six feet perhaps, before
nature would make another branching, and give more buds a
chance to go to housekeeping.

How to handle the shoots which get the sap and become
leaders is an important question. It is right here that judi-
cious thinning should be done, to keep the tree from becoming
too dense. All the shoots should be left until long enough to
show which will be fruit spurs and which leaders. All but
one of the leaders, the one which points in the desired direction,
should be cut off clean. This leader will thus become the
foundation of all future growth on this branch. At the next

196 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

pruning it would be well to leave two leaders, laying the
foundation fora new branch. By alternating in this way we
can increase the number of ramifications of the tree, without
getting it too dense—the trouble with most lemon trees.

These new leaders, when grown big enough, should in turn
be cut back, and treated in the same manner. Beyond this,
and keeping water-sprouts out of the center, little need be done
to the tree. Nature will take care of the rest.

It may seem impracticable to apply one set of rules to all
varieties of the lemon tree, but in the experience of the writer,
all have responded to this method of treatment. The Lisbon,
being first and last a lusty grower, is bound, whatever the
style of pruning, to make a rank mass of new wood. Let it
grow, and cut off what is not wanted; let it grow again, and
cut it back again. It can be made to bear plenty of fruit
within easy reach; if left to itself it will produce little but
stovewood.

The Eureka and Villa Franca, being of more tractable habits,
form less and less new wood as they grow older and their crops
increase; so that in time little or no pruning is necessary.

The question has been asked, whether the fruit spurs of the
lemon go on bearing, or die after bearing a few crops; making
necessary a constant growth of new wood, as with the orange
and peach. From observation the writer believes that the
lemon spur, with the apple and pear, is long lived and goes on
bearing for years. If, on the other hand, the spurs are really
short lived, severe pruning alone will insure new wood.

No radical system should be generally adopted without care-
ful trial. The ‘‘open-center” system has been applied to a
large acreage of lemon trees, with unmistakable benefits, and
the number of acres so treated is increasing. In the orchards
in charge of the writer sixteen thousand trees, mostly three
years old, have been changed to conform to this style. Hardly
a tree has been lost in the transformation, and prominent
horticulturists pronounce the trees unsurpassed for their age,
in size, condition, or fruitfulness. Where before was despair
as to what to do with the troublesome tops, now all is simple
and easily done. It would pay every lemon-grower to try
these suggestions on a few trees, and let the results speak for
themselves.

THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—PRUNING. 197

OPEN HORIZONTAL TRIMMING.*

It is so called because the tree is trimmed to present this
form. It is a compromise between the one-deck form of the
perfect Baronio, and the method of allowing trees to run to
suckers.

The principles of Barry, Downing, and Baronio are well
established, and their utility is understood by observing stu-
dents of horticulture.

Trees can be trained to grow in the square, espalier, globe,
vase, or neglected form. The requisite is to have a definite
idea of the form desired and of the office the tree is to per-
form. We get peculiar ideas of form rather from sentiment
than from thought of utility or profit. We think the form we
have been used to seeing is the only proper one to produce,
hence can not think of an apple tree trimmed on the cordon plan
(raising fruit on parallel limbs not two feet from the ground).
There was a man who thought lemon trees should be trimmed
up high, like he had seen apple trees in New York—so that
horses could pass under the lowest limbs. He is now clerking
in a livery stable. We do not fail to trim the grape until a
vineyard looks like a conception of a portion of Inferno by
Dante and Doré. But it is the profitable way to do. We
sucker corn because we want ears instead of bare stalks. Why
not treat the lemon as commercially? It is simply a business
proposition to remove all the superfluous timber, and to retain
the bearing surfaces. It means dollars to have the tree low
and open, rather than so lofty that the price of the fruit is
consumed in traveling up and down the stepladder to get it.

Trees arrange their forms by reason of the different methods
of the distribution of sap. The oak differs from the cypress
by reason of this unerring law. Shrubs, conifers, palms, and
all forms of vegetation assume their respective shapes because
the sap is differently disposed. Some trees, if left to themselves,
run all the sap to the extremities, as is the case with the peach,
apricot, and others, hence in their case the extremities must be
severely cut back, or there is a crop of dead wood in the center
of the tree.

We deduce from this principle, which we have not time to

* By George P. Hall, of San Diego.

198 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

enlarge upon here, the conclusion that the vigor of the tree
depends upon an equal distribution of the flow of sap. Dead
wood is the result of loss of sap in either root or limb. Trees
left to themselves assume an individuality that is seldom
profitable. The wild apple, orange, and lemon are of little value
commercially. We must therefore train them along lines of pro-
duction. To obtain certain results we must direct the flow of sap
in the channels in which we wish it to flow, having a definite
purpose in view, otherwise all so-called trimming is simply
butchery. The tree must be balanced, therefore arrest growth
where there is a superfluity and encourage growth where it is
lacking. Trim short when wood growth is desired. Use the
biblical injunction, “To him that hath shall be given, and to
him that hath not shall be taken away even that which he
hath.” Cut feeble limbs short and encourage upright growth,
because upright growth produces wood. The feeble parts
deprived of fruit will produce wood; the strong parts loaded
with fruit will produce less wood. Bend the strong parts down,
keep the weak erect. The more erect the branches, the greater
the flow of sap to the growing parts; hence the feeble parts left
erect attract more sap than the strong parts bent down or
inclined. Sap acts with more force on a limb pruned short
than on a long one. Two buds with the same flow of sap as in
twenty buds will be stronger than any of the twenty. Prune
short for wood branches, because vigorous shoots produce few
fruit buds. Prune long for fruit, as it is the most tender and
feeble buds that produce the fruit; bend the limbs at an
angle or to a horizontal position to produce fruit buds. Prune
short the parts that have overborne; to secure a prolongation,
prune to a vigorous wood bud and let nothing interfere. The
more the sap is obstructed in its circulation, the more the tree
is disposed to produce fruit. The sap traveling slowly is
subjected to slower assimilation and is better adapted to the
production of fruit.

To change a fruit branch to a wood branch, give it an upright
position; to make a wood branch bear fruit, bend it to nearly a
horizontal position.

Light and air are essential. The rapid growth is toward the
source of light. Upward growth gives strength of wood, but
less fruit.

I do not say the horizontal method is the only one, for fruit

THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA— PRUNING. 199

= ie of different form; but I do say that

ave stated must be followed in order to
obtain the best results financially, and also to promote the
longevity of the tree.

My reasons for advocating the horizontal form are that fruit
raised on short spurs is less expensive to pick, is of better
quality, and the tree relieved of its superfluous wood may
develop into a fruit producer instead of being a specimen of
growth under the timber culture act. The tree can not produce
an immense amount of wood and bear a large quantity of good
fruit at one and the same time. Educate the tree to cease
raising suckers, and the height and size of your trees are
controlled.

In cutting back large trees and in retaining all the horizontal
limbs, the tree immediately turns its attention toward fruit-
fulness, because the sap is directed along fruitful channels
instead of being sent toward the sky. By preserving all well-
placed limbs a foundation to build on is secured, with some
expectation of reaping a reward for labor expended.

The cost of picking fruit from trees trimmed on the horizon-
tal plan, and not more than eight or ten feet in height, is
greatly reduced.

We can but barely hint at the wideness of the application
of the principles of the horizontal method, so we simply
recapitulate:

Trees receive their individual form by the natural direction
of the sap; therefore, direct the sap and you control the tree.

Most trees send the sap to the top, being drawn thereto by
the sun. Change the habit.

Vigor of the tree depends on equal distribution of the sap;
therefore, distribute it by judicious trimming.

Trees left entirely to themselves are seldom profitable. The
wild tree must be civilized by grafting or budding, and
pruning.

Trees can be trained to assume at the same time profitable
and symmetrical forms. Results come from systematically
directing the growing life of the tree.

The tree must be balanced top and root. Pruning gives
activity to root growth. Loss of limbs incites healthy action

of the roots.

200 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

Deprive the feeble parts of fruit, and make the vigorous
parts bear all they will.

Bend the strong parts down, put the weak erect. Tie and
arrange limbs as you want them. Make the tree your servant.

The greater the number of erect limbs in a tree, the sooner
will its vitality be exhausted; it lives too fast.

Fruit grown on short spurs is less Hable to injury.

The horizontal type of pruning gives a definite plan for the
life and habit of your tree, which is immensely superior to all
others.

Lay a horizontal superstructure, and you build your tree
strongly.

It is important that the man who plans the form of the tree
should follow its training thereafter. Do not deliver it over to
the accidental haggler who does not understand your plan,
and has none of his own. Snipping is not trimming.

There is but little loss of fruit, or time, in changing the
form of the tree by the horizontal method of pruning; the tree
immediately begins a fruitful career.

Tree pruned by the so-called ‘‘Semi-Baronio System.”

SEMI-BARONIO SYSTEM.

As is often the case, there are always many who believe they
can improve upon whatever method may be used, as in this
instance. Several orchards have been treated by what is called

THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—TREATMENT. 201

the “Semi-Baronio System.” This consists mainly of taking out
the center of large trees, allowing the ingress of air and light,
but otherwise without any scientific principle. The growth at
the top and on the outside is cut back, as in the rounding
system of old. The branches put forth numerous shoots, which
are again shortened the season following, and so the work
goes on.

TREATMENT OF THE LEMON.

The systems of processing the lemon for market are numerous,
but in all the main objects are to reduce the thickness of the
rind, to close up the pores of the skin in a natural way, 80 as
to render the texture smooth and velvety to the touch, while
the lemon remains firm and solid, to increase its juiciness,
and to hold the fruit in that condition to supply the market
when it is at its best.

J. W. Freeman, of Ontario, gives the following suggestions
in handling and processing lemons, derived from the experience
of years of processing and marketing lemons by the Ontario
Exchange:

‘‘The question that is now to the front in the lemon industry
is what might properly be termed lemon-holding. Those most
familiar with the business have, for some time, been convinced
that some way should be devised for taking the surplus fruit
off the winter market, and holding it for the summer trade.
Indeed, the life of the industry seemed to depend upon the possi-
bility of that being successfully done. With that end in view
a few of our growers, beginning with the November pick, held
their winter lemons until May, June, and July, of the season
of 1896-97, securing satisfactory results as to keeping qualities
and prices. Encouraged by the success of these, some eighty of
our members pursued the same plan the following season, with
like results, excepting that some of the fruit was marketed in
August, a month later than the year before. It would be only
fair to say that success has not been uniform in each case, but
it has been in proportion to the care taken and the facilities for
storing the fruit. An expensive house is not necessary, indeed
almost any place will do in winter; but appliances for keeping
a low, even temperature are necessary in summer, and doubt-
less are desirable in winter as well. A fairly tight box with

202.—i«; STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

plenty of fresh air circulating about it, at a temperature
between 60° and 70°, seems to us to be the essential condition
for the best success in holding lemons. Shade will greatly help
in keeping down temperature, and is, by some, thought to be
equal to a double wall. Means should be provided, by doors,
windows, or ventilators, for thoroughly changing the air every
night, unless in very damp weather, when it might be advisable
to air in daytime. Fruit should not be allowed to wilt before
putting away, but the boxes should be left somewhat open for
a time, varying according to the conditions of the place in
which they are, to allow surplus moisture to pass off. The top
boxes should be well covered, so that the fruit will not dry out and
thus become worthless. It is desirable to retard what is known
as the curing process as long as possible; therefore, each grower
should study the conditions of his house, and have as little
evaporation as possible, without allowing moisture to collect
on the fruit. This will also prevent the fruit from getting soft.
Stacking fruit in large piles without spaces between should be
avoided, although we have known it to keep well for a time in
that way, when it was not in a close room. Medium-sized
houses seem to be preferable. To be in ideal condition the
fruit should come out firm, with stems fast and green. This
will not be the case if fruit heats or sweats. The fruit should
be placed so that it can be inspected occasionally, and defects
remedied.

“Having said this much, any description of a house will be
unnecessary, as such a one as will meet the requirements of
each grower will readily suggest itself. I might say, however,
that a sloping roof inside with air holes at ridge will give
better ventilation than a flat ceiling. We deem it desirable, if
not essential, that each grower hold his own fruit.

“A word as to the fruit. All that has ever been said as to
the need of carefully handling the fruit should have full
weight. The trees should be kept clean. The fruit can not be
at its best if the trees are infested with scale and the fruit has
to be washed; but should that be the case, the lemons should,
by all means, be brushed or washed when taken from the trees.
The fruit should be looked over carefully, and the inferior,
dark-colored, and small-sized kept by themselves with a view to
earlier marketing. Fruit carefully picked and properly stored
under right conditions, if uninjured by frost, will need very

THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—TREATMENT, 2038

little handling, if any, before shipping. The less handling the
better. As much fruit as the trade will take at fair prices
should be marketed during the winter. The matter of the
desirability of winter marketing will have to be governed by
the outlook for the coming summer and the supply.

“ What effect a heavy rain or an irrigation has on the keep-
ing qualities of fruit picked immediately after, is a disputed
question. Ordinarily no harm can come by waiting, and good
may.

“The important points regarding the question of storing
are, we think, fairly well covered, so far as our experience goes,
and they are: Experience in picking the lemons at their proper
maturity and size; the greatest care and tenderness in hand-
ling them in all the processes of storage and marketing; keep-
ing them in an even temperature of from 60° to 70°, and
frequent change of air in the storage house and apartments;
and individual holdings.”

A. J. Everest, manager of the Everest orchards at Riverside,
in the “California Fruit Grower” of November 25, 1895,
describes his method of picking, curing, and packing lemons
for shipment, as follows:

“We pick our lemons whenever they are large enough, with-
out regard to color, preferably while green or slightly turned,
taking care that no fruit smaller than the 300 size to the box
is picked, as the fruit shrinks some in curing, and thus increases
the number to the box. We have used rings to determine the
size, but find it too much trouble to try a ring on each lemon,
and now give each packer a lemon of the proper size, and let
him continually compare his picking.

“After being picked we haul the lemons to the shed, and
pile them up in the picking-boxes for two or three weeks, or
until most of the moisture is dried out, before placing them in
the curing-house. We then wrap the lemons separately in tissue
paper and lay them on trays one layer deep, having previously
graded the fruit. We then store them in our curing-house,
which is made with double walls, filled in with sawdust to keep
the room at an even temperature. We have ventilators in
ceiling and floor of room, and regulate amount of fresh air
and temperature by them, allowing temperature to stand from
56° to 60° as a rule.

“Storage curing-trays are about three inches deep, with a
cleat on each end, thus raising them up to allow the air to

204 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

circulate among the fruit, and to keep everything dry as far as
advisable. We find that fruit picked early and while quite
green, say in November, always cures the best and with the
least possible shrinkage or loss by decay.

‘““When packing the fruit for shipment, the wraps that were
used for curing can be used, except where the paper has been
moistened by decay in the vicinity or is torn or wet from other
causes. It is better to remove all old wraps, regrade the fruit,
and then pack the same as oranges, using if possible the Sicily
style of box, which is obtainable now on this Coast.”

