a sehen. oe 4; oats tye tees eae at % tity 4 Sets fey a a Sobel yes rey ? : tote, rer. 2 ay fie o8 AS SRE pe acs bap be em ges pee yar oe oe, fad nie sie. pee , ee pe ee : : ; *. : ; faeree F Pact ages SL Ral green ae Sts ait 4 Rh! LR Bok ay th ee 4 S + Es * om i ‘ phokrer se Ses ee Pie hell rages Sapa a a Tm Ar : . ae) + aa ee ale sey ak ae: Sante orton acm opm AO So ect tee te oe ets aed ap Garnell University Dibeaxt Sthara, New York CHARLES WILLIAM WASON COLLECTION CHINA AND THE CHINESE THE GIFT OF CHARLES WILLIAM WASON CLASS OF 1876 1918 Digitized by Microsoft® h Uni 830 .D7V83 Pe This book was digitized by Microsoft Corporation in cooperation with Cornell University Libraries, 2007. You may use and print this copy in limited quantity for your personal purposes, but may not distribute or provide access fo it (or modified or partial versions of if) for revenue-generating or other commercial purposes. Digitized by Microsoft® Cornell University The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924021444728 Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® THE DRAGON IN CHINA AND JAPAN Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® PREFACE. The student of Chinese and Japanese religion and folklore soon discovers the mighty influence of Indian thought upon the Far-Eastern mind. Buddhism introduced a great number of Indian, not especially Buddhist, conceptions and legends, clad in a Bud- dhist garb, into the eastern countries. In China Taoism was ready to gratefully take up these foreign elements which in many respects resembled its own ideas or were of the same nature. In this way the store of ancient Chinese legends was not only largely enriched, but they were also mixed up with the Indian fables. The same process took place in Japan, when Buddhism, after having conquered Korea, in the sixth century of our era reached Dai Nippon’s shores. Before a hundred years had elapsed the Japanese mind got imbued with foreign ideas, partly Chinese, partly Indian. To the mixture of these two elements a third one, consisting of the original Japanese concep- tions, was added, and a very intricate complex was formed. Whoever studies the Japanese legends has the difficult task of analysing this complex into its parts. - ~ No mythical creature is more familiar to Far-Eastern art and literature than the dragon. It is interesting to observe how in Japan three different kinds of dragons, originating from India, China and Japan, are to be found side by side. To the super- ficial observer they all belong to one and the same class of rain bestowing, thunder and storm arousing gods of the water, but a careful examination teaches us that they are different from each other. The Indian serpent-shaped Naga was identified in China with the four- legged Chinese dragon, because both were divine inhabi- tants of seas and rivers, and givers~of rain. It is no wonder that the Japanese in this blending of Chinese-and Indian ideas recog- nized their own serpent or dragon-shaped gods of rivers and ‘mountains, to whom they used to pray for rain in times of drought. Thus the ancient legends of three countries were com- bined, and~features of the one were used to adorn the other. In order to throw light upon these facts we must examine the Digitized by Microsoft® ! ; VI PREFACE, Buddhist ideas concerning the Nagas which came from India to the East. Being not acquainted with the Sanscrit language, we have to refer to the works of European scholars and to trans- lations, in order to explain the western elements found in Chinese and Japanese dragon legends. This being our only aim with regard to the Nagas, we will deal with een only by way of introduction. pcan rari 7 ———In-the First Book we have systematically arranged the most interesting quotations concerning the dragon in China, selected from the enormous number of passages on this divine animal found in Chinese literature from the remotest ages down to modern times. In order to give the original conceptions we did not quote the numerous poems on the dragon, because the latter, although based upon those conceptions, enlarged them in their own poetical way. The Second Book treats of the dragon in Japan, considered in the light of the facts given by the Introduc- tion and Book I. I avail myself of this opportunity to express my hearty thanks to Professor Ds Groot, whose kind assistance enabled me to largely extend the Chinese part of this paper. Not only was his very rich and interesting library at my disposal, but he himself was an invaluable guide to me through the labyrinth of many a difficult Chinese passage. Moreover, from the very beginning his splendid works, especially the Religious System of China, formed the basis of my studies in Chinese and Japanese religion and folklore. I also tender my best thanks to Professor Speyer, who with great kindness gave me most valuable information concerning the Nagas, and to Miss E. Scumipr, who kindly put her know- ledge and time at my disposal in undertaking the weary labour of perusing the manuscript and correcting its language. Leiden. M. W. ve Visser. Digitized by Microsoft® chp con con war ee COP GP COP? COR cor oe, © DOR $1. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. THE NAGA IN BUDDHISM, WITH REGARD TO HIS: IDENTIFICATION WITH THE CHINESE DRAGON. The Naga according to European scholars The Naga according to some translated texts . The Naga as a giver of rain. Sttras recited in rain ceremonies BOOK I. THE DRAGON IN CHINA. CHAPTER I. THE DRAGON IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS. . Yih king . . Shu king . « dt Bhs . Cheu li _ rh. CHAPTER It. DIVINATION AND GEOMANCY. Lucky omens Digitized by Microsoft® 35 39 39 40 41 43 Vill § 2. CONTENTS. Bad omens . en ee er ee A. Fighting dragons . ee. fs , . 45 B. Dead dragons . . ee ; - oe . 49 C. Dragons appearing at a (irae ® spent. a tele. se 50 D. Dragons appearing in wrong places. . a ee 54 § 3. Dragon-horses § 4. Geomancy § 1. § 2. § 3. § 4. § 5.- § (6. § 7%. § 8. § 9. oe § 1 i. § 13. § 15. § 15. § 16. § 17. § 18. CHAPTER III. GENERAL INFORMATION. Enormous light-giving mountain gods. Nature of the dragons. What dragons like and dislike - : Shape of the dragons Male and female dragons . Different kinds “ oc . Kiao lung (BE Rearing and see dragons . Dragons ridden by sien, or drawing these cars ‘of pads a holy 10 men. Dragon-boats . . . “Dragon-tail-road” and other words contented ith the deacon. Dragon-gate Dragon’s dens. Dragon herds . Dragon’s pearls Dragon’s eggs. ‘ Dragon’s bones, skins, ‘tooth, anne, peeing, fiverds ‘placantas and foetus, used as medicines Dragon’s blood, fat and saliva . CHAPTER IY. ORNAMENTS. Symbols of Imperial dignity and fertilizing rain, represented on garments, honorary gates, coffins etc. . . Nine different kinds of dragons, used as ornaments . Ornaments used by Wu-ist priests and mediums . The dragons and the ball . CHAPTER V. CAUSING RAIN, THUNDER AND STORM. . The gods of thunder, clouds and rain . ‘ . Violent rains accompanied by heavy winds and fhunderstorms, . Rain magic and prayers. Digitized by Microsoft® Page 45 56 59 62 63. 67 70 vi 72 76 82 83 83 85 86 87 87 88 88 90 96 99 101 102 103 1b9 111 113 CONTENTS. CHAPTER VI. EMPERORS CONNECTED WITH DRAGONS. Hwang Ti rode on a dragon . if Yao and Kao ‘'T'su were sons of dragons . Shun was visited by a yellow dragon . Yti drove in a carriage drawn by dragons, and was ssinted by a ying lung . , ‘ Ming Hwang’s vessel was moved forward by a dragon Two yellow dragons threatened to upset Yii’s vessel. . Shi Hwang died on account of having killed a dragon . ae ie aes iminip mupcmnca roe CHAPTER VII. TRANSFORMATIONS. The dragon’s transformations are unlimited . Appearing as old men or -beautiful women Appearing as fishes ‘ Appearing as snakes, dogs or rats : A cow transformed into a dragon Appearing as objects. . . . . Dr CG? Gr CO LP COP OR we bp CHAPTER VIII. THE INDIAN NAGA IN CHINA. Reborn as a dragon . Ponds inhabited by Dragon- tne Temples of Dragon-kings Palaces of Dragon-kings. hr cop UP cor ee Oe BOOK Il. THE DRAGON IN JAPAN. CHAPTER I. IX Page 122 123 123 123 124 124 124 126 126 127 129 129 130 THE ORIGINAL JAPANESE DRAGON-GODS OF RIVERS, SEAS AND MOUNTAINS. § 1. Okami. § 2. Yamatsumi and ‘Milan. § 3. Watatsumi Digitized by Microsoft® 135 136 137 Gr LP SP COP CO? La SR SR LR Gar Lh Lr wan CO? Lr Sa COP. CP wr GP cor cor a ate ae THE CHINESE DRAGON AND THE DRAGON-HORSE AS OMENS IN JAPAN. ok bo ps SHON ATA WN . The eight Dragon-kings . A Buddhist dragon’s suicide . . Conclusions . eit CONTENTS. Mizuchi, the rivergods Oho-watatsumi, the sea-god . Want . The jewels of vod ani ‘elit , Take-iwa Tatsu no Mikoto, the acy god af a ‘quured pond in Higo province Gaze . eS Sm . An Emperor's dragon-tail CHAPTER II. Flying dragon as the horse of a ghost or a sien Dragon-horses Carriage of a ghost ae fhvong ihe 3 air ‘= sight dnawons, A dragon appears as a good omen . by a sie tae og CHAPTER III. CAUSING RAIN. Shinto gods Horses offered to Shinto gods Buddhism wins field. The Sacred Spring Park . ; The “Dragon-hole” on Mount Murobu Reborn as a rain-giving dragon. : Buddhist priests dominating the oo Dragon-women in ponds F : Stirring up the dragons by iheowing's iron or ° filth into thet ponds. A dragon engraved on an incense pot believed to cause rain. Pine trees cause clouds to rise and rain to fall CHAPTER IV. THE INDIAN NAGA IN JAPAN. The Dragon-kings revere Buddha’s Law. é Dragons appear at the dedication of Buddhist temples ‘ Dragons living in ponds or lakes, Seer near Buddhist shrines. Reborn as dragons . : oy Dragon-kings of the sea ohedle the course of reals in Ponte to obtain special Buddhist treasures as offerings . The “jewel which grants all desires” (cintamani). Digitized by Microsoft® Page 137 139 139 142 143 145 146 147 150 150. 152 156 158 159 168 170 171 172 174 175 176 177 177 179 180 181 184 187 189 CONTENTS. § 8. The Dragon-gods of the inner and outer seas . § 9. Dragon-palaces § 10. Dragons connected with Buddhist snieoie: § 11. Hight dragons ridden through the sky by a Buddhist deity § 12. Curses wrought by dragons swe § 13. Relics of dragons preserved in Buddhist temples ‘ § 14. The “Dragon-flower-meeting” CHAPTER VY. XI Page 190 191 193 194 194 195 196 CHINESE AND INDIAN DRAGONS IDENTIFIED OR CONNECTED WITH ANCIENT JAPANESE DEITIES. § 1. Sagara the Dragon-king, the Yamato no orochi, Antoku Tenno and the Kusanagi sword. ‘ § 2. The Thunder-god caught by Salata. and ‘identified with a Dragon-king . § 3. Watatsumi no kami, the. Sen: “ol, sdentitied saith a Dragon: king. § 4. The dragon-hole in the Gion shrine. : § 5. The dragon-snake offered by the Sea-god to ‘the Bile dustns ‘ § 6. A dragon-snake as a tree-sprite on Koya san Gea a § 7. The “Heavenly Dragon’s Well” at the Suwa shrine . § 8. Kurikara Myo-0, the dragon-shaped mountain-god . CHAPTER VI. THE DRAGON-LANTERN. Dengyo Daishi’s image of Yakushi Nyorai . Kobo Daishi’s spirit. dy ee oak Jigen Daishi’s spirit. “Dragon-lantern pine trees” : . Tide-stones connected with davon eae : The Mountain-light and the Dragon-lantern of Gammelkaman in Etchti province. . . , Kwannon’s dragon-lantern at “‘Ryttkofi. F . Tomyo-dake, Kumano Gongen at Nogami, Kwanyail ae Waite kura and Zenkwoji at Nagano The light of Yotsukura : The lights of Ushijima, [shidozen and Kurihara ; Ignes fatui in general. The dragon-lantern is the aly one which arises from the sea and flies to the mountains POE Co Bo LR Cor won DN Tn LP LR Sh Gh Sp war aon mS HY moe CHAPTER VII. THE CHINESE DRAGON’S EGGS IN JAPAN. § 1. The dragon-fetus remains in the egg for three thousand years, § 2. Dragons born from beautiful stones picked up in the mountains. § 3. Thunderstones Digitized by Microsoft® 197 199 201 202 202 202 203 204 205 206 207 207 209 210 210 211 211 212 213 215 216 219 XII CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIII. THE TATSUMAKI (jE 4), OR “DRAGON’S ROLL”. § 1. Dragons which ascended to heaven . § 2. Tatsumaki in Yedo . § 3. Tatsumaki on the sea . : hoe. § 4. Snakes rise as dragons up to ihe dlonda gt IS. Wak Ga, CHAPTER IX, JAPANESE, CHINESE AND INDIAN DRAGONS IN GEOGRAPHICAL, TEMPLE AND PRIEST NAMES, § 1. The Japanese dragon (fatsu) . . . . § 2. The Chinese and Indian dragons Cy or ry) A. Names of mountains ; : ~ B. Names of springs, waterfalls oe rivers . C. Names of islands, valleys and places D. Names of Buddhist temples.. KE. Names of Buddhist priests . CHAPTER X. CONCLUSIONS . Digitized by Microsoft® Page 220 221 222 224 225 227 227 228 228 229 230 231 INTRODUCTION, THE NAGA IN BUDDHISM, WITH REGARD TO HIS IDENTIFICATION WITH THE CHINESE DRAGON. § 1. The Naga according to European scholars. In order to learn the Buddhist conceptions on the Naga’s nature, and the reasons why the Chinese identified this serpent with their four-legged dragon, we have to consult the works of some authorities on Buddhism: Kern, Harpy, Grttnwepet and others. For the Naga, known in the Far East, is clad in a Buddhist garb, and the legends about him which became popular in China and Japan were all imbued with Buddhism. Kerry, in his Mistory of Indian Buddhism?, states that the Nagas occupy the eighth rank in the system of the world, after the Buddhas, Pratyekabuddhas, Arhats, Devas, Brahmas, Gandharvas and Garudas, and before the Yakshas, Kumbhandas (goblins), Asuras (demons), Raksasas- (giants), Pretas (ghosts, spectres) and the inhabitants of hell. “They are water spirits, represented as a rule in human shapes, with a crown of serpents on their heads”. And in his Manual of Indian Buddhism* we read that they are “snake-like beings, resembling clouds”. As to the enumeration of the beings, this is different in some other texts, as we learn from a note in the same Manual?. In the initial phrase of all the Avadanas Buddha is said to be worshipped by men, Devas, Nagas, Yakshas, Asuras, Garudas, Kinnaras and Mahoragas‘*. These are, however, not exactly the “Eight classes” often mentioned in Chi- nese and Japanese Buddhist works. These are Devas, Nagas, Yakshas, Gandharvas, Asuras, Garudas, Kinnaras and Mahoragas °. 1 Histoire du Bouddhisme dans ?Inde, Annales du Musée Guimet, Bibl. d’études, X et XJ, Vol. I, p. 340 (295). 2 P. 59 seq. 3 P. 60, note 1. 4 Lton Freer, Avadana-cataka, Annales du Musée Guimet XVIII, p. 2. 5 The phrase “Devas, Nagas and (the remaining of the) eight classes” ( RK bE AN Tp) is very often found in the Chinese stitras. Epkins (Chinese Buddhism, p. 217) says: “Beings inferior to the Devas are called collectively the ‘Eight classes”. This is a mistake, for, as Erre, (Sanscr.-Chin. dict. s.v. Naga, p. 103) rightly explains, the Verh, Kon. Akad. v. Wetensch. (Afd. Letterk.) N. R. Dl. XIII, N° 2. 1 Digitized by Microsoft® 2 Harvy's Manual of Buddhism! gives the following details con- ____ cerning the Nagas. cade reside in the loka (world) under See ies that support Meru, and in the waters of the world of men. They have the shape~of the spectacle-snake, with / the-extended hood (coluber naga); but many actions are attri- . / buted-to them that can only be done by- one possessing the human form. They are demi-gods, and have many enjoyments; | | _-of a formidable character”. With regard to Mount Meru Harpy and they are usually represented as being favourable to Buddha and his adherents; -but when their“wrath is roused, their opposition is says: “The summit is the abode of Sekra (Qakra), the regent or chief of the dewaloka called Tawutisa (Trayastrimg¢at) ; and around it are four mansions, 5000 yojanas in size, inhabited by nagas, garundas, khumbandas, and yakas”?. In describing the dewa- lokas he says: “The palace of Virzpaksha is on the west. His Devas also belong to the Eight classes. But according to ErrEL, the ancient Chinese phrase speaks of “‘Nagas, Devas and (others of) the eight classes (HE K AN Fp). I never found them enumerated in this order in the Chinese sutras, for the Devas were always placed before the Nagas. Moreover, in the jatakas and avadanas the Devas always precede the Nagas in the often repeated order of beings. In the “‘SUtra on the original vow of the Bodhisattva Kshitigarbha” (Naxso’s Catalogue, nr 1003, translated from Sanscrit into Chinese at the end of the seventh century), p. 2b, the terms K HE pis mh. “Devas, Nagas, Demons and Spirits”, and RK BE NK Th. “Devas Nagas, and (the remaining of) the Eight Classes’, are met side by side. I often found the phrase Tenryt hachibu in Japanese works. This is, of course, the logical order, as the Devas are of higher rank in the system of the world than the Nagas and there- fore ought to be mentioned before the latter. The fact that the Devas belong to the eight classes is stated in the Ta-Ming san-tsang fah shu, ‘Numbers (i.e. numerical terms and phrases) of the Law of the Tripitaka, collected under the Great Ming dynasty”’ (Nanso, nr 1621), Ch. 33, p. 13 sq., s. v. A Hh: where they are enumerated as Devas, Nagas, Yakshas, Gandharvas, Asuras, Garudas, Kinnaras and Mahoragas. There is, however, a second phrase, namely “Men, Devas and (the remaining of) the Eight Classes”, XN 2 NK ie which we find in the Sutralamkara gastra (NANJO, nr 1182, Great Japanese Trip. of Leiden, Ch. X, p. 4a and b), in two passages where the Buddhas Cakyamuni and Maitreya are said to honour Mahakacyapa “before men, Devas and (the remaining of) the eight classes”. Huper (Sutralamkara, nr 56, pp. 278 seq.) translates: ‘Les huit classes des Devas’, but the Devas are not divided into eight classes and the character XK (men) belongs, of course, to the same sentence and not to the preceding one. Men precede Devas when the different beings are enumerated, and the initial phrase of the Avadanas gives us their names: Men, Devas, Nagas, Yakshas, Asuras, Garudas, Kinnaras and Mahoragas (cf. also HupeEr, |.1., pp. 462 seq.; CHAVANNEs, Cing cents contes et apologues extraits du Tripitaka chinois (1910), Vol. III, p. 61). If the former phrase actually is found sometimes in ancient Chinese books in the wrong form given by Epkins, the Nagas being placed before the Devas (I think I saw it once also in a Japanese work), this mistake must have risen from blending the for- mer phrase with the latter, which mentions the Devas in the second place. Digitized by Microsoft® 3 attendants are the Nagas, a kela-laksha.in number, who have red garments, hold a sword and shield of coral, and are mounted on red horses” '. Grinwepet ’) states that the attributes of this Viriipaksha, one of the four lokapalas or Guardians of the World, also called the “Four Great Kings” (Caturmaharajas), are a caitya (a sanc- tuary) or a jewel in the form of a caitya in the right, and a serpent in the left hand. Before Gautama’s attainment of Buddhahood a Naga king, Kala by name, became aware of the approaching event by the sound the Bodhisattva’s golden vessel produced when striking against the vessels of the three last Buddhas in Kala’s abode. For they all had, like Siddhartha, flung their golden bowls into the river °. As we shall see below, the Naga king Mucilinda, who lived in the lake of this name, by his coils and hoods sheltered the Lord from wind and rain for seven days. The Indian artists often represented the Buddha sitting under Mucilinda’s extended hoods. Not always, however, were the Naga kings so full of reverence towards the Buddha; but in the end, of course, even the most obstinate one was converted. Nandopananda, e.g., tried to prevent the Lord’s return from the Tushita heaven to the earth, but: was conquered by Maudgalyayana in the shape of a Garuda, and was then instructed by the Buddha himself *. When the Master had delivered a sitra in one of the heavenly paradises, the Devas and Nagas came forward and said: “We will henceforth protect correct doctrine” ®. After Buddha's death the Naga kings struggled with the kings of the Devas and eight kings of India to obtain a share in Buddha’s relics *, and got one third, and Ashoka gave Nanda a hair of Buddha’s moustaches, while he threatened to destroy his kingdom if he refused. Nanda erected a pagoda of rock crystal for it on Mount Sumeru ’. According to Northern Buddhism Nagarjuna (+ 150 A.D.), the ‘founder of the Mahayana doctrine, was instructed by Nagas in the sea, who showed him unknown books and gave him his most important work, the Prajia paramita, with which he returned 1 P. 24, 2 Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet und der Mongolei, p. 181. 3 Kern, Manual, p. 19; Hist. du Bouddhisme dans l’Inde, Vol, I, p. 70 (64) (there he is called “roi du monde souterrain”). 4 Harpy, 1.1, pp. 302 seq. 5 Epxiys, |.1., p. 39. 6 Enpxins, 1.1, p. 58. 7 Ibidem, p. 59. Digitized by Microsoft® 4 to India. For this reason his name, originally Arjuna, was changed into Nagarjuna ', and he is represented in art with seven Nagas over his head *. The Mahayana school knows a long list of Naga kings, among whom the eight so-called “Great Naga kings” are the following: Nanda (called Nagaraja, the “King of the Nagas”), Upananda, Sagara, Vasuki, Takshaka, Balavin, Anavatapta and Utpala’. These eight are often mentioned in Chinese and Japanese legends as “the eight Dragon-kings”, /\ ##f IE, and were said to have been among Buddha's audience, with their retinues, while he delivered the instructions contained in the “Sitra of the Lotus of the Good Law” (Saddharma Pundarika sitra, Hokkekyo, } ae AK) *. The Nagas are divided into four castes, just like men, and form whole states. “They are”, says GrinweEpen °, “the Lords of the Earth more than any one else, and send, when having been insulted, drought, bad crops, diseases and pestilence among mankind”. With regard to the Nagas in Indian art we have an excellent guide in Grtnwepew’s Buddhistische Kunst in Indien. After having stated that the Vedas not yet mention them °, but that they belong to the Indian popular belief, extended afterwards by the official brahmanic religion, he further remarks that they often penetrated in human shape into the Master’s neighbourhood and even tried to be taken up among his followers, as we see on a relief of Gandhara (p. 102, Fig. 47; the Naga’s true shape was detected in his sleep). For this reason one of the questions put, even to-day, to those who wish to be taken up into the Order is: “Are you perhaps a Naga?’ There are three ways in which the Indian Buddhist art has represented the Nagas. First: fully human, on the head an Uraeus-like snake, coming out of the 4 Translated into Lung-shu, HE Kit: or Dragon-tree; cf. EpKINs, p. 230; EIvTEL, 1]., p. 103. We find the name Nagarjuna in the Kathasaritsagara, Ch. XLI, Tawney’s translation, Vol. J, p. 376: a minister, ‘twho knew the use of all drugs and by making an elixir rendered himself and king Chirayus (Long-lived) free from old-age, and long- lived”. 2 GRiNWEDEL, 1.1, pp. 30 seqq., p. 46. 3 GRUNWEDEL, 1.1, pp. 190 seq. 4 Harpy, LL, p. 245. 5 LL, p. 187. 6 Cf. L. von Scunogver, Indiens Literatur und Cultur (1887), p. 377: “Im Rigveda sind dieselben (die Schlangengétter) ganz unbekannt, in Yajurveda aber finden wir be- Digitized by Microsoft® 5 neck and often provided with several heads. This form has been taken up in Tibet, China: and Japan‘. Secondly : common ser- pents, and thirdly: a combination of both, i.e. snakes of which the upper part of the body looks human, snake’s heads appearing sbove their human heads; the lower part of the body entirely snake-like*. The first mentioned shape is to be seen in Fig. 5 (p. 29), a relief representing Nagas worshipping a small stipa on a throne, and in Fig. 103 (p. 103), where a Garuda in the shape of an enormous eagle is flying upwards with a Nagi (Naga woman) in his claws, and biting the long snake which comes out of the woman’s neck. A pillar figure of the sttpa of Bharhut represents Cakravaka, the Naga king, standing on a rock in the water, with five snake’s heads in his neck, while snakes are visible in holes of the rock * Once, when Nagas appeared before Buddha in order to listen to his words, he ordered Vajrapani to protect them against the attacks of their enemies, the Garudas. An Indian relief shows us these Nagas, the Naga king Elapatra and his consort, standing in the water, with snakes upon their heads, and worshipping Buddha, while in the background Vajrapani is brandishing his sceptre against the expected Garudas. This Vajrapani’s main function is, according to Grinweput, to give rain, and as a raingod he is the protector of the rain giving snake-gods, the Nagas *. Foucuer’s very interesting paper on the Great Miracle of the Buddha at Qravasti® repeately mentions the Naga kings Nanda and Upananda, represented at the base of the Buddha’s lotus seat. At the request of King Prasenajit the Buddha wrought two miracles: walking through the air in different attitudes he alternately emitted flames and waves from the upper or lower part of his body, and, secondly, he preached the Law after having multiplied himself innumerable times, up to the sky and in all directions. According to the Divyavadana the Buddha, after having completed the first miracle, conceived a wordly idea, which was immediately executed by the gods. Brahma and Qakra placed themselves at the Buddha’s right and left side, and the Naga 1 Cf. p. 114, Fig. 57, a Japanese picture, after Chinese model, representing Buddha’s Nirvana. Among the lamenting creatures, which surround the Master’s body, also Naga kings with snakes above their heads are to be seen. 2 Cf. GRUNWEDEL, Myth. des Buddhismus in Tibet und der Mongolei, p. 89, Fig. 73. 3 GRUNWEDEL, Buddh. in Tibet und der Mongolei, p. 15. 4 L1, p. 160. 5 Fouonsn, Le grand miracle du Buddha a Cravasti, Journal Asiatique, Série X, Tome XIII, pp. 1—78. Digitized by Microsoft® 6 kings Nanda and Upananda (who were said so have bathed the new-born Buddha and to have played a part in many episodes of his life) created an enormous, magnificent lotus upon which the Master sat down. Then the Buddha by means of his magic > power created a great number of Buddhas, seated on lotuses or standing, walking, lying, over his head, up to the highest heavens, and on all sides. This scene is recognized by Foucuer on several Indian monuments. Often the two Naga kings are seen under or on both sides of the lotus created by themselves. They are represented supporting the lotus in a kneeling attitude, entirely human but with five serpents over their heads’, or with human upper bodies and scaly serpent tails *. In the Jatakas the Nagas are always described as enormous ser- pents; sometimes, however, they appear in later Indian (i. e. Graeco- Buddhist) art as real dragons, although with the upper part of the body human. So we see them on a relief from Gandhara’, worshipping Buddha’s almsbowl, in the shape of big water-dragons, scaled and winged, with two horse-legs, the upper part of the body human. Most remarkable is a picture‘ which represents Garudas fighting with Nagas before the preaching saint Subhitti. The Nagas are depicted there in all their three forms: common snakes, guarding jewels; human beings with four snakes in their necks; and winged sea-dragons, the upper part of the body human, but with a horned, ox-like head, the lower part of the body that of a coiling dragon. Here w snake of ancient India, and | the four-legge ed Chinese dravon, a= ciecinnc hee § 2. The Naga according to some translated Buddhist texts. After having referred to European scholars with respect to the Naga in Buddhism, we may compare their results with some translated Indian texts. Being not acquainted with the Sanscrit language, we thankfully make use of these translations in order to illustrate the Buddhist dragon tales of China and Japan; for, as I stated already in the Preface, this is the only aim of this Introduction. Professor Cowgi’s® translation of the Jataka, the canonical 1 Pp. 19, 48 seq., fig. 3, a sculpture of the rock-temples of Ajanta; cf. pp. 64 Seq., fig. 11; pp. 74 seq., fig. 16, with two Nagis; pp. 58 seq., fig. 8. 2 P. 56 seq., fig. 7 (Gealpione from Magadha). 3 GRrUNweEDEL, Buddh. Kunst in Indien, p. 20, fig. 10. 4 GrinweveL, Buddh. in Tibet und der Mongolei, p. 189, fig. 160. Digitized by Microsoft® 7 Pali text, made up of those marvellous stories of the Buddha's former births, told by himself, contains seven tales which are - vivid pictures of the great magic power of the Nagas, especially of their kings, of the splendour of their palaces, and, on the other hand, of their helplessness against their deadly enemies, the Garudas '. The Nagas are semi-divine serpents which very often assume human shapes and whose kings live with their retinues in the utmost: luxury in their magnificent abodes at the bottom of the sea or in rivers or lakes. When leaving the Naga world they are in constant danger of being grasped and killed by the gigantic semi-divine birds, the Garudas, which also change them- selves into men. Buddhism has, in its usual way, declared both Nagas and Garudas, mighty figures of the Hindu world of gods and demons, to be the obedient servants of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and saints, and to have an open ear for their teachings *. In the same way Northern Buddhism adopted the gods of the countries where it introduced itself and made them protectors of its doctrine instead of its antagonists. Sometimes * we read that the Buddha, in a previous existence, succeeded in reconciling even such bitter enemies as a Naga and a Garuda king. He himself was sometimes born as a mighty Naga king. Thus he reigned as King Campeyya in his “jewelled pavillion” in the river Campa’*, as King Samkhapala in the lake of this name°, and as King Bhiridatta in the sacred river Yamuna". In all these three cases he desired to be reborn in the world of men, and in order to attain this aim left his palace on fastdays and lay down on the top of an ant heap, observing the fast and offering his magnificent snake body to the passers-by. 4 Vol. Il, p. 10, Book II, nr 154, the Uraga-Jataka; Vol. III, p. 174, Book VI, nr 386, the Kharaputta-Jataka; Vol. IV, p. 281, Book XV, nr 506, the Campeyya-Jataka ; Vol. V, p. 42, Book XVI, nr 518, the Pandara-Jataka; Vol. V, p. 84, Book XVII, nr 524, the Sarhkhapala-Jataka; Vol. VI, p. 80, Book XXII, nr 543, the Bhuridatta-Jataka ; and Vol. VI, p. 126, Book XXII, nr 545, the Vidhurapandita-Jataka. 2 In Japan these birds have been identified with the Tengu; comp. my treatise on the Tengu, Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, Vol. XXXVI, Part. II, pp. 25—98. 3 Cf. CHAVANNES, Contes et apologues, nr 343 (Vol. II, p. 288), where a Garuda does not grasp a Naga who has fled into the house of an ascetic on a small island in the sea; cf. Vol. III, p. 82, where a wicked Naga king is forced by an Arhat to go away, and Vol. I, nr 154, p. 423, where the Buddha converts a very evil Naga, whom innu- merable Arhats could not convert. 4 Vol. Il, p. 10, nr 154. 5 Vol. IV, 281, Book XV, nr 506. 6 Vol. V, p. 84, Book XVII, nr 524. 7 Vol. VI, pp. 80—113, Book XXII, nr 543, Digitized by Microsoft® 8 Patiently he underwent the most terrible tortures, without using his enormous power against the puny rogues who caused him so much pain. As Samkhapala he was freed by a passing mer- chant, whom he thereupon treated as a guest in his palace for a whole year, and who afterwards became an ascetic. In the two other cases, however, he fell into the hands of a snake-charmer, who by means of magical herbs, which he spit upon him, and by virtue of the “charm which commands all things of sense”, as well as by squeezing and crushing, weakened the royal snake, and putting him in his basket carried him off to villages and towns, where he made him dance before the public. In both legends the Bodhisattva is just performing before the King of Benares, when he is released on account of the appearance of another Naga, Sumana, his queen, or Sudassana, his brother '. In the shape of a Garuda-king we find the Bodhisattva in another tale*, where he finds out the secret way by which the Nagas often succeed in conquering and killing the Garudas, namely by swallowing big stones and thus making themselves so heavy that their assailants, striving to lift them up, drop down dead in the midst of the stream of water, flowing out of the Naga’s widely opened mouths. Pandara, a Naga king, was foolish enough to trust an ascetic, whom both he and the Garuda used to visit and honour, and told him at his repeated request the valuable secret of the Naga tribe. The treacherous ascetic revealed it at once to the Bodhisattva, who now succeeded in capturing Pandara himself by seizing him by the tail and holding him upside down, so that he disgorged the stones he had swallowed and was an easy prey. Moved by Pandara’s lamentations, however, he released him and they became friends, whereupon they went together to the perfidious ascetic. The Naga king caused this fellow’s head to split into seven pieces and the man himself to be swallowed by the earth and to be reborn in the Avici hell. In the Kharaputta-jataka°® we read about a Naga king who was nearly killed by boys, when seeking food on earth, but was saved out of their hands by Senaka, king of Benares. We do not read what made the mighty Naga so powerless against those children; for there was apparently no question of fasting as in 1 A similar tale is to be found in Cuavannes’s Contes et apologues extraits du Tripitaka chinois, Vol. I, pp. 189 sqq., nr 50. 2 Vol. V, pp. 42 seqq., Book XVI, nr 518. Digitized by Microsoft® ' 9 the above mentioned legends of the Bodhisattva. He went back to the Naga world and from there brought many jewels as a present to the King, at the same time appointing one of his numberless Naga girls to be near the King and to protect him. He gave him also a charm by means of which he would always be able to find the girl, if he did not see her, and afterwards presented him with another charm, giving knowledge of all sounds, so that he understood the voices even of ants'. So we find the Naga king not only in the possession of numberless jewels and beautiful girls, but also of mighty charms, bestowing supernatural vision and hearing. The palaces of the Naga kings are always described as extremely splendid, abounding with gold and silver and precious stones, and the Naga women, when appearing in human shape, were beautiful beyond description. But the whole race was terribly quick-tempered, which made them, considering their deadly poison and their great magic power, very dangerous creatures?. Even the breath of their nostrils was sufficient to kill a man, as we read in the above mentioned Kharaputta-jataka, where the Naga king, angry be- cause the girl whom he had appointed to protect King Senaka, came back to the Naga world, falsely complaining that the King had struck her because she did not do his bidding, at once sent four Naga youths to destroy Senaka in his bedroom by the breath of their nostrils. Often we find stories of men staying as guests in some Naga king’s palace and enjoying all its luxury, sometimes for seven days *, sometimes even for a whole year *. The most interesting of all the Naga tales is the Bhiridatta-jataka °, We read there about “the Naga world beneath the ocean” °, and about the Naga palace “beneath the Yamuna’s sacred stream” ', but at the same time the Naga maidens, frightened by the Alambayana spell, a serpent spell obtained from a Garuda-king*, “sank into the earth”, and the “jewel of luck’ °®, which “grants all desires” ”, when falling on the ground “went through it and was lost in 4 In nr 112 of Cuavannes’ Contes et Apologues (Vol. II, p. 382) a Naga king causes a king to understand all animals, 2 Vol. VI, p. 82, Book XXII, nr 543. 3 Vol. IV, p. 281, Book XV, nr 506. 4 Vol. V, p. 84, Book XVII, nr 524. In nrs 94 and 207 of CHAVANNES’ Contes et Apologues (Vol. I, p. 358, Vol. II, p. 87) an Arhat daily flies with his bed to the palace of a Naga king, where he receives food. 5 Vol. VI, pp. 80—143, Book XXII, nr 543. 6 P. 80. 7 P. 107. 8 Pp. 93, 95. 9 P. 91. 40 P. 94, Digitized by Microsoft® 10 the Naga world”'. So we see that whatever belongs to that world can disappear into the earth and needs not enter the water, because both are the Nagas’ domain”. The “jewel which grants all desires”, which was guarded by the Naga maidens but forgotten in their terror for the Garuda spell, is nothing but the “Nyo-i hoju”, 4n & # Ek, mentioned in the Chinese and Japanese legends. The same story teaches us that children of men and Nagi (Naga women) are “of a watery nature”, and cannot stand sunshine or wind, but are happiest when playing in the water °*. So far the Jatakas of Cowst1’s edition. It is a strange fact that in all these tales no mention is made of the Naga’s nature of god of clouds and rain, although this is the main reason why the Chinese identified him with their dragon. In the legends, translated from the Chinese Tripitaka by Cuavannzs *, however, so much stress is laid on the rain giving capacity of the Naga, that we need not doubt as to its predominance in Northern Buddhism. From the Lalita vistara® we learn that in the fifth week after reaching perfect Enlightenment the Buddha went to lake Muci- linda, and the Naga king of the same name, who resided there, came out of the water and with his coils and hoods shielded the Lord from the rain for seven days, whereafter he assumed the shape of a youth and worshipped the Great Being. In the Mahavagga*® the name of the lake and the Naga king is Muca- linda, and “in order to protect the Lord against the cold and the humidity, he seven times surrounded him with his coils and extended his hood over him”. According to Harpy’ “in the sixth week, he went to the lake Muchalinda, where he remained at ~ 4 P. 97. 