In 1890, N. W. Blanchard, of Santa Paula, an extensive
lemon-grower, and President and General: Manager of the
Lemonia Company, of Santa Paula, read an essay on “The
lemon and its treatment,” before the State Fruit-Growers’ Con-
vention, in which he described his method of curing lemons,
essentially the same as now practiced by him. In 1894, in an
essay before the Farmers’ Institute at Santa Barbara, he said:

“The essentials for keeping lemons several months are to
exclude the air, or any circulation of air around the fruit, and
at the same time to give ample circulation of air about the
trays or boxes that contain the lemons. My experience is, that
if there are a good many boxes of lemons closely massed, even
with cool weather some of the fruit will decay. When one
lemon begins to rot heat is generated, and this acts like yeast,
causing fermentation and rottenness to spread rapidly. I do
not think expensive buildings are necessary. I have seen
no better cured and preserved lemons than some that were
wrapped in pieces of newspaper, placed in layers in common
boxes with more paper between layers, the boxes covered with
light covering so as to shut off all circulation of air, and all piled
in the end of an airy barn. These lemons were shown to me
in July, and I was informed that they were cut in November
previous. The lemons were firm, finely colored, and in excel-
lent condition for shipment.

“J know no reason for changing my method of curing
lemons. I continue to use trays two by three feet and three
inches deep, each holding only one layer of lemons. They are
convienient to work with and to examine the lemons. They
should be carefully made, so that when the trays are stacked
one on the other there is no chance for the air to reach the
fruit.

THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA— TREATMENT. 205

“The lemons are picked frequently, if there are any suitable
to pick, so as to prevent having over-large and over-ripe fruit.
I generally use a ring two and one quarter inches in diameter,
and take all that will not pass through it.

“The lemons are cut close to the fruit, handled very care-
fully, hauled from the orchard in a truck on springs, washed
immediately if smutty or dusty, then placed on trays, and from
one to ten days afterward piled away for keeping, if they are
to be kept or need the darkness to color. If already colored
and needed for immediate consumption, the trays are cross
piled, so as to give them all the air possible. If for remote
shipment, the lemons should be shipped quite hard, and even
a little green, for they will cure in transit or in the hands of
the jobber and retailer.”

T. J. Ashby, Secretary of the Pasadena Lemon-Growers’
Association, in a report to the association, says:

“The stems must be cut close, but care must be taken not to
cut, scratch, or bruise the fruit. It is found that many culls
are made by careless clipping and long finger-nails.

“The desirable sizes are the 360’s in summer and the 300’s
in winter. These measure 24 and 24 to 2% inches. Lemons
above and below are graded, subject to the discretion of the
manager.

“Temon groves should be picked over once a month. Use
padded baskets or pails, into which the fruit should be laid,
not dropped or thrown, then carefully transfer to boxes placed
in the shade.

“Pick before irrigation or wait several days. Never pick
lemons moist from fog or dew, or leave them unprotected after
gathering.

‘Haul to the warehouse on easy springs; drive carefully and
have the lemons covered to protect from dust and sun. We
advise delivering or placing in barn or shed as soon as possible
after picking.

“Smutty fruit received will be washed or sponged at the
expense of the grower. Members have the option of doing this
for themselves, but it is well to remember that spraying or
fumigating is much less of an expense.

“Tt will pay the grower to cull his own fruit and not be
forced to haul it both ways. Experience will soon show a
novice what to reject.

206 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

“The sum of these suggestions is that the one who brings the
best grade of carefully handled fruit is the one who gets the
best returns at the least personal expense.”

The Advisory Board of the Lemon-Growers, who are affiliated
with the Southern California Fruit Exchange, through Morton
Haig, of San Gabriel, formulated and published, in April, 1897,
the following hints regarding the gathering, etc., of fruit:

“Have pickers’ nails trimmed short; few will believe how
much fruit goes as ‘culls’ from damage by long finger-nails.

“Clip the fruit close to the stem.

“Do not use sacks in which to gather; lemons are thereby
bumped and bruised with every movement of the body. Use
baskets lined with sacking.

“Do not tumble fruit from the basket into boxes, but handle
lemons as you would eggs, from start to finish.

“Never pick when there is moisture from fog, and wait at
least four to five days after rain or irrigation.

“Place all filled boxes on the north side of the tree, and
shade closely from the sun.

“Go over trees once every four or five weeks, and thus save
sun-burned and over-sized fruit, all of which goes as a third-
grade fruit, or is, more frequently, thrown out.

“Pick in winter months to a uniform size of 24 inches in
diameter, and in summer months to a uniform size of 24
inches. Metal rings for this purpose can easily be obtained or
made.

“Loaded wagons should never be allowed to trot or bump
over plow furrows, ditches, or chuckholes.

“Tf dirty fruit has to be washed, let this process be gotten
over quickly; by employing the greatest number possible to
this end, will save the fruit immensely. During all undue
exposures the work of deterioration is rapidly progressing.
Here again avoid all dumping of the fruit, and look to washers’
nails.

“Tf fruit has to be taken to depot or central packing-house,
let it be done, in summer, during the cool of the morning or
evening.

“The grower, in following out such suggestions, has then
done his level best. A responsible curer, packer, and a good
market will do the rest.

THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA—SIZES, HANDLING, ETC. 207

“The above applies equally to oranges in their separate
treatment. There would be fewer complaints of fruit arriving
at its Journey’s end ‘heated,’ etc., if growers were more partic-
nlar with regard to handling.

“It has been specially noted, for instance, by the exchanges,
that during the wet months serious damage has ensued from
gathering oranges too early after a heavy rain, and in many
districts the ‘washing and scrubbing’ system has been added to
the already soft and soddened fruit conditions.”

LEMON SIZES—STANDARD BOX.

The sizes of lemons packed for shipment differ from those
used in packing the orange for shipment. The sizes are 210,
240, 250, 275, 288, 300, 360, and 420. Occasionally larger and
smaller sizes are packed, should the market warrant their
shipment. Of the sizes named, the 300 and 860 are recognized
by the trade as regular sizes, and all others known as off sizes.

The standard lemon box, and the one now generally used in
California is—

Standard Lemon Box, 10%4’’x 14x 27”.

WnidSi6 2225 sc sch esi ach oe csce soe ah nD PIECES HALO ed
Sides. eo elec ees, case oboseeteees sece eo pleces! ig 97g" x 27"
Tops'and bottoms 2.2..2)s.<-0-22 2.5 2325-0 4 pieces 144” x 634 x 27”
Oléatsiea 5 ees ocean se se bad cass see ssese 2 pieces 34” x = 34""x 13814”

COST OF HANDLING LEMONS.

The cost of handling lemons from the tree to the car, without
including the expenses mentioned, was given to the Tariff Com-
mittee of Southern California as follows by N. W. Blanchard,
of Santa Paula:

“Actual cost of picking, brushing, sorting, and packing
lemons, per box, including paper wrappers and boxes, for the
year 1896, as per account kept of same, was 63 cents. The box
used for lemons was the orange box. The standard lemon box
is fifteen per cent larger than the orange box, the standard box
being 103’x 14”x 124”, inside measurements for each of the
two compartments. Adding fifteen per cent to the above cost
of 63 cents would make the cost of the standard lemon box

72 cents.

208

STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

“For labor I pay the following prices per day:

“The cost of handling lemons, as above, does not include
anything for general overseer of the orchard, or for clerical

HOP OulSs sccceccte seces, eee yn eee eA aw erence es see ao cee $1 00
For ordinary men’s labor_...-_-...--.. -.---.--------------- 1 25
For more experienced men___.._...---.-.------------------- 1 50
For foreman of the pickers in the orchard .----------- ----- 1 75
For overseer in packing lemons -...--_.----.--------------- 2 00

help in the office.”

B. A. Woodford, Secretary and Manager of the Ontario Lemon
Exchange, gave the same committee a statement showing in
detail the cost of a box of lemons from the tree to the car, as

follows:

Picking (Hauling calculated in orchard expenses). $0 15 to $0 18

Hxchan S6 €xX pense. ..2.2.ssccssseseseesescesessceass 20
Packin tine caw co oyu ae aes ee am as 08
Rent of plant ($5,000 investment) ...-..-.---.------ 08
Curing expense (labO?) 22.2 5-+ceencccessceecc senses 15
Office and miscellaneous expense --_.----.--.------ 14
Total expense to car, per box--_--.---------------- $0 80 to $0 83
rele nt. ease Ste a es eo eee ae cee 1 00
Coshot selling winter 2.0% 2 se. vegstas-coa seasssacsase 12
Total cost per box, winter shipment .--.---._-__. “¥1 92 to $1 95
Summer Shipment.
Winter SHIPMECN. c0s conc sacsccaseceacdas eernecccen 1 9210 $L 05
Increased cost of selling (25c.).-.-...---._-. 2-2... 13
WCING A totces eaten Sa dae at sees ae seen wey ents 229

Lemon Grove, Chula Vista.

THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY. 209

SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY.

By W. Catron Grassy, F.L.S. (Being a summary of notes collected by him

as Honorary Commissioner for the South Australian Government.*)

Sicily, the Home of the Lemon.—Sicily is a triangular
island, with a narrow coastal plain bordering a central moun-
tainous plateau, rugged and largely forest-clad, terminating on
the east in the black, fissure-furrowed, lava-covered slopes of
voleanic Etna, On the north coast is Palermo, the largest
town, and chief center of the lemon industry. Messina on the
east coast to the north of Etna, and Catania to the south of
the same mountain, divide the major portion of the remaining
trade. The Australian lemon trade is chiefly in the hands of
Messina merchants, and the fruit is sent via Naples, Brindisi,
or Marseilles. Sulphur, citric acid, oil of lemon, and sumac
chiefly pass through the trade channels of Genoa or London,
or both.

Sicily is preéminently the home of the lemon. It does well
in many other places, but it reaches perfection in Sicily.
Why? The question is a most important one, and I have
thought over it a great deal. The St. Michael orange, the
Jaffa orange, or the Sicilian lemon, even when grown from
trees raised in other places and taken to other parts of the
world, generally, for the time at least, possess the outward
form and general characteristics, but lack the fine quality,
of the luscious fruit which has secured a world-wide reputa-
tion. There is a close relationship, not at all understood,
between local conditions and the product of the plants. A
close study of the problems of fruit culture has led me to think
that while we should introduce all new and desirable varieties
of fruits from all parts of the world, because we never know
which will prove particularly valuable under our conditions,
we should pay a great deal more attention to the improvement
of our own varieties. I must not, however, discuss the whole
question now. It is only necessary to emphasize the fact that
the conditions of soil and climate in Sicily are particularly
suited to the lemon, and that by generations of experience the

Published in ‘‘Garden and Field” of Adelaide, South Australia; five
chapters, commencing in the December, 1898, number.

14c

210 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

Sicilian has learned how to deal with lemons better than any
one else. It does not follow, however, that the whole of Sicily
is adapted to lemon culture, or that the lemons grown in the
various districts are of equal quality.

Mountain and Coastal Lemons.—A study of the varying
conditions in Sicily, when considered in relation to the vary-
ing conditions in South Australia, leads to valuable lessons.
Speaking generally, Sicilian lemons are known as mountain-
grown lemons and coastal or plains lemons. This distinction,
however, does not always mean that the lemons were grown
among the mountains, but rather that they were grown in soil
corresponding to the soil of the mountain lemon districts. As
a rule, the coastal plains consist of a light sandy soil, often
with a gravelly subsoil. The hillside soils are stronger and
consist of a well-drained clay loam, and it is on these soils that
lemons of the best quality are produced. The fruit so grown
is more solid and more juicy, and altogether of finer quality.
Speaking of this, the United States Consul at Messina, Mr.
Jones, said: “The soil has a great influence upon the maturing
and keeping qualities of oranges and lemons. The fruit ripens
earlier on light sandy soil than on clay soil. Fruit grown on
light sandy soil can not be left long on the trees without losing
quality through becoming dry and spongy, whereas on clay
soils it is sometimes allowed to hang from December or Jan-
uary until April. The fruit grown on sandy soil is smaller
and of a paler yellow. That grown on the clay soils is larger
and keeps better. Trees on clay soil resist drought much
better.” As an example, it may be mentioned that the fruit
grown in the groves to the southwest of Palermo district is
much more highly prized than that from the groves on the
northwest, the sole difference being the clay and sandy char-
acters of the soils. ‘Mountain lemons,” which is synonymous
with fruit grown on loamy clay soil, bring as much as one
third more than “coast fruit,” which is grown on light sandy
soil. The superiority is always attributed to the soil more
than to the elevation. “Fruit produced on the plains of
Portello, the soil uf which is clay, brings the same price as
that grown on the heights of Monreale,” about the beauties of
which and the wonderful mosaics of the Cathedral, I hope to
have something to say at another time.

THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY—CULTURE. 211

Climatic Conditions.—From what I have just said it will
be gathered that the lemon lands of Sicily may be divided into
two classes—first with respect to soil, and second with respect
to altitude. The coastal zone embraces the narrow coastal
plains and the lower portions of the valleys up to 1,000 or
1,500 feet above sea-level. The mountain region includes the
higher valleys and hills from 1,500 to about 3,000 feet above
sea-level. Beyond this the climate is too moist and the frost
too severe for lemon culture. This wide range of altitude
within a limited area is an important factor in the production
and marketing of lemons. The fruit near the coast ripens
first, and the lemon harvests succeed one another as one
proceeds into the interior. It will be readily seen that it is
difficult to summarize the climatic conditions of a range of
country such as I have indicated. The best I can do is to give
the range of temperature of Palermo, which is on the north
coast. Ordinarily the thermometer ranges from about 34°
Fahr. in winter to 95° Fahr. in summer. The average for the
year is about 70° Fahr. Occasionally it rises as high as 104°
Fahr., and sinks as low as 30° Fahr. There is not, however,
much difference between Palermo and Adelaide in temperature,
but the climate of Palermo is more humid than ours, and the
contrasts less sudden. The hot south wind of Sicily comes
from the deserts of North Africa, but it has to travel over the
moisture-laden surface of the Mediterranean, so that when it
reaches Sicily, although it is hot, it has lost the parching
power of our north wind, fresh from the almost treeless plains
of the vast interior of Australia.

The year may he divided into a wet and adry period. During
the winter, or from the end of September to April, the prevail-
ing winds are strong and constant, and bring a large amount
of moisture. The fall during the six months named averages
22 inches, and the average for the year is between 25 and 80
inches.

SICILIAN LEMON CULTURE.

The methods of culture of the lemon in Sicily vary more or
less in different districts under different conditions. It is
impossible to describe all the varying details, so that it will
be necessary for the reader to consider my remarks as the pre-
vailing conditions. My notes are the result of careful inquiry

212 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

and observation, extending from the coastal region well up into
the mountains, and I have verified them as far as possible by
reference to the scanty literature on the subject. This is almost
entirely confined to more or less brief references to the subject
in British and American consular reports. The most complete
account of Sicilian lemon culture I have seen is that by Acting-
Consul de Garston, made in 1895. Some of the statements in
some of these reports appear to me to be a little misleading, in
consequence, I think, of the writers not being familiar with
fruit culture, and so misunderstanding the information given
by growers, but they are valuable in many respects.