2 Cf. Harpy, Manual of Buddhism, p. 163, where king Bimbisara, hearing that a mysterious being (the Bodhisattva) was seen, is said to have ordered his courtiers to watch him when he should leave the town. “If he be a demon, he will vanish; if he be a deva, he will ascend into the sky; if a Naga, he will descend into the earth”. 3 P. 82. 4 Cing cents contes et apologues extraits du Tripitaka chinois (1910). 5 Ch. XXII; Cuavannes also refers to the Yoga sutra, Sect. III, 18, 19 and 49; cf. Kern, Manual of Indian Buddhism, pp. 21 seq.; OLDENBERG, Buddha, p. 136. In painting and sculpture the Buddha is frequently sitting under the extended hood of the Naga (Harpy, Manual of Buddhism, p. 182; GRUNWEDEL, Mythologie des Buddhis- mus in Tibet und der Mongolei, p. 110, Fig. 87 and 88). 6 I, 3, quoted by Kern, Histoire du Bouddhisme dans lV’ Inde, Annales du Musée Quimat VY at VIT Val To on 8A (72\ Digitized by Microsoft® ( 11 the foot of a midella tree. At that time rain began to fall, which continued for seven days, without intermission, in all the four continents. The naga Muchalinda having ascended to the surface of the lake, saw the darkness produced by the storm; and in order to shelter Budha from the rain and wind, and protect him from flies, mosquitoes, and other insects, he spread over him his extended hood, which served the purpose of a canopy”. It is highly interesting to compare with these passages the version of the same legend, found in the Chinese Tripitaka’. There he is said to have gone to Mucilinda’s river (not lake) immediately after having reached Enlightenment. While he was sitting under a tree, his brilliant light penetrated into the Naga’s palace, just as in former times his three predecessors of this kalpa had spread their light, sitting on the same spot. The Naga, delighted to see the new Buddha’s light, arose from the water, and, sur- rounding the Lord with seven coils, covered him with his seven heads (not hoods). “The Naga, delighted, caused wind and rain for seven days and nights’. All that time the Lord sat motionless, protected by the royal snake, the first of all animals to be con- verted. This legend is to be found in the Luh-tu tsih king,* ur 143 of Nawnso’s Catalogue, translated by Sene-nwvi*, who died A.D. 280°. The same work contains many jatakas, in which the Nagas are frequently mentioned, sometimes in company with (akra, Brahma, the four devarajas and the gods of the earth®. One day, when the Bodhisattva and Ananda were Nagas in order to complete 4 Cuavannes, 1.]., Vol. I, Ch. VI, p. 275 sqq., nr 76; Tokyo ed. of the Tripitaka (1880—1885), VI, 5, pp. 82 sq.; great Japan. ed., in Leiden and in the India Office, “Ch. VI, pp. 15 sqq. 2 HE SE AW OB Ee 27. Curavannes translates: “Pour s’amuser, le naga déchatna le vent et la pluie”. I should prefer: “The Naga, delighted, caused wind and rain”. He was delighted because he could shelter the Lord from the wind and rain caused by himself. He did not think of amusing himself. But the main point of the question is the fact that the Naga in this version is said to have caused the wind and the rain himself, while the other versions only state that there was wind and rain. 3 jE 46 RK, “Collected sutras on the six Paramitis”. CHAVANNES first thought that these sutras had been collected by Senc-Hwut himself (Vol. I, p. 1, note 1), but afterwards felt inclined to believe that it is a translation of one sanscrit text (Introd., p. III). 4 fi er. 5 Nr 680 of Nawnso’s Catalogue, partly translated by BEAL under the title of ‘“Ro- mantic legend of Sakya Buddha”, does not contain this legend. 6 Cf. Cuavannes, |.l., Vol. I, Chap. V, pp. 160 sq., nrs 43 and 44; Trip. VJ, 5, p. 69; great Jap. ed. of Leiden, nr 143, Ch. V, pp. 5a, 6a, Digitized by Microsoft® 12 the expiation of their former evil deeds, “expanding their majestic spirit, they made heaven and earth shake; they raised the clouds and caused the rain to fall” '. And when Devadatta was a terrible Naga, “he expanded all his force; lightning and thunder flashed and rattled” *. The Kiu tsah p'i-yii king *, “Old (version of the) Samyuktava- dana siitra” (miscellaneous metaphors), translated in the third century A.D. by the same Sznc-awur (Nanso’s Catalogue, nr. 1359) in some of its apologues mentions the Nagas as bringers of rain. Such a being by its rain made the dike, along which a gramanera carried his master’s rice, so slippery that the man repeatedly tumbled down and dropped the rice into the mud. His master summoned the Naga, who in the shape of an old man prostrated himself before the Arhat and invited him to dine in his palace all the days of his life. The Arhat accepted this offer and daily flew with his bed to the Naga’s palace, after having entered abstract contemplation. But his pupil, anxious to know from where his master had got the splendid rice grains which he discovered in his almsbowl, hid himself under the bed and clinging to one of its feet arrived with the Arhat at the Naga’s abode. The latter, his wife and the whole crowd of beautiful women respectfully saluted the cramana and the gramanera, but the latter was warned by his master not to forget, that he, the cramanera himself, was a must higher being than the Naga, notwithstanding all the latter’s treasures and beautiful women. “The Naga’, said he, “has to endure three kinds of sufferings: his delicious food turns into toads as soon as he takes it into his mouth; his beautiful women, as well as he himself, change into serpents when he tries to embrace them; on his back he has scales lying in a reverse direction, and when sand and pebbles enter between them, he suffers pains which pierce his heart. Therefore do not envy him”. The pupil, however, did not answer; day and night he thought of the Naga and forgot to eat. He fell ill, died and was reborn as the Naga’s son, still more terrible than his father, but after death became a man again ‘. 1 ay Ht Bu mh \E RK Bh Hh , = K€ fy . Great Jap. ed. of Leiden, nr 143, Ch. V, p. 19b; Cuavannes, Vol. I, Ch. V, p. 181, nr 48; Trip. VI, 5, p. 74. 2 HE Li] S a we We 7] ge . Great Jap. ed. of Leiden, nr 143, Ch. VI, p. 27a; CHAvANNES, Vol. I, Ch. VI, p. 254, nr 70; Trip. VI, 5, p. 78. 3 Ee SB kK. 4 Cuavannes, |.l., Vol. I, nr 94, pp. 358 sqq. (Trip. XIX, 7, p. 19; great Jap. ed. of Digitized by Microsoft® 13 Another time the Buddha’s disciples are compared to a great Naga who liked to give rain to the earth, but, fearing that the latter might not be able to bear the weight of the water, decided to make the rain fall into the sea’. In the Tsah p‘i-yii king?, a work from the Korean Tripitaka, not to be found in Nanyd’s Catalogue (for nr 1368, which bears the same title, is a different work) we find the following Naga tales. A Naga ascended to the sky and caused abundant rains to fall: for the devas they brought the seven precious things, for mankind fertilizing water, and for the hungry demons a great fire which burned the whole of their bodies *. Another Naga who by means of a single drop of water could give rain to one or two or three kingdoms, nay to the whole Jambudvipa, placed it in the great sea that it might not dry up*. An exorcist of Nagas went with his pitcher full of water to the pond of such a being and by his magic formulae surrounded the Naga with fire. As the water of the pitcher was the only refuge the serpent could find, it changed into a very small animal and entered the pitcher °. Here we see the Nagas not only as rain gods, but also as beings wholly dependent on the presence of water and much afraid of fire, just like the dragons in many Chinese and Japanese legends. With regard to the precious pearls in the possession of the Nagas as gods of the waters, we may mention a tale to be found in the Mo ho seng chi liih® or “Discipline of the Maha- samghikas” (nango, ur 1119), translated in 416 by BuppHasHapRa and Fan-nien '. There we read about a Naga who wore a necklace of pearls, which he liked so much that he preferred it to his friendship towards a hermit. The latter, daily tortured by the Naga’s coils, wound around his body, succeeded in getting rid 4 Li, Vol. I, nr 138, p. 410 (Trip. XIX, 7, p. 24). 2 Hie BE PR Ke, cf. Cuavannes, |.l., Vol. II, p. 1, note 4. Both this work and the Chung king chwen tsah pvi-yi king, SR KK ee Kitt i Pee aK (Nanso, nr 4366) are said to be compiled by the bbiksu Tao Liou, we. but are probably two different editions of his work; KumArasiva seems to have translated Tao Liou’s work in 401 A.D. 3 Cuavannzs, |.]., Vol. I, nr 167, p. 23 (Trip. XIX, 7, p. 3). 4 LL, Vol. Il, nr 193, p. 63 (Trip. XIX, 7, p. 8). 5 Ll, Vol. HU, nr 179, p. 42 (Trip. XIX, 7, p. 5). 6 a { mn #45. Mahasamghika vinaya. 7 Nawnao, Catal., App. I, nrs 42 and 45. ¢ Digitized by Microsoft® 14 of him only by asking him for the precious necklace '. Also the Chinese dragons were said to have pearls at their throats. The Avadana-cataka, a hundred legends translated from the Sanskrit by Lion Frer? contain a few passages concerning the Nagas. The most important one is the 91 legend *, where Suparni, the king of birds, is said to have seized from the ocean a little Naga, which after having been devoured was reborn as Subhiiti and by following the Buddha’s teachings reached Arhatship. He remembered to have had five hundred rebirths among the Nagas on account of a long row of wicked thoughts in previous existences. Now he used his supernatural power to convert both Nagas and Garudas by protecting the former against five hundred Garudas and the latter against a gigantic Naga, which he caused to appear. In this way the law of love was taught them, and they followed his teachings. In another legend * a Brahman is said to have been reborn as a Naga because he had broken his fast; seven times a day a rain of burning sand came down upon him till he succeeded in keeping a special fast. Then, after having died with abstinence of food, he was reborn in the Trayastrimgat heaven. In a third passage * Viritipaksha, one of the four guardians of the world, who reigns on the West side of Mount Meru, is said to be surrounded by Nagas (his subjects, who live in the West). Finally, the Nagas are mentioned among the divine beings who came to worship the Buddha: Cakra, the king of the gods, Vigvakarma and the four great kings surrounded by Devas, Nagas, Yakshas, Gandharvas and Kumbhandas°; another time they are enumerated as follows: Devas, Nagas, Yakshas, Asuras, Garudas, Kinnaras and Mahoragas *. In Acvacnoga’s Siétralamkara*®, translated into French from Kumarasiva’s chinese version by Epovarp Huser, the Nagas are often mentioned. “When the great Naga causes the rain to fall, the ocean alone can receive the latter; in the same way the 1 Cuavannes, 1.]., Vol. II, nr 355, p. 319 (Trip. XV, 8, p. 44). 2 Annales du Musée Guimet, Tome XVIII (1891). 3 Pp. 366 sq. 4 Nr 59, pp. 227 sqq. 5 Nr 19, p. 83. 6 Nr 12, pp. 57 sq. 7 Nr 17, p. 77. 8 Kumarajiva translated this collection of tales about A.D. 440; the original sanskrit text is lost, except some fragments, which, according to Huser, show that Kumarajiva not always understood the text. HusBer’s translation is based upon the Toxyo edition of the Tripitaka (XIX, 4). It is nr 1482 of Nanso’s Catal Cat = in as aes a 2 L=1_ sonal a gai ai eae K HE ie Digitized by Microsoft® 15 Samgha (alone) can receive the great rain of the Law”'. When a merchant, Kotikarna by name, visited a town of pretas, these hungry demons uttered a long complaint, which contains the following verse: “When on the mountains and valleys the Heavenly Dragons (the Nagas) cause the sweet dew to descend, this changes into bubbling fire and spouts upon our bodies” *. “Elapatra the Nagaraja, having violated the commandments by maltreating the leaves of a tree, after death fell among the Nagas, and none of the Buddhas has predicted the time when he shall be able to leave them” °. “The tears (of those who, on hearing the Law of the twelve Nidanas, are moved by pity and weep with compassion) can entirely destroy the Naga Vasuki who exhales a violent poison’’‘. “The Rakgasas and the Picacas, the evil Nagas and even the robbers dare not oppose the words of the Buddha” °. An evil Naga guarded a big tree which stood in a large pond, and killed all those who took a branch or a leaf from it. When the bhikgsus came to hew down the tree in order to build a sttipa, the people and a brahman warned them not to do so on account of the danger, but the bhiksus answered: “With regard to the poisonous Naga, you, brahman, glorify yourself. But we rely upon the Naga of men (the Buddha), and, placing our trust in Him, glorify ourselves..... Among all the poisonous Nagas, for this Naga king you show yourself full of respectful thoughts. The Buddha is sweet and calm, He is the King of all beings, it is Him whom we revere, the Perfect one, the Bhagavat. Who ‘would be able to subdue the poisonous Naga, if not the Buddha’s disciples?” Then they cut down the tree, and, to the astonish- ment of the brahman, no clouds, no thunder, no miraculous signs bore witness to the Naga’s wrath, as had formerly been the case even when one leaf of his tree was taken by a human hand °. The brahman, after having uttered his amazement and anger, 1 Ch. I, nr 3, p. 30; great Jap. Tripitaka of Leiden, nr 1182, Ch. I, p. 19: BE tn K HE i me He BE SEES HR (8 DK Bn He HE ZAHM. 2 Ch. IV, nr 40, p. 100; great Jap. Trip. of Leiden, nr 1182, Ch. IV, p. 3a. 3 Ch. Ill, nr 14, p. 64; great Jap. Trip. of Leiden, Ch. III, p. 2a. 4 Ch. VII, nr 45, p. 215; great Jap. Trip. of Leiden, Ch. VIII, p. 2a. 5 Ch. IX, nr 52, p. 255; great Jap. Trip. of Leiden, Ch. 1X, p. 6a. 6 Ch. XV, nr 80, p. 447; great Jap. Trip. of Leiden, nr 1182, Ch. XV, p. 21a. Digitized by Microsoft® 16 because he thought that they had used magic incantations, fell asleep, and in a dream was addressed as follows by the Naga: “Be not angry; what they did was done to show me their vene- ration. They have neither despised nor wounded me, for my body supports the stiipa; moreover, the tree has become a beam of the stiipa, and I can protect it; the stiipa of the Daca- bala, of the Exalted one, should I ever have been able to protect it (if not in this way)?... There was still another reason, why I had not sufficient power (to resist the Buddha). I am going to tell you this reason, listen attentively: Taksaka, the Naga king, came here in person and took possession of this tree; could I protect it? Hlapatra, the Naga king, himself came to this spot with Vaicramana: was my power sufficient to resist those Devas and Nagas, full of majesty?’ When the Brahman awoke, he became a monk. This remarkable story shows us the Naga as an inhabitant of a pond, but at the same time as a tree demon, in which function we often found the serpent in Chinese and Japanese tales, but never in Indian Naga legends. As a rain and thunder god he is said to produce clouds and thunder when he is angry. Taksaka and Elapatra are mentioned here as the mightiest of the Naga kings, and Vaigramana, the guardian of the North, king of the Yakshas, is probably confounded with Virtipaksha, the guardian of the West, king of the Nagas. The whole legend is a typical specimen of the way in which Buddhism subdued the other cults. After having learned the Niaga’s nature from these Buddhist writings which made him known in China and Japan, we may venture one step into another direction, in turning to the Katha- saritsagara or “Ocean of the streams of story”. This “largest and most interesting collection” of tales was composed by the Kashmi- rian court poet Somaprva, “one of the most illustrious Indian poets” ', in the eleventh century of our era’*, but the original collection, its source, entitled the Brhatkatha, is must older, and, according to Prof. Spryer’*, “must have been arranged in that period of Indian history, when Buddhism exercised its sway over the Hindoo mind side by side with Caivism and so many other manifold varieties of sectarian and local creeds, rites and theoso- phies”. “The main story and a large number of the episodes are 4 Cf. Spryer, Studies about the Kathasaritsigara, Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Afd. Letterkunde, Nieuwe Reeks, Deel VIII, n° 5 (4908); p. 2. Digitized by Microsoft® 17 (aiva tales, as was to be expected from the supposed first narra- tor being no other than the Supreme God Qiva himself” '. Next to legends of the Buddhists even mythological narrations from the Vedic age are to be found in this work, smaller collections being incorporated into it 2. Among the great number of interesting legends, contained in the Kathasaritsagara, translated by Tawney (1880—1884), there are several in which the Nagas play a more or less important part. The first thing which strikes us is the total absence of passages devoted to their capacity of giving rain. Combining this with the same observation made above with regard to the jatakas of Cowen1’s edition, we feel inclined to believe that this part of the Nagas’ nature has been particularly developed by the Northern Buddhists. The original conceptions regarding these semidivine serpents, living in the water or under the earth, seem to have attributed to them the power of raising clouds and thunder, and of appearing as clouds themselves, but not as rain giving beings. It is, of course, a very obvious conclusion that cloud gods pro- duce rain, but it seems that this idea, which made them the benefactors of mankind, first rose in the minds of the adherents of the Mahayana school. According to the original ideas, on the contrary, they seem to have only given vent to their anger in terrifying mankind by means of dense clouds, thunder and earth- quakes. Highly interesting in this respect is the following story, to be found in the Kathasaritsagara *. In the Vindhya forest in the northern quarter there was a solitary acoka tree, and under it, in a lake, stood the great palace of a mighty Naga king, Paravataksha by name, who obtained a matchless sword from the war of the gods and the Asuras. In order to get this sword an ascetic, assisted by a prince and his followers, threw enchanted mustard-seed upon the water, thus clearing it from the dust which concealed it, and began to offer an oblation with snake-subduing spells. ‘And he conquered by the power of his spells the impediments, such as earthquakes, clouds, and so on. Then there came out from that acoka tree a heavenly nymph, as it were, murmuring spells. with the tinkling of her jewelled ornaments, and approaching the ascetic she pierced his soul with a sidelong glance of love. And then the ascetic lost his self-command and forgot his spells; and the shapely fair one, embracing him, flung from his hand the vessel of oblation. 1 Ibidem. 2 Tbidem. 3 Ch. LXX, Vol. II, p. 149 sq. Verh. Kon. Akad. v. Wetensch. (Afd. Letterk.) N. R. Dl XIII, N°. 2. 2 Digitized by Microsoft® 18 And then the snake Paravataksha had gained his opportunity, and he came out from that palace like the dense cloud of the day of doom. Then the heavenly nymph vanished, and the ascetic beholding the snake terrible with flaming eyes, roaring horribly’, died of a broken heart. When he was destroyed, the snake lay aside his awful form, and cursed Mrigankadatta (the prince) and his followers, for helping the ascetic, in the following words: ‘Since you did what was quite unnecessary after all coming here with this man, you shall for a certain time be separated from one another’. Then the snake disappeared, and all of them at the same time had their eyes dimmed with darkness, and were deprived of the power of hearing sounds. And they immediately went in different directions, separated from one another by the power of the curse, though they kept looking for one another and calling to one another”. Nagas injuring the crops are mentioned in another passage, where Svayamprabha, queen of the Asuras residing in Patala land, “makes herself surety (to king Merudhvaja) that the Nagas shall not injure the crops’*. The seven Patalas are the nether- world *, the “home of the serpent race below the earth’ 4, but also the Asuras, “who escaped from the slaughter in the great fight long ago between the gods and asuras”, had fled to Patala® and lived there. As to the Nagas having their abode in Patala land, we may-refer to the following passages of the Kathasarit- sagara. “On the extreme shore he set up a pillar of victory, looking like the king of the serpents emerging from the world below to crave immunity for Patala”®. “Do you not remember how he went to Patala and there married the daughter of a Naga, whose name was Suripa?”’*? When Kadri and Vinata, two wives of Kagyapa, had a dispute as to the colour of the Sun’s horses, they made an agreement that the one that was wrong should become a slave to the other. Kadri, the mother of the snakes, induced her sons to defile the horses of the Sun by spitting venom over them; thus they looked black instead of white, and Vinata, the mother of Garuda, king of birds, was conquered by this trick and made Kadri’s slave. When Garuda came to release her, the snakes asked the nectar from the sea of milk, which the gods had begun to churn, as a substitute, 1 This is probably thunder and lightning. 2 Ch. CXIX, Vol. Il, p. 554. 3 Vol. II, p. 549, note 4, 4 Vol. T n. 485. note 3. KR Ch CYVITT Walt Tr . non Digitized by Microsoft® 19 and Garuda went to the sea of milk and displayed his great power in order to obtain the nectar. “Then the god Vishnu, pleased with his might, deigned to say to him: ‘I am pleased with you, choose a boon’. Then Garuda, angry because his mother was made a slave, asked a boon from Vishnu — ‘May the snakes become my food’”. Vishnu consented, and Garuda, after having obtained the nectar, promiséd Indra to enable him to take it away before the snakes should have consumed it. He put the nectar on a bed of Kuga grass and invited the snakes to take it there after having released his mother. They did so, and Garuda departed with Vinata, but when the snakes were about to take the nectar, Indra swooped down and carried off the vessel. “Then the snakes in despair licked that bed of Darbha grass, thinking that there might be a drop of spilt nectar on it, but the effect was that their tongues were split, and they became double-tongued for nothing. What but ridicule can ever be the portion of the over-greedy? Then the snakes did not obtain the nectar of immortality, and their enemy Garuda, on the strength of Vishnu’s boon, began to swoop down and devour them. And this he did again and again. And while he was thus attacking them, the snakes in Patala were dead with fear, the females miscarried, and the whole serpent race was well-nigh destroyed. And Vasuki the king of the snakes, seeing him there every day, considered that the serpent world was ruined at one blow: then, after reflecting, he preferred a petition to that Garuda of irresistible might, and made this agreement with him — ‘I will send you every day one snake to eat, O king of birds, on the hill that rises out of the sand of the sea. But you must not act so foolishly as to enter Patiala, for by the destruction of the serpent world your own object will be baffled’. When Vasuki said this to him, Garuda consented, and began to eat every day in this place one snake sent by him: and in this way innumerable serpents have met their death here”. Thus spoke a snake, whose turn it was to be devoured by Garuda, to Jimttavahana, “the compassionate incarnation of a Bodhisattva” ', son of Jimitaketu, the king of the Vidyadharas on Mount Himavat. And Jimita- vahana, “that treasure-house of compassion, considered that he had gained an opportunity of offering himself up to save the snake’s life. He ascended the stone of execution and was carried off by Garuda who began to devour him on the peak of the mountain’. At that moment a rain of flowers fell from Heaven, 4 Vol. I, p. 174 Digitized by Microsoft® 20 and Garuda stopped eating, but was requested by Jimitavahana himself to go on. Then the snake on whose behalf he sacrificed his life, arrived and cried from far; “Stop, stop, Garuda, he is not a snake, I am the snake meant for you”. Garuda was much grieved and was about to enter the fire to purify himself from guilt, but following Jimititavahana’s advice determined never again to eat snakes, and to make revive those which he had killed. The goddess Gauri by raining nectar on Jimutavahana made him safe and sound, and Garuda brought the nectar of immortality from heaven and sprinkled it along the whole shore of the sea. “That made all the snakes there (whose bones were lying there) rise up alive, and then that forest, crowded with the numerous tribe of snakes, appeared like Patala come to behold Jimiitavahana, having lost its previous dread of Garuda” 1. Patala-land, the seven under-worlds, one of which was called Rasatala” (sometimes equivalent to Patala)°, was inhabited by Nagas, Asuras, Daityas and Danavas (two classes of demons opposed to the gods and identified with the Asuras). There were temples of the gods (Civa*, Durga *®, the’ Fire-god °), worshipped by the demons. As to its entrances, these are described as moun- tain caverns‘ or “openings in the water” *; or wonderful flagstaffs rising out of the sea with banners on them showed the way thither ®. Sometimes human kings were allowed to visit this Fairy land. Chandraprabha e. g., after having offered to Civa and Rudra, with his queen and his ministers, with Siddharta at their head, entered an opening in the water pointed out by Maya, and after travelling a long distance, arrived there }°, And king Chan- dasinha with Sattvagila plunged into the sea and following the sinking flagstaff reached a splendid city ''. Also king Yacahketu, after diving into the sea, suddenly beheld a magnificent city, with palaces of precious stones and gardens and tanks and wishing- trees that granted every desire, and beautiful maidens '*. This agrees with the description of the Naga palaces which we found in the Jatakas. A temple of Vasuki, the king of the snakes, is mentioned in the 1 Ch. XXII, Vol. I, pp. 182 sqq.; cf. Ch. XO, Vol. II, pp. 312 sqq. 2 Vol. I, p. 447; Tl, 544. 3 I, 185, note 4. 4 Il, 198, in the form of Hatakecvara. We read on p. 109 of the Sang hyang Kamahayanikan, an interesting old-Javanese text translated by J. Kats, that Igvara, Brahma and Vishnu by order of Vairocana filled heaven with gods, the earth with men, and the netherworld (Patala) with Nagas. 5 Il, 267. . 6 TL, 547, 7 I, 446. “There are on this earth many openings leading to the lower regions”, IT. 197. 8 T. 447. 9 IT. 99 ANT AAT 4A TY aen Digitized by Microsoft® 21 same work'. There was a festive procession in his honour, and great crowds worshipped him. His idol stood in the shrine, which was full of long wreaths of flowers like serpents, “and which therefore resembled the abyss of Patala”. To the South of the temple there was a large lake sacred to Vasuki, “studded with red lotusses, resembling the concentrated gleams of the brilliance of the jewels on snakes’ crests; and encircled with blue lotusses, which seemed like clouds of smoke from the fire of snake poison; overhung with trees, that seemed to be worshipping with their flowers blown down by the wind”. Other passages relate about Nagas assuming human shapes ?, either to escape Garuda (who in this work is always mentioned as one being), or to embrace a Nagi. In the former case Garuda himself persecuted the Naga in human form, in the latter the snake-god, discovering that he was deceived by his wife during his sleep, “discharged fire from his mouth, and reduced them both (her lover and herself) to ashes”. § 3. The Naga as a giver of rain. We have seen above that the Naga’s capacity of raising clouds and thunder when his anger was aroused was cleverly converted by the Mahayana school into the highly beneficient power of giving rain to the thirsty earth. In this way these fearful ser- pents by the influence of Buddha’s Law had become blessers of mankind. It is clear that in this garb they were readily identi- fied with the Chinese dragons, which were also blessing, rain giving gods of the water. The four classes into which the Mahaydnists divided the Nagas were: 1. Heavenly Nagas (FK #fi), who guard the Heavenly Palace aud carry it so that it does not fall. 2, Divine Nagas (wil) #f), who benefit mankind by causing the clouds to rise and the rain to fall. 3. Earthly Nagas (34 #E), who drain off rivers (remove the obstructions) and open sluices (outlets). 4 Ch. LXXIV, Vol. II, p. 225. Vasuki is also mentioned Vol. I, p. 32, where Kirtisena, his brother’s son, is said to have married Crutartha, the daughter of a Brahman. His daughter Ratnaprabha is mentioned Vol. I, p. 544. He cursed a Naga king who had fled from battle, Vol. II, p. 171. The serpent Vasuki served as a rope with which to whirl round mount Mandara, when the sea was churned and produced Gri or Lakshmi, Vol. II, p. 568, note 4, 2 Ch. LXI, Vol. II, p. 54; Ch. LXIV, Vol. Il, p. 98. Digitized by Microsoft® 22 . 4. Nagas who are lying hidden (4k Ja FE), guarding the trea- suries of the “Kings of the Wheel” (ii -E , Cakravarti-rajas) and blessing mankind’. The Taiheiki?, a Japanese work, relates an Indian tale in which a Dragon (i.e. Naga) king is said to have caused rain. A sien ({l], the Chinese equivalent for a wonder-working ascetic), annoyed by this, caught all big and small dragons of the inner and outer seas, and shut them up in a rock. Owing to their absence not a drop of rain fell for a long time, and the crops were spoiled by the heavy drought. Then the king, moved with compassion for his people, asked his advisers how this ascetic’s power could be broken and the dragons let loose. The answer was, that a beautiful woman could seduce him and thus put a stop to his magic capacity. So the King despatched the greatest beauty of his harem to the cottage of the ascetic, who immediately fell in love with her and, losing his supernatural power, became an common man and died. The dragons, no longer under his influence, flew away to the sky, and caused the winds to blow and the rain to fall. A passage from Jin-Cu‘au'’s Buddhist Kosmos *, dealing with the Naga kings, and translated by Beat in his Catena of Buddhist scriptures from the Chinese*, mentions four siitras, one of which, the Mahamegha siitra, shall be treated below in § 4. As to the Lau-Tdn(?) sitra, the title of which is not explained by Bzat, so that we know neither the Chinese characters nor the Sanscrit equivalent, this siitra is said there to contain the following passage: “To the North of Mount Sumeru, under the waters of the Great Sea, is the Palace of Sagara Nagaraja, in length and breadth 4 Cf the Japanese Buddhist dictionary Bukkyo iroha jiten, 4B Be Vv 4 yy i Hit, written in 1901 (sec. ed. 1904) by Mivna Kenstixe, == fff Fit Hy, Vol. Tl, p. 56 sv. HE: the Chinese work Ts‘ien k‘ioh kit léi shu, “i HE KG KA ES : written in the Ming dynasty by Cu‘ren Jen-sin, bei ‘1 By. The same Chinese work enumerates as follows the three sorrows ( FB) of the Indian dragons: 1. Hot winds and hot sand, which burn their skin, flesh and bones. 2, Sudden violent winds, which blow away the palaces of the dragons and ‘make them lose their treasures, clothes, etc., so that they can no longer hide their shapes. 3. Golden-winged bird-kings (Garuda kings) who enter the dragons’ palaces and devour their children. 2 Fx AP Zp, written about 1382, Ch. XXXVI, p. 6 3 Fah-kai-on-lih-to (OE SA, Fah-kai is Dharmadhiitu). Digitized by Microsoft® 23 80000 ydjanas; it is surrounded by precious walls, a beautiful railing, garden and parks, adorned with every species of decora- tion”. This Sagara, one of the eight Great Naga kings mentioned above, apparently obtained the principal rank among the rain bestowing Nagas of the sea, worshipped by the Northern Buddhists. From the Saddharma smrtyupasthana sutra’, which Brat, without giving the Chinese title, wrongly calls Saddharma Prakasa _ sasana sutra, but which I found in Nawnso’s Catalogue sub nr 679, Braz quotes the following passage: “Down in the depths of the Great Sea 1000 yojanas is a city named Hi-loh, its length and breadth 3000 ydjanas; it is occupied by Nagarajas. There are two sorts of Nagarajas: 1. Those who practise the Law of Buddha; 2. Those who do not do so. The first protect the world; the second are opposed to it. Where the good Nagas dwell it never rains hot sand, but the wicked Nagas are subject to this plague, and their palaces and followers are all burned up. Whenever men obey the Law, and cherish their parents, and support and feed the Shamans, then the good Nagarajas are able to acquire increased power, so that they can cause a small fertilizing rain to fall, by which the five sorts of grain are perfected~in colour, scent, and taste.... If, on the contrary, men are disobedient to the Law, do not reverence their parents, do not cherish the Brahmans and Shamans, then the power of the wicked dragons increases, and just the opposite effects follow; every possible calamity happens to the fruits of the earth and to the lives of men”. Finally, the Buddhavatansaka mahavaipulya siétra® contains a large number of interesting passages with regard to the Nagas as gods of clouds and rain. Brar translates as follows: “In the midst of the Palace of the Naga-raja Sagara there are four pre- cious gems, from which are produced ‘all the gems of the Ocean. Here also is the Palace of Jambuketu, the Naga-raja’s eldest son; also the palace of Vasuki Naga-raja, and eighty myriads of other Dragons, each having his separate palace”. «There are five sorts of Dragons: 1. Serpent-dragons; 2. Lizard- dragons; 3. Fish-dragons; 4. Elephant-dragons; Toad-dragons”’. 1 EE a BB 4K (Nawso, nr 679). 2 Nanso, nrs 87 and 88: K Ff iz HE fe bi33 aK, litt. Mahavaipulya Bud- dhavatarmsaka sutra; nr 87 is translated by BUDDHABHADRA (a B, who worked A. D. 398—421, cf. Nanyo, Appendix Il, nr 42, p. 399) and others; nr 88 is a later and fuller translation by CixsHananpa, A.D, 695—699. — Digitized by Microsoft® 24 “Sagara Naga-raja, assuming the appearance of Maheshvara, exerting his great strength, mightily assists all sentient creatures. His influence extends from the four continents up to the Para- nirmita Vacavartin Heaven. He spreads out the clouds diversified with every colour, excites the varied brightness of the lightning, causes the changing peals of thunder, raises propitious breezes, distils fertilizing showers. But though this Naga-raja is well affected towards men, the good principles which prevail in the world are the real source of propitious rain falling. Again it is said that Anavatapta Naga-raja raises the widespreading vapoury clouds which cover Jambudvipa and distil soft and nourishing rain, causing- the various herbs and grains to spring up and flourish, and the fountains and rivers to swell with refreshing streams”. Beside in this passage translated by Braz the same siitra often mentions Sagara and the other Naga-kings as givers of rain. In the Chinese translation of the end of the seventh century A. D. (Nanso, nr 88) we read e.g.: “Further, there are innumerable Great Naga-kings, called Virtpaksha, Sagara, ete. etc...., who by raising the clouds and diffusing the rain put an end to the vexations caused to all living beings by burning heat’ '. “When the Great Sea-Naga-king (Sagara) sends down the rain, He (the Enlightened One) can separately count the drops, and in one thought make out (their number)” *. : Comparisons especially, mostly in stanzas, of the rain-giving Naga kings to Buddha and his Law, are very numerous °. “The Saprenie Naga king Sagara, when raising the clouds- covers the whole earth and distributes the rain over all places, and in his heart there is but one thought — so do also the Buddhas, the Kings of the Law: great clouds of compassion spread everywhere, and, on behalf of all those who practise religious austerities, rain down on each and on all without distinction” ‘. “Like Anavatapta Nagaraja sends down the rain everywhere on Jambudvipa and thus can cause all the plants and trees to shoot up and grow, and it (the rain) does not come forth from his body but from his heart — in the same way also the 1 7A eR KE EP A EL a SUR Th WSS ooh FR AB A AB TB BA . On. 1, p. 18a, b. 2 Ch. XV, p. 180. 3 Cf. Ch. XV, p. 240; XVII, 19a; XXXVIII, 225; XLII, 6b, 150; LI, 41b; Lil, 18; Lil, 8b; LXXX, 22a, Digitized by Microsoft® 25 beautiful words of the Buddhas everywhere rain upon the Universe (Dharmadhatu)” '. Thus this siitra is a striking evidence of the great blessing power attributed by Northern Buddhism to the Naga kings as givers of rain. § 4. Sutras recited in rain ceremonies. The most important of the siitras, recited by the Northern Buddhists for causing rain in times of drought, is the Maha- megha sutra, “The Stitra of the Great Cloud’. Nanso’s Catalogue of the Buddhist Tripitaka contains four Chinese translations of this text: nrs 186—188, and 970. The titles of the translations are a little different from one another’, but the original work is the same. JNanacupra translated it first between A.D. 557 and 581 (or 187), and a second time between A.D. 589 and 618 (mr 186). In A.D. 585 another translation was made by Narenprayacgas (nr 188). Nr 970, which has the same Chinese title as nr 188, is a later translation. The Sanskrit text still exists, and an extract of it is given by Benpaz, in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society’; this agrees with nr 186, while Bear, in his Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese, gives an abstract of nr 188. According to Dre Groot‘ the siitra was translated by AmocHavasra, the second patriarch of the Yoga school in China, disciple of Vasrazoput (the first patriarch of the same school, who in 719 arrived in China). This is apparently nr 970 of Nanso’s Catalogue, designated as “a later translation”. From Benpaut’s extract we learn that the contents of the Mahamegha sitra are as follows. “On one occasion the Venerable One dwelt in the palace of the Snake-Kings Nanda and Upananda, in the summer pavillion of the circle of mighty clouds filled with 4 Ch. LI, p. 410. 