The Nursery.—For convenience and clearness, I will divide
the life of the tree into two periods. These are clearly marked,
but very unequal in duration. The first is the nursery period,
and extends over from five to six, and sometimes seven years.
The second is the management of the tree in the lemon grove.
The usual care is taken to secure a suitable plot of ground for
the seed-bed, but I did not find the practice, followed by our
nurserymen, of raising seedlings in frames, to be in operation.
Formerly young trees were largely raised from layers or cut-
tings, but this practice is almost discontinued, because the trees
are considered less robust and more subject to disease. Up to
within the last twenty years the stocks were raised from lemon
seed, but now the bitter orange, Citrus bigaradia, is almost
always used. I think it is called Cedrangoli amari by the
Sicilian growers. The dry seed from this stock is, I believe,
sold at from 1.50 lire to 2.00 lire per kilogram (a kilo is about
2.2 pounds, so that the seed costs roughly 8d. per pound). The
bitter orange is a free, vigorous grower, and possesses a hardy
constitution not subject to disease. The seed-bed, having been
carefully prepared of sandy loam, is divided into rectangular
plots, each surrounded by a raised border or bank, so arranged
that water can be run into each for irrigation purposes and the
plot flooded. About a quart of orange-pips are sown on a plot
about ten feet by two feet, and are covered with about one inch
of sandy soil. The pips are planted in spring (March or April),
and are frequently soaked in water before sowing. When sown,
the plot is well watered, and it is kept moist during the whole
of the summer until the first autumn rains, by watering every
four days at least. The young plants show in about two

THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY—CULTURE. 213

months, and are set out in the nursery in the following spring,
when about eighteen inches high.

Method of Culture.—The amount of labor involved in rais-
ing a lemon tree and bringing it into bearing appears to be
many times greater than with us, and I think we expect to
obtain crops two or three years earlier than does the Sicilian,
Who does not bud his stocks until the fourth or fifth year, and
does not expect them to bear until they are eight years old.
In this connection it should also be mentioned, that if he waits
three years longer he expects his trees to give him a crop for
from forty to one hundred years. It is stated that in some
cases both orange and lemon trees in Sicily live to be two
hundred years old. In thinking over this I am led to ask, Do
we force our trees too much? Were the stocks used on our old
trees of a poor quality? Or why do our old trees cease to pro-
duce good fruit and die so much earlier than those of Sicily?
I do not know, but these questions may be worth considering.
The nursery is very carefully chosen, the two main consider-
ations being the soil and the sunny aspect. After being
thoroughly well worked it is divided into small plots, each with
a raised mound of soil. These plots are not of uniform size.
In some districts what is called the “ Mettere a Casella” (plant-
ing in a cell) system is adopted. In this system the nursery is
divided into small cells or plots about eighteen inches square,
and a year-old seedling, generally about eighteen inches high,
is planted in each corner of the cell. Each plant is tied to a
straight stick, and so made to grow as straight as possible. At
the beginning of the third year alternate plants are taken out
and replanted. This is called planting in “ piantonaio.” In
the fifth year the stocks are usually budded. I was struck
with the, fine, large, tall, straight saplings which the stocks
formed in their fifth year.

In other districts a somewhat different method is followed.
The plots are much larger. Each one is surrounded by a
mound of soil, and is placed end on to an irrigation channel, so
arranged that the water can be run onto the plots one after the
other for the frequent irrigations. In these plots the seedlings
are set out at a distance of not less than eighteen inches. The
plants are carefully tended and watered every week during the
first year, and every second week afterward. In the fifth year

214 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

they are tall, well-grown trees of, say, an inch in diameter, and
are then grafted or budded. Sometimes this is done in the
nursery, and sometimes the saplings are set out in their per-
manent position first. In either case the bud or graft is made
about four feet from the ground. The methods followed are
in no iinportant point different from those followed here. The
most frequent practice is to use the shield-bud method in
early summer, and when this fails, to bud again in autumn,
and allow the bud to remain dormant until spring.

The land for the lemon grove is well prepared, and in the
hot months of July and August the “formelle,” or holes for
planting, are dug about three feet deep, and in the late autumn,
or early spring, the saplings are removed from the nursery
and set out. Before planting, the trees are often made to
undergo a peculiar treatment, called the “ Ordeal of Darkness.”
They are dug up from the nursery and put in wicker baskets
filled with loam and conveyed to a dark room, where they are
kept away from the light for about fifteen days. They are then
exposed to half-lght for five days, and then placed in an ex-
posed, but shady spot, for a month. Should a tree show signs of
sickness it is again conveyed to the dark room for eight or ten
days more. Itis said that trees subjected to this ordeal seldom,
if ever, fail to take speedy root and thrive. The trees are
planted at from twelve to fifteen feet apart, and the rows are
placed as nearly north and south as can be managed.

How Trees Are Trained.—The system of training the trees
with a high, straight stem, and planting closely together, ren-
ders it necessary to prune trees much more than is done in
South Australia. The trees meet overhead, but one can walk
upright under the main branches. Sunlight and a free circu-
lation of air are essential to the lemon, therefore the trees are
kept open by systematic pruning and trimming, so that in an
old grove there is an even distribution of fruit over the whole
area.

Annual Crops Between Trees.—It is the custom to grow
cereals, vegetables, peas, beans, lupins, and other crops
between the trees for some years. Quite frequently, too, vines
or cotton plants are grown in the young lemon groves. Of
course, such groves receive much hand cultivation, regular
manuring, and liberal cultivation. When the development of

THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY—CULTURE. 215

the lemon trees prevents the further cultivation of annual
crops, the work assumes a regular character.

Irrigation.— Wherever possible, irrigation takes place at
regular intervals through the summer months. In the moun-
tains this is done by gravitation from the mountain streams,
and the irrigation ditches are always a prominent feature in the
lemon grove. Usually each tree stands in-the center of a basin,
formed by a small
mound of soil, and
into this basin the
water is run at in-
tervals. On the
lower lands I found
artificial means of
raising water were
used, and I was
struck with the ex-
tent and complete-
ness of the steam
pumping plants in
some of the larger
plantations. IJ
think there must
have been many
miles of concrete
channels. These
channels were
sometimes five or
six feet above the
level of the ground,
and were carried on
concrete walls
about eighteen
inches thick. When it was necessary to cross one of the road-
ways which divided the grove into regular blocks for conven-
ience of gathering the crop, and other work, an earthenware
inverted siphon was used, carrying the water under the road
and up the other side. Except for the siphons, these channels
reminded one of the old Roman aqueducts on a small scale.
The first irrigation is given in June, when the fruit from the

Sicilian lemon tree, showing method of pruning.

216 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

early bloom is the size of a pea, and the trees are still in bloom.
In dry districts perhaps nine other waterings will be given.

Pruning and Trimming.—In a former article, in speaking
of the training of lemon trees in Sicily, I used two terms—
“pruning” and “trimming.” These must be explained, or
they may lead to misunderstanding.

By trimming (“rimondaments’’) is meant the removal of all
dry twigs, suckers, water shoots, stunted or rank growth, and

Sicilian lemon trees planted on side hills

twigs which have borne and become exhausted. This is done
in the winter, and should be carefully attended to every year.

In addition to this about every three years the trees are
gone over more thoroughly, and thinned out after the main
crop is gathered. This is called pruning, and should not be
required to any great extent if the trimming has been properly
done. The object is to maintain an open tree, into which light
and air can freely penetrate as a preventive of disease and so
that the fruit may be evenly distributed on the inner as well
as on the outer branches.

It must not be understood that the Sicilian lemon trees are
pruned with open centers, for that would be quite misleading.

THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY—CULTURE. 217

The trees are usually trained with a main trunk stem, from
which the branches put out at irregular intervals. The pruning
simply gives an airy, open-branched tree, which is necessary,
because the trees are planted so closely together—from twelve
to sixteen feet—that the branches meet and interlace, so that
if the tops were not kept open light and air would be excluded.
Again, by allowing the trees to grow into one another it becomes
necessary to cut away all the lower limbs and to train the trees
with high trunks, in order that the workmen and pickers may
pass beneath. In giving these reasons I am in a measure
theorizing, because the Sicilian does not know why he does
this or many other things, except that his father and grand-
father did the same. I did find a few groves where the trees
were planted at from eighteen to twenty-four feet apart, and then
they were allowed to assume much the same shape as those to
be seen in the Payneham and Marden orangeries. This was
particularly noticeable in a large orangery of about one hun-
dred acres that I visited about six miles from Palermo, in
connection with the Villa Elleanora del Principe di Scalea.
The tendency is to give more room to the orange trees than to
the lemon trees.

The lemon groves are generally surrounded by stone walls
about five feet high, but often eight or nine feet high. The
latter I gather were originally built as a protection to the
people in the lawless condition of the country. This idea is
also seen in the character of the buildings. At present the walls
serve as protection from winds. .I found them a nuisance, for
they often necessitated my stopping my driver and going inside,
when, had the walls been low, I could have satisfied myself by
looking over.

Cultivation and Fertilization.—The care taken of Sicilian
lemon groves varies as greatly as does the attention given to
fruit trees in all countries I have visited. As a rule, however,
they are generally well cared for, and an immense amount of
labor is expended on them. I was informed that notwith-
standing the low wages of from 1s. to 2s. a day for men, the
average cost of working a lemon grove is not less than 650 lire
per hectare. This is equal to about £10 an acre, and I was
informed that near Catania the expense was sometimes three
times that.

218 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

The soil is dug or hoed from three to five times a year. The
Sicilian hoe is like a small shovel on a bent handle. In
January or February the soil is dug fairly deep, and the trees are
manured. In April the soil is stirred again, and the “conche,”
or embanked basins, are formed. In June it is dug again for
weeding. Lemon trees are manured every year in some groves,
every other year in others, and every third year in perhaps the
majority. The decomposed droppings of different animals,
decayed litter and leaves, bones, ashes, etc., are used as they
are available, and in some cases artificial manures are applied.

A year after the tree is planted the soil is cleared away
around the base, commencing at a distance of perhaps two feet
and to a depth of a foot or fifteen inches, and into the trench
are emptied two baskets of compost, weighing perhaps forty or
fifty pounds. The trench is then filled up, and the earth
placed to form a mound around the tree. A similar method
is followed in applying manure to old trees, but the trench is
made at a greater distance from the base, according to the size
of the tree. For old trees, from eighty to ninety pounds of
compost are applied to each tree. Manure is best applied in
winter or in early spring. Autumn manuring is considered to
affect unfavorably the quality of the lemons.

In driving through the country, and in more closely inspect-
ing many groves of varying areas in different localities, no fact
more strongly impressed me than the very striking difference
in the healthiness, cleanliness, and freedom from disease of
orchards and trees, often on, adjoining properties. When a
grower, from want of capital, laziness, or bad management,
does not irrigate, manure, and cultivate his grove, the trees
tell even the passer-by of the neglect. The generality of the
lemon groves are well cared for, the trees are healthy and the
fruit clean. In some localities I found the lemon round scale
fairly frequent, but no systematic treatment with insecticides
is practiced.

’

CROPS.

I have already referred to the succession of crops, and to
the fact that as the lemon is cultivated over a considerable
range of climate, the lemon harvest continues for many
months. It was pointed out that the April blossoms produced
a crop of lemons in October, those of May in November and

THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY—CROPS. 219

December in any given locality. The October fruit is known
as “primo-fiore,” or choice fruit; and that ripening in Novem-
ber and December is nearly as good. The fruit of these three
months constitutes the most abundant crops as well as the
best fruit. The June blossoms produce fruit which ripens in
January and February, and is of second quality. The July
blossoms usually fall off, and little notice is taken of them.
Blossoms in August give fruit in March, which is of poor
quality; while September blooms give fair quality lemons,
which are gathered in April and May, and are very valuable
on account of the season. Trees which blossom in October,
November, and December produce what are known as
bastards, or poor quality lemons, which are gathered in June,
July, and August.

The Lemon Harvest.—The grower bases his calculations
on the October to December crop, and the first gathering of
the lemon harvest is made in October. Many of the lemons at
this time are not ripe, and care is taken to pick only those
which are fully three inches in diameter. All under that size
are left for the November gathering. Practiced gatherers
gauge the fruit with the thumb and second finger. This first
crop is the most valuable, and is very carefully selected and
packed for immediate shipment.

The second gathering takes place in November, and is as
good as that of October. If properly gathered, selected, and
packed, it will keep for months. The fruit is lighter in color
and harder to the touch than the October gathering. The
pickers gather all fruit which is ripe, whatever its size, and all
fruit which has reached the standard size, whether ripe or not.
The first quality fruit not immediately salable is often put
away in cases until March, when it is repacked and will keep
for some time. All small or damaged fruit is used for making
oil of lemon, citric acid, or candied lemon peel, which indus-
tries will be described farther on. The November fruit is
especially valuable for essences, citric acid, and lemon juice.
In a well-cared-for lemon grove I was informed that from
three fourths to seven eighths of the fruit was suitable for
shipment, the rest being used for essences, etc.

The fruit gathered in December on the plains and lower lands
near Palermo is inferior to that gathered in November, only

220 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

about five eighths being suitable for export, the balance being
used for peel and essences.

The January fruit is of still less value, only three eighths
being fit for packing. The fruit gathered at this time is fully
ripe and quite yellow. The inferior fruit of this month’s
gathering is largely cut into halves, packed in brine, and
exported for lemon-peel making.

The balance of the crop is gathered in February, and is
called “old fruit.” It is of inferior quality. Nothing is now
left on the tree except the green fruit from the August blos-
soms. Fully three fourths of the February gathering is used
for essence, acid, and peel.

Out-of-Season Crops.—I was much struck with what are
called out-of-season, or extraordinary, crops. In one grove I
visited, one half was bearing a fine crop of lemons ready for
the second gathering. On the other half there was hardly a
ripe lemon, but the trees were carrying.a good crop of fruit
about one fourth grown. I found that it was a fairly common
practice to force the trees into bearing such crops. Sometimes
peculiar climatic conditions will do it, but usually it is the
result of special cultivation and irrigation. If trees are
deprived of irrigation during the hot months of July and
August, and then abundantly watered in September, a prolific
amount of blossom will generally result, producing a valuable
May crop. This can not be done every year, for the tree suffers
from the deprivation mentioned, and takes a season to recover
its normal condition. Still, the May fruit being of fairly good
quality and valuable on account of the demand, realizing as
much as 30s. and 40s. for one thousand lemons, the temptation
to force crops is considerable, the price compensating for the
scanty succeeding crop.

GATHERING, PACKING, AND STORING LEMONS.

In the preceding pages I have dealt at considerable length
with the general features of the cultivation of the lemon tree
in order to produce the splendid fruit for which Sicily is so
famous. So important is this industry that the British Consul
at Rome says that four fifths of the total lemon and orange
trade of Italy is confined to the Island of Sicily. The magni-
tude of the trade, nearly the half of which was, until a few

THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY—GATHERING, ETC. 221

years since, with the United States, is due to the inherent
quality of the fruit, owing to the peculiarly favorable climate,
the care paid to the cultivation of the tree, and the skill and
care of the Sicilian in handling the fruit. I have often been
asked how the lemons are cured in Sicily in order to keep so
long and well. People can hardly realize the truth that, in

the sense understood by the questioners, they are hardly cured
at all,

A Succession of Crops.—ll Sicilian lemons will not keep.
Lemon trees bear a series of crops, there being, however, a
main crop of the finest and best quality fruit. It is the best of
this crop only that will keep well and long.