2 Nr 186: Apt ae, K wil oe K EES an ii RK, “Mahavaipulya Great Cloud sutra, for asking rain”: Nr 187: K = ag i aK, “Great Cloud stitra for asking rain”. Nr 188: KK EE iii ag iv RK, “Great Cloud-wheel’stitra for asking rain’. On p. 41b of the Chinese text we find the name of the Tathagata “Great Cloud- wheel”. BENDALL (p. 303) translates “great cloud-circle”, but it is wheel. Nr 970: same title as nr 188. 3 New Series, Vol. XII (1880), pp. 286 sq. 4, Le Code du Mahayana en Chine, Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afd. Letterkunde, Deel I, n° 2 (1893), Ch. VIII, pp. 148 sqq. Digitized by Microsoft® 26 precious gems and jewels, accompanied by a mighty assemblage of bhikshus, and by a mighty assemblage of bodhisattvas, and a mighty host of kings, to wit, Nanda the Snake King, and Upa- nanda (here follows ‘a list of 185 snakes)', attended, I say, by 84 hundreds of thousands of millions of krores of snakes assem- bled and seated together’. All the Nagas saluted the Lord, bending their clasped hands towards him, whereupon they stood on one side and made supplications. “Let us worship, let us reverence, esteem, honour the samudras (infinite numbers) of Bodhisattvas... riding upon the sea-clouds, immeasurable and innumerable, with samudras of cloud-bodies”. Then the “Great Supreme King of Snakes” asks: “How, O Venerable One, may all the troubles of all the snakes subside; (and how) may they (thus) gladdened and blessed, send forth rain-torrents here, seasonably for Jambudvipa; make all grasses, bushes, herbs, forest-trees to grow; produce all corn; give rise to all juices, whereby the men of Jambudvipa may become blessed?” The Master answers, that all the troubles of the Nagas may subside and they may be reborn in the Brahma-world by exercising charity. Further, they must put into action the Sarvasukhandada dharani, and repeat the names of the Tathagatas, “whose families and races are sprung from the one hair-tip of Vairocana, speedy producers of happiness [consisting of] a circle of clouds”. Here follows a large number of names of Tathagatas, among which in the Chinese text” such are found as: “Tathagata who stores up the great clouds” *, “Tathagata the displaying of whose nature sends forth the clouds” *, “Tathagata who holds in his hands (and directs) the clouds and the rain’, © “Great raiser of the clouds’ *, “Great disperser of wind and 1 Among these Naga-kings the Chinese text gives names as: Moon-cloud, Sea-cloud, Great Cloud-receptacle (store-house), Naga-king who sends down the rain, Naga-king of Clouds and Rain, Great Rain, King of Clouds, etc. CF =e 7 yaa Ee A K = Tek : MM WY BEE. ih BEE. KW, SE FF). On p. 2a of nr 188 we find the Naga-king Kumbhira (Crocodile) (> ay wee BE + ), Le., as BeaL (Catena, p. 423) rightly remarks, the well-known god Kompira of Japan. When at the Restau- ration the Shintoists reclaimed all their temples from the Buddhists, they wrongly declared Kompira to be an obscure Shinto deity, called Kotohira, and thus took possession of all the shrines of this Naga-king, the protector of sailors and of those who travel on sea. 2 P. 411 sq. 3 Ha Ke EB hn 3K. 4 BE SL En ae de 2K. © fe FE WY Bn JR. Digitized by Microsoft® 27 clouds” !, “Great cloud wheel’? ete. “By the utterance of these names of Tathagatas, O snake-king, all woes of all snakes are set at rest, and [though] fraught with ills they create here in Jambudvipa showers in season and for a season, and make all grass, shrubs, herbs, forest-trees, and corn to grow’. At the request of the Naga king the Buddha utters a Dharani called Mahakarunodbhava, “which causes rain in time of drought and checks excessive rain”, and invokes the Nagas: “O mighty snakes, bring rain here by the appointment of the truth of all Devas, hail! By the appointment of the truth of Brahma, rain here in Jambudvipa, hail!” Then follow prescriptions for the Great Cloud-circle (or wheel) rite. “He who desires a mighty rain must perform this rite in an open space, overspread by a blue canopy, shaded by a blue ban- ner, on a clear spot of earth; (being) a prophet of the Law, seated on a blue seat, fasting according to the ashtanga, with well-washed limbs, clad in pure raiment, anointed with fragrant odour, wearing the three white stripes, he must recite it for a day and night continuously facing the east; he must place four full vessels, filled with pure blue water, after prayers to the Tathagatas also, according to his power, an oblation, and flowers and odours; then the prophet of the Law, after having painted towards the four quarters with liquid cow-dung on a reed, in the eastern quarter three hastas high must depict the snake-king called Tricirshaka (Three-crested), with cow-dung: in the southern quarter him called Pancagirshaka (Five-crested) five hastas high ; in the western, seven hastas high, Saptacirshaka (Seven-crested) ; in the northern, Navacirshaka (Nine-crested), nine hastas high..... Afterwards, at a season of drought, he shall recite this chapter, ‘The Great-cloud-circle’, for one day or for two, until it needs shall rain seven nights”. Then by numerous invocations the snake kings are summoned. On p. 309 we read that this “Whirlwind” chapter, also called “The Heart of all Serpents” must be recited by the prophet of the Law, after three snake kings with their retinues having been painted with cow-dung for thrice seven days uninterruptedly: a triple-crested one in the Hast, a seven-crested one in the West, (KR BS i R. 2 XK Ba ii Wy ae _ Cf. the name of the sutra itself: “Great Cloud wheel sttra for asking rain”, translated by Nano into, “Stitra on asking rain of the Great Cloudwheel”. % Digitized by Microsoft® 28 and a nine-crested one in the North. “A blue canopy and blue dress, blue banner (are to be used) and all the offering is to be made blue”. “The cloud-monarchs too must be depicted, emitting a shower, and rubbing against one another; at the end masses of rain-birds and lightning are to be painted”, and offerings of parched rice, fish, flesh and honey-food without curds must be made. After all these preparatory measures the prophet of the Law, pure and clad in pure raiment, must recite this “Whirlwind” chapter, “the Heart of Snakes”. Brat ' gives a short abstract of this stitra (nr 188), as he found it in the Chinese Tripitaka. Of the great Naga kings enumerated in the beginning the third one is Sagara’, the principal sea god of Chinese Buddhists, who often called him simply “The Sea- dragon-king’. By this name he is also indicated in the titles of the two siitras nrs 456 and 457 of Nango’s Catalogue *. The fourth Niga king, Anavatapta*, was well-known in Japan, as we will see below®. To him nr 437 of Nanso’s Catalogue is devoted (translated A. D. 308) °% In the fifth place the Naga king Manasvin? is mentioned. Then follows Varuna*, the Naga king, different from the deity of this name, called in China the Deva of the Water °, which name reminds us of the famous Suitengz '° of Tokyo. Professor Spryrr had the kindness to point out to me that in the Mahavastu '', where the Buddha blesses Bhallika and Trapusa, among the protectors of the West Viripaksha, the. Nagas and Varuna are mentioned. As to Viriipaksha, one of the four guar- dians of the world, he is the sovereign of all the Nagas. Varuna, the Brahmanic god of heaven, is at the same time the regent 4 A catena of Buddhist scriptures from the Chinese (1871), p. 419 sqq. 2 The first and second are Nanda and Upananda, Sagara is written ee Ain we _ ef. EITeL, Sanskrit-Chinese dictionary, s. v. (there wrongly ye instead of 2B). 3 Nr 456: 4B Bt HE. BE FE #, “Buddhabhashita Sagara Nagaraja sutra”. Nr 457: bia a a. BE + at, ie EN RK, “Siitra on the Seal of the Law, spoken by Buddha for the sake of the Naga-king Sagara”.. 4 [al OB YEE ZB. 5 Book II, Ch. Ill, § 4. 6 Anavatapta nagaraja pariprkkha stitra. The Chinese title is quite different. 7 j= AK Hy. Cf. Hiren, 1.1. s.v. Manasa, where Manasvin is wrongly said to be the tutelary deity of lake Manasarovara (in Tibet identified with lake Anavatapta, cf. Kawaeucul, Three years in Tibet, Ch. XXVI, pp, 139 sqq.).- 8 EE IB. 9 KR. 10 KR. Digitized by Microsoft® 29 of the sea, and, as one of the eight Lokapalas, guardian of the West '. It is remarkable that there were apparently two beings of the same name, both deities of the water and of the West, Varuna the deva and Varuna the Naga king. After Takshaka?, Dhrtarashtra* and Vasuki*, of whom the first and the third both belong to the eight great Naga kings of Northern Buddhism*, Mucilinda®, also called Mahamucilinda, who, as we have seen above, protected Cakyamuni during the seven days of meditation, and Llapatra’*, who consulted the Buddha about rebirth in a higher sphere, are enumerated, followed by 176 others. The same Naga kings, except Mucilinda and Elapatra, are mentioned in the so-called Anumantrana, an invocation of the Nagas found in the Bower MS. from Mingai, about which R. Morris * writes the following: “As regards to the contents of the MS., fol. 3 apparently contains a charm which is intended to force the Nagas or snake-deities to send rain. The mutilated line 1 enumerates, it would seem, various plants which are to be used as ingredients for an oblation. Line 2 gives the Mantra for the oblation..... The end of line 2 and the following lines to the end of the page contain the so-called Anumantrana, a further invocation of the snake-deities, intended to propitiate them by a declaration of the worshipper’s friendly relations with various individual Nagas. This snake-charm, which appears to be Buddhistic, was probably composed in Southern India. For it mentions ‘the district on the banks of the Gola’, i.e. the Godavari..... The language of this piece is the incorrect Sanskrit, mixed with Prakrit forms, which is common in the Buddhist works of the early cen- turies of our era, as well as in the Buddhist and Jaina inscrip- tions of the same period”. Morris compares the list of names found in the Anumantrana, 4 Cf. Erres, 1.1. s.v. 2 fH K in. 3 té BA fi) HE ; BEAL calls him Ditaraksha, but Morris writes Dhritarashtra (Dhrtarastra). BCH: 5 See above p. 4, cf. pp. 20, 24, 23. 6 Fy ie BE BE. 7 +t aE we Hf} (Elapatna). 8 Journal of the Pali Text Society, 1891—3, pp. 63-seqq., Notes and queries by the Rev. R. Morris, nr 44. Cf. the Wiener Zeitschrift fir die Kunde des Morgenlandes, Vol. V, nr 2. es Digitized by Microsoft® 30 each time preceded by the words “1 keep friendship with”, with those mentioned in the Great Cloud-wheel Rain-asking sutra in Brau’s Catena, those found in the Saddharma Pundarika siitra and those of Southern Buddhism. Nanda and Upananda, Anava- tapta, Takshaka, Dhrtarashtra and Virtpaksha are mentioned in all these lists, Sagara (wrongly called Samharaka in the Mingai MS.) in the three former, as well as Vasuki, while Varuna and Manasvin are not found in the Lotus and in Southern Buddhism. Further, the MS. gives several other names, as Nairavana, Krshna, Gautamaka, Mani, Dandapada etc. Dhrtarashtra and Virtipaksha are the regents of the East and the West, and also Naga kings; as to Nairavana, this is, according to Morris, perhaps Vaicravana, the regent of the North. Krshna and Gautamaka are mentioned in the Divyavadana as two Naga kings. Prof. De Groot! gives a very interesting description of the whole rain ceremony, as it is performed in Chinese Buddhist monasteries in times of drought, by order of the authorities or of influential laymen. An altar is erected, mostly in the court-yard before the great temple of the Triratna, but sometimes at the foot of the mountain on which the monastery is situated; there a Kwan-yin temple is often appointed for these ceremonies and for the prayers for rain, sent up by the mandarins and the people. Once or twice Dz Groor saw a shrine dedicated to Sagara Nagaraja, the special sea-god of the Chinese Buddhists; it was opened only in time of drought. The altar corresponds with the prescriptions of the sutra, mentioned above* On the gates of the four sides dragons are painted, two on each, with their heads turned to the inside. The cow dung of the Hindus is replaced in China by a yellow reddish clay, which is used for adorning the platform inside the enclosure. The estrade upon this platform is covered with blue silk, as well as the tables for the siitras, utensils, offerings, and the chairs of the performing monks, of whom the leader looks to the East, the others to the North and South. According to Dr Groot, the colour blue is chosen in China because this is the colour of the East, from where the rain must come; this quarter is represented by the Azure Dragon, the highest in rank among all the dragons. We have seen, however, that 41 Code du Mahayana en Chine, Ch. VIII, pp. 148 sqq. 2 Cf. also nr 177 of the Supplement of the Tripitaka (third volume of bundle 3), p. 380b: fe SE Re ait RA HEF HE, “Doctrine concerning the altar for nravine far Digitized by Microsoft® 31 the original sutra already prescribed to use the blue colour and to face the East. Moreover, the Azure Dragon has nothing to do with Buddhism. The Chinese Buddhists only copy an ancient Indian rite. Indra, the raingod, is the patron of the East, and Indra-colour is nila, dark blue or rather blue-black, the regular epitheton of the rain clouds’, If the priest had not to face the East but the West, this would agree with the fact that the Nagas were said to live in the Western quarter and that in India the West corresponds with the blue colour., Facing the East, however, seems to point to an old rain ceremony in which Indra was invoked to raise the blue-black clouds. On the eastern, southern, western and northern tables tablets are placed on which the principal dragons of these quarters, whose Indian names are mentioned above, are painted, with three, five, seven and nine heads instead of the crests or hoods of the Nagas. Often other tablets representing attendants of these great dragons stand at their sides. All the dragons have waves at their feet and clouds above their heads. Finally, twenty eight black poles with long blue flags, each with a burning oil lamp between four flower vases filled with fresh flowers, represent the twenty eight constellations. We find these twenty eight blue banners mentioned on p. 21a of the Chinese text of the siitra (Nanso, nr 186); Benpatz’s translation of the Sanscrit text, however, speaks only of one blue banner *. De Groor explains the fact that all the poles are black by the connection of this colour with the North, with Yin and the water ®. This may be right, as the siitra itself does not mention the colour of the poles, so that the Chi- nese in this respect could follow their own ideas. In the morning of the first day of the ceremonies the leading priest with the abbot and the highest authorities of the monastery offer incense in the great temple of the Triratna, and, while the dharanis of Kwan-yin are recited, the temple and the rain altar are purified by sprinkling pure water upon them (as amtta). Now the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, dragon-kings and saints may descend upon the altar without contaminating themselves. The leading monk and the abbot rise from their seats and offer incense ; at the same time the choir thrice sings a lamentation about the 4 Professor SpeyeR had the kindness of pointing this out to me. One of the many passages where a blue-black colour is mentioned is Mahabharata, Book III, 16, 13. 2 Pp. 303, 309. 3 Black horses were the principal offerings to the rain gods of Japan, see below, Book II, Ch. Ill, § 2. Digitized by Microsoft® 32 - drought and a prayer for rain, followed by an invocation of the Triratna. Then some moments of profound silence allow the offi- ciating monk to sink into dhyana and to see by his mental eyes the Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, dragon-kings and saints descending and listening to the prayers. On awakening he orders to recite seven times the dharani of the “Light-king of the Great Wheel” (i. e. the sun), in order to correct the mistakes which might be made in the ritual. Thereupon the monks invoke by name all the 187 Naga kings mentioned in the siitra and thrice recite the first kind of dharanis, given by the Buddha to these kings according to the same holy text. These magic formulae are accom- panied by the sound of vajra bells, and followed by a terrible noise of drums and cymbals in order to make them more power- ful. Then follows the invocation of all the 54 rain-giving Tatha- gatas, enumerated: in the siitra, each monk having a small incense- burner in his hand, which they also used in invoking the Naga kings. After a second dhyana of the leading monk having rendered efficacious the second kind of dharani, given by the Buddha and recited by the monks in the same way as the former, the cere- mony is closed by expressing the hope that the rain may soon come, sent by the Triratna and the dragon kings. A little later, in the course of the forenoon, the offerings, placed on the altar, are solemnly presented to the dragons, and songs and prayers are sent up to them, as well as to the Triratna and all the devas. Often a paper figure of one of the Taoistic “Celestial Generals”, with a written request for rain in his hand, is burned, that he may take it to Heaven. In the afternoon the leading monk with the abbot and as many other monks as they want take their seats upon the altar and recite the Great-Cloud-Wheel siitra. All these ceremonies are daily repeated till it rains sufficiently. If the drought lasts too long, Kwan-yin’s dharanis and prayers for rain are continued night and day, small groups of monks relieving one another in all the buildings of the monastery. The main point of the ceremony is the purity of the altar and of the priests themselves; for the drought, like all calamities caused by some crime of men, can only be stopped by pure ceremonies performed by pure priests. Especially because they never eat animal food, the monks are religiously cleaner and therefore much more able to make rain than laymen. As to the ceremonies for stopping too abundant rains, called “praying for good weather”', these are described by Dz Groor Digitized by Microsoft® 33 in the same chapter. The same siitra may be used, because it has the power of ruling the rain, but these ceremonies are seldom performed on such an extensive scale. As a rule a yellow paper .tablet with an invocation of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas who reside above the rays of the sun and are mentioned in the “Sttra of the vajra brilliant flames (the beams of the sun), which puts a stop to wind and rain”'’, is erected in the hall of the Triratna and offerings are made to them. Then Kwan-yin is invoked and this Bodhisattva’s dharanis are recited, or those of the “Medicine-Master, Tathagata of the Ju-li (one of the sapta- ratna, probably the bluish precious stone called vaidirya) light” 2, i.e. the sunlight, and the latter's name is invoked a thousand times. De Groor explains this Medicine-Master to be the oriental Sun, who cures Nature and drives away all illnesses caused by the demons of Darkness. His cult, the counterpart of that of Amitabha, the occidental Sun, is based upon a siitra, which we find mentioned in Nanso’s Catalogue sub nr 171°. This Tathagata is the well-known Yakushi Nyorai of Japan. It is quite clear that he is considered to be most powerful in causing the rains to stop and refreshing the earth by his rays. Thereupon (akya- muni, the Buddhas who are above the brilliant flames, and all the Nagas are supplicated to grant good weather, and besides the two former the Medicine-Master and Kwan-yin are each invoked thrice in kneeling attitude. Finally, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are, as always, praised as the refuge of all. The same ceremonies are repeated by other monks till the rain stops, and then a larger number of them for the last time celebrates the rites as a sign of gratitude and satisfaction. In Japan, which in summer time has much more to suffer from 1 > Fil] SE A TE J BS ARE. 2 Be BES HA OE Hn 3K. oo 3 ee fii ER Fei + au ae AS ia WY il KK, Bheshajyaguru vaidurya- prabhisa Tathagata purvapranidhana guna sutra, “Sutra on the merits and virtue of the original vow of the Medicine-Master, the Tathagata Vaidurya light; translated by Hiien Tsano, A.D. 650. Cf. nrs 170, 172, 173. According to Naxyo, nrs 170, 171 and 472 are later translations of the twelfth Sitra of nr 167; the main title of this work is 4B aie K ie TH WH FL WK , Buddhabhashita mahibhishekarddhidharani stitra, “Sttra on the divine dharani of the Great washing of the top of the head (baptism), spoken by Buddha”. This is apparently the Kanjo-kyo, Te TH Rg, “Sutra on the washing of the top of the head”, recited in the fifth month of A.D. 880 in the Sacred Spring Park at Kyoto, for stopping the abundant rains (Sandai jitsuroku, Ch. XXXVI, p-. 541). Verh, Kon. Akad. v. Wetensch. (Afd. Letterk.) N. R. Dl. XIII, N° 2. 3 U Digitized by Microsoft® 34 continuous and heavy rains than China, ceremonies for stopping rain are frequently mentioned in the annals, as we shall see below}. But also rain prayers were very frequent, and the Bud- dhist priests eagerly took advantage of the opportunity to surpass the Shintdists and extend their sphere of influence. Thus the Great-Cloud-Wheel siitra (Nanso, nr 188), mentioned above, was recited by fifteen Buddhist priests in the Sacred Spring park (Shinsen-en) at Kyoto, in the sixth month of the year 875 of our era”. At the same time sixty other priests in the Taikyokuden, one of the buildings of the Imperial Palace, recited parts of the Mahaprajiaparamita sitra*, which is very often mentioned in the Japanese annals as having been partly read in rain ceremonies ‘). Sometimes also the Vajra-prajiaparamita sitra® was used. In the fifth month of A.D. 880 the Kanjé-kyo°, “Stitra on washing the top. of the head (baptism)”, was recited in the Sacred Spring park for stopping the abundant rains. Also in China other siitras are used in rain ceremonies, e. g. the Vajra-prajnaparamita sitra, the Buddhabhashita Sagara Naga- raja stra’, “Siitra on the Sea-dragon-king (i.e. Sagara), spoken by Buddha”, ete. This is logical, for, as De Groor® remarks, according to the 39th commandment of the Mahayana code all punishments for crimes committed — and drought is such a punishment — are to be taken away by reciting the sitras and vinayas of the Mahayana. 4 Book IJ, Ch. IIT. 2 Cf. below, Book II, Ch. HI, § 3; Sandai jitsuroku, Ch. XXVII, p. 444. 3 Kk ee 2 KK, Mahaprajia sutra; Nanso’s Catalogue, nr 4, gives the full title: K Ree 5 We ve i Bz £K, and states that it was translated in A.D. 659 by the famous pilgrim Hten Tsane. 4 Of. Sandai jitsuroku, Ch. XX, p. 335 (sixth month, 871); Ch. XXIII, p. 372, (fifth month, 873); Ch. XXV, p. 386 (second month, 874); Ch. XXXII, p. 466 (seventh month, 877); Ch. XXXVII, p. 543 (sixth month, 880). 5 > Fl) SE ERK ; Sandai jitsuroku, Ch. XXIII, p. 372; Nanso, nrs 10—12, 6 PE JE @K, sco above, p. 33, note 3; Sandai jitsuroku, Ch. XXXVII, p. 544; Nanyo, nr 167. 7 434 ae nie Ke Nanso, nr 456; translated A.D. 265—316. Cf. nr 457: a By if: HE at ie EN AK, “Sutra on the Seal of the Law spoken by Buddha for the sake of Sagara Nagaraja”. These stitras were spoken in Sagara’s palace at the bottom of the sea. ; 8 L.1, p. 156; cf. p. 72. Digitized by Microsoft® BOOK I. THE DRAGON IN CHINA. CHAPTER I. THE DRAGON IN THE CHINESE CLASSICS. § 1. Yih king. The oldest Chinese work which mentions the dragon is the Yih King’. We read there the following explanation of the lowest line of the first of the diagrams, which corresponds with Heaven: “First, nine: a dragon hidden in the water is useless” *, According to the commentators the meaning of this sentence is that the lowest line of this diagram, representing the dragon lying in the deep, is a sign that it is not the time for active doing. Therefore Leek *® translates: “In the first (or lowest) line, undivided (we see its subject as) the dragon lying hid (in the deep). It is not the time for active doing”. This translation is more explicative than true, for the text simply gives the words: “First, nine: a dragon hidden in the water is useless”. As to the word nine, this is explained by the commentary entitled “ Traditions of Cheng’ 4 to mean the “fullness of Yang”, because it is three times three, i.e. a multiplication of the undividable number which represents Yang. As the undivided strokes of the diagrams are symbols of Yang and the divided ones of Yin, the meaning of the two first words of the sentence is, as Lrees translates, that the lowest line is undivided. The characters 7 FA, however, do not mean: “it is not the time for active doing”, but simply: “useless” >. The dragon, symbolized by the lines of the diagram of Heaven, be- cause he is the Yang creature xar’ sEoynv, is represented by the 1 Book qin SAAS Dr FB. on. 1, Eb BG - 2 30 Ju. 4 #ED AA. 3 Section I, p. 57. 4 fe fa. 5 Prof. De Groot kindly pointed out to me the simple and clear meaning of this and the following sentences. Digitized by Microsoft® 36 lowest line as still lying in the depth of the waters. In this condition the heavenly giver of fertilizing rains is still useless to mankind. This must be the original meaning of these words, but the diviners concluded from this usélessness of the hidden dragon that one had to abstain from active doing. The second line of the same didgram’ is explained by the Yih king as follows: “Nine, second; a dragon is seen in the rice fields ; advantage; a great man will be seen” '. Laer translates: “It will be advantageous to meet with the great man”. Although this translation follows the commentators, the meaning is clearer if we divide the sentence as we have done above. The appearance of a dragon in the rice fields gives advantage, i.e. the fertilizing rain gives good crops. The original meaning of the character Fil}, which consists of rice and a knife, is apparently harvest, which was, of course, identical to advantage. Further, “a great man will be seen”. Here we see the dragon representing great (espe- cially holy) men, who are as full of Yang as the dragon himself. Even in those olden times his appearance apparently was con- sidered to be an omen of the birth of great and holy men, especially of Emperors, the holiest men on earth. In the third line the dragon is not mentioned, but in the fourth we read that he is “perhaps leaping in the pool” (but not yet rising above the surface). “There will be no evil (44)’?. The word evil seems to be more logical in a divinatory sentence than “mistake”. The fifth line is described as “A flying dragon in the sky; advantage; a great man will be seen” *. It is, of course, of the utmost benefit to mankind, if the rain-bringing dragon is soaring in the sky. At the same time it is an omen of the appearance of a great man. Finally, the topmost line is explained as “The dragon exceeding the proper limits (i.e. flying too high). There will be regret’ 4. The simplest explanation of these words is that, if a dragon flies too high, he is too far from the earth to return and the rain does not reach it, a reason of regret to himself and to mankind. At the same time the great man, symbolized by the dragon, repents all exaggeration on his part. 172, RHEE. A. RKA, . 2 APY mK SE. eK. : Wu E.R EK. A. KA. a. ab Digitized by Microsoft® 37 The Yeh king goes on as follows: “The number nine is used (in this diagram). If a herd of dragons is seen divesting themselves of their heads, this means good fortune’ *). The lowest line of the second diagram, which represents Earth (SH, Kw‘'un), is explained as “Dragons fighting in the open field; their blood is dark (not purple, as Luceu translated) and yellow” *. Apparently a thunderstorm, with dark and yellow clouds flying through the sky, is described in this way. For in a passage of Appendix V of the Yih king’, ascribed to Confucius, we read: “Kien (Heaven) is a horse, Kwun (Earth) is a cow, Chen (Thunder) as a dragon” *. And, again, in the same Appendix®: “Chen is thunder, is a dragon, is dark and yellow” °. The same diagram represents also Spring and the Eastern quarter, which are identi- fied with the Azure Dragon’. In Ch. 11 (p. 2) of the Veh king the words “A hehe lying in the deep is useless” are illustrated by * Yang is below’ *, which means: “The Sun is under the horizon, i.e. the dragon lying in the deep is as useless as the sun under the horizon. In the same chapter (same page) we read: “A dragon is seen in the rice fields; blessing power ( fifi) is spread everywhere” °). This is a clear explanation of the word advantage.in the above passage on the fifth line of the first diagram. As to the “Dragons fighting in the open field”, in this chapter these words are followed by: “Their way (tao) is exhausted” ', i.e. their blessing actions are completed to the last. As rain is~ the blessing conferred upon mankind by the dragons, this sen- tence may easily be explained by the fact that in a thunderstorm, when the dragons fight in the sky, the rain comes down in torrents. 1A. RMA. A 2 LX. MRSS. Ee Ht. 3 Shwoh-kwa chw'en, git £h {i (Ch. 17), p. 12. Lega, Appendix V, p. 429, Chapter VIII, 12. 4 8 Fy AG. dh Bm OF. tH 5 Ch. 17; Lace, p. 430, Ch. XI, ae ‘RBH. BE. BL : Ch De Groot, Rel. Syst., Vol. I, p. K Ill, p. 964, 987. i EZ) FA. We Ze TE th. > SL HE 22 BI fH ti 7 th . 10 WE RR EF. Ha He th. Digitized by Microsoft® 38 ‘An Appendix of the Yih king' says: “The hibernating of dragons and snakes is done in order to preserve thewr bodies” *, Here we see dragons and snakes being closely connected and regarded as belonging to the same kind of animals. Also in later times the same fact is to be observed. On considering the above passages of the Yih king we arrive & the conclusion that the ideas on the dragon prevailing in China at the present day are just the same as those of the remotest times. It is a water animal, akin to the snake, which uses to sleep in pools during winter and arises in spring. It is the god of thunder, who brings good crops when he appears in the rice fields (as rain) or in the sky (as dark and yellow clouds), in other words, when he makes the rain fertilize the ground. But when he flies too high and cannot return, the thirsty earth must wait in vain for his blessings, and sorrow prevails. As this beneficient being is full of Yang, it symbolizes those among men who are fullest of Light, namely great men, and its appearance is considered to be an omen of their coming, i.e. of their birth. In the first place the greatest and fullest of Yang among them all, the Emperor, is, of course, symbolized by the dragon. He is, indeed, the representative of Imperial power, as we shall see later on. When black and yellow clouds covered the sky, and thunder and lightning raged, the ancient Chinese said, like those of to-day : “The dragons are fighting; look at their blood spreading over the sky”. And at the same time the heavenly dragons caused the rain to pour down upon the grateful earth. Even when the dragons were only leaping in their pools, no calamity was to be feared, and when a herd of them, even head- less, was seen in the sky, this was a felicitous sign. Winter, when they hibernate and sleep in pools, is the dry season in China. But in spring, in the third of the twenty four seasons into which the year was divided even in olden times, the “Resurrection of the hibernating animals”* takes place, and it begins to rain a little. In the “beginning of summer” ‘, however, i.e. in the first of the six summer seasons, “the winds arrive 4 ee ee PR (a (Ch. XV), p. 41. 2 HEREC BUT Ah. 3 4 ee. “Resurrection of hibernating animals”, is the name of this season; cf. De Groot, |.]., Vol. III, p. 968. Digitized by Microsoft® 39 and the dragons ascend to the sky”, for this is the time when the abundant rains come down, a blessing to mankind. § 2. Shu king. In the Shu king? we read the following words of the Emperor Shun to Yu: “I wish to see the emblematic figures of the an- cients: the sun, the moon, the stars, the mountain, the dragon, and the variegated animals (pheasants) which are depicted (on the upper sacrificial yarment of the Emperor)”. So we see that even in the early times of Shun’s predecessors, i.e. in the days of Hwang Ti (who is said to have reigned in the 27th century B.C.) and Yao, the dragon belonged to the six symbolic figures painted on the upper garment of the Emperor. This was, no doubt, due to its blessing power as rain-giving god of thunder and clouds. : § 3. Li ki. The Li ki* says: “What is called the four ling (Si)? The unicorn, the phoenix, the tortoise and the dragon, they are called the four ling. As the dragon is considered to be a domestic animal, fishes and sturgeons do not flee away” *. Couvreur trans- lates ling by: “animaux qui donnent des présages”, but it has a stronger meaning, as we may learn from Dz Groor’s Religious System *®. Therefore I should prefer to translate it by “spiritual beings”. The effective operation of the tsing ($j) or vital spirit of these four creatures is, indeed, enormously strong, and there- fore they may be justly called “the four spiritual animals par - excellence”. It is no wonder that their appearance was considered to. re Yih wéi, By he " i £p Be quoted in the famous encyclopaedia entitled Kin ting ku kin tu shu tsih ching, ER cE ns 4 | = 6 MK (published in 4725, cf. De Groot, 1.1. Vol. I, Introd. p. XXI), which we henceforth. shall quote as T.S.; Sect. 45 ih. Ch. 127, He Th me p. 5b: i BOW mE Ft K.- : = 2] RMA SR, H. A. Be, OW, BE Se 043 er. Sect. ya] fB. Yih Tsih; Leaes, Sacred Books of the East, Vol. Il, Part II, Book IV, § 4, p. 58. 3 Ch. VII, Li un, ne E » art. 3, nr 10: Couvreur, Li ki, Vol. I, p. 524. 4 fe OB. RAGHEB COR RHEURE. we fA AF ie. 5 Vol. IY, p. 12 Digitized by Microsoft® | | 40 be an omen, but this was only the conséquence of their “spirituality”. Tn art. 4 of the same Chapter of the Zi ki', where the halcyon days of the holy emperors of antiquity are described, we read: “The male and female phoenixes, and the male and female unicorns were all in the marshes beyond the city ‘walls; the tortoise and the dragon were in the ponds of the Imperial Palace” ?, i. e. the four ling were all in the neighbourhood, spreading their blessings over the Palace and the country. Further, in another passage of the Li ki, also devoted to the ancient sovereigns *, the following words are to be found: “They (the monarchs of old) chose (litt. followed, accommodated them- selves to) felicitous places in order to make sacrifices to the Emperor of Heaven in the suburbs. The sacrifices ascended and reached Heaven. Then phoenixes descended, and tortoises and dragons arrived” +. Finally; in the first, second and third months of spring’, “the Emperor ascends his carriage adorned with bells, drawn by azure dragons ° and carrying a blue banner (ff, 4%, adorned with - dragons joined’)”. The azure dragon is, as we stated above, the symbol of Spring, the season when “thunder. resounds, lightning begins to flash, and the hibernating animals all move, open their doors (i.e. come out of their chrysalides) and begin to come out’’®. a § 4, Cheu 1i. We cae seen the dragon mentioned in the Shu king among the twelve symbolic ornaments of the ancient sacrificial robe of 4 Couvrevr, p. 536, nr 16. _ 2 Jal Be BB 2 AM, ME 3 Ch. VII, Li ki, ne Be, art. 2; nr 12; Couvreur, Vol. - p. 563. ‘AR ELUATAM. FARK. MAAK, HE 1 . 5 Lt ki, Ch. XXI, Yueh ling, FY 4, “Monthly Precepts”; Couvreur, I, Ch. IV, pp. 332 (first month), 340 (second month), 347 (third month): K F- agers Fe it Be. BABE. MO HF 6 Horses higher than eight ch‘ih, i.e. 41.60 meter, were called dragons (Couvreur, I, p. 333). 