I have described how the lemon is grown on varied series of
soils and at different altitudes, from sea-level to 3,000 feet up
the mountainous interior of the island. As the main crop
ripens on the sea coast from October to December, and the
same crop continues to mature later and later as we ascend the
mountains, I may state that the main crop is ripening in
different districts from October to February. Then it must be
remembered that the good fruit will hang on the trees without
serious loss of quality for three months, so that it may be
stated that the chief lemon harvest may be extended from
October to May. It is, however, not considered good, for either
the fruit or the trees, to allow the lemons to hang too long,
because the fruit will keep better if properly packed and stored.
In this connection it must be remembered that the weather
during all these months is cool, and that is, next to care in
picking and handling, the most essential condition for success
in keeping lemons—or indeed any fruit.

Keeping Qualities Depend on Soil, etc.—I must not omit
to mention that the keeping qualities of lemons depend a
good deal on the soil and situation in which they are grown.
Lemons grown on light, sandy soil deteriorate quickly. They
get dry and spongy, and will not stand shipment well. On
the other hand, lemons grown on loamy clay, or loam with
well-drained clay subsoils, such as predominate in the moun-
tainous lemon districts, keep much better. So great is this
influence that lemons grown on these soils sell at one third
higher price than those grown on the sandy land. “ Moun-
tain,” i. ¢., fruit grown on the loamy soils with clay subsoil, is

222 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

firmer and keeps better. Fruit-dealers mark the best fruit
“M,” meaning “Mountain.” Here is a sample quotation,
which indicates the difference in price of the different grades:
“Mountain,” 25 to 50 lire per 1,000; “ Hilly,” 21 to 27 lire per
1,000; “ Plains,” 17 lire per 1,000. I may, in this connection,
here repeat that the ideal situation for a lemon grove is on
“deep loamy clay land, well drained, open, and exposed to the
rays of the sun all the year, trees planted in rows running
north and south, sheltered from strong winds and frosts, water
always available.”

How Lemons are Handled.—I was fortunate in being in
Sicily during the gathering of the main crop, and therefore
saw the lemons at their best. JI knew care was taken in
handling the fruit, but I was hardly prepared to find how
much. In connection with many cultural operations the use
of such implements as the Planet cultivators, in the hands of
intelligent Australian workmen, and drawn by our horses, will
more than compensate for the cheap labor of the Mediter-
ranean; but when it comes to handling fruit, the cost of labor
is simply prohibitive of the same care and attention. The
wages paid are, for men, 1s. 3d. to 1s. 10d. a day; for women,
3d.to6d. The Sicilian handles lemons as gently as eggs, from
custom, and he does it quickly. But let me describe what I
saw of the picking and handling of lemons for export. I could
not follow the one parcel of fruit; but as I saw each operation
repeated, I think my description is in every general particular
correct.

Picking.—The picking is done by men, women, and girls.
The pickers have small wicker baskets, holding from one and
a half to two gallons, and lined with soft canvas like bran
bagging, in the form of a bag hardly resting on the bottom.
They pick the lemons with the fingers, breaking off from one
to three inches of the twig with the lemon. In going over the
trees they take—(1st) All lemons, no matter how green, which
are three inches in diameter, and three and one half ounces in
weight or over. The pickers learn to judge the size and weight
with wonderful accuracy, using the thumb and finger as a
gauge. (2d) All lemons which are turning yellow, whether
they reach the standard or not.

THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY—GATHERING, ETC. 223

Snipping and First Grading.—The pickers take their
baskets to the roadways, where the foreman sits with several
women and a number of baskets of about a bushel capacity
lined With canvas. The lemons are taken one by one from the
pickers’ baskets, and the stem is snipped off close with the
Same pattern of snips used by lemon-gatherers in California
and Mildura. If apparently perfect, and of large size, it goes
into No. 1 basket; if perfect but smaller, into No. 2; and so on,
about four grades being made. The defective or lower quality
fruit goes off at once, and is used for extracting oil of lemon, or
making citric acid or lemon peel.

Drying.—The good fruit of first or second grade is at once
taken to the fruit house, where it is spread out on the floor (if
the floor be stone, mats are spread over it). The depth and
length of time they remain depend on circumstances. The
object is to allow the moisture to evaporate from the skin, but
care must be taken that the lemons in the bottom layer do not
heat. They may be piled from one to three feet, and remain
from twenty-four hours up to six days.

Sorting and Wrapping for Market.—When dry, the
lemons are carefully sorted over, all defective fruit being put
aside. The sound lemons are wrapped in tissue paper, care-
fully packed in boxes, and taken to the warehouse of the
merchants, who may either store the fruit or ship it.

Storing Lemons.—If fruit is to be stored it is kept in cool
stores, and carefully gone over every three weeks. Each lemon
is unwrapped, examined, and if sound rewrapped and put back,
but if it shows any signs of not keeping it is taken away. I
believe lemons are also stored in dark underground grottos or
cellars without being wrapped and cased, but I did not see one.
When this method is adopted, I understand the fruit is gone
over every week or two, so that, put into a sentence, the art of
preserving lemons in Sicily is to handle them frequently with
care, and remove all showing signs of decay.

Packing for Export.—I had much difficulty in gratifying
my determination to see the operation of packing for shipment.
This was in marked contrast to the freedom I was allowed in
visiting the orchards and watching all operations there, in-
cluding the drying and packing for market. I felt that the

224 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

excuses made were not genuine, and at Palermo waited a full
week over my time for departure in order to break down the
opposition which had hitherto baffled me. At length I obtained
free entry to several packing-houses and was able to take several
photographs of the well-built, well-lighted, beautifully clean,
conveniently arranged packing-rooms of Sefior B. Mercadante.
I should say that I was greatly indebted to this courteous
gentleman for many kindnesses and much information. At
the time of my visit (beginning of January), the best lemons
were coming from the interior, although I saw splendid fruit
being gathered in the hills about ten miles from Palermo.
The price quoted then was 7s. a case of 300, C. I. F. to New
York. The price paid in Palermo for mountain lemons, he
said, varied from 7s. to 16s. per 1,080. Mr. A. P. Brown, the
representative of the Bronte estates, and manager of the Palermo
ice works, Mr. Seymour, the American Consul, and Mr. Weiner,
the genial proprietor of the Hotel de France, also assisted me
greatly. A drive and picnic with the latter to his wine cellars
and chateau at Pareo, in the mountains, is one of the most
pleasant of my recollections.

I am, of course, all through describing the preparation of the
best lemons which have made the name of Sicily famous. When
lemons are to be exported they are taken either direct from the
lemon groves, or from the stores, as described, to the packing-
houses. Here the boxes are opened, the lemons unwrapped and
carefully examined. The sorters are experts. A lemon witha
blemish which could not be distinguished except as the result
of continued practice, is at once detected and put aside. The
fruit is regraded, because from the time of gathering it has
shrunk considerably.

The work is thus divided: (1st) Girls unpack and unwrap
the lemons, putting them into lined baskets; (2d) The expe-
rienced graders (men) sort them, putting them into other
baskets; (8d) Another set of girls wrap them in fresh tissue
paper; (4th) Boys carry the baskets to the packers; (5th) Ex-
pert packers pack them into the various sized boxes required
by the different markets. This packing is one of the smartest
and cleverest things I have seen in connection with any branch
of the fruit industry. The fruit is handled with particular
care, but is packed very closely. As the box becomes full it is
noticed that the fruit in the middle is higher than at the sides,

THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY—GATHERING, ETC. 225

and when the last layer of lemons is put on, the outside fruit
stands about half an inch above the sides of the box, but the
middle is fully three inches above. The boxes are made of
very thin beech wood, and in order to make them hold together
wooden hoops are nailed over. It requires much skill to
fasten down the lids, for it involves the bending of the cover,
and the elasticity of the wood is sufficient to occasionally
draw out the nails. When nailed down this elasticity pre-
vents any movement of the fruit, and allows for shrinkage,
which is, however, not great after the lemons have been

Assorling and packing lemons in Sicily, showing lined baskets used for the purpose.

stored. Lemons cut in November and packed three hundred
in a box will by February have shrunk so that three hundred
and sixty will pack into the same box. It is this November
crop (ripening in November near the coast, and on to Febru-
ary on the mountains) which keeps the best, so that shipments
of it are frequently made to New York up to May. It is this
crop, but not usually the first grade of it, which is sent to
Australia.

The subject dealt with in this chapter is of considerable
importance, and I regret that my inquiries have not enabled
me to give readers a simple, cheap recipe for storing lemons

15c

5

4
%
3
#

‘

226 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

from September to January in South Australia. It can be done
easily enough with the aid of cool chambers; and provided
lemons of the desired quality are plentiful and cheap, it should
pay todo so. If my conclusions that our lemon country will
yet be found in the hills, or southeast, be correct, it may be that
grottos may be tunneled into the hills, where the fruit can be
kept at a temperature not exceeding 60° Fahr. until midsummer.
In the cool chambers they should be kept at 40° to 45° Fahr.

MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS OF THE LEMON.

Lemon Juice.—There are two qualities, “agro crudo,” which
is the natural juice of the lemon, and “agro cotto,” which is
the juice in concentrated form, and keeps much better than the
other. The juice after being pressed from the poorer quality
lemons is left to settle for a time. It is then boiled in large
tinned copper pans one third full. While boiling it is fre-
quently stirred with an iron rod having the knob end wrapped
in canvas to prevent it damaging the bottom of the copper, and
to keep the sediment from sticking. As the quantity decreases
the coppers are replenished from supplementary coppers, kept
hot for the purpose, so that the process of evaporation shall not
be checked. When the required density is attained it is poured
into vats to cool, and is finally drawn off into casks for export.
The original volume is reduced by this process to about one
eighth, and the concentrated liquid should contain about thirty
per cent of citric acid.

Citrate. of Lime.—Until recently the manufacture of citric
acid was almost neglected in Sicily; but of late years the
industry has been developed to a greater extent. Still most of
the lemon juice is either sent away in the concentrated form
above described, or is changed into citrate of lime, this sub-
stance being readily made and is easily carried. The value of
the citrate depends largely on the purity of the chalk employed.
“The concentrated juice is first clarified with whites of eggs,
and warmed. It is then drawn off and filtered into tinned
boilers, in which it is heated nearly to boiling point and
thoroughly saturated with finely powdered chalk, which is
added gradually to the liquid while it is being continuously
stirred until the effervescence caused by the admixture of the

MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS OF THE LEMON. 227

carbonate of lime has ceased, when the deposit of citrate will
be approximately complete; the remaining residue of acid citrate
1s reduced with lime milk. The liquid is now drawn off, and
the solid, insoluble citrate is compressed and dried.”

Oil of Lemon.— Every one is familiar with “essence of lemon,”
but comparatively few know that the “essence” is really spirits
of wine, in which is dissolved a greater or less proportion of
oil of lemon, obtained from the rind of lemons. If a fresh
lemon be examined, it will be found that the skin contains
vast numbers of oil cells, and when the rind is cut off and
bent the oil is seen to fly off in minute drops. The separation
and collection of this oil is one of the important industries of
Sicily.

Practically the work is done entirely by hand, and is carried
on at night-time, because, I believe, the oil is so delicate that a
very brief exposure to sunlight causes it to oxidize, and so lose
its delicate aroma.

Fruit intended for the manufacture of oil of lemon need not
be of the first quality; but it is necessary that it be outwardly
and inwardly sound, healthy, and fresh, so that punctured
fruit, windfalls, and defective fruit are used for manufacturing
lemon juice, and not for oil of lmon. The lemons are so sliced
that the rind is to a large extent freed from the pulp, and is in
fairly large but not unwieldy pieces. I do not know whether
my experience is in any way unusual, but I found very great
difficulty in obtaining admission to an oil of lemon factory.
Time after time I tried and failed; but at last I was able to
make a bargain with a Sicilian merchant, who desired to open
up trade, to give him the information and introduction he
desired on condition that he obtained permission to visit, and
acted as my guide to, one or two oil of lemon factories. It
may be that I did not see the best, for they were not the
cleanest places I have seen; and, indeed, were in marked con-
trast to some of the lemon-packing stores. The very strong
smell of ammonia indicated a sanitary condition not desirable.

I found that the sliced rind was first soaked for perhaps
twenty minutes in cold water, it being considered that this
renders the expression of the oil more easy. The workmen
sit in rows, each with a small glazed earthenware dish on his
knees and a larger vessel of lemon rind at his side. In his

228 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

left hand he holds a small sponge, and with his right hand he
picks up the piece of rind and, with a deft circular movement,
rotates it against the sponge, at the same time bending it
backward to break the oil glands, and so force the oil onto
the sponge. The operation is very quickly done, but when
performed by a skilled hand completely exhausts the supply
of oil of lemon. When the sponge is saturated it is squeezed
into the bowl. There is at first a large proportion of lemon
juice, etc., with the oil; but this sinks to the bottom and the
oil is poured off, filtered, and as quickly as possible put into
copper “carboys” for exportation. The method of payment
is, ag a rule, peculiar, each workman being paid in proportion
to the weight of oil he extracts from each thirty-five kilos of
rinds.

Salted Lemons.—Walking along the wharf the day after
my arrival in Palermo, I saw some hundreds of large
casks, which, I was informed, were filled with salted lemons.
Further inquiries showed that large quantities of lemons are
exported in this form to Leghorn, Genoa, Britain, and other
parts of Europe, to America, and even to Australia, chiefly for
making candied lemon peel. Although the finest fruit is never
thus dealt with, lemons to be salted must of necessity be sound.
The fruit is usually halved, and then soaked in salt water for
from three to seven days prior to shipment. On arrival at its
destination it is soaked in fresh water repeatedly until all the
brine is removed. The salt preserves the peel satisfactorily,
but removes the essential oil, so that the fine flavor of the
fresh lemon is quite lost. For this reason only fruit which
can not be used on the island or profitably shipped fresh is
dealt with in this way. The fruit is halved merely to insure a
thorough preservation of the rind by an equal saturation of the
inner and outer surfaces.

Candied Lemon Peel.—<As far as I could learn, no candied
lemon peel is prepared in Sicily. In “The Sayings of Agur”
it is written—

“There be three things which are too wonderful for me;
Yea, four, which I know not:
The way of an eagle in the air;
The way of a serpent upon a rock;
The way of a ship in the midst of the sea;
And the way of a man with a maid.’’—Proverss.

MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS OF THE LEMON. 229

To these I would add the way of trade on the sea, for there
appears to be no known law by which one can understand why
certain industries establish themselves in given localities.
W hy, for example, should the candied citron and lemon peel
industry become centered in Leghorn? The lemons and citrons
are all imported from Corsica, Sicily, Calabria, and even from
Tunis, Tripoli, and Morocco. The fuel comes from England,
the sugar is imported from Egypt, the wood for the boxes from
Trieste, and the earthenware vessels from Florence. The peel
Is sent away to Britain, Germany, America, etc. I can not
learn of any special advantage which Leghorn possesses; but
there this particular branch of the candied fruit industry is
centered, and so it is necessary to leave Sicily for a time with
the salted lemons and note the treatment they receive in
Leghorn.

The first process is the separation of the fruit from the rind.
Women sit around a big vessel, skillfully gouge out the pulp
with the thumb and forefinger, and throw the rind into a
vessel ready to receive it. The rind is then soaked for several
days in cold, fresh water to remove the salt. It is then boiled
in copper vessels for one or two hours for the double purpose
of removing any remaining salt and softening the rind. It
should now be soft enough to absorb the sugar readily.

The absorption of sugar takes fully eight days, for the essen-
tial principle is that the process must be very gradual and
slow. To this end it is first treated with a weak solution,
but as the process goes on the solution may be gradually
strengthened, for the power of absorption grows. Fresh rind
absorbs with great difficulty; and if at once plunged into
strong syrup the process is slow and irregular, whereas if
repeated at once with a strong solution it becomes permeated
with that, and further absorption is more easy. I have
repeated this because it is the essential principle in making
candied peel or candied fruits.

The candying-room is fitted with rows of immense earthen-
ware vessels, after the fashion of the ancient wine jars of the
Romans. These are perhaps four feet high and thirty inches
in diameter, with short necks and wide mouths. For description,
the jars may be grouped into sets of eight, and as what goes
on in one set goes on in all other sets, it will save confusion to
consider the room as having only eight jars. As each jar will

230 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

hold many hundred pounds of syrup and peel, the workmen
find it easier to manipulate the syrup than the peel. Each jar
is furnished with a simple perforated wooden well, in which a
simple ,suction pump is inserted, so that the syrup can be
pumped from one jar into the adjoining one.

Supposing jar No. 1 is the one which has just been filled
with peel brought direct from the copper boiler before men-
tioned, then No. 8 will contain peel in the last stage of candying.
A syrup of thirty degrees strength by the particular densometer
used is prepared and poured into jar No. 8. Here it remains
for a day, and then having been weakened by the amount
absorbed by the peel, it is pumped into No. 7, and next day
from there into No. 6, and so on, so that when it comes
to No. 1 it is weak, as is required by new peel. At each
operation the density is tested, and should it get too weak it is
strengthened. In this way the process is to a large extent
self-regulating.

A slight fermentation often takes place in the jars, and this
is considered beneficial if it is not allowed to go too far.

After the eighth day the fruit is removed from the jar, and
boiled in a syrup of a density of forty degrees in large copper
vessels over slow coke fires, the peel being gently stirred with a
wooden paddle to prevent its adhering to the vessel.

When taken from the fire it is spread on coarse wire netting
over wooden troughs, into which the surplus syrup drains
while the peel dries.

The final operation is the candying, or covering the surface
with candied sugar. For this purpose sugar is dissolved in a
little water in a copper boiler, and the dry peel is immersed
and boiled for a short time over a slow fire. It is poured from
the coppers onto the wire, and again dried, the sugar this time
forming candy or crystals over the surface, and it is ready for
the packing-room.

Citric Acid.—This is manufactured from the citrate of lime.
The citrate is mingled with a liquid composed of six parts of
water and one part of pure sulphuric acid. The latter decom-
poses the citrate of lime, unites with the lime to form sulphate
of lime, or gypsum, and liberates the citric acid in solution in
the water, from which it is separated by evaporation in pans.
The crystals are afterward redissolved, and purified with animal
carbon and hydrochloric acid.

THE

CITRON IN CALIFORNIA, 231

PE COLT RON,

Citrus medica cedra, Linn.

The citron grows and fruits well in California wherever the
lemon thrives. The tree is easy of culture, and the preparation

of the rind simple,
therefore there is
hardly any reason
why the California-
grown citron, were
it accorded the same
protection that the
orange and lemon
now have, should
not supplant the
imported.

The fruit of the
citron is generally
oblong, or of conical
shape and swollen,
more or less striped
or furrowed, and
particularly large.
The skin is of the
color of the lemon,
and is very aromatic.
Some varieties are
very smooth, while
others are covered
with warty excres-
cences and _ very
thick and_ highly

THE CITRON—IPRIMAL Tyre. (Citrus cedra vulgaris.)

scented. The pulp is less acid than that of the lemon, and
quite bitter. The flowers with their delicious perfume are
purplish outside and white within; leaves subserrate; young
branches violet tinged. The tree blooms at all seasons of the
year, and is very susceptible to frost, as much so as the lime.

282 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

Most varieties of the citron have “ two rinds,” i. ¢., the outer
one, thin, with miliary glands full of very fragrant oil; the
inner, thick and white, very sweet and agreeable. It is for
this inner rind that the citron is valued, and it is used exten-
sively in cookery, both in its candied and preserved forms.

PROPAGATION.

The propagation of the citron is quite simple, and is multi-
ie by sa 5s by budding, or grown from the seed. The
cuttings are planted in the
spring of the year. They
. are cut from one or two year

fF old wood and from eight to
fourteen inches long, vary-
ing in thickness from the size of

a lead pencil to one or more
inches in diameter. They read-
ily take root and can be moved
to orchard form in the spring
following, but are generally left
two years in the nursery in order
to obtain a better
>and stronger root-
system.

The citron takes
readily on stock of any of the citrus
fruits, but being susceptible to the
gum disease should be budded at
least a foot from the ground, so that
it may not emit roots of its own.
The best time to bud the citron is
in the spring, just as the stocks
begin to put forth and the sap flows
freely. Buds inserted early in the

Hitting bruh of the oltron= S°280N start with vigor, and by fall
reduced. have a large and thrifty top.

The citron root is quite delicate
and brittle, more so than that of the lemon. While the cutting
system is one of the quickest ways to grow the citron, budding
on hardier stocks, such as the sweet orange, is most preferable.

‘dulH], INQ aAoNGTY—OLNAUVUOS WO

‘NONGT—GOUANNOO JO NOULIO FAL

TIXX ALVId

‘€MNALTAO SOUMLIO VINUOMITVO

234 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

From Seed.—The seeds of the citron germinate quite easily,
but much care is required to be successful in raising seedlings.
After the seed is washed out of the fruit it is kept moist and
never allowed to get dry, for in drying the kernel loses its power
of germination. The seed is planted in the spring after all
danger of frost has passed, either in prepared seed-beds or in
boxes. It is sown broadcast and covered with an inch of leaf
mould mixed with sand. Great care must be taken from this
time on that the soil be kept moist and yet not too wet, as the
seeds rot easily. The seeds germinate in about a month, or
longer if the weather be cold. The following spring the plants
are planted in nursery row.

VARIETIES.

Numerous varieties have been introduced, many of which
are yet in the experimental state.

Lemon, or SorrENTO (Plate X XII).—This variety was among
the first introduced, and has fruited regularly ever since.
Shape oblong, like the lemon, with a very pleasant aroma,
which is much esteemed. Skin bright yellow, smooth and very
glossy; inner skin white, coarse and thick, with very little
trace of bitterness. Pulp very bitter and deficient in juice.
The fruit grows irregularly, some very large and others very
small, the largest weighing from three to five (or more) pounds
each.

Lymay.—A Florida variety, said to be very good.

OrancE.— A round citron.

Other varieties grown here:

Pomo de Adamo Testa de Turco Dulcis Sulcata
Macrocarpo Limonzania Florentina Costata
Incompio Cornuta Elongata Glabra
Pireltone Salodiana Rugosa Simoniformis
Cedro Vara Plena Romana Parra

PREPARATION OF CITRON RIND.

The fruit before assuming a yellow color, and also when bright
yellow, is picked and placed in barrels filled with brine, and
left for at least a month. The brine is renewed several times,
and the fruit allowed to remain in it until required for use,
often for a period of four or five months. When the citrons are

9

COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF THE CITRON. 235

to be candied they are taken from the barrels and boiled in fresh
water to soften them. They are then cut into halves, the seed
and pulp are removed,
and the fruit is again
lmmersed in cold
water, soon becoming
of a greenish color.
After this it is placed
in large earthen jars,
covered with hot syr-
up, and allowed to |
stand about three
weeks. During this
time the strength of
the syrup is gradually
increased. The fruit
is then put into boil-
ers with crystallized
sugar dissolved in a
small quantity of
water, and cooked; then allowed to cool, and boiled again
until it will take up no more sugar. It is then dried and
packed in wooden boxes.

Cross-section of citron, showing pulp and thickness
of rind—reduced one half.

COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE.

So far the citron consumed in the United States is imported
from Europe. Most of it is shipped to Kastern houses and by
them prepared for market. In this way importers avoid the
payment of a duty on same. The citron commonly used by
confectioners, bakers, and candy-makers is imported already
prepared.

For several years there have been regular importations of
citron in brine coming in large hogsheads, almost entirely from
Leghorn. It has come to two houses in New York and to four
houses in Chicago, all of whom put it through the process of
candying or sugaring. It costs about four cents a pound
landed in New York in the brine. I am informed that the
yearly demand for the United States equals about 12,000 cases
of some 250 pounds each after it has been candied.

236 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

In answer to an inquiry regarding importations and pros-
pective competition from California-prepared citron, the
following interesting data were obtained:

Cuicaco, August 23, 1899.
Mr. B. M. Letone, Sacramento, Cal.:

Dear Sir: Yours of Ist received and contents fully noted. The citron
that we import to this country is mostly grown on the isle of Corsica, some
being shipped from Messina, Italy, and some from Greece, but that shipped
from those countries is not considered as good as that which is shipped from
Corsica. The price generally rules from 12 shillings and 6 pence up to 18
shillings and 6 pence, cost and freight, N. Y. We do not know of any citron
grown in this country. It would be a saving to the trade west of the Rocky
Mountains, but it would not be if shipped east of the Rocky Mountains, as
the freight would be more than the freight from the isle of Corsica.

Yours truly,
SPRAGUE, WARNER & CO.

Cuicaco, August 16, 1899.
Horticultural Department, State Board of Horticulture, Sacramento, Cal.:

GENTLEMEN: Your letter regarding citron has been handed the writer,
who is manager of our citron department.

The amount of citron imported annually into America is about two
thousand tons. The firms who are curing or manufacturing citron from raw
citrons that are imported in brine are: Hills Bros. Company, New York
City; Andrew L. Causse, New York City. The Chicago manufacturers are
Sprague, Warner & Co., Franklin MacVeagh & Co., J. B. Inderrieden & Co.,
and ourselves,

The best quality of citron is raised in Corsica, the next best quality in
Greece, and the poorest in Sicily. We understand the culture of citron is
very difficult and that the trees require the most constant care and attention,
and even then failures of crop are frequent. As to whether it can be pro-
duced successfully in California is of course a question that we can not
answer. Thisis about all the information that we can think of that would
be of service to you.

Yours very truly,

REID, MURDOCH & CO.

New York, August 12, 1899.
B. M. Letone, Secretary State Board of Horticulture, Sacramento, Cal.:

Dear Sir: In due course of mail we received your esteemed favor of 28th
ult., relative to citron, and in reply can tell you that for several years there
have been regular importations of citron in brine coming in large hogsheads,
almost entirely from Leghorn. It came to two houses in this city and to
three or four houses in Chicago, all of whom put it through a process and
candied (glacé) and sugared it. We understand it costs about four cents a
pound landed here in the brine, and there is no duty on it. The demand for
this whole country yearly, we are told, equals about 12,000 cases of some 250
pounds each after it has been candied. We are unable to ascertain whether
it is a profitable business or not, although one would judge that it would not
have been continued during late years if it had been found unprofitable.
One of our informants, a man pretty well posted, says he does not believe
one penny profit is made, but none of these people care to give it up, hoping
for better times, etc.

COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF THE CITRON. 237

Trusting that this is the information you desire to have, and always at
your service, we remain,
Very truly yours,
SGOBEL & DAY.

Cuicaco, October 14, 1899.

Mr. B. M. Letona, Secretaru State Board of Horticulture, Sacramento, Cal. :
Dear Str: We should have replied to yours of July 28th before this.
However, we wanted to give you positive information as to whether there
were any established houses in the East who were preparing the citron of com-
merce for market. Weare now ina position to inform you that this article,
which is shipped from Europe in brine, is very small and shipped only as an
experiment, which, as far as we can learn, has been a failure. The citron
commonly used by confectioners, bakers, and candy-makers is imported
already prepared. This, however, should not prevent California growers from
raising citron in that State in larger quantities than they do now, and pre-
paring it for market right in their own State. Like a great many industries,
California would soon head the list as a citron-producing State and would no

doubt at no distant date supply the demand of at least the United States.

Yours truly,
JOHN ZUCCA & CO.

French method of protecting the limbs of the Citron and its fruit.

CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. PLATE XXIII.

CASTLEMAN LIME—A MonstTER. A bybrid—Lime x Pomelo.

THE LIME IN CALIFORNIA.

THE LIME IN CALIFORNIA—CHARACTERISTICS, 239

THE LIME.

Citrus limetta, Risso.

The lime is naturally a straggling bush or tree, and is
frequently trimmed into hedge form; it grows from ten to fif-
teen feet high. The fruit is small, round or ovate, or depressed,
with a bitter rind. The juice is much “sharper” than that of
the lemon.

The lime is more susceptible to injury from frost than the
lemon, and should not be planted except in locations absolutely
free from danger of frost, and on this account it is not grown
successfully except in the warm belts and sheltered localities.

Since the Government placed a duty of one cent per pound
on foreign citrus fruits, very few limes are imported. This
should stimulate the planting of the lime in our suitable
localities.

The lime is very easily propagated from seed. The seeds
always germinate without’ much difficulty, and the plants
come true from the seed; the seeds “‘sport”’ only in exceptional
cases. It is also budded on the orange.

The tree does not resent pruning as the lemon does, and may
be fashioned into any shape to please the fancy of the grower.
it is well, however, to consider the natural habit of the tree
and to leave it as much in bush form as possible. The lower
limbs that rest on the ground and all superfluous and interfer-
ing wood should be removed.

The methods of planting and cultivating the lime are similar
to those required for the lemon. Like the latter, the fruit
should be picked before it ripens, but does not require process-
ing before being shipped to market. Lime trees are planted
fifteen or sixteen feet apart, and begin to bear at the fourth
year, being in full bearing at eight.

240 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

VARIETIES.

ImpErtaL.—Fruit large, about the size of the Genoa lemon,
with strong acid, few
seeds. Tree tender,
wood brittle, but very
productive and a good,
thrifty grower; fruits
, all the year round; not
Has thorny as the Mexi-
can, and not as suscep-
tible to frost.

Mexican.—Fruit
small, very popular,
identical with the im-
_ported limes in our mar-
kets. Tree dwarf, and
suitable for hedges, but
very susceptible to cold.

Taniti1.—Fruit large, coarse, and of inferior quality.

Prear-Saapep.—Fruit large, pyriform, of a pale yellow color,
with smooth, thin skin, and a strong aroma, partaking of the
shaddock. Pulp juicy,
with strong acid; seeds
few and small. Tree very
large and hardy—orna-
mental sort, undoubtedly
a “sport.” Grown by I.
A. Castleman, of River-
side.

Brarss.—A superb vari-
ety, seedless or almost so.
Fruit large, about the size
of the Imperial, nearly
round, with a thin, tough
skin. Flesh tender and
very juicy, acid somewhat
mild. Grown by J. T. Cross-section of Imperial Lime—natural size.
Bearss, of Porterville.

Imperial Lime—natural size.

Miscellaneous Varieties.—The . following varieties have
been introduced in recent years, principally from Florida:

THE LIME IN CALIFORNIA—VARIETIES. 241

JEWIsH.—A small conical lime.