7 Cheu li, Jl ne Section Ch‘un kwan, Fe BEB: “Spring officials”, s. v. | ee Szé shang; Ch. XXVII, p. 24, gives the names of the nine banners ruled by the Szé shang, “Banner rulers”. “Dragons joined form the h%, ix (the second banner)”, BE HE Tht Wir Digitized by Microsoft® 4] the Emperor. Further, the Cheu li has taught us (above p. 40, note 7) that the banner called 2%, ii, was adorned with dragons joined (i.e. twisted about each other). The same work! states the following: “In general as tsieh® (official tablets) of the envoys of the Empire, in mountainous countries tiger tablets are used, in plain countries tablets painted with human figures, and in watery countries dragon tablets. The tablets are all made of metal’ *. It is clear why the ornaments of these official tablets were divided in this way. For, as the commentator Caine K‘ane-cu‘ine remarks on this passage, “in the mountains are many tigers, in the plains many men, and in the waters many dragons’*. Thus the dragon symbolized the water. A third passage of the Cheu i*, which treats of the Winter officials, says that, in painting and embroidering, “Water is repre- sented by means of dragons” °. Caao P‘un’s’ commentary explains these words as follows: “The dragon is a divine being in the water. If one represents water without representing dragons, there is nothing to show the divinity of its phenomena’ *. As to Caine K*ane-cu'ine, he simply states: “The dragon is a water creature; it is (depicted or embroidered) on clothes” °. § 5.11. A dragon banner is mentioned in the J hk", where Imperial hunting parties are described. We read there: “In the frontier 4 Section Ti kwan, Hh BE s.v. chang tsieh, ps fill » Ch. XIV, p. 39. 2 fil . SLAM SHH UA. LA. AAR ih. Ae th. 4+P oh. WSR. PSA. BoE. 5 Section Tung kwan, x > Ch. XLII, x L au % = Ae (painting and embroidering) 3 Hy , 4 Fr ffi, p. 50. 6 KWH. | 7 tf ya a commentator of the Sung dynasty. Although only his family name is mentioned, and there was another commentator of the same family name, namely CHao Kw*ane, isl fz. of the T'ang dynasty, probably we have here to do with the former. 8 HE ak AH ih by. SE aOR EE Ha AR A J SS tS 9 HE KW. HER. 10 42% Gl, Sect. SE St ne BU Ch. X, p. 48a: FA A. AE rH, HE Hitt . Digitized by Microsoft® a ft yaa 42 regions: when a tiger is hit: dragon banner’. This is, at least, probably the meaning of the very short text. Caine K‘ane-cn‘ine explains it as follows: “‘In the frontier regions’ (Fi is used here for 4%) means shooting with the rulers of néighbouring countries. They paint a dragon on the banner'; moreover it is a variegated pattern. ‘Full silk’ forms the banner” *. In hunting parties with foreign rulers probably a signal was given with this dragon banner when a tiger (the dragon’s deadly enemy) was shot. The ancient texts referred to in this chapter are short, but sufficient to give us the main conceptions of old China with regard to the dragon. He was in those early days, just like now, the god of water, thunder, clouds and rain, the harbinger of blessings, and the symbol of holy men. As the Emperors are the holy beings on earth, the idea of the dragon being the symbol of Imperial power is based upon this ancient conception. For the sake of clearness the further texts will be treated in separate chapters according to the kind of information they give. In each chapter, however, chronological order will be observed. 1 he. chen, according to Wetuis WILLIAMS, Dict. s.v. p. 44: “a silken banner of, a nar oer plain and triangular”. 2 RT. a Be 258 WF St AHERN. Hh. Bt a a if (Hi BA. tung poh, was, according to Cuine K‘ane-cu‘na, in the same work, Ch. XXVII, p. 24b, ‘deep red, in accordance with the main colour of the Cheu dynasty”). - Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER II. DIVINATION. § 1. Lucky omens. The birth of great sages and Emperors was preceded by the appearance of deapons and phopnizes, In the night of Confucius’ birth (B.C. 551) two azure dragons descended from the sky “and came to his mother’s _ house.She. saw them in her dream and gave birth to the great sage'. The biography of the Emperor Wu *, the famous man of the Han dynasty (B.C. 140—87), con- tains the following passage in regard to his birth: “The Emperor Hiao Wu of the Han dynasty was the son of the Emperor King. Before he was born the Emperor King dreamt that a red hog descended from the clouds and straightly. entered the Ch‘ing fang koh (Exalted Fragance Corridor). The Emperor King awoke and sat down under the corridor. Actually there was a red dragon. It was like fog and in coming darkened the doors and windows. When the Imperial harem went to. look (what was happening), there was above the corridor a cinnabar coloured vapour which increased enormously and rose. After the vapour had dispersed they saw a red dragon coiling and revolving between the rafters. The Emperor King called a diviner, the Old Yao by name, and asked him about the matter. The old man said: ‘This is a lucky omen. This corridor certainly will produce a man who shall rule the world. He shall expel the barbarians and thus bring with him lucky omens. Therefore he shall be the most glorious ruler of the Liu family. But it (may mean) also a great prodigy’. The Emperor King ordered the Imperial Consort Wang to move to the Exalted Fragrance Corridor, wishing thereby to act in accordance with Old Yao’s words. Thereupon he changed the 4 Shih i ki, # 34 BU. written by Wane Kia, =F FA, probably in the 4th century; Ch, III, JA ia +E: p. 4b, 2 Wu Ti néi chwen, “Inner traditions on the Emperor Wu”, nee if Ay 4 . ascribed to the famous historiographer Pan Ku, $}F [ij] . who died A.D. 92; p, 4a. Digitized by Microsoft® 44 name of the corridor into J lan’ tien, ‘Hall of the Florishing Orchid’'. After more than ten days the Emperor King dreamt that a divine woman held up the sun in both her hands and gave it to the Consort Wang. She swallowed it, and after fourteen months gave birth to the Emperor Wu. The Emperor King said: ‘I dreamt that a red vapour changed into a red dragon. The diviners considered this to be a lucky omen; (therefore) he (the new-born son) niust be called Lucky (47h)’”. One of the ten lucky signs which were seen in the course of one day under the reign of Yao, one of the five holy Emperors of ancient times, was a dragon which appeared in the pond of his palace ?. ~ The appearance of yellow or azure dragons, often mentioned in the annals *, was nearly always considered to be a very good omen. Only if they came untimely or on wrong places they were harbingers of evil, as we shall see below. They were mostly seen in the night, spreading a brilliant light all over the neighbour- hood. Such a nightly apparition illuminated the palace of Kung Sun-shuh‘* under the reign of the Emperor Kwang Wu (25—57 A.D.). The former considered it such a good omen, that in 25 A.D. he proclaimed himself Emperor of Shu (White Emperor) and changed the name of the era into Lung-Hing’, “Dragon’s rise” °. A black, horned dragon was seen one night by Li Kwang *, who lived in the fourth century A. D. Its glittering eyes illumi- nated the whole vicinity, so that the huge monster was visible till it was enveloped by clouds which gathered from all sides. The next morning traces of its scales were to be seen over a distance of five miles, but soon were wiped out by the heavy 4 The orchid being the symbol of harmony, because the Shi king compares the dwelling together in harmony of brothers with the smell of orchids, the new name of the corridor was still more felicitous than the former. 2 Shuh i ki, lt #2 aU: written by Jen Fane, 4: Wy: in the earlier part of the 6th century: zB EA. — H + Ht. HAIL BK. A BIER, mip BE OL POE. co. hop. 4 3 Cf. T.S., Ch. 128, BE Bh. #E Be —. p. 70, 8a, 9; Ch..129, 4A EE pp. 1 sq. ; 4 2 HH it. > HE 6 Tung kwan han ki, Ft BH yee AE, Ch. XXII, written in 107 A.D. by Liu Cun, i) ¥), and continued in 172 A.D. by Ts‘at Yune, Be fs, . 7 FA X-%. cf. Gives. Chin. Bioar. Dict. s.v.. nv. BKK sa. Tn 296 he tank the ctwle Digitized by Microsoft® 45 rains. Then one of Lit Kwang's attendants said to him: “A dragon is a divine animal and an omen of a man’s rise to the position of a ruler. So you will attain this rank”. On hearing this, Li Kwang was very much rejoiced; and actually he became a ruler after some time'. The dragons being such important omens, it is no wonder that Imperial proclamations often were issued on account of their appearance °. Finaly, we may quote a divinatory work * which says: ‘When the beginning rise of an Emperor or King is about to take place, a dragon appears in the Yellow River or in the Loh. All examine his head: if the head is black, men are correct; if white, the Earth is correct; if red, Heaven is correct” ‘. § 2. Bad omens. A. Fighting dragons. From olden times high floods, tempests and thunderstorms have been ascribed by the Chinese to dragons fighting in rivers or in the air. Although, according to the Yih king®, “the tao of dragons, fighting in the open field, is exhausted”, i. e. their blessing power makes the rain pour down in torrents, on the other hand such severe thunderstorms often cause much damage and calamities. Therefore, however welcome a dragon fight in the air might be in times of drought, in ordinary circumstances the threatening armies in the sky were looked at with great fright. Moreover, the people believed the damage produced by dragon fights in rivers or in the air to be not limited to the actual calamities of the present, but to extend itself to the near future, in other words, they were considered to be very bad —_— 4 Pao P'oh-tszé, Ke Ah ee written by Kou Hone, B YE, in the fourth cen- tury; Ah $i Ch. IV ( fp BB). 2 The Emperor-Wen of the Han dynasty e.g. did so in B.C. 165, Books of the Early Han Dynasty, 54 if aN aU Ch. IV; comp. the Emperor Siien’s proclama- tion in the summer of B.C. 52 (ibidem, a if a 8U,. Ch. VII, p. 14a. 3 The Yih htien tsoh tu, $Y We, We RE, quoted in the T.S., Sect. Br ith, ch. 130, BE BK, FE Bf. p- 22. 1 Ei MR BHR. GRE. RHA TE, AS AWE, OA RIE. 5 See above, p. 37. Digitized by Microsoft® 46 omens, foreboding inundations, disorder, war, nay even the dynasty’s fall. As gods of water, clouds and rain they caused high floods by their fights, and as representatives of the Imperial power their victory or defeat meant rebellion, war, and even the fall of the reigning House. According to the Tso chw‘en' a high flood was ascribed to dragons fighting in a pool in the nineteenth year of the reign of Chao, Duke of Lu (523 B.C.). “There were great floods in Ch‘ing; and [some] dragons fought in the pool of Wei, outside the She gate. The people asked leave to sacrifice to them; but Tsze-ch‘an refused it, saying: “When we fight, the dragons do not look at us. Why should we look at them, when they are fighting? If we offer a deprecatory sacrifice to them, they will leave their abodes. If we do not seek the dragons, they also will not seek us”. Then the matter was given up. The Yih lin® says: “If six dragons have angry fight with one another under an embankment, and the azure or yellow dragons do not conquer, the travellers will meet hardships and trouble” *. As we have seen above, the azure and yellow dragons especially were harbingers of felicity; so their defeat was a sign of coming trouble, probably caused by inundations. In regard to impending war and ruin we may quote the follo- wing passages from the Histories. In the Books of the Sui dynasty* we read: “In the Liang dynasty (A. D. 502—557), in the second year of the T‘ien kien era (508), there were dragons fighting in a pool in Northern Liang province. They squirted fog over a distance of:some miles. As to the evils of dragons and snakes the Hung fan wu hing chw‘en® says: ‘These are trouble and damage of dragons and beasts. That which be- longs to Heaven is symbol of the Ruler. If the Heavenly breath is injured, and the Tao of the Ruler is wounded, also the dragons are injured. Their fights are symbols of weapons and shields’. 1 LeaGe, Chinese Classics, Vol. V, Part II, pp. 674 sq. (Book X, year XIX). 2 By A , a work on divination, quoted by the T. S., Ch. 130, HE Gb Rite RK, p. 3a. 3K HE FE AR RAR RR. te AE Key 3, Ch. XXII, nr 18, Fh. FF im ; as p. 17a. 5 yk 0 hh 4 4 . cf. Dr Groot, Vol. V, p. 494, note 1: “A work based on a section of the Shu king entitled Hung fan or The Great Plan. It seems to have been held in great esteem in the sixth century as an expositor of prognostics. It was then composed of eleven chapters, with a commentarv bv Liu Hiano. en that it mnet & Digitized by Microsoft® Aq Kine Fane! says in his Yih fei hew? («Flying observations on divination”): ‘When the hearts of the multitude are not quiet, dragon fights are the bad omens thereof’*. At that time the Emperor for the first time ascended the throne, and there was a riot of Ch‘en Poh-chi and Liu Li-lien. Danger and fear prevailed in the empire”. . The same annals‘ contain the following passage: “In the sixth month of the fifth year of the P‘u t‘ung era (524 A.D.) dragons fought in the pond of the King of K‘th o (%). They went west- ward as far as Kien ling ch‘ing. In the places they passed all the trees were broken. The divination was the same as in the second year of the T‘ien kien era (503 A. D.), namely that their passing Kien ling and the trees being broken indicated that there would be calamity of war for the dynasty, and that it was a sign that the Imperial tombs would be destroyed. At that time the Emperor considered the holding of discussions to be his only task, and did not think of ploughing. His fighting generals were careless, his soldiers idle, and the Tao of the Ruler was injured. Therefore there was the corresponding fact of the dragons’. evil. The Emperor did uot at all become conscious (of the danger). In the first year of the T’ai Tsing era (547 A.D.) there was again a dragon fight in the waters of Li cheu. The waves seethed and bubbled up, and clouds and fog assembled from all sides. White dragons were seen running to the South, followed by black dragons. That year Heu King came with troops to submit, and the Emperor accepted his submission without taking precautions. The people of the realm were all frightened, and suddenly rebellion arose. The Emperor in consequence thereof had a sad death’.”He died in 549, and eight years later the Liang dynasty came to an end. In A. D. 579 a black dragon was killed by a red one. Moreover, in the same year there was a fight of a white dragon with a black one, the result of which was that the white one ascended 1 p= FR a famous diviner of the first century of our era, author of the Yih chw*en, By 48 (cf. De Groor, Rel. Syst., Vol. 1V, p. 204) and of the Yih yao, BB i (cf. below, Bad omens, D.). 2 AH tk. SER CMB BH. ROMA CK KAS, A BO. WHE. RRR CAH. RHARK A, RO RB. MIRE Bl. 4 Same chapter, section and page. a Digitized by Microsoft® 48 to the sky and the black one fell on the earth and died*. As. black was the colour of the Later (i.e. Northern) Cheu dynasty, these dragon fights. were forebodings of its approaching fall, which actually took place two years later. As to inundations announced beforehand by dragon fights, we may refer to the History of the Sung dynasty?, where we read that in the fifth year of the K‘ien Tao era (A. D. 1169) such a battle in the air was seen amidst a heavy thunderstorm. “Two dragons fled and pearls like carriage wheels fell down on the ground, where they were found by herdsboys. In the following years inundations afflicted the country”. Sometimes dragon fights are mentioned not as omens, but only as causing heavy storms which destroyed a large number of houses and government buildings and killed hundreds of people, carrying them into the air together with their domestic animals, trees and tiles, over a length of more than ten miles. Such a storm raged in the fourth month of the ninth year of the Hwang t‘ung era (1149) above the Yt lin river in Li cheu®. Devastation caused by lightning was believed to be the result of sacred fire, sent by Heaven to stop dragon fights. “In the fifth month of the year yih-wei (probably 1295) on a place near the lake at I hing, all of a sudden there were two dragons which twisting around each other and fighting both fell into the lake. Their length had no sharp limits. In a short space of time a heavy wind came riding on the water, which reached a height of more than a chang (ten ch‘ih or feet). Then there fell from the sky more than ten fire balls, having the size of houses of ten divisions. The two dragons immediately ascended (to the sky), for Heaven, afraid that they might cause calamity, sent out sacred fire to drive them away. Supposed that Heaven had been a little remiss for a moment, then within a hundred miles everything would have turned into gigantic torrents. When I recently passed by boat the Peachgarden of Teh Ts‘ing, those 4 Wang Shao chw‘en, TE a {i , “Biography of Wang Shao”, Books of the Sui dynasty, Ch. LXIX, Al {i . nr 34, p. 2a. 2 Sect. Hh FF aR (Ch O07: BEBE ZEA ae BR WE Bl TF 2 U8 A, De HB NY — BE AP BE, BR BE Hi, RHC. AEM RA KK. 3 Kin shi, >» a, History of the Kin Dynasty (A.D. 1206—1368), Ch. ‘XXIII, ae es . —_ ss Fr. ~ Digitized by Microsoft® 49 paddy fields were all scorched and black, some tens of acres in all. Then we moored the boat to the bank and asked those villagers (for the reason). They said: ‘Yesterday noon there was a big dragon which fell from the sky. Immediately he was burned by terrestial fire and flew away. For that what the dragons fear is fire’”’'. B. Dead dragons. When dragons, wounded in a battle, tumbled: down and died, this was believed to be a very bad omen. The Books of the Han dynasty” relate the following: “On the day jen-tszé of the sixth month of the seventh year of the Yen-hi era (A. D. 164), under the Emperor Hwan, there was a dragon which died on Mount Yé Wang in Ho néi (one of the districts of that time). Its length was about some tens of chang. Siang K‘iai was of the following opinion: ‘Taking into consideration that the dragon is a felicitous. symbol of an Emperor or King, and that the Yih lun ta jen says: “In the T'ien-feng era (A.D. 14—19) there was a dead dragon | in the Hwang-shan palace. The Han troops killed Mang (i. e. the Emperor Wang Mang, killed in A. D. 22), and Shi Tsu (i.e. Kwang Wu, the first Emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty) rose again (ascended the throne, in A.D. 25)”, this omen must be a sign of change (of the dynasty)’. In the 25th year of the Kien-ngan era (A.D. 220) the Emperor Wen of the Wéi dynasty replaced the House of Han” *. 1 Kwei sin tsah shih, HS ae Rite ak (cf. DE i Rel. Syst. Vol. 1, p. 399: ‘ “a collection of miscellanies written by Cheu Miu, Ae. in the earlier part of the fourteenth century), quoted T. &., Sect. @r ga, Ch. 130, HE ih AE = p 8: Z, Fe we He A ee He a SH A — HE Nd A De. HE. AA AE OK ra KR ih MA KM. Amt ee +e. AR me. KH Bem t+. KRKRER MUKA SC. EPR Aa Geen HB Re. RB A ME a CHARGE, La. BAKA WE BAZ. EEA A BE BOK i BS TD BS EN HG Hh LK PT mR. BHC HRA KE. 2 Shuh Han shu, Ch. XVII, Sect. Fy 47, nv 5, BE WE BE, p. 20. 