GENoEsE.—Large, like a lemon in shape.

FLoRENtINE.— Hybrid.

MonsTER.—Fruit extra large, resembles a lemon.

SaLo.—A small, round lime.

PrrsIan.—A large, coarse lime; inferior.

CITRONELLA.—A large, coarse lime, with thick rind.

AssAM.—Said to be a strong grower.

Fioripa Seepiinc.—A large lime, the size of a lemon, quite
coarse.

OTHER VaRIEtTIES.— Valentine, Knatta, Kaghazir,Sour Kurna,

Sour Turan, Sour Rangpur, Sour Jamberi, Sour Galgal, Sada-
phal, Verucene.

Cross-section of Bearss Lime—natural size.

16c

PLATE XXIV.

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA.

BLOSSOM OF DOUBLE-FLOWERED BERGAMOT
ORANGE,

From which Neroli is manufactured.

PRODUCTS OF THE CITRUS.

PRODUCTS OF THE CITRUS. 243

PRODUCTS OF THE CITRUS.

Although there are innumerable varieties of the citrus,
which, owing to their inferiority, are worthless for cultivation,
yet all, or nearly all, have merit in one way or another. In
Europe every part of the tree is utilized for various purposes.
The flower, the leaf, the pulp, the rind, the wood—all enter
into articles of commerce. R. C. Haldane, in his work,
“Subtropical Cultivations and Climate,” London, 1886, gives
the following formulas, which I quote, with due thanks to the
author:

“Orange-Flower Perfume.—In the early morning the
blossoms are collected as soon as the petals begin to fall, by
shaking the tree over a sheet spread on the ground. A tree
yields from two to ten pounds of flowers. The perfume is
generally extracted by enfleurage, as follows: A frame is
required six feet high, thirty inches wide, and twenty inches
deep; in this grooves are cut to allow trays one and a half
inches deep torun. These trays are covered with wire gauze.
Between every two trays there is a sheet of stout glass, framed;
on this, grease or vaseline is thickly spread. The whole should
be as air-tight as possible. Every morning fresh flowers must
be put in the wire-gauze traps; and this is continued for a
month or two, when the grease is removed.

“The grease is made as follows: Melt equal parts of beef-
suet and lard, or mutton-suet, beef-suet, and lard, well together.
Pound well in a mortar and wash until perfectly clean. Melt
over a slow fire, adding three ounces of powdered alum and a
little salt to each hundredweight. Heat the grease until it
begins to bubble, and then strain into a deep pan and let it
clarify for two or three hours. The clear grease is then put on °
a charcoal fire, and three quarts of rose water and half a pound
of powdered gum-benzoin added; it is gently boiled, and all
scum taken off till it ceases to appear. Put the grease in deep
pans to cool; when solid remove any water there may be in it,
liquefy, and pour into vessels for future use. Besides grease,

244 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

glycerine, vaseline, and paraffine are all used. Formerly,
instead of using grease in enfleurage, oiled linen was employed
to absorb the odor and afterward squeezed in a screw press.

‘“‘A superior system is by employing Piver’s pneumatic frame,
which has on the top two bellows which send a constant cur-
rent of air through the flowers. The most primitive is the
Spanish, which consists of two bowls—the upper one, or cover,
being lined with grease, while the lower holds the flowers.

“To extract the perfume from the grease, or ‘pomade,’ as it
is called after being scented, chop up eight pounds of pomade,
put it in one gallon of sixty over-proof alcohol, and let it remain
for one month at summer heat.

“Essence or Extract of Orange-Flower is prepared by
tincturation. Four ounces of orange-flowers are steeped in one
gallon of alcohol until all the perfume has been absorbed by
the spirit. This preparation is also known as extract of neroli.

“Essential Oils of Orange are expressed thus: The peel is
cut from the pulp in three longitudinal slices, leaving the pulp
in a triangular shape. The peel and pulp are kept separate.
Next day the outer surface of the peel is bent convexly, and
pressed four or five times against a flat sponge held in the left
hand of the workman. From time to time the oil is squeezed
from the sponge into a vessel, from which it is drawn after the
watery fluid separates from the oil. Four hundred oranges yield
from nine to fourteen ounces of oil. The pulp is distilled for
the small amount of essential oil it contains. When lemons
are thus treated, the pulp is pressed until the lemon juice
is all extracted, and then distilled.

‘« Petit-Grain Oil.— Prepared from young tender shoots and
leaves of both Sweet and Seville oranges, the latter being most
valuable. The oil is obtained by distillation with water.

“Neroli, or Oil of Orange-Flower.— Obtained by distilling
the flowers of the sweet and bitter orange with water. The
bitter orange gives a superior oil. It is very fluid, is lighter
than water, in which it is slightly soluble. One hundred
pounds of flowers give from three to six ounces of neroli. It is
generally adulterated with alcohol or essence of petit-grain.
Essential oils of orange, lemon, or bergamot are better extracted

PRODUCTS OF THE CITRUS. 245
by aid of an implement known as the ecueile piques, a saucer-
shaped vessel of pewter about eight inches wide, with a lip on
one side. The bottom is armed with numerous brass pins
about half an inch high, which stand upward. Thecenter has
a tube five or six inches long, and half an inch in diameter,
closed at the farthest end. The whole resembles a shallow
tunnel. The peel is rubbed against the pins by hand,. and
when the tube is full of oil it is emptied into another vessel.

as The Peel of the Bitter Orange is used in medicine as an
aromatic tonic, but more frequently for counteracting the
nauseous taste of other medicines. The most common forms
are Syrup of orange, tincture of orange, and confection of orange.

a Oil of Lemon.—It is extracted from green fruit by pressing
the rind against a sponge, or by the ecuelle. An inferior oil is
produced by rasping the peel of the fruit and distilling with
water. One hundred fruit should yield from two and one half
to three and one half ounces of oil. The lemons are sometimes
scarified and thrown into hot water, and the oil skimmed off.

“Citric Acid.—Is obtained from lemon juice by saturating
it with chalk or whiting until effervescence ceases, by which
citrate of lime is formed. This is precipitated, the supernatant
liquid run off, and the precipitate well washed. The precipi-
tate is then treated with dilute sulphuric acid; sulphate of lime
and citric acid are the results. The former sinks, and the clear
solution is evaporated in leaden boilers and then crystallized —
the crystals being purified by being again dissolved and re-
crystallized.”

Uses to Which Lemons May Be Put.—A firm of lemon-
packers in Italy gives the following as among the uses to which
lemons may be put:

“During the last influenza epidemic in London, the Board of
Health of said city advised the public to make free use of lemons
to combat said epidemic.

‘A warm lemonade, taken in bed, will immediately produce
an abundant perspiration, and a positive relief from a cold.

“A few drops of fresh lemon juice added to drinking water
will kill any microbes and greatly help digestion.

“Lemons used in a bath will act as a disinfectant, clean the
pores of the skin, hence revive their action.

246 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

“Lemon juice is also universally known as one of the best
remedies for rheumatism; and when diluted with warm water
and salt and sniffed up the nostrils and used as a gargle is an
excellent cure for catarrhal affections.

“No cuisine is perfect without lemons, and this fruit is a
necessary condiment to nearly all viands.”

Orange Wine.—Take one part orange juice, well strained,
one part water, three pounds sugar per gallon. Any kind of
sugar will do, and the darker the sugar the richer will be the
color of the wine. For each ten gallons put up keep about one
gallon of the same for refilling the casks during fermentation.
Lay casks on the side, fill full, and leave bung open. Do not
let it be exposed to much cold. Fill up the casks every day,
from the quantity kept out, as the scum is thrown off, and
watch closely, until the wine passes through the stage of
alcoholic fermentation. This will usually require from ten to
twenty days, or longer, if the weather is cool, and can easily be
determined by scum ceasing to rise, and the cessation of brisk
fermentation. When it arrives at this stage, place the bung in
loosely. Watch closely for a few days, and as active fermenta-
tion ceases, put the bung in fast. Let it stand two months,
then rack off carefully into clean casks. If perfectly clear,
seal and let it stand six months, when it may be bottled. If
not clear, it should be racked off a second time in two months
after the first time, and sealed for six months before bottling.
Be sure your casks are full, for contact with the air will cause
the wine to pass into acetic fermentation. Considerable wine
from oranges has been manufactured in Florida, and the
demand for it has been very good at $5 per gallon. The wine
continues to Improve with age.

ESSENCES AND LEMON JUICE.*

“Essences.— With three strokes of his sharp knife the cutter
peels the lemon lengthwise and lets the peel fall into a tub
under the chopping-block. He then cuts the lemon in two and
throws it from his knife into a bucket. He works with wonder-
ful rapidity and fills from ten to twelve tubs with peel a day
and is paid 5 cents a tub, weighing 77 pounds. His left hand
and right index are protected with bands of osnaburgs or

*Report of Wallace S. Jones, of Messina, ‘‘ Fruit Culture in Foreign
Countries,’’ 1890.

PRODUCTS OF THE CITRUS. 247

leather. Decayed fruit is not peeled, as its oil cells, being
atrophied, yield no essence.

“Fresh peel is soaked in water fifteen minutes before the
BBBEHEE is extracted. Peel that has stood a day or two should
remain in soak from thirty to forty minutes, that it may swell
and offer a greater resistance against the sponge. The opera-
tive holds a small sponge in his left hand, against which he
presses each piece of peel two or three times—simple pressure
followed by rotary pressure. The women employed in this
work run a piece of cane through their sponges to enable them
to hold them more firmly. The outside of the peel is pressed
against the sponge, as the oil glands are in the epicarp. The
crushing of the oil cells liberates the essence therein contained.
The sponge, when saturated with the essence, is squeezed into
an earthenware vessel the operative holds in his lap. He is
expected to press the peel so thoroughly as not to overlook a
single cell. This is ascertained by holding the pressed peel to
the flame of a candle; should it neither crackle nor diminish
the brilliancy of the flame the cells are empty. This process
yields besides the essence a small quantity of juice and feccia
(dregs). The separation of the essence, juice, and feccia soon
takes place if the vessels are not disturbed; the oil floats on
the juice and the dregs fallto the bottom. These three products
derived from the peel have no affinity with one another. As
the essence rises to the surface it is skimmed off, bottled, and
left to settle for a few days. It is then drawn off with a glass
siphon into copper cans, which are hermetically sealed.

“The yield of essence is very variable. This industry is
carried on five months in the year. Immature fruit contains
the most oil. From November to April, in the province of
Messina, one thousand lemons yield about 14 ounces of essence
and 17 gallons of juice. An operative expresses three baskets
of lemon peel (weighing 190 pounds) a day, and is paid 20
cents a basket. The essence is so valuable that the operatives
are closely watched; they are most ingenious in secreting it
about their persons. Six men work up eight thousand lemons
a day; two cut off the peel while four extract the essence, and
obtain 136 gallons of lemon-juice and seven pounds of essence.
In the extraction of essence, defective fruit—thorn-pricked fruit,
fruit blown down by the wind or attacked by rust—is used. This
fruit is sold by the “thousand,” equivalent to 260 pounds, and

248 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

thus classified: First, mixed lemons, as they come from the
groves during December and January, of good quality but not
always marketable, often from top branches; second, lemons
from March blooms; third, lemons refused at the packing-
house; fourth, dropped fruit; fifth, shriveled or deformed fruit.
Prices do not depend exclusively upon the classification of
the fruit; the locality where it was grown is taken into consid-
eration. Lemons grown on clay soil yield more essence and
juice than those grown on sandy or rocky soil. The essence of
sour orange, mixed with the essence of lemon, produces an
aroma similar to that of the essence of bergamot; the latter is
much used by confectioners in flavoring ice-creams, etc.

“Raw and Concentrated Lemon Juice —Lemons are peeled,
cut in two, and pressed. If the juice is to be exported raw,
only perfectly sound lemons can be used; but if the juice is to
be boiled down, one fifth of the lemons may be of an inferior
quality and two fifths of them pretty well decayed. The juice
from sound lemons is yellowish in color, and gives a pleasant
aroma; its density decreases with age. With all classes of
lemons the yield of juice and its acidity vary considerably
from month to month. The amount of juice increases from
October to April, its acidity and density decrease, and the
same is the case with the density of the essence, owing to the
winter rains.

“An addition of five per cent of alcohol will prevent raw
lemon juice from spoiling. Lemon juice is adulterated with
salt or tartaric acid. Raw and concentrated lemon juice is
exported in casks of 130 gallons capacity. It requires 1,500
lemons to yield 26 gallons of raw juice, while it takes 2,500 to
yield the same quantity of concentrated juice, and 200,000,
more or less, according to their acidity, to give a cask.

“The value of lemon juice is governed by its acidity. The
rule is that concentrated lemon juice shall show 60 degrees of
acidity. (The juice extracted from the bergamot or the sour
orange must show 48 degrees, or one fifth less than that
derived from the lemon; it also sells for one fifth less than
lemon juice.) Formerly a citrometer, known as Rouchetti’s
gauge, was used to ascertain the per cent of acidity; now, how-
ever, resort is had to chemical analysis, which is more satis-
factory to both seller and buyer. Lemon juice is used in the
printing of calicoes.”

ORANGE AND LEMON ROT. 249

ORANGE AND LEMON ROT*

The cause of the rot of oranges and lemons is the growth,
through their substances, of a mold fungus known scientifically
under the name of Penicillium digitatum. The growth of this
plant within the fruit causes a softening and breaking down of
the tissue, a very characteristic change in the flavor of the
juice, and, sooner or later, a very pronounced discoloration of
the affected part. The fungus belongs to a genus consisting of
a number of well-known species, all having much the same
manner of growth and producing decays on various substances.
The name “blue mold” applies to the whole group. The best
known species is Penicillium crustacewm, or, as it is more com-
monly called, Penicillium glaucum. This species is one of the
common forms of rot-producing fungi that attack deciduous
fruits, but it is probably even better known from its attack
upon all manner of substances in the household, such as cooked
foods, clothing, etc. While Penicillium crustaceum is thus
found in a great variety of situations, it appears that Penicillowm
digitatum attacks only citrus fruits, confining itself wholly to
these.

The rot of citrus fruit is not usually a disease of the orchard.
In lemons the infection occurs almost entirely in the curing-
house; and in oranges, as a rule, after they are packed and on
their way to the East. Navel oranges, however, very often
come into the packing-house badly infected by the disease.
The trouble begins at the navel end, and may be scarcely
visible from without; though commonly a slight split, or per-
haps a little gum, will indicate the point of entrance of the
fungus. In this case the trouble clearly arose in the field, and
even began before the fruit was ripe. It is usually confined to
a limited part of the fruit, perhaps the upper end of one or two
sections, and very often produces spores within the cavity
caused by the shrinkage of the affected tissue, so that the
affected part may be badly discolored. In any citrus fruit a

*By C. W. Woodworth, in University of California Bulletin No. 139.

250 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

bad wound of the surface is apt to be followed by the develop-
ment of the disease in the tissue just beneath, with the general
characteristics specified above as occurring in Navels.

In the packing-house or in transit the point of attack may
be the navel end, but it is more commonly where two fruits are
pressed together. Usually only one of the fruits so touching is
affected at first, though after it becomes thoroughly rotted the
disease usually communicates to the other. If the conditions
are favorable to the growth of the fungus, it may spread from
a single affected fruit to all those adjacent, and in time to the
whole box.

This disease, being entirely a matter of the fruit and belong-
ing particularly to ripe fruit, evidently always gains its entrance
to the fruit from the outside and never from the tree. The
conditions necessary to accomplish this are:

First—That the spore of the fungus should rest upon or near
the surface of the fruit. It may be carried there by the wind,
or by touching decaved fruit upon which the spores are being
produced.

Second—Sufficient water upon the surface of the fruit to
cause the germination of the fungus.

Third—The right condition of temperature. The fungus will
grow in such a range of temperatures, however, that this con-
dition may be considered to be practically always present.

The germination of the spores of the fungus is thus seen to
be much the same as the germination of the seed of a higher
plant.

The reason that the navel end is particularly liable to the
attack of the rot fungus is that in case a drop of moisture finds
its way within this structure, it is less liable to rapid evapora-
tion, and so favors the germination of any spores that may also
find their way there. The same explanation accounts for the
common abundance of this fungus in fruit with broken skin.
The point at which moisture will accumulate and remain
longest when fruit is sweating after packing, or while it is
stored in the packing- or curing-house, is the point where the
fruit touches an adjacent fruit; and at this point, therefore,
the germination of the fungus most commonly occurs.

If sufficient refrigeration is maintained, the fruit will be
entirely safe from the attack of the fungus; but the cold tem-
perature is likely to condense a large amount of water upon

ORANGE AND LEMON ROT. 251

the Truit, and as soon as the temperature is allowed to rise to
the point where the fungus can grow, the conditions are
extremely favorable for its rapid germination. The presence
of water upon the fruit is always essential for the entrance of
the fungus; and if fruit taken from refrigeration is immediately
thoroughly dried by arranging for sufficient ventilation, there
would be no greater susceptibility on account of the cooling.

The use of ventilated cars, or the ventilation of the curing-
house, is chiefly calculated to prevent the rot by carrying off
the moisture that may accumulate on the fruit in the sweating
process, or on account of the rapid lowering of the temperature.
The cooling that is accomplished by the evaporation of this
moisture is sometimes thought to act like refrigeration, and
may, it is true, slightly decrease the rate of growth of the fungus
after it germinates, but can not produce a temperature low
enough to prevent its germination and growth. Certainly, the
important matter in ventilation is the rapid removal of any
condensed moisture that may gather on the fruit. If this
moisture is removed promptly enough, so as not to give time
for the germination of this mold fungus, the fruit will not
decay, but will stay sound until it would ultimately dry up
and mummify.

Wrapping in tissue paper is an extremely efficient means of
decreasing danger from rotting. The reason for this is that
the paper absorbs water very freely and will take up a very
considerable quantity. The paper will have to become very
wet before it will give up enough to the spores of the fungus to
permit them to germinate, and so it regulates the matter to a
large extent; because when the temperature falls the paper
merely becomes moist, and when the temperature rises this
moisture is evaporated, and if there is fair ventilation it will
be carried off and the fruit never become really wet. If the
fruit sweats too much, however, owing to poor ventilation or
rapid lowering of temperature, the paper will not be sufficient
to prevent the accumulation of the water on the fruit and the
"germination of any spores that may be there. Only within
certain limits, therefore, is the wrapping of fruit a preventive
of infection by the fungus.

It is a common practice to throw decayed fruit in a pile in
the immediate vicinity of the packing- or curing-house; and
here it continues to decay and produce countless millions of

252 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

spores, which are freely carried by the wind, and to this is due
the thorough infection of the atmosphere referred to above.
There is no means better calculated to disseminate the disease
than this practice. Fruit should never be allowed to become
“blue.” By the time it reaches the white-mold stage it should
either be destroyed by fire, or, what is probably more feasible,
be buried so that it will not be turned up by plowing, or in any
other manner.

In practically all parts of the State, the long, dry summer
period affords a very available time for the thorough disinfec-
tion of the packing-house. The mold spores can be killed by
protracted drying, and it should: be the practice to so thor-
oughly air all packing-houses during the hottest and driest
part of the summer, that they will be entirely free from the
fungus for the beginning of the next year’s campaign.

Sulphur should be burned so that the fumes will come in
contact with every part of the inside of the packing- or curing-
house. Usually these buildings are not tight enough to permit
of very thorough work, so that no prescription of the amount
to use can be safely made. The material is not expensive, so
that the best policy is to use it very liberally whenever the
presence of the fungus in quantity is known or suspected to
exist in the house.

INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE CITRUS. 253

INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE
CITRUS.

The insect pests that affect the citrus are numerous, but are
now easily kept in subjection by artificial means, aided largely
by their natural enemies—parasitical and predaceous.

In combating insect pests California has taken the lead over
every State and country in the world, and it is to be hoped that
through the fostering care accorded by the people the State will
not revert to primitive methods of allowing injurious insect
pests and tree and plant diseases to be introduced and obtain
a foothold in our orchards.

The life of insects is divided into four periods: First, the
ovum (egg), which is motionless, and apparently lifeless;
Second, the larva (grub), which is active, voracious, and grows
rapidly, but without wings; Third, the pupa (chrysalis), which
is incapable of locomotion, and is in color and outward form
entirely unlike the larva from which it proceeds; Fourth, the
imago (perfect insect), which is active, has wings, does not
increase in size, and which lays eggs for future generations,
thus perpetuating its kind. The mode in which the life of an
insect is passed and the different species of trees it infests differ
very widely in the various stages of its existence.

The fructification of citrus trees in particular is mostly
-accomplished by different species of insects, which convey the
pollen from tree to tree, and also from the stamens to the stigma
of the same tree. On the other hand, there are multitudes of
baneful ones, which injure tree, fruit, etc., and are only checked
in their progress by other insects that prey upon them, or by
artificial means.

SCALE INSECTS.
Family COCCIDIDA.

“Male and female larve similar, apterous, naked or covered, active.
Females in all stages apterous, metamorphosis semi-complete, naked or
covered, active or stationary; rostrum usually present in all stages, some-
absent in adult; feet sometimes absent after larval stage; tarsi, where
monomerous; feet, where present, ending in a single claw, eyes

times
presen ts
gomewhat absent.

254 STATE .BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

‘““Male pupmw apterous, naked or covered. Adult males with two wings
and two halteres; metamorphosis complete; rostrum present in larva and
pupa, always absent in adult; tarsi monomerous, feet ending in a single claw ;
abdomen terminating in a spike, which forms the sheath of the penis; eyes
present in adult; ocelli often large, sometimes exceeding three in number.’’—
W.M. MaskeELt, F.R.M.S., ‘‘The Scale Insects,’ New Zealand, p. 37.

This group of insects is of the utmost importance to horticul-
turists, as but few trees are exempt from its attacks. While
the study of economic entomology is comparatively new in Cali-
fornia, its incipiency dating back but a few years, these insects
have attracted wide attention, as nearly every branch of the fruit
industry has felt their effects more or less. In this State there
is a great diversity of industries in the fruit line, and trees and
plants have been imported from almost every country. Upon
them many injurious species of insects have been brought in.

The pernicious scale, or “San José” so called, which does
not affect the citrus, but deciduous trees principally, was the
first species of this group which gave this important study its
incentive. It made its presence felt in Santa Clara County as
early as 1878. Whence it came is not definitely known, but
was no doubt brought here on cuttings or trees. As very little
was then known of this species, effective measures were not
adopted for its suppression, and it spread to adjoining orchards
and was afterward taken to other counties on nursery trees.
For a time it threatened to be a menace to the deciduous fruit
industry, and it appeared as if its progress could not be checked;
but effective measures were discovered for its suppression in
the way of insecticides, and lately, beneficial insects have
accomplished great good in practically exterminating it
throughout the State.

In 1868 another species, the cottony cushion scale, was
brought into our State on plants from Australia, its natural
home. This species played great havoc in many sections,
especially to orange and lemon orchards. Every means pos-
sible were applied, and for a time it baffled the combined wisdom
of scientists and fruit-growers. It was not that the insecticides
applied did not kill the pest, but because all insects could not
be reached, enough escaping to reinfest the tree. Here again
nature came to our relief. The Vedalia cardinalis, Mulsant,
in one season reduced it to such an extent that it can no longer
do injury. Where this scale appears in isolated localities

INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE CITRUS. 255

and where the Vedalia do not appear, colonies of the Vedalia
should be procured.

In 1872, the Aspidiotus aurantii, Maskell, was introduced, also
on trees from Australia. These were planted at Les Angeles,
and subsequently some were taken to Orange, from which
localities the pest spread. This species was described by Prof.
Maskell, and was imported into New Zealand from Sydney,
thus settling the question as to its source. Prior to 1880, little
or no damage was done by this pest. The greatest injury and
spread occurred between 1880 and 1890. While no effective
parasite that preys on this species has been found, the discovery
of the hydrocyanic acid gas treatment has proved a great boon
to the citrus industry, through which means the pest is kept
under control.

In 1872 the Aspidiotus citrinus, Coquillett, was also intro-
duced, from Japan, into the San Gabriel Valley, on orange
trees. At first the insect made slow progress, and was not con-
sidered a very serious pest. Between the years 1883 and 1889
it spread very rapidly, in fact alarmingly, throughout the val-
ley. In 1889 a parasite of the genus Coccophagus was discov-
ered preying upon the scale, and it is now kept in subjection.

Other species, the Mytilaspis citricola, Packard, and Mytilas-
pis Gloverti, Packard, have been introduced on nursery trees,
principally from Florida, but as yet they have been confined
to those trees in certain localities and have not spread.
Numerous other species are continually being discovered on
plants and trees imported from many parts of the world, and
promptly destroyed by Quarantine Officer Craw at San Fran-
cisco

SPECIES IN CALIFORNIA.
Genus ASPIDIOTUS, Bouche.

This genus includes species of Diaspine, in which the scale
of the female is circular or nearly so, with the exuvie at or
near the center, and the scale of the male somewhat elongated,
with the larval skin at one side of the center or near one
extremity. The last segment of the female usually presents
four groups of spinnerets; in a few species there are five
groups, and in some they are wanting.

256 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

The following species of this genus infest citrus trees in
California:

(1) Red scale—Aspidiotus aurantii, Maskell.

(2) Yellow scale—Aspidiotus citrinus, Coquillett.

(3) Oleander scale—Aspidiotus nerit, Comstock.

(1) Rep Scate.

A circular, flat scale, known by the popular name of ‘‘ red
scale,” from the color of its shell.

Scale of female is light gray, quite translucent. Female
light yellow in adolescent stages; as it reaches maturity
becomes brownish. Viviparous.

Ventral view of insect. Red scale on leaf.

Scale of male resembles female, except that it is only one
fourth as large. Male light yellow, thoracic band brown;
eyes purplish black.

This insect is the worst enemy to citrus culture in California.
It attacks the trunk, branches, leaves, and fruit. So far no
effective parasites are known to attack it, excepting predaceous
insects, which do not increase rapidly enough to check its
progress.

Treatment.—Rosin solution (formula No. 1), and gas treat-
ment (formula No. 4).

(2) YELLow SCALE.

A small yellow scale, infesting citrus trees in the San Gabriel
Valley, Los Angeles, Sacramento, Oroville, and Marysville.

INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE CITRUS. 257

This Species differs but slightly from 4. aurantii, excepting in
habits and color,

Scale of female circular, body pale yellow. Male smaller
than female, nearly circular, white, marked with irregular
yellow spots. Viviparous.

This species only attacks the leaves and fruit, seldom the
wood. Supposed to have been introduced from Japan in 1872.

Treatment.—Rosin solution (formula No. 1), and gas treat-
ment (formula No. 4).

Yellow Scale on leaf. Ventral view of insect.

(3) OLEANDER SCALE.

A small whitish scale infesting the oleander. It attacks
oranges and lemons; does not infest the trees to their material
injury, although harmful to the fruit.

Scale of female flat, whitish or light gray, and with exuvie
central or nearly so. Female nearly circular in outline. Scale
of male slightly elongated, with larval skin nearly central,
snowy white; diameter, .04 inch. Oviparous.

This species has often been mistaken for the true “red” scale
when on lemons, as it assumes a pinkish tint.

Treatment.—Rosin solution (formula No. 1), and gas treat-
ment (formula No. 4); kerosene emulsion has also given
satisfactory results.

LLG

258 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

Genus LECANIUM, Illiger.

Females naked, flat or convex, viviparous or oviparous,
propagating without ovisac, arboreal.

The following species have been discovered in this State:

(1) Black scale—Lecaniwm olex, Bernard.

(2) Soft scale—Lecanium hesperidum, Linneeus.

(8) Hemispherical scale—Lecaniwm hemisphericum,Targioni.

(1) Brack Scan.
(Fig. 6, Plate XX VI.)

A blackish-brown scale, very common throughout the State.
Infests nearly every kind of tree and plant. It is more
troublesome on the olive, next to which citrus trees suffer the
most from its attacks.

Adult female dark brown, nearly black, nearly hemispherical
in form, often quite as long as broad; average length, 4 mm.
to 5mm.; average height, 3mm. lHEggs long, oval, 0.4 mm. in
length, color yellowish. Larva flat and six-jointed.

Undoubtedly European, and infests a greater variety of
plants than any other insect of this group. There are several
parasites that attack it, and with the aid of predaceous ones,
especially the Rhizobius ventralis, recently introduced, it is
kept in check in some localities to a considerable extent. It is
most troublesome in the coast and bay regions. As this scale
has but one brood a year, which is hatched during the summer,
it is greatly reduced in number by the heat in the interior
regions.

Treatment.—Rosin solution (formula No. 2), kerosene emul-
sion (formula No. 3), and gas treatment (formula No. 4). On
all trees which do not shed their leaves the gas treatment is
the only remedy found to efficiently destroy this scale. When
properly applied it should destroy over 99 per cent. The
washes and sprays are with difficulty made to reach over 80
or 90 per cent of the tree area. The remaining live scale soon
reéstablish themselves.

(2) Sorr Scare.

A dark brown, oval scale, infesting citrus trees and orna-

mental plants.
Adult female, 3 mm. to 4mm. long; yellow, inclined to brown

‘SOULIO AHL OL SNOTUALNI SLOUSNI

“9218 [BINIBN—(HJIII}09 sidsvpjhjy) : : ‘J1BY 9u0 peonpay —(wnpwopy snidoy —— i
9[BOS ETdind oy} UIT paisayuy uot] Jo YouRIg—z - ag f “Apov) Sug ATBEW eM Aq poyseyut Youwsg uomey—{ ‘Sty

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“AXX GLV 1d

“AN OLTAO SOULIO VINNOMITYO

260 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

upon disk, shape elongate-oval, nearly flat, smooth and shin-
ing: Antenne seven-jointed, legs slender and long. Young
larva oval, long. Viviparous.

This species is not a serious pest and is easily subdued.
There are several parasites that keep it in check, so much so
as to prevent its doing material injury.

Treatment.—Rosin solution (formula No. 1), and kerosene
emulsion (formula No. 3).

(3) HemispHERICAL SCALE.