3 fl it HE KABA HEF oS El A Verh, Kon. Akad. y. Wetensch. (Afd. Letterk.) N. R. Dl. XII, N° 2 Digitized by Microsoft® 50 In the fifth year of the Kien-teh era (A. D. 576), under the Later Cheu dynasty, a black dragon fell from the sky and died. The dragon is the symbol of the Ruler, black was the colour of the dynasty, and falling and dying is a most unlucky omen '. So it was a foreboding of the-Emperor’s death, which happened two years later (A. D. 578), and of the dynasty’s fall (A. D. 581), which was announced also by the dragon fights mentioned above. C. Dragons appearing at wrong times. When dragons appeared at wrong times, they were forebodings of evil instead of omens of felicity. The time is wrong for a -dragon to appear, when the Son of Heaven himself does not walk in the Tao, thus throwing into disorder both the Tao of Heaven and men. So did the Emperor K‘ung Kiah of the ancient . Hia dynasty, twenty centuries before Christ. Szz-ma Ts‘Inn? says the following about this monarch: “The Emperor K‘ung Kiah having ascended the Throne, loved the matters of the kwéi and the shen and was disorderly (in his behaviour, i.e. he disturbed the Tao). As the virtue of the House of the Hia rulers was declining, the feudal lords rebelled against it. Heaven sent down two dragons, a female and a male. K‘ung Kiah could not feed them; he had not yet found the Dragon-rearer Family *. T'ang of Tao (i.e. the House of the Emperor Yao) having declined, one of his descendants was Liu Léi, who from the Dragon-rearer family learned to tame dragons, in order to serve K‘ung Kiah. K‘ung Kiah bestowed upon him the family name of Yu-lung 4 KikeTRt+ Li RUB KES Bit Ems am A. FR JBL HE pe UL et A E.R ee FR it TE ae WAKA. BEKO RPRN HR. 41 Books of the Sui dynasty, Sect. Fr 4F ae: eA Jil 32 (8 oh. 4E poe HERR SW. HA CR. BAP mw . Bein. Te A ee HE 2 Historical Records, Ch. II, B aK AE: Jap. ed. with commentaries and notes, Bi ab Ea HK (NN B FAL), Vol. 1, Ch. I, p. 240, Cf. CHavannes’ translation, Vol. I, p. 168. 3 Hwan-lung shi, E HE K F 7 Pha eee Digitized by Microsoft® 5] (Dragon-ruler), and he received the succession of Shi Wéi. The first of the dragons, the female, died, (whereupon) he took it and gave it the Emperor to eat. As His Majesty ordered to seek (the dragon), Liu Léi got afraid and fled. K‘ung Kiah died, and his son, the Emperor Kao, ascended the Throne” '. A different form of the same legend, according to which K‘ung Kiah was presented by the Emperor of Heaven with two teams of dragons, which were reared by Liu Léi till one of them died and was given as food to His Majesty, is to be found in a passage of the Tso chw‘en, which we will partly quote in Chapter IV § 8, in regard to the Dragon-rearer family having been invested with this name by the Emperor Shun. As to our present subject, however, i.e. the evil omen of dragons appearing at a time when the Tao is violated, we may refer to another passage of the Historical Records, where the fall of the Hia dynasty, is apparently brought into connection with the appearance of two dragons. We read there the following. “In the third year (of his reign) (B.C. 779), King Yiu fell deeply in love with Pao Szé?. Pao Szé gave birth to a son, Poh Fub, and King Yiu wished to degrade the Crownprince. The mother of the Crownprince was the daughter of the Marquis of Chen and was queen. Afterwards, when King Yiu had got Pao Szé and loved her, he wished to degrade Queen Chen and at the same time send away the Crown- prince I Kiu, (in order to) make Pao 8zé queen and Poh Fuh Crown- prince. The great astrologer of Cheu, Poh Yang‘, after having read the historical records, said: “(The House of) Cheu is lost”. Now follows the explanation why the astrologer had such pessimistic views. Caavannes* points out that the following is borrowed from the Kwok yit®, one of the many works used by Tl FE BL. 2 a KR PRM. FRE HE ie RERER ERE ; pie Big HER Ne = eel nae 7L FA 2 HE i. wa 4 Les Mémoires Historiques de Se-ma Ts‘ien, Vol. I, p. 284, cf Introduction, Chap. Ill, pp. CXLVII, sqq. 5 [ae aE, “Discourses concerning the States”, often called the “Exterior Com- mentary” on the Ch‘un ts‘iu, and ascribed to the author of the Tso chw*‘en. Digitized by Microsoft® 52 Szz-ma Ts‘ten. “In olden times, when the rulers of the Hia dynasty were declining (in virtue and power), there were two divine dragons which stopped at the palace of the Emperor and said: ‘We are two rulers of Pao’. The Emperor ttied to find out by divination whether he should kill them, send them away or keep them, but to none of these questions he received a favourable answer. When he cast lots, however, as to the question whether he should request (the dragons) to give him their foam to store it away, the answer was favourable. Then a piece of cloth was spread and a written communication was offered to them. The dragons disappeared and their foam remained; it was put in a case and stored away. When the Hia dynasty was lost, this case was transmitted to (the House of) Yin; when (the House of). Yin was lost, it was transmitted again.to (the House of) Cheu: During these three dynasties no one dared open it; but at the end of the reign of King Li it was opened and looked into. The foam flew through the palace and could not be removed. King Li ordered his wives to undress and to raise cries in unison (naked) against the foam. ‘The foam changed into a black lizard! and in this form entered the rear departments of the palace (the female departments). A young concubine of the seraglio, who had reached the age when one loses his milk-teeth (seven years), met it. When she had reached the age when young girls put a hair-pin in her hair (i.e. the age of fifteen, when they get marriageable), she was pregnant. Without having a husband she gave birth to a child, which she abandoned with fright. At the time of King Stien (King Li’s son) a little girl sung, saying: ‘A bow of wild mulberry wood and a quiver of reed are sure to destroy the dynasty of Cheu’. King Stien heard this, and as there were a married couple who sold these utensils, he ordered them to be seized and put to death. They escaped and being on the road saw lying there the child which the young con- cubine of the seraglio had just abandoned. They heard it crying in the night, pitied it and took it up. The man and his wife then fled to (the land of) Pao. The people of Pao, having committed some crime, asked for (permission to) present to the King the girl whom, the young concubine had abandoned, in order to atone therewith for their misdeed. (Thus) the girl came from Pao, and this became Pao Szé. In the third year of King Yiu’s reign the King went to the seraglio, saw Pao Szé and fell 41 K fe hiten yuen. CHAVANNES (p. 282, note 5) remarks that yen, which means Digitized by Microsoft® 53 in love with her. She gave birth to a son, Poh Fuh. Finally the King degraded Queen Chen and the Crownprince, and made Pao Szé queen and Poh Fuh crownprince. The Great: Astrologer Poh Yang said: “The misfortune is complete; there is no help for it’”. Then we read that the Emperor, who by all manner of devices tried to make the woman laugh, did not succeed until by a false sign of an enemy’s attack he caused the lords to come up in great haste. This made Pao Szé burst into laughter, but it was the cause of the King’s death and the ruin of the dynasty, for when the enemy actually came, the lords, whom the King had deluded several times by false alarms, did not come to the rescue. Thus the King was killed, Pao Szé was taken prisoner, and the treasures of the House of Cheu were all taken by force. Japanese legends teHl us that Pao Szé was reborn in the twelfth century as Tamamo no mae, the Emperor Konoe or Toba’s concubine, who changed into a fox'. It is clear that in the above passages the dragons were harbingers of evil, because the Emperors did. not walk in the Tao. In A.D. 553 a dragon was seen ascending near the Imperial Palace, and the next year a huge black serpent rose from the Palace moat to the sky, spreading a dazzling light and followed by a small snake. Calamity was predicted on account of these apparitions, and the Emperor tried to avert the evil by offerings of money’, magic, Buddhist prayers and philanthropy; but it was all in vain, for at the end of the same year he was killed’. The History of the Liao dynasty* says: “[In the first year of the T‘ien-hien era (A. D. 926)] the Emperor (T‘ai-Tsu, 907—926) stopped at Fu-yi-fu and did not take any precautions. That evening a big star fell before his tent, and on the day sin-szé, when he captured the castle of Tan-tszé, the Emperor saw a yellow dragon coiling and winding, about one mile in length. The brightness of its light blinded the eye; it entered the Imperial 4 Of. my treatise on “The Fox and the Badger in Japanese Folklore”, Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, Vol. XXXVI, Part 3, pp. 51 sqq. 2 The dragons are fond of money, comp. the Japanese work Seiyuki, Py SH aU, (written by TacutBana NANKEI, 1% Pa] BR, in 1795—1797), Zoku Teikoku Bunko, Vol. XX, Ch. II, p. 259. This has perhaps something to do with their liking for the vital spirit of copper (cf. below, Book I, Ch. TIT, § 3). 3 History of the South (Nanshi, e2] , written by YEN SHEU, JE =o who lived in the first half of the seventh century A.D.), Ch. VIII (Ha aL. “PR ). 4, Liao shi, Bg FH, (906—1168), Sect. K mH. AK HE. “Fe. Tai-Tsu pen ki, “Fundamental history of (the Emperor) T‘ai-Tsu”, Ch. II, p. 6a. Digitized by Microsoft® 54 lodging house. There was a purple, black vapour which hid the sky, remained the whole day, and then dispersed. That very day the Emperor died” '. Sometimes a dragon’s appearance was a sign of impending calamity in the form of inundations. Such was the case in A. D. 967, according to the Books of the Sung dynasty. We read there the following: “In the summer of the fifth year of the K‘ien-teh era (967) it rained in the capital, and a black dragon appeared. Its tail was on the border of the clouds, and it flew from North- west to Southeast. The diviners explained it to be (an omen of) big floods. The next year in twenty four prefectures the water destroyed the ricefields and the houses” *. D. Dragons appearing in wrong places. If a dragon, symbol of Imperial power, is born in a commoner’s house or comes out of his well, this is a very bad omen for the dynasty, the Emperor pérsonally, or one of his feudal lords, for it means degradation from the highest dignity to a common state, and death of the ruler or of one of his representatives. The Books of the Tsin dynasty* contain the following passage: “Under the reign of Sun Hao of the Wu dynasty (the fourth and last Emperor of that dynasty, A. D. 242—283), in the T‘ien- ts‘eh era (A.D. 275—276), a dragon was hatched in (the house of) a family in Ch‘ang-sha, and ate the chickens. Kine Fane® says in his Y7h yao*: ‘If a dragon is hatched in a man’s house, a ARS TREN LAR. BIKER WE TW ELH REE. RB. REE, AA Be RR i H 79 wk. 2 AE fii. , Sung-shu (A.D. 960—1279), Sect. Fr FF a. : ERR, AHR. BEE. A Ww. AEA RK. WEN Mt Ke Soy oi at. BH o o SH cy BF as ae Med ee (A.D. 265—420), Ch. XXIX, nr 19, Sect. He FP FR, Pr. p. 24a (ke 2 BS. 5 p= iE} , the famous diviner of the first century before our era, mentioned above, p. 47, note 4. 6 FL te Digitized by Microsoft® 5d king will become a commoner’. Afterwards Hao submitted to Chin (the Chin dynasty) }. In the same section of this wore we read the following. “Under the Emperor Ming of the Wei dynasty (A. D. 227-—239), in the first year of the Ts‘ing-lung era (233), on the day kiah- shen of the first month, a blue dragon appeared in a well at Mo-p‘o (a place) in the suburbs. If only a lucky omen rises at a wrong time, it becomes an evil. How much more is this the case, when it (the dragon) is in straits in a well! This is not a felicitous omen!* It was wrong that Wei on account of it changed the name of the era. Yu Pao says: ‘From the end of the reign ef the Emperor Ming under the Wei dynasty the appearances of blue and yellow dragons were signs corresponding with the fall and rise of its rulers. As to the fate of the land of Wei, blue is the colour of wood and yet it does not conquer metal; it was a sign of yellow getting the throne and blue losing it. The frequent appearance of blue dragons means that the virtue of the sovereign and the fate of the dynasty are in inner conflict with each other *. Therefore Kao Kwei Hiang Kung* (Tsao Mao, A. D. 241—260, who in 254 became the fourth Emperor of the Wei dynasty) was utterly defeated in war.’” “According to Liv Hiane’s ° explanation the dragon, the symbol of dignity, when being imprisoned in a well means calamity consisting in a feudal lord being about to be secretly seized. In the Wei dynasty there was no dragon which was not in a well. It was an omen of the oppressive measures of those men who occupied the highest ranks‘. The poem on the ‘Dragon lying in the deep’, written by Kao Kwei Hiang Kung, has this meaning”. The Books of the Early Han dynasty® relate the following. “In 1 SE TR AG Fe OE PL A Be bb A ER A BE. By HRA HE FLA BR OE AE A. Ee IE 2 28 FE, Ch. XXIX, or 19, He FF AR, LE p. 23> (HERE SC BE). 3 A aig SL FE WF SY PR WK BE. Oe A PE OE Be TF ZR ‘HES ASA A AM Kee. 5 ha BB. 6 23) i] (B. C, 80—9), a famous author and minister, cf. GILEs, Biogr. Dict., p. 501, nr. 1800. TRAMREHEAMAHHHAHAMwHS wid tts, HG ti HE BER ESE ae E938 Hl SO. 8 Ch. XXVII, Sect. Fr FF ie nr 7, Digitized by Microsoft® 56 the second year of the reign of the Emperor Hwei (B.C. 193), in the morning of the hwei-yiu day .of the first month, there were two dragons which appeared in a well at Li-wen-ling (a village), east of the palace of Lan-ling. They were seen till the evening of the yih-hai day; then they went away. Liu Hiang is of the following opinion: ‘If a dragon, a symbol of dignity, is in straits in the well of a commoner, this means calamity consisting in a feudal lord being about to be secretly seized’'. Afterwards the Empress-Dowager Lt secretly killed Ch'u, the king of San Chao ?, and also Li was finally murdered. Kina-rane says in his Yih chw‘en®: ‘When those who have virtue meet injuries (i.e. are put to death), the bad omens of this are that dragons appear in wells’. Further, he says: ‘In cases of execution or violent cruelty black dragons come out of wells’”’. * The “Biography of Chang Wen-piao of Ch'u’’ ® gives the following tale. “When Wen-piao was going to plot his rebellion and, still being engaged in preparing it, had not yet settled (his plans), one of his followers dreamt at night that a dragon was coiling above Wen-piao’s chin. Wen-piao was very much rejoiced and said: ” ‘This is Heaven’s appointment’ (to the Throne, i.e. it is a sign that I shall ascend the Throne). Then he settled his plans, raised troops, and was defeated. Men of knowledge said: ‘As the dragon is a divine being and yet came out of his chin, this was an omen that calamity should be at work and that his shen (soul) should go away’”.° Here again the dragon appeared in a wrong place. § 3. Dragon horses. The Li ki" says: “The Ho (river) sent forth the horse with 12) Dw HE AR i A ASE RR oh BF 7A Me $e 2 Cf. Gites, Ll. p. 553, nr 1442, s.v. Lit How: “To make the throne secure, she poisoned the Prince of Chao, another son of the late Emperor by a concubine”. 3 Fh fe. ‘HBACA, AME MR LI. LA, 479 Til 3% HR AR HE HE FE. 5 Fa PE AC FS fh, quoted T.S. Ch. 129, HE Hh AL Ox, p. 14a. Seer cal rn eRe cere Ik th. 7 Leace, Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XXVII, Book VII (Li yun), Sect. IV, nr 16, p. 392. Couvreur, Li ki, Vol. I, p. 536: Ypy HH iB A. Digitized by Microsoft® 57 the map (on his back)”. This was the “River Map” from which Fuh-Hi fashioned the eight kwa (/\ $p), the diagrams used in divination. The Shu king' mentions this map among the precious objects preserved at the Court in B.C. 1079. Lecax®? treats of it in his Introduction to the Yi king with regard to the well-known - passage of an Appendix of this Classic’, running as follows: “The Ho gave forth the scheme or map, and the Lo gave forth the writing, (both of) which the sages copied”. According to one of the commentators on the Yih king “the water of the Ho sent forth a dragon horse; on its back there was curly hair, like a map of starry dots. The water of the Lo sent forth a divine tortoise; on its back there were riven veins, like writing of character pictures” *. This conception, apparently based upon the above passage of the Zi ki, became common in later times, and the San ts‘at fu hwui*® gives a picture of this dragon horse. As to the appendix of the Y2h-king°, quoted by Szr-Ma Cuene in the “Annals of the three sovereigns’, there neither the river nor the horse are mentioned, but it is simply stated that Fuh-Hi was the first to trace the eight diagrams. In the Shui ying tu* the following description of a dragon horse is given: “It is a benevolent horse, the vital spirit of river water. Its height is eight ch‘ih five ts‘un; its neck is long, and its body is covered with scales. It has wings at its shanks, and its hair hangs down its sides. Its cry consists of nine tones, and it walks on the water without sinking. It appears at the time of famous sovereigns”. This reminds us of the description given - 4 Leeae, Sacred Books of the East, Vol. III, Shu king, Part V, Book XXII, p. 239. 2 Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XVI, Introduction, pp. 14 sqq. 3 Appendix III, Sect. I, Ch. 11, § 73; Leacr, |.l., p. 374; Ch. V, BR ae F fH, 4 Sp. ab: ay Nal. A 4 jay aR FH HWE HS. A eG, a Sl. He i is. AD YC, eH il SE 5 =7 ial &. written by Wane K4, UF at the time of the Ming dynasty. 6 we By Ch. XV, p. 4, Leaae’s translation, p. 382. 7 San-hwang pen-ki, = =A aK #E ( 744 Ba aU): by il 5 == p. 1b; CHAVANNES’ translation, Vol. I, p. 6. 8 Fig Ke kal» written before the Ch‘en dynasty (A.D. 557—589) by Sun Jeu-cut, roy Hh x fi and quoted in the T‘ien chung ki, RK A ab (written under the Ming dynasty by Cu‘en Yao-wen, [if 72 47), Ch. LV. Digitized by Microsoft® 58 by K‘une Neay-xwou! in his commentary on the Shu king?, which runs as follows: “A dragon horse is the vital spirit of Heaven and Earth. As a being its shape consists of a horse’s body, yet it has dragon scales. Therefore it is called ‘dragon horse’. Its height is eight ch‘th five ts‘un. A true dragon horse has wings at its sides and walks upon the water without sinking. If a holy man is on the throne it comes out of the midst of the Ming river, carrying a map on its back” ’. The Tung kien ts‘ten pien wai kit, which refers to this passage, says: “At the time of T‘ai Hao (i.e. Fuh-Hi) there was a lucky omen consisting of a dragon horse which carried a map on its back and came out of the Ho river. Therefore in giving titles to the officials he began to arrange them by means of the dragon, and called them ‘Dragon-officers’”®. As to these titles we read in the Annals of the Three sovereigns®: “He (Fuh-Hi) had the lucky omen of a dragon; by means of the dragon he arranged the officials and called them ‘Dragon-officers’”. The Tso-chw*‘en ? gives the same matter in an extensive passage regarding the titles of the officials of the first Emperors.. ~ The T