A dark brown, hemispherical scale; infests citrus trees prin-
cipally—the lime the most. The scale settles on the limb and
on the leaf, mostly on the latter along the midrib, but along
the margin the most. The average length of the adult female
is 3.5 mm., width 8 mm., height 2mm. The shape and pro-
portions vary greatly, according as the scale is formed upon
leaf or twig.

Treatment.-—-Kerosene emulsion (formula No. 3).

Genus MYTILASPIS, 'argioni-Tozzetti.

Female and male puparia similar, or nearly similar, in
shape, but the male puparium is smaller. Puparia elongated,
generally more or less mussel-shaped or pyriform, usually
convex, more or less curved, pellicles at one end. Male pupa-
ria not carinated. Five groups of spinnerets in the female,
but the groups are sometimes continuous.

The following species are found in this State:

(1) Purple scale—Mytilaspis citricola, Packard.

(2) Long scale—Mytilaspis Gloverii, Packard.

(1) PurpLe Scate.
(Fig. 2, Plate XXV.)

A long purple scale; infests citrus trees principally. In
Florida it is a very troublesome pest, and was introduced into
California about fifteen years ago on trees imported from that
State.

Scale of female long, more or less curved and widened pos-
teriorly, brown, with exuvize of same color; length, .12 inch.
Female yellowish white. Scale of male usually straight, or
nearly so, of same color as scale of female. Egg white,
arranged irregularly under the scale.

INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE CITRUS. 261

Treatment.—This scale is somewhat difficult to destroy, and

will only yield effectually to the gas treatment (formula
No. 4). /

(2) Lona Scaue.

This species, like the preceding one, is very common through-
out Florida, and is usually associated with M. citricola. It
infests citrus trees principally.

Scale of female differs from M. citricola in being much nar-
rower, color light yellow, varying to light brown. Female,
body light purple. Eggs white when first laid, become tinged
with purple before hatching, and they are arranged in two
rows, in a regular manner. Scale of male similar in form
to that of the female.

Treatment.—Like the preceding one, this scale is difficult to
destroy. Use the gas treatment (formula No. 4).

Genus ICERYA, Signoret.

Antenne eleven-jointed, body covered with a cottony matter
of several shades of color, and with a secretion of still longer
filaments. Skin with rounded spinnerets and with long, scat-
tered hairs. Antenne of nearly the same size throughout
their whole length, and with a long pubescence. The digitules
of the claw elongated and buttoned; of the tarsi as simple
hairs. Genital apparatus terminating in a tube internally,
with a reticulated ring, and without hairs at itsextremity. An-
tenn of the larva six-jointed, with a very long pubescence and
with four hairs upon the last joint much longer than the others.
Lateral lobes of the extremity of the abdomen with a series of
three very long, frequently interlaced bristles.

Corrony CusHion Scare (Icerya purchasi, Maskell).

A cottony-like insect, infesting citrus trees and ornamental
plants.

Adult female dark orange red, legs and antenne black,
covered with yellowish powder. Egg-sac white, tinged with
yellow, and is ribbed longitudinally, and longer than the body
of the insect, filled with loose cottony mass containing the eggs.
Egg oval in shape, red, 0.7 mm. long. Newly hatched larva
reddish brown; antennie six-jointed; begins in a short time to
excrete tufts of yellow waxy matter along the dorsal surface

262 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

of the body and lateral margins. The young creep along at
first, then settle along the underside of the leaves and on the
branches, which they seem to prefer, but after passing through
the second or third molt migrate to other parts of the tree.

Since the introduction of the Australian ladybirds, Vedalia
cardinalis and Novius Koebelei, which devour it, this scale is no
longer considered a pest.

Treatment.—When spraying is desired, formula No. 1 or
No. 3 will be found effective.

Two distinct forms of Cottony Cushion Scale. (After Craw.)

Genus DACTYLOPIUS.

To this genus belong the insects commonly known as mealy
bugs. The antennee of the female are six-jointed in the larva,
and eight-jointed in the adult. The male larva has seven-
jointed antenne. The tarsi are furnished with four digitules
and the anal ring with six hairs.

Meaty Bue (Dactylopius adonidwm, Signoret).
(Fig. 1, Plate XXV; Fig. 2, Plate XXVII.)

This mealy bug has made its presence felt in some portions
of the State. It congregates in large numbers in portions of
the tree, especially among the clusters of fruit.

Treatment.—This insect is effectually destroyed by the ordi-
nary washes used for scale, and by the ladybird Cryptolamus
montrowziert, lately introduced. This ladybird is as effectual
in destroying the mealy bug as the Vedalia and Novius are in
devouring the cottony cushion scale.

INSECT PESTS—FORMULAS FOR THEIR DESTRUCTION. 263

SIX-SPOTTED MITE.
‘Tetranychus 6-maculatus, Riley.

This mite was introduced into
the lower portion of the State
on citrus trees from Florida. In
that State it has done consider-
able damage to citrus fruits.
Intested trees may be recognized
by a mottled appearance. The
mites congregate on the under-
side of the leaves, usually pro-
ducing a concavity. The upper
surface of the leaves is marked

with yellow blotches. SxGroriiD Mie.
a, insect enlarged; h, tarsus; c, TOs-

Treatment.—Formula No. 5, trum and palpus, still more enlarged;
d, tip of palpus, still more enlarged.

FORMULAS FOR DESTROYING INSECT PESTS
AFFECTING THE CITRUS.

The following formulas of insecticides for the destruction of
the various pests that affect citrus trees have proved the most
effectual in this State:

(1) Rosin Solution.

(For the Red and the Yellow Scale on citrus trees.)

ROSIN 2 es oe oe ha wee ciae ose Goose ne pot actos wane eORpOUN dss
Causticsoda; (70 per Cent)... --sen ees coe oe 7 pounds.
PiA OH oo A aac seer c es at tod meeps bedinee 3 pints.

Water; toumaké- 2.222225 suc sonit2 ti scage ices te 25552222100. pallons:

Place the rosin, caustic soda, and fish oil in a boiler, pour
over them about 20 gallons of water, and cook thoroughly over
a brisk fire for three hours; then add hot water, a little occa-
sionally, and stir well, until diluted to 50 gallons of hot solu-
tion. Place this in the spray tank and add cold water to make
the necessary amount. Never add cold water when cooking.

264 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

(2) Rosin Solution.

For newly hatched Black Seale and Soft Brown Scale.)

he ROSIN fos ose nee tee eee eee ae toes ene LO POUL:
e Caustic:soda: (70: per Cent) ssseocesceessen ce scstetcceec 5 pounds.
POS VOl. cocen ectamcaaanene unas eas ee acemeas sate ween 214 pints.
Water Toumake:: ste esie apes e busses scene essdastei 100 gallons.

Prepare as directed in formula No. 1. The black scale
generally completes hatching in most sections by September
1st, therefore this formula should be used during that month.

(3) Kerosene Emulsion.

(For Black Scale and Soft Brown Scale on citrus trees.)

Kerosene oil (Pearl, 150° test).-_.--.._----.-.-.------ 5 gallons.
Common laundry soa plc... s--eeeccevos ces etedee es 1144 pounds.
WATER! proton ee Aaceate se ehiee. See eo eee eee See ee ALON:

Dissolve the soap by boiling in 23 gallons of water, and
while boiling remove to another vessel; add the kerosene, and
churn for fifteen minutes, or until a perfect emulsion is formed.
Afterward dilute with 63 gallons of hot water for each gallon
of oil, and to the mixture add 24 pounds of home-made soap
dissolved in hot water. Apply at a temperature of 140° F.

(4) The Hydrocyanic Acid Gas Treatment.
(For destroying scale insects on citrus trees.)

This treatment should be used in the night to avoid light,
heat, and sea breeze, which neutralize the effects of the gas.
The chemicals used for producing the gas are: Sulphuric acid
(commercial), cyanide of potassium (98 to 99 per cent), and
water.

The following instructions must be carefully observed: First,
the tent, which must be air-tight, is placed over the tree;
second, the tent is made air-tight around the bottom, by throw-
ing some loose soil over the bottom of the canvas; third, the
necessary amount of sulphuric acid, together with the required
amount of water, is put in a glazed earthenware vessel, and
placed under the canvas, and the cyanide of potassium is
added. <A piece of sacking or burlap is thrown over the top of
the vessel, to spread the gas and prevent it from burning the
leaves immediately above the generator. The tree is left
covered forty minutes.

INSECT PESTS—FORMULAS FOR THEIR DESTRUCTION. 265

The chemicals are to be used in the following proportions, as
recommended by the Riverside County Board of Horticultural
Commissioners:

| Cyanide C. P.,98, Sulphurie Acid,

| |

Height of Tree. Diameter of Tree. Water. per cent. 66 per cent.
Feet. Feet. | Ounces. Ounces. Ounces.
4 | 2 1 1
8 6 | 3 14 1%
10 8 5 214 QW
12 14 11 5 5%
16 16 | 17 8 | 9
20 16—20 22 10 12
20—24 18-22 30 14 16
2430 | 20-28 34 | 16 18
30—36 | 25-30 52 24 28

The cyanide should be used as coarse as possible, so that the
chemical action will be less violent. The gas is also generated
more evenly, and there is not so much danger of the chemicals
boiling over or spattering the tent. As soon as the tent is
removed the vessel is rinsed with clean water and prepared for
another charge.

(5) For Mites (Tetranychus) on Citrus Trees.

(To be applied in summer.)

Caustic soda (70 per cent)_---..----.---- ------------- 10 pounds.
Sulphur=2 Jess jo. Sees eed ace esas & isles secs ees 20 pounds.
Dissolve in water....--.222---.-<s- -------+-+-+--+----- 20 gallons.

Take the sulphur, mix to a paste—not sloppy—with cold
water in a barrel; then add to this wet sulphur 10 pounds of
caustic soda (98 per cent), and it will boil the sulphur just like
lime slacking; have 20 gallons of water to add to it as it boils,
to prevent burning. This is the stock solution. When ready
to spray the mites or spiders, put 40 gallons of water in another
barrel, and take half a gallon of the stock solution and add to
the forty gallons of water, straining it to take out any sediment
there may have been in the sulphur. Apply with a spray
pump under one hundred pounds pressure.

266 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE.

Kahles’* Distillate Solution.

(For Black Scale on citrus trees; apply in the fall.)

Distillate,28° (untreated).--...-2-22.0.-c20c4-5 5005 5 gallons.
Oe Rises deg eh eect ears e sieeeeree 5 gallons.
Wihailes@iSOap 2a.tenagodect eu casd seve t pases cencuee sis 114% pounds.

The whale-oil soap must first be dissolved in the water.
Then add the dissolved soap to the distillate. It is important
that the distillate be placed in the mixing vessel first; then
place the dissolved soap on top. Attach your spraying pump
to the bottom of the vessel in which you are mixing the com-
pound, and keep pumping it out of the vessel through the
spraying pump back into the vessel, until the whole becomes
of a rich creamy substance. Keep pumping or churning it
through the pump until it becomes a complete emulsion, with-
out a speck of free oil in sight, which will take from ten to
fifteen minutes. When properly emulsified, it should increase
in volume about one third, because it becomes aérified.

If the ground is in good condition, containing proper moisture,
and the trees are healthy and growing, you can apply the spray
in the proportion of eleven parts of water to one of the emulsion.
If the trees are dormant do not use it so strong; say about
twelve or fourteen gallons of water to one gallon of the stock
compound. Always put your emulsion in the apparatus first,
then add the water. The stock compound and the cold water
will mix as readily as milk and water, and when finished
should resemble milk in all appearances.

When spraying be careful to observe any particles of oil
which may not have been thoroughly emulsified, and which
rise to the surface. In this event, only use the correct emulsion,
and when near the bottom empty the oil off.

About 200 gallons of the stock mixture can be made for $6.25.
The distillate costs 5 cents a gallon, and the soap about 5 cents
per pound. Two hundred gallons of stock mixture at eleven
to one give 2,200 gallons of spraying mixture.

This solution is made the same as the kerosene emulsion,
only this distillate contains all the natural oils and strength
of the crude oil, nothing being taken therefrom except the
asphaltum. Therefore, it is a great deal stronger and stays
longer on the trees without evaporating. Eleven to one is the
strongest it can be used with safety on citrus trees.

*¥F. Kahles, Superintendent of Crocker-Sperry Lemon Grove, Montecito.

BENEFICIAL INSECTS—PREDACEOUS. 267

This remedy is used by Mr. Neff, Superintendent of the Win-
dermere Orchards at La Mirada, but he uses twenty pounds
more whale-oil soap, on account of lime in the water at that
place. On this account it requires nearly an hour to prepare a
perfect emulsion. He also uses warm water to add to the stock
solution, as it works better than cold water. Mr. Neff says:
“Some distillates will kill very large ‘black scale,’ while another
lot of distillates, apparently the same, will not kill any scales
larger than a pinhead.”

BENEFICIAL INSECTS—PREDACEOUS.

In no part of the world has the value of predaceous and
parasitical insects been more fully demonstrated than in this
State. The cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi, Maskell)
had gained a very strong foothold here, especially on citrus
trees, and the damage done by its ravages can hardly be esti-
mated. Everywhere was noted its resistless and ruthless
march. Watchfulness did not guard against its spread. The
most heroic treatments proved of no avail. But in the deep
night of our despair there came to our relief a minute ladybird,
the Vedalia cardinalis, which in less than a year entirely freed
the orchards of California of that pest, thereby accomplishing
a work entirely unprecedented in the annals of economic
entomology. In 1892 another ladybird, Novius Koebelei (see
Plate XX VI), also a foe to this scale, was introduced, although
a repetition of the work achieved by the Vedalia was gravely
doubted. What energy, science, and money could not perform
in years, these minute creatures accomplished in a short period
of time, and to those who closely watched their work it seems
almost incomprehensible.

These friendly insects are assisted materially by other species,
and especially by internal parasites. That other insects with
similar instincts could ever be discovered was doubted, but
through persistence and faith on the part of the State Board
of Horticulture, a further search was instituted, which was
rewarded by the discovery of two other species. One, the
Rhizobius ventralis (see Plate XX VI), is an effective foe of the
black scale (Lecanium olex), which it is diminishing very
rapidly in many sections of the State. This ladybird has
proved most effective in the coast and bay counties, where it
finds a congenial home. The other species, the Cryptolemus
montrouziert (see Plate XX VII), has proved an effective enemy
of the mealy bug.

CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. PLATE XXVI.

Fig. 1. Novius Koebelei—
female, enlarged.

Fig. 2. Novius Koebelei—
larva, enlarged.

Fig. 3. Novius Hoebelei—
male, enlarged.

Fig. 4. Rhizobius ventra-
lis—enlarged.

Fig. 5. Rhizobius ventra-
lis—larva, enlarged.

Fig. 6. Rhizobius ventra-

tis—larvee at work on black
scale (Lecanium ole).

LADYBIRDS—Newty Intropucep Species ImportED BY State BOARD OF
HortTICULTURE THAT Have Provep EMINENTLY SUCCESSFUL.

CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. PLATE XXVIII.

|
|
| Fie. 3—Cryptolemus montrouzieri— Fic. 4—Cryptolemus montrouzieri—pupa,
| perfect insect, enlarged. enlarged.

|

LADYBIRDS—Newty Inrropucep Species Importep By Stare Board or
HortTIcULTURE THAT Have Proven EMINENTLY SUCCESSFUL.